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(TXPART l.K7><r 
 
 ' 
 
 The West 
 
 Australian 
 
 Settler's 
 Guide s 
 
 Farmer's 
 Handbook. 
 
 GYS 
 <-. ' . ' 
 
 Descriptive Notes on the Agricultural Areas and Crown Lands 
 
 open for Selection. 
 
 An enumeration of the productive possibilities of the Golden 
 
 West. 
 
 Issued by direction of Edited by 
 
 the Bureau of W L . LINDLEY-COWEN, 
 
 A ^ riculture - Secretary, 
 
 1897 
 E. S WIGG & SON., PRINTERS, PERTH. 
 
1 
 
 Lab- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It was at iirst intended to issue the SETTLER'S GUIDE AND 
 FARMER'S HANDBOOK as a whole in one volume, complete, but the 
 parts have so insensibly outgrown the limits originally fixed for 
 them, and the demand for information about the cultural resources 
 and prospects of Western Australia is so great, that it has been 
 deemed expedient to issue the book in parts. As will be seen on 
 perusal, Part I. consists chiefly of a description of the agricultural 
 areas and Crown lands open for selection, with an account of the 
 early settlement and progress of the pastoralists and agriculturists 
 of the colony. An endeavor has been made it is to be hoped not 
 unattended with success to write a plain, unvarnished tale, and 
 yet in such language as to make it interesting even to those whose 
 thoughts are not on settlement bent. The early history of Western 
 Australia and its pastoral pioneers is most interesting, but not 
 nearly so interesting as the country itself as we know it now, when 
 every dawn discovers new features, and each succeeding day dis- 
 closes new avenues for industrial enterprise, and offers renewed 
 encouragement to the able-bodied, active, capable settler, whether 
 miner, farmer, or mechanic, to " go in and win." Western Aus- 
 tralia may be likened to a huge pie, the crust of which has only, as 
 yet, been nibbled round the edges. Of the treasures that are 
 hidden underneath that thick and somewhat forbidding crust, we 
 have as yet only the faintest conception. We want Jack Homers 
 here to pull out the plums, and plums there are undoubtedly for 
 men of all avocations. But the men \vho come to Western Aus- 
 tralia, with the intention of making it their home, must be men 
 firm of heart and stout of body, men of mind as well as muscle, 
 and it is this class of men that the SETTLER'S GUIDE is, in part, 
 designed to attract and the Bureau of Agriculture is anxious to 
 assist after they have arrived here. There is, it may be safely said, 
 no country in the world that offers at the present moment the same 
 inducements to the settler as Western Australia. The permanence 
 of its mineral resources is now beyond question, only their immense 
 value and the vastness of their extent having yet to be determined. 
 The agronomic possibilities of the colony are equally promising, 
 and only need the developing hand of time to place Western 
 Australia in the van of the producing provinces of the Southern 
 Hemisphere. 
 
 L. L-C. 
 
 Perth, August i8th, 1897. 
 
 171784 
 
3wT.-i& 
 

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 -HAUH \ . 
 
MAP OF 
 
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WESTERN AUSTRALIAN R/aEHSBflS 
 
 SECTIONAL DIAGRAM 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 ALTITUDES. MILEAGE. RAINFALL. 
 
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 - BUNBURY TO BuSSELTON 
 
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 _ BOYANUP 
 
 TO BRIDGETOWN 
 
 - HO*IITA 
 
 - VtwTICA 
 
 BRUNSWICK TO COLLIC 
 
INDEX, 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Advantages of Southern district- 137 
 
 Advantages of Swan district - 170 
 
 Advantages at Toodyay 82 
 
 Advice to fruitgrowers - - 1 14 
 
 Advice to prospective settler - 7 
 
 Agricultural area, Appertarra - 195 
 
 Bainding - 63,66 
 
 ,, Beverley - 61,95 
 
 ,, ., Boyanup - 41 
 
 ,, ,, Caljie - - 61 
 
 ,, Collie - - 28 
 
 Coolup - 21 
 
 Dalaroo - 190 
 
 .. Dalyup - 151 
 
 Darkan - 96 
 
 Ewlyamartup 97 
 
 Doodlekine - 63 
 
 Harvey - 23 
 
 Jandakot - 8 
 
 Katanning - 96 
 Koojan ' 190,192 
 
 Meckering - 63 
 
 Mourambine 95,98 
 
 Mullewa - 196 
 
 Myrup - 151 
 
 Narrogin - 95 
 
 Nonga- - 196 
 
 Pallinup - 95,97 
 
 Preston - 40 
 
 Tammin - 63 
 Tenterden -97,127 
 
 Tweed- - 41 
 
 Uduc - - 27 
 
 Wagin- - 95,96 
 
 Weeranooka 196 
 
 Wickepin - 95 
 Agricultural areas, descriptive 
 
 notes ----- 95 
 Agricultural areas, Southern dis- 
 trict - - - - 130 
 Agricultural labor at York, diffi- 
 culty of obtaining - - 53 
 Agricultural settlement at New- 
 castle ----- 78 
 Agriculture : Southern district, 
 
 opening for - - - - 89 
 Agriculturists, openings for, in 
 
 Southern district - - - 89 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Albany garden blocks - 129 
 
 Albany, soil near - - - <)4 
 
 ,, cultivation suitable - 44 
 Amount of settlement Southern 
 
 district 130 
 
 Annual rainfall, Newcastle - 86 
 
 Annual show, York 84 
 
 Apiary at York 55 
 
 Appertarra agricultural area - 195 
 
 Application of shares principle - 85 
 
 Arable land, Southern district - 133 
 
 Arable land in Swan district - Kx; 
 
 Area recommended - - - 130 
 
 Area required, York district - 50 
 
 Artesian water supply. Swan - 165 
 
 Arthur river land - - - i<>2 
 
 Artificial grasses, Woongong - 18 
 
 Assistance to settlers, Katanning 119 
 
 Available land, York- - S5 
 
 Badjelling, timber heavy near - 75 
 
 Barnado's boys, Dr. 53 
 
 Beaufort river, land - 102 
 
 Bees near York - - - 57 
 
 Benefits of ring-barking - - 177 
 Best crops to grow, Southern 
 
 district - - - 131 
 Beverley agricultural area - 95,61, 
 
 63,66 
 Beverley to King George's 
 
 Sound, soil - - 89 
 
 Blackwood country 37 
 
 Blackvvood, timber at - 37 
 
 Blocks at Albany, garden - - 129 
 
 Boranning, yields at - - - 107 
 
 Boyanup agricultural area - 41 
 
 Boys, Dr. Barnado's- - - 53 
 Brassey's estate, Broomehill, 
 
 Lord - 120 
 
 Bremer Bay district - - - 150 
 
 Bridges, estimates for roads and 59 
 
 Bridgetown 38 
 
 climate of - - 39 
 
 ,, railway 38 
 
 Broomehill _ - - 125 
 
 Broomehill, Lord Brassey's 
 
 estate - - - 1 20 
 
 Broomehill suburban blocks - 125 
 
 Brunswick river, dairying at 27 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Bunbury 28 
 ,, clearing, cost - - 29 
 ,, facility for sale of crops 32 
 fertilisers suitable - - 32 
 ,, rainfall 30 
 vermin pests - - 33 
 ,, yields of potatoes 30 
 Busselton, land and climate - 35,36 
 Butter market, Geraldton - - 195 
 Caljie agricultural area 61 
 Camballing forest - - 106 
 Canning Hills, soil at - - 16 
 Canning, orchard at 14 
 Capabilities of Esperance district 150 
 Cape weed ... 85 
 Capital required by settlers - I2o 
 for settlers, Swan 166 
 by Southern dis- 
 trict settlers - - 130 
 Capital required by settlers, York 50 
 Carlisle vineyard - - 1 60 
 Cattle at Yatheroo - - - 179 
 Character of country, Midland 
 
 district - - 190 
 Character of soil in Southern 
 
 district - - 134 
 Characteristics of land on the 
 
 Swan - 165 
 
 Cheriton estate, Gingin - - 174 
 
 Citrus fruits, Gingin- - - 178 
 
 Claims for York-Greenhills line- 54 
 Classification of land on Great 
 
 Southern line - 124 
 Classification of soil, Yilgarn 
 
 route - - - - 67 
 Clay land - 5)6,15 
 Clearing at Bunbury, cost of - 29 
 cost of - 135 
 Esperance, cost of - 152 
 forest land, cost 52 
 Midland district, cost of 183 
 Swan district - - 172 
 and treatment of land - 141 
 at Williams, cost - - 115 
 Climate of , Midland district - 189 
 ,, Nelson district 44 
 ,, and soil, Newcastle - 81 
 ,, of Southern district - 93 
 Swan district - 172 
 Vasse ... 36 
 Close settlement in Southern dis- 
 trict - - - 140 
 Close settlement, York, retard- 
 ing ,f ... 55 
 Coal deposits near Vasse - - 37 
 change ... 6 
 Collie agricultural area - 28 
 Colonisation Estates Co. 20 
 
 Colony, proposed Italian - 
 Comparison of Victoria with 
 
 Western Australia - 
 Competition for produce - 
 Congenial place for lucerne 
 Conservation of water, Yilgarn 
 
 route 
 
 Coolup agricultural area - 
 drainage scheme - 
 Coondle estate, Newcastle- 
 Co-operative wineries on the 
 Swan ... 
 
 Corkscrew grass, Newcastle 
 Cost of clearing at Esperance - 
 ,, ,, forest land 
 
 ,, ,, Midland district 
 
 Nelson district - 
 
 ,, ,, Southern district 
 
 Cost of land, Gieenhills - 
 Country at Eucla ... 
 ,, at Marradong brook - 
 ,, Midland district, charac- 
 teristics of 
 Country at Mount Barker- 
 
 ,, for orchards in Williams 
 district 
 
 Country at Wagin Lake - 
 Creaton estate 
 Crops at Eucla 
 
 facility for sale- 
 in Nelson district 
 prices of, at Newcastle 
 and soil at Harvey - 
 Southern district, best 
 
 Ci 
 
 ops suitable for Esperance 
 
 Swan district 
 ,, Williams ,, 
 
 at Wagin 
 at York, values 
 Cubbine district, rich land in 
 
 ,, timber heavy at - 
 Cultivation at Bridgetown- 
 at Esperance - 
 limits of safe - 
 New Norcia 
 successful- 
 suitable for Albany 
 district 
 
 Cunderdin water supply - 
 Dairying 
 
 ,, at Brunswick river 
 Midland district 
 ,, in Swan district 
 at York - 
 Dalaroo agricultural area - 
 Dalyup agricultural area - 
 Dandaraga, annual average rain- 
 fall - - - - 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 191 
 
 65 
 
 131 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 79,80 
 
 158 
 
 86 
 
 152 
 52 
 
 183 
 43 
 
 135 
 51 
 
 201 
 
 106 
 
 190 
 
 128 
 
 109 
 
 117 
 
 20 
 
 202 
 32 
 
 42,44 
 
 83 
 
 25 
 
 131 
 
 151 
 
 I6 7 
 
 H3 
 
 99 
 5i 
 73 
 75 
 40 
 
 151 
 66 
 
 194 
 66 
 
 94 
 68 
 
 139 
 
 27 
 
 1 80 
 
 171 
 
 56 
 190 
 
 182 
 
PA<;K. 
 
 Damlaraga, soil lit - l82 
 
 Dandelion - 85 
 
 Dan^in rainfall - 75 
 
 ,, rich land at - - 7J> 
 
 timber heavy at - 75 
 
 M Toapin locks - 72 
 
 Dardanup - 27 
 
 Darkan agricultural area - 96 
 
 Darling range 4 
 
 Daylerking - 107 
 
 Deepdale, irrigation facilities at- $7 
 
 Deep river district - 199 
 
 Deep river, forests - 199 
 
 Department, roads and bridges- 59 
 Descriptive notes on agricultural 
 
 areas . - 95 
 
 Desert land - 7 2 
 
 Dr. Barnado's boys - - 53 
 
 Donnybrook, fruits at - - 43 
 
 Doodlekine agricultural area - 63 
 
 Dorakin, timber heavy at - 75 
 
 Drainage scheme, Coolup - 22 
 
 south-west - - 23 
 
 Drawbacks of York district - 52 
 
 Early sowing necessary - 66 
 
 Eastern areas, good land - 71 
 Eastern country, fruit, suitability 
 
 for - 70 
 Eastern country, vegetables, 
 
 suitability for - 70 
 Eastern country, vines, suitabil- 
 ity for - 70 
 Eastern division - 46 
 Esperance - 148 
 
 capabilities for settle- 
 ment - 150 
 Esperance, cost of clearing - 152 
 railway requirements- 150 
 rainfall at - - 152 
 selections at - - 152 
 soil, characteristics - 149 
 stock-carrying cap- 
 acity - 151 
 Esperance, suitability for crops - 151 
 Estate, Newcastle, The Coondle 79 
 ,, The Norman 79 
 Estates, retarding settlement, 
 
 York - 55 
 Estimates, roads and bridges 
 
 department - 59 
 
 Estates in Swan district - 163 
 
 Eucalyptus oil, extraction - 47 
 
 Exhausting land, warning - 51 
 
 Eucla, coast country - - 2OI 
 
 crops at - 2O2 
 
 ,, district - 2OI 
 
 prospects as wheatcountry 204 
 
 water supply - - 201 
 
 I '.\.il-. 
 
 Kwlyamaitup agricultural area - 97 
 Explanatory notes, poixm lands 75 
 Facilities for irrigation, New- 
 castle - 87 
 Farm site, model - i _' i 
 Farmers, area requited at York- 50 
 Farmers, capital requisite, York 50 
 Farmer and Government policy- 60 
 Farm servants, natives as - 69 
 Farming adapted for Williams - 113 
 Farming, progress of industry - 60 
 Williams - 112 
 at Wagin Lake - 98 
 Feed, figs as - 188 
 in Midland district - 186 
 Fencing, raspberry jam wood for 48 
 Fertility of soil, Yilgarn - 67 
 Fertilisers adapted lor South - 142 
 ,, for Bunbury - - 32 
 for light soils- - 51 
 Figs as feed for stock - - 188 
 ,, at Lowlands - 10 
 at Mandurah - 9 
 Flats, Williams river - 107 
 Floral wealth, Western Australian 58 
 Fodder question - io,n 
 Foods, value of imported - 105 
 Forest at Camballing - - 106 
 ,, land, clearing cost - 52 
 Forests at Mount Barker - 128 
 Nelson district - 43 
 Fruits, Gingin - 178 
 ,, grown, Swan district - 170 
 Fruit grown, York - 50 
 Fruits, Wagin - 99 
 Fruit, suitability of Eastern dis- 
 tricts for - 70 
 Fruitgrowers, advice to - - 114 
 Fruit-growing, Greenough - 195 
 ,, prospects at York 56 
 ,, York, adaptabil- 
 ity for - 49 
 Garden blocks at Albany - 129 
 Gardens, market - 13,14 
 Gate, ingenious swing - - 120 
 Geography of Southern district - 93 
 Geraldton, butter market - 195 
 Gimlet gum country - - 48 
 Gingin district - 174 
 pastures - 177 
 soil at - 177 
 Good land, I^astern areas - 71 
 at Hay river - 129 
 Good soil, Newcastle - - 86 
 Goomalling area - 76 
 Gordon river, land open for 
 
 selection - 126 
 
 Gosse estate, Kelmscott- - 17 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Government and the farmer - 60 
 Grasses, artificial, Woongong - 18 
 Grass, corkscrew, Newcastle - 85 
 ,, kangaroo, Newcastle - 85 
 ,, silver, at Newcastle - 85 
 Grass Valley, water conservation 68 
 Great lone land - 72 
 Great Southern, land classification 124 
 .,, railway - 
 promoters 97 
 ,, purchase- 91 
 Greenhills, cost of taking up land 51 
 ,, line, claims for - 54 
 York - 54 
 yield at - 64 
 Greenough flats - 195 
 ,, fruit at - - 195 
 soil of - 195 
 ,, water supply - 195 
 Guidance of new settlers, sug- 
 gestions for - 142 
 Gum country, gimlet - - 48 
 ,, salmon - - 47 
 ,, danger signal, wando - 48 
 morrell, at York - - 47 
 wandoo, a danger signal - 48 
 ,, white, country, Toodyay - 87 
 the York 47 
 
 Hackett, Hon. J. \Y., estate at 
 
 Bridgetown - 40 
 
 Harper, Mr. C., and the Harvey 24 
 
 Harvey agricultural area - 23 
 
 ,, and Governor Stirling - 24 
 
 ,, Mr. C. Harper's opinion 24 
 
 Harvey, soil and crops - - 25 
 
 Hay river, good land at- . 129 
 
 Hotham river 106 
 
 Imported foods, value of - 105 
 
 Improvements, pastoral leases - 71 
 
 Industry, dairying, at York - 56 
 
 ,, farming, progress of - 60 
 
 Index to land, timber an - 90 
 
 Information for new settlers - 5 
 
 Irrigation, orchards, Newcastle - 87 
 
 1 1 win river valleys - 194 
 
 Italian colony, proposed - 191 
 
 Jamwood for fencing - - 48 
 
 Jandakot agricultural area - 8 
 
 Jarrahdale - 19 
 
 Kangaroo grass - 85 
 
 K:u i i forests at Torbay - - 94 
 
 Kaianning 118,147 
 
 agricultural area - 96 
 
 ,, classification of soil* - 100 
 
 fertilisers for - - 118 
 
 hints for settlers - 120 
 
 Katannin^ settlers assisted 
 
 ,, settlement near 
 Kelmscott, Gosse estate - 
 King George's Sound and 
 
 erley, soil between 
 Koojan agricultural area 
 
 PACK. 
 119 
 123 
 
 17 
 
 190,192 
 
 near Newcastle - 87 
 Labor, difficulty of obtaining - 53 
 ,, native, on farms - - 69 
 Land, Arthur river - - 102 
 available for settlement, 
 York 55 
 Land available for wheat, utiliz- 
 ation of - 122 
 Land bank - 136 
 Land, clearing and treatment - 141 
 ,, cost of clearing forest - 52 
 good, Eastern areas - 71 
 grants, resumption of 
 Great Southern - 93 
 Land in Great Southern district 89 
 ,, Great Southern line, classi- 
 fication - 124 
 Land, Greenhills, cost of - 51 
 Hay river, eligible - 129 
 Lands office, plans - 69 
 Land open for selection at Gor- 
 don river - 126 
 Land open for selection, South- 
 ern district - 136 
 Lands, poison, necessity for 
 
 fencing - 52 
 
 Land, poison, provisions, etc. - 75 
 policy, Midland railway 
 
 company - 174 
 Land policy of Great Southern 
 
 railway company - 91 
 
 Land, rich, in Yilgarn district - 73 
 
 settlement on Midland 
 
 railway - 175 
 
 Land on shares principle - 85 
 
 Swan district - - 164 
 
 ,, timber as index to - 90 
 
 ,, under crop at Wagin - 99 
 
 Vasse - 36 
 
 ,, warning against exhaustng. 51 
 
 Leases, pastoral, rent of - 71 
 
 Lemon orchards, irrigation for, 
 
 ,. at the \Yilliams - - 108 
 
 Light soils, fertilisers for - 51 
 
 Lime, value of, for vine 9 
 
 Limestone formation - 5 
 
 Limits of safe cultivation - 66 
 
 Lotting spring - 74 
 
 Lowlands, IK - 10,19 
 
 Liux-rne at liunbury - 32 
 
 congenial place for - 10 
 
 I'Vcmantle - . H 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Lunatic Asylum, Whitby Falls - IS 
 
 Maize cultivation at Runbury - 32 
 Mandurah, I:. 9 
 vegetables on coast - n 
 Manna gum - 49 
 Market for poultry - 57 
 ,, for produce on Swan - 167 
 ,. gardens - 13,14 
 Marradong brook country - 106 
 Marradong-Pinjanah railway - 104 
 Marradong valley - 108 
 Mcckering agricultural area - 63 
 ,, water supply - 68 
 Merredin water supply - - 68 
 Meckering, yield at 64 
 Midland district - 173 
 average yields - 187 
 cattle - - 179 
 climate - - 189 
 country charac- 
 teristics - 190 
 Midland district, dairying - 180 
 feed in- - 1 86 
 , pastoralists - 181 
 pests - - 185 
 rainfall - - 197 
 rate of wages - 1 87 
 roads - - 183 
 ,, seasons- - 188 
 settlers - - 196 
 ,, ,, timber country - 187 
 Midland railway - 81,173 
 
 ,, Company and 
 
 its land policy - 174 
 
 Midland railway and settlement 175 
 
 ,, suggested pur- 
 chase of - 174 
 Millar Bros, and Torbay karri - 94 
 Mission station, New Xorcia - 193 
 Mixed farming at Williams - 113 
 Model farm, site - 12 1 
 Mokine, farming at - - 107 
 Morrell gum at York - - 47 
 Moulin, country at - - 74 
 Mount Barker country - - 128 
 Mountains of South-west 4 
 Mooranoppin, desert near - 7 2 
 rainfall in 1895 - 65 
 Moorumbine area - 95 
 Mueller, Baron V., floral wreath 
 
 of colony - 5$ 
 
 Mullewa agricultural area - 196 
 
 Municipal taxes, absence of - 59 
 
 Myrup agricultural area - I$I 
 
 Xarrogin agricultural area - 95 
 
 Natives as farm servants - 69 
 
 Native vermin round York - 
 
 Necessity for ft-min^ poison 
 
 lands" - 
 
 Nelson district, land and crops - 
 
 native pests - 
 
 notes on - 
 
 ,, poison in - 
 
 timber in - 
 
 New Norcia, cultivation at - 
 
 mission - - 
 
 olive oil manufac- 
 
 tured at 
 
 New settlers, information for - 
 
 Newcastle - 
 
 ,, annual rainfall - 
 
 climate and soil - 
 
 Coondle estate - 
 
 crop values at - 
 
 facilities for irrigation 
 
 near - 
 
 Newcastle, Norman estate - 
 
 settlement at - - 
 
 soil of district - 
 
 Nonga agricultural area - 
 
 Northam - 
 
 Notes on agricultural areas - 
 
 ,, on poison lands, explan- 
 
 atory - 
 
 Olive oil, manufacture, New 
 
 Norcia - 
 
 Openings for agriculturists in 
 
 Southern district - - 
 
 Opportunities in Southern dis- 
 
 .trict - 
 
 Orange, orchards at Newcastle, 
 
 irrigating - 
 
 Orchard area in Southern dis- 
 
 trict - 
 
 Orchard at Canning - 
 
 ., country at the Williams 
 Orchards, Ginjjin - 
 
 Orchard, orange and lemon, nr. 
 
 Newcastle, irrigation for - 
 Orchard, prospect in York dis- 
 
 trict - 
 
 Orchards on the Swan - 
 
 PAGE. 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 194 
 
 193 
 
 194 
 50 
 78 
 86 
 8l 
 
 79,80 
 83 
 
 87 
 79,80 
 
 78 
 
 86 
 
 196 
 
 62,77 
 
 95 
 
 75 
 
 194 
 
 89 
 
 138 
 
 87 
 
 132 
 
 14 
 
 109 
 
 176 
 
 87 
 
 57 
 157 
 
 95 
 
 Pallinup agricultural area - 
 
 Pastoral leases, payment for 
 
 improvements - 71 
 
 Pastoral leases, rent of - - 71 
 
 Pastoralists in Midland district 181 
 
 Pasturage, Eucla district 202,203 
 
 Pastures at Gingin - - 177 
 
 Patterson estate, Creaton - 20 
 
 Pests of Midland district - 185 
 
 in Nelson district, native - 42 
 
 and poisonous vegetation 132 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Pests in Swan district - - 169 
 in Williams district - HO 
 Physical geography, Eucla dis- 
 trict - 202 
 Physical geography, Southern 
 
 district - 93 
 Pingelly and wheat growing 
 
 advantages - 98 
 Pinjarrah - 30 
 Pinjarrah-Marradong railway - 104 
 Plains, the Victoria - - 192 
 Plans at Land office - - 69 
 Poison lands, provisions, etc. - 75 
 land, necessity for fencing 52 
 ,, in Nelson district - 42 
 ., plants - 132 
 at Williams - - III 
 Policy of Government - 60 
 of Midland railway co. - 174 
 of Great Southern rail- 
 way company, land - - 91 
 Potatoes at Bunbury, yield of - 30 
 in Southern district - 139 
 Poultry farming, Southern dist. 140 
 market for - - 57 
 in York district, raising 57 
 Preston agricultural area - 40 
 Produce, market for - - 167 
 Prices obtained for crops at 
 
 Newcastle - - 83 
 Produce in Southern district, 
 
 competition for - 131 
 Produce suitable for cultivation 
 
 at Esperance 151 
 
 Proposed Italian colony- - 191 
 
 Productions of Southern district 143 
 
 Prospect before farmers - 5 
 
 Progress of fanning industry - 60 
 
 at the Williams 112 
 
 Promoters of Gt. Southern rhvy. 90 
 
 Prospects of Eucla, wheat - 204 
 
 Propect for fruit growers, York 56 
 
 Provision for poison areas - 75 
 
 Purchase of Gt. Southern rlwy. 91 
 
 of Midland railway 174 
 
 eualing rocks - 74 
 
 UHiiilinning common - - 107 
 
 Ouclqtielling, yield at - 64 
 
 Railway, Donnybrook to Bridge- 
 town - 38 
 Railway facilities at Esperance 150 
 ,, Great Southern - SS 
 
 from Pinjarrah to Mar- 
 ia, long - 104 
 Railway, the Midland - - 8l 
 ,, purchase of Gt. Sthrn. 91 
 Rainfall at Bunbury - 30 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Rainfall at Dangin - 75 
 
 at Esperance - - 152 
 
 Midland district - 197 
 
 at Mooranoppin (1895) 65 
 
 at Newcastle - - 86 
 
 Southern district - 137 
 
 of South-west - - 4 
 
 Southern Cross (1895) 65 
 
 in Swan district - 170 
 
 of Williams district - 109 
 
 at York - 49 
 
 Raising poultry in York district 57 
 
 Raspberryjam wood for fencing 48 
 
 Range, Darling 4 
 
 Roe ' 4 
 
 Rate of wages, Midland distiict 187 
 
 Rates and taxes, absence of - 59 
 
 Roads and bridges, estimates for 59 
 
 Rent, pastoral leases - - 71 
 
 Reserve, the Toodyay - 80 
 Resumption of Great Southern 
 
 land grants - 93 
 
 Requisites for new settlers - 140 
 
 Rich land in Yilgarn district - 73 
 
 Ring-barking beneficial - - 177 
 value of - - 49,102 
 
 River, farms at Hotham- - -ic6 
 
 land on Beaufort- - 102 
 
 land on Arthur - - 102 
 
 the Salt - 74 
 
 of South-western district - 4 
 
 Roads in Midland district - 183 
 
 in Southern distiict - 129 
 
 in Swan district - - 1 66 
 
 Roe range 4 
 
 Safe cultivation, limits of 66 
 
 Salmon gum country at Yilgarn 70 
 
 ,, ,, at York - 47 
 
 Salt river - 74 
 
 Schools, Southern district - 130 
 
 Seasons in Midland district - l SS 
 
 Serpentine, Lowlands estate - 19 
 
 Servants, natives as - - 69 
 
 Selections at Esperance - 152 
 
 Selection of land, Gordon river- u<> 
 ,, in Southern district, 
 
 land available - : V> 
 Settlement on Midland Railway 
 
 grants - 175 
 
 Settlement at Newcastle agrid. 7* 
 
 in Southern district 130,140 
 
 capital required for - 130 
 
 Settlement at York, estates re- 
 
 tarding - 55 
 Settlement at. York, land avail- 
 
 Settler, advice to prospective - 
 Settlers assisted at Katanning - 
 
 55 
 
 7 
 
 119 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Settler's capital required for 
 
 Swan distiii't - H>'> 
 
 Settler and the Govt. policy - 60 
 
 Settlers' guidance, suggestions tor 142 
 
 information for the 
 
 guidance of - 50 
 Settlers in Katanning ilistrict, 
 
 hints for - 120 
 
 Settlers near Katanning - 123 
 
 in Midland district - 196 
 
 ,, requisites for new - 140 
 
 SUCCeSS, factors for - <) ) 
 
 ,. at Wagin, advantages for 100 
 
 Shares principle, lands farmed on 85 
 Shepherds, natives as - - 69 
 Show at York, annual - - 84 
 Silver grass - 85 
 Sir John Forrest and the Bridge- 
 town railway - 3$ 
 Soil in Albany district - - 94 
 ,, between Beverley and King 
 
 George's Sound - 89 
 
 Soil of Canning hills - - 16 
 
 ,, character, Southern district 134 
 
 characteristics of Fsperance 149 
 
 fertilisers for light - - 51 
 
 ,, at Gingin - 177 
 
 ,, of Greenough - 195 
 
 of the Harvey - - 25 
 
 Soils at Katanning, classification loo 
 
 Soil of Mount Barker district - 128 
 
 of Newcastle district - Hi, 86 
 
 of South-western district - 6,7 
 
 ,, etc., Torbay - 128 
 
 at Wagin - 99 
 
 Soils at Wagin, classification - 100 
 
 Soil of Western Australia, Sir 
 
 F. A. A Veld on - 16,17 
 
 Soil on Yilgarn railway route - 67 
 
 Sorghum at Bunbury - - 32 
 
 South-western district - 3 
 
 drainage - 23 
 
 mountains 4 
 
 rainfall of 4 
 
 rivers of - 4 
 
 soil of - 6,7 
 
 yeoman of 27 
 
 Southern Cross, rainfall in 1895 h^ 
 district - NX 
 advantages - 137 
 ,, ., agricultural areas 130 
 ,, ,, amount of settle- 
 ment - 130 
 Southern district, arable land - 133 
 
 characteristics 
 
 of soil - * 88 
 
 Southern district, best crops for 131 
 
 , ,. climate - <>3 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Southern District ami close set- 
 tlement - 140 
 Southern district, land open for 
 
 selection - 13*1 
 Southern district, openings for 
 
 agi iculturists - 8<> 
 Southern district, opportunities 138 
 orchard area 132 
 physical geo- 
 graphy - (,3 
 Southern district, potato crops - i ^9 
 ,, ,, poultry farming 140 
 ,. ,, produce, com pe- 
 tition for - [31 
 Southern district, productions of 143 
 rainfall - 137 
 roads- - 1 2c_> 
 schools in - 130 
 capital reqrd. 130 
 soil - - 134 
 timbers of - 89 
 vineyrds. area 132 
 water supply 89, 1 33 
 yields in - 136 
 railway, Great - 88 
 Sowing early necessary - 66 
 Spring, the Lotting - - 74 
 Statistics of Williams district - i<>S 
 Stirling and the Harvey, Govr. 24 
 Stock, country for, Fsperance - 151 
 ,, in Midland district - 185 
 raising - 137 
 ,, ,, in Yilgarn district 73 
 Suburban blocks, Broomehill - 125 
 Successful cultivation - - 66 
 Suggestions for guidance of new 
 
 settlers - 142 
 Suitability of Eastern country 
 
 for vines - 70 
 
 Summary Toodyay advantages 82 
 
 Supply of water, Southern district 8j 
 
 water, question of - 7 > 
 
 Swan district - ^55 
 
 advantages - 170 
 
 ,, ,, arable land - \<> > 
 
 artesian water at - 1(15 
 
 ,, clearing at - 172 
 
 climate of district - - i,s_> 
 
 ,, dist., co-operative wineries i ^S 
 
 crops suitable for - - '''7 
 
 dairying at the - - 171 
 district, estates in - 163 
 
 fruits grown in - 170 
 
 land in - - 164 
 
 ,, orchards in 157 
 
 pests in - - 1(19 
 
 rainfall in district - 170 
 
 roads - 166 
 
Swan water supply 
 
 wheat yield at 
 
 ,, wine making on - 
 Swing gate at Goblup - 
 
 Tambellup 
 
 Tammin agricultural area 
 
 water supply at 
 Taxes, absence of 
 Tenterden agricultural area 
 Timber at Badjelling, heavy 
 
 in Blackwood district - 
 
 ,, at Cubbine, heavy 
 
 ,, at Dangin, heavy 
 
 at Dorakin, heavy 
 Torbay and karri forest 
 Timber, Deep river 
 
 ,, an index of land 
 Timbers of Midland district 
 Timber in Nelson district 
 
 ,, in Southern district 
 
 at Toapin, heavy 
 Torbay, soil, etc. 
 Treatment of land 
 Toapin rocks 
 
 ,, timber heavy at 
 Toodyay district 
 reserve 
 
 ,, summary of ad vantages 
 ,, white gum country 
 Tweed agricultural area 
 
 Uduc agricultural area 
 Utilization of wheat lands 
 
 Valley of the Marradong 
 Valuable soil, York ' - -87 
 Values of crops. Newcastle - 83 
 Value of forest land - - 51 
 ,, of ring-barking - -19,102 
 ,, for wheat growing, South- 
 ern district land - 94 
 Value of crops at York - 51 
 Vasse, the - 35 
 coal deposits near - 37 
 ,, land and climate - 36 
 Vegetables in coast country - 11,12, 
 
 Vegetables, suitability of East- 
 ern country - 70 
 Vermin pests at Bunbury 33 
 in York district - 58 
 Victoria : a comparison with 
 
 Western Australia - - 65 
 
 Victoria Plains - n/j 
 
 Vine, limestone for - 9 
 Vines : suitability of Eastern 
 
 country - 70 
 
 Vineyards area, Southern district 132 
 
 Wages, Midland district - 1*7 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 170 
 I S 6 
 
 158 
 
 120 
 
 127 
 63,70 
 
 68 
 50 
 
 97,127 
 75 
 37 
 75 
 75 
 75 
 94 
 
 199 
 90 
 
 187 
 43 
 89 
 75 
 
 128 
 
 141 
 72 
 75 
 7 
 80 
 82 
 87 
 4i 
 27 
 
 122 
 1 08 
 
 Wagin agricultural area 
 
 classification of soils 
 Lake country - 
 ,, farming at 
 and fruit 
 land under crops 
 soil, character of 
 and prospects for settlers 
 Wando gum : a danger signal 
 Warning against land exhaustn. 
 Water conservation at Cunderdin 
 Grass Valley 
 Meckering - 
 Meredin 
 Tammin 
 Yilgarn line 
 in Southern district 
 supply, artesian, Swan - 
 Eucla - 
 Greenough 
 question - 
 in Southern dist. 
 at the Swan 
 at the Williams - 
 Weed, Cape 
 
 Weeranooka agricultural area - 
 Western Australia : floral wealth 
 Western Australian wine 
 Wheat crops along Great South- 
 ern railway 
 
 Wheat growing, Eucla - 
 ,, lands, utilization of 
 ,, growing at Pingelly, ad- 
 vantages for 
 
 Wheat yields at Boranning 
 ,, yield on the Swan flats - 
 
 at Wagga - 
 Whitby Falls 
 
 Whitegum country, Toodyay - 
 Wickepin agricultural aiea 
 Wild dog pest in Bunbury dist. 
 Williams, best crops for- 
 ,, district 
 ,, cost of clearing 
 land at 
 
 and mixed farming - 
 ,, district as orchaid 
 country 
 Williams district, pests of 
 
 ,, and poison - 
 
 i progress of tai ming - 
 
 rainfall at 
 
 ,, di>tiirt, statistics 
 
 river flats 
 
 ,, water supply - 
 Wine of Western Australia 
 ,, making on the Swan 
 Woodbridge estate 
 
 PAGE. 
 96 
 
 IOO 
 
 117 
 98 
 
 99 
 99 
 99 
 
 IOO 
 
 48 
 
 68 
 68 
 68 
 68 
 68 
 
 133 
 165 
 
 201 
 
 195 
 7 6 
 
 89 
 170 
 114 
 
 85 
 I 9 6 
 
 58 
 159 
 
 94 
 204 
 
 122 
 
 9 8 
 107 
 156 
 
 68 
 18 
 87 
 95 
 33 
 
 15 
 1 08 
 
 109 
 no 
 in 
 
 112 
 109 
 
 ION 
 107 
 114 
 
 159 
 158 
 
 160 
 
PACK. 
 
 Wongong, artificial grasses IS 
 
 Yatheroo - 179 
 
 cattle - 179 
 
 Yeomen of South-west - 21 
 
 Yields, Green hills - 64 
 
 ,, at Meckering - 64 
 
 Midland district, averages 187 
 
 Quelquelling - 64 
 
 in Southern district - 136 
 
 of potatoes, Bunbury - 30 
 
 of wheat, Boranning - 107 
 
 ,, in Southern dist. 94 
 
 Swan - - 156 
 
 Yilgarn, rich land in district - 73 
 route, soil - -67 
 
 salmon gum country - 70 
 
 stock raising in district 73 
 
 route, water conservatn. 68 
 
 York bees at _ _ 57 
 
 PAGE 
 
 York dairying - .56 
 ,, district - 46 
 adaptability for fruit- 
 growing - 49 
 York annual show - - S4 
 area and capital required- 50 
 average rainfall - 49 
 ,, crop values - - 51 
 drawback of district - 52 
 estates retarding settlmnt. 65 
 fruit grown at - - 50,56 
 York-Greenhills line - - 54 
 York gum - 47 
 York, labor scarce at - - 53 
 native vermin in district - 58 
 poultry raising - .57 
 scarcity of available land- 55 
 value of crops - - 51 
 Youngedin, rich land - - 73 
 
PART II 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Accident cast^ - 303 
 
 Antidotes to poisons - - 301 
 
 Arrangements of flower garden 336 
 
 Artificial respiration - - 362 
 
 Asthma - 367 
 
 Axle grease, to make - - 369 
 
 Balancing accounts for the >ear 360 
 
 Barometer for farmers - 300 
 
 ,, ho\v to read - 312 
 
 Harrows, capacity of - - 370 
 
 Beer, hop, to make - - 378 
 
 Beeswax, to prepare - - 369 
 
 Bird skins, curing - 372 
 
 Bite, snake - 363 
 
 Blacking - 369 
 
 Book-keeping - 342 
 
 Boot blacking - - 369 
 
 Botanical names of trees - 214 
 
 Boundary fencing - - 235 
 
 Breaking up new land - 258 
 
 Bruises - 363 
 
 Building necessaries, quotations 305 
 
 Burning off - 230 
 
 out trees - 227 
 
 Burns - 363 
 
 Bush Fires Act - 232 
 
 strainer for fencing - 238 
 
 Calendar for vegetable garden 337 
 
 Capacity of barrows - - 370 
 
 of carts - 370 
 
 of pumps - - 384 
 
 Capacities of windmills and 
 
 reservoir - 254 
 
 Carts, capacities of - 370 
 
 Cases of accident - 363 
 
 Case of drowning - - 362 
 
 Cattle, killing - 375 
 
 weight by measurement 391 
 
 Cement, diamond - 372 
 
 ,, for mending - - 372 
 
 for waterproof - 372 
 
 Chaff cutting - 285 
 
 Change of seed - 371 
 
 Clearing - 224 
 
 ,, by explosives - - 228 
 
 ,, by traction engines - 229 
 
 ., contract form - 225 
 
 trees - - 227 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Clod crushers - 270 
 
 Clouds and wind - ^><i 
 Colic, or gripes 
 Comparative evaporative power 
 
 of soils - 372 
 
 Concrete - 37 1 
 
 tar - 371 
 
 Constipation - 368 
 
 Construction of gate - 242 
 
 Contract form for clearing - 225 
 
 Convulsions - 368 
 
 Cool house - 298 
 
 Corns and warts, to remove - 3^4 
 
 Cow house, details - - 300 
 
 ,, easy device for leading - 370 
 
 Cream, furniture - 374 
 
 Cross fertilization - 371 
 
 Croup - 367 
 
 Cultivation - 258 
 
 of flower seeds - 335 
 
 of vegetables - 321 
 
 Cultivators - 276 
 
 Curing bird skins - 372 
 
 Diary for settlers - 226 
 
 Dams, excavating - 252 
 
 Day book - 344 
 
 Details, cowhouse - - 300 
 
 farm buildings - 300 
 
 ,, roofs - 301 
 
 Device for leading a cow - 370 
 
 ,, for pickling - - 293 
 
 Diamond cement - 372 
 
 Diarrhcea . - - 308 
 
 Digging - 373 
 
 plough - 260 
 
 Dimensions - 300 
 
 Disinfectants - 308 
 
 Dislocations - 304 
 
 Dogs and dingoes, poisoning - 383 
 
 Drain, box - 249 
 
 surface - 249 
 
 table of depths - 248 
 
 tile - 249 
 
 Dressed cattle, weight of - 377 
 
 Dropper fence, sheep proof - ^35 
 
 Drowning case, how to treat - 302 
 
 Dumoulin's liquid glue - 373 
 
 Dynamometer tests - - 267 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Ear, foreign bodies in - - 365 
 
 Easily made oven - - 210 
 
 Eggs, pickling - - 381 
 
 Elementary substances - 374 
 
 Emetics - 362 
 
 Engine, judging an - - 383 
 
 Erecting fences - 238 
 
 Evaporative power of soils - 372 
 
 Excavating dams - 252 
 
 Excavation - - 373 
 
 Explosives for clearing 
 
 Eyes, sore - - 3 66 
 
 Fallowing - 275 
 
 Farmers, book-keeping for - 343 
 
 Farm buildings - 296 
 
 hands, wages - - 255 
 
 laborer - - 255 
 
 roller - 275 
 
 water supply - 251 
 
 Feeding down - 292 
 
 Fence, dropper, sheep proof - 235 
 
 ,, how to erect - - 238 
 
 ,, opossum proof - 240 
 
 specification for - 240 
 
 vermin proof - - 240 
 
 Fencing - 234 
 
 materials, prices - 247 
 
 ,, timber used for - 234 
 
 with wires - 235 
 
 Fly papers - 374 
 
 Fertilization, cross - 371 
 
 Fever, typhoid - 366 
 
 Flower seeds and cultivation - 335 
 
 garden arrangement - 336 
 
 ,, management - 337 
 
 ,, seeds, sowing - 336 
 
 Forest devil - - 228 
 
 Fractures, bandages for - 363 
 
 Fractures of limbs - - 364 
 
 Furniture cream - 374 
 
 Garden calendar - 321 
 
 Gardening implements - 317 
 
 Gates, how to construct - 241 
 
 wing - 244 
 
 Gate-., whitewash for - - 243 
 
 Glue, liquid - 373 
 
 Good swing gate - 244 
 
 Grain harvesting - 286 
 
 ,, machinery - 287 
 
 ,, phosphorised - - 3*3 
 
 Grease, axle, to make - - 369 
 
 Grease and paint from cloth, to 
 
 remove - 3'xj 
 
 Gripes, or colic - 368 
 
 Grubbing tools - 211 
 
 Hard soda ><>ap - 385 
 
 Harness dressing - - 375 
 
 plough - joo 
 
 Harrow, the cutaway - - 270 
 
 good spading - 270 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Harrowing - 274 
 
 Harvesting hay - 283 
 
 ,, operations - - 279 
 
 Hay harvesting - 283 
 
 ,, rakes - 283 
 
 ,, stack - 284 
 
 stack, to measure - 377 
 
 treatment of - 284 
 
 Hemorrhage - 363 
 
 from lungs - 363 
 
 from stomach - 363 
 
 Hints on ploughing - - 266 
 
 on vegetable growing - 315 
 
 Home-made soap - 384 
 
 Home for settler, how to build it 296 
 
 Hop beer, to make - - 378 
 
 Horses, draught of - - 390 
 
 ,, tractive force - 389 
 
 Horse power - 286 
 
 House for settler - 210 
 
 How to avoid typhoid - - 367 
 
 How to build a home - - 296 
 
 How to erect a fence - - 238 
 
 How to hang paper - - 303 
 
 How to keep the ledger - 352 
 
 How to make a leveller - 263 
 
 How to read the barometer - 322 
 
 How to read, the thermometer 313 
 
 Implements for gardening - 317 
 
 Implements for gardening - 317 
 
 for spraying - 318 
 
 Insensibility - - 366 
 
 Indigestion - - 368 
 
 Instructions to meteorological 
 
 observers - - 361 
 
 Journal - 345 
 
 Judging an engine - - 383 
 
 Kangaroo skins, tanning - 388 
 
 Killing quiet cattle - - 375 
 
 Kitchen garden - 315 
 
 Labor book - - 360 
 
 branch, bureau - - 255 
 
 Laborer, the farm - 255 
 
 Land leveller, set vice-able - 263 
 
 ,, measuring - 264 
 
 Ledger, how to keep - - 352 
 
 Leveller, how to make - 263 
 
 Levelling - - 378 
 
 Levelling land before ploughing 203 
 
 Limbs, fractures of - - 364 
 
 Live and dressed weight of cattle 377 
 
 Liquid glue - - 373 
 
 Lungs, hemorrhage - - 303 
 
 Machinery for grain harvest - 287 
 
 Making hop beer - 378 
 
 Masters and Servants Act - 256 
 
 Management of ilower garden- 337 
 
 Measuring a hay stack - 377 
 
 land " - 264 
 
 Medical and surgical hints - 361 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Mending, cement for - 372 
 Mensuration - - 378 
 Meteorological Observers, in- 
 structions - 311 
 Meteorological phenomena - 313 
 Meteorology - 306 
 Method of storing roots - 229 
 Miscellaneous - 371) 
 Moisture in the soil - - 276 
 Monthly calendar for vegetables 337 
 Mortar - 380 
 Xipples, sore - 365 
 Nostrils, foreign bodies in - 365 
 Observers, meteorological, in-. 
 
 structions - 311 
 Opossum proof fence - - 240 
 Oven, easily made - - 210 
 Outfit for selectors - - 209 
 Pain - 368 
 Paint, base for - 302 
 from cloth, to remove - 369 
 Paints - 381 
 recipes - 301 
 Paper-hanging, paste for - 375 
 tools for - 302 
 Paper, how to hang - - 303 
 Paste for paper-hanging - 375 
 Pavement, concrete - - 389 
 tar - 388 
 Percentage of elementary sub- 
 stances - 374 
 Phosphorised grain - - 383 
 pollard - 384 
 Pickle for seed - 293 
 Pickling, device for - - 293 
 eggs - 381 
 seed - 292 
 Piles - - 366 
 Plants per acre - 295 
 Plough harness - 266 
 Ploughing, hints on - 266 
 Ploughs - 260 
 Poisons and antidotes - 361 
 Poisoning wild dogs - 383 
 Pollard, phosphorised - 384 
 Post and rail fence - - 236 
 Polish, stove - 388 
 Preparing beeswax - - 369 
 Prices for fencing materials - 247 
 Prices for wire netting - 247 
 Pumps - 253 
 capacity of - 384 
 Putty - 387 
 Quantity of seed per acre - 295 
 Quotations for building neces- 
 saries - 305 
 Rain gauge - 309 
 Heaping machinery - - 28 1 
 Recipes for paints - 301 
 sickness - - 362 
 
 Reservoirs, capacities - 
 
 Respiration, artificial - 
 
 Retention of urine 
 
 Ringbarking 
 
 Roller, useful farm 
 
 Roofs, details 
 
 Rough base for paint - 
 
 Seed, change of 
 
 per acre, quantity 
 
 Seeds, flower, and their culti- 
 vation 
 
 Seed, pickle for 
 ,, pickling 
 sowers 
 
 Selector's outfit 
 
 Serviceable leveller 
 
 Setting the thermometer 
 
 Settler's diary 
 ,, home 
 
 Sheep proof fence 
 
 Soap, hard soda 
 home made 
 
 Soldering 
 
 Soils, evaporative power 
 
 Soil, moisture retained by 
 
 Sore eyes 
 nipples 
 ,, throat 
 
 Smut, pickling to prevent 
 
 Stove polish 
 
 Stoving stumps 
 
 Stretching wire netting 
 
 Stripping grain 
 
 Stump-jump plough 
 
 Sub-soiling with the plough - 
 
 Suitable land for vegetables - 
 
 Swing gate 
 
 Snake bite 
 
 Sowing flower seeds 
 seed 
 
 Spading harrow 
 
 Specific gravities 
 
 Specification for fence - 
 
 Sprains 
 
 Spraying implements - 
 
 Stacking hay 
 wheat 
 
 Staining wood 
 
 Stomach, hemorrhage - 
 
 Storing grain 
 
 Table of depths for drains 
 
 Tanks, dams and wells 
 
 Tanning kangaroo skins 
 
 Tar concrete 
 
 Thermometer for farmers 
 
 Thermometers, how to read - 
 
 Thermometers, setting 
 
 Throat, foreign bodies in 
 
 Timber for fences 
 
 To avoid typhoid 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 254 
 
 214 
 
 223 
 
 275 
 301 
 302 
 37r 
 295 
 
 335 
 293 
 292 
 272 
 209 
 263 
 
 313 
 226 
 
 201 
 
 235 
 
 385 
 
 34 
 386 
 
 372 
 276 
 366 
 305 
 368 
 292 
 38 
 229 
 241 
 287 
 227 
 268 
 316 
 244 
 363 
 336 
 272 
 270 
 39 
 239 
 365 
 3i 
 284 
 290 
 382 
 363 
 291 
 248 
 
 25* 
 388 
 
 371 
 307 
 313 
 313 
 365 
 234 
 367 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Tools for building - - 212 
 
 .. for grubbing - - 21 1 
 
 ,, for paperhanging - 302 
 
 Traction engine and clearing - 229 
 
 Tractive force of horses - 389 
 
 Treatment of hay - 284 
 
 Trees, clearing - 227 
 
 Trees, common and botanical 
 
 names - 214 
 Tree puller - - 228 
 Typhoid fever - 366 
 to avoid - 367 
 rnusual meterological phe- 
 nomena - 313 
 Trine, retention of - - 365 
 Valuation book - 357 
 Vegetables, cultivation of - 321 
 Vegetable growing, hints on - 315 
 Vegetables, suitable land for - 316 
 Vermin proof fences - - 240 
 Vinegar - 391 
 Vomiting - 368 
 Wages for farm hands - 255 
 Waggon jack - 391 
 Wall papering - - 302 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Warts and corns, to remove - v s 4 
 Washington whitewash for 
 
 gates - 243 
 
 Waterproof cement - - 372 
 
 Water. supply on the farm - 251 
 
 Weight of cattle by measurement 391 
 
 live and dressed cattle 377 
 
 Weights and measures - - 393 
 
 Wheat, stripping - 287 
 
 stacking - - 290 
 
 \Yhipple trees - 265 
 
 White-wash for gates - - 243 
 
 Whitlow - - 365 
 
 Wind and clouds - 309 
 
 Windmills - - 253 
 
 Windmills, capacity of - 254 
 
 Winnowing - 289 
 
 Wire for fencing - 235 
 
 ,, netting, how to stretch - 241 
 
 prices - 247 
 
 Wire strainers - - 238 
 
 Wood stains - 382 
 
 Wounds - 363 
 
 Yeast - 392 
 
 cakes - 392 
 
PART III 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 African purslane - 488 
 
 Agrostis alba - 529 
 
 vulgaris - - 526 
 
 Agrostocrinum stypamlroides 589, 590 
 
 Alexandrine clover - - 470 
 
 Alfalfa - 450 
 
 Altilaria - 444 
 
 Alrilarilla - 444 
 
 Allionia incarnata - - 432 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis - 526 
 
 Alpine clover - 476 
 
 Alsace clover - 477 
 
 Alsike clover - 477 
 
 Alsvkc - 531 
 
 Amaranthus - 432 
 
 Anagallis arvensis - 554 
 
 coerulans - - 554 
 
 Andropogon bombycinus - 405 
 
 Annual cat's ear - 551 
 
 Anthisitiria avenacea - 405 
 
 ciliata - - 405 
 
 membranacea - 409 
 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum - 529 
 
 Anthyllis vulneraria - - 432 
 
 Apios tuberosa - 432 
 
 Apple of Sodom - 559 
 
 Arabian snail clover - 459 
 
 Arachis hypogcea - - 433 
 
 Area suited for potato cultivation 510 
 
 Argemone Mexicana - 535 
 
 Arrow grass - 483 
 
 Artichoke - 449 
 
 Artichokes, Jerusalem - 494 
 
 Articum majus - 543 
 
 minus - 543 
 
 Artificial pasturage - - 524 
 
 Asparset - 462 
 
 Astragalus - 434 
 
 Astrebla pectinata - - 409 
 
 Atriplex canescens - - 435 
 
 cinerea - 421 
 
 confertifolium - 436 
 
 halimoides - - 421 
 
 hortensis - - 539 
 
 semibaccata - 423 
 
 stipitata - 423 
 
 vesicaria - - 423 
 
 Australian fodder plant for arid 
 
 land - 488 
 
 Australian millett - - 414 
 
 Avena elatior - 527 
 
 Banana field pea - 444 
 
 stock pea - - 444 
 
 Bastard alkanet - 559 
 
 clover - 477 
 
 Bathurst burr - 554 
 
 Beans - - 496 
 
 Bear 
 
 Beckwith's clover 
 Beggar weed 
 Bell fountain 
 Beet, manures for 
 
 PAG! . 
 
 - 485 
 
 - 476 
 
 - 442 
 
 - 471 
 
 - 504 
 
 ,, preparation of seeds - 504 
 
 preparation of soil - 504 
 
 ripening - 506 
 
 ,, seeds, germination of - 504 
 
 sowing - 505 
 
 ,, stacking - 506 
 
 sugar - 502 
 
 Bermuda grass - 526 
 
 Berry poison - 580 
 
 Bersine clover - 476 
 
 Bigweed - 432 
 
 Birdsfoot trefoil - 531 
 
 Bird vetch 485 
 
 Bitter vetch - 452 
 
 Black-berried nightshade - 559 
 
 Black currant - 559 
 
 medick 458, 530 
 
 Bladder clover - 476 
 
 Blessed thistle 544 
 
 Blind poison - 588 
 
 Bloom poison - 582 
 
 Blue flowering thorn apple - 556 
 
 ,, poison - 590 
 
 Bushmeria nivea - 436 
 
 Bokhara clover - 531 
 
 Bourgoyne - 462 
 
 Box poison - 581 
 
 ,, experiments 591 
 
 Brabant, sugar beet, green top - 503 
 
 Brassica nupus - 436 
 
 ,, oleracea - - 438 
 
 Broad bean - 446 
 
 ,, clover - 531 
 
 leaved plaintain 554 
 
 ,, winged saltbush - 426 
 
 Broom corn . 500 
 
 ,, poison bush - - 579 
 
 Bromus unioloides - - 526 
 
 Brown clover 476, 481 
 
 Buckhorn clover - 483 
 
 Buckwheat 446, 495 
 
 Buffalo clover - 482 
 
 pea - 434 
 Burr clover - 541, 457, 459 
 
 Burr medick - 541 
 
 Burweed - 553 
 
 Butterweed - /j/j4 
 
 Cabbage - 438 
 
 California clover - - 459 
 
 Canada field pea - 467 
 
 Candyup poison - 589 
 
 Cape cotton - 554 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Cape dandelion 
 
 - 
 
 548 
 
 weed 
 
 - 
 
 548 
 
 Caper spurge 
 
 - 
 
 538 
 
 Capsella bursa pastoris 
 
 - 
 
 537 
 
 Carex retrorsa 
 
 - 
 
 438 
 
 Carduus arvensis 
 
 - 
 
 544 
 
 ,, lanceolatus - 
 
 
 544 
 
 M marianus 
 
 - 
 
 544 
 
 ,, pycnocephalus 
 
 - 
 
 544 
 
 Carnation clover 
 
 - 
 
 478 
 
 Carob bean 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 tree 
 
 . 
 
 439 
 
 Carolina clover 
 
 - 
 
 476 
 
 Carrots 
 
 - 
 
 493 
 
 Carthamus lanatus 
 
 - 
 
 55i 
 
 Cassava 
 
 . 
 
 456 
 
 Cat clover 
 
 - 
 
 476 
 
 Cat's milk 
 
 - 
 
 538 
 
 Catchfly 
 
 . 
 
 539 
 
 Castor oil plant 
 
 - 
 
 538 
 
 Centaurea calcitrapa 
 
 - 
 
 545 
 
 Centaurea melitensis 
 
 - 
 
 546 
 
 solstitialis 
 
 . 
 
 547 
 
 Centrosema virginianum 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 Cerastium vulgatum 
 
 . 
 
 539 
 
 Ceratonia siliqua 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 Cheeses 
 
 - 
 
 537 
 
 Chenopodium 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 album 
 
 - 
 
 539 
 
 ambroscoides 
 
 . 
 
 540 
 
 murale 
 
 - 
 
 540 
 
 Cherry bean 
 
 - 
 
 485 
 
 Chestnut brown clover 
 
 - 
 
 476 
 
 Chewing's fescue 
 
 - 
 
 529 
 
 Chick pea 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 ,. weed 
 
 . 
 
 539 
 
 Chicken vetch 
 
 - 
 
 485 
 
 Chicory 
 
 439, 
 
 499 
 
 Children's clock 
 
 . 
 
 553 
 
 China grass plant 
 
 . 
 
 43 6 
 
 Chinese vetch 
 
 - 
 
 485 
 
 Chinese yam 
 
 - 
 
 444 
 
 Chufas 
 
 - 
 
 44 
 
 Cicer ai ietinum 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 Cichorium endivium 
 
 . 
 
 43" 
 
 ,, intybus 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 Clot bun- 
 
 . 
 
 553 
 
 Cloth plant 
 
 - 
 
 436 
 
 Clover trefoil 
 
 
 479 
 
 Coastal saltbush 
 
 . 
 
 428 
 
 Cockle bun- 
 
 - 
 
 55? 
 
 Cock's foot 
 
 . 
 
 528 
 
 head 
 
 . 
 
 442 
 
 ; ur thistle 
 
 . 
 
 54* 
 
 bean 
 
 - 
 
 447 
 
 n pea 
 
 - 
 
 439 
 
 Comfrey 
 
 . 
 
 474 
 
 Common buckwheat 
 
 _ 
 
 440 
 
 field bean - 
 
 . 
 
 44 
 
 fumitory 
 
 . 
 
 535 
 
 groundsel - 
 
 - 
 
 552 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Common kidney vetch - 432 
 
 melilot - - 461 
 
 sow thistle - 552 
 
 Convolvulus edulis 439 
 
 Corn gromwell - 559 
 
 spurry - 539 
 
 Couch grass - 526 
 
 Cow clover - 479 
 
 ,, grass 479, 531 
 
 horn - 483 
 
 pea - 485 
 
 Crab - 540 
 
 Cranesbill - - 444 
 
 Creeping bent - 529 
 
 burr - 541 
 
 fescue - - 528 
 
 trifolium - - 482 
 
 Crested dogstail - - 525 
 
 Crimson clover - 478 
 
 Crotalaria juncea - - 440 
 
 Cryptostemma calendulacea - 548 
 
 Cultivation of rape - - 506 
 
 Cynodon dactylon - - 526 
 
 C>nosurus cristatus - - 525 
 
 Cultivation of tobacco - 517 
 
 Culture tobacco, field - 519 
 
 Curing tobacco - 522 
 
 Cuscuta trifolii - 556 
 
 Cyperus esculentus - - 440 
 
 strigosus - - 441 
 
 Cytisus proliferus albus - 441 
 
 Dactylis glomerata - - 528 
 
 Dakota millet - 497 
 
 Dandelion 475, 553 
 
 Danthonia seminnualaris - 409 
 
 Dasylirion texanum - - 442 
 
 Datura stramonium - - 556 
 
 ,, tatula - 556 
 
 Deerweed - 450 
 
 Desert poison - 578 
 
 Desmodium tortuosum - 442 
 
 Desmodium triflorum - 443 
 
 Destruction of weeds necessary 533 
 
 Devil's apple - 550 
 
 "g - 535 
 
 trumpet - 556 
 
 Dhoura - - 407 
 
 Dioscorea batatas - - 444 
 
 Disttibuting agencies, weed - 535 
 
 Ditch burr - 553 
 
 Dodder - 55^) 
 
 Dolichos multiflorus - - 444 
 
 Doorvard grass - 467 
 
 Double- gee 540 
 
 Drooping yellow-flowered wood 
 
 sorrel - 537 
 
 Duckweed - 467 
 
 I >uli h clover - 482 
 
 I) wait Kssex rape - - 436 
 
 Karly amber cane - - 497 
 
 Early clover 
 
 479, 480 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Early red skin sugar beet - 503 
 Earth nut - 433 
 Effect of poison plants on stock 583 
 Eglantine - 543 
 Egyptian clover - 476,478,531 
 Egyptian corn - - 497 
 Egyptian millet - - 499 
 Elegant clover - 477 
 Elliott's sida - 473 
 Emex Australia - 540 
 Encephalartos Fraserii - 587 
 Endive - 439 
 Erigeron canadensis - - 444 
 Eradication of poison plants - 584 
 Erodium cicutarium - - 444 
 M moschatum - 444 
 Ervuin lens - 445 
 Esparcette 462, 493 
 Euchkena Mexicana - - 497 
 Euphorbia hclioscopia - 538 
 Euphorbia lathyris - - 538 
 peptus - - 538 
 Eurotia lanata - 445 
 Evergreen millet - - 497 
 Everlasting pea - 452 
 Experiments with box poison - 591 
 Fagopyrum esculentum - 446 
 Farm, special products of - 492 
 Fat hen - 539 
 Fava vulgaris - 446 
 Feed, saltbush good for - 419 
 Feeding rape, precautions neces- 
 sary in - 509 
 Fenugreek - 483 
 Fertiliser for rape - - 509 
 Festuca duriuscula - 525, 529 
 elatior - 526 
 heterophylla - 528 
 ovina - 527 
 ,, pratensis - - 528 
 rubra - 529 
 Field cabbage - 500 
 clover 475, 476 
 ,, culture, tobacco - 519 
 pea . 467, 485, 496 
 trifolium - 476 
 Filaree - 444 
 Filaria - 444 
 Fiorin - - 529 
 Fire weed - 444 
 Flax - 499 
 Florida beggar weed - 442 
 ,, clover 442, 471 
 Fodder and forage plants - 432 
 ,, plant for arid land - 488 
 grasses - - 402 
 Forage, weeds in - - 535 
 Foreign poisop plants - 564 
 Fox clover - - 483 
 Franseria dumosa - - 446 
 French clover - - 478 
 
 French honeysuckle 
 ,, sugar beet 
 
 Fuinaria otlicinalis 
 
 Fui/e 
 
 Gaifron thistle 
 
 Galactia glabella 
 ,, pile- 
 
 (ialega otlicinalis 
 
 Galinsoga parvifiora - 
 
 Garden orache 
 
 Gastrolobium bilobum 
 
 ,, callistai hys 
 
 ,, calycinum 
 
 PAGE 
 
 - 44<> 
 
 - 503 
 
 - 535 
 *3, 543 
 
 - 551 
 
 - 446 
 
 - 440 
 
 - 440 
 
 - 550 
 
 - 539 
 
 - 577 
 
 - 577 
 
 - 578 
 
 grandiflorum - 578 
 
 ovalifolium 579, 582 
 
 ,, oxylobioides - 579 
 
 ,, spinosum - 580 
 
 Genista scoparia - 447 
 
 German clover - 478 
 
 German mammoth clover - 478 
 
 Germination of beet seeds - 504 
 
 Giant burdock - 543 
 
 knotweed - - 468 
 
 spurrey 474, 498 
 
 white clover - - 477 
 
 Gilybum marianum - - 544 
 
 Glasswort - 472 
 
 Gleditschia triacanthos - 447 
 
 Glycine hispida - 447 
 
 Goat's clover - 446 
 
 horn - 483 
 
 rue - 446 
 
 Gold colored clover - - 475 
 
 Golden clover - 475 
 
 Gomphocarpus fruticosus - 554 
 
 Goober - 433 
 
 Goosefoot - - 439' 
 
 Gorse 483, 543 
 
 Gram - 439 
 
 Graphalium luteo-album - 549 
 
 Grass, laying down land to - 524 
 
 ,, seeds, sowing - - 524 
 
 Grasses, fodder - 402 
 
 undesirable - - 407 
 
 Western Australian - 402 
 
 Grey winter pea - 467 
 
 Greaswood - 472 
 
 Greek hay - 483 
 
 Green top Brabant sugar beet - 503 
 
 Grey clover - 476 
 
 Grey salt bush - 421 
 
 Ground almond - 440 
 
 Ground nut - - 432 
 
 Growth of rape - 507 
 
 Guildford grass - 563 
 
 Gunaninpil - 432 
 
 Hair clover - 476 
 
 Hairy vetch - 485 
 
 Half berried salt bush - 423 
 
 Halimus-like saltbush - 423 
 
 Hard clover - - 476 
 

 PAGE. 
 
 Hard fescue 
 
 - 525 
 
 Hare clover 
 
 - 470 
 
 Hare's little paw 
 
 - 476 
 
 Haresfoot clover 
 
 - 476 
 
 Hart's clover 
 
 - 461 
 
 Harvesting tobacco - 
 
 - 521 
 
 Heart clover 
 
 - 459 
 
 leaved poison 
 
 - 577 
 
 Hedge nettle 
 
 - 559 
 
 Hedysarum coronarium 
 
 - 449 
 
 onobrychis 
 
 - 498 
 
 Helianthus annuus 
 
 - 449 
 
 tuberosus 
 
 - 449 
 
 Hemp 
 
 - 501 
 
 Heraldic Scotch thistle 
 
 - 55i 
 
 Hippocrepis comosa 
 
 - 450 
 
 Hotfmanseggia 
 
 - 45 
 
 Hognut 
 
 - 44 
 
 Holeus lanatus 
 
 - 526 
 
 Holy thistle 
 
 - 544 
 
 Homeria lineata 
 
 - 56i 
 
 Honeysuckle 
 
 449, 482 
 
 ,, clover 
 
 - 482 
 
 grass 
 
 - 482 
 
 :Ioney locust 
 
 - 447 
 
 Hop clover 458, 
 
 475- 4 s i.53o 
 
 trefoil 
 
 - 481 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 - 446 
 
 shoe vetch 
 
 - 450 
 
 weed 
 
 - 444 
 
 Hosackia glabra 
 
 - 450 
 
 ,, purshiana 
 
 - 451 
 
 Hungarian clover 
 
 - 479 
 
 : Ivbrid clover 
 
 477, 53i 
 
 Hypochoeris glabra 
 
 - 55' 
 
 Julian corn 
 
 - 494 
 
 indigenous grasses , - 
 
 - 403 
 
 ink plant 
 
 - 541 
 
 [nula graveolens 
 
 - 55i 
 
 weed 
 
 - 47* 
 
 [ron weed 
 
 - 54 
 
 Italian clover 
 
 - 478 
 
 rye grass 
 
 - 527 
 
 -carlet clover - 
 
 - 53i 
 
 apan clover 
 
 -452, 53i 
 
 apanese buckwheat - 
 
 - 44" 
 
 ellv leaf 
 
 - 557 
 
 cud weed 
 
 - 54<) 
 
 cn^ak-in artichokes - 
 
 - 4H 
 
 erusalem corn 
 
 - 4<>< s 
 
 olinson ^: . 
 
 - 4<)7 
 
 ointed sharlock 
 
 - 537 
 
 unc clover 
 
 - 480 
 
 Kallir braiii-hing corn 
 
 - 497 
 
 Kale, thousand headed 
 
 - 5 () 
 
 \an.^aio'i ^'la-^N 
 
 - 45 
 
 Efentrophyllum hnatum 
 
 - 55' 
 
 Kentucky blue gra^s - 
 
 - 527 
 
 Kidney fruited salt-bush 
 
 - 423 
 
 vet cli 
 
 - 45-' 
 
 King's clover 
 
 - 461 
 
 Kitten plant 
 
 Klein-Wanzleben sugar beet 
 Knot grass 
 
 ,, weed 467 
 
 Kochia planifolia 
 
 ,, villosa 
 Kohl rabi 
 Lady's fingers 
 Lamb's quarters 
 
 ' tail 
 
 Landsborough grass - 
 Land suitable for potato cultiva- 
 tion 
 
 Land to grass, laying down 
 Lantana 
 
 ,, camera 
 Large American clover 
 
 clover 
 
 golden clover - 
 Late fruited sedge 
 Lathyms cicer 
 
 macrorhizos 
 polymorphus 
 sativus 
 splendens 
 sylvestris wagneri 
 hirsutus 
 
 Laying clown land to grass 
 Leafy prairie clover. 
 Lentil 
 
 ,, vetch 
 
 Lespedeza striata - 452 
 
 Lesser clover 
 Linseed 
 List of foreign poison plants 
 
 ,, Western Australian poison 
 
 plants 
 
 I.iihosperum arvense 
 Little yellow hop clover 
 Lolium Italicum 
 ,. perenne 
 
 Long-stalked kidney bean 
 Lotus Americanus 
 
 ,, corniculatus 
 
 tetragonolubus 
 
 ,, uliginosus 
 Low hop clover 
 Lucerne 
 
 clover 
 
 medicago 
 Lupulina 
 I.npinus allnis 
 Macio/amia 
 Mad apple 
 
 Madder 
 
 Malta thistle 
 
 Malva sylvestris 
 
 Maltese clover r 
 
 Mammoth clover 
 Mangold wui'/.el 
 Maiuhot aipi 
 
 PAGE. 
 476 
 503 
 540 
 
 7, 540 
 
 426 
 
 426 
 
 493 
 432 
 
 439 
 
 476 
 409 
 
 5ii 
 
 524 
 560 
 56c 
 479 
 479 
 475 
 438 
 45i 
 452 
 452 
 452 
 452 
 
 452 
 
 5*4 
 
 467 
 
 445 
 45 
 53i 
 
 481 
 
 499 
 564 
 
 590 
 559 
 476 
 527 
 
 530 
 467 
 450 
 531 
 452 
 453 
 4Si 
 459 
 459 
 431) 
 458 
 453 
 
 556 
 472 
 
 546 
 
 537 
 
 449 
 4/9 
 493 
 456 
 

 PAGE* 
 
 Manures for beets 
 
 - 5"4 
 
 Manure for potato crop 
 
 - 5i5 
 
 Maria thistle 
 
 - 544 
 
 Marsh mallow 
 
 - 537 
 
 May ad clover 
 
 - 483 
 
 Meadow clover 
 
 479 
 
 ,, fescue 
 
 - 528 
 
 ,, foxtail 
 
 - 526 
 
 Medic burr 
 
 - 457 
 
 ,, clover 
 
 - 457 
 
 Medicago denticulata 
 
 457, 54i 
 
 ,, falcata 
 
 - 458 
 
 lupulina 
 
 45, 53o 
 
 ,, maculata 
 
 - 459 
 
 ,, sativa 
 
 - 459 
 
 Medium red clover - 
 
 - 480 
 
 Melilot clover 
 
 - 461 
 
 Medium clover 
 
 479 
 
 Mel i lotus omcinalis 
 
 - 461 
 
 leucantha 
 
 - 53i 
 
 Melons, pig 
 
 - 502 
 
 Mentha pulegium 
 
 - 559 
 
 Mesquite tree 
 
 - 470 
 
 Mexican clover 
 
 - 47i 
 
 ,. poppy 
 
 - 535 
 
 Milkbush 
 
 - 489 
 
 Milk pea 
 
 - 44 
 
 thistle 
 
 544 
 
 Modiola 
 
 - 461 
 
 decumbens 
 
 - 461 
 
 Mountain spinach 
 
 - 539 
 
 Mouse clover 
 
 - 476 
 
 ear 
 
 539 
 
 Myrtle spurge 
 
 - 538 
 
 Narrow-leaved poison 
 
 - 582 
 
 New Dakota millet 
 
 - 499 
 
 Hungarian forage grass 
 
 - 530 
 
 New Zealand spinach 
 
 - 478 
 
 Nettle leafed goosefoot 
 
 - 54 
 
 Nicotiana glauca 
 
 - 556 
 
 Nodding saltbush 
 
 - 430 
 
 Nonesuch 
 
 - 458 
 
 Noogoora bun- 
 
 - 553 
 
 Nopal 
 
 - 43 
 
 Noxious weeds 
 
 - 532 
 
 Onobrychis sativa 
 
 - 462 
 
 Onopordon acanthium 
 
 - 55i 
 
 Opium poppy 
 
 - 502 
 
 Opuntia engelmanni - 
 
 - 463- 
 
 vulgaris 
 
 - 543 
 
 Orchard grass 
 
 - 528 
 
 Ornithopus sativus 
 
 - 466 
 
 Our Lady's thistle 
 
 - 544 
 
 Oxalis cernua 
 
 - 537 
 
 Oxvlobium parviflorum 575, 
 
 580-1-2 
 
 retusum 
 
 - 582 
 
 Paddocks, size recommended 
 
 - 404 
 
 Paddy's lucerne 
 
 - 537 
 
 Palm poison 
 
 - 587 
 
 zamia 
 
 - 587 
 
 Panicum decompositum 
 
 - 4 ! 4 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 I '.in i cum gracile - 4*4 
 
 Parsnips - 494 
 
 r.ispalum dilitatum - 530 
 
 Pasturage, artificial - - ^24 
 
 Pea - 485 
 
 Peanut - 433 
 
 PC. i vine clover - 479 
 
 Pearl millet - 499 
 
 Pencillaria spicata 499 
 
 Pennsylvania clover 482 
 
 Pennyroyal - - 559 
 
 Perennial hybrid clover - 477 
 
 ,, red clover 479, 531 
 
 rye grass - - 53 
 
 thistle - 544 
 
 Petalostemon - 4 6 7 
 
 Petty spurge wort - - 53** 
 
 Phaseolus helvolus - - 467 
 
 perennis - 467 
 
 Phleum pratense - 5 2 9 
 
 Phytolacca octandra - - 54 
 
 Pig melons - 5 2 
 
 Pigeon weed - 47 * 
 
 Pig weed 432, 439 
 
 Pin clover - 444 
 
 Pin grass - 444 
 
 Pin weed - 444 
 
 Pisum arvens - 4 6 7 
 
 Piawtain - 47 
 
 herb - 47 
 
 Plantago lanceolata - 467, 525, 554 
 
 major - 554 
 
 Planting tobacco - 5 2 
 
 Plaster clover - 461 
 
 Poa aquatica - 529 
 
 ,, nemoralis - 5 2 7 
 
 pratensis - 5 2 7 
 
 ,, trivialis - 5 2 7 
 
 Pod clover - 477 
 
 Poisons, tolerance of - - 586 
 
 Poison plants and eradication 584 
 
 foreign - - 564 
 
 ,, symptoms produced 583 
 
 treatment of stock 584 
 
 of Western Australia 573 
 
 Poisonous plants, list of Western 
 
 Australia - 590 
 
 Pollina fulva - 414 
 
 Polygonum aviculare - 467, 540 
 
 erectum - - 468 
 
 ,, sachalinense - 468 
 
 Poorman's weatherglass - 554 
 
 Poor toe - - 471 
 
 Portulaca oleracea - - 469 
 
 Portulacaria Afra - - 488 
 
 Potato crop, potash for -515 
 
 cultivation - - 510 
 
 land suitable for - 511 
 
 ,, preparing seed - 512 
 
 seed - 513 
 
 Potash for potato crop - 515 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Prairie clover - 467 
 
 grass - - 526 
 
 Precautions when feeding rape 509 
 
 Preparation of the seeds, beet - 504 
 
 of soil for beets - 504 
 
 Preparing seed potatoes - 512 
 
 Prickly comfrey - 474 
 
 pear 463, 543 
 
 poison - 580 
 
 poppy - 535 
 
 Pride of California - - 452 
 
 Propagation of saltbush - 419 
 
 Prosopis juliflora - 470 
 
 Pumpkins - - $02 
 
 Purple medick - - 459 
 
 prairie clover - 467 
 
 star thistle - - 545 
 
 Purslane - 469 
 
 Pusley - 469 
 
 Pussy wort - 476 
 
 Rabbitfoot clover - - 476 
 
 Ramie - 436 
 
 grass - 430 
 
 Ram's horn - 439 
 
 Rape - 436 
 
 Rape as feed, caution necessary 509 
 
 fertiliser for - - 509 
 
 ,, growth of - 507 
 
 uses and cultivation - 506 
 
 Kaphanus raphanistrum - 537 
 
 Rattle pod 434 
 
 Recommended size for paddocks 404 
 
 Red clover 480, 53 1 
 
 fescue - 528 
 
 ,, goat clover - 483 
 
 ,, hair clover - 4^3 
 
 ,, perennial clover - 479 
 
 ,. pimpernell - - 554 
 
 ,, skin sugar beet, early - 503 
 
 ,, top clover - 480 
 
 ., grass - 526 
 
 Reddish clover - 483 
 
 Reversed clever - 482 
 
 Rhagodia billardieri - - 428 
 
 ,, nutans - 43 
 
 Rib grass - 467, 525, 554 
 
 herb - 4 (} 7 
 
 K'iceiius coinmunis - 538 
 
 Richardsonia scabra - - 471 
 
 Ripening beet - 5<>^> 
 
 Ripple grass - 467 
 
 Rock poison - 577 
 
 Romulea rosea - 563 
 
 Roxa i ubiginosa - 543 
 
 Rough stalked meadow grass 527 
 
 K'ubia tiiKtoria - 4/2 
 
 Kumex acetosella - - 540 
 
 Running buffalo clover 483 
 
 clover - 483 
 
 Russian vetch - 4X5 
 
 Sachaline - 468 
 
 Saghalin polygonum - 
 Sainfoin 
 Saleratus weed 
 Salicornia herbacea - 
 Saltbushes 
 
 Saltbush, broad-winged 
 coastal 
 as feed 
 grey 
 
 half-berried 
 halimus-like 
 kidney-fruited 
 nodding 
 propagation of 
 silky 
 Samphire 
 Sand clover 
 Sandplain poison 
 Sand spurrey 
 
 ,, vetch 
 Sapling clover 
 Sarcobatus vermicularis 
 Sarcostemma Australe 
 Scarlet clover 
 Scotch broom 
 thistle 
 Screw bean 
 Seaside arrow grass - 
 Seed beds, tobacco - 
 Seeds, germination of beet 
 Seed potatoes, preparing 
 
 preparation, beet 
 Senecio vulgar! s 
 Serradella 
 Seven seed 
 Shad scale 
 Shamrock 
 
 clover 
 Sheep's fescue 
 Shepherd's purse 
 
 ,, weather glass 
 
 Shore thistle 
 Sida elliottii 
 
 ,, rhombifolia 
 Silene gallica 
 Silky head grass 
 
 saltbush 
 Silver-hull buckwheat 
 Si/e of paddocks 
 Slender clover 
 
 ,, panick grass - 
 ,, stalked clover 
 thistle 
 Small burdock 
 
 11 >\vered clover 
 galinsoga 
 
 nettle 
 
 red clover 
 Smooth milk pea 
 Soil, preparation of for beet 
 suited for tobacco 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 - 468 
 462, 498 
 
 - 472 
 
 - 472 
 
 - 418 
 
 - 420 
 
 - 428 
 
 - 414 
 
 - 421 
 
 - 423 
 
 - 422 
 
 - 423 
 
 - 430 
 419 
 
 - 428 
 
 - 472 
 432, 479 
 
 - 58i 
 
 - 473 
 485 
 479 
 472 
 
 - 489 
 478 
 
 - 447 
 
 4*3 
 519 
 504 
 512 
 504 
 552 
 466 
 43 
 436 
 458 
 
 435, 
 481, 
 
 - 527 
 
 - 537 
 554 
 
 - 544 
 
 - 473 
 
 - 5*7 
 
 - ^) 
 
 - 4<>5 
 
 - 428 
 
 - 446 
 
 - 402 
 
 - 47" 
 414 
 
 544 
 
 - 553 
 476 
 
 - 539 
 
 - 480 
 
 - 44 6 
 54 
 517 
 
PAOB, 
 
 Soiling clover 479 
 
 Soja be. in - 447 
 
 Solanum nigrum - 55 
 
 sodomaeum 559 
 
 Sonchus oleraceus - - 552 
 
 Soola clover 44 l > 
 
 Sorghum halapense - - 497 
 
 ,, saccharatum 498 
 
 Sorrell 540 
 
 Sotol - 442 
 
 Sour dock - 54 
 
 Southern co\v pea - 485 
 
 Sow thistle, common 552 
 
 Soy bean - 447 
 
 Spanish bayonet 45 
 
 clover 47 i 
 
 pea nut - 433 
 
 radish - 537 
 
 sanfoin - 449 
 
 trefoil - 459 
 
 Spear thistle - 544 
 
 Special products of the farm 492 
 
 Species of grasses - 402 
 
 Spekboom - - 488 
 
 Spergula arvensis - 473, 539 
 
 maxima - 474, 498 
 
 Spinach, New Zealand - 475 
 
 Spotted medick - - 459 
 
 thistle - 544 
 
 Spring vetch - 485 
 
 Spurred butterfly pea 439 
 
 Spurrey - 473 
 
 Square pod pea 452 
 
 St. Barnaby's thistle - 547 
 
 ,, John's bread - 439 
 
 ,, Mawe's clover - - 459 
 
 Stachys arvensis - 559 
 
 Stacking beet - - 506 
 
 Stagger weed - 559 
 
 Star thistle - 545 
 
 Saucy sack - 546 
 
 Stinging nettle - 538 
 
 Stinking goose foot - - 540 
 
 roger - 553 
 
 Stinkweed - 556 
 
 Stinkwort - 551 
 
 Stockpea - 485 
 
 Stock, and poison plants - 584 
 
 ,, treatment of poisoned - 584 
 
 zamia palm poisonous - 588 
 
 ,, poisoning, treatment 588 
 
 Stone clover 476, 482 
 
 Storksbill - 444 
 
 Straight bean - 446 
 
 Strawberry clover - 476 
 
 headed trefoil - 476 
 
 Stypandra glauca 588, 589 
 
 Suckling clover - - 476 
 
 Sugar beet - 502 
 
 early redskin - 503 
 
 French - - 503 
 
 PAGE- 
 
 Su-ar beet greentop brabant - 503 
 
 Klein-\Van/leben - 503 
 
 ,, white improved vil 
 
 morin - 5 2 
 
 Sugar beet, white redtop 5. ;> 
 
 grass 414 
 
 Sulla - 449 
 
 Sulphur clover - 479 
 
 Sunflower 449, 5<>2 
 
 Sun hemp 440 
 
 ,, spurge 538 
 
 Swamp horn clover - 453 
 
 Swedes 492 
 
 Swedish clover 477 
 
 Sweet briar - 543 
 
 cassava 456 
 
 ,, potato - 439 
 
 i, sage - 445 
 
 scented vernal - - 529 
 
 Symphytum asperrimum 474 
 
 Symptoms produced by poison 
 
 plants - 583 
 
 Tagetes glandulifera - 553 
 
 Tall meadow oat grass - 527 
 
 oat grass 405 
 
 fescue - 526 
 
 Tamarix gallica - 482 
 
 Tanner's curse - 540 
 
 Taraxacum dens leonis 475, 553 
 
 Tares 485 
 
 Teosinte - 497 
 
 Tetragonia expansa - 475 
 
 Thorn apple 55 
 
 Thousand headed kale - 500 
 
 Thread clover - 476 
 
 Three cornered jack - 540 
 
 Tick trefoil - 442 
 
 Timothy grass - 529 
 
 Tagasaste - 441 
 
 Tobacco cultivation - 516, 517 
 
 curing - 522 
 
 harvesting 521 
 
 planting - 520 
 
 seed beds - - 519 
 
 soil suitable - - 517 
 
 varieties suitable - 518 
 
 Tolerance of poisons - - 586 
 
 Toothed medick 457, 541 
 
 Treatment for zamia poisoning 588 
 
 Treatment of poisoned stock 584 
 
 Tree tobacco 556 
 
 Trefoil - 530 
 
 Trifolium agrarium - - 475 
 
 alexandrinum 476, 531 
 
 alpinum - - 476 
 
 amphianthum - 476 
 
 arvense - 476 
 
 badium - - 476 
 
 beckwithii - - 476 
 
 carolinianum - 476 
 
 filiforme - - 476 
 
PAGE. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 rrifolium fragiferum - 
 
 476 
 
 Weeds development of 
 
 - 533 
 
 ,,! furcatum - 
 
 477 
 
 ,, introduced in forage 
 
 - 534 
 
 ,, hybridum - 477. 
 
 53i 
 
 Welsh clover 
 
 - 476 
 
 incarnatum 478, 
 
 53i 
 
 West India honeysuckle 
 
 - 442 
 
 involucratum 
 
 479 
 
 Western Australian poison plants 573 
 
 ,, medium 
 
 479 
 
 Whin 
 
 483, 543 
 
 ., megaeephalum 
 
 479 
 
 White clover 
 
 482, 531 
 
 microcephalum 
 
 479 
 
 Dutch clover - 
 
 - 482 
 
 minus 
 
 479 
 
 goose foot 
 
 - 539 
 
 ochroleucum 
 
 479 -- improved Vilmorin sugar 
 
 pannonicum 
 
 479 beet 
 
 - 502 
 
 pratense - 480, 
 
 531 White lupine 
 
 - 453 
 
 , pratense perenne 
 
 531 Wild marigold 
 
 - 553 
 
 procumbens 
 
 481 
 
 White mustard 
 
 - 502 
 
 , reflexum 
 
 482 
 
 ,, prairie clover - 
 
 - 467 
 
 repens - 482, 
 
 531 
 
 red top, sugar beet 
 
 - 503 
 
 , resupinatum 
 
 482 sage 
 
 43, 445 
 
 , rubens 
 
 483 sharlock 
 
 - 537 
 
 ; sabrotundum 
 
 4^3 ,, Swedish clover 
 
 - 477 
 
 , stoloniferum 
 
 483 trefoil 
 
 - 482 
 
 , tridentatum 
 
 483 
 
 Wild kidney bean 
 
 - 467 
 
 Trigonel 
 
 483 
 
 ,, laburnum 
 
 461 
 
 Trigonella faeilum-graecum 
 
 483 
 
 ,, radish 
 
 537 
 
 Triglochin maritimum 
 
 483 vetch 
 
 - 45i 
 
 Tripteris clandestina - 
 
 553 Winter fat 
 
 - 445 
 
 Tula grass 
 
 441 
 
 lentil 
 
 - 445 
 
 Tule 
 
 441 Winged thistle 
 
 544 
 
 Tumble weed 
 
 432 Winter flat pea 
 
 - 45i 
 
 Turnips 
 
 492 rape 
 
 - 436 
 
 Ulex Europaena 483, 
 
 543 ., vetch 
 
 - 452 
 
 Undesirable grasses - 
 
 402 Wire grass 
 
 54t> 
 
 Upright knotweed 
 
 467 
 
 Wood meadow grass - 
 
 - 527 
 
 Urtica dioica 
 
 53 8 vetch 
 
 - 485 
 
 arens 
 
 539 Woolly soft grass 
 
 - 526 
 
 Uses and cultivation of rape 
 
 506 thistle 
 
 55i 
 
 ,, of rape 
 
 507 Wound clover 
 
 - 432 
 
 Variegated thistle 
 
 544 
 
 ,, wort 
 
 - 432 
 
 Varieties of tobacco - 
 
 51 
 
 Xanthium spinosum - 
 
 554 
 
 Various leafed fescue - 
 
 528 
 
 strumarium 
 
 - 553 
 
 Vetch 485, 
 
 496 
 
 Yam 
 
 - 444 
 
 bird 
 
 485 
 
 Yellow clover 458. 475, 
 
 479, ,481 
 
 chicken 
 
 485 
 
 hop clover 
 
 - 475 
 
 Velvet bean 
 
 444 
 
 lucerne 
 
 - 45* 
 
 Vicia Americana 
 
 484 
 
 meadow trefoil 
 
 - 475 
 
 cnicca 
 
 484 
 
 moon trefoil 
 
 - 458 
 
 saliva 
 
 485 
 
 sand trefoil 
 
 - 432 
 
 sylvatica 
 
 45 
 
 star thistle 
 
 547 
 
 ., tctrasperma 
 
 45 
 
 ,, suckling clover 
 
 476 
 
 ,, villosa 
 
 485 
 
 ,, sweet clover - 
 
 . 461 
 
 Vigna catjang 
 
 45 
 
 York \-( ad poison 
 
 - 578 
 
 Vilmorin, white improved, beet 
 
 502 
 
 Yorkshire fog 
 
 - 526 
 
 Wallaby grass 
 
 409 
 
 Yucca baccata 
 
 - 487 
 
 Water meadow grass 
 
 529 
 
 Zamia palm 
 
 - 587 
 
 parsley 
 
 47 1 
 
 poisoning, treatment 
 
 for 588 
 
 \Vavvstcinmed clover 
 
 479 
 
 poisonous to stock 
 
 - 5*7 
 
 Weeds and their distribution - 
 
 535 
 
 Zigzag clover 
 
 479 
 
 destruction 
 
 533 
 
 
 
PART IV. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Adaptation of sheep to natural 
 
 surrounding - 608 
 Advantages of silage - - 623 
 Advice to buyers - - 608 
 Age for breeding - 618 
 Ant li rax 647 
 inoculation for - 647 
 symptoms of - 647 
 Art of breeding - 614 
 Australian millet - 628 
 Bad fences - 630 
 Barn and woolshed - - 637 
 Benefit of salt licks - - 644 
 Border Leicester sheep - 600 
 Branched panic grass - 628 
 Branding sheep - 638 
 Breeding - 609 
 ,, art of - 614 
 Bush fires - 630 
 hay - - 622 
 Calculating contents of tank - 626 
 Care during lambing - 642 
 ,, necessary during post mor- 
 tem 643 
 Castration - 642 
 Castrating lambs - - 640 
 Cheviot sheep - 607 
 Classing wool - 613 
 Coast disease - 648 
 Conditions of life - - 607 
 Conservation ot fodder - 620 
 of water - 624 
 Contents of tank, calculating - 626 
 Cots wold sheep - 600 
 Cotton grass - 628 
 Crossbreeding - 615 
 Culling flock - 612 
 hints - 613 
 Cure for footrot - 045 
 ,, for scab - 65 1 
 of fluke doubtful - 646 
 Cuts, dressing for - - 635 
 Cutting the lambs - - 640 
 Dam - 624 
 Difficulties to contend with - 606 
 Dishley sheep - 607 
 Dishorning rams - - 609 
 Dentition - 639 
 Devil's grip in wool - - 613 
 
 Dipping for lice, trough for 
 Diseases of sheep 
 Dog and sheep 
 Downs sheep 
 Droving, use of dog in 
 Draughting sheep 
 
 yard, plan 
 Dressing for cuts 
 
 for footrot - 
 Earmarking 
 Easily made dip 
 English Leicester sheep 
 Environment 
 
 Essential points in a sheep 
 Evils of overstocking 
 Ewes 
 
 age for breeding 
 
 ,, when lambing, good feed 
 
 for 
 
 Excellence, standard of 
 Feed for sheep, native 
 Feeding sheep on straw 
 Fences . 
 
 Fibre of wool 
 Fighting rams 
 Fire branding 
 Fire breaks 
 Fleece of rain 
 
 how to roll 
 treatment of - 
 Flies 
 Flock, foundation of - 
 
 management of 
 Fluke 
 
 cure of, doubtful 
 
 lick for cure of - 
 
 life history 
 
 symptoms of 
 Fodder, conservation of 
 Footrot 
 
 remedies for - . 
 treatment 
 
 trough for dressing 
 Foundation of the flock 
 Gestation, period of 
 Good feed for lambing ewes 
 points in the ram 
 qualities of merinos 
 Hampshire down sheep 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 - 643 
 
 - 632 
 
 - 60 1 
 
 - <>3i 
 
 - (>V 
 
 - 635 
 
 - 645 
 
 - 637 
 
 - 648 
 
 - 600 
 
 - 607 
 
 - 620 
 
 - 612 
 
 - 618 
 
 640 
 614 
 627 
 624 
 
 035 
 
 639 
 
 630 
 610 
 635 
 
 635 
 649 
 605 
 621 
 
 640 
 646 
 4 o 
 (.40 
 
 620 
 644 
 
 "44 
 044 
 644 
 605 
 619 
 640 
 609 
 596 
 60 1 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Healthy sheep, pulse of - 643 
 Hides for market, preparing 653 
 Hints on culling - 613 
 on founding a Hock - 605 
 How to tell the sire - - (uS 
 Hydatids - 652 
 Immature animals as rams - 610 
 Improving the pasture - 627 
 Inbreeding - 617 
 Influencing the sex - - 619 
 Ink marking - 639 
 Inoculation for anthrax - 647 
 Johnson gras> for sheep - 628 
 Lambs, castrating - - 640 
 cutting - 640 
 ,, at marking time - 642 
 Lambing 617, 640 
 shelter during - 618 
 ,, time - 617 
 troubles - 642 
 Leicester sheep - 600 
 border - 600 
 ,, in France - 607 
 Lice - 648 
 ,, remedy for - 648 
 Lick for fluke - 646 
 Life history, fluke - - 04(1 
 Lincoln merino cross - 615 
 sheep - 600 
 Liver rot - 046 
 Locality to be studied - 596 
 Long wools - 600 
 Lung worm, remedy for - 650 
 Machine shearing - - 634 
 Management of ewes and lambs 640 
 of the flock - 620 
 Market, preparing wood, etc. - 653 
 Marking the lambs - - 642 
 Merino, good qualities of - ^()(> 
 sheep - 596 
 wool - - 596 
 Mutton, sheep good for - 60 1 
 Native fodder plants - - 627 
 grasses - 622 
 Natural surroundings, adapta- 
 tion to - 608 
 Overstocking - 620 
 Pasture, improving 627 
 Pedigree - 611 
 Period of ge-tation - - 619 
 Plan of draughting yard - 632 
 .. of \\-oolslied - 636 
 Po-t mortem examinations - 043 
 Preparing wood, skint) etc., \<>\- 
 
 market - 653 
 
 Pi e-s |, ,r wool - o;o 
 
 Prevention of weevil in skins - ._;i 
 
 Prickly pear as fodder - oj,s 
 
 Pulse of healthy sheep - 643 
 
 of merino- - - So'> 
 
 . 6oQ 
 
 Ram, dishorning the - 
 
 1'AGE. 
 
 Ram good points of - - 609 
 
 ,, breeding, etc. - - 611 
 
 ,, immature, as stock-getter - 610 
 
 selection of - 609 
 
 ,, stags - 642 
 
 ,, quality of Heece - - 610 
 
 Rains, to prevent fighting - 611 
 
 Recipe for brands - - 638 
 
 Remedies for footrot - - 644 
 
 Remedy for lice - 648 
 
 ,, for lungworm - 650 
 
 suggested for worm - 650 
 
 Rickets - 64^ 
 
 Riverina and sheepfarming - 606 
 
 Rolling the fleece - - 635 
 
 Romney Marsh and Leicester 
 
 cross - 607 
 
 Romney Marsh sheep - 600 
 
 Salt licks beneficial - - 644 
 
 Scab - 651 
 
 cure for - 651 
 
 Selection of types of sheep - 595 
 
 Sex, influencing the - - 619 
 
 Shearing - 634 
 
 ,, proper season - 634 
 
 Season for shearing - - 634 
 
 Sheep and their diseases - 643 
 
 ,, branding - 638 
 
 ., draughting - - 631 
 
 tanners, terms used by - 652 
 
 farming in Riverina - 606 
 
 feeding on straw - 624 
 
 for home use - -631 
 
 good mutton - - 601 
 
 native feed for - 027 
 
 to skin properly 031 
 
 types of 505 
 
 yarding - 031 
 
 Shelter ewes during lambing - 018 
 
 Show rams - 610 
 
 Shropshire sheep - - 601 
 
 Skinning sheep - 031 
 
 Skins for market, preparing - 053 
 
 prevention of weevil - 031 
 
 Silage - 622 
 
 ,, advantage of - - <u ; 
 
 Si Iky heads - fa& 
 
 Sire, how to tell the - - oiS 
 
 si/.e of - 012 
 
 Si/.e of sire - 6l2 
 
 Southdowns - 601 
 
 Spider gra^ - o_\S 
 
 Stags -644 
 
 Standard of excellence - 014 
 
 Stomach worms, symptoms of - 650 
 
 Straw, feeding sheep on - 024 
 
 Stud ram - (>I2 
 
 Study the locality - - 596 
 
 Suggested remedies for worms- 650 
 
 Symptoms of anthrax- - 047 
 
 of fluke - - 647 
 
PAOR, 
 
 Symptoms stomach worms - o^o 
 
 Tank - 625 
 
 ., calculating contents of - hj(> 
 
 1 ape worm (>5- 
 
 Tar brands injurious - - 638 
 
 Teeth, positions, diagram (>.v 
 
 Terms used by sheep farmers - M:;J 
 
 Ticks - <> 4 S 
 
 Time for lambing - - 617 
 
 Treatment for footrot - - 044 
 
 of the fleece - 035 
 
 Trough for dipping - - 648 
 
 ,, for footrot remedy - 645 
 
 Type of sheep - 595 
 
 Umbrella grass - 628 
 
 Uniformity - 60$ 
 
 Vermont sheep - 610 
 
 Wash for weevil - - 631 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 \Valet i -oiisfrvation - - 624 
 Waterproof markin.il '<>'" sluvp 
 \\'ecvil, wash for 
 
 Wdla 
 
 \\'ire tence- - 629 
 
 \\'<>ol classing - 613 
 
 fibre - (135 
 
 merino - 596 
 
 preparing for market - 653 
 
 press - 630 
 
 shed - 637 
 
 shed, plan of - - 636 
 
 spoiled by devil's grip - 013 
 
 spoilt by tar branding - 638 
 
 washing - 035 
 
 Worm, remedy suggested - 650 
 
 ,, in sheep - 649 
 
 Yarding sheep - - 631 
 
PART V. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Absorption of gases by soils - 665 
 
 Absorption of water - - 663 
 
 Absorption of water, per centage 663 
 
 Absorptive power of soils - 685 
 
 Ammonia - 673 
 
 Analyses, field - 676 
 
 Analyses of soils - - 667 
 
 Animal guano - 699 
 
 Artificial manure - - 702 
 Artificial manures, protection 
 
 against adulteration - 730 
 
 Ascertain condition of soil - 678 
 
 Ash of plants - 68 1 
 Average composition of cattle 
 
 foods - - 692 
 
 Bacteria in the soil - - 672 
 
 Barley - 743 
 
 Basic slag - 709 
 
 Beans and peas - 747 
 
 Beetroot - 745 
 
 Biological action of lime - 7 2 9 
 
 Blood manures - 699 
 
 Bone ash - - 705 
 
 Bonedust - 704 
 
 Bone meal - 704 
 
 Bones raw - - 703 
 
 Cattle foods, composition of - 692 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chemical action of lime - 728 
 
 Chemical composition of soils - 666 
 Clay soil, to make porous - 674 
 
 Clover crop - 724 
 
 Composition of farmyard 
 
 manure, per cent. - 
 Composition of soil, chemical - 
 Condition of soil, to ascertain 
 
 from crops - 678 
 
 Constituents of plant foods - 680 
 Coprolites 705 
 
 Cover the manure heap 
 Crop requirements - - 679 
 
 Crops and manures - - 737 
 
 Crops, rotation of 
 Decomposed granite - 
 Denitrification - 085 
 
 Derivation of organic matter 0*4 
 Derivation of phospli 
 Device for manure tank - 697 
 
 Dissolved mineral phosphate- - 706 
 Draining the soil 
 
 Effect of water on rape ''''4 
 
 Estimate of original manure 
 
 value - 694 
 
 Evaporation m the soil 664 
 
 Excreta 
 
PART VI. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 Acidity of curd - Si 7 
 
 Action of churning - 798 
 
 Advantage of the pit for silage- 786 
 
 Appliances for printing - Su 
 
 Artificial feed a necessity - 769 
 
 Beater churns - 799 
 
 Benefits derived from silage - 783 
 
 Box churns - 801 
 
 Breeding of stock - - 777 
 
 Buildings for the dairy - 768 
 
 Butter and its treatment - 806 
 
 boxes - 812 
 
 causes of tainted - 761 
 
 factory nrchinery - 813 
 
 fat and food - - 779 
 
 making - 805 
 
 ,, and cream - 794 
 
 prints - 811 
 
 working - 807 
 
 Buy the best possible breed - 774 
 
 Care requisite in disease - 788 
 
 Cattle for dairying - - 773 
 
 Channel Islands cattle - 775 
 
 Character of cattle required - 773 
 
 Characteristics of various breeds 777 
 
 Cheddar cheese - 816 
 
 Cheery 's churn - 799 
 
 Cheese making - 814 
 
 ,, plant - - 814 
 
 - 764 
 
 - 804 
 
 - 798 
 
 - 798 
 
 - 803 
 
 - 806 
 
 - 796 
 
 - 804 
 
 - 805 
 
 - 794 
 
 - 790 
 
 - 816 
 
 - 788 
 
 - 800 
 
 - 788 
 
 - 815 
 
 - 791 
 
 - 785 
 
 Choice of district 
 Churn construction - 
 Churns 
 
 old and new - 
 Churning, loss of butter in 
 when to stop 
 
 with sweet cream 
 Churns and materials- 
 Clean the churn 
 Cleanliness and milk - 
 requisite - 
 
 Coloring matter in cheese 
 Composition of milk - 
 Concussion churn 
 Constituents of cow's milk 
 Cooking the curd 
 Cool the new milk 
 Cost of feeding ensilage 
 
 I' 
 Cream for butter making 
 
 percentage for churning 
 Mage of ripeih 
 ,, temperature of 
 Crops for silage- 
 Curd knives 
 
 proper acidity - 
 vat 
 
 Curing room for cheese 
 Dairying and the future 
 
 ,, buildings 
 
 Dairyfarmer's mainstay, the silo 
 Dairying, kinds of 
 
 ,, laying out the farm - 
 ,, methods 
 ,, stock and fences 
 ,, under new methods - 
 Dairy yards, how to plan 
 Disease germs, care required - 
 District, suitability of for dairy- 
 ing 
 Ensilage 
 
 ,, and its cost - 
 ,, a mainstay - 
 Establishing the dairy herd 
 Experiments and increase of 
 
 milk 
 Factory churns 
 
 ,, machinery - 
 system of cheese making 
 Fat globules in milk - 
 Feed for different seasons 
 
 ,, return from 
 Feeding dairy cattle - 
 Fences and their u-c> 
 Fermentation in cream 
 Food and its effect on milk 
 Forms of churns 
 Fresh. cream and churning 
 Future of dairying industry 
 Germs in milk 
 Grasses for the dairy - 
 Herd, establishing the dairy 
 Holstein-Fresian cattle 
 
 milk yield 
 
 Hot iron test 
 How to plan the yards 
 Increase of milk, experiments - 
 
 \r,K. 
 79J 
 
 795 
 
 7'" 
 
 784 
 817 
 
 818 
 816 
 
 768 
 767 
 
 773 
 
 700 
 766 
 762 
 
 765 
 788 
 
 764 
 
 782 
 
 785 
 767 
 
 774 
 780 
 
 802 
 813 
 
 816 
 
 7"- 1 
 780 
 
 779 
 779 
 776 
 795 
 779 
 778 
 
 If 
 788 
 770 
 
 776 
 
 818 
 
 765 
 780 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Infection, sources of - 
 
 Keep a stack of silage - 780 
 
 Kerry and Dexter kerries - 776 
 
 Kinds of dairying - - 773 
 
 Laying out the dairy farm - 764 
 
 Live stock on the farm - 772 
 
 Loss in churning - - 803 
 
 Making cheese - 814 
 
 Making the silage - - 786 
 
 Material in churns 804 
 
 Merit and uniformity of butter - 762 
 
 Method of weighting the stack - 787 
 
 Methods, old and new - 760 
 
 Milk, composition - - 788 
 
 constituents - - 788 
 
 cooler - 791 
 
 and cream - 788 
 
 records - 774 
 
 specific gravity - - 792 
 
 tainted by ensilage - 784 
 
 Milking, cleanliness, ete. - 794 
 
 Necessity of artificial feed - 700 
 
 New methods of dairying - 762 
 Notable qualities of Channel 
 
 Island cattle - 775 
 Old and new methods - 760 
 Operation of milking- 7^4 
 Packing butter - 811 
 Percentage of cream for churn- 
 ing - 696 
 Pit for silage, advantages of - 786 
 
 Plant for chee-e making - 814 
 
 Preing the chee-e - 816,818 
 
 Printing butter - 81 I 
 
 - of butter w- '-king - 807 
 
 Quality of milk and food - 771) 
 
 Rate to churn - 805 
 
 Records of milk yields - 774 
 
 Rennet and it^ us< - 814 
 
 ; eream, test for - 817 
 
 g the dairy building - 768 
 
 Salt f..r use on the farm - 782 
 
 Salting butter - 808 
 
 the curd 81^ 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 Scalding the milk - - 796 
 
 Seasons and feeding - - 780 
 
 Separator in the dairy - 714 
 
 Silage always a standby - 787 
 
 crops suitable for - 784 
 
 making 
 
 ancl milk taint - - 784 
 
 ration - 785 
 
 in stacks - 7*'. 
 
 weight of - 787 
 
 Silo, its benefits - 767 
 
 Simple test for ripeness of cream 8 1 7 
 
 Sources of infection - - 780 
 
 Specific gravity of milk - 702 
 
 Speed of churn - 805 
 
 Stacks for silage - 780 
 
 Stage of ripeness for cream - 705 
 
 Supply of water - 771 
 
 Tainted butter, probable cause - 701 
 
 Temperature of crea ~6i 
 
 of curing room - 8K> 
 
 required to scald 
 
 milk - 700 
 
 Testing curd >, 818 
 
 milk 
 
 Thermometer, use of, essential 
 Treatment of butter in churn 
 
 of new ch< - 8 16 
 of new milk - 701 
 Types of butter worker 
 Underground dairy - - 70^ 
 rniformity and merit of i utter 
 I'se of sila'ge - 783 
 Use the thermometer - - 797 
 Various breeds and their charac- 
 teristics - 777 
 Washing the butter - 806 
 Water supply essential - 771 
 When to stop churning - . s "0 
 Weight of silage - 7>7 
 Weighting the >tack - - 7.^7 
 Woi king butter 7(1; , 
 Ventilation in the dairy - 7"8 
 Yield of Holsiein-Fresian cattle 770 
 
I. 
 
 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. \x> 
 
 ^DESCRIPTIVE NOTES/Q-s 
 
 ON THE AGRICULTURAL AREAS AND 
 
 CROWN LANDS OPEN FOR 
 
 SELECTION. 
 
 | HE following notes on the agricultural areas and 
 Crown lands available for selection in the South- 
 west Land division of the colony have been 
 specially prepared for this publication. It is 
 impossible to do more than faintly outline, in a 
 few hundred pages, the vast agronomic possi- 
 bilities of even so small a portion of the great territory of Western 
 Australia as the division under review. It would take many 
 volumes the size of the present one to adequately describe, and to 
 completely enumerate, the many advantages that Western Australia, 
 with its diversity of soils and climate, offers to the sturdy agricul- 
 turist of mind and muscle. 
 
For the purposes of description, the large land division has 
 been subdivided into districts. The statements contained in the 
 following pages are all founded on fact and experience, and no 
 attempt has been made to unduly magnify the good, or minimise 
 the bad, features of the colony's lands. Western Australia is not all 
 sand ; neither is it all soil of exceptional fertility. Between the two 
 extremes there is a happy mean, and it is the object of these notes 
 to briefly and truthfully point out that, in spite of many detractors, 
 this happy mean does exist to a very great extent in this colony. 
 In proportion to its area an area greater than many European 
 Kingdoms the South-west Land division of the colony the chief 
 cultivable portion contains a very small proportion of land that 
 cannot be put to some good purpose ; a very large proportion that 
 only awaits the potent agency of the plough to become productive. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 
 
 For the purposes of definition in this chapter, the south- 
 western district will be deemed to be all the country along the 
 coast west of the road between Fremantle and Albany. This is a 
 very large section of what is known as the South-west Land 
 division, within which is comprised all the territory that, prior to 
 the discovery of the Yilgarn goldfields, was regarded as being 
 suitable for cultivation. The south-western district, with which 
 we are now dealing, embraces Jandakot, Canning, Armadale, 
 Woongong, Beenup, Jarrahdale, Serpentine, Dandalup, Pinjarrah, 
 Coolup, Drakesbrook, Wagerup, Cookernup, Harvey, Brunswick, 
 Collie, Picton, Bunbury, Donnybrook, Boyanup, Busselton, Black- 
 wood, Bridgetown, and further south to the shores of the Southern 
 ocean. The country east of the Albany road to the boundary of 
 the south-west division from Beverley to Albany, will be dealt 
 with as the southern district, as the Great Southern railway runs 
 through almost the centre of it. These lines of distinction have 
 been drawn, not only artificially by road^ and railways, but natur- 
 ally by divergences of soil, timber and rainfall. The contrast be- 
 tween the two territories is tersely and clearly described in the 
 Descriptive Notes Respecting Agricultural Areas in Western Australia, 
 officially compiled and issued by authority of the Hon. Commis- 
 sioner of Crown Lands : " In dealing with the areas along or 
 adjacent to the South-western railway and its extension to Donny- 
 brook, a totally different class of land is found to that of the areas 
 along the Great Southern railway. While the latter areas are specially 
 suitable for cereals and fruit culture, the former include land that is 
 more adapted for fruit and vegetable growing and for dairy farm- 
 ing. In some places the country is heavily timbered, costing a 
 considerable sum to clear ; but against this must be placed the fact 
 that smaller areas are sufficient for a selector, the land being cap- 
 able of intense culture. It is also, for the most part, well watered, 
 whilst the rainfall is regular and considerable. The highest hopes 
 are, indeed, entertained in regard to these areas, and much thriving 
 settlement is looked for in the south-western district. There are 
 nine areas in this locality, comprising 283,588 acres, of which 
 57,255 acres have been selected by 226 applicants." What is 
 meant by a " totally different class of land " is deserving of a more 
 detailed description, so that from these pages the reader may be in 
 a position to determine where he would be most at home ; but it 
 
must be understood that no other district is being decried in point- 
 ing out the advantages of the south-west. Every part of the colony 
 where agricultural areas have been allocated has its recommenda- 
 tions, to which attention will be drawn in reviewing them. 
 
 The mountains and rivers of the south-west are among its chief 
 physical features. The Darling range, commencing at Yatheroo, 
 north of Perth, in the midland district, runs south right through the 
 middle of the south-west for a distance of 300 miles to Point 
 D'Entrecasteaux, near Cape Leeuwin. The range runs parallel to 
 the coast line at a distance of about 18 to 20 miles, and the highest 
 peak in this range is about 1,500 feet. Mount William, in the 
 Murray district, between Bridgetown and Albany, one of the moun- 
 tains of the Roe range, attains an elevation of 3,000 feet above sea 
 level. The Darling and the Roe ranges extend in the same north 
 and south line, but the latter is more to the eastward. Many rivers 
 have their sources in these ranges ; notably the Swan, Helena, 
 Canning, Serpentine, Murray, Brunswick, Collie, Preston, Blackwood, 
 Warren, Margaret, and Vasse rivers, which rise in the Darling range 
 and, running from east to west, empty themselves either into the 
 Southern and Indian oceans, the Harvey estuary, or the Leschenault 
 inlet, between Fremantle and Bunbury. The Tone, Balgarup, 
 Forth and Weld rivers have their sources in the Roe range. All 
 these rivers, together with innumerable watercourses, which are 
 known as brooks, supplied by thousands of springs which have their 
 rise in the enormous catchment area of the ranges, in July and 
 August, when they are at their highest, not infrequently flood some 
 of the lower levels of the flat country through which the streams 
 flow on their way to the sea. In order to obviate the recurrence of 
 these floods the Government has undertaken an extensive scheme of 
 drainage which will be pushed on to completion this year, and will 
 relieve Collie and Harvey settlers of a too bountiful supply of water 
 at a time of the year when it is not required. 
 
 The rainfall of the south-west is, as the records of years prove, 
 consistent and considerable. The rains are not as a rule experienced 
 here earlier in the autumn than in the eastern districts, but they are 
 very much more copious and frequent when they commence, and 
 mi- prolonged generally well into October, and frequently into the 
 beginning of November. The result is that the rainfall registered 
 at the meteorological stations from Fremautle to the Vasse is more 
 than double that of places eastward from York, Xortham, and New- 
 castle. The following figures may be considered as a lair average 
 rainfall at the places mentioned : Fremantle, 30 inches; Jarraluiale, 
 41 inches; Pinjarrah, 38 inches; Bunbury, 36 inches; Busselton, 
 (otherwise known as the Yasse), 37 inches; Bridgetown, 40 inches; 
 Augusta, (near Cape Leen\vin), 31; inches. This large r; infall keeps 
 most of the rivers in the south-west flowing all the year round, 
 while the smaller streams leave a sufficient number of pools in their 
 
5 
 
 beds in the height of summer to meet all requirements except those 
 of extensive irrigation, which could however be carried out on a 
 large scale if the surplus water that runs into the sea in the winter 
 season, was impounded. So far the settlers have been satisfied 
 with the crops they can grow unaided by an artificial water supply. 
 There are many spots in the south-west division admirably adapted 
 to intense culture under irrigation, and these before long are bound 
 to attract closer settlement. Hitherto, to use a biblical illustration, 
 the vineyard has been large and the laborers few. Up to the date 
 of the acquisition of self-government, and the almost simultaneous 
 development of the goldfields, the demand for produce was not 
 large enough to stimulate the inception of enterprise of a special 
 kind. Now that producers have before them a sphere of great 
 profit opened up by the demands of an ever-expanding market, the 
 south-west, which has lain comparatively idle, is in great requisition 
 by the class of husbandmen for whom the Homesteads' Act 
 was passed ; that is to say, by those who desire to get a small holding, 
 and to improve it to its utmost capacity. To these a garden that 
 could be irrigated from the waters of a brook at midsummer, when 
 all kinds of table vegetables are at a premium, would prove to be a 
 most valuable possession, and one that, in its virgin state, as we shall 
 show in the course of this chapter, is only waiting hands to claim it. 
 
 Next to the exceptional rainfall of the south-west and the 
 great possibilities which a practically unlimited water supply carry 
 with it, the district is famous for its timber, which, however, will 
 be very briefly glanced at here, as it is more fully dealt with else- 
 where. Typical scenes from the magnificent jarrah and karri 
 forests that are doing so much to build up a great export trade for 
 the colony, have been selected for insertion in this work, and 
 give an excellent idea of the country in its natural state. 
 
 The country lying between the Darling range and the sea is 
 curiously compounded of limestone formation and of soil that is so 
 deficient in lime and salt that cattle kept a few miles inland have 
 occasionally to be sent to runs which border on the coast for 
 a change. The limestone formation is so far destitute of all the 
 constituents that are necessary for the maintenance of stock in 
 the fullest vigor, that they have to be sent back a few miles from 
 the salt water to what is called the " clay land," to fatten. The 
 stay of the cattle on the new pasturage need only be for six or 
 eight weeks in each year, and if they are shifted regularly they are 
 kept fat, and in the spring put on flesh readily. Stock kept exclu- 
 sively either close to the coast or on the clay lands, become, in 
 course of time, more or less debilitated. For a year or two they 
 may do fairly \vell on the well grassed frontages of the Darling 
 range, but they slowly fall away unless they get the occasional 
 rough lime and saline-impregnated herbage, which is a wonderful 
 tonic, even though it may be of the coarsest fibre. 
 
The coast change and its effects have been referred to in order 
 that the frequent references to the clay land and the limestone 
 formation may be clearly understood. Until this line of demarca- 
 tion in the character of the soils of the territory lying between the 
 Darling range and the Indian ocean is fully appreciated, the 
 reader will have a difficulty in following clearly what has still to be 
 written about the characteristics of the south-western district, and 
 the diverse uses to which the different formations are best adapted. 
 Although the phrase, line of demarcation, has, for want of a better 
 one, been used to denote the separation of the limestone from the 
 clay country, the line is so sinuous and erratic in its course that the 
 word is almost misleading, for the two kinds of country run into 
 each other and not infrequently overlap. The south-west districts are 
 remarkable for the diversity of their soils, and this statement finds a 
 direct and early application when one gets a few miles out of Perth 
 and at the Canning discovers oneself in the clay country. But 
 one does not leave the limestone behind at this point ; on the 
 contrary, the South-western railway between Perth and Bunbury 
 will be found to cut it at several points much further inland, until 
 we come upon it again at Creaton, 15 miles from the coast. In 
 places the limestone formation disappears almost at the ocean's 
 edge, while in one place, below Manclurah, no limestone can be 
 found at all on a big stretch of country which has the sea for its 
 western boundary, although it is possible that an impregnation of 
 lime would be found in the soil. The reason why so much 
 emphasis is laid upon the uncertain or crooked course of the 
 boundaries of the two kinds of soils is that limestone is a main 
 ingredient in ensuring the success of special kinds of cultivation 
 which are highly recommended to be carried upon land where it is 
 found, and it would be a misfortune if a selector rashly took up a 
 block under the belief that it had a limestone bed, because it was 
 as near the coast as other land upon which the presence of this 
 strata had been proved by actual investigation ; in other words, 
 proximity to the ocean is not to be accepted as attesting the 
 possession of limestone, and distance from the coast is not to be 
 regarded as showing that a certain block is destitute, or nearly so, 
 of that constituent. 
 
 After the fcrei^-ing explanation it will be realised that we 
 only speak in terms of the most general approximation in setting it 
 down that of the strip of country eighteen or twenty miles wide, 
 which intervenes between the Darling range and the sea, half of 
 ne formation, and the other of heavy clay or loam 
 land. Probably the statement is pretty i e irly correct if it is 
 understood to be applied in the same way that the same measure- 
 ments would be found in the hands of a man who inserted his 
 right and left fingers One between the other, and thus formed one 
 surface composed equally of different members. In this way the 
 
limestone interlaces the clay, and the clay which is often not clay 
 at all, but loam the limestone. The clay derives its name from a 
 clayey sub-soil, and is generally denoted by the thick growth of 
 blackboys or grass trees. The advice which one of the most 
 experienced and capable men who have courteously contributed 
 information would give to a prospective settler is: "If you want to 
 grow corn or fruit trees, rind a place in which redgums and black- 
 boys cluster thickly where the blackboys do not have only one 
 head, as they do when found on the limestone, if they appeal- 
 there at all, but a number of arms or limbs, each crowned with a 
 head. If the short thick girth of the trunk, whence the arms 
 spread out, makes a shade like a young bay tree, under which 
 cattle may shelter from the sun and rain, then put your pegs in and 
 make tracks for the nearest Lands' office, for land that will grow 
 blackboys to perfection will grow heavy marketable crops. You 
 need look no more, for there is no better land to be found in 
 Western Australia with the exception of the swamp land.. for 
 vegetables, or maize, or lucerne. Settle where the blackboys and 
 the redgums thrive, and if you are not afraid of hard work, you will 
 thrive too." 
 
 Having now given a general idea of the soil of the south- 
 western district, it may be as well to take a flying survey along the 
 course of the railway that joins Perth to Bunbury, to see what is 
 being done. The line cuts the very heart of the distiict, and there 
 are to be found in it examples of the best forms of cultivation- 
 orchards, farms, vineyards and vegetable gardens. The trip will 
 indicate the good beginning that has been made towards making 
 " the earth to yield her increase." Ah 1 that is to be deplored and 
 remedied is that there is not one occupier for every score that this 
 fertile tract is capable not only of supporting, but of maintaining in 
 a state of comfort. Here will be found the avenue to a progressive 
 career that within reasonable bounds will only be limited by the 
 energy and resources of each holder to clear additional land, to 
 crop it, to buy implements and stock shrew r dly, and to exercise 
 sound judgment in their use and management. It may be safely said 
 that if a man takes up a piece of the best of the land in the south- 
 west without any surplus cash, but enough to make a successful 
 start, if he puts his mind, his heart and his muscles into his task, 
 the first years will not be easy ones, but his success is practically 
 assured. The best land of Western Australia, unlike that of some 
 of the eastern colonies (but which has long since been alienated), is 
 not found ready cleared by the indulgent hand of nature, or, to 
 speak more truly, is denied a growth of timber. Our best spots 
 are in our heaviest forests of red gum, York gum, salmon gum, 
 peppermint, and blue gum, or are in paper bark swamps, and have 
 to be wrested from thick, deep-rooted, primeval owners, before the 
 idyllic dream is realised of every man sitting in the shade oi his 
 
8 
 
 own vine and fig tree and none daring to make him afraid. The 
 settler who has grappled with and effaced the forest trees, who can 
 look out upon a broad expanse of stubble land after harvest, would 
 need to be very improvident to b3 afraid of meeting any creditor ; 
 but between the taking up of the block allotted to him and the ac- 
 complishment of this task there is before him many a day when he 
 will literally fulfil the old scriptural mandate and earn his bread by 
 the sweat of his brow. If he shrink from the weight of his labor 
 he can find an easier vocation in taking up the more lightly timbered 
 lands along the Great Southern railway, or beyond Greenhills or 
 Goomalling, with his eyes open to the fact that there the rainfall is 
 much lighter, that the climate is for some months dry and hot, and 
 the conditions of life not so pleasant ; while in the south-west 
 a crop has never, with ordinary care, been known to 
 fail, or a fruit tree to die for want of water. Here there 
 is little or no need to conserve water for stock ; little or no 
 expense in sinking wells or scooping out dams ; no anxious 
 watching for the thundercloud to burst to save driving cattle or 
 sheep perhaps for miles to the nearest watering place to slake their 
 thirst. In giving the settler a wide range of choice as to the 
 peculiar natural gifts h^ shall desire to bestow upon himself, 
 Western Australia is almost unique. No district has a monopoly of 
 advantages, but there is in their distribution a nice balance and 
 equipoise of merits and demerits. The south-west has the 
 unfailing and plenteous rainfall, and the heaviest clearing ; in 
 many places the smallest areas of first class land in one piece. 
 The eastern division is nearer the goldfields market ; it has very 
 large stretches that could be placed under crop without a break, 
 and a beginner can readily clear a nice piece of jam country to get 
 in a crop in his first year that will cheer him on his way. The 
 south-west is more intractable ; it resists the advances of civilization; 
 the forest is not easily subdued, and the land that can soon be 
 reclaimed will prove disappointing in the end. 
 
 Before booking at Fremantle for Bunbury, the enquirer for 
 Crown lands on agricultural areas should have a look at Jandakot, 
 which is situated jo miles east from Fremantle, and which was 
 thrown open for selection in August, 1890. It comprises 36,000 
 acres, mostly of a light sandy nature. There arc, however, in the 
 area a lair proportion of alluvial banks and swampy lands which 
 are highly suitable for the production of vegetables," of which the 
 Perth and Freuiantle markets are lamentably bare for the greater 
 portion of the year. The land is, however, imperfectly drained, and 
 it is somewhat expensive to clear. Some of it would cost quite 10 
 per acre before seed could be sown ; but, on the other 
 hand, the productiveness of the soil, and the consequently small 
 required, compared with what is necessary, suv, at Meeker- 
 ing, for mixed farming, would compensate for this outlay. There 
 
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is absolutely no water difficulty, water being, if anything, too abun- 
 dant. Portions of this area have a limestone formation, which 
 renders them of a special value. There is a site for a sewage 
 farm upon the western side of this area, and a reserve for a town- 
 site in its south-eastern corner. It is approached from Perth by 
 Nicholson's road, which is now ben^ macadamised, and from 
 Fremantle by the Forrest road, which traverses the area, striking 
 the Perth-Bunbury road at the fourteen-mile post. This latter 
 road has lately been cleared about half its width from end to end. 
 On the eastern side of the area, and about three miles from the nearest 
 portion, runs the South-western railway. An undoubted drawback 
 to the locality has been the comparative lack of good roads leading 
 to it, or to serve as feeders to the railway ; but the works now in pro- 
 gress will, to a great extent, do away with this objection. The con- 
 tiguity of the area to the Perth and Fremantle markets, and the richness 
 of much of the land, are still, however, great elements of attraction, 
 and out of the 36,000 acres of this area 34,300 are survex eel, of 
 which seventy-eight selectors have taken up 16,539 acres. The 
 present settlement is well distributed over the area. There arc 
 several farms and holdings in a highly improved condition. 
 
 The value of the limestone for the vine is exhibited on the pro- 
 perty of Mr. W. D. Moore, on the Canning road about two miles out 
 of Fremantle. The vineyard yields superb crops of grapes of 
 the best wine and table varieties, and from a few acres the returns 
 obtained would form a substantial income, if the proprietor weie 
 not a large merchant and a gentleman of affluent means, whose 
 pleasure it is to have a rural home looking out upon one of the 
 most flourishing gardens which skilled culture and a wise choice of 
 site unite in forming. It is Mr. Moore's recreation to demonstrate, 
 by the means of this plantation, that in the limestone having an 
 easterly aspect the vine will do even better here than it will on the 
 sunny slopes of France. Not only on Mr. Moore's estate, 
 but also at Rockingham, where there is another splendid vine- 
 yard, as much as 12 tons of muscatels per acre have been 
 picked and marketed. The vines at the latter place were 
 planted on the site of a limestone quarry. The stone was 
 taken out for building purposes and the excavation having been 
 filled in with the soil of the neighbourhood, the cuttings were put 
 in by way of experiment many years ago, when the capabilities of 
 Western Australia as a fruit producing country were not as well 
 known as they are to-day. 
 
 The fig is also a greedy feeder on the limestone, and asks for 
 no more care than the native ecualyptus. A cutting thrust in the 
 sandy soil grows like a weed, until it attains an enormous size and 
 is so heavily laden with fruit that it is profitable to use it for fatten- 
 ing pigs. Mr. William Paterson, manager of the Agricultural 
 Bank, is planting 40 acres near Mandurah with figs, in order to 
 
TO 
 
 turn the fruit into bacon. At Lowlands, the estate of Mr. A. R. 
 Richardson, 24 miles from Fremantle on the South-western railway, 
 there are some rig-trees of great size, one of them measuring seven 
 feet five inches in girth of trunk. Mandurah and Rockingham can 
 show several nearly as large. Mr. Thos. Hardy, the well-known 
 South Australian horticulturist, admired the fig plantations greatly 
 when he visited the colony a few years ago. He said he had seen 
 nothing nearly so fine of the kind anywhere else south of the line. 
 Mr. Paterson, who is the first to undertake the culture of the 
 fig on a large scale, is importing fourteen varieties. He estimates 
 that in seven years time the yield will be of the value of i per 
 tree ; he is planting 2,000 trees. It is pointed out that such a 
 plantation requires no grafting, pruning, or budding, and very little 
 cultivation, while the cuttings are cheap and easily procured, and 
 the trees, generally speaking, almost immune from disease. In his 
 opinion the fig has been too much neglected in the west ; if it had 
 not grown almost wild and had a smaller yield of fruit, the satiated 
 appetite would not have looked askance upon what he regards as 
 being one of the most wholesome and appetising of fruits. In a 
 country like Western Australia, where bacon brings is. per lb., he 
 knows of no better or more profitable purpose to which to devote 
 his Mandurah estate than to raise figs upon a large scale there in 
 the limestone country. The olive also does remarkably well on the 
 coast, and fine specimens of these trees may be seen anywhere 
 between Fremantle and the Vasse. 
 
 The limestone country, which we have been inspecting before 
 going into the clay districts further inland, grows several other 
 crops that are valuable, although it is not recommended for general 
 farming purposes. Lucerne, a fodder plant that is extensively culti- 
 vated in the eastern colonies, is in a congenial place among the 
 limestone. Patches of it have been put in for test purposes, with 
 most gratifying results. The roots go down to a great depth, and 
 all through the summer it can be repeatedly cut after it has had 
 twelve months to establish itself. The value of lucerne, and the 
 important part it should take in the feeding of stock during the dry 
 season, may be emphasised, for probably there is no part of the 
 world where summer fodder is more required than in the neighbour- 
 hood of Fremantle and Perth. In the spring, indigenous and exotic 
 grasses and clovers grow in the richest spots, and especially where 
 the ground has been cleared and cultivated ; but as the season 
 advances these disappear, leaving the dairy herds of the metropolis 
 and the chief seaport town of the colony to subsist mostly on rank 
 scrub and imported bran, for which from is. to is. 9d. per bushel 
 (according to market supplies) is charged. 
 
 There is another aspect of the fodder question which should 
 be emphasised in connection with lands available for selection 
 within reasonable distance of the metropolis, and that is the meat 
 
II 
 
 supply. In speaking of this subject official evidence can be 
 adduced. The issue can be put in one short sentence : The, 
 meat supply of Perth and Fremaiitle hills far below what it ought 
 to be in quantity and quality, because there are not in the vicinity 
 of those centres pasturage grounds that will for the greater part of 
 the year maintain the drafts of the butcher in flesh. Hence, those 
 drafts have to be small and intermittent ; the purveyors cannot 
 muster on the seaboard a reserve stock of sheep and cattle, because 
 they would fall away in weight ; they have to buy only for almost 
 immediate needs, and the public have to pay in the added price of 
 meat for this defective and precarious system. If the butchers had 
 proper feeding places near the slaughtering yards, they could carry 
 on their business and reinforce their supplies on a much sounder 
 and more helpful basis, and the consumer would get the benefit of 
 the margin of wasting and loss being greatly reduced. That 
 is to say, if cattle brought from the Kimberley district, the chief 
 breeding ground, could be rested and topped up after their journey, 
 before being slaughtered, the retail price per pound of their 
 carcases could be reduced, because there would be so many more 
 pounds of meat per beast to sell. This was part of the evidence 
 that was given by leading members of the trade and pastoralists 
 before the Parliamentary Joint Committee of both Houses that, on 
 the motion of Mr. Charles Harper, M.L.A., President of the Hureau 
 of Agriculture, sat during last session. The committee was 
 appointed to enquire into the causes of the present high price of 
 meat and to suggest such means as may appear most desirable for 
 the purpose of effecting a reduction in the price of good whole- 
 some meat to the consumer, without too seriously endangering the 
 future of the pastoral interests. It was shown in the course of the 
 enquiry, which lasted several weeks and embraced all phases of the 
 question, that the quality of the meat would be greatly improved if 
 the cattle could be slaughtered on the pasture grounds, and 
 that the nearest place where pasture grounds could be obtained 
 was near Muchea, on the Midland line. So far the Govern- 
 ment has not announced its intention to carry the recommenda- 
 tions of the committee into effect, and the position of affairs 
 still offers great inducements to cultivators to lay down 
 paddocks near Fremantle, or at Jandakot, for instance, with 
 lucerne, which would tide the butchers over the dilemma. 
 Another purpose for which the coast country between 
 Fremantle and Mandurah is admirably adapted, and for 
 which very few acres, comparatively speaking, are now em- 
 ployed, is the production of culinary vegetables. It might 
 be made the South Brighton and Cheltenham of the west, 
 for the soil is very similar to that south of Melbourne, which 
 for twenty miles by about eight broad has been made a 
 cabbage garden, or rather a thousand cabbage gardens, for none 
 of the blocks are more than rifteen acres, and some of them 
 
12 
 
 have only five acres. The newcomer to the west, who takes the 
 slightest interest in agricultural pursuits, is greatly impressed with 
 'the scarcity and the dean. ess of vegetables, the producing of which 
 is the industry of an industrious and independent class of growers, 
 who, as the result of a system of high tillage that is not excelled by 
 the peasantry of France, are able to raise a great variety of crops 
 in abundance. An acre of ground turns out 8,000 head of market- 
 able cabbages, and other crops in similar profusion. The market 
 gardeners of the South Brighton district form a strong guild both 
 in numbers and aggregate wealth, and most of them till their own 
 freeholds, upon which they have built comfortable and commodious 
 houses. They return from market with their wains laden with 
 nearly two tons of manure, which their stout and well-fed horses 
 easily draw along a steel-plated track, which has been laid along 
 the Brighton and Point Nepean road for about ten miles. Their 
 work is clone with American digging-ploughs and cultivators, which 
 economise labor and turn it to the best account, while the crops, 
 under the forcing influences of manure and a good rainfall, are 
 refreshing to the eye, with their splendid growth and the hue of 
 livid dark green that betokens the presence of a plethora of plant 
 food. If you travel further arield to the confines of this blooming 
 utilitarian garden land a desolate landscape is seen a forbidding 
 waste of desert sand clotted with stunted ti-tree and heath, which 
 leaves a chilling sense of barrenness and irreclaimable solitude. 
 Yet the desert is part of the same tract as those luxuriant beds of 
 cauliflowers, turnips, potatoes, and onions, which we passed a while 
 ago, changed only by the transmuting energy of the market gardener. 
 Here around Fremantle and Perth there is hardly the germ of the 
 great well-organised, well-equipped enterprise that is directed to 
 the growing of table esculents in the east of Australia and elsewhere. 
 A few Chinese, with spade and hoe but little in advance of the 
 primitive delving tools of Adam's time, occupy some swamp lands and 
 sell their cabbages by weight as carefully as though they were 
 refined gold. But where are the men of English race who 
 are grasping the prize of intense culture and the liberal 
 rewards for it that are so close within their grasp ? Is it not 
 so ? when the market gardener starting in Western Australia 
 can get his land for nothing, as close to Fremantle as South 
 Brighton is to Melbourne, instead of paying at least 20 per 
 acre for it. Is there any exaggeration in saying that big profits 
 are allowed to pass unheeded, when cabbages sell for twopence 
 per pound, and in the other colonies twopence will buy the 
 entire head ? Can the most sceptical say that an acre of the 
 swamp lands on the Jandakot agricultural area that is naturally 
 irrigated, and which the Government will give as a free gift 
 to any man who will crop it, is not more than equal, with 
 similar treatment, to an acre of the Cheltenham sand, whose arid 
 surface in the middle of summer can only be moistened from a tap 
 
13 
 
 and pipe that draw upon the Yan Yean reservoir, and which has 
 to be paid for at so much per thousand gallons, according to the 
 weekly reading of the meter by the officer of the Water Supply 
 department ? And let a simple calculation be made as to what 
 8,000 head of cabbnges, at the average weight of 5 Ibs., would 
 amount to at twopence per pound, or even one penny per pound, 
 grown on land close enough to the metropolis to be carted there 
 without railway charges, and on land, which except for the i for 
 registration, costs the gardener nothing. 
 
 It may, however, be said that the market for vegetables will 
 soon be supplied when the epoch of the humble but hardworking 
 Mongolian with his rake and his trowel gives way to a sturdy 
 generation of British ploughmen who are the owners of Clydesdales 
 and Planet Juniors and all the other paraphenalia and horse power 
 of an up-to-date vegetable grower. Let those who may fear that 
 they will not find elbow room in the business, that competition will 
 quickly be supplied, and that the present prices, or an approach to 
 them, be very evanescent, note the following counsel : The de- 
 mand for vegetables is not to be gauged by the present consump- 
 tion, for vegetables are far more sparingly doled out at most tables 
 than bread, simply because there are, to use a familiar phrase, " not 
 enough to go round." If the supply increased the demand would 
 spring in the same ratio, for although this is not the place in which 
 to indite a treatise upon the bills of mortality, or the social well- 
 being of the people, it is admitted by the medical faculty that in 
 some respects including that of eating plenty of vegetables, which 
 are not now forthcoming the hygienic conditions of the people of 
 Western Australia could be much improved. Again, the colony is 
 so large and the spheres of profitable industry it offers are so 
 numerous that overcrowding is a very conjectural contingency, at 
 any rate for many years to come. It may be said, however, that 
 market gardening is an industry that is soon overdone, as the crops 
 take comparatively but little time to mature. For this to occur the 
 prices now realised would have to fall several hundred per cent. 
 To show the unlikelihood of over-production in this industry 
 within measurable time, supposing the population to increase ever 
 so slowly, a great many credible witnesses could be called, but it 
 will be preferable to take the records of Parliament. In the ses- 
 sion of 1895 the Hon. E. McLarty, M.L.C., and a member of the 
 Bureau of Agriculture, who speaks with mature knowledge of the 
 Mandurah district, asked the assistance of the Legislative 
 Council, by resolution, to foster the establishment of market 
 gardens with a view to encouraging the establishment of 
 canneries. His speech on the subject was so full of pith and 
 cogent force that this chapter would be incomplete if some of his 
 remarks were not quoted here. The motion which the hon. member 
 moved in the Council on the 8th October, 1895, was as follows : 
 
14 
 
 That in the opinion of this House it is desirable that the Government shouM 
 enquire as to the best steps to take to encourage the production and preservation 
 of vegetables. 
 
 He said : " In moving this motion, I may say that, unfortunately, 
 the rules of the House prevent me from going as far as I wish to, 
 otherwise I should have framed the resolution in favour of a sub- 
 stantial bonus being given to any -establishment which might 
 produce 25 or 30 tons of preserved vegetables in any one year. 
 Hon. members are aware that we are now importing large quantities 
 of preserved vegetables. Last year, I believe, the value of our 
 imports in this direction amounted to between ^"8,000 and ^9,000, 
 and next year the amount will probably be larger. This fact I 
 regret. I speak with some practical knowledge when I say that we 
 can produce, at certain seasons of the year, at all events, any 
 quantity of vegetables ; and I should like to see some encourage- 
 ment given to their growth, so that we may supply our goldiields 
 and our northern parts without resort to importation. At Mandurah 
 one of the preserving establishments has already gone into the 
 business, and it is turning out an article quite equal to anything 
 that is being imported ; and all that is now required is that there 
 shall be a supply of vegetables to enable us to produce all the 
 preserves we require. I think a bonus should be given to enable 
 the establishments I refer to to offer a sufficient price for vegetables 
 to induce people to grow them. If that were done, it would, in 
 time, save the colony the large amount which is being annually sent 
 away for preserved vegetables, and it would instead be distributed 
 among our own settlers. Only this week I have noticed how much 
 land is being taken up ; but on a considerable portion of it people 
 are planting fruit trees. These will take four or five years to 
 mature, and if, in the meantime, some inducement could be offered 
 to them to grow vegetables between the rows of trees, they would 
 be much benefited. Vegetables will grow luxuriantly, and a return 
 can be got in a few weeks from them." In bringing the motion 
 (which was passed) before the Council, there is no doubt Mr. McLarty 
 had chiefly in his mind's eye the rich flats that abound in the 
 neighbourhood of Mandurah, which has since come even more 
 prominently into notice as a highly desirable place for settlers on 
 small holdings. At the time of writing (June, 1897), an agitation 
 had declared itself in favor of the Government using the powers of 
 the Agricultural Lands' Purchase Act to take over a portion of the 
 Hall estate and cut it up for the benefit of fruit and vegetable 
 growers. 
 
 A very short run from Perth by rail brings us to the Canning ; 
 but so far on our trip southward we will take the road route, or we 
 should miss the sight ' f what Mr. Wiedcnbach has done to 
 demrnstrate the surprising capabilities of the Canning district to 
 supply the metropolitan market, in which fruit is very scarce and 
 dear, with the tintbt productions of the orchard. He took up what 
 
15 
 
 an expert describes as bring to the eye of n novice " a very rough 
 bi-t of country, that was quite repellent with its thick growth of blue 
 gum, ti-tree, and stinkwood, and what appeared in be an 
 ill-nourished surface of yellow clay." Rut Mr. Wiedenbach had 
 been a skilful fruitgrower in another colony, and he perceived that 
 this piece of ground was a diamond that only needed polishing. 
 He sampled the soil and found it full of nodules of limestone ; he 
 saw it was deep and well drained and sheltered, and he set to work 
 six years ago to transform this wilderness into an orchard that 
 confounds any detractor of the pre-eminent capacity of a well- 
 chosen holding to respond to the transforming hand of man. Look 
 at it to-day. You see a model and blooming orchard, the trees 
 bright with foliage, and the limbs bearing down under the w r eight 
 of apples, of apricots, peaches and plums, of superlative size, and 
 whose size is almost as matchless as their taste. The well laid out 
 rows of orange and lemon trees are grateful shady places to recline 
 in on a blazing clay, under the heavy dark green leaves which the 
 clustering golden fruit disdains to be hidden by. 
 
 On leaving this orchard the vision is rudely disturbed, for 
 beyond his fences there is revealed in all the stark plainness of 
 their native hue, the clank unkempt thickets of ti-tree, the 
 gaunt blue gums, the hard yellow clay that, but for the object 
 lesson we have seen, would be prone to turn the land-seeker 
 to some fairer prospect. It is not advisable even for an expert to 
 be always deterred by externals in looking for a location in Western 
 Australia, where there are, not infrequently, some kinds of country 
 having no external attractions at first sight, yet on further acquain- 
 tance revealing great potentialities of profit. Mr. Wiedenbach's pro- 
 perty has been introduced to lay stress upon the text laid down at 
 the outset, that the Canning 'is a terribly neglected district 
 especially having regard to its closeness to the capital. It is so 
 close to Perth as to be almost a suburb of that city ; it is capable of 
 producing not only enough fruit for local requirements, but for ex- 
 port, and yet the invitation which it extends to the orchardist is, 
 with the exception of the place to which reference has been made, 
 almost entirely set at nought. This is the salient fact with 
 which one is impressed in going through the heart of the Canning. 
 It is evident that the nearer a perishable product like fruit is grown 
 to market the less likely it is to be damaged in transit to the con- 
 sumer, and that as it has been proved that orchards are very profit- 
 able, even when they may be 100 miles or more from the metropolis, 
 the profit will be proportionately greater when the crop is raised at 
 the thresholds of the people who are anxious to buy and consume it. 
 The same conclusion applies to vegetables, which are grown by Mr. 
 Wiedenbach in great abundance ; yet, nevertheless, the Canning is 
 almost entirely a grazing ground which is much used by the dairymen 
 of Perth and Fremantle as a clay change for their cows. No doubt 
 
i6 
 
 it is an excellent thing for the cattle which have to provide milk 
 for the inhabitants of those large centres, to be kept in health, but 
 the absurd spectacle is presented of landowners receiving nine- 
 pence or one shilling per head weekly for the agtstment of stock 
 upon land that under orchard cultivation would foot up in the 
 credit account of receipts to 200 per acre. It only remains to be 
 added that there is land for sale at the Canning, and that it is 
 understood the owners are in treaty with the Government for some 
 of it to be added to the public estate for the behoof of settlers and 
 close settlement. There are a few wheat crops to be seen at 
 the Canning at harvesting time, but not one fifth of the land is in 
 any better state than when it was the undisputed possession of the 
 native tribe which hunted and fished within its boundaries. The 
 very healthy upland plains of the Canning, a good height above sea 
 level, have a most equable and agreeable temperature, the extremes 
 of heat or cold being unknown, and the air is so pure that the 
 medical faculty desiderate the establishment there of a con- 
 valescent home. 
 
 Among the Canning hills which fringe the river there are some 
 spots where fruit and vegetables would thrive, but these patches are 
 small and difficult of access, as the country is rough and steep. The 
 larger part of the hills consists of ironstone ridges, the home of the 
 jarrah, which is cut in large quantities by the Canning saw mills, 
 whose line, starting from the Midland Junction near Guildford, runs 
 southward to within four miles of Kelmscott on the South-western 
 railway. At the junction of the river and the latter railway, there 
 are some excellent pieces of country, which lie between the hills 
 and the stream and beyond the Gosnell estate. One of these blocks, 
 several thousands of acres in extent, belongs to Mr. Panton, P.M., of 
 the City of Melbourne. Victoria, who is known not only as an 
 expert in matters pastoral, but also as an artist and a patron of art. 
 The railway bisects his property, the best of which is the clay 
 country near the river. Further south it is of a light loam, merg- 
 ing into a sand plain ; but as the late Sir F. A. Weld said, when he 
 was Governor of the colony " West Australian sand is the most 
 fertile in the world." Some further observations of His Excellency, 
 who held the vice-regal office from 1869 until 1874, and under 
 whose administration the colony made a decided advance, may be 
 regarded as reliable testimony, lor he took the greatest interest in 
 agriculture, which he had studied in a practical spirit, and was well 
 versed in geology and the chemical composition of soils. His 
 Excellency was, therefore, competent, not only from a familiar 
 knowledge of the colony, but also as an educated critic, to give 
 evidence that is of value- touching the subject of the settlement of 
 the land, and the degree of success that is likely to attend it when 
 it is intelligently and industriously followed. Sir F. A. Weld's 
 general description of the physical features is so clear and concise 
 
'7 
 
 and instructive that it will bear reproduction. He says: "The 
 wholeof the settled district, nearly the si/e ot" France, is usually 
 level, often undulating, but never mountainous. The western sea- 
 bo.ird is generally comparatively Hat country of a sand\- character, 
 composed ch icily of the detritus of old coral reefs, which lias been 
 again deposited by the action of water ; more inland is a formation 
 which is here called ironstone, it appears to be chiefly a con- 
 glomerate of disintegrated granite, stained with iron ; granite, 
 slates, quart/, pipeclay, and in places trap, are all found in this 
 country. The Darling range, for instance, presents these 
 characteristics ; it runs from north to south in the central district 
 inland of Perth, and appears once to have formed the coast line. 
 The whole country, from north to south, excepting the spots 
 cleared for cultivation, may be described as one vast forest, in the 
 sense of being heavily timbered ; sometimes, but comparatively 
 seldom, the traveller comes upon an open sandplain, covered with 
 shrubs and flowering plants in infinite variety and exquisite beauty, 
 and often, especially in the northern and eastern districts, low 
 scrubby trees and bushes fill the place of timber. On the whole, 
 the soil may be said to possess immense productive powers under 
 favorable circumstances." It may be added that the late Sir F. 
 Napier Broome, who succeeded the late Sir W. F. C. Robinson to 
 the Governorship in 1882, on a public platform expressed his convic- 
 tion that the agricultural land available for settlement was capable of 
 maintaining a much larger population than the colony at present 
 possesses. Of the colony and people he said : " The more one 
 sees and knows of Western Australia and its people the more they 
 win upon the newcomer." In later speeches he set a still higher 
 value on the colony, its resources and capabilities, as well as the 
 energy of its " handful of inhabitants." A large population could 
 be maintained if the magnificent paddocks of Colonel Ashburner 
 (another absentee landlord), bordering the Canning river, were 
 subdivided. There is here one of the largest and most desirable 
 swamps that anyone can point to, and as one of its boundaries is 
 the river, the expense of draining it would be compara- 
 tively light. What a potato field it would make for the 
 raising of two crops in the year, and the heaviest in the 
 summer, when supplies are dearest. A black, peaty mould, the 
 depth of which has not been reached, fills the swamp with a sturdy 
 growth of water-loving vegetation. Now we are at Kehnscott, and 
 the Gosse estate, a wide spread of meadow lea, to which the red- 
 gums, sparsely scattered, lend a very park-like aspect. It is satis- 
 factory to be able to state that this holding is being cut up and sold 
 for orchard purposes, on the principle that suburban blocks, being 
 much higher in price than more distant places, should be made to 
 yield the largest possible sum per acre. The Gosse patrimony 
 would grow corn to perfection, but it is too valuable for corn, 
 while alongside a railway line a fruit producer could be sure that his 
 
i8 
 
 fruit would be none the worse for travelling a dozen miles or so to 
 the tables of the people. It was some of the choicest of this land 
 on the rising grounds approaching the range, that Messrs. M. E. 
 Jull (Under Secretary for Public Works) and \V. L. Owen 
 (Warden of Menzies) obtained, on which to establish what is now a 
 most flourishing and encouraging vineyard and orchard. 
 
 At Woongong there is a tine bit of level country consisting 
 mostly of flats nearly as level as a table, and about a mile wide. 
 Here there is another oasis in the miles of virgin forest country that 
 we have passed through, in the form of wheat iields, where about 300 
 tons of chaff was cut last year, and there is also a very nicely kept 
 orchard. To the west, the Messrs. Bateman, the owners of 12,000 
 acres, have been sedulous in laying down pastures in artificial 
 grasses, a branch of the improvement of land that is more neglected 
 in the '.vest than in any part of Australia. They are operating on a 
 stiff, rather low lying clay soil that shares with the Canning the 
 patronage of metropolitan stock owners in order to give their 
 animals the essential annual clay change. The grazing paddocks of 
 the Messrs. Bateman are especially good towards the end of the 
 summer, when there is, as a rule, a scarcity of feed. On the Darling 
 range, about three miles east of Woongong, Mr. Butchers has 'an 
 orchard of a few acres, the prolific character of which will be 
 realised when it is stated that this season he declined 100 for the 
 fruit of four orange trees. He has also, on a plateau or the range, a 
 patch of lucerne which makes a marvellously quick and continuous 
 growth. 
 
 Passing Cardup an attractive farm of 1,500 acres under the 
 shadow of the range, where now, just after the sowing season, the 
 young corn is sliooting through the chocolate soil with a bright, 
 strong growth that augurs well for another ton and a hall of nay 
 per acre the average of last year's reaping Whitby Kalis, one of 
 the most notable properties in the south-west, is neared, and it is 
 worth breaking the journey till next clay to inspect what has been 
 accomplished hy means of irrigation, whose potent forces arc al- 
 most unapplied in Western Australia. Whitby Falls was purchased 
 i i years ago by Mr. William Paterson, now manager of the Agri- 
 cultural Land Bank, and has since been purchased by the (iiivcrn- 
 ment as a site for a lunatic asylum. The orchard at that time was 
 neglected, but when Mr. Paterson relinquished it a few months 
 aj;o it wa- one of the most productive in the colony. The site has 
 many natural advantages. From the range there trickled a rivulet 
 of water that suggested great possibilities of watering the orchard 
 by gravitation, but in the hot weather there was only a trickle. 
 Ring-barking the timber, however, in the neighborhood of the 
 orchard and along the course of the stream, greatly increased the 
 supply and enabled artificial watering to be carried on all through 
 the summer. 
 
'9 
 
 \Yhiby Falls, and still going south, some miles of 
 country that is chiefly jarrah forest intervene before \ve are upon the 
 scene of the next object lesson that is calculated to teach so much 
 to an intelligent and receptive observer who wishes to see what 
 others have done, and what the country will grow to the best 
 advantage, before he starts work on his own account. The forest is 
 occupied by the Jarrahdale sawmills, a large and powerful 
 company who have laid down a branch line extending from the 
 South-western railway to the main timber station in the ranges 
 further eastward. Jarrahdale, as its name would indicate to any 
 Western Australian, is not a place where granaries will ever be 
 seen, but the wine press would have plenty of occupation if all the 
 vine land could tempt the peasantry of one of the provinces of 
 France to make of it a second Moselle. Pushing on to the 
 Serpentine, Lowlands, the estate of Mr. A. R. Richardson, is an unique 
 example of natural irrigation, for here the Serpentine river disperses 
 itself over Hats, percolates through the soil, and resumes its course 
 in its bed at a point nearer the sea. The Serpentine is a second 
 Xile in its fertilising effects, and it would be very hard to lincl a 
 place where stock will fatten more quickly than on Lowlands. Mr. 
 Richardson, who has only just retired from public life, after sitting 
 in the Legislative Assembly for the De Grey and holding with 
 much honor and usefulness the portfolio of Commissioner of Crown 
 Lands, did not lincl Lowlands what it is to-day. When he became 
 its o\vner it was densely overgrown with flooded gums and 
 undergrowth, which were very hard to kill in the deep, strong, 
 moist loam. As fast as the flooded gums were ringbarked they 
 threw up saplings and suckers so plentifully that it seemed a 
 sisyphean labor to try and wrest the territory from their grasp. 
 But Mr. Richardson was not to be daunted by the assertion that is 
 often made, that if a flooded gum has plenty of water it is imp< 
 to vanquish it. He had perseverance, and, fortunately, he had 
 means, for Lowlands has always been a place that demanded a 
 liberal expenditure of money. The saplings and suckers were 
 ruthlessly decimated, hacked, and grubbed and burned year after 
 year, every inch of ground that was so hardly won was resolutely 
 guarded from further encroachment, until at last the flooded gums 
 gave up the light. In the end Mr. Richardson could survey square 
 miles of magnificent pasture ground, clothed during the hottest 
 season of the year with a high close mat of couch, and he can now 
 send his sheep and cattle prime fat to the butcher at a time when 
 locally fattened stock is very scarce In making a success of 
 Lowlands, where cereals and fruit are also produced, Mr. 
 Richardson has only put into practice the maxim that land, like a 
 good horse, must not be left to take care of itself if it is to do good 
 work and be worth keeping. In speaking from his place in the 
 Legislative Assembly on one occasion, he dwelt strongly upon the 
 evils of earth hunger of a man taking up more land than he 
 
20 
 
 could improve and thus turn to profitable account. The 
 gist of his speech was that five acres of which the most is 
 made are better than hundreds that are only partially 
 productive, and Lowlands exemplifies that Mr. Richardson 
 is a man who can not only speak to the purpose, but carry his 
 theories out in a most thorough, workmanlike and practical manner 
 practical in the sense that a satisfactory balance sheet can be 
 produced at the end of the year. For nearly half a century the 
 site of Lowlands remained unimproved in the hands of the 
 Colonization Estates' Company ; it was one of the best of their 
 grants, but the pasture hidden from the sun and light and choked 
 by the trees was sour and watery ; the land looked more like a 
 partly dry morass and was passed over by scores of stock owners, 
 who looked to the north-west and the Murchison for their ranches r 
 while within 35 miles of Perth there was, ready to their hands, an 
 area that, cleared and sown with grasses, would top a beast to the 
 acre. On a smaller scale, perhaps, the rule will be found to apply 
 all through Western Australia, and especially in the south-west, that 
 a superficial examination, a quick discouragement when a piece of 
 land is found to be thickly timbered or badly grassed, may lead to 
 the rejection of a really good location. On the west side of the 
 Serpentine station there is a very eligible block, the owners of 
 which are the members of a company in New South Wales. It is 
 several thousands of acres in extent, and nearly all of it ought to be 
 helping to make up the shortage in the local wheat supply. Nearer 
 the Darling range the good land is in narrow strips. Pushing on 
 to North Dandalup the way is through some thick red gum 
 forests and blackboy growth that the selector would be fortunate 
 to obtain if the country hereabout belonged to the Crown 
 The river at North Dandalup runs throughout the year and inter- 
 sects this estate, and so does the railway for several miles. 
 Creaton, the estate of the Paterson family, was originally part of the 
 grants. The Murray river, the Perth road and the Mandurah road, 
 and also a belt of limestone, cut through Creaton, which embraces 
 12,000 acres, a very large proportion of which has been improved 
 so highly as to be almost outside the pale of the Agricultural Lands 
 Purchase Act, notwithstanding that the legatees are prepared to 
 treat with a purchaser. Pinjarrah is, owing to its fertility, 
 rainfall, and nearness to Perth, with which it is joined by rail, one 
 of the safest districts for new men to get a prosperous foothold. 
 The river tlats of Creaton make splendid wheat paddocks, which 
 have been cropped for many years. There are also some swamp 
 lands upon which pigs are raided without any special attention, until 
 they are wanted for the fattening pen on the approach of the bacon 
 curing >ca>.< >n. Some excellent fruit also comes from the banks of 
 the Murray near the Creaton homestead. 
 
 The frontages to the' Murray about Pinjarrah were among the 
 first blocks to become the holdings of men who had the resources 
 
-M 
 
 and tlic energy to convert them into sqnattages, pig faun-, orchards 
 and vim-yards. The names of Edward and Duncan McLarty 
 (Beamlelnp), Duncan McLarty (Blythvvood), Paterson (Creaton), 
 Captain Thomas (Ravenswood park), and Captain Fa vcctt (Pinjarrali 
 park), arc synonyms in the south-west for yeomen on a largo scale, 
 who worked hard themselves and employed a great deal of labor. 
 They have been steadily enlarging their scope of work, adding lield 
 to field, barn to barn, until their places have become the convincing 
 grounds for jaundiced sceptics who, visiting the colony in the course 
 of a globe trotting tour, are occasionally prone to sneer at Western 
 Australia as a producing country, simply because what Governor 
 Broome called her " handful of inhabitants" have not been 
 numerous enough to spread over her wide dominions and make 
 everywhere blades of corn grow where only indigenous scrub grew 
 b jfore. I Mn jarrah and its highly improved estates may be regarded as 
 ZL land of promise, where those who have toiled and been success- 
 ful, who have carved arable lands out of the giant forests, and who, 
 long before a railway was thought of, had the pluck to cart wheat 
 and hay to Perth, are enjoying the guerdon of their stubborn uphill 
 march. At Coolup, a railway station within eight miles, we see men 
 whose work is just commencing, whose conquest and secure in- 
 dependence in taking up the vocation of a farmer has yet to be 
 achieved. The Coolup agricultural area contains 50,000 acres, 
 which formed the northern portion of what was at first gazetted as 
 the Harvey area. The surveyed section includes 30,005 acres, 
 forming 217 allotments, of which about 50 have been taken up. 
 The area, the northern portion of which is within two miles of 
 Pinjarrah station, was thrown open in Sepember, 1893, and it 
 is nearly midway between Perth and Bunbury. This land is the 
 nearest to the city, suitable for a market gardener, that is available 
 under the provisions of the Homesteads Act for the granting of a 
 free farm of 150 acres, but the locality is not so \vell drained as could 
 be desired, although there are facilities for draining it into 
 the Murray which winds through it. Along the river there is a 
 somew r hat narrow line of superior loam which the residents, in 
 some cases, are using for the rearing of fruit and vegetables. The 
 larger proportion of the Coolup area consists of yellow clay, that 
 forms indifferent grazing ground, but produces good crops of wheat 
 when it is well broken up and dressed with bone dust. There are 
 also light loamy tracts from which the surplus water, even in the 
 hollows, readily disappears. Back from the river, wells have to be 
 sunk to get water, which is obtained within 20 feet, if judgment 
 is shown in picking out a likely spot. There are some large 
 holdings on the area, notably those of Mr. Kirkham and the Messrs. 
 Olsen Bros. Mr. Kirkham, who is on the Murray close to where the 
 road from the railway station is surveyed to the river, is an English 
 farmer of experience who knew his business so well that on selling 
 out in order to emigrate to Western Australia he was able to bring 
 
22 
 
 with him a not inconsiderable sum of money. He bought out an 
 original selector on the river frontage and, aided by a number of 
 sturdy and willing sons, he soon cleared some hundreds of acres on 
 his holding and is now cropping TOO acres. So far he has had oc- 
 casion to be well satisfied with his yield cf hay, which, during the 
 first year after the plough was put in, was something in the nature 
 of an experiment, as seed had never before been sown on the area 
 proper, although Mr. Robert Herron, a squatter, on the opposite 
 bank of the Murray, had for some years been tilling one of his home 
 paddocks. This paddock, however, was stiff land, while Mr. Kirk- 
 ham's is a soil of a much more friable nature. The success of Mr. 
 Kirkham has given a great stimulus to the development of the 
 area, but so far most of the work has been done either on the river 
 banks or close to Pinjarrah, where some of the richest paddocks 
 were taken up very soon after the declaration of the area. Here 
 there is most cheering evidence that the legislature acted wisely in 
 consenting to bestow 160 acres upon every bona fide settler, for the 
 holdings close to Pinjarrah are nearly all of this class, and improve- 
 ments in the effacement of timber and replacing red gums with fruit- 
 trees are proceeding apace, as if each selector were' vicing with his 
 neighbour to see who will first be qualified to claim his title from the 
 Crown by reason of having fully complied with all the conditions 
 of the Act. The Messrs. Olsen Brothers, whose place is a few 
 miles further to the south-east, being determined to lay a good 
 foundation, have put in a well-concerted series of drains before 
 hurrying on with the sowing of seed. Last year was, nevertheless, 
 made good use of in the breaking of land in readiness for 1897, 
 and, at the time of writing, not only had the drainage scheme been 
 completed, but the fallowed land, which had been sweetening for 
 12 months, was disclosing a very healthy young crop, and the 
 owners of it could contemplate it with a sense of security, no matter 
 how heavy the rainfall might be, for the drains were faithfully doing 
 their work. A serious drawback to the area is being removed in 
 the erection of a bridge across the Murray. Up to the present 
 time the only access to the railway station has been by means of a 
 ford that is Hooded in the winter, during which the settlers have 
 to make a detour of 16 miles in order to cart loading to and from 
 Pinjarrah. As soon as the disability was brought under the no! ice of 
 Sir John Forrest by a deputation of the residents, the Premier, in pur- 
 suance of his policy to help the producer, put a sum on 
 Estimates to construct a substantial bridge, which is to cost, wi h 
 the necessary making of the road leading to it, about /.'_>, ooo. 
 When these works are completed the selector on the Cut. hip area 
 will be closer to his market than his compeers on any other area, 
 with the exception of Jandakot ; but if the Coolup railway station is 
 to be considered as the market, for the carting ends there and the 
 freights for the short run to Perth are very light, the Coolup grower 
 is nearer than any other holder of a free homestead farm, for there is 
 
not a railway to Jancl akot, although one has been talked of. 
 
 The Harvey agricultural area adjoins that of Coolup on the 
 southern boundary of the latter. The Harvey area was thrown 
 open for selection in January, i Soj, and covers 43,000 acres. The 
 survey takes in 155 blocks and 19,803 acres. More than 10,000 
 acres have been alienated. The area is 40 miles from Hnnbtiry and 76 
 from Perth ; the South-western railway is laid throughout its length. 
 There is, perhaps, no area that would be so rapidly taken up if 
 portions of it were not liable to be inundated by the storm waters 
 from the higher country near the ranges. In spite, however, of this 
 risk, settlement on the Harvey has been proceeding briskly, and 
 happily, without untoward circumstances retarding the prosperity 
 of the selectors, who for the last few years have been favored with 
 very mild winters. Nevertheless, the danger has been the subject 
 of earnest representations to the Government through the medium 
 of the Producers' conferences, which in 1896 passed a resolution to 
 the effect that it was expedient that a drainage scheme should be 
 undertaken, in order to protect settlers from flood in the south- 
 west. A somewhat tardy commencement was made by the Public 
 Works department to accomplish the object aimed at in this 
 manifesto, and the subject again came before the conference in the 
 following year, when the South Murray Fanners' Agricultural Associa- 
 tion sought to hasten the completion of the work. The Public Works 
 department announced that surveys had been made, and that the 
 most urgent precautions against flood would be immediately 
 executed. In the discussion that ensued one delegate suggested 
 that the drainage of the Harvey and Collie agricultural areas were 
 only local issues, and that the conference should confine its attention 
 to national questions, but this view was strongly combated by the 
 Hon. E. McLarty, who, in the course of his address, submitted some 
 important observations as to the broad matters of general concern 
 to the welfare of the colony that were embraced in the topic, and 
 supported his view by citing the following reasons for the position 
 he took up : " I cannot agree with the argument that the motion 
 dealing with the drainage of a large portion of the south-west is 
 purely a local question, affecting one particular district. The object 
 of these motions is to have a large area of fertile and cultivable 
 land thrown open for, and made available to, settlement. Until the 
 drains are cut there will be thousands of acres of Crown lands, 
 otherwise eligible for settlement, but liable to flood in the winter, 
 and, therefore, almost useless. It is the general impression among 
 those who know 7 the land, and in this belief I share, that if the 
 flood waters could be thrown off the land at the Harvey it 
 would be very productive. I have noticed that new settlers 
 produced last year excellent crops on some portions of this 
 land, bat the reason was that w r e had a very mild winter. 
 We did not have in the south-west the usual amount of rainfall, 
 and the land was not swamped. Therefore, some magnificent 
 
crops, which I have never seen excelled, were grown, which 
 proved that the land is rich, provided inundating water can be 
 kept off it. It ought to be a very simple matter to get rid of the 
 water, as there is a good fall to the estuary. The other day I had 
 a conversation with the Minister of Public Works, and he asked 
 my opinion on this matter. I had no hesitation in saying that the 
 draining of the land would be a judicious expenditure and one 
 that would do a great deal of good. I pointed out to him the 
 magnificent crops that were grown there last season, which I at- 
 tributed mainly to the fact that there had been a very mild winter. 
 If, I added, there were drains to take the \vater off, similar crops 
 could be produced every year. I am pleased to learn that the 
 Government is going into the matter of having the drains made. 
 The drains can be cut for a very small cost. The original estimate 
 was 9cl. per yard, but it has been found that with improved ap- 
 pliances the cost is reduced to 3d. per yard, which certainly would 
 not be a very great item. I have the greatest confidence that if the 
 Government carries out this work, it will be the means of settling a 
 great many people on the land." Doubtless the low estimate given 
 by Mr. McLarty in the foregoing extract, of the cost of making 
 drains, w r ill be noted by intending settlers on the Harvey agricul- 
 tural area, as it sho\vs even if they have to put in some auxiliary 
 cuttings after the general scheme has been completed, the outlay is 
 not one that need act as a deterrent to those, who in all respects, 
 save that of drainage, may regard the Harvey country as a desirable 
 location. There is also a large area of land to the west of the 
 Harvey river that is eminently adapted for summer crops of 
 potatoes. Here the intense cultivator would rind his chance among 
 the gullies and river bottoms that intersperse the range. These 
 choice spots are not of large acreage, but that is immaterial when 
 10 acres are good enough to make a good living out of and provide, 
 as well, for putting by something for a rainy day. These swamp 
 patches can all be easily drained, as the brooks which arc the 
 tributaries of the Harvey and Murray rivers are on steep grades 
 and of great width. 
 
 Speaking of a representative piece of the Harvey country that 
 was chosen by Governor Stirling for his own use, when he had all 
 the lands of Western Australia to choose from in 1829, Mr. Charles 
 Harper, M.L.A., Chairman of the Bureau of Agriculture, said : 
 "The stranger travelling by the South-western railway, and getting 
 out at the Harvey river station, is at once struck by the remark- 
 able picturesqueness of the surroundings. Tall red gums here and 
 there darken the sky with their heavy foliage, and battalions of 
 blackboys are drawn up in picturesque array. The richness and 
 density of the forest and other growth convey the impression that 
 the land must be exceedingly rich and fertile, and capable of carry- 
 ing other and more profitable vegetation. A few minutes' drive to 
 the eastward takes you to the foot of the Darling range. A 
 
sparkling stream rushes out of the forest-covered hills which over- 
 look the fertile plains below. Below the Harvey residence the 
 river bank on the south side has been brought under cultiva- 
 tion, though many of the old giants of the forest stand in 
 their gaunt and grim solitude, frowning on the smiling fields 
 at their feet. The deep rich loam of these fields seems almost 
 too good for cereal crops, and suggests that root crops and 
 vegetables and fruit would here find a happy home. A little 
 water laid on from the mountain stream would make this one 
 of the loveliest spots in the district. Fruit trees seem to thrive 
 hereabout vigorously, and with very little attention, the citrous 
 tribe being remarkable for their healthy and rapid growth, and arc 
 apparently blightless. There is a marked difference between the 
 country here on the face of the range and the country correspond- 
 ingly situated to the north of the Canning river. There is very little 
 scrub, and not much rock. The quality of the soil at the foot of 
 the hills, and on the spurs, and even to the crest of the range, is so 
 good in many places as to be w r ell adapted for cultivation. It is of 
 a nature to be admirably adapted for the growth of the vine and 
 the production of a high-class wine. A vineyard, ten acres in extent, 
 has been planted with the carbenet sauvignon grape on one of the 
 slopes, and although it has received only intermittent attention, 
 such as the manager of the sheep, cattle, farm, and dairy could give 
 it, many of the vines look capable of anything which vigorous 
 growth can produce. It may safely be said that if gravelly and 
 easily cultivated hilly slopes, blessed with an ample rainfall 
 in winter, and bright skies in summer and autumn, go to 
 make up the requirements of a good vine-growing and wine- 
 proclucing country, these are all here in rich abundance. 
 The country below the range may be generally described as a red 
 gum forest, the trees varying from three to ten to the acre, with a 
 considerable growth of blackboys, but nothing else in the 
 way of the plough. . . . Opinions vary as to the corn-growing 
 capabilities of the land. Some set down the yield at 15 bushels ; 
 some at 20 bushels to the acre ; but all agree that a little bone dust 
 produces a marked and lasting effect. A remarkable feature of this 
 country for Western Australia is its evenness of character and 
 generally unbroken nature. Once cleared, there would be nothing 
 but a few watercourses to prevent the cultivation of 10,000 acres 
 without a break. The tall trees and the blackboys are, as I have 
 said, a testimony to the fertility of the soil ; but whether the best return 
 will comefrom cereals, grazing, dairying, or fruit, remains to be seen." 
 The expert testimony of Mr. A. Despeissis, M.R.A.C., who is in 
 charge of the viticultural and horticultural departments of the 
 Bureau of Agriculture, has been given of the merits of the Harvey. 
 From his report we take the following conclusions, which will 
 apply to the major portion of the south-west : " Climate. The 
 climate is cool and temperate ; the latitude is 33 S. From official 
 
26 
 
 returns I rind the annual rainfall for a number of years is 37 inches 
 per annum, being more than double what it is on the Avon. From 
 Beverley, through York, Northam and Toodyay, where, even with 
 the scanty rainfall, fruit growing and mixed farming are being pro- 
 fitably carried on, the rainy season sets in in April and practically 
 terminates in October, although all through the summer 
 occasional thunderstorms supply to vegetation an amount of 
 moisture, which, although it does not interfere with the process of 
 ripening of fruit or of harvesting, nnintains the plant in a state 
 of luxuriant growth. The Harvey runs all the year round and 
 follows a winding course. Numerous springs, which could 
 easily be developed after the clearing of the country, act as feeders 
 to it, and make of the question of water supply an easy one, offer- 
 ing at the same time great advantages and facilities for summer 
 irrigation and the successful raising of catch crops in the summer 
 time. Owing to the proximity of the sea, 15 miles in a straight line r 
 destructive frosts never harm potatoes and other tender crops, and 
 the climate may be said to be well adapted for the pursuit of mixed 
 farming as well as fruit growing, more especially fruit from the 
 temperate climates, such as apples, pears, etc., as well also as trees 
 requiring a greater amount of rainfall to mature to perfection, viz. 
 oranges and lemons. Grapes thrive admirably in this district. The 
 nature of the soil varies from (a) a light loam with a good admixture of 
 gravel in it. and is especially suitable for the purpose of vine growing. 
 This land is now under red gum (eucalyptus calhphylla}^.^ jarrah(fi". 
 marginata), of fine growth, which testify to its quality ; (b) a few 
 patches of ironstone gravel overlying a strong subsoil (jarrah and 
 white gum E. redunca country) on the top of hills and spurs 
 from the Darling. range ; (c) rich red loam of volcanic origin, with 
 a few boulders of basaltic rocks in it. This land is very fertile and 
 especially adapted for fruit growing as well as mixed fanning (red 
 gums and blackboys or grass trees of very large si/e xanthvrea); 
 (d) rich deep alluvial Hats alongside the river banks and in 
 between the spurs and undulations of the ground. This soil is under 
 red gum and blackboys of very large sizo. Lucerne, root crops, heavy 
 hay cmps, as well as fruit trees of all sorts, from the apple, the pear, 
 to the orange and lemon, do splendidly on such soil which, once 
 cleared, is easy of cultivation and is of great fertility. The 
 co^t of clearing the land at the Harvey would amount, 
 according to the means generally employed for that purpose 
 through l lie country, from 6 to _."io per acre on an average, and if 
 the trees were killed either by the methods of ringbarking or sap- 
 ping, it would, a year or two after, cost from 25 to 30 per cent. less. 
 The fill ure of the place is the great possibility it offers as a fruit 
 and vine growing colony, combined with mixed farming, comprising 
 the Cultivation Of potatoes, lucerne, tobacco, corn for hay. mai/.e, 
 and also their conversion into pork, mutton and beef for the 
 colonial market." 
 
27 
 
 The Uduc agricultural area joins the south line of the Harvey 
 area ; it comprises 12,000 acres and was thrown open fo r selection 
 in August, 1^94. The survey includes 54 lots :ig.mvgating ^,415 
 acres, nf which up to date 1,400 acres have been chosen by eight 
 occupiers. Uduc is about live miles south-west from Cookernup 
 townsite, So miles from Perth. The blocks could be worked under 
 practically the same conditions as those described for the Harvey 
 area. Many of the most central had been taken up before the land 
 was subdivided, by people who are gradually applying for others to 
 increase their holdings. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Brunswick river, which is crossed in 
 going from Perth to Bunbury a few miles below the Uduc agri- 
 cultural area, there are some dairymen who send butter to the city ; 
 but the quantity is so small that very few people of the colony ever 
 taste the home-made article. The output of the Brunswick is 
 chiefly consigned to large householders in easy circumstances, who 
 do not cavil at paying 2s. per pound for a prime fresh local brand ; 
 but even this return has not so far encouraged many butter-makers 
 to enter the field. In the late winter and spring some butter is made, 
 but as soon as the flush of green feed has given place to the yellow 
 tinge of the ripening summer the churn is put away as an implement 
 that it will not pay to use. The dairyman who peruses this chapter 
 and who is accustomed to modern methods of cream producing and 
 butter making, will perceive that given a rainfall of at least 35 inches 
 38 inches would be nearer the quantity if we wished to press the 
 point of plenty of moisture and loam lands that can be watered in 
 summer, he could do well in a country where milk is never less than 
 sixpence per quart retail, nor butter less than tifteenpence per 
 pound. If he should be in eastern Australia he will know that he 
 would be well satisfied to receive one third of these returns, and 
 that in places which are not so near market, where railways are not 
 running almost past his door, as they are in the south-w r est district, 
 and where land suitable for dairying costs very much nearer 10 
 per acre than the ten shillings per acre he would have to give in 
 the west for any area in excess of the 160 acres comprising his 
 free homestead farm. The truth is that Western Australia buys her 
 butter abroad just as, speaking generally, she buys her wheat 
 beyond her bounds, not because it does not pay to produce milk, 
 butter, and wheat, but because she is too young dating her birth 
 from the inception of responsible government, which was her real 
 starting point in national progress to have had time to supply her 
 needs from the fruits of the soil. 
 
 Beyond the Brunswick we are at Dardanup, the most notable 
 estate in which neighborhood is Prinsep park, once the property of 
 Mr. H. W. Venn, who for live years held the post in the Forrest 
 Ministry of Commissioner of Railways and Public Works. Mr. 
 Venn had a fine herd of Ayrshires, which was dispersed when he 
 sold Prinsep park to an English syndicate, who have a belief that 
 
28 
 
 payable gold will be found in the locality. There is a fine expanse of 
 fertile ground in the possession of the Australind, an English 
 company that is merely nursing the princely present that was 
 handed over by the Crown under the old location grant system. It 
 still remains to be developed by the race of new settlers who are 
 being drawn westward by a more liberal land law than obtains in 
 any other part of the world. Journeying on, the Collie agri- 
 cultural area is entered upon, and it extends to within eight miles 
 of Bunbury, which is widely known as the birthplace of the 
 Premier of the colony, the Right Honorable Sir John Forrest, 
 K.C.M.G. The whole of the Collie area, which is a very popular 
 one owing to its proximity to the port and market of Bunbury, 
 where important harbor works are in progress at a cost of 
 ; 1 00,000, has been selected, with the exception of two blocks, and 
 the greater portion is under cultivation. The unoccupied allot- 
 ments are of 100 acres each. The area embraces 7,150 acres, sub- 
 divided into fifty-one holdings. It has been available since 
 February, 1892, and is served by both the South-western railway 
 and the extension of the line to Busselton and Donnybrook. The 
 soil is mostly of a stiff clayey character, on which fruit and 
 vegetables do better than cereals. The land will be improved 
 when some drains of a serviceable capacity are cut to carry the 
 surplus rainfall into the Collie river. It has been found necessary 
 to enlarge the original area, owing to the great eagerness that has 
 been show r n to select thereon. The drainage could be perfected at 
 a very moderate cost, and the Government are now having the 
 work done in response to representations that were made by the 
 residents. 
 
 From Bunbury and Picton Junction, close to Bunbury, there 
 branches out to the south- west and south-east respectively two new 
 railway lines through two of the most important agricultural 
 districts in the colony, namely, the Blackwood and Bridgetown 
 districts, which call for notice in some detail, because of the large 
 areas of eligible lands which are available there for selection. The 
 districts form the continuation of the fertile country for 
 which Bunbury is celebrated, and which contain some of the 
 most notable examples of what can be wrought by the aid of 
 capital, scientific cultivation and determination to make swamp 
 lauds which are dark and unprepossessing in their virgin state, 
 blossom with the harvest of plenty. The best of the laud of 
 Bunbury is, in the estimation of one of the most respected authorities 
 upon the agronomical resources of the colony, Mr. William Pater- 
 son, (for it has been his duty to examine all parts in greater detail 
 than other men) the best that is to be found anywhere in the west, 
 from the Vasse to Geraldton, or from Kremantlc to Meckering, and 
 in support of his conviction he points to the vineyard and orchard 
 of Mr. Ephraim Clarke, mayor of Bunbury, which are bowers of 
 beauty and luxuriance. The land was heavily timbered before it 
 
2 9 
 
 was re-claimed. It is so fertile that it will grow to perfection any- 
 thing that has been tried there, from cabbages, turnips and potatoes, 
 to grapes, apples, and peaches. A very lieavy crop ol' cereals, in- 
 cluding mai/e, could be taken off it if the land were not too valuable 
 for general farming. Mr. Clarke has taken the lead in showing 
 what the district can do under proper treatment, but he does not 
 possess a monopoly of the high class areas. There is besides, all 
 the way from Bunbury to Mundurah, a great deal of land that for 
 orchards and vineyards is not to be surpassed. It is of a sandy 
 nature, with limestone subsoil. The great disability is that much of 
 the best land was alienated from the Crown in the early days of the 
 colony, and in too many instances it is left practically idle. This is 
 the more to be regretted because the district is so well-watered that 
 it is suitable for close settlement. It has the Collie, Preston, Capel 
 and Harvey rivers and many affluents running through it, so that 
 farmers are not put to the expense of making wells and the labor 
 of drawing water for stock or domestic purposes ; water can, how- 
 ever, be struck at from 10 ft. to 20 ft. In the driest season there is 
 never any fear of drought, and the Boyanup and Dardanup plains 
 could easily be irrigated. The Preston river furnishes an ample 
 supply of water for the purpose, but it would have to be raised by 
 pumping. Parts of the Harvey and Uduc agricultural areas also 
 present facilities for irrigation. The general character of the soil 
 around Bunbury cannot be described in a word or tw r o, as it ex- 
 hibits many varieties. There is a rich loam in the swamps along the 
 coast, and further inland good red loam is met with, and ironstone 
 ridges among the hills. Near the sea line some sand plains 
 intersperse the more fertile country. The configuration of this 
 division of the colony is as full of contrasts as the land, for from 
 stretches of level flat the traveller can, without leaving the terri- 
 tory of Bunbury, get into mountainous country, rough enough to 
 tax his bush craft. These gravelly hills grow splendid jarrah ; 
 red gum indicates the superior chocolate loams ; swamp gums 
 shade the fringes oi the rivers and the creeks ; paperbark trees 
 shaggily appear in the beds of the swamps ; banksias in the sand 
 plains ; tuart on the limestone formation, and blackbutt on the 
 deepest and most valuable spots of all the pitch black loams that 
 teem with practically inexhaustible plant food of every kind. With 
 so much variety in the size and density of the timber it will be 
 understood that the cost of clearing land ready for the plough has 
 a range from ^3 to ^20 per acre, but the larger figure would only 
 be demanded for the subjugation of small patches of the swamps, 
 an acre of w r hich, producing two crops per annum of potatoes, 
 would be equal in its earnings to 20 acres of cereal paddocks. It 
 should be noted by any student of the Bunbury district, that there 
 is no more profitable rural industry at the present time than potato 
 growing in well drained swamp land, if the precaution is taken be- 
 fore commencing operations of obtaining from the laboratory of 
 
30 
 
 the Bureau of Agriculture an analysis of the soil of the block 
 selected, in order to make sure that the swamp is not too largely 
 impregnated with salts to be profitable to work. The presence of 
 saline deposits in swamps is not common along the south-western 
 coast of Western Australia, but cases of the kind have come to 
 light in one or t\vo instances, and the defect has only been cured 
 by treatment that is applied under the direction of the experts of 
 the Bureau. With this reservation the most experienced residents 
 about Bunbury recommend the potato as the staple crop in pre- 
 ference to wheat or oats. As much as eight tons of potatoes per 
 acre are commonly dug, and the crop is worth from 8 to 10 per 
 ton, while there is a railway to carry the produce to market after 
 only a few miles of carting. The average yield of potatoes is four tons 
 per acre, and of hay one ton per acre. Nearly all kinds of farming 
 crops are grown, but not often in large quantities by any one culti- 
 vator. The settlers of Bunbury have so many aids in their climate, 
 rainfall and excellent sale for produce, that they are, on the 
 whole, a substantial and prosperous class of yeomanry, and 
 there are still thousands of acres of Crown lands open for 
 selection in the district on the various agricultural areas (except the 
 Collie) within ten miles radius of either side of a railway line. 
 Settlement has been steadily progressing during the last live years, 
 and it has received a great impetus of late, as is shown by the 
 returns which are regularly published. All descriptions of fruits 
 including those of the berry tribes, which do not thrive in the 
 eastern division are grown, but chielly apples, oranges, gvapes 
 and stone fruits ; these succeed well with reasonable care, it judg- 
 ment has been shown in choosing the site of the orchard. The 
 as^stance of the Land bank has been mostly sought by new men, 
 the older inhabitants being too well established to stand in need of 
 loans, even when these are granted on the most liberal terms. 
 As the rainfall is from 36 to 40 inches per annum, and it nearly all 
 falls between April and October, the winters are very wet and the 
 outlying roads become very sodden, so that some privation in this 
 Ct must be borne by those who go on to original holdings. 
 There is, however, a long spell of line weather during a somewhat 
 protracted summer, and most ol the heavy carting occurs while the 
 roads are at their best. The seasons are mild and very regular, so 
 that he who sows is sure to reap. Many of the farms are from mo 
 to 200 acres, and these are deemed to be quite laige enough either 
 to meet the needs of a man who has a family to rear in solid 
 comfort, or to find employment, as a rule, for all his available 
 resources of capital and labor. It is held to be a mistake for a man 
 to burden himself with a large area of unimproved land. The con- 
 centration of improvements and cultivation multiplies the income, 
 while the spreading of imperfect work imperfect because more is 
 undertaken than can he accomplished over a great deal of ground 
 fritters it away in non-productive outlay. The chief thing to be 
 
aimed at is to get sonic land cleared even it" it be only a l~c\v acres 
 and some' crop in the first season. The amount of capital each 
 man will require in .lining on the land cannot be stated on one 
 unit'orm scale ; it will depend upon the individual thril'l, good 
 management, and the number of the family who will have to be 
 supported while the preliminary work is being d< me and tin.- first yield 
 is as yet in the- ground. The only sate general rule that can be 
 formulated is that the sum in hand should be suflicicnt to 
 buy tools, plough horses, stores, fencing wire, clothing and 
 sundries for the lirst twelve months. That is to say, this rule 
 will apply if a man has no intention to work hall time at 
 home and half time to assist in giving him a start wherever lie can 
 mployment in his neighborhood. This method Q getting in 
 the foundation of one's own homestead has been followed by some 
 of the settlers in every district with the happiest results. A man 
 who is determined to lift himself out of the grade of a laborer for 
 hire into that of an independent cultivator, may have some difficul- 
 ties to overcome and his headway will not be so rapid as that of 
 others who have the potent leverage of means to help them to 
 achieve their goal, but, nevertheless, the path is not an insuperable 
 one to tread. Moreover, those who have the grit, the youth, and 
 the foresight to choose it, are pretty sure to have the qualities that, 
 as they get over the lirst struggle, will enable them to make a better 
 use of their earnings and their opportunities than some of those 
 who have never had to surmount so many obstacles in the was* of 
 their success. The man who, starting life with no adventitious aids, 
 but, having a stout heart and a pair of arms that he is not afraid of 
 using, puls his wages into the best of all bunks in accepting 160 
 acres as a free homestead farm in Western Australia, lie saxes 
 house rent, municipal taxes, water rates, and a bill for firewood 
 and many other items of expenditure th;,t drain the purse of the 
 worker in the city, while he is stimulated not only by the freshness 
 of the air in the country, but also by the knowledge that he is mak- 
 ing a certain provision 'for middle life. The settler in the Bunbury 
 district need have no qualms that his children will not be within easy 
 reach of a school, or that the schoolmaster's fees will be an item 
 that he will have to reckon among his bill of expenses, for the 
 Government has made the most liberal provision for the gratuitous 
 education of the rising generation. There are public schools in 
 charge of certificated teachers at Bunbury, Picton, \Va 
 Brunswick, Cookernup, Yarloop, Coolingup, Boyannp, Daidanup, 
 Ferguson, Donnybrook, and Upper Preston. Another qn 
 may arise " How much land should I take up, supposing I -elect 
 outside an agricultural area where there are no free honu 
 farms?" The counsel of capable guides, touching the Biinbury 
 district, is that net less than the minimum conditional purchase 
 area ico acres should be obtained in preference to a 
 " garden block " of smaller size, for several reasons, the chief 
 
32 
 
 of which are economy of early charges and great elbow room. 
 Take the case of a piece of land which, 100 acres in extent, includes 
 a swamp or other exceptionally good garden or orchard block. 
 If the selector applies for the choicest few acres of this allotment, 
 say, from rive to twenty acres, he has to pay i per acre cash for 
 them, or as much as would (supposing 25 acres to be bought) pay 
 the conditional purchase rent of 2 los. per annum of 100 acres for 
 eight years, and at the same time the holder of the garden or 
 orchard lot would have little or no grazing land for his working 
 horses or family cow. Therefore, the case is plainly in favour of 
 applying for the TOO acres as a conditional purchase, even by the 
 intense cultivator who does not contemplate cropping nearly the 
 whole of that area. 
 
 It surely is a great recommendation of the south-west that r 
 instead of the seller of produce having to seek out the purchaser, 
 in accordance with the customary law of trade, the farmer and 
 orchardist is canvassed by the agents of the city and goldfields 
 merchants, who desire to buy forward before the crop is off the 
 ground. This is especially the case in regard to potatoes, chaff, 
 and fruits in Bunbury and its environment, tor when these products 
 are to be had there, the quality is assured. The low railway 
 freights, too, are another incentive to put as much land as possible 
 under cultivation for what is held to be, at the present time, the 
 best market in the w r orld. The returns from land in good heart are 
 so liberal that we are told the most profitable course is to keep it 
 in that condition by using, every second year, a dressing of from 
 2 cwts. to 4 cwts. of bone dust per acre. Unless some fertiliser is 
 employed the light sandy soils exhaust themselves, and although 
 the alluvial river flats, swamps, and heavy loams could stand the 
 drain for many years, it is not regarded as good farming to over- 
 draw upon the resources of the ground. The most successful 
 growers started with manuring, have continued it, and have not 
 given their farms a chance to grow sickly crops. Every year the 
 area nuclei- vines and fruits is being added to, a^; the prolits 
 large- r from these products than from the raising of cereals ; and to 
 a man who takes a delight in having a charming and piciuresque 
 homestead, the care of a garden is more attractive than the ordinary 
 round of sowing and reaping, which leaves the eye only fallow 
 bubble to resi upon tor several months in the autumn and 
 early winter. The cultivation of mai/e, as well as vegetables, 
 sorghum, and lucerne, is strongly recommended by those wh > speak 
 with the greatest knowledge as to the capabilities of the district. 
 They bold that far too little has been done to utilise these sources 
 of laige profits and quick returns, which the heavy rainfall, the deep 
 Is, and the temperate climate combine in making a large portion of 
 the mo>t congenial output of local production. It is also found to pay 
 well to keep sheep in the cultivation paddocks after the harvest has 
 been garnered ; store sheep fatten rapidly, and there is always a good 
 
33 
 
 demand for fat stock. One source of trouble is the wild dog, 
 especially on the outlying boundaries. Eaglehavvks also make away 
 with a percentage of lambs, and boodie rats, opossums, parrots, and 
 silvereyes do some damage among the fruit trees and cereal crops ; 
 but as settlement goes on, and the more stringent provisions for 
 imposing a vermin rate and paying bonuses come into force, in 
 accordance with the resolution of the Producers' conference, these 
 pests may be fairly expected to almost wholly disappear. Happily, 
 poison plants are almost unknown, but specimens, chiefly of the 
 heartleaf variety, have been found. The note made by one well- 
 informed authority on this subject says : " There is poison in this 
 district, but not to anything like the same extent as in many other 
 parts of the colony." Bunbury is said, by those who have tried it 
 longest, to be " a fair district for stock, particularly along the coast." 
 The principal grasses are on the occupied lands near the coast, and 
 comprise couch grass, several varieties of trefoil, prairie and rye grasses, 
 all of which are spreading fast, as well as many valuable native 
 grasses. The arable lands are in good sized blocks on the large private 
 estates, but the selector must be content with paddocks of from 10 
 acres to 50 acres, all good and fit for the plough. Since the great 
 flow of immigration commenced, four or five years ago, there has been 
 a large influx of settlers, chiefly from the other Australian colonies. 
 They are mostly men of English blood, with an infusion of Irish, 
 Scotch, Germans, Italians, and Scandinavians. The value of modern 
 implements of agriculture is becoming daily better recognised, and 
 those of the older patterns are being put aside in favor of machines 
 which are being largely ordered or have arrived. Double arid treble 
 furrow ploughs, reapers and binders, and steam plant for chaffing hay, 
 are now in common use. It is desirable, according to the admission 
 of the graziers, that more should be done for the improvement of flocks 
 and herds. A few stations have imported pedigreed stallions, bulls, 
 and rams, but there is still room for more attention and money being 
 turned in the direction of raising the grades of draught horses, and 
 obtaining larger beef and mutton carcases to contribute to the 
 meat supply. The great essential for doing this rapidly and on a 
 sound basis is to form artificial pastures, but until there is more 
 than enough land cleared than is required for cropping, those who 
 have contributed the data for this chapter say that there will be a 
 reluctance to run stock on anything better than ringbarked land or 
 fields of stubble. The statement exhibits how much scope there is 
 for an enlarged scale of operations in the reclamation of land. 
 Here again our informants point out that the labor trouble inter- 
 poses itself. It is pointed out that there is more work in Western 
 Australia than there are hands to accomplish within a few years. 
 She wants to clear her forests and at the same time carry out a 
 broad and enterprising public works policy, and the result is that 
 able bodied men are in great demand. The farmers want them, 
 and so do the contractors, and the competition sometimes causes 
 
34 
 
 the latter to outbid the former in the rate of .wages they are willing 
 to pay to get hands. So much the better for the over-crowded 
 laborer of older communities, who has to hustle his neighbor in 
 finding an employer and, therefore, young men, or those in the 
 prime of life, and who get their living under the hardest of condi- 
 tions elsewhere, should be eager to come to a country where they 
 may get a higher rate of pay, and very often better food and 
 healthier surroundings. 
 
 Now we come to a cardinal feature in the land settlement 
 question of Western Australia, and one of our contributors has made 
 some remarks upon it that are so pregnant and full of pith that they 
 must be printed in extenso. He says: " Nearly all the food sup- 
 plies, which at the present have either to be imported or done with- 
 out, could be produced in the south-western district. I do not see 
 why we should have to rely on the other colonies for butter, cheese, 
 bacon, jam and such things all the year round, and potatoes and 
 onions for a great part of it. The supply of fruit is far below 
 requirements, as can be seen from the absurdly high price it 
 fetches. This (Bunbury) district will some day produce as much 
 fruit as can be consumed by the whole of the colony." It 
 is freely admitted that dairying is neglected. As has been 
 previously mentioned, vegetables are not grown wholesale on 
 all the good black swamp lands, but only on small widely- 
 scattered plots, while there are places belonging to the 
 Crown that would equally well repay the industry of the husband- 
 man. There are, besides, private estates which await subdivision, 
 and which are most advantageously situated in regard to railway 
 communication, being only on the outskirts of the town of 
 Bunbury. For some years, until the harbour works are completed, 
 there will be a large local demand for vegetables, and the wants of 
 the large numbers of holiday-makers, who make Bunbury their 
 watering place in the summer season, will offer a good opening to 
 who work garden land judiciously. Besides, it is anticipated 
 that tlu- development of the Collie coal deposits within a few miles 
 ot" Bimbury will ensure a large and permanent population. On the 
 coast, frosts are no menace to the potato grower, and it is near the 
 MM, I'.rtnuately, that the best land for this crop is mostly to be found. 
 Further inland, frosts arc occasionally very severe and damaging in 
 their effects, especially from June to September. The best land in 
 the Bunbury district is well adapted for close settlement, that is to 
 say. for subdivision in ten to 2O-acre blocks, if the holders are satis- 
 lied to do without grazing ground and will grow fodder for their 
 horses and COWS. The keeping of poultry is an adjunct to every 
 steading, but fowls are not kept as a speciality ; bees have no 
 keepers, with one or two exceptions, and an isolated hive here and 
 there. The chief requisites for the well doing of new settlers 
 are set down as follow : (i). A fair amount of capital. (2). Energy, 
 perseverance, and a willingness to take advantage of the experience 
 
35- 
 
 and advice of a successful neighbor. Kiugbarking is recommended 
 as the first step after selecting, to expedite the clearing of 
 all the land that cannot be grubbed while it is green, in order to 
 SOW early and get a return in the first season. The better the land, 
 the heavier the clearing ; but the greater yields obtained from what 
 have been forest lands soon compensate for the initial cost in pre- 
 paring them for cultivation, as contrasted with the lighter clearing 
 and smaller returns that may be expected from the sanely areas. 
 The favorite fertiliser has been bone dust, but superphosphate and 
 desiccated nightsoil are coming into vogue as the result of 
 experiments which have shown that they have the most 
 appreciable effect in forwarding and enlarging the crop. Liberal 
 manuring is always money well spent. So far as is publicly known, 
 there are not around Bunbury any privately owned eligible 
 properties that are open for subdivisional sale or for occupation under 
 improvement leases, but there is plenty of choice on Crown territory. 
 In conclusion, it is laid down as the outcome of the investigation 
 that has been very carefully conducted by the direction of the 
 Bureau of Agriculture, that the chief advantages of the Bunbury 
 district are : (i). Its mild and healthy climate, that makes it the 
 congenial home of all but tropical vegetation. (2). The richness of 
 the soil and plentiful supply of good building and fencing material. 
 (3). Its regular and plenteous rainfall, and consequently well- 
 nourished crops, and an abundant supply of water for man and 
 stock. 
 
 Away to the south of Bunbury to what is colloquially known 
 as the Vasse, which is designated on the map as Busselton, on the 
 shores of Hamelin harbor, excellent country is passed through. Mr. 
 William Paterson, whom we have more than once justly cited as an 
 authority on the natural resources of the colony, says between 
 Bunbury and Busselton there are thousands of acres as good as the 
 site of the orchard of Mr. Clarke, which has been eulogised as an 
 ideal place for fruit (including grapes) and vegetables. To avoid 
 repetition, it may be said at once that this tract has every attribute 
 for producing potato crops equal to those of Ireland, and that at 
 present it is so sparsely populated that there is room there for 
 several shiploads of immigrants, whom the people of Western 
 Australia would welcome, if they bent their energies to the task of 
 relieving them of the necessity of importing food supplies, the pay- 
 ments for which, of course, deplete the wealth of the community by 
 those sums being withdrawn from local circulation. Busselton is 
 32 miles from Bunbury ; it is a picturesque seaport town, 
 and has been compared with Bournemouth, both as regards its 
 climate and extensive sea beach. Busselton is situated at the head 
 of Geographe Bay. Cape Naturaliste, a bold headland, rises on the 
 coast line to the south. As a summer resort, the Vasse, where 
 excellent fishing is to be had, is connected with the South- 
 western railway via Boyanup, and is in high repute as a 
 
36 
 
 watering-place, being regarded as the Tasmania of the west. It rivals 
 Tasmania in growing remarkably line fruits of all the English varieties, 
 and the harbor is a safe and pleasant yachting ground. The choice is 
 offered of swamp and forest lands, and if the clearing is rather 
 heavy it is repaid by the fertility and stamina of the soil. It is well- 
 known that the further the traveller goes south the broader becomes 
 the stretches of superior land between the mountains and the sea, 
 and this is well exemplified now that we have gone from Fre- 
 mantle southward, nearly 200 miles, and are inspecting the grand 
 territory in the neighbourhood of the Vasse. The land only wants 
 working to yield a great increase ; but so far very little of it has 
 been worked, the few settlers being content to use tolerably large 
 holdings, chiefly for grazing, from which they have derived a com- 
 fortable livelihood, without doing a great deal of farming or orchard 
 culture. The gifts of nature have been so prodigally bestowed that 
 the inheritors of them could not grasp them all ; the horn of plenty 
 is full and overflowing. Who will prolit by it ? Why should there be 
 any poverty or hunger in the crowded communities of the old world, 
 when there is such a splendid field for emigration such bountiful 
 offers from the state as that of free grants of land and loans of money 
 to bring it into subjection and profit. If it were planted with apples, 
 stone fruits, and raspberries, strawberries, and gooseberries, the Vasse 
 country would be able to compete with the world ; its fruits could 
 be shipped fresh to England and the Continent under the improved 
 methods of packing and carriage that are now in vogue, and landed 
 at the other side of the globe in perfect condition after only a four 
 weeks' voyage, at the season when gourmets are depending upon the 
 exotics of hot-houses to supply their tables with desserts. In being 
 so much nearer the great markets of the world than the orchards of 
 Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales, the Vasse, with 
 its highly suitable soil and climate, is marked out as a specially 
 favored fruit-growing ground ; with its copious rainfall it is indepen- 
 dent of the costly scheme of irrigation which has threatened Mildura 
 with disaster. Hence it is claimed that this division of the south- 
 we-t has great potentialities for a productiveness that makes it 
 resemble a payable lode into which the miner's pick has hardly 
 been struck. So far we have only spoken of the Vasse from the 
 point of view of its exceptional fruit-growing capabilities; but it is 
 almost equally to be recommended ;is the sphere of that scheme for 
 the raising and canning of vegetables upon which Mr. McLarty ad- 
 dressed the Legislative Council two years ago. He showed that theie 
 was a lucrative market on the goldfields for this necessary article 
 of diet ; that /.Xooo or { annually sent abroad to supply 
 
 local needs and that there were places in the smith-west where 
 y kind of esculent would grow like pumpkins in a compost heap. 
 While Mr. McLartv, as in duty bound, spoke- more directly of the 
 capabilities of his own district, it can be demonstrated by our 
 intonnants that Busselton is willing to enter the lists at any exhi- 
 
 
37 
 
 bition with vegetables of a si/e and flavour that would win the 
 approval of the most impartial judges. Up till now, vegetables, 
 \vhieh are luxuries in many parts of the colony, arc always plentiful 
 at the Yasse ; but if a preserving factory were started, there would 
 be a demand for tenfold the output that is raised to-day. The 
 chief crop now grown there is rye, which, both in straw and strain, 
 finds a ready market. Some impetus has been given to the cultiva- 
 tion of garden blocks at the Vasse, owing to the establishment of 
 timber stations cutting the superior jarrah and karri forests which 
 form the subject of some striking photographs which appear in 
 this volume, but what has been done is only a small beginning of 
 what remains to be accomplished, particularly if artesian water is 
 struck, as it has been at Perth and Guildford, within a depth of 200 
 feet. A SETTLER'S GUIDE is not the place in which to indite com- 
 pliments to the beauty of the fair sex, but it may be set down in 
 the practical spirit of a deponent who is desirous only of adducing 
 a utilitarian fact, that the wonderful health-giving properties of the 
 Vasse district is eloquently attested by the radiant clearness of the 
 complexions of the ladies of the place, the lily and the rose striv- 
 ing with each other in their countenances. 
 
 Proceeding southward from Busselton, within a few miles of 
 the coast line, we get into the Blackwood country, so called from the 
 course of the Blackwood river, which empties itself into the Hardy 
 inlet near Cape Leeuwin. The river has come down in a south- 
 westerly course from the Darling range, passing through Bridge- 
 town, which we shall visit by and by, when we have had a look at 
 the land along the shores of the Southern ocean. This large and 
 fertile tract is thickly timbered, notably with the giant karri and 
 the umbrageous, handsome, evergreen and monopolising pepper- 
 mint, which it is very difficult to destroy by ringbarking, owing 
 to the gnarled and deeply indented surface of the trunks. 
 In this territory, 50 miles south by west of the Vasse, 
 is the large timber station known as Karridale. A tramway 
 connects Karridale with Port Hamelin, from which the timber 
 cargoes are shipped to many parts of the world. In the neighbor- 
 hood of the sawmills are extensive swamps which, if drained, would 
 make the best of garden ground. Now they are the resort of water- 
 fowl. " A most interesting and peculiar natural phenomenon (says 
 the Western Aitstialian Year Book) is to be seen in the neighbor- 
 hood. The walls, or banks of sand, from two to three miles long, 
 and from 70 feet to 90 feet high, are gradually advancing from the 
 seaboard over the land, at the rate of from one to three inches a year. 
 Between this place and the Vasse signs of coal have been found in 
 various spots, and from the rough work done by a tiffin bore excellent 
 specimens have been brought to the surface ; but owing to the 
 "want of funds prospecting has ceased." Upon Cape Leeuwin, the 
 most south-westerly point in the colony, 23 miles from Karridale, 
 a lighthouse of the first class has been erected. The level coast 
 
38 
 
 lands which lie at the foot of the hills are held in large estates by 
 proprietors who rear sheep and cattle upon them, but do very 
 little cultivation. All that has been said of the advantages and 
 possibilities of the Busselton district will apply to that of the 
 Blackwood, for although boundaries have been set in mapping out 
 the colony, the whole of the province from Busselton to Cape 
 Leeuwin has the same natural features, speaking generally, and the 
 same climate and rainfall. The Blackwood can therefore be 
 summed up as a large tract that has been very little developed, that 
 is as well endowed as Devonshire for the production of English 
 fruits and vegetables, and that is large enough and contains 
 enough Crown lands to give free homestead farms to all the agri- 
 cultural population of that county, and still have some to spare. 
 
 Going almost due east from Karridale we pass through the 
 Lower Blackwood and Nannup to Bridgetown, which is the 
 terminus of the Donnybrook to Bridgetown railway that is now 
 being constructed. An approximate, but clear idea of the situation 
 of the areas of which we have been traversing since we left Bunbury r 
 may be obtained if it is borne in mind that Bunbury, or rather Picton 
 Junction, which is close to it, is the point of a triangle, of which 
 Karridale and Bridgetown form the points of the base, the right 
 hand side of which looking north is the route of the railway 
 from Picton Junction and the South-western line to Bridgetown. 
 Parliament did not authorise the extension to Bridgetown until the 
 question had been before the Houses for two sessions and the work 
 had been supported by all the strength of the Forrest government. 
 The opponents of the proposal contended that the railway would 
 not pay. They laid stress upon the paucity of the population, the 
 limited amount of local land that was under crop, and the fact that 
 there were some* blocks nearer Perth that were still open for 
 selection. In reply, Sir John Forrest said : " The constructs n of 
 this railway will further the object we all have in view, and that is 
 to open up those portions of the country which are capable of 
 producing. \Ve have our mineral resources to the eastward, and 
 the goldhelds, which are being very quickly and extensively 
 developed in accordance with the approved policy of the Govern- 
 ment, but, at the same time, we should do all we can to encourage 
 tin- agricultural districts to produce food supplies by giving them 
 railway facilities to send their products to the goldnelds markets. 
 I think we are all agreed that it is our duty to give facilities of 
 transit to all producing centres, and I am sure that no one will deny 
 that the Hlackwoocl district, of which Bridgetown is the centre, is 
 an important agricultural district. It only wants a railway to make 
 it of still greater importance-. Without a railway a district like the 
 Blackwond cannot compete with other agricultural districts which 
 have this means of transit. And we must remember that this 
 railway will establish a new centre of population, and to which all 
 : tiers to the south-east and the south-west will take their 
 
 
39 
 
 produce for conveyance to the markets at the metropolis, while it 
 will stimulate the settlers all round that district to greater efforts 
 in cultivating their laud. I entertain the most sanguine hopes for 
 the future of that portion of the colony to which 1 have referred. 
 The soil there is of a splendid character ; it is seven feet deep and 
 is capable of producing anything we require in the country. I look 
 forward hopefully to the time when this railway will be run through 
 that country beyond it, even as far as the magnificent port of 
 Albany. In view of the rapid strides which the colony is making, 
 I do not think that my hopes will renurn unrealised for any 
 lengthened period." Mr. A. Forrest in supporting the Bill bore 
 testimony from personal knowledge, that should be very reassuring 
 to intending settlers, as follows : " In the Blackwood district 
 we have a great fruitgrowing country, where the present produc- 
 tion could be increased a thousandfold, and though there are 
 only a few hundred acres under crop, yet, if hon. members visited it 
 in the fruit season they would see the trees breaking down with loads 
 of fruit, and would be convinced that the district is capable of 
 supporting a large population in fruit growing. Another important 
 factor in building this railway is that the whole of the land through 
 which the line passes is Crown land. The railways in other agricul- 
 tural districts have been made entirely through freehold land, 
 whereas along this railway there is no freehold land worth speaking 
 of perhaps a few thousand acres in the whole length of 46 miles." 
 Mr. A. R. Richardson, who then held the portfolio of Commissioner 
 of Crown Lands, and who knows the country through which the 
 railway will go as well as any man in the colony, put in a strong plea 
 for the acceptance of the scheme. His speech is so full of instructive 
 matter as to the recommendations of the soil, that some of the points 
 he made ought not to be missed. He said : u What I particularly 
 wish to point out are some peculiar circumstances in the agricultural 
 conditions of this district. Fortunately for us ,it is a district that is 
 capable of yielding those kind of products which other parts of the 
 colony are not suitable for producing. We have a large amount of 
 agricultural country opened up by railways now, and I think if this 
 railway was to pass through agricultural country under exactly 
 similar conditions, I should be inclined to say we were not justified 
 in making this railway. But the other districts are wheat-growing, 
 or mainly cereal producing districts, whereas in the Blackwood 
 district we have a climate and soil which are favorable to the 
 reproduction of many other kinds of products, such as potatoes, 
 onions, English fruits, dairy produce, cheese, pork, bacon, and a large 
 variety of agricultural products, which, to our disgrace be it said, 
 we are importing from other countries in large quantities. Indeed, 
 we are now sending away thousands of pounds annually to pay for 
 agricultural products which the Blackwood district is particularly 
 suitable for producing; but I do not think we shall ever produce these 
 things in that, or other districts, in sufficient quantities for supplying 
 
4 o 
 
 the colony's wants, unless we make railways into those districts which 
 are specially adapted to produce these articles. Another point is 
 that many of the products for which the Blackwood district is 
 suitable are of that description which will not stand long 
 carriage. Such things as potatoes and onions, when carted a 
 few miles, are so increased in cost that all profit is knocked 
 out of them. You have the best climate at the Blackwood 
 for producing potatoes and onions and other things that are heavy 
 in carriage, but if you ask a producer to cart these things 20 miles 
 you take away all the possibility of profit ; so that the only way to 
 induce the production of these heavy articles is to make a railway. 
 The same may be said of fruits in their green stage. Trie 
 Blackwood climate is specially adapted for English fruits such as 
 cherries, raspberries, strawberries, and those delicious and delicate 
 fruits which many parts of our colony will not produce. Another 
 argument w r hich, I think, is a good one, is that the hon. member for 
 Geraldton observed there are no poor people down there ; and I 
 think no better testimony as to the fertility of the soil could be given as 
 showing that people who have been isolated so long and have been 
 so far from any market, are yet able to make a comfortable liveli- 
 hood amid such unfavorable surroundings." The Government 
 triumphantly carried their point, and the line, which will cost 
 ^170,000, ;s now well advanced towards completion. There was 
 considerable division of opinion as to whether the route should be 
 by way of Preston or the Thompson's brook. The latter, which is 
 ii miles the shorter of the two, was adopted. The line passes 
 near a property belonging to the Hon. J. W. Hackett, M.L.C., which 
 that gentleman has devoted to the growing of fruits and vegetables on 
 a large scale and under the management of a skilful superintendent, 
 who has practically had carle bltinche as to the expenditure. The 
 outlay has been very great, for most of the estate consists of swamp 
 lands which grew exceptionally large and numerous trees, so that 
 the block was scarcely one that a man of straightened purse would 
 have attempted to reclaim. A few of the most intractable acres 
 have only been wrested from their virgin wilds of trees and under- 
 growth at a cost of scores of pounds per acre, but they have proved 
 to be surpassingly excellent when placed under crops of vegetables, 
 strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, cabbages, potatoes, cauli- 
 flowers, etc. The property is one that the faint-hearted have only 
 to see in order to lose all their doubts as to the gi eat natural re- 
 sources of the south-western district. 
 
 The Preston agricultural area adjoins the Donnybrook rail- 
 way terminus, where a townsite has been laid out. It is bounded 
 on the north by the Preston river, which supplies a constant 
 running stream of fresh water. The area, winch includes large 
 tracts of good alluvial soil, was thrown open for selection 
 in August, i<S(;4 ; it contains 51,545 acres, the whole of which is 
 surveyed into 284 blocks. There are, according to recent returns, 
 
thirteen settlers on the area, holding between them s,<>jh acres. 
 The sub-division is 25 miles from Bnnbnry, and is adjacent to ilie 
 Bunbury-BlidgetOWn main road; it is \vell watered In brooks, and 
 lias .1 rainfall of 38 inches annually. The clearing in places is 
 heavy, and the average cost of this work is 6 per acie. The 
 facilities which the railway offers, and the superior quality of most 
 of the land, should lead to the speedy alienation of the area, winch 
 is exceptionally adapted for potato and other root crops, fruit 
 culture, and dairying ; also for pig raising. 
 
 The Tweed agricultural area is ten miles from Bridgetown, 
 and 35 miles from Donnybrook ; it has been available since 
 March, 1803, and consists of 29,000 acres; i6,<S<Sj acres are surveyed 
 into 92 blocks, and thirteen settlers hold 8,929 acres. It is interesting 
 to note in regard to this area, which contains some of the finest 
 agricultural and fruit growing land in the colony, that some of it 
 was specially selected by the late Mr. Anthony Hordern, originator 
 of the Great Southern railway scheme, as a site for his projected 
 agricultural college and experimental farm. The land having 
 been abandoned by his executors, was surveyed and subdivided by 
 the Government, and thrown open for selection. The clearing in 
 many places will be rather heavy, costing probably 6 per acre. 
 There is here splendid alluvial soil and a heavy rainfall, while the 
 river Blackwood, which contains large permanent pools of fresh 
 water, runs through the area. This area is distant from Perth 
 about 175 miles. 
 
 The Boyanup agricultural area, about 12 miles from Bnnbury, 
 was thrown open for selection in June, 1892. It contains 40, 843 
 acres, the whole of which is surveyed into 284 blocks. There are 
 26 settlers on the area, holding between them 5,240 acres. It is 
 served by the line between Bunbury and Donnybrook, which 
 connects with the South-western railway. This area contains 
 much land well adapted for cereals, fruit and vegetable growing, 
 and dairying. The Bunbury-Busselton railway also runs through 
 this area. 
 
 The following notes of the Nelson district, in which Bridge- 
 town is situated, have been kindly supplied for publication in this 
 volume by Messrs. J. Allnutt, (Acting Resident Magistrate of Bridge- 
 town), Lewis C. Moulton, J. R. Walter, and James Inglis, whose 
 names are a guarantee that the intelligence they convey 
 is a thoroughly authentic statement concerning a part of the 
 colony in which they have long resided as leading and enterprising 
 settlers : " There are not generally good roads to the land 
 belonging to the Crown that is open for selection. Our main trunk 
 roads are some of the best in the colony ; all the settlers here have 
 had to make their ow r n roads to their homesteads. Latterly the 
 Nelson roads board have assisted selectors with their bye roads, but 
 this year the Government allowed us no funds for this purpose. The 
 Capital w r e consider essential for a successful start is ;uo for a free 
 
42 
 
 homestead farm of 160 acres, and ^350 for 500 acres conditional 
 purchase with the addition of plenty of pluck and energy. The 
 Tweed agricultural area is mostly taken up and occupied. The 
 schools in the Nelson district are situated at the following centres : 
 Bridgetown, Dwalganun, Dingun, Warren, Ballingup, and Green- 
 bushes. The area we should recommend a man of small means 
 (say from .100 to ^200) to take up, would be a homestead farm of 
 1 60 acres, and about 100 acres of conditional purchase for grazing 
 purposes. It \vould be advisable for all small farmers to keep a few 
 sheep and pigs, and a cow or two for milking purposes. Cows 
 would require some artificial food for the first six months in the 
 year, and it would pay to feed them throughout the whole year. 
 The buyers for wholesale houses eagerly seek for supplies of fruit ; 
 chaff is in good local demand, and for fat stock there is the best 
 market possible. There is good sale for vegetables, poultry and pigs. 
 The railway freights for produce are, as a rule, very low. The 
 Western, Australian farmer has one of the best markets in the world 
 at present. TJ^e Nelson district grows fruit and vegetables to the 
 best advantage, more especially what are termed English fruits. A 
 close watch should be kept for the appearance of noxious weeds, 
 such as stinkwort, thistle and sorrel, in order that they may be 
 eradicated before they have time to take hold and spread. If the 
 land is continually cropped with the same cereal it will exhaust 
 itself, but not if it is given a rotation of crops. We have known 
 some land to produce corn for 30 years without manure. This land 
 after one year's fallowing produced the best crop of corn we have 
 seen, and is still producing fine crops of hay. As a general rule, 
 however, good manuring is the great secret of success, when it is 
 combined with thorough cultivation, i.e., fallowed, rolled and well 
 ploughed and pulverised. We are great believers in fallowing. 
 Some local cultivators are also sheep farmers, and the number of 
 settlers who are adding this branch to the earnings of their farms 
 is increasing. The Nelson district is very much troubled 
 by native pests, such as dingoes, boodie rats, opossums, 
 eaglehawks, &c. It is a disputed question whether eagle- 
 hawks do not do more good than harm by destroying ground 
 vermin. There are poison plants of the heart leaf, bloom, York 
 road, and prickly varieties in the district. The zamia palm, which 
 is commonly regarded as the cause of "wobbles" in cattle and sheep. 
 is dispersed generally throughout this part of the colony. Heart- 
 leaf poison is found in patches; York road poison prevails from 
 Scott brook, on the I'pper Hlackwood, in a north and east direc- 
 tion. Prickly poison is found in rocky country only. Small patches 
 of bloom poison are scattered over the south-east of the district. 
 Nelson is a good district for stock, and it would be a much better 
 one if there were fewer tiecs, or ring-barking wci e more largely 
 practised ; the country is too much shaded. It more land could be 
 cleared and laid clown with grass, which the climate makes it 
 
43 
 
 admirably adapted for, where one beast is now kept the pastures 
 would support a hundred, and this is what the country must come 
 to. The natural herbage of the country dies out in time when ted 
 down by stock, and nothing good for stock grows in its place. On 
 the best land indigenous grasses still grow. Re-plying to your 
 enquiry as to what extent of arable laud can be found in one piece 
 in the Nelson district, we should say that the average of the 
 locality would be fifty out of every hundred acres lit lor 
 the plough. The other fifty acres would be suitable for vines or 
 fruit growing. The country is well watered, as a rule, but some 
 seasons have much less rainfall than others, notably the last two or 
 three years. The cost of conserving water by means of tanks, 
 dams, and wells, need not be taken into account, as these devices 
 are not necessary in the boundaries of the Nelson. In only the 
 very driest season is there anything like a water difficulty, and then 
 only the back blocks are affected. Back country' is to be under- 
 stood to mean away from the larger brooks and rivers. In well 
 sinking water can be struck at from six to seventy feet, but this is 
 very seldom resorted to. Many small areas near the rivers 
 Blackwood and Capel. The general character of the soil is patchy 
 in many places ; there are large stretches of ironstone gravel that 
 are very good for vines. The configuration of this part of the 
 country is hilly. The timber comprises magnificent forests of 
 jarrah, red gum, blackbutt, karri, and blue gum. The cost of clear- 
 ing per acre to put in a crop is from 2 to i$- The 
 crops usually grown are fruit of all kinds, potatoes, hay, wheat, 
 oats, barley, vegetables, green fodders of all kinds, and roots, such as 
 beets, mangolds, turnips, etc. The average yield per acre is as 
 follows : Apple (matured trees), four tons ; grapes, four tons ; 
 stone fruits, four tons ; potatoes, five tons ; wheat, 16 bushels ; 
 oats, 25 bushels ; barley, 16 bushels ; hay, 25 cwt. ; green fodder, 
 13 tons ; root crops, ten tons. The facilities for the transport of 
 produce to market are the railway that is now being made from 
 Donnybrook to Bridgetown, and good trunk roads. The fruits 
 grown are : Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, persimons, plums of 
 all kinds, peaches, apricots, nectarines, passion fruit, tomatoes, 
 gooseberries, and Cape gooseberries, raspberries, currants, straw- 
 berries, rhubarb, grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, walnuts, mul- 
 berries, blackberries, almonds, hazel nuts, cherries, loquats, and 
 melons of all sorts. The climate is a little too cold and frosty for 
 oranges and lemons to be cultivated to perfection. All the other 
 fruits are grown with the greatest success. As an estimate of the 
 quantity of Crown land open for selection, we may say that about 
 three-fourths of the territory on either side of the Bridgetown 
 railway station is still available, notwithstanding that settlement 
 has been progressing steadily. The co-operation of the land bank 
 has been availed of. The general character of the seasons is that 
 the autumn rainfall starts in May and lasts till August, with fre- 
 
44 
 
 quent showers during the year. The driest months are from 
 Christmas to the end of February. The average size of selections 
 on Crown lands is from 100 to 200 acres. Nearly all the settlers 
 are British subjects. The chief advantages of the Nelson district 
 are soil, climate, and rainfall. The class of implements in 
 general use is the most modern. Anything but the most up to 
 date machinery and appliances have been discarded, and more of 
 this class have been obtained during the last 12 months than in 
 any previous year. What is being done in stock raising ? The 
 answer to this question is that shorthorn grades are being crossed 
 with improved herds, such as Herefords and Devons, polled Angus, 
 shorthorns and Jerseys. The sheep of the district are being im- 
 proved by the introduction of imported strains of Lincolns and 
 Shropshires ; and pigs by some of the best blood of Tamworths 
 and Berkshires. There is opportunity for a larger scope of work 
 in planting vineyards, orchards, and in clearing the land. Is not 
 dairying being neglected ? Yes ; partly because of the low prices of 
 butter and the want of milkers. Men will not milk or engage as 
 milking hands, and the women have discarded the milk pail 
 altogether. They regard milking as too much drudgery ; too 
 great a tie ; early and late, Sunday, as well as other days, 
 cows have to be attended to with the precision of clock- 
 work if dairying is to be a success. While wages are so 
 high and other labor so plentiful, men are too independent to stick 
 regularly to milking, and nothing but better prices will encourage 
 people to dairy. There must also be a reinforced labor supply, 
 so there may be a possibility of obtaining milkers. Vegetables 
 could be more extensively grown if labor was cheaper and more 
 plentiful. You cannot beat the despised Chinese gardener in grow- 
 ing vegetables. It is no use growing products if the labor is to cost 
 more than the article produced, and this is now often the case. It is 
 not the fault of the country that there is not more cultivation, but 
 the scarcity of labor, its dearness, and often its want of skill. One 
 of the best crops in our district, and one of the most profitable and 
 readily saleable, is that of the potato, for the growth of which there is 
 any quantity of Government land available at various distances from 
 the railway line. The seller can get *] ios. per ton, and he is usually 
 paid on delivery. There is so much Government land obtainable 
 that private land is not much enquired for, which may be given as a 
 general answer to your interrogatory : "Are there any private lands 
 available for the production of root crops ; if so, state price and terms." 
 Frosts are prevalent and destructive in our neighbourhood ; these 
 occur from May to October. As a rule, our district is not adapted 
 for close settlement, that is, 10 or 20 acre men. But we believe 
 around Bridgetown a large number of families could successfully 
 settle. A small area of land well cultivated will produce more and 
 pay better than 100 acres slovenly cultivated. Hereabout many men 
 settle on a piece of land, and if they have any time they can spare 
 
45 
 
 away from it, they can always get remunerative work and earn money 
 to spend on their own land. Fowls are being turned to account ; 
 bees are not kept, but they would do well if properly attended to, 
 i.e., this had been proved. From our experience and observation 
 the chief requisites for a new settler are to have means to employ 
 labor and to be able to get it. Men with energy, who can and will 
 work steadily and with judgment not your eight hours per day 
 men, who think more of pleasure than of work, and spend 
 all their earnings in beer need have no fear of failure 
 to get employment in our part of the colony. The lessons 
 of local experience in the clearing and treatment of the land 
 are to clear well and to cultivate thoroughly. The best fertilisers 
 have been found to be farmyard manure and bone dust ; liberal 
 manuring from the outset is profitable. There are not many large 
 privately owned estates that would be available for subdivisional sale, 
 or for occupation under improvement leases, and there is not much 
 demand for them. In response to your invitation to make suggestions 
 for the guidance of new settlers, we are of opinion that it is no use 
 giving advice, as those to whom it is tendered generally take their 
 own course, and in the end come to the ideas of those around them 
 of older local experience." 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EASTERN DIVISION. 
 
 YORK, BEVERLEY, AND GREENHILLS DISTRICTS. 
 
 York, 66 miles from Perth on the Eastern railway, is one of 
 the oldest and largest farming centres in the colony. Its fertile 
 lands were discovered by an exploring party led by Captain 
 Stirling, R.N., Lieut. -Governor of the colony. He named the 
 territory in celebration of the fact that a number of persons from 
 the county of York, England, were among the earliest immigrants 
 when Western Australia was founded in 1829. Large grants of 
 this fertile land were bestowed upon the newcomers. There are 
 no Crown estates near York left for selection, but a splendid tract 
 is being opened up beyond Greenhills, 15 miles further east, by the 
 branch line that was authorised during the last session of Parlia- 
 ment. The town of York stands on the banks of the Avon, the 
 chief stream in the eastern districts. The river in the summer 
 time diminishes to a series of deep pools, which are ample, not 
 only for the watering of stock and domestic requirements, but 
 would in places serve to irrigate gardens and orchards. The 
 course of the Avon is marked by a low range of hills, two of the 
 principal of which, Mount Bakewell and Mount Browne, are the 
 chief landmarks of York. From the Avon the country is undulat- 
 ing, and traversed by gullies or brooks, the tributaries of the river. 
 Before the land was cleared in large areas for cultivation it grew, 
 on varying soils, several kinds of timber. In Western Australia the 
 forests are so true an index as to the suitability of the ground on 
 which they grow for various tillage purposes, that it will be 
 instructive to examine these aspects of the York country, 
 especially as the same forest characteristics are found all over the 
 eastern division, which is a very large one, embracing all the 
 agricultural areas lying between Northam and Southern Cross. 
 
47 
 
 The York gum to use here only the vernacular names of the 
 different trees is pre-eminently the habitat of the best wheat 
 lands. It grows on the eastern slopes of the Darling range, from 
 north of Beejoording, south-east to the Pallinup river. The York 
 gnm is generally about 70 feet or 80 feet in height, is about two feet 
 in diameter of trunk, and is dirk and nigged in appearance ; the 
 wood is very hard, heavy, and tough ; it is reddish in color and 
 much esteemed for wheelwright's work. This tree usually grows 
 in a rich loam, which with sufficient rainfall produces some of the 
 heaviest crops of hay and cereals that are reaped in the colony. 
 The salmon gum is also largely found in the country lying between 
 York and Southern Cross, and the timber, which is hard, heavy and 
 durable, is used upon the goldfields for mining purposes, and for the 
 construction of bridges and culverts. The tree grows from 40 to 70 
 feet in height, with a trunk from 12 inches to 30 inches in diameter. 
 The name, says Mr. Ednie Brown, Conservator of Forests for 
 Western Australia (in his report presented to Parliament last 
 session) refers to the color of the bark, which is of a reddish, burnt 
 appearance, fairly smooth and somewhat persistent. The home of 
 the salmon gnm is a good stiff loamy soil, with a clay sub-soil, which, 
 of course, is just what is wanted for wheat. For a long time the 
 salmon gum country was neglected, for it had a most desolate 
 appearance. It is the peculiarity of this tree that it destroys all 
 herbage near it. But as soon as the trees have been killed by ring- 
 barking, grasses grow luxuriantly. When this was discovered, 
 thousands of acres of land, w r hich had been regarded as useless, 
 were selected for farming purposes. Hence some of the new men 
 have been able to get better land than some of the oldest settlers. 
 When the agricultural commission sat some years ago, evidence 
 was given by a pioneer of the Greenhills area (Mr. Penny) that he 
 had taken a great deal of pains to select land that did not grow sal- 
 mon gums, because that land was no good. On the i6th of October 
 last, the Premier, Sir John Forrest, in moving the second reading of 
 the Greenhills Railway Bill, said he had seen Mr. Penny on the pre- 
 vious day, when that large cultivator had expressed much regret 
 that he was iinding that the places which he had excluded con- 
 tained the best land. Such are the profitable lessons of experience 
 from which the seeker of a fertile location may reap the 
 benefit. The morrell gum is also commonly met with on the eastern 
 agricultural lands, and is indicative of rich country. It reaches a 
 height of 50 feet or 60 feet, and is from 12 inches to 18 inches in 
 the bole, and thrives best on a loamy soil. It is also found in a 
 good, strong, or what \vould be called in an English county, heavy 
 land. The bark is light colored ; the timber dense and strong, 
 and the leaves are especially rich in eucalyptus oil. This is extracted 
 by Mr. Jonah Parker, at Dangin, about 100 miles further east than 
 York, along the course of the line to Southern Cross. The product 
 has been pronounced in English laboratories to be of a very 
 
4 8 
 
 superior quality. The manufacture would be proceeded with on a 
 large scale on the property referred to, if the site were not 40 miles 
 from a railway station. The wandoo, or white gum, unlike 
 salmon, York or morrell, is a danger signal to the selector, 
 for the country upon which it is found growing most luxuri- 
 antly, is, to use the words of Mr. Ednie Brown, "of a 
 hard, uncompromising nature (decomposed granite), being flat, 
 stagnant, sour, sandy on top, and invariably resting upon 
 pipeclay. This is very boggy in winter and hard in summer." 
 Moreover, the wandoo often grows among poison plants, and in 
 country that is generally waterless unless shallow wells are sunk. 
 It is a well balanced sturdy little tree, with a white trunk speckled 
 with yellow. The timber weighs over 70 Ibs. per cubic foot, and 
 has been found very useful for railway trucks, receiving buffers, and 
 other works requiring resisting strength. In the ground it will last 
 40 years or more as a fencing post. An average tree is one of 
 60 feet or 80 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The white 
 gum is the principal tree on the eastern slopes of the Darling 
 range. The gimlet gum, so called from its twisted or fluted shape, is 
 the companion tree of the salmon gum. These are the only trees 
 to be found on many miles of country in the dry territory east of the 
 Darling range. The gimlet gum flourishes on a good retentive soil r 
 stretching beyond Coolgardie, and w r here it has to be cleared to 
 make way for the plough, the harvest is well worth reaping if the 
 rainfall if sufficient. The timber is much of the same class as that 
 of the salmon gum, and is in general use upon the goldrielcls. 
 
 Raspberry jam, an acacia well known in the York and Beverley 
 districts, is a great friend to the settler in supplying him with cheap 
 fencing, although it is lit for higher uses. According to the Con- 
 servator of Forests, it is a small tree of about 30 feet in height, with 
 stems reaching to i foot in diameter and boles 10 feet to 12 feet in 
 height. It is of a handsome rounded shape when allowed to 
 spread out its branches, and the appearance of the leaves is bright 
 green and somewhat pendulous. The vernacular name is derived 
 from the peculiar scent of the wood, which is wonderfully similar to 
 that of raspberries. An oil of this flavour is obtained from the 
 wood by distillation. The w r ood in the ground seems to last for 
 ever, and the smaller trees are used for fencing posts without 
 splitting. It is a beautiful wood, impervious to white ants, dark in 
 the middle, with a white margin on either side, very heavy, and 
 would make an excellent timber for cabinet and ornamental work 
 of all kinds. 
 
 The sandalwood of commerce, which is found occasionally 
 intermixed with wandoo, York gum, and morrell, is an article of 
 export that in the early days of the colony supplied many a farmer 
 with stores and material. It has been so much sought after, as it 
 was worth 7 or ^"<S per ton, that the Conservator of Forests advises 
 that the exhausted districts will have to be replaced by plantations 
 
49 
 
 in suitable areas, if a supply is to be maintained. It grows most 
 freely on barren soils, and is not gregarious. 
 
 Two other species of ccalypts, the flooded gum and the manna 
 gum, are rare in the York district. The Hooded gum is what is 
 known as red gum in the other colonies. It only grows in wet 
 situations, or along what have been watercourses. The wood is red, 
 and, like the jarrah, is not decayed by water. What the York 
 people call the manna gum is not to be found in the classification by 
 the Conservator of the forest trees of Western Australia. Locally 
 the manna gum patches are regarded as highly productive when 
 placed under crop. 
 
 It will have been noted that only forest areas have been spoken 
 of as being lit for cultivation, and, therefore, clearing is the first work 
 of the settler. The cost of clearing is much lightened by ring- 
 barking and burning off when the trees are dead, but in order to get 
 a ready return a paddock has to be grubbed while the trees are 
 green. While the crop is growing, the timber of the remainder of 
 the holding, except a few trees reserved for shade, are ringbarked to 
 hasten the work of their removal in subsequent seasons. Besides, 
 ringing brings up the grass for the feeding of stock, so that mixed 
 farming of the most profitable kind may be carried on. The jam 
 tree is not injurious to pasture, and after this growth has been 
 cleared sheep will feed down the shoots of jam and keep the 
 cultivable ground clean. The destruction of the timber is also 
 necessary in order to increase the water supply, which is not very 
 abundant east of the river Avon. Returns obtained from all parts 
 of the colony are unanimous in declaring that ringbarking should 
 be done immediately ground is taken up, to obtain the three 
 advantages of sweetening the soil, getting grass and obtaining water. 
 
 The average rainfall in the York district is 15 inches, which 
 nearly all falls between April and September. The most has to be 
 made of this inconsiderable supply by early sowing, and for the 
 filling of tanks and dams. In preparing a dam, sheep are often 
 driven into it to puddle the clay and make it watertight In a dry 
 season stock have, on some holdings, to be travelled some distance 
 to water. In going further east the rainfall gradually diminishes. 
 There is good summer feed among the edible scrub after the grasses 
 have been fed down. In spite of the drawback of a light rainfall 
 nearly all the farmers fatten a few sheep, and there are large sheep 
 runs within a few miles of York. Cattle are not largely kept. Horse- 
 breeding receives some attention. The frontages to the Avon were 
 alienated many years ago, but the owners- of them, nevertheless, 
 allow the public free access to the water. It is admitted that a 
 larger rainfall would be of incalculable advantage to a people who 
 are on the highway to the goldfields, which furnish an excellent 
 market for all they can produce. 
 
 For fruit-growing York is well adapted, both in regard to soil 
 and climate, although there are no local orchards on a large scale, 
 
50 
 
 with the exception of that of Mr. Frank Craig on the confines of the 
 town. Some fruit from the property of Mr. Kenneth Edwards was 
 very highly praised in London. The only varieties of fruit that do 
 not thrive are cherries, loquats, gooseberries, raspberries and straw- 
 berries. The prevalence of frosts and the scanty rainfall are not 
 favorable to the potato, although in some spots small areas have 
 yielded potatoes very largely. There are near the Helena, on the 
 west of the Avon, some moist lands that are especially valuable for 
 producing vegetables during the summer in a colony where cab- 
 bages and pumpkins are sold retail at 2d. per lb., and other escu- 
 lents at a proportionate price. But this garden ground, as it is 
 called, is mostly in private hands, and in Western Australia every 
 man likes to be his own landlord and to purchase direct from the 
 Crown, as has been proved by the experience of the Great 
 Southern and Midland railway companies, whose land grants have 
 not been nearly so readily taken up as the blocks belonging to the 
 Government. But a visit to the land that Mr. Kenneth Edwards 
 has devoted to the cultivation of vegetables affords very convincing 
 proof of the value of intense cultivation in chosen spots. The land 
 regulations provide for the sale of garden blocks at i per acre 
 for 10 acres under certain improvement conditions. 
 
 The .testimony furnished by men of experience in the York 
 district at the instance of the Bureau of Agriculture for the guidance 
 of new settlers, may be summarised as follows : Although there are 
 no Crown lands available near York, there is fertile fcrest country 
 beyond Greenhills, 15 miles to the eastward, which it would be very 
 advantageous to secure. There are also eligible private estates 
 between York and Greenhills, the owners of which only require a 
 fair inducement in order to open them for settlement under the 
 provisions of the Agricultural Lands Purchase Act, which was passed 
 last session, accompanied by a vote of ^"200,000, to enable the 
 Government to put that statute into force for the purpose of 
 augmenting the producing resources of the colony and adding to 
 the national wealth. There is an excellent prospect before 
 industrious men who possess, say, from .150 to 300, intelligence 
 and industry, and who have some knowledge of farming, because 
 in going into tillage they would have an assured market at good 
 prices for their crops, railway communication to that market, 
 and reasonable freights, besides the protection of the import 
 duties. There are good roads to the railway and schools in 
 every division, so that children are never beyond the reach of 
 the schoolmaster. If a man is without capital it may be possible 
 for him to become a settler by working for his neighbours, but 
 his slow progress would be discouraging to anyone who had not a 
 dauntless spirit. To farm on proper lines a man should take up 
 300 or 350 acres, because he must have some gra/iug ground, it" 
 only to turn his horses upon in the slack time <>l the year, while 
 crops are growing. 
 
It is further pointed Out that while at present prices for all kinds 
 of produce are remunerative, these rates are likely to be maintained. 
 
 The population of the colony is rapidly increasing, and, so far, the 
 farmers have not attempted to grow wheat, because of the high 
 price and strong demand for chopped hay known in the colony as 
 chaff which is used as fodder. When enough fodder is produced 
 the wheat market will still have to be supplied. Just now most of 
 the flour mills in the country districts are shut down because wheat 
 cannot be had. This season wheat lias brought hs. per bushel, and 
 chaff {-'7 per ton. At the time of writing, owing to the drought in 
 the eastern colonies limiting their export of fodder, chaff is selling 
 at 8 per ton, delivered at the railway stations. The demand has 
 been so brisk that buyers' travellers have, during the past three 
 seasons, been canvassing the York district for supplies for the 
 produce trade of the goldrields, and of Perth and Fremantle. It has 
 been found that wheaten hay pays better, in this district, than oaten. 
 While the taking up of land, unless the selector has some money to 
 commence fencing and clearing, is deprecated in ordinary circum- 
 stances, the loan obtainable from the Land bank of the state is deemed 
 to be a compensation for this drawback, provided that the borrower is 
 the right man in the right place. There is opportunity for a much 
 larger scope of work than that which is now being done. Every year 
 large numbers of the most improved implements are being used as 
 a means of developing the agricultural resources of the district. 
 
 A warning is given against exhausting the land by cropping it 
 even* year without manure. This is a shortsighted policy which 
 means poor harvests and false economy. Even what have been 
 the best forest lands should be enriched the first year after they are 
 cleared, and every season afterwards, unless a dressing of bone dust 
 is very liberally applied, when the ground will be good for two 
 years. The lighter soils, lighter in color and in quality, should be 
 fertilised still more heavily with guano, bonedust, or phosphates. 
 Nothing is better than stable manure, but it is not obtainable in 
 sufficiently large quantities for big fields. Keep the land in good 
 heart and it will keep gold in your pocket, is the maxim of the best 
 farmers of York, and there are none better in Western Australia, 
 nor any who c:op a larger acreage. Many of them rest their land 
 every alternate year and use it while it is out of cultivation for 
 grazing. Under proper treatment the fields show no signs of 
 exhaustion, although some of them were cleared and cultivated by 
 the fathers of the men who are still turning them to good account. 
 If a comparison is made of the value of improved lands and of the 
 cost of clearing them, it will be seen that there is a substantial 
 balance in favor of the settler. Let us give an example. The 
 selector, taking up say some of the forest lands that will be tapped 
 by the Greenhills line, has to pay only los. per acre in payments of 
 sixpence per acre extending over 20 years, to entitle him to the 
 Crown grant, subject to the fulfilment of the improvement 
 
52 
 
 conditions. The cost of clearing the most heavily timbered of this 
 land will be ^"5 per acre. When cleared the land will yield a ton 
 of hay per acre, which during the last three years has been worth 
 6 or j per ton, while the cost of putting in and taking off the 
 crop and chaffing it, with bags included, does not exceed 2 per 
 acre. Next year there will be no clearing to pay for. Compare 
 these figures with the balance-sheet of the agriculturist in other 
 parts of the world. 
 
 The drawbacks of the York district which weigh against the 
 advantages of soil and situation lying, as it does, between two 
 markets are a comparatively light rainfall, and in the long dry 
 summers which prevail, some scarcity of water ; also the presence 
 of poison plants which render it necessary to take precautions 
 against danger to stock. As regards the rainfall, although the 
 district would be a still better one if it were not so dry and had 
 more than one river intersecting it, disastrous drought is unknown 
 at York. The rainfall, albeit the average is several inches short of 
 what could be desired, is well maintained, and the farmers being 
 familiar with local meteorological conditions, adapt their operations 
 and utilise them to the best advantage. They plough early, and not a 
 shower is allowed to go to waste. The friable nature of most of 
 the soil of the best wheat areas produces a fine tilth which is 
 favorable to the retention of moisture. There are some very stiff 
 soils to be found, notably blue or grey clayey lands, but these are in 
 such a very small proportion as to be only an exception to the rule. 
 The fact that the government returns show an average of n 
 bushels of wheat to the acre may be taken as satisfactory evidence 
 that the district is well suited for the requirements of the agricul- 
 turist. 
 
 The pastoralist, and the farmer who keeps stock, have two 
 resources against losing their cattle and sheep by poison plants 
 which, to use the common names, may be described as box, York 
 road, and berry poison. It is necessary to fence out the poison, 
 or to employ a shepherd or herdsman to keep the stock away from 
 the deadly shrubs which grow on all kinds of land, but chiefly on 
 white gum forests and on sand plains. In spite of all watchfulness, 
 however, some losses are experienced. The poison plants are 
 most deadly after country has been burned and the tender shoots 
 are sprouting or during the season of blossoming. The poison 
 areas have been made the subject of special legislation, under the 
 provisions of which the Crown grant of infested land is obtainable 
 when it has been cleared of the hurtful vegetation and been proved 
 to be fit to carry stock. If the poison leasehold is fenced within three 
 years, the- lessee is granted iS years longer to get rid of the poison. 
 A great deal of land is held under the Act, but it remains to be seen 
 how much of it will be declared free of poison when the term of 
 the lease expires. West of the Avon, at Helena Vale, poison 
 shrubs grow freely. Hast of York these pests are far less common. 
 
53 
 
 Another minor drawback for it is the design of this hand- 
 book to state both sides of the case fairly is the difficulty 
 of vetting agricultural laborers at the rate of wages paid for 
 this elass of work in other parts of the world. This matter has 
 been brought before the Legislative Assembly upon a resolution 
 which affirmed that it was desirable for the Government to 
 support assisted immigration to encourage the development of 
 the farming industry. It was represented that it was useless to 
 repine at the large sum of money that was sent out of the colony 
 every year to pay for imported food products, while landholders 
 were restricted in their operations by having to give 6s. or 75. per 
 day to their hands, and were not able to get enough of them even 
 at that price. According to the advocates of the resolution plenty 
 of labor could be got from the rural districts of England if their 
 passages could be paid. Many of the men who were now available 
 had not been brought up to the work, but being " down on their 
 luck "took the employment temporarily till they could get a few 
 pounds, when they left their employer suddenly, perhaps in the 
 midst of harvesting, when they could not be easily replaced. In 
 reply, Sir John Forrest expressed his sympathy with the object of 
 the motion, but he saw two difficulties in the way of achieving it, 
 even if parliament agreed to the system of assisted immigration. 
 In the first place he doubted, from all he had been able to learn on 
 the subject, whether England had any agricultural labor to spare ; 
 and even if men were brought to Western Australia the chances 
 were that they would forsake the farms for the better paid service 
 of contractors for public works, or to go to the goldfields, with 
 which alluring tales of lucky finds were associated. So far Western 
 Australia has not adopted a scheme of assisted immigration. 
 
 It may be of interest to those who are living in what has often 
 been described as the overcrowded old world, to read that the lack 
 of agricultural labor has on two occasions been voiced in influential 
 quarters, in pressing a |)lea for introducing into the colony a 
 number of the lads who have been cared for in the homes estab- 
 lished by Dr. Barnardo. The first representation on this subject was 
 made last year by Mr. Cookworthy, the then member for Sussex, 
 who earnestly asked the Legislative Assembly to give to the boys 
 who had been rescued from w r ant the opportunity of pursuing a 
 career of usefulness and good citizenship in a young country, where 
 the honest and industrious servant has a good chance of rising in 
 the w r orld. He contended that the proteges of Dr. Barnardo had 
 been well trained in the excellent institution with which that well- 
 known philanthropist has so long been associated, and that it would 
 be estimable to second his efforts by making Western Australia a 
 field of emigrants for a band of young colonists, not only in their 
 interests, but also for the behoof of those who were much in want 
 of their services. The advocacy of Mr. Cookworthy was revived 
 at the last annual conference of producers that was held at the 
 
54 
 
 chambers of the Bureau of Agriculture, Perth, in April, by the 
 Brunswick Farmers' Club moving that, with a view to providing 
 agriculturists with a suitable class of labor, the Government should 
 facilitate the introduction into the colony of boys from the Bar- 
 nardo homes and similar institutions in England. In discussing 
 the motion, which was carried almost unanimously, several of the 
 delegates spoke highly of the work and conduct of Dr. Barnardo's 
 boys in Canada, and a suggestion was made that the proposal sub- 
 mitted to the conference might be improved upon by providing for 
 the immigration of girls as well as boys. The subject is introduced 
 here to show that able-bodied workers need not fear that they will 
 fail to obtain employment at good wages, and also to disclose one 
 of the difficulties which the settler has to face in not always being 
 able to get enough assistance at the outset for the clearing of land 
 to quickly get a very remunerative area under crop. 
 
 The policy of the Government to assist the producer is ex- 
 hibited in the construction of the York-Greenhills line. This rail- 
 way is the first agricultural line which the colony has made out of 
 revenue. In moving in the Legislative Assembly, on the i6th 
 October last, the second reading of the bill authorising the making 
 of the line, the Premier, Sir John Forrest, said the railway would 
 pass through good country, the praises of which had been sung by 
 members of that House for years. It was a favored spot, from which 
 proprietary farmers produced a large quantity of cereals. 4i I do 
 not," he went on to say, " think that anyone who takes any interest 
 in the agriculture of the colony, and who desires to see it encouraged 
 in every possible way that it is possible to do so, will be able to 
 oppose the railway on the ground that it is not required. The ob- 
 jects the Government have in view in recommending hon. members 
 to build this line at the present time from York to Greenhills, is to 
 give facilities to agricultural producers in that part of the country ; 
 we have no other object in view." The line is estimated to cost 
 ;_j.o,ooo, without rolling stock. It was not undertaken by the go- 
 vernment, as Sir John Forrest owned in making his financial state- 
 ment on the 27th August last, without careful consideration and a 
 personal inspection of the neighborhood. The ministerial party in 
 making that inspection had occasion to express great regret that a 
 large portion of the land lying between York and Greenhills is com- 
 prised in large privately owned estates, which are only used for 
 grazing purposes. These estates were regarded by the Pre- 
 mier as an obstacle in the way of the close settlement 
 and extensive cultivation that are essential to the mak- 
 ing of a great agricultural district. In his financial statement, 
 speaking of the line, he said : " We know very well that this is an 
 agricultural railway, and that new railways have to be viewed 
 with very great care if there is nothing else but agriculture to 
 depend upon for traffic. We know very well that unless the land is 
 thickly settled and a large quantity is under cultivation, the chances 
 
55 
 
 are that an agricultural railway will not pay. Still, after having 
 visited the locality, and having the benefit of the experience of per- 
 sons \vlm ure conversant witli the place, we think we will not be 
 going very far wrong in asking this House to approve of this rail- 
 wax- being built out of current revenue." In other words, reading 
 between the lines, the Premier might have said : There is land 
 along the route that is highly suitable for the farmer, although the 
 farmer has not, so far, been able to get possession of it. But the 
 Government has obtained power from Parliament to buy this land, 
 and may do so. There are also many settlers outside the large 
 private estates who, as large and enterprising producers, are deserv- 
 ing of railway communication. Moreover, beyond Greenhills there 
 is a first class unalienated territory that is now beyond the reach of 
 settlers because it is so isolated from a market. Hence there are 
 great possibilities before the district, and it is the duty of the 
 Government, which is the farmer's friend, to carry out the work. 
 
 The estates retarding close settlement which is the 
 Premier's agrarian ideal in the neighbourhood of York, comprise 
 some of the earliest grants from the Crown. When the colony was 
 founded immigration was encouraged by gifts of land, pro raia, upon 
 the value of the stock, assets or capital which a pioneer brought 
 with him to Western Australia. These lands were naturally chosen 
 by the beneficiaries for their quality, and to-day are very valuable. 
 Some of the old families, such as those of Parker and Burgess, 
 crop hundreds of acres every year, and are always enlarging their 
 clearings ; others are content with fencing, ringbarking and grazing. 
 The estates through which Sir John Forrest travelled en route to 
 Greenhills, were those of Messrs. Hardey Bros, and Messrs. Dalgety 
 and Co. They consist for the most part of salmon gum, morrell, 
 and jam country, and are enviously regarded by those who are look- 
 ing for a location to settle upon, especially as they are almost adjoining 
 the townsite of York. The Premier when he passed through them did 
 not hesitate to express the opinion that the land was not being 
 turned to the best account that, in fact, it ought to feed people in- 
 stead of sheep and cattle, and the day is looked forward to 
 when the Crown, by purchase, will be able to open the ground to 
 the entry of the producer. It is well known that a number of offers 
 have been made by land owners to sell their properties to the state 
 under the power conferred by the Agricultural Lands' Purchase Act, 
 and by the time these lines are read in other parts of the world, 
 the Government may be able to announce that some of " the eyes 
 of the country," which have hitherto been inaccessible, are awaiting 
 the cultivator. One beneficial result of the scarcity of land available 
 near York is that what used to be regarded as inferior paddocks are 
 being cleared and cropped, and the owners declare themselves well 
 satisfied with the return they are getting from the experiment. It 
 is admitted that the country is patchy first and second class land 
 being interspersed and that the second class predominates in the 
 
56 
 
 ratio of two acres to one of the superior blocks. In other words it 
 is the exception to find from 200 to 500 acres of uniform quality. 
 The rule is that in taking up, say, 500 acres, the larger portion of it 
 will be good grazing 'country, with enough forest country that is 
 growing salmon and morrell gums on a rich deep chocolate or blue 
 soil to give the grower as much or more ground than he can work, 
 and a substantial income. 
 
 The dairying industry may be said to be unknown at York, 
 although it is one that the tariff encourages by imposing a duty of 
 twopence per pound on imported butter. The modern dairy, with 
 its system of artificial feeding of cows, and the making of butter 
 with refrigerating and other appliances, would be the only one that 
 would be possible for the greater part of the year, but while hay 
 sells for "] per ton no one thinks of making ensilage or growing 
 lucerne for the purpose of getting cream. The marvellous progress 
 of the dairying industry in the other colonies has served to retard it 
 in Western Australia, which, for the greater part, is content to use 
 the factory brands of butter sent from the eastern colonies. Around 
 York the presence of the poison plants, the long dry summer, and 
 the strong demand for chaff, all check the establishment of dairies, 
 and the facts are mentioned herein order that this book may be a 
 SETTLER'S GUIDE in the fullest sense of the word. Another draw- 
 back is that owing to the precautions which the Government has 
 deemed to be necessary to prevent the introduction into the herds 
 of the colony of the destructive Queensland tick, a quarantine 
 embargo of a month's duration has been placed on imported dairy 
 stock. This practically amounts to prohibition, except in the case 
 of pure bred stud animals, and without large drafts of dairy cows 
 from the east, dairying will not be able to make a fair commence- 
 ment in the west. * 
 
 Leaving dairying on a large scale out of the question as one 
 of the prospects of the York district, it can be said that it excels as 
 a place for the fruitgrower. It has thousands of acres that are 
 better suited for the production of nearly all kinds of fruits than for 
 the growth of cereals or hay. Take the slopes of the Avon for 
 example, where all the conditions of deep rich land, drainage, aspect 
 and climate, combine to bring apples, apricots, peaches, oranges, 
 and lemons to perfection. Then in the ironstone gravel country, 
 where the jarrah grows, west qf the Avon, the vine flourishes, and 
 the grapes make " high-class wine ; clean to the taste, rich in color, 
 and of pleasant boquet." The loose formation of these areas, 
 mixed as the gravel is with loam, not only allows surplus water to 
 freely percolate through the soil, but also permits the roots of the 
 vines to go deep for nourishment. The appearance of the land, 
 and the heavy cost of clearing, are not prepossessing, but it has 
 been found that the vineyards planted in such situations amply 
 repay the money and the attention bestowed upon them. So far 
 very little of the land that offers: such advantages has been planted 
 
57 
 
 with fruit trees or vines, notwithstanding that there are four special 
 inducements to embark in this enterprise : i. That the local 
 market, owing to the population of Western Australia having 
 quadrupled during the last seven years, is insufficiently supplied 
 with fruit, which is in especial demand on the semi-tropical gold- 
 fields. 2. That prices are very remunerative grapes selling retail 
 at sixpence to eightpence per Ib. ; oranges, from is. to 33. per 
 dozen ; and apples at is. per Ib. 3. That Western Australia is 
 from four to nine days' sail nearer the London market which Aus- 
 tralian consignments reach at the dear time of the year than the 
 other colonies, viz., South Australia, Victoria, Queensland, New 
 South Wales, and Tasmania. 4. That owing to the codlin moth 
 being found in the other colonies, Western Australia prohibits the 
 importation of apples. 
 
 The raising of poultry receives some attention in the York 
 district. Nearly every farmer sends some birds to market every 
 year, but there are no poultry farms on the large and organised 
 scale adopted in England and France. Around York the birds are 
 kept in a semi-wild state, having the run of the fields, and requiring 
 little shelter in so mild a climate. Nor are fashionable strains, 
 either for the table or laying qualities, much sought after. It is the 
 common barn-door bird that is chiefly relied upon ; it is hardy, 
 gives little trouble, is a fairly prolific egg-producer, and can always 
 be sold at from 53. to 6s. 6d. per couple. The goldfields' hotels 
 are constant customers for all the poultry, including ducks and 
 turkeys, which are not largely kept, that the farming population can 
 supply, while there is never a glut in the poultry markets of Perth 
 and Fremantle. The birds are profitable to those who rear them, 
 because to a large extent they find their own food, having a great 
 range of run and the ground never being heavily stocked. It is be- 
 lieved that the high price of grain would prevent the keeping of 
 poultry in confinement at a profit. For this reason the rule is to 
 send the birds away without fattening them in pens. This process 
 is almost unknown anywhere in the colony, where the poultry 
 served at table are, as a rule, somewhat spare, but, owing to the 
 healthful conditions under which the birds are reared and the 
 variety of their food on the farms, the dish is of excellent flavor and 
 very wholesome. 
 
 In the territory of which we are writing the value of bees is 
 almost entirely overlooked, as there is only one apiarist there. He 
 has 80 hives at a place about 17 miles west of York, and he has 
 only recently started bee-keeping. His neighbors are watching the 
 result of his experiment with some interest, to see whether bees will 
 do as well in the east as they do in the south of Western Australia. 
 So far the apiarist is able to make an encouraging report, although 
 he will not be able to form definite conclusions until he has had 
 the experience of another season or two. Along the coast line, 
 that is to say within 30 miles of the sea, in the south-west, bees 
 
58 
 
 have been kept with a surprising degree of success. As will be 
 seen by the student of the report of the late Baron von Mueller, 
 which appears in another chapter of this work, Western Australia 
 is marvellously rich in both the variety and the number of her wild 
 flowers, which, in the spring season, make even the roughest scrub 
 paddocks at a little distance resemble a conservatory, and supply 
 beautiful displays at the competitive shows which are held through- 
 out the season in the chief centres. The flowers must be rich in 
 saccharine juices, for the swarms of wild bees are able to lay up in 
 the hollow trunks of trees large stores of honey, which become the 
 prize of the splitter or the settler. The honey has a peculiarly 
 piquant and agreeable taste, but, unfortunately, a great deal of it is 
 wasted by the falling of the tree containing it, which breaks up the 
 comb and drives into the honey the dust and the splinters of the 
 cavity. Finding from the teachings of nature that the colony is 
 admirably adapted to the bee, many settlers in the south have es- 
 tablished hives with swarms of what have been wild bees, and 
 have improved the stock by sending abroad for Italian and other 
 queens. In two instances within the personal knowledge of the 
 writer the bees have thriven so well and proved to be so prolific 
 that the household expenses of the family are paid out of the profits 
 of about 100 hives, and the income derived from the farm is devoted 
 to the purchase of plant and the clearing of more land. What has 
 been done in the south may be accomplished in the east, especially 
 by immigrants who bring with them from other countries a 
 knowledge of the proper system of bee-keeping, which the men 
 referred to in the foregoing did not possess. They were in the 
 early stages of their experience as apiarists indebted to Mr. R. 
 Helms, the biologist of the Bureau of Agriculture, for the instruction 
 which, aided by their own study and observation, has enabled them 
 to obtain a material addition t:> the earnings of their properties. 
 
 Among the minor foes of settlement about York and Be\ erley 
 the native vermin, both fur and feathered, have to be reckoned. 
 The dingo, or wild dog of Australia, which would be mistaken tor a, 
 fox if it were seen in an English county, is a great enemy to sheep, 
 and among an unprotected flock is a terrible butcher. The dog 
 will often worry as many as twenty sheep before feeding on one, 
 and he is ruthlessly pursued by trap and poison, and sometimes run 
 down by a well mounted stockman. The Government gives 
 a reward of los. per head for each wild dog's scalp that is 
 produced to the resident magistrate of the district. The 
 Producers' conference has on two occasion^ voted this reward to 
 be insufficient to lead to the extirpation of the dogs. A sheep 
 owner will lay baits of meat or fat poisoned with strychnine, or 
 occasionally set a trap if he finds that a dingo has been harrying his 
 stock, but the dogs are allowed to breed in their fastnesses in the 
 back country almost undisturbed. The delegates at the conference 
 were of opinion that the reward should be raised to /.'i per scalp 
 
 
59 
 
 in order to induce parties of professional dingo huntsmen to he 
 organised to carry on the work of extermination, They were so 
 impressed with the mischief and losses that are occasioned by the 
 ravages ot the dingo and other vermin that it xvas resolved that 
 subject to the exercise of local option as to whether any district 
 should join in the movement, the residents of any vermin infested 
 territory should, in the form of a rate, subscribe pound for pound of 
 the amount granted by the Government, to increase the bonuses f'.r 
 scalps. The wild dog is said to be increasing in the eastern 
 districts, but it is not so numerous as to demand the folding of 
 sheep at night, as is the case in some places further south. The 
 eaglehawk, for whose head and claws a bonus of 2s. per 
 bird is paid, is the cause of the loss of many a lamb; 
 but at other periods of the year, after the lambing season, 
 this species of vulture lives on the smaller ground vermin 
 of the marsupial tribe which do damage in crops, orchards 
 and vegetable gardens, and for this reason the eaglehawk is not 
 without friends who deprecate the payment of a reward for its des- 
 truction. A bonus is also proposed to be given for the killing 
 of opossums, boodie rats, parrots and silvereyes, chiefly in the 
 interests of the fruitgrower. It may be added that the conference 
 affirmed that it was not desirable to afford any protection to the 
 kangaroos, which in some parts of the colony, particularly between 
 Perth and Bunbury, are greedy among the crops. 
 
 A new arrival will note with satisfaction the absence of inroads 
 upon his income in the form of the various municipal and other 
 taxes that are generally levied in older communities. On an agri- 
 cultural area there are no tithes to pay of any kind, except it may 
 be a fee of 55. per wheel of the vehicles employed on the farm, 
 which sums form the nucleus of the revenue of the local roads' 
 board. In municipalities rates are struck, but the Government 
 comes to the aid of the resident in a new district by donating, 
 under the authority of a vote of Parliament, liberal subsidies for the 
 construction of roads. These subsidies amount to ^300 or ^400 
 per annum. There is also given, when good reason is shown, a 
 special grant which, in the case of the goldrielcls Roads' boards, has 
 amounted to very large sums, in addition to w r hich, all large public 
 works, such as the bridging of rivers or the making of roads, are put 
 upon the estimates, and, on being passed, are carried out by and at 
 the cost of the Public Works department, which employs a very 
 large staff of architects, inspectors and clerks. For the financial 
 year ending 3oth June, 1897, the item on the estimates for roads 
 and bridges amounted to ; 168,700. The total vote granted to the 
 Works and Railways departments was ^1,447, 114, being an 
 increase on the vote of the previous year for these departments of 
 
 A visit to the York and Beverley districts affords convincing 
 proof that, in spite of any untoward circumstances arising from a 
 
6o 
 
 light rainfall, the existence of poison plants, and large private estates 
 that are being used solely for grazing, the Avon district within 
 which York and Beverley and their surroundings are included is 
 in a highly prosperous condition, from the agriculturist's point of 
 view. In all directions wheat fields are being reclaimed from the 
 forests ; the trees are being grubbed and burned ; every grower, 
 whether large or small, is extending his operations ; new 
 and improved machinery is being purchased, and large sums 
 of money are going into the pockets of local producers, 
 instead of being sent to other colonies for food supplies. And yet 
 only a beginning has been made ; the traveller can ride for miles 
 through country as good as that from which heavy harvests are 
 being reaped, but upon which nothing but ringbarking has been 
 done. It is the aim of the Government and of all friends of 
 Western Australia to settle these lands, to burst up large squattages; 
 not by spoliation in the form of a penal land tax such as has been 
 resorted to in other places that could be named, but by the making 
 of an unconstrained bargain with the owner. They want to see the 
 colony freed from the reproach which is often unjustly levelled by 
 its detractors, that Western Australia is unable to grow sufficient 
 wheat to feed the people. It is true that wheat is not largely 
 grown, but that does not imply that it cannot be largely grown. 
 The upspringing of the colony into a great and prosperous country 
 has occurred so suddenly ; fleets of steamers from all parts of the 
 world, but chiefly from the sister colonies, have been disembarking so 
 many thousands of emigrants upon Western Australia's shores ever}' 
 year since 1892, that there has not been time to cater for their 
 wants. As Sir John Forrest said, in declaring the policy of the 
 Government on the approach of the general election which took 
 place in June fast, the colony is more than capable of doing that, and 
 it would be done even if the Government had, for lack of a sufficient 
 number of yoeman, to clear land and turn farmers themselves. 
 
 To anyone who has watched the progress of the farming in- 
 dustry in the Avon district nothing is more gratifying than to note 
 the modern methods that have come in vogue. Until gold was 
 discovered at Yilgarn, husbandry was for the most part conducted 
 on a primitive scale ; single furrowed ploughs were in general use, 
 a seed sower was unknown, and a steam cliafi'cutting plant quite a 
 rarity. Now two or three furrow ploughs are always employed; 
 there are seedsowers, reapers and binders, and all the hay is chaffed 
 by steam. The railway trucks are gay with the brightly painted 
 devices on the implements of standard makers travelling to the 
 homesteads of men who are earnest in their endeavour to grusp the 
 advantages they enjoy and economise costly manual labor in in- 
 creasing the output of their holdings. 'Hie Government, determined 
 that the producers' tools of trade should go untaxecl, has during the 
 two sessions carried proposals for the remission of duty upon fenc- 
 ing wire, galvanised iron wire, and other material which is used by 
 
6i 
 
 the man who is making a home upon the soil, and also for admitting 
 all machinery free at the Customs house. 
 
 The only agricultural area that, at the time of writing, is open 
 in the York district, is that at Caljie, containing 12,500 acres, which 
 have been available since December, 1892. The south-west corner 
 of the Caljie area is only about five miles from York. Most of the 
 land is li^ht, sandy, and inferior, and should be taken up in blocks 
 of not less than 1,000 acres, as the larger proportion of it is only fit 
 for grazing. It would cost about 3 per acre to clear the land. 
 
 Xo\v that the Greenhills line is about to be made, an agricultural 
 area is being surveyed beyond the terminus of the line which will tap 
 a large tract of fertile country. No heavier crops are grown in the 
 colony than those at Greenhills, and settlement beyond Greenhills 
 has hitherto only been retarded by the long distance that produce 
 .would have had to be carted to York, the nearest railway station. 
 The line will start about six miles south of York, and will be about 
 18 miles long. Tenders for its construction are now (June, 1897) 
 being called for, and it is hoped that the rails will be laid in time to 
 carry this season's harvest. 
 
 What has been written of the country around York largely 
 applies to the adjoining Beverley district, which is nearer the port of 
 Albany. The Great Southern line, after being made by a private 
 company on the land grant system between Albany and Beverley 
 was, in 1896, (with the sanction of parliament) purchased by the 
 Government, together with the land grants appertaining to it. 
 Those settlers who had obtained holdings from the company have 
 been placed on the same footing as conditional purchasers from the 
 Crown. Beverley is an important farming and grazing district. 
 The Beverley agricultural area, containing 35,000 acres, lies along 
 the Great Southern railway and fronts the Dale river, and was thrown 
 open for selection in September, 1893 ; it contains some good land 
 timbered with York gum and jam trees, but the greater portion of 
 the area is a lighter quality of soil, and a large portion of it is still 
 available for selection. The clearing of the forest country in this 
 locality is estimated to cost from 3 to 4 per acre. The contiguity 
 of the area to the railway line, and the comparatively large holdings 
 that could be secured for mixed farming purposes, are in favour of 
 this locality. The area is 103 miles from Perth, 238 miles from 
 Albany, and five miles from the town of Beverley. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 NORTHAM, MECKERING, AND GOOMALLING 
 DISTRICTS. 
 
 Xortham, which, like York, Beverley and Xewcastle, stands 
 the fertile valley of the Avon, is w'nt Sir John Forrest has aptly 
 described as " the gateway to the goldrields." It is surrounded by 
 large estates which are gradually being turned into wheat fields. 
 The sheep runs are amongst the best in the colony. The discovery 
 of the Yilgarn gold field made a great change in the history an 4 de- 
 velopment of Xortham. It gave the town a railway, first to 
 Southern Cross and afterwards into the heart of the auriferous 
 country as far as Menzies, and it added a new corn-growing pro- 
 vince to the colony. Beyond Xortham lay 100 miles of country 
 which had been deemed valueless for the farmer ; much of it was 
 grassless salmon gum country, and the rainfall was light ; there we 
 sheep raisers but no cultivators there. The peopling of Yilg; 
 when the prospector unearthed its treasure, caused attention to 
 turned to the unpromising areas of the east. There was a gr< 
 market for produce close by, if produce could be grown. Mor 
 over, there was no other Crown land near Xortham that could ful- 
 fil the boast of the Premier that "every man who lands on the 
 shores of Western Australia knows there is a block of 160 acres 
 of land available for him ; that there is also financial assistance to 
 settle on the land, and that he may obtain the lands at JDS. per 
 acre." All along the valley of the Avon the territory had been 
 alienated years ago by men who were bringing the organisation of 
 capital and skill to utilise them to the best advantage. If new 
 coiners were to avail themselves of the beneficent legislation of the 
 colony to secure a homestead and help to build up the national 
 wealth by adding to its productiveness, they must test the arid 
 tracts which for half a century had been neglected. The experi- 
 ment was worth making, for here, if corn would grow, was ample 
 room and scope enough for an army of yeoman who would be 
 nearer the consumers than the producers of other districts, and 
 therefore they could afford to obtain a lower yield per acre than 
 the moister districts and yet turn their holdings to good account. 
 The test was made, and with the most successful results. As in the 
 case of the despised mallee of Victoria and South Australia, wl 
 
63 
 
 had appeared to be almost a desert proved to be splendid arable 
 land when it was treated under conditions adapted to its peculiar 
 situation and requirements. The Lands department saw its op- 
 portunity ; it cut up the Mcckering agricultural area a few miles 
 Vorthain, and when that subdivision was rapidly 
 taken up others followed, and the work of settlement 
 has within the last two or three years been proceeding 
 with great rapidity. Tammin, Doodlakine, and Bainding areas 
 were thrown open, and in spite of a very dry season, almost 
 approaching to drought in 1894, the experiences of the settlers have 
 been most propitious. Their crops have never failed, and men who 
 went on the land, in some cases with very small means, or with the 
 nee of the Land bank, are to-day letting contracts for clear- 
 ing, buying additional horses and machinery, and employing labor. 
 alculated that there is a profit each season of ^5 upon every 
 acre cultivated, and unless exceptionally severe years should be 
 experienced, what we have called the new wheat-growing province 
 of Western Australia is likely to steadily grow in size and pro- 
 ductiveness. . From every point of view these newly-occupied 
 agricultural areas are deserving of detailed notice in this SKTTI.KU'S 
 GrihK. In the first place, there is plenty of land awaiting settle- 
 ment there, which cannot be said of every district ; moreover, the 
 land, or the best of it, cannot be excelled for the growth of wheat, 
 and the holdings are easily cleared. The limited rainfall is com- 
 pensated for, as far as possible, by summer ploughing and early 
 sowing ; while the Public Works department on behalf of the 
 Government is giving much attention to the conservation of water, 
 and other surroundings peculiar to farming in the far east 
 are d'se,rvi'ig of review. 
 
 The Meckering agricultural area commences 20 miles to the 
 eastward of Xortham, which is an important and nourishing town, 
 near Clackline, the junction whence the Yilgarn line branches from 
 the Eastern railway. The area contains 80,760 acres, and sixteen 
 blocks were set apart as free homestead farms under the Home- 
 . 1893, the remainder of the laud being made available for 
 conditional purchase. The blocks average about 150 acres, but it 
 is competent for any selector to take up several of them, amounting 
 in all to not more than 1,000 acres. The area is officially described 
 as chietly York gum, salmon gum, and jam country ; soil, loam, 
 with clay sub-soil. Water is frequently found at a depth of about 
 20 feet ; ring-barking and clearing greatly increases the supply. 
 Nearly all the settlers have blocks of several hundreds of acres, and 
 keep some stock. 
 
 The Tammin agricultural area was gazetted open for selection 
 
 : Member, 1894. It is beyond Meckering, 50 miles east of 
 
 Northam, and 117 miles from Perth, and is intersected by the 
 
 Northam- Yilgarn railway. The survey includes 45,000 acres. 
 
 It is heavily timbered forest country, the soil being a rich deep loam, 
 
growing salmon gum, gimlet wood, and morrell gums, which it costs 
 ^5 per acre to clear. Water has to be obtained from tanks or 
 wells. The Doodlekine area is next passed through on the road 
 to Coolgardie. This area was opened for selection in December, 
 1892, and comprises 40,000 acres about 75 miles from Northam, 142 
 miles from Perth, and is bounded on one side by the railway to 
 Southern Cross. Here sand patches intersect the forest country. 
 About 15 miles further on is the Bainding area, which has been 
 available since December, 1894, and contains 55,000 acres, a larger 
 proportion of which are of the esteemed forest country than is to 
 be found on the Tamin and Doodlekine areas. In all these areas 
 the one drawback is the small rainfall, \vhich steadily diminishes the 
 further east the settler goes. Some statistics may be given to 
 enable the reader to judge of the extent to which the district is 
 threatened with drought, which is occasionally relieved by the 
 occurence of a thunderstorm which does not pass over the moun- 
 tain ranges to the coast. Starting from 1888 the reports of the 
 Government Astronomer show that this would have been an 
 excellent season for w^heat growing, as 100 miles beyond Northam 
 rain amounting in all to about 14 inches fell regularly every month 
 from March to September. The following year was also a good 
 one, so excellent, in fact, that wheat and hay could have been 
 harvested at Southern Cross where, so far, a seed furrow has never 
 been cut. There was also a sufficient rainfall in 1890, but a check 
 occurred in 1891, when the record at Southern Cross was 
 only 5.20 and at Mooranoppin, near Doodlekine, 8.41. In 1891 
 there was more rain along the Yilgarn railway than in the Avon 
 valley, the records being respectively, Northam 14*43, anc ^ Southern 
 Cross 15*10, which was visited by some heavy local thunderstorms. 
 During five weeks from April 17 to May 21, frosts prevailed at 
 Mooranoppin. The 1893 season was the best of which any records 
 have been kept, Mooranoppin registering 14*91, and Southern Cross 
 13-97, while portions of the Avon Valley were flooded. 
 Quellquelling, Meckering, and Greenhills yielded in some 
 paddocks as much as 40 bushels to the acre. The next 
 season was the driest that has been known, Southern 
 Cross getting only 5-11 inches of rain, and Mooranoppin 
 10*28 inches. But even in that year early sown crops in the ea 
 would probably have been worth reaping. 
 
 Some instructive evidence comes from Victoria as to the 
 prospect of establishing permanently prosperous wheat-growing 
 centres in the eastern agricultural areas of Western Australia, having 
 regard to the occurrence of such unfavorable seasons as that of 
 1894, which did not furnish any guide, because at that time culti- 
 vation had not been begun any distance eastward of Northam. 
 Comparisons can to some extent be made with the results 
 achieved in Victoria during 1896, in that year of drought in th( 
 mallee country, which corresponds to the eastern forest lands 
 
65 
 
 Western Australia. The Austni/tisitin says: "An illustration of 
 the great benefit of good cultivation, combined with early sowing, in 
 a very bad season, is furnished this year by Mr. Alexander B. 
 Cobham's farm at Pine Hills, Waitchie. The crop consists of 40 
 acres of wheat which lias a luxuriance of growth that would be 
 remarkable in an ordinary season, but is something extraordinary 
 in the present drought." Mr. Cobham says : ' The crop was sown 
 the third week in March, but no rain fell till April. The rainfall 
 with which it has grown is as follows: April, 0.58 inches ; May, 
 i. 06 inches ; June, 0.8 1 inches ; July, 0.21 inches ; August, 0.95 
 inches ; September, 1.58 inches ; October, (i to 18), o.io inches ; 
 total, 5.38 inches. This crop has therefore being grown with less 
 than 5[, inches of rain, and has been subject to particularly trying 
 weather, hot winds, for several weeks past, having been prevalent. 
 We intend starting cutting the crop for hay to-morrow. We shall 
 sell the crop as chaff, and expect to make a profit (that is after 
 deducting the cost of seed and all labor) of about $ per acre. 
 This should satisfy anyone that there is money to be made in the 
 mallee, even in a dry season. The rainfall of the year to date 
 (i8th October) amounts to 7.45 inches. The average rainfall of the 
 district is over 13 inches, and it mostly falls before the end of 
 October.' Some samples of this crop have been kindly sent us by 
 the Rev. Mr. Patterson, to whom the letter from which we have 
 quoted was sent. The wheat is remarkably well grown and is fully 
 4 feet 6 inches high. A single plant has sent up 118 stalks, each of 
 which carries a head, save one, and the exception has a head just 
 coming out. With the wheat plants is a sample of Cape barley, 
 grown on the same farm. It is three feet high and remarkably well 
 headed. On hrst looking at these samples their strong healthy 
 growth gives one the impression that they are from irrigated 
 land." 
 
 The point of this extract is that it goes to show that crops can 
 be grown, with careful and early cultivation, with less than the rain- 
 fall which is generally considered essential to their success, and also 
 that the eastern farming districts of this colony have not yet 
 experienced anything like so dry a year as that which has been 
 known in the mallee. The only month during which in 1894 the 
 rainfall at Doodelkine did not greatly exceed that which produced 
 Mr. Cobham's heavy yield at Waitchie, was September, when the 
 returns respectively w r ere : 1.59 ; Doodlekine .59 ; but an earlier 
 sown crop at Doodlekine would have been already ripening in 
 September, and therefore almost independent of rain. 
 
 Rain came very late in 1895. Early sowing proved to be 
 of special value, but new ground could not be broken up in time to 
 sow early, so that only fallowed land yielded well. The returns 
 show Mooranoppin, 9.60 ; Southern Cross, 5.42. 1896 was a good 
 season for early crops, heavy rain falling in March. Self-sown 
 wheat, with the benefit of these showers, w r as wonderfully good, 
 
66 
 
 while crops that were put in early in March gave an abundant 
 harvest. Mooranoppin had 13.98 inches, and Southern Cross 
 9.00. 
 
 "A careful study of the above records (writes the special 
 correspondent of the West Australian, after a tour through the new 
 eastern wheat-growing agricultural areas lying between Northam 
 and Southern Cross), seems to warrant the following deductions : 
 (i) That the most vital point in successful cultivation is early sowing. 
 If summer ploughing is impossible, there only remains for the 
 farmer to fallow during the spring, and sow not later than March 
 and April the former for preference. (2) That a light rainfall, 
 evenly distributed, is much more favourable to wheat growing than 
 a heavier rainfall unevenly distributed. (3) That in dry seasons 
 the rainfall out east perceptibly diminishes every ten miles. During 
 such seasons success is possible only by early sowing say in Feb- 
 ruary good seed and careful cultivation. (4) That, according to 
 the Australasian record of successful wheat growing at Waitchie, the 
 foregoing rainfall statistics show that out as far as 100 miles east of the 
 Avon Valley, wheat cultivation should be successful even in our 
 worst years. (5) That from 1887 to 1896, the rainfall statistics show 
 the climate of the Avon valley and district to be admirably adapted 
 for wheat cultivation. During none of the years within this period 
 has the rainfall been so small as to cause a failure of the crops, except 
 where late so ving was practised. (6) That in many years the 
 ground during July, August and September, becomes flooded, and 
 growing crops destroyed on the low-lying flats. For this reason a 
 system of surface drainage is necessary. (7) That the rainfall regis- 
 tered in spots close to prominent hills' is above the average for the 
 locality. Thus the rainfall for York is above the average for the 
 district ; and similarity Mooranoppin, which is located close under 
 a high rock, is higher than Kellerberrin, situated more in the open. 
 (8) That early sowing is only possible where a fanner has his own 
 teams the system of ploughing and seeding by contract invariably 
 means late sowing and frequent failure." 
 
 The meteorological reports go to show that the limit of safe 
 cultivation is 100 miles east of the Avon valley, a point that is 
 marked by the Merredin peak, a vast granite rock which the 
 railway department utilise as a catchment area. A clam has been 
 constructed at the base of the peak to catch all the rain that tails 
 upon the rock. The country near the peak varies from sandy 
 stretches to the stiff red ground of strips of forest. The simile of a 
 traveller is that the forest is interspersed with sand plains in the 
 shape of the lingers of a hand. Where the country is so unequal 
 the selector should endeavor to name his own boundaries. It is 
 estimated that there are 25,000 acres of eligible forest land 
 between Mcrricleii and Mine's Hill and adjacent to the Yilgarn 
 railway. The Bainding agricultural area intersects this forest. The 
 area runs to within two miles of Hine's Hill railway station, and it 
 
6 7 
 
 is mostly first-class land. Close to ;i market and the railway, easily 
 cleared and cultivated, it is alone deficient in water supply. A 
 settler on the area says that the only way to get water is to camp 
 close to a large granite rock and to build a tank at its base ; but this 
 would leave stock without a supply and it is highly desirable for the 
 settler to keep sheep. It is expected that the ringbarking of the 
 land will provide water. It has done so in other parts of the colony, 
 but about two years have to elapse before the trees are all dead and 
 water makes its appearance. Meanwhile the buying of stock could 
 be deferred and reliance placed upon cultivation. The cost of 
 ringbarking is handsomely repaid by increasing the feeding capacity 
 of country and cheapening the cost of clearing. In the future the 
 scheme of carrying water to the Coolgardie goldfields, which has 
 received the sanction of Parliament, may assist the settlers en route. 
 
 " There is an excellent indicator," writes the special correspon- 
 dent whom we have previously quoted in this chapter, " of the class 
 of soil through which the Yilgarn railway passes, and that is the 
 side of the permanent way. Thousands of bags of wheat, oats, and 
 barley are yearly transported by the railway to the goldfields. The 
 oscillation of the train shakes a small proportion of the seeds on to 
 the railway line. This is well worked by the permanent way men 
 and so 'becomes a perfect bed. The seed is in position for the first 
 rains and has all those conditions that I referred to at the commence- 
 ment of this article for the successful growth of cereals. It thus 
 becomes instructive to watch the various portions of the railway 
 line to see how the plants thrive. ... All along the railway line 
 right to past Merriden the wheat seeds stooled out into 
 beautiful plants, on which ripened many ears of fine corn. 
 Many experienced farmers have been struck by this circum- 
 stance, and have all said that what could be done on the 
 railway line could be done elsewhere in the same locality in the 
 same soil ; and when men of experience and judgment say these 
 things, it is very evident, that, given a good water supply, our 
 eastern forest lands will be to this colony what the mallee lands 
 have become to Victoria and South Australia. It may here be 
 remarked that it has only been by the cultivation of their dry areas, 
 as wheat fields, that these two colonies have been able to supply 
 the needs of their own population. Take away the mallee country 
 from Victoria, and the northern area from South Australia, and 
 these colonies at once drop from wheat-exporting colonies to 
 wheat-importing colonies. For this reason I have placed so much 
 stress on the forest land of our eastern districts. Our great want 
 as a nation is to produce our own breadstuffs. I believe that the 
 cultivation of these forests will settle the problem." 
 
 It is related that in one paddock in the district under notice a 
 thunderstorm in January germinated some wheat that had fallen to 
 the ground while reaping was going on, and the plants grew 
 vigorously, in spite of the time being midsummer, until the autumn 
 
68 
 
 rains fell. Last year a somewhat similar experience, we are told r 
 happened to Mr. Packham, of Doongin, in the Tatnmin agricultural 
 area, whose self-sown wheat plants stooled out so freely that one of 
 them covered as much ground as half a dozen of those which were 
 sown in the ordinary course. Mr. Packham's experience seems to 
 bear out the experiments of the director of the Wagga state 
 experimental farm in New South Wales, who sowed wheat at the 
 rate of 4 Ibs. to the acre, and obtained from 28 to 30 bushels to the 
 acre, the conclusion arrived at being that light early seeding is 
 much more productive than heavier sowings at a later time. a It 
 is imperative that early sowing be practised in these eastern areas. 
 Without it the selector may have keen disappointment in his crops. 
 September and October are not reliable months for rain, real 
 summer weather sometimes being experienced during them. It 
 therefore naturally follows that the wheat plant, if possible, should 
 be so \vell grown by September that the occurrence of a hot spell 
 w r ill not damage it." A beginning has been made in summer 
 ploughing. The loamy soil from which the salmon gums and 
 gimlet wood trees have been cleared is sufficiently friable to allow 
 of the work being satisfactorily done. It is important to remember 
 that it is land of this class that is offered to the man who desires to 
 become a cultivator. The Crown Lands department is careful to 
 pick out the choicest parts of the country that remain in its hands, 
 to encourage settlement, and the new comer is invited to become 
 the owner of the most eligible lots which, from personal inspection, 
 shall commend themselves to his judgment. It is a great testimony 
 in favor of the eastern territory that for the most part pastoral 
 lessees who have their sheep runs there are a prosperous class, and 
 there has been only one notable case of failure among them. I 
 this instance the failure is ascribed to the paddocks being to 
 large, so that the fences enclosed inferior and poison land. 
 
 One great measure of relief from the water difficulty is being 
 carried out by the Railway department, which, havingfound the water 
 of the Bulong pool to be so highly mineralised as to be injurious to the 
 boilers of their engines, has resolved upon undertaking a large and 
 costly scheme of conservation. The rocks within three miles of the 
 line are being surveyed to ascertain the rainfall catchment area, and 
 tanks are to be made to act as reservoirs, which, it is expected, will 
 have some water to spare for settlers, who will only be asked to pay js. 
 per 1,000 gallons. These tank sites have been chosen at Grass Valley 
 and Meckerin^, while a dam has already been provided at Cundcrdin, 
 having 35 miles of drains ; it cost .7,500 and it has a holding 
 capacity of 12,000,000 gallons. Another one has been con- 
 structed at Merriden peak. The base of the peak and of the 
 Ciinderdin rocks is encircled with cement channels, and in the latter 
 case a tunnel half a mile long is cut through the rock. A dam of 
 60,000,000 gallons capacity is being made at Tammin at an outlay o 
 i 1,000. There is also one which holds 3,750,000 gallons at Keller 
 
 
6 9 
 
 berrin, and in this locality a second, to contain 20,000,000 gallons, 
 is being surveyed about three miles north of the station. Merriden 
 dam, which stores 8,000,000 gallons, cost ^"8,000. 
 
 Another important factor in the success of the settler in the 
 east is that, when water is supplied, he will be able to get, in 
 addition to some hundreds of acres of superior forest country for 
 cultivation at 6d. per acre per annum (which, in 20 years, amounts 
 to the purchase money of the block), a homestead leasehold for 
 grazing purposes of 5,000 acres (or less) of third-class land at a 
 rental of id. per acre for 15 years, and 2cl per acre for an addi- 
 tional 15 years. Enormous areas, on which coarse but nourishing 
 shrubs grow, have been locked up for lack of watering places, 
 which, to a large extent, are being supplied in meeting the require- 
 ments of the Railway department. These are very pressing, owing 
 to the enormous development of the goldfields traffic that is expected 
 to lead to the duplication of the line at no distant date. 
 Plans may be obtained at the Perth Lands office, showing approxi- 
 mately, by means of both colours and surveyors' notes, the value of 
 the different portions of a district and also all the mountains, 
 rivers, watercourses, soaks and clams, together with a scale showing 
 the distance of the various blocks from a railway line. The notes 
 tell a plain, unvarnished tale, and the words " poison," "sand plain," 
 " thick scrub," arrest the attention of the reader as boldly as " rich 
 black (or chocolate) soil," "well-grassed land," " good forest," or 
 " permanent water." Sheep can be very cheaply worked, as native 
 shepherds are obtainable. The blacks are voluntarily assigned to 
 those who employ them, and give their services for clothes, main- 
 tenance and tobacco. A great deal has been written of the alleged 
 illtreatment of the aboriginal servants by their employers, but on 
 investigation it will be found that these tales emanate from new 
 arrivals in the colony, who make a visit to the north, and are 
 unfamiliar with the habits of the natives and the conditions 
 which govern their intercourse with the whites. This is not a 
 fitting place in which to enter into the merits of the controversy 
 on the subject of the protection and care of the blacks, which has 
 formed the theme of voluminous correspondence between the 
 Premier and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and of ani- 
 mated debates in the houses of the legislature ; but it may be pointed 
 out that if no other motive than that of self-interest operated to en- 
 sure that the natives are properly treated by those who engage 
 them, this incentive would be a very strong one. The natives are 
 very useful, and possess a special skill as trackers and bushmen, 
 which makes their services well worth retaining ; while, on the 
 other hand, if these retainers were dissatisfied with their servitude, 
 there would be nothing to prevent the children of the bush from 
 changing their environment in the summary fashion of the tribes 
 who wandered all over their respective districts and lived by hunt- 
 ing before colonisation by the whites took place. 
 
7 o 
 
 In so warm a climate as that of the east, it is satisfactory to 
 know that fruit trees and vines and vegetables can be grown in 
 abundance, if some discretion is shown in choosing the site for the 
 orchard and garden and homestead near one of the large granite 
 rocks, which always denote the presence of water at a very shallow 
 depth. Another recommendation, that many people will regard as 
 of the first importance, is the healthfulness ot these dry 
 table lands. A spare, wiry frame and longevity would appear 
 to be the characteristics of the older settlers. During the 
 greater portion of the year the heat is intense in the day- 
 time, but as soon as the sun sets the air becomes cool and bracing, 
 allowing of sound, refreshing sleep. The ill humors of a dyspeptic 
 who could do a day's harvesting in the temperature of a Turkish 
 bath would indeed entitle him to sympathy. To judge from the 
 appearance and the endurance of some of the stalwart younger 
 generation, a sanatorium established anywhere between Meckering 
 and Southern Cross for asthmatic or consumptive patients would 
 soon acquire a great reputation for its efficacy. 
 
 What has been written of the neglect of the salmon gum country 
 in the York district applies with full force to the growers of Yilgarn, 
 who were grossly deceived by appearances. Because the land did 
 not grow anything except this species of eucalyptus it was considered 
 to be barren, and it was only by an accident that its fertility was 
 disclosed. When the route of the Yilgirn railway was cleared, 
 the places where the trees had been threw up grass so thickly that 
 it could not fail to attract attention. Then a patch or two of the 
 forest was cleared to see whether it would produce wheat, and men 
 who had been on the land for twenty years had to confess themselves 
 astonished at the crop. A typical case is that of the Sewell's at 
 Chureening, to the south of the railway, near Tammin. They had 
 been cultivating the lighter jam tree soil, and four years ago they 
 were induced to clear 12 acres of salmon gums, which for about 25 
 years had lain idly in their possession. The harvest was such an 
 eye-opener that they have selected a large block in the Tammin 
 agricultural area, and are getting it ready for cultivation. Nor is it 
 only the local settler who has become a convert to the richness of 
 the timbered tracts for cereals. A large slice of this territory has 
 been acquired by an English syndicate, of whom Mr. Lowles, M.P., 
 is a member. This gentleman recently visited the colony, and 
 made a tour through the goldfields of Coolgardie and the 
 surrounding centres. En route he inspected the Crown l;i 
 between Northam and Southern Cross, and was so impressed 
 with their value that he took up an extensive location, 
 of which 1,000 acres have already been got ready for 
 ploughing. The syndicate have this season a large area under crop. 
 The manager of the Land bank, Mr. William I'atersnn, whose 
 judgment may be relied upon, for he is a large grower near the 
 South-western line, recently saw the Tammin agricultural area, of 
 
 
which he highly approved. " Wliat could not be done with this land 
 with the rainfall of the south-west?" was his observation when he 
 was given an opportunity of examining it. It has been so conclusively 
 proved that the forest soil is superior to the jam country for 
 farming purposes, that the latter should be set apart by the selector 
 for fruit growing, for which it will be admirably adapted. 
 
 There is a threat deal of valuable land in the eastern areas that 
 has not yet been surveyed by the Lands department, and about 
 which, therefore, less is known than Tammin, Meckering, Doodlekine, 
 and Bainding. On these areas settlement is proceeding so rapidly 
 that in a year or two the " eyes" of them will have been picked out, 
 and it will be necessary for the seeker for an eligible homestead to 
 go a little farther afield and inspect some of the pastoral runs which 
 occupy some very choice country to the southward of the Yilgarn 
 railway. A selector may take a block out of any pastoral leasehold, 
 but must pay the value of any improvements which have been made 
 by the lessee. In most cases the runs are unfenced, and may, 
 therefore, be erroneously supposed by those \vho are looking for 
 land to be private property. The policy of the land legislation of 
 Western Australia is that the grazier occupying Crown lands must 
 always give way to the cultivator. The farmer is the man to whom 
 every encouragement is given, while the past~ralist has very little 
 more than a premissive occupancy pending the arrival of the time 
 when the land will be required to produce corn, hay, or fruit. 
 Accordingly, the terms upon which pastoral leases are issued are 
 almost nominal, but the leaseholder has no right to the soil or the 
 timber, and may not even do ringbarking without the permission of 
 the Minister. When that permission is given ringbarking is 
 appraised as an improvement. Pastoral leases are granted in the 
 eastern division in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rent 
 according to the term for which the lease may be granted, as 
 follows : For each thousand acres or part of a thousand acres, two 
 shillings and sixpence for each of the first seven years, and five 
 shillings for each of the remaining years of the lease. If the land 
 is so shut in by other holdings as not to contain twenty thousand 
 acres, a lease may be granted for such lesser quantity ; but in no 
 case shall a lease be granted for less than j*i per annum. All 
 pastoral leases expire on the 3ist December, 1907. The fair value 
 of any improvements existing upon any block applied for within an 
 agricultural or special area is determined by the Minister, and the 
 amount is added to the purchase money of the block which the 
 conditional purchaser desires to obtain. He has ^o pay for 
 the improvements in five yearly instalments, with interest 
 added at the rate of five per cent, per annum, and the first 
 payment has to be made when the land is applied for. 
 Subject to these provisions there is, upon the sheep runs of the 
 eastern pastoralists, a very wide choice of location by the agri- 
 culturist, for, as it might be supposed, the squatters, who are the 
 
72 
 
 pioneers of the district, marked out their boundaries with an eye to 
 securing the most eligible properties. This will be apparent from 
 the notes that have been made by surveyors, who have made them- 
 selves acquainted with the quality of the country that is held under 
 grazing tenure. In the other colonies, with their larger popula- 
 tions and smaller territory, the class interests of squatter versus 
 selector have excited a spirit of antagonism, and the cry, " Unlock the 
 lands ! " has led to the progress of land settlement, only after many 
 a hard and bitter battle in the legislative chambers. Happily, in the 
 magnificent range of this colony, there has been ample room for 
 both the pastoralist and the producer, who, as a rule, have main- 
 tained amicable relations with each other. 
 
 A glance at the good country, or some of it, that lies outside 
 the blocks surveyed and set apart for the farmer at Meckeririg, 
 Tammin, Doodlekine, and Bainding, which may be deemed to 
 have received sufficient description in the foregoing pages, will be 
 instructive. The observations are the outcome of a tour through 
 the several districts referred to by the special correspondent of the 
 West Australian, and bear the impress of personal knowledge of a 
 division of the colony that is but little known by the people of 
 Western Australia, for before the goldfields' era few travellers had 
 penetrated into what were commonly regarded as the waterless 
 fastnesses of Yilgarn. To show that the country is not pictured in 
 rose colors by the writer, his melancholy description of what he 
 calls '' The Great Lone Land," a desert 40 miles long and 12 wide, 
 which he met with near Mooranoppin, would be worth quoting. 
 This place of desolation is one of the largest sand plains in the 
 eastern division. It is only relieved by one patch of rich salmon 
 gum country. To the north of the Tammin agricultural area, 
 which has practically all been taken up, there is a fine forest of 
 about 3,000 acres, the bulk of which has also been selected. A 
 creek at the foot of Cunderin peak, and on towards the Cunderin 
 railway station, runs for seven miles through very fair land, which 
 improves as the railway station is approached. Adjoining the 
 station is a small but high-class gimlet wood and salmon gum 
 forest, portion of which has been set apart as a water reserve. 
 " One day in the winter of 1895," says the traveller, 4< I stood 
 on the summit of the Toapin rocks, near Dangin, and obtained 
 a tine view of the excellent country which abounds in that locality. 
 The rains had been fairly abundant and the grass was growing 
 healthfully, so that the surroundings were viewed under favorable 
 circumstance^. Acres upon acres stretched before the view, and 
 but a slight fund of imagination would have been necessary for the 
 observer to have peopled these fertile plains with budding home- 
 steads and yellow wheat fields. With but a trilling exception the 
 whole of these rich lands were untilled, unused and unpeopled. 
 The rich, red soils, possessing all the elements of fertility, seemed 
 to beg in mute eloquence for the transforming power of the human 
 
73 
 
 hand. Like the mallee lands of Victoria, it has been recently 
 demonstrated that our forest lands, at one time entirely discarded, 
 are to be a great source of national wealth. The returns this year 
 (1896) from the forest lands are peculiarly encouraging. To those 
 who have Iveu through our back country this spring the convic- 
 tion must have been forcibly driven home that the area of our 
 agricultural lands is much wider than was formerly imagined. From 
 all directions most gratifying reports from the holders of forest lands 
 are to hand, and this class of country is rapidly growing in the 
 estimation of our farmers. So largely is this the case that the 
 margin of cultivation is yearly being forced back to regions where 
 a scanty rainfall has hitherto developed the idea that successful 
 wheat-growing was not practicable there." The first-class lands 
 are surrounded by areas of second and third class country. These 
 areas are admirably adapted for stock raising. In the white gum 
 country and on the sand plains rough scrub and grasses grow, on 
 which stock thrive. Mixed farming will have to be undertaken in 
 this class of country. Wheat-farming alone, it is universally recog- 
 nised, cannot pay in the long run. To work the ground satisfac- 
 torily the soil must be periodically rested and enriched by the 
 droppings of the stock which are kept to feed down its stubble 
 and its weeds. Suppose a farmer selects, say, 640 acres of first- 
 class land under conditional purchase and a free homestead farm 
 of 160 acres and 5,000 acres of third-class land under the homestead 
 lease system, he will thus be able to grow abundant crops and 
 keep a fair quantity of stock. Every fanner in the eastern districts 
 practices mixed farming, and owing to the success of this season it 
 may be expected that in a few years grazing country will be as 
 eagerly sought after as the first-class forests are now. But in run- 
 ning stock through the white gum grazing lands the settler must 
 beware of the poison plants, chiefly of the box species, which are 
 especially dangerous in early summer. Where these occur the 
 poison patches should be fenced out or grubbed out, or the sheep 
 should be tended. By taking these precautions losses are avoided. 
 The agricultural lands are not infested with poison, which is not 
 greatly to be dreaded if the proper methods of managing stock 
 where it is found are understood and carried out. 
 
 Some of the richest lands in Western Australia are to be found 
 in the districts of Dangin, Cubbine and Youndegin, which lie 
 between Greenhills and the Southern Cross line. W r hen the railway 
 from Greenhills (the first section of which from York to Greenhills 
 is now being laid) is extended to the Yilgarn route, a splendid tract of 
 country will be tapped. Hereabout some of the best blocks are 
 held under what are known as pastoral poison leases a system 
 of land alienation which will be dealt with more in detail under a 
 separate heading, with a view to pointing out what are deemed to 
 be weak points of early legislation on this subject. While poison 
 land was deemed to be suitable, after it was cleared of the noxious 
 
74 
 
 vegetation, for the raising of stock, the Cubbine poison leasehold is 
 so fertile that most of it is capable of producing excellent crops, to 
 which a great many acres are being devoted. Twenty-live miles 
 east of Cuttening, from Darderring spring to Quoting, cultivation is 
 being successfully done in an extensive forest area of the finest 
 character. From the summit of Qualing rocks a fine view of the 
 country is obtained, and the devious course of the dry bed of the 
 Salt river, growing salt bush here and there, can be seen for miles. 
 There was a great flood in this river in 1872, cutting off the 
 squatters from their out stations, but it has not been running for 
 years. Its bed, which is very broad, is superior pasture land, and it 
 is lined with forests for a depth of from one mile to three or four, 
 comprising a belt of valuable country that ought to be one day the 
 " home of many a thriving settler, when the golden corn shall wave 
 in the breeze, and the fattened sheep recline under the foliage of 
 the shade trees." The country is dotted with granite peaks in all 
 directions. At their base the greenness of the manna trees betoken 
 moisture, and there is no doubt that in this locality abundant water 
 supplies are to be procured in many places. The Salt river is one 
 of the tributaries of the Avon or Swan river. 
 
 From Qualing to Moulien the distance is 15 miles in a westerly 
 direction. For the first mile or two excellent forest is traversed, 
 terminating in sand plain, \vhich leads to Moulien homestead. 
 Nangin hill is in the midst of a heavy forest on the bank of the 
 Salt river. Thence north-east, superior agricultural country, some 
 thousands of acres in extent, is passed through. There is 
 room here for farms, and the country is certainly worth a visit from 
 an intending settler. The whole of the country is parcelled out into 
 pastoral leaseholds, varying in size from 20,000 to 120,000 acres. 
 In order to see the, country to advantage, a trip from Moulien to 
 Toapin, via Dangin and York, is recommended. About 30,000 acres 
 of superior land are embraced in a ride of ten miles, beginning at 
 Moulien. It is probable that an agricultural area will be laid out 
 here. The Wareening hills are good feeding country. A little to 
 the west of these hills is the Lotting spring, in the midst of granite 
 rocks, which are the source of the chief water supply of the east. 
 The Lotting spring is on the eastern boundary of a large salmon 
 gum forest, which extends westerly to the Salt river and northwards 
 to the northern base of mount Stirling. Approaching the Moolyun 
 homestead from Qualing, the homestead is found at the base of one 
 of the huge granite rocks which arc features of the landscape. The 
 creek running through the stock yards is moist even in the hottest 
 summer. The track from Moulien, after traversing the forest 
 already referred to as the probable site of an agricultur.il area, 
 crosses a lakelet known as the Jennebnry pool. For four miles 
 beyond the river the country is very eligible for select ion. Through 
 Bacljellin?, to Toapin, a stretch of good country extends to Dangin, 
 but there are some poison patches in the neighborhood. Round 
 
75 
 
 about Dangin, Toapin, Badjelling, Cubbine, and Dorakin, there are 
 some heavily timbered areas. The country is dotted with the 
 granite ridges which indicate the presence of water, and which 
 would, therefore, be chosen as homestead sites by the settler. On 
 the west of Dangin there arc sonic exceptionally sturdy jam trees 
 which attest the goodness of the ground. This is one of the best 
 spots for settlement, and there is plenty of scope for it. The white 
 gum belts are, as usual, blemished with box poison, but the salmon 
 gum country, which is the predominating timber, is free from this 
 pest, as is generally, although not invariably, the case. In the 
 Dangin district the attention of the Lands department is being 
 directed to the merits of a large block suitable for an agricultural 
 area. The correspondent adds : " I have had many enquiries 
 about the land at Dangin, for its fame has spread, and nowadays 
 there is keen competition for rich forest lands possessing a good 
 rainfall. The rainfall at Dangin is about 14 inches, and once the 
 Greenhills railway is finished the district would be in great demand 
 by would-be settlers. The case of the Meckering agricultural area 
 need only be cited as a case in point. Until three years ago settle- 
 ment there was comparatively slow. During the last year it has 
 been most rapid, and now the area is almost entirely selected, 
 while there are weekly enquiries for land at the Northam Land 
 office. I foretell a great settlement in our eastern forest areas, and 
 am certain that attention will be given to those in the mount 
 Stirling district." From Warralling, which borders on a few 
 hundred acres of cereal land, into Greenhills, the country is 
 chiefly suitable as pasture ground. 
 
 So many references have been made to poison lands that it is 
 desirable to supply some explanatory notes of the provisions under 
 which these areas are acquired, and the terms under which they are 
 defined. Under the Land Regulations, proclaimed on the 2nd March, 
 1887, poisoned land is defined to be land that, in the opinion of the 
 Minister, is so infested with poisonous indigenous plants that sheep 
 or cattle cannot be depastured on it. Poisonous plants are con- 
 sidered to be eradicated when it has been proved to the satisfaction 
 of the Governor in Council that land originally infested has been 
 rendered safe for depasturing cattle and sheep at all seasons, and 
 has continued so for a term of not less than two years. The lease- 
 holder of a poison block is required to pay for the survey of the 
 same ; to select not less than 300 acres ; to pay an annual rent of i 
 per 1,000 acres or part of 1,000 acres ; to produce evidence that the 
 land applied for is poisoned land under the regulations ; to fence 
 within three years, and to pay the stipulated rent for a period of 
 21 years ; whereupon, having given proof that he has eradicated the 
 poison, he becomes entitled to a Crown grant of the land, or sooner 
 if all the conditions of the leasehold have been fully complied with. 
 The bulk of the land held as poison leaseholds was taken up under 
 an earlier Act than the one which the regulations quoted amend, 
 
7 6 
 
 and which did not require the land to be fenced within three years. 
 The result was that nothing has been done for the improvement of 
 many of these holdings, but they cannot be forfeited until the ex- 
 piration of 21 years from the date the lease was granted. It has 
 also been found that some of the leaseholds comprise choice agri- 
 cultural land ; notwithstanding that, it will be seen from the wording 
 of the clause setting out that the blocks shall be made safe for the 
 carrying of stock, the intention of Parliament was to limit the opera- 
 tion of the law r to pastoral country. 
 
 The question of water supply, which is regarded as a most im- 
 portant one in facilitating the settlement of that part of the colony, 
 has been receiving attention on the part of the roads board of the 
 district. While it is recognised that when ringbarking has done 
 its work and the forests have been killed there will be plenty of 
 water on the Meckering area, the need of making immediate 
 provision is of the first importance. The board has made over- 
 tures to the Commissioner of Crow r n Lands to resume four wells 
 belonging to private owners, with a view to prevent stock being 
 short of w T ater in a dry season. These supplies w r ere obtained 
 before it became the rule of the Lands department to retain 
 permanent supplies of w r ater for the use of the public. The large 
 increase of the population of the neighborhood is urged as a strong 
 reason for the nationalisation of all the available water. The pur- 
 chase of the \vells would be only one step in advance of the action 
 taken by the Government some years ago, when a water conserva- 
 tion board was formed on the Meckering area. The demand for 
 water is all the greater, inasmuch as the soil is especially adapted 
 for summe^ cultivation, w r hich is necessary in order to get the seed 
 germinated by the first rains. The water supply for the horses in 
 ploughing alone is likely to make a great drain upon the slender 
 resources of the settlers during the most trying time of the year. 
 The best means of meeting the demand is under the earnest con- 
 sideration of the Government, fully cognisant as it is of the fact 
 that a bountiful water service will greatly facilitate the progress of 
 settlement from Meckering to Bainding. 
 
 The Goomalling agricultural area, to the westward of Northam, 
 is confidently expected to become a great farming centre, particu- 
 larly as it is contemplated to make a railway in that direction. On 
 tln^ subject the views which Sir John Forrest expressed in the 
 Legislative Assembly on the 27th August, 1896, when (as Colonial 
 Treasurer) making his financial statement, carry the greatest 
 weight, for perhaps no one has such a familiar knowledge of all 
 parts of Western Australia as the Premier, who has been one of the 
 most dauntless, indefatigable, and far-reaching of her explorers. 
 Sir John Forrest said : " We propose also to make a railway 
 survey from Xortham to Quelqnelling. I am able to say, from 
 personal knowledge, that there is no place in the colony where an 
 agricultural railway would be likely to pay better. From Northam 
 
77 
 
 to Quelquelling is about 20 miles on the road to Goomalling, and the 
 route runs through an agricultural country all occupied by tanners 
 in small locations, and is one of the best, if not the best, area of 
 agricultural land in the colony. It is just about the same sort of 
 land as that at Greenhills, the only difference being that the line 
 runs from York for some distance through large freehold 
 properties, whereas the line from Northam runs through the 
 land in the hands of small owners." The surveyor who is plotting 
 out the Goomalling agricultural area, writes to the Lands department 
 as follows in describing the country : " I have ridden over a large 
 area of the country. I think you will be pleased to learn that I 
 anticipate being able to forward a design for cutting up about 10,000 
 acres within a radius of six miles of reserve 1092, and having its 
 extreme alignment about 15 miles east of Goomalling. Eighty per 
 cent, of this land will be really first-class forest country, and a 
 portion of the remainder very good. I have also examined the 
 country 10 miles south from Goomalling, where two or three 
 thousand acres of good forest country can be obtained. The 
 Goomalling territory, free as it is from the water difficulty, needs 
 no further encomium. Land is also available for selection near the 
 Clackliue railway station, which is the junction of the Great Southern 
 and Yilgarn lines. The country in this locality is very hilly and 
 more suited to the vigneron and orchardist than the yeoman. As a 
 grape-growing district this section cannot be surpassed, the ironstone 
 gravel of the slopes of the Darling range providing all the requisites 
 for the flourishing vineyards of Mr. Edward Keane, Mr. Quinlan, 
 M.L.A., (Cooringa), Messrs. Bull and Stevens, and others of smaller 
 size, within the radius of a few miles. Those readers who are 
 interested in this subject are referred to the chapters on the soils of 
 Western Australia, and on vine and fruit culture, that appear in other 
 portions of this volume. 
 
 Although this chapter has been entitled " Northam, Meckering, 
 and Goomalling districts " very little has been said of Northam 
 proper, for the reason that the land in its immediate vicinity is in 
 private hands. In a treatise dealing with the great producing 
 entrepots of the colony Northam would have had a foremost place, 
 for in the extensive area it has under cultivation, the modern 
 methods of its cultivators, their progressive spirit and enterprise, 
 and the quantity and value of their yields, it would be hard to find 
 an example of greater achievements, not alone in the western colony, 
 but in any other part of Australia. But this book is intended to 
 furnish counsel to those who are desirous of establishing themselves 
 in what, it is to be hoped, will prove a career of content, usefulness, 
 and expansion, upon Crown lands; and therefore places like Northam 
 which are in the possession of those who were in the van of settle- 
 ment, obtain only passing, but appreciative, notice, as belonging to 
 the sphere of realisation, rather than to the domain of the founder 
 of new centres, and the beginner at work that still remains to be done. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE TOODYAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Newcastle, the entrepot of the Toodyay district, is picturesquely 
 situated on the Avon about 50 miles east of Perth, at the terminus 
 of a branch of the Eastern railway, 64 miles by rail from the metro- 
 polis. Like York, Northam, and Beverley, nearly all the land 
 around Newcastle is in private hands, but some very eligible es- 
 tates are now under offer to the Government, which is empowered 
 to buy land in blocks of not less than 2,000 acres near a railway, for 
 the purpose of promoting land settlement. This power was given 
 by the passing of the Agricultural Lands Purchase Act. A sum of 
 ^"200,000 was set apart by Parliament to carry out the provisions of 
 the Act, which was one of the first measures introduced last session. 
 In moving the second reading of the bill in the Legislative Assembly 
 on the 22nd July, 1896, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Mr. A. 
 R. Richardson, said : "Hon. members will recognise this bill as a 
 somewhat important measure and also as a new departure in our 
 legislation. I have very great pleasure in moving the second reading, 
 because I believe the result will be a very considerable increase to our 
 agricultural settlement, and it will give a great number of oppor- 
 tunities to those persons who are desirous of so doing, in the way of 
 obtaining access to land close to railway and large centres of popu- 
 lation, which they are now unable to obtain. Owing to the peculiar 
 circumstances of this colony, we have, somewhat to our sorrow, 
 considerable areas of valuable land, containing a fair proportion of 
 agricultural land, placed in choice and eligible situations as regards 
 transit and access to market, which it is now impossible for anybody 
 to get hold of ; not because owners are unwilling to sell, but they 
 decline to part with small portions. They will either sell the whole, 
 or none at all ; and not many people are in a position to treat with 
 owners for large areas of 7,000 or 8,000 acres. The Government 
 have had brought under their attention a suggestion that it would 
 perhaps be wise to undertake, under certain conditions, the 
 repurchase of these lands, to cut them up in lots and offer them for 
 sale, subject to special conditions as to improvements. The land so 
 purchased must be recommended first by a board uhich lias to 
 report on all hind it is considered, desirable to acquire. There is 
 also a very necessary precaution in providing that the land shall be 
 situated in accessible places for instance, near a railway so that 
 the Government are not likely to obtain much land that is placed 
 at an inconvenient distance. I think the bill will give to the colony 
 
79 
 
 an increased area of kind under cultivation ; in fact, during the last 
 few years I have had an idea of this sort in my mind, but then the 
 Government were not in a financial position to carry it out. Now 
 I think it is a wise step to repurchase good land and cut it up for 
 sale and improvement." The Coondle and the Xorman estates are 
 two choice properties, close to Newcastle, which have been offered 
 for sale to the Crown, and the proposals are under consideration. 
 
 The Coondle estate is part of the famous Toodyay valley, which 
 has a great reputation for the strength of its dark red soil. It was 
 granted to the original proprietor in consideration of his rights as a 
 pioneer, and comprises 7,000 acres rive miles north of Newcastle. 
 On the maps of the Lands department it is known as " Location No. 
 i," and it is one of the possessions of the Leake family, one of 
 whose members was for many years Chief Justice of the colony. 
 The land is undulating, and portions are almost mountainous ; but 
 no country is better known for its excellence in the eastern division. 
 Most of it is timbered with York and salmon gum. It is confidently 
 expected that the estate will be acquired by the Government, and 
 will be subdivided into holdings large enough to be sought after as 
 farms by men possessing a few hundreds of pounds. There is a 
 good road from the estate into Newcastle, and a sufficient supply of 
 water for stock and household use. There is sure to be an eager 
 demand for land at Coondle, if the aspiration of Newcastle is realised 
 by it passing into the hands of the state. It is a source of great 
 regret by the people of the district, that it is hidebound by the 
 comparatively little use that is made of some of the choicest subdi- 
 visions, which only sustain sheep and cattle, instead of being con- 
 verted into fields of wheat. It is pointed out that there is no lack of 
 pastoral rims which do not offer great inducement to turn them into 
 arable lands, and that it is a waste of good gifts to have the farmer shut 
 out from such fair tracts as Coondle. 
 
 The Xorman estate is a splendid property of 7,000 acres, adjoin- 
 ing Coondle, and is six miles from Newcastle. It was, in the early 
 days, given as a Crown grant to Mr. R. Norman, and has passed as 
 a legacy to Mr. Fenwick, an American gentleman, who, during a 
 recent visit to the colony, intimated his willingness to sell it to the 
 Lands department. The Norman is a fine agricultural block, 
 and is watered by the Boyagerring brook. It is estimated that 500 
 acres without a break could be put under crop in more than one 
 part of the grant, which grows York gum and jam ; in fact, the 
 local land agent (Mr. A. N. Piesse) says that eight-tenths of it could 
 be cultivated. There is no finer wheat land in the district. In the 
 south-west corner, which is timbered with gum, there are patches 
 of box poison, and also some York road poison, which also thrives 
 on some parts of the commonage. After the first rains, local stock- 
 owners find this vegetation to be most dangerous. East of New- 
 castle there is no poison within a distance of 20 miles. The chief 
 pasture plants are corkscrew and silver grass, which are very fattening. 
 

 8o 
 
 In addition to the Coondle and Norman estates the Toodyay 
 commonage offers some scope for additional settlement near 
 Newcastle. This area is 17,200 acres in extent ; it is under the 
 control of a board, and its nearest line is three miles north-west of 
 Newcastle. The commonage is well adapted for fruit growing, and 
 some of the largest oranges produced in the colony have been sent 
 from the immediate neighborhood. The best of the soil is a 
 chocolate loam that cannot be surpassed, but no large area in one 
 piece is obtainable for the cultivation of cereals. Patches of good 
 land, about 50 acres in extent, may be selected. The commonage 
 is fairly well watered by soaks and springs. No blocks granted 
 there have been thrown up. The board has power to refuse 
 selectors' applications, but they never do so. The south-east corner 
 of the commonage has been settled for several years by people who 
 have prospered on their holdings. 
 
 The Toodyay reserve embraces the only other Crown lands in 
 the district that it would be advantageous to take up. This block 
 lies north-west of Newcastle, in the same line as the commonage ; 
 the reserve is a mile nearer Newcastle, and comprises an old 
 townsite. The original area was 800 acres. As a townsite the land 
 had no attractions for investors, as it was so close to Newcastle that 
 the volume of trade was drawn to that place. Ft)r years it lay idle, 
 w r hile it w r as enviously regarded by fruit gro\vers, who recognised in 
 its deep well drained land and situation the ideal place for successful 
 operations. As time went on and settlement came to a standstill in 
 the district, as regards the development of fresh centres of industry, 
 the Government were importuned to throw open the townsite for 
 intense culture. The request was pressed by the present 
 Commissioner of Crown Lands (Hon. George Throssell, M.L.A., of 
 Northam), before hie accepted the ministerial portfolio, in pursuance 
 of the active interest he has always manifested in fostering the 
 productive industries of Western Australia. He was supported by 
 Mr. B. D. Clarkson (who, at that time, represented Toodyay in the 
 Legislative Assembly), Mr. A. N. Piesse, Mr. O. Bull (one of the 
 largest vignerons), and others, and so good a case was mack- out that 
 the proclamation of the townsite was revoked in February, 1896. 
 The land is now obtainable under special provisions which have 
 regard to the valuable character of an area that has not only been 
 proved to be remarkably well adapted for oranges, lemons, apples, 
 peaches, and grapes, but is also within less than three miles of the 
 Newcastle railway station. When a block is applied for the 
 applicant has to lodge with the Government land agent 
 10 per cent, of the upset price of the land ; which is 2 per acre. 
 The application is advertised in the Gorcnitncnl (ni:icllc for one 
 month, and the block is then submitted at auction and sold to the 
 highest bidder. If the man who asked that the land should he- 
 put up should not be the purchaser, his 10 per cent, deposit is re- 
 funded. An idea of the exceptional quality of the property will be 
 
 
8i 
 
 formed when it is staled that some of it has realised 13 per acre 
 for the planting of oranges, lemons and vines, which it produces to 
 perfection in the practically inexhaustible dark red soil which forms 
 the slopes of this garden of nature. It is nearly surrounded by the 
 Avon river, and grows grasses all through the summer most 
 luxuriantly. Here the pasture ground is distinguished by being 
 free from scrub, and if it were not fed down the silver grass could 
 be mown at midsummer like a crop of hay. The average size of 
 the holdings is about eight acres, and owing to the exceptional 
 fertility of the spot an excellent living can be made off them from 
 around Newcastle, if a location is wisely chosen ; fruit-growing is 
 regarded as the most profitable of all rural occupations. About one- 
 third of what was the tovvnsite has been selected, and in a few 
 years, when the young orchards and vineyards laid out there have 
 come to maturity, the place will be one of the features of the New- 
 castle district which a visitor will be anxious to see. The land 
 also yields heavy crops of all kinds of vegetables, with the excep- 
 tion of potatoes, which suffer from the occurrence of frosts from 
 April to September. It was what is now a vegetable garden that 
 was sold for the top price of ^13 per acre, and it was greatly 
 coveted because it is moist even in the hottest part of the year. 
 The supply of vegetables to the goldfields, where high prices are 
 realised, is an industry that is as yet only in its infancy. The 
 smallest block under cultivation on the townsite is one of six acres. 
 There are nearly 300 acres of the land still available. Small pad- 
 docks for the keeping of a cow, in order that they may add fresh 
 butter and milk to the comforts of the household, have been set 
 apart by some of the settlers. As a contrast to the occupation of 
 comparatively large areas for mixed farming, the close settlement and 
 scientific cultivation of the fruit-growers of Newcastle are very in- 
 structive, as showing the very wide range Western Australia offers 
 to the immigrant of every class, of skill, training, means and equip- 
 ment, from an adaptation of the blocker system to grazing and 
 farming on the largest scale. 
 
 The concessions granted to the Midland railway company, 
 when the colony was not in the prosperous circumstances it enjoys 
 to-day, have been very inimical to the progress of Newcastle. In 
 consideration of the line being made by the company from Guild- 
 ford, nine miles from Perth, to Walkaway, near Geraldton, a 
 distance of 280 miles, it received a grant of 3,360,000 acres of land 
 (6,000 acres per mile), which were cut out in alternate blocks to a 
 distance of 40 miles on each side of the railway. The grants 
 embraced all the Crown land within the 40 miles radius, and their 
 existence has been deplored by every well-wisher who desires to 
 hasten the day when the colony will grow her own wheat supply. 
 It was the intention of the company to dispose of its lands, but 
 several causes have militated against the realisation of this design, 
 except to a limited degree. It became necessary to seek the 
 
82 
 
 
 assistance of the Government in order to complete the line, an 
 loan of ^500,000 was guaranteed on the security of a mortgage 
 upon the land grants. The mortgage has retarded the alienation of 
 the company's estate, and selectors have always shown a preference 
 for the easier terms granted to them by the Crown. Moreover, it 
 would not be possible for the holder of a farm taken out of the 
 Midland grants to obtain the assistance of the Land bank. Most 
 of the land has therefore remained locked up, while there has been 
 a demand for similar country held by the Crown Lands department. 
 A strong agitation has commenced for the ceding to the Govern- 
 ment of the Midland railway and its hereditaments, and the pur- 
 chase of the Great Southern line and its estates, which also 
 belonged to English shareholders, has given strength to the move- 
 ment. If the step should be taken, enormous areas will be thrown 
 open for selection, which are now unimproved. The best of them 
 are to be found around Dongarra, near the Irwin River, which will 
 be dealt with in writing of the country between Guildford and 
 Mullewa ; but the encroachments made within the boundaries of 
 Toodyay seriously operate to reduce the agricultural returns of the 
 district. 
 
 A summary may be given of the evidence collated from reliable 
 sources, of the advantages \vhich Toodyay presents to those who are 
 looking for a place possessing railway communication, a fair rain- 
 fall, and proximity to market, together with a soil that will profit- 
 ably repay the labor and outlay expended upon it. As a rule there 
 are excellent roads in every direction, and the number of schools 
 that have been established reflects the greatest credit upon the Rev. 
 R. K. Taylor, who has exerted himself to make it the boast 
 of Toodyay that no child need grow up there without 
 the benefits of education. It is considered essential that 
 a man who does not propose to obtain more than 300 
 acres should have capital of about i per acre to start with. 
 He can make a good beginning with less, but his progress will be 
 comparatively slow, unless he can employ labor to clear the land 
 quicldy so as to be in a position to get the benefit of the high 
 prices which are now prevailing for farm produce. As a rule 
 cereals pay better than root crops, except in such swamp lands as 
 those which have been described in speaking of the Helena Valley 
 and parts of the Toodyay old townsite. If fertilisers are used, as 
 they should be while a farmer's revenue is so large as it is at the pre- 
 sent time, the land does not quickly exhaust itself. If there is 
 enough cleared laud to permit of cropping every alternate 
 year the additional weight of the harvests would recommend this 
 plan. For fruit-growing Toodyay is almost unrivalled. The fruits, 
 quickly ripened in the bright sunshine and the dry air of the latitude, 
 are of exquisite flavor and large size, while the vineyards produce 
 very superior wine grapes. Most of the farmers keep a few sheep, 
 which they purchase as stores and fatten for the butcher and 
 
83 
 
 the supply of their families. There are also several large graziers, 
 notably Mr. B. D. Clarkson, who raise sheep on a large scale. 
 Sheep thrive better than cattle. Dairying is neglected, and the 
 want of improved strains of milch cows is keenly felt. Nor are the 
 breeds of special merit. The cattle industry may be said to be a 
 languishing one, and the first step towards a better state of things 
 would have to be the importation of high class strains of short- 
 horns, Herefords or Devons from the eastern colonies. The poison 
 plants are a menace to any large expenditure on this enterprise. 
 The dingo has not been exterminated, but the bonus of los. per 
 scalp is paid upon about 100 heads of this pest of the sheep- 
 Tbreeder every year. The evil is not so great as to demand the 
 shepherding of flocks, as would be the case in some of the rough 
 l->ut well grassed country of the south-west. If there are no hurt- 
 ful shrubs and the wild dogs were all killed out, the district would 
 I).- regarded as a first-class one for stock ; as it is, it is spoken of 
 with some qualification in this respect. In a dry season water is 
 not as plentiful as could be wished, but there is never any approach 
 to disastrous drought. Well water can be struck at shallow depths. 
 There are facilities for irrigating garden or orchard plots along 
 Ihe course of the Avon, but land for this purpose would 
 have to bj purchased from private owners. The general 
 configuration of the country is undulating, while there are 
 some hills so steep as to b^ only adapted for grazing. 
 The timber consists of morrell, salmon, York, and white gums and 
 jam trees, which costs from 355. to ^ 5 per acre to clear, the jam 
 country which has been ringed for some years being indicated by the 
 lowest figure and the virgin green forest areas in the higher one. 
 Since horsefeed has been so greatly in demand very little save 
 wheaten hay has been grown in Toodyay. This kind of crop is not 
 only the most lucrative, but it demands less labor than wheat. The 
 district is visited by buyers' travellers, who secure all the produce that 
 growers are willing to part with. When the writer visited Newcastle 
 to obtain the information which is now being printed, farmers were 
 holding their hay, as the market had a strong upward tendency. 
 About Christmas time chaff had been selling at 6 and ^"7 per ton, 
 but short shipments from the other colonies, the result of a short 
 harvest and a dry season, were making their influence strongly felt, 
 and there was a disposition to keep the barns full until supplies 
 would realise ^"8 or ^"9 per ton, but this may be regarded as a 
 speculative quotation and due to special causes which would pro- 
 bably be of short duration. The facilities for the transport of the 
 crops to market are all that could be desired, especially as the railway 
 freights may be almost said to have been indulgently framed in 
 favor of the farmer. Most of the small quantity of wheat that is 
 reaped is kept for seed grain. Wheaten hay is preferred to oaten, 
 not only for its extra weight, but also because it is better adapted 
 to the climate, as it does not so quickly get overripe during harvesting 
 
8 4 
 
 The 
 
 and stands an unexpected spell of dry weather with less injury. The- 
 co-operation of the Land bank is not very largely availed of simply 
 because the growers are too prosperous to require to borrow. They 
 recognise its advantages, and would strongly commend them to those- 
 who had heavy preliminary expenses to incur in establishing then* 
 selves. But as most of the older settlers till their own land and have- 
 overcome all the early difficulties of re-claiming their fields from? 
 the forest before the bank came into existence, they have the profits- 
 of the sale of their crops to enable them to undertake further improve- 
 ments and to buy plant, both of which are employing a lot of capital 
 in Toodyay. The scene at harvesting time is very different now to- 
 what it was a few years ago, when old-fashioned implements of limited 
 power were in vogue. Now more than one reaper and binder is to 
 be seen in many paddocks, and all the hay is cut by steam 
 instead of horse or hand power, the use of which it does not require- 
 a long memory to recall. The altered regime is fully recognised by 
 the manufacturers of agricultural machinery in England, and they 
 spare no effort to bring the latest additions to the resources of th( 
 farmer under the notice of so progressive a body of men as the pro- 
 ducers of Toodyay, who know what they want, and have money t< 
 pay for it, without asking for long terms. An example of the good- 
 ness of the market of the Eastern districts for ploughs and reapers 
 and binders, harrows, scarifiers, and steam chaff-cutting plant, 
 afforded at a show held last year at York, and the illustration fully 
 applies to Newcastle, where, however, the possession of an ample and 
 well appointed show ground prevents exhibitors having to combat 
 difficulties in displaying the latest triumphs of the designer, the en- 
 gineer and the artisan. The show ground at York, stored as it was- 
 with many examples of the stock and the produce of so large and 
 prosperous a district, was found to be too small to accommodate the 
 machinery sections, and in this department the display had to be relega- 
 ted to a piece of spare ground which the visitors passed on their way 
 to the exposition. But, so far from umbrage being taken by the 
 machinery firms at what they might have considered to be scant 
 courtesy on the part of the show committee, seeing how expensivt 
 it is for exhibitors to send goods of heavy bulk such a distance fror 
 town, that every agrarian labour-saving invention that adorns th< 
 catalogues of the most up-to-date firms for the season of 1896-97. \va? 
 displayed, it was evident that the opportunity was too good to lose r 
 and anyone who would ascertain the number of machines of varioui 
 kinds that have been introduced around Newcastle, Beverley, Yori 
 and Northam, during the last three years, would be forced to the 
 same conviction. A cry of something like commie-ration is being 
 raised on behalf of the farmers of Great Britain, whom high rents and 
 foreign competition have been seriously depleting within the last few 
 years. In Western Australia it is not too much to say that the pro- 
 ducer in anything in a large way, is on the high road to indepen- 
 dence. 
 
85 
 
 It is worth while adducing another feature of the management 
 of the large estates of Toodyay to show the spirit of independence 
 that is abroad in the colony, and the determination of every man 
 who gets his living off the land to be his own landlord. There are 
 in the possession of private owners of large means, who have been 
 .able to clear very large paddocks, some extensive- areas of arable 
 lands of the most superior character. One- of the best of these 
 estates has been offered to a tenantry on the share principle, that is 
 to say, the landlord is willing to take a portion of the crop in pay- 
 ment of rent ; but during the present season (1897) none of the pad- 
 docks have been let, and stock have been 1u -ned into these corn 
 lands, which have gone back to pasture, while almost every acre 
 belonging to the Crown that will produce wheat is being sought out 
 and applied for. It should be added that pasture land is marvel- 
 lously improved by cultivation. Not only do the indigenous grasses, 
 the best of which are of the silver r.nd kangaroo varieties, spring 
 thickly upon it, but the dandelion, or Cape weed plant, so thickly 
 .covers the ground that is a great assistance to the stock-owner in 
 fattening his sheep in spring and early summer. The Cape weed 
 was introduced to the colony some years ago by a vessel which car- 
 ried hay from the Cape of Good Hope to Esperance Bay, and since 
 that time the plant has been steadily making its appearance all over 
 the settled districts of Western Australia, and is generally welcomed. 
 It is true that the so-called dandelion, when it is in flower, imparts 
 to butter made from the milk of cows despastured upon it, a slightly 
 bitter taste, and injures the keeping qualities of the butter ; but, on 
 the other hand, it outstrips in rapidity of growth almost any other 
 land of herbage as soon as the rains of autumn fall. 
 Cape weed is making great encroachments among the pastures of 
 Toodyay, and as very few milch cows are kept there, it is encouraged. 
 'The silver grass, which may be ranked with dandelion for the 
 shortness of its life each season, and for its fattening properties, is 
 the almost universal feed for stock up to December, when, having 
 .shed its seed, it wilts away, and the thin parched shoots are 
 scattered by the wind or so sodden by a thunderstorm as to be 
 .almost annihilated. But while it is green it is an invaluable fodder 
 plant, not alone because it is succulent and nourishing, but also on 
 .account of its being found everywhere, although the best land 
 produces it in the greatest abundance. Just before it seeds it is 
 .almost equal to hay in sustaining working horses and in giving to 
 them a bright satin coat. The kangaroo grass, which is also a 
 ^reat mainstay, resembles English rye, and while it remains green 
 is a luxury for the animals turned out where it is found. Its peculiar 
 sweetness attracts to it the marsupial tribe in preference to any 
 other, and it is well known that the kangaroo is a veritable epicure 
 in his choice of diet. Wherever there is a patch of this grass or a 
 sward of tender shoots of coarser kinds coming through burnt 
 ground, or a wheat paddock that is unprotected, kangaroos will be 
 
86 
 
 found, where they have not been exterminated, as is the case in the 
 Newcastle district, at any rate near the town, by the progress of 
 settlement. The corkscrew grass is also very common about 
 Newcastle. This is good fodder, but its sinuous spines, from which 
 it derives its name, are troublesome to sheep, and injurious to the 
 wool. Still, in a part of the colony like Newcastle, that is too dry 
 for maize, and in which oats are only moderately successful, the 
 corkscrew grass, which does not die off in the hottest season, is a 
 serviceable root. Some oaten hay is grown, but chiefly for racing 
 stables. Not only at Newcastle, but in the whole of the eastern 
 districts, the staple hay crop is wheat, although it grows too thick a 
 stalk to satisfy horse owners in its natural state. But after the 
 wheat has been passed through a chaff-cutter, the cut of which can 
 be adjusted to any length of the sample, from a quarter of an inch 
 upwards, this process of artificial mastication prevents the coarseness 
 of the stalk being objectionable. 
 
 The rainfall, which is about the same as York, namely r 
 15 inches, is less than the Newcastle people desire, especially 
 as the Avon is the only watercourse of any note in Toodyay, 
 and residents of back blocks have to resort to wells and dams 
 to tide over the latter end of the summer. The cost 
 of well-sinking is generally 2 per foot, and for excavating clams r 
 i/- per yard ; well water in most places is struck at a depth of 2< 
 feet. The earliest rains are expected in April and the latest at th< 
 end of September, but there is occasionally a thunderstorm before 
 the regular autumn rains set in, and sometimes a shower or two late 
 in October or the beginning of November. But as the average 
 season provides only a short, and not too abundant, rainy period, 
 summer ploughing is in favour wherever it can be practised, that is r 
 where the land is not too heavy and the teams available are strong 
 enough to do the work. The soil of the district may be clearly 
 denned as heavy and light ; the first is that which has been more 
 than once referred to in writing of the eastern division as " rich 
 forest land," that is to say, the country that grows the largest Yorl 
 gums, manna trees, and silver wattles. This formation can stand 
 the strain of yearly cropping if it receives a dressing of from twc 
 to three cwts. per acre of bonedust, phosphates, or guano. It i< 
 only by continuous cropping and starving that such land can be 
 exhausted. It produces from one to two tons of hay, or ten 01 
 eleven bushels of wheat, per acre, and those who possess cleared 
 areas of this soil are justly regarded as fortunate men. And even of 
 the rich forest country there are patches that are strangely and 
 superlatively good. When the writer was at York, Mr. Parker, one 
 of a family of very large farmers, and the owners of some of the 
 most valuable and fertile agricultural lands of which Western 
 Australia can boast, called my attention to what he called " the red 
 streak " running in a line north and south for a mile or more acros 
 the stretch of broad acres, through which the young corn was 
 
87 
 
 making its appearance. The band of darker higher green to which 
 Mr. Parker pointed was almost as vivid as a mark of blood upon a 
 pallid lace. The whole field had the health of a well-nourished 
 crop, but the plants on the "red streak" stood above the rest of the 
 wheat as though they had been sown three weeks earlier than those 
 on the remainder of the rest of the ground. " That," said Mr. 
 Parker, " is a wonderfully prolific belt of country which runs for 
 miles as far as Northam. It always grows twice or three times as 
 much as any other place on the farm. Last season we could not 
 get the reaper and binder through it, yet it has received just the 
 same treatment as the rest of the ground, and the whole of the crop 
 was sown on the same day." The " streak " has been found like 
 a line of reef in various properties, and it is Mr. Parker's 
 belief that it could be traced without a break, if anyone took 
 the trouble to follow it out of the cultivated lands, through the 
 f >rest, a great deal of which still remains in a state of nature, not- 
 withstanding that it is of such great fertility. Last year the Messrs. 
 Parker were the largest producers of hay in the eastern districts, a 
 result which they ascribe to the possession of cleared forest lands, 
 thorough cultivation, and the fact " that they have a large slice of 
 the potential ' red streak ' right through their properties. 
 The light soil is the jam country. This class of timber is never 
 found on the best land. The jam tree soil yields Irom 15 cwt. to a 
 ton of hay, and about eight bushels to the acre. Jam is usually 
 found intermixed with morrell gums. There are a few red gums at 
 Toodyay, but they are so rare that they are hardly to be taken into 
 account as a guide to the good, strong loam in which they grow. 
 Wattle and stinkwort is found in fertile hollows that would grow 
 first-class fruit. As in the territory beyond Northam, white gum 
 country in Toodyay is to be avoided by the farmer. An excellent rule 
 for the stranger to follow is that the darker the ground the larger 
 the crop that will be taken off it. 
 
 If any capitalist should desire to establish orange and lemon 
 orchards of an ideal kind, he can do so by the aid of irrigation on the 
 banks of the Swan river at Nardie pool, and at Deepdale, a few 
 miles from Newcastle ; but he will nave to buy the slopes of the 
 river at these points from private owners. A great country for fruit 
 of every kind. Western Australia can rival Spain in raising the cit- 
 rous tribe for size, thinness of rind, and luscious quality. The oranges 
 grown at Cheriton, near Gingin, are a marvel to visitors who have 
 seen the bests fruits the globe can produce, and the younger trees 
 planted at Newcastle bid fair to equal them when they reach their 
 prime. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN DIVISION. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT. 
 
 The southern district in these pages will be understood to be a 
 belt of country, eighty miles wide, extending from Beverley to 
 Albany, on the shores of Princess Royal harbor, and through the 
 centre of which belt is laid the Great Southern railway, 243 miles in 
 length. The Great Southern railway was the scheme of Mr. 
 Anthony Hordern, a Sydney merchant, who placed his proposal 
 before the Government of Western Australia in 1882. He asked 
 that in consideration of constructing the line he should be granted a 
 subsidy of 12,000 acres per mile, selected in alternate blocks within 
 40 miles east and west of the railway. Colonel McMurdo and Mr. 
 Joubert made similar offers. The Legislative Council, which was 
 the parliamentary institution in those days of Imperial Government, 
 desiring to know more than had then been ascertained about the 
 character of the country through which it was desired to make the 
 line, sent out a survey party to make a reconnaissance. The 
 members of the party were the Hon. the Surveyor-General, Mr. (now 
 Sir Malcolm) Fraser, the deputy surveyor-general Mr. (now Sir 
 John) Forrest, Mr. C. D. Price, inspecting surveyor, and Mr. H. S. 
 Ranford, whose services and intimate knowledge of the district are 
 commended in the deputy surveyor-general's report. They found 
 that the section of country under review is a plateau having a mean 
 surface level of about icoo feet above the sea. The principal 
 features of this plateau have some interest ; from it flow all the 
 principal storm water channels of the southern part of the colony, 
 including the Swan river, the upper portion of which is called the 
 Avon, and its branches. It is a noticeable fe.ture of the physical 
 geography of this part of the colony that it differs from that of other 
 parts of (he world. The best land is here high up away from the 
 coast, whilst in other countries the rivers have made the lowlands 
 fertile by what they have borne from the highlands. Doubtless, 
 says vSir Malcolm Fraser, the fact of the highest country being near 
 the coast accounts in a great measure for the lesser rainfall and a 
 higher temperature in the interior during summer, as the moisture 
 from the sea becomes precipitated before the clouds reach far from 
 the coast ; both the position and the limits of the principal forests 
 clearly support this supposition. The bed rock of the southern 
 
8 9 
 
 district is granite, " covered in parts by concretionary ironstone, 
 sand plains, and clay flats." The deputy surveyor-general estimated 
 there were about half a million acres of good agricultural land 
 along the route as being available for occupation, in addition 
 to 158,000 acres of similar land that had been parted with 
 by the Crown. The Surveyor-General adds : " I consider the 
 block as a whole quantity of about three and a half million acres, 
 now let for pastoral purposes, may compare favorably with any like 
 quantity taken in a similar way in one block anywhere else in the 
 central district of this colony." The survey party found that the 
 country passed through presented no engineering difficulties of 
 magnitude. The rivers and streams crossed are so near their source 
 thai bridges are small and far between. With the easiest of grades 
 the line rises from 700 feet at Beverley to its greatest altitude, 1,277 
 feet, 75 miles south of York. It then alternates between 989 feet 
 at Arthur river, to 1,250 feet at Yowangup, then down a gradual 
 decline to 815 feet at Kenclinup to the sea level at King George's 
 Sound. Jarrah forests were found in the Darling range and 
 abutting on the Gordon plains, southward of the Gordon river, and 
 elsewhere to the westward. 
 
 The report which Sir John Forrest made 16 years ago as the 
 result of personal inspection of the country between Beverley and 
 King George's Sound, is a reliable guide for, as he says, he wrote 
 from " careiul examination," and he is a witness of special know- 
 ledge and experience of the geography and characteristics of 
 \Yes:cni Australia. Some extracts from his report may, therefore, 
 be advantageously quoted: "The soil within the area colored 
 yellow on the maps is mostly of a light chocolate color, grows ex- 
 cellent grass in ordinarily good seasons, is timbered generally with 
 eucalyptus loxophleba (York gum), acacia acnuiinata (raspberry jam 
 trees), and acacia microboliya (manna gum), and is well adapted 
 for the growth of cereals. In the vicinity of Moojebup, Yowangup, 
 Ettakup, and Martinnp, etc., there is at present a better opening 
 for agriculturists than in any other place between Beverley and 
 King George's Sound ; the land is of the richest description, the 
 clearing is tolerably easy, and the climate salubrious, and it must 
 eventually be a large wheat producing district. It is within 100 
 miles of King George's Sound, being in that respect nearer a port 
 than Moorumbine, which has for many years produced a large 
 quantity of grain. In the vicinity of Staunton springs, Kechualling, 
 \Vag.-garriip, Collanilling, Dumbleyung, Coompetine, Moojebup, 
 Camoallup, Moordinnp, Jackatnp, etc., are also admirably suited for 
 agriculture and, with increased facilities of transport, would no doubt 
 provide the colony with large quantities of wheat and other cereals. 
 The water supply along the route, although in some places scarce, 
 may, I think, be considered as tolerably good, and in many places 
 water is plentiful. The Palinup river has in the past been very defi- 
 cient in this respect, and a fine country has been almost deserted in 
 
9 
 
 consequence. Recently, however, tanks have been made, and more 
 fresh-water wells have been obtained ; and I believe that with 
 ordinary good seasons and renewed energy, the whole of the; 
 upper Pallinup will not only carry larger numbers of sheep, but 
 will also be a wheat-producing district. Water is now secured and 
 conserved in this neighborhood by wells, dams, and tanks, and 
 generally with excellent results. The prevailing timber along the 
 route and over the country examined is eucalyptus redunca (the 
 Wandoo or white gum tree). ' This tree/ says Baron von Mueller in 
 his excellent work on the forest resources of Western Aus- 
 tralia, ' is so indifferent in regard to soil, as to prosper on cold r 
 clayey, or poor gravelly flats, where humidity stagnates in the wet 
 season,' and I may go a little further and say that it generally grows 011 
 that description of country. In the same way as eucalyptus 
 redunca is an index of inferior land, so eucalyptus loxophleba 
 (York gum), and acacia microbotrya (manna gum) are an index 
 of the most fertile country. Within the limits reported upon, viz. r 
 20 miles on each side of the supposed line, there are at the present 
 time about 250 homesteads. These 250 settlers are for the most 
 part industrious, hardworking men, and manage to make a fair 
 living. A few of them have made a moderate competence ; but as 
 a rule they live on their homesteads, attend to their sheep, and do 
 the work of laborers. Many of them began life as shepherds, and 
 by care and industry have secured a small independence. The 
 district seems in many places well adapted for the growth of fruit, 
 The vine, plum, peach, and pear trees seen in the gardens on the 
 elevated country along the water-shed of the Arthur and Gordon, 
 rivers, appear healthy, and to bear abundantly. There cannot be a 
 doubt but that the whole of the country between Beverley and 
 King George's Sound is capable of being more beneficially utilised 
 than it is at present, and that as population increases and cultiva- 
 tion is more common a larger number of people will reside upon 
 the land." After the report of the surveyors had been received, the 
 overtures of Mr. Hordern for the construction of the Great 
 Southern railway on the land grant principle were accepted, and he 
 formed in London the company which carried out the project. 
 
 The land grant railway, for the making of which the company 
 received in round numbers 3,000,000 acres of land, did not realise 
 the hopes either of the shareholders or the people of the 
 colony. The early death of Mr. Anthony Hordern prevented 
 his colonisation schemes from being carried out. He had intended 
 to establish experimental farms for training purposes, to provide 
 advanced instruction in all branches of agriculture for students, the 
 sons of men who were able to give them a start in life. These 
 farms were to be under the control of professors, who, when the 
 students had completed their course of instruction, would choose 
 suitable land for them to establish their own homesteads upon, and 
 assist them with direction and advice in order that they might make 
 
9' 
 
 their ventures successful. The advantages of co-operation were to 
 be securer! by the experimental farm in each locality purchasing 
 from the producers, milk, olives, and grapes, in order to manufac- 
 ture these materials into butter, cheese, oil and wine. The company 
 had other plans of land settlement which did not bear much fruit, 
 while the experimental farms never assumed a more tangible shape 
 than a descriptive report. For years, from 1884 till 1891, the 
 country along the Great Southern railway was locked up, pending the 
 selection by the company of its land grants in alternate blocks that 
 should equally divide the frontage to the line with the Crown, and 
 the progress of the district was greatly retarded. The old settlers 
 who had come from York in search of new pastures for their Hocks r 
 lost their security of tenure ; an excessive value was placed upon 
 the estate by the company, and the result was they obtained very- 
 few purchasers for a territory that has been looked to lor funds to 
 pay for the construction of the line. The shareholders received no 
 interest on their investment, and the land has not developed in the 
 way that had been expected and desired, because the land was 
 appraised at from i to 2, los. per acre, while the adjoining blocks 
 belonging to the Government, were to be had at the uniform price, 
 upon conditional purchase, of los. per acre, or as a free grant under 
 the Homesteads Act. To buy from the company also meant that 
 the settler was debarred from participating in the benefits of the 
 Land bank, and to be subject to what was for a long time a less 
 liberal freight tariff for the conveyance of produce than that which 
 was ruling on the Government railway service. From time to time 
 the company made overtures to the Government to purchase their 
 railway and land grants, but it was not until October, 1896, that the 
 Ministry saw their way to ask Parliament for the authority to enable 
 them to accept an offer. The price was fixed at ^"1,100,000. The matter 
 came before the Legislative Assembly on a motion moved by the Hon. 
 Sir John Forrest. The Premier urged that it was the policy of the coun- 
 try that the railways should belong to the people of the colony. Although 
 the land grant system of building railways had been adopted at a time 
 when the colony was not so prosperous as it had since become, it 
 was a matter for regret that one-half of a strip of country 80 
 miles wide, between Beverley and Albany, had been handed over to 
 a private company. The arrangement had not proved satisfactory 
 to the people of Western Australia, especially to the residents of the 
 district through which the railway ran. The 3,000,000 acres, com- 
 prising the land grants, were a large portion of the temperate part 
 of Western Australia, and of the south-western division, that had a 
 good rainfall. The time had come when it was advisable for the 
 country to hold these lands, in order that they might be developed 
 under the liberal land laws of the tate. The total quantity of land 
 sold, or ageed to be sold, by the company, up to the end of Febru- 
 ary, 1895, in round numbers, was a quarter of a million acres ; so 
 that there remained unalienated about two and three-quarter 
 
million acres still held by the company. This land would now come 
 back to the Government, together with the 83,129 acres which had 
 been sold by the company on deferred payment. Besides this, there 
 was a large amount of property held by the company in the town of 
 Albany. "I have no doubt/' Sir John Forrest went on to say, "that 
 if the Government possess themselves of this property, as we ask the 
 House to authorise us to do, the settlement of the country along this 
 railway will largely increase, and we will be able to throw open 
 these lands, with the advantages of the Homestead Act and the 
 Agricultural Bank Act applying to them, although they have not 
 applied to these lands hitherto. The people who live there now, 
 and those who may come there, will have all the advantages of the 
 Jfberal land laws of the colony, including the facilities afforded by 
 the Homesteads Act and the Agricultural Bank Act, and in which the 
 people settled along that line have hitherto had no part or interest 
 up to the present time, and were not able to avail themselves of these 
 advantages and facilities. All along the line at the various towns we 
 shall have many more land sales than the company have had in 
 recent years, and the land revenues from this source will be con- 
 siderable. I see no reason why the whole of the lands could not be 
 thrown open to pastoral settlement, in those portions which are not 
 required for agricultural." When the motion for the purchase of 
 the line, having been agreed to in the Legislative Assembly, 
 \vas considered by the Legislative Council, the Hon. C. A. Piesse, 
 the member for the south-east province, felicitated the country upon 
 the purchase, which would remove a blight from the district which 
 he represented, owing to it having been vain to try and settle the 
 country under the conditions laid down by the railway company. 
 He proceeded : a The old settlers who held only small holdings for 
 the purpose of sheep farming, suffered most severely, because the 
 company took it for granted that, having made their selection in the 
 early days, they had got the best land available, and the company, 
 thereupon, selected all around them, and deprived them of their 
 runs. Fortunately, the Government are to get this land back, and 
 I may tell hon. members that some choice spots will now be 
 available for selection. There are some beautiful pools on the 
 Williams which are never dry, and the land around them is only 
 waiting for people to select. I should like to lay stress upon this 
 point, because a feeling has got abroad that all the eyes have been 
 picked out of the land. That is not so. In seven years working 
 the company have only secured live new settlers in ihe district lo 
 which I refer, and these do not hold more than 5000 acres of land." 
 The Houses having unanimously decided to buy the line and the 
 estate of the company, a bill was passed the same session to give 
 effect to that resolution, and hence there is to-day a very much 
 widened area over which the man who desires to obtain land on 
 easy terms may range, and cut his boundaries where he pleases, so 
 long as he observes the condition of lying north, south, east, or 
 
93 
 
 west. The resumption of the Great Southern land grants have such 
 an important bearing upon the inducements that are offered by 
 Western Australia, that the short history that has been given of the 
 career and operations of the company has been needed to elucidate 
 the t'.ict that there is, close to a main line passing through a territory 
 240 miles long, and possessing good soil, a temperate climate, 
 and a t'air rainfall, greater room for settlement than in any other 
 quarter of the colony, owing to the locking up of the lands for about 
 ten years. In other words, had the railway been laid by the Govern- 
 ment, settlement would have been encouraged instead of being 
 checked, as it was by the interposition of private ownership of the 
 land, and desirable areas, which are now awaiting occupation,, 
 would have been beyond the reach of the selector. The advantages 
 these areas possess will be appreciated before the close of this 
 chapter is perused by the reader. 
 
 Professor William Brown, principal of the Longerenong 
 agricultural college, Victoria, who travelled through the southern 
 district in 1890, found that the country possessed a climate of the 
 most delightful character for residence and certain agricultural 
 productions. As there is a large water frontage, dense forests, and 
 a great variety of aspect by hills and valleys, there are some of the 
 in >st favorable conditions for rainfall and its conservation. Near 
 Albany the temperature seldom goes over 85 degrees, and never 
 under 36 degrees in the shade. The climate is therefore that of the 
 south of England. Farther north the temperature gradually 
 increases, until in summer it reaches about 100 degrees in the shade,. 
 at Beverley. " With such a geographical range, then, the variety of 
 soil and shelter, the water supply, sea coast resorts, together with 
 the abundance of timber and open valleys, there are attractions of 
 the most substantial sort for settlement. Indeed, the question is one 
 of ' What is it you want ?' and not of ' What can I get ?' It is 
 evident, then, that any branch of farming and gardening can be 
 entered upon under proper choice. On the sea coast and along; 
 the southern sections English grasses and green fodders will 
 luxuriate, and thus induce to dairying as a leading pursuit, though 
 there, also, culinary crops and some fruits will be successfully 
 cultivated. The international seaport of Albany cannot fail in drawing 
 out the capabilities of that district. Mount Barker, with its more 
 suitable soil and climate, will unquestionably look to the production 
 of fruit ; the Stirling rangj is decidedly one best adapted to sheep 
 ra sing, while those of Broome Hill and Katanning are evidently for 
 the cereals, and, indeed, if required, for any other thing in agricul- 
 ture and gardening. The latter sections are of high value." To an 
 interviewer, Mr. Brown stated that he had made a thorough 
 examination of the south from a farmer's standpoint. His brief and 
 strong statement is that " not the other colonies only, but even the 
 people of Western Australia themselves, evidently do not know how 
 much is waiting for development." He saw thousands of acres in 
 
94 
 
 contiguous blocks of fine chocolate lands, light clay loams, am 
 peaty soils in all shades and situations. The very hilltops are 
 covered with good soil which are all accessible to the plough, none 
 being higher than 150 feet above their own valleys. The upper 
 ranges have some natural grasses and healthy sheep and 
 cattle runs. He saw several fresh water lakes and creeks that 
 keep good all through the season, and that cannot fail to become 
 an important element in the settlement of the country. Of the 
 timber, as he confessed, he never, in all his American, Canadian, 
 British or Australian experience, saw so much value per acre as 
 stood upon some portions of the Millar Torbay property in the 
 shape of karri trees hundreds and thousands of acres of magnificent 
 trunks 150 feet and 180 feet in height, without a branch, and as 
 sound as a bell. The late farm manager of the agricultural college, 
 Rosewcrthy, South Australia (Mr. M. Eastwood), has stated "that 
 the land along the line, from an agricultural point of view, may be 
 classed in two sections, that within the first 45 miles from Albany 
 being rather wet, and the climate mild. The soil is a deep black 
 sandy loam in the valleys, changing generally to light sand and iron- 
 stone on the hills. This land is well suited to the growth of 
 English grasses, clovers, lucernes, etc., and on this account will bz 
 well adapted to dairying in all its branches. All kinds of market 
 garden produce can be grown all the year round in abundance, and 
 for fruit culture the climate and soil are admirably suited. Large 
 quantities of green fodder may be provided throughout the year for 
 cattle. Most of this land is rather heavily timbered with red gum 
 and jarrah and is expensive to clear and cultivate. Some of the 
 valleys within a few miles of Albany are almost clear of timber, but 
 require drainnge. Beyond the 45 miles the country rapidly changes, 
 the climate becomes much warmer and drier, and the soil less 
 sandy. The reel gum and jarrah give place to white gum, York 
 gum and jamwood. the two latter trees generally being indicative of 
 good soil. Along this portion of the line the country is undulating 
 in character, the soil varying in quality from rich chocolate loam 
 in the valleys to light grey sand and often ironstone and gravel on 
 the hills. The chocolate soil is well adapted to the growth of wheat 
 and other cereals. The wheat crops growing in different settle- 
 ments along the line this past season are as fine as I have seen in 
 any of the eastern colonies, yielding from i8to 25 bushels of grain of 
 first class quality. This portion of the land (between Beverley and 
 Mount Barker) I consider will be largely occupied by wheat growers. 
 It is, in my opinion, specially adapted to wheat and sheep fanning 
 combined. The vine and fruit trees will also repay the settler for 
 planting. Much of the poorer soils on the hills will, when partially 
 cleared of timber by ringing and burning the undergrowth, grow 
 good grass and make first class sheep runs." 
 
 Along the route of the Great Southern railway the Government 
 have opened nine agricultural areas, comprising 450,328 acres. 
 
95 
 
 The Pallinup area of 180,000 acres has been gazetted, but has not 
 yet been thrown open for selection. The Beverley area, which is 
 one of the nine referred to as being available for selection, is 
 described in the references to the Beverley district. Of the others 
 we avail ourselves of the particulars furnished in The Descriptive 
 Xotes Receding Agricultural Areas in Western Australia, issued 
 by the Lands department. This work says : " It might be thought 
 by some that the enterprising Western Australian Land company had 
 exhausted all the best of the land along their line by their extensive 
 selections ; but this is far from the case, as the land was selected by 
 them along the line, subject to the condition that the Government 
 should divide the frontage with the company." . . . " Of the 
 areas thrown open 40,937 .acres have been taken up (to January, 
 1897), principally at Katanning, by ninety-six settlers, a satisfactory 
 number, when it is remembered that only one of these areas has 
 been open just three years, while some of them have not yet been 
 open twelve months. Lying, as they do, along the route of a splen- 
 did line of railway, between the capital of the colony and Albany, 
 the port of call for the great ocean liners, with land admirably 
 adapted for the growth of cereals, and in many places of fruit and 
 vegetables, these areas possess many inducements to settlement." 
 
 The Moorumbine area was gazetted open for selection in July, 
 1893. It possesses the advantage of having the railway running 
 directly through the middle of it, and adjoins the Brookton siding 
 at Seabrook townsite, which by rail is about 223 miles from Albany, 
 20 miles from Beverley, and 118 miles from Perth. The land is 
 much the same as that in the Beverley area that is to say, it is 
 mostly of a light loam, very suitable for the production of fruit 
 and cereals. The timber on this country consists mainly of York 
 gum and jam, and it is estimated that the average cost of clearing 
 would be from 3 to 4. per acre. The land is well adapted for 
 mixed farming, and it is recommended that for this purpose a 
 square mile of country should be acquired. At the beginning of 
 1897 rive selectors had taken up 1,754 acres of the Moorumbine 
 area. 
 
 The Narrogin area was opened for selection in January, 1893. 
 It contains 25,000 acres, of which 12,782 acres are surveyed into 
 42 blocks. There were, when the latest published returns were 
 made up, 13 settlers on this area, who held in the aggregate 6666 
 acres. This is also a good corn growing area, and it directly adjoins 
 the railway, and is distant only two miles from the Narrogin railway 
 Station, which is about 64 miles from Beverley, 179 miles from Albany, 
 and 162 miles from Perth. 
 
 The Wickepin area was open for selection in March, 1893. It 
 contains 97,000 acres, of which 37,195 are surveyed and cut up into 
 222 blocks. There are nine settlers upon this area, which is 
 about ten miles from the railway, and they hold between them 5539 
 acres. This is regarded as an especially good area, much of the. 
 
96 
 
 land being of an excellent description, and well suited for the gro\ 
 of both cereals and fruit. The timber is chiefly York gum and jam, 
 and the country would cost about ^3 per acre to clear. Excellent 
 roads lead from the railway to the area, which is served by the 
 Cuballing siding ; the siding is situated by rail about 55 miles from 
 Beverley, 188 miles from Albany, and 153 miles from Perth. Good 
 water has been obtained by sinking at shallow depths in this area. 
 
 The Wagin area was thrown open for selection in November, 
 1892, and contains 26,000 acres, of which 16,421 are surveyed. Only 
 a limited portion is rich enough for the growth of cereals, but much 
 of the land is suitable for fruit culture. At present there live settlers 
 on this area, who hold between them 1287 acres. As the area is 
 situated on the main trunk line adjoining the Wagin Lake townsite, 
 and as there is already considerable settlement in the vicinity, on the 
 land which belonged to the Western Australian Land company, no 
 doubt there will be much enquiry for land in this area later on. 
 Putaning townsite is situated within this area, consisting of 44 
 suburban lots averaging from four to thirteen acres each. 
 
 The Darkan area was opened for selection in April, 1894. It 
 comprises 62,000 acres, of which 12,131 acres have been surveyed 
 into 52 lots. This area is distant from the southern railway about 
 30 miles, and may be said to be situated between Wagin on the east 
 and Bun bury on the west. There are good roads leading through the 
 area, and on to the Wagin railway station, which is 95 miles from 
 Beverley, 149 miles from Albany, and 192 miles from Perth. This 
 area embraces a fair quantity of rich soil, and has a splendid rain- 
 fall. A branch of the Hillman river runs through it. The land 
 would cost about ^"4 per acre to clear, and is well adapted for fruit 
 and cereals. At present three selectors hold land to the extent 
 865 acres. 
 
 The Katanning area is one of the largest and best agricultun 
 areas in the colony, and settlers located thereon have already 
 achieved a considerable measure of success. It was opened for 
 selection in January, 1892, and contains 100,000 acres, of which 
 40,907 are surveyed into 282 blocks. Of this amount, 19, 707 acres have 
 been taken up by selectors; situated between Beverley and Albany,, 
 by rail about 127 miles from the former, and 116 miles from the 
 latter place, and 225 miles from Perth, close to the central station 
 and chief stopping place on the Great Southern railway, and a 
 nourishing settlement thrown open by the Western Australian Land 
 company, this line area was bound to attract settlement ; this it has 
 alreadv done in a maiked degree. The suitability of this portion of 
 the Cplony tor eereals is hugely demonstrated by the establishment 
 of a tirM-Ja-s toller mill at the townsite of Katanning by Messrs. 
 K. II. and C. A. Piessr. The land COStS from 3 to 4 per acre to- 
 clear, and water i> obtainab e, especially after Clearing. The rail- 
 wax runs right through the area, Decides a network of roads, run- 
 ning for the most pai t parallel and at right angles, three townsit< 
 
 uu 
 
 :: 
 
97 
 
 are laid out along the line within the area Wooclanilling, Moojebing, 
 and Pimvernving, and for the encouragement of village settlement, 
 394 town and suburban lots of from three-quarters of an acre to 
 one-eighte-en acres have been surveyed. No doubt this is one of the 
 best areas yet declared in the colony, and the settlement already taking 
 place is encouraging. The peculiar suitability of this land for fruit 
 culture is brought prominently before the notice of the public by the 
 splendid orchards which have been planted close to Katanning 
 tow u site by Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse, and the Western Aus- 
 tralian Laud company. 
 
 The Ewlyamartnp area was gazetted as open for selection in 
 March, iSg}. It adjoins the railway in the vicinity of Broome Hill, 
 which is an important settlement thrown open by the Western Aus- 
 tralian Laud company, situate by rail 139 miles from Beverley, 104 
 miles from Albany, and 237 miles from Perth. It contains 46,000 
 acres, of which 39,258 acres are surveyed and laid out in 198 blocks 
 ready for selection, but as yet there are no settlers within this area, 
 due undoubtedly to the greater attractions of the Yilgarn goldrields 
 during the last two years. The timber on" this country is chiefly 
 York and white gum. The land is in parts very good, and suitable 
 for corn-growing. It would cost, on the average, about 3 per acre 
 to clear. There are good roads intersecting it, giving easy access 
 to the railway line. The area is not particularly watered, but 
 doubtless clearing would largely increase the supply, as in the cases 
 of other localities. The ground in this area will no doubt be taken 
 up when the good land in the Katanning area has all been applied 
 for. 
 
 The Tenterden area is by rail 50 miles from Albany and 291 
 miles from Perth. It was opened for selection in November, 1892, 
 and contains 30,000 acres, of which 19,750 acres are surveyed into 
 58 blocks. As yet there are only hve selectors, holding 1,085 acres. 
 The land is chiefly timbered with white gum, and is of the same 
 average quality as that of the other areas along the Great Southern 
 railway, much of it being suitable for corn growing, and more of it 
 for fruit culture. A special feature in favor of this area is the large 
 rainfall, which increases as a southerly direction is taken. This 
 area has also been laid out and mapped with a view to village 
 settlements, fifty-five town lots and 57 surburban lots having been 
 surveyed and thrown open. Speaking once more in general terms 
 of the areas along the Great Southern railway, they are essentially 
 corn-growing areas and are easily and comparatively economically 
 cleared, while in many places vines and fruit of all kinds will 
 flourish abundantly. They are nearly all easily approached by the 
 railway, which is well equipped by stations, sidings and rolling stock, 
 and which maintains a daily train service. 
 
 The Pallinup area, the largest of the agricultural areas in the 
 south, is situated about 30 miles to the south-east of Broomehill. 
 This area comprises some 180,000 acres, but only portions along the 
 
9 8 
 
 various creeks are suitable for agricultural settlement. It is onl 
 partially surveyed at the time of writing (1897), and has not yet 
 been thrown open for settlement. The area contains some good 
 land, both for cereals and fruit-growing. Surface water is scarce, 
 but supplies may be obtained by tanks and wells. It is intersected 
 by the Pallinup river, and Warperup creek and many tributaries. 
 This area is likely, when opened, to become a much sought after 
 and valuable one. 
 
 Pingelly, 32 miles from Beverley, is a fine wheat-growm 
 district which offers exceptional advantages to settlers, owing to a 
 block of 191,400 acres, with an extensive frontage to the Hotham 
 river, and close to the railway station, which belonged to the 
 Western Australian Land company, being available for selection. 
 The Moorumbine agricultural area, which has already been 
 described, also runs up to a siding, so that the transportation of 
 produce is \vell provided for. The Advertiser (Albany) furnishes 
 some evidence of the fertility of the soil. That journal reports that 
 Mr. J. N. Taylor, nine miles west of Pingelly, obtained 900 bushels 
 of wheat from 30 acres of land, or at the rate of 30 bushels per acre. 
 Off the field referred to, Mr. Taylor has taken never less than 2 
 bushels to the acre, and that only in very bad seasons. Some of the 
 900 bushels of wheat which is the subject of notice, was purchased 
 by Mr. A. Y. Hassell, who pronounced it to be as good a sample of 
 seed grain as he had ever seen. The next township going south 
 along the railway is Narrogin, 63 miles from Beverley, which is 
 surrounded by large areas of arable lands, which are extensively 
 under cultivation. The conservation of water is rendered easy in 
 this locality owing to the presence of many small watercourses, 
 which can be dammed at a small expenditure of money and labor. 
 Besides the unoccupied blocks of the Narrogin agricultural area, 
 there are 9,180 acres of the resumed land grants to choose from. 
 These grants adjoin the agricultural area, the railway station, and 
 the townsite. 
 
 Wagin Lake, 95 miles from Beverley, is a very progressive 
 scene of farming industry. It is studded with excellent farms, which 
 are in an advanced state of improvement. Within the last six 
 months the officers of the Lands' department have been kept busy 
 in registering new applications for land, which inspection shows to 
 be easily cultivated and capable of growing heavy crops. Among 
 the chief settlers is the Hon. C. A. Piesse, one of the pioneers of the 
 Arthur river settlement on the Perth-Albany road. When the Great 
 Southern railway was opened, Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse, who 
 had been in business at the Arthur river, migrated to Katanning and 
 Wagin Lake. They b< >nght land largely from the Western Australian 
 company, and have spent much money in utilising it for farms and 
 orchards. It is their rule never to keep an acre of wholly unim- 
 proved land, the improvements ranging from fencing and ring- 
 barking on grazing areas, up to the sowing of wheat in fertilised 
 
 i 
 
 
 
99 
 
 paddocks, and the laying out of vineyards and orchards which are 
 among the most celebrated in the colony. They have manifested 
 the utmost confidence in the Wagin Lake and Katanning districts, 
 and their properties are calculated to inspire the same feeling of 
 reliance in those who come to spy out the land. Messrs. F. H. and 
 C. A. Piesse have altogether 6000 acres of land, for most of which 
 they gave high prices to the company. They cut out their blocks 
 close to the railway stations, abutting on the boundaries of the town- 
 sites. In some cases they could admittedly have got superior 
 country at a little distance from the line, but they preferred to save 
 cartage expenses, and to spend those savings on manures. Of the 
 6000 acres, 1500 are cleared and under crop in alternate years, 
 about 800 acres being thus harvested each season. The estates 
 include 114 acres under vines and orchards, namely, 80 acres at 
 Katanning, 29 acres at Wagin Lake, and 4 acres at the Arthur 
 river settlement. A drive round the outskirts of Wagin Lake with 
 Mr. C. A. Piesse furnishes a very instructive insight into the 
 resources of the district. His homestead is built on a hill com- 
 manding a picturesque prospect of hill and dale, and a park- 
 like expanse of jam and manna trees. The house, a very 
 spacious one, is built of handsome grey granite, which is found on 
 the crest of one of the local ranges. From the house slope the 
 cornfields, vineyards, and orchards of the enterprising proprietor. 
 He points to trees that are thriving on land which would be too 
 poor to yield more than one or two crops of cereals, but w T hich is 
 capital for fruit production. The apples, apricots, peaches, 
 plums, and cherries are, Mr. Piesse says, as large as those which are 
 produced on the best chocolate soil of the Hon. F. H. Piesse at 
 Katanning ; but the flavour is not quite so full or pleasant as that of 
 the fruits of the richer loam, which is always the most profitable when 
 placed under cereals. The great variety of the soils of the district 
 is, Mr. Piesse says, very advantageous, although this natural feature 
 of the south used to be decried. He remembers the time when 
 superficial observers were prone to say that the York gum and 
 manna country should be cultivated, and all the other soils left for 
 pasturage purposes ; but the lessons of experience have vindicated 
 the reputation of other kinds of land that was looked doubtfully 
 upon. All that is necessary is to select the right kind of crop for 
 each variety of ground, and every class except the poorest gravel 
 will yield a profitable return. In the opinion of Mr. Piesse, it is 
 beneficial to have such a diversity of natural conditions which con- 
 duce to the enlargement of the number of products which the dis- 
 trict has to send to market. In other words, if all the land was of 
 the richest chocolate or deep loams, there would be a reluctance to 
 plant anything except wheat, or oats, whereas, since it has been 
 found that fruit can be very profitably raised where the cereal 
 harvest would, sooner or later, be scanty, every encouragement is 
 given to extend the orchard acreage. 
 
IOO 
 
 Mr. Piesse is much impressed with the facilities that are now 
 presented to new settlers, in comparison with the harder lot of those 
 who had to pay what are no\v admitted to have been oppressive 
 prices for their holdings under the regime of the Western Australian 
 Land company. To have the state as a landlord, offering cheap land, 
 and cheap loans to improve it, instead of being under the rule of the 
 owners of a private railway, whose freights, time table, and general 
 regulations were beyond the control of the Parliament of the 
 colony, is an object that Mr. Piesse has labored for. He endeavored 
 for years to throw off a yoke that was repressing the settlement of 
 the land and keeping down the growing of food supplies for the 
 population of Western Australia. The thrall of private rule was 
 creating class interests of the most injurious kind, the Government 
 tenants being privileged to prosper, while their southern neighbors 
 were galled by the rigor of their contracts. Now that the cause 
 which was so long fought for has been won, Mr. Piesse submits 
 that it is within the reach of the new men to do as much in twelve 
 months, with the aid of the Land bank, as many of the older 
 residents were able to accomplish in three years. Formerly Wagin 
 Lake was the destination of men of means, whose substantial stone 
 houses more like suburban villas of the middle-classes than the 
 humpies in which pioneers have lived in some parts of Australia 
 attest that they have come to stay ; but even some of these found it 
 to be very exacting to pay as much as 2 per acre to the Western 
 Australian Land company, instead of ics. per acre to the Lands' 
 department. To them the purchase of the land grants by the 
 Government has brought a most sensible relief, for Sir John Forrest 
 has announced that if Parliament approves of the step he will be in 
 favor of remitting all payments beyond los. per acre, no matter how 
 much the owners of the blocks agreed to give the company for 
 them. This question is expected to come before Parliament during 
 the ensuing session ; but as the Forrest Government is fresh from 
 an appeal to the country, with a substantial majority behind it, no 
 doubt is felt as to the vote upon the question as to whether the 
 conditional purchasers from the company are to be placed on the 
 same footing as those who dealt in the first instance direct with the 
 Crown. So far, however, nothing has been said respecting the 
 making of a refund to purchasers w r ho have their titles, of the 
 amounts which they paid in excess of los. per acre for their properties. 
 
 Mr. Piesse, who is entitled from his long and extensive exper- 
 ience on the subject, to speak with authority, makes the following 
 classification of the soils of the district of Wagin and Katanning : 
 (i). A light sandy soil, having a clay subsoil, on which chiefly grows 
 white gums and patches of manna. This land will grow one or two 
 successful crops of cereals in a good season, and if it is not then 
 enriched it should be used for pasture or planted with fruit trees. 
 A profitable use can be made of these areas by ploughing them in 
 September and planting immediately crops of the squash tribe, which 
 
IOI 
 
 yield abundantly, while the pumpkins, water melons, etc., do not 
 appear to be any drain on the fertility of the land, which can be 
 sown next autumn with wheat or oats. The only precaution that 
 has to be taken in following the course here prescribed, is that the 
 new land must not be broken up until the seed time for the squash 
 has arrived, for the crop will not do well if the land is allowed to 
 consolidate after ploughing before the squash seed is put in. By 
 using some of their virgin paddocks for producing water-melons 
 and pumpkins for the goldlields, the Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse 
 have had very lucrative returns which, after deducting expenses, in 
 marketing the crop, have gone a good way towards defraying the 
 cost of clearing the land on which the yield was grown. (2). An 
 excellent chocolate loam, upon which the white gum is never seen ; 
 this land grows York gums, manna, and jam, and it is the best that 
 is found in the south. It is equally good for corn raising or orchards, 
 and not only produces a heavy harvest, but is of great stamina, even 
 where it is only fallowed by way of recuperation. (3). A red 
 clayey soil carrying a small admixture of gravel. Here the salmon 
 gum is mostly seen, and it has been usual to pass it by. The exper- 
 ience gained to the east of Northam, however, where salmon gum 
 country has been tried with encouraging results, is tending to bring 
 this territory into use about Wagin and Katanning. (4). There is 
 a small proportion of a more friable chocolate soil on which small 
 York gums, more than usually ragged in appearance, appear 
 together with some manna trees, but no white gums. These 
 spots are especially congenial to fruit trees. The places in 
 which this characteristic are found are to the west, south and 
 north of Wagin Lake, but none to the eastward of that centre. 
 Land of this description is available for selection at distances 
 varying from six to 20 miles from Wagin, Katanning, and Narrogin. 
 (5). A white, cold, sterile gravel, carrying some ironstone, is found 
 upon some of the higher levels. This sort of country has not yet 
 been proved to be profitable for any cultivation. It might grow 
 vines well enough ; but while there is so much better land, thoroughly 
 adapted for vineyards, open for selection, vignerons naturally 
 hesitate to risk their outlay and labor in making experiments, which, 
 even if they were successful, would only be generally followed when 
 there is ten times the present rural population in Western Australia. 
 The gravel country is used for pastoral purposes, for which, when it 
 is free of poison plants, it is fairly well adapted, if not too heavily 
 stocked. On some of the lighter sandy loams near Wagin, the 
 peculiarity is met with of patches of redgums, which only grow in 
 heavy lands within the limits of the south-western district. One of 
 these small forests is to be seen near the Tellarian brook, a water- 
 course that was utilised by the Western Australian Land company to 
 supply water for the locomotives of the Great Southern railway. 
 Mr. Piesse says that Mr. W. Fleay is settled upon a similar area near 
 the Arthur river, and he has found the land very fertile. 
 
102 
 
 is 
 . is 
 
 The value of ringbarking as the initial work of the selector 
 lauded by Mr. Piesse, who estimates that at least 30 per cent, is 
 saved in the subsequent cost of clearing if it is not necessary to do 
 that work for a couple of years. As a case in point, the experience 
 of Mr. Taylor, of Kechualling, is cited. Mr. Taylor, when he 
 commenced \vork on his holding, paid ^3 and ^3 los. per acre for 
 clearing. He had a lot of his trees ringed, and this season he 
 called for tenders for removing the dead trees, when there was 
 competition for the job at 305. to 2 per acre. If Mr. Piesse's 
 advice is followed, selectors near Narrogin, Wagin, or Katanning, 
 will clear only enough trees in the green state to make room for the 
 first year's crop. They will, meanwhile, ringbark all their trees, with 
 the exception of a few shade trees. When the course of decay has 
 made clearing simple and economical, it will be carried out, and one 
 crop of cereals or squash will be taken oft" the land that is intended 
 for an orchard, before fruit trees are planted. Then the trees will 
 have a clean nursery bed to thrive in, instead of one infested with 
 white ants, which find shelter in the dead wood that lies about a 
 paddock until the second season's ploughing and harrowing has 
 enabled them to be removed. So far, owing perhaps to adopting 
 this precaution, the orchards about Wagin and Katanning are very 
 free of disease, the red scale of the citrus family being the only 
 parasite that has made its appearance. 
 
 Mr. Piesse predicts a great future for the land on the Arthur 
 and Beaufort rivers when the Pinjarrah-Marradong railway is 
 carried on to join the Great Southern line somewhere near Wagin. 
 Although this valuable territory has been cut into under the 
 " poison " regulations of a former time, which allowed monopolists 
 to get possession of blocks for 21 years and leave them unimproved, 
 there is, according to our informant, enough left to give new 
 impetus to settlement, whenever this fertile division is brought by 
 the steam engine within reach of market. At present an enormous 
 area of well- watered and superior land is only used as sheep runs, not- 
 withstanding that it has a better rainfall than that which belongs to 
 the Great Southern rojitc. It will be possible for many selectors to get 
 a river frontage, and to be within 130 miles of Perth. To get to 
 Perth by rail now, the traveller has to travel east, instead of west, 
 to Narrogin, Wagin or Katanning, and make almost a circle of 
 his route before he is set down in the city. So it is not surpris- 
 ing that, with all its many recommendations, the tract of territory of 
 winch Mr. Piesse speaks so praisefully is entirely undeveloped by 
 the husbandman who seeks to sell his produce. There are a few 
 fields and orchards devoted to supplying the needs of the households 
 of some of the old identities, but it is not incorrect to say that 
 sheep-raising is the resource of the district. For the growth of soft 
 fruits, the Williams district, lying west of the Williams road, is 
 reputed to be fully equal to the Lower Blackwood. At Wandering 
 Mr. Watts has succeeded in growing a first-class sample of dates. 
 
103 
 
 He fonvat -cU-cl some of them to the Bureau of Agriculture, which 
 placed the fruit on exhibition in the Chamber during the sittings of 
 the last Producers' conference, and they were much admired by the 
 delegates. The dates were shown in all stages of growth from the 
 germ-buds to the matured date in the fresh state, in which it is 
 seldom seen south of the line. There were also samples of the fruit 
 in a preserved condition. The size of the fruit, and the lustre of the 
 portions of the tree that were forwarded with them, exemplified 
 that the opinion held by Governor Weld, when he was at the head 
 of the administration of the colony, that Western Australia, in its 
 temperate regions, had the climate of the Mediterranean and the soil 
 of South Africa, was a conclusion drawn from very accurate obser- 
 vation. In dwelling upon what a granary of the colony the southern 
 district will be, Mr. Piesse desires to correct what he speaks of as a 
 misapprehension existing among those who have not travelled from 
 Beverley to Albany, except in the train, that the " eyes have been 
 picked out of the several farming centres." The reply to this 
 fallacy, said Mr. Piesse, is that the prohibitive prices set upon the 
 land by the Western Australian Land company prevented the best 
 portions being alienated. Had sales been made readily, there would 
 have been no need for the Government to step in and buy back the 
 grants in order that they might become available to the non- 
 capitalist who desired to cultivate them. The newcomer to-day is 
 the gainer by the loss the country sustained in shutting out selectors 
 from 1884 till 1891, in order that the company might select their 
 grants at leisure and with a full knowledge of the likeliest areas, and 
 also, by that wholesale alienation of the public estate he is in as 
 good a position to get a valuable holding adjacent to the railway 
 now that the colony is in the full tide of its goldlielcls' prosperity 
 as if he had arrived ten years earlier, when lucrative markets would 
 not have been open to him to the same extent that they are now. If 
 this statement is doubted, a day spent in the examination of the 
 country under the guidance of Mr. H. S. Ranford, the Govern- 
 ment land agent, whose headquarters are opposite the Katanning 
 railway station, will dispel all misgiving. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE WILLIAMS DISTRICT. 
 
 Intersected by the Perth-Albany road, which in a former 
 chapter is treated as the eastern boundary of the south-western 
 district, is the Williams district. The \Villiams territory is dealt 
 with as part of the southern district notwithstanding that it runs 
 west beyond " southern " lines because its soil, climate, and rain- 
 fall have more affinity w r ith the features of the country along the 
 Great Southern than that bordering on the South-western railway. 
 That is to say, it is much drier than the section near the coast line, 
 of which Pinjarrah and Bunbury are the principal centres ; the soil 
 is of a lighter character, the timber is smaller, and therefore 
 cheaper to remove, the arable areas are larger, the natural 
 herbage in its virgin state more scanty than will be seen in the 
 south-west proper. The essential advantage which distinguishes 
 the Williams from the southern division is that the former is the 
 better w r atered. While there are hundreds of miles of fertile 
 country near the Great Southern railway, w r hich runs from Perth to 
 Albany, that are solely dependent upon a conserved water supply, 
 the Williams has the Hotham, the Arthur, Murray, Williams, and 
 the Beaufort rivers, which never go dry, running east to west a few 
 leagues apart from each other. Moreover, the Williams has 24 
 inches of rainfall, while the south has 16, but it partakes of the dis- 
 advantage of the latter in carrying poison in places. It is, how- 
 ever, one of the oldest settled farming places in the colony, and the 
 residents mostly have large holdings on which they combine the 
 raising of sheep with the growth of cereals. Two causes have 
 operated against new settlement to any large extent the lack of 
 railway communication and large private estates. It will be 
 necessary to examine these causes more closely than the mere 
 naming of them, to see how far they are in process uf being re- 
 moved, lest the readers of this GUIDE may be led astray by being 
 diverted from the Williams, under the impression that they cannot 
 get a desirable foothold there. 
 
 A survey of the route of a railway from Pinjarrah to Marra- 
 clong, which is about 45 miles from Pinjarrah to the Williams, is 
 now being made. This is regarded as the first section of a line 
 that will ultimately join the Great Southern railway at Wagin Lake. 
 When this junction is made the journey between Albany and Perth 
 will lie reduced by about 100 miles, and a very large tract of country 
 will be opened up, while easy transit to market will be given for a 
 large quantity of produce which has now to be carted from 40 to 
 
6o miles to the nearest railway station. The people of the Marradong 
 and Williams have for years forcibly represented the undue burden 
 they were carrying, in being outside the pale <>l the railway service ; 
 they linked that the cost of cartage swallowed up the profits of their 
 crops, and that it was more profitable for them to grow sheep than 
 wheat while they were under this disability. The appeal was not 
 lost upon the Government. " One of the principal planks of our 
 platform," said Sir John Forrest in his inaugural address to the Pro- 
 ducer's conference in 1896, " has been, and still is, to give better 
 means of communication to the people of the colony, and especially 
 to those parts of the colony which are capable of agricultural de- 
 velopment." The Premier deplored the fact that every year 
 Western Australia was paying an increasing sum for imported food ; 
 that in 1895 ^400,000 was expended on commodities which the 
 colony ought to gather from her own lands ; he declared it was time 
 more was done by Parliament and by the Government than had 
 been before to lessen the importations. This declaration was made 
 in April ; on the 27th August, in delivering his budget speech, Sir 
 John made it clear that he had meant what he had said, and that 
 he had had the Williams in his mind's eye when he addressed the 
 Conference. In dealing with public works, he announced " We 
 propose to make provision for the survey of a railway line from 
 Pinjarrah to Marradong, in the Williams district. We hope these 
 surveys will be finished before the end of the financial year and 
 that when we next meet it will be possible for us to go on with this 
 work out of current revenue ; but we cannot make any promise 
 with regard to that, as all will depend upon the amount of money 
 required after the surveys are made, and also upon the money then 
 available for the work. At the same time the Government hopes 
 when this House meets after the general election it will be found 
 possible to proceed with the work of construction." At the time of 
 writing (July, 1897) the financial year which closed on June 30 for 
 1896-7 shows a credit balance of more than ^500,000,80 that the 
 Government may be expected to include a Bill to authorise the con- 
 struction of a railway from Pinjarrah to Marradong among its pro- 
 posals for the ensuing session. The scheme will probably receive 
 cordial support, because it will have an important source of revenue 
 in the timber industry as well as in the carriage of produce. For 
 23 miles, beginning u miles from Pinjarrah, the line will pass 
 through the magnificent jarrah forest of Camballing, which 
 has been a revelation to all w r ho have seen it. " When 
 the world learns from the experiments which are being made in the 
 wood-paving of the London streets (writes a special correspondent 
 of the West Australian} \vhat the value of jarrah is ; when public 
 works and building enterprise, and mining requirements, have 
 denuded the other forests of the colony, one of the largest and 
 grandest of them all will make a railway pay of itself alone. If a 
 man wants to see what jarrah timber is, let him see those towering 
 
io6 
 
 
 trunks on the road to Camballing. The jarrah of most other districts 
 is puny compared with the goliaths of Camballing. And this mag- 
 nificent forest, in which there are many trees ten feet thick at the 
 base, is a virgin one. Except to clear the road, an axe has never so 
 much as chipped the bark off any of the mammoth trees, that are 
 so thick that the sun is sometimes shut out by the intertwining foli- 
 age." When the question is asked or debated in Parliament " Will 
 a railway to the Williams pay ?" it can be answered by interroga- 
 ting the questioner " Will it pay to carry jarrah ?" An estimate of 
 the enormous value of this superb forest has been made by a Scotch 
 syndicate represented by Messrs. Millar and Young. These gentle- 
 men spent about a \veek looking for the cheapest and easiest route tor 
 a line to bring the timber from the forest, and it is understood that 
 they are making representations, through their principal, which will 
 result in the Government being approached with a view of obtain- 
 ing large rights over this important national asset, which, so far, 
 has been ceded to private firms in other portions of the Darling 
 range upon merely nominal terms. But, remembering that the 
 Premier has pronounced against private railways, and has said, on 
 more than one public occasion, that all his influence will be exerted 
 against private concessions being granted in a similar direction, 
 Parliament will probably be asked to decide that the forest shall be 
 utilised as the feeder of a railway belonging to the colony. 
 
 After passing through the Camballing forest the traveller reaches 
 the Hotham, on the banks of which are some first-class farms. 
 One of them is owned by Mr. F.Cowcher, who left Pinjarrah nearly 
 30 years ago to get more room. The father of ten sons, several of 
 whom are selectors, he has cleared a large area of valuable river-flat 
 which, in the absence of a railway, he finds it lucrative to use as a 
 fattening ground for stock. To the reporter who collected informa- 
 tion for these pages he said : " To give you an idea of what I could 
 grow here, I will tell you the produce of two acres of my 
 garden, which are no better than nearly all of the farm. I got last 
 year from those two acres, four hogsheads of wine, two tons of 
 potatoes, half a ton of plums, a sack full of dried peaches, and a 
 heavy crop of vegetables and garden stuff for the pigs. And that 
 is the kind of soil that is 40 miles from a railway. My neighbor, 
 Mr. Farmer, who has one of the best farms in the district on the 
 river Murray, and who has been cropping his land for 30 years, 
 with only an occasional rest, getting from 15 to 28 bushels of wheat 
 per auv, will tell you, and show you, what sort of a corn-growing 
 centre this will be when we get a railway." At present there is not 
 one-tenth of the cultivable lands cropped. Leaving the banks of 
 the Hotham, an ironstone timbered ridge exists for about five 
 miles, and then the valley of the Manaclong brook is re-ached. 
 There is no need of a finger post to point it out, for suddenly there 
 breaks upon the view an expanse of deep rich fallow land on the 
 hillside, of a dark chocolate colour. Across the valley, and all 
 
icy 
 
 along its course for ten miles, the same kind of soil extends, and it 
 is closely settled, and largely under cultivation. There, full in view 
 of the road, are the farms of men who have made farming pay, in 
 spite of the absence of a railway ; whose homesteads, extensive 
 barns, machinery sheds, and stacks of hay, attest the success of land 
 settlement in Western Australia. Now, as to the profitableness of 
 farming in the Marradong valley, which there is every reason to 
 believe will not much longer remain isolated, Mr. James Munday, 
 who is not ashamed to admit that he began with little or no capital 
 except his brains, energy, and a strong pair of arms, says : " I can 
 crop at a prolit here, 60 miles from Jarradale by road, and not only 
 rear a family of nine young children, but get ahead a bit in the 
 world, after selling my stuff delivered by wagon. I am clearing 
 more land this year, and besides my own farm I have leased this 
 year Captain Fawcett's property at Mokine. I made enough money 
 out of last year's harvest to be able to buy this season a winnower, 
 a double furrow stump-jump plough, a chaffcutter and horsew r orks." 
 Onwards past Mokine another belt of live miles of forest is entered. 
 Emerging from the forest, the trees in which suffer in comparison 
 of those at Camballing, there is at the foot of the hill a superior 
 blackboy fiat in the valley, some selections upon which have lately 
 been taken up. Thence the road passes through 2000 acres which 
 have been reserved for the Quandinning common, and several large 
 sheep pasturage properties. Sixteen miles from Marradong 
 the Williams is crossed upon the Quandinning bridge, which 
 has been erected by the Public Works department to make 
 the stream passable for the settlers in the winter season w r hen 
 the river runs a banker. The flats of the river are well 
 drained and yield heavy crops ; they are largely cultivated. Fifteen 
 bushels of wheat per acre is reckoned a fair yield ; this quantity is 
 often exceeded by early-sown crops. The clearing on the flats is 
 heavier than it is away from the river, and corn is in cases grown 
 among the dead trunks of standing trees that have been ringed. 
 Three miles from Quandinning Daylerking is passed. There is a 
 Government school there. Some excellent farms are in this 
 neighborhood. Beyond, the country is chiefly occupied by sheep 
 farmers, but some cultivation is also carried on. The largest holder 
 of both freehold and leasehold estate is Mr. W. Lavender, at 
 Boranning (otherwise known as Williamsburgh), 70 miles from Pin- 
 jarrah. He has about 200 acres cleared, out of a pastoral property 
 of 70,000. His return is from 16 to 20 bushels per acre of wheat, 
 and 25 to 30 bushels per acre of barley. When he is able to 
 manure his land with stable refuse it yields from 25 to 30 bushels of 
 wheat per acre. On fallowed ground he has harvested from 40 to 
 50 bushels of oats per acre. Some of his ground has been cropped 
 for 25 years. He says that onions and potatoes would grow splen- 
 didly along the river flats. Mr. Lavender has some thousands of 
 acres which are highly suitable for cultivation. 
 
io8 
 
 The va-lley of the Marradong through to the Williams river is 
 comparatively narrow strip of good land, 40 miles long, timberec 
 with wando, white gum, blue and red gums. It also grows wattle 
 sapling gums, jam trees, and black boys. The soil is chiefly a light- 
 colored loam that has been proved to be so good for the production 
 of cereals that when the railway is made it will not pay to run stock 
 upon the better parts of it. The land is easily cleared level enough 
 to plough, yet is well drained, and has a clay sub-soil. For 305. per 
 acre all except the large trees can be taken out, and for ^3 th< 
 wando and gum trees will be included in the grubbing. At Marra- 
 dong the land is generally of a chocolate color, and this portion 
 regarded as the pick of the Williams district ; the heaviest croj 
 are garnered there, as a rule. On the flats of the Williams, toucl 
 ing the river, Messrs. Hamersley, Cornwall, and others, in picked 
 spots, get quite as good a return as any of the Marradong growei 
 This, however, is the exception, as the Williams land is more prone t< 
 run light both in color and quality, and to suffer from a bed of gravel 
 intervening between the top soil and the clay. Where the light 
 land is met with the timber is light also, so that what is saved in the 
 cost of clearing might be advantageously expended on manure. So 
 far, with the exception of a little stable manure, fertilisers have not 
 been used owing to the distance which bonedust or guano would 
 have to be carted. The practice is to crop the land only every third 
 year, the fields being rested and fallowed for 12 months each in 
 turn. During the resting year sheep are turned into the paddocks. 
 The stock do well on the arable land, and their droppings help to 
 keep the ground in good heart. The contour of the country 
 between the hills, which are topped with ironstone ridges, is undu- 
 lating enough to prevent any portion of it being soured by surplus 
 water, yet not steep enough in any part to allow the top soil to 
 washed axvay by a heavy rainfall. The valley is indeed a fertili 
 river flat, high enough to escape clanger in flood, and broad enougl 
 to make an immense cornfield, 
 
 The Crown Lands department has courteously furnished sorm 
 statistics showing what scope there is for settlement in the Willia 
 district. There are in the possession of private owners ioo,< 
 acres, within live miles of the main road from Camballing to th< 
 Williams river, a distance of about 40 miles. Of this area 60,000 
 acres belong to farmers and gra/ici s, and 40,000 acres, which were 
 part of the land grants of the Western Australian Land company, 
 as consideration for the making of the Beverley Albany railway, 
 have- recently reverted to the Government owing to their purch; 
 of the line. Between Camballing and Boranning, private estates 
 comprise 19,000 acres, and prior to the resumption of the land 
 grants the company held 26,000 acres in this neighbourhood. 
 From Boranning to the Williams bridge, 22 miles further on, there 
 are 41,000 acres selected, and the company had 14,000 acres, 
 which may be chosen by new comers under the liberal land regu- 
 
lations of the colony, although up till the end of 1896 it would 
 have cost three or four times the Crown price of IDS. per acre- for 
 conditional purchases, to have acquired them from the proprietors 
 of the railway. The computation is made of laud approximately 
 within live miles of the main road from Pinjarrah to the 
 Williams, because the road runs along the valley of the 
 Hotham, and it is in the valley that most of the cultivable 
 land adapted to the growth of cereals is to be found. Including 
 the resumed land grants of the railway concessions the Lands 
 department estimates that 60,000 acres of value to the farmer remain 
 to be selected within five miles of the road. Most of these 60,000 
 acres are equal to the best of the blocks already alienated, but they 
 are not in large areas. The day has gone by when an immigrant 
 might hope to obtain in the Williams district more than 200 acres 
 of fertile land in one lot, seldom, in fact, more than 100 acres. 
 While the railway was being agitated for it was represented to the 
 Government that 100 or 200 acres would be useless to a settler who 
 was 50 or 70 miles from a railway station. His only prospect 
 of success was to go where he could get, in addition to wheat fields 
 for the sowing of cereals, grazing country to bring in an income 
 from a \vool clip and the sale of sheep to the butcher. Now, how- 
 ever, the construction of the promised line w r ill give a man as good 
 a living from the cultivation of 100 or 200 acres as he can now make 
 from 1,500 to 2,000 acres while depasturing is his chief resource. 
 
 The rainfall of the Williams district, although not heavy, is 
 sufficient. The average is 24 inches, and this quantity, in the 
 temperate climate in that part of the colony, goes further than it 
 would more to the north. The easy slopes prevent much of the 
 rain running off the fields to swell the flow of water in the river. 
 The friable soil easily allows the show r ers to enter it, and the clay sub- 
 soil stores and conserves the supply. The years 1894 and 1895 were 
 the most unfavorable that have been experienced for many years, 
 the record for 1895 being only 13 inches. But even under 'these 
 adverse circumstances land, which owing to the cost of carting 
 fertilisers and of taking crops to market has almost always to 
 depend upon its own resources, has grown nothing less than seven 
 bushels to the acre, while 30 bushels have often been harvested 
 when the average rainfall has been registered. In 1896 rain 
 fortuitously fell early in March, which enabled growers to sow 
 early, with a corresponding increase in their returns. 
 
 As an orchard country the Williams district is hardly to be 
 excelled, all kinds of fruits doing well, except citrus. Apricots, 
 apples, peaches, muscatel grapes, and plums are produced, of large 
 size and superior flavor. So far the fruit garden has merely 
 been an appanage of the steading to supply family require- 
 ments, as so perishable a commodity as fruit could not be 
 sent to market in presentable condition after being jolted over 
 a road in a wagon for 50 or more miles ; but with 
 
no 
 
 the advent of the locomotive it is expected that the natural 
 advantages that are ready to assist the skill of the orchardist will 
 be largely utilised. The principal places where trees of the kinds 
 we have named are to be seen in a most thriving condition and, 
 in season, laden \vith a highly remunerative yield of fruit, are Mr. 
 W. Lavender's property at Boranning, and Mrs. Hamersley's estate 
 near the Williams river. The latter estate is about two miles from 
 the township ; the site rises abruptly from the river bank ; it is a 
 picturesque, somewhat rugged glen, with large boulders of granite 
 jutting out of the hillside, almost on the brow of which there are over- 
 spreading carob bean trees a novelty in the colony which were 
 introduced many years ago. The close arching boughs and foliage 
 form a cool arbor which the most searching noontide sun cannot 
 penetrate. A young orchard was planted four years ago by the late 
 Mr. Hamersley, one of the oldest settlers on the Williams, and the 
 result has shown the excellence of his judgment in selecting the 
 site, and the varities of trees best suited to the location. The trees 
 have grown sturdily, and are large enough for a full year's growth 
 beyond their age. The peaches and apricots are bearing heavily. 
 Adjoining the orchard there is a small and flourishing vineyard. 
 Three additional acres have been planted with apples since Mr. 
 Hamersley laid out the ground. The only drawback is the bird 
 pest, which the Producers' conference asked should be dealt with by 
 the offer of liberal bonuses for the destruction of parrots and silver- 
 eyes. 
 
 Another scourge is the wild dog. Dingoes are more numerous 
 now then they used to be. The pastoralists say the wild dogs kill 
 so many sheep as to seriously reduce the profits of wool-growing ; 
 they have, our informants add, taken to attacking rams, which is a 
 proof of the boldness and ferocity of the pests. Unless shepherds 
 are employed, at a cost in wages and rations of ^65 per annum, per 
 man, it is impossible to keep sheep, and the dingoes have even been 
 known to attack the stock while they are yarded close to the shep- 
 herd's camp. The losses are so great, according to the statements 
 of leading flockmasters, that the squatters want more people to take 
 up land. Instead of settlers being regarded with the jealousy that 
 exists between the runholders and the farmers in many parts of 
 Australia, they will be welcomed, and the laying of the line is 
 looked to as a means of bringing an agrarian population which will 
 help to drive back the wild dogs. Mr. Francis Cowcher, who has suf- 
 fered much from the raids of the wild dog, makes an instructive report, 
 which should serve to discourage on the part of selectors the 
 wholesale slaughter of kangaroos, a practice which helps to nourish 
 and multiply the dingoes. He states : " When I lirst knew this 
 district, the dingo was generally a mangy cur. Now he is a fast, 
 strong, gamesome, and well-fed animal ready to kill sheep for the 
 mere sport of the thing ; and there are three times as many dogs 
 about as there used to be, in spite of all that are trapped and 
 
 
Ill 
 
 poisoned. The reason is that the kangaroo-hunters feed the 
 dingoes and enable them to rear all their young. The hunters take 
 the skin off a kangaroo, and the carcase is a rich feast of the best 
 food for the first wild dog that comes along. A bitch with whelps, 
 that would be too weak to kill much game for herself, finds a 
 butcher has been in the bush for her. She eats as much as she 
 wants, suckles her young strongly, and the whelps, as soon as they 
 are able to run about, find plenty of kangaroo meat to rear them 
 into sturdy, tigerish sheep-killers. Now, if a stop were put to the 
 destruction of kangaroos, which are already very much scarcer 
 than they were a few years ago, the dingoes would go more 
 hungry than they do now, unless they got near a sheep fold, and 
 there they would find plenty of strychnine baits to tempt their 
 appetites. As it is now, the brutes can eat kangaroo without touch- 
 ing the baits, for the hunters will not poison the carcases of the 
 animals their hounds run down, lest they should endanger their 
 own dogs, so that when the dingo wants mutton he generally likes 
 to kill it for himself. The worst of it is he does not kill one and 
 make a meal of it, but will harry and seriously bite nearly a score 
 if there is no shepherd about." Next to the value set upon a rail- 
 way nothing was so strongly urged upon our reporter's notice, in 
 travelling through the district, as the wise discretion it was urged 
 the Government would exercise in raising the bonus for the scalp 
 of the dingo from ros. to ^i per head, even although a moiety 
 should be furnished by levying a vermin rate upon the occupiers 
 of land. It was pointed out that it is not only when the dogs were 
 among the fiocks that they should be hunted down, they should 
 be pursued to their fastnesses in the hills and exterminated there. 
 This could only be done by inducing hunters to form parties, and 
 make scalp-getting their business. 
 
 The Williams district is not free of poison plants, which have 
 been the means of enabling large areas to be held unstocked, 
 unfenced, and unimproved. Under a law passed in 1871, but which 
 has since been amended, it was permissible to hold "poison lands" 
 for 21 years, subject only to the payment of a nominal rent and to 
 the condition that the noxious growths should be eradicated by the 
 end of that period. This led to the Western Australian Land 
 corporation (not the Western Australian Land company, which 
 constructed the Great Southern railway) and other large syndicates, 
 making large selections, some of which have been sought to be 
 made the subject of speculative dealings in London. Before the 
 present regulations in regard to u poison lands" came into operation 
 (providing that the holdings shall be fenced within three years) the 
 valley of the Hotham was encircled with properties upon which 
 York road poison grows unchecked the propagating places of this 
 vegetation and which, had they not been alienated, might now be 
 cleared and turned to account as farming land. The cost of 
 eradicating the poison plant by grubbing it out is given at from los. 
 
112 
 
 
 to 155. per acre. A number of paddocks enclosed by a sheep proof 
 fence have been effectually cleared of this danger to stock. The 
 shrub is most deadly when it is making a new growth after a 
 " burn," or when it is in the flowering stage. 
 
 Those who are entitled to speak with experience of the 
 Williams district inform our representative that a great deal of 
 progress is being made towards adding to its productiveness by 
 providing supplies of wheat and fodder for home consumption. 
 The railway policy of the Government is regarded as an earnest of 
 Sir John Forrest's appeal to the farmers of Western Australia, and 
 to others who desire an excellent opening to become farmers, to 
 lessen the outflow' of money for the food grown elsewhere ; it has 
 given, we are told, a strong incentive to put more land every year 
 under crop, and to farm it according to the most' approved methods. 
 " Five years ago," said Mr. Cornwall, who is one of the largest 
 cultivators, "there was not a stump jump plough in the district ; now 
 there are more than thirty of these implements between the 
 Williams river and Camballing, all of two or three furrows." A 
 plough made in the colony is preferred for its lightness, strength, 
 and suitableness for finely breaking up the soil. Some superior 
 heavy draught horses have been imported to expedite work on a 
 large scale and enable sowing to be done early enough to allow the 
 seed to be germinated by the first autumn rains. Besides wool, hay, 
 and wheat, the minor resources of the district include pig-breeding. A 
 good many fowls are also profitably kept, the birds finding their own 
 living around the haystacks and in the stubble fields, for many months 
 of the year. Many consignments of fowls are sent to supply the 
 hotels and the shipping at Albany. The latitude and excellent 
 drainage of the undulating valley of the Williams, are all in favour 
 of the poultry-keeper, and when freight trains supersede the long 
 journey of the wagon, which, in summer, greatly distresses the birds 
 on their way to the market, the farmers assure us that they will make 
 poultry-raising a larger auxiliary source of income than it is now. 
 
 A synopsis of the information collated in reply to the enquiries 
 made by the reporter of the Bureau for the SETTLER'S Grim: is here 
 given : The roads to the lands that are open for selection belong- 
 ing to the Crown (and which have this year been greatly added to 
 by the purchase of the Great Southern line) are in excellent order, 
 unless the settler, in order to get an unusually good garden block, 
 makes his way over the hills to the banks of one of the many brooks 
 which feed the Hotham, orthe other rivers which have been named. 
 The Pinjarrah and the Williams Roads boards last year co-operated 
 in clearing the main road between Pinjarrali and the Williams river 
 over its entire length, in order to afford the greatest possible facility 
 for the conveyance of produce to the railway station. This road is 
 comparatively level, and as it was marked out to tnivci>e as much 
 ironstone which is a naturally macadamised highway as was prac- 
 ticable, without making too great a detour, the heavest loading can 
 
FOR DESCRIPTION' SEE BACK. 
 
SMALL groups of this tree (E. pateus) are found 
 upon some of the rich flats and bottom lands of 
 the watercourses that run through the Darling 
 Ranges. It is very difficult to split or burn, and 
 the high cost of clearing such land has been 
 hitherto much against its settlement. It is generally 
 associated with Blackboys of large size, a- 
 as forest trees of various kinds, that testify to the 
 general adaptability of the soil to plant growth. 
 
"3 
 
 travel over it. It is now the advice of the spokesmen of the district, 
 that until the railway is laid, only men with a few hundreds of pounds 
 to enable them to handle from 700 to 1000 acres, with a small llm-k 
 of sheep, should seek to establish themselves in so isolated a part 
 of the colony. When the freight trains are running, halt as much 
 land, with intelligent and industrious farming, will suffice. In this 
 statement an exception is made in favour of the viticulturist, or the 
 orchardist, who, if he possesses only small means, can, after planting 
 his trees and while waiting for his fruit and the locomotive, main- 
 tain himself by doing work for the roads board, or on the larger 
 holdings. There are no surveyed agricultural areas in the 
 district. The selector can, however, mark his boundaries to 
 please himself, as compensation for not being able to obtain 
 a free homestead farm without at the same time applying 
 for an additional 100 acres. Attention is drawn to the declaration 
 in the deliverance of the Premier, Sir John Forrest, to the country 
 at Bunbury prior to the last general election, that an early effort 
 would be made by the Government to allow free homestead farms 
 to be selected anywhere on Cro\vn lands and to further liberalise 
 the land laws in other respects. It is admitted that the Williams 
 has not had a large share of the new settlement that has so rapidly 
 taken place within the last five years in all farming localities that 
 have the means of ready transit of crops to the consumer, but all 
 things being equal, the evidence of the yields of cereals, fruit and 
 vegetables are pointed to as proof that there is no more fertile or 
 highly-favoured division in Western Australia. The want of more 
 schools has been brought under the notice of the Education depart- 
 ment, which undertakes to provide a school wherever there are not 
 less than 15 children to attend it. The Williams is described by 
 those who know it best as being well adapted for mixed farming ; 
 but if a large grazing area is desired, as well as an arable area, the 
 selection will have to include a proportion of ironstone country and 
 " poison" land. The buying agents of produce firms are to some 
 extent deterred from canvassing for supplies, which they prefer to 
 obtain nearer to a railway line, but when the stuff is taken to Pin- 
 jarrah or Jarrahdale on the west, or to Narrogin on the east, it finds 
 a ready sale. The railway freights are considered to be very 
 reasonable especially as about four times the freight has been 
 paid in wages, \vear and tear, and horse feed before the station is 
 reached. " We cannot compete, with any fairness to ourselves, with 
 districts that are alongside the rails," is the form in which this argu- 
 ment of Sir John Forrest, on behalf of the producer, is corroborated. 
 At the same time our informants concede that they know of no 
 market so good as that of Western Australia for the cultivator near 
 a line. The crops the district grows to the best advantage are 
 wheat, oats, and fruit, and on the moist parts of the river flats, root 
 crops and vegetables, but not much has been done to turn anything 
 but wheat and oats to commercial account. Only the local demands 
 
H4 
 
 have been met for other yields. The land does not soon 
 become exhausted, as is proved by the fact that relying only upon 
 resting and fallowing, fields are now producing well that have been 
 under cultivation for nearly thirty years. As a vineyard and orchard 
 area the Williams does not take a second place, even in comparison 
 with Guildford or the Lower Blackwood, except that it is better 
 adapted for stone than soft fruits, for which the Blackwood has a 
 larger rainfall and a lower summer temperature. The fruitgrower 
 is advised, with the utmost confidence, to inspect the vales and flats 
 along the Murray, Hotham, Williams, Arthur, and Beaufort rivers 
 before he settles elsewhere. In spite of dingoes and poison patches 
 sheep are largely kept, in fact, they may almost be said to be the 
 mainstay of the territory. The sheep are generally paddocked in 
 enclosed blocks, from which the poison has been grubbed ; if on 
 open country, the flock is always in charge of a shepherd. Eagle- 
 hawks take a few lambs in the dropping season, and some chickens 
 from the poultry yards ; but if the wild dog could be exterminated 
 sheep owners would hardly begrudge the occasional depredations 
 of the enemy of the boodie rat and other ground vermin. The 
 mischief done by parrots and silvereyes in the fruit gardens is 
 considerable. The country is one that stock thrive upon if they are 
 guarded from poison. Not a great many cattle are kept, partly 
 because deaths from poison are so much more serious than when 
 sheep stray on to the dangerous ground. The principal grass is the 
 silver-grass, which grows thickly, and to a great height ; dandelion, 
 or Cape weed, has been making its appearance. Until Marradong 
 is passed the extent of arable land in one piece is not more than 
 about 100 acres. On either side the hills wall in the valley closely. 
 Beyond the Marradong the valley widens out ; and around 
 Boranning Mr. W. Lavender and others have hundreds of acres, 
 without a break, if you wished to run a plough, from end to end. 
 Until the land of the Great Southern company were acquired by 
 the state, a newcomer would have accounted himself fortunate if he 
 had been able to secure as much as fifty acres together, fit for culti- 
 vation. There is a better prospect at the present time, for the 
 company, having an early choice of the lands of the district, picked 
 most of I he best that were available, and then put an almost pro- 
 hibitive figure upon them. It should, therefore, our advisors slate, 
 be borne in mind that, owing to settlement having been retarded on 
 some of the choicest sections, due to the operations of the railway 
 company, anew arrival now has, in the Williams district, a chance 
 that would have passed away had the Crown always been able 
 to deal unrestrictedly in finding a suitable location for would-be 
 producers. The country is so well watered by live rivers and their 
 tributaries that the artificial conservation of water is not one of the 
 initial difficulties of the conditional purchaser. Drought is unknown, 
 in the sense of implying a scarcity of water for the use of man or of 
 stock, but dry seaxMis which have had a prejudicial effect upon the 
 
"5 
 
 harvest have been experienced. In so well watered a country the 
 rivers present facilities for irrigation, in some places by gravitation, 
 but not over any large extent of ground without pumping. The 
 configuration of the country varies from uplands and mountain 
 slopes and ridges to stretches that are almost level fells only 
 a few feet above the margin of the streams. These are ideal places 
 for what are known as " summer" gardens, i.e., , for the growth of 
 vegetables from November to April without irrigation. During 
 these months vegetables on the goldfields, and at Perth and 
 Fremantle, reach the highest prices. There is also a good sale for 
 water-melons and other varieties of the squash family, which on the 
 river bottoms to which attention is now being called would give a 
 large return. The timber varies from the smaller trees such as jam, 
 wattle and sapling gums, to large wanclos and red gums. The big 
 trees are as often as not left standing after ringing, and their roots 
 are evaded by using a stump jump plough. The cost of getting land 
 ready for the stump jump plough is stated at from 305. to 2 per 
 acre. The borrowers from the Land bank have not come largely 
 from the Williams district, which is a centre of an old settlement of 
 pioneers who are past the initial outlay and time of difficulty. The 
 Land bank's clients mostly are the younger race of men who have a 
 career of achievement opening to them. The Williams has a short, 
 mild winter, and a dry summer, in which the climate of what his 
 Excellency the late Governor Welcl described as that of the south 
 Mediterranean, is enjoyed. The air is the foe of asthma. The 
 residents are nearly all of British nationality, and most of them hold 
 more than 400 acres. The chief advantages of the district are its 
 rivers, rainfall, drainage, fertility, and the cheapness w T ith which it 
 can be cleared. The best farming aids are in general use, and 
 thoroughness of cultivation is insisted upon by those who have 
 made the most headway. The merino sheep is chiefly bred by 
 flockmasters, \vho are now giving some attention to crossing 
 with Lincolns and Leicesters, with a vie\v to increasing 
 the weight of the carcase and of the \vool clip. There 
 will be room for a much larger scope of farming work when the 
 Pinjarrah-Marradong railway is opened for traffic, owing to the 
 eligible areas of Crown lands that will be open for selection 
 within five miles north and south of the railway. A little 
 dairying is done for home consumption, but practically 
 none for market supplies. Besides the public estate that is 
 available for settlement, there are several desirable private 
 properties that are open for sale or lease. The owners of these 
 estates profess themselves as being willing to treat, on equitable 
 terms, with applicants for holdings, on the share principle, for the 
 cultivation of cleared land or the renting of unimproved blocks. 
 The district is not deemed to be adapted for subdivision into blocks 
 so small as ten or 20 acres, as there is no centre of population near 
 enough to encourage specialists in intense culture. Mixed farming 
 
u6 
 
 is held to be the better enterprise for the average immigrant, who, 
 we are told, will clo well enough if he is thrifty, hardworking, and 
 possesses, with common sense, some knowledge of the work which 
 he undertakes to do. The lesson of local experience in the clear- 
 ing of land, is to ringbark lirst, and to get a return from the land 
 before going to the expense and submitting to the delay in taking 
 out all the largest timber. It is believed that bone dust would be 
 the best fertiliser, and our informants look forward to using it freely 
 when they can get it delivered by a freight truck. Their profit is 
 expected to come in by being enabled to sow their land every year, 
 when it is sustained by enrichment, instead of standing out of the 
 return for their outlay in clearing for two seasons out of three, 
 while the paddocks are depending upon the processes of natural re- 
 cuperation and the running of sheep upon them to maintain their 
 nutritive resources. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 KATANNING, BROOMEHILL, TENTERDEN, MT. BARKER 
 AND ALBANY DISTRICTS. 
 
 Between Wagin Lake and Lime Lake, eight miles southward, 
 there are some first-class unoccupied areas of chocolate soil that 
 are well deserving inspection by enquirers for land. This country 
 is rather heavily timbered with morrell, salmon, and white gums. 
 It is highly recommended by Mr. H. S. Ranford, the Government 
 Land agent, who has a wide and accurate knowledge of the ground 
 along the Great Southern line that is most suitable for settlement. 
 There are thousands of acres awaiting the plough within five miles 
 of the station. As Yaarrabin, u miles nearer Katanning, is 
 approached, the aspect of the country becomes less inviting, a light 
 sandy stretch replacing the ruddy land that \vherever it has been 
 tilled has proved the mainstay of the farmer. The conviction that 
 must force itself upon anyone who makes the journey, is that with 
 hay selling at 7 per ton, and the Katanning roller-mill idle for 
 want of wheat at 55. and 6s. per bushel, it is a great pity to see 
 arable lands bounded by a railway, growing nothing but eucalyptus. 
 " What a contrast is here presented," says the Land agent, " in the 
 broad breadths of Western Australia to that of any of her neigh- 
 bors, where men jostle each other at the ballot-box to get the 
 chance of being the fortunate drawer of the number that will 
 entitle one of a crowd of applicants to the coveted prize of a piece 
 of Crown land ; or to the tedious proceedings of land boards, 
 where the claims of from half a dozen to a score or more selectors 
 who have pegged out the same block, are decided ; where the 
 bachelor has no chance against the married man ; and the newly- 
 married man has to stand aside for the father of a family. Here, 
 equally good land can be had for the asking ; there, even when an 
 applicant has, atter vexatious delays and expense, got a holding, he 
 has to pay \ per acre for it, and go to an usurer, or at best a store- 
 keeper, with a mortgage, in order to carry on, unless he has means. 
 In Western Australia the selector can get advances from the state, 
 through the agency of the Land bank, at 5 per cent., and instead of 
 having to meet his creditor with a substantial instalment of the prin- 
 cipal, after selling his first crop, he can reap five crops before 
 the bank asks him for even a tithe of the loan. Moreover, as selec- 
 tion has had at least 30 years start of Western Australia in the other 
 colonies, all the land near railway lines, and most of the best land, 
 
n8 
 
 even where there is no railway within a score of miles, has passed 
 into private hands. Let a new arrival look at the sectional maps 
 of the Lands department, which plot the country between Beverley 
 and Albany, and note the huge white spaces, intersected by the 
 
 Great Southern line, marked ' Locn , Western Australian 
 
 Land company, limited.' He can squat where he likes on these 
 spaces, on any of these great tracts that are fertile enough to tempt 
 English investors to spend three quarters of a million of money to 
 acquire them. The land grants, which are once more Crown estate, 
 were the incentive that moved the company to construct a railway 
 243 miles long, at a time when the population of the country was 
 only a fourth of what it is to-day, in the expectation that buyers for 
 the grants would be attracted at prices from L to 2, per acre. 
 The more liberal terms offered by the Government prevented the 
 company making large sales, but notwithstanding that the Lands 
 department gave away free homestead farms and sold conditional 
 purchase blocks at IDS. per acre, there were some customers for the 
 grants of the company. Surely then," says Mr. Ranford, bringing 
 his argument to a point, " land similar to that which, in the hands 
 of the company, realised up to 2 per acre, must be a great acquisi- 
 tion now that it is to be obtained from the Government for nothing, 
 to the extent of 160 acres per man and at los. per acre for any 
 balance up to 1000 acres per man." 
 
 Katanning is 222 miles from Perth ; it is the principal inter- 
 mediate centre on the Great Southern railway, having a larger 
 number of farms and a larger township than any other, with the 
 exception of Beverley and Albany, the starting point and 
 the terminus of the line respectively. The local Lands office, 
 and the post and telegraph office are commodious buildings, 
 and travellers are accommodated at a well appointed hotel. 
 The chief private buildings are the warehouse of Messrs. 
 11., A. and C. A. Piesse ; their roller mill, built of brick, 
 and equal to producing a Very large output ot Hour, was erected 
 before the Yilgarn goldiields created such a great demand for chaff 
 as to induce nearly all the fanners to cut their wheat crops for hay. 
 Katanniug does, however, supply itself with Hour, while Wagin 
 buys Hour from the other colonies at about /.*2O per ton for the year 
 The Messrs. Piesse are anxious to encourage high-class 
 fanning. They have shown the wav in the use of fertili>ers, which 
 are an innovation in the south. In i8<>5 the Messrs. Piesse used 
 bonedtist with SUCCe89 on their paddocks adjoining the railway line. 
 This year (1807) they had tried Thomas's phosphate, drilling" it in 
 with 45 Ibs. ot seed to the acre. The reporter of the Mnreau was 
 taken to see the result of the experiment. The phosphate had been 
 used in a field of light loam, within a quarter of a mile of the 
 railway station. Some of the ground had not been manured. The 
 difference in favour of the phosphate, which was applied in the 
 proportion of two hundredweights to the acre, was most marked. 
 
The crop was only of three weeks' growth ; the land had produced 
 cereals for several seasons without a rest, and the part that had 
 been left to nature showed some signs of exhaustion, the wheat 
 plants being thin and somewhat pale in colour. The phosphates 
 had sent up a strong growth which had stooled out so thickly as to 
 suggest that less than 45 Ibs. of wheat to the acre would have been 
 an ample sowing. This part of the crop was from six to eight 
 inches high ; the portion that had no phosphates was only half as 
 high, and it had a straggling, not to say by comparison sickly 
 appearance. The crop was put in with a Massey-Harris cultivator, 
 an excellent machine in the estimation of the Messrs. Piesse, but 
 they state that an improved implement that \vill sow the fertiliser 
 and the seed in drills at one operation is now being manufactured by 
 the firm mentioned from a design sent from Australia. A sample of 
 the new machine will be at work at Katanning next year. The pad- 
 docks which we inspected are not representative of the better class 
 of land that is to be seen on the properties of some growers a few miles 
 out of the townsite; but a central position was of the first importance 
 to the Messrs. Piesse, in order that they might be able to superintend 
 their clearing and cultivating operations without losing time from 
 the conduct of their large trade. They- have assisted many a selec- 
 tor to get a start by supplying him with stores and implements on 
 easy terms of payment. They had 500 acres of crop in when data 
 was being collected for the GUIDE, and their enterprise in adding 
 paddock to paddock was spoken of as having been a stimulus to 
 others to imitate their success. In one year their harvest was 
 threatened by an inundation from the railway dam, owing to the em- 
 bankment of the line, which is close to their western boundary, not 
 having been pierced to provide waterways. While the railway was 
 in the hands of the company it was difficult for farmers to obtain 
 relief from the danger of flood in a wet season owing to the lack of 
 culverts, but the Government are prepared to make them wherever 
 gocd reason can be shown. In addition to growing cereals, Mr. F. 
 H. Piesse has laid out 80 acres adjacent to the railway station and 
 the orchard of the Western Australian Land company, for the growth 
 of fruit of nearly every kind. The orchard is a first-class one, on 
 which money has been freely expended, and which is now coming 
 into full bearing. Last year at the Newcastle show Mr. Piesse made 
 a great display of apples, peaches and apricots, and was a leading 
 prize-taker. The orchard is on the side of a hill, so that it is in a 
 sunny, well-drained situation ; it is less than six years old, and as an 
 example of the fruit-growing capabilities of the south it is sufficiently 
 convincing. The adjoining orchard of the Western Australian Land 
 company was planted as an object lesson of the same kind, and it is 
 thriving well enough to fulfil its mission, if oranges and lemons are 
 excepted from the list of fruits that Katanning produces in perfec- 
 tion. Another notable property is the estate of His Excellency Lord 
 Brassey, Governor of the colony of Victoria, who, at a very early date 
 
I2O 
 
 in the history of the Western Australian Land company, purchased 
 from that corporation 25,000 acres at Broomehill, and proceeded to 
 establish a model sheep farm under the management of an experienced 
 superintendent. Goblup is one of the best pieces of country in the 
 south, and it is a very healthy sheep run. The merino sheep is 
 bred, and much attention is paid to keeping the flocks up to an uni- 
 formly high standard. The paddocks have an ample supply of 
 water from wells and dams, and the fencing and other improve- 
 ments are of the most substantial description. Speaking of im- 
 provements, it may be mentioned that an economical substitute for 
 a swing gate is to be seen leading into the paddock of a sheep far- 
 mer who hails from South Australia. Strands of wire are stretched 
 between two hurdles eight feet apart. By an ingenious, but simple 
 device on the lever principle, the bars of wire are drawn taut across 
 the gateway. A catch being released, the wire and its wooden supports 
 can be easily lifted aside, and the vehicle having passed through 
 the opening, the portable grating is replaced, and forms an impreg- 
 nable barrier against stock. A gate of this description can be made 
 in an hour, and the only fittings required to complete its adjustment 
 are two double loops of wire around the gateposts to hold the top 
 and bottom of the hurdles, and an augur hole and a pin of iron to 
 form the fulcrum of the lever. The system that is in vogue in some 
 English counties, and in Tasmania, of feeding sheep on young crops of 
 wheat and oats, is adopted by Mr. C. A. Piesse. He says that, pro- 
 vided the stock are not too long kept off the sprouting corn, or 
 allowed to remain too long upon it, they do a great deal of good. 
 The crop may be almost eaten bare up to the sixth week of its 
 coming through the seed-bed, and the result will be a more even 
 growth and better filled ears of corn. The stalk may not be so 
 long, but the plants stool as the result of being fed clown at the 
 right time and with judgment, but the harvest is heavier than if the 
 sheep had been kept oft" it, especially if the feeding down is followed 
 by a liberal fall of rain. 
 
 Mr. A. Piesse, a younger brother of Messrs. F. H. and C. A. 
 Piesse, is clearing land near the Katanning townsite, at a cost of ^3 
 per acre, for the enlargment of his vineyard of 25 acres. In his 
 opinion grapes arc one of the most profitable crops to which a 
 man can devote his attention, anywhere between Hcvcrlcy and 
 
 Kataning, 
 
 Mr. A. Piesse, who has been at Katanning ever since the old 
 
 ;v ;'/;;/' of the sheep squatters gave place to mixed farming ami a 
 large output of produce, was asked to state his experience of the 
 amount of capital a man would require in order to make a hopeful 
 start on the land in the district. In giving his answer, Mr. Piesse 
 supported it with details which uphold his conclusions. lie says : 
 " A man should have not less than 50. He should be content 
 at first with a homestead farm of 160 acres, unless he takes it in a 
 place where he is likely to be so shut in that he is not likely to be 
 
121 
 
 able to enlarge his holding when he has made some headway, for he 
 will need about 500 acres more if he intends to keep stock, and in 
 later years reach a plane of solid independence. A ring fence and 
 sundry expenses, such as stores and tools, will make the ^50 look 
 very small, but with the land fenced the selector will be entitled to 
 get a loan from the Land bank. If he is a worker and knows how 
 to go about his clearing, the 50 per cent, of the value of his improve- 
 ments which the bank will allow him to draw will not only keep 
 him going but will give him something over. This balance, with a 
 job or two on wages or a bit of a roads board contract, will lincl 
 the money for a pair of horses. He can now get some stores on 
 credit, and get a stump jump plough on a hire note, for which 
 accommodation the crop he is about to put in is a good backing. 
 While the crop is growing he can still be working for wages, and 
 the seasons are so certain and regular that the harvesting of the 
 first crop puts a man in a fair way. I have seen several men get 
 going on the lines I have sketched, and have known of no failure. 
 One man who started three years ago is not only straight with the 
 world, after making enough to pay all his creditors, but he has a 
 stack of hay and stock which he has no need to realise upon, and 
 lately he has taken up a much larger block than the one he 
 began upon. He came here w r ith less than the ^50 I have 
 mentioned as the minimum of the necessary capital ; certainly 
 he got on to some very good country, and was a tiger 
 to work, but there is plenty of good land to be occupied 
 yet, and some of it is not far away/' The Government have just 
 thrown open a reserve of 6000 acres, which had been gazetted as 
 the site of a model farm. The reserve was proclaimed at a time 
 when it was deemed that a farm under skilled direction should be 
 established to disclose the productiveness of the south ; but that has 
 been so fully demonstrated by the work of private hands that any- 
 thing in the nature of an experiment is now deemed to be 
 supererogatory. The reserve has been locked up for five or six 
 years, and notice has been given that it will be available on a 
 certain date. All the applications received on that day will be 
 regarded as having been received at the same time, and if more 
 than one application is received for one block the applicants will 
 have to ballot to determine who is to have it. This course was 
 followed \vhen the long interregnum imposed by the terms granted 
 to the West Australian Land company came to an end. The 
 company had the right for some years to choose their selejcions, 
 and in order that they might not be prejudiced in doing so the 
 Crown consented not to alienate any of the country after the sign- 
 ing of the railway contract, until the company had got its full com- 
 plement of land grants. This, of course, proved a great drawback 
 to the development of the district. Meanwhile, people were spying 
 out eligible spots, which they intended to apply for as soon as the 
 embargo was removed. To prevent a scramble, and avoid dis- 
 
122 
 
 putes as to the priority of a budget of applications for certain 
 sections, it was decided that all the applications made on the open- 
 ing day of the restored rights of the people should be referred to 
 the arbitrament of the drawing of lots. Xo more just way, one would 
 think, could have been conceived, but some applicants adroitly made 
 their success almost certain by getting their friends to put in papers 
 for the land. The man \vho had only one string to his bow had 
 little chance against a large combination, the successful member of 
 which, not wanting the block, would transfer it to the boua fide 
 selector in whose interests the application had been made. 
 Mr. Piesse is satisfied that there will be enough corn grown 
 in the colony during the next five or six years to keep im- 
 ported wheat or flour out of, the market. He points to the rapid 
 influx of farmers from the other colonies, who desire to participate 
 in benefits that are denied them in the more crowded and competi- 
 tive spheres which they are leaving. If all the wheat lands in the 
 south alone were utilised Mr. Piesse says Western Australia would 
 have wheat to spare, instead of supporting the producers of other 
 countries as she is doing now. He is a great advocate for the use of 
 fertilisers on the rules of arithmetic in adding up his profits. " If," 
 he says, u it costs 3 per acre to clear land, it is a mistake not to get 
 as much off it as possible, for it costs as much to plough, to sow and 
 to harvest poor land, as rich. The larger the crop the greater the 
 margin between working expenses and profit. A ton of guano, bone- 
 dust or phosphates will cost ^ or ^"6, and it will give a lair dressing 
 to from six to 10 acres, increasing the weight and value of the crop 
 fully one-third. In other words, the manuring has cost from 8s. to 
 1 2s. per acre, and the enlarged yield is worth fully 2. Why then 
 should land be left to 'nature, as it generally is in the south ? We 
 have found that bonedust or phosphates pays better than guano, un- 
 less what is known as ' live guano' that is containing the ammoniacal 
 salts unimpaired can be obtained, but this sort of guano is a scarce 
 article. The ordinary sample of guano contains too large a propor- 
 tion of gravel to be the best value. Up to date Thomas's phosphate 
 appears to take the palm for excellence, but its use is at present an 
 uncompleted experiment. Although hay is the most profitable crop 
 to grow just now, when the Meckering, Goomalling and Greenhills 
 lands are opened up, our farmers will go back to growing wheat. In 
 the east the new ?reas I have named have an advantage of I2S. 6d. 
 per ton in supplying chaff for the Yilgarn goldfields, as compared 
 with growers about Wagin Lake and Katanning, but we can com- 
 pete with those places on equal terms in sending wheat and flour to 
 the metropolitan and Fremantle markets. The Katanning roller 
 mills alone could grind 80,000 to 100,000 bushels of wheat each year, 
 if the corn were grown to keep it fully employed." 
 
 A ride of a few miles cast of Katanning along the main road 
 will take the Visitor past some large and admirable tarms. past broad 
 cornfields (from May until the end of October), substantial stead- 
 
I2 3 
 
 ings and out-buildings, and many other evidences of a prospering 
 people. A nourishing estate is that of Mr. Andrew, a very old 
 settler, who crops about 100 acres of rich chocolate loam. The 
 paddocks are undulating, converging into a large creek that pro- 
 vides an ample water supply for the watering ot" stock. 'The ground 
 that is under cultivation grew York gums and jam. Near the house, 
 which is of brick, and commands from the eminence on which it 
 stands a line view of the property, there are still standing the trunks 
 of some of the biggest specimens of what was at one time a very 
 heavy forest, but which was well worth clearing. The soil is of a 
 very bright, almost carmine hue. It breaks well under the harrow, 
 and can be relied upon to produce a ton of hay and upwards, season 
 after season, without manure, except. what is removed from the 
 sheep folds and stockyards. Beyond the fences the green timber is 
 so close together as to shut out the sight of the ground, looking at it 
 from a little distance. There is no more fertile spot around Katan- 
 ning. Mr. Andrew had almost the first choice as a pioneer. He 
 was formerly a pastoralist in another part of the colony, and is still 
 the owner of a good many sheep and a few score head of cattle. 
 His preference is decidedly in favour of sheep. The pasturage, he 
 says, suits sheep better than cattle, for, except in the spring, it is not 
 very long, and sheep by feeding close to the ground get a better living 
 than cows or bullocks. There is nothing but merino sheep on the 
 place. As a farmer Mr. Andrew has found the great merit of fallow- 
 ing. It not only sweetens and strengthens the land, but the prac- 
 tice also enables him to get in his seed very early, and this it is one 
 of his main objects to accomplish. The corn should get every 
 shower of the season, is his maxim ; then if the season should prove 
 to be a dry one, the crop is greatly helped to give a fair yield, and if 
 there should be a normal or a plentiful rainfall, the harvest is above 
 the average. In July, 1897, when these notes were collected by the 
 representative of the Bureau, the fields were looking as well as even 
 their owner could desire. 
 
 About two miles further on Mr. Westley Maley has established 
 himself in a few years, with the aid of capital, as firmly as it would 
 take the average settler half a lifetime to accomplish. But although 
 Mr. Maley has smoothed his way by employing a great deal of 
 labor, his place is none the less an object lesson of what may be 
 accomplished on a smaller scale by those who do most or all their 
 own work. Even before an axe or a plough was used on Mr. 
 Maley's location its value was apparent to those who passed over it. 
 A member of the survey party that plotted it was apprised that Mr. 
 Maley, who was then well-known in commercial circles in the city, 
 was willing to renounce the desk for a country life if he could get a 
 very eligible holding. As the result of the special information, the 
 southern district gained a settler who has not been content to move 
 along well-worn ruts according to old fashioned rules of farming. 
 Having got an area that is not better than many others along the 
 

 124 
 
 Great Southern line, but which has more superlatively good land for 
 its acreage than is commonly found, Mr. Maley let large contracts 
 for clearing, and imported white Tuscan and purple straw varieties 
 of seed wheat, as well as the seeds of Johnson grass and of other 
 herbage, which he judged would be especially well adapted to the 
 district. Of the white Tuscan he says : " If you do not sow it 
 early it is an absolute failure ; if it is sown in time, the yield is larger 
 than that of any other variety I have seen tried." He adds : " The 
 purple straw should be cut for hay, and it will then give a very 
 satisfactory return. It is generally sown in South Australia, as it 
 does well where the rainfall is light and the summer comes in early. 
 I intend to stick to these two varieties of wheat ; they are popular 
 with my neighbors, to some of whom I have sold purple straw 
 wheat for seed at 75. per bushel." Mr. Maley in reply to enquiries 
 as to what he thinks of the country as a field for settlement, has 
 made the following statement : " There is, I believe, an excellent 
 future before farmers here, but the one thing to be garcled against 
 is earth hunger. A man, where there is so much room to select and 
 such liberal land laws prevail, can easily cripple himself by grasping 
 too large an area, I mean more than he can profitably use. It is so 
 easy to pay sixpence per acre per annum that there is a temptation 
 to lose sight of the improvements, and also of the fact that unless 
 the ground is fenced, ringbarked, and stocked, it is a drag instead of 
 a help. The object to be put before all others is to make as much land 
 as possible earn an income, not to scatter one's energies in trying to 
 cover too much ground. Another point that I think it is well to 
 bear in mind : that it is better to go a little farther from a railway 
 station and get first-class land, than to have a train at the farm door, 
 if the country is inferior. I do not say the ground right at Katan- 
 ning is inferior, but it is not so good as it is here at my place, five 
 miles away. There the soil is less than a foot deep, here it is two 
 feet deep, but there is not an unlimited quantity of it. Not far out- 
 side my boundaries you come upon ironstone and poor gravel. 
 That class of country is among the ranges, and the principal timber 
 found upon it is white gum. I call it third-class country, useful, if 
 lightly stocked, for carrying sheep. Wherever a chocolate soil 
 above clay can be found it ought to be selected, as it is good for 
 every kind of cultivation, and if laid down with artificial grasses, 
 will support a lot of stock. I have been sowing Johnson grass, 
 which doc- very well indeed, but not better than corkscrew grass 
 one of the native grasses which cannot be excelled if it is given a 
 chance on corn lands that are let go back to pasture. It is very 
 d&OUght-resigting and prolific, and 1 do not know a better friend of 
 the stockmastcr in the whole range of botanical research. Silver 
 grass is also well worthy of encouragement ; although it is com- 
 itively short-lived it is very luxuriant in the spring, and stock 
 fatten rapidly upon it. After it ripens, if the paddocks have been 
 saved, sheep thrive upon it." Mr. Maley. discussing methods of 
 
125 
 
 cultivation, states that he has found the sprinkling of lime over- 
 seed wheat, after it comes out of the pickling tub, to be very 
 beneficial. It imparts a vigorous growth to tin- voting crop as soon 
 as it appears through the ground. A bushel of lime is sufficient for 
 the treatment of enough seed for 100 acres. The use of lime was 
 learned by him in South Australia, and trial has, in his opinion, 
 proved its value wherever the crop is not grown on a limestone 
 formation. The lime is not slacked, but used just as it comes from 
 the kiln. The strength of the Milestone, which he approves of, is 
 half a pound of Milestone mixed with enough water to immerse a 
 bag of wheat. Another of his successful experiments is that of 
 the tree lucerne, it needs no attention, grows quickly, and is 
 greedily eaten by stock. He has had 120 acres cleared for 
 2 ros. per acre, and has always been able to get plenty of men to 
 do the work. His greatest trouble has been the shortness of water, 
 as the wells he has made have not in every case reached water. 
 His counsel would be to make a dam in the iirst instance, and do 
 without stock for a year or two until clearing has brought soaks 
 into view. Fallowing is recommended by Mr. Maley, not only 
 because of the wholesome effect it has upon the land, but also 
 because it allows him to get a great deal of his ploughing done in 
 the slack time of the year ready for early sowing. He learns a 
 lesson in this respect from self-sown crops, which always yield 
 heavily ; one of them gave 20 bushels of wheat to the acre. Not 
 only does the early sown crop yield more hay, but it stools out 
 freely, and there are more ears of wheat than when the farmer gets 
 behind with his ploughing by waiting for the autumn rains. Al- 
 though he has not yet planted many fruit trees, he thinks highly of 
 his district for vineyards and orchards, as \vell as for cereals. 
 
 Broomehill, 139 miles from Beverley, is distinguished for a more 
 liberal rainfall than that of the more northerly portions of the 
 southern district. It has a salubrious climate, and a great tract 
 of territory where farmers are doing well. Three miles to the west 
 of the station is the settlement, where there are many desirable farms. 
 Lord Brassey's property which has been previously referred to is in 
 this vicinity. The climate and rainfall are so regular and the soil so 
 fertile, that 1 8 to 20 bushels of wheat is an ordinary crop. On the 
 east of the line, Mr. Powell, a late chairman of the Western Austra- 
 lian Land company, and Mr. Hassell, together purchased 34,800 
 acres, portions of which have been cleared and brought under 
 cultivation. On Mr. Hassell's property water has been obtained at 
 a depth of i2ft. from the surface. The company contemplated estab- 
 lishing a training farm at Broomehill, where young men would 
 gain " colonial experience" with a view to placing them on farms 
 suited to their means, when they are considered capable of 
 managing on their own account. Surburban lots have been 
 surveyed at Broomehill, and many of them have been pur- 
 chased by railway employees in order that they may raise 
 
126 
 
 garden produce for the use of their families. These suburban 
 blocks range from 10 to 15 acres and they are sold at IDS. 
 per acre. The Western Australian Land company used to charge 
 the purchaser with the cost of surveying suburban lots ; the charge 
 had to be paid in instalments, the first of which was due when the 
 application was approved. The Government makes no charge for 
 surveying any Crown lands, except areas which are applied for 
 under the poison regulations, in which case the consideration which 
 the Lands department receives beyond the benefit that accrues 
 from the clearing of the ground from poison is merely nominal. 
 Ettacup \vas one of the first places in the southern district where 
 settlement took place, some of the grants being nearly as old as 
 those which are associated with the history of York, from which 
 the early pastoralists came to settle nearer the coast. The 
 Governor of the colony, having visited these settlers and their 
 children in 1884, wrote : " Many of the farmsteads I saw are 
 such as their owners may well be proud of. They represented 
 years of arduous toil and of courageous struggle with many 
 difficulties. I found some of the grey-haired early settlers of the 
 colony still strong and hale, although nearly half a century of 
 colonisation had, I was rejoiced to see, enabled them to rest from 
 their labors, and to enjoy increasing comforts and easier circum- 
 stances, while the farm or the station was looked to by the stalwart 
 sons. Wherever I went I perceived that Western Australia, though 
 not a country of rich men, is nevertheless a land in which the 
 honest, energetic worker, of a shrewd wit, has rarely failed to gather 
 round him, as time went on, the possessions which constitute a 
 modest competence, and perhaps something more. . . 1 did not 
 find feverish, brand-new, shifting, and disappointed communities. 
 Each little township resembled an English village rather than the 
 colonial assortment of stray atoms one is familiar with elsewhere." 
 There is still a good deal of unoccupied land near Broomehill, for 
 the KwlyamarUip agricultural area of 46,000 acres is in the vicinity 
 of this f'lrining centre. While this book was in the press Mr. W. 
 H. Angove, surveyor, of the Crown Lands department, had 
 recommended the Minister to subdivide part of Location ^57, 
 which formerly belonged to the Western Australian Land com- 
 pany, for agricultural purposes. The western boundary of 
 this "location" is the Great Southern railway, and it is only 
 a little to the east of Eltakup. The Gordon river touches the south- 
 west corner of" the land, which is of a superior quality. In Mr. 
 AngOVe's Opinion the " location ' Would make a first-class agricul- 
 tural area. The Minister has Mr. Angove's proposal under con- 
 sideration, and in the meantime the ground is open for selection in 
 
 ,ed block that will suit the applicant, who is not restricted by 
 the survey lines in marking his boundaries. A little to the eastward 
 
 ition 257 there are two lar^e properties which Mr. J. F. T. 
 Hassell and Mr. T. \Y. Powell bought from the West Australian 
 
127 
 
 Land company, the former being 12,000 and the latter 2i,;(>o acres 
 in extent. These estates are used as sheep run-. South of location 
 257 the boundaries of the electoral district of Plantagenent, which is 
 represented in the Legislative Assembly by Mr. A. Y. Hassell, arc- 
 entered, and for 12 miles the line passes through Crown lands that 
 did not form part of the Western Australian Land company's land 
 grants, from which it may be inferred that the area is not of the best 
 agricultural kind. There is some good agricultural and pastoral land 
 in location 203, which is south-east of the Ewlyamartup agricultural 
 area, and recently a number of blocks in this locality have been ap- 
 plied for. The Gordon river runs south through this location, which 
 largely consists of a chocolate loam timbered with salmon gum, jam, 
 and white gum. In the moist, low-lying places along the course or 
 the river-paper bark trees are seen. The southern boundary or 
 location 263 runs to within 91 miles of Albany. Here we get into 
 open country that the West Australian Land company passed by, 
 but there are some excellent arable lands in the neighborhood with- 
 in six miles of the line. The nearest siding to this land is at Tam- 
 bellup, between Tenterden and the Broomehill stations. There are 
 between 3,000 and 4,000 acres adjacent. At the time of writing 
 Surveyor Angove is examining and plotting this piece of country. 
 By the time the GUIDE is before the public his plan and report will 
 have been furnished to the Lands department. He is dealing with 
 an area that extends to within 82 miles of Albany. It touches 
 location 41 1, 12,000 acres, mostly pastoral country, some of which 
 was obtained from the company by Mr. Hugh Climie and Messrs. 
 Garrity and Co. for the pasturing of sheep. The next land grant 
 still going south is No. 407 ; it takes in part of the Stirl- 
 ing range, and comprises 77,400 acres. The Stirling range is 
 not rich country. This grant is, generally speaking, a sand plain. 
 East of it, and divided from location 407, is the Tenterden 
 agricultural area of 30,000 acres, one of the recommendations of 
 which is that it has a larger rainfall than those further north. It 
 has excellent railway accommodation, for the Pootenup siding, the 
 Cranbrook station, and the Tenterden siding, are all within 17;} 
 miles of each other. Cranbrook is 175 miles from Beverley. A 
 large tank, containing two and a quarter million gallons, was made by 
 the company for the purposes of the railway. It soon became full 
 of good fresh water, which shows how easily water can be con- 
 served in the south at a moderate outlay. The Land company 
 planted a wattle plantation for experimental purposes at Cranbrook. 
 The descriptive prospectus of the Western Australian Land com- 
 pany says : " From indications in the ranges of this district it is 
 confidently anticipated that valuable mineral deposits will be dis- 
 covered." 
 
 Mount Barker, after passing Kendenup siding, is the next rail- 
 way station in the direction of Albany, from which it is 203 miles 
 distant. About seven miles to the east of Mount Barker is the 
 
128 
 
 Porongerup range, covered with a splendid karri forest. Some of 
 the immense trees measure 70 feet to the first branch, and 18 feet in 
 girth. The Messrs. Millar Bros., large sawmill owners, are cutting 
 karri for home use and export. They have also purchased 5000 
 acres of very rich black soil, upon which yate is the chief timber. 
 The ground about Mount Barker varies in character, much of it 
 being particularly well adapted for fruit and cereals. The Poronge- 
 rup ranges, besides being heavily clothed with karri, have a deep, 
 rich soil, which has been taken advantage of by several settlers. 
 Messrs. Dunn, Moir Brothers, and J. Knight, have selections in the 
 ranges, and are growing fruit and vegetables, including heavy crops of 
 potatoes, with much success. There was, by some freak of nature, 
 a natural clearing on the crest of the range, so that the producers 
 were not put to the expense of removing the giant trees, which stand 
 in the way of the hills being rapidly and extensively tilled. The 
 Western Australian Land company received 305. per acre for 
 the alienated blocks ; adjoining land is now open for selection 
 under the Crown. Mr. H. E. Warburton has a pastoral run of 
 10,000 acres, and sheep and cattle both do well in the 
 hills. Between Mount Barker and Albany there are sandy 
 stretches. The large farming areas have now been passed through, 
 what remains to be seen is garden land which only needs high 
 cultivation to be very remunerative when it is properly treated in 
 small areas. At the nine-mile lake, or Torbay Junction, nine miles from 
 Albany, there are what an official report describes as '' alluvial Hats 
 of humus or peaty mould, well watered, sparsely timbered, and 
 specially suited for root crops, garden produce, and dairy farming ; 
 its close proximity to Albany, where there is always a ready market, 
 renders this place particularly suited to immediate settlement." To 
 the westward of the lake Messrs. Millar Bros, have purchased 7000 
 acres which are being cleared prior to cultivation. A townsite has 
 been laid out upon the northern slopes of a large fresh water lake. 
 The Western Australian Land company reserved 100 acres on the 
 west side of the lake for a public park. This station is the junction of 
 the branch line laid by Messrs. Millar Bros, to Torbay for the purpose 
 of developing the timber trade of the district. The neighborhood of 
 the lake should be inspected by those who are in search of, say, 100 
 acres of land, which they can take up as a free homestead farm, with a 
 view to supplying the vegetable market, which at Albany, owing to 
 the important shipping trade of the port, is not an inconsiderable 
 one. The soil is a deep black rich formation, and there is ample 
 rainfall in this district to render artificial irrigation superfluous. 
 There are sidings at Grasmere, Eastwood, and Gledhow, less than a 
 mile and a half apart, so that the cost and labor of carting produce 
 to Albany are reduced to the minimum. The land drains freely into 
 the lake, and as it is naturally moist there is every natural ad- 
 vantage in this neighborhood which a skilled farmer would desire. 
 The largest and most profitable crops would be cut in the summer, 
 
WM 
 
 |VT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '" 
 
 I: 
 
 FORj DESCRIPTION SEE BACK. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 ALSO widely known as White Gum. It has a very 
 large range of habitat, and constitutes one of the 
 principal forest trees on the Eastern slopes of the 
 Darling Ranges. It delights in decomposed granite 
 over a pipe-clay subsoil, cold in the winter, and 
 in places boggy. When mixed with Jarrah and 
 Blackboys the soil changes to a gravelly red foam, 
 very suitable for horticultural purposes. The " York 
 Road Poison " along gullies, and the Box Poison " 
 on slopes and ridges often grow amongst the 
 Wandoo. 
 
I2 9 
 
 when drier situations ;uv not able- to produce vegetables, (iaidcn 
 blocks arc also obtainable at Oyster harbor, an inlet tVoin King 
 George's S'jund, six miles to the eastward ot" Albany. On the 
 eastern shore ot" Oyster harbor there are some growers makin. 
 
 ,1 livelihood out of small areas of not more than 25 acres. 
 There are also garden settlements on the King river, six 
 miles to the north of Albany. Here there arc some 50 
 acre surveyed allotments awaiting application. The Den- 
 mark railway branches off the Great Southern eleven miles 
 from Albany and runs west through some excellent land which has 
 been alienated, to the Denmark river, where the sawmills of the 
 Messrs. Millar Bros, are established. There are some patches of 
 superior land here still belonging to the Crown, and it is not to be 
 excelled for orchards and root crops. Along the banks of the Hay 
 river a confluent of the Denmark river a very eligible holding 
 can be procured if quality is deemed to compensate for lack of 
 quantity, for 100 acres of uniformly good rich, red land is the most 
 that remains for the new comer. This Torbay country is regarded 
 by some good judges as containing some of the choicest spots to be 
 found in the whole of Western Australia, but it is heavily timbered 
 with karri, a hardwood that has many excellent qualities, but that 
 does not stand exposure to damp nearly so well as the jarrah. Tor- 
 bay is IQ miles from Albany. A great deal of settlement is going on 
 in the vicinity of the King and Kalgan- rivers, which is one of the 
 newest districts in course of agricultural development. 
 
 The following statement has been compiled from the answers 
 of leading settlers to the questions addressed to them by the Bureau 
 of Agriculture, namely : (i.) " Are there good roads to the land 
 belonging to the Crown open for selection ?" " The roads are good. 
 The country is so level and hard on the surface before being tilled 
 that natural highways over which wagons can travel are ready as 
 soon as the track is cleared. The Roads boards have been 
 energetic in making requisitions for funds upon the Treasury, and 
 the Government, having been shown good reason for the expenditure, 
 has granted the money. In the Wagin district the Roads board has 
 been doing especially good work in clearing roads in all directions 
 leading to the tow r nship. The w T ork has been done for is. 6d. per 
 chain. The roads converge like the points of a star to the centre ; 
 they were marked out before the land was surveyed. Now that 
 surveys are being made owing to the progress of settlement, the 
 judgment shown by the Roads board in selecting the routes of the 
 highways has been commended by the Lands department, and in 
 every case those routes are being regarded in the surveys as pro- 
 claimed main roads. Another characteristic of the south which, 
 while it improves the roads, has a countervailing effect of adding to 
 the cost of conserving water, is that until the Arthur and the 
 Beaufort are reached there are no considerable watercourses to 
 cross. The result is that land may be selected even in outlying 
 
I 3 
 
 parts free from any misgivings on the part of strangers that they 
 will be cut off from communication with the railway by impassable 
 roads in the winter." (2.) "What capital do you consider essential 
 for a successful start on, say, a free homestead farm of 160 acres, or 
 on a conditional purchase of, say, 500 acres ?" "A man who intends 
 to stay on his land from the start until it will provide him with a 
 living, and who has no intention of taking contracts or working for 
 his neighbors, should have 1 per acre of the area he applies for. 
 No doubt it would be possible to eke out a scanty subsistence after 
 the first year on a smaller capital, but many serious disadvantages 
 would have to be combated. For example the purchase of a double 
 furrow plough and three horses will not leave a large balance out of 
 .100, and without this equipment a man is always late in 
 getting in his crop, even if he is fortunate enough to get it in at 
 all on the hire or contract system, because no ploughs and 
 teams are available until all the owners of them have finished 
 their season's work. The plant and horses purchased, and 
 the ground, or a part of it, fenced, a man by doing his own 
 improvements can keep going with the 50 per cent, of their value 
 that is advanced by the Land bank, and after his first harvest should 
 be fairly on his feet. On the other hand, if a man goes on to his 
 block with only a few pounds, he is kept back for two or three 
 years in getting his place into an income-earning order." (3.) " Are 
 there any surveyed agricultural areas in your district ? " u Along 
 the Great Southern railway there are the following agricultural 
 areas : Beverley, Moorumbine, Narrogin, \Vickepin, Wagin, 
 Darkan, Katanning, Ewlyamartup, Tenterden, and Pallinup. It is 
 believed the Lands department will survey another agricultural 
 area at Tambellup, near Mount Barker." (4.) " What settlement 
 has taken place on these?" "The Katanning area is nearly all 
 occupied ; in fact, it would not be possible to get a good sized 
 farm there of eligible land. Settlement on the areas lias been going 
 on steadily, but the resumption of the Great Southern land grants 
 has so greatly enlarged the territory that selectors may apply for 
 that ; tliere are more blocks now being chosen outside than inside 
 the proclaimed agricultural areas. While there is plenty of land on 
 the areas still available, it is satisfactory to be able to say that a new 
 population is arriving every week. Probably in no part of the 
 colony would the returns of the Lands department show so rapid 
 an iniliix of farmers as in the southern division." (5.) "What 
 schools are there in the cultivable territory?" (< Not as many 38 
 have been applied for as the result of the impetus that has of late 
 been given to settlement. As a general summary the question may 
 be answered by >aying that most of the children are within three 
 miles of a school ; a few families are not nearer a teacher than live 
 miles, but steps are being taken to open two new schools, which will 
 place education within the reach of all." (6.) u What area would 
 you recommend a man of small means, say from ^100 to ,200, to 
 
take up ?" "Certainly not more than a free homestead farm of 
 160 acres on ;ioo, and 100 conditional purchase, in addition, on 
 ;200." (7.) " Is not the produce competed for by buyers' travel- 
 lers ?" " A great deal of it is purchased by the Messrs. 1'iesse at 
 market rates. Their roller mill, fitted with the latest machinery, 
 renders it unnecessary for any other market to be sought for 
 wheat, the supply of which has become so short since the 
 price of chaff and hay went up that the mill does not get 
 grain enough to grind for more than three or four months 
 in the year." (8.) "Are not railway freights forproduce especially 1< >\v?" 
 "The freights for produce are on the lowest scale of the Railway 
 department, with the exception of minerals and manures, and there is 
 no reason to complain of them." (9.) "Has the farmer in any part of 
 the world as good a market as that of Western Australia ?" " As far 
 as our knowledge goes, prices for produce are higher in this colony than 
 anywhere else, and there is no difficulty in getting a sale for anything 
 we grow. On the other hand the cost of clearing has to be set 
 against the advantage possessed by some of the farmers in other parts 
 of Australia, who were fortunate in finding locations that grew no timber 
 and into which the plough could be put as soon as the ground was 
 fenced." (10.) " What will your district grow to the best advantage?" 
 " In the majority of cases wheat, whether cut for hay or grain, pays 
 best. Oats have been successfully grown, especially by Mr. F. T. F. 
 Crosby, the secretary of the Katanning Farmers' association. He 
 has grown heavy crops of oats on land that had become wheat sick. 
 The district is a first-class one for fruit, as the orchards of the Hon. 
 F. H. Piesse, Commissioner of Railways and Minister of Public 
 Works, and also of the West Australian Land company, are bearing 
 heavily for their age. Oranges and lemons are inclined to run thick 
 in the rind, but stone fruits and apples produced here are of the 
 best. Cherries, which run only to leaf in some parts of the colony, 
 come to perfection around Katanning. Vegetables do well enough 
 as long as the ground is moist, but there are no local swamp lands 
 to carry summer crops. An attempt has been made to irrigate a 
 small vegetable garden belonging to Mr. M. Cronin, who chiefly 
 supplies Katanning with culinary plants during the dry weather. 
 This experiment has only been tried upon a small scale, and it has 
 been found to be satisfactory and profitable. The south is not a 
 good place for root crops, but greenstuff, such as barley, does well 
 with the aid of the winter rains." (n.) " What crops should be 
 avoided ? " " Those which are injured by frosts, such as potatoes, 
 and those which require moisture when it is not to be had, such as 
 summer vegetables." (12.) u Does the land quickly exhaust itself ? " 
 " Not the better class of chocolate loam if it is occasionally fallowed. 
 The poorer flats, on which white gum chiefly grows, will not stand 
 cropping for more than two or three seasons without manure, 
 which, so far, it has not been the rule to apply. The Messrs. Piesse 
 are setting an example in this respect by using bonedust and 
 
1-32 
 
 Thomas's phosphate on their fields close to the Katanning railway 
 
 station." (13.) " The orchard and vineyard area of the district?'' " The 
 
 area actually under vines and fruit trees is small. It is chietiy comprised 
 
 in the properties of the Hon. F. H. Piesse,and of the West Australian 
 
 Land company, although many of the farmers have a few vines and 
 
 fruit trees growing in the garden plots surrounding their homesteads. 
 
 But the area of land suitable for the vigneron and the orchardist 
 
 can be computed by hundreds of thousands of acres, for the whole 
 
 of the south, save only the very barrenest spots, is suited to peaches, 
 
 apricots, and apples. It has been proved by growers that land that 
 
 is not capable of growing cereals for many years without showing 
 
 signs of deterioration, will produce fruit equal in size to that which 
 
 is gathered on the richest deep red tracts, like those which comprise 
 
 the cornfields of Mr. Andrew, Mr. Westley Maley, and others." 
 
 (14.) " Are any of the local cultivators also sheep farmers ?" " Yes ; 
 
 the large farms to which are attached pastoral leaseholds carry large 
 
 numbers of sheep. Grazing, in these cases, is as leading a pursuit 
 
 as cultivation. These cases are the exception. The rule is that the 
 
 bulk of the settlers keep some sheep, but not many at a time. They 
 
 buy stores and fatten them on the rields that are resting. They 
 
 thus have their own meat supply, and from time to time send small 
 
 lots to the butcher. Sheep are regarded as being very profitable 
 
 where poison does not threaten their safety. As more land comes 
 
 into cultivation sheep will be still more utilised on these improved 
 
 pasture lands, on which there is not only superior feed but no fear 
 
 of poison. It is the cost of shepherding to keep the flocks away 
 
 from dangerous spots, and the losses which occur on untilled country 
 
 in spite of all precautions, that greatly reduce the profit of sheep at 
 
 the present time and discourage some land owners from going in 
 
 for them. Where paddocks are resting, the running of sheep upon 
 
 them is valued as an easy and cheap method of fertilising the 
 
 ground upon which the following year's harvest will be grown." 
 
 (15.) " Is your district much troubled by native pests such as dingoes, 
 
 boodie rats, opossums, eaglehawks, etc ?" " There are no dingoes 
 
 here ; only a few eaglehawks. Opossums, boodie rats, parrots, and 
 
 silvereyes are troublesome." (16.) " Are there any poison plants 
 
 in your division of the colony ? If so, enumerate varieties and give 
 
 some idea of the extent of country affected." "We meet with 
 
 York road, box, and prickly leaf poison. Eleven miles north of 
 
 Katanning there is some heart leaf poison." (17.) "Speaking 
 
 generally, is it a good district for stock ?" " It is a good district for 
 
 stock, especially for sheep, which receive far more attention than 
 
 cattle." (i.X.) '"' What is the character of the herbage ? Name the 
 
 grasses as tar as possible." " On the York gum and red gum country, 
 
 on a chocolate soil, the silver-grass is the principal herbage ; it 
 
 grows luxuriantly in the spring and early summer. After November 
 
 the sun burns it off. The first rains in March bring up silver grass, 
 
 and it is at its best in September and October. The wild oat and 
 
'33 
 
 kangaroo grass are found in the best places on the banks <>t" water- 
 courses. On the best forest lands feed runs rather short towards the 
 end of the summer. The white gum Hats carry all through the 
 hottest weather a good growth of pin grass. This is a coarse grass 
 which is hardy enough to stand a long period without rain. It is a 
 good friend to the sheep owner at the most trying time of the year. 
 The inferior country also grows a number of shrubs and tussocks 
 which are very acceptable when the more succulent feed lias dis- 
 appeared." (19.) " What extent of arable land can be found in one 
 piece ?" " From 700 to 1000 acres, if the white gum country is 
 excepted. There are larger tracts of land growing this kind of 
 timber than any other. Formerly the settlers would only put the 
 plough in where the York, red gum, and manna trees stood, but now 
 that an enlarged scope of work has to be provided for owing to the 
 growing requirements of the colony, the white gum blocks are no 
 longer passed over. They have been found to be more fertile than 
 their early reputation gave them credit for, and with fertilization 
 such as is common in the south-western and eastern districts, they 
 are believed to be equal to be capable of amply recouping the cost 
 of clearing. It is in favour of the areas under notice that, in many 
 cases, they are closer to Katanning and Wagin Lake than the richer 
 red soils, so that what is saved in carting can be put to the purchase of 
 manures." (20.) " How is the country watered ?" " Not very well ; 
 the limited water supply is one of the disabilities of a great part of 
 the southern district. For the greater part of the year reliance 
 must be placed upon dams, wells and tanks. The situation of the 
 settler may be put in a few words. There is ample rainfall to provide 
 sufficient water, short of what would be demanded for irrigation 
 uses, if the rain is not allowed to run to waste. The first thing to 
 be done in going on to a block of land is to look for a ' soak' and 
 sink upon it. If there is no soak, a well must be sunk for house- 
 hold use, and a dam excavated for the watering of stock. This 
 should be done before the ground is fenced or a house built. A tent 
 will do for a time, but it is a great tax to have to cart water for 
 miles. Ringbarking ought not to be delayed in order to increase 
 the water supply. The killing of the trees will keep a soak going. 
 If there is no soak, one or more will probably appear when the trees 
 are not drawing upon the moisture in the ground." (21.) "What is 
 the cost of conserving water (a) wells, (6) dams, (c) tanks ?" " From 
 IDS. to 303. per foot for wells, according to whether rock is struck 
 or not ; lod. to is. 6d. per yard for excavating dams ; and tanks 2s. 
 per cubic yard. To make the difference between the formation of 
 a tank and a dam clear to non-Australian readers, it may be stated 
 that a dam is a shallow saucer-shaped reservoir about 3 feet deep, 
 while a tank is deep and square sided, like the soaking pits in a 
 tanner's yard. If rock has to be taken out in making a tank the 
 cost is from 33. to 53. per cubic yard, depending upon the hardness 
 of the strata passed through." (22.) " Is there ever a water difficulty 
 
134 
 
 in a dry season ?" " There has been, but a great deal has been done 
 to prevent a recurrence of the trouble. The settlers, warned by 
 their unpleasant experiences, have been actively preparing to store 
 the water during this (1897) winter. Wells have been sunk on 
 nearly every farm, and at the time of writing excavators are being 
 largely employed to cut out dams wherever there is a good catch- 
 ment area, stock having been the chief sufferers in the dry years. 
 The roads boards have been indefatigable in assisting to keep up a 
 plentiful supply of water in the chief centres and on the main roads 
 by the sinking of wells, the sites of which, strange as it may seem to 
 some readers, have been chosen at the bidding of the ' divining rod.' 
 The outlay has been provided by the Government in the form of 
 special grants. There are public wells at Katanning and Wagin 
 Lake, and at Kojtinup, also on Brazier's road at Marracanda." (23.) 
 " At what depth can well water be struck ?'' " At from 20 feet to 
 70 feet." (24.) " Can you name any place where there are 
 facilities for irrigation ?" " There are no irrigable places near the 
 Great Southern railway ; sites for this purpose may be chosen when 
 the Pinjarrah-Marradong railway is extended to the Great Southern, 
 and the Irwin and Beaufort rivers are tapped. If, however, the experi- 
 ments which the Government are about to make in boring for artesian 
 water prove successful, irrigation may become possible on what are 
 now commonly known as dry areas. Boring for artesian water is on 
 the eve of being undertaken in the railway reserve at the Katanning 
 station, and the result is being awaited with much interest by the sur- 
 rounding yeoman population, to whom the tapping of a subterranean 
 supply, if fresh, would be of incalculable value." (25.) "General 
 character of the soil and configuration." " There are several kinds 
 of soils which may be classified thus : (i.) A sandy loam of shallow 
 depth, upon a yellow and somewhat friable clay. This land, which is 
 usually denoted by a thick growth of white gums, is considered the 
 poorest for cereals of all the soils that are utilised for this kind of crop. 
 (2.) A heavy black soil, which is highly pri/ed and is comparatively 
 rare. (3.) A rich chocolate loam, usually found carrying York gums 
 and manna trees, and which, as it is found in areas up to 200 acres in 
 extent, is regarded as being the staple fanning land of the district. 
 For the purposes of identification, it may be said that the holdings 
 of Mr. Andrews, and of Mr. YYestley Maley, are very largely corn- 
 el of the country which is now being referred to. (4.) A very 
 gravel, showing an admixture of ironstone, but lacking the vine- 
 growing qualities of the ironstone giavel of the Darling range. 
 Thia fourth-class land (alt hough only three qualities are recognised by 
 the Lands department) is of not much value as pastoral runs, and is 
 useless tor any other purpose. Mr. F. T. F. Crosby, who took 
 up his land near the Katanning railway station from "the Western 
 Australian Land company, has the first three varieties of soils on 
 his property. He has cropped on fields belonging to each class 
 for several years, and furnishes the results of his experience as fol- 
 
lows : The first year the sandy loam produced only a small crop of 
 wheat. The second year the yield of wheat was much better. 
 After that the light loam went right off ; for three years the harvest 
 (wheat) was hardly worth cutting. Then I tried oats, and with 
 great success. The land that would not grow wheat is still doing 
 well with oats, which I have sown upon it again this year. The 
 heavy black soil, a patch of which is near my house, gave, the first 
 year I cropped it, nearly two tons of wheaten hay to the acre. Next 
 year for the same place I had 18 cwt. It was a very bad 
 year the worst we have had since I have been in the south the 
 year 1893. In 1894 I took ten bushels of wheat off the ground, and 
 1895 the same. I stripped for oats in 1896, and off 18 acres I 
 got 67 bags ; this year I broke np the chocolate ground, 
 the first crop was very disappointing, being no more than three 
 bushels to the acre. The following season it yielded a ton of hay 
 to the acre, and the year after 30 hundredweight, the corn standing 
 over 4 feet high. That was the best yield I have had off my place. 
 The iield is sown with oats this year. We get 43. per bushel for 
 oats delivered at Katanning. The quotation for chaff was 6 per 
 ton until lately. The price is now ^7 53. per ton, so that hay is the 
 more profitable crop if the paddocks do not show a preference for 
 producing oats. In sinking in the best country we often come on 
 granite, which is one of the best indications that water is near at 
 hand ; granite is never found underlaying a poor hungry soil. The 
 granite formation is a likely place to find a soak, which is a great 
 resource for the new settler. I have a soak which only failed me 
 last March, just before the autumn rain began. To save the water a 
 soak is only opened out a little at a time, and as the supply diminishes 
 the water is followed down by scooping out the earth. The con- 
 figuration of the country passed through by the Great Southern 
 railway is undulating enough for the greater part to be 
 well drained. In this division of the colony the ranges do not lie 
 near the arable lands, and the hills are generally sterile." (26.) 
 " The kinds and quantity of the timber ?" " York gum, wando, 
 white gum, red gum (in small patches), manna trees, and jam, are 
 the principal trees. The white gum is met with over a larger area 
 and growing to a greater size than any other variety." (27.) 4( The 
 cost per acre to clear ready for the plough ?" " The clearing of 
 trees, large and small, costs about ^"5 per acre, but many of the 
 paddocks are cultivated while the trunks of the big gums are ringed 
 and left standing. If the ' thick sticks ' are excepted from the 
 contracts for grubbing, ^2 per acre is paid for taking out York 
 gums, manna, and saplings, as well as scrub and undergrowth. 
 Where the small trees grow thickly as much as 3 per acre has 
 been paid for preparing blocks for the reception of vines. An 
 exceptional case is cited where the grubbing of white gums, morrell, 
 and York gums w r as so heavy that j per acre was paid." (28.) 
 " What crops are usually grown ?" " Mostly wheat, cut green for 
 
1 36 
 
 hay. This is the most profitable crop, and one that is produced 
 with less labor than the threshing and bagging of wheat. Before 
 the goldfields era wheat was relied upon by the farmers." 
 (29.) "The average yield per acre." "Ten bushels of wheat, or a ton 
 of hay. A self-sown crop of wheat at Smith's farm gave 20 bushels." 
 (30.) " What are the facilities for the transport of produce to market ?" 
 " Good roads, and the Great Southern railway. Last season it was 
 difficult to get trucks, but the department is now adding considerably 
 to its rolling stock." (31.) " What fruits are grown ?" " All English 
 fruits bananas, oranges and lemons do better in the eastern dis- 
 tricts." (32.) "With what success ?" " Peaches, apricots and apples 
 thrive remarkably well, the trees making quick growth, and yielding 
 large and excellent tasting fruit at an early age. The only drawback 
 is the want of shelter from the north-west winds, which blow strongly 
 during the winter months. There is exceptionally good orchard 
 country to the eastward ; its drainage is perfect." (33.) " How much 
 Crown land is open for selection within a radius of 20 miles of the 
 railway stations ?" " To the eastward of Katanning there is a great 
 deal of eligible country available which has not yet been computed 
 or surveyed. In that locality the ground becomes more hilly than 
 it is in Katanning proper, and water is struck much nearer the sur- 
 face. Although this territory is 20 miles from the railway it 
 has been attracting the attention of the friends and relatives of some 
 of the more centrally situated settlers, because of the neighborhood 
 not having been picked over and the best places alienated. The 
 soil is of the deep chocolate kind that has been described in these 
 notes in terms of praise, and the clearing is not heavy, the growth 
 consisting largely of mallee and gimlet wood. One new settler has 
 secured 2500 acres. Near Katanning, on the western side also, the 
 best of the ground is in private hands, but a wide choice of desirable 
 public estate awaits application about 20 miles from the Katanning 
 post office." (34). "Has settlement been progressing?" "Yes, very 
 rapidly, since the Crown bought the Great Southern railway and its 
 hereditaments, as the returns of the Lands department show. 
 More land has been taken up between Beverley and Albany during 
 the last six months (from January to the end of June, 1897) than in 
 any other division of the colony. The Government land agent, Mr. 
 H. S. Ranford, on his periodical visits to Wagin Lake, has been kept 
 busy till nearly midnight receiving applications and their accom- 
 panying deposits of rent. He is authorised t<> show en- 
 quirers for land the blocks that may -be obtained, and is fur- 
 nished by the department with a buggy and pair to 
 travel with convenience and celerity. On the clay that our reporter 
 was at \Vagin Lake Mr. Ranford received applications for con- 
 ditional purchases and free homestead farms covering 2,373 acres, 
 and he forwarded to the Treasury the sum of .1/0, which had 
 been paid in for deposits and rents." (35.) " Has the co-operation 
 of the Land bank been availed of ? " " The bank is a great boon 
 
137 
 
 to the newcomers, who have to meet a threat many preliminary 
 expenses before the first crop is in the granary. At this early stage 
 in the bringing of their land into cultivation, they could not obtain 
 loans anywhere else, while the condition that the" first instalment of 
 the repayment of the loan is not payable for five years is a guaran- 
 tee of safety that commends the terms of the bank to the beginner. 
 Another advantage is the 5 per cent, interest rate, which gives the 
 producer the benefit of the low price at which the Government is 
 able to borrow in the London market. In the south the free grants 
 of land and the lending of cheap money are deemed to be the two 
 essentials necessary to enable any careful worker to make an 
 independent home." (36.) ''What is the local rainfall?" "The 
 minimum annual rainfall has been 7^ inches, and the maximum 26 
 inches ; the average is 14 inches. The rainfall usually commences 
 at the end of March, and is nearly over by the end of October or 
 the beginning of November. There are occasional thunderstorms 
 in December, January, and February." (37.) " The character of 
 the seasons ? " " The climate is very temperate, never reaching 
 the extremes of heat or cold. The purity and mildness of the air 
 are very beneficial to invalids. Dr. Walter, of Perth, has taken up 
 a 300-acre block, near Wagin Lake, as a site for a sanatorium." 
 (38.) " The size of selections on Crown lands ? " " These vary 
 from 200 acres to 1000 acres. The larger holdings are devoted to 
 sheep raising as well as cultivation. If less than 200 acres are 
 taken up a man must expect to look almost entirely to the growth 
 of cereals and fruit for his livelihood." (39.) " The nationality of 
 immigrants ? " " Since 1890 nearly all the incoming families have 
 arrived from the other Australian colonies. They are almost, 
 without exception, English, Scotch, or Irish, and have come well 
 equipped for a new start on the land. Most of the men have sold 
 out farms on the ' other side,' and have brought over their 
 implements and horses ready to get a crop in without 
 delay." (40.) 4< The chief advantages of your district ? " 
 " A good climate and rainfall, kindly and productive land, a 
 local market or rainfall transit for produce if we desire to send 
 the produce to Perth, Fremantle, the goldfields, or to the port of 
 Albany. Another advantage is that there is in this district enough 
 land open for selection to en fble both farming and grazing to be 
 carried on by the selector." (41.) "The class of implements in 
 general use ?" " Stump jump ploughs, cultivators, reapers and 
 binders, winnowers, and steam chaff-cutting machinery, all of the 
 latest make. The ploughs are nearly all two and three furrows ; 
 the latter are generally worked with a four-horse team, but three 
 extra g )od draughts will do good work, except in new land where 
 there are many roots and stones. First class farming implements 
 have been coming to order nearly every week for the last couple of 
 years." (42.) " What is being done in stock raising ?" u Not a 
 great deal in horses and cattle. No special attention is paid to 
 
138 
 
 improving the strains of either beef or dairy cattle, which are 
 generally of a nondescript type. There are no large herds. People 
 dread a mob getting on to a poison patch and suffering what is 
 known as a ' smash.' If a flock of sheep get into this danger a few 
 of them drop and give warning of the proximity of the poison, and 
 the animals can be removed before there is more than a tew pounds 
 worth of damage done. It is not so with cattle and horses, which 
 are, therefore, not raised on a large scale. For heavy horses we 
 rely upon importations, the local breed not having much size or 
 substance. The big imported horses stand being turned out on the 
 paddocks in the slack season without losing much condition. 
 Sheep do well, and some fairly large runs, such as the pastoral 
 property of Lord Brassey, at Broomehill, are stocked with them to 
 the number of a good many thousands. The farmers around 
 Katanning and Wagin look to Lord Brassey for their stores. The 
 manager of the place every year has culls drafted out of his flocks, 
 which the farmers apply for in lots to suit their requirements. 
 Some years ago, when Lord Brassey first established his place, the 
 demand for the annual drafts was not very brisk, but now there is 
 such a run on them owing to the increase in the number of settlers 
 and it being found to be very profitable to keep sheep, that it is very 
 hard to get stores from Broomehill." (43.) '' The opportunities for 
 a larger scope of work." " The scope of profitable farming oper- 
 ations can, in the south, be increased to an enormous extent. 
 The territory is so large and the population so scattered 
 that little more than a beginning can be said to have 
 been made. There are vast tracts open for selection, both 
 within and without the boundaries of agricultural areas. The 
 reserve at Katanning that, having been set aside for an experimental 
 farm, has just been thrown open for selection, is only one of the 
 many opportunities that are presented -for new comers to get suit- 
 able farming sites close to the railway. Not a third of the best 
 corn lands already alienated have been tilled, partly because ^f the 
 comparative scarcity of labor. If farm hands would emigrate from 
 the old country, take up a free homestead farm and work half time 
 for their neighbours and halt time in improving their own holdings, 
 the older settlers would hail their arrival with much satisfaction, and 
 they could be sure of obtaining plenty of work at 6s. or 75. per day. 
 More laud would already have been cultivated had there been less 
 to do iu the direction of conserving water. Mr. \\Vsilev Maley 
 - 4 \ could have cleared another 140 acres of ground with the 
 money I have expended iu sinking wells that never struck tVe>h or 
 bracki>h water. At last I got a good supply ; but I should set to 
 
 work differently if I were commencing again, I should ring the 
 
 trees to help me to iiucl soaks and springs, and make clams. Until 
 I had plenty of water I would keep no stock, preferring to keep 
 pegging away at Clearing and cropping; the water difficulty with 
 the aid of clams and ringbarking would cure itself. If everyone 
 
'39 
 
 had gone on these lines there would have been more land under 
 tillage and greater progress. As it is, there is all the greater scope 
 for the iK-w work which your question touches. The man who 
 wants to begin on 1000 acres will get them close to Katannmg, but 
 there are smaller areas that are very fertile awaiting an occupier.' 
 Katanning, however, owing to its being the largest centre on the 
 line, has had a greater demand for its Crown lands than Wagin Lake 
 and the country lying between it and Katanning, which are almost as 
 favorably situated, and where much of the land within sight of the 
 train is of a high-class quality. Further south, around Tambellup, 
 there are also excellent areas. The advice which is given to the in- 
 tending settler is to make a tour through the district, or to ask Mr. 
 H. S. Ranford, the Government Land agent, to indicate the choice 
 vacant spots to him, and he is not likely to go away under the 
 impression that there is not ample room for an enlarged scope of 
 work." (44.) " Is not dairying being neglected ?" " Yes ; there 
 is no dairying to supply even home requirements, except in 
 a few cases, and in these only for a few spring and early 
 summer months. There is too much labour, not enough profit, and 
 artificial feed is too valuable to make dairying a general pursuit. It 
 is preferred to let the cows rear their calves on the natural grasses, 
 or, at best, to only milk the mothers once a day. Some of the lead- 
 ing producers, however, look forward to laying down English pas- 
 ture plants, and so adding to the stocking capacity of some of their 
 cleared lands that dairying may be encouraged. Mr. Westley Maley 
 reckons that, as lucerne paddocks, some of his ground which is 
 now growing cereals would return him a larger profit with less 
 labour than cereals impose in the various stages of their production. 
 He has also great faith in some of the indigenous grasses when 
 they have the favoured condition of being nurtured on land which 
 having grown trees is, after grubbing, able to hold all the rainfall for 
 the benefit of the pastures. The value of corkscrew grass has im- 
 pressed itself upon him ; he believes it can be kept growing vigor- 
 ously green and succulent in an unused cornfield of chocolate loam. 
 The great summer grass of the south-west couch or Indian doab 
 does not thrive in the south." (45.) "Are vegetables grown to any extent 
 in the south?" "Only in the wet months. Mr. Cronin's garden, which is 
 low-lying, gets some water in the summer from a large dam, which 
 is connected with races communicating with the vegetable beds. 
 The yield is very abundant, but water is too scarce in January and 
 February for the example which Mr. Cronin has set to have been 
 imitated by others. He also grows maize luxuriantly." (46.) " Do 
 potato and other root-crops do well in your district?" "The 
 ground is suitable for the growth of the potato if they are put in the 
 red loam, but frosts are prone to cut down the young plants. On 
 the higher levels, above the frost line, potatoes have been grown 
 with excellent results ; but in so level a territory as the south, hilly 
 situations are not to be found adjacent to the railway. The early 
 
140 
 
 rose is the most prolific variety, especially when it is given a dressing 
 of stable manure." (47.) " Is there any available Government land 
 suitable for potato crops?" "None that could be recommended 
 without qualification." (48.) " Are there any private lands available 
 for this purpose? If so, state price and terms." "There are 
 several superior blocks in private hands, but no public intimation 
 has been given by the owners of their willingness to part with 
 them." (49.) " Are frosts prevalent and destructive in your district?" 
 "Yes; frosts do more damage in certain years, notably in 1891, 
 which was a very destructive year. The potatoes planted 
 early in February have done best whenever rain has fallen 
 in that month." (50.) " Give approximate dates of earliest and 
 latest frosts?" "May and August respectively." (51.) "Is your 
 district adapted for close settlement, i.e., 10 to 2o-acre men?" 
 " Only if they are going in exclusively for orchards or vineyards, 
 and either possess enough money to keep things going for three 
 years, or are willing to do occasional work for the roads boards or 
 for farmers. Any able-bodied, experienced farm hand can get 73. 
 per day by going out in the ploughing or harvesting season to other 
 holdings. There is always a job of fencing or clam or tank-making 
 to be had. The established producers would be glad to have a 
 local labor supply among those who are making a start without 
 bringing in much capital, but who rely upon their industry in a 
 colony where labor is well paid to enable them to pay their way." 
 (52.) " Are fowls and bees being turned to account ? " " Poultry 
 are an adjunct to nearly every farm ; they pay well, as they arc at 
 liberty and forage for a great deal of their pickings, and there is 
 always sale for them at 53. or 6s. per couple. Many are sent to 
 Albany by a dealer who goes round collecting the birds. The 
 favorite breeds are Spanish and Andulasians crossed with the barn- 
 door. Those who have a strain of good layers can sell all the birds 
 they can spare in the district for breeding* purposes. The hardy 
 life" of the poultry, and the lack of overcrowding in their roosting- 
 placcs, makes them very healthy. There is no trouble in keeping 
 them tree of parasites or disease, which is so apt to make its 
 appearance when poultry are kept in coniinement and cleanliness 
 is neglected in their yards. In the summer the birds wholly teed 
 themselves ; in the winter they are fed morning and night, but not 
 heavily. There are very few hives to be seen ; the value of bees, 
 if known, is not utilised. Wild swarms could be captured, but 
 moM people are content to cut down a tree and take their honey." 
 153.) "From your ob>ervation, what are the chief requisites fora 
 new settler?' 1 "(i.) To show judgment in selecting a piece of 
 land that is suitable for the object m view. (2.) To cut a clam 
 or open a soak as soon as a tent is pitched and stores secured. 
 (3.) To put in a small patch of crop the iirst year iu preference to 
 losing twelve mouths without a return while clearing a larger 
 paddock. (4.) To ringbark the remainder of the ground 
 
T 4 I 
 
 as soon as the- first sowing is completed on the cleared portion. 
 (5.) To hire appliances, such as a chaff-cutter, instead of sinking 
 money in buying anything except a plough and horses at the start, 
 when capital is one of the main levers of success. It will, however, 
 be a mistake to depend upon hire for the plough and team, for no one 
 Will lend them until his own work is done, which means that the 
 borrower is late in sowing, which will spoil his first harvest, upon 
 which so much depends. (6.) A careful and skilled oversight of 
 the crop, to determine whether it should be cut for hay or wheat. 
 Not only may the suitableness of a yield for hay be indicated by a 
 high heavy growth of stalk, or for wheat owing to the heads being 
 well filled while the stalk is light and short, but a spot or two of 
 smut which a heedless owner might overlook should be taken into 
 account. The smut will not injure the fodder if the crop is put 
 through the chaff-cutter, but it produces a dirty sample of wheat 
 that. will reduce its market value. (7.) The careful clearing of 
 the ground of sticks or stones, which if left alone would endanger 
 the reaper and binder and add to the bill for repairs. (8.) Special 
 attention to drainage. A well-drained field of inferior soil is better 
 than a rich flat over which a flood may sweep and ruin the young 
 corn. (9.) Recourse to the Land bank, if means are wanted to 
 carry out remunerative improvements. The bank being a State 
 institution that has been specially devised to help settlement, its 
 provisions are necessarily more liberal than private lenders could 
 afford to adopt. If loans are spent on reproductive works, they 
 should have earned their cost within the five years grace before the 
 first instalment of the principal comes due, so that the improve- 
 ments if they have been carried out with discretion cost their 
 owner nothing in the end. (10.) Some struggling men have 
 made a prosperous start by cultivating improved private lands on 
 the shares principle. The advantages of this plan are that there is no 
 risk and the outlay is small. The owner of the land gets no fixed 
 rent, but his reimbursement depends upon the character of the 
 season, while it will be a very bad year indeed in which the tenant 
 is not better paid out of the proceeds of the crop than he could be 
 by working for wages. A good year gives him something to start 
 for himself on a free homestead farm." (54.) " What are the 
 lessons of local experience in the clearing and treatment of the 
 land ?" " (i). That the utmost precautions must be taken against 
 the spread of fire in burning off in the summer time. The provisions 
 of the fires prevention Act are stringently enforced, and there have 
 been several convictions for breaches of the Act. The resident magis- 
 trate has announced that future offenders will be fined ^10, as serious 
 loss through the burning of haystacks, homesteads, and fences, may 
 be the result of careless ignition. In no case must a fire be lighted 
 before the ist of April unless a ploughed line has been made around 
 the place where the fire is made, and notice has been given to 
 neighbors. (2.) Ringbarking assists clearing when the land is not 
 
142 
 
 wanted for crop until the trees are dry, and it doubles the feed for 
 stock. This work should be done at the earliest possible date. It 
 should be the rule to grub no trees in the green state besides those 
 which have to be removed as soon as the land is taken up, in order 
 that there may be no delay in sowing. The cost of ringbarking is 
 from is. to 2s. per acre. The latter figure was paid by Mr. Alexander 
 Forrest for 1000 acres which he purchased from the Western 
 Australian Land company, close to Katanning, and a portion of which 
 is now under crop." (55.) " What fertilisers are best adapted to the 
 land in the south ?" 4< So little fertilising has been done that a 
 definite answer cannot be given to this question. It is believed that 
 nothing is better than bonedust, which has far more than paid for 
 its cost wherever it has been applied. Only one or two producers 
 have used any manures, and none of them largely. The Messrs. 
 Piesse are trying Thomas's phosphate ; it promises well, but as the 
 wheat is now (July 1897) of less than a month's growth, comparative 
 returns cannot be given. From the attention that is being turned to 
 the subject, it would appear that the manuring of the soil will 
 rapidly come into vogue." (56.) " Is not liberal manuring from the 
 outset profitable ?" " For the reason given in answer to the last 
 question, namely, that resting and fallowing have been depended 
 upon instead of manuring, there is not much data on this point. 
 But if a conclusion is to be permitted to be arrived at from the great 
 improvement noticeable wherever fertilisers have been used on 
 ground that has been many times cropped, we should say that in the 
 south, as elsewhere, the more that is put into the land the more, 
 with interest for the outlay, is taken off it. At the same time 
 profitable yields are taken off land that have had no dressing of any 
 kind. The best crops are always those which are sown on fallow, 
 with the first rain of the season to give" the seed a start, and are 
 strongly rooted before the cold weather sets in." (57.) " Are there 
 any eligible large estates open for subdivisional sale, or available 
 for occupation under improvement leases ?" " Lord Brassey's 
 is the chief of the eligible large estates in the south. It is so near 
 the railway, and has been so well chosen for its natural advantages, 
 that there is no doubt many first-class farms could be established 
 upon it if the property were available, but, so far, it is being steadily 
 improved as a sheep run. There have been sales in a few instances 
 of subdivisional blocks out of the holdings of the old residents ; but, 
 as has been previously said in these notes, there is enough 
 Crown land to pick from, so that there is no need to set longing eyes 
 on that which has been alienated." (58.) " Can you make any sugges- 
 tions for the L'uidancc of new settlers?" ''Place dependence upon 
 surface water wherever practicable, for that which is got in wells, if 
 not biackish, is often impregnated with magnesia to a greater 
 degree than is agreeable to the palate. Do not buy stock until 
 water and feed are secured so amply that they may be kept in 
 health all the year round without anxiety to the owner, or the loss 
 
 
of his time in taking them to the public wells. Spare no effort to 
 clear and cultivate a larger area every year, remembering that it is 
 the difference in the quantity of the harvest, not in the number of 
 unimproved acres, that creates most of the distinction between the 
 large holder, who employs labour, and the small holder, who is for- 
 tunate if he has not to sell his labour during the first starting years 
 in order to make ends meet." 
 
 Mr. W. H. Angove, surveyor, of the Crown Lands department 
 staff, who has done a great deal of professional work in the 
 southern district, and who knows it thoroughly, has kindly con- 
 densed the results of his experience and observation in the follow- 
 ing statement : "There are very good roads to the land belonging 
 to the Crown that is open for selection all through the Broome- 
 hill and Kojonup and Plantagenet districts. In and around Albany 
 the roads are not all that could be desired, but they are passable, 
 and fast being brought into better order by the roads board. I 
 consider that in taking up a homestead farm of 160 acres it would 
 be essential for a successful start that a man should have not less 
 than 100. If he takes up 500 acres he should have, in my judg- 
 ment, 160. There are no surveyed agricultural areas near 
 Albany. I have recommended the plotting of an area south-east of 
 Broomehill, and shall recommend others, as there are many good 
 sites to select from. There are schools at Broomehill, Kojonup, 
 Cranbrook, Mount Barker, Denmark, King river, and Albany. I 
 should recommend to a man of small means, having, say, from ,100 
 to 200, from 1 60 acres to 600 acres. All the produce grown in 
 the Broomehill district is readily sold, and I believe produce grown 
 lower down around Mount Barker and districts in the neighbor- 
 hood of Albany is readily disposed of. I do not consider the rail- 
 way freights for produce are especially low, particularly as regards 
 small parcels. At the same time, as far as my knowledge goes, I 
 should say the cultivators of few countries have so good a market 
 as that of Western Australia. Broomehill and Kojonup grow 
 wheat, hay, and wool to the best advantage ; Mount Barker and 
 Frankland river excel in wheat, hay, potatoes, and fruit, while root 
 crops, vegetables, and fruit do exceedingly well on the Porong- 
 orup range, and at Denmark, Torbay, and the Albany district. The 
 land in the Broomehill district requires manuring to some extent 
 every year, or fallowing. When this is done good averages are 
 obtained. I should think the land would soon exhaust itself other- 
 wise. No one has made a specialty of orchard or vine-growing in 
 the Broomehill and Kojonup districts. Nearly every farmer has a 
 few acres of fruit trees ; I should say 200 acres would cover the 
 two districts. Mount Barker, Frankland river (Yoouminiup), and 
 Forest Hill districts have some old orchards, but not, I think, vine- 
 yards. The total orchard area would probably be about 100 acres. 
 Around Albany there are a few small orchards ; the whole area 
 would probably be no more than 100 acres. Many of the cultiva- 
 
144 
 
 tors around Broomehill, Kojonup, Franklancl river, Mount Barker, 
 and Wilson's Inlet are also sheep farmers. Dingoes, opossums, and 
 tamars are a nuisance in many parts of the Broomehill district. 
 Dingoes and wallabies are too plentiful lower down towards 
 Albany. A considerable extent of poison country exists in the 
 Broomehill and Kojonup districts, infested with York road, box 
 poison, and narrow leaf. I cannot say what is the aggregate acreage 
 of the poison country, but I should think it would com- 
 prise about one-fortieth of the whole of the localities in 
 question. There is very little poison in the Mount Barker 
 district. Around Torbay and Denmark there are small 
 patches of indigo poison, and on granite country in the 
 neighborhood of Albany there are small quantities of the heart- 
 leaf variety. Speaking generally, those portions of the south of 
 which I am writing are good places for stock ; of course, 
 precautions have to be taken to keep them off the poison patches. 
 At Broomehill, Pallinup, Kojonup and Cranbrook, the principal 
 grasses are silver grass, pin and kangaroo grass, and native couch. 
 There is silver grass and bush feed at Mount Barker, and bush feed 
 in the Albany district. The extent of arable land that can be found 
 in one piece is about 500 acres. For water, Broomehill, Kojonup, 
 Pallinup, Mount Barker and Kendenup depend upon wells, tanks and 
 waterholes. There are waterholes and creeks at Denmark, Torbay, 
 King river, the Porongorup hills, and at Albany. The cost of 
 conserving water is for sinking wells, 205. per foot ; tanks 
 and dams, Qd. per cubic yard. There is never a serious water 
 difficulty in a dry season. Well water can be struck at a 
 depth varying from 12 to 60 feet. There are facilities for irrigation 
 at the Frankland river and at Denmark. At Broomehill, Pallinup, 
 and Kojonup the country is undulating. The best ground is a 
 chocolate and brown soil found in what is known as ' cup and 
 saucer' land. The medium soil is a light loam ; the grassy lands 
 are red sandy and light sandy. Mount Barker lias a brown loamy 
 soil and is rather hilly. The soil of the Albany district is sandy and 
 peaty. Torbay and Denmark : On the karri hills there is choco- 
 late soil and in many valleys rich alluvial soil. The timber of 
 Broomehill and Palfinup consists ot raspberry jam, white gum, 
 York, salmon, morrell and yatc ; at Kojonup the forests are of jam, 
 white gum, York gum, yate and red gum. Mount Barker possesses 
 icd .mun, yate, jarrah and white gum. Torbay, Denmark and 
 Albany are timbered with karri, jarrah, red gum and yate. To clear 
 land ready for the plough costs i ios. to ^."3 per acre at Broome- 
 hill, KojnMiip and Pallinup ; from 2 to ^"5 per acre at Mount 
 Barker and district ; from 2 to $ at Albany, and from 2 to 10 
 at Torbay. The crops usually grown at Knjonup, Broomehill and 
 Kendenup, are wheat and hay; the producer^ of Mount Barker, 
 Frankland river and the Porongorup range, show a preference for 
 hay and potatoes, and those of Albany and Torbay for potatoes and 
 

 ft 
 
 
 VA 
 
 \. 
 
 r OR DESCRIPTION SEE BACK. 
 
UART 
 
 OCCUPIES a comparatively narrow strip of red sand 
 and limestone belt which lies along the coast line 
 from the Vasse to some distance north of Perth. 
 This sandy loam is very fertile, and rests on a 
 subsoil of a more retentive nature. This kind of 
 soil constitutes one of the best vine lands of the 
 country, and record yields of grapes are obtained 
 from vineyards established on it. 
 
 
'45 
 
 vegetables. The general yield where wheat is grown is from 15 to 
 iS bushels ; it has been as low as 10 bushels ; their hay harvest is 
 from one and a-halt" to two tons. The facilities provided for trans- 
 port of produce to market are the railways to Albany and Coolgardie. 
 The fruits locally grown are apples, peaches, apricots, pears, 
 nectarines, quinces and grapes. The fruit yield is moderately 
 successful at Broomehill and Kojonup ; probably the crop would 
 be better if the orchards had the benefit of more skilful cultivation. 
 The fruit of the Mount Barker and Frankland river districts is of 
 superior quality. The Crown land open for selection within 
 a radius of 20 miles of a railway station may be tabu- 
 lated as follows : Broomehill, 40,000 acres ; Tambellup siding, 
 10,000 acres ; Tenterden, 10,000 acres ; Mount Barker, 10,000 acres ; 
 Albany, 10,000 acres ; Denmark and Torbay, 20,000 acres. Settle- 
 ment has not been progressing, but it has lately received an impe- 
 tus. So far the co-operation of the Land bank has not been availed 
 of. The rainfall at Broomehill is 18 inches per annum ; at Kojonup, 
 20 inches per annum. The rainfall increases as you go south to 
 Albany. For the last few years dry seasons have been experienced 
 around Broomehill, Kojonup and Pallinup. Last year was a dry 
 one in the southern districts of Mount Barker and Albany, where 
 there are generally good seasons. The average size of selections 
 on Crown lands is about 100 acres. The residents of the districts 
 under notice are chiefly of Scotch and Irish nationality. The chief 
 advantages of Albany and Mount Barker are their liberal and tem- 
 perate climate. Denmark and Torbay are to be recommended for 
 their rainfall, rich soils and excellent climate. Broomehill and 
 Kojonup boast most of their healthy climate, being clean for stock, 
 for the excellent land selected, and for the fertile and valuable areas 
 that are still open for selection. The class of implements in general 
 use are reapers and binders, strippers, single, double and treble fur- 
 row ploughs, and scarifiers. There are ample opportunities for a 
 larger scope of work. In stock-raising nothing special is being 
 done, every farmer merely depending upon the stock of his own 
 rearing. Dairying is being neglected. It always has been in the 
 Broomehill, Kojonup and Pallinup districts. Not much dairying 
 either has been done around Mount Barker or Albany. Vegetables 
 are grown to a considerable extent around Albany, . Grasmere, 
 King river, and on the Porongorup hills. Potatoes and other root- 
 crops do well there, and also at Mount Barker, Denmark and Tor- 
 bay. There is Government land, suitable for vegetables and root- 
 crops, to be found within the radius of the railway, which has been 
 referred to in answering a previous question. There are eligible 
 large estates open for subdivisional sale, if not available for occupa- 
 tion under improvement leases. The unimproved areas of the late 
 T. W. Powell's estate around Broomehill, and his improved Palli- 
 nup estate, are open for sale ; but I do not know whether they are 
 available for occupation under the improvement system. Mr. J. F. 
 
146 
 
 T. Hassell advertises for persons willing to lease land on the 
 share system of cropping. The land he refers to is at Kendenup. 
 The terms upon which this land is available on the share system 
 are obtainable on application to Mr. J. F. T. Hassell, Albany. 
 Frosts are prevalent in the south from May to October, those 
 months being the approximate dates of the earliest and latest frosts. 
 Around Albany, Denmark, Torbay and Mount Barker, the districts 
 are adapted for close settlement, namely, for ten and 2o-acre men. 
 Poultry is not largely kept in this part of the colony ; bees not at 
 all. From my observation the chief requisites for a new 7 settler are 
 the possession of not less than 100 for the taking up of 100 
 acres, a single and double furrow plough, two horses, dray 
 and harness. A reaper and binder he can hire for the 
 first year. The lessons of local experience in the clearing 
 and treatment of the land are: (i.) That although a total 
 clearing by grubbing is the best, it is too expensive for the small 
 man. (2.) It is better to grub the smaller trees and ringbark the big 
 ones. (3.) My impression in Victoria was, and many Victorians 
 bear me out in this, that the land is enriched by the timber being 
 ringbarked for two years before being grubbed. It seems to give 
 back to the soil some quality which it does not seem to have if the 
 trees are grubbed and cleared right off. Besides being cheaper to 
 wait till the trees are dead and dry, it is quicker to plough between 
 them while they are dying, and a new man can consequently get 
 more land under crop during the first few years after he goes upon 
 his holding. The best results have been obtained from the use of 
 bone dust ; it is superior to any other fertiliser. Liberal manuring 
 is certainly profitable from the outset. The suggestions I would 
 make for the guidance -of new settlers are : (r.) They should get 
 all the information they can from the Government land agents, who 
 will be able to advise them where to select land. Probably by so 
 doing they will not be disappointed. On reaching a district where 
 they intend to look for land they should hunt up a Government 
 surveyor, if there is one in the neighborhood, who will be able to 
 fully advise them. Having secured their land, if the season is early, 
 they will do well to grub the small trees only and ringbark the larger 
 ones, putting in as much crop' as possible the same year. (2.) Then 
 the land should be fenced in while the seed is in the ground, if it is 
 getting late in the sowing season, in order to save time. There will 
 then be something coming in to keep I lie pot boiling. A larger area 
 can then be got ready for cropping next year. Do not miss sowing 
 for a year by trying to get too much ready for the plough all at once. 
 (3.) The land should be well ploughed, not simply scratched over 
 as is too often done, with the result of failure. I know of a man 
 near Ettakup who ploughs his land well and harrows it properly; 
 he never tails to get a good crop. (4.) The selector should also 
 select a suitable site for a tank for the conservation of water. A 
 good tank is seldom found wanting in a bad season." 
 
'47 
 
 The following recommendations have been made by Mr. H. 
 S. Ranford, Government Land agent at Katanning, with reference 
 to the areas in tlie southern district : " Katanning, April 30, 1897. 
 (i.) If the land along the (ireat Southern railway is to be settled 
 and improved to any great extent, it is very necessary that the pro- 
 visions under which second and third class homestead leases can 
 be obtained should be legally amended, so that such leases might 
 be granted throughout the south-west division. (2.) Taking the 
 Hordern area, 80 miles wide, between Beverley and Albany, this 
 would contain about 12,000,000 acres, and I consider that dividing 
 the land into first, second, third class, and what might justly be 
 called ' poison land,' we might fairly assume that we have 3,000,000 
 acres of each sort ; so the necessity for making provision for second 
 and third class land is readily apparent. (3.) The classification 
 should be made after selection, as the area is so vast and beyond 
 our means to survey in sufficiently accurate manner to show in our 
 plans as required by the present Act. Rent should be paid at second 
 class rates, pending inspection. (4.) The sooner arrangements can 
 be made to grant homestead leases, the better for these districts and 
 the colony." 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE ESPERANCE DISTRICT. 
 
 The Esperance district extends from the Hamersley river to 
 Eucla, on the south-east, where the territory of Western Australia 
 touches that of South Australia. Esperance is 237 miles east from 
 Albany by sea, 120 miles from Dundas, and 140 from Norseman. 
 There is at Esperance Bay a large and safe harbor ; the port is so 
 sheltered by numerous islands that it has, from the town, the 
 appearance of being land-locked. The opening up of the Dundas 
 and Norseman goldfields has given much value to the country near 
 Esperance from a farmer's point of view. The great saving in the 
 cost of sending locally grown produce to those goldtields, as 
 compared with bringing it from a distance, is too patent to need 
 any exemplification. Esperance is the nearest point to the Yilgarn 
 goldfields. It has asked to be connected with Coolgardie by a 
 direct railway, but in order that an intending selector may not be 
 misled, it may be said the request is not likely to be granted. The 
 matter was debated in the Legislative Assembly on the yth October r 
 1896. Mr C. J. Moran, member for Yilgarn, then moved : "(i.) 
 That in the opinion of this House, it is desirable that a railway line 
 should be constructed from Esperance Bay to Norseman forthwith. 
 (2.) That if the Government do not choose to undertake the work 
 they should be empowered to grant permission to private personsto 
 build the line." He urged that there was more foreign capital 
 available for the development of Norseman and Dundas goldfields 
 by very many hundreds of thousands of pounds than was set apart 
 for the Southern Cross fields at the time the House decided to build 
 the railway to Southern Cross. The Norseman goldlield, he sub- 
 mitted, had every prospect of being rapidly developed, provided 
 the mines there were given the same facilities of transit that were 
 given to the other goldlields. Private persons had offered to con- 
 struct the line, and one or them had undertaken to hand over the 
 line to the Government in ten years. Another offer conceded to the 
 Government the right to fix the maximum rale per ton freight to be 
 charged on the proposed railway. The Hon. Sir John Forrest, in 
 reply, said there was no doubt that at the present time the House 
 was not prepared to agree to the construction of a line to the Nnrsc- 
 It -eemecl to him that the motion before the House was a 
 
 man. 
 
 mischievous one, because it raised the hopes of the people, which 
 would not be infilled, and it therefore did more harm than good. 
 Although the line might pay, yet political reasons ought not to be 
 
49 
 
 quite ignored in dealing with questions of that sort. If by building 
 the railway in question they would injure the port of Fremantle 
 and the trade of Perth, they had to consider that question, and, no 
 doubt, it would be dealt with at the proper time. He had to say 
 that they had not to deal with that question at the present time. 
 
 The following extracts from the report of Surveyor E. S. 
 Brockman, dated June 26, 1896, have been courteously furnished 
 by the ruder-Secretary, Crown Lands department (Mr. R. C. 
 Clifton) : " The country for 50 miles on each side of Esperance 
 may be generally described as First, an irregular belt of sand and 
 limestone hills joining the coast line on the south and extending 
 inland, with an average width of about five miles. This belt of 
 country is fairly grassed with a coarse coast grass, and contains 
 numberless little hollows (with good soil and water at shallow 
 depths), suitable for growing vegetables, lucerne, and root crops. 
 Adjoining the coast hills on the north comes a very irregular strip 
 of ordinary sand-plain country, consisting of loose sand and gravel, 
 with poor vegetation and very little water, having an average width 
 of 25 miles, practically extending to the edge of the ' certain rain- 
 fall.' This is succeeded by mallee scrub of stunted growth for the 
 first few miles, growing on poor sand, clay, and gravel, but 
 increasing in size, with a marked improvement in the soil as it 
 extends inland. From a line about 60 miles north from the coast 
 inland to Norseman the soil is generally good ; it is covered with 
 mallee scrub and occasional salmon gum and black-heart forest, and 
 is well grassed in patches, after good rains, which are apparently 
 rare. Generally speaking, the country is poor where the rainfall. is 
 good, and the soil good where the rain is uncertain. The excep- 
 tions to this rule occur principally along the valleys of the small 
 rivers rising in the mallee country, and running through the sand 
 plains and coast hills to "the sea. The most noticeable of these 
 exceptions is on the Dalyup ; but there are good little strips on the 
 Sart, Oldlield, Munglinup, and Young rivers, and also, I am 
 informed, on the Thomas, principally within pastoral leases, and 
 not of sufficient extent to set apart as special areas. There are also 
 patches on the edge of the mallee country. The only patch of con- 
 siderable extent not subdivided, is on the Munglinup, about 4000 
 acres. Of the special areas already subdivided the Myrup creek 
 area contains about 300 acres of good land. The subdivided 
 portion of the Dalyup special area is very good land, consisting of 
 clays and strong loams ; it is well grassed and the clearing very 
 light ; it is within the good rainfall, and inland from the belt of 
 sandy coast country, and is therefore well situated for hay growing 
 for the Norseman market. I consider that this from its situation is 
 the most valuable piece of agricultural land now held by the 
 Crown in the colony. It would be advisable to prevent the whole 
 of this area being selected by one or two selectors, and I would 
 suggest limiting one applicant to two blocks as subdivided. As 
 
evidenced by the number of applications there is a strong desire to 
 acquire garden blocks under clause 55, on the coast line in the 
 neighborhood of Esperance. In this case I think the regulations 
 exactly fit the country, as there is much good garden land, though 
 in small patches." 
 
 The Bremer Bay and Esperance districts extend 520 miles east 
 from Esperance. The Hon. G. Throssell, Commissioner of Crown 
 lands, has asked the Surveyor-General to report as to the cost of 
 sending a party to examine and report on the agricultural lands 
 available in the Bremer Bay and Esperance districts. This step has 
 been deemed necessary by the Commissioner on account of the 
 large number of enquiries for land which have been coming from 
 that quarter. At present there is very little detailed information in 
 existence with regard to the agricultural prospects of these localities. 
 The Minister is satisfied that the department should be in possession 
 of the fullest and most accurate data at the earliest possible 
 moment. 
 
 Although the Government is not prepared to grant a railway at 
 present to Esperance, lest it should ultimately become a rival to 
 the Fremantle-Yilgarn line, they are able to show that the means of 
 transit for produce or mining machinery are not nearly so 
 unfavorable as those existing in other parts of the colony which are 
 without steam haulage. " Norseman," says Mr. A. R. Richardson, 
 late C )imnissioner of Crown lands, " is specially favored in being 
 near the coast. It is also favored with a beautiful climate, where 
 all kinds of draught stock are able to haul more than is possible in 
 a tropical climate such as that of the north-west. I say the people 
 of Norseman are favorably situated. The people in other parts of 
 tne colony such as I have mentioned, may well envy them in living 
 under conditions that are so favorable as compared with the 
 conditions existing in many other places." As for producers, a line 
 would leave them more exposed to the competition of the eastern 
 colonies ; it would chiefly benefit South Australia. Mr. Loton 
 stated when the subject was discussed in the Assembly: "The 
 people of Norseman are doing very well with their present facilities, 
 and they may continue to do well. Some of them can earn very 
 good money by carting supplies to the fields, the same as was done 
 at Ballarat in the old clays of goldfields' development in Victoria." 
 
 Mr. John Rnshton, secretary of the Esperance agricultural, 
 horticultural and fruitgrowers' society, sends replies from the 
 society to the questions asked by the Bureau. lie says " The re- 
 plies are as reliable as it is possible to make them, taking into con- 
 sideration the very recent general settlement of this district. There 
 can be but little doubt that, given proper facilities, the district as a 
 whole is capable of much in the way of settlement, and, though the 
 soil near the coast is not striking to a casual visitor, yet what has 
 been done proves it to he better than it looks. We have no reason 
 to doubt that when the time arrives for the construction of the rail- 
 
way from here to the goldfietds, settlement will be rapid and profit- 
 able. There are no good roads to Government land that is open 
 for selection. The roads board is, however, bringing the matter 
 under the notice of the Government with a view of obtaining assist- 
 ance for the purpose of making roads. We consider the capital 
 essential for a successful start on a homestead farm of 160 acres, 
 would be 250. This sum would be required for clearing, fencing, 
 working plant, and lirst order of seed. If a man takes up 500 acres 
 he should have .500. There are two surveyed agricultural areas 
 in our district, namely, Myrup and Dalyup. These areas were only 
 thrown open for selection on the first of April last, consequently too 
 late to allow them to be placed under crop this year. On Dalyup, 
 14 selections have been made, and five on Myrup. Myrup was 
 made available some time before Dalyup was proclaimed. The 
 only school in the cultivable country is one at Esperance. We 
 should recommend a man, having not more that from ^100 to ^200, 
 to take up a garden block of 20 acres. The produce of the district 
 is eagerly competed for by the buyers' travellers ; the demand 
 greatly exceeds the supply. Just now there is no market anywhere 
 else as good as that which is at the command of the Western 
 Australian producer. The Esperance district grows to the best ad- 
 vantage lucerne, barley, rye, wheat, root-crops, such as mangolds, 
 beets, etc., pumpkins, melons, tomatoes, and all classes of veget- 
 ables. There has not been sufficient time since settlement began 
 at Esperance, to test accurately what crops should be avoided 
 here. Our society would rather defer for a while giving a definite 
 answer to your question ' What crops should be avoided ?' As far 
 as we are able to judge, the land, being of a sandy nature near the 
 coast, quickly exhausts itself ; but, a little way back from the sea, 
 there is a large amount of first-class mallee country, which would be 
 capable of growing good crops without manure for some years. 
 There is a very large orchard and vineyard area throughout the dis- 
 trict, that is of land suitable for planting with vines and fruit trees. 
 It would be almost impossible, even approximately, to give the 
 quantity in figures. Some of the local cultivators are also sheep 
 farmers. The district is not much troubled by native pests, such 
 as dingoes, boodie-rats, opossums, eagle-hawks, etc. There is box 
 poison all over the district, principally on the gravel banks of the 
 creeks. It is singular that the poison is in all cases found on the 
 right hand of these creeks, as seen when travelling inland. There 
 is heartleaf poison on the granite outcrops ; candiup grass, which is 
 noxious vegetation, is found in the swampy country in fairly large 
 quantities. The larger portion of the country hereabouts is, gener- 
 ally speaking, more or less affected by poison plants. Nevertheless, 
 with care and reasonable attention, the Esperance is a good district 
 for stock. The herbage is of excellent character. There is bush- 
 feed on the sand plains, alternating with grass. The chief grasses 
 and stock-feeding plants are speargrass, barley grass, dandelion and 
 
152 
 
 native couch. The extent of arable land that can be found in one 
 piece is, we should think, from about TOO to 1000 acres. This esti- 
 mate includes the mallee country. The country is well watered 
 within 15 miles of the coast. Within this limit of the sea there is 
 an abundant supply, but outside that range the supply is 
 indifferent. The cost of conserving water on the coast is very small, 
 there being no scarcity. The quality of the water is excellent. It 
 can be obtained in wells at a depth of from 3 feet to- 10 feet. 
 Beyond 20 miles from the coast very little has been done in the 
 conservation of water. In a dry season there has never been a water 
 difficulty on the coast. Such a difficulty has occurred in the mallee 
 country. In the mallee the only way of obtaining water known at 
 present would be by condensing. Possibly artesian water might be 
 struck if bores were put down. There are facilities for irrigation 
 almost anywhere within 10 miles from the coast. The general 
 character of the soil and configuration of Esperance territory is : 
 (i.) Sandy near the coast ; (2.) in the mallee country, rich loam with 
 clay subsoil ; (3.) the general configuration of this division of the 
 colony is undulating. The country here is sparsely timbered on the 
 coast with paper-barks and yates ; there are also peppermint and 
 eucalypti. Outside the coast is the mallee country ; the land is 
 well timbered. Cost per acre to clear ready for the plough may be 
 estimated as follows : (i.) i per acre near the coast ; 2 los. per 
 acre in the mallee country. The crops usually grown are wheat, 
 barley, and oats. These are cut for hay, the general yield of which 
 is one ton per acre. The facilities for transport of produce to 
 market are very bad at the present time. Fruit is only grown in a 
 comparatively few places. It has been tried at Fanny's cove. Here 
 grapes, peaches, and figs have been planted. At Esperance ligs are 
 grown. Very few other fruits have been cultivated. So far as the 
 experiments in fruitgrowing have gone fair success has been achieved. 
 Settlement has been progressing fairly well. The co-operation of 
 the Land bank has not yet been sought. The local annual rainfall 
 calculated for the last 20 years is 25 inches at Esperance. The 
 general character of the seasons is good. The average sixes of the 
 selection^ on Crown lands are (i.) garden areas, m acres ; (2.) for 
 fanning purposes 150 acres. The land has Ivcn taken up by old 
 sett!- far we have no recent immigration. The chief 
 
 advantages of the Ksperance district are the splendid harbor and 
 proximity to several of the goklliekK which provide us with 
 an ample market for produce. Esperance is the port of the gokllields. 
 The country between Espenmce and the gokllielcls is of a level 
 character, and presents no engineeringdifficulties fortheconstructioti 
 of a railway ; there is also lair pastWal country between the port 
 and the goldlields. The- class of implements in general use are 
 single, double, an 1 treble furrowed ploughs, stump-jump ploughs, 
 and harrows. The Osborne side delivery, and the Massey- 
 Harris reaper arid binder are employed and give satisfaction. In 
 
Pumpkins and Melons grown by Mr. W. J. White at Esperance 
 Bay, without irrigation. 
 
154 
 
 the direction of stock raising a fair number of sheep, horses, and 
 pigs are bred. Given a railway, the opportunities for a larger scope 
 of work are good. Dairying is being neglected, and it cannot be 
 said that we do any dairying for market purposes. Vegetables are 
 not grown to any extent at present. Large- plots are now, however, 
 being brought under cultivation, and it is hoped that vegetables will 
 be very largely grown. Potatoes do well and are planted. Several 
 of the potato crops at the present time (July 1897) are looking very 
 well. There is Government land suitable for potato cropping 
 available. This land is not nearer than 250 miles to a railway, 
 Coolgardie being the nearest point where the locomotive runs. There 
 are also private lands available for potato growing, but we are 
 unable to give the price and terms \vhich would be offered to 
 purchasers. Frosts are not prevalent and destructive on the coast. 
 Heavy frosts are experienced further inland. The approximate 
 dates of the earliest and latest frosts are May and August, respec- 
 tively. The Esperance district is adapted for close settlement, i.e., 
 for 10 and 20 acre men, supposing that the market of the goldiields 
 is opened up by the laying of a railway so as to enable garden and 
 dairy produce to be quickly and economically transported there in 
 good order. Farmers are not keeping fowls or bees. From our 
 observation, the chief requisites for a new r settler are railway and 
 good roads. The lessons of local experience in the clearing and treat- 
 ment of the land show that the best results are obtained from 
 fallowing and early sow r ing. The soil has not yet been sufficiently 
 tested to answer authoritatively the question, 'What fertilisers 
 are best ad ipted to it ?' We can, however, say that liberal 
 manuring from the outset is profitable. There are no eligible large 
 estates open for subdivisional sale, or available for occupation under 
 improvement leases. The only suggestions that we can make for 
 the guidance of new settlers are that they must have some capital 
 and previous experience in agricultural pursuits." 
 
CHAPETR IX. 
 
 THE SWAN DISTRICT. 
 
 The Swan district, geographically considered, is a large one, 
 extending from the mouth of the Swan river, the York road, or 
 the Eastern railway, on the south, to the westerly course of the 
 Moore river on the north ; on the east to Bindoon and Bailup (or 
 half way from Fremantle to Northam), and to the shores of the 
 Indian ocean on the west. From a producer's point of view the 
 Swan district may, roughly gauged, be said to comprise only the 
 rich alluvial fiats of the Swan river in the neighborhood of Guild- 
 ford, a strip of country that is not more than three miles wide and 
 eight long. These alluvial flats are bounded on the east by the 
 Darling range, and on the west by sandy stretches of coast lands, 
 which up to the present have only been improved by the removal 
 of banksia timber for the supply of firewood for Perth. The flats, 
 with the river frontage to the Swan, were much coveted in the 
 early days of the settlement of the colony ; there were many eager 
 claimants for this fecund spot. Governor Stirling, the arbiter, 
 solved his invidious task with wise impartiality on the partition 
 principle, and gave to each applicant only one acre in twenty-five 
 fronting the stream. The long narrow parallel lines of the first 
 grants made near Guildford are still known as Governor Stirling's 
 " ribbon blocks." En passant it may be remarked that the present 
 system of the Lands department, in dealing with water frontages, is 
 to make that frontage one-third as wide as the depth of a block, 
 with the reservation, however, of the water for public purposes. 
 For years no survey has approached nearer than one chain to the 
 edge of a river ; along that chain the public and stock are free to 
 travel. If fences are erected across that reserve they may be law- 
 fully cut down. The " ribbon blocks " on the Swan did not reserve 
 water rights for public use. 
 
 The pioneers of Western Australia who set such store by the 
 goodly territory of the Swan did not over-estimate its value and 
 productiveness. More than half a century's experience has fully 
 approved the judgment of those who first trod the forests of 
 flooded gum that had thickly crowded on the kindly soil along the 
 course of the river. The Swan was for years the granary of Perth ; 
 it is now the great orchard ground of the metropolis, and it is 
 equally luxuriant in the heavy crops of cereals and fruit it abundantly 
 produces. The pioneers who sought to dwell in this Arcadia, 
 forecasted its fertility from ordinary observation ; the artesian bore 
 has in later years furnished the geologist with the materials for con- 
 
firming their conclusions from scientific knowledge. The flats 
 resemble the prolific valleys of the Nile ; they are the product of 
 floods that washed from the interior earthy deposits, which, settling 
 layer upon layer in the course of ages, made fat seed-beds that 
 in their transition from their original place had become sweetened 
 by exposure to air and water. In those deposits there was the humus 
 of decaying vegetation, swept from the surface of the tracts over 
 which the floods had raged, and the black loam, with which the flats 
 have alternately been built up. At a depth of 200 feet there have 
 been found boulders of considerable size, showing that, at one time, 
 the flats must have been the bed of a very rapid stream, as the 
 stones had been carried for miles from the ranges, while the pres- 
 ence of the alluvial, to a depth, in places, of 40 or 50 feet, mark the 
 places where, owing to depressions, the stream had coursed more 
 slowly, carrying and liberating as it flowed nothing but mud, which, 
 when dried, became the richest garden mould. It is on the " made" 
 land made in the manner that has been briefly sketched that the 
 cultivators of the Swan are able to achieve their greatest success. 
 As soon as you get beyond the somewhat narrow line of the alluvial, 
 there are the gravelly sides of the Darling ranges on the east, and 
 on the west, cold, sandy country, timbered with banksia, which is 
 of no agrarian account. About here the ranges carry the distinctive 
 sign of poor country in the growth of the kingya blackboys, which 
 may easily be identified by a stranger from their single stem, sur- 
 mounted with a bunch of heads, that are very similar in appearance 
 to a cluster of drumsticks. Where these are seen the place is one 
 that the intending selector should avoid. 
 
 "The banks of the S\van," says Mr. Charles Harper, M. L. A. 
 (President of the Bureau of Agriculture), " are highly adapted to the 
 growth of wheat ; the river bottoms are remarkable for some of the 
 yields of corn that have been taken off them. I have been told that 
 400 bushels of wheat were obtained from ten acres, which have 
 been pointed out to me. Of course that land had been, to some 
 extent, manured. Wheat is seldom grown now on the Hats ; the 
 crops are nearly all cut for hay. The general yield is about a ton 
 and a halt' to the acre. The upland is not so rich. The Hats vary 
 from 20 yards to half-a-mile wide. I should say there are 2000 or 
 3000 acres of them in the Swan district proper, that is, close to 
 Guildford. All this land is in private hands. It is many years since 
 there were any CrOWQ areas here. The original grantees got the 
 land iii consideration of their colonisation efforts in Sir fames Stir- 
 ime, N'ot many of the grants belong to the families of the 
 original beneficiaries. At first, the Swan was almost exclusively a 
 farming district, as it was the nearest pi. ice to Perth where suitable 
 land could be got to provide flour for the people. There is still in 
 the neighbourhood an interesting relic ot that time. I mean 
 Cruise's mill, which was driven by the water-power of Ellen's 
 brook, a tributary of the Swan. When York was opened as a farm- 
 
157 
 
 ing centre, wheat for a time ceased to be grown, because compe- 
 tition came from the eastern districts. It was easier for the York 
 growers to cart wheat (for they had no railway) to the city, 
 than to c irt hay. So the Swan growers, still having the 
 hay market to themselves, cut their crops for fodder instead 
 of for c >rn, and Cruise's mill fell into desuetude. Ellen's 
 brook is only a small stream, and a dam had to be made above the 
 mill to increase its driving power. Cruise's mill did good work in 
 its day, and it was a good investment for its owners, besides being 
 a landmark that must have been very remindful to the English 
 immigrants, of a rural scene at home." 
 
 The old grants have not been much subdivided ; there are now 
 new men, but old acres, on the Swan. An exception is the pro- 
 perty of Mr. \V. D. Moore, which was originally selected by Mr. 
 George Moore. Neither have the grants been extensively im- 
 proved, except close to the river. There are thousands of acres 
 which have not even been ringbarked. It is expensive to clear 
 them of their forests of red gum, white gum, and swamp gum, and 
 many of the owners are living abroad. " Absenteeism," says Mr. 
 Harper, " is the reason that more has not been done in the Swan 
 district. In other directions, notably fruit-growing, very satisfac- 
 tory progress has been made. The Swan is a great orchard place 
 now, one of the principal in the colony. Cereal crops are grown, 
 but fruit production takes the pride of place. Latterly," Mr. Harper 
 states, '' a great improvement has been made here in methods of 
 orchard cultivation ; old errors are being corrected and knowledge 
 is being enlarged ; new and superior varieties of stocks are being 
 introduced. At one time trees and vines were overcrowded, so that 
 horse power and labor-saving plant could not take the place of the 
 spade ; now the plantations are being laid out accurately on the 
 square, quincunx, or septuple systems, and proper work is done 
 upon them at all seasons of the year. The best soil is allotted to 
 fruit and vineyards, with the result that better fruit is being sent to 
 market. You may hear people say that they used to see finer peaches 
 than they get nowadays, but they forget that they are speaking 
 of the fruit of a special tree, of a superior variety perhaps, or one 
 which had the good fortune to be planted in an excellent situation, 
 and to have been attended to. The bulk sample of the yield of the 
 Swan orchards and vineyards is of a higher grade than that which 
 was formerly sold. Moreover, study has been given to having a 
 rotation of crops in the orchards. I can remember when there was 
 a glut at one time of the year, and none at all for many months 
 afterwards. In the vineyard stocks there has been a marked im- 
 provement both in the table and wine varieties. Among the choice 
 sorts that have been introduced, speaking of table kinds, are 
 Knight's centennial, Waltham cross, black St. Peter. Before we 
 got these stocks the standard dessert varieties were white 
 Nice, chasselas, crystal, and Whortley hall and sweetwater. 
 
158 
 
 There were not many wine grapes grown of the better kinds. 
 Now there are many acres planted with carbinet, mataro mal- 
 bec, besides doradilla, which is an excellent grape, both for 
 the table and the wine vat. It makes superior white wine. All 
 vines thrive on the Swan ; I cannot say that the dessert stocks do 
 better than the wine kinds, but the table crop is certainly very line. 
 I have never seen choicer grapes, either larger or of better flavour. 
 If anything, the ground is too rich for the wine grape. The crop is 
 a very heavy one, but an earthy flavour in the wine has sometimes 
 been suspected. Perhaps a more gravelly country, with an ad- 
 mixture of lime and ironstone, would grow a more perfect grape for 
 the wine maker. A great deal of wine is made in the district. The 
 largest vignerons are Mr. C. Ferguson, of Houghton, whose 
 cellars are about five miles from Guildford, Mr. George Lennard, 
 also an extensive grower, and Messrs. Nanson & Co." 
 
 The Swan district is one of those which are looking forward to 
 the establishment of co-operative wineries in order to prevent a 
 glut of grapes, and to ensure the making of wine of a high and 
 uniform grade on a large scale, under the most skilful treatment and 
 supervision. The scheme has engaged the attention of the Bureau 
 of Agriculture. It is the desire of the Bureau to establish co- 
 operative wineries on a purely mutual basis, so that the producers 
 will reap all the profits of their labor above actual working expenses. 
 The plan that has been outlined by the Bureau is that the capital 
 required to equip a central winery shall be advanced by the State at 
 5 per cent, per annum, the loan to be repayable in ten years, on the 
 security of the first mortgage over the land, buildings, and plant of 
 the factory, and the joint and several guarantee of all the members 
 in the group. It is also proposed that the Government shall have 
 power to levy a tax upon the vineyards which supply grapes to the 
 State-aided winery in case the interest and sinking fund are not paid 
 within three years. An alternative plan is that advances shall be 
 made by the State at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum for a period 
 of ten years, amounting to ten shillings in every pound of fully paid 
 up capital subscribed by the groups ; the land, buildings, plant, and 
 machinery to be given as security for the subsidy. The proposals 
 of the Bureau received the assent of the Producers' conference, 
 1896, and at the conference of the following year another resolution 
 was agreed to affirming the desirableness of co-operation among 
 producers. It was urged that in order to prevent the grape market 
 being over supplied, which would result in a serious fall in prices, it 
 was necessary that the growers who do not possess plant and cellars 
 should take steps to provide their own output on terms, which, while 
 being helpful to themselves, would impose no risk of loss upon the 
 State. In the other colonies overstocking had occurred, with 
 the result that some of the smaller vineyards had become unre- 
 munerative, and the large vignerons were given the power to rule the 
 market, buying at quotations which they took care to fix low enough 
 
159 
 
 to serve their own interests. As a giv.it deal of capital was needed to 
 carry on the niak ng of wine in a manner that would ensure 
 a high class quality of wine, it was not to be expected that every 
 man who planted a few acres of vines could successfully embark in 
 the business of fermentation, blending, and keeping his wine until it 
 had properly matured ; nor was every vigneron skilful enough to 
 make really good wine even under the most favorable conditions. 
 The result was that Western Australian wine had not, like that of 
 France, a distinctive quality and character appertaining to 
 certain districts, and which would enable foreign buyers to give 
 orders with confidence that they would get what they wanted. So 
 far co-operative wineries have not been established. The price of 
 grapes is so good that there is not at present much incentive to see 
 the plan earnestly achieved. There is a demand for all the grapes that 
 are grown, and the growers are, for the time being, content to let 
 well alone, but Mr. Harper utters a warning that there is clanger 
 ahead. He says Western Australian vignerons are only repeating 
 the policy of inaction, in not looking ahead to provide a certain 
 market for their grapes, that has proved to be mischievous in 
 California, Victoria, and South Australia. In these countries there 
 was a time similar to that which is being enjoyed on thejSwan, when 
 it was only necessary to produce grapes in order to net large profits. 
 But as enlarged and new vineyard areas came into bearing a 
 disastrous competition set in to get the owners of large cellars to 
 take the crop. The capitalists saw their opportunity and took 
 advantage to press rates down as low as 303. per ton for grapes 
 which, when converted into wine, realised a very handsome profit, 
 after allowing a very liberal margin for working expenses and all 
 charges. The growers, in fact, had to come to the position of 
 working for the benefit of those who were enabled to become 
 monopolists, because those w T ho had grapes to sell were without the 
 means of turning them into wine. Those means could be as fairly 
 supplied to vignerons on adequate security as loans from the Land 
 bank are advanced to the farmer ; but the State is not likely to 
 offer money from the public coffers to assist any of the producing 
 industries unless the need for such is pressed upon the attention 
 of the Government. By and by, when the menace to the vineyards 
 which is looming up assumes a more tangible shape, Mr. Harper 
 says the small grape-grow r ers, meaning those who do not make their 
 own wine, may find that the capitalist is too strong for them. That 
 has been the experience of other places ; the wane-makers who have 
 established a reputation have been able to bring so much influence 
 to bear, owing to their vested interests, that the numerical superiority 
 of the vignerons who have desired State aid have been unable to 
 obtain it. 
 
 To illustrate the scope of the scheme formulated by the Bureau, 
 and to show the scope of w r ork that a central winery would have in 
 the Guildford district, His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerard 
 
Smith ; the Premier, the Rt. Hon. Sir John Forrest, other members of 
 the Ministry and of the Legislature, bt sides a distinguished party of 
 private guests, were on April 3, 1896, conducted on a tour of inspec- 
 tion through portion of the Swan district. The object of the 
 Bureau in arranging the tour was to enable the merits of the pro- 
 posal to establish state-a'ded wineries to be better understood by 
 Parliament and by the public. The party were conveyed to 
 Woodbridge, where the large and well-appointed orchard was 
 seen in full bearing. It was much admired as an example of the 
 method with which it had been laid out, its scrupulous neatness and 
 the thoroughness of its cultivation. From the broad verandah of 
 Woodbridge the visitors had a view of the verdant fruit trees, 
 the Swan river, and the sparkling cascade of the artesian bore,- 
 which in summer refreshes the thirsty ground. The orchard is 
 planted upon deep rich fiats of heavy black loam, and that it can 
 grow all kinds of English fruits to perfection was shown by the 
 splendid samples which the visitors were invited to partake of. The 
 nursery stocks, which occupy several acres, were in a very forward 
 and healthy condition. The party drove to Carlisle, on the west 
 Swan road, the property of Messrs. Nanson, Lindley-Cowen and 
 Despcis^is. . The site of the vineyard, which is no acres in extent, 
 was purchased in 1893 from Mr. Harper, and since that time a won- 
 derful transformation has been made. From a piece of lightly tim- 
 bered forest land, light reddish and slate-coloured in different 
 parts, it h:id become a vineyard that might have been transplanted 
 from a sunny slope of France. There were then in course of being 
 broken up, additional acres for new plantations of vines, it being 
 the intention of the proprietors to bring the whole of it under 
 cultivation. The guests were entertained at Carlisle, and the 
 postprandial speeches bore many references to the subject of estab- 
 lishing central wineries. In proposing the toast of " The Ministry," 
 Mr. Harper said that the Bureau had become convinced that, in 
 the interests of the wine industry, which was destined to become one 
 of the great resources of Western Australia, a new departure should 
 be made. 1 1 was well known that every man who grew grapes 
 ought ii". to make wine, and it was desired to give the small 
 grower the benefit of co-operative enterprise in turning out wine 
 ot a high class. To make wine properly required a plant 
 which wa> beyond the ordinary private resources of the small 
 growers to purchase, especially as it was evident that the vigneron 
 should use every pound ol" his capital and his available labour in 
 bringing additional land under cultivation. I'nder these circum- 
 stances, and in order to prevent a surplus production, which had been 
 the bane Ol the viticnltunst in the other colonies, the Bureau had 
 drawn up a scheme by which it was proposed to a^k tor a State 
 loan l"i the e v.ablUhmeiif of wineries in such districts of the colony 
 as had a l.i;ge area of vines under cultivation. It was with the 
 object ot showii.g the members oi the Tio\ eminent, and as many 
 

 
 FOR DESCRIPTION SEE BACK. 
 
J^ARRI COUNTRY, ^ARRIDALE. 
 
 THESE trees grow to gigantic sizes, and share with 
 Jarrah the pride of being the principal trees of 
 Western Australia. The tree on the centre of the 
 plate, " King Karri," measures 160 feet to the 
 first branch, and it is reckoned that the bole of 
 the tree weighs over 40 tons. The area is con- 
 fined to the more humid coastal region extending 
 from the Hamelin to near Albany. It delights in 
 soil varying from a red sandy loam intermixed 
 with limestone reefs, somewhat similar to that met 
 with in the Tuart country, to deep, dark mould, 
 moist, but well drained. 
 
members of the Legislature as it had been possible to invite, 
 what these so-called second-class lands of Western Australia were 
 capable of in the growth of the vine, that the excursion of that day 
 had been arranged. Those present were sitting in sight of land 
 that he knew well, as it had formerly been his property. While he 
 owned it he had not set a high value upon it for grazing purposes. 
 It was, in fact, land of a character of which the colony possessed 
 hundreds of thousands of acres, and they saw what the owners of 
 Carlisle had made of it. They had shown that the colony possessed 
 a most valuable asset in such land that, in fact, it grew vines to 
 perfection, if it were properly and carefully cultivated. This fact 
 was of immense importance at a time when special encouragement 
 was needed to induce men to put their money and their 
 efforts into cultivation a time when people were much 
 more prone to try to get rich at a bound by a lucky invest- 
 ment in mining. The time might come when it would not be 
 necessary to offer such special inducements to reclaim and develop 
 the soil as it was now, but at the present time the Bureau had felt 
 impelled to take some steps towards endeavoring to add to the 
 producing resources of the colony and to turn the public lands to 
 the best account. Especially was this desirable at a time when it 
 was necessary to introduce co-operative effort, instead of leaving the 
 production of grapes and wine to be carried out in the vineyards 
 and the cellars of large capitalists. The question was exercising 
 the minds of vignerons in Victoria as to how they could obtain a 
 proper return for their grapes, without sacrificing too much of the 
 profits by selling to the wine merchants. The question having 
 presented itself to the members of the Bureau, of which he had the 
 honor to be chairman, they had thought it would be well to take 
 the initiative before a glut in the harvest of the vineyards occurred. 
 Having regard to the enormous expense of laying down a wine- 
 making plant, the Bureau was in favor of asking the Government 
 to find the money for district wineries, the loan to be advanced on 
 proper security. When it was remembered that in addition to 
 making the wine there had to be accommodation for storing it, it 
 would be perceived that a large amount of money would be 
 required, more than could be expected to be found by the vigneron. 
 Moreover, the district wineries would, under the management of an 
 expert, produce wine of a first-class quality, which would find its 
 place in the markets of the world. If this scheme was carried out 
 Western Australia would be acting upon the methods pursued in 
 the best wine-making countries, and one that would be calculated 
 to give a stimulus to vineyard cultivation. The great expense of 
 clearing land, tending vines, and waiting for the yield, should be 
 borne in mind, and should strengthen the appeal that it was pro- 
 posed to make to the Government. There were, of course, some 
 little difficulties to be overcome, but he did not see why co-opera- 
 tive wine-making could not be carried out by this colony in the 
 
1 62 
 
 same way that the butter export trade of Victoria had been built 
 up. He was sure that the turning to account of the large area of 
 second-class land in Western Australia for vineyard purposes would 
 be a great national asset for the colony. Sir John Forrest, in 
 acknowledging the cordiality with which the toast of "The 
 Ministry " had been honored, said that during the time they had 
 been in" office the members of the Government had exerted them- 
 selves on behalf of the agricultural interests ; they had made railways 
 through the cultivable districts of the colony, in order to get the 
 land settled. At one time railways were considered to be all that 
 was necessary to achieve this object, but now that nearly every- 
 one, himself included, was anxious to take some part in mining, it 
 seemed that something more was necessary, albeit the agricultural 
 Land bank had been established and liberal land laws passed. If 
 the Bureau of Agriculture would lay their scheme fully before the 
 Government, he could promise them the sympathy of the Cabinet, 
 even if the Government could not grant all the requests that were 
 made. What Mr. Harper had said about making a valuable 
 national asset of the Crown lands of the colony appealed to him 
 very strongly. What was the use of the 640,000,000 acres of land 
 in Western Australia if they were not turned to profitable account, 
 it they were not made to yield an income. The visitors then drove 
 to St. Leonards, the estate of Mr. G. B. Leonard , about live 
 miles distant, and were shown over an excellent and \vell- 
 developed property. Forty-five acres of vines were seen in superb 
 condition. St. Leonards, which is replete with all the modern 
 appliances for carrying on farming on a large and successful scale, 
 is most picturesquely situated. The energy and competent direc- 
 tion of the owner are apparent in every feature of the place, uhich 
 is one that Western Australia may be glad to exhibit to visitors. 
 An olive-shaded avenue leads to the commodious homestead. 
 
 A very enjoyable and instructive clay may be spent in a tour 
 around the Swan distiict, and in the inspection of the various 
 valuable properties which nature and art have combined to render 
 delightful places of residence, and notable examples of the pro- 
 ductive capabilities of Western Australia. Almost adjoining the 
 Guildford station on the north is the Caversham estate, which 
 belonged to the late Mr. R. de Burgh, and which in response to 
 the demand for country homes within easy distance of the city, and 
 possessing great natural advantages, is being made the site of what 
 will soon become a fashionable suburb of the capital. The design 
 is that here shall be laid out orchards and vine-yards, and small 
 but highly improved 'pasture lands, as the adjuncts of the homes of 
 prosperous professional and mercantile men, where rural sights and 
 sounds shall exhilarate the spirits and restore the tone of languid 
 nature. The lead has been taken in this direction by Mr. Robinson, 
 whose bijou villa will occupy a very picturesque situation. On its 
 western boundary is an important heritage of the Haiuersley family, 
 
163 
 
 and which is entailed upon the elder son of Mr. Edward Hamersley 
 senior. On his death Pyrton, as the place is called, passed to 
 his son Hugh, who has been engaged in fanning on the Greenough 
 flats of late years ; hence the property has not been kept in the 
 perfect order which used to distinguish it. In Mr. Edward Hamers- 
 ley's time Pyrton was known as the most carefully managed 
 property, and the most highly improved of any to be found on the 
 banks of the Swan. It contains orchard, vineyard, and arable lands, 
 all of which were models of what skill, supervision, and money 
 could do in creating a domain that was fair to look upon and profit- 
 able to own. Above Pyrton is Mr. James B. Roe's location ; 
 here we see a young and flourishing orchard, but hardly yet in 
 bearing, the trees having only been planted within the last year or 
 two. An old vineyard marks the site of the effort of one of the 
 pioneers to replace the flooded gums with luscious fruit. Another 
 vineyard that has fallen into decay is that of the adjacent estate of 
 Mr. \V. Harris. Still following the west side of the river a glance is 
 had at Mr. Lennard's; Messrs. Nanson & Go's (which has 
 already been referred to) ; West Oakover, Mr. W.D. Moore's 
 and Mr. Chester's freeholds. Henley Park, belonging to the 
 Hon. H. J. Saunders, to which the visitor now comes, is a very 
 fine property. A consideiable sum has been, and is being, expended 
 in its development, especially in clearing operations. Mr. Saunders 
 so recently acquired Henley Park that he has not yet had time 
 to bring all his schemes for its improvement to fruition. In time, 
 when his designs are perfected, there will be a large orchard and 
 vineyard stocked with the best and rarest varieties of trees and 
 vines. The soil is a sandy loam on a clay bottom. The merit of 
 the land is that it remains friable when it is broken up. On 
 the east side of the river, at the head of the Swan river 
 flats, and the foot of the Darling range is Belvoir, owned 
 by Mr. W. T. Loton, who for many years represented the elector- 
 ate of the Swan in the Legislative Assembly. He retired when 
 Parliament was prorouged at the beginning of 1897, in consequence 
 of the passing of the Redistribution of Seats Bill, having rendered an 
 appeal to the country necessary tw r o years before the life of the Assem- 
 bly would have expired by effluxion of time. Belvoir is at the head of 
 the Swan, that is to say, a few miles below r the point where the 
 stream emerges from the hills. The estate is not one of the most 
 fertile to be found in the district, a good deal of its area 
 being of a light sandy character. Close to the river good crops are 
 obtained, but most of the estate is devoted to grazing. Some dairy- 
 ing is done there, but only during the winter and spring months ; the 
 milch herd is not artificially fed, nor is ensilage prepared for the 
 summer. The stock comprises choice Ayrshires, to the importing 
 and breeding of which Mr. Loton has devoted much attention. A 
 great deal of clearing has been done at a liberal outlay. On the 
 face of the range, to which the property extends, there are excel- 
 
164 
 
 tent natural grasses. Where the land has been cultivated the in- 
 digenous grasses disappear, and their place is taken by dandelion 
 and other imported weeds, on which stock thrive. The trefoil, 
 commonly known as clover, is the best of these plants. The adjoin- 
 ing property is Mr. Padbury's, which has been extensively cleared. 
 For many years money has been freely laid out upon it, and a great 
 deal of hay has been grown upon it. An orchard has been planted. 
 Another estate, which is associated with the name of one of the 
 earliest colonists of the west, is the one on the boundary of Mr. 
 Padbury's, going south. This is the estate of the late Mr. William 
 Brockman, who bequeathed it to his daughter, Mrs. De Courcy 
 Lefroy, and it is now under the management of her son. The lands 
 are chiefly used for hay-growing and grazing. The property almost 
 entirely consists of rich flats, and a considerable area has been 
 cleared ; the uplands are also of good quality. Nearly opposite 
 them on the river are the broad acres, intersected by Lion's brook 
 and Ellen's brook, that belonged to his Honor Mr. Justice George 
 Leake. On the death of his honor, the place was purchased, 
 with the old Cruise's mill, that is so full of associations of the first 
 colonising experiences in Western Australia, by Mr. George Len- 
 nard, who is actively engaged in further reclaiming and cultivating 
 the ground. In this neighbourhood is Oakover (Mr. W. D. 
 Moore's), and the Protestant orphanage, the grounds of which 
 are one of the earliest grants of land which the Crown made 
 for public purposes. The institution, \vhich was long under the 
 admirable charge of the late Canon Brown, has some acres in an 
 advanced state of tillage. The orphanage, which has a subsidy 
 from the Treasury, observes the best systems in laying out and tend- 
 ing its vegetable and fruit gardens. Above the orphanage is the 
 vineyard of Mr. C. W. Ferguson, one of the largest and best 
 kept in the colony. Nearer Guildford, a large area of 
 excellent land, on the river frontage, represents the freeholds of Mr. 
 S. H. Viveash, and adjoining Woodbridge there is an estate that 
 belongs to Mr. North, brother-in-law to Lady Forrest. 
 
 The Swan district is thus described by one who, as a large 
 cultivator and an old resident, speaks with authority upon the 
 subject: "The richest lands, that is those on the Hats, \vere in 
 their virgin state equal to any in the colony. No larger crops have 
 been produced anywhere than those which came, for example, from 
 the land of Colonel Irwin, which is now Henley park, in the 
 hands of the Hon. H. J. Saunders. The park was one of the 
 hay producing farms in the west, but it is not all of the 
 quality of the fringe of the river banks. There is a part of it sand, 
 which grows jarrah, a fact which is worth mentioning as one of the 
 characteristics of the district. The theory which some people hold 
 that the jarrah finds its habitat only on the ironstone, is not tenable. 
 It is true that jarrah prefers ironstone, and never grows so large 
 where this formation is not found ; but the tree grows more or less 
 
thickly nn some sandy stretches within fifteen miles of the sea, not 
 only near the Swan, but also in many other places further south 
 towards Btmbury. The sandy land about the Swan has one advantage 
 over the heavy loams of the river bottom, which are liable to bake in 
 the height of summer and allow the moisture to rapidly evaporate 
 unless continually cultivated. The lighter soil where the jarrah is 
 found, on the other hand, is always loose when it is worked, and it 
 makes up in this respect for some of its inferior fertility and strength as 
 compared with the tlats. These flats have great stamina ; although 
 there has been very little interval in almost continuous cropping for 
 many years, the ground is to-day very productive. It is only now 
 that fertilisers are being ,used. The flats grew flooded gums ; on 
 the east side of the river there is no jarrah, red gum takes its place 
 on the lighter loams. There are also some white gums on patches 
 of stiff red soil. In this district the white gum country is very good 
 for wheat. The flooded gum is much more difficult to kill by ring- 
 barking than the red gum, owing to its tenacity in throwing out 
 suckers. The ironstone on the ranges hereabout is not of the rich 
 quality that is found about Pinjarrah and Drakesbrook ; it is poor 
 and hungry, and not good for anything. There is no estate on 
 which all the land is of the best kind ; the division of the river 
 frontages was too equally made to allow of that, but some of the 
 freeholds have more of the best country than others. There has 
 been a gradual diminution in the rainfall of the Swan during the last 
 30 years, but still we cannot complain of not having enough. Up 
 to ten years ago floods were of occasional occurrence ; they were 
 caused by heavy rains in the interior ; the local rainfall was never 
 sufficient to cause the Swan to inundate the country. There was a 
 danger of total loss of crop through floods in those days. The 
 crops then, with a larger rainfall, were not as good as those which 
 are reaped now that the rainfall has become less. More moisture 
 is not required for the growing of cereals, but some of the orchards 
 would do much better with irrigation. The citrus family would 
 especially be greatly benefited, but ordinary English fruits can be 
 well matured without an artificial supply of water. The apple does 
 very \vell on the flats, when it is left to depend on the rainfall, and 
 it does fairly well on the uplands without irrigation, as the uplands 
 hold the \vater for a long time longer than the heavy loams 
 on the margin of the stream." 
 
 In the neighborhood of the Swan river five artesian bores 
 have been put down with most successful results at varying depths. 
 The discovery that artesian water was obtainable was first made by 
 the Railway department on the site for the new locomotive work- 
 shops, at the Midland Junction, two miles from Guildford. The 
 water was struck at 490 feet, and a daily supply of 256,000 gallons 
 is obtained from it. Mr. Charles Harper, M.L.A., of Woodbridge, 
 was the next to essay the task of obtaining the benefit of an artesian 
 supply for the irrigation of his extensive vineyard and orchard 
 
i66 
 
 grounds. He had the satisfaction of getting 170,000 gallons per 
 day at a depth of only 170 feet. The supply is used all through the 
 summer, and in the rainy season it is shut down by means of a tap 
 and plugs. The third bore was put down by Mr. H. E. B. Gull, 
 close to the Guildford station ; the fourth by Mr. James Morrison, 
 to a depth of 690 feet, on the bank of the Helena river, which flows 
 into the Swan at Guildford ; and the fifth by Mr. H. Hamersley, 
 who had to go the deepest of all, namely, 760 feet. The bores were all 
 started with a diameter of 10 inches at the surface. The water from 
 Mr. Gull's has already been used for irrigating his fruit trees and 
 vines, but so far arrangements have not been perfected for con- 
 serving the supply during winter ; it now runs to waste when it is 
 not wanted in the vineyard and orchard. The bores on Mr. 
 Hamersley's and Mr. Morrison's properties are expected to be 
 applied to fruit growing during the summer of 1897. The artesian 
 water is impregnated with iron, but it is not unpleasant to the taste, 
 and so far as observation has shown during the comparatively short 
 time it has been used for irrigation purposes, its chemical com- 
 position is not disadvantageous to the vineyards and orchards. The 
 Government are assisting the municipality of Guildford to put down 
 an artesian bore for the service of the inhabitants of that town. 
 
 In reviewing the questions tabulated by the Secretary to the 
 Bureau of Agriculture for the collating of information of value for 
 the purposes of the GUIDE, Mr. Charles Harper, M.L.A., President 
 of the Bureau, courteously furnished the following notes in the course 
 of an interview accorded to the reporter : " The roads throughout 
 the Swan district have been cut up by the hay teams, and are not 
 as a rule in good order.. The main road through Guildford is of 
 course an exception to this criticism, as it is attended to by the town 
 council of the municipality. The country highways running, as they 
 do over a soil that is not good for the carriage of traffic, are much in 
 need of forming. The only forming that has been done is along the 
 sandy patches, which would have been impassable had they not 
 been metalled. The loam or clay tracks having been left to a state 
 of nature, arc in a bad way, the Government grants being inadequate 
 to enable the roads board to keep them in order. It is difficult to 
 get road-making material in the neighbourhood of the Swan, which 
 accentuates the trouble. A bridge is wanted bet\\een the upper 
 Swan and what is called Barker's bridge. As to how much capital 
 a man should have in taking up land, I am convinced that the same 
 should be not less than /.'i per acre, if he is going in for general 
 fanning. The ca^e would be different if he were about to lay out 
 an orchard, f< >r when he had planted his trees he could, while 
 waiting for the fruit, work for wages or on piece-woik jobs to pay 
 expenses. But if he is to make a si: fanning he must keep 
 
 on clearing ; he cannot leave that work to earn iimney, without 
 neglecting his own place. If he has need to work fur wages, he is 
 better off the land than on it, for he will not get a fair chance to 
 
i6 7 
 
 make his holding profitable. A piece of land when first selected 
 requires, at least, all the work of one man to make anything of it. 
 With every desire to see the land settled, I think people would be 
 ill-advised to select if they have not some means which will pay 
 expenses and support them while they are getting their ground in 
 going order, and enable them meanwhile to give all their energy to 
 that work. They should at least have enough to buy implements 
 and horses, and tide them over a year. In the southern district, 
 where a tolerably large piece of land would be needed, in order that 
 a little grazing might be combined with cultivation, I think .500 is 
 little enough for an applicant to have in the bank. For working a 
 garden block for fruit and vegetables, for which the south-west is 
 so well adapted, a much smaller sum would suffice, because intense 
 culture would allow of a small block being handled with profit. I 
 know of one instance in which a man working on an orchard of his 
 own in his spare time and doing outside labor, has prospered very 
 well, because he is able to bring his place up to a state in which it 
 can have a rest and be improving all the time he is engaged 
 elsewhere. But there is no resting time on a farm, every year, a 
 farmer, if he is to do any good, wants more land to cultivate. 
 
 " Speaking of the market for produce, fruit and vegetables are 
 sought for by buyers' travellers. Hay and chaff have of late 
 readily found a buyer at remunerative prices ; but I have known the 
 market to be fully supplied, or even more coming to hand than was 
 immediately required. The farmer has to seek for his buyer ; the 
 orchardist and the vegetable grower find the purchasers come to 
 them. Just now (July, 1897) there is a scarcity of fodder in conse- 
 quence of growers being engaged in farming operations, and not 
 having time to cut their hay into chaff, and also of the dry season 
 that has been experienced in the eastern colonies. I believe chaff 
 has lately been sold at ^9 per ton. A few years ago it brought 10 
 per ton. The time is coming, through the large areas of land that 
 are being cleared, when fodder will decline in price. I would 
 counsel growers who are not close to a railway, to cut their wheat 
 crops for wheat during this year's harvest, for it is probable that 
 wheat will pay as well, if not better than hay. At any rate, the wise 
 course to follow would be for some of each crop to be cut for wheat 
 and some for hay. It should not be forgotten that before the gold- 
 fields were discovered prices for fodder were low, and that the de- 
 mand, at the present yearly rate of the increase of production, will 
 sooner or later be again overtaken. On the other hand, the 
 market of the colony is the best one I know of for farmers, and they 
 now enjoy what the early settlers did not, an enormous advantage 
 in the extension of the railway service. I do not, however, regard 
 the tariff of freights as an indulgent one for farmers. 
 
 " It is hard to say what the Swan district will grow to the best 
 advantage, but you may take it that the two things that pay best are 
 those which are mostly grown, namely, fruit and hay. These grow 
 
i68 
 
 excellently. I would not put one before the other in estimating the 
 fertility or productiveness of the district, because we have a great 
 variety of soils which produce both fruit and cereals to perfection. 
 I would answer to your question that orchards and crops, whether 
 cut for \vheat or hay, never fail, and are very profitable on our rich 
 alluvial Hats. Of the crops that should be avoided, lucerne is one. 
 It does not succeed here, probably because there is not enough 
 lime on the made lands. The soil is also rather too stiff to suit that 
 plant. Moreover, the climate is too dry in summer, when, of course, 
 maize should be grown, to allow us to grow it to advantage. Nor, 
 speaking generally, do potatoes thrive. The strong land is too stiff 
 for them, and the sandy land too poor to yield a heavy crop. There 
 are spots where potatoes do very well, but these are the exception. 
 It is evident that the district is not well suited for potatoes, or pota- 
 toes would be largely grown so near to the metropolitan market, 
 and they are not largely grown. Farmers find out very quickly 
 what they can make the most money out of that is, what will grow 
 best. The experience of the Swan is against potatoes, for the price 
 they realise affords every encouragement to grow them. I do not 
 think they are ever sold at less than 10 per ton. But I should add 
 that when potatoes are grown on the Sw r an they are of remarkably 
 good quality and first-class keepers that is the spring crop. The 
 early rose variety is the kind which thrives best. 
 
 " The land does not quickly exhaust itself not the good land, 
 and the inferior is hardly touched. The rich paddocks have been 
 cropped for many years without the aid of manuring, but they have 
 to some extent been fertilised by the grazing of sheep. Bone dust is 
 now being largely used; it is obtainable at a reasonable rate. A 
 few years before so many large Queensland preserving factories 
 were established, bone dust was very scarce and cost 7 per ton ; it 
 is now ^5 per ton, and of better quality than that which used to be 
 in the market. This fertiliser is creating a revolution in the agricul- 
 tural industry of the district. When artificial manures were not 
 obtainable there was necessarily less production. Yt.u could not 
 get guano, and it does not suit the Swan as well as bone dust. At 
 the time of which I speak the concession under which the Messrs. 
 BroadliurM and Xeil remove guano from the Abmlhos islands had 
 not been granted. The 'live guano,' which was excellent, could 
 only be obtained from Sharks Hay in small quantities, where the 
 its are limited. Bone dust, so far as 1 know, is suitable for a 
 larger variety of soils than guano ; it is quicker in its action. 
 Thomas' phosphates are being largely tried this year, more largely 
 than ever before. 
 
 " Many of the local cultivators are also sheep fanners. They 
 buy store sheep from the north, but the supply of this stock is not 
 equal to the demand. The reasons for this are that during the last 
 ten years people in the south have given up the breeding of sheep 
 and cattle, while drought in the north has reduced the number there 
 
i6 9 
 
 The result is that store stock is very hard to get. If store sheep can 
 be purchased at a reasonable rate, it is very profitable to fatten them 
 on the Swan. Mr. Lefroy gets them from his own stations in the 
 north. Sheep do very well on the stubble, and also on the scrub 
 country when it has been burned and the first rains fall. The scrub 
 will, however, only burn every second year. 
 
 " The only native pests here are parrots in the orchard ; parrots 
 do so much mischief that if a man can afford it the netting in of 
 vines and fruit trees, to protect them from the birds, will return its 
 cost pretty nearly in the extra returns from the crop the first season 
 after the precaution is taken. I have some ground netted. It is the 
 right thing to do while muscatels for table grapes bring fourpence 
 per Ib. We have to contend with poison plants also on the eastern 
 side of the Swan. The western side is free of this danger. 
 At some distance back from the river, at the foot of the range, there 
 is a considerable amount of poison, of the kind known as black 
 adder poi-son. It is similar to the York road poison, and is the only 
 variety of noxious vegetation known in the Swan district. The plant 
 gets its name through growing along the banks of the Black Adder 
 creek. The infested places are fenced off, and stock cannot be depas- 
 tured there at any time of the year. The creek forms one 
 of the boundaries of Woodbridge, but only for a few chains, 
 when it empties itself into the Swan. The land where the 
 poison grows is private property ; it is poor country, and not of 
 much use even for grazing, supposing it were clean. The locality 
 is hilly. The stock is more likely to eat the poison when it shoots 
 green after a fire has been over it ; but it would be fatal if eaten at 
 any time. Miles of country along the foot of the range is infested. 
 Trie range rises to a maximum height of noo or 1200 feet. On the 
 whole the Swan is a very healthy district for stock ; they do not re- 
 quire a ' coast change ' when they are kept there any length of 
 time. They do not get at the poison, as they are nil kept in clean 
 paddocks ; nothing is being done to eradicate the poison, as the 
 country where it grows is so inferior that it would hardly pay for 
 the work of grubbing. 
 
 " The extent of arable land in one stretch to be found in the 
 Swan district would measure 500 or 600 acres, if the boundary 
 fences of different owners did not intervene. Henley park has 120 
 or 130 acres of first-class arable land in one block. Mr. Lennard also 
 has some fields of about 100 acres, and so has Mr. Paclbury. The 
 country round about the Swan has plenty of water if it is tapped, but 
 not much on the surface. There are springs along the banks of the 
 rivers. As you go back on the west side you get ti-tree swamps. 
 In parenthesis I may say that these swamps, even if they were 
 drained, would not be very good for garden cultivation. The springs 
 are sweet water, fit for human consumption. There is an excellent 
 spring at Henley park from which the household water is drawn. 
 The Swan is a well-watered district with its artesian supply, which 
 
170 
 
 no bore that has been put down has ever failed to tap. There is no 
 water difficulty in a dry season. Well water can be struck at a 
 depth of from 6 to 40 feet, but sometimes it is slightly brackish. 
 There are no facilities for irrigation, except from the artesian bores. 
 The Swan is not serviceable for summer watering, because at that 
 season its level is so low that the sea water enters its channel, and 
 impregnates the stream as far up its course as Guildford. We have 
 no timber that is of any commercial value. Along the river flooded 
 
 ?jms used to grow, and behind their fringe, red and white gum. 
 he cost of clearing land ready for the plough is from 2 to 10 
 per acre. 
 
 " The fruits grown on the Swan are all the English fruits, with 
 the exception of plums and most of the berries, which do not thrive. 
 The Japanese plum does very well, and strawberries also in places. 
 The latter need a very rich soil ; they want irrigation ; left to the 
 rainfall, the district is too dry for them. The citrus tribes de- 
 cidedly do better on the hillsides than on the Hats, which are emin- 
 ently suited to the pear, and the apple, better than to the apricot or 
 the peach. The stiff black soil of the flats is liable to crack in the 
 summer and let the moisture escape, which militates against some 
 kinds of fruit. The sandy areas back from the river are, through 
 being more friable, better in this respect, but are hardly rich enough 
 to do justice to orchards. . There is no inferior sandy land on the 
 Wood bridge estate. Tropical fruits, such as mangoes, are net pro- 
 duced on the Swan. 
 
 " The Swan district is capable of producing 25 bushels of 
 wheat to the acre ; I have grown 28 bushels per acre on small 
 fertilised fields. When manured, two tons of hay per acre is har- 
 vested on the river flats. The Government railway gives us 
 excellent facilities for transporting produce either to the Perth 
 market or to the Yilgarn goldflelds. The Midland railway is useful 
 for carrying stores, implements, and other goods to the farming 
 places along its route, but it is not much used for conveying crops 
 to market. 
 
 " The rainfall of the Swan is about 26 inches per annum. 
 This quantity would do far more good if it were more evenly dis- 
 tributed. We get a very heavy fall during July, August, and Sep- 
 tember, and hardly enough before and after those dales. It would 
 be better it we could get the autumn rains in March or April 
 i 'lot in May, and sometimes in June. A few more thunder- 
 
 storms in summer would also be very beneficial. So far this BeaSQD 
 i' v (;7 has been an excellent one, rain and sunshine alternating, 
 to enable the crops to t ^et very forward and promising. 
 
 "The chief advantages of the district are proximity to the 
 capital, a ^ood climate, fairly sufficient rainfall, railway communica- 
 tion, and fertile soil. The be^t modern fanning implements are in 
 There is not much done in stock raising only in stock 
 fattening. It does not pay to breed stock so near market, the feed 
 
is too valuable, and so is the land ; enough stock cannot he kept to 
 make it profitable to wait while young stock are coining on. The 
 ground will keep nearly the same number of full-grown sheep and 
 cattle, which only need a few months to top up for the butcher and 
 bring in a return. There is more profit in the turnover repre- 
 sented in successive drafts of store stock fattened than in rearing 
 one lot of calves or lambs in the same time. This will be better 
 understood when it is stated that the frontages to the Swan are 
 worth from ^15 to 25 per acre. There are none for sale, but 
 that is what the choicest parts of the various estates on the river 
 may be fairly appraised at. For the same reason there is no room 
 for settlement, as the word is ordinarily understood, on the Swan. 
 The district is becoming a place where city people are providing 
 themselves with country residences, and garden and orchard 
 blocks. Near Guildford there will be a fashionable suburb of 
 Perth. At the same time, as one of the oldest and most produc- 
 tive centres of the colony, it stands out as a place where the 
 experience of cultivators and graziers is valuable as a guide for 
 those who are going to newer divisions to do what has been 
 accomplished on the Swan. Even here there is opportunity for a 
 larger scope of work, for all the best land is not under cultivation. 
 A great deal of clearing and other improvements are being done, 
 although some of the estates are at a standstill. The Land bank is 
 not being applied to for means, because the properties, having long 
 been improved, are profitable to work, and, moreover, they are in 
 the hands of men of means. 
 
 " Dairying is being neglected. If there had been no factory 
 system in the eastern colonies, more dairying would have been done 
 in the west. The factory system and the export trade of Victoria, 
 New South Wales, and South Australia are too well organised, sup- 
 ported as they are by natural advantages, to permit of profitable com- 
 petition. The butter made by the process of refrigeration on a 
 wholesale scale, and of the best quality shipped to Western Aus- 
 tralia in cool chambers and carefully packed, hardly admits of 
 profitable local competition. The land that is well enough grassed 
 to keep cows as they should be kept, is too valuable to use for 
 that purpose. It is more lucrative to fatten stock upon it 
 to keep up the meat supply. Even if land were largely laid 
 down with English grasses meat would pay better than butter. 
 There is very little cleared land of good quality that can be spared 
 from the raising of cereal crops. I do not see any prospect of a 
 change in this respect ; first class pasturage will always be wanted 
 to maintain the meat supply of the people. It is better to import 
 butter than meat, because live stock deteriorates on shipboard, and 
 butter, if it is properly carried, does not. Vegetables are grown on 
 the Swan to a considerable extent. The gardens are not very large, 
 but some of the crops are marketed. Most of what is sold goes 
 along the Midland line to Champion Bay, very little to Perth. Fruit 
 
172 
 
 is also grown for sale. The Swan flats are not altogether suitable 
 for growing vegetables ; it is not wet enough when the winter rains 
 are over. When we get more artesian bores for irrigation purposes 
 there will be a good time for market gardeners, if any of the land 
 owners desire to go into that enterprise in a big way. There is no 
 Government land available for this purpose, and no one that I know 
 of desires to sell blocks to introduced settlers who are looking for a 
 site where they can carry on intense culture. 
 
 " Frosts are not prevalent and destructive. They occur mostly 
 at the end of June and beginning of July, and harm potatoes and 
 tomatoes. Frosts are only of occasional occurrence. I have known 
 frosts to come in May, and to be as late as August, but this is 
 exceptional. Fowls and bees are not attended to as a source of 
 income. Some poultry and a few hives are to be seen on many of 
 the farms. From my experience as to the chief requisites for a new 
 settler I should say that he should have plenty of energy and 
 industry, and of tough moral fibre, so as not to be easily disheartened 
 by difficulties. He should be thrifty, and have a thrifty wife a 
 good manager of household affairs. Of course sobriety is under- 
 stood to be an essential on the part of a selector without naming it. 
 A man well-furnished with the advantages enumerated should be 
 cautious in choosing his holding. If he gets a fairly good piece of 
 country he should have nothing to fear as to making ends meet at 
 first, and adding something to his income in every subsequent year. 
 As to the crops which he should grow, that would depend upon the 
 characteristics of the soil and climate, and distance from a railway 
 station, and from his market, wherever he maybe settled. It would 
 be a safe general principle to lay down on this head that he should 
 be guided by the practice of his neighbours and imitate the most 
 successful of them. 
 
 " The lessons of local experience in the Swan district are that it 
 is cheaper and better to ringbark the land and allow the trees to 
 decay before the grubbing is done. When the trees are as dry as 
 tinder they can be burned off, and the lire will follow the roots 
 underground and remove them more cleanly than if they have been 
 grubbed. It" the clearing is deferred for five years after the ring- 
 barking is carried out, fully thirty per cent, can be saved in getting 
 the land tit for cultivation.' It is : necessary to apply manure with 
 judgment, as it would be easy to so enrich some naturally good land 
 that the crop would fall of its weight before it was ripe enough to 
 cut. Hence, although the use of fertilisers is to be recommended, 
 they require to be applied with judgment. 1 have used Thomas' 
 phosphate's on a crop this year that is growing and looking very well. 
 When it is harvested it will add something to the data that is being 
 collected by the Bureau of Agriculture to show which is the cheapest 
 and best fertilisers to use on certain soils, and the quantities which 
 suffice to obtain a satisfactory result on different kind of soils in 
 the various divisions of the colony." 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE MIDLAND DISTRICT. 
 
 In our notes of agricultural areas in the Midland district we 
 shall glance at the country traversed by the Midland railway from 
 Gingin to \Yalkaway, and the remainder of the northerly portion of 
 the South-west Land division, which includes Mullewa, Greenough 
 and Thompson's Flats. On the map the part of the colony which 
 for convenience of reference is being termed in this hand-book the 
 Midland district, includes part of the Swan country, and the whole 
 of the Melbourne and Victoria territory that is deemed to be fit for 
 cultivation purposes. To the eastward of the northern portion of 
 the South-west Land division lie nearly half of the geographical 
 boundaries of the Victoria district, but this eastern half need not be 
 considered in a SETTLER'S GUIDE, because the land is not suitable 
 for settlement, and is the site of the Yalgoo goldfield. The Yalgoo 
 country would be remarkably fertile if it had a certain rainfall, but 
 it is a dry area where a crop could not be counted upon. The land 
 is lightly timbered ; the soil is of the richest chocolate loam ; if it 
 could be watered it would be a magnificent tract for the production 
 of cereals or fruit ; it is undulating enough to secure perfect drainage 
 without being hilly and difficult to work ; in a word, it has every 
 gift of Nature except that of rainfall, which renders all the other 
 gifts useless to the yoeman, and therefore it is outside the pale of 
 further description for our present purpose. To the south of the 
 Midland district, between Gingin and the river flats of the Swan, 
 which formed the subject of the previous chapter, there are about 
 30 miles of country which maybe passed over with the remark that 
 much of it is inferior, and that the good spots are already occupied. 
 By beginning our journey of inspection at Gingin we get fairly into 
 the country for which the Midland railway company furnishes us 
 with a distinctive title and a text for a few necessary words of 
 explanation as to the history of that company, which has had an 
 important bearing upon what those who are most familiar with the 
 locality describe as a retarding influence upon settlement between 
 Gingin and the Irwin river. 
 
 The Midland railway, which is 277 miles long, was constructed 
 on the land grant system by an English company, which in 1886 was 
 granted 12,000 acres of land for each mile of trie railway, or about 
 15,000,000 acres in all. The conditions were that the grants should 
 be selected within 40 miles on either side of the line, the frontage to 
 which was to be equally divided with the Government. Before the 
 line was completed the company found it necessary to borrow 
 
174 
 
 $oo,ooo from the Government upon the security of the property 
 and of a mortgage embracing 2,400,000 acres. The mortgage 
 provides that the Government shall have power to foreclose in event 
 of the company falling in arrears in the payment of interest to the 
 extent of ^20,000. There has been some dissatisfaction on the part 
 of the colony, owing to the lands granted to the company 
 not having been settled. Since the company executed its 
 mortgage to th<> Government there has been no disposition 
 to sell the grants, and it has become a matter of complaint that far- 
 mers cannot enlarge their holdings, nor pastoralists obtain any 
 security of tenure for their leaseholds under the jurisdiction of the 
 company. The reason the company is not anxious to dispose of 
 the estate is explained by one of its representatives as follows : 
 " If we sell the land \ve shall have to pay the proceeds into the 
 Treasury ; people only want to buy the best spots, and, while our 
 affairs are pending re-construction, we do not want to be left with 
 only the inferior residue of our lands." The matter was brought 
 before the Legislative Assembly by Mr. H. B. Lefroy, member for 
 the Moore, who has since accepted the portfolio of Minister of the 
 Post office department and of Education. Mr. Lefroy moved that 
 the Government should foreclose as soon as they were in aposition to 
 do so, and that fair consideration should be paid for the interests of 
 the company. He said : " My reason for bringing forward the 
 motion is that a large quantity of land between Perth and Gerald- 
 ton is locked up from settlement through being in the hands of the 
 Midland railway company. I have no other reason for the motion 
 than to see the land thrown open for selection. . . . In the 
 year 1886, when this concession was granted, it was understood that 
 it was granted for opening up the lands of the Midland district. It 
 was granted for no other purpose but that of encouraging settle- 
 ment to improve the national estate ; but, up to the present time, 
 the company has done nothing whatever in the direction of sett- 
 ling those lands. The whole belt of 80 miles, stretching from Perth 
 to Geraldton, has been virtually locked up for n years. . . . 
 Here we have a company having in its possession 2,400,000 acres of 
 what is undoubtedly the best land between Perth and Geraldton, 
 and the company will not do anything with it. ... It was 
 generally understood when the scheme for this railway was 
 approved by Parliament, that the building of the railway was going 
 to open the country for settlement. . . . We are needing 
 people to settle on our lands, in 'order that the agricultural population 
 shall, as nearly as possible, keep pace with the mining population. 
 . . . It will not pay to purchase land from the company at from 
 2 to 3 per acre for the growing of cereals, when similar land can 
 be obtained from the Government on the other side of the line for 
 nothing. . . . It is in the interests of the people, not only in 
 the district I represent, but of the whole colony, that something 
 should be done to open up the land between Perth and Geraldton. 
 
The company has not sold any land, because it will not sell 
 at exorbitant prices, at which it will not pay people to buy the 
 land and settle on it afterwards. . . . When this concession 
 was granted the company led 'people to suppose that it was 
 going to encourage settlement, and, in fact, there was a clause in 
 the contract by which the company bound itself to introduce live 
 thousand immigrants. That immigration clause was erased, in some 
 way or other, but still the principle sticking out from every part of 
 the arrangement from the very outset, was that this railway was to be 
 built for the benefit of Western Australia, and not alone for the benefit 
 of the people who built it. We were to get people on the land who 
 were to become producers. There are plenty of young men anxious to 
 settle on the land. A small area of country has been marked out as 
 an agricultural area by the Government, and to show that people 
 will acquire land there I desire to state that nearly the whole of that 
 area has been taken up. That area lies along the Midland line, 
 south of the Moore river. This is a proof that if the Midland railway 
 company was trying to dispose of its land they would soon get 
 a great deal of it settled ; but in that case the company would have 
 to part with it on terms very much lower than it is asking at present. 
 The position of the settlers along the Midland railway is different 
 from that occupied by the other people of the colony ; people who 
 hold leases under the company have to relinquish three months' 
 notice to quit." Mr. Phillips, the member for the Irwin electorate, 
 which is included in the Midland district, said: "We have now 
 waited some ten years for the settlement of the company's lands 
 and, speaking for the people of the Irwin district, which I represent, 
 it has been a terrible blow to that district through the land being 
 locked up so long. We have lost the bone and sinew of the place, 
 as the farmers' sons have had to go elsewhere and find a living 
 because they could not obtain land in their own district. I can see 
 that the Government cannot do anything until the agreement ex- 
 pires, and I should like to know when it does expire." Mr. H. W. 
 Venn (Wellington) said : "The action of Parliament in reducing 
 the price of all Crown lands has mitigated against the company 
 selling its land, because if the Government land was equally as 
 good as the company's land, those seeking settlement would go on 
 the Government land preferentially, on account of the terms. I do 
 not say the legislature did wrong in lowering the price of land for 
 the purpose of obtaining settlement, as that was a just thing to do ; 
 but we must remember the company based its calculation on the 
 then price of Government land, and they could not reasonably have 
 expected that as the country became more settled the land would 
 get cheaper. The country is progressing. The company \vill have 
 a better opportunity of dealing with its land than it has had 
 in the past." The motion was withdrawn after the Premier had 
 informed the House that on the date on which the question of fore- 
 closure was discussed the company was not in default to the full 
 
176 
 
 extent of ^20,000, which would allow the penal clauses of the 
 mortgage to be brought into operation. On enquiry the reporter of 
 the Bureau learned in July, 1897, from a leading official of the com- 
 pany, that the company was likely to be unable to keep their account 
 with the Government square, unless they were able to make some 
 fresh arrangements in London, and that negotiations with that object 
 were then in progress. The following figures showing dealings with 
 lands of the company have been supplied from their Perth office : 
 Total land subsidy to the contractor who laid the line, and others 
 for services rendered in connection with the affairs of the company, 
 3,324,000 acres; mortgaged to the Government, 2,400,000 acres; lands 
 disposed of, 821,077 acres ; free unencumbered lands, 102,943 acres. 
 After the mortgage to the Government was executed, the company 
 had 924,000 acres outside the operation of that lien. The references 
 which have been made serve to show \vhy the Midland is not a great 
 producing district supporting a large population, and also throw 
 light upon the opportunities that are still open in that quarter for 
 immigrants to obtain suitable farming areas on the Crown lands 
 adjoining the railway and grants. It has been the experience of all 
 the colonies, as well as of Western Australia, that population attracts 
 population to a certain district, and that where there are large closed 
 areas the tide of settlement is borne to some other destination. The 
 shutting up of 15,000,000 acres between Perth and Geraldton, 
 owing to the Midland railway belonging to a private corporation, has 
 diverted attention from the adjacent Crown territory that is open 
 for settlement. The railway, which was opened for traffic during 
 November, 1894, runs in a northerly direction from the Midland 
 junction, on the Eastern railway near Guildford, to Mingenew, a 
 distance of 217 miles. From Mingenew the course of the railway is 
 due west for 36 miles to Dongarra, the commercial centre and seaport 
 of the Irwin river district, thence north along the coast for 24 miles 
 to Walkaway, where it joins the Government line laid between 
 Walkaway and Geraldton, the port of the Yalgoo and Murchison 
 goldiields. 
 
 Arriving at Gingin, the visitor will see, within a few miles of the 
 station, not only one of the choice garden spots of Western 
 Australia, but the place where oranges grow larger and of better 
 flavor than anywhere else south of the equator. The estate is 
 known as Cheriton, and is the property of Messrs. Kclgar Wedge 
 and Co., one of the proprietors being Mr. Charles Harper, of 
 Woodbridge, the orchards and nurseries of which have been 
 briefly described in the chapter dealing with the Swan district. 
 The Cheritmi orangery was planted about 40 years ago by the 
 late Mr. W. L. Brockman, and some of the trees are now 40 feet 
 high, and of a diameter in the trunk of 4 feet 6 inches, the fruit 
 having to be gathered by the aid of long bamb<>< > ladders ; the yield 
 is annually between three and four hundred do/en per tree. Mr. 
 Brockman found, indeed, on the banks of the Gingin creek, what 
 
FOR DESCRIPTION SEE BACK. 
 
PAPER 
 
 WAMP. 
 
 A GOOD representation of a Paper Bark (Melaleuca 
 Leucadendron] thicket. These swamps, when cleared 
 and drained, are extremely fertile. They are found 
 all along the coast line from Geraldton to the Leeuvvin, 
 and are not always so thickly timbered. Much sought 
 after for vegetable gardens whenever they are within 
 easy reach of a railway line. 
 
177 
 
 has been described by a professional orchardist as an ideal spot for 
 orangvs aiul lemons ; hut it is stiperllous to quote the testimony of 
 experts in the face of the results which the ground has achieved. 
 It is worth while, for the tutelage of new men, to examine into the 
 natural conditions which have contributed to the achievement of 
 such conspicuous success at Cheriton. In the first place the soil 
 on the margin of the creek is of the richest alluvial loam, 14 feet or 
 15 feet deep ; the water of the creek is used to irrigate the trees in 
 summer, and they are excellently sheltered by the surrounding 
 forest, which has been saved from ringbarking in order that 
 it may act as a breakwind. The soil, which is rich and warm, is 
 o\er a limestone formation, which is more noticeable on the caps of 
 the surrounding hills, where limestone appears on the surface. The 
 orangery is irrigated from a dam or reservoir communicating with 
 channels leading down the slopes between the trees, which have 
 grown so large and were planted so closely together that the branches 
 overlap each other. A larger area has been planted with apricots, 
 oranges and lemons, by Messrs. Edgar Wedge and Co., and one also 
 by Mr. Henry Brockman, the son of the original owner of Cheriton. 
 Both the new plantations are looking very promising ; vegetables 
 are also grown under the management of Mr. George Buchanan, for 
 the Murchison and Yilgarn goldfields, with the greatest success. 
 The work is done on a proper scale, with horsepower-implements, 
 instead of the spade, that is too often seen in the market gardens 
 around Perth. The ten additional acres which have been planted 
 with citrus trees, are on higher ground than the original orangery ; 
 here the ground cannot be irrigated by gravitation, but a pump is to 
 be set to work to remedy this drawback. Of the 10,000 acres in the 
 Cheriton estate, 200 have been retained by Mr. Henry Brockman, 
 and are being devoted to fruit trees, among which apricots, which 
 find a congenial situation at Gingin, have a prominent place. Mr. 
 Brockman's orchard was planted between three and four years ago, 
 and it bore an excellent crop of fruit last season. The superbly 
 good land at Cheriton does not run back more than ten chains from 
 the creek. The bulk of the estate is red gum country, carrying a 
 great deal of limestone. Its chief pasture plants are silver grass, 
 dandelion, couch and trefoil. It is an exceptionally good grazing 
 property, especially the limestone hills. Cattle fatten rapidly at 
 Cheriton, where a great deal of ringbarking is now being done. 
 The effect of ringbarking in the Midland district is to propagate 
 such an enormous quantity of eucalyptus suckers that some owners 
 of land, who are not prepared to carefully keep down this growth for 
 two or three years after the large trees are dead, prefer to leave the 
 forests untouched. They admit that the opening up of the country 
 to the sun and the free action of the air by ringbarking, 
 is very beneficial, as is proved by the large crop of young trees 
 which almost immediately make their appearance ; but all of them 
 are not prepared to keep on spending money to thoroughly win the 
 
I 7 8 
 
 ground from the encroachment of the indigenous trees. Their argu- 
 ment is that unless the work of eradicating the eucalypti is done 
 thoroughly it is better left alone. 
 
 To see the Midland district it would be necessary to traverse it, 
 first, along the old road between Perth and the Irwin river, and then 
 make a tour along the railway line, and break the journey in order 
 to diverge to the east and west from the principal stations. The 
 road runs near the coast, and is a very heavy sandy track, while the 
 railway is laid very much to the eastward of what maybe considered 
 the arable tract of the Midland district, for the greater part of its 
 length. Looking at the course of the road and the railway on the 
 map, an outline is formed by them that somewhat resembles that of an 
 elongated egg ; that is to say, they are close together at the commen- 
 cing and terminal points, after making a tolerably wide cir- 
 cuit outwards, the widest portion of the detour being in each case 
 in the middle of the course. The reason why this divergence is 
 emphasised is that there is a marked difference in the charac- 
 teristics of the country passed through near the sea and more 
 inland, that the traveller who had been over the road, or the railway 
 only, would give entirely different descriptions of their observations. 
 Taking the road route first, we follow the course of the Gingin 
 creek in a westerly direction, through a number of small but flourish- 
 ing holdings devoted to mixed farming, to the junction of the creek 
 with the Moore river. Along the banks of the creek the land is 
 excellent ; it is red gum country, and has a chocolate soil varied with 
 patches of limestone that carries a thick swath of grass, or when 
 tilled produces heavy crops of cereals, but this kind of land is very 
 limited in extent. Along the creek every farmer has some orange 
 trees planted ; the waiter of the stream is so fresh and beneficial to 
 vegetation being free from the slightest mineral ingredient that 
 it is very stimulating to the growth of the trees. A very slight 
 appearance of black scale is the only approach to disease that the 
 citrus tribe has ever been known to suffer from in the neighbour- 
 hood of Gingin. " But take them all round," says an informant, who 
 has lived from boyhood in the district, "and they are as clean oranges, 
 and as choice in every respect, as any that are grown in the world." 
 The Gingin brook has its source in the Cheriton estate, and 
 oranges and lemons are grown the whole way down to the Moore 
 rivei-, which in the summer loses itself before it meets the creek 
 which Hows into the Indian ocean. So long as the orange- are 
 planted close enough to the brook to get the advantage of the narrow 
 fringe of alluvial that margins the water, they "grow without any 
 trouble- at all." Outside the limestone formation, red gum patches, 
 interspersing the sandy banksia country thai is not much good for 
 anything, and which it is very fatiguing for the horses to pnll even a 
 light vehirle over this apology for a road, arc- passed through. 
 If the scrub is burned regnlarly'the banksia country will sustain, but 
 will not fatten stock. All the good land near the creek is in the 
 
179 
 
 hands of small farmers, who keep a few stock and grow cereals and 
 vegetables. The Hon. H. B. Lefroysays : " There are lots of good 
 patches where small holders could settle down between Gingin 
 and Dandaragan and make a living if they went in for growing fruits 
 and garden stuff, but there are no valuable large blocks available." 
 The sandy roads have been a drawback to this class of industry, but 
 the railway, which is not far off at this point of our journey, now 
 affords facilities for transporting crops either to the Perth market, 
 or to the goldhelds of Yilgarn or the Murchison, which consign- 
 ments can reach without leaving the rails once they are delivered to 
 the Midland company, for Government lines touch their railway at 
 its commencement and its terminus. After passing the Moore river 
 it is necessary to strike in a north-easterly direction to avoid the 
 waste of sand timbered with banksia which extends westward of 
 the road to the sea in order to see a change in the landscape, and 
 then the famous Yatheroo estate, the property of Mr. Edward 
 Roberts (who was a station hand as a boy upon the place), breaks 
 upon the view in all the beauty of its almost unrivalled pasture lands, 
 its luxurious homestead, its orchards, its irrigation resources, and 
 the large herds of beeves, that are in the primest condition. Yath- 
 eroo is a place upon which many thousands of pounds have been 
 spent on strictly commercial principles ; it earns thousands annually. 
 The property was originally taken up by a pioneer named Connolly, 
 who sold it before it had been much improved to Mr. Padbury, in 
 whose hands it assumed something of its present value and import- 
 ance. He held it for 39 years and then sold it for ^20,000 to Mr. 
 Edward Roberts, who had managed the estate for Mr. Padbury for 
 a long time. It comprises 16,000 acres in fee simple, nearly all iirst 
 class land. The best of it is limestone ridges, w r hich were never 
 heavily timbered ; they grew nothing but wattle, prickly bush, and 
 wooly bush, which grows about a foot high on the banks of water- 
 courses. A great deal of Yatheroo is, or rather was, red gum forest 
 country interspersed with banksias, these areas being of a light, 
 inclining to sandy, loam. Mr. Roberts is a most successful grazier. 
 His experience shows what the best portions of Western Australia 
 are capable of when care is taken to make the pastures good. He buys 
 store cattle and in a short time they are prime fat for the butcher. 
 " I have sold ^17,000 worth of cattle from Yatheroo during the last 
 12 months," he states, "and during the five years I have been the 
 owner of the place it has returned me more than ; 10,000, clear of 
 working expenses." This result has been achieved by the natural 
 goodness of the station, which, together with Dandaraga, is an oasis 
 in a wide region of sand plain. The feed is encouraged by the 
 ringbarking of the timber, the removal of the shrubs and small trees 
 from the limestone, and the burning of the paddocks in rotation 
 every year. The chief herbage plants are trefoil, clover and 
 dandelion. All the best indigenous grass grow luxuriantly. Cattle 
 do better than either sheep or horses at Yatheroo and Dandaraga ; 
 
i8o 
 
 owing to the limestone they need no coast change. A good deal 
 of neat kine are bred at Yatheroo. Mr. Roberts imports bulls of the 
 best shorthorn strains from South Australia and New South Wales 
 to raise the grade of his herds, the representatives of which are 
 always large prize takers at the annual show of the Royal agricul- 
 tural and pastoral society, which is held in November at Guildford. 
 He also milks 80 or 90 cows for winter dairying, but at the 
 expiration of the cool months the cows are turned out and allowed 
 to rear their calves. From May to the end of July the milking herd 
 are given a liberal ration of hay, which is grown in Mr. Roberts' 
 paddocks. The butter he makes is sold in Perth at is. 4d. per Ib. ; 
 his cows are milked only once a day. He finds that as his stock 
 improve in beef-carrying properties, they steadily deteriorate in the 
 profit they yield in the dairy. The general utility cow, which some 
 would-be farmers' guides recommend, may be a fair animal all 
 round, but either meat, or milk and cream, must be made a specialty 
 if the breeder is to achieve distinct success in supplying the beef or 
 the butter market ; so says Mr. Roberts, and he thinks few who put 
 their theories to the test of practice will find reason to differ with his 
 conclusions. Another point upon which he gives a definite opinion is 
 that if a cow is to milk well she must be fed well. He compares a cow 
 that is working for a dairy to a draught horse that is daily in harness. 
 Neither of them can stand the drain on their strength and vitality 
 unless they are well nourished, any more than an engine can be kept 
 going without the furnace being replenished with fuel. In addition 
 to the freehold land at Yatheroo, Mr. Roberts leases 60,000 acres 
 from the Midland railway company. He shares Mr. Lefroy's con- 
 viction that it would be greatly to the interests of the colony if the 
 line and the landed interests of the company were acquired by the 
 Government; but he does not consider the company to be an unmixed 
 evil, on account of the carrying facilities it affords. But as compared 
 with the position of the settlers in other districts, who have been 
 given the boon of a state railway, the security of tenure, and 
 the liberal land regulations of the Government, he thinks the people 
 of the Midland are badly off. His view was aptly expressed by Sir 
 John Forrest in replying to Mr. Lefroy, when that gentleman's 
 motion regarding the proposed acquisition of the Midland railway 
 (to which reference lias been made) was before the Legislative 
 Assembly. On that occasion the Premier said : " I fully sympathise 
 with the hon. member and his constituents in the position in which 
 they have been placed during so many years, through not been able 
 to acquire any of the company's land on the easy terms on which 
 the lands of the Government can be acquired ; but it should not be 
 altogether forgotten that the people in that district have some 
 advantages at any rate from the operations of the company, for they 
 have means of transit provided by the railway for carrying stock, 
 and also to some extent for other produce, which were not available 
 before the railway was constructed." Mr. Roberts formerly held 
 
iSi 
 
 his pastoral leases from the Government. When the country he 
 was occupying was selected by the Midland company he lost his 
 security of tenure, which, although not legally expressed, is felt by 
 those who have the state for their landlord. The position of the 
 pastoralists in the Midland district, in being liable to be turned off 
 their leaseholds at a quarter's notice, was voiced by Mr. Lefroy in 
 the Legislative Assembly in terms which are instructive, as showing 
 one of the reasons why the contemplated, or rather advocated, 
 taking over of the line by the Government is so strongly supported. 
 Speaking of the graziers in the electorate of the Moore, the hon. 
 member said : " They may lease land from the company, and may 
 stock it with 10,000 or 20,000 head, and then receive notice to quit, 
 and have to sell their stock at a great loss at a forced sale. In con- 
 ditions like these a leaseholder might be ruined. It is, I am sure, 
 not the desire of Parliament that any of our people should be subject 
 to conditions of this sort. It is all very well to say that similar 
 conditions apply under the land regulations administered by a 
 Government responsible to the country and to Parliament. A 
 Government could not do anything harsh or arbitrary, and yet 
 private companies might do those very things and be within their 
 rights. I am not saying that anything of this sort is likely to take 
 place in the case of any leaseholder under the company, but the 
 fact remains that this is the position in which the leaseholder stands/' 
 Yatheroo is always kept understocked, it being the rule of the 
 owner that two well fed beasts are much better than three that are 
 out of condition. He is a great believer in the subdivision of paddocks 
 in order to conserve and properly stock the pastures. There are 
 150 miles of fencing. The water supply has also received liberal 
 consideration. There are forty wells and tanks on the estate. As 
 well water can be struck at a depth of eight or ten feet the 
 cost of these works is comparatively small. The losses of stock do 
 not exceed one per cent, per annum. After the true grasses have 
 been burned at the end of the summer, the cattle are turned out on 
 the scrub feed until the autumn rains come, when the vegetation on 
 the burned places springs rapidly and the herbage is very succulent 
 and wholesome. Every three years the scrub country is also rired 
 in order to prevent the scrubs becoming coarse and debilitating. 
 The further north the paddocks are, the quicker the feed grows, 
 owing to the greater heat of the climate. About 1000 acres have 
 been cleared at Yatheroo, which is the exemplar of what a grazing and 
 farming property should be, but it is somewhat singular that cereals 
 will not grow on the richest limestone areas. These crops have to be 
 put in what, for the sake of distinction, we must call the second 
 class land, although this second class country would be termed 
 first class almost anywhere else. On the limestone the wheat 
 springs well, but before it ripens it wilts away. Mr. Roberts does not 
 attempt any explanation of the fact, but it certainly is not due to 
 the poverty of the soil. The homestead is replete with every 
 
182 
 
 appointment of a luxurious and well ordered place of residence. 
 There is an orangery and an orchard, which are irrigated whenever 
 water is needed, and by an ingenious and costly arrangement of 
 storage and reticulation, the water can be turned on at will and 
 regulated as to the quantity that is to be allowed to flow. Even 
 the drinking troughs for the cattle are fitted with ball taps, so that 
 the intake from the dams is governed automatically. The catch- 
 ment area of the water is aided in filling the dams by the undulat- 
 ing character of the country, which is not mountainous, but would 
 be described in America as rolling prairie. There is no other 
 piece of country in the Midland like that which is found around 
 Gingin and at Yatheroo and Dandaraga. Outside the confines of 
 their territory there is either sand plain, until the Irwin river is 
 reached, or the heavier, and, in some places, more gravelly soils 
 of Victoria plains. There are. some very good flats at Yatheroo, 
 but the general characteristics of the property are its low hills 
 and broad shallow valleys. The clearing was not costly, owing to 
 what may be called large shrubs taking the place of the forests 
 that are generally found on the fertile parts of Western Australia. 
 The wooly bush has a peculiarity which is worthy of note ; it 
 carries a fibre which would make good rope. Mr. Roberts sent 
 some of the fibre to England and had it spun into lines, w r hich were 
 very strong, but rather heavier than those made of hemp. Another 
 feature of the portion of the Midland district under notice is that it 
 has a monopoly of the bare, or almost naked, limestone patches or 
 crowns of the ridges which have made Yatheroo so favorably known 
 among stock masters. The limestone is found exhibiting the same 
 features at Dandaraga, but Yatheroo and Dandaraga are naturally one 
 belt of country which only a different ownership has divided by fences 
 and nomenclature. Dandaraga has some land that is as good as 
 the best of Yatheroo, but less has been heard in its praise, because 
 it has imt been so highly improved as Mr. Roberts' estate, and it has 
 not quite so large a proportion as the latter station of the superbly 
 high class pasturages. Dandaraga was at one time another pro- 
 perty which belonged to Mr. Padbury, but it is now in the posses- 
 sion of Mr. D. Drummond, a member by marriage of Mr. Padbury's 
 family. The strip of land which includes YutlKToo and Dandaraga 
 is ;:b<>iit six miles wide and thirty long ; it has been describe.'! to 
 the reporter for the Bureau as " an oasis in the desert." About 100 
 acres of Yatheroo are used for growing cereals, mostly for home 
 consumption. The rainfall of the district is not deemed to be very 
 favorable for general farming. The annual avi Yatheroo 
 
 and Dandaraga is 24 inches, which would be sufficient if it were 
 mo iv evenly distributed. July and August are very wet months ; 
 they j^e! a plethora of rain, and there is a shortage which is more 
 or k-ss acutely felt during the remainder of the year. The summer 
 especially is protracted and very dry, but witli plenty of water the 
 cattle do not lose condition appreciably OX) the dry feed. " It is 
 
astonishing," remarks Mr. Roberts, " hmv well they clu stand the 
 long hot season, when the scrub is the only bite that is at all green." 
 The herds are in their primest condition in December, when there 
 is plenty of pasture and the sun has put it in good heart. A threat 
 recommendation of Yatheroo and Dandaraga is that there are no 
 " poison lands " there. Poison plants ilourish near their boundaries, 
 but the stock have been prevented trom straying on to the places of 
 danger by being kept enclosed. "That is one reason why we 
 fenced to fence the poison out," Mr. Roberts exclaims. The 
 varieties of the noxious vegetation are rock poison and sand plain 
 poison. Rock poison grows in the hills and the sand plain species 
 near the coast. Before the fencing was completed, Yatheroo lost a 
 lot of stock through poison. Now Yatheroo and Dandaraga supply 
 the metropolitan butchers with a thousand head of cattle annually, 
 nearly all of which are trucked to the city. Sheep would be kept 
 to a larger extent if the price of wool were higher. In the present 
 state of the market, cattle pay better than sheep, and therefore the 
 ground is almost wholly reserved for the great stock. 
 
 " We commenced twenty years ago," said Mr. Roberts, " to 
 make Yatheroo what it is to-day. We preferred to grub the trees 
 instead of ringing them ; not much ringbarking has been done. 
 The cost of clearing the land has ranged from 53. to ^5 per acre. 
 The inferior country is not ringed, as the second growth of saplings 
 that would be induced by the killing of the trees would, unless it 
 were checked, take greater possession of the ground than the trees 
 do now. It is not worth while spending so much on the poor 
 places as would be needed to get them clear. Then, again, the 
 suckers are very troublesome ; they can be killed by burning if 
 there is sufficient grass to raise a good tire, but that is not always 
 the case on the second or third-rate areas. You can ring too 
 much, unless you intend to look after the ringbarked land ; it does 
 not do to use the axe and let the ground alone for ten years. To 
 get the benefit of ringbarking it is necessary to complete the work 
 by destroying the young growth as fast as it appears. One way to 
 deal with the second growth of York gum is to get sheep to eat 
 down the young sprouts ; cattle will not touch them. The red gums 
 were the only large trees we had to deal with at Yatheroo, and they 
 burn well when they are dry, or if they are grubbed green in the 
 summer time. With reference to the questions tabulated by the 
 Bureau of Agriculture, which you put to me, I may say that as a 
 rule the roads of the Midland district are very bad ; most of them 
 are very sandy, and as severe upon the horses as they are trying to 
 the patience of travellers. An exception to this indictment is the 
 road from Moora to Dandaraga, which is being made by the roads 
 board for a distance of twenty miles, at a cost with the aid of the 
 Government grants of 505. per chain. We have been seventeen 
 years at that job. There is no room for settlers who want to get 
 holdings from the Government in the neighborhood of Yatheroo. 
 
184 
 
 the good land is all alienated from the Crown ; the Midland 
 company have some of it, especially about Victoria plains. The 
 people there did not make hay while the sun shone, as we did on 
 this side of the line ; I mean, they did not purchase the land while 
 it was in the hands of the Lands department, while we bought 
 largely. A number of farmers selected inside our leaseholds ; the 
 smallest holding is 130 acres ; others have as much as 2,000 acres ; 
 they are mostly graziers. Of the wheat that is grown very little 
 goes out of the district. Each man grows to supply his own family 
 with flour. We have no local surveyed agricultural areas. There 
 has been no new settlement for fifteen years. Twenty-five years 
 ago people \vere taking up land very rapidly in the Midland 
 division. The educational w r ants of the district are only attended 
 to by one school at Dandaraga, as far as public tuition is con- 
 cerned. I have a school for my younger children at the Yatheroo 
 homestead, and the families of the people employed on the place are 
 free to attend and receive instruction. The invitation is 
 generally availed of. I do not think any child is grow- 
 ing up in ignorance in the Midland district, although some 
 of them may have to travel several miles to school. The query 
 as to what capital may be considered essential for a successful start 
 on 500 acres or less, is not one to \vhich a comprehensive answer 
 embracing every case can be given. A great deal depends upon the 
 man and upon circumstances whether he knows his business, is 
 frugal and industrious, and is able to get near a railway station, and 
 not too far from his market ; also, whether he proposes to keep 
 stock. The only point on which I can speak definitely in this rela- 
 tion, is that a man should have at least enough to start him with horses 
 and implements, and pay for wire, fodder, and stores, etc., for at 
 least twelve months, and that will amount to some hundreds of 
 pounds. Of course, I am supposing that a man is expecting to make 
 a reasonably good start, such as will result in his place returning 
 sufficient, during the second year, to maintain a wife and children 
 in tolerable comfort. If a man merely takes up a block of land 
 near where he is employed, in order to have a home of his own and 
 to save rent and the cost of vegetables, my estimate would be con- 
 siderably modified. I am speaking of the, selector who is looking 
 to mixed fanning for a living, and is not open to work for an 
 employer. In that ease he will want to buy some stock, and that is 
 another item of outlay that would have to IK- taken into account, 
 especially as store stock is very scarce, and the price of them is 
 on the rise, because the supply is not equal to the demand. Most 
 of the stores come from the north-west, and the competition for 
 them is getting very keen, because the unfavourable seasons there 
 are keeping down the number of consignments of the station 
 owners. The railway freights are very reasonable, and the farmer, 
 thanks to the goldliekls, can <et a good sale 1 fur his crops, at better 
 prices than do any of our neighbours in eastern Australia. The 
 
Midland is not. however, a great farming country as a whole; it 
 is very good for agriculture in patches ; it is a great gra/ing 
 country, if the sand plains are exceptcd. If the paddock is picked 
 for the different crops there is nothing I know of that the Midland will 
 not grow ; it is very good for fruit, cereals and vegetables, it" the 
 spots for growing them are well selected. When I mention fruits, 
 I refer to oranges, lemons, apples, grapes and pears ; we have not 
 been able to do much with plums or cherries. We do not enrich 
 the land except by resting it ; we have enough land to crop our 
 paddocks only in alternate years. We rind it cheaper to do that 
 than to buy fertilisers. Although the best of the arable land is very 
 good, I believe that continuous cropping for four years would ex- 
 haust, or, at any rate, seriously deteriorate it. There are no large 
 local orchards ; most of the settlers grow a little fruit for them- 
 selves. When we were without a railway it cost about live pounds 
 per ton to cart stuff to Perth, and, therefore, we did not expect to 
 be able to produce fruit at a profit, hence only compar- 
 atively few trees were planted. Since the railway has been 
 opened some encouragement has been given to enlarging the 
 productiveness of the district, but orchards require time to come to 
 maturity. Many of the settlers combine the keeping of sheep with 
 cultivation. The largest flockmaster is Mr. Drummond, at Dan- 
 darag i. I find pigs more profitable than sheep. I kill about lifty 
 pigs every year. They are allowed the run of certain securely 
 fenced paddocks until they are wanted for fattening ; then they are 
 fed on wheat meal in the sty, and make prime bacon, for which I 
 have obtained many prizes at the Guildford show r , or are sold to 
 the butcher. I keep Berkshire pigs, and always use imported 
 boars. Dingoes are very troublesome ; they occasionally kill pigs 
 and calves. Another pest is the domestic cat, that has gone wild in 
 the bush ; they are destructive among the chickens in the poultry 
 yard. An enormous number of eaglehawks are shot and poisoned. 
 The bonus of 2s. per head has been paid on about rive thousand 
 eaglehawks in the Midland district within the last seven years. I 
 cannot give a complete list of the local grasses, but I would like to 
 say a word against couch, which I think is held in undeserved 
 esteem in this colony, although it may prove to be a valuable 
 pasture plant in New South Wales, where it grows splendidly. My 
 experience is that we should be much better without couch in 
 Western Australia, and I will give my reasons for this unfavorable 
 verdict. It always grows on the very best land paddocks that 
 have been cultivated, for preference and wherever it takes root it 
 drives every other grass out. The stock get on to the green couch 
 in the summer time, when it is the only green thing on the ground, 
 and eat it bare. When the couch has been fed down close the 
 cattle still hang on it, and nil themselves with earth or sand trying 
 to get another mouthful. In a word, they not only go hungry and 
 lose condition by sticking to the couch, but many a beast has been 
 
1 86 
 
 lost through impaction of sand in the intestines, the result of 
 burrowing down into the roots of the couch. There are four 
 varieties of poison which grow in the Midland district, namely, the 
 sand plain variety, whose habitat is the Victoria plains, box, York 
 road and white gum poison. But, nevertheless, if the stock are 
 kept in paddocks which are free of poison, the Midland is a good 
 graxing country. What is known as the ' Yatheroo oat ' is one of 
 the Ivs: pasture plants we have ; it is hner in the texture of the 
 stalk than the ordinary wild oat. There is also plenty of Dutch 
 clover and trefoil and Cape weed, and numbers of other useful and 
 fattening varieties of herbage. I have planted rye-grass ; it is 
 growing fairly well. I sent to Melbourne for the seed. As a whole 
 the c< 'imtry is better for winter, and worse for summer feed than be- 
 fore so much clearing was clone. The reason is that the coarser 
 growths which used to stand the heat have been supplanted by the 
 more succulent herbage, such as trefoil and dandelion, which come 
 on in the spring, and dying out about Christmas time leaves the 
 pasture very short for the remainder of the dry months. The 
 shrubs once killed by burning do not grow again, while the grass 
 seed falling every year renews the life of that vegetation. Of course 
 we take care to burn only after seeding time. We can keep far more 
 stock in the winter than we could forty years ago. Owing to 
 extensive clearing operations, from 200 to 500 acres of arable land 
 can be found in one piece, although so much is never cultivated ; 
 nor would it be so suitable for cereals around Yatheroo as the land 
 at the Victoria plains. We keep on breaking up fresh land, because 
 land that has been cultivated is better f^r stock and carries more 
 stock than any other. The proper management of stock is an 
 important factor in securing success on the land. It is not every 
 one who goes on the land who is fit for a settler's life, and the 
 blame of individual unfitness is often thrown upon the land. The 
 parts of the Midland district I know most about are well watered, 
 if the water is only taken care of instead of being allowed to run to 
 waste-. It is easy to conserve water ; there is good holding ground 
 for dams and drainage from the rises into them. The cost of an 
 artificial water supply, which is necessary, is not heavy. Wells are 
 usually Mink for i per foot ; tanks and dams are excavated fora 
 shilling per cubic yard. There has never been any serious want* of 
 water in a dry season ; if there had been, we should only have had 
 to blame ourselves. In sinking a well, if we do not get water at a 
 shallow depth, we try another place. The well water is, if any- 
 thing, too tie-h ; a little more salt would be preferable. There are 
 facilities for irrigation on the banks of the (iiugiu creek, as the 
 orangeries and orchards of Messrs. Edgar Wedge and Co. and 
 Mr. Henry Kroekman most successfully attest. The general 
 cliana ter of the soil and configuration ot the district is land of a 
 deep (lark and rich chocolate ; limestone patches, or a lighter and 
 les> fertile loam of a light color and sandy textuie ; low ridges and 
 
i8 7 
 
 vales are the predominating features of the landscape. The choco- 
 late country is very friable, and works up splendidly beneath the 
 plough and harrow. I grow oranges and lemons upon it admirably. 
 There are springs at the Yatheroo homestead which are used for 
 irrigating the fruit trees. The spring water is collected in a dam, 
 from which it is reticulated through channels cut in the garden. 
 The limestone and ironstone country commences about 15 miles 
 from the coast line. The timber in the Midland territory consists 
 of red gum, white gum, York gum, salmon gum, raspberry jam, 
 wattle and manna trees ; there are also amongst what may be termed 
 the undergrowth, blackboys, wooly and prickly bushes. We have 
 done most of our clearing by contract. This year (1897) there has 
 been less labor available than I ever remember before, in spite of 
 good wages being offered. The rate of pay has increased fivefold, 
 as compared with what men used to get in the early days of the 
 colony. The rate now is i to i 53. per week and rations 
 found. The cost of clearing is never more than ^5 an acre, 
 and sometimes only as many shillings, but in the latter case 
 only shrubs have been dealt with. At Koojan Mr. Padbury 
 has been employing Chinamen to clear land which Europeans 
 would not undertake at the price he offered, namely, 503. per acre. 
 The Chinamen found the job pay well at the price, and 
 one of them went back to his own country with ^90 in his pocket. 
 It is surprising how much hard work Chinese can do, considering 
 their inferior physique; they keep at it longer hours than the whites, 
 if they get a piecework job. The country which Mr. Padbury had 
 grubbed was ringbarked two or three years ago ; every year as the 
 trees decay the land is less trouble to grub, and the price is reduced 
 in consequence. The crops usually grown in our neighborhood 
 are oats, wheat, hay and potatoes, and almost every kind of veget- 
 able. The growers mostly use their produce, or fatten stock with 
 it, as we are so far from the railway the cartage to the line would 
 swallow up most of the profit. The local wheat is grown at 
 Yatheroo ; I have a mill there ; it is the only mill in the district. 
 As to the yield per acre, I have never had less than 15 bushels per 
 acre and as much as 40 bushels; my average yield is about 20 bushels, 
 and a ton of hay to the acre. If I manured the land I should expect two 
 tons of hay to the acre. Self-sown hay crops yield very heavily ; but 
 there are too many burrs in the crop to allow it to be sent in to mar- 
 ket. If we send produce away by rail, we have to cart it from 15 to 30 
 miles; we are fairly well satisfied \vith the facilities for transport. I have 
 omitted from the lists of fruits that grow well with us, the Cape 
 gooseberry, which thrives luxuriantly on all our soils, except the 
 limestone. The squash family are also well suited here ; figs do not 
 flourish anywhere more abundantly than they do in the Midland 
 district. Fruit is grown on the lighter, not the best lands, and 
 melons, pumpkins, etc., on the moist spots near the watercourses ; 
 they go ahead like weeds. The deep red, almost purple, land on 
 
1 88 
 
 the limestone is reserved for grass. I have about 150 fig trees in 
 bearing ; I planted 50 more the other day. I would sooner be over- 
 done with fig trees than with oranges and lemons, because you can 
 fatten pigs, fowls, in fact, all kinds of stock, on figs, and they are no 
 trouble to grow. I do not use at home one-hundredth part of the 
 fig crop. I shake the fruit down from the trees, and let the pigs in 
 to fatten upon them ; this saves labour in picking and carrying the 
 figs to the pens. Our orchards are fairly successful, that is to say, 
 figs, grapes, oranges and lemons are all that we could wish, but 
 apricots are not of more than second-class quality ; nectarines are 
 superior, and the peaches something great. Apples come to a fair 
 size, but the flavour is not equal to that of the apples that are grown 
 further south. There is a strip of Crown land open for selection, 
 16 miles wide, between Yatheroo and the railway. The company 
 tried to get all the best land, but they were under the restriction 
 that they had to share the railway frontage equally with the Govern- 
 ment. There will be a great deal of selection on Victoria plains. 
 I can recommend a man t go there \vho is looking for a selec- 
 tion ; there has not lately been any land taken up. The co- 
 operation of the Land bank has been availed of by some farmers 
 on the Victoria plains. Personally, I would rather borrow privately if 
 I wanted money, but I am willing to admit that my reason may not 
 be a good one. I hold that if a man should be unable, through some 
 special misfortune or sickness, to meet his obligations to his creditors, 
 he may prevail upon an individual lender to be lenient with him ; 
 but the bank is governed by statute, and if a man does not 
 punctually pay up he must be sold up. The local rainfall is 24 
 inches per annum, and the general character of the seasons is a long, 
 dry summer, and a short winter. Six or seven months in the year, 
 or from the beginning of November to the end of April, there is 
 seldom a single shower. During the past few years \\e have not 
 had rain until the end of May. The rainy season has been getting 
 shorter than it used to be ; the wet weather has been late in 
 commencing and has gone off early. The maturing of the crops 
 has been a very critical time owing to the scarcity of rain. A 
 shower or two that would have been very beneficial to fill the wheat 
 ears has often been withheld. We harvest in November and 
 December ; hay is cut in October. July and October are considered 
 our wettest months. The rain commences about the end of May as 
 a rule. 1 have occasionally known good rains to fall in April, and 
 they have been very welcome ; we cannot get too much rain in 
 April. The land around here is mostly freehold ; it was taken up 
 long enough ago for the improvements to have been made, the 
 purchase money to be paid by deferred payment instalments, and 
 the titles to issue. Some owners have only small blocks of about 
 150 acres ; others as much as 16,000 acres. The settlers are all 
 British subjects. The chief advantages of the district are good soil, 
 fair rainfall, and a railway, although its route is not very close to 
 
i8 9 
 
 some of tin- best parts of the district. The stock fattening 
 capabilities of the Midland are very much in its favor. The 
 implements in general use for farming are single, double, and treble 
 furrow ploughs, mowers, reapers and binders, and chaff-cutting 
 plant. Mr. Drummond has at Dandaraga a six furrow plough, but 
 it is most suitable for stirring up fallow. I use a steam driven chaff- 
 cutter ; most of my neighbors cut their hay by horse power. In 
 stock raising attention is mostly given to the breeding of cattle, 
 about 2,000 head of which are kept around Yatheroo. Sheep are 
 somewhat neglected. There is not much opportunity for a larger 
 scope of work at present, as the best of the land is taken up. If 
 ever the large estates are subdivided and sold, farming could be 
 carried on upon a much larger scale than it is at present. Dairying 
 is done during the winter and spring by Mr. Drummond and Mr. 
 Cook, as well as at Yatheroo. Most of the butter that is made is 
 sold locally, except the output of Mr. Cook's place and mine, which 
 goes to Perth. The topping up of cattle for the meat supply is our 
 staple resource. Potato and other root crops do fairly well, but they 
 are only grown in a small way for home use, the same as 
 other vegetables. There is no Government land suitable for 
 potato crops awaiting selection, nor have I any knowledge that 
 private owners are willing to make sales for this purpose. 
 We get frosts in June and July which prevent a winter crop 
 of potatoes being grown. I have known sharp frosts to occur 
 in September ; but as a rule July is the latest month when they are 
 experienced. The Midland district is not the place for 'blockers' 
 i.e., 10 and 20 acre men ; they would be too far from a centre of 
 population to be able to make a living by intense cultivation, nor 
 would they be likely to get enough water for summer irrigation 
 which would help them to work with success. Poultry 
 and bees are kept. Nearly everyone has hives and fowls. 
 Bees thrive well. Fowls are sent to Perth, \vhere they 
 bring 6s., and ducks, 73. per couple, and turkeys, about 
 IDS. each. It is a healthy country for turkeys, being so 
 dry, but fowls pay better than any other sort of poultry. The 
 chief requisites for a new settler are, in my opinion, that he should 
 get from 500 acres to 1500 acres of eligible land, and should be thrifty, 
 sober, and industrious. He should, know the value of money, and 
 take care to get a pound's worth for a sovereign. Some men by 
 careful management make a given amount of money go twice as far 
 as others. The selector in order to prosper in the Midland must go 
 in for stock to some extent, and engage in mixed farming. A few 
 sheep should be bought, if only to keep the weeds down ; they are 
 splendid scavengers, and their manure is not to be despised as a 
 dressing when they are run on the stubble. The lessons of local 
 experience are in favor of ring-barking as a first step after going on 
 a piece of new country, as it makes the clearing of land after the 
 first year so much easier than it would be if the timber were left in 
 
190 
 
 the green state. Ringbarking reduces the cost of clearing by at least 
 one-third, if clearing is delayed for seven or ten years. After the 
 trees are dead the heaviest forest lands in the Midland district can 
 be cleared for 305. per acre, provided the wood is thoroughly dry. 
 As artificial manures have not been used generally locally, I cannot 
 say from observation what fertilisers are best adapted to our soils, 
 but I believe there is nothing better than bonedust. Some bone- 
 dust has been experimented with and excellent results obtained. The 
 day will come when it will pay to manure all round to increase the 
 productiveness of the arable lands, and thuspreventthe soil becoming 
 exhausted. Liberal manuring from the outset is proiitable if the 
 produce is marketed to make a livelihood for the grower. As far as 
 I know there are no eligible private estates open for sub- divisional 
 sale, or available for occupation under improvement leases. I have 
 nothing to add to the suggestions I have already made for the 
 guidance of new settlers." 
 
 There are two agricultural areas along the Midland raihvay 
 which are described as follows in the directions issued by the Lands 
 department: The Koojan area, which is situate about TOO miles 
 north of Perth, was opened for selection in November, 1894 ; it 
 contains 14,000 acres, of which 9209 acres have been surveyed into 
 sixty-two blocks. At present (January, 1897) there are eight settlers 
 on the area, who hold between them 3156 acres. The Midland 
 railway runs along the eastern boundary of this area. A large 
 number of selections took place in this vicinity just previous to the 
 area being gazetted. It is therefore probable that much land here 
 will be taken up by persons desirous of increasing their holdings, 
 as well as other new selectors. This land is suitable for corn growing 
 and iruit culture. The cost of clearing would be about 4 per acre. 
 
 The Dalaroo agricultural area is north of and adjoining the 
 Koojan area ; it was opened for selection in November, 1894. It 
 contains 9000 acres, of which 3685 acres are surveyed into 23 
 blocks. There are at present no selectors on this area. It adjoins 
 the western side of the Midland raihvay line. A townsite (Moora) 
 has been laid out on this area, consisting of 89 town and 62 
 suburban lots. The land here is somewhat similar to that in the 
 Koojan area. The average rainfall is about 20 inches. A branch 
 of the Moore river runs through the area ; there are also small 
 swamps suitable for gardening purposes. 
 
 The Hon. H. B. Lefroy, Minister of the Postal and Educa- 
 tion departments, who is very conversant with the Midland 
 district, says sandy country lies along the road from (iingin to 
 Daudaraga to the Moore river ; bunksia and scrub occupy this 
 sand plain, which has a most uninviting appearance ; there are 
 patches of blackbutt and red gnin, but they are small and far 
 isolated from each other. Approaching Yatheroo homestead there 
 is a surprising revelation that is as pleasing as it is unexpected by a 
 stranger. Yatheroo is described by Mr. Lefroy, who is a large 
 
MM 
 
 pustoralist, and therefore competent to give a practical opinion, us 
 being equal to any fattening place he has seen in his travels. 
 Adjoining Yatheroo is the Ki an abbey estate, which ha-, be. MI pur- 
 chased by Mr. Roberts from the execntorsof the late Mr. Mcliitosh. 
 Kianabbey has the same characteristics as Yathcroo and l)an- 
 daraga, but it has not been made to the same extent as the Yatheroo 
 run. Yore is another notable grazing property. It belong to Mr. 
 Drnmmond, after having passed through the hands of Mi. I 'ad- 
 bury, who was the first to discover its true worth. Besides the 
 large estates there are a number of well-kept farms lo be seen. 
 These holdings comprise from 200 to 500 acres, a fair proportion of 
 which is under cereal cultivation. Taking now a survey of the 
 Midland district along the course of the railway line, in lieu of the 
 road, soon after Gingin is left behind, low hills of iionsione, gravel, 
 and growing jarrah and banksia are sighted. The hills extend as far 
 as the Moore river. The Mogumber railway station is on the banks 
 of the river. Crossing the river, 18 miles further on, Mr. Padbury's 
 flourishing homestead, Koojan, is reached. A large sum has been 
 spent in converting the property from rough bush land to one of a 
 very desirable character, viewed either from the standpoint of the 
 stock raiser or the yeoman. A salmon gum forest has been 
 annihilated, in order to make room for rich pasture grounds and corn- 
 fields. A similar area along the railway and a branch of the Moore 
 river is being rapidly taken up by farmers, and therefore the ease 
 with which salmon gum may be cleared ready for the plough cannot 
 be too widely known by settlers. 
 
 The facility with which some forest lands may be cleared is 
 graphically described by a correspondent of the Western Mail in 
 discussing the proposed Italian colony, which was a scheme of 
 Signor Vanzetti's. The extract states : " There are several salmon 
 gum forests of from three to five thousand acres area, separated by 
 sand plain and thicket. Some of the sand plain will grow vines 
 luxuriantly, while much of the tamma thicket is suited for both 
 cereal and orchard purposes. The salmon gum country would be 
 of value in about three years after settlement. It would need to be 
 first ring-barked, then, when the trees were thoroughly dead, a box 
 of matches would render the land fit for the plough. The inflam- 
 mable nature of the dead salmon gum forests is incredible. The 
 trees will burn from the uttermost twig at the top of the tree to 
 the deepest root in the soil. Holes large enough to bury a horse 
 in are created by the action of the fire following the routs down in 
 search of more wood. The explanation of this peculiar fact is 
 possibly found in the statement that all these trees are hollow, so 
 that a vent is left for the flame to travel by. It is absolutely 
 astounding what a single lucifer will do. The whole dead tree 
 when once ignited will burn for days, and a burned forest looks 
 like a miniature volcano field, with smoke pouring from holes which 
 were formerly the butts of trees. Such a mode of clearing is 
 
192 
 
 cheapness itself. Ringing will probably cost half a crown per 
 acre, for the trees are thick, and in three years' time after the 
 application of lire ten shillings an acre will cover the cost of clearing 
 what was missed. A reliable settler on forest land was telling me 
 of his experience in this class of land. When the timber was dead 
 he let a contract to clear it at twenty shillings per acre for the 
 plough. Accidentally a tire broke through thirty acres of it, and 
 from his description, after the tire the thirty-acre paddock must 
 have resembled a skittle alley when nearly all the pins are knocked 
 down." 
 
 Mr. Lefroy says: " The Koojan agricultural area embraces 
 much good land ; this is a stiff red soil that will grow cereals well. 
 The site of the area would doubtless have been taken up by the 
 Midland railway company, only they had to leave half the railway 
 frontage in the possession of the state. The area promises to 
 become the scene of many smiling fields of ripening corn. Twelve 
 miles further on from Koojan the traveller arrives at Moora railway 
 station and town site. Between Koojan and Moora, salmon gum 
 predominates. Moora has a telegraph station. A post and tele- 
 graph office and a police station are about to be built; also, a new 
 public school. The children of the district are now being taught 
 in a rented building. It may be predicted that Moora will become 
 one of the most thriving townships between Perth and Geraldton 
 as soon as the district obtains a larger farming population. This 
 settlement is retarded by the ownership of the Midland company 
 of so much of the land in the neighborhood ; the company will 
 not part with any of their grants except at high prices. They have 
 been approached by would-be buyers, but no one has ever been 
 able to buy any land from them ; at the same time they have never 
 attempted any settlement of their estates on their own account, 
 and in the face of the generous character of the land legislation of 
 Western Australia, it is no wonder that settlers have not been 
 attracted in larger numbers to the Moora district. Moora is the 
 railway station of the people of Dandaraga, which designation in- 
 Cludesthe residents of Yatheroo and the surrounding territory. h 
 also serves the northern part of the Victoria plains, the southern 
 portion of which does business with Mogumber. The name Victoria 
 plains is a misnomer, as the land is not level but hilly. The Victoria 
 plains cover the Darling ranges at their northerly commencing 
 point, but the ranges cb not in this locality rise to any considerable 
 altitude. The timber seen hereabouts is very similar to that seen 
 in the Newcastle and Northam districts, namely, York, white sal- 
 mon gums and manna trees. There arc f.irms on the plains, but 
 the 1 greater portion of the country is leased for gra/ini; purposes. 
 The Victoria plains have always been looked upon as being of a 
 Superior character to the average of the pasturage areas of the 
 central district, e-peeially for sheep. The wool grown here always 
 holds a very good position in the London market. A good many fat 
 

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193 
 
 sheep arc also sent from the plains to Perth every year. Strictly 
 speaking, this section of the colony cannot be considered first-class 
 agricultural country owing to the presence of granite, but between 
 the stony places there is some arable land that in course of time 
 will be cultivated. Many of the sheep runs have been greatly im- 
 proved ; most of the sheep are kept in fenced blocks ; some of 
 them are shepherded in the open. There are poison plants in 
 spots throughout the district, but most of the country thus affected 
 is unoccupied. The poisons are of the York road and white gum 
 varieties." 
 
 One of the principal stations on the Victoria plains is Walebing, 
 which was taken up about 40 years ago by the father of the Hon. H. B. 
 Lefroy and his uncle, who came out from Ireland to engage in pastoral 
 pursuits. They went in search of suitable country beyond the coast 
 line, which was all that had then been explored, and found a large 
 stretch of good feeding ground at what was afterwards named 
 Victoria plains, and formed Walebing station there. The Hon. 
 Anthony O'Grady Lefroy, who, with his brother, established Wale- 
 bing, became secretary to the Governor of the colony, and subse- 
 quently filled for more than 30 years the office of Colonial Treasurer. 
 During the latter portion of this time Walebing was managed by the 
 Hon. H. B. Lefroy. Walebing carries a large number of sheep, and 
 it has been well improved as far as the freehold land extends, but 
 Mr. Lefroy states that the regime of the Midland company has 
 proved a serious discouragement to enterprise and expenditure in 
 respect of the leaseholds for which no tenure can be obtained. 
 
 South of Walebing is the New Norcia mission station, which 
 was founded by Bishop Salvado, of the Roman Catholic church, for 
 the reclaimation of the aborigines, who, besides being trained in 
 agriculture and other useful kinds of work, are brought up in the 
 faith of the church. The mission furnishes excellent illustrations of 
 the great variety of crops \vhich the Midland district will produce. 
 The features of the station have been vividly sketched by " L.L.C." 
 in the columns of the West Australian, who drove there from New- 
 castle, a distance of 50 miles. He writes : " The road traverses 
 country that seems to be given over entirely to its native denizens 
 and a few wandering flocks of sheep. It is chiefly ironstone 
 country, with here and there patches of good clay land, moderately 
 heavily timbered, chiefly with white gum. Almost every acre of 
 this most inhospitable looking country is good for cultivation of the 
 vine, and the day will come, many years hence though, I fear, when 
 smiling vineyards will greet the traveller on every side. Nearing the 
 mission there are more evidences of settlement, and the well tilled 
 farm and neat homestead of Mr. Clune are particularly noticeable 
 from the main road. The term ' mission ' is altogether too insig- 
 nificant to express New Norcia, which is really a township, and a 
 more pretentious one, in some respects, than many that boast of a 
 mayor, town council and tax gatherer. The mission building looms 
 
194 
 
 up on the right hand side of the road, and on the opposite side is 
 the chapel, all the farm buildings and a number of cottages. . 
 The good bishop's hospitality is proverbial. . . . The olives, 
 mission grown and mission pickled, were a treat. . . . The 
 wine, mission grown and mission made, sound as the bell that sum- 
 mons the faithful to prayer, clean and bright, and pure juice of the 
 grape. . . . And the olive oil no cotton seed here but com- 
 ing up to the standard of the real Simon Pure. No taste, no smell, 
 no colour. . . . And the bishop's snuff his only luxury ! Mis- 
 sion grown and mission made. . . . And those candied almonds, 
 and tigs, and raisins, and grapes, and apples, and a host of other 
 things. . . . The whole time we were there we lived like the pro- 
 verbial tighting cock, and the only two things set before us which were 
 not grown on the place were the coffee and sugar. Farmers, please 
 note. On Sunday afternoon we had a good look round the flour mill, 
 stables, implement sheds, and all the other outbuildings and adjuncts 
 and accessories of the mission farm. The wheat is grown and 
 ground into flour, which is converted into bread and macaroni, and 
 the meat is all grown on stations belonging to the mission. The 
 bishop is a great horsebreeder. The mission horses are deservedly 
 popular in the market. Many used to tincl their way to India at 
 one time, but this trade has declined altogether. All the stock 
 about the place is good, and the bishop is a great believer in the 
 truism that a good animal eats no more than a scrubber. It will be 
 well when this is more generally recognised. There are nearly 
 1000 acres cleared, and it takes, as the yield is not very large, a 
 greater part of this to supply the wheat for the mission wants from 
 year to year. The land is rich, judging by what I saw. It is the 
 scanty rainfall and short season that makes wheat growing some- 
 what precarious. The bishop has a thresher with a straw-cuiter 
 attached, of which he is very proud, and he also has imported 
 several other machines of recent invention. The mission shows 
 what can be done in the face of the greatest obstacles, and what the 
 ground can be made to produce even with a very limited rainfall. 
 It is a glorious monument to indomitable courage, unwavering 
 perseverance, and ceaseless industry. Under the guidance of 
 Brother Ramiro we visited Glentmmic, the home of Mr. and Mrs. 
 Davidson. This line estate is well known in Western Australia as 
 having been at one time the property of the late Mr. McPherson, a 
 popular squatter, and one who dearly loved a horse. The improve- 
 ments put up in his time show this. The stables, built of brick, 
 contain over 20 stalls and loose boxes, and everything about the 
 place shows that no expense was spared to make it a model 
 institution." 
 
 Beyond the Victoria plains the valleys of the upper and lower 
 Irvvin river form one of the best agricultural districts in the colony. 
 The land is extremely fertile and ver}' valuable, but as none of it is 
 open for selection space need not be devoted in the pages of the 
 
195 
 
 GUIDE to enlarge upon its advantages. The produce of the Irwin 
 is sent to the Murchison goldfields, or shipped from Dongara (the 
 port at the mouth of the lower Irwin) to Perth. On the upper 
 Irwin the Midland company had large grants of country, many of 
 which have been acquired by some of the promoters of the company. 
 Walkaway, the terminus of the Midland line, is another agricultural 
 centre. The Greenough river runs westerly into the Indian ocean, 
 a little to the north of Walkaway. The Greenough flats were thirty 
 years ago rapidly settled. They have had a somewhat chequered 
 history. Until rust made its appearance in the crops, the farmers 
 made liberal profits out of wheat growing. Then a disastrous flood 
 accentuated their difficulties. The flood waters came from the 
 interior and washed away crops, fences, and stock. There are what 
 are known as front and back flats, divided by ironstone and limestone. 
 The fertile area consists of about forty square miles. It is still largely 
 cultivated. On the flats the land has all been alienated from the 
 Crown. White gums, York gums, and wattles were the chief woods 
 which the first settlers had to clear. Their holdings average about 
 300 acres per man. The chief drawback of the district is the 
 uncertainty and insufficiency of the rainfall. The soil is of two 
 kinds, it is of a heavy loam, almost of a clayey character on the front 
 flats ; behind the lime and ironstone the ground is of a lighter 
 quality. Water can be obtained from springs, but it has a strong 
 taste of lime and magnesia. Fruit grows well if the trees are 
 sheltered from the violent south-west winds that prevail during 
 summer. The back country in the hills is occupied by graziers ; 
 sheep are their principal stock ; they rely on breeding, not on the 
 fattening of stores. Nearer to Geraldton cattle thrive when drought 
 does not make feed scarce. Mr. John Morrell, whose place is between 
 Walkaway and Geraldton, makes a good deal of butter during the 
 cool season. There is an eager market in Geraldton for fresh butter. 
 For the greater part of the year new milk is not to be had there. 
 Unless the making of ensilage is resorted to, the district is too far 
 north for dairying, except during the three winter months of the 
 year. For the same reason the farmers get better returns from their 
 crops when the seed is sown in dry furrows to await the first rains in 
 autumn. The wheat is ground at a roller flour mill at central 
 Greenough. Among the chief fodder plants of this part of the 
 colony is the wild oat, which is encouraged to grow on the pasture 
 grounds. The sheep farmers in the hills sow the seeds of the wild 
 oat. The plant is cut, threshed, and the seed bagged until the winter 
 rains are falling, when the sowing is roughly done on burnt ground 
 or other likely seed bed places ; the ground is not ploughed to 
 receive the wild oats. 
 
 Geraldton is connected by rail with Northampton. There are 
 three agricultural areas adjacent to the Geraldton-Northampton 
 railway. These are officially described as follows: " The Appertarra 
 area was thrown open for selection in April, 1894, and comprises 
 
196 
 
 6560 acres, the whole of which has been surveyed into torty-three 
 lots. There is at present one settler here, who holds 144 acres. The 
 area is situate close to Northampton townsite, adjoining the west 
 boundary of same, and extending north therefrom. The land here 
 is of a light loamy nature, and should prove suitable for the growth 
 of cereals and fruit. The cost of clearing would be about 2~3 per 
 acre, as the land is not heavily timbered. As there is a prospect of 
 a revival of the mining industry at Northampton, selection in this 
 area is anticipated at an early date. The Northampton-Geraldton 
 railway passes through the southern portion of this area." 
 
 The Nonga agricultural area contains 11,311 acres; it was 
 thrown open for selection in September, 1893. It has been entirely 
 subdivided into seventy-four blocks, but as yet no land has been 
 applied for. There is a fair amount of good soil in this area, which 
 has a frontage on the Bowes river and Nokanena brook. The 
 proximity of this area to the Northampton-Geraldton railway line 
 should lead to its early settlement. The dry seasons we have lately 
 experienced have placed a great check on agricultural development. 
 The cost of clearing here would be about <\ per acre. 
 
 The Weeranooka area, which contains 14,500 acres, and forms a 
 portion of the original Northampton area, has not been laid out in 
 blocks, as at present there appears to be little demand for agricul- 
 tural land in this locality. 
 
 Mullewa, which is the first township on the line from Geraldton 
 to Cue, the capital of the Murchison goldfields, is in the neighbor- 
 hood of an agricultural area that was proclaimed, in order that 
 farmers desiring to produce crops for the requirements of the mining 
 population might have an opportunity of settling on Crown lands 
 close to the railway. The Mullewa area contains 12,000 acres, and was 
 thrown open for selection in August, 1894. Of the total area 
 gazetted 6104 acres have been surveyed into fifty-four lots. There 
 is one settler on this area, who holds 138 acres. A townsite has been 
 laid out here comprising ninety-three town and suburban lots. This 
 area is situate at the termination of the Geraldton -Mullewa railway, 
 about 65 miles from Geraldton. Since the aiva was gazetted the 
 railway has been completed to Cue. As there is a large population 
 on the Murchison goldfields the land on the Mullewa area should 
 soon be in more demand, and though the rainfall in some seasons is 
 somewhat uncertain and scanty the blocks are considered suitable 
 for the growth of cereals. The cost of clearing would be about 3 
 per acre. 
 
 The following statement has been supplied, respecting the con- 
 ditions which a settler would meet with in the Midland and Ger- 
 aldton districts : Some eligible lari^e private estates are open for 
 subdivisional sale, or for occupation under improvement leases. In 
 local fanning operations, liberal manuring from the outset is profit- 
 able ; but so few fertilisers are used that it is not easy to say which 
 kind is the best to use. In order to succeed, a selector should be 
 
i 9 7 
 
 a hard worker, have any amount of pluck, and be very economical. 
 Fowls are commonly kept by our farmers, hut not nearly so largely 
 as they ought to be. Bees are neglected. -The districts are not 
 adapted for close settlement, ?>., for ten or 2O-acre men. No data 
 has been kept to show the times at which the earliest and latest 
 frosts occur. Frosts are, however, not prevalent and destructive. 
 There are private lands available that would grow excellent crops 
 of potatoes and other root crops ; but the terms upon which the 
 blocks could be obtained would be a matter for private treaty. No 
 terms of sale are advertised, or are public property. None of 
 the paddocks referred to are far from the railway. There is 
 very little " potato land " belonging to the Crown ; nearly all 
 the best of it has been taken up. On suitable spots, potatoes and 
 other root crops do well in the districts. Vegetables are not grown 
 to any extent not nearly as largely as they could be. Dairying is 
 being neglected ; there is very little of this form of industry in the 
 Midland division. It cannot be said there is an opportunity for a 
 larger scope of work. The breeds of horses, cattle and sheep are 
 being improved. The chief advantages of our territory are that it 
 is good agricultural and pastoral country. The average size of 
 selections of Crown lands is 100 acres. The general character of 
 the seasons is dryness, which prejudicially affects the returns. For 
 14 years, prior to 1896, the average rainfall was 18*55 inches. The 
 Land bank has not been applied to by local borrowers, as far as is 
 known here. Settlement has been progressing. The fruits grown 
 are oranges, apples, peaches, grapes and ligs, and these mature with 
 very great success, the only drawback being the high winds that are 
 experienced during a portion of the year. The facilities for the 
 transport of crops to market are fairly good, now that railway 
 carriage is accessible from the Greenough, Northampton, Irwin and 
 Mullewa stations. The crops usually grown are hay and grain. It 
 costs about ^3 per acre to clear land ready for the plough. The 
 kinds of timber are York gum, flooded gum, white gum, morrell, 
 gimlet, and raspberry jam. The forests are rather sparse. No 
 spot can be named where there are facilities for irrigation. In the 
 vicinity of Geraldton water can be struck inside 100 feet, and at a 
 much shallower depth on the Murchison. In a dry season there is 
 a great scarcity of water, as the storage capacity is now r here 
 large. In general, however, the country is fairly \vatered. On 
 the whole, this division of the colony can be said to be 
 a good one for stock. There are poison plants in our neighbour- 
 hood, chiefly of the York road and box varieties, distributed in 
 patches throughout, and amounting in the aggregate to very many 
 thousands of acres. The district is not much troubled by native 
 pests, such as dingoes, boodie rats, opossums, eaglehawks, etc. 
 Dingoes and eaglehawks have been largely destroyed in the last few 
 years. Of the other pests mentioned there are none. A great many 
 of the local cultivators are also sheep farmers. The orchard and 
 
198 
 
 vineyard area is steadily increasing. The land does not quickly 
 exhaust itself if it is properly manured and cultivated. The district 
 grows hay and grain crops to the best advantage. We know of no 
 market for produce that is as good as that of Western Australia. 
 In our opinion from 100 to .200 would not be sufficient capital 
 for a start on a piece of land large enough, under the conditions that 
 prevail in this district, for the maintenance of a family. The amount 
 of money that is required to sustain preliminary expenses, and to 
 keep things going until returns begin to come in, depends upon the 
 part of the colony in which the .selection is made. In the southern 
 part of the colony more capital is required than in the Victoria 
 district. In the latter district ^500 and ^1500 respectively would 
 be needed by the applicant for a homestead farm uf 160 acres, and 
 a conditional purchase of 500 acres, respectively. The surveyed 
 agricultural areas in the district are Nonga and^Appertarra, near 
 Northampton, and at Mullewa. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE DEEP RIVER DISTRICT. 
 
 The following report has been furnished to the Lands depart- 
 ment by Surveyor W. H. Goodwin, and we have to acknowledge 
 our indebtedne-s to the Surveyor-General for placing the dala <>i 
 what is looked to as a new field for settlement at our disposal : 
 " The Deep river has its source at lake Muir, which has been almost 
 dry for the last four or rive years ; it takes a southerly course 
 through paper bark swamps for about one mile, thence westerly for 
 four and a half miles, thence southerly without any definite channel 
 for seven miles over wide and more or less scrubby plains, which 
 are joined by other plains from the north-west. After this there is 
 a well denned channel, and the river takes a south-easterly course 
 for twelve miles, when it turns south- westerly for about 27 miles ; 
 thence south-easterly for 18 miles, thence easterly for about six 
 miles to the Nornalup inlet. The river is spread from source to 
 mouth by innumerable creeks and gullies, but the only tributary of 
 any importance is the Weld river, which joins the Deep river at a 
 place 22\ miles S S.W. from lake Muir. Permanent water is found 
 all along the course of the river from a point about 13 miles south 
 from its source, but continuous running water is not met with until 
 about 26 miles south. It would only be possible to take a small 
 boat up the river for three miles from its mouth, where the river 
 varies from two to three chains in width. Above this point the 
 channel is from 100 to 150 links wide as far as the Weld river, and 
 full of logs, and the water very shallow, except where there is a 
 water hole, of which there are several. Above the W T eld river, 
 excepting occasional pools, the channel gradually narrows until it 
 ceases to exist on the plains six miles south from lake Muir. Karri 
 is met with almost the whole way down the river, from about nine 
 miles south from its source, but seems to be confined to the 
 immediate neighborhood of the river in belts varying from 20 to 80 
 chains in width, or running in belts along some hill orgully. Red gum 
 is found on all karri belts, generally on the margin of the jarrah 
 country, and along the river banks. Many of the karri trees are of 
 immense size, the trunks measuring six to ten feet in diameter four 
 feet from the ground, and gradually tapering for 100 to 150 feet 
 without a branch. The red gum varies very much in size, but as a 
 rule, where it grows with karri the trunks are from four to six feet 
 in diameter, and 60 to 80 feet in length. The jarrah is, as a rule, 
 small, but there is an immense area where very fair jarrah, two to 
 three feet in diameter, suitable for any purpose w r here large timber 
 
200 
 
 is not required, can be obtained. The country to the east of the 
 Deep river consists of moderately high ranges, timbered with jarrah 
 and scrub, broken by patches of karri and gum ; that to the west of 
 the river is more gently undulating country, carrying similar 
 timber. Around Brooks' inlet there are large, fairly open plains, 
 timbered with stunted jarrah and scrub. Karri country is 
 generally a chocolate loam of good depth, and should be very 
 suitable for agricultural purposes. Where the red gum grows with 
 the karri, the soil is red loam and ironstone. There are also out- 
 crops of granite and ironstone. Jarrah country is generally poor 
 looking sandy loam, or a light loam and ironstone, with granite and 
 ironstone outcrops. Some of the former cover several acres. The 
 country south of lake Muir is essentially timber country, and 
 generally unfit for agricultural purposes, except where karri grows, 
 and here the cost of clearing prohibits settlement until better 
 means of communication with the market is provided, as it would 
 never pay to spend at least 20 per acre clearing -the land and 
 have to cart the produce 100 miles or more. As a rule, the country 
 is very scrubby and difficult to travel over, especially in the karri 
 country, some of which is almost impassable owing to dense 
 growths of hazel, acacia and other shrubs. A great deal of the timber 
 has fully reached its prime and is only deteriorating as the years 
 roll by, so that milling should be encouraged and all young timber 
 strictly preserved. I was unable to examine the country away from 
 the river as much as I would have liked, owing to the difficulty in 
 getting about, but trust that the information I have collected will 
 be of value to the department." 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 REPORT ON THE EUCLA DISTRICT OF WESTERN 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 The following report on the Kucla district of this colony was 
 furnished by request to the Commissioner of Crown Lands some 
 months ago, and prior to the expedition being sent out under Mr. 
 Surveyor Mason to define the country infested by rabbits. The 
 writer of the report (Mr. Alex. Crawford) spent some time exploring 
 the Eucla country a few years ago : 
 
 The area described in this report consists of the land lying be- 
 tween longitude 124" and the boundary of South Australia, and the 
 coast line and latitude 30. 
 
 This area may be roughly divided into four distinct districts : 
 
 ist. That extending from the coast to the foot of a low chain of 
 hills or cliffs that run into the sea about two miles east of Eucla 
 township, and generally increase in distance from the coast as they 
 travel westward, until in some places they are 20 miles distant, and 
 then gradually come into the coast a little beyond Eyre. 
 
 Immediately along the coast the country consists of low white 
 sand hills covered with stunted mallee ; but as you go further back 
 the land changes first to grey sand and then to good red soil of con- 
 siderable depth, timbered w r ith peach, sandalwood, and in places 
 mulga, all with a limestone foundation. Some places are heavily 
 grassed, and there is an abundance of salt bush, both the small variety 
 and the " old man" salt bush, blue bush, cotton bush, and, in the season 
 after rain, a great variety of herbage that sheep and horses eat. 
 Hitherto, so far as I am aware, no actual fresh water has been 
 obtained by sinking, although a good many wells and bores have 
 been put down ; but at some places water has been found slightly 
 brackish, but good enough for domestic use, while at other places 
 water has been obtained good enough for stock purposes. At the 
 same time it cannot be relied upon being obtained, except at con- 
 siderable expense, as probably rive or six bores will have to be put 
 down from 70 to 100 feet before stock water is obtained some of 
 the water being much salter than the sea, and going three ounces of 
 salt to the gallon. Good fresh water may be obtained, as a rule, in the 
 sand hills along the coast, at no great distance from high water mark, 
 by sinking just a little below the level of the sea. At the foot of the 
 hills a plentiful supply of water may be conserved by making tanks 
 or darns, as the bare limestone rocks in many places afford a first-rate 
 natural catchment. There would be some expense attached to this 
 method, as the ground is very porous, as is also the rock, and the 
 tanks would have to be cemented. All this country, with the 
 exception of the white sand hills and the samphire flats, is admirably 
 adapted for wheat and barley growing. I had some cleared, and, 
 
202 
 
 although planted very late in the season, wheat and English barley 
 yielded very heavy returns, but the straw was short. 
 
 In dealing with the rabbit pest, this will be the most difficult 
 portion of the whole country to keep clear, as there is a good depth 
 of soil for them to burrow and breed in, while the cliffs are in many 
 places rotten and cavernous, and will afford great protection, and 
 immediately on top of the cliff the scrub is very dense. In time this 
 area ought to become a verv valuable wheat producing country, and, 
 as along the coast there are several breaks in the coral reef that runs 
 parallel with it, good sized vessels can come to within a very short 
 distance of the land, so that the expense of getting provisions there, 
 and getting produce away, will be low. 
 
 The settlers in South Australia are getting good crops on far 
 poorer land than is to be found all along here. 
 
 The second division consists of what immediately on the top 
 of the cliffs, and extending to about latitude 31 -30 may be 
 described as fairly good stock country, but not fit for cultivation, 
 except in a very few places, as the limestone rock comes very near 
 the surface, and the average depth of soil is not more than eight or nine 
 inches, while in many parts the rock is quite exposed. To the eye 
 the country appears quite level, but I found that the land rose 
 gradually as I went northward, as nearly as I could judge from the 
 barometers about one and a half feet per mile from the top of the 
 cliffs, the cliffs being about 200 feet above sea level. 
 
 This area consists of open plains and belts of timber, and belts 
 of scrub, principally broom bush, which is found wherever there is 
 the slighest approach to a sandhill. 
 
 There are a few narrow belts of dense mallee, that were so thick 
 that we had to cut a track through with our axes, otherwise being 
 quite impenetrable for either horses or camels. Some of the belts 
 were not more than half a mile through, and the largest about t.vo 
 miles. Here the plains were fairly well grassed, where the depth of 
 soil allowed it, and where the soil was too shallow, salt, blue and cot- 
 ton bush abounded. The timber consisted of peach, sandalwood, 
 mallee, bull oaks, and other varieties of the Casuonua ; also mulga 
 and myall, the two latter being found in the northern part of the area. 
 
 There will always be a difficulty in conserving water here, as 
 tanks or dams would have to be excavated out of the limestone 
 rock, and that is almost as porous as a sponge. On one occasion 
 there was an inch of rain in 15 hours, and in the hollows of the 
 rock not a drop was to be found half an hour after the rain ceased ; 
 in fact, the only water we saw here was in one or two lar^e clay 
 pans, and, although full, they were not more than an inch deep. 
 
 In this part we found many curious blow-holes, vary- 
 ing in size from two inches across to over two feet. From 
 some of these a very strong current of air was issuing, 
 while in others there was a strong suction. Some of them made a 
 curious roaring noise, much louder at some times than at others, and 
 
20 3 
 
 on a still night could be heard a long way off. I went down one 
 of the largest, being lowered about 16 feet by a rope before I 
 reached the rock below. I found then I was in a large egg-shaped 
 cave with a passage at one side, up which came a great rush of 
 perfectly fresh air. I went about 20 feet down the passage or tun- 
 nel, and got into another cave, and while here I could distinctly 
 hear the murmuring of water, apparently a great way off. 
 
 At a number of the blow holes we could distincly hear water 
 running. In this district we found no tracks of natives at all. Saw 
 plenty of kangaroos and emus, but very little bird life. Wedge- 
 tailed eagles were visible every day all over this country. 
 
 The third division is a narrow strip of country extending, 
 rougly speaking, from latitude 30-31 to latitude 31. 
 
 It is in places almost desert, the rock being so near the surface 
 that very little vegetation can grow, and in many places there is 
 none at all. What there is consists principally of small stunted salt 
 and blue bush, and where the soil is a little deeper, stunted sandal- 
 wood and narrow belts of mallee. The limestone here is more 
 flinty in character and does not seem so porous and is extremely 
 hard. Only one or two blow holes were found, and no others were 
 seen further north. Except just after the rains this country would 
 be almost useless for grazing purposes. 
 
 The fourth division extends from latitude 31 to a little south of 
 latitude 30 and is far and away the best country in the whole area. 
 Here I found in many places a good depth of soil and the country 
 undulating, and in many places limestone hills and rocks standing up 
 abruptly from the plain. It is a well grassed country, grass being 
 often up to the camels' knees, while the timber is much larger than 
 any found in the south. There is evidently a good rainfall, and water 
 courses were found in many places, not, the slightest trace of any 
 such having been seen further south. Although no blow holes 
 were found here, several large depressions were found that looked 
 like half filled up wells, and in one of these most of the watercourses 
 ended, thus showing that they led to underground channels. Native 
 tracks and smoke were frequently seen, but notwithstanding all our 
 efforts, we could not come across any natives, although several times 
 we came on their fires, and once some kangaroo cooking, but the 
 blacks had seen us and disappeared in the timber before 
 we got near enough to them. We found no water in 
 this district, and the natives seem to depend principally upon the 
 mallee roots for water. In places where the natives had evidently 
 camped for some time great heaps of these roots were found. The 
 roots were nearly all about the thickness of a man's little linger, and 
 about three feet long. The method of obtaining the water is to 
 place the roots in hot ashes for a minute or tw r o, and then turn them 
 upright, with one end in a vessel to catch the water which gradually 
 oozes out. On two occasions I believe the lives of our party were 
 saved by thus obtaining water. The water is pure and fresh, with- 
 
204 
 
 out taste or flavour of any kind, much resembling distilled water. 
 I might also say here that water is also to be obtained from the roots of 
 the casuarinas, but the roots have to be broken in short pieces about 
 three or four inches in length. 
 
 At the northern part of this district the limestone seems to run 
 out, and a sandstone formation takes its place. Just at the end of 
 the limestone country there is a vast chain of yellow sand hills 
 covered with scrub of great variety and many beautiful \vild flowers, 
 also pine trees, but these do not grow high ; then comes a dense 
 spinifex country that I did not go through, the camels refusing to 
 go more than a few yards into it. In all probability good water 
 soaks will be found in the sandhills, as native tracks were very 
 plentiful, also dingo, kangaroo, emu, parrots and various other kinds 
 of birds were in great numbers. 
 
 At the north-west portion we came to a small forest of what 
 appeared to be red gums, none of the trees very great in girth, and 
 about 30 to 40 feet in height, and here we also saw several good 
 well developed water courses, and also some quartz gravel and reefs. 
 A great deal of this district is good wheat producing land, and could 
 be put under the plough at a very small cost. When I lett this 
 district I made for Queen Victoria Spring, as the water supply was 
 almost done in our casks. When we got to the spring it was quite 
 dry, but we found a soak about eight or ten miles south by follow- 
 ing up the native tracks, and here we got our casks rilled up. 
 
 In conclusion, I may say it would be useless for any person to go 
 over this country looking for gold, as, with the exception of the 
 north-west corner that I have already mentioned, all the rest is part 
 of a great limestone formation, that also extends for about 200 miles 
 east of the Western Australian border, and is known as Xullabar 
 plains. If water could be obtained in the fourth division, I am cer- 
 tain, as a wheat and barley growing district, it could not be sur- 
 passed. I also consider it an ideal place for horse breeding, as 
 there is an abundance of good pasture, and, with the limestone for- 
 mation, could not be surpassed for producing bone and substance. 
 The climate is magnificent in winter, frosty nights ; in summer, 
 heat, but dry, and never oppressive. 
 
 It may take time to open up this country, but I am certain, sooner 
 or later, it will be one of the best districts in the colony for wheat 
 growing. 
 
 I may just say here that I think there must be some large inland 
 lakes to the north of it somewhere, as at night clucks and swans used 
 often to fly overhead in a northernly direction. On several moonlight 
 nights I have shot both ducksandswansasthey have been passing over. 
 
 I may also say that on several occasions we eame across a number 
 of white kangaroos; the only place in Australia I have seen them. 
 
 The timber called sandahvood throughout this report, is not the 
 sandalwpod of commerce, but what is known as sandalwood in the 
 Eucla district. 
 
II. 
 
 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. IX> 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 BY THE EDITOR. 
 
 " I have a baylife as skilful as may be ; yet, remembering the old saying that the 
 best doung for the field is the master's foot, and the best provender for the horse, the 
 master's eye, I play the overseer myself." GERVASE MARKHAM, 1620. 
 
 'HE numerous inquiries received almost daily by 
 the Bureau of Agriculture, by whose direction 
 the SETTLER'S GUIDE is issued, show that there 
 are a number of people who have either already 
 taken up land in the colcny, or intend doing so, 
 with the object of cultivating it, who have had 
 little or no previous experience in agriculture. The majority 
 of our more recent settlers are the " bone and sinew " of 
 the eastern provinces ; men well versed in colonial agricultural 
 practice. For these any elementary lessons conveyed in the 
 following pages will have little interest. They are intended for the 
 guidance of the new settler who has not had the same experience, 
 but whose welfare is nevertheless a matter of supreme importance, 
 
206 
 
 It is impossible to learn farming from a book ; and no pretence 
 is made in the following pages of imparting the whole theory and 
 practice of agriculture. It is merely intended to convey, in the 
 plainest language, a few useful and practical hints on the pre- 
 liminary preparation of 1 md after it has been taken up in its virgin 
 state, and to give the new settler, lacking knowledge in cultural 
 methods, the results of the experiences of others who have been 
 farming for a lifetime in the colonies. Speaking generally, colonial 
 farming cannot be called high-class farming. It is capable of great 
 improvement, and it is pleasing to record that improvement is 
 now gradually taking place, thanks to the dissemination of 
 knowledge by the various departments of agriculture of the 
 colonies and by the Australian press, to the noble example set 
 by men of superior intelligence, and, in some cases, of superior 
 means also, \vho voluntarily divorced themselves from the vast 
 army of single croppers, and launched out in entirely new direc- 
 tions, in an endeavor to show how the land could be made to 
 produce to its fullest extent. The depression which has existed for 
 the past few years in all the colonies, except Western Australia, 
 has perforce, caused the farmers of the eastern provinces to pay 
 greater attention to varying the products of the soil, and unite in 
 developing new features of rural industry that had hitherto been 
 either totally neglected, or carried on by individuals in a more or 
 less tentative and perfunctory manner. Prior to the granting of 
 responsible government to this colony, and the shortly subsequent 
 discovery of our phenomenal auriferous wealth, there was little or 
 no inducement to the Western Australian farmer to produce much 
 more than would supply his actual needs. He was in an isolated 
 position. There was no demand for the produce of his broad 
 acres across the seas, if we except wool and an indigenous pro- 
 duct sanclalwood. The population of the colony was small 
 something under 40,000 souls and the wants of these were easily 
 supplied from the few fertile acres under cultivation. During the 
 decade immediately preceding the advent of self-government, the 
 area under cultivation decreased rather than increased. The long 
 period of stagnation its monotony, if broken at all, being only so 
 by an active period of retrogression which enveloped the Western 
 
207 
 
 Australian farmers in their isolation like a mantle of fog, had the 
 effect of making them, paradoxical as it may appear, the most 
 sturdy, independent, self-contained, and, in a manner, prosperous 
 farmers of the Australian group. The Western Australian farmer 
 of the old school is scoffed at freely by newcomers who 
 do not know him, and who do not realise all he has had to 
 go through. There are ample evidences that farming in 
 this colony was, twenty or thirty years ago, and is at 
 the present time, by the same old school, conducted on sounder 
 agronomic principles than it ever has been in the eastern colonies 
 by the average free selector. Land, that in the halcyon days of 
 the east would have been scorned by the selector, has been under 
 crop here for forty years and is still in good heart, thanks to the 
 judicious treatment it has received. The Western Australian farmer 
 is a farmer of the very best type ; his adversities have made him so. 
 In the eastern districts, in the south-west, and in other parts, one 
 can rind farms on which the first sod was turned by the plough 
 nearly half a century ago, that are models of all that a well-con- 
 ducted farm should be. This defence of the Western Australian 
 farmer is made by one who knows them well ; by one who has 
 never hesitated to tell them their shortcomings, and it is made in 
 the interests as well of the new settler for whom this GUIDE is 
 published. The new-comer who wishes to settle on the land will 
 be one of the two classes into which new arrivals may be generally 
 divided. The one class comes spilling over w r ith theory and energy. 
 The man belonging to this class wants to give advice ; not to 
 receive it. He wants to write a book at once and tell everyone in 
 the country how things should be done. His end is premature. 
 To this class the Bureau of Agriculture has nothing to say. The 
 other class, in which we find the man of intelligence, of quiet 
 energy, of perseverance, the man who knows much, and knowing 
 much, realises how little he knows, how much that he has learnt in 
 one country will have to be unlearnt in another, how knowledge 
 is the same all the world over, and yet how variously it has to be 
 applied before it can become power, the man who seeks advice, 
 not scorns it ; this is the man, whose success is almost assured, whom 
 the Bureau of Agriculture welcomes to the shores of Western 
 
.208 
 
 Australia, and will cater for in every reasonable manner, and it is 
 this man, if he contemplates settling on the soil, that I ask not to 
 hold in too light esteem any advice that may be given him by the 
 Western Australian farmer. Like, yet unlike, the farmer from the 
 east will find that there are many lessons, taught by previous 
 experience, that he will have to unlearn before he can be said to 
 be truly successful here. That he may be successful is the earnest 
 desire of the Government and people of this great colony. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS. 
 
 RINGBARKING, CLEARING, FENCING, CULTIVATION. 
 
 THE SELECTOR'S OUTFIT. 
 
 I am now presuming that the land has been selected, and the 
 settler and fanner of the future is about to leave Perth and take up 
 his holding to commence the preparations preliminary to ringbarking, 
 clearing, fencing, and cultivating. I am not presuming, however, 
 that the selector is a man of capital, and can afford to while away 
 his time in the city while all the rough work is being done, but 
 that he has only sufficient capital, aided by his own labor and the 
 strictest economy, to establish himself on the land. 
 
 The new settler in Western Australia has one advantage in his 
 favor the absence of great variations of climate. With the 
 exception, perhaps, of the extreme south-west, where the rainfall is 
 very heavy and continuous for some months, one might live in the 
 open from year's end to year's end, satisfied, dry, and warm, 
 covered only by a blanket and a sheet of bark. There are still in 
 this and the eastern colonies many bark huts to be seen, still 
 inhabited and very cosy, that were put up in the early fifties. 
 Canvas now takes the place of bark as a temporary dwelling, and 
 the new settler will have to equip himself with a tent and fly if he 
 is going to settle on his block at once and commence to fulfil the 
 residence clause of the Land regulations. It is surprising how 
 comfortable tents can be made with a little trouble and ingenuity. 
 They are made in the following sizes, and can be purchased in 
 Perth for about the prices set opposite to each respective size : 
 8 feet X 5 feet, IDS. 6d., fly, 6s. ; 10 feet x 8 feet, 123. 6d., fly, 8s. ; 
 12 feet x 10 feet, i6s. 9d., fly, IDS. 3d. 
 
 A fly, which may be described as a second and upper roof to 
 the tent, is essential. It keeps the rain out in the winter, and adds 
 greatly to the coolness of the tent in the summer. 
 
 In pitching the tent there will be no difficulty experienced in 
 finding suitable saplings for uprights and ridge pole, etc. The 
 highest ground should be selected as a site and the shade of trees 
 will be welcome. 
 
210 
 
 As the settler has come to stay, unless the price of it is of the 
 most vital importance, a few sheets of corrugated roofing iron, a 
 few feet of guttering and a 200 gallon tank may most advantage- 
 ously be added to his equipment. Four uprights of stout saplings, 
 with forks left at the upper ends, well sunk in the ground, two 
 cross pieces for wall plates, with half a dozen sheets often foot ; ron 
 laid on top, with bark, bag or brush sides, will make a temporary 
 cook-house that will add greatly to the comfort of the good wife. 
 Two lengths of guttering tacked at the back will always ensure a 
 supply of fresh rain water. Half a ton (a case) of ten foot iron 
 may be purchased for about 10, and if the selector can afford this 
 outlay the tent may be dispensed with and a rough slab hut put up 
 at once. The case in which the iron is packed is not to be 
 despised, turned upside down on four stakes driven into the ground 
 we have not half a bad table. When the selector is thoroughly 
 settled down he will be free to provide himself with a brick oven, 
 but he need not wait until then for a serviceable oven that can be 
 made for little or nothing. Procure an iron nail can or an 
 oil drum, clean it thoroughly and set it lengthways on stones or 
 bricks, sufficiently high to get fire under it. Close it round with 
 sheet iron, or anything that will resist fire. Leave about an 
 inch clear space between the drum and the iron that surrounds 
 the oven, and cover the latter with a layer of clay, working 
 it well to make it secure and reduce cracking. The thicker the 
 clay the longer it will hold heat, and the more it is worked 
 the less it cracks. Leave an outlet at the top or back of the 
 oven for the smoke to escape. Fit a door of wood or iron to close 
 the mouth, and put in shelf to form sole for the bread or whatever 
 has to be cooked, to stand on. If there are large white ant hills near 
 the house the inside may be scooped out of one, and this 
 will make an oven. Or one may be made entirely of pug, and if 
 covered will last for many years. The selection of cooking utensils 
 must be left to the wife. In case the selector is so unfortunate as 
 to be single, the outfit will probably begin and end with a frying- 
 pan, a billy, a pannikin, and a camp oven ; though this latter com- 
 paratively inexpensive article is considered by many as a useless 
 accessor}', and evidence of gross extravagance on the part of the 
 owner. There are many men who have lived for years under the 
 Denial sun of Australia who have never owned anything more than 
 a " bluey," a " billy," and a thirst. In the event of a chimney being 
 required, ready made iron ones, which may be affixed with a lew 
 nails, may be had from about 2 55. to 2 155. each, according to 
 size, and colonial ovens cost, 24 inches, i6s. ; 30 inches, 223.5 36 
 inches, 3os., each. A few bricks will be required for the lie-art h, 
 and the chimney will last much longer if it is bricked tip inside the 
 back and sides for a couple of feet or so, to keep the fire 
 from the iron. If bricks are not available, pug made from white 
 ant hills or stiitish clay will do for the time being. 
 
211 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 The tools required by the selector on taking up his holding, 
 will comprise axes, wedges, maul, grub hoes, picks, spades, fork, 
 shovels, crosscut saws, files for sharpening same, tomahawk, steel 
 bar, grindstone, and a set of carpenter's tools. Collins's or Sharpens 
 axes are the best, and are sold at 6s. each. Wedges, of which 
 three or four will be required, are also sold at 5cl. per Ib. If the maul 
 rings are bought, the head and handle of the maul, which is used in 
 driving the wedges in splitting logs, can be made by the selector 
 from any tough wood, a i^-inch augur for boring the hole in the 
 head for the handle being"the only accessory tool required. The 
 augur may well be added to the outfit, as if dynamite is used in 
 clearing it will be ^gpj^ let, and the ac- 
 
 found necessary. Jjj^&ip companying illus- 
 
 Maul rings may r|jjT jljjjji tration shows how 
 
 be bought in ||jjjijj|||!| the rings, which 
 
 Perth for 2s. 3d. | are to prevent 
 
 per pair. The IP ""'III the head splitting, 
 
 maul is a large ' are put on. 
 
 two-handled mal- 
 
 Mattocks and grub hoes are used in clearing, for getting out 
 the earth from between the roots. Grub hoes are made without 
 the chopping arm, but mattocks, as shown in the illustration, are 
 most generally in use. Grub hoes cost in Perth about 43. each, 
 mattocks 43. 6d. each, and the handles is. each. A strip of leather 
 inserted between 
 the eye of the hoe 
 and the handle 
 will keep the head 
 
 tight, as the handle _ 
 
 is not wedged in like that of the axe. Grub hoes, mattocks, and 
 picks, when they have become blunt, and perhaps jagged, if the 
 ground is stoney, from continued use, are not ground, but " laid " ; 
 that is, they are put into the forge and given a new edge and 
 re-tempered. The cutting attachment may with advantage be 
 given a turn on the grindstone. 
 
 One long-handled pick, costing 45. 6d., handles is. each, will 
 be sufficient in the settler's outfit of tools. This is chiefly useful in 
 particularly stiff ground, where the surface roots are so thick as to 
 necessitate its use in preference to the grub hoe. 
 
 It will be found that if the handles of all the tools, so far 
 enumerated, are dipped for a few minutes in kerosene before they 
 are used, they will last much longer and be less liable to fracture. 
 This treatment toughens the wood considerably. It will have been 
 noticed, perhaps, that a strip of wood off a kerosene case that has 
 been saturated by the oil, will, if broken across the knee, not come 
 away in two clean parts, but will splinter longitudinally, and will re- 
 
212 
 
 quire much twisting and pulling before the parts are finally separ- 
 ated. The application of kerosene to the wooden parts of all farm 
 machinery that is much exposed to the weather has a most bene- 
 ficial effect in preserving it, and will repay the slight cost of 
 material and labour. 
 
 The spades and shovels required by the settler require no des- 
 cription, though care should be taken in selecting them. A spade 
 costs from 45. to 53. 6d., and shovels, long or short-handled, round- 
 mouthed or square, 33. 6d. each. A digging fork may well be 
 added to the outfit at a cost of 45., as it will be found useful in 
 clearing up and putting together the small scrub and under-ground 
 blackboys preparatory to burning them. 
 
 The cross-cut saw had better be of the old-fashioned peg-tooth 
 type, unless the settler has some knowledge of the lightning-tooth 
 saws, which are not easy for the amateur to sharpen. Anyone of 
 ordinary intelligence can put an edge on the old type of saw with a 
 flat file. Saws of this or the lightning kind may be had as fol- 
 lows : 4^ ft., us. 6d.; 5 ft., 12s.; 5^ ft., 135.; 6 ft., 145. 6d.; 6^ ft., 
 i6s. each. Flat files cost yd. each. 
 
 The tomahawk, with hammer-head attached, is the handiest of 
 tools, and no outfit is complete without it. Price, 33. The grind- 
 stone is an absolute necessity. Prices vary according to the size, 
 and may be quoted approximately as follows : 12 inch, 33. 9d. ; 
 14 inch, 45.; 1 6 inch, 45. 9d.; 18 inch, 6s.; 20 inch, 75.; 23 inch, 8s. ; 
 24 inch, us. each. Fittings, 45. per set. 
 
 There is no necessity to go in for an elaborate standard treadle 
 arrangement. A good strong spindle and handle or crank is all 
 that is required, and two stakes well set in the ground, or a stake 
 and a friendly tree or stump, will do for the stand. It is always 
 advisable to keep the grindstone covered. This little attention 
 adds years to its life and always makes it more satisfactory to use. 
 Care should be taken in grinding tools, particularly heavy ones like 
 axes, to keep an even surface on the stone, not to wear it away 
 unduly either on the one side or the other, or, as is more com- 
 monly done, in the centre. Should this occur, the stone can be set 
 right again by using a piece of square steel rod, pressing it firmly 
 and squarely against the grinding face of the stone, which is turned 
 meanwhile until the stone is ground true again. In mounting the 
 stone an almost everlasting lubricant can be secured it a piece of 
 bacon rind is laid fat side up in the sockets and under the Spindle. 
 It is surprising how long this simple and effective device will last, 
 even under heavy pressure, as in the case of windlasses used for 
 drawing water from wells. 
 
 A six foot octagonal steel crow-bar, which may be purchased 
 for 8s. 6d., and a few carpenter's tools, will complete the settler's 
 initial outfit. A claw hammer, three chisels, ^, J, and i^ inch, a 
 cold chisel, two saws, files for same, saw set, a biace and an assort- 
 ment of bits, an acl/e, a jack and a smoothing plane, if the slab hut 
 
2I 3 
 
 or more pretentious building is going up at once, may be had in 
 Perth for the following prices, and may be regarded as a sound 
 investment : Claw hammer, 2s. 6d.; handled chisels, ^ inch, iod., 
 | inch, ird., ij inch, is. 6d. each ; cast steel cold chisels, is. 6d. 
 each ; Sorby's hand saws, 26 inches, 55. each ; Disston's hand saws, 
 26 inches, 73. each ; hand saw files, 6d. each ; saw sets, 9d. each ; 
 improved brace, 4s. ftd. each ; ^ dozen bits, assorted, to i inch, 8s. 
 lot; ud/e, complete, with handle, 5*. 6d.; jack plane, 53. 6d.; 
 smoothing plane, 45. 6d.; Mathieson's screw augers, inch, is. 8d., 
 | inch, 2S. 3d., 2 inch, 53. 6d.; nails, any size from i^ inch to 6 inch, 
 2^d. per lb.; bolts and nuts, f inch, 4cl., \ inch, 3^d. , finch, 3 kl. per Ib. 
 Should the settler desire to add a blacksmith's and farrier's 
 outfit to his initial working plant, he can do so at the following 
 cost : Blacksmith's tools sledge hammer, 53. 6d. ; hand hammer, 
 2s. ; tongs, 2s. pair ; fiat file, 12 inches, is. 4d. each; half-round file, 
 12 inches, is. 4d. each; vice, any size, 363. per cwt.; anvils, any size, 
 293. per cwt.; bar iron, los. per cwt. Farrier's tools shoeing 
 hammer, 35. 6d. each; shoeing pincers, 2s. each ; shoeing knife, 
 is. 2d. each ; shoeing rasp, is. 90!. each ; buffer, is. 6d. ; pritchel, 
 is. 9d. Portable forges, similar to the one illustrated, the " Buffalo," 
 may be had for ^4 43. each, and blacksmith's bellows at from 455. 
 to Sos., according to size. 
 
 All the foregoing quotations for implements and tools have 
 been kindly supplied by W. Sandover & Co., of Perth and 
 Fremantle, and are subject to slight modifications governed by 
 market fluctuations. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 RING-BARKING AND ITS EFFECTS. 
 
 COMPILED FROM INFORMATION RECEIVED FROM SOCIETIES IN 
 VARIOUS DISTRICTS. 
 
 The object of ring-barking or sap-ringing is to kill the trees in 
 order that the pasture and water supply may be improved, and to 
 facilitate clearing in the future. The surface roots of ^rees absorb 
 nearly all the nutritive value from the soil, and grasses and other 
 herbage cannot possibly grow, while the leaves of some trees, the 
 salmon gum and sheoak, for instance, completely destroy the herbage 
 upon which they fall, and grasses cannot be got to grow until the 
 trees are dead. There are two methods of destroying the trees, one 
 by ring-barking, that is taking off a belt of bark about a foot in 
 width, and the other sap-ringing, that is cutting into the sap or 
 outer wood of the tree as well as taking off the bark. The illustra- 
 tion herewith shows the different methods, and on perusal of the 
 following pages it will be found which varieties of trees, in the 
 opinion of old colonists in various districts, should be ring-barked 
 and which sap-rung. The season for ring-barking or sap-ringing 
 varies according to locality ; but in all cases the trees should be 
 rung when the sap is up. To ring too early in the spring when the 
 sap is rising, means that but the top of the tree will be killed, but 
 the roots will retain their vigor and continue to throw up shoots and 
 suckers, which will be a continual annoyance to the selector, and 
 prove a greater evil than the tree itself. When the trees are in 
 bloom, it may be said, speaking generally, is quite time enough to 
 begin ring-barking, and at this season the work is expeditiously 
 carried out, as the bark strips most easily. In large paddocks, or in 
 paddocks of any kind where stock are to run, a few of the best trees 
 should always be spared to give shade. After the ring-barking has 
 been done, the fallen timber and logs should be cleared up so as to 
 give the grass every possible show, and it will be found economical 
 to keep the paddocks clear of suckers as fast as they grow, and 
 timber, as it falls when the trees are dead. 
 
 The following are the common and botanical names, as supplied 
 by the Conservator of Forests, of the trees found growing in the 
 South-west Land division of the colony : 
 Janah (Eucalyptus iinir^iiitiln, Smith). 
 Red gum (E. nilopliylla, R. Brown). 
 Flooded or "bine" gum (/,'. iiic^tict-irpc, Mueller). 
 White gum (/,'. mlnnai, Schauer). 
 
215 
 
 Peppermint (Adonis Jlcxwjsa, cle Canclolle). 
 
 Yate (E, cocnulii, la i3illardiere). 
 
 Sheoak (Ciisiiiiritui Frascndna, Miguel). 
 
 Papcrbai'k (Mclalcuca sp.) 
 
 York gum (E. lo.vophlcha, Bentham). 
 
 Jam (Actii'iii aciuuiiiala, Bentham). 
 
 Salmon gum (E. satttwnophloia, F. von Mueller). 
 
 Morell, or Parker's gum, or mallee of Victoria (E. oleosa, F. von 
 
 Mueller). 
 
 Mallet, or tinted gum, or gimlet wood (E. salubris, F. von Mueller). 
 Blackboy (Xanthorrhoea). 
 Wattle (Acacia leiopkylla, Bentham). 
 Wattle Badjong (A. microbotyra, Bentham). 
 Karri (E. diversicolor, F. von Mueller). 
 Spearwood (E. doraioxylon, F. von Mueller). 
 Tuart (E. gomphocephala, de Candolle). 
 Black-butt (E. patens, Bentham). 
 Zamia (Cyccis sp.) 
 
 Flooded gum (Eucalyptus nidii, Endlicher). 
 Flooded gum (Eucalyptus dccipens, Endlicher). 
 Morrell (Eucalyptus longicornis, Mueller). 
 Sandahvood (Santaluin cygnorum). 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of trees. Jarrah, red gum, flooded gum, banksia, white 
 gum, blue gum, peppermint, yate, black-butt. 
 
 Method and time of destruction. Great diversity of opinion 
 exists, apparently, both as to the method of killing the trees, 
 whether by ring-barking or sap-ringing, and also as to the period of 
 the year during which the work should be done. There is, however, 
 an unanimous opinion that jarrah, red gum, banksia, and black-butt, 
 should be destroyed by ring-barking, and yate, peppermint, and 
 flooded gum by sap ringing. In the case of blue gums, the advo- 
 cates of sapping and ring-barking are equally divided, while in the 
 case of white gums the advocates of ring-barking are in a large 
 majority. One correspondent does not enumerate the trees in his 
 locality (Bridgetown), but advises " all to sap when the trees are in 
 flower ; " while another correspondent would "advise all newcomers 
 to adopt ring-barking." 
 
 In regard to the time of the year when the ring-barking or 
 sapping should be done, there is a wide range of opinion. All the 
 months in the year are recommended, except April, May and June. 
 There is a slight preponderance of opinion in favor of ring-barking 
 the trees from October to February. One correspondent at Jayes 
 reports having killed jarrah and white gum in three days by ring- 
 barking in February. July to October appears to be the best period 
 for destroying the red gum. January, February, and March for the 
 
2l6 
 
 RINC-BARKINC 
 
 blue gum, white gum, flooded gum, peppermint, yate, and black-butt. 
 All, with one exception, agree that the banksia may be killed by 
 ring-barking at any period of the year, the dissentient being in 
 favor of the months of January, February and March. 
 
 Referring to jarrah, red gum, and black-butt, Mr. J. Forster 
 Johnston, of Leschenault, writes : " I have had over 1,000 acres 
 ring-barked on my Preston property in different months, varying 
 
 from March to Novem- 
 ber, -and found it all 
 effective." Referring to 
 the " Leschenault blue 
 gums" the same writer 
 says : " These trees I 
 rind very difficult to kill. 
 Some few will die right out 
 and others live for years." 
 The late Mr. Andrew 
 Muir, of Lake Muir, 
 writes : u I rind the best 
 time to ring-bark in our 
 district is in the months 
 of September, October, 
 and the early part of November, for jarrah, red gum and black-butt. 
 Yate requires ringing in January, as, if rung at that time, it will die 
 in a few days, and will not throw up suckers, which it will do if 
 rung in the winter months. . . . White gum you can ring at 
 any time when the bark strips freely ; in fact, it is no use ringing 
 any tree if it will not bark freely." 
 
 Mr. J. P. O. Wellard, of Mornington, writes : "In ring-barking 
 I have found the months named (January, February and March) 
 the best for my land. The trees take longer to die, but they do 
 not throw out any suckers. I think it will be found very hard to 
 lay down any hard and fast rules about ringing, as it will be found 
 not only to vary in different districts, but also in the same districts, 
 as to the best time of the year." 
 
 Hltirkhm's. Mr. Wellard continues : " What is almost as 
 nece^ai v as ringing the timber here in the hills, is having the 
 blackboys cut down. I have had some land chopped and iind the 
 stock much prefer the cleared land to that where the blackboys are 
 still growing in the same paddock. Price for chopping the black- 
 boys, about 2s. per acre." On this subject Mr. J. Forster Johnston 
 \vrites : " I have 100 acres at the Preston ... so thick with 
 blackboys that I have known a stockman to ride three times round 
 the block before he could rind a beast in it, so I determined to 
 have the blackb.ys chopped off. I let 50 acres to an old man at 
 2s. 6d. per acre . . . and on settling up he was so satisfied 
 that he walked back 40 miles to do the other 50 acres and had a 
 nice cheque to take. My neighbors laughed at me for doing this, 
 
2I 7 
 
 saying it was money thrown away, but I see now a good many of 
 them arc following my example. You can now see nearly all over 
 the paddock and there is a good swath of Knglish grasses growing 
 in a large portion of it." The Preston progress association reports 
 that " chopping down blackboys greatly improves the carrying 
 capabilities of the land." 
 
 /{//<(/ o/" I lie ifcslniclion <)/'/nrs upon the water supply uinl i^nn^l/i 
 ofiin />>( -s There is a decided unanimity of opinion that the killing 
 of the timber increases the water supply in all the localities from 
 which correspondents have replied, but apparently more so in 
 some localities than others. The increase in the water supply is 
 probably governed by the diversity of the timber and the geological 
 formation of the ground, and thus the slight difference in opinion 
 may be accounted for. With one exception, that of the Ferguson 
 farmer's association, who report that " the natural grasses die out" 
 after ring-barking, there is a decided unanimity of opinion that the 
 destruction of the timber is followed by a marked increase in the 
 stock carrying capacity of the land. So unanimous is this opinion 
 that one is led to believe that the exception referred to above has 
 been caused, perhaps not by ring-barking, but by the young and 
 finer grasses which the destruction of the timber had induced to 
 grow, being fed out by overstocking. In fern (bracken) country 
 ring-barking appears to be of doubtful benefit. Mr. Andrew Muir, 
 Lake Muir, writes : u From my own experience I should say that 
 ring-barking improves all lands where there are no ferns ; but in 
 fern country the killing of the timber stimulates the growth of the 
 ferns to such an extent that they completely choke out the grasses 
 in a few years." 
 
 Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping. The highest price paid 
 for ring-barking is, according to the returns, 2s. 6d. per acre, the 
 lowest, is. ; the average price per acre being is. 9|d. The highest 
 price for sap-ringing is given at 45. 6d. per acre, the lowest at 
 is. 6d., the average per acre being 2s. 9fd. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the 
 trees, In nearly all cases the returns show that the cost of clearing 
 the land ready for the plough is reduced to one-half after the timber 
 has been killed by ring-barking or sapping. The highest price for 
 clearing is returned by the Ferguson farmer's association at ^"20 
 to 25 per acre before ring-barking, and 10 to 12 per acre after 
 the timber is dead. Mr. Andrew Muir returns the cost of clearing 
 at ^15 per acre before and 12 per acre after ring-barking in his 
 district. Nearly all the other returns give the cost at 10 to 12 
 per acre before ring-barking, and $ to 7 after. Omitting the 
 two returns mentioned above, those of the Ferguson farmers' 
 association and Mr. Muir, the average cost of clearing over the 
 whole area covered by the returns is, before ring-barking, ^9 143. 
 per acre, after ring-barking, $ los. 6d. per acre. 
 
2l8 
 
 MURRAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of timber. Jarrah, red gum, blue gum, banksia, she- 
 oak, paper bark, wild pear tree. 
 
 Method and time of destruction. Jarrah, ringbarking. Red gum, 
 Mr. Richardson recommends ringbarking, while the Murray horti- 
 cultural society recommends sapping. Blue gum, sheoak, paper 
 bark, wild pear, sapping. Banksia, ring-barking. 
 
 August to December for all trees except banksia, which may be 
 rung at any time, and paper bark and wild pear, the best period for 
 ringing these being returned as doubtful. u The blue gum can be 
 killed at any time of the year within 24 hours, if it is properly 
 sapped," according to the Murray horticultural society's return. 
 The honorary secretary of this society in returning" the form 
 writes : " It is the general opinion here that ring-barking and 
 sapping tend to toughen the roots of the trees, making the trees 
 harder to pull up for some time after, so if you cannot afford to 
 wait for two or 'three years to allow the roots to rot, it is a better 
 plan to pull up the trees green, as the heavy tops help to bring them 
 down. But having waited the time mentioned, the clearing of the 
 land is made all the easier, as the trees come clown willingly." 
 
 Effect of the destruction of the trees upon the water supply and 
 growth of native grasses. There is a very decided opinion expressed 
 in both returns that the destruction of timber largely increases both 
 the water supply and feed. 
 
 Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping. From is. to 2s. for 
 ring-barking, according to the quantity of timber. From 2s. to 33. 
 for sapping. 
 
 Cost per acre for clearing before and after Hie destruction of the 
 trees. The returns show the cost of clearing to be reduced to one- 
 half after the timber is dead. Before ring-barking the cost is set 
 down by the Murray society at from 3 to $ per acre, and by Mr. 
 Richardson at from 4 to 15 per acre. After ring-barking, from 
 2 los. to ;8 per acre. 
 
 GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of trees. White gum, York gum, jarrah, jam, she- 
 oak, stinkwood, manna gum, Hooded gum, red gum, yate, salmon 
 gum, I 'inker's gum or morrell, mallet or fluted gum. 
 
 Method and lime of destruction. In three of the returns 
 sapping is recommended for all the trees mentioned above, with the 
 exception of the salmon gum, which one correspondent advises 
 should be ring-barked. York gum and flooded gum arc liable to 
 throw up suckers, it is said in another return. "Sap-ringing is 
 desirable in each case for immediate results, but ring-burking is 
 preferable if one can afford to wait the results for, say, four years." 
 Wagin-Arllinr fanners' alliance. The Katannin^ farmers' 
 association advocates destroying the white gum and jarrah, either 
 by ring-barking or burning around the butts ; and ring-barking jam, 
 
2I 9 
 
 sheoak, and manna gum, and sapping York and Hooded gums. 
 Stinkwood if cut clown, dies out. York gum and jam should be 
 rung when the sap is well up. The bark will then fall oft' every 
 limb, and the roots can be burnt right out. Flooded gum is very 
 difficult to kill. Firing round the trunk in the month of March 
 very often has the desired effect. Two correspondents state their 
 experience has shown that ring-barking and sapping may be carried 
 on all the year round with successful results if the work is properly 
 performed. The \Vagin-Arthur farmers* alliance advises that the 
 work should be done during December, January and February, 
 while the Katanning farmer's association advocates ring-barking, 
 or sapping, as the case may be, in September and October, for all 
 trees except manna gum, the period for this variety being extended 
 from September to March. Sheoak may be treated at any 
 time. 
 
 Effect of the destruction of timber on Hie water supply and growth 
 of grasses. All the correspondents are of the unanimous opinion 
 that the destruction of the timber improves very materially both the 
 water supply and the stock carrying capacity of the land. The 
 Katanning farmers' association, however, makes a reservation in 
 favour of the retention of jam trees "Jam is the only tree which 
 does not injure the grass to any extent. When all the trees are 
 destroyed, the sun has more power over the grasses, which quickly 
 dry up. In the middle of the summer the grass is often found to 
 be green and succulent under the shade of the jam trees when it is 
 dried up elsewhere. . . . Stock eat the leaves of the stinkwood 
 and young sheoaks." 
 
 Cost per acic of ring-barking or sapping. In two returns from 
 the Wagin district the cost of sapping is put down at is. less per 
 acre than that of ring-barking, the prices being 2s. to 33. per acre 
 respectively. In the other returns the cost of ring-barking is from 
 9d. to is. 6cl. per acre, and of sapping from is. o,d. to 2s. per acre. 
 The average cost per acre, taking all the returns into consideration, 
 for ring-barking is 2s. id., and sapping is. n^d. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and after destruction of the trees. 
 The \Vagin-Arthur farmers' alliance return puts the cost of clear- 
 ing, both before and after the destruction of the timber, at 3 IDS. 
 per acre. The other returns show that the cost of clearing after 
 the timber has been killed by ring-barking or sapping is reduced 
 fully one-half. The Broomehill agricultural society's return puts 
 the cost of clearing prior to ring-barking at 3 per acre, and after 
 the timber is dead, at i los. per acre. In the Katanning return 
 the figures are 3 and 2 per acre respectively. 
 
 YORK DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of trees. York gum, white gum, salmon gum, jam 
 blue bush, native cassia, manna gum, morrell gum, flooded gum, 
 sheoak. 
 
220 
 
 Method and time of destruction. The Beverley branch advises 
 ring-barking all the eucalypti, while the York branch advocates 
 sapping, without any reservation. The Greenhills progress associa- 
 tion advises that old York gum trees should be sap-ringed and that 
 the young ones should be ring-barked ; that white gum, salmon 
 gum, cassia and jam, should be sap-ringed, and that the blue bush 
 should be cut down. It will thus be seen there is a preponderance 
 of opinion in favor of sap-ringing. 
 
 From January to April is the opinion of the York and Beverley 
 branches for ring-barking or sapping all trees, while the Greenhills 
 association advises November to April for ring-barking York gum, 
 and -May to October for sapping this tree. November to May is 
 the period advised for destroying white gum and cassia, and " any 
 month " for the remaining trees. 
 
 Mr. W. Padbury filled in a return embracing his experience in 
 the Eastern districts, the Victoria Plains, and at Yatheroo. His 
 remarks may be inserted here. He says : " I would not cut 
 through the sap of trees on land I wanted to cultivate ; as when 
 the tree is dead and the tree-puller is put on to it, if it has been 
 cut through the sap, it is liable to break off and leave the stump in 
 the ground. I prefer using the tree-puller in clearing, to the 
 ordinary grubbing, as it pulls more roots clean out, and in plough- 
 ing afterwards you do not find so many obstructions. For red 
 gums, white gums, salmon gums, and York gums, I find sapping 
 the best, and the time I do it is as soon as the bark will run after 
 the first winter rains, until the sap goes down again. With Hooded 
 gums I find you must cut through the sap, as they will not die 
 otherwise. My experience is that trees that have been sap-ringed 
 do not generally throw out so many suckers. Some trees take 
 two or three years to die, according to the nature of the tree and 
 the land on which it grows. I think when the sap is well up, say 
 September, October, and November, is the best time for ring- 
 barking, as the tree dies more quickly if the work is done at this 
 time." 
 
 Effect of the destruction of the trees upon the water supply and 
 growth of native grasses. There is an unanimous opinion expressed 
 that a most marked increase takes place in both the water supply 
 and the number and vitality of the native grasses that spring up 
 after the trees have been destroyed. 
 
 Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping. From is. 3d. to 
 2s. 6d. per acre are the prices given for ring-barking, and is. yd. to 
 2s. 6d. for sapping. The York branch puts down the first cost 
 of sapping at is. 3d. to is. c;d. per acre, and second cost 4d. to 6d. 
 per acre for killing suckers. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of 'the 
 trees. The cost of clearing for the plough after the country has 
 been ring-barked for two to three years, is in all cases estimated 
 at half that of clearing prior to ring-barking. The average cost o 
 
221 
 
 clearing when the trees are green is, for the district, 2 155. per 
 acre, and half this sum per acre when the trees are dead. 
 
 NORTHAM DISTRICT. 
 
 raricties uf trees. York gum, jam, morrell, white gum, gimlet 
 wood, salmon gum, manna gum, wattles, sheoaks, flooded 
 gum. 
 
 Method and time of destruction. Mr. Gregory advises ringing 
 salmon and flooded gums, sheoak and jam, and sapping white and 
 York gums. This, in the main, is also the advice of the Irishtown 
 branch, while Mr. Throssell advises sapping all the trees except 
 the jam, which should be rung. Mr. Dempster furnishes an 
 interesting note on the destruction of the York gum. He writes : 
 " All trees or scrub can be killed at once by sap-ringing, but the 
 York gum throws out shoots for years after the top of the tree has 
 been killed, and the cost of keeping under the suckers is more 
 than that of ringing in the first instance. I have not yet met any 
 one who can speak positively as to the best time of the year for 
 ringing these trees. Occasionally, some die and give no further 
 trouble, but as a rule they will not under the present system. Kill- 
 ing the tree slowly by barking I think is the most effectual. I have 
 an idea, supported by facts, that goes to prove that by killing the 
 tree slowly the strength returns to the soil, for the best results I 
 have ever seen from ringing have been by the slow process." 
 
 Mr. Dempster and Mr. Throssell have apparently succeeded 
 in killing the other trees by either ring-barking or sapping all the 
 year round, but they both evidently incline to doing the work in 
 the summer. The former says : " I rather think that the summer 
 ring-barking is best for York gums and large trees of the same 
 class." Mr. Throssell writes : " I have not arrived at any con- 
 clusion, as I have succeeded in the matter of effectually killing 
 the gums by ring-barking during all the months of the year. I 
 prefer summer for either sapping or ring-barking. In the latter 
 the process is slower, but more effective." The Irishtown branch 
 advise that the work should be done between November and 
 March, while Mr. Gregory favors January and February for 
 York and \vhite gums, and September and October for the 
 others. 
 
 Eject of destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth 
 of native grasses. There is a decided consensus of opinion that the 
 destruction of timber improves both the water supply and the 
 growth of the native grasses. Mr. Throssell writes in reference to 
 the latter : " Especially is this noticeable on the salmon gum 
 country, which prior to killing the timber is devoid of herbage. 
 The effect is marvellous, as different species of grasses put in an 
 appearance the first winter after the timber has been ring-barked, 
 and grow luxuriantly. Owing to this ' discovery ' the salmon gum 
 country is coming into great favor." 
 
222 
 
 Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping. From is. 3d. to 
 is. Qd. for ring-barking, and is. 6d. to 2s. for sapping. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and ajter the destruction of the 
 trees. The highest price quoted for clearing before the timber has 
 been destroyed is ^3, and the lowest 2 per acre. The highest 
 quotations given for clearing after the timber is dead is 2 ios., 
 and the lowest i ios. per acre. The average per acre of the 
 returns is : before ring-barking, 2 145. ; after the timber is dead, 
 \ 175. 6d. Mr. Throssell writes : " Referring to the value of 
 killing timber as a preparatory measure to clearing for agriculture, 
 it requires to be explained that in setting down the saving at only 
 ios. per acre, I refer to landowners who let out their clearing 
 by contract at so much per acre. But for the farmer who thoroughly 
 ring-barks or kills off the timber some years before clearing, and 
 then clears his land with his own or monthly hired-labor under his 
 own supervision, the saving, I am confident, would be fully one-half." 
 
 TOODYAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of trees. White gum, jam, York gum, red gum. 
 
 Method and time of destruction. White gum, riri- barking ; 
 York gum, ring-barking or sapping ; jam, sapping ; red gum, not 
 stated. 
 
 White gum should be destroyed from September to October ; 
 York gum, February to March ; jam, at any time ; red gum, not 
 stated. The secretary adds in a note : " The branch is of an 
 opinion that the red gum should never be interfered with on the 
 pastoral lands, as these trees do not do any harm to the feed, and 
 are invaluable as shade." 
 
 Effect of the destruction of trees upon the water supply and the 
 growth of native grasses. The destruction of the timber has a most 
 beneficial effect in inci easing the water supply and the growth of 
 the native grasses. 
 
 Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping. is. to is. 6d. per acre 
 for either operation. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the 
 timber. Before, 3 ; after, 2 ios. to 2. 155. The secretary 
 writes as follows : " For agricultural purposes the branch is of 
 the opinion that grubbing when the timber is gresn is preferable 
 to killing the timber by ring-barking, or sapping before clearing. 
 The cost per acre of clearing after ring-barking is from 55. to ios. 
 less, but this is from two to three years after the ring-barking has 
 been done." 
 
 GERALDTON DISTRICT. 
 
 Varieties of trees. Wattles, York gum, jam, Hooded gum. 
 
 Method and time of destruction. Wattles, York gum, and jam, 
 by ring-barking ; flooded gum, by sapping. 
 
 November or December, when the sap is down, is returned as 
 the best time for destroying the trees. 
 
Effect of the destruction >>f trees upon the water supply and growth 
 of native grasses. The effect is very great upon the water supply. 
 Even within six months after ringing the supply gets stronger. The 
 grass grows thicker and is appreciated more by stock. 
 
 Cosi per acre of ring-barking or sapping. Ring-barking, about 
 53. per acre ; price for sapping not stated. 
 
 Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the 
 trees. Before ring-barking, ^5 per acre (wheat lands) ; after the 
 timber has been killed, ^3 per acre. 
 
 Note. Mr. M'Kenzie Grant writes : " Ring-barking, I find, 
 is only the beginning of clearing the land, as the saplings and 
 young shoots keep springing up and have to be grubbed out year 
 after year." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CLEARING; HOW TO DO IT, AND HOW NOT TO DO IT. 
 
 The removal of timber from virgin land preparatory to plough- 
 ing, is known in Australia as " grubbing and clearing." The cost of 
 cluing this work, of course, varies very greatly, as will have been 
 gathered from the earlier chapters which give the average price of 
 clearing in the various localities described. The chief factor in the 
 cost of clearing is the quantity of timber that has to be removed, 
 and there are also subsidiary causes which regulate the price at 
 which the work can be done, as, for instance, the nature of the soil, 
 the time of the year at which the work is carried on, the variety of 
 timber, the proximity to the labor market, and the mechanical aids 
 that may be employed. Taking all these things into consideration, 
 and speaking generally, the spring and early summer are the best 
 periods of the year in which to do this work. If the land is clay or 
 at all inclined to be stiff it will have been well soaked by the winter 
 rains, and be easier to remove from around the roots of the trees. 
 Land cleared in the spring and ploughed the same season, is less 
 prone to throw up suckers from the fragments of roots that are 
 bound to be left on the ground, no matter how carefully the work is 
 done, than land cleared or ploughed in the autumn or winter. 
 Another advantage of clearing in spring and early summer is that 
 the rains are less frequent and the timber has a better chance of 
 burning. Light sandy soil covered with banksia and other woods 
 that burn readily, may be cleared at any time of the year. The 
 new settler may think that anyone who has sufficient strength can 
 do grubbing and clearing as well as the next one. This is a great 
 mistake. One cannot exalt clearing into an art or a science, but 
 there is a knack in doing the work that, simple as it looks, requires 
 a good deal of practice before one can become master of it. So 
 much is this the case that if the inexperienced settler has the money 
 at his command, my advice to him is to get this most laborious work 
 done by contract. 
 
 If he has not, and is compelled to do the work himself, the 
 hints conveyed in the following notes may be of use to him. If I 
 now give in skeleton form the outline of a specification for clearing, 
 it will, I think, with a little explanation, convey to the mind of the 
 new settler the chief features of the work that has to be done, and 
 the proper way in which it should be performed. 
 
22 5 
 
 1. All trees to be grubbed completely round and out to a 
 depth of not less than 18 inches, and all roots to be run to the same 
 depth or until they can be broken by the hand. 
 
 2. All underground blackboys to be grubbed out below the 
 crown. 
 
 3. All zamia palms to be grubbed and completely removed from 
 the ground. 
 
 4. All scrub large enough to impede the progress of the plough, 
 or that cannot be completely turned in in ploughing, to be grubbed 
 out. 
 
 5. The timber and scrub, after having been grubbed, to be 
 burnt and the ashes spread as far as they can be cast. 
 
 6. All wood not absolutely required for burning the butts and 
 stumps of trees, to be left on the ground. 
 
 7. No holes to be tilled in until they have been examined by 
 
 or his agent ; when passed, to be filled in three 
 
 inches above the level of the surrounding ground. 
 
 8. The whole of the ground to be left ready for the plough, 
 and the contract to be completed in a workmanlike manner on or 
 before 
 
 9. If the contract is not completed on or before the date 
 
 above-mentioned a penalty of shillings per clay for every 
 
 day over the specified time, to be paid by the contractors, and 
 deducted from any money that may be due to them. 
 
 Such is the rough framework of a specification for a grubbing 
 and clearing contract. The first clause is self-explanatory. The 
 second and third clauses refer only to that part of the country where 
 zamia palms and underground blackboys are to be found. The 
 latter, if not grubbed well below the crown, that is, where the leaves 
 shoot from the bole, will continue to spring up perennially. 
 
 Clauses 4 and 5 need no explanation, unless it is to say that the 
 reason for having the ashes spread is that they are a most valuable 
 potash manure and should be made as much use of, and spread over 
 as large a surface of ground, as possible. Clause 6 is inserted at 
 discretion, If work is very plentiful and the settler has a large 
 area, it may be omitted ; but if the area is 100 acres or less, the 
 economy of firewood cannot begin too soon. It may appear to the 
 settler that there is plenty of wood for all the \vorld, and for ever ; 
 but even if there was, there is no sense in wasting it. There is no 
 sense in wasting anything, so far as my experience goes. But, as a 
 matter of fact, it does not take very long, if clearing is vigorously 
 pursued, to exhaust the wood supplies on a loo-acre farm ; for it 
 must be borne in mind that even with the most careful management 
 about 80 per cent, of what would otherwise be available for fire- 
 wood has to be used in burning the trunks and butts of trees that 
 cannot be utilised. 
 
 It is important that no holes should be filled in until they have 
 been examined for roots, and when they are filled in they should be 
 
226 
 
 heaped up a little in order to allow for the settling down of the 
 loose soil that must eventually take place. It is for the person 
 letting the contract to say whether he will supply tree pullers, 
 tools, explosives, and rations. As a rule, the contractors supply 
 themselves with all these things, and it is better, as it saves possible 
 complications, that they should. 
 
 Before going any further, I should like to impress upon the 
 minds of not only new settlers, but old settlers also, the desirable- 
 ness of having all contracts made in writing. Verbal agreements 
 frequently give rise to misunderstandings that might have been 
 avoided if ink and paper had been resorted to. The best of inten- 
 tions may exist on both sides at the time the verbal contract is 
 made, but it is a very difficult matter, in the first place, to get two 
 minds to completely grasp the same situation from exactly the same 
 aspect ; and it is, in the second place, an infinitely more difficult 
 matter to get these same two minds two months afterwards to look 
 back upon the situation as it then appeared, and again view it from 
 the same aspect. Memory is so apt to play us false ; black and 
 white, never. The risks to both sides of acting upon a verbal 
 agreement are infinitely greater than committing oneself to any 
 serious error in signing a written contract that has been mutually 
 agreed upon. 
 
 There is another matter I should like to mention here, and 
 that is, the aclvisableness of the settler, particularly the new comer, 
 keeping a daily record of his work. A diary may be had for a 
 shilling that will last for a year. It may be used as a day book, in 
 which the outgoings and incomings in cash and produce may be 
 
 Eut down until such time as they can be entered up in the proper 
 ooks. Every event of any importance should be noted, the tak- 
 ing-on of a new hand, paying him off, ploughing, sowing, harvest- 
 ing, burning off, increase in live stock, and the hundred and one 
 operations and events that make up the routine of twelve months 
 of farm life. It is surprising the many little mental worries and 
 anxieties, occasioned by the vagaries of memory, that this simple 
 record relieves. Between tea time and bed time there is always a 
 spare half hour, and a portion of it cannot be more profitably 
 expended than in recording, in black and white, the more import- 
 ant events of the day. 
 
 To return to cleat ing, and the new and inexperienced settler 
 who has, perforce, to undertake the work himself. 
 
 On clearing the lighter soils, which generally in this colony 
 mean lighter and easily removed timber, there is very little to be 
 said. Common sense in this, as in everything else, must be the 
 settler's best guide. It may be that it will be considered desirable 
 the first year to leave all the large timber standing in which case it 
 should be ring-barked at once, no matter what time of the year 
 and grub out only the small stuff, say 12 inches in diameter and 
 under. If the large trees are not too thick this can be done 
 
22 7 
 
 with advantage, and the ground can be ploughed "scrulted up" 
 
 is the better expression, as 
 it is hardly ploughing, tin 
 der the circumstances with 
 a stump-jump plough. This 
 plough, as the illustration 
 shows, and as its name im- 
 plies, is constructed in such 
 a manner as to permit 
 ground of the very rough- 
 est kind being worked. If 
 an obstacle which cannot 
 be cut through is encount- 
 ered by the share the movable beam is raised by the tractive force, 
 and, after the obstacle is passed, the share falls into the land again 
 and recommences work. The stump-jump plough is, however, an 
 expensive item a double-furrow costing about ^17, and a treble- 
 furrow ^"23 the small settler will be hardly able to afford, and 
 unless he can get the work done by contract, an ordinary single- 
 furrow plough will have to be called into requisition. Ploughing 
 only partially cleared land with a single-furrow rigid plough is a 
 most exhilarating, but not altogether satisfactory, operation, but still 
 it can be clone with a little care and without damaging the imple- 
 ment. If the land is to be cleared outright at once, which is by 
 far the best way, if time and means permit, the settler must gird up 
 his loins and make up his mind to tackle the job bravely. If a big 
 tree has to be got out it is no use playing round the roots. Dig the 
 
 THE 
 
 WRONG 
 WAY 
 
 soil away \vell round the tree, so that you have plenty of room to 
 
228 
 
 work. There is nothing gained by chopping off the roots close by 
 the trunk, for you must remember that every root has to be traced 
 until it is well out of the way of the plough that is to follow clear- 
 ing. Again, the tap root has to be got at, and this cannot be done 
 unless you give yourself ample room to work round and under the 
 tree. If the tree has plenty of top, when the main lateral roots are 
 cut in all probability it will fall ; but if there is little or no top, then 
 either the tap root will have to be cut, or the agency of lire will 
 have to be invoked. Don't be too ready with the fire stick. Grub 
 well round the tree to the full depth before you think of starting 
 the fire. Once you have started your fire, do not think of letting it 
 go out. Clearing is not eight-hours-a-day work. Last thing at 
 night and first thing in the morning the fires have to be gone round 
 and put together. A sapling from six to seven feet long is used as 
 a lever for putting the logs together whilst burning. 
 
 A second and more expeditious method of clearing is by 
 means of a tree-puller or " forest devil." Several of these machines, 
 both for horse and man power, have been invented and perfected 
 in this colony, and will be found satisfactory in every way. Where 
 clearing has to be done quickly and on a large scale, the tree-puller 
 is almost indispensable ; but on a small piece of land, and especially 
 when it is intended for vines or fruit frees, I am inclined to think 
 that the slight extra cost of clearing entirely by hand is money 
 saved in the long run. 
 
 A third method is by the use of explosives, and this I have 
 found both expeditious and profitable, especially on ring-barked 
 country where the timber is dead. I have always used dynamite in 
 preference to either pow r der or rackarock, the only other explosives 
 I have tried. It is not necessary to use sufficient explosive to blow 
 the tree clown, but merely to loosen the ground about the roots and 
 create a vent under the butt of the tree. When the timber is dead 
 a fire-stick will generally do the rest. A hole should be bored with 
 a two-inch auger, not in the butt of the tree, but immediately under 
 it, in the fork of the roots. From J Ib to ^ Ib. of dynamite will be 
 quite sufficient to shake up the roots and create a vent for the fire 
 under the largest tree. Last summer I had to have some ground 
 cleared. It was stiffish clay land, and the ground was very hard, and 
 I found a considerable saving in time, and consequently mrncy. 
 was effected by using a small quantity of dynamite, as I have 
 described, to loosen the ground round the trees. Dynamite- may be 
 had in 5-lb. packets, costing 8s. 9d.; detonators cost gd. per doz., 
 and fuse is. per coil. 
 
 At one time it was thought the royal road to clearing had 
 been found in the use of saltpetre and kerosene. I have tried the 
 following method myself, but must say have only found it to be 
 advantageous with timbers that will in any case burn readily. A 
 hole, eighteen inches deep, is bored with a i.j inch auger down the 
 centre of the stump after the tree has been felled. Into this hole 
 
22 9 
 
 two or more ounces of saltpetre are put, or it is filled up with 
 kerosene and plugged up. In line weather, in the spring, the plug 
 is removed and about a quarter of a pint of kerosene is put in if 
 the saltpetre has been used, or the hole is again filled up with the 
 oil if oil has been previously applied. This being set on fire, it is 
 said the stump will continue to burn away quietly until both stump 
 and roots are consumed. Personally, I am of opinion that a little 
 dynamite properly applied, or one of the other methods of clearing 
 mentioned in this chapter, are cheaper and more satisfactory in the 
 end. 
 
 There is a fourth method, which is certainly the most expe- 
 ditious, but it requires a large amount of capital and would only pay 
 where a large area of country had to be cleared. I refer to the use 
 of traction engines fitted with long wire ropes by means of which 
 the trees can be pulled down as they stand, without any preliminary 
 preparation, and then " snigged " up into rows eight or ten chains 
 apart, and there left for all time or to be burnt off at leisure. If 
 this process is followed there is nothing to do but to fill up the 
 holes and set the stump-jump plough to work. 
 
 Mr. James Biram, a Victorian farmer recently arrived in this 
 colony, writes as follows to the Secretary of the Bureau of Agricul- 
 ture : " I send you herewith particulars of a plan that has been 
 adopted in South Gippsland, Victoria, for the last seven or eight 
 years, of burning out or stoving trees or stumps, instead of grubbing. 
 The Gippsland timber required to be killed by ring-barking for two 
 or three years first, but I believe that in the north-eastern and 
 Goulburn Valley districts of Victoria, among the box timber, they 
 will burn out at any time, and this method has been in use for many 
 years there. Some of the timber in this colony might be like the 
 box and burn out at any time, while others might want to be killed ; 
 but I am sure it is worth trying. The method is as follows : 
 
 " Clear away all the earth from the stump and the surface roots 
 to a depth of about six inches. Pack small billets of wood alongside 
 and over the surface roots, and also pack billets all round the stump 
 for a height of about one foot or eighteen inches. Cover all the 
 billets with earth exactly in the same manner as for burning char- 
 coal, leaving a small vent-hole for the purpose of lighting a fire. 
 When the fire is fairly alight close the vent-hole. Go round the 
 fires once or twice a day with a light wooden rammer, and where- 
 ever the ground is loose or has burned hollow, press the earth close 
 again and keep it covered up. The success of the operation lies in 
 not allowing the fire to burn hollow, but in keeping the earth close to 
 the burning roots and stumps. In this manner the largest sized timber 
 may be burned out in from one to three weeks, and the roots will 
 be burned down quite clear of any plough or other farm implement. 
 After the burning, spread the ashes and earth again. The top part 
 of the stump that is above the banked up earth will burn through 
 before the stump is burned. It must be rolled aside and the earth 
 
2 3 
 
 closed over the place again. If standing trees are burned in this 
 way, care will have to be taken to keep stock away ; and also in 
 going about it, as the trees may fall unexpectedly, but it is found 
 cheaper and better to chop clown the trees and burn out the stump 
 than to grub the trees, besides the sour earth is not turned up as in 
 grubbing. The work is light. It takes very little time or trouble 
 to go round the fires to keep them burning, and one man can attend 
 to a great number as well as keep on lighting others. Before 
 leaving Victoria last March I was at the farm of Messrs. Murdie 
 Bros., well-known farmers near Warragul, who have some very 
 heavy timber on their land. They told me this was the best way 
 they had tried. An old man had taken a contract from them last 
 year to clear 50 acres of stumps. He had been working by himself 
 all the winter and had nearly finished, and it had cost them from 
 3 to ^4 per acre less than the old way. Other farmers about 
 there told me it \vas only half the cost of grubbing to stove the 
 stumps. I had some stumps cleared on my ow r n selection about 
 three years ago for 2 per acre that would have cost over ^4 per 
 acre to grub. " 
 
 BURNING OFF. 
 
 With some varieties ot trees it is much easier to get them 
 down than to get rid of them after they are down. This is particu- 
 larly the case when the timber has not been previously killed by 
 ring-barking. The usual method of getting rid of the timber is by 
 burning it, first cutting the smaller limbs up into convenient lengths 
 for handling with an axe or cross-cut saw. The larger limbs and 
 butts of the smaller trees should also be cut up and pulled up to the 
 largest trunks by horse power. The mistake is sometimes made by 
 those who have not done this work before, of stacking up all the 
 small timber on the trunks and setting fire to the whole lot at once. 
 This should not be done except in the case of trees that are dead, 
 and consequently dry, and that are known to burn freely. Burning 
 off is, at best, under the most favorable circumstances, a tedious 
 process, and though it may seem very slow work, it is quicker in 
 the long run to economise the smaller stuff and add a little to the 
 fires as needed. It occasionally happens, in spite of the greatest 
 economy, there are still butts unburnt, and which are too large to be 
 moved whole and which cannot be split by the wedge and maul. 
 When this occurs it has to be decided whether it is cheaper to haul 
 more timber to the spot or break up the butts by means of ex- 
 plosives. A plug or two of dynamite judiciously applied will do 
 more in the leu minutes the operation requires, than a man and a 
 team will do in a day. 
 
 Another way, which has been recommended to me, but which 
 I have not tried, of getting rid of the huge butts of red gums and 
 other trees that are full of sap and refuse to burn except under 
 the most intense heat, is to throw earth up to them and treat them 
 
2 3 I 
 
 in the same manner as if burning charcoal. In burning off, in fact, 
 in the whole operation of clearing for the plough, it should not be 
 forgotten that it is one hundred per cent, labor, and in order to 
 cheapen the process as much as possible, not cheap labor, which is 
 very often dear labor in the long run, but mechanical appliances 
 and every other available means should be employed to assist the 
 capable laborer in his work. In the rudimentary, but necessary, 
 work of clearing, brains should come into play as well as hands. 
 The foregoing remarks are not intended as a complete discourse on 
 the whole art of clearing, but merely to indicate to the newcomer 
 the several methods which may be followed with advantage. In 
 this, as in everything else, a little practical experience is of more 
 value than a whole library of theory. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 BURNING OFF. 
 
 THE BUSH FIRES ACT AND REGULATIONS. 
 
 It is very desirable to burn off scrub country occasionally in 
 order to sweeten and promote a more vigorous growth of succulent 
 feed. Fire is the great revivifying agent of the Australian bush. It 
 may seem very strange to those living in the colder latitudes of the 
 northern hemisphere, but a large number of seeds of indigenous 
 plants of Australia will not germinate until they have been subjected 
 to an intense heat. Nature has protected them with an outer 
 covering that is so hard that only fire will break it sufficiently to 
 permit the requisite moisture to gain admission to the seed and 
 induce germination. The end of summer or beginning of autumn, 
 before the rains set in, is the best time for burning, and it should 
 be done at night if possible, as it is so much easier to see where the 
 sparks fly. Every precaution should be taken to prevent the fire 
 getting away, and it is better to burn a strip round the fences first 
 in order to obviate this as far as possible. By the following extracts 
 from the " Bush Fires Act " it will be seen that regulations can be 
 made from time to time by the Governor in Executive Council, as 
 to what time burning off is permissible in certain districts. It will 
 also be noticed that burning off may .be done, under certain 
 conditions, at any time, provided adequate notice is given to 
 neighbours. 
 
 INTERPRETATION. 
 
 4. In this Act the following words shall have the meanings respectively assigned 
 to them, if not inconsistent with the context : 
 
 " Bush " shall mean and include grass, stubble, scrub, bushes, trees, and all 
 
 other vegetation. 
 u Prohibited times " shall mean the times of the year during which it shall 
 
 have been declared by the Governor in Council to be unlawful to set 
 
 fire to the bush within any district or part of the colony as hereinafter 
 
 mentioned. 
 " Occupier of land " shall include any person residing on the land and having 
 
 charge or control thereof, whether such person shall be the owner 
 
 or tenant, cr a bailiff, servant, caretaker, or other person residing and 
 
 having charge or control as aforesaid. 
 
 5. The Governor, with the advice of the Executive Council, may from time to 
 time, by notice published in the Government (nizetlc, declare the times of the year 
 during which it shall be unlawful within any district or part of the colony mentioned 
 in the said notice, to set fire to the bush within that district or part, and may from, 
 time to time revoke, vary, or amend such declarations by notice as aforesaid. 
 
2 33 
 
 l'I \ AI.TY FOR SETTING FIRE TO THE HUSH DURING PROHIBITED TIMES. 
 
 7. Every person who shall wilfully or negligently set fire to the bush within any 
 district or part of the colony during the prohibited time for that district or part, shall be 
 liable, on conviction thereof before any two or more justices of the peace, to a penalty 
 not exceeding $O. Provided that any lawful occupier of land may set fire to the 
 bush on the land in his occupation, if he shall have previously given to all occupiers of 
 the lands next adjacent to his said land, not less than seven days before he shall set 
 fire to the bush as aforesaid, a notice, in writing that he intends to set fire to the 
 bush on the land in his occupation on some day or days between the seventh day 
 and the fourteenth day after giving the said notice as aforesaid, and if he shall also 
 take all such precautions as shall prevent the fire from extending to any of the lands 
 adjacent, or from damaging the crops, grass, trees, houses, or buildings on any of the 
 lands adjacent. 
 
 SERVICE OF NOTICE. 
 
 8. The said notice may be in the form in the schedule to this Act, or in any 
 other form which shall clearly convey the information required by this Act, to be 
 given to the adjoining occupiers. Provided that notice shall be deemed to have been 
 duly given under this Act, if it shall have been either given or shown to the occupier 
 of the adjacent land, or if it shall have been left at his usual place of abode ; and 
 provided, further, that no notice as aforesaid shall be necessary in the case of lands 
 which are unoccupied. 
 
 PENALTY FOR SETTING FIRE TO BUSH WITHOUT NOTICE TO ADJACENT OCCUPIERS. 
 
 9. If any occupier of land shall wilfully set fire to the bush on the lands in his 
 occupation during any prohibited times, without having given notice to all the 
 occupiers of adjacent land as aforesaid, he shall be liable, on conviction thereof before 
 any two or more justices of the peace, to a penalty not exceeding .50, although such 
 fire shall not have extended to any of the adjacent lands and shall not have done any 
 damage as aforesaid. 
 
 SCHEDULE. 
 
 Take notice that I intend to set fire to the bush on my land situate at 
 on some day or days between the day of and the 
 
 day of 189 . 
 
 Signed 
 To Mr. 
 
 of Date. 
 
 Following are the dates, supplied by the resident magistrates of the respective 
 districts, between which it is permissible to burn off without giving notice : 
 
 York 1 
 
 Toodyay 
 
 MTrraT ' ' From March 2nd to Se P tember 3Oth 
 Vasse 
 
 Albany j 
 
 Geraldton From February i6th to October 3ist 
 
 KaSnning } From A P ril Ist to Au S ust 30th ' 
 
 Between -19 degrees 30 minutes N. latitude and Tropic of Capricorn, firing the 
 bush is prohibited the whole year. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FENCING. 
 
 VARIOUS KINDS OF FENCES, AND How TO ERECT THEM. 
 
 The new settler will find it is necessary to do a certain amount 
 of fencing as soon as his clearing is done. Whenever possible the 
 ploughing should be done before the fence is erected. There are 
 two reasons for this appearances, and protection of the fence 
 from fire. If the fence is put up before ploughing it will not be 
 possible to plough much closer to the fence than 18 inches, and if cul- 
 tivation is followed subsequently on the other side of the fence this 
 will mean that there is an unsightly strip of unbroken scrub ground 
 three feet wide, and the length of the fence, dividing two otherwise 
 neat and refreshing-looking cultivation paddocks. When the 
 ground along the fence line has not been broken it is much more 
 difficult to keep it free from undergrowth, and consequently danger 
 of the destruction of the fence by fire is greatly increased. In 
 boundary fencing, or in dividing off large paddocks intended for 
 grazing only, the line should be cleared to a w r idth of six feet of all 
 scrub, and trees or limbs overhanging the line should be felled and 
 removed by burning, or be pulled oft" before the fence is put up. 
 It is a great comfort to feel, in the hot summer months, when bush 
 fires are of daily occurrence, that the fences are clear of scrub and 
 combustible matter generally, and if a plough furrow, no matter 
 how rough or crooked, has been run in the spring on each side of 
 the fence, and as near to it as possible, so much greater is the 
 sense of security. 
 
 There are many styles of fencing in use in Australia, and as 
 many or more are the varieties of timber used for posts. The 
 choice of timber is not by any means restricted to two or three 
 varieties in this colony, but most of the fencing is either put 
 up with jarrah or jam posts, except in the nor'-west, where 
 iron standards are used, timber not being available. The 
 wood of the raspberry jam is practically indestructible, 
 and its strength is as surprising as its durability. Where 
 this timber is found growing nothing better can be used, but the 
 settler must make the best use of the timber readiest to his hand. 
 The jarrah tree is widely distributed over the south-west division, 
 and split posts of this timber are very desirable. There is, however, 
 jarrah and jarrah, and some discrimination is necessary ; for instance, 
 jarrah is found in some cases to rot off at the surface of the ground, 
 
235 
 
 and black-butt is preferred instead. White gum in some localities is 
 white ant-resistant, and is a most admirable timber for fencing, 
 while in other localities it is not worth putting in the ground. In 
 the selection of timber for fencing, the new settler will do well to 
 be guided by the experience of older settlers, and to have a good 
 look round and see what timber is chiefly used for fencing in the 
 locality. With the exception of jam, which is universally admitted to 
 be irreproachable, it is not possible to lay down any hard and fast 
 rule as to the use of various timbers in different localities. Exactly 
 why the one variety of timber should differ so much in quality in 
 different localities has not yet been satisfactorily determined. 
 
 The style of fence that is to be put up must be governed by the 
 passive work it is intended to perform. Before commencing the 
 erection of the fence the settler should decide whether it is to be a 
 permanent or only a temporary structure, and what class of stock it 
 is intended to keep in or keep out. If the fence is to be a 
 permanent one, only the very best of material should be used, and 
 the greatest pains should be taken to make the work a lasting one. 
 If the fence is only a temporary one it does not matter much what 
 the material is or how it is put up, so long as it performs the 
 functions it is intended to ; but in my experience it is a most 
 difficult matter to put up a temporary fence anyhow and make it do 
 its duty. It is easier, and cheaper in the end, to put it up well, 
 though it is only intended to be there for a year or two. 
 
 Boundary fencing to keep large stock in or out may be of two 
 wires only, the top wire and third wire from the top. If it is 
 intended to use barbed wire this may as well be run at once stapled 
 to the top of the posts. In this case the top plain wire may be 
 dispensed with. Time is saved in the long run if boring for all the 
 wires that are to be run in the future, five, six, or seven, as the case 
 may be, is done at once. The extra wires are then very quickly run 
 in case of emergency, or if sheep are suddenly introduced by a 
 neighbour. Black steel wire, it may be as well to say here, should 
 never be used in the coastal districts, as the sea air has a damaging 
 effect upon it. Galvanised wire is the best in all localities, and No. 
 8 is the size most generally used, though No. 10 is quite heavy 
 enough for short sub-divisional fences where only quiet stock are kept. 
 
 There is a very excellent, light, cheap, and yet serviceable 
 fence that is very largely used in the north-west, where timber is 
 scarce, for subdividing sheep runs. It is made with five or six wires, 
 with posts set half-a-chain apart, between the posts three or four 
 droppers are fastened to the wires with wedges. Its elasticity is 
 its strength. It is perfectly sheep-proof, and big stock seldom break 
 through it. It is a capital fence to use where a farm is in a state of 
 transition. It can be readily understood how quickly the fence can 
 be erected when it is said that there are only 160 holes to dig and 
 the same number of posts required for a mile. Any kind of timber 
 can be used for posts, and the stouter they are the better. The wire 
 

 of course can be used again in the permanent fence. The droppers 
 
 33 FT. 
 
 >rn 
 
 DROPPER FENCE. 
 
 for six wires can be obtained in the colony from W. D. Moore & 
 Co., Fremantle, for 6s. per doz. and the wedges to fasten them to 
 the wires for 30!. per Ib. 
 
 Having considered purely temporary fences, it may now be as 
 well to enumerate the different kinds of permanent fences that are 
 to be recommended and the methods of their erection. 
 
 They may be named as follows : Post and rails, post and top 
 rail and wire, posts and wire, posts and wire and wire netting. 
 Picket and other fancy fences do not call for any description here. 
 Slab and stake, chock and log, zig-zag, and other purely timber 
 fences, used to be common in the colony in the old days, prior 
 to the introduction of wire netting, and when labor was cheap 
 and timber plentiful, and though there are many surviving, 
 they are never put up now, unless under exceptional circumstances. 
 This may be generally said to be the age of metal, and post and all 
 rail fences are seldom used now except for stock yards and small 
 enclosures where a large number of horned stock are congregated. 
 These fences are costly in both labor and material, though most 
 satisfactory and enduring if properly put up with the right kind of 
 timber. The post and rail and wire fence is a fence, as the name 
 implies, with one top rail and all below that of wiie. This is an 
 excellent fence, but more expensive than the fence now in most 
 general use, the post and all wire. The wires may be five, six, 
 seven, or eight in number, but six wires are enough to keep in any 
 kind of stock that is at all domesticated, and if the cattle are wild 1 
 do not see that one or two extra wires would keep them from 
 breaking through. The accompanying illustration shows the end 
 panel of a six wire fence, with a barbed wire run on top of the 
 post. This I consider to be ;i maximum fence, in that it has all that 
 is required to keep in stock. The stock this fence would not keep 
 in, a brick wall would not. This fence would be almost equally 
 serviceable and less expensive if the second and third wires were 
 raised about three inches and the top plain wire dispensed with, 
 Barbed wire must in all cases be put either on the top of the posts 
 or inside one's own paddock. 
 
237 
 
The illustration (page 237) is drawn to scale, half an inch to the 
 foot, and shows how a fence should he erected, if properly put up. 
 The stay running diagonally from the corner post to the first post 
 is notched in the former at a point exactly two-thirds of the height 
 of the post from the ground. This post is shown to be 4 feet 
 6 inches out of the ground, and the notch to receive the stay is 
 cut at 3 feet above the level of the ground. If it is higher or lower 
 the post will, in soft ground, be pulled out more easily in straining. 
 Two kinds of handy bush strainers are also shown, the drum (A), 
 and the forked stick (B). The drawing makes these self- 
 explanatory. There are various kinds of patent strainers for strain- 
 ing against the posts, and for attaching to the wires in the panels. 
 We give an illustration of one of these Reid's " Titan " which 
 may be applied either way, but quite as much power can be 
 exerted w T ith either the drum or the forked stick, and they have 
 the merit of costing nothing. 
 
239 
 
 In straining wire expansion in the hot weather and contraction 
 in the cold must not be forgotten. Wire, if the " Titan " is used, 
 is more expeditiously tightened if the strainer is used on the wires 
 between the straining posts, and not up against the posts, as is 
 usual. Straining this way is less trying to the end posts, which 
 have to bear all the strain, and double the distance can be strained 
 at one operation. The illustration referred to above shows the 
 iron plug used for driving into the hole to hold the wire after it has 
 been strained by the ordinary bush strainers, and the key, for 
 twisting the loose end round the standing part of the wire, and 
 giving a secure and neat finish, is also illustrated. 
 
 The woodcut shows how to make a proper fencing-knot. 
 This the figure-of-eight knot will stand any amount of straining 
 (in fact, the greater the tension applied the tighter the knot), and 
 looks much neater than the double loop and twist one often sees. 
 
 I may conclude these brief notes on fencing with a specifica- 
 tion in blank, which may be of use to those who are able to get 
 the work clone by contract, as well as a guide to the less fortunate, 
 who have to do the work themselves : 
 
 Specification for a post and wire fence to be erected on the 
 (direction, N., S., E., or W.) lines at length about chains. 
 
 Line to be cleared throughout the entire length of all scrub 
 and over-hanging trees to a width of 6 feet. 
 
 Posts to be of split, and no post to be less than 6 feet 
 
 6 inches long, and 6 inches by 3 at the smaller end. 
 
 Posts to be 9 feet apart, and to be sunk 2 feet in the ground, 
 leaving 4 feet 6 inches out, and to be well rammed. 
 
 When rocks prevent sinking, posts to be strutted and stayed on 
 both sides, and weighed down with loose rocks. 
 
 Straining posts of to be not less than 7 feet 6 inches 
 
 long, and i foot in diameter at the smaller end, and set 3 feet in 
 the ground, and to be stayed to foot of next post, and wires to be 
 run through the stays. 
 
 Straining posts to be not more than ten chains apart, and at 
 the tops of rises and in the bottoms of depressions. 
 
 Gate posts to be same size as straining posts and to be set 
 feet apart in the clear. 
 
 Water gaps over creeks and gullies to be separate from and 
 independent of the fence, with a straining post on each side. 
 
 Posts to be bored with a half-inch bit to the following gauge : 
 first wire, inches from the ground ; second wire, ; 
 
 third wire, ; fourth, ; fifth, ; sixth, 
 
 A barbed wire to be strained and stapled along the tops of 
 the posts. 
 
 The contractor to provide all posts, wire and material. 
 
 The work to be finished in a proper manner and completed on 
 or before , under a penalty of los. per day for every 
 
 day over and above the specified time. 
 
240 
 
 Such is the specification of a fence, as shown in the drawing. 
 The terms can be altered at will to suit any class of fence. In post 
 and rail fencing the mortices should be six inches by two, and are 
 made by boring holes with a two-inch auger and taking out what is 
 left with a chisel. The rails should be split, and not less than six 
 inches by three, and any length that may be considered desirable. 
 Where wire-netting is used as a protection against dogs or ground 
 vermin, it should be trenched into the ground at least six inches, 
 being well stapled to the foot of the posts and drawn tight by a 
 plain wire woven through the meshes at the top. The life of wire- 
 netting is lengthened, especially where there is salt in the ground. 
 if that part of it w r hich is under ground is coated with gas tar. 
 This can be easily done by dipping the end of the coil before it is 
 unrolled in a drum of hot tar. Charring the ends of the posts 
 which will be in the ground adds to their durability and protects 
 them from the attacks of white ants. 
 
 When ground vermin only exist, wire netting trenched into 
 the ground six inches, with two top wires, will make an excellent 
 fence. But, where the festive opossum disports himself, fruit- 
 growers will have to take more elaborate measures to prevent the 
 intrusion of this most pestiferous and importunate rodent. In the 
 first place, all overhanging trees should be cleared from around 
 the boundaries. It is advisable to do this in any case, and a little 
 more money spent at the first in thoroughly clearing the line is 
 invariably a judicious investment. ' : 
 
 The accompanying diagram will indicate a fence which it 
 been suggested to me will prove 'possum proof. | 
 
 GROUND 
 
241 
 
 Wire netting, trenched in the ground to a depth of six 
 inches, is c.irric-d up the posts and curved over an iron bracket. 
 One or two top wires complete the fence. When the 'possum runs up 
 the post, he limls himself confronted by the curved wire netting. 
 So far as I know, this kind of fence has not been tested, and there 
 are several objections to it, though it has in theory much to recom- 
 mend it. It is expensive and would be easily damaged by stock, 
 and I am inclined to think its possible effectiveness might be 
 improved by substituting barbed wire on the curve for wire netting 
 and offering inducements at intervals for the 'possum to climb. The 
 'possum will always run up a stick set at an angle in preference to 
 a perpendicular post, and at intervals of a chain or so apart I would 
 place sloping sticks against the fencing posts leading nearly to the 
 top, and over the top of the post make with wire netting an alley 
 leading down on the other side into a trap into which the 'possum 
 must go or stay out of the orchard altogether. Perhaps some 
 enterprising orchardist who suffers from the depredations of 
 opossums may bz induced to try this kind of fence, and put these 
 suggestions to a practical test. 
 
 It is a difficult matter in putting on wire netting to stretch it so 
 as to take out the bagginess. Ordinarily this fencing is slack and 
 very untidy. It needs to be thoroughly stretched. To do this the 
 plan shown in ^^^ arranged on 
 
 the sketch fiU one side to 
 
 hold the roll 
 firmly and to 
 stretch each 
 section as it is 
 unrolled. A 
 
 sketch 
 may be used to 
 advantage. A 
 strip of board 
 has four or 
 hooks 
 
 more 
 
 pulley attached to the following post draws the netting tightly past 
 the preceding post, where it is secured firmly with staples and the 
 work advanced to the next post. 
 
 Gates are a most important feature in a fence, and where 
 paddocks have to be protected they are absolutely necessary. The 
 
2 4 2 
 
 foregoing is an illustration of a cheap and very satisfactory gate 
 which I have had in use now for some years : 
 
 The largest piece of timber in the gate is 6in. x iin., and there 
 are no mortices to \vork loose. The timber for a gate jarrah, 
 karri or any hard wood can be purchased at the mills for 8s., the 
 bolts for 35., and the strap hinges top i8in. x 2in., f iron, bottom 
 6in., and hooks cost 6s. the set ; total, 173. Any one who can use 
 a saw and a brace and bit can put a gate together and hang it in 
 two hours and a half. Putting the labor down at is. per hour, this 
 brings the total cost of the gate up to -fi, if you have to pay for 
 labor. Here are the quantities for a gate i2ft. x 4ft. 6in. high. 
 
 Two pieces, '7in. x iin. x 4ft. 6in., for hanging stile; four 
 pieces, 3in. x iin. x 4ft. 6in., two each for closing and 
 middle stile ; two pieces, 3in. x iin. x Qft., for diagonal 
 brace ; three pieces, 7ft. x iin. x i2ft, for rails ; one piece, 
 3in. x iin. x 5ft., for latch ; two pieces, 3in. x iin. x ift., 
 for packing top hinges. 
 
 Bolts. Two, 4^in. x ^in., one each top and bottom hinges ; 
 two, 4^in. x fin., for top hinges ; eighteen, 3^in. x fin., 
 for fastening stiles and braces. 
 
 Rails. Take the three boards 7in. x iin. x I2ft. and mark off 
 4in. at one end and 3in. at the other. Run a line and rip down 
 diagonally. This will give you six rails 4in. wide at one end, 
 tapering to 3in. at the other. Five rails will be wanted for the 
 gate. The mill will do the ripping for you if you like. This is the 
 only real work there is in the gate. Lay on the ground on chocks 
 sufficiently high to get your hand under so as to get the bolts in 
 one side of the hanging stile 7in. x iin. x 4ft. 6in., and 8ft. from 
 this and parallel to it the middle stile 3in. x iin. x 4ft. 6in., and 4t"t. 
 further on again the closing stile 3in. x iin. x 4ft. 6in. Whatever 
 the length of your gate, the middle stile should be two-thirds of 
 the whole length from the hanging stile. Lay on these pieces the 
 five rails any distance apart you like, only be sure and have the 4in. 
 ends all at the hanging stile and the saw cuts turned alternately. 
 This is most important, as herein lies all the strength of the gate. 
 When you have laid the rails on the top of them, place the other 
 hanging, middle and closing stile pieces ; get your brace and bit 
 and bolts, and bolt the whole lot together, putting in a jj-in. bolt at 
 each intersection, reserving the two J-in. bolts for the hinges. 
 When the gate is bolted together, turn it up on edge, square it, 
 tighten up all the bolts, and then put the braces on, one on each 
 side, running from the foot of the hanging stile to the top of the 
 middle stile. Bolt with f-in. bolts at each intersection. Then put 
 on your hinges and latch a sliding piece 5ft. long, with two chocks 
 on it to prevent it shooting too far, is as good as any hang your 
 gate, and the thing is done. A coat of Washington white- wash, 
 which is about a tenth the cost of paint, and very durable, and you 
 have in your gate " a thing of beauty and a joy for ever." 
 
243 
 
 Washington white-wash is so named from the fact that the 
 White House at Washington, the official residence of the President 
 of the United States, is coated with it. It is made as follows, and 
 if properly made will neither wash off nor rub off, and has all the 
 appearance of paint : Slake a bushel of quick-lime in a barrel, 
 covering with a bag while the lime is working ; melt lib. common 
 glue to a thin size ; make r^lb. ground rice into a thin paste with 
 boiling water ; mix up lib. of whiting as you would mustard. 
 When the lime is quite slaked, add the glue, whiting, and rice- 
 paste and a half-peck of common salt. Mix well and let stand for 
 48 hours, keeping covered. Thin down to consistency of ordinary 
 white-wash and apply hot. 
 
244 
 
 A GOOD " SWING " GATE. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Graham, J.P., of Fairneld, one of the oldest and 
 most enterprising squatters of the Eticup district, kindly for- 
 warded to the Journal in November last, plans and description 
 of a gate that he put up on his run some three years ago, and 
 which has been found of the greatest convenience and to work 
 well. To those who drive often alone, and, perhaps, young and 
 active horses, a gate of this kind which can be opened without 
 leaving the vehicle is a great boon, and may be the means of 
 saving a runaway, and consequently many pounds' worth of damage 
 and deterioration of horse flesh. The description given by Mr. 
 Graham, and the plan, make the construction of the gate very clear, 
 he has several of these gates in use on his property, and confidently 
 recommends them. Mr. Graham writes : 
 
 o 
 
245 
 
 In reply to your letter of the 27th ultimo, I beg to forward you 
 a description of the timber measurements, and mode of erecting 
 the " swing gate " as nearly as I can give it you from memory. 
 
 The original plan, sent you herewith, is drawn on a scale of a 
 i inch to i foot. The two posts are of white gum, i8ft. 6in. long, 
 about yin. in diameter at the smallest end, 3ft. 6in. of this is in the 
 ground, leaving i5it. out. Cut down into the top end of each post 
 a slot 3in. wide and 4ft. long. At 2ft. from the top rix the arms 
 that are to carry the levers. These arms are 4in. x 2in. karri, sup- 
 ported by struts of the same size, and are best dove-tailed into the 
 posts, driven in lightly, and nailed on the outside, so as to have a 
 clear surface, free of bolt-heads inside the slot. The struts can 
 also be notched into the posts and bolted through, the upper ends 
 checked into the arms on the outside, with a small f or 5-1 6th bolt, 
 with the head counter-sunk inside. Fit a cross-piece in between 
 the heads of the posts and bolt it through, leaving 18 inches 
 between the posts clear on the inside. Adze or hew down any 
 inequalities on the insides of the posts. Do all the fitting on the 
 ground, even to the levers mentioned later on. Number the pieces 
 and the places they belong to, then take them apart before 
 erecting. Sink the hole 3ft. 6m. deep, and level the bottom with a 
 spirit level, and if the posts are exactly the same length this will 
 save trouble afterwards. Erect the posts and put in the top cross- 
 piece, on which put a mark in the middle, that is, 9 inches from 
 each post, and drop a plumb line from this mark between the posts, 
 and see that they are 9 inches from the plumb line, then nil in and 
 ram well. 
 
 The levers should be saplings, white gum, or marlack, 21 feet 
 long, adzed down to 2\ inches one way only, unless they require 
 making lighter, but don't allow any spring in them if possible that 
 is, don't make them too light so that they will bend. It requires 
 pretty heavy levers to balance a large gate. Fit on the end of each 
 lever an iron plate with a hook see the design in diagram No. i- 
 to carry the lifting bars. Adjust the levers so that they work clear 
 of each other, and about 3 feet from the ends bore the holes 
 through them and the arms to carry a f or |-bolt. The lifting 
 bars are of f round iron, 7 feet long, with an eye at each end. 
 These bars should be short enough to keep the inner ends of the 
 levers well down when the gate is shut or at rest ; and when the 
 gate is half-way over, or at its highest point, the outer ends of the 
 levers should be high enough so as not to strike a person on horse- 
 back or in a carriage. 
 
 The gates are made of 3 x i karri, five rails, and loft. 6in. in 
 length, and 4ft. 6in. high, the heads or stiles and centre bar being 
 double and bolted together. The four parallel bars that guide the 
 gate should be 5in. wide, more especially the pair to which the 
 lifting bar is bolted. These guide bars are loosely bolted to four 
 stump posts 2 feet in the ground, as shown in the diagram (No. i). The 
 
2 4 6 
 
 position of the bolts carrying the lifting bars is a matter of adjust- 
 ment. About one-third of the whole length from the top gives a 
 good result ; if the gate is too heavy, move the bolt nearer the top. 
 
 Q 
 
 The bolts carrying the lifting bars should be Jin., with square necks 
 or heads, and as short as can be made so as not to turn or bend in 
 the holes, or chafe in passing between the posts. All bolts should 
 have a safety pin or key to prevent the nuts from working off. 
 
 To open the gate pull steadily on the rope at the end of the 
 lever, and when the gate is a little more than halt-way up give it a 
 jerk to pass it over the centre, or balancing point, when its own 
 weight will carry it down (No. 2). Shut the gate in the same way. To 
 
247 
 
 prevent the end of the gate being pushed in or strained by horses 
 or cattle pushing against it, put in two round posts for it to fall 
 between, say 9 inches apart. 
 
 The cost of this gate would be about 3 los. if the large posts 
 were handy. 
 
 FENCING MATERIALS. 
 BLACK AND GALVANIZED STEEL FENCING WIRE. 
 
 Per ton 
 
 C 
 
 * 
 
 WEIGHT REQUIRED PER MILE. 
 
 
 P 
 
 tu 
 
 
 Black 
 
 Galv. 
 
 O 
 
 51 
 
 i Wire 
 
 2 Wire 
 
 3 Wire 
 
 4 Wire 
 
 5 Wire 
 
 s. 
 
 s. 
 
 No. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 c. q. Ibs 
 
 c. q. Ibs. 
 
 c. q. Ibs. 
 
 c. q. Ibs 
 
 c. q. Ibs. 
 
 10 10 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 469 
 
 330 
 
 720 
 
 II I 
 
 15 o o 
 
 18 3 o 
 
 10 10 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 5*6 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 900 
 
 12 
 
 15 o o 
 
 10 15 
 
 12 10 
 
 9 
 
 727 
 
 2 I ig 
 
 4 3 10 
 
 7 I o 
 
 9 2 20 
 
 12 II 
 
 10 15 
 
 12 10 
 
 10 
 
 880 
 
 200 
 
 400 
 
 ^00 
 
 800 
 
 10 
 
 4-point thick set barbed fencing wire (448 yards per cwt.) 16 per ton. 
 
 WIRE NETTING, in rolls of 50 yards. 
 
 Mesh. Width ... ... 24in. 3oin. 36in. 48in. Coin. 72in. 
 
 liin. Price per yard ... 2^d. 3d. 3id. 4id. per yard 
 
 2in. ... ... 2d. 2id. 3d. 4d. 4^d. 5d. ,, 
 
 3in. lid. ifd. 2d. 3d. 3id. 4d. 
 
 Galvanised fencing staples 
 Reid's wire strainers 
 
 3$s. cwt. 
 2os. each. 
 
 Boring machines (post hole) complete with, Six bits each 
 
 lin., i^in., 2in.) 355. 
 Prices supplied by W. Sandover and Co. 
 
 fin., fin . 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 DRAINING. 
 
 THE NECESSITY OF IT, AND THE RESULTS. 
 
 In the coastal districts, where the rainfall is copious, it will be 
 found advisable to drain the clays and loams, and loams overlying 
 clays. The new settler should carefully note, during the first 
 winter, where the water lodges on his land, and mark these spots 
 for future draining. In districts where the rainfall is scanty, sur- 
 face drains, made in the winter with a plough, are generally 
 sufficient to carry off the surplus water, but even here deep drain- 
 age could be advantageously undertaken. Where the rainfall is 
 heavy and continuous a more elaborate scheme of under drainage 
 will have to be undertaken if the best results- are to be secured. In 
 laying our drains the first thing to be decided upon is the outfall. 
 This, I need hardly say, should be at the lowest point ; from this a 
 series of main and subsidiary drains should radiate, their depth and 
 proximity to each other being governed by the nature of the soil. 
 The following table from M'ConnelPs Agricultural Note Book (a 
 cheap and useful little book that every farmer should possess) gives 
 the width and depth of drainage according to the soil : 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Depth in 
 feet. 
 
 Distance 
 apart in feet. 
 
 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 Stiff clay 
 
 ... 
 
 2 6 
 
 15 
 
 Friable clay 
 
 ... 
 
 2 6 
 
 18 
 
 Soft clay 
 
 ... 
 
 2 9 
 
 21 
 
 Loamy clay 
 
 ... 
 
 3 o 
 
 21 
 
 Loam with gravel 
 
 3 3 
 
 27 
 
 Light loam 
 
 ... 
 
 3 o 
 
 33 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 ... 
 
 3 9 
 
 40 
 
 Light sand witli 
 
 gravel ... 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 Coarse gravelly 
 
 sand 
 
 4 6 
 
 60 
 
 The figures in the above table mean, for instance, that a drain 
 of 2 feet 6 inches deep in stiff clay will only take the surplus 
 water away from the soil for a distance of 7^ feet on each side of 
 it ; whereas in coarse gravelly sand the drain should, at a depth of 
 4 feet 6 inches, make itself apparent on the ground 30 feet away 
 from it. 
 
249 
 
 Drains may be made in various ways, but it must be borne in 
 mind that no drain should be of less depth than will allow the 
 deepest culture without injury to itself. Where " blackboys " 
 (Xanthoreas] are plentiful, these may be used, and will last for a 
 
 great number of years. A trench is dug to the required depth, 
 sufficiently wide to allow of two blackboy trunks being laid side by 
 side, the scales facing the way the water runs, with a few inches 
 of space between them, a third trunk is then placed on the top, as 
 shown in the illustration, and the trench tilled in, and the earth 
 well trodden down by \valking a heavy horse up and down it until 
 well solidified. 
 
 A box drain may be made of slabs, split or sawn, or any waste 
 timber of any kind^ the two sides and top only being required, 
 unless the fall is very great, when it is advisable to have the bottom 
 in as well. Rubble drains, where stone is available, are cheaply 
 made, and very effective, the rubble being laid in the trench, as 
 shown in the illustration. 
 
 Tile drains are really the best, and though expensive, and not 
 within the reach of everyone, are cheaper in the end, as, if care- 
 fully laid, their life should be at least half a century. 
 
 The best shape for tiles is an oval, or elliptical bore, with one 
 or two flat outside bottoms. They should be made of well-ground 
 clay, well burnt, with not too much sand in their composition, 
 straight, smooth, and free from ragged ends. 
 
 In making surface drains attention should be paid to the 
 character of the soil, in order to prevent scouring or the washing 
 away of the sides, as much as possible. The fall can be made 
 greater in stiff soils without this occurring, than in light soils. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from draining may be summed 
 up as folio ,vs : Soils sweeten much more rapidly, and are con- 
 sequently sooner ready to throw a good crop ; they are more easily 
 and sooner \vorked ; lime and manures act better ; seed time and 
 
250 
 
 harvest are earlier, and larger and better crops result ; good natural 
 grasses spring up, and the herbage is more nutritous ; noxious 
 weeds and insects are kept in subjection, and the health of live 
 stock is improved. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE FARM WATER SUPPLY. 
 TANKS, DAMS, AND WELLS. 
 
 If the new settler has not been sufficiently fortunate to locate 
 himself where there is a permanent supply of pure fresh water, one 
 of his first duties will be to provide this, both for himself and his 
 stock. Soaks are not infrequently found, and, if opened out, may 
 provide sufficient for moderate needs, and, in the south-west, springs 
 capable of affording a domestic supply are not uncommon. Though 
 these may do for the time being, there is nothing like having a 
 permanent and plenteous supply of water, and this must either be 
 obtained from wells, tanks, or dams, or from all three combined. If 
 it is decided to put down a well, unless the settler has some 
 practical knowledge of what he is about to undertake, he had much 
 better have the work done by contract by an experienced well- 
 sinker, either by the day or by the foot. It is not an easy matter 
 for an amateur to put down, and brick up and finish off a well 
 properly, especially where quicksand or a liberal supply of water is 
 struck and rushes into the well freely. In the sandy country along 
 the coast, water is invariably struck at very shallow depths, and 
 these wells require no skill to put down. They may be slabbed up 
 to prevent the sides washing in, and the work is quickly and 
 effectively done by anyone with a little common sense. When the 
 roofs of the house and outbuildings are of iron, either galvanised 
 iron tanks, or underground or overground brick tanks should be 
 provided to conserve the rain water. Even with an adequate 
 supply of well water it is always advisable to have a tank or two of 
 rainwater in reserve. It is not unusual for wells to become con- 
 taminated, either by the subterraneous springs that fetid them 
 washing out an alkali pocket in their course into the well, or by 
 drainage of impurities from the surface. One cannot be too careful 
 about the water one drinks, and every precaution should be taken 
 to ensure a plenteous supply of pure water for this purpose. 
 
 Overground brick tanks are in every way preferable to under- 
 ground ones. They are as cheap, or cheaper, to construct, they are 
 less liable to contamination, they are more easily cleaned, and the 
 water is more readily drawn from them, and if a leak should occur 
 it is more easily detected, and more quickly stopped. 
 
 Water for stock may be conserved either by dams built across 
 the bed of a stream, or in tanks excavated in the ground. Wells 
 mean lifting the w r ater, and this is a laborious and costly process 
 which should be avoided if possible, if many head of stock are kept. 
 
252 
 
 Dams of sufficient strength to impound a considerable quantity 
 of water may be made of the rudest material, provided there is 
 sufficient of it to withstand the lateral pressure. Two walls of rock, 
 with clay well rammed down, or two rows of piles with clay in 
 between, may be made to serve. In this kind of work horse labor 
 should be used as much as possible, and if the stuff on the sides of 
 the creek is suitable, the plough and scoop may be brought into 
 requisition. If the packing between the walls has to be carted, the 
 walls should be far enough apart to allow a cart to be driven right 
 through, so that the load may be dumped into its place at once, 
 without any shovelling. The passing of subsequent loads over this 
 
 all helps to solidify the whole 
 mass, and when it is com- 
 pleted with a little topping up 
 and some gravel, if available, 
 the top of the dam makes an 
 excellent and dry crossing- 
 place over the creek. The 
 illustration shows a handy 
 little scoop, costing about 
 ;4, that will be found very 
 useful, not only for dam 
 making and tank sinking, but for other purposes on the farm. 
 
 Before excavating for a tank, unless the farmer is well up in 
 the business, it is desirable to put clown one or two trial holes to the 
 depth the tank is to be sunk, in order to see whether the soil is good 
 holding ground or not, or whether there is any indication of a rise 
 of salt water. I have known one or two instances where, at a 
 depth of about eight or nine feet, saline springs have been struck, 
 and completely ruined the tank. . This, of course, is of rare occur- 
 rence, and I only mention it to put it on record. 
 
 From surface indications the experienced eye can easily locate 
 good holding ground, but the new comer \vill be wise to put down 
 a trial hole or two first. The excavation of a tank is a very simple 
 matter, and in ordinary *&e*>^ finished off with a pick 
 
 ground may be done very |^l ancl sllovcl wllcn lnc ex ' 
 
 quickly with a plough and jff cavation is completed. If 
 
 scoop. The tank is first /'jj there is any doubt about 
 
 marked off arid the timber 
 cleared away, the surface 
 is then ploughed ; this is 
 scooped away, and then 
 another layer is ploughed 
 up and scooped away, 
 and so on until the re- 
 quired depth has been 
 reached. The sides are 
 
 the holding capacity of 
 the ground, it is a very 
 good plan to puddle the 
 bottom by driving a flock 
 of sheep into it after the 
 first shower. The pressure 
 of sheep's feet has the 
 effect of rani in ing down 
 and completely solidifying 
 
 the soil at the bottom of tank and rendering it impervious to moisture. 
 
253 
 
 When more than one paddock has to be watered, the tank 
 should be placed in the centre, where the fences intersect each 
 other, so that the stock in all the paddocks can have access to it. It is 
 not a good plan to leave the whole of the tank open to stock. In 
 the hot weather they are liable to get into the water to escape the 
 
 flies and the heat, and spoil the water. 
 With a little ingenuity approaches, 
 which will permit drinking, but not 
 bathing, can be fenced off. It is need- 
 less to say that the tank should be 
 excavated in the lowest place in the 
 paddock, so that the catchment area 
 should be as large as possible where 
 the rainfall is light. In the autumn, 
 before the rains are expected, the area 
 for some distance round the dam 
 should be thoroughly cleaned up, the 
 dung and other things, likely to wash 
 into the dam and pollute the water, 
 being carefully removed. Plough fur- 
 rows should then be run leading into 
 the dam, so that every drop of rain 
 that falls has a fair chance of finding 
 its way into the reservoir provided 
 for it. 
 
 There are various mechanical appli- 
 ances for lifting water, and w r hen some- 
 thing better than hand power is 
 required, a wind-mill will be found, 
 perhaps, as satisfactory as anything. 
 The names of the various kinds of 
 wind-mills is legion, and all have some- 
 thing to recommend them. They are 
 not expensive, and one with an angle 
 iron stand and pump complete can 
 be bought for somewhere about ^40, 
 or, perhaps less. Two pumps are 
 illustrated in this chapter. The small 
 one is made in several sizes, from 
 2^in. bore up to 3^in., the lesser bore 
 discharging i 3~5ths gallons of water 
 per minute, and the larger one 4! 
 gallons. They cost from 143. to i 55., 
 according to size. The large illustra- 
 tion shows a " Douglas Force Pump," 
 suitable for drawing water from w r ells or cisterns and forcing it up 
 to any height required. These pumps may be worked either by 
 hand, wind, horse, water, steam, or any other power, and are bored 
 
254 
 
 from 2|in. to 5^in., and cost complete from 3 to ^5. When 
 there is the slightest suspicion of alkali in the water, care should be 
 taken to have a brass-lined pump, brass not being subject to 
 corrosion. Where running water is available as a motive power, 
 rams may be used for elevating the water to a moderate height. 
 These are comparatively inexpensive appliances, and are always 
 at work so long as the water runs, but only a fraction of the water 
 that passes through them is elevated. 
 
 CAPACITIES OF WINDMILLS AND RESERVOIRS. 
 
 C/3 
 
 -2 
 
 o 
 
 -f 
 
 ^ X 
 
 
 
 _> 
 
 Amount of land Size of reservoir 
 
 s 
 
 i's' 
 
 *. 
 
 S. 3 
 
 ~* ^ 
 
 s 
 
 o" ^ 
 c o 
 
 that can be 
 
 capable of holding 
 
 a 
 
 o rt_ 
 
 S" 
 
 r ~ 
 
 P ^ 
 
 ^ - 
 
 ** 3 
 
 
 covered one 
 
 water for twenty- 
 
 g 
 
 
 2, 
 
 S- ~ 
 
 
 
 " J ~ 
 
 foot deep by 
 
 four hours contin- 
 
 
 ^' o 
 
 ^ 
 
 w ~> 
 
 L'% 
 
 05 S, 
 
 - S, 
 
 mills working 
 
 uous pumping on 
 
 r- 
 
 "*> 
 
 <i. 
 
 5 
 
 ~- S: 
 ^ , ~ 
 
 ^. ^ 
 
 "2 < 
 
 for 300 days in 
 
 estimate given. 
 
 5' 
 
 ~r. 2 
 
 - 
 
 : r: 
 
 
 c" _ 
 
 = ~ 
 
 the year at the 
 
 Reservoir 4 feet 
 
 ?T 
 
 sj 
 
 5' 
 
 CA 
 
 * 
 
 "^ '-. 
 
 M ^ 
 
 rate of fifteen 
 
 deep ; banks 16 
 
 S- 
 
 
 nP 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3* 
 
 hours per day. 
 
 feet ; base 5 feet 
 
 : 
 
 i *? 
 
 ~ 
 
 ; % 
 
 : ? 
 
 : n 
 
 -^ 
 
 Acres covered 
 
 high; interior size. 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 J i 
 
 3,660 
 
 87,840 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 5o 
 
 10 
 
 J i 
 
 2,580 
 
 6l,92O 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 
 5. 
 
 1,320 
 
 31,680 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 3o 
 
 12 
 
 4i 
 
 7o co 
 
 i8o,coo 
 
 103 acres. 
 
 90 by 75 feet. 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 5o 
 
 75 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 i- 
 
 
 6,300 
 2,700 
 
 151,200 
 64,800 
 
 8?) acres. 
 37 acres. 
 
 90 by 60 feet. 
 60 by 40 feet. 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 I2 5 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1,320 
 
 31,680 
 
 1 8 acres. 
 
 50 by 30 feet. 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 3o 
 
 14 
 
 6 : 
 
 
 10,620 
 
 254,880 
 
 146 acres. 
 
 1 25 by 80 feet. 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 5o 
 
 '4 
 
 4] 
 
 
 7,260 
 
 174,240 
 
 100 acres. 
 
 90 by 75 feet. 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 '4 
 
 
 
 4,620 
 
 100,880 
 
 63 acres. 
 
 75 by 50 feet. 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 1*5 
 
 '4 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 2,940 
 
 71,560 
 
 40 acres. 
 
 65 by 40 feet. 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 J 
 
 '4 
 
 i 
 
 1, 680 
 
 40,320 
 
 23 acres. 
 
 50 by 30 feet. 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 20o 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 1,700 
 
 47,680 
 
 25 acres. 
 
 50 by 35 feet. 
 
 Extra reservoir required t< re-serve overflow after 24 hours pumping should be 
 of one and two-acre sixes, holding from <S to lo-acre feet of water. 
 
 Large reservoirs of OIK- and two-acre si/ >. s feet deep, banks 9 feet high, 
 base, 45 feet. A square acre is joi; feet on each side. A two-acre reservoir would 
 be 209 x 418 feet. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE FARM LABORER. 
 
 HIKING, WAGES, RATIONS, AND THE MASTERS AND SERVANT'S ACT. 
 
 The really capable farm laborer is not easy to procure in this 
 colony. The attractions offered by the goldfields are greater than 
 those of the farm, and the consequence is that most of the labor 
 that by right of training belongs to the rural districts, finds its way 
 to the fields. The -wages paid on the fields are higher than those 
 the farmer can afford to offer, though when the extra cost of living 
 is taken into consideration, the increase is more apparent than real. 
 The majority of men who are now working on the farms is made 
 up chiefly of those who have been to the goldfields and have come 
 back sadder and wiser, or of those who have not been through this 
 experience, and are working in the rural districts until they can save 
 enough money to take them eastward. The average colonial farm 
 laborer is undoubtedly below the average of his English compeer ; 
 and there is an opening for a good class of farm hand. The farm 
 laborer of the present day is not the Hodge of a century ago. 
 Agronomic science has developed, and in a lesser ratio he has 
 developed \vith it. The man \vith brains in the colonies finds so 
 many avenues of more congenial employment open to him, that he 
 is seldom found drudging on a farm as a laborer. If he is, it is 
 from causes which need not be mentioned. Again, the land laws of 
 the colony are so liberal that anyone who has an inclination to 
 follow rural pursuits may become the owner of his own farm. 
 
 Farm hands are usually hired by the month, and the rate'of 
 pay varies from ^3 to ^5, with board and lodging, the lower rate 
 being for the laborer pure and simple, and the higher for the team- 
 sters and ploughmen. It costs about IDS. per week to keep a man. 
 The usual bare ration is 10 Ibs. flour, 12 Ibs. meat, 2 Ibs. sugar, and 
 J Ib. tea per man per week. Butter or jam are frequently added. 
 
 There is a labor branch in connection with the Bureau of 
 Agriculture, and farmers requiring hands, or men requiring work in 
 the country, can register their names at the offices of the Bureau. 
 
 The following extracts from the " Masters and Servant's Act, 
 1892," are of interest to both the employers of labor and the 
 employed : 
 
256 
 
 (4-) Whenever the employer or employed shall neglect or refuse to fulfil any 
 contract of service, or the employed shall neglect or refuse to enter upon or 
 commence his service according to the contract, or shall absent himself from his 
 service, or whenever any dispute, question, or difference shall arise as to (he rights 
 or liabilities of either of the parties, or touching any misusage, misconduct, ill- 
 treatment, or injury to the person or property of either of the parties under any 
 contract or service, or touching the loss or destruction of such property, the party 
 feeling aggrieved may lay an information or complaint in writing before a justice 
 of the peace, setting forth the ground of complaint, and the amount of wages, 
 compensation, damage, or other remedy claimed for the breach or non-perform- 
 ance of such contract, or for any misusage, misconduct, illtreatment, or injury to 
 the person or property of the person complaining, or for the loss or destru> 
 such property, and upon such information or complaint being laid, the justice 
 taking the same shall issue, or cause to be issued, a summons to the party so com- 
 plained against, setting forth the grounds of complaint, and the amount claimed 
 for wages, compensation, damage, or other remedy as set forth in the said infor- 
 mation or complaint, and requiring such party to appear at the time and place 
 appointed in such summons, before any two or more justices of the peace, to 
 answer the matter of the information or complaint, so that the same may be then 
 and there heard and determined. 
 
 (7.) Upon the hearing of any information or complaint under the provisions 
 of this act, the justices hearing the same, after due examination, and upon proof of 
 the matter of such information or complaint, by an order in writing under their 
 hands, in their discretion, as the justice of the case may require, shall either make 
 an abatement of the whole or any part of the wages or other remuneration then 
 already due to the employed, or shall direct the fultiment of the contract of service 
 with a direction to the party complained against to find forthwith good and 
 sufficient security by recognisance or bond, with or without sureties, to the satis- 
 faction of a justice for the fulfilment of such contract, or shall annul the contract, 
 discharging the parties from the same and apportioning the amount of wages or 
 remuneration due up to completed period of such contract ; or where no amount 
 of compensation or damage can he assessed, or where pecuniary compensation 
 will not, in the opinion of the justices, meet the circumstances of the case, shall 
 impose a tine upon the party complained against, not exceeding in amount the sum 
 of twenty pounds, or shall assess and determine the amount of compensation or 
 damage together with the costs to be made to the party complaining, inclusive of 
 the amount of any wages or remunei ation abated, and shall direct the same to be 
 paid accordingly. 
 
 (8.) If the order shall direct the fulfilment of the contract and shall direct the 
 parly complained against to find good and sufficient security as aforesaid, and the 
 party complained against shall neglect or refuse to comply with such order, a 
 justice may, if he shall think tit, by warrant under his hand, commit such party to 
 any gaol, there to be confined and kept until he shall so find security ; but ncver- 
 
 <<> that the term of imprisonment, whether under one or several su 
 committals, shall not exceed in the whole three months, provided, always, that the 
 hearing the information or complaint as aforesaid may. if they think lit, 
 nd deli ! mil ic' the amount of wages, compensation, or damage' to be paid to 
 "ly complaining, and direct the same 1o be paid, whether the contract is 
 ordered by them to be annulled or not ; or, in addition to the annulling of the 
 contrat I of service and discharge of the paitics from ihe same, may. if they think 
 tit, impose a line ai hereinbefore authorised, provided always, that no apprentice- 
 ship indenti;: iiic-nt ^liail be annulled except upon proof of illtreatment of 
 
 the ,i| prentice by the maMcr. or incompctency on the part of the master to 
 teai h such appi i -mice, <>r willul neglect BOtoteacfl such apprentice, or incorrigible 
 misconduct on the part of the apprentice, provided, also, that the- justices if they 
 rescind Or annul any agreement or indenture of apprenticeship may, if they think 
 fit, order the whole or any part of the premium paid on the binding of the 
 
 apprentice to be repaid to the person or personi paying the same provided, also, 
 
 lhat nothing herein contained shall authorise the justices to adjudicate where the 
 
 
 
-'57 
 
 amount claimed exceeds fifty pounds, or to make an order for the payment of 
 any sum exceeding fifty pounds (exclusive of the costs incurred in the case), or to 
 require security to an amount exceeding fifty pounds from any defendant or his 
 surety or sureties. 
 
 (j O Where on the hearing of an information or complaint under this act it 
 appeal's to the justices that an injury inflicted on the person or property of th 
 party complaining, or the misconduct or illtreatment complained of has been of an 
 aggravated character, and that such injury, misconduct, or illtreatment has not 
 arisen or been committed in the h^na-i'idc exercise of a legal right existing, or hona- 
 //(/( and reasonably supposed to exist, and further that any pecuniary compensation 
 or other remedy by this act provided will not meet the circumstances of the case, 
 then the justices may, by warrant, commit the parly complained against to gaol, 
 there to be (in the discretion of the justices) imprisoned, with or without hard 
 labor, for any term not exceeding three months. 
 
 (14.) When any washes or money due for work shall be paid to an employee 
 by any cheque, draft, order, or note in writing upon any bank or any person, and 
 shall be dishonored, no employee shall thereby be deprived of any remedy given 
 to him by this act for the recovery of his wages, but every such person shall be 
 entitled to recover such reasonable damages as he may have sustained in 
 consequence of the dish >nor of such cheque, draft, order, or note, and such 
 damages shall be recoverable as wages. 
 
 (15.) When any contract of service shall have been made by, or any work 
 shall be entrusted to, the management or superintendence of the steward, agent, 
 bailiff, foreman, or manager of any employer, and also where two or more persons 
 shall carry on business as partners, in every such case respectively the like 
 proceedings shall be had by or against such steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, 
 manager, or any one or more of such parties, and shall be as effectual, for all the 
 purposes of this act, as if the same had been had by or against the principals or all 
 the parties, provided that when any such proceedings shall be had against a 
 steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, or manager, in respect of any cause of complaint 
 not being for personal misconduct, all sums of money paid or satisfied by such 
 steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, or manager, by virtue of any order of the justices 
 made in pursuance hereof, shall be recoverable by him against the employer from 
 whom the same is adjudged to be due, or shall be allowed to him out of 
 any money at the time of payment or afterwards in his hands belonging to such 
 employer. 
 
 (i 6.) When any married woman or infant under the age of twenty-one years 
 shall have cause of complaint in any of the cases provided for by this act, such 
 complaint may be lodged and all further proceedings thereupon had by and in the 
 name of such married woman or infant, or of the sureties of the infant, in any 
 agreement or indenture of apprenticeship, or of any person nominated by such infant, 
 aiid all such proceedings shall be as effectual, valid, and binding as if such married 
 woman were sole or such infant were of full age. 
 
 (17.) The provisions of this act shall apply to all contracts of service by 
 indenture or other written agreement made by any employer in the United 
 Kingdom or in any of the dependencies or colonies thereof, or in foreign countries, 
 with persons about to proceed to or actually resident within the colony of Western 
 Australia, for service in this colony, provided such contracts be not contrary to any 
 law of the colony relating thereto. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 BREAKING UP NEW LAND THE USE OF THE SCOOP PLOUGHING 
 HARROWING AND SEEDING. 
 
 Having cleared part of his newly-acquired property of timber 
 and scrub, the next thing for the settler to do is to prepare it for the 
 
 I 
 
 JsS 
 
 O E - * H-; 
 
 <CQUC WU-O 
 

 2 59 
 
 reception of whatever seed is to be sown. The land will have to be 
 broken up, and the plough is the implement that must be used for 
 this purpose. It is presumed that the settler knows little or nothing 
 about agricultural practice and farm implements, and an illustration 
 of a plough is given with all the parts numbered and named, so that 
 if there is occasion later on to refer to any particular part, the reader 
 will, after having studied the illustration, know at once what is 
 meant. 
 
 The objects of tillage are to so divide and mellow the soil as to 
 render it permeable to air, to water, and to the roots of cultivated 
 plants, and to so mingle all the parts of the soil that the constituents 
 required by plants for their nourishment may be equally diffused and 
 
2t)0 
 
 readily available. Tillage can be performed to perfection with the 
 spade and the fork, but, of course, these rudimentary implements 
 cannot be used where large areas have to be cultivated. It must not 
 be forgotten that the two chief objects of tillage are to aerate the 
 soil and diffuse the plant food that it may contain as much as 
 possible. The implement that will do this next best to the spade 
 is undoubtedly the digging-breasted plough. The first illustration 
 represents a single furrow, long mould-board plough, as commonly 
 used in the colonies. The second illustration shows a digging- 
 breasted plough of the type most used in the United States, and 
 now rapidly coming into use in Australia. 
 
 A glance at the two illustrations will suffice to show that each 
 of these ploughs must turn a very different furrow. The long mould- 
 board turns an unbroken rectangular slice and leaves the ground in 
 a series of parallel well-defined ridges. The digging plough com- 
 pletely pulverises the soil, turning it right over, and leaves the 
 ground, especially if it is light soil, with a comparatively even sur- 
 face. Every particle of soil is turned by this plough, while the long 
 mould-board plough partially turns the furrow slice bodily. The 
 accompanying woodcut will explain the difference. 
 
 As regards the method of ploughing, English agriculturists, as 
 a general rule, maintain that ploughing should be done on such a 
 system as to turn over the furrow slice with a uniform surface and 
 with a mass of soil unbroken and compressed. If, however, the best 
 condition in which to leave the soil is that in which atmospheric 
 influences will be best able to act upon it, then the continuous 
 packed slice of the long mould-board cannot obviously be superior to 
 the disintegrated mass of stuff thrown from the short breast of the 
 digger. The digging plough has another advantage, it will do as 
 much work again in ;i day as a long mould-board plough, and with 
 less fatigue to both horses and men. It will stand any amount of 
 rough work, and is as well adapted to breaking up new land as any 
 iron plough. Its lightness is its great strength. The plough shown 
 above is known as the " Oliver Chilled, No. 40," and costs about \ 
 complete. It may be used with two or three horses. It will turn a 
 turn a furrow 9 inches deep and 16 inches in width, and only weighs 
 130 Ibs. as against 175 Ibs. of the wrought iron colonial plough cutting a 
 furrow 6 inches deep and only 9 ineho in width. 
 
 I have used this style of digging plough in all classes of soils for 
 some years and have not been able to find fault with it yet. I have 
 broken up stiff, imperfectly cleared land, full of roots, and never had 
 a mishap, and ploughed up to twelve inches in depth with two 
 horses in loam. The other illustrations show two makes of double fur- 
 
26 1 
 
 row ploughs as generally used in the colonies, where ploughs of all sorts, 
 shapes and sixes, from one furrow up to twenty furrows, may be 
 found, drawn by horse, bullock, and steam traction. These chapters 
 
 are written more for the homestead farm settler, who will be 
 content with a single furrow plough and a couple of good horses. 
 
262 
 
 When he gets to that happy state when he requires double and 
 treble furrow ploughs and several teams of horses, he will have 
 gained sufficient experience to get along without reference to hand- 
 books on tillage operations. 
 
 The physical condition of the soil when it is ploughed is a 
 matter of considerable importance. The drier the soil is when it 
 is broken, the better. Stiff clay soils should never be worked when 
 
 they are saturated with moisture. Light sandy soils may he 
 ploughed in any condition, wet or dry. The reasons for all this are 
 obvious. To repeat, the chief object of ploughing is to aerate the 
 soil. The atmosphere has no chance of penetrating a slice of 
 
26 3 
 
 saturated clay akin in consistency to an unbaked brick. It merely 
 dries the surface and leaves a stiff unworkable clod. Except in 
 favored localities, the growing season here is so short that ploughing 
 once commenced has to be continued, rain or fine, until the crops 
 are in. The crops must be in early, or not at all. Hence, in the 
 drier districts, the advantage of having a .sufficient area of arable 
 land, to have half of it in fallow. There is no doubt in my mind 
 that where crops fail on new unexhausted land, it is chiefly owing 
 to imperfect tillage. The scarcity of rainfall is blamed, when it is 
 not culpable ; as the same ground, ploughed when it was in a 
 proper condition for ploughing, would have, it is safe to say, thrown 
 a much better crop with half the rainfall. When stiff soils are 
 ploughed, harrowed, and sometimes rolled wet, a solid impervious 
 face is presented to the rain, which does not sink into the ground, 
 but either lodges and drowns the young plants, or runs off the surface, 
 or is speedily evaporated, instead of being stored up underground 
 for the future use of the plants. As soon as the warm weather sets 
 in, the surface cracks in all directions, and the little moisture there 
 was in the soil is soon dissipated into the atmosphere, without 
 passing through the plant. 
 
 Before commencing ploughing, the land to be broken up should 
 be carefully looked over. If there are any. slight rises they may be 
 "scruffed up with the plough and scooped into any depressions 
 that may exist ; or the leveller, shown in the accompanying illustra- 
 tions, may be used. The leveller may be made on the farm, all the 
 aid it will be necessary to invoke being that of the blacksmith to 
 make the iron nose and even this is not an absolute necessity, as our 
 hardwoods will stand a good deal of friction before wearing away. 
 
 SERVICEABLE LAND LEVELLER. 
 
 To make the leveller take two hardwood planks about 12 feet 
 in length, two inches thick and eight inches wide. Cut down one 
 edge with a drawing knife, plane or adze, so that it will be about 
 
264 
 
 half an inch on the edge. Put the boards together in V shape with 
 the flaring edges at the bottom inside and resting on the ground. 
 Take an eight-foot board, trimmed down the same, but two inches 
 narrower. Mortise and bolt the ends into the side boards about 
 two feet from the ends. Put two bolts through where the side 
 pieces are joined to make the front of the leveller. Bolt a hook on 
 top so that the whipple" trees may be attached. Nail an eight-inch 
 board across near the centre. When you want to cut down a ridge, 
 ride upon the board, drive the horses on one side and swing your 
 weight so as to cut into the soil. If you wish to fill up dead" fur- 
 rows or ditches, drive along one side and throw the weight of the 
 body where the soil is to be moved from, and thereby guage the 
 filling of the hole. 
 
 The land may have crab-holes or hog-wallows in it, and if 
 so, the best treatment for these, before rilling them up, is a charge 
 or two of dynamite. These crab-holes indicate an impervious sub- 
 stratum, which must be broken up if proper drainage is to be 
 secured. If they are merely picked in and filled up with the scoop 
 they will be nothing better than quagmires when the heavy rains 
 fall. The most satisfactory way of treating them is by blasting. I 
 have a paddock, a portion of which, when cleared, showed a con- 
 siderable depression honeycombed with crab-holes. With a steel 
 crow bar I drilled holes all round the depression, about 4 feet deep 
 and from 10 to 12 feet apart, and in each hole put a couple of plugs 
 of dynamite. The result is most satisfactory. 
 
 What was a minature lake in the winter is now under crop, not 
 a drop of water is lying on the surface, and the crop there, if any- 
 thing, looks better than that in any other part of the paddock, in all 
 probability owing to the deep tillage or shaking up the ground got. 
 The cost of doing all this, and reclaiming about half an acre of 
 ground, was not more than 255. Dynamite is preferable to powder, 
 or any other explosive, because the force expended is chiefly in a 
 downward direction. It is perfectly safe to use and easily obtainable. 
 The charge must be put in deep at least four feet as it is the 
 impervious stuff below that one wants to break up. If it is not put 
 down to this depth the surface merely will be shattered, and little or 
 no good effected. After the blasting the sides of the crab-holes 
 should be picked in, the holes rilled up with earth by means of the 
 scoop, and well rammed. 
 
 Before or after ploughing it may be considered desirable to 
 measure up the land exactly, and the measurer shown in the 
 accompanying cut can be made without very much trouble, and will 
 be found useful in laying off lands and measuring ground before 
 planting any particular crop. 
 
 The implement is made in the following manner : Four boards, 
 
 cut in the form shown, are "halved" together at the ends and 
 
 braced by crosspieces, so as to form an octagonal wheel, the circuni- 
 
 erence being just one rod, and each side one-eighth of a rod, or 
 
24 J in. Two handles are put on, plough-handle fashion, and attached 
 to the wheel 
 by a pin at 
 the centre. It 
 can then be 
 wheeled in any 
 direction, and 
 the revolu- 
 tions counted 
 for the rods 
 passed over. A 
 plainly visible 
 
 easily made than a circular wheel, on which it is quite difficult for 
 the ordinary worker to strike such a circle the circumference of 
 which will be exactly one rod. This frame is also made and put 
 together more readily than a circular wheel. 
 
 In the accompanying illustrations two sets of whipple trees are 
 shown, one for two horses yoked abreast, made of all iron, and cost- 
 ing about i 55. the set ; the other, a home-made set for three 
 horses. There is no reason why these essentials should not be made 
 from any round hardwood, and be equally, as good and serviceable as 
 the more expensive iron ones. 
 
 mark is put on 
 one segment, 
 in order that 
 the revolu- 
 tions may be 
 more easily 
 counted as this 
 mark passes 
 the handles. 
 Such a mea- 
 surer is more 
 
 A blacksmith will make the eyelets for six or seven shillings, 
 and the rest can be done with the saw and brace and bit. The 
 arrangement of the bars for three horses, as illustrated, compels 
 each horse to do his full share of the work, or show at once that he 
 is shirking. 
 
 The point of attachment to the plough or load must be made 
 exactly one-third of the distance from the point of attachment of 
 
 the double and 
 single whipple 
 trees, to give 
 each horse an 
 equal share of 
 the work. To 
 make a four- 
 
 horse set, at- 
 tach a double 
 whipple tree 
 to the 
 where 
 single 
 (seen in 
 
 point 
 the 
 one 
 the 
 
 sketch) is attached, and make the attachment for the load exactly 
 in the middle of the rear bar. 
 
266 
 
 A set of plough harness for two horses consists of two winkers, 
 two collars, two sets names, two backhands, and four trace chains. 
 A complete set of harness, including saddle for dray work, leading 
 traces and plough harness, can be bought for about ^15 ; and a 
 new farm tip dray, with wide-tired wheels (which have the greatest 
 advantage in point of draught over narrow tires) may be purchased 
 for from 20 to ^"25. It should be borne in mind that time spent 
 in the care of harness is never time wasted. A thorough washing 
 and oiling while the leather is damp at frequent intervals adds 
 years to the life of harness. It also should not be forgotten that 
 the floor of the stable is not the best place to hang up harness, 
 neither is it pleasant for the horse to have the winkers left in the 
 manger with his feed. 
 
 Before actually commencing ploughing, the width of the lands 
 into which the ground is to be ploughed must be decided upon, 
 and then they must be laid off. A chain (22 yards) wide is a most 
 convenient width. A line is marked with tall sticks (that are easily 
 seen between the horses) down the centre of the land, and when 
 this line is ploughed, the distance of the furrow to the centre of 
 the next land can be stepped off, and the second land laid out. 
 The ground should be first opened out, that is, a shallow furrow 
 should be thrown on each side away from the centre, and then up, 
 the same two furrows being turned back again a little deeper 
 towards the centre. By doing this the whole of the ground is 
 moved, and there will not be any unsightly scrub left to grow up 
 through the crown, as would be the case if the opening out were 
 not done first. The following hints on ploughing, from M* Kay's 
 Anstnilitin Agriculturist, will be of use to the beginner : 
 
 Ploughs with one or two wheels are the easiest for the inex- 
 perienced. The plough should always be upright in the furrow 
 while at work. The wheels are for regulating the width and depth, 
 and for turning the plough round at each end of the field. The 
 small, or land wheel, runs on the surface of the ground, and the 
 higher it is drawn up the deeper the plough will work. The large 
 or furrow wheel runs in the furrow, level with the bottom of the 
 plough, and regulates the width of the furrow slice. The plough 
 will come out of its work easily at the end by a little pressure on 
 the handles while the horses are moving forwards. The plough 
 must not be lifted or carried round at the end of the work, but must 
 follow the horses or draught power, and must be turned on the 
 large, not on the small wheel. A little practice soon enables this to 
 be done easily. The draught chain at the head of the plough 
 should be set so that the plough will run straight forward in work, 
 and the best place will soon be found by trying it in the different 
 positions from the centre, either to the right or left. It 
 can also be raised or lowered for hard or soft land. Two 
 horses are found sufficient for ordinary work. Yoke them two 
 abreast. In dry soil, the animals should be further from the plough 
 
than in loose or soft soil. Steel breasts or mould-boards are better 
 than iron ones for stiff soil. The share should have more or less 
 inclination downwards at the point in proportion to the hardness or 
 softness of the soil. Stiff soils require sharp, keen shares ; half-worn 
 shares should be kept for soft soil. Strong, sharp coulters are 
 necessary to cut through the strong, matted grasses of warm climates. 
 In strong grass land, the coulter should have a decided slope forwards 
 at the end point ; in clean land it may be almost straight down from 
 the beam. The point of the coulter should just clear the share, and 
 always cut in a straight line with the sole of the plough. When a 
 plough is fitted with two wheels, the small, or land wheel, should be 
 drawn up to the depth required to be ploughed ; and the large, or 
 furrow-wheel, should be placed level with the bottom of the plough, 
 and set to the width of the plouhing, measuring from the land slide 
 or slade of the plough. When a plough is fitted with a land-wheel 
 only, it must be drawn up to the required depth, the width being 
 now regulated by the judgment of the ploughman. When a 
 swing-plough (without wheels) is used, the depth and width has to 
 be entirely regulated by the skill of the ploughman. 
 
 In comparison with similar tests made in England, dynamometer 
 trials at colonial matches say much for the skill brought to bear by 
 local makers upon the plough. In vol. I of u Transactions of the 
 Agricultural Society of England," we have the following figures : 
 
 The draught in ploughing has been recently experimented upon in 
 America with the following interesting results: i. A deflection of the 
 traces when under draught, from a straight line from shoulder to whipple- 
 tree, results in a decided loss of power, and such loss is applied to the 
 galling and worrying of the horses. 2. The use of a six-inch land- 
 wheel under the end of the plough-beam, showed a saving of 14.1 per 
 cent, of the draught at the average of the trials made, and, in addition, 
 gave a more uniform furrow and relieved the ploughman. This 
 saving can be made only when line of draught is light. 
 3. The use of the coulter is not common in America, and 
 this report says its use was, without exception, attended with 
 a decided loss of force or increased draught by whatever 
 form of coulter used. The average gain of draught by dispen- 
 sing with the coulter was 15-6 per cent. The coulter invariably 
 disturbed the line of draught, resulting in a furrow of different 
 dimensions from those formed without it. 4. The draught of a 
 plough decreases in proportion as width of furrow increases, until 
 the normal capacity of the plough is reached, after which it in- 
 creases again under the same limitations as in previous case of 
 depth ; yet it does not increase in as rapid a ratio as is seen in 
 depth. The absolute draught in a 1 5-inch furrow was less than for 
 a lo-inch furro\v. On stony and sandy soils the share of the plough 
 wears away very quickly, and time is lost in taking it off for re- 
 laying, sharpening, etc. The chilled share is an advantage, so far 
 as the iron being chilled, or made harder on the under side than it 
 
268 
 
 is on the upper side, the share wears sharp until it is worn out. 
 These shares are coming into very general use. 
 
 The value of subsoiling by means of the plough of giving as 
 great a depth as possible to land under cultivation without bringing 
 the poorer raw soil to the surface cannot be overrated in a warm 
 climate. The work is effectively done with the subsoil ploughs, 
 many forms of which are made, for one, two, three, and four horses. 
 We prefer the single horse implement. It is light, handy, and 
 breaks the soil from four to seven inches deep. When run in the 
 furrow after a plough turning out a slice six inches deep, a total 
 depth of from ten to twelve inches is obtained at the lowest cost of 
 labor. Subsoiling should follow- the draining. It is absolutely 
 valueless unless the water that flows into the soil moved by the 
 subsoiler is carried off at once. Water allowed to lodge under 
 such circumstances converts the subsoil into a sour mud that is 
 destructive to every root that comes into contact with it. Beneficial, 
 then, as subsoiling is, drainage (either natural or artificial) should be 
 seen to before it is attempted. But with combined drainage and 
 subsoiling, we have the means of growing crops at all seasons, 
 whether they be very dry or very wet, or the happy medium between 
 the two. 
 
 The depth to which the ground is to be ploughed must be 
 governed by previous tillage operations, the nature of the soil, the 
 manure to be used, and the length of time ground can be allowed 
 to lie fallow before the crop is put in. It may be said at once that 
 it is not desirable to plough previously unbroken land too deeply, 
 unless it is to lie fallo\v for some considerable time. Three or four 
 inches is quite deep enough for the first ploughing of the average 
 West Australian soil, only recently denuded of its forest growth of 
 timber, and where seeding immediately follows the plough. The 
 reason for this is that more sour soil would be turned up than could 
 be possibly sweetened by atmospheric action, and any nutriment it 
 contained be made available to the young plant. If a liberal dress- 
 ing of fertilisers is applied, especially if lime or salt are included, 
 deeper ploughing may be done with advantage. But it is advisable 
 to plough a little deeper every year, and gradually turn up a " new 
 farm " over the surface of the old one and so have " a heap of land 
 to the acre." 
 
 Sandy soils may be ploughed deeper at once, as the air pene- 
 trates them more readily than stiff soils. If the ploughing is done 
 in the spring, and the ground can be allowed to lie fallow until seed 
 time in the autumn, then the deeper it is ploughed the better, 
 especially if it is worked two or three times during the summer with 
 the scarifier. The object of ploughing is to secure a good seed- 
 bed for the young plants, and this can only be done by thoroughly 
 pulverising the soil that is turned up, and adding the nutriment that 
 may be deficient. It frequently happens in the stiffer soils, after a 
 succession of shallow ploughings, that an impenetrable hard-pan is 
 
269 
 
 formed, and this is one of the reasons why deeper ploughing every 
 year is advocated; and when the maximum depth has been reached, 
 then the ploughing should be shallower and deeper each alternate 
 year, so as to prevent the possibility of a hard-pan forming. Hard- 
 
 MORGAN SPADING HARROW. 
 
 pans prevent the proper penetration of the roots of the plants and 
 the absorbtion of water by the soil, and nothing is so inimical to 
 plant life as either stagnant water near the surface, or an 
 insufficiency of water. 
 
270 
 
 When the newly-ploughed land turns up rough and cloddy it 
 will be advisable, in order to secure a good seed bed, to break down 
 these clods. This may be done by using either a disc, a cutaway, or 
 a Morgan spading harrow, which are here illustrated, or one of the 
 homely but effective clod crushers also portrayed in the accompany- 
 ing woodcuts. 
 
 THE CUTAWAY HARROW. 
 
 The spading harrow, six feet wide, for two horses, costs 9, 
 and is really a most excellent implement, and more effective than 
 either the disc or the cutaway. I have had one in use now for three 
 years, and have no fault to find with it. If the new settler cannot, 
 however, afford one of these, then there is no excuse for his not 
 having one of the other simple appliances here shown for breaking 
 down rough land. 
 
 Three logs, the last one being the heaviest, six auger holes, two 
 chains, and six pins driven through to keep the chains in place, and 
 the clod crusher is made and ready for use. It is dragged over the 
 ground like a harrow, and literally tumbles the clod to pieces. The 
 second one is a little more elaborate, and, if possible, more effec- 
 tive on the stiffer soils. The one here shown can be made in 
 half a day. Three railway sleepers, or similarly squared logs, placed 
 parallel eight inches apart, with two crosspieces and a dozen old 
 harrow teeth, are all the raw material required. Fit on the two 
 crosspieces by first sawing into the upper and front edge of each sleeper, 
 and split off a triangular-shaped piece, so that when the crosspieces are 
 bolted on, the front edge of the bottom of each sleeper will be about 
 three inches from the ground. The crosspieces should be bolted on 
 with two bolts through each sleeper. Some old drag or harrow teeth 
 
are put through the front sleeper four inches apart, the holes being 
 bored so the teeth will slant back, which prevents clogging. An old 
 mowing-machine seat is fastened to the centre of the middle plank. 
 
 The drag can be drawn by a tongue fastened similar to a wagon, or 
 by a short chain in such a manner that the draft is from the centre. 
 This implement works well on any kind of ground when first 
 ploughed, and will fit it in good shape for the harrow or cultivator. 
 It will leave the surface more level and finer than a roller. 
 
 The land is now in order for the sowing of artificial manures, or, 
 if none are to be used, for the reception of seed. When stable 
 manure is used it is ploughed in, artificial manures are broadcasted 
 or drilled in with the seed. 
 
 SOWING, HARROWING, ROLLING, AND FALLOWING. 
 
 The-Agricultural Chemist of the Bureau deals most exhaustively 
 in another part of the GUIDE with artificial manures and their 
 application to the various kinds of soils and crops, so it will not be 
 necessary for me to say anything more about them here. 
 
 Seed may be sown either broadcast, by hand, or by use of the 
 machines made for the purpose, or drilled in. It requires some 
 
272 
 
 little practice to cast seed evenly by hand so as to avoid sowing it 
 
 thick and thin in patches. 
 f |F:|. If sowing is done by hand, 
 
 a box that will hold about 
 half a bushel should be 
 suspended round the neck 
 \ about level \vith the waist 
 BH by means of a saddle girth r 
 HBHg or other broad band. Bags 
 | are placed at convenient 
 ^HE intervals along the field 
 to be sown and the box 
 is filled from these as 
 required. Both hands are 
 used in casting, the left hand throwing the seed to the right across 
 the body, and the right hand to the left. The accompanying 
 illustration shows a handy little seed sower, the " Cahoon," 
 costing about ^"i 53., and made so that any size seed can be sown. 
 It is especially designed 
 for the use of farmers 
 who only cultivate a com- 
 paratively small area and 
 do not need one of the 
 larger seed sowers, also 
 illustrated herewith. The 
 breadth of cast of the 
 " Cahoon " is chiefly 
 governed by the w r eight 
 of the seed sown. The 
 heavier the seed the 
 greater the distance to 
 which it is thrown. At 
 an ordinary walking pace from four to eight acres may be sown in 
 an hour. 
 
 The larger seed sowers, which are worked by an endless chain 
 from the wheel of a dray, cost about 8 153., and will sow from 
 10 acres to 12 acres per hour. 
 
 There is another method of sowing, and that is by means of 
 the drill. If the tillage conditions are right, this lias many advantages 
 over broadcasting, the chief of which are that less seed per acre is 
 required, every seed is buried at the same depth, the seed ger- 
 minates better and is less subject to climatic extremes, and is better 
 protected from the attacks of birds, rodents, and insects. Before 
 the drill can be used satisfactorily, it is essential that the ground 
 should be free from roots and stones, and that a thorough tilth 
 has been secured. Seed boxes are sometimes made to attach to the 
 disc and cut-away harrows, and these implements are then called 
 seed drills ; but they are not altogether satisfactory, although they 
 
273 
 
 will work on rougher land than the proper seed drill, and 
 are, perhaps, more economical in the matter of seed than the 
 hand-casters. Three-quarters of a bushel of seed sown by a 
 
 drill is better than a bushel and a half broadcasted, and where a 
 large area has to be sown, the quantity of seed thus saved is an 
 
 important item. There is no doubt that where the rainfall is scanty 
 larger yields will be obtained if the drill is used than if the seed 
 
274 
 
 is broadcasted. The drill has another advantage, that as the seed 
 is sown by it in regular parallelled rows equi-distant, subsequent 
 cultivation is easily accomplished, and weeds can be better kept in 
 check. A good seed drill, that will sow both seed and artificial 
 manure simultaneously, costs from ^40 to ^60, and this is a large 
 amount for the new settler to lay out, and it is for him to decide 
 whether such expenditure is warranted. If, however, 100 acres or 
 over have to be sown, and the land is in good order, a drill soon 
 pays for itself in the seed saved. 
 
 After the seed has been sown, the land will have to be harrowed 
 until a fine tilth is secured, fully and evenly covering the seed. 
 
 The "Acme" harrow 
 illustrated here, is 
 really a most excel- 
 lent implement (cost, 
 two-horse, 6], for 
 pulverising the sur- 
 face, but the harrows 
 most commonly in use 
 are the " zig-zag," 
 which are dragged 
 either down or across 
 the furrows, or dia- 
 gonally, or all three 
 if necessary. The best way of covering the seed, especially in 
 rough ground, is to harrow down the furrows first, and then 
 diagonally, starting at one corner and going straight across to the 
 opposite corner, and round and round this diagonal line until the 
 whole field is harrowed. A great deal more \vork (probably one- 
 third), and better work, is done this way. 
 
 A set of these harrows, three leaves, costs 4. ios., but 
 it this outlay cannot be afforded, the farmer can make a set for 
 himself for much less. A limb of a tree, with the branches left on, 
 may be used as a makeshift, or a forked branch, with wooden tines 
 driven in it, will last a season or two. A really serviceable set may 
 be made by making the frame work of sawn timber bolted together, 
 and purchasing the iron tines. When grass or other small seeds 
 are sown a brush harrow is quite sufficient to cover them with. 
 
 After harrowing, the roller, which can be made on the farm, is 
 the next implement required. Illustrations of two simple and 
 effective rollers arc shown herewith. 
 
 The following description of the way this farm roller is made 
 is given in the Rimil AY?:- Yorker : " A frame of 4 x 4 hard- 
 wood was made and the tongue placed as shown in the sketch, 
 which also shows the braces and the gudgeons or pins which held 
 the rollers in place. The logs were solid, 3^ feet long and 
 1 8 inches in diameter. Gudgeons about 16 inches long were driven 
 into the ends of the logs. These were ij inches iron squared for 
 
275 
 
 12 inches of their length and driven into i inch holes, leaving the 
 four inches round part to project. One log was set four inches 
 ahead of the other in the frame. To keep the frame from tipping 
 back quite so much, the tongue was placed over the front 4x4, 
 
 and under the hind 
 one. An old mower 
 seat was fastened on 
 the back part of the 
 frame. No trouble 
 with this roller bear- 
 ing down on the 
 horses' necks ! Also, 
 it was cheap, easy 
 to turn, was just the 
 right width to go 
 betw r een the rows of 
 corn, and last, but 
 not least, it would do better work than a large roller, because, 
 instead of riding over the big clods, as a large roller would, it would 
 push them ahead of it, grind away at them, and, probably, break 
 them in several pieces before it mounted them. A large roller of 
 the same weight would run easier, but a small one will break up 
 more clods, and that is what a roller is for. " A large roller strikes a 
 clod nearly on top, and simply pushes it down, while a small one 
 strikes it on the side and gets several whacks at it before it is done. 
 This pattern is more easily made than the previous roller, and is 
 quite as good for all purposes. It must never be forgotten, however, 
 that on no account should ground be rolled when it is wet 
 and sticky. If -^ss^~^ * s mucn better to 
 
 the ground is not ^^:^^^^^^^^^ wait until after 
 
 to roll \\hen the "^^^^&^ -After the rolling 
 seed is sewn it \\*~~ h as been done 
 
 water furrows should be opened up with the plough to carry off 
 the surplus surface water, and any short surface drains may be dug 
 that cannot be opened with the plough. 
 
 After the main crop is in, if there is any more land ready, it 
 should be ploughed up at once and allowed to lie fallow, or else 
 utilised for a summer crop until next seed time. The benefits of 
 fallowing newly-cleared land in Western Australia are very great. 
 Speaking generally, the land is sour when first broken up, and 
 needs a thorough sweetening before the best results are obtained 
 from it. There is no sweetener like the sun's heat, and land 
 deeply broken up and left to lie open to the sun's rays for some 
 months is as good as if a liberal dressing of manure had been given 
 to it. The fallow should be scarified two or three times as oppor- 
 tunity offers during the summer, and if this is done it will be in 
 splendid condition for the reception of the seed in the autumn. 
 
Whether the land has been newly cleared, or has been under 
 crop before, there should be always a fair proportion of fallow on 
 every farm. 
 
 Four illustrations are given here of cultivators or scarifiers. 
 Coleman's is the original type, and has strength and durability to 
 recommend it. Bamford's 
 steel cultivator, it is claimed, 
 will prepare land equally \vell 
 for seed bed or for autumn 
 fallowing. A similar one is 
 made by the Massey- Harris 
 company, and has been used in 
 this colony and well spoken of. 
 The Planet jr. horsehoe does 
 good work, but is more suited 
 to light lands. There is also the 
 
 Giant sectional cultivator, a THE GIANT. 
 
 Canadian make (Richard Purser, local agent), to which a seed-box 
 may be attached, and which is highly recommended for all classes 
 
 of land. It is said to be 
 used in the United States 
 for breaking up macadam- 
 ised roads previous to re- 
 metalling and rolling, so it 
 must be of immense strength. 
 In the drier districts of 
 the colony I cannot urge 
 too strongly upon farmers 
 
 the advisableness of running 
 
 USED l ^^^^3^,^;ij-J-^" ss ^ the harrows over the grow- 
 
 ing crops in the spring as soon as the rains begin to slack off. 
 Lavves and Gilbert found that 36 per cent, of the rain percolated to 
 the dcp'h of 20 inches into the soil. With a 25-inch rainfall every 
 acre receives 567,168 gallons per annum, of which 200,000 sink 
 deeply into the soil. Two-thirds of the whole are ci'iifartitcd. This 
 means that when there is only a 15 inch rainfall, 10 inches, or 1000 
 tons of water per acre, are evaporated and practically lost to the 
 plant. It must be borne in mind that the plant is dependent upon 
 the moisture in the soil for its nourishment. A plant cannot eat, it 
 can only drink, that is, it cannot take up food in solid form, but 
 only in a liquid state. The plant drinks up its liquid nourishment, 
 retains the solids in its composition, and the liquid is evaporated 
 through its leaves. This shows the absolute necessity for retaining 
 as much moisture in the soil as may be requisite for the full 
 development of the plant. Harrowing in the spring, when the 
 rains have practically ceased, breaks up the surface of the ground, 
 destroying the minute channels or capillaries, by means of which 
 the water finds its way down below, and in doing so arrests the 
 
277 
 
 escape of moisture direct from the soil, compelling it to evaporate 
 through the leaves of the plant. It also destroys weed growth 
 weeds mean extra evaporation. The farmer need not be afraid of 
 
 doing any serious damage to the crop. It is very difficult to kill a 
 wheat plant once it is firmly established. I have harrowed wheat 
 when it was two feet high without hurting it but, on the contrary, 
 
doing it a lot of good. I am, by experience, thoroughly convinced 
 of the benefits of spring harrowing, and would urge it upon all 
 farmers settled in the drier districts. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 HARVESTING OPERATIONS. 
 
 VARIOUS METHODS OF HARVESTING HAY AND GRAIN, STACKING, 
 THRASHING, CHAFF-CUTTING. 
 
 If the crop is to be cut for hay it should be harvested well on 
 the green side. Buyers for the goldfields' markets insist upon having 
 a green sample, and as they are the largest purchasers, their wishes 
 must be considered. The crop can be cut in many ways ; by the 
 antiquated hand-hook or sickle ; by the scythe ; by the mower ; or 
 by the reaper and binder. If the area under crop is sufficiently 
 great it will pay the selector to purchase a reaper and binder at once. 
 It is quite possible that he may be able to get his first crop harvested 
 by contract, but there is always the possibility of the contractor 
 having his own crop to harvest first, and thus delaying and de- 
 preciating the value of the settler's crop he has agreed to cut. The 
 reaper and binder, of which there are many makes in the market, 
 and all more or less excellent, is cheaper in the end than the mower 
 and rake. Every season sees these machines improved, simplified, 
 and made more in accordance with the necessities of Australian 
 agricultural practice, and better able to withstand the \vear and tear 
 of roughly cultivated paddocks, unskilled workmen, and the 
 extremes of our climate. Soft wood, so largely used in the con- 
 struction of these machines a few years ago, is now giving place to 
 iron and steel, wherever it is possible to substitute these metals for 
 wood. 
 
 If it is decided to purchase a reaper and binder, and the 
 selector has had no previous experience of these machines, it will pay 
 him to spend a little time in ascertaining the merits and demerits 
 of the different makes that have been worked in the district. The 
 very gentlemanly agent for this make will probably wait upon the 
 farmer with a bland smile and persuasive eloquence sufficient to stop 
 a chaffcutter, and while nursing the youngest child with one hand, 
 will produce with the other enough documentary evidence to con- 
 clusively prove, to any ostensibly sane person, that his particular 
 brand of reaper and binder is absolutely the acme of perfection, 
 and the people who use any other are either suffering from a 
 temporary hallucination, which must be dispelled when they 
 see his machine at work, or else are wilfully blind. Hardly 
 
280 
 
 will the new settler have had time to recover from the rhaj 
 sodies of the departed agent than another will come along, who, 
 in less time than it takes to say " Jack Robinson " will prove by facts, 
 
 figures and other things, all capable of conversion and various con- 
 structions and mis-constructions, that the other fellow's machine is 
 only made of scrap iron and tin tacks and dungaree overalls am' 
 cheap paint and unclarined mutton fat. Between these two stool 
 the ingenuous agriculturist may come to the ground, but it is to 
 
28r 
 
 hoped not. Never buy anything from or through a travelling agent, 
 is a safe rule to follow ; and a rider may be added to the effect that 
 it is not advisable to tamper with new brands. The only thing, in 
 my experience, that it is safe and best to purchase on the strength 
 of a new name in the colonies is bottled spirits ; the first consign- 
 ment of a new brand never contains the same generous percentage 
 of sulphuric acid, fusil oil and other cheerful, short-range poisons, 
 
 that subsequent 
 lots do. But 
 though whisky, as 
 supplied to the 
 colonies, is oc- 
 casionally, and by 
 accident, made 
 from corn, and 
 frequently from 
 potatoes and 
 other farm pro- 
 duce excepting 
 corn, it is manu- 
 factured mostly 
 
 THE " BUTTON " MOWER KNIFE GRINDER. from petroleum 
 
 R. PURSER, W.A. Agent. o jl an( } other 
 
 deadly sins, and, it is to be hoped, will not enter into the agronomic 
 economy of the new settler. To return to the reaper and binder 
 In purchasing this, and all other expensive machinery, the farmer 
 should deal direct with an established agent, who has a reputation 
 to lose as well as a living to make. There is no excuse for not 
 doing so, for all the best makers of agricultural machinery have 
 their established agents in the metropolis, and these in turn have 
 reputable sub-agents in all the towns of the colony. These agents, 
 when they sell a machine, fit it up and start it working, and guar- 
 antee it, and if any accident occurs it is always possible to obtain 
 duplicate parts without unnecessary and annoying delay. 
 
 If it is decided to purchase a mower, there are many patterns 
 in the market, and the selector 
 should have no difficulty in get- 
 ting a good machine. The illus- 
 trations herewith show the 
 ordinary mower for two horses 
 (with a 4ft. 6in. cut) and the 
 self-raking reaper. This latter 
 machine delivers the crop, as 
 shown in the illustration, ready 
 for hand-binding ; the former 
 merely cutting the crop, which 
 has to be raked up afterwards 
 into wind rows. 
 
282 
 
 When the mower is used, a horse-rake will be found a neces- 
 sity if the area of crop is more than a very few acres. Such a rake 
 is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
 
Another one, used in the United States on level ground 
 for raking up windrows and carrying the hay to the stack, is 
 shown, and this can be made on the farm, the block fully illustrating 
 
 the construction of the im- 
 plement, to which two 
 horses are hitched. A 
 horse on each of the wind- 
 rows attached to the ropes 
 will gather up an enormous 
 mass of hay, which can be 
 pulled right up to the 
 stack or hay shed. If desired the side uprights can be carried 
 above the rails like those at the rear. 
 
 If the crop is to be used for hay it must, as I have said, in order 
 to meet the taste of the market, be cut well on the green side, after 
 flowering and before the stalk begins to harden. If it is cut very 
 green there will of course be little grain in the chaff, but the nutritive 
 value of the straw will be higher. If a reaper and binder is used 
 the sheaves are stooked, that is, any numbers of pairs of sheaves are 
 set against each other, the usual number being six pairs. Stooks 
 are generally set in rows with the ends of the stocks pointing east 
 and west, so that the hay dries more gradually and retains its colour 
 better than if the broadsides of the stooks are presented to our 
 almost tropical sun. In the northern hemisphere where the heat of 
 the sun is not so intense, the reverse order is followed, the stooks 
 being placed north and south. If the crop is being harvested in 
 broken weather the stooks may be bonded, that is, sheaves are 
 placed along the top of the stooks, heads interlaced, to shed the 
 rain, but it is seldom necessary to do this in Australia. When the 
 sheaves are sufficiently dry, so that there is no possibility of heating 
 in the stack, they are carted from the field to the stack. The cart 
 is brought up alongside a row of stooks, one man forks the sheaves 
 to the carter on the cart, who places them with their stubble ends 
 
284 
 
 outwards, tier upon tier, until a load is made. A rope is then thrown 
 across the cart from each corner behind and secured in front to the 
 shafts, unless the distance is so short from the stook to the stack to 
 render this unnecessary. If the stack is likely to remain for some 
 time, it is better to lay down a stool or bed of straw or rushes or 
 brush for the sheaves to stand on, when permanent stools are not 
 erected. The stack may be of any shape, cylindrical, square, or 
 oblong. The chief thing in stacking is to see that the centre is kept 
 well up, that is, that the sheaves, placed stubble ends out, all point 
 downwards and outwards from the centre. If a heavy fall of rain 
 should occur before thatching, the moisture runs off much more 
 readily if the stack is built this way, than if it is hollow in the centre. 
 If the stack is to remain for any great length of time it is better to 
 thatch with straw or rushes, but if it is intended to convert it into 
 chaff without much delay this is not necessary. A layer or two of 
 coarse salt between the sheaves will assist greatly in conserving the 
 attractive green colour so fancied by the buyer, and adds also to the 
 flavour of the chaff. When hay is a regular annual crop, the farmer 
 will find it pay best to go in for a hay shed as soon as he can 
 possibly afford it. A hay shed in Australia is simply a light 
 galvanised iron roof thrown over a series of high uprights, and of 
 any size that may be desired. With a hay shed the farmer is com- 
 paratively safe against the accidents of weather and the vagaries of 
 the market. They are not expensive to erect, and their original cost 
 is returned many times over in the course of a few years. 
 
 If the crop is cut with the scythe or the mower it must be raked 
 up into rows and then put together with forks into cocks. When 
 dry enough these are carted away and made into a stack. As good 
 a looking sample of chaff cannot be made from loose hay as when 
 it is bound in sheaves, but if the crop is cut at the right time and 
 properly cared for, all other things being equal, the nutritive value 
 of the feed is just as high, though the market value will be a few 
 shillings lower. The rake gathers up a good deal of rubbish,, 
 especially on newly cleared ground, that is, of course, left on the 
 ground when the reaper and binder is used. In the moister districts 
 of the colony, where rain sometimes occurs during harvest, if it is 
 thought there is any danger of hay heating in the stack, it can be 
 obviated by placing a boss or trestle in the middle of the stack and 
 building round it, laying down a good bed or stool of logs or brush 
 first so that the air can get under the stack and have access to the 
 centre. The boss may be either in the shape of a triangular tree- 
 guard, or conical, or like a saddler's horse for oblong stacks, and 
 made out of rough logs and any kind of scrap boards that will hold 
 it together. 
 
 Chaff cutting is a very simple operation when the hay is in 
 sheaves, and with anything like ordinary care a good sample of 
 chaff can be turned out. When, however, the stack is of loose hay 
 it requires some little skill to feed the machine properly. A hay 
 
28 5 
 
 knife will be required with loose hay to cut down the stack, and if 
 the straw is very dry and dusty it may be sprinkled with water 
 before being fed into the machine. 
 
 There are numerous makes of chaff-cutters, from the majestic 
 portable or stationary cutter and bagger, driven by steam, and 
 putting through a ton or more an hour, down to the humble Chanel 
 
 power machine, which turns out less than this quantity in a day. 
 There are, in the chief hay-growing districts, travelling chaff-cutters, 
 and if the farmer can get one of these to cut up his crop by contract 
 
286 
 
 he will in all probability find it more satisfactory than if he has to 
 do it himself with one of the primitive machines driven by hand or 
 horse power. Illustrations of a chaff-cutter and horse works are 
 given herewith. 
 
 The modern and highly improved steam chaff-cutter will cut 
 hay to J inch guage, but I do not think that this very fine chaff is 
 as good for ordinary working horses as the longer cut. It looks 
 nice, but the animals have a tendency to bolt it. 
 
 GRAIN HARVESTING. 
 
 The harvesting of the grain crop, that is, of wheat, can be done 
 either by the stripper or the reaper and binder, the latter machine 
 or a mower being generally only employed in the harvesting of 
 other cereals. M'Kay, in his Australian Agriculture, makes the 
 following observations on the use of the reaper and binder and the 
 stripper : 
 
 The rapidity with which harvesting machines have come 
 into use in Australia proves that, when suitable, our farmers are not 
 slow to see the advantages of good things. The change which has 
 taken place in the system of harvesting in the principal wheat- 
 growing districts is very marked in its character. For a long series 
 of years the Adelaide stripper has been steadily but surely gaining 
 ground. The reapers and wire binders were introduced suddenly, 
 and owing to the action of Australians, who saw them at the 
 Philadelphia Kxliibitioii, and afterwards string binders replaced the 
 wire machines. Then, by a system of sowing only clean seed, it was 
 seen that the land could be kept comparatively iree from wild oats 
 formany years, and in clean crops both machines did excellent 
 work. Straw was of little value when grass was abundant, and 
 markets distant and difficult of access ; while in regard to the effect 
 on the system on the fertility of the soil, burning the straw upon the 
 wheat fields proved to be better than cutting it off by the reaper and 
 
 
failing to return it in the shape of manure, so that, wasteful as it is 
 to burn the stubble, it is better than taking all that is grown off from 
 the land ; so, where the straw is usually short, no interference 
 seems likely with the supremacy of the stripper as a harvesting 
 machine ; and it has also been made clear that the reapers and 
 binders are capable of doing really good work. At first, the machines 
 were somewhat complicated, and farmers were afraid to risk the 
 danger of stoppages through something going wrong ; but most of 
 these machines that are now made inspire more confidence. There 
 are situations, to, where both kinds of harvesters are used with 
 advantage. With the aid of a reaper and binder, harvesting can be 
 commenced a week or a fortnight earlier than stripping, and stripp- 
 ing can be carried on long after reaping would be impossible, 
 because of the grain being shaken out. It is probable, therefore, 
 that the harvest in the future may begin by reaping, until stripping 
 time arrives. This will give a quantity of straw for the farm, and 
 when the crop is ripe enough, the stripping machines may be put 
 in to finish the work. By this means hurry and bustle will be done 
 away with, and, at the same time, the farm stock will not be left 
 without a supply of straw. The stripped wheat can also, if 
 necessary, be sent to an early market, while that which has been 
 reaped will the more easily be allowed to wait for the thresher. 
 Recent dry seasons, and correspondent scarcity of horse and cattle 
 feed, raised the value of straw in the estimation of fhe 
 farmer. 
 
 The losses of stock, too, and the difficulty of carrying on the 
 ploughing through want of horse feed, have brought the importance 
 of the straw-stack forcibly before the minds of those who keep an 
 eye upon the ways and means. Markets have also been made 
 available through the extension of railways, so that we have an ex- 
 planation of the tendency to adopt a means of harvesting by which 
 the straw is saved. When it is returned to the land, in the form of 
 manure, we are in a fair way of making another advance in our 
 system of cultivation. 
 
 If the stripper only is used, the crop must, of course, be left 
 till it is dead ripe ; but when the reaper is used it is now a well- 
 established fact that a larger and in every way better yield is 
 obtained by the grain being harvested before it is dead ripe. The 
 straw also is of greater value as fodder. When the grain has 
 become glazed and before it gets hard is the time when it is in the 
 best condition for reaping. When harvested at this stage, " it is 
 kept from shrivelling by drawing nutriment from the straw after 
 being cut, and both weight and quality are benefited/' Grain 
 stripped on the green side shrivels, but it is not so when the crop 
 is reaped. " Wheat that is stripped or reaped after it is dead ripe 
 possesses dryness, flouriness and other excellent qualities, but is 
 inferior in strength to that which has been reaped slightly on the 
 green side." 
 
288 
 
 On the subject of stripping, in the Australasian Farmer : 
 Cheapness is the principal recommendation of the stripping 
 system. Amongst the first settlers in the Wimmera district were a 
 considerable number of Germans from South Australia, who came 
 to the colony with their stripping machines, and an intimate know- 
 ledge of the South Australian system of making wheat-growing pay. 
 The other selectors, who came from the southern parts of Victoria, 
 soon learned to appreciate the stripper, and the result was that 
 cheap production, and an almost complete independence of the 
 labor market, were established from the first in the Wimmera 
 district. Thus, having been able from the outset to harvest the 
 crops at a very low cost, and having been saved from the 
 extortionate wages which had to be paid in other districts, the 
 Wimmera farmers had an advantage which has contributed in no 
 small degree to what measure of success they have attained. Some 
 idea of the cheapness of stripping may be formed from the fact 
 that the work is done by contract for from four shillings to six shill- 
 ings per acre. Taking six shillings per acre as the contract price 
 for stripping an average crop, and remembering that a farmer will 
 be able to harvest his own crop at something below the contract 
 rate, it is not difficult to see that no other machine has any chance 
 of competing in price with the stripper. The farmer engages to 
 supply food to the men and horses working the stripper, and this, 
 with the charge per acre, brings his crop, in the shape of wheat and 
 chaff, to the winnower. By supplying a winnowing machine, and 
 finding food for the men, he gets his wheat cleaned and put into 
 bags at sixpence per sack, so that the whole harvesting process, up 
 to carting the bags to the station, is done cheaply and quickly. 
 When it is considered that, eveji with the reaper and binder, after 
 supplying string and going through the processes of reaping, stook- 
 ing, and stacking, the item of threshing has still to be paid, it will 
 be admitted, that for cheapness, the stripper is unrivalled. 
 
 Hitherto the demand for chaff has been so great in Western 
 Australia that since the discovery of the goldiields little or no wheat- 
 
289 
 
 growing has been done, but before very long the supply of locally 
 grown ch;ilT will in all probability be up to the demand, and then 
 the grain grower will have the market to supply. There are also 
 combined harvesters made, which strip, clean, and bag the grain, 
 the bags being filled and sewn up ready for market. But these 
 implements are best suited to very large paddocks, and are only 
 within the reach of the farmer on a very large scale. An illustration 
 is given herewith ot a header which may be used conveniently by 
 the small-area man for separating the grain from the straw after it 
 has been reaped. 
 
 After the grain has been stripped it is winnowed and bagged 
 and is ready for market. An illustration of a winnower is given. 
 
 THOMAS CORBETT'SI 
 WIN SOWER'S, HAVE GAINED 
 
 ABOVE 1-rO FIRST PRIZES 
 SINCE 1867: 1 
 
 Wide winnowers with plenty of middle space, should be used, 
 and large machines are generally to be recommended. There is 
 much saving of labor in using large portable winnowers capable of 
 cleaning after several strippers. Horse power should be used 
 wherever possible. 
 
2QO 
 
 When the crop is cut with a reaper and binder it is stacked in the 
 same way as described in the chapter on the hay harvest, and when 
 ready is carted in and stacked to await the arrival of the threshing 
 machine. The following remarks on thatching stacks are taken 
 from the Australasian Farmer : 
 
 Covering the grain stacks is a course too often neglected, and 
 the loss resulting is considerable. All that has been said in regard 
 to the mistakes in producing grain and failing to save it, through 
 careless stacking, applies w r ith equal force to neglecting to provide 
 suitable covering from the weather. The mildness of the climate, 
 which encourages a careless system of stacking, results also in 
 insufficient attention being paid to covering the grain ricks. When 
 stacks are intended to stand only for a short time, they should be 
 well covered with rick cloths of tarpaulin, or other waterproof 
 material, as providing covers will be found cheaper than thatching ; 
 but in the case of stacks intended to stand throughout the winter, 
 thatching is the more profitable course. Rushes and tussock grass 
 are sometimes available for thatching, and can be used with 
 advantage, but straw, of which there should always be a sufficient 
 supply, answers the purpose well. The straw should be carefully 
 sorted out into bundles, and then put on by an experienced thatcher. 
 Begin at the eaves, and add tier after tier upon a section four or 
 five feet wide, until the top of the stack is reached. A quick method 
 is to lay on bundles, spread them out until the layer is about nine 
 inches thick, rake and pat down firmly, secure with straw rope or 
 hemp lashings to pegs, and proceed with the next tier, continuing 
 until the top is reached. But in the more complete system, the 
 thatcher takes small bundles, amounting to a good handful, and 
 places each in position singly. 
 
 The top of the bundle is gathered into a point and inserted 
 under the straw or hay of the roof, the bottom spread out, raked, 
 and beaten down, and each section secured by ties as completed. 
 In putting in the pegs which secure the ties, they should be driven 
 slightly upward into the roof, so as not to lead water into the stack. 
 
 The farmer who keeps a threshing machine of his own can 
 have this important operation carried out to his mind, but as 
 threshing is for the most part done by travelling machines worked 
 by contract, it is often difficult to prevent waste and loss. It is 
 frequently the contractor's main object to get through the work, 
 and it should be the fanner's aim to see that the work is properly 
 carried out. Frequent inspection of the straw will be necessary to 
 see that all the grain is being taken out, and the sprouts will also have 
 to be watched to see that the grain is not being cracked. Equal 
 supervision will be advantageous to ensure that the grain is properly 
 cleaned, and that it is not being blown away over the riddles. 
 The fanner will earn more money in attending to these things than 
 in trying to lill a man's place in pitching sheaves or hauling away 
 chaff. The system of threshing by contract adopted in the colonies 
 
2 9 I 
 
 might be improved upon. At present a certain sum per bag is paid 
 for the threshing, the thresher being relieved from all trouble as to 
 finding men and supplying food. The farmer has to collect a large 
 staff of men for a few days and make arrangements for supplying 
 them with food. The American system seems much more con- 
 venient. A certain charge is made for threshing, and the owner of 
 the machine carries out the whole work, paying men's wages, 
 catering for his workmen, and relieving the farmer of a great deal 
 of anxiety. A gang of men travel with the machine, carrying a cook, 
 a portable kitchen, and all requisites with them. The worry of 
 gathering up men and providing them with food is one of the 
 farmer's greatest troubles in the colonies, and the American system 
 might be adopted with advantage. 
 
 If grain has to be stored on the farm, it may be done in bulk 
 if there is a suitable building to hold it, or, if not, in sacks. The 
 chief thing is to protect the grain against the ravages of mice. Two 
 methods of stacking sacks (from the Australasian Fanner] are given 
 herewith : In stacking sacks the most important consideration is 
 to protect the grain from mice. There are two ways of securing 
 this end. The first one is to leave space for the cats to run all 
 through the stack, and the other is to leave no spaces through which 
 the mice can penetrate. According to the first plan, the first tier 
 of bags is laid about a foot apart, and the next tier, which is laid 
 transversely on top, is also made up of bags about a foot apart. By 
 thus leaving a space between all the bags the cats can creep about 
 in every direction, keeping the mice from the grain. The other 
 system is quite as effective, and equally practicable. A layer of 
 sacks is placed in position close together, and chaff from the 
 thresher or winnower is spread over, being pressed tightly into all 
 the spaces. After laying the next tier, more chaff is put on, being 
 rammed into every space, and the process is continued until the 
 stack is built. The whole is then covered with chaff and straw, 
 and the mice are unable to make their way into the sacks. In the 
 dry districts sacks can be stacked in this way in the field with safety 
 for a considerable time. When stored in the field, sacks should be kept 
 well off the ground and covered with a thick layer of chaff or straw. 
 
 It the farmer is a man of capital, he can with the greatest 
 advantage build himself a mice and rat-proof barn. Such a building 
 must be on piles, the floor about two feet above the surface of the 
 ground. On the top of each pile is placed a good- sized square of 
 flat iron, say two feet by two feet, and if nothing is allowed to 
 lean up against the walls, and there are no steps leading into the 
 structure, it will be found to be vermin proof, for the simple reason 
 that rats and mice cannot walk upside down like flies, and they 
 would have to do this to get in. 
 
 The reaper and binder is the best machine for harvesting the 
 oat crop. The stripper is sometimes used in the dry districts, but 
 it is very wasteful. The same remarks apply to barley and rye. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 FEEDING DOWN GROWING CROPS. 
 
 Given early sowing and a favorable season, there is a decide 
 gain in feeding down the growing crops with sheep or light horned 
 stock. Sheep have golden feet on a farm, especially on light 
 loams, and to use the patent medicine vendor's jargon, " no farm is 
 complete without them." If the growing crops are well forward 
 the sheep may be put in early, with great advantage to the sheep 
 and the crop. A large flock that will get over the ground and the 
 crop quickly is to be preferred, but better a small flock than none 
 at all. Feeding down in a forward season prevents fungus diseases 
 attacking sickly straws, the lodging of the crop, and induces the 
 plants to stool out well, and give an increased yield. The sheep 
 should be put on in dry weather, and early enough in the season to 
 give the crop time to recover. With clean land, deep and thorough 
 cultivation, clean seed, early sowing, feeding down, spring harrow- 
 ing, and anything like a favorable season, the farmer is safe, and 
 may count himself happy. 
 
 PICKLING SEED TO PREVENT SMUT. 
 
 Seed grain before sowing is pickled, in a manner which will 
 be described, in order to prevent the plant when fruiting being 
 attacked by parasitic fungi, commonly known as bunt and smut. 
 Bunt is produced by a species of fungus called Tillcliii foctciiSj 
 which occupies the whole farinaceous portions of the grain of 
 wheat, and gives the ear a burnt appearance. Smut is caused by 
 the attack of a fungus belonging to the section Ustilaginece of the 
 Hypvdermice group. Smut shows itself first in the organs of 
 fructifaction, the epidermis of which is ruptured in a great number 
 of places, a black soot like dust then appearing through the slits. In 
 color and shape the smut fungus resembles the bunt, but its spores 
 are not so long, and it possesses none of the disgusting odor that 
 characterises the latter. 
 
 Dr. Cobb, the vegetable pathologist of the Department of 
 Agriculture, New South Wales, says: "Loose smut first appears at 
 a time when the wheat comes into llo\ver, and this fact is in itself 
 almost a guarantee that this is the period at which it infests the 
 next crop. Bunt, on the other hand, does not break loose from its 
 ball-like enclosures until harvested and threshed. That is the 
 period at which it infests the crop, either through immediate con- 
 tact with healthy seed, or by being disseminated on the land so as 
 to infest the seed when sown." 
 
293 
 
 There are numerous chemical substances that may be used to 
 pickle seed, and prevent smut and bunt, but the one in most 
 general use is sulphate of copper, commonly known as Milestone. 
 This is cheap, easily procurable, and effective. When mixing the 
 pickle a copper or a wooden vessel should be used, as the vitrol 
 soon attacks and destroys other metals. The seed should not be 
 allowed to remain long in pickle, as it might absorb sufficient to 
 destroy the germ, or enough moisture to cause it to malt if sown in 
 dry ground. 
 
 The usual method of pickling is to dissolve Milestone in hot 
 water at the rate of a quarter of a pound to the gallon. This is 
 sufficient for half a bag of wheat. A quantity of the solution is 
 made and put into a half-barrel or wooden tub. The butt of seed 
 is submerged in this until the liquid has thoroughly penetrated it. It 
 is then lifted out and placed on a cross piece over the tub to drain. 
 If large quantities of wheat have to be handled, I think the most 
 expeditious and economical way is to dump the contents of several 
 bags out on the floor of the barn and sprinkle the grain with the 
 liquid from a garden watering-can, turning the grain over with a 
 shovel as the sprinkling goes on. A dusting with dry lime renders 
 the seed at once fit for sowing either by hand or drill. If the salt 
 pickle is used, the brine must be sufficiently strong to float an egg, 
 and the seed must be immersed for fully five minutes in the solu- 
 tion and, when taken out, mixed with one-twelfth its own weight 
 of dry lime. 
 
 Another plan is to dip the seed in a strong solution of lime, 
 the lime forming a thin coating upon the grain. If only a com- 
 paratively few bushels of seed have to be pickled, it will pay to 
 empty the contents of the bag into the pickling tub and stir them 
 well up. By this means all weed seeds, and light and defective 
 seeds that would not germinate, will come to the surface and may 
 be skimmed off. Every grain left in the tub will be sound and 
 whole. In whatever way the pickling is done, it must be borne in 
 mind that the s.eed must not be steeped or allowed to become 
 saturated with the solution. 
 
 The device, as shown in the accompanying diagram, will be 
 found useful and handy, not only for pickling seed wheat and other 
 grains, but for potatoes, as a precaution against disease. 
 
 The above is thus described by a writer in the Rural New 
 Yorker ; " I procure a good barrel, an oil barrel, and put a faucet 
 or plug in close to the bottom. Then I make a box 19 inches wide 
 outside (or three inches narrower than the chines of the barrel) by 
 three feet long, put cleats in the inside corners to strengthen it ; it 
 is open top and bottom, and as high as the tub I draw the liquid 
 into. I hollow out one end a little so the barrel will not roll when 
 turned down on its side ; the swell in the barrel just hits the end, 
 making it just about balance. I place the barrel on one end of the 
 box, with the faucet over the tub, fill with the solution and potatoes, 
 
294 
 
 let stand one hour, and open faucet. Whenf'the , solution has aL 
 run off, with one hand the barrel can be turned in the opposite 
 direction and the potatoes run into crates. Without any lifting, 
 lugging, or getting wet, a person who can lift a half-bushel of 
 potatoes can do all the work. I am using the same barrels and 
 
 
 tubs I commenced with four or five years ago, and I see no reason 
 why they are not good for several years yet. A pl.itform will not 
 do, as the barrel is hard to tip, rolls around, and when it passes the 
 centre, comes down too hard, and all the potatoes want to get 
 out at the same time. I am using the box for the first time this 
 season, and think now that I want nothing better." 
 
 If it is desired to pickle mai/e, peas, beans, or other large, hard 
 grains, the coal tar pickle is really the best. The tar is poured 
 upon the mai/e slowly and the grain stirred until every grain is 
 lightly but completely coated. It is then dusted with dry lime. 
 Seed so pickled will retain its vitality for any number of years, and 
 will not only be free from attacks by, but prove objectionable to, 
 the voracious crow and ground vermin. The all-devouring crow 
 may sample a few of the grains so treated, but he will not be found 
 making a practice of dining off them to any great extent afterwards, 
 unless all creation has dried up and left him absolutely starving. 
 The same remarks, founded on observation, apply to rats, 
 opossums, and other vermin. 
 
295 
 
 WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. 
 
 (tubers) 45 Ibs. 
 40 Ibs, 
 40 Ibs. 
 64 Ibs. 
 
 QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE. 
 The following table will be found useful for reference : 
 
 NAME. QUANTITY PER ACRE. 
 
 Artichokes, Jerusalem, in rows 3 ft. x 
 
 18 in., according to size 
 
 Barley, broadcast, for green fodder 2 bushels to 3 bushels 
 
 Barley, in drills if bushels to i bushels 
 
 Beans, field, in drills 20 in. to 30 in. apart. 2 bushels to 4 bushels 
 Beets, or mangels 
 Buckwheat, in drills 
 Cabbages, to be transplanted 
 Cabbages, in drills 
 Carrots 
 
 Chicory, in drills 
 Clovers 
 
 Cocksfoot grass 
 Couch grass 
 
 Cucumbers, melons, pumpkins 
 Flax (linseed) 
 Grass 
 
 Hemp, in drills 
 Kohl-rabi, in drills 
 Lucerne, broadcast 
 Lucerne, in drills 
 Lupins 
 
 Maize, for grain 
 
 Maize, for green fodder or ensilage 
 Mustard, broadcast 
 Oats 
 Onions 
 Parsnips 
 Peas, in drills 
 Peas, broadcast 
 
 Potatoes, in drills, or hills, cut, 
 Potatoes, (cut to single eyes), 
 Radish, broadcast, 
 Rape, broadcast, 
 Rape, in drills, 
 Rye 
 Sanfoin 
 
 Sorghum, broadcast, 
 Sorghum, in drills, 
 Turnips, in drills, 
 Turnips, broadcast, 
 Vetches or Tares 
 Wheat, broadcast, 
 Wheat, in drills, 
 
 6 Ibs. to 10 Ibs. 
 
 21 Ibs. 
 
 I bushel to i bushels 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 i Ib. to I Ib. 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 3 Ibs. to 4 Ibs. 
 
 ... 
 
 4 Ibs. to 6 Ibs. 
 
 (roots) 40 Ibs. 
 
 4 Ibs. to 7 Ibs. 
 
 (roots) 40 Ibs. 
 
 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 3 Ibs. to 5 Ibs. 
 
 2C Ibs. 
 
 7 Ibs. to 10 Ibs. 
 
 40 Ibs. 
 
 I Ib. to 2 Ibs. 
 
 20 Ibs. 
 
 i Ibs. to 2 Ibs. 
 
 56 Ibs. 
 
 2 bushels to 3 bushels 
 
 20 Ibs. 
 
 I Ib. to i^lbs. 
 
 40 Ibs. 
 
 3 Ibs. to 4 Ibs. 
 20 Ibs. 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 62 Ibs. 
 
 8 Ibs. 
 
 ... 
 
 I bushel to 2 bushels 
 
 62 Ibs. 
 
 I bushel 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 2 bushels to 3 bushels 
 
 ... 
 
 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. 
 
 50 Ibs. to 56 Ibs. 
 
 2 bushels to 3 bushels 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 5 Ibs. 
 
 40 Ibs. 
 
 6 Ibs. to 8 Ibs. 
 
 (roots) 40 Ibs. 
 
 l bushels to 2 bushels 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 3 bushels to 5 bushels 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 lo cwt. to 12 cwt. 
 
 45 Ibs. 
 
 3 cwt. to 5 cwt. 
 
 ... 
 
 4 Ibs. 
 
 35 Ibs. 
 
 8 Ibs. to 10 Ibs. 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 3 Ibs. to 5 Ibs. 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 i bushels to 2 bushels 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 I bushel 
 
 28 Ibs. 
 
 bushel to f bushel 
 
 40 Ibs. 
 
 bushel to bushel 
 
 ... 
 
 2 Irs. to 4 Ibs. 
 
 50 Ibs. 
 
 4 Ibs. to 6 Ibs. 
 
 ... 
 
 2 bushels to 3 bushels 
 
 64 Ibs. 
 
 i bushels to 2 bushels 
 
 60 Ibs. 
 
 bushel to J bushel 
 
 ... 
 
 PLANTS PER ACRE. 
 
 Feet apart 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Xo. of Plants. 
 
 10890 
 
 4840 
 
 2722 
 
 1742 
 680 
 
 Feet apart 
 
 9 
 10 
 12 
 
 15 
 18 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 
 537 
 435 
 302 
 
 193 
 
 134 
 
 Feet apart 
 2O 
 21 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 
 No. of Plants. 
 108 
 
 9f 
 69 
 
 48 
 
 35 
 
 RULE. Multiply the distances into each other, and with the product divide 
 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre), and the quotient is the number of plants. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 How TO PUT UP A CHEAP, SUBSTANTIAL, AND COMFORTABLE HOUSE 
 
 The selector, in the matter of buildings, will necessarily be 
 governed by the capital at his command. Possibly a tent, a slab- 
 and-dab or log hut, or a tin shanty will be the first home of the 
 new settler, but let us hope that whichever of these is chosen will 
 soon give place to a more substantial and comfortable residence. 
 To the settler who can run to bricks and mortar or stone from the 
 very start I have nothing to say about house construction, as he 
 will be well able to secure the services of an architect, and be very 
 foolish if he does not. In this chapter I merely presume to offer 
 to the selector with a limited amount of capital a few suggestions 
 that will enable him to put up a house, costing little, and yet sub- 
 stantial and comfortable. While the climate of Australia is tropical 
 and sub-tropical, the style of architecture chiefly in vogue is essen- 
 tially that of the temperate zone. Why this should be I do not 
 know, but it has always appeared to me to be wrong. In building 
 a house, or rather, I should say, a home for the former frequently 
 means a place in which we intend other people to live, the latter 
 always an abode for oneself the chief things to be aimed at are 
 that it should be cool in summer and warm in winter. In order to 
 obtain this most desirable end, certain natural laws must be strictly 
 observed. These laws, as far as my experience goes, are more 
 honored in the breach than in the observance, in the construction 
 of dwelling-houses in Australia. Galvanised iron is very largely 
 used in the construction of houses in the colonies, and a more 
 unsuitable and really dangerous material for the purpose it would 
 be hard to discover. A " tin " house is cheap, and like so many 
 other cheap things, it is nasty. It is intensely hot in summer, and 
 equally as cold in winter, and death lurks in every joint of it. From 
 an hygenic point of view a tent is infinitely preferable, and a slab- 
 and-dab hut a palace by comparison. 
 
 Milk is a peculiarly sensitive, complex fluid, and at once 
 affected by any marked variation in temperature. How very few 
 houses there are in Australia in which a pan of milk could be set in 
 any living room during the summer months, without its turning in 
 a few hours. There is always a place specially constructed, called 
 the dairy, in which the milk is kept. My argument is that what is 
 good for milk is good for man, the most sensitive and complex of 
 
2 9 7 
 
 solids, and that our houses in the tropical and sub-tropical portions 
 of Australia should be constructed on the same principle as dairies, 
 in which an equable temperature is secured all the year 
 round. It is curious, but I have noticed it frequently in 
 my Australian travels, that while a good dairyman will take all 
 sorts of precautions to ensure his milk being kept sweet and cool 
 in su miner and warm in winter, he himself lives, year in, year out, 
 in a construction of iron, wood or brick, stifling, stuffy and smelly in 
 the hot weather, and cold and draughty in winter. Obliquity of 
 economic vision must be responsible for this. The milk represents 
 so much cash, thinks the dairyman, totally ignoring the fact that 
 his brain, his bone and sinew, his flesh and blood, and his good 
 sound physical and mental health, all rolled into one, is the biggest 
 cash asset that there is on the farm. Australian farmers are a 
 healthy lot because they live so little in the houses they build for 
 themselves, while Australian farmers' wives, so far as my experience 
 goes, are, as a class, anything but robust, because chiefly they live 
 so much in these fearfully and wonderfully ill-constructed houses. 
 
 Some years ago, before the age of butter factories and creameries, 
 I lived in the northern part of Victoria, near a very large home- 
 built dairy, and I often visited the place. I made up my mind 
 then that if I ever built a house in Australia it should be on the 
 plan of this dairy on the principle that what is good for milk is 
 good for man. The time for the fulfilment of the self-imposed 
 promise came some four years ago, and it is this house, in which I 
 am still living, that I propose to briefly describe for the benefit of 
 the settler who has not too much money to spend on buildings and 
 yet desires to make himself as comfortable as possible. 
 
 I should like to say that I never built a dwelling house before, 
 and that I had no assistance but that furnished by an unskilled but 
 handy laborer, and that I was not a millionaire when I started the 
 contract. I mention these facts, not for my own glorification, but 
 merely to show that any one of ordinary intelligence who can use 
 a hammer, saw and chisel, can do likewise. We are all very wise 
 after the event, and I can see lots of little mistakes in construction 
 that will be avoided in the next house I have to put up. 
 
 The house originally consisted of four rooms (it has now 
 twelve) ; is built of two native materials, wood and mud, or pug, or 
 adobe, or whatever one likes to call it ; and this is how it is con- 
 structed : I bought a couple of truckloads of slabs (face cuts), some 
 round jarrah poles for corner posts, and the necessary sawn timbers 
 for the roof, floor joists and uprights. I first put up a shed 40 x 20, 
 that is, I put the necessary uprights in the ground and put the roof on 
 top of them. Then I covered the sides with slabs, leaving spaces for 
 doors and windows, trenching the slabs into the ground at the bottom 
 and nailing them to the wall plate at the top. The openings between 
 the slabs I closed with the thin ones, nailing them well on each side. 
 The next work was to put down the floor joists and lay the floors, 
 
2 9 8 
 
 leaving a space of 18 inches all round each room between the slab 
 wall and the ends of the joists. The windows and doors were hung 
 and the family moved in. Then commenced the real business of 
 house building. Inside the slab walls I proceeded to put up 
 18 inches of pug. I first laid down foundations of broken stone to 
 a level with the floors, and built the pug up on the top of these to the 
 
 
 height of the ceiling, when this was done the ceilings were put in, 
 the walls plastered with mud and made smooth, and the paper- 
 hanging and plastering i^iie on with until the intra-mural decor- 
 
299 
 
 ations were completed. The clay of which the walls are made is 
 of the common or garden variety, worked up with water into stiff pug, 
 carted in a burrow, and slapped up against the walls tier upon tier, 
 right round the house, until the required height is reached. The 
 finishing-off was done with lighter soil from the surface, and the 
 surface of the walls made as smooth as if they had been built of 
 brick and lime plastered. The construction of a place of this kind 
 is as simple as can be, and the only things I am particularly desirous 
 of impressing upon my readers are the precautions taken for keep- 
 ing the building cool. In order to explain these fully and clearly a 
 diagram is necessary. 
 
 The diagram shows the outer wall of slab, the inner wall of 
 pug, and between the two an air space. If the clay is thrown up 
 against the \vood it will shrink away from it in drying and leave a 
 space of an inch or more. Leading into the house from as many 
 directions as possible are air channels formed beneath the ground. 
 These can be made of galvanised iron down pipe, drain pipes, wood, 
 or any handy material that w r ill secure the uninterrupted circulation of 
 the air. They should fall away from the house, and this can easily be 
 done, presuming the house has been built up on a rise and not down in 
 a hollow. The longer these channels are, the cooler will be the air 
 flowing through them. The arrows in the diagram show the 
 direction in which the air circulates. The hot air from outside 
 passing through these channels is cooled in transmission and passes 
 between the outer wall of wood (a non-conductor of heat) and the 
 inner wall of clay and along the channel under the ceiling (as 
 shown) and out through the roof. The ceilings are covered under 
 the roof a foot or eighteen inches thick with rushes, and a louvre 
 window is placed at each gable end. It is easily seen that the 
 hotter the roof gets the greater the circulation of cool air, and the 
 cooler the house is, provided doors and windows are kept shut and 
 the hot air excluded. In a house ventilated as this is there is no 
 occasion for gaping doors and windows always ajar. So long as 
 the outer air is hotter than that inside the house there is nothing to 
 be gained in opening the windows if the house is properly venti- 
 lated. The sides of the channel running under the ceiling are 
 perforated, and the hot air in the rooms escapes through this, and 
 is replaced by cool air from below. The proof of the pudding is in 
 the eating, and I have lived for years, and am still living in such a 
 house as I describe, and it is without exception the coolest house 
 in summer and the warmest in winter that I know. 
 
 In putting up stables, cow byres, pig styes, and other farm 
 buildings, it must not be forgotten that the climate of this colony 
 does not necessitate elaborate buildings. It is veiy nice to have 
 substantial stables and out-buildings, but, at the same time, stock, 
 &c., will do here without them. At the same time it must be 
 remembered that the stock appreciate cool and shade in summer, and 
 warmth and shelter from the rain in winter, as much as we do, 
 
3 CO 
 
 and will repay in condition any extra trouble of this kind spent 
 upon them. The cost of well-arranged tool and harness rooms 
 will not seem great when we consider their convenience and the 
 saving which may be effected by them. " A place for everything and 
 everything in its place," is a maxim nowhere more important than 
 on the farm. On many farms much time that should be saved is 
 wasted in searching for tools left out of place and ill cared for. 
 
 The following dimensions of farm buildings of a most suitable 
 kind maybe found useful, andare taken from McConneir s Notebook : 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF DETAILS. 
 
 Book.) 
 
 (M'Connell's Note 
 
 Stable. 
 
 Length of stable travis, Qft. 
 
 Height of travis at end near wall, yft. ; at heel-post end, 5ft. 6in. 
 
 Thickness of division boards, i^in. ; width, 9111. 
 
 Heel-post. 6in. drum, or 6in. x Ijin. 
 
 Head-post, 6in. drum, or two pieces each 4in. x 2 J 
 
 Width of hay-rack, i8in. ; height above floor, 9111. 
 
 Width of manger, i8in. ; length, 2ft. 
 
 Height of top of manger and rack, 3ft. 
 
 Size of top and bottom rails of rack, 4in. x 3in. 
 
 Size of spars, 2in. x ijin., or 2in. square. 
 
 Depth of manger, gin. or loin. 
 
 Width of windows for stables and cowhouses, 3ft. 6in. x 4ft. 6in. 
 in height. Glass, 2i-oz. 
 
 Width of stable doors, 4ft. x yft. 6in. in height. 
 
 Width of gutter in stable, i2in. 
 
 Fall of ditto, ijin. to loin. 
 
 Fall of iloor of stall, lin. in 3ft. 
 
 Loose-box in stable to be twice the width of single stalls. 
 
 Louvre-board ventilator for every four animals, to be 6ft. long x 3! 
 wide and 2ft. 6in. above ridging to be divided longitudinally 
 by boarding so as to have an up-going and a down-going 
 current of air irrespective of the direction of the wind. 
 
 Cow-house. 
 
 Length of stall from front partition to gutter behind, yft. for average 
 cows and yft. wide ; cSft. square for largest only. 
 
 Length of travis, 4ft. ; height of travis, 4ft. to 5ft. 
 
 Thickness of travis, if of stone slab, 4in. ; if of wood-head, heel- 
 posts, and top rail,4in. x 3in. ; boards, i^in. thick and 9111. wide. 
 
 Length of feeding-trough, 3ft. ; width, 15111."; depth, ift. 
 
 Width of gutter, jft. ; height of cow's bed above bottom of gutter, 
 Sin. ; height of gangway above bottom of gutter, 6in. Gutter 
 to have a fall of ift. sideways (towards the gangway), besides 
 the fall lengthways. Gangway to be inclined towards gutter. 
 Cows' beds are thus 3in. above level of passages. 
 
3 oi 
 
 Width of dunging passage, 6ft. 
 
 Width of feeding passage, 4ft. 
 
 Hainmells for feeding cattle, loft, x i5ft. for each animal in shed. 
 
 Cattle-boxes, loft, square, with feeding passage 6ft. wide ; each box 
 
 provided with a door 4ft. wide and a turnip trough. 
 Cattle courts and sheds : 75ft. superficial allowed for each animal in 
 
 sheds, i5oft. in the court. 
 Shed for 300 sheep : jooft. long x I5ft. wide ; court, looft. x Soft., 
 
 or looft. square. 
 
 Roofs. 
 
 A roof of two of span to one of height is suitable for the smaller 
 
 offices. 
 A roof of three feet of span to one of height is suitable up to 3oft. 
 
 span. 
 Roofs under I5ft. span will do with simple tie-beam ; up to 25ft. 
 
 require king-post ; up to 3oft. require struts in addition. 
 
 The following recipes from Macka-y's Australian Agriculture will 
 be found useful in making paint for rough outside work : 
 
 1. Unslackened lime, 20 Ibs., slake it with water, covering 
 during the process to keep in the steam ; strain the liquid through 
 a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it 15 Ibs. or more salt, previously 
 dissolved in water ; rice, 3 Ibs., boiled to a thin paste, and stirred 
 in boiling hot ; Spanish whiting, ^ Ib. ; clean glue, i lb., which has 
 been previously dissolved in water, soaking it well, and then hang- 
 ing it over a slow fire in a small vessel immersed in a larger one 
 filled with water ; next add hot water to the mixture, enough to 
 make a nice thick paint, stir it well, and let it stand a few days 
 covered from dust ; then put it on hot if possible. This will last on 
 wood, stone, or brick for years. 
 
 2. " Machine," or skimmed milk, 2 quarts ; fresh slackened 
 lime, 6J ozs. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. ; common whiting, 3 Ibs. Put the 
 lime into a stoneware vessel ; pour upon it sufficient milk to make 
 it like thick cream ; add the oil a little at a time ; mix thoroughly ; 
 add remainder of milk, then the whiting made fine ; keep the 
 whole well stirred while using. 
 
 3. Cement wash (cement, or water-lime, as some call it). Mix 
 the cement with water, and apply three or four coats. Any color 
 may be added. This will last for years, and by renewing once in 
 two or three years a building may continue looking well at small 
 expense. 
 
 4. Use common stone lime ; slake or reduce it to powder in a 
 tub, by pouring on sufficient water. During the process cover the 
 tub with a bag to keep in the steam, then pass the powder through 
 a fine sieve, and to every 6 quarts add a quart of salt and a gallon 
 of water ; then boil and skim clear ; to every 5 gallons of the liquid 
 add pulverised alum i lb., pulverised bluestone J lb., and add, very 
 slowly, about 6 Ibs. of fresh burnt wood-ashes from mangrove or 
 
3 2 
 
 oak-wood, if possible, and any coloring matter desired. Apply the 
 paint with a brush. It looks well, and is very durable ; will stop 
 small leaks in roofs, prevent moss from growing thereon, make it 
 incombustible, and render bricks impervious to water. 
 
 A good base for rough paint is Spanish white, or, as it is more 
 commonly called, whiting, mixed in pure, raw linseed oil ; stir until 
 it is thoroughly mixed ; then reduce with oil to the consistency of 
 paint, and add a little turpentine or other drier, sufficient to dry it. 
 Apply with an ordinary brush. It must be thoroughly beaten up 
 together, so as to work out all the lumps of the whiting. Another : 
 For weather-worn weather-boading take about one half common 
 whiting, one half white lead, and a small portion of red lead or 
 chrome yellow to overcome the blackness of the wood, or add 
 umber for a drab color. Flax seed oil may be used ; a little turpen- 
 tine or kerosene makes the paint flow more freely from the brush. 
 Small portions of Venetian red and lampblack do for dark colors. 
 A good green paint for outdoor work may be made by rubbing two 
 parts of white lead and one or more of verdigris with linseed oil 
 varnish, mixed with oil of turpentine and diluted with ordinary 
 drying oil. 
 
 WALL PAPERING. 
 
 When ordering wall paper for internal decorations it is worth 
 knowing that a piece of paper is 12 yards long by 21 inches wide 
 (reckoned at 20 inches). To rind the number of pieces required, 
 divide the surface of wall in feet by 60. One-eighth to one-ninth 
 should be allowed for \vaste in hanging. 
 
 Many, especially those situated some distance from cities, 
 undertake to do their own paper hanging, and for the benefit of 
 these, the following suggestions, as published in the Ruml Xcn 
 Yorker, are given. Wall paper is cheap, it livens up the house and 
 adds to its aesthetic comfort, and any moderate expenditure in 
 making the home attractive is, in my opinion, amply justified. 
 Individual taste must be relied upon in the selection of colours or 
 designs suited to the various rooms to be papered, and so much 
 has already been written upon this subject that I shall only say in 
 regard to selection, choose for the first attempt a good quality of 
 paper, OIK- that will not tear easily ; though the expense may be a 
 trifle greater, the saving of time and dissapointment will more than 
 offset it, at least until you have gained a little experience in hand- 
 ling the paper. Sanitary papers will wash. 
 
 The lirst matter for consideration is a proper outfit for the 
 work. Purchase a "smoothing brush," a wide, thin-backed bristle 
 brush which may be had for 75 cents. An ordinary whitewash 
 brush of good quality, a rather soft one, is a good paste brush. 
 Then one needs a large pair of scissors, and a pocket or pouch large 
 enough to hold the smoothing brush and shears. This pocket is 
 suspended from the waist while working. This is the entire outfit 
 
of necessary tools, with the exception of an old table or, better, a 
 couple of broad, smooth boards supported on light trestles, making 
 a table about two feet wide and nearly as long as the room. 
 
 Do not cut the paper, piece by piece, as needed. Cut several 
 at a time, but before doing this, the paper should be trimmed. Lay 
 a bolt across the feet in an ordinary sitting posture, draw the end 
 up over the knees, and with the right hand, shear off the margin 
 with a clean, even cut, and roll up the ready trimmed portion with 
 the left hand, proceeding in this way until the whole bolt is 
 trimmed. 
 
 Always begin with the ceiling, and as there are 12 yards in a 
 bolt, a little head-work will quickly determine which way the paper 
 should run to cause the least waste, though the shorter width is the 
 easier to handle. 
 
 In cutting wall paper, never cut odd lengths, but always a 
 certain number of repeats. The repeat is usually from 13 to 17 
 inches long, and marked by a dot or print on the margin. The 
 ceiling pieces must be cut to the nearest repeat longer than the 
 width of the room. After the first cut, there need be no measure- 
 ment, as one lays the second piece over the first and cuts to the 
 same repeat mark, and so on until a whole bolt is cut, before be- 
 ginning to paste and hang. 
 
 This done, the worker will have a number of pieces lying upon 
 each other. Do not separate them. Simply turn the whole bunch 
 face downward on the long table. Have a pot of smooth flour 
 paste at hand, and with the brush quickly and thoroughly w r ash 
 over the first or uppermost sheet, and when done, fold each end in 
 towards the centre, leaving 10 to 12 inches of the pasted side ex- 
 posed at the middle of the piece. The first attempt at folding in 
 the ends will, doubtless, be a failure, as it requires quickness and 
 decision. Smooth these folds flat, and do not fear that the sharp 
 break in the paper will do any harm. 
 
 The sheet is now ready for hanging, the most difficult part of 
 all. Along one side of the ceiling draw a cord parallel to the side 
 wall, and about 16 inches from it, marking its position at intervals 
 with a pencil. Take up the pasted paper, paste side up, and hold- 
 ing it over your head on upturned palms, carefully fit the un- 
 trimmed margin to the line marked, at a point equidistant from 
 either end, and with a stroke or two of the smoothing brush paste 
 it fast. For one person alone to hang the ceiling requires great 
 dexterity, and an assistant to hold one end while you brush on the* 
 other will be indispensable at first, and at all times helpful. The 
 weight of the paper, if not supported, would immediately tear 
 itself away from the wall, so while the assistant holds one end, and 
 with the left hand retaining the central part already placed, loosen 
 the corner of the fold with the right thumb and finger, and pull it 
 down part of its length, after which its own weight will gradually 
 unfold it, while with bold strokes of the smoothing brush it is 
 
304 
 
 pressed firmly and smoothly to the ceiling. Striking the edge of 
 the brush into angles will push the paper entirely into them with- 
 out tearing. Treat the other end in the same way, and if the paper 
 should extend down the side walls more than three or four inches, 
 cut it off to that length after it is on the wall. The operation is 
 repeated for each successive sheet, carefully matching the paper at 
 the middle. Never begin at one end, but always at the middle, 
 and then if the paper does not perfectly match, the ends may be 
 allowed to loosen by their own weight till near the middle, and 
 then be corrected and brushed smooth again. 
 
 The walls are not so difficult as the ceiling, though, in cutting 
 the paper for them, the lengths are cut in the same way. Find the 
 height of the room, beginning five or six inches from the ceiling, 
 and measuring down to the baseboard, including the chairboard if 
 there is one, and cut to the nearest repeat longer than this measure- 
 ment. This will always result in the least waste of paper. Paste 
 and fold in the ends as before, and mark with a plumb line for the 
 edge of the first piece. The object in folding the paper paste inward is 
 that it may be handled then like dry paper, and while at work the 
 printed side will be against the wall, thus allowing it to swing 
 clear without adhering until you have it properly placed. 
 
 Loosen a few inches of the upper end, and beginning near 
 enough the ceiling so that the border will cover it, fasten and let 
 the sheet drop, smoothing it to the wall as it unfolds. Reaching 
 behind, start the lower fold, and with the brush work the paper 
 into the angle at the top of the chair-board, and draw the point 
 of the shears along the angle, not so as to scratch, however, but 
 merely to make a mark. With the left hand, draw the paper 
 away a few inches again and cut along this line, and smooth down 
 a second time. This makes a perfect fit every time, if properly 
 cut. The piece thus cut off is not laid aside, but is placed beneath 
 the chair-board, extending several inches above its lower edge as 
 well as down over the edge of the base-board. Mark these angles 
 as above, cutting to the line, and again smoothing into place with 
 the brush. All angles, horizontal or perpendicular, are treated in 
 this same way, and one should never undertake to cut a piece of 
 paper beforehand to fit a certain space, for it cannot be done. 
 Spaces over doors and windows will, of course, require the cutting 
 of short pieces, which often results in considerable waste, but it 
 cannot be avoided if you would do nice work. Last of all, the 
 border is hung, but this requires no new method of handling. It 
 may take a beginner a trifle longer to paper a room than it would 
 a professional, but even the first attempt, if carried out in this way, 
 will be far superior to the lower grade of professional work. 
 
 The following approximate quotations for building necessaries 
 are kindly supplied by W. Sandover and Co., of Perth and 
 Fremantle : 
 
305 
 
 Square painted iron tanks. 
 50 100 200 400 gallons 
 
 355. 455. 575. 6d. 753. each. 
 
 Round galvanized iron tanks, with brass tup. 
 
 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 gallons 
 32s. 6d. 353. 453. 523. 6d. 6os. 72s. 82s. 903 nos. each. 
 Galvanized gutter O.G. or half-round, in lengths of 6 feet. 
 
 456 inch 
 2}d. 2d. 3d. per foot. 
 
 Galvanized ridge capping, in lengths of 6 feet. 
 12 14 15 16 18 inch. 
 
 2fd. 3 ',d. 3d. 3fd. 4d. per foot. 
 
 Galvanized down pipe, in lengths of 6 feet. 
 2 2^ 3 inch 
 
 2d. 2^d. 2|d. per foot. 
 
 Galvanized corrugated iron. 
 
 26 gauge. 5 6 7 8 9 10 feet. 
 
 Sheets per ton. 226 186 162 140 120 112 
 
 ^17 153. per ton. ^"18 155. ^19 153. per ton. 
 
 Doors, American, four-panel. 
 6 It. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x I $ in. 6 ft. 6in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x l in. 
 
 133. 3d. 145. 6d. 
 
 6 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. 8 in. x i^ in. 6ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. loin, x if in. 
 
 i6s. 193. each. 
 
 Sashes, six-light. 
 8 x 10 10 x 12 10 x 14 12 x 14 
 
 5s. 6s. gd. 75 gd. 8s. gd. per pair. 
 
 T Hinges, 6 in. 8 in. 10 in. 12 in. 14 in. 16 in. 18 in. 
 
 4d. 6d. 6d. 7d. 8d. is. is. 3d. pr. 
 
 Butt Hinges, 1^ in. 2 in. 2\ in. 2^ in. 3 in. 3^ in. 4 in. 
 
 3d. 4d. 4 d. 4d. 5d. 6d. 7d. pair. 
 
 Rim Locks, 6 in. 7 in. 8 in. 
 
 2s. gd. 35. 6d. 6s. each. 
 
 Genuine White Lead, 305. per cwt. 
 Raw Linseed Oil, 33. 6d. per gallon. 
 Turpentine, 33. 6d. per gallon. 
 Wood Screws, 
 
 is. 
 
 j 
 
 x 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6d. 6jd. 7id. 
 
 3 
 
 x 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 ii 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6*d. 
 
 7*d. ! 
 
 7id- 
 
 8d 
 
 8d. 
 
 9d. 
 
 iod. 
 
 
 I 
 
 x 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 7id. 
 
 8d. ! 
 
 3d. 
 
 
 . 9 d. 
 
 iod, 
 
 lid. 
 
 
 jl 
 
 x 8 
 
 9 
 
 IO 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 iod. 
 
 iod. I id. 
 
 IS 
 
 is. id. 
 
 is. 4 
 
 d. is. 8d 
 
 
 l.V 
 
 x 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 lid. 
 
 IS. 
 
 IS. 
 
 is. id. is. 2d. 
 
 is. 6d. is. iod. 
 
 If 
 
 x 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 
 is. id. 
 
 is. id 
 
 . id. 2d. 
 
 is. 3d. is. 4d. 
 
 is. 8d. 2s. 
 
 2 
 
 X 10 
 
 II 
 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 is. 3d. 
 
 is. 4d, 
 
 , is. 6d. 
 
 is. iod. 2s 
 
 3d. 
 
 2s. 8d. 
 
 
 2l 
 
 X 10 
 
 II 
 
 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 is. 6d. 
 
 is. 8d 
 
 . IS 
 
 . iod. 
 
 2s. 3d. 2s 
 
 . 8d. 
 
 3s. 
 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 WRITTEN ESPECIALLY FOR WEST AUSTRALIAN FARMERS. 
 BY W. ERNEST COOKE, Government Astronomer. 
 
 Farmers and sailors are proverbially weatherwise. Being 
 accustomed to an outdoor life in which the vicissitudes of climate 
 play such an important part, they naturally acquire the habit of 
 observing closely the sequences in the formation of cloud, direction 
 of wind, and rainfall ; yet notwithstanding this general proficiency 
 their knowledge may be supplemented by an intelligent use of 
 instruments designed to estimate the density, temperature, and 
 humidity of the atmosphere, and a carefully compiled record of 
 the rain will inform them as to the quantity which they may 
 reasonably expect to fall within a season. It is the purpose of this 
 article to give a brief description of the meteorological instruments 
 generally employed, with simple directions for reading them : 
 
 THE BAROMETER. 
 
 I am sorry I cannot recommend an aneroid, as it is in many 
 respects convenient. But its indications are not as a general rule to 
 be depended on, unless compared at intervals of a few months with 
 some reliable standard. For those who intend to take systematic 
 observations a mercurial barometer is almost indespensable. The 
 particular form I should recommend is the " Board of Trade 
 Standard," sold in England for ^4 45. Fairly reliable mercurial 
 barometers can be obtained from i is. upwards. 
 
 In making observations pay no attention whatever to the legend 
 inscribed on the face, such as " rain," " change," etc. These may 
 possibly be of use to the people of London, but are only misleading to 
 dwellers in West Australia. Read the barometer (as described 
 below) together with the attached thermometer at a certain hour or 
 hours every day, 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. if convenient, and keep a record 
 of these readings. 
 
 Prognostications are to be obtained by observing first, the 
 actual reading, reduced to sea level ; second, the rate of rise or fall. 
 In order to reduce to sea level a set of Scott's tables are useful, but 
 failing these the reductions can approximately be affected in the 
 following manner. First subtract a quantity, depending upon the 
 reading of the attached thermometer, which can be obtained by 
 interpolation from the following : 
 
307 
 
 Reading of thermometer 40 deg., subtract -031. 
 
 50 deg., -058. 
 
 60 deg., -085. 
 
 70 deg., -in. 
 
 80 deg., -138. 
 
 90 deg., -164. 
 
 100 deg., -191. 
 
 no deg., -217. 
 
 Next add the correction for the height of the station above sea 
 level. This can be obtained exactly from Scott's tables, or roughly, 
 by taking - ioo inch for every 100 feet in height. If readings are 
 carefully taken and reduced, and the means computed every month, 
 it will probably be found that they oscillate on each side of 30 
 inches. In fact it may be taken as a first generalization that a 
 reading over 30 accompanies hne weather, and under 30 bad. But 
 it will be further noticed that the barometer is on the whole lower 
 in summer than in winter. Hence we may expect unsettled 
 weather w r ith a reading of 30*1 or 30*2 in winter, whereas it may be 
 fine when the barometer indicates 29*8 or 29-9 in summer. But we 
 must also pay attention to the rise and fall. The usual sequence is 
 as follows : The barometer commences to fall with fine, bright 
 weather, becoming warmer until the lowest point is nearly reached. 
 As this point approaches, the sky becomes overcast, and rain is 
 probable. After the minimum, as the barometer commences to 
 rise, the weather generally becomes squally, especially in winter, 
 with driving showers from the N.W. and W. These gradually 
 diminish in intensity, but may be expected occasionally as long as 
 the barometer commences to rise, or the wind remains in the west. 
 It not infrequently happens that the weather clears rapidly after 
 the minimum has been reached, but the barometer remains 
 stationary, or commences to fall a second time, and the wind backs 
 from W. or N.W. to N. or N.E. In this case prepare for even 
 heavier squalls within 24 hours, or probably less. The indications in 
 summer are not as a rule so well marked as in winter, but generally 
 when the barometer falls below 29^8 unsettled weather may be 
 looked for, and if in addition the mercury be very unsteady thunder- 
 storms may be expected. Do not mistake the diurnal change for a 
 falling barometer, the reading at 3 p.m. being almost always slightly 
 below that at 9 a.m. 
 
 THERMOMETER AND HYGROMETER. 
 
 The best form of hygrometer consists of two ordinary 
 thermometers mounted vertically side by side, one of which 
 has a strip of muslin attached to the bulb at one end and 
 dipping into a cup of water at the other. These thermometers 
 are known as dry bulb and wet bulb. Suitably exposed 
 the dry bulb indicates the " temperature in the shade," and the 
 two conjointly with the aid of Symons' hygrometrical tables, give 
 
308 
 
 the amount of humidity in the atmosphere. Considerable care 
 should be bestowed upon the wet bulb in order to obtain accurate 
 indications. A strip of fine mull muslin about four inches long and 
 just wide enough to go once round the bulb, with a quarter-inch 
 overlap, should be provided. Obtain the services of an assistant to 
 hold the thermometer, and after wetting the muslin wrap one end 
 round the bulb, leaving the other end to hang down. Now tie a 
 piece of cotton round the stem (and muslin) above the bulb, and 
 moderately tightly round the muslin underneath the bulb. The 
 muslin should fit tightly and not be " baggy." The loose end which 
 hangs vertically should be placed in a cup of water. The surface 
 of the water should be i^ inches below the bulb, and the cup should 
 be frequently refilled as the liquid evaporates. The muslin must be 
 kept clean and renewed frequently (at least once a week in summer). 
 This hygrometer will be found a valuable auxiliary to the barometer, 
 but notwithstanding this the u farmer's barometer," where the 
 three instruments are combined, cannot be recommended, as the 
 dry and wet bulb require to be exposed outside, whereas a 
 barometer is usually mounted inside the house. It will be noticed 
 that on a dry summer day when the dry bulb reads 100 deg. the 
 difference between the dry and wet amounts to as much as 30 cleg. 
 This, of course, indicates that the atmosphere is very dry, and as a 
 matter of fact, under these conditions it is capable of holding nearly 
 five times as much aqueous vapour before condensation occurs. As 
 a general rule the less the difference between the dry and wet bulbs 
 the more humid is the atmosphere, but the actual amount of humidity 
 can be obtained from Symon's hygrometrical tables. 
 
 In addition to the hygrometer it is well to have a pair of self- 
 registering thermometers, maximum and minimum, and I should 
 recommend Negretti and Zambra's form of maximum (in fact I can 
 confidently recommend these makers for all thermometers), and 
 strongly advise that they be graduated on the stem, not on the 
 mount. In this instrument there is a slight contraction of the tube 
 just above the bulb. The thermometer is mounted almost 
 horizontally, but with the bulb end slightly lower (about { inch) than 
 the other, and acts as an ordinary dry bulb as long as the tempera- 
 ture is increasing, but the moment it starts to decrease a small break 
 is noticeable in the mercury column at the point of contraction. 
 The force of cohesion being insufficient to overcome this extra 
 friction, the mercury behind the break flows gradually down toward 
 the bulb, whilst that in front remains in position, thus indicating the 
 highest point reached. The minimum thermometer has a spirit 
 column in the place of a mercurial, and a black glass index moves 
 freely in the spirit, but cannot, without violence, enter the vacuum 
 at the top of the tube. As the temperature decreases, the index is 
 carried down by the spirit until the lowest point is readied, and as 
 the atmosphere then gets wanner the spirit Hows past, leaving the 
 index to record the lowest temperature attained. The question of 
 
309 
 
 thermometer exposure is a very difficult one. What do we mean 
 by " temperature in shade ?" Is it the shade of a tree, a verandah, 
 or an iron shed ? A form of exposure known as the " Stevenson's 
 screen " has been adopted by the Royal Meteorological Society, and 
 is in extensive use elsewhere. Nearly, if not quite all, the Govern- 
 ment observing stations throughout Australia mount their ther- 
 mometers in this manner, and it is to be highly recommended. If 
 thermometers are not thus exposed a comparison cannot be made 
 with the statistics published by any of the recognised observatories. 
 The Stevenson screen is a wooden box i foot 6 inches high, i foot 
 8 inches wide, and i foot i inch deep, internal measurement. The 
 top and bottom are of double boards, having an air space of at least 
 an inch between, and plenty of ventilation, and the sides, including 
 the door, are of double louvres, so that the wind passes through, but 
 the direct radiation from the sun or ground is excluded. This is 
 mounted on four stout posts, with four others extending diagonally 
 from the top corners to act as supports in case of high winds. All 
 four thermometers, viz., dry bulb, wet bulb, maximum and minimum, 
 should be mounted in this screen, the two latter nearly horizontally, 
 and the two former vertically, but behind the others. If readings 
 can be taken only once a day, say at 9 a.m. the dry and wet should 
 be recorded first, so that the heat of the body will not vitiate their 
 reading. Then read the maximum and minimum without touching 
 them, but enter the reading of the former to the previous day. 
 After this has been done and checked, both of these maybe set, and 
 the muslin of the wet bulb be attended to if necessary. If obser- 
 vations are also taken at 3 p.m. it is better to read the minimum and 
 set the maximum at 9 a.m., and read the maximum and set the 
 minimum at 3 p.m. In this case, of course, the reading of the 
 maximum must be entered opposite the day on which it was taken. 
 The self -registering thermometers immediately after setting should 
 read the same, or nearly, as the dry bulb. 
 
 RAIN GUAGE. This very useful instrument is so well known 
 that a description and instructions as to its use are hardly necessary. 
 It may be as well to state that the top scratch, or mark, on the 
 measuring glass registers 50 points, or half an inch, and that rainfall 
 observers in Western Australia are now instructed to record the 
 amount in " points." It may also be mentioned that the Perth 
 Observatory is prepared to issue rain guages to persons residing in 
 approved localities, and likely to settle permanently, upon the con- 
 dition that a record be faithfully kept and a monthly return be sent 
 to head-quarters on forms supplied for the purpose. 
 
 WIND. The direction from which the wind blows should 
 always be noted, and it is desirable to have a vane erected in a well 
 exposed situation. A few hints as to the connection between the 
 wind and weather have already been given under the heading " The 
 barometer." It may also be added that the usual direction in which 
 the wind changes in the south-western and southern portions of thi s 
 
310 
 
 colony is from south round by E., N., and W. This is called 
 "veering/' as the reverse, viz., S., W., N., and E., is called " backing." 
 In the winter it will be found that the wind almost always u veers," 
 and steady rain sometimes sets in with the wind at N.E., changing 
 to squalls as it reaches the N.W. By the time it reaches S.W., an 
 early cessation may usually be expected, but the rain sometimes 
 continues, especially on the south coast, right round to S.E. Do 
 not confuse the direction of the wind with the direction from which 
 the storm is travelling. When the wind is at N.E., the storm is 
 generally well to the westward and approaching so as to pass the 
 south of the observer. In fact, nearly all the winter storms travel 
 from west to east or thereabouts. In summer the wind occasionally 
 " backs," as thunderstorms seem to come from all quarters. With 
 the wind " backing," the storm is probably to the north, and passing 
 round to the eastward. 
 
 CLOUDS. It is probably by the feel of the wind and the 
 appearance of the cloud that most farmers prophesy, but even if this 
 be so it will be found that organised knowledge is preferable to that 
 obtained at haphazard. The subject cannot be properly treated on 
 account of its importance, in such an article as this, but I can 
 recommend the careful perusal of " Cloudland " by Clement Ley. 
 Clouds are divisible under three different headings cirrus, cumulus, 
 and stratus. The first-named are popularly known as " wind clouds" 
 or " mare's tails." They are high whisps, very common in summer. 
 When they appear in wintertime they are of considerable significance, 
 for they usually presage rain. This prognostic is strengthened if 
 they develop into cirro-stratus, a sheet of high thin cloud which 
 forms those large dark rings round sun or moon known as haloes. 
 When a storm clears quickly, and cirrus is seen above the lower 
 clouds, it generally portends another fall of the barometer with more 
 rain before long. In summer they occur so frequently that their 
 significance is lost, and even the name of " wind cloud " has no 
 justification. The name " cumulus " is given to any heavy woolly 
 mass of cloud. It is seen in perfection on a warm quiet summer 
 day about noon, or later. In its pure form it generally 
 accompanies line weather, but does not necessarily forecast 
 it. When the edges harden, and the cloud appears like a huge 
 cauliflower head, with a dark base, thunder and lightning may be 
 expected. When, on the contrary, it appears with soft and very 
 ragged edges moving rapidly, squalls are likely. Cumulo-nimbus is 
 the name given to the ordinary squall cloud. It is a species of 
 cumulus, but surcharged with moisture, and altogether darker and 
 softer than the pure specimen. Sometimes the cumulus, instead of 
 appearing in detached masses, forms into the long heavy rolls 
 (strato-cumuliis) and covers the sky in this shape. With this 
 appearance line dry weather may be expected, but frequently 
 accompanied by keen winds between S. and E. The third great 
 cloud division is " stratus." Originally this term was applied to 
 
3" 
 
 lifting fog, but now it signifies any thin layer of vapour clouds. 
 There are really two distinct types of stratus. When cirro-stratus 
 drops and becomes denser it forms into a dense sheet, through 
 which the sun appears as a misty blue. This is called alto-stratus, 
 and is considered an intermediate type. It generally continues to 
 fall and becomes still denser. It is now regarded as a stratus, but 
 perhaps the term strato-nimbus would better describe it. From this 
 cloud steady rain often falls. The other type is met with on a line 
 day. It is a thin layer of vapour cloud, but broken up, showing 
 patches of blue sky, and at night often forming beautiful coloured 
 "corona?" round the moon. This is regarded as distinctly asso- 
 ciated with fine weather. I should suggest that the former kind be 
 designated strato-nimbus, and the latter broken stratus. Nimbus is 
 scarcely a seperate division, but is a general term for clouds from 
 which rain falls. I have now briefly described all the principal 
 kinds of clouds except two, viz., cirro-cumulus and alto-cumulus. 
 The former consists of high, small lumps, sometimes called mackerel 
 clouds. They are not infrequently arranged in parallel lines and 
 associated with cirrus. When these are lower and coarser, but 
 still finer and higher than ordinary cumulus, they are called alto- 
 cumulus. We have then the following classification, where the 
 clouds are arranged roughly in order of height : 
 
 Cirrus, 
 
 Cirro-stratus (alto-stratus), 
 
 Cirro-cumulus, 
 
 Alto-cumulus, 
 
 Cumulus, 
 
 Strato-cumulus, 
 
 Cumulo-nimbus, 
 
 Nimbus, 
 
 Stratus. 
 
 Having now given a brief sketch of the principal instruments 
 employed by meteorologists, and indicated a few of the rules by which 
 they endeavour to forecast the weather, I will now repeat for the 
 benefit of those who may wish to take systematic observations, some 
 of the instructions which are issued to the meterological observers 
 connected with the Perth Observatory. Private observers cannot do 
 better than conform to the same system, and I shall always be happy 
 to give any explanations or afford any assistance in my power. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 
 
 The Stevenson screen must be erected in an exposed situation, 
 with the door facing south. The bottom of the louvred box must be 
 level, and about four feet from above the ground. 
 
3 I2 
 
 The barometer must be mounted either in the office or the 
 observer's private quarters. A spot should be selected free from 
 draughts and other disturbing influences (such as fires, etc.), and with 
 a good side light if possible. In mounting it, first fix the detached 
 bracket on the wall at a height of four feet above the floor, and then, 
 taking the barometer very carefully out of the box, drop the end of 
 the " arm " into the bracket. If the wall be constructed of stone or 
 brick, a wooden plug should be inserted, and the bracket affixed 
 thereto. Paste a piece of white paper on the wall immediately 
 behind the top part of the tube. 
 
 The thermometers are : Dry bulb, wet bulb, maximum, and 
 minimum. These are all placed in the Stevenson screen. The two 
 former are to be hung vertically in the brass clips attached to the 
 moveable wooden arms at the back of the screen. The maximum 
 and minimum are to be laid horizontally in the wooden brackets 
 attached to the uprights in the front part of the screen, the bulb ends 
 being to the left and slightly lower than the other ends. 
 
 The rain guage must be in a well exposed situation. Its rim 
 must be level and about a foot above the ground. 
 
 Reading the barometer. There are two scales, one fixed and 
 one movable. The latter is called the " vernier." First turn the 
 " vernier " up until the light can be seen between the top of the 
 mercury and the bottom of the vernier. Then turn the vernier 
 down slowly until its bottom edge just touches the rounded top of 
 the mercury. In doing this it is absolutely necessary that the eye 
 should be in a line with the front and back edges of the vernier, and 
 the observer must move his head up and down so as to be quite sure 
 of this. The barometer, being now set, is read as follows: First 
 write down the reading of the fixed scale next below the point where 
 it is cut by the bottom of the vernier. The divisions of the fixed 
 scale are as follows : 
 
 30.200 
 
 30.150 
 
 30.100 
 
 30.050 
 
 30.000 
 
 29.950 
 
 29.900 
 
 29.850 
 
 29.800 
 and so on. 
 
 Secondly find a line on the vernier which agrees exactly with a line 
 on the fixed scale (there will generally be one and only one such 
 line). Take its reading on the vernier, remembering that the 
 divisions run from below upwards 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 (marked i), 12, 14, 16, 
 1 8, 20 (marked 2), etc.,, and add this vernier reading to the fixed 
 scale reading. The sum will be the " barometer reading." 
 
EXAMPLE. Thus, suppose the bottom of the vernier cuts the 
 fixed scale between 30.050 and 30.100, the first quantity would be 
 30.050. Then suppose the vernier reading is 28. Add 28 to 30.050, 
 and the sum 30.078, will be the barometer reading. 
 
 READING THE THERMOMETERS. These must always be read in 
 degrees and tenths. Thus, suppose the mercury is just half-way 
 between 72 and 73, the temperature must be entered at 72.5. If not 
 quite quarter way call it 72.2. If nearly 73 call it 72.8, etc. A little 
 practice will soon make this easy. If the mercury is just opposite a 
 whole degree always enter .o ; thus 72.0, 73.0, not 72, 73. 
 
 The minimum or spirit thermometer has a small black " index." 
 The end of this index farthest from the bulb is to be read and 
 recorded as the minimum. 
 
 SETTING THE THERMOMETERS. The dry bulb need never be 
 touched. The wet bulb need be taken down only when the muslin 
 is changed ; but the maximum and minimum must be set once a day. 
 At 9 a.m. the observer will notice that there is generally a break in 
 the mercury column of the maximum thermometer just above the 
 bulb. He must now lift the thermometer carefully out of the bracket 
 and holding it vertically with the bulb end downwards, gently shake 
 it until the mercury quite, or very nearly, unites ; then carefully re- 
 place it. This is called setting the maximum. 
 
 CAUTION. Never let the bulb end of a maximum thermometer 
 be raised higher than the other end, even by half an inch. 
 
 In setting the minimum thermometer at 3 p.m., take the instru- 
 ment off the bracket and gently raise the bulb end until the black 
 index has run down to the end of the spirit ; then replace it care- 
 fully. 
 
 N.B. In setting the maximum or minimum do not remove 
 the thermometer into the sunlight. There is plenty of room inside 
 the box. 
 
 ACCIDENTS TO INSTRUMENTS. The minimum thermometer is 
 liable to have its column of spirit broken, but this can generally be 
 immediately rectified. (A new minimum sent by rail or boat will 
 almost always have this fault, and it must be attended to before 
 mounting). Grasp the thermometer firmly at the end (not the bulb 
 end) and extend the arm horizontally in front of the body. Then, 
 taking care that there is nothing in the way, swing the arm rapidly 
 downwards past the hips. Keep repeating this operation until the 
 column re-unites. The " index " will now be found in the bulb, ancl 
 perhaps stuck fast, but if the thermometer be held bulb upwards a 
 slight tap will release the index. Always make a note of any such 
 occurrence in the field book and on the monthly return. 
 
 UNUSUAL METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. Whenever an un- 
 usual phenomenon occurs, such as a violent storm or a rapid fall of 
 the barometer, take frequent readings of the barometer and direction 
 
3*4 
 
 and force of the wind, and note the lowest reading with the time of 
 its occurrence, and the way in which the wind veered. 
 
 Observations must be taken at proper times. If the observer is 
 absent he must employ a substitute. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 A FEW HINTS ON VEGETABLE GROWING. 
 
 The culture of fruits of all kinds is dealt with in a separate 
 volume, the Handbook of Horticulture and Viticulture, edited by Mr. 
 Despeissis, the expert of the Bureau, so no reference will be made 
 to this subject here. 
 
 It is to be hoped that the new settler will find time to establish 
 a flower garden in front of the house, if it is only a small plot. 
 Western Australia is universally famous for the variety and beauty 
 of its indigenous flora, and many of our prettiest flowers are 
 improved by cultivation in gardens. There is nothing that adds so 
 much attractiveness to the surroundings and the beauty of the home- 
 stead as a flower garden, and if only for the pleasure of the good wife 
 and the silent education of the younger members of the family in the 
 most beautiful and entrancing art of floriculture, every effort should 
 be made to have a few beds of flowers and some ornamental trees 
 and shrubs around the house. A trellis of vines of some table 
 variety is a delight as well as distinct commercial gain, and the same 
 may be said of the passion fruit (passifiora edulis), which thrives 
 luxuriantly in moist ground, and gives a handsome return in a short 
 time. Creepers should be planted to cover up rough and unsightly 
 buildings, and they serve the double purpose of keeping the out- 
 buildings much cooler. The dolichus lignosus is a favourite creeper 
 in the warmer districts and grows very readily. The native 
 kenncdias and the bonrgaiurilha have the same recommendation, 
 and make a most gorgeous show when in flower. 
 
 " Truck" farming, as it is known in the southern states of 
 America, that is, growing culinary vegetables and ground fruits, such 
 as melons, pumpkins, etc., on a large scale, will be dealt with 
 separately in the second edition of the Handbook of Horticulture and 
 Viticulture. There are large areas of land in this colony, in the south- 
 west, that are, by reason of the nature of the soil, the mildness of 
 the climate, and the plenteous rainfall, admirably adapted to truck 
 farming, and it is surprising that this industry has not developed 
 more than it has. Vegetables are now being grown on more than 
 a small scale with irrigation as far north as Cue, and on the Eastern 
 Goldfields ; and in Part i of the GUIDE a good deal was said about 
 the possibilities of this culture in the south-west Land Division. 
 

 316 
 
 The swamp lands of the south are particularly suited to the growth 
 of culinary vegetables, and it cannot be very long before the value 
 of these lands is appreciated, and the monopoly of vegetable 
 growing is wrested from the hands of the patient but somewhat 
 objectionable Mongolian. I have never been able to understand 
 why the Chinese in Australia should be allowed to retain the 
 
 practical monopoly of vegetable growing. Their intelligence is 
 not so great as that of the Caucasian ; their methods are pre- 
 adamite ; and their labor, though apparently cheap, is more costly 
 in the end than that of the white man. The truck farmers of the 
 south-eastern states of America are all white men and have driven 
 
the Chinese completely out of the market. Why cannot the same 
 be done here ? I have no doubt it will in time, as our vast area of 
 swamp and other gardening land becomes appreciated at its true value. 
 There is at the present time, and will be for many years to come, 
 more than a competence for the intelligent vegetable grower, and 
 when I say intelligent, I mean the man who will not be content to 
 fiddle about with a spade and hoe, but will go into the business on a 
 large scale, using horse power as much as possible and hand labor as 
 little as possible. As this chapter is intended to deal chiefly with the 
 house garden of the settler it is not necessary to say more about soil 
 than that a light fertile loam should be selected for the garden. No 
 matter how rich it may be naturally, the more manure that is applied 
 the better, if the best of vegetables are wanted. Liberal applications 
 of well-rotted stable manure aided by artificial manures should be 
 made after each crop is removed. If the soil is of a stiffish nature 
 the ground should be ploughed or dug very deeply, and in the 
 vegetable garden sub-soiling or trenching will be found to pay. In 
 matter of implements illustrations are given of a handy little garden 
 plough, turning a furrow 5 x 10 inches and costing 3. 
 
 THE PLANET JR. COMBINED DRILL, WHEEL HOE, CULTIVATOR, RAKE 
 AND PLOUGH ; COST 2 158. 
 
 The Planet Jr. implements are great favourites with gardeners 
 and the various kinds are also illustrated. 
 
3*8 
 
 In order to prevent or mitigate the attacks of insect pests and 
 fungus diseases the gardener should provide himself with a spray 
 
 pump. If the garden is only a small one a knapsack pump such as 
 shown in the illustration, costing 3 5*., will do all the work. If 
 a cheaper and smaller one is desired a handy little pump costing 
 i 155. is also shown. 
 
The application of flowers of sulphur is often rendered 
 necessary to destroy the spores of fungus diseases, and though this 
 can generally be applied, like lime, by means of a dredger or a piece 
 
 of gunny sack shaken over the plant, if a large area has to be gone 
 over it will be found more economical to buy a sulphuring machine, 
 such as is shown herewith, costing 3. 
 
3 20 
 
 When a large area has to be sprayed it will be found better 
 to get, at once, a Nixon spray pump, such as is shown below, and 
 have it fixed to a barrel. The barrel is placed on a sled or low 
 wheeled waggon and drawn by a horse wherever wanted. Cost, ^5 
 
 IOS. 
 
 PLANET JR. PLAIN DOUBLE WHEEL HOE | COST l IOS. 
 
 It is impossible with a range of climate so great as that 
 Western Australia to formulate a gardener's calendar that wilUbe 
 suitable to the whole of the south-west Land Division. The new 
 settler must be guided by local experience in the first place, and by 
 the results of his own experience as it accumulates. 
 
 The following notes on the cultivation of culinary vegetables, 
 compiled by Mr. W. Adamson, the well-known gardener of Victoria, 
 will be found useful by the amateur. 
 
ASPARAGUS (.-1 .</<// </^//s ofticiinilis.) Cultivation. Sow in Sep- 
 tember in rich, light soil, in rows eighteen inches apart, and 
 when large enough thin out to nine inches. Care should be taken 
 to keep down all weeds for the first year, else they will choke and 
 destroy the young seedlings. To have the young plants strong for 
 transplanting, plenty of water or liquid manure should be given 
 
 during dry weather. The most economical width for an asparagus 
 bed is rive feet, which will take three rows, one down the centre 
 and one on each side, about a foot from the edge. When planting 
 is finished, the ground should be mulched with a thick coating of 
 good stable dung, and when the weather becomes dry water must 
 be given, and that in abundance, if complete success is desired. 
 The after cultivation consists simply in keeping the ground clean, 
 and in dressing with salt during the spring. 
 
ARTICHOKE (Oifnora scolifmtis^) Cultivation. Sow in spring 
 in a row where they are to remain ; thin to a foot or eighteen 
 inches apart, and transplant the following season, allowing each 
 plant four feet on all sides. 
 
 BEET (Beta vulgaris.} Cultivation. Red beet is not so much 
 grown as its merits deserve. It requires a deep, open soil. The 
 ground should be dug at least two spits deep ; and if manure is 
 necessary, it may be turned in with the bottom spit, so as to bury 
 it ten or twelve inches below the surface. This will cause the top 
 roots to descend, and prevent forking. Seed may be sown in August 
 and September for summer crops, and in November and January 
 for early autumn and winter crops. Sow the seeds thinly in drills 
 
 drawn eighteen inches apart, making the drills two inches deep in 
 the light soils, and one inch on the heavy soils. When the plants 
 are lit to handle, thin out to six inches apart. Keep the surface 
 stirred from time to time in dry weather to promote growth. 
 
 Swiss CHARD, SII.VKU-, <>K Si A KALE. Habit erect and vigorous. 
 The midribs are silvery white and very large. They should be 
 served as asparagus, and the remainder of the leaf makes a valuable 
 dish, dressed as a spinach. This beet is reproductive, and will bear 
 frequent cutting, but the roots are not edible. 
 
323 
 
 BEANS, BROAD (l<\ibu rul^n's.) Cultivation. Sow in April for 
 the earliest crops, and attain in July and August ; and for the latest 
 crop, in September. Sow the seed in drills three to three and a half 
 feet apart, and twelve inches in the rows. Cover the seed to the 
 depth of about two inches. As soon as the crops come into bloom, 
 the top of each stem should be pinched off to increase the advance- 
 ment of the pods. 
 
 BEANS, SNAKE OR YARD LONG. This variety, which is a climber, 
 produces long, narrow, stringless pods about twelve to eighteen 
 inches long, of very delicate flavour. It is an immense cropper, and 
 bears in bunches. It succeeds best in warm districts. Sow at the 
 same time and in the same manner as recommended for the French 
 bean. 
 
 BEANS, WAX POD OR BUTTER (Phaseolus vulgaris.) Dwarf 
 varieties. The wax pod or butter beans are perfectly hardy. 
 The pods are stringless, and can be cooked whole ; the flavour is 
 excellent. When they become better known, they will take the 
 place of the ordinary French beans. Sow at the same time and 
 in the same manner as recommended for the French bean. 
 
BEANS, FRENCH (Phaseolus vulgar is^ Cultivation. For the 
 earliest crop sow in September, in the warmest and most sheltered 
 part of the garden ; later crops may be sown in damper and more 
 exposed situations. Successional crops may be sown once a month 
 until January. Sow the seed in drills two feet apart, and two inches 
 in depth, or less in heavy soils, and four inches between the seeds. 
 If the weather becomes dry the ground may be mulched, and soak- 
 ings of water should be frequently given. The climbing varieties 
 should be sown in drills four feet apart, and six inches between the 
 seeds. They may be sown near a fence or building, and trained on 
 strings or trellises ; otherwise sticks five or six feet in length should 
 be stuck in the rows, one to each plant. 
 
 BEANS, LIMA Cultivation. Lima beans should not be planted 
 until warm weather has fairly set in (say October). The tall variety 
 requires stakes or poles about five feet high. They are dressed and 
 cooked like broad beans, which they somewhat resemb.'e in flavour, 
 but far more nutritious, and served with butttr. In America they 
 are very largely grown, and highly esteemed. 
 
 BORECOLE, KALE OR CURLED GREENS (linissicd oh-mccii 
 lU'cphnln.) Cultivation. Sow the seed from December to February 
 for the main crop, and again in July, and plant out as soon as ready 
 in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches to two feet between the 
 plants. 
 
BRUSSELS SPROUTS (Hmssicu oJcracac bullnta minor.) Cultiva- 
 tion. Esteemed as the best of the cabbage genus. Sow the seed in 
 June or August, for use in midsummer, and again November, 
 January, and February for early and late winter use, and plant out 
 in rows two feet apart. 
 
 BROCOLI (Kmssicti olcniccn bolrvlis asparagoidcs.} Cultivation. 
 Brocoli does well on soil that has been manured for a previous crop, 
 and if the soil be light it need not even be dug for the young plants. 
 For a winter crop the seed must be sown in October, and the plants 
 put out about the end of the year. For the chance of a crop to 
 succeed cauliflowers in summer, seed may be sown in January or 
 February, and planted out in April. When the plants are sufficiently 
 large, transplant into rows about two to two and a half feet apart. 
 
 CABBAGE (Brassica olcracca capitata.) Cultivation. This is one 
 of the most important of vegetables, as it may be had in use every 
 day in the year. A little seed may be sown once in every month, 
 except in May and June. When the plants are large enough to 
 handle, transplant into rows from two to two and a half feet apart. 
 
 SAVOY CABBAGE (Brassica olcnicco bnUata.) Cultivation. The 
 general cultivation of savoys is very similar to that of the cabbage. 
 The best time to sow the seed is from December to March. Savoys 
 are gent- rally preferred for winter use, being of better flavor, and not 
 so rank when grown large. 
 
 PORTUGAL CABBAGE (Brassica olcracca costata.) Cultivation. 
 Sow from October to January, and plant out under the same con- 
 ditions as cauliflowers. It likes a rich soil. A very tender and 
 sweet variety of the cabbage tribe. The heart of the plant can be 
 used in the same manner as the cabbage, and the ribs of the largest 
 leaves will be found an excellent substitute for sea-kale, if served 
 up in a similar way. 
 
 CHINESE CABBAGE (Pe-tsai.) Cultivation. Similar to that of 
 the cabbage. 
 
 CARDOON (Cvnara cardunculus.) Cultivation. This vegetable 
 is little known, and less cultivated, in the colony, though it is 
 extensively gro\vn and much esteemed on the continent of Europe, 
 where it is used in soups and for stewing. The leaf-stalks are the 
 parts used, and the mode of culture is almost exactly the same as 
 for celery. 
 
 CAPER OF COMMERCE (Capparis spinosa.) Cultivation. The 
 caper is a trailing shrub, w r hich grows ireely on dry, rocky soil, and 
 might become an article of commerce, as it succeeds well in this 
 climate. The flower buds are the parts used, forming the caper of 
 commerce. Plants may be raised from seed in heat in spring, and 
 planted out when strong. They may also be raised from cuttings. 
 The roots of the plant are particularly strong and vivacious, and if 
 they can get deep enough, even among rocks or stones, they will 
 continue to grow for an indefinite period. It is considered advisable 
 to cut the plants over every third or fourth year. 
 
326 
 
 CAPE GOOSEBERRY (Physalis cdulis.) This, though used as a 
 fruit, is generally cultivated as a kitchen-garden plant. Sow the 
 seed in September, October, and November, in a pot or seed pan, 
 and when large enough they should be planted in a warm, sheltered 
 situation, and should stand three or four feet apart. The plants 
 will last several years, and should have the old wood cut out 
 annually. The fruit, when used in a raw state, should be thoroughly 
 ripe, as previous to ripening they contain a deleterious principle. 
 
 CAPSICUM OR PEPPER (Capsicum unnniiiii, Capsicum fmtesccns.) 
 Cultivation. The varities of capsicum or chili require light, rich 
 soil and a warm situation. For the earliest crop sow in the begin- 
 ning of September in heat. When the plants are large enough to 
 handle, prick into pots or boxes, and after they have become well- 
 established and hardened-off, plant out in October, when the 
 weather is fine. Seed may be sown in the open ground in the 
 beginning of October. They may stand t\vo and a half to three 
 feet apart. The plants must be duly watered while young, and 
 shaded from the hot suns until established. The best situation is 
 at the foot of a wall or fence, on the sunny side. 
 
 CARROT (Daucus hortensis.) Cultivation. The most suitable 
 soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, light, loamy or sandy soil, which 
 has been enriched at the previous cropping ; but should the soil be 
 poor, a dressing of well-decomposed manure shall be given, and 
 thoroughly mixed with the soil. The seed should be sown in 
 shallow drills, which may be a foot apart for the early horn, and 
 fifteen inches for James' intermediate and similar varieties, and 
 from eighteen inches to two feet for field carrots. The soil should 
 be made very line, and if in a dry state, or very loose, should be 
 pressed very hard after the seeds are sown. The ground should 
 be kept loose on the surface by frequent stirrings with a hoe. 
 When the seed is sown in cold weather, and not likely to vegetate 
 before hoeing becomes necessary, it is useful to drop a few seeds 
 of radish or turnip to mark the position of the rows. The horn 
 varieties may be left three to four inches apart ; other varieties at 
 greater distances, up to eight inches for field carrots. Make large 
 sowings from August till February. 
 
 CAruFUAVKk (llnissicti olcniccn bolrylis <w////7/o/v/) Cultivation. 
 Cauliflowers may be obtained in this climate during at least half 
 the year under ordinary treatment, and in cool situations, or where 
 water is plentiful, nearly the whole year around. The soil for 
 them should be equally rich as for cabbage, and where that for 
 winter crops happens to be damp it may be formed into ridges, 
 and the cauliflowers planted on the top. The distance between 
 the plants must be regulated by the size of the heads required ; 
 heads of the largest si/e may be obtained from plants thirty to 
 thirty-six inches apart, but for private use small or middle-sized 
 heads are the most suitable. Of course the summer crops must 
 have the greatest amount of space, but plants put out in autumn 
 
3 2 7 
 
 need not be more than two feet or eighteen inches apart. For the 
 first, or autumn crop, the seed must be sown from December to 
 February, and for later crops a little may be sown every month 
 until August ; but heads can rarely be obtained during the hottest 
 months, except in cold districts, or by abundant watering. 
 
 CORN SALAD OR LAMBS' LETTUCE (Valcrinnclln olitoria.) Cul- 
 tivation. The first sowing of this useful small salad, which is 
 chiefly grown by the French, ought to be made at the commence- 
 ment of the autumnal rains, and a successional crop put in at 
 intervals of two months thereafter. Seed may be sown in any 
 waste soil of a light nature, in beds four feet wide, and in shallow 
 drills six inches apart. The seedlings must be thinned to four 
 inches apart, and the outside leaves picked for use as they expand. 
 In summer, seed should be sown every month in a moist, sheltered 
 spot ; the seedlings thinned as soon as lit for handling, and when 
 large enough for use, the heads cut as wanted, close to the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 CRESS (Lapidhun satinnn.} Curled cress may be grown in 
 winter on a patch of ground at the foot of a fence, or other warm 
 spot, by drawing shallow drills as close as possible with the linger 
 or a small stick ; the seed sown quite thick, and the surface beaten 
 with the back of a spade, barely covering the seeds. A shady spot 
 should be chosen for summer ; or where there is not a garden the 
 seed may be sown in boxes, or between the single folds of a wet 
 flannel. American cress may be sown monthly in drills nine inches 
 apart, slightly covered with earth ; when the plants are bushy, the 
 heads may be cut close to the surface of the ground. Water cress 
 is an excellent salad. Young runners are most commonly used for 
 planting out, but seed may be sown during the autumn and winter 
 months in a moist, shady place. 
 
 CELERY (Apium graveolens^) Cultivation. Celery requires a 
 very rich deep soil, and a moist situation is the best to select, but 
 not \vhere the soil is saturated with water. Seeds may be sown in 
 August for the earliest crop, and at that season require artificial heat 
 to cause them to vegetate. They may be sown in a seed pan or 
 shallow box in light rich soil, and placed in a hot-bed frame, or 
 some other warm place. As soon as the plants are large enough to 
 handle, they should be pricked into other boxes, and continued in 
 heat until well established, then hardened off, and planted out to 
 six inches apart in a bed of rich soil six inches deep, on a bottom of 
 boards or some other hard substance, which the roots cannot 
 penetrate, to facilitate transplanting, where they must be well 
 watered and shaded ; and when of sufficient size, the soil cut into 
 squares with a plant in the centre of each ; then lifted with the 
 balls entire, and conveyed to the trenches, where they must be 
 shaded with boughs, boards, bags, or anything at hand until 
 re-established. During the season of growth water must be applied 
 in unlimited quantities. The second and later sowings may be 
 
made in the open ground, and the young plants treated in a similar 
 manner. October will be early enough for sowing in the open air, 
 and two more sowings may be made in November and December. 
 Manure to the depth of five or six inches should be dug into the 
 bottom of the trench, and as much liquid manure as can be spared 
 may be given while the plants are growing. A trench should be 
 sixteen to eighteen inches in width, and the plants set at six to 
 twelve inches apart. Earth up the plants as they advance in 
 growth, but it is not advisable to place much soil around them, 
 with a view to blanching until about a month before they are 
 wanted for use. The final earthing up requires to be done care- 
 fully ; in order that the soil may not fall into the heart of the plant, 
 the leaves should be tied together, then the soil thrown in, in layers, 
 and packed closely around the plants by hand. 
 
 SWEET CORN, OR TABLE MAIZE (Zea mays.) Cultivation. Few 
 are aware of the excellence of the sugar maize as a vegetable ; it 
 will bear favorable comparison with asparagus and peas when 
 boiled in a green state, and eaten with white sauce or gravy. The 
 cobs should be taken as soon as the grains are fully formed, and 
 before they have begun to harden. Seed may be sown in Sep- 
 tember and three following months for succession, in drills three 
 feet apart, and the plants a foot apart. It requires rich soil, and is 
 improved by top-dressing during growth. 
 
 CUCUMBER (Cncnmis sativus.) Cultivation. For the earliest 
 crop out of doors, plants may be raised on a hot-bed, well 
 hardened off, and planted out in September, as soon as the weather 
 has become warm. The plants must be protected with hand- 
 glasses, or some other covering, and shaded when necessary until 
 established. For a late crop, plants may be raised in a cool frame, 
 and planted out in October, always providing duplicates to replace 
 failures. Seeds may be sown at the same time, and again in the 
 course of a month, where they are to remain. The soil must be 
 kept loose by frequent hoeings, and before the weather becomes 
 dry, should be mulched with a good layer of stable dung. Abun- 
 dant water is necessary in dry weather. 
 
 EGG PLANT (S'Jdimm csculentum^ Cultivation. The egg 
 plant may be treated in exactly the same manner as the capsicum 
 the earliest raised in heat and transplanted, and the later crops 
 sown in a warm situation, where they have to remain ; the plants 
 may stand eighteen inches to two feet apart. The fruit must be 
 thinned if a line sample is required. They may be easily grown in 
 pots, and trained to stakes like tomatoes. 
 
 ENDIVE (Chicorium ciulirin.) Cultivation. This is a good useful 
 salad for winter use, becoming now of more repute than hitherto. 
 To grow it well the culture recommended for lettuce is exactly 
 suitable. The heads require to be blanched, which may be effected 
 either by tying the leaves close together, or covering each plant 
 
 
329 
 
 with a ilower pot, saucer, or piece of slate, a few at a time. The 
 seeds should be sown in January, February, and March, and the 
 plants transplanted with the iirst autumn rains. 
 
 SWEET, POT, AND MEDICINAL HERBS. Cultivation. The 
 best way of growing these with little trouble and expense is 
 to procure a few plants of the required sorts, such as marjorum, 
 sage, thyme, hyssop, etc., and plant them together in a portion 
 of a shady border, in lines fifteen or eighteen inches apart each 
 way. If plants cannot be conveniently had, seed may be sown 
 in a warm border, in lines one foot apart, merely deep enough 
 to cover the seed. When up, thin out to a foot apart, water 
 and mulch the first summer in dry weather, and keep the surface 
 loose. Next autumn, or early in spring, take up and divide 
 the roots, and plant again fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and 
 continue making new plantings every winter, as a means of saving 
 them during the summer drought. 
 
 KOHL RABI, OR TURNIP-ROOTED CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea 
 canlo-mpti.) Cultivation. This is a delicious vegetable, and highly 
 esteemed by those acquainted with it ; but its merits are not suffi- 
 ciently known or appreciated. It is greatly superior as a table 
 vegetable to any kind of turnip, but must be tested in good condi- 
 tion, and while young and tender. The seed may be sown from 
 January to April, in beds as for .cabbage, and transplanted into 
 good soil. The bulb-like stems will be lit for using during the 
 winter and spring, and should be taken when not more than three 
 or four inches in diameter, or they will become coarse and inferior. 
 
 LEEK (All hi in poiruin.) Cultivation. The leek likes a deep, 
 friable, and rich soil. The first sowing may be made in June or 
 July, and subsequent sowings once a month till December. When 
 the young plants are about the thickness of a goose-quill, they may 
 be transplanted into deep holes made with a dibble or stake, nine 
 to twelve inches apart, in the bottom of a drill drawn with a hoe, 
 into which the plants are dropped and a few crumbs of soil put in 
 to cover the roots, unless the soil is dry, when the holes may be 
 filled with water. In the process of hoeing, the holes become 
 filled up with soil, and, as they grow, soil from each side may be 
 drawn to them to cause the stems to lengthen. The drills should 
 be fifteen inches apart. Large leeks for exhibition may be grown 
 in trenches prepared as for celery. 
 
 LETTUCE (Lactuca.) Cultivation. This popular salad plant may 
 be had all the year round by frequent sowings and plantings. A 
 warm and dry situation should be chosen for the winter crops, and 
 one that is low and damp for those of summer. The soil should be 
 loose and extremely rich, for lettuces are crisp only when grown 
 rapidly. For summer culture, sowings may be made where the 
 plants are to remain as they cannot be safely transplanted in dry 
 weather once a month from August onwards, in rows eighteen 
 
33 
 
 inches apart, and thinned to twelve inches. For a winter crop, 
 sowings may be made in March or April, and the plants transplanted 
 in rows. 
 
 ROCK, OR MUSK MELON (Cucnmis mc/o). Cultivation. Rock 
 melons for the earliest crop may be raised on a hot-bed in July and 
 August, well hardened off, and planted out in September, or as soon 
 as the weather has become warm enough ; the plants should be 
 protected until well established. The soil for the rock melon should 
 be a good, rather strong loam, without manure, except a little to give 
 the plants a start. For the later crop, sow in September and 
 October in the open ground. The seeds should be sown in hills, 
 which ought to be from five to six feet apart, placing ten or twelve 
 seeds in each, and when the plants have two or three rough leaves 
 thin out to three or four inches. 
 
 WATER MELON (Cucumis citrillus.} Cultivation. The water 
 melon requires a richer soil than the rock melon, and if well grown 
 will afford abundance of fruit without stopping the shoots or any 
 other manipulation being required. Every effort should be made to 
 get the fruit ripened early, for it is little valued except in hot weather. 
 A warm situation should therefore be chosen, and the plants raised 
 in heat in July and August, and grown strong before being planted 
 out, two or three on a hill, about eight feet apart. 
 
 MANGO MELON, OR EGYPTIAN PROLIFIC VEGETABLE PEACH. 
 Cultivation. Cultivate in a similar manner as that recommended for 
 rock melon. Grows like a rock melon, branching out in dozens of 
 vines in every direction full of fruit and blossoms, commencing early 
 and lasting on till frost if watered in dry weather ; suitable for all 
 climates. Fried in batter, green, a substitute for egg plant. It is 
 also said to be superior to vegetable marrows, cooked in a similar 
 style if used before being too ripe. When ripe and yellow makes 
 beautiful, white, transparent preserves and sweetmeats, equalling the 
 celebrated California fruits and Japanese pie melon ; they are 
 just like an orange when ripe. The late fruit makes excellent pickles. 
 Young green ginger makes the best flavouring, and it does not colour 
 the preserves. 
 
 MANGO MELON, OR VEGETABLE PEACH JAM. To every pound 
 of vegetable peaches allow three-quarters of a pound of the best white 
 sugar, and one pound of good, young, green ginger to every 8 Ibs. of 
 fruit. Mode : Cut up the fruit, taking care to scoop out all the pips 
 (using a spoon is best); weigh, and put into a china basin with the 
 quantity of sugar sprinkled on, and allow it to stand twenty-four 
 hours ; choose young ginger, wash carefully, and scrape off all the 
 outside skin ; then boil in an enamel pan for several hours in clean 
 water ; boil till you can stick a fork in ; then take out and cut up as 
 finely as possible ; this is imperative or it will spoil your jam ; mix 
 all together, and boil gently. It takes a long time to cook, as the 
 melon must be quite clear, and a thin skin must come over the jam. 
 This is ascertained by occasionally taking out a small spoonful and 
 
 
putting on a saucer to cool. Always cover the jars with strong paper 
 while hot. About six ounces of preserved ginger, cut very small, 
 improves it, but darkens it. 
 
 MUSHROOM i Agaricuscampestris.) Cultivation. The mushroom 
 can be successfull : cultivated in pots, boxes, or beds, either out of 
 doors, or in a shed or cellar, during the autumn and winter months. 
 The beds are made of fresh horse-dung, which must be dried and 
 fermented until the violent heat is gone, before being used. When 
 ready, the material should be made into a bed four feet wide and a 
 foot deep, beaten extremely hard with a rammer or mallet, and left 
 until the heat is steady at sixty or seventy degrees, when pieces of 
 spawn, about the size of walnuts, should be inserted about an inch 
 deep, and eight or nine inches apart, all over the bed, which must 
 then be covered to a depth of three inches with soil, such as the 
 mushroom naturally grows in, well beaten with the back of the 
 spade, and, if out of doors, should be covered with a good thickness 
 of hay. The soil should not be allowed to become dry, nor ever 
 very wet ; therefore something should be at hand to ward off heavy 
 rains if out of doors. Mushrooms may be expected in six or seven 
 weeks from the time of spawning, and a good bed will last for two 
 or three months. In gathering the crop, the stalks should be pulled 
 completely out, otherwise they rot and destroy the youn^ brood. 
 Beforelthe month of April, while the weather is warm, the bed may be 
 made in a trench, dug six inches deep, in dry and well-drained ground. 
 
 MUSTARD (Sinapis alba.} Cultivation. Mustard for salad may 
 be grown tinder a variety of circumstances both indoors and outside. 
 During the hot weather it should be sown in a shady place. It may be 
 grown in pots or boxes in the dwelling-house, or on the windowsill, 
 or even on a piece of woollen cloth kept moist. Any kind of light 
 soil will suffice, as water alone will enable it to grow large enough 
 for use. The treatment recommended for cress will equally apply to 
 mustard. The seed should be sown about a week later than cress. 
 
 Oxiox (Alluim cepa.} Cultivation. To produce good crops of 
 onions, ground of a deep loamy nature should be selected ; it re- 
 quires to be well worked and manured. Onions may be trans- 
 planted, or the seed may be sown where the plants have to remain. 
 When required early, the seed may be sown in April, though June 
 is considered the best month to sow for transplanting. For that 
 purpose the seed should be sown in wide drills or beds, and kept 
 free from weeds until fit to transplant. For bulbing on the ground 
 where sown, the month of August is a suitable time. Sow the seeds 
 in drills a foot apart, and thin to six inches. As some of those 
 transplanted are likely to start for seed, the flower-heads must be 
 pinched off as soon as they appear. For pickling onions, seed of 
 the silver-skinned varieties should be sown in August, rather thickly 
 in drills, and left unthinned. For salad the seed may be sown 
 whenever required, providing the soil is watered and shaded should 
 the weather be dry. 
 

 33 2 
 
 OKRA, OR GOMBO (Hibiscus esculentus.} Cultivation. This 
 plant is not so much grown in this country as its merits deserve. 
 The pods, which are used while green and tender, form an excel- 
 lent ingredient in soups, stews, and pickles, and are believed to be 
 very nutritious. They can also be cut in slices, and dried for 
 winter use. For an early crop the plants may be raised in heat in 
 July, like tomatoes, and planted out ; the ordinary crop may be 
 sown in September and October for succession, in drills two feet 
 apart, and the plants thinned to the same distance. The soil should 
 be rich and well cultivated. 
 
 PARSLEY (Petroselinum sativum.} Cultivation. Though par- 
 sley repays for good soil as well as any other crop, it does not 
 always obtain the best kind of treatment, being generally used as 
 an edging to the walks in the kitchen garden, or sown in some out- 
 of-the-way place in poor soil, and insufficiently thinned. The seeds 
 should be sown in drills fifteen inches apart, and the plants thinned 
 to twelve inches. Sowings should be made in August in a low, 
 shady border, for summer and autumn supply, and again in March 
 or April for winter use. 
 
 PARSNIP (Pastinaca saliva.} Cultivation. Treat in the same 
 manner as recommended for the carrot. On dry. early soils, a 
 sowing may be made in autumn, on the occurrence of the first rains, 
 to furnish roots for use in spring, and again in September, though 
 the produce of these sowings must be used early, otherwise the 
 plants would run to seed. October is the best month in which to 
 sow the main crop, and for winter use a sowing may be made about 
 the beginning of December. The rows should be eighteen inches 
 apart, and the plants thinned to six or eight inches, according to 
 the size of the roots required, thin roots being the most suitable 
 for private families. 
 
 PEAS (Pisiiw snlrruin.) Cultivation. Soil that has been 
 manured for a previous crop will suffice for winter-sown crops, but 
 for summer an additional dressing should be given, and the ground 
 well worked. For dwarf varieties the rows should be two and 
 a half to three feet apart, for taller sorts four to six feet, and the 
 seed of the former should be placed about one inch apart, and the 
 latter three to four inches apart. The sowing of peas may com- 
 mence in April, and be continued till February. The autumn 
 sowings should consist of the earliest varieties, including rising sun, 
 on account of its hardiness ; the same, or other early kinds, may be 
 sown in June ; second earlies and marrows in July and August ; 
 marrows again in September and October, and the latest varieties 
 in November and December ; afterwards early varieties again. To 
 maintain a continuous succession, it is a good rule to sow whenever 
 the previous crop is fairly above ground. 
 
 POIAIOI s (Si,/iuniin tnbcrosum.) Cultivation. The soil should 
 be in good condition, and if requiring manure, stable dung, super- 
 phosphate of lime or bone dust should be used. The hrst crop, for 
 
 
333 
 
 which a dry soil and warm situation should be chosen, may be 
 planted in July in favourable localities, using the earliest varieties ; 
 a successional crop of the same, and also of the second earlies, and 
 late varieties in August, and the latest up to November. Then in 
 January, early varieties may be again planted for an autumn crop. 
 The early and dwarf-topped sorts may be planted two feet by ten 
 inches apart, larger-topped sorts should have thirty inches by 
 twelve. With regard to sets, large kinds with few eyes, if cut into 
 pieces of good size, will yield as much produce as whole tubers of 
 equal weight, though, in general, whole tubers of 4 to 6 ozs. in 
 weight are preferable ; but if the eyes are numerous, all but the 
 crown should be rubbed off, otherwise numerous stems will rise, 
 and a large proportion of the produce will be of small size. The 
 after culture consists in drawing soil to the stems, and frequent 
 digging or hoeing of the spaces between the rows. 
 
 PUMPKIN (Cucurbita melopepo^ Cultivation. Sow from Sep- 
 tember to December in hills, well manured, from eight to twelve 
 feet apart, placing from ten to twelve seeds in each hill, but not 
 allowing more than two of the best to run. 
 
 RADISH (Raphanus sativus.} Cultivation. The soil 'for the 
 radish, if not naturally sandy and loose, must be very finely 
 pulverised before the seed is sown ; it should also be moderately 
 rich to encourage rapid growth, but not recently manured, unless 
 with dung rotted to mould. The seed may be sown in drills in the 
 cool months, when the plants take longer to grow, to enable weeds 
 to be kept down easily ; but in summer time it may be sown thinly 
 broadcast, or very thinly in the rows with carrots or other root 
 crops, or with lettuces to be drawn out as required. It may be 
 sown every third or fourth week throughout the year. In winter a 
 dry situation, and in summer a moist one, should be chosen. 
 
 RHUBARB (Rheum hybridum.} Rhubarb delights in a rich, 
 loose, deep, and well-drained soil ; it does not succeed in stiff soil, 
 preferring that which is sandy. The seed may be sown, in the 
 beginning of September, where the plants have to remain, or in 
 drills for transplanting. The drills may be made in light, rich soil, 
 two feet apart and an inch deep ; the seeds should be sown very 
 thinly. In the permanent plantation, the plants must stand three 
 feet and a half or four ieet apart, according to the size of the 
 variety, and the crowns covered not more than two inches. A 
 good plan is to sow a row on the permanent plot, in patches four- 
 teen or sixteen inches apart, and transplant two-thirds of the plants 
 the following winter, leaving the remaining third where sown. 
 The beginning of August is the best time to transplant, just before 
 the plants commence to grow ; but if the ground is not wanted, 
 transplanting may be effected in April or May. No stalks should 
 be gathered from the seedlings the first year after being planted, 
 but all left to strengthen the roots. Rhubarb may be forced for 
 winter use in the same manner as sea kale. 
 
334 
 
 SALSIFY, OR OYSTER PLANT (Tragopogon porrifolms.) Salsify 
 succeeds well under the same treatment required for carrots and 
 other root crops. Seed for an early crop may be sown in August, 
 and for the general crop in October. Sow the seed in drills about 
 fifteen inches apart, and thin the plants to six inches. The young 
 leaves, when blanched, may be used as a vegetable. The roots 
 are boiled or stewed like carrots and parsnips, or half boiled and 
 grated fine, made into small Hat balls, and dipped into batter and 
 fried like oysters, which they strongly resemble. 
 
 SCORZONERA, OR BLACK OYSTER PLANT (Scorzoncra Jrispdnica.} 
 Culture the same as recommended for salsify. Similar in many 
 respects to salsify, and is called by some the black oyster plant. It 
 is cultivated exclusively for the roots, which may be boiled and 
 served plain like parsnips. Before cooking, the outer coarse rind 
 should be scraped off, and the roots soaked in cold water for a few 
 hours to extract their bitter flavor. 
 
 SEA KALE (Crambc maritima.} Sea kale will succeed well in 
 any ordinary garden soil. Sow the seed in August and September 
 in drills two feet apart, and thin the plants to a foot apart. For 
 blanching, the plants should be covered with pots, boxes, or casks, 
 or the like, and covered with fresh dung in such quantities as will 
 produce a gentle and prolonged heat. They are ready for use 
 when they have grown the length of a few inches. 
 
 SPINACH (Spiuacca oleracca.} The soil for spinach requires to 
 be made very rich, so as to grow it quickly, and obtain the largest 
 weight of leaves. The round spinach is grown for summer use, 
 and the prickly or Flanders varieties for winter. The first sowing 
 may be made as soon as the first autumn rains have fallen, and 
 successional sowings once a month until the weather becomes too 
 dry, unless water is plentiful, when sowing may be continued 
 throughout the year. The seed should be sown thinly in drills, 
 which, in winter, should be eighteen inches or more apart, and the 
 plants thinned to twelve inches ; the spring and summer crops 
 need not stand further apart than half that distance. In gathering 
 the leaves for use, they are taken singly from the winter crops as 
 they attain full size, but in summer the whole plant may be cut off 
 by the ground. 
 
 SCH'ASH (Cncurbita inchpepo.) Cultivation. The squash is 
 closely related to the pumpkin and vegetable marrow, except the 
 bush varieties, which do not run, and require so much room. 
 
 STACHYS TruKuiKKKA (Chinese Artichoke.) Cultivation. This 
 plant grows to a height of fifteen inches, being free and branching ; 
 from the axis spring a number of line roots on which the tubers are 
 produced, about two inches in length, and make a nice salad, 
 resembling the taste of the radish, and when cooked and served 
 with melted butter in much the same manner as the globe artichoke, 
 they are delicious in flavour. The roots should be planted in rcws 
 two feet apart, and nine to twelve inches from each root. 
 

 335 
 
 TOMATO (Lycopersicum csculentwn.) To have tomatoes early, 
 seed must be sown in. July in heat, and the young plants grown in 
 pots until ready to plant out when the weather has become warm 
 in September. For later crops, the seeds may be sown in a warm 
 border out of doors towards the end of August. The tomato 
 requires rich soil, and succeeds best in that which is sandy. The 
 earliest plants should be planted and trained against a north wall or 
 fence ; later crops may be planted against other fences, or in the 
 open quarters, allowing a space of three teet to each plant, but in 
 all situations they ought to be supported off the ground by stakes or 
 trellises. The plants, as they grow, should be kept thinned of shoots, 
 weak laterals being pinched off, and those that are to remain stopped 
 at the flower. To ensure a full crop during dry weather an 
 abundance of water is required. 
 
 PERENNIAL TREE TOMATO (Cyphomandra betacea.) This fast- 
 growing perennial, which is perfectly distinct from the ordinary 
 tomato, reaches a height of ten or twelve feet, with leaves over 
 eighteen inches long and by more than twelve inches broad, and, 
 independently of its fruit, is a beautiful foliage plant. It comes into 
 bearing in about eighteen months, and its truit, which is orange- 
 coloured and about the size of a hen's egg, is very delicious. 
 
 TURNIP (Bmssica mpa.) To have turnips tender and mild they 
 must be grown rapidly and without check ; therefore the soil must 
 be in good condition. The seed may be sown broadcast on a bed, 
 or in drills, the latter being the preferable mode. The drills for 
 early sorts should be at least fifteen inches apart, and the plants 
 thinned to six or nine inches ; but for swedes the drills should be 
 eighteen inches, and the plants twelve inches apart. The first sow- 
 ing should be made in the beginning of February, or earlier, if a 
 good rainfall happens to occur. Successional sowings may be made 
 of white sorts in autumn and early spring, choosing the yellow- 
 fleshed varieties for summer growth, as they withstand the heat 
 better than the others. The seed should be sown extremely thin, 
 the plants thinned early, and the surface of the soil around them 
 kept in a loose state. 
 
 VEGETABLE MARROW (Qucurbita pcpo or if cm.) The instructions 
 given for the cucumber are applicable to the growth of the vege- 
 table marrow, with the difference of only having one plant instead 
 of two in every space, and the distance eight feet apart instead of 
 six, and little or no stopping, further than thinning where the vines 
 are too thick. 
 
 FLOWER SEEDS AND THEIR CULTIVATION. 
 
 Soil. One of the first considerations in the culture of annuals 
 is the condition of the soil, to which sufficient attention is rarely 
 paid. It is seldom either properly worked or sufficiently fertile. 
 With the exception of a few gross-growing kinds, annuals, to 
 
336 
 
 attain perfection, should be sown in soil that is both rich and well 
 worked. Great pains are generally taken with the soil of the 
 vegetable garden, but that of the flower garden is left very much 
 to itself, with the exception of a light digging once a year, and 
 occasionally a little manure applied, whereas it should be well and 
 deeply dug and highly manured. 
 
 Sowing. All the hardiest kinjl of annuals attain the greatest 
 perfection when sown in autumn, because they have a longer season 
 to grow. They attain greater development, and consequently 
 flower the stronger ; but tender sorts must not be sown till spring. 
 Like all other seeds, they succeed best in a firm soil ; therefore, 
 if the soil has been recently dug, it should be pressed more or less 
 before sowing. If the seeds are very line but large seeds are 
 better to be sown first, and trodden or otherwise pressed into the 
 soil the less covering will then be required. For the finest seeds 
 it is advisable to sift a little fine compost on the spot, and press it 
 smooth before the seeds are sown. The covering must be in pro- 
 portion to the size of the seeds. The largest of the lupin seeds 
 may have an inch in depth of covering, while the twentieth of an 
 inch or less will be sufficient for the smallest. Indeed, fine silver 
 sand, just sufficient to cover the soil, may be sifted on them, and to 
 prevent the soil from drying before the seeds have had time to 
 germinate, it should be closely covered by a flower pot, a bell or 
 hand glass, or even a flat pane of glass ; but that, or any covering 
 impervious to light, should be gradually removed as soon as the 
 seeds germinate. It is a common and injurious fault either to sow 
 too thickly, or to thin the plants insufficiently, as when overcrowded 
 they can neither develop to perfection nor flower finely. Thinning 
 should commence as soon as the plants can be fairly laid hold of, 
 and continued until each plant has sufficient space for full develop- 
 ment. Seeds of biennial or perennial plants, being sown in rows 
 or beds for transplanting, need be only thinned to such an extent 
 as to prevent overcrowding before being transplanted. An old- 
 fashioned plan is to sow the seeds of annuals in rings, and it 
 answers well enough for large-growing plants ; but smaller ones 
 are better sown in patches, which in both cases may correspond 
 in extent with the size the plants attain. 
 
 Armiigcincnt. When annuals are sown in mixed beds or 
 borders, they must, of course, correspond in height with the other 
 plants, the dwarfest being nearest the eye. The same rule must be 
 followed when beds are filled solely with annuals. The colors 
 should contrast with each other, and also with those of other 
 plants that are near. When annuals are grown alone in beds or 
 borders, various modes of arrangement may be followed. A peculiar 
 effect may be produced by mixing seeds of different kinds and 
 sowing them together. In large beds they may be arranged in 
 bands, according to size, sloping from back to front, or in groups, 
 each sort forming a group. 
 
337 
 
 L The soil should not be allowed to become quite 
 dry after the seeds are sown ; therefore, if rain does not fall, 
 watering must be practised. The larger kinds may be afterwards 
 fed with liquid manure, if perfection in size and flowering is desired. 
 Of course, the soil should be kept free from weeds ; it should also 
 be loosened around the plants, but so as not to disturb the roots. 
 Tall-growing plants will generally require to be supported by some 
 means. Tall plants may have a stake to each, while cylinders of 
 wire netting, or rings of wire affixed to stakes, are suitable for those 
 of spreading habit. Where seed is not required, the period of 
 flowering may be lengthened by picking off the seed vessels as soon 
 as the flowers fall. 
 
 MONTHLY CALENDAR FOR THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 
 
 JANUARY. Brussels sprouts Sow largely, to use in June ; 
 broad beans sow a few, to ripen about May and June ; borecole, 
 or kale sow largely, to use from June ; French or kidney beans 
 plant medium crops, for use in April and May ; brocoli sow a 
 few early sorts, to use in May and June, finish planting out late 
 sorts early this month ; cauliflower sow largely towards the end 
 of this month ; carrot sow a few early sorts, to use in June and 
 July ; celery sow a few seeds of an early variety, to use from the 
 end of July, plant out former sowing, as they advance ; chou de 
 burghley sow early in the month ; cress and mustard sow fort- 
 nightly ; lettuce sow a few to remain until fit for use in six or 
 eight weeks ; onion sow a few for salads, to use from April ; 
 peas sow a medium crop of early varieties, to use in April and 
 May ; potatoes plant out kidneys or other early varieties, to use 
 in April and May ; raddish sow a few of the long sort, to use in 
 four or six weeks ; savoy cabbage sow a medium crop ; turnips 
 sow largely, for use from March to May. 
 
 FEBRUARY. Brussels sprouts sow a few, to use from July to 
 September ; cabbage continue sowing early sorts, to use in June 
 and July ; cauliflower sow largely, to use in June and July ; 
 celery plant out largely, as the plants advance, for winter supply ; 
 cress and mustard sow fortnightly ; endive sow for use in 
 autumn ; French beans sow for a succession ; leek transplant 
 largely into drills for a winter supply ; lettuce continue to sow, 
 for using in six or eight weeks ; peas sow a few early varieties, to 
 succeed the former sowing ; potatoes plant out largely of early 
 varieties, to use in May and June ; radish continue to sow, for use 
 in four or six weeks ; spinach sow a medium crop for autumn 
 use ; savoy cabbage sow a few early in the month, if not done 
 last month ; turnip continue sowing a few for winter use. 
 
 MARCH. Brocoli Sow a few of early varieties, to use in 
 spring ; cabbage sow a few of early varieties, to use in July and 
 August, transplant largely ; cauliflower sow a few to succeed 
 former crops, transplant largely about the end of the month ; 
 
celery finish planting out in shallow trenches for the last crop ; 
 cress and mustard continue sowing fortnightly ; endive sow a few 
 for winter use ; lettuce continue sowing, to succeed former crops; 
 onion sow for spring green onions ; peas sow a few of the 
 earliest sorts early in the month, in a warm situation, to use in May; 
 radish continue sowing, to keep up a regular supply ; spinach 
 continue sowing winter varieties, to succeed the others ; turnip 
 sow a few for \vinter use, also seeds for winter and spring. 
 
 APRIL. Asparagus Cut the stems down to the surface as they 
 decay, top-dress and manure with horse-droppings ; borecole or 
 kale sow a good supply for spring use ; cabbage sow early sorts 
 for spring supply ; celery remove the side shoots from the crowns 
 of advanced crops, earthing up only a few for immediate use ; 
 cress and mustard sow fortnightly ; corn salad or lamb's lettuce 
 sow for use in spring ; carrot sow early horn, for use in the end 
 of winter ; endive sow largely ; garlic and shallots plant ; lettuce 
 sow largely and transplant, when ready, to use in June and July ; 
 onions, potato and tree plant out largely for the first spring onions ; 
 onion sow largely, to use green in spring, and to transplant in 
 June for early summer bulbing ; peas sow a few of early sorts 
 towards the end of the month, for the first supply in spring ; radish 
 sow again ; spinach sow largely of winter varieties for spring 
 supply ; turnip SOW T a few on trial if not clone last month. 
 
 MAY. Asparagus Clenr away and top-dress as recommended 
 last month ; borecole or kale sow a fe\v early, if not done last 
 month ; cabbage finish planting out early, to head before the 
 spring growth, or else they go to seed ; cauliflower sow a few 
 towards the end of the month, to use in September ; cress and 
 mustard sow fortnightly ; endive sow largely ; garlic and shallots 
 plant out a few ; herbs divide and re-plant ; horse radish 
 divide the roots and re-plant, storing for use all the fine, clean sticks ; 
 lettuce sow for succession ; onion continue sowing ; peas sow 
 largely of early sorts for spring use ; parsnip sow a few for spring 
 use ; radish sow for a succession ; rhubarb and sea kale make 
 young plantations towards the end of the month ; spinach sow a 
 little to use in spring. 
 
 JUXK. Broad beans sow for a successional crop ; carrot sow 
 the early horn variety for September use ; celery earth up 
 advanced crops finally in dry weather, remove all side shoots from 
 the young ones ; encumber sow for forcing in a hot-bed frame ; 
 garlic and shallots finish planting ; horse radish continue planting 
 out, keeping in store the long straight pieces ; leek sow for 
 summer use ; lettuce sow for a successional crop ; onion sow 
 largely for summer bulbing, transplant early from thinnings of 
 former crops ; parsnip sow a few for spring use ; peas sow 
 largely all commendable sorts for spring use ; radish sow for a 
 succession ; rhubarb and sea kale plant as recommended last 
 month ; spinach sow a few winter varieties for a late crop. 
 
339 
 
 JULY. Broad beans sow largely for use in October and 
 November ; Brussels sprouts sow a few to use in December ; 
 borecole or kale sow a few to use in the summer months ; carrot 
 sou largely of early and late sorts to use in October and 
 November ; cabbage sow early and medium sorts to use about the 
 end of the year ; cauliflower sow r a few, or, if not done last month, 
 sow largely early ; garlic and shallots finish planting early ; herbs 
 if not yet done, divide the old roots and re-plant ; horse radish . 
 if not yet done finish planting out early ; kohl-rabi sow in pans for 
 transplanting ; lettuce sow for a succession ; leek sow largely 
 late this month for autumn and winter supply ; onion continue 
 sowing largely ; parsnip sow a few to use in November ; peas 
 sow largely all good sorts to use in October and November ; 
 potatoes plant out a few early kidneys in a dry, warm situation ; 
 radish sow for a succession ; rhubarb and sea kale finish planting 
 out ; savoy cabbage sow a few to use in November ; spinach 
 sow of winter sorts for the last time this season. 
 
 AUGUST. Asparagus sow largely, plant seedlings as soon as 
 the buds begin to swell, and top dress established plants ; beet 
 sow largely to use in January ; brocoli sow largely early and late 
 varieties for autumn and early winter use ; broad beans sow 
 largely all good sorts to use in November ; Brussels sprouts sow 
 largely for mid-summer use ; cabbage make a good sowing of 
 early sorts for summer, and late sorts, including the red, for autumn, 
 transplant former sowings ; cape gooseberry sow in hot-bed frame ; 
 carro t sow largely of early sorts for end of summer ; cauliflower 
 sow largely to use from end of November, plant out the former 
 sowings as the plants are ready ; celery sow in a hot-bed frame 
 for early use ; cucumber sow a few in a warm frame for planting 
 out in October ; garlic and shallots finish planting ; herbs sow 
 largely all pot herbs such as sage, thyme, marjoram, savory, etc. ; 
 leek sow largely for winter use, transplant June sowing ; lettuce 
 sow largely ; melons (rock and water) sow a few along with the 
 cucumber seeds ; onion sow largely for winter keeping, transplant 
 early from former sowings ; parsley sow largely for summer 
 supply ; parsnip sow largely for autumn use ; peas sow largely 
 as directed last month ; potatoes plant out largely early and late 
 sorts in high ground ; radish sow every third week ; rhubarb 
 sow largely, gently force a few established roots ; salsity and 
 scorzonera sow largely early varieties for autumn use ; sea kale 
 sow largely and blanch ; spinach sow largely of the round variety 
 to use in October ; tomato sow in a hot-bed frame. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. Asparagus sow early and transplant, if not done, 
 top-dress established plants ; basil sow in a hot-bed frame ; broad 
 beans sow for successional crop ; French beans sow a few in 
 warm situation ; beet sow largely if not done last month ; 
 brocoli sow largely if not done last month ; Brussels 
 sprouts sow towards the end of the month for succession, trans- 
 
34 
 
 plant former sowings ; cabbage sow twice in the month, plant out 
 tormer sowings ; caper of commerce sow in hot-bed for trans- 
 planting in October ; cauliflower plant out largely in a low 
 situation ; capsicum sow a few in the cucumber frame ; carrot 
 sow largely of late sorts for autumn and winter use, and a few of 
 early sorts for summer, if not done last month ; cardoon s ow 
 largely ; celery sow a few towards the end of the month in the 
 open ground and under protection for the autumn crops ; cress and 
 mustard sow fortnightly ; cucumber sow a few again in the 
 frame to plant out in October ; egg plant sow on hot-bed for trans- 
 planting ; garlic plant out early if not done ; herbs plant early 
 if not clone last month ; kohl-rabi sow in drills to remain ; leek 
 sow early if not done last month ; lettuce sow largely to use early 
 in December ; melons (rock and water") sow early along with the 
 cucumber seeds ; okra sow on hot-bed for transplanting ; onion 
 sow thickly for pickling, bulbs to ripen in January ; parsnip sow 
 largely for autumn and winter use ; peas sow largely, chiefly late 
 sorts, to use from December ; potatoes finish planting early on 
 high grounds, commence for a full crop on low grounds ; radish 
 sow every third week ; rhubarb sow early if not done previously ; 
 salsify and scorzonera sow early if not done previously ; savoy 
 cabbage sow early and late sorts for autumn and winter supply ; 
 sea kale sow early if not done, continue blanching established 
 plants ; spinach sow largely if not done in August ; turnips 
 make a good sowing towards the end of the month to use from 
 November ; tomato sow with capsicum ; vegetable marrow, 
 pumpkin, and squash sow in the open ground at the end of the 
 month, and transplant from the frame if the weather is mild. 
 
 OCTOBER. Asparagus cut the shoots six inches long for use ; 
 broad beans continue sowing tor succession ; French beans sow 
 largely of late sort, to use in December ; beet sow largely for 
 autumn and winter use ; borecole or kale sow largely to use in 
 winter, transplant former sowings ; brocoli sow largely for succes- 
 sional winter use, transplant stout young plants ; Brussels sprouts 
 sow largely for successional winter use, transplant stout young 
 plants ; cabbage make a good sowing for autumn supply, trans- 
 plant stout young plants ; capsicum sow for full crop in a warm 
 border, transplant those raised in heat ; cardoon sow for a full 
 crop in trenches, to remain so; carrot make a good sowing of 
 late varieties ; celery sow largely in the open ground, prick out 
 young seedlings ; cress and mustard sow fortnightly ; cucumber 
 sow largely in the open ground, plant out seedlings from under 
 cover ; herbs sow a few still if not already done ; leek sow a few 
 to plant out in January for late crop, transplant ; lettuce sow a 
 few to remain until tit for use in November ; melon sec cucumber ; 
 mai/e sow sweet corn in the beginning and end of this month ; 
 peas make a good sowing of large podding varieties for succes- 
 sional crop ; radish sow a few long and turnip radish ; rhubarb 
 
remove the forcing materials, gently tear away for use the outer 
 stalks from the other plants ; spinach sow a few of the round 
 variety ; savoy cabbage make a good sowing, to plant early in 
 autumn for winter use ; sea kale continue blanching ; turnip 
 sow largely, to use from December ; vegetable marrow, pumpkin, 
 and squash sec cucumber. 
 
 NOVEMBER. Broad beans plant out a few for autumn use ; 
 French beans sow largely ; borecole or kale sow a few early, to 
 plant in autumn for autumn and winter use ; brocoli sow a few 
 early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter use ; Brussels 
 sprouts sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter 
 use ; cabbage sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and 
 winter use ; celery sow largely, to plant in autumn for late crop ; 
 couve tronchuda or Portugal cabbage sow for winter use ; cress 
 and mustard sow fortnightly ; cucumber sow largely early in the 
 month, and plant out from under cover ; lettuce sow largely where 
 to remain if the situation is low and moist ; melon see cucumber ; 
 peas sow largely of large sorts ; radish sow a few ; turnip sow 
 largely twice in the month ; vegetable marrow, pumpkin, and 
 squash. See cucumber. 
 
 DECEMBER. Cabbage sow a few, to plant in autumn for 
 winter use ; cauliflower sow a few ; couve tronchuda sow for 
 winter and spring use ; celery sow for winter use ; remove side 
 shoots from, and earth up advanced crops if required for immediate 
 use ; cress and mustard sow fortnightly ; kohl-rabi sow in drills 
 for winter use ; lettuce sow largely if in a low situation ; peas 
 sow early and late sorts ; spinach sow a few of the round variety ; 
 turnip sow a few. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS. 
 
 THE NECESSITY OF KEEPING ACCOUNTS CORRECTLY. 
 
 (BY J. BUCKLEY, Accountant to the Bureau of Agriculture.) 
 
 (Introduction by the Editor.} 
 
 Farming is as much a business as selling tea and sugar or dry 
 goods, or banking, or any other commercial pursuit, and it is quite 
 as necessary that the farmer should keep proper books of accounts 
 as the dry goods merchant, the storekeeper, the banker, or any 
 other commercial man. The farmer buys, sells, and makes profits 
 and losses during the year, and it is absolutely necessary for the 
 proper conduct of his business that he should know what profit or 
 loss he has made at the end of the twelve months, and, more 
 particularly on what lines he is losing money, and on what he is 
 gaining. The average farmer is not fond of the pen, and is not a 
 ready reckoner, as a rule. This is all the more reason why he 
 should keep books of account so as to be a check upon his memory, 
 in which storehouse farmers are too apt to insecurely lock away the 
 ill-calculated results of their monetary transactions. I do not 
 suppose that more than 15 per cent, of the farmers of Australia keep 
 any kind of account books at all, and perhaps not more than rive per 
 cent, keep them properly and can tell, after a glance at their books, 
 how they stand, ho\v much profit they made last year, and the chief 
 lines on which these profits were made. On frequent occasions I 
 have been selected as a judge of farms in competitions for the best 
 managed farms in certain localities. I have, in the scale, always 
 allotted a certain number of points to book-keeping, but my 
 experience has shown that the full measure of these points has 
 never yet been awarded, and frequently that the farmer who owned 
 the best managed farm kept no books at all, or anything worthy of 
 calling books of account. I remember asking one of the best and 
 most practical farmers of an eastern colony why he did not keep a 
 proper set of books, and he replied, " Oh, the bank does that for me. 
 When I've got money in the bank I'm all right, and when I haven't 
 I'm all right too, because they lend me some." Asked how he kept 
 a check upon the bank, he said the bank was honest enough. But 
 while the bank maybe honest enough the want of system in not 
 keeping books is all wrong. It would never do for the merchant to 
 go on in this haphazard way, and it is not right for the farmer to 
 do so. 
 
343 
 
 The first book the farmer should possess himself of is a 
 scribbling diary. This may also be used as a day-book and journal 
 if the transactions of the farm are not very elaborate or frequent. 
 " Great events from little causes spring," and it is of the utmost 
 importance that every event that takes place on the farm should be 
 recorded at the time of its occurence. Memory is so apt to play us 
 false. If the ledger referred to later on is to be kept properly it is 
 absolutely necessary that a short but complete record should be kept 
 of the day's doings. What the farmer himself is doing, and what 
 each man in his employ is doing, must be carefully set down for 
 posting in the ledger at the end of the month. A note should also 
 be made at the time of receipt or sale of goods, not in detail, but 
 just the mention of the mere fact. For instance, " Received from 
 W. Sandover and Co., one single furrow plough," or " Sold to J. 
 Smith, half ton of chaff at per ton. " Invoices and sale notes 
 should be carefully filed away, as they will be wanted again when 
 the books are made up, the entries in the diary serving as a check, 
 so that nothing is omitted. 
 
 The books necessary for the system of book-keeping as shown here- 
 in are a day book, journal, and ledger. The day book and journal can 
 be combined by using the left hand page for the journal. In the day 
 book all transactions must be first entered, with full particulars of each 
 item ; sales of stock or produce, receipts and payments of money, with 
 the dates of such transactions, and the names of the parties concerned. 
 
 The journal on the right hand page is ruled in two money 
 columns, the left one headed " Dr.," and the right one " Cr." The 
 entries are to be kept on the left hand side of these columns in a 
 classified form ; when this is done they are ready for posting in the 
 ledger. All figures under the " Dr." column in the journal are 
 entered in the u Dr." column of the ledger, and all under the " Cr." 
 column of the journal are entered in " Cr." column of the ledger. 
 
 Having shown how the day book entries are recorded and 
 entered in the journal in a classified form (journalised), it may be 
 necessary to observe that the entries in the day book need not be 
 confined solely to monetary transactions. The times when crops 
 are sown or reaped, work in vineyard and orchard, variations in the 
 weather, storms, floods, or droughts, might be recorded in the day 
 book as they occur, making it a diary of events, or a separate diary 
 may be kept, as the farmer thinks fit. This record may be of great 
 use to the farmer as a work of reference in the future. 
 
 Let us suppose that Jas. Thompson is the owner of 200 acres 
 of land and possessor of certain working plant for farming purposes, 
 also live stock and cash on the ist of January, 1895. His first step 
 is to ascertain the nett value of his land, working plant, live stock, 
 and cash in hand, and make an entry in the manner shown in the 
 day book, after which follow the various transactions supposed to 
 occur in a farmer's business during the year, examples of which are 
 given in the day book and journal as follows : 
 
344 
 
 DAY BOOK. 
 Page i. 
 
 January I The property I possess is as follows : 
 200 acres of land, value ^200. 
 
 Live stock, 122. 
 Working plant, 27. 
 
 Cash in bank, 100. 
 
 The above items constitute the entire capital ; it is sub-divided and classified 
 in the Journal (journalised) under the head of property, live stock, working plans 
 and cash accounts. 
 
 5 Bought from Sandover and Co., one single furrow plough, 6 los. 
 
 As this purchase is an addition to working plant, that account is charged with 
 it and credit given to Sandover and Co. for supplying it. 
 
 5 Paid for stores for house, 7, 
 
 This being an expense, expenses account is charged (debited) with the amount 
 and cash account credited for money paid out. 
 
 12 Bought from M'Bean and Co., five sacks bonedust, 2 los. 
 
 The bonedust bein 
 with amou 
 bonedust. 
 
 nedust being for cropping purposes, crop account is charged (debited) 
 nt, and M'Bean and Co., receive credit (credited) for supplying the 
 
 30 Paid M'Bean and Co. my cheque, 2 los. 
 
 M'Bean and Co.'s account is charged (debited) with this amount, and cash 
 account credited for so much money paid out. 
 
 30 Sent my cheque per post to Sandover and Co., 6 IDS. 
 
 This is similar to the foregoing transaction, and the same explanation applies to it 
 
 February 4 Sold to Jas. Ferguson four tons of hay at 2 i$s. per ton, n. 
 
 Ferguson is indebted for the amount of hay, his account is charged (debited) 
 with the amount, and crop account receives credit (credited), the hay being a 
 portion of crop. 
 
 17 Sold to Jas. Murphy two calves at 153. each, i ios. 
 
 The foregoing explanation applies to this transaction, except in this matter, 
 live stock account receives credit for the calves sold to Murphy. 
 
345 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 / Page i. 
 
 1895 Page. s. d. ' s. d. 
 
 January I Dr. property account ... 93 200 o o 
 
 I Cr. capital ,, ... ... 85 2oo o o 
 
 i Dr. live stock ,, ... ... no 122 o o 
 
 I Cr. capital ... ... 85 122 o o 
 
 I Dr. working plant account ... 105 27 o o 
 
 I Cr. capital account ... ... 85 27 o o 
 
 I Dr. cash ... ... loo o o 
 
 I Cr. capital ,, ... ... 85 loo o o 
 
 5 Dr. working plant account ... 105 6 10 o 
 
 5 Cr. Sandover& Co. ac., I s.f. plough i 6 10 o 
 
 Dr. expenses account, stores .. 75 700 
 
 5 Cr. cash ... ... 65 o o 
 
 12 Dr. crop account, bonedust ... 115 2 10 o 
 
 12 Cr. M'Bean & Co. account, bonedust 2 2 10 o 
 
 30 Dr. M'Bean & Co. account, cheque 2 2 10 o 
 
 30 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 2 lo o 
 
 30 Dr. Sandover & Co. account, cheque I 6100 
 
 30 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 63 6 lo o 
 
 February 4 Dr. Jas. Ferguson account, 4 tons hay 
 
 at 2 155. ... ... 3 ii o o 
 
 4 Cr. crop account, hay ... ... 115 II o o 
 
 17 Dr. Jas. Murphy ac., 2 calves at 155. 4 i 10 o 
 
 17 Cr. live stock account, calves ... no i 10 o 
 
 Carried Forward ... ... 486 10 o 486 10 o 
 
DAY BOOK. 
 
 Page 2. 
 
 Feb. 24 Received cash from Jas. Ferguson, il. 
 
 Ferguson having paid this money his account is credited with the amount. 
 and being a receipt in favour of cash, cash account is debited. 
 
 28 Received cheque from Jas. Murphy, price of calves, i IDS. 
 
 Cash account in this transaction is also debited, and Murphy's account 
 receives credit (credited). 
 
 March 6 Bought from Sandover and Co. one set of iron harrows, 4.. 
 
 This is also an addition to working plant ; the account is charged (debited) 
 and Handover and Co.'s account receives credit (credited). 
 
 Paid my cheque for stores for house, 4 IDS. 
 
 This is an expense for which payment is made. Expenses account is charged 
 (debited) and cash account is credited for the money paid out. 
 
 April 9 Paid my cheque to Sandover and Co. for harrows, 4. 
 
 Having paid for the harrows, Sandover and Co.'s account is debited with the 
 amount and cash account credited for money paid out. 
 
 May 6 Sold for cash twelve young pigs for los. each, 6. 
 
 This is a cash transaction. Cash account is debited for money received, and 
 live stock account receives credit t credited), pigs being a portion of live stock. 
 
 June 2 Sold to R. Jenkins 150 bushels of wheat at 6s. per bushel, 45. 
 
 Jenkins' account is charged (debited) with amount of wheat, and crop account 
 receives credit (credited). 
 
 5 Bought from Barrett and Sons seeds to the amount of 2 ios. 
 
 The seeds being intended for crop purposes, crop account is charged (debited) 
 and Harrett and Sons receive credit for supplying the seeds. 
 
 Drew from the bank the sum of $ for petty cash. 
 
 This being intended for payment of sundry current items for use of the house 
 must be looked upon as an expense. Expenses account is charged ("debited) and 
 c;ish account credited for amount drawn from bank. 
 
 July 10 Received from R. Jenkins 44 for wheat, allowing him .1 discount. 
 
 Cash account is debited for money received, and Jenkins' account credited for 
 44 and also for i discount allowed. Profit and loss account is debited with 
 discount, being a loss; this transaction requires four entries in Journal and Ledger. 
 
347 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 Page 2. 
 
 s. d s. i. 
 Hronglit Forward ... ... 486 10 o 486 10 o 
 
 Feb. 24 Dr. cash ac., cheque Jas. Ferguson... 65 n o o 
 
 ,, 24 Cr. Jas. Ferguson account, cheque... 3 II o o 
 
 ,, 28 Dr. cash ac., cheque from J. Murphy 05 I 10 o 
 
 ,, 28 Cr. J. Murphy account ... 4 I lo o 
 
 March 6 Dr. working plant ac., I set harrows 105 400 
 
 ,, 6 Cr. Sandover & Co. ac., harrows ... I 400 
 
 ,, 6 Dr. expenses account, stores ... 75 4 10 o 
 
 ,, 6 Cr. cash account, stores ... 65 4 lo o 
 
 April 9 Dr. handover & Co. ac., cheque ... I 400 
 
 ,, 9 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 400 
 
 May 6 Dr. cash account pigs, ... ... 65 600 
 
 6 Cr. live stock account, pigs ... no 600 
 
 June 2 Dr. R. Jenkinsac., 1 50 bus. wheat at 6s. 5 45 o o 
 
 2 Cr. crop account, wheat ...115 45 o o 
 
 ,, 5 Dr. crop account, seeds ... 115 2 10 o 
 
 5 Cr. Barrett & Sons account, seeds ... 6 2 10 o 
 
 6 Dr. expenses account, petty cash ... 75 5.00 
 
 ., 6 Cr. cash account, petty cash ... 65 500 
 
 July 10 Dr. cash account, cheq. from Jenkins 65 44 o o 
 
 ,, 10 Cr. R. Jenkins account, cheque ... 5 44 o o 
 
 ,, 10 Dr. profit and loss ac., disc'nt Jenkins 125 loo 
 
 lo Cr. R. Jenkins account, discount ... 5 I o o 
 
 Carried Forward ... ... ^615 o o 615 o o 
 
348 
 
 DAY BOOK. 
 Page 3. 
 
 July 30 Sold to Wm. Jones, fruiterer, 20 cases oranges at los. each, .10, for cash. 
 
 A cash transaction ; no account is required for Wm. Jones, as he paid cash at 
 the time. Cash account is debited for money received, and crop account receive? 
 credit (credited), for oranges sold. 
 
 August I Paid Jas. O'Neil 15 weeks wages at i per week, for work on farm, 1$. 
 
 Crop account is charged with O'Neill's wages. His labor being used in 
 putting in and taking out the crop. Cash account is credited for money paid from 
 cash. 
 
 5 Paid Barrett and Sons my cheque, 2 ios., for seeds. 
 
 Barrett and Sons are debited with this amount, and cash account credited for 
 the money paid out. 
 
 15 Paid Wm. Robinson 10 weeks' wages at i per week, for work in 
 orchard, 10. 
 
 This is charged to crop account (debited), and cash account credited for money 
 paid out. 
 
 30 Paid John Brown 12 weeks' wages at i per week, for work in vine- 
 yard, 12. 
 
 Crop account is also charged with this expense (debited), and cash account 
 credited for amount paid. 
 
 ,, 30 Paid Thos. Smith for fencing 2$, contract work.. 
 
 Fencing being an improvement effected, improvement account is charged 
 with the amount, and cash account credited for money paid out. 
 
 September I Provided food for 3 labourers for 6 weeks, at ios. per week each, ^9. 
 
 The food consumed by labourers having come from the house, which was 
 previously purchased and paid for, crop account is charged (debited) with the 
 amount, and expenses account receives credit (credited). 
 
 5 Bought from White and Co. one spring dray for ^15. 
 
 The spring dray is an addition to working plant ; that account is debited and 
 White and Co. credited for the cost of dray. 
 
 10 *Given White and Co. my promissory note at three months for i$ r 
 cost of spring dray. 
 
 White and Co. are debited with promissory note ^15, and bills payable credited. 
 
 15 Received for butter and eggs sold during the last six months, 10 53. 
 
 Cash account is debilcd. being so much money received, and live stock gets 
 credit for amount of produce of stock. 
 
 25 Sold to Jas. Morrissey one draught horse for 20 and received his 
 promissory note for same at three months. 
 
 Morrissey is charged with the price of the horse, and live stock receives credit. 
 and having accepted a promissory note for the animal at three months from 
 Morrissey his account is credited with the amount, and bills receivable debited. 
 
349 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 I'ac 3- 
 
 S. (1. .(.' s. d. 
 rd ... 615 o o 615 o o 
 
 July 30 Dr. cash account, oranges ... 65 10 o o 
 
 30 Cr. crop account, oranges ... 11$ lo o o 
 
 August I Dr. crop account, wages Jas. O'Neill 115 15 o o 
 
 I Cr. cash account, wages Jas. O'Neill 65 15 o o 
 
 ,, 5 Dr. Barrett & Sons account, cheque 6 2 10 o 
 
 5 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 2 lo o 
 
 15 Dr. crop ac., wages Wm. Robinson 115 lo o o 
 
 ,, 15 Cr. Cash ac., wages Wm. Robinson 65 lo o o 
 
 ,, 30 Dr. crop account, wages John Brown 115 12 o o 
 
 30 Cr. cash account, wages John Brown 65 12 o o 
 
 30 Dr. improvements account, fencing 120 25 o o 
 
 30 Cr. cash account, fencing ... 65 25 o o 
 
 September I Dr. crop account, food for laborers... 115 900 
 
 i Cr. expenses ac., food for laborers ... 75 900 
 
 5 Dr. working plant ac., I spring dray 105 15 o o 
 
 5 Cr. White & Co. ac., I spring dray 7 15 o o 
 
 10 Dr. White & Co., ac., pro. note at 3 mo. 7 15 o o 
 
 10 Cr. bills payable ac., pro. note at 3 mo. 135 15 o o 
 
 ,, 15 Dr. cash account, butter and eggs... 65 10 5 o 
 
 15 Cr. live stock account, butter and eggs no lo 5 o 
 
 25 Dr. Jas. Morrissey ac., I draught horse 8 20 o o 
 
 25 Cr. live stock ac., I draught horse no 20 o o 
 
 25 Cr. J, Morrissey ac., pro. note at 3 mo. 8 2000 
 
 ., 25 Dr. bills receivable at., pro. note ... 135 20 o o 
 
 Carried Forward ... 778 15 o 778 15 o 
 
350 
 
 DAY BOOK. 
 
 Page 4. 
 October I Paid for stores for the use of the house, 9. 
 
 Expenses account is debited and cash account credited. 
 
 ,, 10 Paid blacksmith's account, $ los. 
 
 This is an expense incurred in repairing implements, and must come under the 
 head of working plant, that account is charged with the amount (debited), and cash 
 account credited for money paid. 
 
 20 Paid for draining 6, contract work. 
 
 This being an improvement it is charged (debited) to improvement account, 
 and cash account credited. 
 
 December 13 Paid this day my promissory note to White and Co. for 1$. 
 
 Bills payable account is debited and cash account credited for cash paid out. 
 
 29 Jas. Morrissey paid his promissory note for 20 due 28th December. 
 
 Cash account is debited for money received, and bills receivable account is 
 credited. 
 
 31 Used in the house, garden and orchard produce during 12 months, to 
 the value of 10. 
 
 This must be looked upon as an expense as if the cash were paid for the 
 produce ; expenses account is charged (debited), and crop receives credit (credited). 
 
 ,, 31 Used in the house butter, eggs, bacon, poultry, during 12 months, 
 value l$. 
 
 This is also an expense. Expenses account ischarged (debited), and live stock 
 receives credit (credited). 
 
 ,, 31 Crop consumed by stock during 12 months value 2$. 
 
 A certain quantity of produce having bei-n consumed by stock, live stock 
 account is charged (debited), and crop receives credit for what was used by stock. 
 
 31 Paid for clearing, 20, contract work. 
 
 This being also another improvement, the account is charged (debited), and cash 
 account credited for money paid. 
 
 'Bills given and received are deferred payments ; the amounts represented by tlie.n do 
 not appear in the cash book until the bills are met, that is, paid. Three days grace 
 are given in addition to the ttme specified in bill. For instance, the bill given to 
 White and Co dated loth September does not become due until the I.Uh December. 
 If the date of payment (due date) falls on a Sunday it must be met (paid) the 
 previous Saturday. 
 
JOURNAL. 
 
 Page 4. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 I'\im-iinl ... 778 15 o 778 15 o 
 
 October I Dr. expenses account, stores ... 75 900 
 
 ,, i Cr. cash account, stores ... 65 900 
 
 10 Dr. working plant account ... 105 5 lo o 
 
 ,, 10 Cr. cash account ... ... 65 5 10 o 
 
 20 Dr. improvement account, draining 120 600 
 
 20 Cr. cash account, draining ... 65 600 
 
 Decemberi3 Dr. bills payable account ... 135 15 o o 
 
 13 Cr. cash account ... ... 65 15 o o 
 
 ,, 29 Dr. cash account ... ... 65 2o o o 
 
 29 Cr. bills receivable account ... 135 20 o o 
 
 31 Dr. expenses ac., crop used in house 75 lo o o 
 
 31 Cr. crop' account, crop used in house 115 lo o o 
 
 31 Dr. expenses ac., stock used in house 75 15 o o 
 
 ,, 31 Cr. live stock ac., stock used in house no 15 o o 
 
 ,, 31 Dr. live stock ac., crop consumed ... no 25 o o 
 
 ,, 31 Cr. crop ac., crop consumed by stock 115 25 o o 
 
 31 Dr. improvement account, clearing 120 2000 
 
 31 Ci. cash account, clearing ... 65 20 o o 
 
 Total .904 5 o 904 5 o 
 
In property accounts the "Dr." items mean expenses incurred, 
 and "Cr." items mean receipts or returns in favor of the account. 
 In cash account Dr. items mean actual cash received from time to 
 time, and the Cr. items mean money paid out. Every purchase 
 or sale necessitates four entries for each transaction. The first two 
 are made in personal and property accounts. The last two, when 
 the money changes hands, in personal and cash accounts, but when 
 ready money is received and paid there is no necessity for a per- 
 sonal account, the transaction is confined in the journal and ledger 
 to property and cash accounts. 
 
 When entering items in the ledger accounts from the journal, 
 the journal page should be written in the ledger column under the 
 heading of "journal folio," and the ledger page should be written in 
 the journal under the heading of ''ledger page," in order to show that 
 such accounts are duly posted in the ledger. 
 
 INDEX TO LEDGER. 
 
 Sandover and Co. 
 McBean and Co. 
 Ferguson, Jas. 
 Murphy, Jas. 
 Jenkins, R. 
 Barrett and Sons 
 White and Co. 
 Morrisey, Jas. 
 Cash 
 
 Expenses ... 
 Capital 
 Property ... 
 Working Plant 
 Stock 
 Crop 
 
 Improvements 
 Bills Account 
 Profit and Loss 
 Balance 
 
 Valuation Book 
 Labour Book 
 
 Page. 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 95 
 IC 5 
 no 
 
 U5 
 
 I2O 
 
 135 
 125 
 130 
 
 200 
 210 
 
 LEDGER. 
 SANDOVER AND Co. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 I'ajje I. 
 
 1895. 
 
 Jan. 30. 
 To Cheque ... 
 
 May 9. 
 To Cheque ... 
 
 Jan. 30. 
 To Cheque 
 
 J.Fol. 
 
 J. Fol. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 
 1895. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 5. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 By one D.F. Plough... 
 
 I 
 
 6 10 o 
 
 
 
 
 March 6. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 By one set Harrows... 
 
 2 
 
 400 
 
 10 10 O 
 
 MCBEAN AND CO. 
 
 1 2 IO O | 
 
 Jan. 12. 
 By five bags Bonedust 
 
 1O IO C 
 
 2 *IO O 
 
Page 3. 
 Feb. 4. 
 To Hay 
 
 LEDGER. 
 JAS. FERGUSON. 
 
 Feb. 24. 
 I lioo | By Cash 
 
 353 
 
 II O O 
 
 Page 4. 
 Feb. 17. 
 To Calves 
 
 JAS. MURPHY. 
 
 Feb. 28. 
 I 10 O | By Cash 
 
 I lo o 
 
 [tine 2. 
 To Wheat 
 
 R. JENKINS. 
 
 45 o o 
 
 July 10. 
 By Cheque ... 
 By Discount^ .. 
 
 Page 6. 
 Aug. 5- 
 To Cheque ... 
 
 BARRETT AND Soxs. 
 
 June 5. 
 2 TO o | By Seeds 
 
 2 10 O 
 
 WHITE AND Co. 
 
 Page 7. 
 Sept. 10. 
 To Pro. Note at 3 months 3 I' 
 
 Sept. 5. 
 By Spring Dray 
 
 15 o o 
 
 JAMES MOKRISSEY. 
 
 Page 8. 
 
 Sept. 25. Sept. 25. 
 
 To i Draught Horse 3 20 o o | By Pro. Note at 3 months 3 20 o o 
 
354 
 
 Dr. 
 
 LEDGER. 
 CASH ACCOUNT. 
 
 Page 65. 
 Cr. 
 
 1895- 
 
 if 
 
 Jjfi 
 
 1895. 
 
 "rt J 
 P 
 
 
 Jan. I. 
 
 s - 
 
 d. 
 
 Jan. 5. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 To Cash in Bank 
 
 I 100 
 
 o 
 
 By Cash for Stores... 
 
 i 7 o 
 
 
 
 Feb. 24. 
 
 
 
 Jan. 30. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, J. Ferguson 
 
 2 II 
 
 
 
 By Me Bean & Co. ... 
 
 I 2 10 
 
 o 
 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 
 
 Jan. 30. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, J. Murphy 
 
 2 I 10 
 
 
 
 By handover & Co.... 
 
 i 6 10 
 
 o 
 
 May 6. 
 
 
 
 March 6. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, Pigs 
 
 2 60 
 
 o 
 
 By Stores 
 
 2 4 10 
 
 o 
 
 July 10. 
 
 
 
 April 9. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, Jenkins ... 
 
 2 44 o 
 
 
 
 By Sandover & Co.... 
 
 2 40 
 
 o 
 
 July 30. 
 
 
 
 June 6. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, Oranges ... 
 
 3 10 o 
 
 
 
 By Petty Cash 
 
 2 5 o 
 
 o 
 
 Sept. 15. 
 
 
 
 Aug. i. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, Butter, Eggs 
 
 3 10 5 
 
 
 
 By Wages 
 
 3 15 o 
 
 o 
 
 Dec. 29. 
 
 
 
 Aug. 5. 
 
 
 
 To Cheque, Morrissey... 
 
 4 20 o 
 
 
 
 By Barrett, seeds 
 
 3 2 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 15. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Wages 
 
 3 10 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 30. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Wages ... 
 
 3 12 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ,, T. Smith, fencing 
 
 3 25 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Stores 
 
 4 90 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Blacksmith 
 
 4 5 10 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Draining 
 
 4 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 13. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By White & Co. ... 
 
 4 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Clearing ... 
 
 4 20 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Balance 
 
 53 5 
 
 
 
 
 202 15 
 
 
 
 
 202 15 
 
 
 
 Page 75. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXPENSES ACCOUNT. 
 
 Jan. 5. 
 
 
 
 Sept. I. 
 
 
 
 To Stores 
 
 i 70 
 
 o 
 
 By Crop 
 
 3' 90 
 
 
 
 Marrh 6. 
 
 
 
 Dec. 3 i . 
 
 
 
 To Stores 
 
 2 4 10 
 
 o 
 
 By Profit and Loss ... 
 
 41 10 
 
 
 
 June 6. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Petty Cash 
 
 2 5 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Stores 
 
 4 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Crop 
 
 4 . 10 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stock 
 
 4 15 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5" 10 
 
 
 
 
 50 10 
 
 
 
LEDGER. 
 
 355 
 
 Dr. 
 
 CAPITAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 Page 85. 
 Cr. 
 
 1895- 
 
 it l895 - 
 
 it 
 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 To Balance 
 
 *. d. 
 449 o o 
 
 Jan. i. 
 By Land 
 Stock 
 Working Plant ... 
 Cash 
 
 
 
 I 200 
 I 122 
 I 27 
 I 100 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 449 o o 
 
 449 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. I. 
 To Lands 
 
 PROPERTY ACCOUNT. 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 200 o | By Balance 
 
 Page 95. 
 
 200 O o 
 
 Page 105. 
 
 Jan. I. 
 To Plant 
 
 Jan. 5. 
 To I Single-fur. Plough 
 
 March 6 
 To i set of Harrows ... 
 
 Sept. 5. 
 To I Spring Dray 
 
 Oct. 10. 
 To Blacksmith's Acct... 
 
 WORKING PLANT ACCOUNT. 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 Jan. i. 
 To Stock 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 To Crop 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 To Profit and Loss (Gain) 
 
 I 
 
 27 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 By Valuations 
 
 52 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 See Valuation book. 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 By Profit and loss (loss) 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 58 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 LIVE 
 
 STOCK ACCOUNT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 no. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 17. 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 122 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 By 2 Calves 
 
 I I 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 6. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 By Pigs 
 
 2 6 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 By Butter and Eggs 
 
 3 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 23. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By i Draught Horse 
 
 3 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Stock for House 
 
 4 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Valuations 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 See Valuation book. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i53 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 II 
 
 
 
35* 
 
 LEDGER. 
 
 DK 
 
 Paj-c 115. 
 
 j| 
 
 CROP 
 
 
 
 ACCOUNT. 
 
 1*95- 
 d. 
 
 CR. 
 
 b rs 
 
 s - d - 
 
 January 12. 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 4. 
 
 
 To Bonedust ... 
 
 I 
 
 2 IO 
 
 o 
 
 By Hay 
 
 I II O O 
 
 June 5. 
 
 
 
 
 June 2. 
 
 
 To Seeds 
 
 2 
 
 2 IO 
 
 
 
 By Wheat 
 
 2 45 o o 
 
 August i. 
 
 
 
 
 July 30. 
 
 
 To Wages 
 August 15. 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 By Oranges ... 
 December 31. 
 
 3 10 o o 
 
 To Wages 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 By Expenses, House 
 
 4 10 o o 
 
 August 30. 
 
 
 
 
 December 31. 
 
 
 To Wages 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 By Expenses, Stock 
 
 4 25 o o 
 
 September i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Expenses ... 
 
 3 
 
 9 o 
 
 
 
 By Value of Crop on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hand 
 
 23 5 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 See Valuation book. 
 
 
 December 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Profit and Loss (Gain) 
 
 
 73 5 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 124 5 
 
 
 
 
 124 5 o 
 
 IMPROVEMENT ACCOUNT. 
 
 Page 120. 
 
 
 
 
 
 August 30. 
 
 
 
 
 December 31. 
 
 
 To Fencing 
 
 3 
 
 25 o 
 
 o 
 
 By Valuations 
 See Valuation book. 
 
 45 18 o 
 
 October 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Draining 
 
 4 
 
 6 o 
 
 o 
 
 By Profit and Loss ... 
 
 520 
 
 December 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Clearing 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 =51 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x. 5 1 o o 
 
 PROFIT AND Loss ACCOUNT. 
 
 Page 125. 
 
 July 10. 
 To Discount 
 
 December 31. 
 To Working Plant 
 
 See Working Plant account. 
 ,, Improvements 
 
 See Improvements account. 
 ,, Expenses ... 
 
 See Expenses account. 
 Net Gain . 
 
 
 Gain. 
 
 
 
 December 31. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 By Stock 6 ii. o 
 
 
 
 SIT Stock account. 
 
 
 
 December 31. 
 
 5 16 
 
 O 
 
 By Crop 73 5 o 
 
 
 
 See Crop account 
 
 5 2 
 
 O 
 
 
 41 lo 
 
 o 
 
 
 26 8 
 
 o 
 
 
 79 16 
 
 
 
 79 16 o 
 
357 
 
 Page 130. 
 December 3. 
 To Land 
 
 See Property account. 
 Valuations ... 
 See Valuation hook. 
 Cash 
 See Cash account. 
 
 LEDGER. 
 BALANCE ACCOUNT. 
 
 December 31. 
 200 o o By Capital ... 
 
 See Capital account. 
 222 3 o Balance (Gain)... 
 
 53 5 <> 
 
 475 8 
 
 449 o o 
 26 8 o 
 
 475 8 
 
 Page 135. 
 
 BILLS ACCOUNT. 
 
 Bills Receivable. 
 
 Date. 
 
 From whom 
 received. 
 
 To whom payable. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 When due. 
 
 When paid. 
 
 1895 
 Sep. 25. 
 
 Jas. Morrissey. 
 
 Jas. Thomson. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 28, 1895. 
 
 Dec. 28, 1895. 
 
 Bills Payable. 
 
 Date. 
 
 To whom payable. 
 
 By whom. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 When due. 
 
 When paid. 
 
 1895 
 Sep. 10. 
 
 White & Co. 
 
 Jas. Thomson. 
 
 15 o o 
 
 Dec. 13, 1895. 
 
 Dec. 13, 1895. 
 
 Having finished the posting of the journal accounts into the 
 ledger up to the end of the year, we must turn our attention to the 
 valuation book, in which is entered a list of farm property, viz., 
 live stock, crop, working plant, improvements and their respective 
 values. Care should be taken to give a proper valuation in order to 
 ascertain the exact state of affairs. In the valuation of implements, 
 full allowance should be made for wear and tear ; the amount 
 representing the depreciation in value should be in proportion to 
 the time they have been in use. In the value of improvements, the 
 money expended on such represents their value, but in the course 
 of time this will diminish, consequently a certain percentage should 
 be taken off the original cost. In these matters the farmer must use 
 his own judgment to ascertain what is fair to allow for deprecia- 
 tion. For the purpose of an example I have taken off 10 per cent, 
 from the value of the live stock, working plant, and improvements. 
 The valuation book might be kept as follows : 
 
358 
 
 Page 200. VALUATION BOOK. 
 
 Valuations taken on jis/ December, 1895. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 I bay draught horse, branded B2 off neck 
 1 dark brown draught horse, brand HL near shoulder 
 I grey draught horse, branded JT off shoulder ... 
 5 cows, average 8 each 
 
 3 calves 15; 
 
 4 Pigs _ 25/- ,, 
 
 8 young pigs, average 5/- each 
 Poultry 
 
 Allow 10 per cent, depreciation in value 
 
 CROP. 
 
 3 tons of straw at 2 per ton ... 
 3 tons hay, at 5 per ton 
 Manure 
 
 WORKING PLANT. 
 I double-furrow plough 
 
 1 single-furrow plough 
 
 2 harrows ... 
 
 1 spring cart 
 
 2 sets cart harness ... 
 Tools for working ... 
 
 Allow 10 per cent, for depreciation in value 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS. 
 Draining ... 
 Fencing 
 Clearing ... 
 
 Allow 10 per cent, for depieciation in value 
 Total 
 
 25 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 40 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 IT2 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 58 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 5 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ioo 16 o 
 
 23 5 
 
 52 4 
 
 45 18 o 
 222 3 o 
 
 Having completed the entries in the valuation book, let us give 
 our attention again to the ledger for the purpose of closing the 
 accounts and drawing up a balance-sheet, a matter of importance, 
 as it enables the farmer to ascertain his exact position, which can 
 be arrived at in the following manner: Add up the Dr. and Cr. 
 money columns of each account, and if they are found to agree, 
 rule a line at the foot of each column and enter the totals in figures 
 under it. If the Dr. and Cr. money columns are not equal, subtract 
 the lesser from the greater, the difference is what is called the 
 balance, this is added to the lesser money column ; when done, 
 the two will be found equal. As no debts were incurred by the 
 tanner, and no money owing to him, the personal accounts in 
 the ledger do not show a balance on either side : the money 
 
359 
 
 columns agree. When the Dr. side of an account is greater than 
 the Cr. side, deduct one amount from the other, and enter the 
 difference in the Cr. money column, prefixed by the words " By 
 Balance." In like manner when the greater amount exists on the 
 Cr. side of an account, the difference between it and the amount on 
 the Dr. side is entered to it prefixed by the words " To Balance," 
 which, when added up, the columns of figures will be found equal. 
 This will be understood on reference to the cash account where a 
 balance of ^53 55. 6d. appears, showing the difference between 
 the Dr. and Cr. sides ; that is, the expenditure, or Cr. side, is less 
 than the receipts, or Dr. side. In working plant account the entries 
 on the Dr. side amount to ^58, the cost of the implements and 
 expenses in repairing ; on the Cr. side appears the entry " by valua- 
 tion ^52 45. od." which represents the value of the working plant 
 on the 3ist December ; on the same side also appears "by profit 
 and loss, $ i6s. od." this means the depreciation in value of work- 
 ing plant. It is a loss. Stock account the Dr. side entry " to 
 stock" is the value of stock on the ist January, ^122, added to 
 which is ^25, an expense incurred in maintenance, the two amounts 
 added will be found to amount to .147. The Cr. items represent 
 the product of stock sold, and the value of stock in possession 
 total amount, ^153 us. od., leaving a balance of 6 us. od. in 
 favor of the Dr. side, which means so much gained in stock, the 
 entry for which, on the Dr. side, will be " to profit and loss, 6 
 us." Crop account the Dr. side represents the expenses, and the 
 Cr. side the sales and the value of crop unsold. It will be per- 
 ceived that the Cr. side is greater than the Dr. side, the difference 
 between them being ^73 55. od., which is so much gained. The 
 balancing entry is " to profit and loss, ^73 53. od." The improve- 
 ment account the Dr. side shows the amount expended in fencing, 
 draining, and clearing; total, ^51. The Cr. entry "valuations, 
 ^45 i8s." represents the value of such at the end of the year. There 
 is a depreciation in the value amounting to ^5 2s. od. The second 
 entry is " by profit and loss, $ 2s. od." Profit and loss account 
 the Dr. entries in this account show the losses in cash (discount), i ; 
 working plant, $ i6s. od. ; improvements, ^5 2s. od. ; and 
 amount of household expenses, ^41 los. od. The Cr. entries show 
 what has been gained in stock and crop, and it will be perceived 
 that the Dr. side (loss) is less than the Cr. side (gain) by 26 8s. od., 
 this amount is added to the Dr. side for balancing purposes " to nett 
 gain, 26 8s." Balance account the Dr. side shows on December 
 3ist, 1895, land ^200 ; the value of live stock, crop, working plant, 
 and improvements (see valuation book) equal to .223 35. od. ; and 
 cash in hand (see cash account), ^53 55. od ; total on Dr. side, ^475 
 8s. od. On the Cr. side is the entry 4t by capital," that is, the amount 
 of capital possessed on the ist January, 1895. The difference 
 between the two sums is 26 8s. od., in favor of capital. The entry 
 on Cr. side is " by balance, 26 8s. od." 
 
3 6o 
 
 A labor book is necessary for a farmer to enter the names of 
 the men in his employment and the nature of their work, such as 
 ploughing, harvesting, vineyard, or orchard work, the time they 
 entered upon their employment, and the rate of wages agreed 
 upon. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Name. 
 
 How engaged. 
 
 Rate of wages. }J 
 'f. 
 
 tr. 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 April 12. 
 June 6. 
 June 7. 
 
 James O'Neill. 
 Win. Kobinson. 
 John Brown. 
 
 Farm Labor. 
 
 Work in Orchards. 
 Work in Vineyard. 
 
 i per week. 15 
 i per week. 10 
 i per week. 12 
 
 - 
 
 15 o o 
 
 IO 
 12 O 
 
 Up to 1st August. 
 Up to i5th Aug. 
 Up to soth Aug. 
 
 Having balanced the ledger accounts, our next proceeding is 
 to open accounts for the following year. To do this we must refer 
 to the balance account in ledger, and enter the items on Dr. side of 
 balance account book as follows : 
 
 In balancing my accounts on ^ist December, 1895 I am possessed of 
 the following : 
 
 DAY BOOK. 
 
 1896. 
 
 Jan. I s. d. 
 
 Land value ... ... 2oo o o 
 
 Live stock, per valuation book 100 16 o 
 
 Crop, per valuation book ... 23 5 o 
 
 Working plant, per valuat'n bk. 52 4 o 
 
 Improvement, per valuation bk. 45 1 8 o 
 
 Cash on hand per cash book 53 5 o 
 
 475 8 o 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 1896. DK. CK. 
 
 Jan. i s. d. 
 
 Dr. property a'c ... 200 o o 
 
 , live stock a/c... loo 16 o 
 
 , crop a/c ... 23 5 
 
 . working plant a'c 52 4 o 
 
 , improvementa/c 45 i& o 
 
 , cash a/c ... 53 5 o 
 
 Cr. capital a:c 
 
 475 8 o 
 
 s. d. 
 
 475 8 
 
 The system of book-keeping on the double entry principle as 
 set forth herein is the basis of good book-keeping. In order to avoid 
 tediousness, and make it easy of comprehension, the explanations 
 given are in as concise a form as possible. More could be said on 
 the subject, but what is here detailed is applicable to farmers and 
 orchardists. Book-keeping is not easily understood when hrst 
 looked into, but when the initial difficulties are overcome a know- 
 ledge is easily acquired, when it becomes not a labour, but a pleasure. 
 A good method to adopt to attain this object and one that 
 I recommend is to write out a copy of the accounts given herein 
 as examples, beginning with the clay book and journal, after which 
 the ledger in the manner prescribed. A few sheets of foolscap 
 ruled in journal and ledger form would answer the purpose. This 
 exercise might be repeated two or three times, and by this means 
 the farmer will acquire sufficient knowledge to put theory into 
 practice. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 
 
 WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES. 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES FIRST AID IN ACCIDENTS. 
 
 THE MORE COMMON COMPLAINTS AND SIMPLE REMEDIES. 
 
 The following chapter has been kindly prepared, at the request 
 of the Editor of the GUIDE, by Dr. O'Connor, of Perth. The GUIDE 
 does not profess to teach the whole theory and practice of agro- 
 mony, neither does this chapter pretend to cover the whole range 
 of surgery and medicine. In a country so widely settled as this, 
 there is necessarily a large number of people living at long 
 distances from medical help. Whenever possible, skilled medical 
 aid should be summoned immediately ; but where this is not 
 possible, or where some time must elapse before the doctor can 
 arrive, what to do, and how to do it, in the preliminary stages of 
 accidents, or other physical emergencies, can be gathered from the 
 following pages : 
 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 POISONS. ANTIDOTES. 
 
 Acids 
 
 (a) Sulphuric ) Bicarbonate of soda, magnesia, chalk, or 
 
 (b) Hydrochloric whitewash in water. 
 
 (c) Nitric ) Soapy water, milk, eggs, olive, or almond oil. 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 Caustic Potash j (a] Vinegar, lemon juice, milk, and oil. 
 
 Lime > (b) Warm water and stimulants. 
 
 Ammonia ) 
 
 !(a] Emetics. 
 (b) Magnesia, oils, iron rust. 
 (c) Sal volatile, 30 drops, repeated in 5 minutes. 
 
 Carbolic Acid I ^ E P som salts > i oz - in water - 
 j (b) Eggs and milk, strong coffee. 
 
 (a] Emetics. 
 
 Chloral \ (b) Strong coffee. Rouse the patient. Keep 
 
 patient warm. 
 
362 
 
 Corrosive Sublim- ) White of egg, flour and water freely, 
 ate j emetics. 
 
 Prussic Acid 
 
 (a) Bitter Almonds 
 
 (3) Cherry, apricot 
 
 & peach stone. 
 (c) Cyanide of 
 
 potash. 
 
 (a) Sal volatile, one teaspoonful. 
 
 (6) Artificial respiration, with cold and warm 
 
 affusions in the head and spine. 
 (c) Mustard to stomach, black coffee. 
 
 Nux Vomica 
 Strychnine 
 
 Mushrooms 
 
 Opium 
 
 (a) Laudanum 
 (3) Morphia 
 
 (c} Chlorodyne 
 
 Phosphorous 
 Rat paste 
 
 (a) Emetics. 
 (3) Strong tea. 
 
 | Emetics. 
 
 j Stimulants and castor oil. 
 
 (a) Emetics. 
 
 (b) Strong coffee, keep patient awake, smell- 
 
 ing salts with care. 
 
 (c) Artificial respiration, warmth, sour red 
 
 wine. 
 
 | Use magnesia in water. 
 I Avoid oil or fat. 
 
 Verdigris 
 Coal Gas 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas 
 Chloroform 
 Ether 
 Strangulation 
 
 ) Use sugar and eggs. 
 
 ) Avoid oil, fat, or vinegar. 
 
 (a) Remove patient to fresh air, and keep 
 
 him warm. 
 Douche or sprinkle the head ; rubbing. 
 
 (c) Mustard poultices to calves and heart. 
 
 (d) Smelling salts. 
 
 (e) Artificial respiration ; pull forward the 
 
 tongue occasionally. 
 In all cases keep the patient warm. 
 
 EMETICS, TO PRODUCE VOMITING. (a) Warm water, salt and 
 water, mustard, alum, or bluestone in water ; (b) tickling the back 
 of the throat with the finger or a feather. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (Sylvester's). Put patient on the back, 
 with pad under the shoulders, so that the head hangs over the end 
 of the table. Then, standing at the head, grasp the arms below 
 the elbows, and draw them upwards until they lie on each side of 
 the head, then carry them again downwards on the chest and press 
 on the lower part of the chest, so as to force the air out. This 
 should be repeated at regular intervals about 20 times a minute. 
 
 IN CASE OF DROWNING. The body should be placed on the 
 side, and the legs carefully lifted to allow the water to run out of 
 the lungs, &c. (greatest care should be exercised, as any roughness 
 may stop the heart). If respiration has stopped, the body is turned 
 fifteen times per minute from side to face ; when on the face pres- 
 
363 
 
 sure is made on the back ; by this method the tongue can fall 
 forward and water in lung, or vomited, can run out of the mouth 
 instead of being sucked down into the lungs, if on the back, and 
 one lung is kept patent. 
 
 SNAKE BITE. (a) Suck the wound, if there is no abrasion in the 
 mouth ; (b) tie a tight strap at once around the limb between the 
 wound and the body; (c) if liquid ammonia or Condy's fluid be at 
 hand, drop it in the wound ; (</) cut the bitten piece out, or cut into 
 the wound and allow to bleed; (c) wash with vinegar ; (/) stimulants, 
 with care. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE, OR BLEEDING. (a) Pressure of ringer or pad with 
 bandage ; (6) elevate the part ; (c) no stimulants. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS. (a) Put the patient to bed, with 
 head and chest raised ; (b) keep perfectly quiet, remove friends 
 from room : (c) no speaking, or deep breathing ; (d) suck ice, swallow 
 two tea-spoonfuls of salt in a little water. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE FROM THE NOSE. (a) Lie down on the back ; (/;) 
 cold applications to the nose ; (c) breathe through the mouth ; 
 (d) inject solution of alum, or vinegar and w r ater ; (e) press together 
 the nostrils ; (/) take one packet of epsom salts ; (g) no stimulants. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE FROM THE STOMACH. (a) Rest in bed and keep 
 perfectly quiet ; (b) suck ice ; (c) light milk food in small doses ; 
 (d) no stimulants. 
 
 WOUNDS. (a) Stop the bleeding (see hemorrhage) ; (b) keep 
 wound clean ; (c) dress with cold water compresses ; (d) rest. 
 
 BURNS. Douche with cold water ; apply cold applications or 
 cover at once with flour ; dress afterwards with olive or salad oil. 
 
 BRUISES. Cold applications, with lead lotion. 
 
 In all serious accidents, do not move the person, as movement 
 robs him of his only chance. Send for the doctor. 
 
 FRACTURES. Physical signs and symptoms, in general : (a) 
 Loss of power in the limb ; (b) pain and swelling at injured part ; 
 (c) some distortion and irregularity ; (d) if the limb is pulled, it 
 
resumes its natural shape ; (e) if gently moved, a grating sensation 
 (crepitis) may be felt ; (/) limb is movable. Note. Some of these 
 signs may be absent. 
 
 DISLOCATION. (a) Occurs at joints ; (b) limb is fixed, not 
 movable ; (c) no crepitis. 
 
 FRACTURE OF SKULL. Unconciousness ; bleeding from the 
 ears. Treatment Rest in bed. 
 
 FRACTURE OF JAW. (a) Irregularity ; (b) bleeding from the 
 gums. Treatment. Bandage around the jaw and head. 
 
 FRACTURE OF COLLAR-BONE. (a) Pain ; irregularity ; (6) elbow 
 supported by the other hand ; (c) head inclined to side of fracture. 
 Treatment. (a] Place patient on hard bed on his back, without a 
 pillow ; (b} Put pad in the arm-pit, put on triangular bandage with 
 elbow brought forward and close to the side. 
 
 FRACTURE OF ARM. Several symptoms. Treatment. Put 
 padded splints back, front and^each side with a bandage, and put 
 hand in a sling, leaving the elbow free. 
 
 FRACTURE OF FORK-ARM. Loss of power, pain, depression. 
 Treatment. Bend the fore-arm and keep the thumb upwards. 
 Padded splint back and front with bandage, and put fore-arm in a sling. 
 
 FRACTURE OF HAND OR FINGERS. Put hand on a well padded 
 broad splint, and carry it in a sling. 
 
 FRACTURE OF RIHS. Pain in breathing or coughing. Pressure 
 of hand to prevent movement relieves pain ; short breathing ; crepitis. 
 Treatment. Envelope with a broad bandage or towel. 
 
 FRAC rriv'i OF THIGH. Usual signs. Treatment. Long splint 
 on the outside. 
 
365 
 
 FKACTUKE OF LEG. Any stiff material will do for temporary 
 splints, as board, wood, wire netting, umbrella, card-board, tin, straw. 
 
 .V.WffM'* 
 
 The fractured part should, before being put in splints, be placedjin 
 as natural a position as possible. 
 
 SPRAINS. Rest ; cold applications. 
 
 HANDKERCHIEF BANDAGES. 
 
 FOUR-CORNERED BANDAGE FOR THE ARM. 
 
 FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR. Syringe gently along the roof 
 of the opening ; do not try to remove by probes. 
 
 FOREIGN BODIES IN THE THROAT. (a) Remove by forceps if 
 in sight ; (6) emetics if moveable. 
 
 FOREIGN BODIES IN THE NOSTRILS. Remove with wire loop 
 or forceps. 
 
 WHITLOW. (a) Poultices of linseed or bran ; (6) keep arm 
 raised ; (c) put in a sling. 
 
 RETENTION OF URINE. Hot bath. 
 
 SORE NIPPLES. (a) Cleanliness ; (6) alum wash. 
 
366 
 
 INSENSIBILITY CAUSED BY FAINTING, APOPLEXY, EPILEPSY, AL- 
 COHOL, CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN, OPIUM, POISONOUS GASES. 
 Fainting and epilepsy Trent men I. (a] Lay the patient with head 
 low ; (b) loosen the clothing ; (c) smelling salts ; (d) prevent the 
 tongue from being bitten (epilepsy) ; (e) stimulants in fainting, 
 excepting in case of hemorrhage ; (/) rest. Opium, poisonous 
 
 THREE-CORNERED BANDAGK FOR THE ARM 
 
 gases : (see poisons). Concussion of the brain : () keep patient 
 quiet in bed ; (6) ice or cold applications to the head. Alcohol : 
 
 (a) Give an emetic ; (b} castor oil ; (c) strong coffee ; (d) warmth. 
 Apoplexy : The face becomes purple, breathing deep and blowing, 
 eyes staring, pulse slow and full. Trcntiucut. (a) Raise the head ; 
 
 (b) cold or ice to the head ; (c) mustard or linseed poultices to the 
 calves of the legs ; (d) light food. 
 
 So HI-: KYKS. (a) Cold or ice application ; (b) solution of alum 
 in water ; (c) if getting worse, see a doctor at once. 
 
 PILES. (a) Apply hot poultice and alternate this with cold or 
 ice applications ; (6) smart purge of epsom salts. 
 
 Tvi'Hoin 1'Y.YKk. This is the commonest disease in Western 
 Australia, and though it occurs most frequently in the crowded 
 centres of population it also happens in the most remote. The 
 principal causes are unhealthy and dirty surroundings, with over- 
 crowding. It is spread most usually by means of the air, drinking 
 water and milk. It commences with a feeling of lassitude and 
 want of energy. This is followed by frontal headaches, pains in 
 the back and limbs, loss of appetite, thirst, dry skin, sometimes 
 cliarrlKL-a or constipation, rigors and a few pinkest spots on the chest 
 and abdomen, which come out in crops and last for a few days. 
 In a favourable case, and under proper and early treatment, nearly 
 
every patient will get well in a few weeks. In the severe cases, 
 vomiting and diarrhoea, become severe, the tongue becomes dry and 
 brown, sleeplessness (with great restlessness), delirium, acute or 
 stupid condition, delirium or delusions of a quiet kind, sometimes 
 hemorrhage from the bowels, inflammation of the lungs, swollen 
 leg with pain in the groin. High temperature ; a thermometer 
 should always be in use. Treatment. (a) Put patient in bed in 
 large cool room, with two beds If possible ; \b) give three pints of 
 milk, with water, during the 24 hours, and one pint of clear soup, 
 ice or cold water to suck ; sponge the body twice a day ; (c) keep 
 food and medicines in another room ; (d) do not taste food before 
 the patient, (i) Headache may be relieved by ice or cold applica- 
 tions to the head, with mustard poultice to nape of neck. (2) 
 Vomiting : Give ice to suck, and small doses of food ; mustard or 
 poultices to stomach. (3) Diarrhoea : Peptonised milk, with lime 
 water ; alum whey, instead of milk ; add one tea spoonful of alum 
 to pint of boiling milk and skim off the whey. (4) Tongue when dry 
 and brown should be cleaned with lemon juice, and ice to suck. (5) 
 Sleeplessness : (a) Ice to head, mustard leaf to nape of neck ; (b) cold 
 sponging. (6) Delirium : See sleeplessness. (7) Hemorrhage : (a) 
 Binder round the abdomen ; (/;) small doses of alum whey or 
 peptonised milk ; (c) stop stimulants, for a time, at least ; (d) 30 
 drops of laudanum at once. (8) Swollen legs : (a) Keep the leg 
 warm with hot bottles, and envelope in wool ; (b) Rest in bed until 
 quiet well. (9) High temperature : (a) Sponge the body with warm 
 water, and then use ice or ice water. When convalescent the 
 patient should remain in bed 10 days after the temperature is 
 normal in the evening, and should, after that time, get a little 
 custard. If the temperature keeps normal the food may be increased 
 very slowly. The temperature should be taken every night, as 
 relapses are very common. 
 
 To AVOID TYPHOID FEVER. (a) Boil all drinking water, or use 
 a Chamberland-Pasteur filter ; (b} avoid drinks of any sort (ice- 
 creams, milk) unless satisfied that they are pure ; (c) take milk only 
 from persons who study cleanliness and have healthy cows ; (d) 
 wash thoroughly all vegetables and fruits ; (e) keep your house and 
 premises clean, and study personal cleanliness ; (/) apply equal parts 
 in saw-dust and lime to the closet pan ; (g) see directions on disin- 
 fectants for those suffering from typhoid fever. 
 
 ASTHMA. Loosen the clothing ; apply mustard to the chest ; 
 foot baths ; give a purge. 
 
 CROUP. (a) Generally occurs in children ; (b) usually at night 
 time the child wakes up gasping for breath. Treatment. (a) 
 Emetics, as one teaspoonful wine of ipecacuanha in warm water 
 every quarter of an hour until vomiting comes on ; tickle back of 
 throat ; (b) apply sponge wrung out of boiling water to the throat ; 
 (c) smart purge ; (d) keep the room warm ; (e) steam the room. 
 
368 
 
 SORE THROAT. All cases of sore throat should be considered 
 suspicious, on account of diphtheria. Diphtheria commences with 
 whitish grey spots on back of throat. Treatment. For ordinary sore 
 throat : (a] Use a gargle of alum ; (7?) poultices to throat. 
 
 CONVULSIONS. Occurs in children ; (a) put in warm bath ; 
 (b) give a smart purge of castor oil ; . (c) if due to food, give an 
 emetic. 
 
 COLIC, OR GRIPES. (a) Linseed poultices to abdomen : (b) 
 chlorodyne, 30 drops, and repeat in two hours, if necessary ; (c) 
 capsicum, ginger, eucalyptus, 15 drops ; (if) castor oil. . 
 
 DIARRHCEA. (a) See treatment for colic ; (b) milk diet. This 
 does not apply to diarrhoea in children, which requires a doctor. 
 
 PAIX. (a) Heat, as poultices ; (b) rest ; elevation. 
 
 VOMITING (a) Small doses of milk ; (b) ice to suck ; (c) mustard, 
 bran, or linseed poultices to the stomach ; (if) fresh air. 
 
 CONSTIPATION AND INDIGESTION. (n) Active exercise, especially 
 riding ; (6) green vegetables, and fruit ; (c) oat-meal ; brown 
 bread ; (ti) Hot water before breakfast ; (c) small doses of epsom 
 salts in hot water before breakfast ; (/) regularity in meals ; (g) 
 regularity in going to stool ; (//) well made coffee or tea ; (/') olive 
 or olive oil fat. 
 
 DISINFECTANTS. (a) Sulphur fumes for rooms ; (6) boiling or 
 steam for clothes ; (c) rags should be burnt ; (if) chloride of lime 
 about the rooms ; (c) excreta should be burnt or put in solutions of 
 carbolic acid, sulphate of iron, condy's fluid, corrosive sublimate. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 USEFUL FACTS AND FIGURES AND RECIPES. 
 
 CULLED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES BY THE EDITOR. 
 
 How TO MAKE AXLE GREASE. The recipe given here for this 
 purpose is that of " Booth's axle grease." The following are the 
 directions given in the original patent : Dissolve ^ Ib. soda in i gal- 
 lon of water ; add 3 Ibs. of tallow and 6 Ibs. palm oil, (or 10 Ibs. 
 palm oil only) ; heat them together to. 200 or 210 deg. F. ; mix, 
 and keep the mixture constantly stirred till the composition is 
 cooled down to 60 or 70 deg. F. A thinner composition is made 
 with ^lb. soda, i gallon of water, i gallon of rape oil, and J Ib. of tallow 
 or palm oil. Trade '' Secrets" 
 
 BALLS FOR REMOVING GREASE AND PAINT SPOTS FROM CLOTH, 
 ETC. Fuller's earth, 30 parts ; French chalk, i part ; yellow soap, 
 20 parts ; pearlash, 15 parts. Make into a paste with spirits of 
 turpentine, give a slight color with a little yellow ochre, and then 
 cut it into cakes. This form, omitting the French chalk, is that 
 which is so very generally sold about the streets. Trade "Secrets" 
 
 BOOT BLACKING. The following is a formula for a blacking 
 without sulphuric acid : Bone black, 4 oz. ; molasses, 2 oz. ; vine- 
 gar, | pint ; spermaceti oil, a teaspoonful. The bone black must 
 be very finely ground, and the oil is first mixed with it. The 
 molasses are then added, and lastly the vinegar. If the ingredients 
 are of the best quality, this blacking will be found exceedingly 
 good. The addition of oil to the blacking tends to soften and pre- 
 serve the leather, but if too much be added, it increases the diffi- 
 culty of getting a good " shine." The oil chosen should be some 
 cheap, non-drying fat oil. Coarse neatsfoot oil is often used, and 
 would be preferred if it could always be had cheaply. Trade 
 " Secrets." 
 
 BEESWAX, PREPARING. Separate the better part of the comb 
 from the brood portion as much as possible when you are draining 
 the honey. When drained, boil the comb in water, stirring 
 frequently to prevent its burning. When completely melted, 
 strain through bags (hair bags are the best) into a tub of cold 
 water. Repeat this operation twice, or even thrice, and through 
 bags increasing in fineness. Finally, melt the wax by itself, 
 and pour into moulds of desired shape, first wetting them. Cool 
 in a warm room until the cakes solidify. This will prevent their 
 cracking in the middle. Another plan, and more simple, is to 
 
370 
 
 place the combs in a conical earthenware vessel filled with a mixture 
 of one ounce of nitric acid to a quart of water. Set this upon an 
 open fire and stir until the wax be completely melted, then remove 
 it and allow it to cool gradually. The product will be in three 
 almost distinct layers ; the upper one will be pure wax, in the 
 middle will be sufficiently good wax to be added to the next 
 melting, or for many household purposes, and the lowest layer will 
 be chiefly impurities. Australasian Farmers' Guide. 
 
 DEVICE FOR LEADING A Cow. Mr. J. W. Oilman, Kearney Co., 
 Neb., gives an arrangement of the halter for the easy leading of 
 cattle that are inclined to hang back. He writes : " I learned the 
 method from a young Dane in my employ. I had two cows, neither 
 of which would lead with any degree of comfort ; to lead them 
 both at once was out of the question. One day I noticed the Dane 
 
 leading them with as little trouble as if they were Iwell broken 
 horses. This ease in leading was due to his taking a half-hitch in 
 the halter around an ear of each cow in such a way that it would not 
 slip oft". This idea has been worth a great deal to me." To those 
 who have tugged and woiried over a cow that would not lead at 
 the halter this hint will be welcome. The engraving shows the 
 manner of making the half-hitch of the halter about the animal's 
 ear. /I ustralasian. 
 
 CAPACITY OF CAKTS AND HARROWS. An ordinary cart 6 ft. long, 
 by 3 | ft. wide, and 2\ ft. deep will hold 45 cubic ft., or about -?.\ tons 
 of clay ; a dobbin-cart will hold ;J yds., cubic; an earth -waggon, 
 small, j yds., cubic; ditto, lar^e, 3 yds., cubic; wheel-barrow, 
 heavy, one-tenth yd., cubic ; ditto, ordinary, one-fourteenth yd., 
 cubic. 
 
CONCRETE. Materials to i cubic yd. of concrete, (i.) Pro- 
 portions Lime or cement i ; sand, 2 ; clean shingle, 6. Require 
 Shingle, etc., 27 cubic ft.; sand, 9 cubic ft.; cement, etc., 3.51 bus.; 
 water, 25 gals. 
 
 (2.) Proportions Lime or cement, i ; gravel or ballast con- 
 taining } part sand, 7 ; ballast, etc., 33 cubic ft. Require Lime or 
 cement, 3.67 bus.; water 30 gals. 
 
 (3.) Proportions Portland cement, i ; gravel or ballast, 10. 
 Require Ballast, etc., 33 cubic ft.; lime or cement, 2.49 bus.; water, 
 30 gals. 
 
 The proportions marked (i.) and (2.) are those usually adopted 
 in the best foundations. 
 
 The concrete in Portland cement, marked (3.) is generally used 
 in rilling, and may be also used as foundations for light buildings. 
 
 TAR CONCRKTK requires, per cubic yard, about 12 gals, of coal- 
 tar, and from 10 to 20 Ibs. of pitch, according to the thinness of the 
 tar. 
 
 The size of the stone may vary from J to 2\ inches in diameter 
 according to the thickness or purpose for which the concrete is 
 intended. 
 
 Portland cement varies in weight from 108 to 120 Ibs. per 
 bushel. Fineness and weight indicate good quality. 
 
 A bushel of lime weighs 70 Ibs. 
 
 CHANGE OF SEED. It is found that, if the farmer continually 
 uses seed of his own growing, his crops deteriorate in a few years, 
 while fresh seed, if judiciously selected, will yield good crops. A 
 change should always be made, if possible, from an earlier district 
 or a better soil. At the same time, much improvement may be made 
 by a more rigid selection of home seed. Major Hallet developed 
 his well-known varieties by careful selection of the best grains year 
 after year, without changing, and the same principle might be 
 applied by farmers to their ordinary crops. Select the best part of 
 the field when growing, let it ripen well, harvest carefully, and 
 afterwards dress the grain over two or three times with the 
 most suitable dressing machine, so only the very best grain be 
 retained. If this system is persevered in, a better crop will result 
 than from a perpetual change of seed. McConnelFs Agricultural 
 Note Book. 
 
 CROSS FERTILIZATION. In order to produce a variety of plant 
 which shall combine the good characteristics of two separate kinds, 
 the system of cross breeding has been largely practised, especially 
 with wheat. On one of the selected parent plants the glumes are 
 opened and the anthers removed some time before the latter are 
 ripe. When the pollen is ripe for shedding in the other parent 
 plant, it is dusted over the feathery stigmas of the young germ in 
 the plant first operated on, the glumes closed, and the heads tied up 
 in muslin, to protect from birds, etc. The operation requires much 
 careful manipulation, and the delicate organs must not be exposed 
 
37 2 
 
 to the weather, while it requires to be done early, as self-fertilization 
 naturally takes place inside the glumes some time before the empty 
 anthers are pushed outside. Cross-bred varieties are now common. 
 McConnclFs Xole Book. 
 
 COMPARATIVE EVAPORATIVE POWER OF SOILS. Grains of water 
 evaporated in four days : 
 
 Calcareous sand 146 grs. Heavy black turf soil 128 grs- 
 
 Light garden mould 143 ,, Fine white clay 123 ,, 
 
 Very light turf soil 132 ,, Fine grey clay 123 ,, 
 
 Arable soil 131 ,, McConnelVs Note Book. 
 
 CEMENT FOR MENDING. A very good cement consists of plaster 
 of Paris, mixed with a solution of gum arabic to a thinnish paste. 
 The cement is beautifully white, and will join two pieces of china 
 or crockery very firmly, but as it sets in a few minutes, it would 
 form a solid, useless mass as soon as bottled. Trade ^ Secrets " 
 
 DIAMOND CEMENT. Soak ^ oz. of isinglass in 4ozs. of water 
 for 24 hours ; evaporate in a water bath to 2 ozs., add 2 ozs. rectified 
 spirit (alcohol of 85 per cent.), and strain through linen. Mix this 
 solution while warm with a solution of the best gum mastic in 2 ozs. 
 alcohol ; add i drachm powdered gum ammoniac, and triturate 
 together until perfectly incorporated, avoiding loss of the alcohol by 
 evaporation as much as possible. Trade " Secret?" 
 
 WATERPROOF CEMENT. The following is an old and tried 
 recipe : Take ale, i pint ; best Russian isinglass, 2 ozs. ; soak in a 
 close vessel for 12 hours, and then put them into a common glue 
 kettle and boil until the isinglass is clisolved ; then add 4 ozs. of the 
 best common glue, and disolve it with the other ; then slowly add 
 i^ ozs. of boiled linseed oil, stirring all the time while adding, and 
 until well mixed. When cold it will resemble inclia rubber. When 
 you wish to use this, dissolve what you need in a sufficient quantity 
 of ale to have the consistence of thick glue. It may be used for 
 earthenware, china, glass, or leather for harness, bands for 
 machinery, cloth belts for cracker machines for bakers, etc. If for 
 leather, shave off as if for sewing, apply the cement with a brush 
 while hot, laying a weight to keep each joint firmly for 6 to 10 
 hours, or overnight. Trade " Secrets" 
 
 CURING BIRD SKINS. One general observation applies to the 
 preservation of all skins, which is, they must be made perfectly 
 dry, so the sooner they arc exposed to a free current of air the 
 better ; and unless they are speedily and thoroughly dried the skin 
 will become putrid and rotten, and the hair or feathers will 
 consequently fall oil. If a skin he properly dried soon after it is 
 killed, it will keep a considerable time without any preservation 
 whatever, only it will be more liable to be attacked by insects 
 afterwards. If a lar^e bird like the swan be skinned, as much as 
 possible of the fat should be scraped off with a blunt table-knife or 
 palate-knife, and a quantity of chalk applied, which, when saturated 
 
373 
 
 with the oily matter, should be scraped off and a fresh supply 
 used, after which a much larger proportion of the preserving soup 
 should be applied than in other birds which are not fat. If, how- 
 ever, the oil should get on the feathers, dilute a little ox gall with 
 water, and apply it with a sponge, washing with pure water 
 immediately afterwards. The following is a recipe for making 
 arsenical soap. We have kept skins free from insect attacks in an 
 open box for nearly twenty-four months by its means : Take 
 arsenic, ^ Ib. ; camphor, ij ozs. ; white soap, ^ Ib. ; salt of tartar, 
 3 o/s. ; and powdered lime, i oz. ; cut the soap in small thin 
 slices, put into a crucible with a small quantity of water, hold over 
 a gentle lire, and stir frequently with a wooden spatula. When 
 properly melted the powdered lime and salt of tartar may be 
 added, and thoroughly mixed. Now take it off the lire and add 
 the arsenic, gently stirring all the time. Reduce the camphor into 
 a powder in a mortar, with the addition of a little spirits of wine. 
 The camphor may now be added, and well mixed with the com- 
 position whilst oft" the lire, to assist in incorporating the ingredi- 
 ents, but do not heat it too much, as the camphor will escape 
 rapidly. It may now be poured into small earthenware pots, and 
 allowed to cool. This composition, if well made, will be about the 
 thickness of ordinary flour paste. W T hen you use it, put as much 
 as you imagine you will require into a small shallow pot, adding an 
 equal proportion of water. Apply the lather, with a bristle brush, 
 using first of all some solution of corrosive sublimate to the rump, 
 inside wings and legs, head, &c. Keep the composition as close 
 as possible, as it is a deadly poison. Australasian Farmer. 
 
 DIGGING. To dig with a spade an acre of land, from 9 to 12 
 inches deep, a man will take from 14 to 21 clays in recently moved 
 soil. If old lea, will take, in some cases, double the time. 
 McConnclVs Note Book. 
 
 DUMOULIX'S LIQUID AND UNALTERABLE GLUE. This is one 
 of the oldest forms, and one of the best. It is prepared as follows : 
 Soak 8 ozs. of best glue in half-pint of water in a wide-mouthed 
 bottle, and melt by heating the bottle in a water bath. Then add 
 slowly 2^ ozs. of nitric acid, spec. gr. i'33O, stirring constantly. 
 Effervescence takes place under escape of nitrous acid gas. When 
 all the acid has been added the liquid is allowed to cool Keep it 
 well corked, and it will be ready for use at any moment. It does 
 not 'geletanise, or putrify, or ferment. It is applicable to many 
 domestic uses, such as mending china, wood, &c. An iron pot 
 cannot be used in making this liquid glue, as the acid would act on 
 the metal. Glass or earthenware must be used. Trade. " Secrets}' 
 
 EXCAVATION TEN HOURS WORK OF A LABORER. Hacking 
 ground with a pick, and thinning out ready for removal Compact 
 vegetable earth, 22 cubic yds. ; loamy clay, 16 cubic yds. ; stiff 
 clay, 10 cubic yds. ; hard gravelly soil, 7 cubic yds. ; chalk, 5 cubic yds. 
 
374 
 
 Note. In narrow trenches, as for drains, &c., deduct one-third. 
 Digging soft ground for agricultural purposes, from 8 to 10 inches 
 deep, 220 sup. yds. One ton of Sand, river, 20 cubic ft. ; sand, 
 pit, 21 cubic ft. ; gravel, coarse, 19 cubic ft. ; clay, stiff, 19 cubic 
 ft. ; coal, 45 cubic ft. ; earth mould, 32 cubic ft. Spans' Engineers' 
 Tables. 
 
 ESTIMATED PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES IN THE 
 EARTH'S CRUST. 
 
 1. Silica ... ... 53*0 7. Carbonic anhydride ] 
 
 2. Alumina ...... 19-0 8. Iron oxides ... I 
 
 3. Lime ...... 6-3 9. Sulphuric anhydride (' 5 
 
 4. Magnesia ... ... 5'8 10. Chlorides ... ... J 
 
 5. Soda ...... 2-5 ii. Other bodies ... 3-5 
 
 6. Potash ...... 2-4 McConnell's Note Book. 
 
 FLY PAPERS. Of the sticky papers, the best are coated with 
 artificial bird lime, prepared by boiling any vegetable oil with a 
 little resin. Rapeseed oil, linseed oil, or any of the cheap oils 
 answer well. After the resin and oil have been compounded, they 
 may be made into a sort of emulsion with a little honey or molasses. 
 The following formula gives good results : resin, i Ib. ; raw linseed 
 oil, i Ib. ; molasses, 4 oz. Melt the resin, add the oil little by little, 
 and while still warm beat up with the molasses. The poisonous 
 fly papers are not open to the objection of being sticky, and if well 
 dried will keep indefinitely. Cooley gives the following formula : 
 Treacle (molasses), honey, or moist sugar, mixed with about i-i2th 
 of their weight of orpiment (yellow tersulphicle of arsenic). Paper 
 to be soaked in the mixture, dried and cut into suitable pieces, 
 which are to be laid on a plate containing a little water. The 
 water dissolves the mixture, bringing it back to the former condi- 
 tion of a syrup, which the flies drink with great eagerness. For- 
 tunately there are other substances which have a very disagreeable 
 taste to human beings, and are not poisonous to them, and yet are 
 quite attractive and fatally poisonous to flies. Redwood's formula 
 for such a liquid is : Small quassia chips, j oz. ; water, i pint ; boil 
 10 minutes, strain, and add 4 oz. of molasses. Flies will drink this 
 with avidity, and are soon destroyed by it. It may also be em- 
 ploved to saturate paper, which maybe used as previously directed. 
 Secrets." 
 
 K CKKAM. (i) Soft water, i gall. ; soap, 4 oz. ; bees- 
 wax in shavings, i Ib. ; boil together and add 2 ox. of pearl-ash. 
 To be diluted with water, laid on with a paint brush and polished 
 off with a hard brush or cloth. (2) Wax, 3 <>/. ; pearl-ash, 2 ox. ; 
 warm water, 6 ox. ; heat them together and add 4 oz. of boiled oil 
 and 5 oz. of spirits of turpentine. (3) The name is sometimes given 
 to a mixture of i ox. of white or yellow wax, with 4 oz. of oil of 
 turpentine. Trade " Secrets" 
 
375 
 
 GOOD PASTE FOR PAPER-HANGING is made of old flour, mixed 
 to a milk-like consistency with water. When put in the saucepan 
 to boil, a little size or glue may be added, which will increase its 
 tenacity. A little alum may also be added to paste in order to 
 cause it to spread more freely. This ingredient has the property 
 of keeping paste sweet and wholesome, and it is generally used in 
 the thicker kinds of paste (such as shoemakers' paste) partly for 
 this purpose. The paste when boiled should be of the thickness 
 of ordinary gruel, and must be laid on the paper smoothly and 
 equally with backward and forward strokes of the brush. General 
 Building Art and Practice. 
 
 HARNESS DRESSING. The English Government harness dress- 
 ing is said to be prepared as follows ; i gall, of neatsfoot oil, 2 Ibs. 
 of bayberry tallow, 2 Ibs. of beeswax, 2 Ibs. of beef tallow. Put the 
 above in a pan over a moderate fire. When thoroughly dissolved, 
 add 2 quarts of castor oil ; then, while on the fire, stir in i oz. of 
 lamp black. Mix well, and strain through a line cloth to remove 
 sediment ; let cool. A composition which not only softens the 
 harness but blackens it at the same time, is made as follows ; Put 
 into a glazed pipkin 2 ox. of black resin, place it on a gentle lire ; 
 when melted, add 3 oz. of beeswax ; when this is melted, take it off 
 the rire, add \ oz. fine lampblack, and \ dr. of Prussian blue in 
 a tine powder ; stir them so as to be perfectly mixed, and add 
 sufficient spirits of turpentine to form a thin paste ; let it cool. To 
 use it, apply a coat with a piece of linen rag pretty evenly all over 
 the harness, then take a soft polishing brush and brush it over, so 
 as to obtain a bright surface. Blacking for harness : Molasses, 
 \ Ib. ; lampblack, i oz. ; yeast, a spoonful ; sugar candy, olive oil, 
 gum tragacanth, and isinglass, of each i oz., and the gall of an ox. 
 Mix with 2 pints of stale beer, and let it stand before the rire for 
 an hour. Trade " Secrets" 
 
 KILLING QUIET CATTLE. A rope being passed over the horns 
 or head of the animal, it is drawn tight to a ring in the floor of the 
 slaughter-pen, or to other strong fixture that may be available. A 
 sack or something else is thrown over the eyes, and a broad, sharp 
 chisel, held in the hand by means of a rope or withe, as a blacksmith 
 holds a swedge, is driven into the vertebrae just behind the skull, 
 and a sudden blow with a maul drives it between the bones and 
 into the spinal cord. This blow instantly paralyses the victim. 
 The throat is then cut clean across, to divide both the vein and 
 artery, and the animal bleeds very quickly. Taking off the Hide 
 and Cutting up. After it has bled the beef is turned upon its back, 
 and the skin is ripped from the throat over the brisket down to the 
 thighs, and then up the thighs to the hock-joints ; it is also ripped 
 up the fore-legs to the knee. These joints are then severed and 
 separated, taking care not to cut the sinew at the back of the hock, 
 by which the carcase is to be hung up. The skin is stripped down 
 as far on the sides as need be. The carcase is then opened, the 
 
37& 
 
 brisket is sawn through, and a stick put in to hold it apart. The 
 internals are then taken out, received in a large tub, and set aside. 
 The carcase is then hoisted up, the skin wholly stripped off, and 
 the head cut off. The skin is laid on one side for the present. The 
 carcase is then drenched with a few pails of cold water, and is 
 divided down the backbone with a saw, and possibly an axe ; 
 unless the axe is very sharp a cleaver is the best thing to use. The 
 
 sides are then left to cool and set. This is a point which is often 
 neglected, and the meat consequently may not keep, and is tough 
 and hard. When the meat is rirm and quite cooled it is cut up, 
 being first divided, as on the line from a to <7, figure i. The fore- 
 quarter is laid on a strong bench, and is divided across on the line 
 b to b. The upper parts may be cut for roasts and the shoulder 
 into steaks, or, with the brisket, into salting pieces. The flanks and 
 belly are suitable for salting, and the loins for roasts and steaks. 
 The three-cornered pieces in the rump make steaks, the thigh is 
 called the round, and makes steaks and a very fine salting piece, 
 and the knuckles are fine for soup pieces. When thus divided, the 
 meat is saleable, and whnt is, not sold can be salted down for 
 corned beef. For domestic use the larger pieces can be divided 
 again, and the most of the pieces can be corned and barrelled. If 
 dried beef is desired, it is taken from the lower part of the leg of 
 the beef, which is a wedge-shaped piece, and is lightly salted, with 
 some sugar and spice added, and then smoked. 
 
 A sheep is killed by laying it upon a bench, with the head pro- 
 jecting over the edge, and cutting the throat quite through. When 
 it has bled it is hung up, and the skin removed. As soon as the 
 belly is clear, the carcase is opened, and the offal is taken out at 
 
377 
 
 once. If this is not done quickly the meat will have what is called 
 a " wool taste," from the absorbtion of the gasses from the 
 intestines. The carcase is divided into quarters by cutting or saw- 
 ing down the back, and by dividing the halves of line a to <i, as in 
 figure. If the saddle is cut out, it is taken before the carcase is 
 divided into halves down the back, this piece being the two loins 
 marked 2, and not separated. This is the choice roast of the 
 mutton. Otherwise the leg is cut off, as marked by the dotted lines 
 3, the neck is cut off at i, and the shoulder at 4 ; at 5 and 6 are the 
 flanks used for stewing. The neck is regarded as the best piece of 
 the mutton for soup. The mutton ham (3 in the illustration), 
 trimmed nicely, salted and smoked, is good enough for anybody, 
 and they ought to be plentiful in Australia. The English mode of 
 cutting up a carcase of mutton is by many preferable to the Scotch 
 or American. The leg is cut short like a ham, and the shoulder- 
 blade the scapular region of the anatomist is removed entire. 
 This piece makes an excellent roast ; of the neck piece, the fore- 
 part is fitted for boiling and soup, and the hind-part for roasting 
 and chops. The breast is left bare on removing the shoulder, and 
 the ribs, called spare ribs, are roasted, broiled, or corned along 
 with the brisket. The back end of the breast makes a good roast ; 
 but for this purpose the loin is the favorite cut ; when removed 
 double, forming the chine or saddle, it may grace the table <>f a 
 public dinner. The leg is roasted or broiled, but when cut long, 
 taking in the hock-bone, it resembles a haunch of venison, and is 
 roasted accordingly. McKay's Australian Agriculture. 
 
 LIVE AND DRESSED WEIGHT OF CATTLE. Messrs. Swan, of 
 Edinburgh, the well-known cattle dealers, write as follows regard- 
 ing the proportion of beef netted to the live weight of cattle : 
 " We should say that well-finished two-year-old cattle will yield 
 60 Ibs. to 62 Ibs. of beef per 100 Ibs. live weight. The primer 
 the quality and the younger the animal the more beef is given. For 
 a finished three-year-old bullock we should say 58 Ibs. to 61 Ibs. of 
 beef per 100 Ibs. live weight. We calculate that fat cattle generally 
 yield 55 Ibs. to 58 Ibs., according to quality. In weighing them 
 alive, in order to get at the dead weight, they should be fasted 
 twelve hours, or, if weighed full, or after being fed and watered, a 
 reduction of 5 per cent, on this account should be taken from the 
 gross live weight." Australasian Fanner. 
 
 MEASURING A HAY STACK. To the height in feet from the 
 ground to the eaves add one-half of the height of the top above the 
 eaves for the mean height. Then multiply the mean height by the 
 breadth, and multiply their product by the length. Divide the gross 
 product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic 
 yards in the stack. The difference between old and new hay is 
 not the only point to be considered. The size of the stack, especi- 
 ally its'height, the nature of the crop, and its condition when put 
 together, are important points. The only satisfactory plan is to cut 
 
378 
 
 a truss representing an average half or quarter of a cubic yard, 
 weigh it, and from that calculate the total weight. Australasian 
 Farmer. 
 
 MAKING HOP BEER. The following is a recipe for 10 gallons 
 hop beer : 10 Ibs. sugar, 10 gallons water, 4 ozs. hops, a pinch of 
 isinglass, a few rasins, two large bottles of porter, or a pint of yeast i 
 take four gallons of water and boil it with the sugar and hops for 
 one hour, then strain into a tub and put the hops on again in a little 
 more water, and boil for half an hour ; then strain into the tub, and 
 then into a cask with a piece of muslin over the funnel to prevent 
 the seeds going through ; then iill up with cold water, which will 
 make the 10 gallons. It must be filled up every morning for four 
 days with cold water ; and the day before bottling a pinch of isin- 
 glass dissolved in a little of the beer warmed is a great improvement 
 to clear it. Of course you put the yeast or porter in after you fill 
 the cask ; then, also, add the rasins. If bottled on the fifth day it is 
 nearly ready for drinkirg. Australasian Fanner. 
 
 MENSURATION AND LEVELLING. Computation of acreage. 
 Divide the enclosure into convenient triangles ; multiply the base 
 (in links) of each triangle by its perpendicular height, and divide by 
 two : this gives area in square links ; point off live figures to the 
 right (= dividing by 100,000, the number of square links in an acre), 
 which gives acres and decimal fraction. Repeat the process for 
 each triangle, and add together. Multiply decimal fraction by four, 
 point off five figures, leaves roods ; multiply fraction left by 40, point 
 off five figures, leaves poles with decimal fraction. To set off a right 
 angle with a chain only. Measure off 40 links on the ground along 
 the base-line ; then take 30 for the perpendicular, and 50 for the 
 hypothenuse ; by fastening the extremities of these last 80 links at 
 the ends of the base, and pulling the chain tight, we have a right- 
 angle triangle. 
 
 E m (JTJ D 
 
 INACCESSIBLE POINTS. (i). Start from A (exactly opposite to E) 
 and go to B ; continue to C, making B C = A B ; erect C D perpen- 
 dicular to A C, and find D in a line with B and E : C D = A E. 
 
 (2). Take B A at right angles to C D ; draw A C perpendicular 
 to A D ; then AB:BD::CD:BA. 
 
379 
 
 OBSTACLES IN CHAINING LINKS. (i). If the obstacle can be 
 seen over : Erect two perpendiculars (A C and B D) of equal length 
 at A and B ; then C D = A B. 
 
 (2). If the obstacle cannot be seen over : Lay off A C and E F, 
 equal to one another, and at right angles to A F ; range the points 
 D and H in line with E C, and set off B D and H G at right angles 
 to E H, and each = E F or C A ; then C D = A B, and B and G 
 are points for ranging the continuation of F A. 
 
 To MEASURE THE AREA, WHERE BOUNDARY IRREGULAR. 
 Lay off a base line, A G, and measure offsets to the various bends 
 and angles of the boundary line, and at right angles to the base : 
 this divides the enclosed space into approximate triangles and 
 trapezoids. The area of the triangles is calculated in the usual 
 way ; for the trapezoids the average of the two sides is taken and 
 
 multiplied by the base : thus, area B C J H = B H 2 CJ x B C ; and 
 similarly for the rest : the sum of the whole= area A G M K H. 
 McConnelVs Xote Book. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Weight of F lough Harness. 
 
 Collar 
 
 Haims, iron-plated and straps 
 
 Bridle 4^ 
 
 Backband V 
 
 Chains 8" 
 
 15 Ibs. 
 
 Total 38 Ibs. 
 
 A bricklayer's hod carries 16 bricks, or \ bushel of mortar, or 
 f cub. feet. 
 
380 
 
 A bricklayer should lay from 100 to 150 bricks per hour, 
 according to the nature of the work. 
 
 Mortar : 100 of lime contains 25 striked bushels = 100 pecks. 
 One ton = 32 bushels. 
 
 Eighteen heaped = 22 striked bushels = i cub. yard = one 
 load of sand. 
 
 Two and a half to rive parts of sharp, clean sand to one of lime 
 for mortar, according to quality of lime. 
 
 Or, i of lime to 2 of sand and A of blacksmith's ashes. 
 
 Coarse mortar = r of lime to 4 of coarse gravelly sand. 
 
 Concrete = i of lime to 4 of gravel and 2 of sand. 
 
 One load of mortar = i cub. yard. 
 
 One load of sand = i cub. yard. 
 
 A road of brickwork requires from i^ to 3 loads of mortar. 
 
 Portland cement : A bushel of cement weighs 67 Ibs., and a 
 barrel is 5 bushels ; a bag is 3 bushels, and a sack is 5 bushels. 
 
 Equal parts of cement and sand are used for building purposes. 
 
 Portland cement concrete for floors or walls : i of cement to 
 6 or 7 of broken stone, mill cinders, burnt ballast, shingle, gravel, 
 or slag ; must be from loam, mud, line sand or dirt of any kind ; 
 moulds to be soaped. 
 
 Roman cement, only one-third the strength of the above. 
 
 Mastic cement is i of red lead to 5 of w r hiting and 10 of sharp 
 sand, mixed with boiled linseed oil. 
 
 One yard of reduced brickwork requires about 2] bushels of 
 equal parts of Portland cement and sand. 
 
 One square yard of plastering with cement requires three- 
 fourths of a bushel. 
 
 Concrete walls should be raised only 18 in. per day. 
 
 Plastering : i cub. yard of lime, 2 yards of sand, and 3 bushels 
 of hair will cover 75 sup. yards on brick, or 70 yards on lath. 
 
 One bundle laths and 500 nails will cover 4^ yards sup. 
 
 McConnells Note Book. 
 
 MORTAR Lime, as used for building purposes, is obtained from 
 several of the varieties of stone, marble, and chalk, termed lime- 
 stones. It is prepared by burning or calcining the stone, thus draw- 
 ing off the carbonic acid in which it abounds. After calcination 
 it is reduced to a white powdery material, which greedily takes up the 
 water ; it is then known as quick-lime. In making mortar, 
 fresh burned lime is taken from the kiln, and laid in a heap in 
 a convenient place, and, sprinkling a quantity of water on it, the 
 lime begins immediately to crack and iall down, steam issuing from 
 the heap in considerable quantities, a high degree of heat being at 
 the same time induced 6n the completion of the pn>ce>s of de- 
 composition, the lime is reduced to an impalpable powder, which 
 goes by the name of 'slacked' or 'slaked ' lime. The slacked lime 
 thus obtained is next to be well mixed with water, forming a paste, 
 and, afterwards, have the proper proportion of sand added two- 
 
thirds sand to one-third of lime. The sand used in mortar-making 
 is of three kinds pit sand, river, and sea. The first is obtained in 
 pits ; the latter from rivers and sea-shore. River water is the best 
 to use for mortar, but all waters known as mineral are to be avoided, 
 The sea sand should never be used, if it can be at all avoided, as 
 walls built with mortar prepared from it are very likely to be damp. 
 Mortar thus prepared sets very soon on being exposed to the 
 atmosphere, but it is by no means calculated to stand under water, 
 or in very moist and damp situations. Where mortar is required 
 for such work, hydraulic mortar or hydraulic cement must be used. 
 Clay, burned and mixed with lime, will enable the lime to withstand, 
 to a certain extent, the action of the water. Where a rich lime is 
 obtainable, a hydraulic lime may be made by mixing twenty parts 
 of dried clay to eighty of the lime. Coal cinders ground to a powder 
 and mixed with lime make a mortar which will be useful in wet or 
 damp situations. Handbook of the Mechanical Arts. 
 
 PICKLING EGGS. Take a bushel of lime, 2 Ib. of salt, \ Ib. of 
 cream of tartar, and water sufficient to form a solution "strong 
 enough to float an egg. It is claimed that eggs may be preserved 
 in this liquid for two years. The following has had strong claims 
 made for it : The fresh eggs are carefully placed in a mixture of 
 5 kilogrammes of alum, dissolved in 5 litres of water, heated to 
 from 45 to 50 deg. C., and left in that liquid for from 30 to 40 
 minutes ; the eggs are next drained, and in the meantime the solu- 
 tion of alum is heated to a boiling point. The eggs are again 
 immersed in the liquid, and kept therein for from 10 to 15 seconds ; 
 after having been drained and cooled, they are packed in either 
 dry bran, sawdust, corkdust, sifted ashes, or cotton wool. We give 
 the following as one that will satisfy the most exacting stickler for a 
 complicated formula : Dissolve in i gall, of water 12 oz. of quick- 
 lime, 6 oz. common salt, i dr. soda, \ dr. saltpetre, \ dr. 
 tarter, and iJ> dr. borax. The fluid is brought into a barrel, and a 
 sufficient quantity of quicklime to cover the bottom is then poured 
 in. Upon this is placed a layer of eggs ; quicklime is again thrown 
 in, and so on until the barrel is rilled, so that the liquor stands about 
 ten inches deep over the last layer of eggs. The barrel is then 
 covered with a cloth, upon which is also scattered some lime. Trade 
 " Secrets:' 
 
 PAINTS. If it is of importance that the paint should dry quickly, 
 and still have a bright appearance, it should be mixed with turpen- 
 tine, and some gold size added when mixed. If it is wished to 
 make a paint to dry in twenty minutes or half an hour, it must be 
 mixed with turpentine, and without oil. When dry this paint will 
 have a very dead, lustreless appearance, and requires a coat of 
 varnish afterwards to make it look as it- ought. This is a method 
 very often adopted for iron-work. When about to re-paint old 
 work, all dirt and projecting pieces must be carefully removed, and 
 if the paint appears greasy it should be washed with turpentine. 
 
3* 
 
 Sometimes a good washing with weak tea water, made by pouring 
 boiling water on tea leaves that have been already used for making 
 tea, will prove effectual. Whenever pieces of paint have come 
 away through sun blisters, or other causes, the patches must be 
 painted over with a coat of priming. All the effects must be 
 stopped and made good with putty, when the new coat may be 
 applied. Table of compound colors produced by mixing simple 
 colors. Straw color : Chrome yellow and white lead. Lemon 
 color : Chrome yellow and white lead ; more of the first than in 
 straw color. Orange : Chrome yellow and vermilion (bright), 
 yellow ochre and red lead (duller). Buff: White lead and yellow 
 ochre. Cream color : Same as for buff, but with more white. Gold 
 color : Chrome yellow, with a little vermilion and white lead ; or 
 Naples yellow and realgar. Stone color : White lead and yellow 
 ochre, with a little burnt or raw umber. Stone color (grey) : White 
 lead and a small quantity of black. Drab : White lead, burnt 
 umber, and a little yellow ochje (warm) ; white lead, raw umber, 
 and a little black " (cool). Flesh color: Lake, white lead, 
 and a little vermilion. Fawn color : Same as for flesh color, 
 with stone ochre instead of lake. Peach color : White 
 lead, with vermilion, Indian red, or purple brown. White 
 lead : Prussian blue, and a little lake. Olive : Black, yellow, 
 and a little blue ; or yellow, pink, lamp black, and a 
 little verdigris. Chestnut : Light red, and black. Salmon color : 
 Venetian red, and white lead. Chocolate : Black, with Spanish 
 brown, or Venetian red. Sage green : Prussian blue, raw umber, 
 and a little ochre, with a little white. Olive green : Raw umber, 
 and Prussian blue. Pea green : White lead, and Brunswick green ; 
 or white lead, Prussian blue, and some chrome yellow. Pearl grey : 
 White lead, with a little black, and a little Prussian blue, or 
 indigo. Silver grey : Same as for pearl grey. Grey (common) : White 
 lead, and a little black. Lead color : White lead, with black or indigo, 
 Violet : Vermilion, white lead, and indigo, or black. Purple : Violet, 
 as above, with the addition of a rich, dark red, or colors for French 
 LJICV. French grey : White lead, with Prussian blue and a little 
 lake. Lilac : Same as for French grey, but with less white. Oak 
 color : White lead, with yellow ochre and burnt umber. Mahogany 
 color : A little black, with purple brown or Venetian red. 
 
 OPKRATIONS i\ PKOCKSS OF STAIMNV, WOOD. r-The process con- 
 sists of three distinct operations : first, staining ; second, sizing ; 
 third, varnishing. The wood should be rendered as smooth and 
 even as possible with the plane, and all knots covered, and nail 
 hole^ filled, by mixing a little of the stain with plaster of Paris till it 
 assumes the consistency of paste ; sappy portions of the wood 
 should be damped with water. The stain may then be laid on 
 plentifully with a brush along the grain of the wood. When the 
 wood is thoroughly dry, it must be twice sized, using each 
 time a very strong solution of size. The size must be dissolved 
 
33 
 
 in hot water, in the proportion of i Ib. to a gallon of water. 
 The amateur is cautioned against using si/e stronger than this, 
 and he must remember not to work his brush up and down 
 when charged with size, for this, when the size is too strong, often 
 produces a lather on the wood. The best way to apply size is to 
 use it warm, and work the brush in one direction only, namely, 
 from top to bottom or from one side to the other, as may be 
 necessary. If an interval of twenty-four hours be left after staining, 
 before sizing, the color is softer and richer. As the beauty of the 
 result depends mainly upon the grain of the wood, well-seasoned 
 wood of beautiful hgure and variety in the grain should be selected 
 for choice work. When the second coat of size is thoroughly dry, 
 the work must be varnished. When the wood is to be French 
 polished, it should be only sized once before applying the polish. Ex- 
 terior work should be sized once, and varnished twice ; and for 
 rough work, boiled oil may be used instead of varnish. General 
 Bnihlhi}* Art and Practice. 
 
 POINTS IN JUDGING AN ENGINE. 
 
 (High. Soc.) Points. 
 
 Price ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 Simplicity of construction, and fewness of working parts 25 
 
 Economy of fuel ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 Rapidity of raising steam ... ... ... 5 
 
 Facility of erection and cheapness of foundations ... 5 
 
 Economy of water ... ... ... 5 
 
 Steadiness and regularity in running ... ... 15 
 
 Economy of lubricant ... ... ... 5 
 
 McConncirs Xole Book.'] Total : TOO 
 
 POISONING WILD DOGS OR DINGOES. A bonus of IDS. per tail 
 is paid by the W r estern Australian Government for the destruction 
 of wild dogs. The tails must be produced before a justice of the 
 peace, who will certify to the number. The usual method of 
 destroying the dogs is by laying poisoned baits. Strychnine is the 
 poison generally used, and the dogs always prefer freshly killed 
 meat. The bait should be handled as little as possible, and where 
 ground vermin are not troublesome, the bait should be dropped 
 from a buggy or horseback without dismounting. Where boodies 
 and kangaroo rats are plentiful the bait should be stuck in a forked 
 stick eighteen inches or two feet from the ground. A drop or so 
 of oil of aniseed or oil of rhodium on the bait serves to attract the 
 dogs. Wherever poison is laid notices should be put up on the 
 gates to this effect. 
 
 PHOSPHORISED GRAIN. Fifty Ib. grain, 5 gallons water, J Ib. 
 phosphorus, and 7 Ib. dark brown sugar. Bring water to a boil in 
 a copper ; take out a bucketful of the hot water with which to mix 
 the phosphorus, and throw the sugar into the copper ; stir contents 
 
34 
 
 of bucket well for about ten minutes, keeping water as near boiling 
 point as possible, then pour into the copper and keep stirring for 
 a quarter of an hour ; let the contents of copper gradually cool, 
 but keep well agitated, and then add the grain gradually. The 
 complete soaking of the grain with the liquor is of the utmost im- 
 portance and takes a considerable time. While the mass is cooling 
 keep it covered with bags to retain the steam. Stir well after it 
 has cooled off. Cyanide of potassium, strychnine, and arsenic may 
 be mixed in this way with grain, or the former may be dissolved in 
 vinegar and then mixed. 
 
 PHOSPHOKISED POLLARD. Dark sugar, 3 Ibs. ; phosphorus, 
 half to i stick ; bi-sulphide of carbon, i tabiespoonful ; pollard, 
 half bushel. Take two vessels, one containing half pint, and the 
 other about 2 quarts of cold water. Mix the phosphorus and bi- 
 sulphide of carbon in the smaller quantity, and the 3 Ibs. sugar in 
 the other. When ingredients in both vessels are dissolved mix 
 contents together, and gradually pour upon the pollard, stirring well 
 all the time with a wooden stick. After mixing well spread the 
 mass out flat on a board, making a cake about ^ in. thick, sub- 
 divide into inch squares with a wooden straight-edge, and cover 
 with a damp sack, so that it may dry slowly. VVhen handling 
 phosphorus do so with wooden tongs ; if with the lingers, keep 
 them well wet with cold water. Phosphorus sticks must be 
 always kept in bottles tilled with water. 
 
 To FIND THK NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER RAISED HY A 
 PUMP. Tolind the number of gallons or fraction of gallons that will 
 be raised at each stroke of a pump, first ascertain the diameter of the 
 pump cylinder ; secondly, the length of stroke. Square the dia- 
 meter and multiply by tne length of stroke, and divide by 353. 
 Thus, if the diameter is three inches : 3x3 = 9; and the length of 
 the stroke 12 inches, 9X12= 108. 108 -=- 353 = '3005, or roughly, 
 ^ of a gallon at each stroke. 
 
 PUMPS. Ordinary dimensions, wells tinder 30 ft. Diameter of 
 barrel, 4 ins.; length of stroke, 10 ins.; quantity of water per minute, 
 20 ft. well, 24 gallons. This is the si/e best suited for one man, and 
 for general use. XYells from 30 to 70 ft. Diameter of barrel, 3.', ins.; 
 stroke, 9 ins.; quantity of water per minute. 50 ft. well, length of 
 iC> gals. To be worked by lly-wheel and crank. 
 
 S<>.\]> FOR RE.MOVI.\(; CORNS AND WARTS. For removing corns 
 and warts this salve never fails. Caustic potash, i lb.; extract bell- 
 adona, .', ox.; peroxide ina^anese, _> OZ. Mix, and make into a salve 
 with a little lard. Apply to the corn Of Wart, and in three minutes it 
 will come off. Trade " Secrets.'* 
 
 HOME-MADK SOAP. The following, being of general interest to 
 country readers, are quoted from a pamphlet on making soap without 
 boiling, by Mr. W, [. Men/ies, Liverpool: Potash wool-scouring 
 soap. A pure potash wool-scouring soap can be>i be produced in 
 the following manner : Take a 20 lb. can of pure caustic potash 
 
(Ciret-nbank), cut open the lid and put the whole can into an iron or 
 earthenware vessel, with two gallons of water. The potash will soon 
 dissolve out, itself heating the water; the empty can then being 
 removed, allow the liquid potash (or lye) thus obtained to cool until 
 warm to the hand (say 90 deg. F.). In a large iron pan or boiler 
 melt So Ibs. of tallow, free from salt, until dissolved, and of a heat 
 feeling fairly hot to the hand (say 120 deg. F.) Into the melted 
 tallow now pour the potash lye in a small stream, with constant 
 stirring with a Hat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, and 
 continue to stir until the mixture is smooth and appears well-com- 
 bined a few minutes is all that is necessary. This mixing operation 
 may be done in the melting-pan itself, or often, what is more 
 convenient, an old watertight barrel can be used. Now pour oft" the 
 mixture into any convenient square box for a mould, damping the 
 sides with whitewash, or better still, lining it with a calico cloth, to 
 prevent the soap from sticking. Wrap up the box well with sheep- 
 skins (to keep in the heat by the mixture itself turning into soap), 
 put in a warm place, and leave it for four or live clays. The box 
 will then be found to contain 120 Ibs. of hard potash soap, which 
 if cut up into bars, and kept for a week or two, will be further 
 improved in quality. If the soap has been mixed in a barrel, and 
 required only f n- sheep-washing or dipping, it can remain in the 
 barrel instead of being poured oft". But it must be well wrapped 
 up, and left standing in a warm place for a week or two. Austral- 
 asian Farmer. 
 
 HARD SODA SOAP. Put the contents of a 10 ft>. can of Green- 
 bank double refined 89 per cent caustic soda into an iron or earthen- 
 ware vessel, with four gallons (40 Ibs.) of soft water. The pure 
 powdered 98 per cent, caustic soda dissolves instantly, heating the 
 water. Let it stand a few minutes until just warm to the hand (say 80 
 deg. F.). Melt about 75 tbs. of clean grease or tallow, free from salt. 
 Skim and let it settle out any impurities. Weigh oft, and put in any 
 convenient vessel for mixing exactly 70 tbs. of the liquid tallow or 
 grease, allowing it to cool until fairly warm to the hand (say 120 
 deg. F.) ; a wooden tub, old barrel, or a copper will do for this 
 purpose. Now pour the caustic soda lye in a small continuous 
 stream into the liquid tallow, at the same time stirring with a flat 
 wooden stirrer about 3in. broad. Continue stirring for a few 
 minutes, until lye and liquid tallow are thoroughly mixed and 
 smooth in appearance. Take any convenient square-sided box, 
 line it with damp calico, to prevent the soap from sticking, and pour 
 in the mixture, wrapping it well up, and putting into a warm place, 
 to keep in the heat caused by the mixture slowly combining and 
 turning into soap. After three days turn out the block of hard 
 soap from the box used for a mould, and which will weigh 120 Ibs.; 
 cut the soap up with a wire or string into bars, and put them away 
 for a month in a warm room. The soap is much improved by 
 keeping, lathers more freely, becomes quite hard, and is altogether 
 
3 86 
 
 better. It, therefore, never should be used immediately after 
 cutting up. The chief points in the foregoing directions are the 
 quantities given must be taken exactly. Lye poured into the grease, 
 not grease into the lye. The lye and liquid grease must be well 
 stirred until the mixture is complete and uniform, but not longer. 
 The mould containing the soap must be well wrapped up. The 
 soap, after cutting up, must be kept for a time. The grease used 
 must not contain any salt, which would completely prevent the 
 soap from forming. Australasian Fanner. 
 
 SOLDERING. Soldering is very useful for joining copper and 
 copper, copper and brass, copper and iron, brass and brass, brass 
 and iron, tin and tin, and tin and any other metal. If the joint has 
 to stand a rather high degree of heat, such, for instance, as the 
 seams of a small copper steam boiler, a hard solder must be used. 
 By hard solder is meant one that only fuses at a high temperature ; 
 a soft solder, on the contrary, fuses at a low degree of heat. The 
 following are the compositions of some of the most useful of 
 solders and alloys, with the degrees of heat required to melt 
 each : 
 
 Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Mercury. Melts at 
 
 1 part 25 parts 558 Fahr. 
 
 2 parts i part 340 
 
 3 2 parts i part 2920 
 5 3 3 parts 2O2 
 5 it 3 3 3 Parts i22 
 
 We must see with \vhat tools and appliances soldering is 
 effected, and the way in which this operation is performed. First, 
 the surfaces to be united must be thoroughly cleaned and 
 brightened ; without this the metal will not adhere. The solder- 
 ing iron must be warmed sufficiently to melt the solder ; it must 
 not be made red-hot, because the solder will not " hold to it." 
 Whilst the iron is warming, tin the surfaces by brushing them 
 over with muriatic acid, dipping them into the melted solder, and 
 quickly nibbing off the adherent metal. This, if clone well, will 
 leave a thin coat of solder. When it cannot be done thus, the sur- 
 faces must be tinned by means of the soldering iron. In this case 
 they must be coated or washed with the acid as before, but the 
 solder must be melted on the places required with the hot iron. 
 When tinned, the surfaces must be brought close together, a little 
 aeid rubbed along the joints, and the iron dipped in the acid and 
 put against some solder, so that the melted solder will stick to the 
 iron The iron must now be applied to the joints, and drawn 
 slowly along in such a manner that the metal between the joints is 
 melted, and the joints filled up. A little practice will soon make 
 the amateur tolerably skilful in doing this. The muriatic acid, or 
 spirit of salt, as it is sometimes called, must be killed, or rendered 
 neutral, before it is used, and this is clone by putting one or two 
 
37 
 
 small pieces of zinc into it, and allowing it to expend all its energy 
 on this. Killed acid is much more effective than the raw pure 
 acid. Sometimes resin is used instead of the acid ; but the 
 neutralised acid is preferable, because it does not leave 
 the work in such a mess as resin. The soldering-iron, or 
 copper-bit, as it is sometimes called, it is a forked piece 
 of iron put into a handle and having between the prongs 
 of the fork a piece of copper, pointed. It can be 
 made wholly of iron, but copper is generally used because 
 it does not oxidise or waste away so quickly when heated, as 
 iron does, and it also retains its heat longer than iron. 
 The copper tongue should be rubbed against a piece of brick, or 
 something of the sort, immediately it comes from the lire and before 
 it is used. This is done to remove any dirt that may happen to 
 have got about it, and which, if allowed to remain, would prevent 
 the solder from sticking to the copper thus, in all probability, 
 spoiling the operation. Besides the soldering iron, or copper bit, 
 which may be bought for about is. 6d. or 2s., but little else is 
 wanting for soldering, and that little comprises an old knife for 
 scraping clean the metal that is to be soldered, and a bottle con- 
 taining a little muriatic, or spirits of salt, killed in the manner 
 described. In brazing, the pieces to be united are cleansed from 
 grease, etc., in the same manner as for soldering. The pieces are 
 bound firmly together with fine wire, or held together with a pair 
 of tongs, and put into a clear fire. When just red hot, they must 
 be taken out of the fire and a few bits of soft brass and a little 
 powdered borax put on the joint, which is then returned to the fire 
 and kept there until the brass is thoroughly melted. One can 
 hardly imagine it so, but however close the joint, if the operation is 
 performed with a little care, the brass will penetrate quite through the 
 seam, and, indeed, through the pores of the iron itself. The brass 
 used for brazing should be tolerably soft, and in small pieces. 
 Braziers generally use what is called granulated brass, which is 
 nothing more than melted brass dropped whilst liquid into water. 
 When granulated brass is not obtainable, or not at hand, brass 
 filings will answer almost as well. In addition to the solders already 
 given, it may be useful for the amateur to know that the lining of 
 tea-chests makes a good solder for tin-plate goods, being made of 
 tin and lead in the proper proportions, that is to say, two 
 parts of tin to one part of lead. For soldering pewter, from one to 
 three parts of bismuth should be adde'd to solder for tin. Plumber's 
 solder is made of equal parts of lead and tin. Equal parts of copper 
 and zinc melted together make a good solder for brass. Glazier's 
 solder, for joining strips of lead to form lead casements, is made of 
 three parts of lead to one part of tin. General Building Art and 
 Practice. 
 
 SOFT PUTTY. The following recipes for making soft putty, and 
 for softening hard putty, are taken from Spon's Workshop Recipes, a 
 
3 88 
 
 very useful book, for which a place should be found on the shelves 
 of all amateur artisans. Recipe (soft putty) : Mix 10 Ibs. of whiting 
 and i ft>. of white lead with the necessary quantity of boiled linseed 
 oil, adding it to half a gill of the best salad oil. The salad oil pre- 
 vents the white lead from hardening, and preserves the putty in a 
 state sufficiently soft to adhere at all times, not suffering the wet 
 to enter by getting hard and cracking off, as is often the case with 
 ordinary hard putty. The best way to preserve ordinary putty 
 from cracking is to paint it as soon after it is put on as possible ; 
 and when putty has dried and cracked to such an extent that it 
 allows the wet to enter, it is best to remove it and substitute fresh 
 putty, or to run a brush charged with priming over the putty, work- 
 ing the bristles well into the cracks, and then to rub soft putty into 
 the cracks to hll them up, after which the work should receive at 
 least two coats of paint. The following is an excellent way to 
 soften putty : " Take I ft>. of American pearlash and 3 tbs. of 
 quick-stone lime, slake the lime in water, then add the pearlash 
 and make the whole about the consistence of paint. Apply it to 
 both sides of the glass, and let it remain for twelve hours, when 
 the putty will be so softened that the glass may be taken out of the 
 frame with the greatest facility." General Building Art ami Practice. 
 
 STOVE POLISH. Mix two parts of copperas (evidently sulphate 
 of copper or blue copperas), one of bone black, one of black lead, 
 with sufficient water to form a creamy paste. This will produce a 
 very enduring polish on a stove or other iron article, and after two 
 applications it will not require polishing again for a long time, 
 as the copperas will produce jet black enamel, and cause the black 
 lead to permanently adhere to the iron. Trade " Sccrcls." 
 
 TANXIXG KANGAROO SKIXS. Collect some wattle bark and make 
 a strong decoction, either by boiling or steeping. If you have a 
 tannery near you it will be easier to buy a bushel of crushed bark. 
 Before you steep the skins, scrape off all the fleshy parts' A large 
 square watertight case is preferable to a hogshead, for it is best not 
 to double the skins up more than can be helped. Look at the skins 
 once a week, and not only scrape them over again, but change the 
 liquor. The same liquor will do if you boil and skin it. It will 
 take six weeks to tan huge skins. For 'possum skins a month will 
 be long enough. -Australasian farmers Guide. 
 
 TAR I 'A VK. MI-. NT. Although making it 18 a very dirty and un- 
 pleasant piece of work, and best left to practical hands, it may be 
 easily laid by the amateur. The Mirface of the walk should be re- 
 moved to the depth of three or four inches, and well beaten. Some 
 thick coal tar should then be poured OVCT a he:ip of shingle or coarse 
 gravel, and the whole worked together with a spade, or crooked 
 fork, until the gravel is thoroughly impregnated with the tar. This 
 composition must be spread over the .surface of the walk, and rolled 
 down with a heavy roller. Another mixture must now be made of tar 
 and liner gravel, or sifted ashes from the dust-bin, and a thin layer 
 
3*9 
 
 spread over the layer of rougher stuff first put on. Fine sand or 
 gravel must then be sprinkled freely over the top of this, and 
 the whole once more rolled, or beaten fiat with the back of the 
 blade of a spade, if no roller be available. General Building Art 
 and Practice. 
 
 CONCRETE PAVEMENT This is far cleaner to work than tar 
 pavement, and is put down in the following manner : The earth is first 
 taken off the surface of the path to a depth of 8 in. or 9 in., and the 
 shallow trench thus made is rilled up to about two-thirds or three- 
 fourths of its whole depth with stones, broken brickbats, and coarse 
 gravel, well rammed together so as to present a level surface. The 
 Portland cement must now be mixed in a tub with \vater until it is 
 of the consistence of thick cream or custard, and poured over the 
 gravel. This must be spread about with a bast-broom to level the 
 surface and send it into the interstices of the first rough coat of 
 stones and gravel. On this a coating of Portland cement and 
 gravel, mixed with water, must be spread, bringing the service very 
 nearly up to the height of the path ; and when this has hardened, 
 a finishing coat must be put on of clean, sharp sand and Portland 
 cement in equal parts, and brought, when mixed with water, to 
 the consistence of mortar. The surface must be rounded and 
 brought to smoothness by the aid of a float, a piece of wood with 
 a handle at the back, something like a laundress's iron, but longer, 
 with which plasterers finish the surface of walls and ceilings. No 
 one should be allowed to tread on the surfaces thus made until it 
 is perfectly dry and hard. General Building Art and Practice. 
 
 TRACTIVE FORCE OF HORSES. 
 
 Rate in miles per hour 2 2\ 3 3^ 4 \\ 5 
 
 Tractive force exerted in Ibs. ... 1 66 150 125 104 83 62 41 
 Force of traction required for carriages of one ton on a level road : 
 
 Description of road. Force of traction per ton. 
 
 1 On rails 8 Ibs. 
 
 2 Well made pavement ... ... ... ... 33 ,, 
 
 3 Macadamised road ... ... ... 44 to 67 ,, 
 
 4 Turnpike, hard and dry ... ... ... 68 ,, 
 
 5 dirty 88 
 
 6 Hard compact loam ... ... 119 ,, 
 
 7 Gravel ... ... ... ... ... ... 150 
 
 8 Sandy and gravelly ... ... ... ... 210 
 
 9 Ordinary bye-road ... ... ... ... 237 
 
 10 Turnpike, newly gravelled 320 
 
 n Loose sandy road 457 
 
 A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a load 
 at 2\ miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 Ibs. 
 
390 
 
 DRAUGHT OF HORSES. 
 
 At 8 hours per day, 2\ miles per hour, and tractive force of 150 Ibs. : 
 On level hard road ... ... ... ... ... 3 tons. 
 
 On inferior or hilly road ... ... ... ... i ,, 
 
 On rails 16 
 
 On a canal 60 to 90 ,, 
 
 Carrying on his back ... ... ... ... 300 Ibs. 
 
 Lifting over a pulley ... ... ... ... no ,, 
 
 Length of furrow : 250 yards long is the best average suited 
 
 to the strength of horses. 
 
 Speed of horses : From i ]/ 2 to 2 miles per hour while in the 
 
 plough. 
 
 Distance travelled per acre : At a width of 8 in., 12*3 miles ; 
 
 at a width of 9 in., n miles ; at a width of 10 in., 9^9 miles ; at a 
 
 width of 12 in., 8*2 miles. 
 
 Average time to turn : Three quarters of a minute. 
 
 Time lost in turning : For 250 yards length of furrow, the loss 
 is i hour 30 minutes every 10 hours. 
 
If a field has 50 turns to the acre, the loss will be 37^ minutes ; 
 if 100 turns per acre, i hour 15 minutes ; if 200 turns per acre, 
 2 hours 30 minutes ; and to these must be added time taken up in 
 resting. 
 
 Limit of draught : 7 cwt. per furrow. Ordinary ploughing 
 varies from 3 to 5 cwt., or 170 to 280 Ibs. per horse, depending on 
 nature of soil, etc. Steam plough equals 6] cwt. per furrow (25 
 cwt. in all) at 100 yards per minute ; depth, 6 inches. 
 
 McConnclVs Note Book. 
 
 VINEGAR. Ordinary vinegar is made by the fermentation and 
 acetirication of cider, wine, molasses, etc., and the management 
 requires no great skill. All that is wanted is a temperature above 
 50 deg. F. and plenty of air, and the process will proceed of its own 
 accord. Vinegar from sugar. Put 9 Ibs. of brown sugar to every six 
 gallons of water ; boil it for a quarter of an hour, and then pour it 
 in a tub in a lukewarm state ; put to it a pint of good yeast, let it 
 work four or hve days, stir it up three or four times a day, then turn 
 it into a clean barrel, iron-hooped, and set full in the sun. Trade 
 " Secrets." 
 
 WAGGON JACK FOR LIGHT WAGGONS. The illustration depicts 
 a very convenient and easily constructed waggon jack. The base 
 or main piece is a 2 by 4 in. scantling 4ft. long. The top or notched 
 stick is 2 ins. by 3 ins. of about the same length. At each end of 
 the base and on each side, bolt pieces 2ins. by i^ ins. Let one set 
 be about 18 ins. or 20 ins. high and the other 26 ins. or 30. ins. 
 Fasten the short pair so it will be stationary, but the other pair must 
 be so it will move backward and forward. Arrange the lever so 
 that when in the position shown at A, the notched stick will be 
 nearly horizontal. Then place the jack under the axle of the wag- 
 gon. Bring the lever to the position shown in B. This will lift the 
 wheel off the ground, and if the jack has been properly constructed 
 the lever will remain in position while the wheel is being taken off 
 and the axle greased. Make the top and upright pieces of some 
 kind of hard, strong wood the lighter the better. The bottom can 
 be of pine. 
 
 WEIGHT OF CATTLE BY MEASUREMENT. A correspondent of 
 the Agricultural Gazette gives his plan, which he was taught by a 
 gentleman who had had great experience with the tape, and had, 
 moreover, the great advantage of being able to see his bullocks 
 weighed afterwards in a butcher's shop (a relative's). For the girth 
 find the smallest place just behind the shoulder, and for the length 
 measure from the point of the shoulder where the neck appears to 
 be set on to a point square with the hind quarters. Multiply the 
 square of the girth by the length, and the result by 42, and divide 
 the product by 100, the result of which division will be the weight 
 of the animal in 8-lb. stones. Example : Girth, 6 ft. 4 in. ; length, 
 4 ft. 7 in. : 
 
6. 4 
 
 6.4. 
 
 38. 
 
 2.1.4. 
 
 40.1.4. 
 
 47 
 
 160.5.4 
 234-94 
 
 183.10.1.4 
 6 
 
 H03.-8- 
 
 77.21.4.8- 
 
 Answer : 77 stone. 
 
 With any sort of measurement it is necessary to know, if possible, 
 how long the beast has been u up," and how he has got on, and to 
 add to or deduct from the result of the measurement accordingly. 
 Australasian Farmer. 
 
 YEAST CAKES. Put into three pints of water a handful of hops 
 and nearly a quart of pared potatoes, cut into small pieces. Boil 
 for half an hour, and strain, while scalding hot, into sufficient Hour 
 to make a stiff batter. Stir it well, adding one teaspoonful of fresh 
 yeast, and set it in a warm place to rise. When light, mix it stiff 
 with Indian meal, roll out thin, and cut into round cakes or square 
 pieces, about 2\ inches in diameter. Dry these thoroughly, and 
 they will remain good for months if kept in a moderately dry 
 place.- -Trade " S 
 
 YKAST. This is another important ingredient in bread making. 
 A simple and thoroughly good way of making it is to put one ounce 
 of hops into two quarts of water, boil until the water is reduced by 
 one-third ; strain this, and add to the water two tablespoonfnls of 
 sugar ; when the mixture is cool add two table-spoonfuls of Hour, 
 and bottle it. This gives about three pints of yeast, and what is 
 wanted first for use should be put into a bottle that contained yeast 
 before. If no such bottle is handy, a lew drops of vinegar or a bit 
 of dough will cause it to ferment. It is ready for use as soon as 
 fermentation sets in, or, in moderately warm weather, about 24 
 hours after the fresh yeast is made. It keeps for weeks when 
 corked tight and put away in a cool place. One pint of this yeast 
 is sufficient for 12 Ib. of bread. 
 
393 
 
 \VKIGHTS AM) MEASURES. 
 
 AKI-A IN ACRES FOR ONE STATUTE 
 
 CHAIN IN LENGTH 
 
 OF A GIVEN 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 IN FEET. 
 
 
 idth Acres per 
 
 Breadth 
 
 Acres per 
 
 eel. chain in length. 
 
 in feet. 
 
 chain in length. 
 
 001515 
 
 6 
 
 00909 
 
 00303 
 
 7 
 
 010606 
 
 "454S 
 
 8 
 
 012121 
 
 00606 
 
 9 
 
 013636 
 
 007575 
 
 18 
 
 OI5I51 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 TABLES FOR CONVERTING FEKT INTO LINKS AND. LINKS INTO FEET. 
 
 Links. Feet. Feel. Links, 
 
 i = -66 I = 1-5151 
 
 1-32 2 3 -0303 
 
 = i "98 3 = 4'5454 
 
 4 2-64 4 6-0606 
 
 5 = 3'3<> 5 = 7'5757 
 
 6 = 3-96 6 = 9-0909 
 
 7 = 4-62 7 = 10-6060 
 
 8 = 5-28 8 = 12-1212 
 
 9 5'94 9 13-6363 
 10 = 6'6o 10 = i5' 1 5 I 5 
 
 TIMBER MEASUREMENT. 
 
 Take the average girth in inches, divide by 4, deduct i inch for 
 bark for each foot of circumference, and square the result : this 
 gives mean sectional area. Multiply this by length of tree in feet 
 and divide by 144 : the quotient = contents in cubic feet. Timber 
 less than 26 inches round the bark is not included in the length. 
 
 IMPERIAL TROY WEIGHT. 
 
 003961 cub. inch | . , \ 20 pennyweights I ounce (oz.) 
 
 * of water f J feiai 12 ounces - i pound (Ib.) 
 
 3' 1 7 grains - I carat I ounce - 480 grains 
 
 24 grains - I pennyweight (dwt.) i pound - 5,760 grains 
 
 The weight of a grain of wheat taken from the middle of the 
 ear, well dried, is " i grain." 
 
 IMPERIAL AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 27-34 grains (grs.) ... ... ... i drachm (dr.) 
 
 16 drachms ... ... ... ... I ounce (oz.) 
 
 16 ounces ... ... ... ... I pound (Ib.) 
 
 14 pounds ... ... ... ... I stone (st.) 
 
 28 pounds ... ... ... ... I quarter (qr.) 
 
 4 quarters ... ... ... ... i hundredweight 
 
 112 pounds ... ... ... ... I cwt. [ (cwt.) 
 
 20 hundred weight ... ... ... I ton 
 
 i ounce ... ... ... ... 473i grains 
 
 i pound ... ... ... ... 7,000 grains. 
 
394 
 
 IMPERIAL MEASURE OK CAPACITY. 
 
 5 ounces of water 
 
 4 gills ... 
 
 2 pints 
 
 4 quarts 
 
 2 gallons 
 
 4 pecks . . . 
 
 8 bushels 
 
 pint (pt.) 
 quart (qt.) 
 gallon (gal.) 
 peck (pk.) 
 bushel (bus.) 
 quarter (qr.) 
 
 These measures are used up to the gallon for liquids, and from 
 the peck upwards for dry goods. 
 
 4 giH s 
 
 2 pints 
 
 4 quarts 
 
 10 gallons .., 
 
 1 8 gallons 
 31^ gallons ... 
 
 42 gallons 
 
 2 tierces 
 
 63 gallons 
 
 2 hogsheads 
 
 2 pipes 
 
 IMPERIAL WINE MEASURE. 
 
 (For all Wines and Liquids.) 
 
 pint (pt.) 
 quart (qt.) 
 gallon (gal.) 
 anker (ank.) 
 runlet (run.) 
 barrel (bar.) 
 tierce (tier.) 
 puncheon (pun.) 
 hogshead (hhd.) 
 pipe (pipe) 
 tun (tun). 
 
 IMPERIAL ALE AND BEER MEASURE. 
 
 (For Malt Liquors and Water.) 
 
 2 pints 
 
 4 quarts 
 
 <s gallons ... 
 
 (j gallons 
 
 IS gallons ... 
 
 36 gallons 
 
 I i barrels (54 gals) 
 
 72 gallons 
 
 2 hogsheads 
 
 2 butts 
 
 quart (qt.) 
 gallon (gal.) 
 iirkin (fir.) (ale) 
 firkin (tir.) (beer) 
 kilderkin (kil.) 
 barrel (bar.) 
 hogshead (hhd.) 
 puncheon (pun.) 
 butt (butt) 
 tun (tun). 
 
 IMPERIAL CORN MEASURE. 
 
 2 quarts 
 
 2 pottles 
 
 2 gallons 
 
 4 pecks 
 
 2 bushels 
 
 4 bushels 
 
 4 bushels 
 
 j coombs or 8 bushels ... 
 
 4 quarters 
 
 5 quarters ... 
 
 2 loads or 10 qrs. 
 
 pottle (pot.) 
 gallon (gal.) 
 peck (,,10 
 bushel (bus.) 
 strike (sir.) 
 coomb (coomb) 
 sack 
 
 quarter (qr.) 
 chaldron 
 load (load) 
 last (last). 
 
395 
 
 The gallon has the same capacity in all Imperial measures, i.e., 
 277^ cubic inches, or = 10 Ibs. of distilled water at 62 F., and 
 barometer at 30 inches. The bushel is i'28 cubic feet : 19 inches 
 diameter, and 8] inches deep. 
 
 FOREIGN LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 Britain 
 
 America 
 
 Austria 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 Holland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Name of measure. 
 
 Gallon 
 
 Gallon 
 
 Eimer 
 
 Anker 
 
 Litre 
 
 Anker 
 
 Almude 
 
 Eimer 
 
 Veddras 
 
 Arroba 
 
 Eimer 
 
 Contents in gallons. 
 TO 
 0-833 
 12-449 
 
 8-493 
 
 O'22 
 
 8-406 
 
 3-750 
 
 2-7I2 
 I7-289 
 
 IMPERIAL LINEAL MEASURE. 
 
 72 points ... 
 
 3 barleycorns (in length) 
 
 12 lines 
 
 12 inches 
 
 3 feet 
 
 6 feet 
 
 5i yards ... 
 
 40 poles 
 
 8 furlongs 
 
 3 miles 
 
 69 and one-ninth miles ... 
 
 i inch (in.) 
 
 I inch (in.) 
 
 i inch (in.) 
 
 i foot (ft.) 
 
 i yard (yd.) 
 
 i fathom (fth.) 
 
 I rod, perch, or pole(pO.) 
 
 i furlong (fur.) 
 
 i mile 
 
 i league 
 
 i degree (deg. or ) 
 
 The chain used for measuring land is 4 poles, or 22 yds., long, 
 and consists of 100 links, each link being ^ yd., or 7*92 in., long. 
 10,000 sq. Iks. = a sq. chain ; 25,000 sq. Iks. = sq. rood ; 100,000 
 sq. Iks. or 10 sq. chains = i acre. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Britain 
 
 America 
 
 Austria 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 Holland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 FOREIGN LINEAL MEASURES. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Foot 
 
 Metre 
 Foot 
 
 Number equal to loo 
 feet English. 
 
 Length in inches 
 English. 
 
 lOo'O 
 
 I2'O 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 I2'0 
 
 96-4 
 
 12-45 
 
 97'2 
 
 12-35 
 
 39'47 
 
 39-37 
 
 1077 
 
 11-14 
 
 927 
 
 12-96 
 
 97-1 
 
 12-36 
 
 87-2 
 
 13-75 
 
 108-0 
 
 11-03 
 
 102-7 
 
 iro9 
 
39 6 
 
 IMPERIAL SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 144 sq. inches 
 9 sq. feet 
 30^ sq. yards 
 40 sq. poles 
 roods ... 
 acres ... 
 sq. feet 
 sq. yards 
 sq. rods 
 sq. chains 
 
 4 
 640 
 
 4^X40 
 
 i6o 
 
 10 
 
 SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 1,728 cubic in. 
 27 cubic ft. 
 A barrel bulk ... 
 A load of rough timber ... 
 A load of squared timber... 
 A ton of timber, shipping 
 A ton of freight, shipping... 
 A stack of wood 
 A cord 
 
 sq. foot (sq. ft.) 
 
 sq. vard (sq. yd.) 
 
 sq. pole (sq. po.) 
 
 rood (rd.) 
 
 acre (ac.) 
 
 sq. mile (sq. in.) 
 
 acre 
 
 acre 
 
 cubic foot (cub. ft.) 
 cubic yard (cub. yd.) 
 5 cubic feet 
 40 cubic feet 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 1 08 
 
 128 
 
 FLUID MEASURE. 
 
 60 minims (m.) 
 
 8 drychms 
 20 ounces 
 
 8 pints 
 
 I fluid drachm 
 I ounce 
 i pint 
 i gallon. 
 
 OLD APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 
 
 20 grams 
 3 scruples 
 8 drachms 
 
 12 ounces 
 
 i scruple 
 
 i drachm 
 
 I ounce 
 
 i pound (Ib. Troy). 
 
 Superseded in 1864. 
 NEW APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 
 
 Ounce ... ... ... 4.17.1 grains 
 
 Pound (16 oz.) ... ... 7,000 
 
 Same as avoirdupois. 
 
 SYMBOLS USED ix PRESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 iij. etc. 
 
 ol It- 
 tWO 
 
 three, etc. 
 one-half 
 
 gtt 
 
 drop 
 
 
 BREAD 
 
 
 4 Ibs. 5< ,,/. hup. 
 S Ib*. l I OZ. Imp. 
 17 Ibe, o o/. Imp. 
 
 a. a. 
 K. ft. 
 it. 
 R. 
 Q.S. 
 
 of each 
 
 mix 
 
 make 
 
 take of 
 
 sufficient quantity. 
 
 FLOUR WEIGHT. 
 
 l quarter loaf 
 ... I half-peck I.. a!" 
 I peck. 
 
 A peck or stone of Hour is 14 Ibs. ; a bushel of Hour is 56 Ibs. 
 a boll is 140 Ibs. ; and a sack of 5 bushels is 280 Ibs., or 2\ c\vt. 
 
397 
 
 WOOL WEIGHT. 
 
 7 Ibs. avordupois ... ... clove 
 
 14 or 2 cloves ... ... stone 
 
 JiS ,, or 2 stones ... ... tod 
 
 iS2 or 6& tods ... ... wey 
 
 364 ,, or 2 \\cys ... ... sack 
 
 4,368 or 12 sacks ... ... last. 
 
 20 Ibs. = i score, and 240 Ibs. or 12 scores = i pack. Wool 
 is frequently sold in Scotland by the stone of 24 Ibs. Imp. In 
 practice, wool buyers frequently reckon 30 Ibs. to the tod. 
 
 Country. 
 Britain ... 
 America 
 Austria ... 
 Buenos Ayres 
 Denmark 
 Kjiypt .- 
 France ... 
 Holland... 
 India 
 Italy ... 
 Portugal 
 Prussia ... 
 Russia ... 
 Spain 
 Sweden .. 
 
 VARIOUS MONEYS. 
 
 
 Name of Coin. 
 
 Value in 1 English. 
 
 Shilling 
 
 20 
 
 Dollar 
 
 4*84 
 
 Florin 
 
 9'3 
 
 Patacon 
 
 4-8 
 
 Dollar 
 
 4-897 
 
 Pound 
 
 0-979 
 
 Franc... 
 
 25D7 
 
 Florin 
 
 11-97 
 
 Rupee 
 
 1078 
 
 Lira ... 
 
 25-263 
 
 Milreis 
 
 4-285 
 
 Dollar 
 
 6-9 
 
 Rouble 
 
 6-4 
 
 Dollar 
 
 4'8 
 
 Ducat i 
 
 2-182 
 
 A halfpenny is i inch diameter, and i^d. = i oz. in weight 
 
 METRICAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Long Measure. 
 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Millimetre 
 
 ooi 
 
 03937 
 
 00328 
 
 00109 
 
 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 01 
 
 '3937 
 
 0328 
 
 OIO9 
 
 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 I 
 
 3'937 
 
 3 28 
 
 1093 
 
 OOOO6 
 
 Metre 
 
 I 
 
 39'37079 
 
 3-2809 
 
 1-0936 
 
 OOO62 
 
 Decametre i 
 
 IO 
 
 
 32-809 
 
 10-9363 
 
 0062 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 328-09 
 
 109-363 
 
 06213 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 3,280-9 
 
 1,093-63 
 
 62138 
 
 Myriametre 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6-2I382 
 
 Milliare 
 Centiare - 
 Deciare - 
 Are 
 
 Decare - 
 Hectare - 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 Square 
 Metres. 
 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 Square 
 Feet. 
 
 Square 
 Yards. 
 
 Acres 
 
 'I 
 
 155 
 
 1-076 
 
 119 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1,550 
 
 10-764 
 
 I-I9 
 
 00025 
 
 10 
 
 15,501 
 
 107-64 
 
 11-96 
 
 0025 
 
 100 
 
 
 1,076-4 
 
 119-6 
 
 0247 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,196 
 
 2471 
 
 1,0000 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,00 
 
 2-4711 
 
398 
 
 Solid Measure. 
 
 Cubic Metres. Cubic Inches. 
 
 Millistere -ooi 6ro28 
 
 Centistere *oi 6io - 28 
 
 Decistere -I 6,102-8 
 
 Stere, or cubic metre I 61,028 
 
 Decastere 10 
 
 Hectostere 100 
 
 Cubic Feet. Cubic Yards. 
 
 '353 
 3'53I 
 
 13 
 I -308 
 13-08 
 130-802 
 
 Weights. 
 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 Avoir, oz. 
 
 Avoir. Ib. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Tons. Grains Troy. 
 
 Milligramme 
 
 ooi 
 
 
 
 
 
 015 
 
 Centigramme 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 154 
 
 Decigramme 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 1-543 
 
 Gramme 
 
 I 
 
 035 
 
 0022 
 
 . . . 
 
 . . 
 
 15-432 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 10 
 
 '352 
 
 022 
 
 
 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 2204 
 
 . . . 
 
 . 
 
 . . 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 1,000 
 
 35-2/4 
 
 2-2046 
 
 OIQ 
 
 00098 
 
 . . . 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 22 ' 046 
 
 196 
 
 00984 
 
 
 Quintal 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 220-462 
 
 1-968 
 
 0984 
 
 
 Millier or bar 
 
 1,000.000 
 
 
 2,204-62 
 
 19-684 
 
 9842 
 
 
 Dry and Fluid Measure. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 ooi 
 
 061 
 
 01 
 I 
 I 
 10 
 
 61 
 6-1 
 61-02 
 610-28 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 . . . 
 
 IO,OOO 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 . . . 
 
 00022 
 
 . 
 
 
 0022 
 
 
 
 022 
 
 0027 
 
 0353 
 
 22 
 
 02J5 
 
 '353 
 
 2'2 
 
 275 
 
 3'53 
 
 22 
 
 2-751 
 
 35-317 
 
 220-09 
 
 27-512 
 
 353-17 
 
 2,200-9 
 
 275-121 
 
 Millilitre 
 
 Centilitre 
 
 Decilitre 
 
 Litre 
 
 Decalitre 
 
 Hectolitre 
 
 Kilolitre 
 
 Myrialitre 
 
 The metrical system is based on the metre (39*3709 inches) r 
 which is the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of a terrestrial 
 meridian. The litre is the cube of the tenth part of a metre ; the 
 weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density is a kilo- 
 gramme, and one-thousandth of this is a gramme, the are is TOO 
 square metres, and the stere one cubic metre. 
 
 Specific Gravities of a few common and useful things. 
 
 Distilled water 
 Rain water 
 Sea water 
 Common earth - 
 Rough sand 
 Karth and gravel 
 Moi>t sand 
 Gravelly sand 
 
 day 
 
 Clay and gravel - 
 Silicious sand 
 Sandy cl;iy 
 Loamy clay 
 Brick clay 
 Pure grey clay - 
 Pipe clay 
 Arable soil 
 
 rooo Garden Mould -'33- 
 
 1-0013 Humus 1-370 
 
 [027 Flint, dark - 2-542 
 
 1-48 Flint, white - 2-741 
 
 ri)2 Lime, unslaked 1-842 
 
 2-02 C'halk - 2-62 
 
 2.05 Gr.mitc - 2.5 to 2-66 
 
 2*07 I.iinet<>ne - 2*64 2.72 
 
 2-15 nuait/ 2-56 2-75 
 
 2-48 Stones t'or building, various r66 ,, 2*62 
 
 2-653 Brick 1-41 i'86 
 
 2'6oi Iron, ca>t - - 7-23 
 
 2-5x1 Iron, wrought 
 
 2-560 Lead, flattened 11-388- 
 
 2-533 ^' IK '. filled - 7-191 
 
 2-540 Rock salt - - 2*257 
 2-401 
 

 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. tx> 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 BY THE EDITOR. 
 
 HE third part of the SETTLER'S GUIDE, as will be 
 seen on perusal, deals with fodder and forage 
 plants ; with what may be termed special pro- 
 ducts of the farm ; the native poison plants, and 
 noxious weeds. The information conveyed in 
 the following pages, though written primarily for 
 the new settler \vho contemplates pursuing mixed farming, should 
 not be without interest to the pastoralist. Mr. F. Turner, F.L.S., 
 author of "Australian Grasses" and other works, who, since the death 
 of the much lamented Baron von Mueller, has done a great deal 
 of valuable botanical work for the Bureau of Agriculture, contributes 
 articles on the West Australian grasses and salt bushes, and it is to 
 be hoped his remarks on the conservation of natural grasses will be 
 read with attention, and acted upon. The chapter on fodder and 
 forage plants, exclusive of grasses, is compiled principally from a 
 bulletin by Mr. Jared G. Smith, assistant agrostologist to the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, and issued by the department 
 last year. Mr. Samson-Scrivner, chief of division of agrostology, in 
 introducing the work of his assistant, says : 
 
400 
 
 " The work is popular in its character, and is as free from 
 technicalities as possible. The descriptions are brief, and the 
 remarks under each species, while brief, include what has been 
 regarded as most important, and afford such information as the 
 farmer and others interested would be most likely to wish to know. 
 Besides the cultivated forage plants which are already more or less 
 widely known, native species which have never yet been cultivated 
 are included in the enumeration. There are in the United States 
 over 200 native or wild species of this class which are recognised 
 locally as excellent forage plants. More attention should be given 
 these natives, tor there is every reason to believe that among them 
 are many kinds fully equal in productiveness and feeding value to 
 any of those now under cultivation, and possibly many superior to 
 anything we have now in their adaptibility to certain soils or 
 climates or in their value for special uses." The concluding obser- 
 vation applies quite as forcibly to Australia as to the United States, 
 and on pastoral holdings there is infinitely more profit to be derived 
 from conserving the best of our natural grasses than in attempting 
 to introduce new species. On small holdings where cultivation is 
 carried on it is different. The object should be to secure the 
 greatest quantity of fodder from the smallest area, and introduced 
 plants under intense cultivation will be found to pay handsomely, 
 especially in the southern districts. 
 
 The native poison plants have been catalogued and described 
 with a view to making them known to the new settler. When there 
 is any doubt specimens should at once be forwarded to the Bureau 
 of Agriculture for identification. There is no doubt that the wide 
 dispersion of poison plants in Western Australia is a decided detri- 
 ment to rapid settlement, but, as indicated in the descriptive chapters 
 of I 'art i of the GUIDE, it will be seen that experience has shewn 
 the difficulty of overcoming the poison plants is not insuperable, 
 and the danger is easily and cheaply removed. 
 
 The concluding notes of this part are on noxious weeds. Mr. 
 Helms, in introducing the subject, gives ample reasons for the sup- 
 pression of objectionable weeds ; and the Bureau regrets that at 
 present there is no legislative power which enables one to deal 
 
401 
 
 with any of the weeds except the-Spanish radish and Scotch thistle, 
 by no means two of the worst weeds which have invaded the 
 colony. It is hoped, however, that during the present session of 
 Parliament a Bill will be introduced which will remedy this defect 
 in our statute book, and enable those settlers who are anxious to 
 prevent the spread of noxious weeds to invoke the authority of 
 Government in doing so. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 WEST AUSTRALIAN GRASSES. 
 
 BY FRED. TURNER, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., ETC. 
 
 There are about three hundred and sixty species of gi 
 indigenous to Australia, and they are fairly well distributed over 
 continent. Of the total recorded, one hundred and nineteen species, 
 arranged under forty-nine genera, are found in Western Australia. 
 All these, of course, are not good forage plants, but amongst the 
 most valuable and nutritious, from a pastoral point of view, the 
 following may be taken as examples. Six species of Andropogon, 
 including the famous " blue," and other excellent grasses. Three 
 of Anthistiria, which are commonly known as the "kangaroo," "tall 
 oat " (this yields a good sized grain\ and " landsborough " grasses 
 respectively. Three of Chloris, including the " star " or " windmill," 
 and "spider" grasses. Five of Danthonia, including the widely 
 and favourably known "wallaby" grass. All the species of this 
 genus have a high reputation as forage for stock. Two ofDiplachne, 
 one of which is a very good grass for moist situations. Eight of 
 Eni&ostis, some of which are very good forage grasses, and others 
 are remarkable for their drought-enduring qualities. Eight of 
 I'link'um^ all of which are excellent forage grasses, and include the 
 widely and favourably known " Australian millet," the seeds of 
 which at one time formed an important article of food for the 
 aborigines. Six of Poa } which include some good pasture grasses. 
 There are also several species of the following genera. .-1 inphihroiniis 
 ("marsh brnine " grass), Aslu-bla (the famous "Mitchell" grass), 
 Chrysopogon, Cynodon (" couch " grass), Deycnxia ("bent" grass), 
 Dichclachnt ("plume" grass), Elcnsinc ("linger" grass), Eriochloa 
 ("early spring" grass), Microla-nn ("meadow rice" grass), Pappophorum 
 ("black heads"), Paspalum ("water couch"), Pollinin ("sugar" grass), 
 Setaria (" millet ''), Sporoholns, and Sorghum. 
 
 The most undesirable grasses found in Western Australia 
 belong to the genera Arislidit (" three-awned spear" grass). 
 Hcieropogon ("spear" grass), Stipa ("spear," "corkscrew," or "wire" 
 grass), and Triodia (" porcupine " or " spinifex " grass), the latter 
 term, however, is a generic one given to a quite distinct grass, there- 
 fore, must not be confounded with it.) Whilst young, some of these 
 grasses are really good pasture plants, but when the seeds of 
 Aristida, Hcteropogw, and Stipa are ripe, they are irritating and 
 
403 
 
 dangerous to the eyes of sheep, often causing blindness. More- 
 over, the seeds, with their adherent awns, not only become 
 entangled in the wool, which somewhat depreciates its value, but 
 they sometimes enter the vital parts and cause death. Unfortu- 
 nately, when the grasses that bear these long seed-awns become 
 old, cattle and sheep seldom or never eat them, consequently they 
 grow and produce seed almost undisturbed. The two species of 
 Triodia are dreaded on account of their sharp-pointed leaves. 
 Although the total number of undesirable grasses does not amount 
 to more than a dozen, still they are of sufficient importance to make 
 their position felt and somewhat disliked by pastoralists. It would 
 increase the grazing capabilities of those parts of the country 
 where these undesirable grasses very largely predominate in the 
 pastures, if they were occasionally burned off. The operation 
 should be performed when the grasses are in seed, for at this 
 period of their growth both the harsh stems and the objectionable 
 seed awns would be destroyed. In favorable weather new growth 
 is soon made after burning, but it is not advisable to allow animals 
 to graze on this succulent herbage until considerable growth has 
 been made, otherwise it might give them what is commonly termed 
 the scours, or diarrhoea, which sometimes becomes chronic, and, of 
 course, has a weakening effect upon them. 
 
 The burning-off of the more valuable pasture grasses is not to 
 be recommended unless they become diseased, or grow into 
 objectionable tussocks of harsh, dry herbage. When good pasture 
 is burned, millions of valuable grass seeds are destroyed, which 
 are, of course, their only natural means of reproduction. Should 
 the more valuable pasture be accidentally set on fire, sheep should 
 never be turned into the paddocks until the herbage has made 
 considerable growth, though cattle may be turned in without any 
 serious damage being done, for they never eat grasses so close as 
 do sheep. I may here mention the fact that sheep destroy the 
 natural grasses and other herbage in much less time than horses, 
 and the latter much sooner than cattle. 
 
 From the above synoptical review of the indigenous grasses of 
 Western Australia, it will be gathered that there is some good 
 material to conserve and cultivate. As a preliminary undertaking 
 towards the conservation of the indigenous grasses and other 
 herbage, reserves should be established in various part of the 
 country for the purpose of raising seeds to be disseminated in 
 places where the herbage may have been eaten out. Such reserves 
 need not occupy large areas. It is astonishing the quantity of seed 
 that can be harvested from a few acres. It would be a wise thing 
 for the Governments of the Australian colonies to make grass 
 reserves a compulsory undertaking when granting new leases for 
 Crown lands. That such reserves would have a most beneficial 
 effect upon the pastoral areas in this country cannot be gainsaid by 
 thinking persons. In fact, there are already valuable data to work 
 
upon. All the railway enclosures throughout the continent are 
 excellent reserves for the preservation of the indigenous grasses 
 and other herbage, and the most superficial observer cannot fail to 
 have seen the amount of seed that is matured and distributed on 
 the adjacent land by winds and other agencies. When this seed 
 germinates it cannot fail to enhance the grazing capabilities of the 
 pastures for miles around. 
 
 The small paddock system is the best to adopt for grazing large 
 areas in country that is suitable for pasturing sheep, and where the 
 herbage is plentiful. For those areas that have deteriorated so 
 much that animals have a difficulty to eke out an existence on them, 
 it would be a \vise thing to rest them for a period, until the better 
 kinds of herbage recuperate. It may not be generally known, but 
 it is an almost invariable fact, that where horses are constantly 
 allowed to graze in pastures where the undesirable " spear " and 
 " three-awned spear " grasses grow, these plants are not nearly so 
 plentiful as they are on those areas from which these animals are 
 excluded ; sheep, on the contrary, that are allowed to roam over 
 large areas, eat out the very best grasses and other herbage, and it is 
 not until they become pressed with hunger that they will eat the 
 coarser vegetation. 
 
 It would depend upon the size of the pastoral holding and 
 the number of sheep that is grazed upon it, as to the size of the pad- 
 docks to be adopted, but any larger than 2,000 acres are not to be 
 recommended, smaller areas being preferable. The paddocks 
 should be so arranged that each one should have at least from three 
 to four months' rest in a year. This would give the herbage an 
 opportunity to produce seed, which in time would germinate, and 
 new plants would spring up and cover the ground. Unless the 
 paddocks were in a very bad state before the system was adopted, 
 it is astonishing how quickly some of the herbage would recuperate, 
 drought time, of course, excepted. Another very great advantage 
 to be taken into consideration by adopting the close paddocking 
 system, is that sheep could be kept, if not near ^hearing time, a little 
 longer than usual in any paddock which might have a number of 
 noxious plants growing in it, during which time they would 
 trample most of them down. This would give a better 
 chance for the superior grasses and other herbage to grow 
 when that particular paddock was resting. By adopting the close- 
 paddocking system, it would also be found that tine crops of grass 
 could be cut in some of tin- paddocks in propitious seasons, which 
 could be made either into hay or ensilage to provide iced for stock 
 during drought time. With the appliances in the shape of labor- 
 saving machinery that are now obtainable at a moderate cost, 
 thousands of tons of fodder could be saved in times of plenty. 
 Whether the grass or other herbage is turned into hay or ensilage 
 it would be advisable to make the stores of fodder some distance 
 apart, so that when it became necessary to artificially feed stock 
 
405 
 
 the animals would not be congregated in very large numbers at 
 any particular point. It is easy to imagine, if such a thing did take 
 place, that scores of the weaker ones would be trampled to death. 
 The stacks should, of course, be protected with fencing, in order to 
 keep the animals oft" during the time that herbage was plentiful in 
 the pastures. Following are the descriptions of those illustrations 
 which accompany this chapter : 
 
 Amiropogon bombycinus (R. Br. " Silky heads.") This erect- 
 growing perennial grass, which attains a height of from one and a 
 half to three feet, is found all over Australia, but principally on the 
 plains in the far interior. It generally grows on the richest of soils, 
 though the writer has occasionally seen it growing on stony ridges. 
 It will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry weather in any situa- 
 tion where its strong, wiry roots can penetrate easily into the earth. 
 Like many other species of the genus Andropogon, the base of the 
 stems on being bruised emit a strong aromatic perfume. During 
 the early summer, and sometimes in the autumn months, this grass 
 makes a quantity of succulent, leafy herbage which stock are fond 
 of. When the grass becomes old, however, the herbage is some- 
 what harsh, and then it is seldom, or never eaten unless other feed 
 is scarce. The writer has had this species under experimental 
 cultivation, where it proved a very prolific grass, and the herbage 
 lost that harshness, even when it was old, that characterises it 
 when grown on uncultivated land. The seeds usually ripen during 
 November, December, and January, though occasionally in the 
 autumn months. 
 
 Anthistiria avenacea (F.V.M." Tall oat grass "). This perennial 
 grass is found all over Australia, from the coastal districts to the far 
 interior, but principally in the latter portion of the continent. It is 
 only found on the richest of soils, and often in a good season may 
 be seen growing rive feet high. It generally grows in tussocks, and 
 produces a quantity of leafy herbage at the base, which, when 
 young, cattle are remarkably fond of and fatten on. After the 
 flower stems have developed, however, they become hard and cane- 
 like, and when in this state cattle will leave the plant for more 
 tender herbage. Under ordinary conditions it produces a great 
 amount of seed, which usually ripens during October, November, 
 December, and January, though occasionally in the autumn months. 
 The seeds are large, and in appearance somewhat resemble oats 
 {Avena satira, Linn.). 
 
 Anthistiria ciliata (Linn. u Kangaroo " grass). This is one of 
 the most widely-distributed grasses on the Australian continent, 
 and at one time was supposed to be exclusively Australian. It is, 
 however, found in many countries, including New Guinea. In the 
 tropical parts of Australia it grows more or less all the year round. 
 In the southern portion of the continent it is essentially a summer- 
 growing grass, for it seldom starts into growth before October or 
 November. On good soils it is an excellent pasture grass, which 
 
AndfOpogon couibycinns (R. Br. "Silky heads.'') 
 
 RFKKki-Nt.1 i<> IM.vii- A, showing the- arrangement of the two spikes and 
 sheathing bract ; H. showing the arrangement of the sessile and pedicellate 
 spikelets on the rhachis (opened out) ; C, the sessile and pedicellate spikelets ; D, 
 the sessile fertile spikelet. showing the four glumes and terminal awn (opened 
 out) ; E, grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
A 
 
 Anihistiria arcuacca (F.V.M. "Tall oat" grass.) 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, cluster of male or barren spikelets, and the 
 fertile one, opened out to show how they are arranged ; B, fertile spikelet opened 
 out, showing the three glumes and terminal awn ; C, male spikelet ; D, grain, 
 back and front views. All the details natural size, with the exception of the 
 cluster of spikelets, which is reduced. 
 
Anthistiriii cilinla (Linn. "Kangaroo" grass.) 
 
 K'I i KKKNCK TO PLATE. A, compound clu>tci < .f spikelets ; H, cluster of 
 male Of barren spikeiete, and the fertile one, opened out to show how they are 
 arranged ; C, fertile spikelet, opened out to show the three glumes and awn. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
herbivora of all descriptions are remarkably fond of and fatten on. 
 Horses may frequently be seen browsing upon the young flower 
 panicles, which they eat with great relish. In the coastal districts 
 it is often cut and made into hay. Although the " kangaroo " grass 
 develops a number of flowering stems, yet it does not perfect a 
 great amount of seed. What there is, however, usually ripens 
 during the summer and autumn months. Mueller and Rummel 
 give the following chemical analysis of this grass during its spring 
 growth : Albumen, 2*05 ; gluten, 4*67 ; starch, 0*69 ; gum, 1*67 ; 
 sugar, 3-06 per cent. 
 
 Anthistiria mcmbranacea (Lindl. " Landsborough " grass). An 
 annual species, which is fairly plentiful in many parts of the 
 continent, and is generally found growing on rich soils. It 
 usually grows in small tufts, but in a favorable season the 
 weak stems lengthen out very much, and form an entangled 
 mass over a foot deep. It is essentially a summer growing species, 
 and generally makes most of its growth during the hottest part of 
 the season. The writer has had this grass under experimental 
 cultivation, and raised an excellent crop of herbage in less than 
 three months from seed. It is considered a most nutritious grass, 
 and towards autumn often gets so exceedingly dry and brittle that 
 it breaks up into innumerable pieces, but even then stock of all 
 kinds are said to be so fond of it that they lick the broken stems 
 and leaves from the ground. The " landsborough " grass produces 
 an abundance of seed, which usually ripens during November, 
 December, and January. 
 
 Astreblapectinata (F.V.M.) This is one of the famous "Mitchell" 
 grasses which some pastoralists and stockmen regard as the best of 
 all native grasses, both for its drought-enduring qualities and for its 
 fattening properties. On rich soils this perennial grass grows into 
 large tussocks, and in ordinary seasons will yield a great amount of 
 rich, succulent herbage, which is much relished by all herbivora. 
 Its thick, wiry roots penetrate the earth to a great depth, which 
 enables the plant to withstand the most protracted drought, and for 
 this reason it is a most valuable stand-by for stock during adverse 
 times. When this grass becomes so dry during a long period of 
 drought that the stems and leaves break to pieces, stock may be 
 seen licking them off the ground, and they seem to fatten on this 
 feed, notwithstanding its uninviting appearance. An experienced 
 drover once told the writer that stock would travel further and keep 
 in better condition when fed on this than on any other grass in 
 Australia. The seeds of this grass when ripe are like small grains 
 of wheat, and at one time they formed an article of food for the 
 aborigines. The seeds usually ripen during November and 
 December, but sometimes in the autumn months. 
 
 Danthoma sciniannularis, (K. Br. "Wallaby" grass). A perennial 
 species found over nearly the whole of Australia, and in some 
 situations it'.is fairly plentiful. It is very variable as regards stature ; 
 
Aslrcbla pcctinata (F.V.M. " Mitchell " grass.) 
 
 REFEKKXCK TO PLATE. C, floret, open ; D, grain, back and front views 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Astrebla pectinata (F.V.M. " Mitchell " grass.) 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, spikelet ; B, floret, closed. 
 
Anlhistirin mcinbninacca (Lindl. " Landsborough " grass.) 
 
 REFEKKNCK TO PLATE. A, compound cluster of spikelets ; B, cluster of 
 male or barren spikclcts, and the fertile one, opened out to show how they are 
 arranged ; C, fertile spikelet, opened out to show the three glumes and terminal 
 awn ; I), male spikelet, opened out to show the three glumes ; E, grain, back and 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 
Danthonia semi annul aris (R. Br. [" Wallaby " grass.) 
 
 REFEREXCE TO PLATE. A, spikelet ; -B, floret, closed, showing the three 
 semiannular rings of hairs on the back of glume ; C, floret, open ; D, grain, back 
 andtfront views. All variously magnified. 
 
4*4 
 
 on rich soils and in a fairly good season it grows three feet 
 high, on those of a poorer description it rarely exceeds a 
 foot in height. In all its varied forms, however, it is one 
 of the most nutritious grasses in Australia, and, unlike most other 
 species of the genus, will grow more or less all the year round. 
 Stock of all descriptions are remarkably fond of the plant and 
 fatten on it. The writer has had this grass under experimental 
 cultivation, and the rich, succulent herbage it produced was much 
 superior to that generally seen in pastures. If cut immediately the 
 flower stems appear it makes capital hay. The seeds usually 
 ripen during October, November, and December, but sometimes in 
 the autumn months. 
 
 Panicum dc<omposztum (R. Br. "Australian millet"). This 
 valuable grass is found all over Australia, from the coastal districts 
 to the far interior. In moist places and by the side of water- 
 courses, it sometimes attains a height of four feet ; on the plains, 
 however, it rarely exceeds two feet in height. In all its varied 
 forms it yields most valuable herbage, which stock of all kinds are 
 remarkably fond of and fatten on. The writer has had the " Aus- 
 tralian millet " under experimental cultivation for several years, and 
 the amount of herbage it yielded in a few months was really 
 astonishing. The hay that was made from it was equal to three 
 tons per acre. The seeds usually ripen during the summer and 
 autumn months. At one time the aborigines used to collect the 
 seeds in large quantities, grind them between stones, make the 
 flour into cakes, bake them, and use them as an article of food. 
 
 Panicum gracile (R. Br. " Slender panick grass "). This 
 perennial species is fairly well distributed over the continent. It is 
 rather variable in habit, but in all its varied forms it is an excellent 
 pasture-grass which stock of all descriptions are remarkably fond of 
 and fatten on. In rich pastures it yields a very superior herbage. 
 On poor soils and in very dry situations its leaves are narrow, and 
 in dry seasons its stems are somewhat harsh ; still when in this 
 condition cattle seem fond of it. The seeds usually ripen during 
 October, November, and December. 
 
 Pullinia fulva (Benth. " Sugar grass"). This perennial species 
 is easily recognised when in flower amongst other grasses by its 
 rich brown, silky spikes. It is generally found growing on the 
 richest of soils, and often on deep alluvial flats, bordering rivers and 
 creeks. It is a superior pasture grass, and is much praised by 
 stockowners, who have given it the name of " sugar grass," on 
 account of the sweetness of its stems and foliage. During the 
 summer months, in an ordinary season, it produces a great bulk of 
 rich, succulent herbage, which is much relished by all herbivora. 
 It makes capital hay. The seeds usually ripen in November and 
 December. 
 

 Panicum]decompositum (R. Br. " Australian millet.") 
 
 V3R8 REFERENCE TO PLATK. A, showing the relative size of the outer glume to 
 the spikelet ; B, spikelet opened out, showing the position of the four glumes and 
 two paleas ; C, grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
l\inunni gmcilc (R. Br. " Slender panick " grass.) 
 
 KKFKKKNCK TO PLATK. A, showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the 
 rhaehis ; H, ^pikelet opened out, showing the t"<mr flumes and palea ; C, showing 
 the relative si/e of the outer illume on the spikelet ; D, grain, back and front 
 views. All variously magnified. 
 
Pollinia Julva (Benth. " Sugar " grass.) 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the 
 rhachis ; B, sessile and pedicellate spikelet ; C, sessile spikelet, showing the 
 arrangement of the glumes and terminal awn ; D, grain. All variously magnified. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 WEST AUSTRALIAN SALT-BUSHES. 
 
 BY FRED. TURNER, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., ETC. 
 
 Amongst the native forage plants of Australia (non grasses) the 
 most numerous and valuable belong to the natural order Chenopo- 
 diacece (Saholacecv] numbering as they do for all Australia about one 
 hundred and twelve species, arranged under fifteen genera, eight 
 of which are endemic. Some are found on the littoral sands, whilst 
 others extend to the arid plains .of the interior and are remarkable 
 for their drought-enduring properties. Of this total sixty-three 
 species, arranged under fourteen genera, are found in Western 
 Australia. Amongst the best are fifteen species of A trip/ex, some 
 of which attain the dimensions of good-sized shrubs, whilst others 
 are dwarf, herbaceous perennials. They are fairly well distributed 
 over the colony, grow on a great variety of soils, will live through 
 the driest season, and most of them are good forage plants. 
 Nine species of Rhngodici have been recorded from different 
 parts of the colony, most of these growing into good-sized 
 shrubs, but a few being of prostrate habit. They with- 
 stand a phenomenal amount of dry weather and have a 
 good reputation as forage for stock. The next large genus is that 
 of Kochia, which includes ten species, all of which are remarkable 
 for their drought enduring properties, but on the whole are not 
 considered such valuable forage plants as the species arranged under 
 the two preceding genera. Many of the remaining species are good 
 forage plants whilst young, though exception might sometimes be 
 taken to certain of the following. During protracted droughts 
 balls of cotton-like substance form on Kocnia r/7/o.sw, Lindl., 
 Ein-hvhi'ini (oniciitosd, R. Hr., and a few other species of the order. 
 It is gem-rally supposed that this adventitious growth is caused by 
 some insect. Speaking generally, however, only one bush in a 
 thousand is subject to this cottony " gall," except during very pro- 
 tracted droughts, when the " galls " are more plentiful. The fulvous 
 tMincntnm on some species of Sclerolii'iiti, and the woolly covering 
 of the fruits of some species of Chcnolcn, have been known to kill 
 sheep when they have partaken too freely of this indigestible 
 stuff along with other pails of the plants. Only two or three 
 species of Anisticniilliii are found in Western Australia, and these 
 have not nearly such long spines on their fruits as those that are 
 
 

 4*9 
 
 peculiar to the eastern portion of the continent have, and which 
 cause so much trouble to the salivary glands of sheep and other small 
 herbivora if they eat too greedily of these plants when the fruits are 
 near maturity. 
 
 Most Australian pastoralists know from long experience that a 
 large number of the salt-bush family are exceedingly tenacious of 
 life, in fact, the drier the season the more luxuriant many of them 
 grow, provided that they are not persistently eaten down. Moreover, 
 there are abundant proofs that when sheep are pastured on country 
 where plenty of salinous plants are growing amongst the natural 
 grasses, distoma and other allied diseases are almost unknown. It has 
 been said that if horses, which are subject to swamp cancer when on 
 the low coast lands, are turned into dry pasture where salinous plants 
 are growing plentifully, they soon lose this disease. Where the salt- 
 bush grows plentifully on pastoral areas in the eastern division of 
 the continent stock thrive during the driest of seasons. But in those 
 parts of the country where the salt-bush has disappeared through 
 over-stocking and other causes, sheep and cattle often die in large 
 numbers of starvation when the grasses and the more tender herbage 
 have died out through drought. To provide against such a 
 contingency in the future it would well repay pastoralists to 
 redisseminate salt-bush on those areas from which it has disappeared, 
 and systematically conserve it where it is already growing. Fenced 
 in salt-bush reserves should also be established on every pastoral 
 holding in the country where the conditions for the growth of the 
 plant are favourable. Most kinds of salt-bush will withstand a few 
 degrees of frost with impunity. Reserves could be made at very 
 little expense, and the best way to lay them out so as to be of the 
 greatest possible benefit to stock during dry times, when other feed 
 is scarce, is as follows : Each one should be made from half a mile 
 to a mile in length, about two chains in width, and from three to 
 six miles apart, according to the size of the pastoral holding. This 
 plan is recommended for obvious reasons. It is easy to imagine if 
 these reserves \vere laid out near each other, that the hungry 
 animals would congregate in large numbers at some particular point, 
 and that scores of the weaker ones w r ould be trampled to death. 
 It is really astonishing the amount of excellent forage that can be 
 cut, if done in a systematic way, from a few acres of established 
 salt-bush, even in the driest of seasons. The young succulent shoots 
 and leaves of many species of Atriplex and Rhagodia make fairly 
 good table vegetables if cooked and served in the ordinary way. On 
 those pastoral holdings where it is difficult and often impossible to 
 grow the common garden vegetables during the hot summer months 
 a few of the best kinds of salt-bush could easily be cultivated and 
 used as a substitute. 
 
 Propagation. All the salt-bushes can be raised from seed, and 
 many of them can be multiplied by cuttings. The latter should be 
 made of the half-ripened wood, cut into lengths of about one 
 
cincmi (Poir. "Grey Salt-bush.") 
 
foot or fifteen inches, and put into the ground in the ordinary 
 way. The best time to do this is during the early spring or 
 early autumn months, when the soil is sufficiently moist to keep the 
 cuttings from wilting until root action begins. As soon as 
 the cuttings have taken root they will withstand any amount of dry 
 weather. Speaking generally, most species of the genera Rhagoilia 
 and Alnplc.v, also several species of (..'//<//<>/><><//// /// and Kochia, can be 
 readily multiplied by cuttings. The seeds of the different 
 species of A triplex, when mature and dry, are very light, 
 and it will take about twenty thousand of them to a pound. 
 The best time to* sow salt-bush seed is in early spring or 
 early autumn, when the ground is moist, but not wet. Under such 
 conditions the seed will germinate quickly, and the plants grow 
 rapidly. The seeds should be sown in patches (about half a dozen 
 seeds together) at distances of about ten yards for the tall-growing 
 kinds, and three yards for the dwarf-growing sorts, and from half 
 an inch to an inch deep. If the soil is of a strong, tenacious 
 character, the seeds should be covered with some light, decayed 
 vegetable matter, which will offer no impediment to the young 
 plants coming out of the soil. The seed can be put in with the aid 
 of a light hoe. It is not necessary to plough the land preparatory 
 to sowing the seed, as salt-bush spreads rapidly on most kinds of 
 soil, once the plants become established thereon, if protected 
 against cattle and sheep for a time. It should be mentioned that 
 to sow the seed broadcast on the land is bath an unsatisfactory and 
 expensive way of propagating salt-bush. Most of the seeds being 
 very light, it is a difficult matter to cover them when sown in this 
 way, and if left on the surface they would be blown away by the 
 wind. Following are the descriptions of those illustrations which 
 .accompany this chapter : 
 
 A triplex cincrea (Poir. " Grey salt-bush.") A branching shrub, 
 which often attains a height of several feet, and is covered all over 
 with a white or grey scaly tomentum. Its leaves are oblong, or 
 lanceolate, and from one inch to two or more inches in length. 
 The plant is peculiar to the saline sands on the eastern, southern, 
 and western seaboards of the continent, and in some places is fairly 
 plentiful. The succulent stems and leaves make excellent forage 
 for cattle, which eat it with great avidity, and they seem to thrive 
 well on this herbage. This salt-bush is easily propagated both by 
 .seeds and cuttings. The latter should be made of the half ripened 
 wood and inserted in the soil in the ordinary way. The seeds can 
 be sown where the plants are intended to grow permanently, or in 
 prepared beds, and when the seedlings are large enough to handle 
 they can be transplanted to their permanent positions. 
 
 Atriplcx h(iIinioides(Lmdl. ".Salt-bush"). This is a procumbentor 
 diffuse undershrub, often attaining a height of one foot or more. 
 The whole plant has a glaucous or whitish appearance. Its leaves 
 are variable, but mostly ovate-lanceolate or rhomboidal, and from 
 
Atriplcx linHuwitlcs (Lindl. " Halimus-like Salt-bush.") 
 FK.URK i. Enlarged drawing of the fruit. 
 
423 
 
 one and a quarter to two inches long. This salt bush is peculiar to 
 the inland plains, and will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry 
 weather. It is a capital forage plant, both for sheep and cattle, 
 and they seem to thrive well on it, the former particularly so. 
 Under ordinary circumstances the plant produces an abundance of 
 seed which germinates readily when sown in the ordinary way. 
 
 Arliplex scmibaccata (R. Br. " Salt-bush "). This is a procumbent, 
 or prostrate, many branched, slender, perennial plant, with herba- 
 ceous stems spreading from one and a half to two or more feet. 
 Under cultivation, however, its growth is simply marvellous, the 
 stems lengthening out very much. The whole plant is pale green y 
 though sometimes nearly white. Its leaves, arranged on short 
 stalks, are somewhat variable in shape, but mostly oblong-lanceolate r 
 or cuneate, sinuate-toothed, and rather thin, and from half to one 
 inch long. This salt bush will withstand a phenomenal amount of 
 dry weather, and it has a high reputation as forage for stock. 
 Sheep eat it with great avidity, and they thrive remarkably well on 
 it. When left unmolested for a time it produces an abundance of 
 seed, which germinates readily under ordinary circumstances. This 
 atriplex has proved a most valuable plant on some of the worst 
 alkali lands of California, single specimens are said to have covered 
 a space with a diameter of sixteen feet in one season. u The yield 
 of a full crop is about twenty tons of green material, or five tons of 
 dry matter, per acre. Some seasons will permit of two such crops. 
 It seems to be already demonstrated that this Australian species of 
 atriplex will constitute itself a most important industrial factor in 
 this state, and will render productive vast tracts of land which are 
 at present a blot on the landscape." Report Agricultural Expert 
 Stations, California. 
 
 Atriplex stipitata (Benth. " Salt-bush.") This species is an 
 erect, bushy, rather slender shrub, covered all over with a white or 
 somewhat brown scaly tomentum. The leaves are variable, but 
 mostly narrow, oblong, very obtuse, contracted into a short stalk r 
 rather thick, and about three quarters of an inch long. It is found 
 on the arid plains of the interior and is capable of withstanding a 
 long period of dry weather without its growth being seriously 
 checked. Sheep eat the plant with avidity and they seem to thrive 
 on it. When left undisturbed for a time it produces a fair amount 
 of seed which, when ripe, germinates readily under ordinary con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Atriplex vesicaria (Hew. "Salt-bush.") This is an erect r 
 bushy shrub attaining an height of about two feet, and covered 
 with a scaly tomentum. The leaves are variable but generally 
 oblong-lanceolate, contracted into a short stalk, and about three- 
 quarters of an inch long. It is peculiar to the inland plains, and in 
 some districts is fairly plentiful. This, however, may be attributed 
 to the fact that the plant produces an abundance of seed when left 
 unmolested for a time. This salt-bush is regarded as an excellent 
 
I 
 
 Atnph:\- s-mihtm-ntti (R. Mr. "Half-berried Salt-bush.") 
 FIGURE I. Knlar^ed drawing of the fruit. 
 
AntHplcx slipilala (Benth. " Kidney-fruited Salt-bush.") 
 FIGURE i. Enlarged drawing of the fruit. 
 
426 
 
 forage plant which sheep and cattle thrive on, but it is said that 
 horses never do so, in fact they will seldom eat it unless other 
 forage plants are scarce. 
 
 Kochia planifolia. (F.V.M. " Salt-bush.") This is a divari- 
 cately-branched shrub, growing from two to three or more feet 
 high. The branches and young foliage are covered with a soft and 
 dense woolly tomentum which wears off the older leaves. Th 
 leaves are oblong, obtuse, arranged on short stalks, and rarely mor 
 than half-an-inch long, rather thick, but fiat. This shrub is foun 
 in the most arid parts of the continent, but it is not reported to be 
 very plentiful anywhere. Stock are fond of it, and often eat it 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 
 iiti, HFAV. " Bladder salt-bush." 
 FlG. i. A fruiting branch. FIG. 2. Section of a fruiting perianth. 
 
 close to the ground that it is generally found in a stunted condition, 
 When left undisturbed for a time, however, it grows rapidly and 
 produces an abundance of seed. 
 
 Kochia rillosa. (Lincll. " Salt-bush.") An under-shrub of 
 erect, spreading, or decumbent habit, more or less covered with a 
 silky, villous tomentum. Its leaves are alternate, linear, thick, and 
 soft in the typical form, and about lialt"-an-inch long. There are 
 about half-a-dozen varieties differing more or less from the typical 
 form, though not of sufficient distinction to warrant their being 
 classed as distinct species, notwithstanding their geographical dis- 
 tribution over the continent being considerable. This salt-bush is 
 

 Kochia planifolia (F.V.M. " Broad-winged Salt-bush.") 
 FIGURE i. Enlarged drawing of the fruit. 
 
428 
 
 peculiar to the inland plains and is capable of withstanding a long 
 period of dry weather. Cattle and sheep greedily eat the plant 
 when it is young, and often crop it down close to the ground so 
 that it gets little chance to produce seed for its perpetuation. 
 When left unmolested for a time, however, the plant produces an 
 abundance of seed which, when ripe, germinates readily under 
 ordinary conditions. 
 
 Kochin rillosu, Li mil." Silky salt-bush." 
 KM;. I. Enlarged drawing of the fruit. 
 
 a billiinlicri. (K. Br. " Salt-bush.'') A branching,, 
 straggling, or erect shrub, sometimes attaining a height of six or 
 more feet. The leaves arc about an inch long, usually green above 
 when full grown, and pale or whitish underneath, somewhat vari- 
 able in ^hape, but. usually oblong-lanceolate. This shrub is found 
 only in the coastal districts, and sometimes on the brink of the 
 ocean ; it is neither affected by the severest gales nor by the spray 
 from the sea. At one time it was growing abundantly along the 
 coast, but where cattle have had free access it is gradually disap- 
 pearing. Most animals are so fond of its succulent stems and 
 leaves that it is often cropped down close to the ground, and has 
 
Rhagodia billardieri (R. Br. " Coastal Salt-bush.") 
 FIGURE i. Fruiting branch. 
 
43 
 
 little chance to recuperate or produce seed for its natural repro- 
 duction. This salt-bush is easily raised from seed and it can be 
 readily propagated by cuttings made of the half-ripened wood and 
 put in the ground in the ordinary way. It is well worth encourag- 
 ing on the littoral sands, which it would help to bind and prevent 
 being carried inland by the fury of the winds that blow from the 
 ocean. 
 
 Rhagoditi iiiittins, R. Br. " Nodding salt-bush." 
 FK;. i. Enlarged drawing of the fruit. 
 
 iiiituns (R. Br. " Salt-bush"). This is a herbaceous, 
 prostrate or procumbent plant, with slender stems usually spreading 
 from one foot to three or more feet long. The leaves are opposite, or 
 here and there alternate, arranged on slender stalks, and somewhat 
 variable in shape, but generally broadly hastate, with prominent basal 
 lobes, the lower ones about one inch long, but the upper ones get 
 gradually smaller towards the inflorescence. Whilst young the foliage is 
 more or less mealy white. Where this plant is not too closely fed down 
 its prostrate stems often carpet the ground for a considerable distance, 
 
which prevents the evaporation of moisture from the soil near its 
 roots. This, of course, enables the plant to withstand a long period 
 of dry weather with impunity. It is an excellent forage plant for all 
 herbivora, sheep being particularly fond of it. Under ordinary con- 
 ditions it bears an abundance of seed which germinates readily 
 either in spring or autumn. 
 
 To Messrs. F. and C. Bennett, the proprietors of the Town and 
 Country Journal, the writer's thanks are due for these excellent 
 engravings of grasses and salt-bushes, which have been prepared at 
 their establishment. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 FODDER AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 (EXCLUSIVE OF GRASSES.) 
 
 The bulk of the information given in the following pages is taken 
 from Bulletin No. 2, issued by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, division of agrostology. Numerous other plants are 
 mentioned in the bulletin, but only those have been selected which 
 it is considered might be successfully introduced into this colony. 
 Some of the varieties are already here, and are deserving of further 
 propagation. The scientific names, as well as the common names of 
 the plants, are given, and also a short botanical description. 
 
 Allionia incarnata (Gunaninpil). A slender prostrate plant 
 belonging to the Four o'Clock family, which comes up from 
 the seed after the summer rains in the grazing region of Arizona and 
 New Mexico, and furnishes a palatable and nutritious food for sheep 
 and cattle. It stands pasturing well, and usually ripens an 
 abundance of seed. 
 
 Atnaranthus (Bigweed ; pigweed ; tumbleweed). On the 
 western ranges there are several species of AiiHirunlhus which 
 contribute to the forage. One of these, A. blitoidcs, comes 
 up on new breaking, and with other weedy species is readily eaten 
 by cattle before it has become woody. Because of their tumbling 
 habit, they are rapidly scattered by the winds. 
 
 Anthyllis nilucniria (Kidney vetch ; common kidney vetch ; 
 wound wort ; wound clover ; sand clover ; yellow sand trefoil ; 
 lady's ringers. Fig. i.) A low perennial legume, which is found 
 wild over a large part of Europe. It grows naturally in very dry 
 and sterile soils along the roadsides wherever the soil is thin 
 and the subsoil calcareous. It is recommended as furnishing a 
 palatable though scant forage on dry, calcareous soils in places 
 that are too poor to support even white clover. The product 
 of the first year is small, so that it is only a profitable 
 crop when sown with grain. The second year the plants throw up 
 tall stems, often three or four feet hi&h. It is not recommended 
 to sow this crop in the United States, except experimentally upon 
 such barren SOUS as have been described, and then only after the 
 better species have been tried and found to be failures. 
 
 Api<^ tnbrr'ixtt (Ground nut). A wild-climbing bean, with 
 milky juice, and straight or slightly curved many-seeded pods, 
 growing in lo\v grounds as far west as the Missouri river. It is 
 eaten by all kinds of stock. The edible tubers, which furnish food 
 for swine, are borne on underground shoots. 
 
 
 
433 
 
 Arachis hvpogcea (Spanish peanut ; peanut ; goober ; earth 
 nut. Fig. 2). An annual herb, a native of Peru and Brazil, intro- 
 duced very widely in cultivation throughout the Southern States. 
 The peanut is hardy as far north as Maryland. This is one of the 
 most valuable fodder plants for the Southern States. There are 
 two varieties the one which furnishes the peanut of commerce, 
 which requires a long season ; and the Spanish peanut, which 
 matures in about three months. The pods of the latter are 
 smaller, and the seeds fewer and smaller than those of the edible 
 
 FIG. i. Kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria). 
 
 variety. Peanut-vine hay is more nutritious than that of red clover. 
 The yield of nuts ranges from 50 to 75 bushels to the acre. The 
 Spanish peanut is the one usually grown for forage. The vines are 
 pulled when the pods are about half-formed, and are converted into 
 hay by a method similar to that used in the treatment of cowpeas. 
 The nuts or beans are rich in oil and albuminoids. Peanut meal 
 makes a richer stock food than cotton-seed meal. A valuable oil 
 can be expressed from the seeds. 
 
434 
 
 Astragalus (Buffalo pea ; rattle pod. Fig. 3). Herbaceous 
 perennials, with pinnate leaves and usually conspicuous bean-like 
 flowers, the pods becoming inflated when ripe. The genus is one 
 of which there are about 100 American species distributed through- 
 out the United States, the greatest number occurring in the prairie 
 
 FK;. 2. Peanut (Amchis 
 
 and Rocky Mountain regions. Some of the species are, from their 
 wide distribution and number of individuals, of great value on the 
 native pastures of the west. Perhaps the most important of these 
 are : A. hypoglottis, rattle pod ; A, caryocarpus, the buffalo pea and 
 buffalo clover of the plainsman ; A. canadcnsis, Canada milk vetch ; 
 and A. adsurgens. The buffalo pea has fleshy pods, which are 
 
435 
 
 produced in enormous quantities in the early spring. They are 
 eaten by cattle and horses, and are nutritious. The pods have also 
 been used as a vegetable. Besides these innocuous species, the 
 genus contains a number which have attained wide notoriety as 
 loco weeds, poisonous to stock, the worst and most widely dis- 
 tributed one being A. mollissimus. Many of the species are worthy 
 of cultivation. 
 
 FIG. 3. Buffalo pea (Astragalus adsurpens] 
 
 Antriplex canescens (Shad scale. Fig. 4). A perennial shrub 
 of the pigweed or saltbush family, often attaining a height of ten 
 feet, native in the higher valleys and mesas or table-lands of New 
 Mexico and Arizona. The leaves and small twigs are eaten by 
 cattle, which grow fat upon them, but are said to give a bad taste 
 to milk. It is the principal forage plant of a wide range of territory 
 in the south-west, and deserves to be more widely distributed and 
 brought into cultivation, especially on saline or alkaline soils. 
 
436 
 
 Atriplex confer tifolium (White sage ; shad scale). A native 
 saltbush, growing on the high plains of Nevada and Utah, where it 
 furnishes a considerable part of the winter forage. It grows on 
 alkali spots, and is worthy of cultivation in attempts to reclaim 
 lands which are too strongly alkaline to produce better forage 
 plants. 
 
 FIG. 4. Shad scale (Atriplex canescens). 
 
 nircn (Ramie; cloth plant; China grass plant; ramie 
 grass). This well-known fibre plant, which has been introduced 
 rather widely throughout the United States in the last twenty years, 
 furnishes a large amount of forage of fair quality. It is eaten well 
 by all kinds of stock ; so that wherever this plant is grown for its 
 fibre it is well to remember that it will also furnish valuable feed. 
 
 llrnssh-ti inipns (Winter rape ; rape ; dwarf Essex rape). A 
 succulent and nutritious forage plant, closely related to the Swede 
 turnips. It is adapted to deep, rich, and warm loams and sandy 
 soils. It has been widely cultivated in the northern United States 
 and Canada, and succeeds on any rich and well-drained soil, 
 provided the summers are not too hot and dry. If the ground 
 
437 
 
 is in good condition and free from weeds, it may be sown broadcast 
 at the rate of three to live pounds of seed per acre. If the land is 
 wet, however, rape should be sown in raised drills, when one or 
 two pounds will be sufficient. The time for sowing the seed will 
 vary with the object sought, and the climate. For soiling purposes 
 it may be sown in May in the states bordering on Canada, and cut 
 or eaten off when it is sufficiently advanced. It will grow up again 
 and may be used a second time in the same manner, but ordinarily 
 the best results are obtained when it is sown during the latter part 
 of June or the first half of July. When put in earlier, the hot suns 
 
 FIG. 5. Sedge (Carex retrorsa). 
 
 of August seem to hasten its maturity, and the yield is not satis- 
 factory. If sown in drills, it should be cultivated as long as a horse 
 can be driven between the rows. Sheep may be pastured upon a 
 field of rape by cutting it up into small pens by means of movable 
 hurdles, so that different parts of the field may be depastured in 
 rotation. Cattle should not be turned into a field, because they will 
 trample and destroy much more than they eat. Rape fed to cows 
 increases the tiow of milk, and there is less danger of the milk being 
 tainted than when turnips or turnip tops are fed. There is consider- 
 
able danger in turning hungry sheep or cattle into a field, because 
 of a liability to bloat. It is also a good rule never to turn animals 
 into a field in the early morning. 
 
 Brassica olcracea (Cabbage). An annual or biennial plant, 
 indigenous to various parts of Europe, and widely cultivated as a 
 vegetable throughout the world. Cabbage is largely grown in some 
 parts of Europe as a crop for soiling either sheep or cattle, and as a 
 stable food in late autumn it is far superior to turnips. It has been 
 estimated that the crude protein of an acre of cabbage amounts to 
 about i 500 pounds an enormous yield compared with that of alfalfa 
 or red clover. 
 
 FIG. 6. Pigweed (Chenopodium Uptophyll^m.) 
 
 Can\\- rclrorsn (Late-fruited sedge. Fig. 5). A stout, erect, 
 tufted, leafy sedge, i to 3 feet hii;h, growing in wet, boggy places 
 in the lake region of Minnesota and the Dakotas. It is very tender 
 and juicy, and is readily eaten by stock. It is seldom cut for hay, 
 because of its growing in places too wet to be mowed, but it is an 
 important factor in the natural forage of the region. Analyses show 
 that it contains nearly 16 per cent, crude protein. This is one of 
 the species which is deserving of cultivation. 
 
439 
 
 virgiuianum. (Spurred butterfly pea) A twining 
 perennial bean, with trifoliate leaves and large, showy violet llowers 
 an inch long. The pods are 4 to 5 inches long, many-seeded, 
 linear, flat, thickened at the edges, and marked with a raised line 
 on each side next the margin. Common in sand)' woods in the 
 Southern States, extending into tropical America. It furnishes a 
 large amount of valuable forage in woodland pastures, and is 
 worthy of cultivation. 
 
 Ccmtonia siliqua. (Carob tree ; St. John's bread ; carob bean.) 
 A leguminous tree, often attaining a height of 50 feet, indigenous 
 to the eastern Mediterranean region, but introduced somewhat 
 widely through the Southern States and in California. Its saccha- 
 rine pods are very valuable as a food for stock, and are sometimes 
 used as human food. The fruit is abundantly produced, even in 
 arid regions and in seasons of drought. The pods contain about 
 66 per cent, of sugar and gum, and are fed in rations of about 6 
 pounds per day, crushed or ground. 
 
 ChcnopoiUum. (Pigweed ; goosefoot ; lamb's-quarters. Fig. 
 6.) There are a large number of native and introduced species in 
 the United States, all of which are eaten by cattle and sheep, con- 
 tributing much valuable forage when young. They are adapted to 
 arid and barren lands, as well as to cultivated fields, and should be 
 included in the list of forage plants adapted to the grazing regions 
 of the west. 
 
 Ciccr arid in it in. (Chick pea ; ram's horn ; gram ; coffee pea. 
 Fig 7.) An annual legume, native of Armenia, which has been 
 cultivated as cattle food and as an article of human diet for over 
 three thousand years. Next to the cereals, it forms the largest part 
 of the food used in Spain, India, and portions of Africa. The seeds 
 are ground into meal, and used in the same manner as cotton-seed 
 meal for fattening animals. The leaves are covered with a clammy 
 exudation, consisting largely of oxalic acid, so that the plant itself 
 is unsuited for forage, but it is often used as a soil renovator. The 
 yield of seed is sometimes very large upward of 100 bushels to 
 the acre. The crop ripens in about four months. 
 
 Cichorhim endivium. (Endive.) This culinary vegetable is 
 particularly adapted as a pasture plant for extremely arid regions, 
 as it matures seed which will germinate in the hottest deserts of 
 central Australia. (Von Mueller.) 
 
 Cichorium intybus. (Chicory.) A well-known perennial, in- 
 digenous to Europe and northern Asia, where it is found growing 
 wild along roadsides and in old fields. It is a good fodder plant, 
 especially for sheep, and can be kept growing for several years if it 
 is cut before flowering. The roots are much used as a substitute 
 for coffee. 
 
 Convolvulus ednlis (Sweet potato). The tubers are used in many 
 parts of the southern States as food for cattle, and the vines are 
 cured on racks like cowpeas, and used for hay. 
 
440 
 
 Crotalaria jnncea (Sunn ; sunn hemp). A fibre plant, indigenous 
 to southern Asia. It is cultivated in India to feed milch cows, and 
 is suited for cultivation in the warmest portions of the United 
 States. In rich, friable soil, under favorable circumstances, it often 
 grows to a height of ten feet. 
 
 FIG. 7. Gram (Ciccr aricliniiin.] 
 
 Cv/v/7/s t'si-iilt'/ihts (Chul'as ; hngnut ; ground almond. Fig. 8). 
 A perennial sedge, spreading extensively by underground stolons, 
 which produce enormous numbers of edible tubers. In rich, sandy 
 loams it is often cultivated as a food for hogs, which are turned 
 into the field in autumn to root up the nuts. The tubers contain 
 from 17 to jS per cent, of oil, 27 to 29 per cent, of starch, and 12 
 
44* 
 
 to 21 per cent, of gum and sugar. This sedge is important for 
 cultivation in desert regions. The oil extracted from the nuts is 
 said to surpass in excellence all other oils used for culinary 
 purposes. 
 
 Fig. 8. Chufas (Cyperns esculcntus.} 
 
 Cypcnis slrigosiis (Tule ; tula grass). A tall sedge with the 
 stems four to six feet high, growing in marshy places in California 
 and Arizona. It is much relished when young by all kinds of stock. 
 
 Cytisusprolifcrus albns (Tagasaste). A shrubby perennial legume 
 with silvery grey leaves, native of the Canary Islands, which has 
 been recommended for cultivation as a forage plant in hot and dry 
 regions. It will, perhaps, prove of some value in the arid south- 
 west. The seeds, which are slow in germination, should be boiled 
 four or live minutes, or soaked in water for twenty-four hours before 
 planting. The plants should be kept one year in the seed bed and 
 then transplanted to rows six to eight apart in the held where they 
 are to remain, and cultivated until they are two or three feet high. 
 At the end of about the third year cattle or sheep may be turned 
 into the held, and the crop will require no further attention except 
 

 to occasionally cut back the shrubs to prevent their growing too 
 high. The leaves and twigs are very nutritious, both cattle and 
 sheep fattening rapidly upon them. This plant should be given a 
 thorough trial in the south-western portions of the United States, 
 for, when once firmly established, the tagasaste plants will with- 
 stand any amount of drought. 
 
 Ddsylirion tcxnninn (Sotol). A fodder plant of the lily family, 
 which occurs throughout western Texas and north-western Mexico. 
 It grows abundantly in the great bend of the Rio Grande, and is 
 there highly esteemed, producing fodder for sheep in the winter 
 season and during periods of extreme drought. The appearance 
 of the plant is something like that of a large pineapple growing on 
 a trunk two to five feet high. The narrow leaves, three to four 
 feet long, and one-third to one-half inch wide, radiate in every 
 direction, forming a rosette at the top of the trunk. The portion 
 eaten is the inner cabbige-like heart, which remains after the spiny 
 leaves have been cut o*if. An analysis of this, made by the chemist 
 of the Department of Agriculture, shows that it contains about 12 
 per cent, of sugar and gum, and about 3 per cent, of crude protein, 
 besides 65 per cent, of water. No attempt has been made to culti- 
 vate sotol, and it is becoming exterminated in many portions of its 
 range. Sheep can exist upon it four or rive months in the winter 
 without access to water, so that it would be an excellent forage 
 plant for dissemination and cultivation in arid regions where the 
 winters are not too severe. 
 
 Desniodiiiin tortiiosinii I), molle (Beggar weed ; Florida beg- 
 gar weed ; cockshead ; Florida clover ; tick trefoil ; West Indian 
 honeysuckle. Fig. 9). An annual leguminous plant, indigenous to 
 Florida and the Gulf States, extending into the West Indies and 
 tropical America. This is undoubtedly one of the very best forage 
 plants for those portions of the United States where it grows. The 
 stems are tall, and, if grown at considerable intervals, are woody, 
 but where seed is scattered thickly over the ground the entire plant 
 can be converted into hay or ensilage. Florida beggar weed springs 
 up naturally in fields wherever the ground has been disturbed, about 
 the middle of June, and matures a crop in seventy-two to eighty 
 days. On sterile clay soils in the vicinity of Washington, D.C., 
 beggar weed grows three to four feet high. In the rich, moist, 
 sandy fields along the Gulf of Mexico it grows from six to ten feet 
 high. Horses, cattle, and mules are very fond of it. Beggar-weed 
 hay contains alv.mt twenty-one per cent, of crude protein. At a 
 yield of ten tons, the amount of fertili/ers contained in a crop 
 Yielded by one acre lias been estimated at : Potash, 80 pounds ; 
 phosphoric acid, 160 pounds ; and ammonia, 400 pounds. It will 
 be seen from this that as a renovator of worn soils, or as a green 
 in, mure, no better or cheaper fertili/.ei can be added to a field than to 
 turn under a rank growth of beggar weed. The tap root descends 
 deeply into the soil, bringing up mineral fertili/ers from the subsoil, 
 
443 
 
 which can be utili/ed by other crops. Beggar weed can be sown 
 after a crop of oats has been harvested, or it can be scattered between 
 corn rows after the crop has been laid by. Six to ten pounds of 
 clean seed are enough for an acre. If beggar weed is tried as a crop 
 
 FIG. 9. Beggar weed (Desmodmm fortuosum). 
 
 in the north, it should not be planted until midsummer. If planted 
 early, the seed will lie in the ground and will fail to germinate until 
 the ground has become warm. Clean seed can be procured in the 
 markets at about fifteen dollars per bushel of sixty pounds. Beggar 
 weed makes an excellent quality of ensilage, either alone or mixed 
 with corn fodder. 
 
 Desmodmm triflpnim. A densely matted perennial herb, occur- 
 ring in tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America. Roxburgh 
 states that it helps to form the most beautiful turf in India, and that 
 cattle are very fond of it. It springs up in all soils and situations, 
 furnishing an excellent fodder in places too hot for ordinary clover. 
 It deserves trial in the warmest portions of the Southern States. 
 There are many other species of Desmodium in the eastern and 
 southern United States, some occurring in woodlands, and others 
 found only in open prairies. All are eaten with avidity by stock, 
 
444 
 
 and all are worthy of an extended trial in cultivation, although on 
 account of their jointed pods covered with minute hooked hairs they 
 are perhaps liable to become weeds. The foliage" produced by them 
 is exceedingly nutritious, and because they are strong growers they 
 would have some value in reclaiming worn lands. 
 
 Dioscorca batatas (Chinese yam ; yam). A rank-growing vine 
 cultivated in all tropical countries for its edible roots. It is pro- 
 pagated by means of aerial tubers which form in the axils of the 
 leaves. This has been introduced into tropical Florida. The fleshy, 
 mucilaginous roots serve as food for man, and are readily eaten by 
 all kinds of stock. 
 
 Doliclios multiflorus (Velvet bean ; banana field pea ; banana 
 stock pea). A rank growing vine with plump, velvety pods, each 
 containing three or four large oval beans. An ornamental, which 
 promises to become a valuable forage plant on sterile, sandy soils in 
 the South. In Florida it has yielded at the rate of 16,680 pounds 
 of green forage per acre. It is there esteemed as a winter mulch, 
 as, when killed by frost, the leaves remain on the vines over winter. 
 
 Erigeron canadensis (Horseweed ; butterweed ; fireweed). 
 A bristly, hairy, erect, wand-like, annual composite, with numerous 
 linear, mostly entire, leaves, and very numerous heads of small dirty 
 white flowers. A cosmopolitan weed growing in waste lands, fence 
 corners, and along roadsides. This species has been reported 
 valuable as sheep fodder in the arid regions of New Mexico and 
 Arizona. 
 
 Erodiiim ciciitariiini (Alfilaria ; storksbill ; pin clover ; pin grass ; 
 pinweed ; filaria ; filaree ; alfilarilla). This weedy annual 
 has nearly as large a distribution as the following species, but is 
 of less value. This species has been regarded by agricultural 
 writers as the true Alfilaria, but according to Professor Greene its 
 occurrence is rare compared with that of E. moschalum, and its 
 foliage is more fragrant and less readily eaten by stock. 
 
 Erodium iiioscliahun (Cranesbill ; alfilaria ; storksbill ; pin 
 clover ; pin grass ; pinweed ; Filaria ; pilaree ; alfilarilla). An 
 annual of the geranium family, which occurs abundantly and 
 is of much value in pastures over a large extent of territory 
 on the Pacific slope. Elsewhere in the United States it is 
 sparingly introduced, and usually regarded only as a weed, 
 though not troublesome. It springs up during the wet season from 
 January to June, and grows on all kinds of soils from the coast up to 
 the snow line. It is an excellent pasture plant, but seldom reaches 
 a sufficient height to be mowed for hay. It is ~aten by all kinds of 
 stock as long as it is green, but when dry is of little value, because 
 the stems are brittle and break up into small fragments. It is culti 
 vated to some extent, and has been recommended for sowing in 
 pasture lands in the Southern States. A related species, E. cygnonint, 
 native of Australia, is considered one of the best forage plants of the 
 drier regions of th.it continent. 
 
445 
 
 Et fit in /<//* (Lentil ; Winter lentil). An annual legume, native 
 to and widely cultivated in Europe. The leafy stalks make good 
 forage. Its seeds are palatable and nutritious as food for man and 
 domestic animals. It is suited for cultivation in cold climates and 
 in the mountains at high elevations. The seeds retain their vitality 
 for about four years. The variety called the "winter lentil" is more 
 prolific than the " summer lentil." In common with most other 
 leguminous plants, a calcareous soil is essential for its prolific growth. 
 
 FIG. 10. Winter fat, or sweet sage (Eurotia Janata). 
 
 Enrotia lanata (Winter fat ; white sage ; sweet sage. Fig. 10). 
 A perennial half-shrubby plant growing a foot or two high, 
 abundant throughout the Rocky Mountain region from British 
 Columbia to Mexico. Its slender woolly twigs bear narrow leaves 
 an inch and a half long, with velvety grayish surfaces, and with the 
 margins rolled back. The flowers are minute, in small clusters in 
 the axils of the leaves, chiefly on the upper parts of the stem. In 
 western Texas and in the more arid regions of Arizona, Nevada, and 
 Utah this plant is very highly valued for winter forage. An 
 
44 6 
 
 important fact in regard to the plant is its ability to thrive in alkali 
 soils. It contains a bitter principle, which is sometimes employed 
 as a remedy for intermittent fevers. Sheep and cattle grazed on 
 lands where winter fat grows, increase in weight rapidly, and are 
 said to be remarkably free from disease. It is worthy of trial, and 
 should be introduced into the pastures of all arid and semi-arid or 
 alkaline grazing regions. 
 
 Fai'a nilgnris (Horse bean ; broad bean ; common field bean ; 
 straight bean). A coarse, erect, rank-growing annual of consider- 
 able value as a forage plant, grown in the eastern United States, and 
 more extensively in Europe. The beans, which contain about 
 33 per cent, of starch, are used for fattening cattle, but their use, if 
 long continued without change or without proper admixture of 
 other foods, often results in paralysis, on account of the bitter 
 poisonous alkaloids which the seeds contain. 
 
 Fagppyrwn csculenium (Buckwheat; common buckwheat ; Japan- 
 ese buckwheat ; silver-hull buckwheat). Buckwheat, the w r ell-known 
 annual cultivated for its seeds, is a native of northern Asia, and has 
 been under cultivation about 1,000 years. It succeeds in cold 
 climates on the poorest land. For fodder, or as green manure, 
 clayey soils produce the largest crops. On account of the short 
 season in which it matures, it is adapted to cultivation in high 
 latitudes and alpine regions. It is an excellent soiling crop, either 
 fed alone or with oats or green corn, and is recommended for 
 soiling milch cows. 
 
 Fnuisena duinosa. A shrubby plant related to the cocklebur, 
 which is one of the most characteristic plants of the Colorado desert 
 and the dry sandy plains of southern California. It is valuable food 
 for stock, either dry or green. *It produces an abundance of burs, 
 which are eaten by cattle and horses, and are as fattening as grain. 
 It also makes a very fine feed for sheep. It dries up after the winter 
 rains, but becomes green after every shower. 
 
 Galactia glabclla (Smooth milk pea). A low, prostrate or 
 twining, perennial bean with nearly smooth stems, trifoliate leaves, 
 and purple flowers in interrupted or nodding racemes. Common 
 in sandy woods from New York to Florida and Mississippi. It 
 makes an excellent summer forage for milch cows, and adds value 
 to woodland pastures. 
 
 Galactia pilosa (Milk pea). Like the last species, but with 
 stems and leaves soft and downy. It is of some value as a summer 
 forage in the eastern United States. 
 
 Galcga officinalis (Goat's rue ; goat's clover). A perennial 
 legume, with erect, branching, leafy stems i^io 2 feet high, pinnate 
 leaves, and purple flowers born on a long-stalked spike. A forage 
 plant of value on account of its resistance to drought, which has 
 been recommended for the northern prairies and central Rocky 
 Mountain districts. It is usually fed green, as it makes a poor 
 
447 
 
 quality of hay, and is not readily eaten by stock until they have 
 become accustomed to its taste. The air-dried hay contains 17 per 
 cent of crude protein. 
 
 Genista scop<iria (Scotch broom). A shrubby, perennial legume, 
 native of Scotland. The young growth is chietiy valued as a food 
 for sheep and other animals in winter. 
 
 Gleditschia Iruiainlhos (Honey locust). A leguminous tree 30 
 to 60 feet high, native of the eastern United States. The pods are 
 eaten by stock, and the young growth is browsed down by cattle. 
 
 FIG. ii. Soja bean (Glycin hispidd). 
 
 Glycine hispida (Soja bean ; soy bean ; coffee bean. Fig. n) 
 An erect annual legume, with hairy stems and leaves, which has 
 been cultivated in China and Japan from remote antiquity. It was 
 long grown in botanic gardens, but when the facts concerning its 
 use as a human food by oriental nations came to light about twenty 
 years ago, it was largely introduced into this country and Europe, 
 where thorough trials of its forage and food value have been made. 
 There are a large number of named varieties, which vary in the 
 color of their seeds and the length of time which the plants require 
 
44 8 
 
 to come to maturity. The seed is planted at the rate of half a 
 bushel to the acre, in drills 2\ to 3 feet apart, and cultivated about 
 the same as Indian corn. In Virginia, soja beans are planted 
 between the hills of corn, so that two crops are produced on the 
 same field at the same time. The yields of seed are often 
 enormous. Soja beans are fed to stock green, as silage, or as hay. 
 The haulms are rather woody, and do not make the best quality of 
 
 FIG. 12. Sulla (JHedysarum cnronarium). 
 
 hay, but as either ensilage or green forage they are unsurpassed. 
 The hay contains from 14 to 15 per cent, crude protein and 3 to 6 
 per cent, of fat. The brans contain from 32 to 42 per cent. 
 protein, and from 12 to 21 per cent, of fat in fresh material. When 
 fed to milch cows, a ration of soja beans increases the yield of 
 milk, improves the quantity of the butter, and causes the animal to 
 gain rapidly in weight. It is an excellent addition to a ration for 
 fattening cattle. In China and Japan, where the soja bean is an 
 article of diet, substances similar to butter, oil, and cheese, as well 
 as a variety of dishes, are prepared from it. The yield of green 
 
449 
 
 forage amounts to from 6 to 8 tons per acre, and of the beans from 
 40 to TOO bushels. The feeding value of the bean has been found 
 to be greater than that of any other known forage plant except the 
 
 peanut. 
 
 Hcdysarnm coronarium (Sulla ; Spanish sanfoin ; French 
 honeysuckle ; Soola clover ; Maltese clover ; honeysuckle. Fig. 
 12). This perennial legume is a native of southern Italy, and was 
 first introduced into cultivation in 1766. It grows best on sandy or 
 clayey soils which are well drained, or which have the ground 
 water from six to ten feet below the surface. It will withstand 
 slight frosts, but is killed if the roots are frozen. It is a perennial 
 in southern Italy, Sicily, and Algeria, but must be resovvn each 
 year in northern Italy, where the winters are more severe. It has 
 not as yet been largely introduced into this country, but deserves 
 to be given a trial in Florida and the Gulf States. The practice is 
 to sow the seeds in September or October, on land that has been 
 deeply ploughed and thoroughly pulverised, either alone or \vith 
 winter oats or wheat. After the latter has been taken off the field, 
 a crop of sulla four to six feet high springs up, and is ready to cut 
 from the latter part of May to July. In feeding value it compares 
 very favorably with either red clover or alfalfa, and is better 
 adapted to tropical or sub-tropical climates, provided seed is sown 
 on well-drained and well-prepared land. If the seed bed is only 
 given a shallow cultivation in preparation for sowing, it will require 
 a full year before one crop can be taken from the land. The same 
 precautions are necessary in using sulla as a soiling crop as with 
 clover and alfalfa, to prevent loss of cattle through bloating. 
 
 Helianthus annuus (Sunflower). The sunflower is a well- 
 known annual weed, a native of Peru, which has become widely 
 spread throughout the United States. Its leaves and heads make 
 good green fodder for cattle and horses, and its oily seeds, which 
 are produced at the rate of from 40 to 50 bushels to the acre, 
 furnish an oil cake which is a valuable stable food. Six pounds are 
 required to seed an acre. It is said to endure the excessive 
 summer heat of central Australia better than any other cultivated 
 herb that has been tried there, and deserves to be regarded as other 
 than a useless weed in our own arid and semi-arid grazing and 
 pastoral districts. 
 
 Helianthus tuberosus (Artichoke). The artichoke is a native of 
 North and South America, and has been cultivated in this country 
 for fifty years or more for its edible tubers. Fed to milch cows, 
 these tubers, which contain large amounts of sugar and gum, 
 increase the flow of milk enormously. The leaves are also eaten by 
 all kinds of stock. Artichokes are planted like potatoes, but 
 greater distances apart, and the yield is from 200 to 500 bushels per 
 acre. On rich and friable soils it yields spontaneously and un- 
 interruptedly for several years without replanting. The tubers 
 
45 
 
 should be dug in autumn after the upper part of the plant has been 
 killed by frosts, as at that time they contain the most sugar. It 
 grows best in loams containing a high percentage of potash. 
 
 Hipprjcrepis comosa (Horse-shoe vetch). This perennial fodder 
 plant is quite widely cultivated in middle and southern Europe and 
 northern Africa. It grows best on stony ground, especially on soils 
 containing lime. It furnishes an early and very nutritious, though 
 scant, forage, and is worthy of a trial on stony soils in the warmer 
 portions of the United States. 
 
 ig- J 3- Wild vetch (Hosackia piirshiana]. 
 
 Hof manse ggia. Leguminous shrubs or herbaceous perennials 
 native of Texas and Xc\v Mrxico, especially along the Rio Grande 
 and its tributaries. The fnlhge is eaten by stock. Small, sweet 
 tubers are produced by certain species, which in years of famine 
 are eaten by the Mexicans and Indians. 
 
 Hosackia glabra (Deerweed). This low bush of weedy herb 
 grows on the mesas, and in the mountains and desert regions of 
 southern California. It grows two or three feet high on the driest 
 
45' 
 
 and most sterile soils, and is an excellent forage plant. It some- 
 times occurs in such abundance that it is cut for hay. As it ripens 
 a large amount of seed each year, this is a promising species for 
 trial under cultivation. 
 
 Hostickifi purshiaua (Lotus antcricunns] wild vetch. Fig. 13). 
 An annual vetch widely distributed from Minnesota to Arkansas and 
 west to thr Pacific, in fields and open prairies. The erect branching 
 stems are 6 to 18 inches high, the trifoliate leaves nearly sessile, 
 smooth to silky haired, the flowers small, solitary, and inconspicuous, 
 the pods narrow, flattened, six-seeded, and about an inch long. It 
 is very common in the prairie region, especially along the Upper 
 Missouri, and in some parts of California. It blooms all summer, 
 and being readily eaten by all kinds of stock is on this account a 
 valuable plant on the ranges, withstanding close pasturing and 
 trampling, and reseedmg itself freely, no matter how closely it may 
 
 Fig. 14. Winter flat pea (Lalhyms deer}. 
 
 be eaten down. Cattle and sheep become " rolling fat " on pas- 
 tures where this vetch abounds. It is one of the most promising 
 native forage plants, and should be given an extended trial in 
 cultivation, being particularly adapted to the drier soils. 
 
 Lathyms deer (Winter flat pea. Fig. 14). A forage plant cultiva- 
 ted to some extent in Germany and Switzerland, and particularly 
 valued because it becomes green earlier in spring than almost any 
 other forage crop. The seeds are sown at the rate of two bushels 
 to the acre. Its appearance is much like the more common flat pea. 
 It reaches a height of one or two feet. 
 
45 2 
 
 Lathynis hirsiitus (Winter vetch). This vetch is one of the best 
 that has been grown in the Southern States for winter forage. It 
 is sown in September or October, so that it may germinate with 
 the fall rains and become established before cold weather. It 
 grows slowly until the ground freezes. By the first of January the 
 roots are sufficiently developed so that the tops begin to grow 
 rapidly, and by February the plants form a dense mat and continue 
 to grow until hot weather. The plants bear grazing well, and stock 
 of all kinds eat the dry hay. For the Gulf States this is one of the 
 most valuable species of vetch for winter and early spring fodder. 
 It reseeds itself freely. (Tracy). 
 
 Lathyrus macrorhizos. A native of Western Asia which would 
 be valuable for introduction into this country. It makes a good 
 growth on the most barren woodlands, especially in mountain 
 regions. 
 
 Lathynis polymorphus (Everlasting pea). A low pea, 6 to 12 
 inches high, with very large purple flowers, common on the prairies 
 from Missouri and Nebraska westward. This furnishes consider- 
 able pasturage, and ought to be given a trial in cultivation. 
 
 Lathynis sativus (Bitter vetch). A native of middle and southern 
 Europe, which is adapted to cultivation in cold climates and alpine 
 regions. The fodder is superior to that of vetches, but the yield is 
 scant. In India it is grown as a winter crop, often on heavy, clayey 
 soils which will grow no other legume. Great caution must be 
 used in feeding the seeds of this plant, as they contain an alkaloid 
 which is highly poisonous to domestic animals and to man. It has 
 not been cultivated much in this country. 
 
 Lathynis splendens ( Pride of California). This vine has been 
 introduced into gardens because of its beautiful flowers. It grows 
 wild in the mountains of Southern California, and is said to be an 
 excellent forage plant. 
 
 Lespcdcza striala (Japan clover. Fig. 15.) An annual herb natu- 
 ralized in this country, especially in the South. Cattle and sheep 
 are fond of it, and because of its deep roots it withstands 
 drought, so that it is excellent clover to sow in mixtures with 
 taller growing-species in dry pastures. It is particularly valuable 
 in such places because the herbage has a salty taste and is welcome 
 in hay. 
 
 AO///.S tclnigonolobm (Square pod pea. Fig. 16.) A much- 
 branched ascending annual, closely related to the birdsfoot clover. 
 It is a native of southern Europe, and is there grown for salads and 
 as an ornamental plant. It has been recommended by the 
 California Experiment Station as the best winter crop for ploughing 
 under in spring as green manure. It yields from 20 to 25 tons of 
 green fodder, equivalent to four or live tons of air-dried hay, and 
 the roots are described as being fairly incrustecl with tubercles, 
 whose office it is to extract nitrogen from the air ; and though 
 the plant does not contain as high a percentage of crude protein as 
 
453 
 
 alfalfa or the clovers, it is worth as a green manure two or three 
 times as much as either, because of the enormous amount of herb- 
 age produced. Sown in January, it will be ready to be ploughed 
 under in May. The seed should be sown broadcast thinly on 
 freshly ploughed land and harrowed in. 
 
 Fig. 15. Japan clover. 
 (Lespedeza striatd). 
 
 Fig. 1 6. Square pod pea. 
 (Lotus tetragonolobiis). 
 
 Lotus uliginosus (Swamp horn clover). This is a slender 
 branching clover, with heads of rather large, yellow flowers, and 
 slender elongated pods. It is a native of northern Europe, where 
 it is esteemed for swampy meadow lands. 
 
 Lupiuus albus (White lupine. Fig. 17.) An annual, native to 
 the Mediterranean region, which is widely grown in Europe, and to 
 a less extent in this country, for soiling and green manure. On rich 
 soil it grow.s from two to three feet high, and is recommended as a 
 crop to plant for purposes of enriching the ground, and at the same 
 time freeing it from weeds. It has a deep tap-root well supplied 
 with tubercles, which gather large amounts of nitrogen from the 
 
454 
 
 air. It yields good forage while young, but should not be fed after 
 the flowers appear. The seeds contain a bitter alkaloid. After 
 this has been removed by soaking or boiling, the seeds are some- 
 times used as food. 
 
 Lupiniis hirsiitus (Blue lupine). The blue lupine is an annual, 
 much resembling L. albns in value and habit of growth. Its only 
 use is for turning under as a green manure. 
 
 Ltipinus Inlcns (Yellow lupine ; scented yellow lupine). This 
 annual species is the one most generally used in middle Europe to 
 improve sandy soil, as the best of all yet tested. It is satisfactory 
 
 Fig. 17. Lupine (Lupiniis nibus). 
 
 even on sand dunes along the coast. Like the other lupines, it can 
 be fed green, or as hay. The seeds of this species are very fatten- 
 ing when used as an addition to hay, and arc in this respect quite 
 equal to oil cake, while the foliage is said to be not inferior to that 
 of clover, and more bulky. Ninety pounds of seed are required per 
 acre. It should be sown in spring as soon as the ground is, warm. 
 It attains maturity very rapidly. Lupines, unlike most other 
 
455 
 
 leguminous plants, do not do well on calcareous soil nor on ground 
 which is at all wet, but for improving sandy fields they have few 
 equals. There are about ninety species of lupines native of the 
 United States, principally in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific 
 coast regions, and many of them have acquired local reputation as 
 being good pasture plants, particularly those that grow in the arid 
 south-west. One of our species, /.. pfrctiuis, which is common to 
 this country and the old world, is often cultivated as an ornamental 
 plant in gardens, and has been recommended by German agri- 
 culturists as equal to white lupine in certain dry soils. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 1 8. Tarweed (Madia saliva}. 
 
 Madia saliva. (Tarweed. Fig. 18.) A rank-growing annual, 
 native to both Chili and California, which has been recommended 
 as furnishing an excellent summer sheep forage. The leaves are 
 clammy, with a viscid exudation, and the plant has a rank odor. 
 Its chief merit is its rapid growth. It is cultivated in the arid 
 southwest and California, and makes a palatable and nutritious 
 food for sheep. An excellent lubricating oil is extracted from the 
 seeds. 
 
456 
 
 Manihot aipi. (Sweet cassava ; cassava. Fig. 19.) A spurge 
 native of the tropics, largely cultivated in the West Indies, Centn 
 and South America, and to a less extent in Florida and California 
 It is a rapid grower, with rank, branching, erect stems four or rive 
 feet high, large, seven-parted, long-stalked leaves, and horizontal 
 fleshy roots or tubers three to five feet long and from one to tw< 
 and-a-half inches in diameter. It thrives in loose, dry, sand] 
 loams, and produces from 6,000 to 8,000 pounds of roots per acre 
 on soils of average fertility, to 10,000 or 20,000 pounds on fields that 
 have received a large amount of fertilizers. The roots are fe< 
 
 19. Cassava (Manihot aipi.) 
 
 whole or sliced to all kinds of stock. They contain 72 per cent, of 
 starch, 17 per cent, sugar and gum, and over three per cent, of 
 albuminoids. On account of the small amount of Mesh-formers con- 
 tained in the roots, they should be fed with some nitrogenous food 
 to make .ip the deficiency. Cassava is propagated by means of 
 cuttings of the stems, each piece having two or three eyes or buds. 
 These are planted in hills four feet apart each way, and the rows 
 rolled, to pack the earth around the cuttings and prevent their 
 drying out. The roots should be dug only as fast as they can be 
 used, as they rot very quickly when exposed to the air. 
 
457 
 
 Medicare ticnlicnliitii (Bur clover ; medic clover ; medick bur ; 
 toothed medick. Fig. 20). An annual clover, native of the 
 Mediterranean region, which has become naturalized in most warm 
 countries. It was early introduced into California, and has become 
 widely distributed in that State and in the grazing regions of the 
 south-west. It is not as nutritious nor as palatable as either alfalfa 
 or clover, but nils in the season when other more important forage 
 plants have become dried up by the summer heat. Stock of all 
 kinds fatten upon the burs, which they pick from the plant while 
 it is growing, and search for on the ground after the foliage has 
 
 Fig. 20. Bur clover (Medicago dcnlicnlata). 
 
 become completely dry and dead. It flourishes best in moist 
 valleys and along the coast where there is abundant rain, from 
 January to June. It also occurs on the drier uplands back from the 
 coast, but does not do so well in such localities. One of its dis- 
 advantages is that its prickly burs become entangled in the wool of 
 sheep. It has become widely disseminated over the ranges, and 
 adds much to the value of the summer pasturage. To establish a 
 
crop of this clover, the burs may be scattered broadcast in autumn. 
 They will root as soon as the winter rains come. They may be 
 harrowed or cultivated in the early spring. 
 
 Mcdicago f alcatel (Yellow lucerne; yellow moon trefoil). A close 
 relative of alfalfa, much resembling it, but smaller, and with yellow 
 flowers. It grows wild in northern Europe, along roadsides and 
 fence corners, and in light or sterile soils. It has been cultivated 
 to some extent, but it is without value, except that it furnishes a 
 scanty pasturage on soils too barren for better and ranker growing 
 species. It is even more susceptible than alfalfa to excess of water 
 in the soil. 
 
 Fig. Ji. Alfalfa, or Lucerne. 
 
 Mciiicti^o Inpnlina (Black medick ; hop clover, in part ; yello^ 
 clover, in part ; nonesuch ; black grass ; shamrock, in part 
 luptiline). An annual or biennial clover, widely grown as 
 pasture plant in wet meadows and on stiff, clayey soils which an 
 too poor to grow alfalfa or clover. On rich, moist soil itsometim< 
 
459 
 
 makes an enormous growth, but ordinarily its only use is in pastures. 
 It is sometimes recommended to be sown mixed with white clover 
 for lawns, as it remains green through the driest summers. 
 
 Mtih'cugo uinciilnla (Spotted mediek ; bur clover ; California 
 clover; black mediek ; heart clover; St. Mawe's clover; Arabian 
 snail clover). An old world pasture plant, which has become 
 widely introduced in the eastern and southern States, as far west 
 as Texas. It is very similar to .17. tlcnlicnlata in appearance and in 
 its feeding qualities, and is often mistaken for the latter. 
 
 Mean-ago satirti (Alfalfa ; lucerne ; lucerne clover ; 
 lucerne meclicago ; lucerne clover ; Spanish trefoil ; purple 
 mediek. Fig. 21). Alfalfa, or lucerne, is one of the best known 
 and most widely distributed of fodder plants. It is an upright, 
 branching, smooth perennial, one to three feet high, with three- 
 parted leaves, each leaflet being broadest above the middle. The 
 purple pea-like flowers, instead of being in a head, as in red clover, 
 are in long, loose clusters or racemes, scattered over the entire 
 plant. The ripe pods are spirally twisted, and each contains several 
 seeds. Alfalfa is a deep feeder. The taproot descends to a great 
 depth wherever the soil is loose and permeable, often averaging 
 ten to fifteen feet, while extraordinary depths of 50 or 60 feet have 
 been recorded. It will grow in favorable soil anywhere from sea 
 level up to 7,000 feet elevation, and the success or failure of the 
 crop depends as much upon the character of the subsoil as upon 
 the surface layers. Good drainage is necessary, as the plants are 
 killed by excess of water in the soil or on the surface. 
 
 A contributor to the Sydney Mail writing re. lucerne on the farm, 
 makes the following remarks, and gives some good advice as to the 
 sowing and subsequent cultivation and use of this crop : There 
 ought to be more ground under lucerne by a hundredfold in this 
 colony than there is. Beyond a shadow of doubt lucerne is the 
 most useful and the most enduring in usefulness of all the fodder 
 crops that have been tried in Australia. It will flourish in almost 
 every part of New South Wales, and there is no conceivable reason 
 why farmers have not sown it more extensively, unless it be that the 
 returns from it are not immediately under their noses. Once a 
 farmer has used lucerne for cutting for hay, for feeding to stock, or 
 for pasture, he will never be without some of it, unless the bank 
 or some other mortgage closes and the unfortunate man is left with- 
 out anything. Some experts say that lucerne should be sown in 
 April or May, if possible, but September is the best of the other 
 months. For my part I believe September to be the 
 best for the ordinary farmer at all times. It is not desirable to sow 
 on new land, because the soil is almost always too cold for such 
 a small seed, and poor progress is made by the plants at the most 
 critical stage of their existence. Land that has been well broken 
 up to a good depth and cropped once or twice is best, but when a 
 farmer has been at the expense of clearing that land he wants 
 
three crops off it as fast as he can get them. If you turn over these 
 old paddocks in April or May and sow your lucerne on a bed pre- 
 pared to the necessary fine tilth, the seed droppings from the last 
 crop, the grass, and the weeds all begin to grow together, and in 
 the struggle for existence the lucerne will get a great deal the worst 
 of it. By waiting to September the weeds and other growth can 
 be turned in with a light furrow, and the lucerne, if properly sown, 
 comes away by itself. It is objected that September is some- 
 times a dry month, but so are April and May occasionally, and no 
 man should sow lucerne unless the conditions are favourable to 
 germination. Another very important consideration is the fact that 
 farmers are seldom able to put in lucerne in April and May, when 
 they are busy with their crops. In August there is not much doing, 
 and any old cultivation paddock may be broken up then and sown 
 to lucerne in September. I am aware that there are often difficulties 
 in the way of putting in forage crops in the off season. The horses 
 are in low condition, and the farmer and his family, who are unable 
 to pay wages, are jaded and weary. But as Tennyson's new style 
 said, 4< Wurrk mun agone to the gettin'. Whinever money wur got." 
 By working the horses in spells it is always possible to put in 20, 40, 
 or 100 acres, according to the strength on the farm. The outlay is 
 small, and even 20 acres of good lucerne is a magnificent property when 
 compared with 20 acres of old stubble on w r hich the native grasses 
 that are returning to it are light and tender, and easily swept off by 
 a dry spell. In very rare cases subsoiling is necessary for lucerne. 
 The plant once properly started is very hardy and will soon force 
 its roots through all but the most stubborn of subsoils. Generally 
 speaking, an ordinary ploughing will be sufficient, but the land 
 must be cultivated by harrowing and rolling till the surface is fit for 
 ordinary vegetable seeds. The seed should be carefully tested. 
 Send for four or five samples, and the seedsman will forward them 
 with the prices marked. Place some of each sample between two 
 pieces of moist flannel and put them in plates on your mantelpiece. 
 Keep the flannel moist for 36 hours, and then you will find the seed 
 germinated, and can easily ascertain the percentage of good seed 
 in each. I once obtained the best results from a sample that was 
 2d. per Ib. cheaper than that which the seedsman esteemed his 
 best. When it was sown the seed was true to the test, and a splendid 
 40-acrc paddock of lucerne sown on the i5th September was the result. 
 Some experts favour sowing by drills ; others like broadcasting. 
 Those that believe that harrowing will injure the growing lucerne 
 prefer drilling, because cultivation can be accomplished between 
 the rows. I cannot see that this is necessary. The plants, if sown 
 in a clean seedbed, will soon cover the ground, and when cultiva- 
 tion is rc'tjuircd, a li.^ht scarifier will do no harm. The object should 
 be to keep the plains from thinning out and losing vigour as long 
 as possible, and this is the chief use of after cultivation. There has 
 been much dispute as to the quantity of seed that should be sown, 
 
461 
 
 from 4lb. to 25lb. to the acre being advocated. If the ground is 
 well tilled lolb. to I2lb. will cover it nicely. It is always well to 
 remember that a patchy lucerne paddock can never be properly 
 made up. The long broadcast sower on a barrow is the best for 
 fanners. If two or three neighbours purchase one of these the 
 cost is light, and the machine can be used turn-about. When a 
 man is delighted with a bright, green, young crop of lucerne that 
 has jumped out of the ground in response to late spring or summer 
 rains, he should not rush a lot of stock on just to see what it will 
 carry. Spell a good deal and feed a little, or cut once the iirst 
 year ; after that any fair and honest treatment will not hurt your 
 lucerne. I saw a remarkable result obtained on 40 acres of lucerne 
 one season in Victoria. The crop was sown in September, in a dry 
 district, and came away in line style. Late rains favoured it, and 
 in the summer it was like a great green eye in a burnt-up, brown, 
 and grey country. The owners, pushed for feed, fed it to the 
 ground almost into the ground. Retribution arrived, when, after 
 a dry autumn, the paddock was still red and bare. Then the 
 owners decided to spell the paddock all through the winter. But 
 they could not see so much land wasted for a season, so they 
 actually disc-harrowed it with weights on the harrow, and sowed it 
 in wheat. Twenty acres of wheat was cut for hay, 20 allowed to 
 ripen, " just to see how it would turn out." In the generous shelter 
 of the green and yellow corn the lucerne made a surprising body of 
 stuff. The old binder couldn't take the bulk, and continually 
 choked. When it was threshed the leaves were knocked off the 
 four-foot lucerne stalks and some five tons of the most wonderful 
 chaff in the world came out of the chaff hole. Once a horse or a 
 cow tasted that fodder it only wanted one item on its bill of fare 
 for ever afterwards. Strange to say, the lucerne, despite the heavy 
 disc-harrowing, flourished that year, formed a great sole on the land, 
 and the 40 acres was a fine pasture paddock four years later. 
 
 Melilotus officinal is (Yellow s\veet clover ; King"'s clover ; Hart's 
 clover ; plaster clover ; melilot clover ; common melilot ; wild 
 laburnum). This European species has become quite widely 
 naturalized in this country. It possesses little value not enough to 
 warrant its cultivation. It grows in swamps and in wet meadows, 
 while AI. altissimus grows only on the driest soils. 
 
 Moiiiolti clecumbens (Modiola). A prostrate, creeping, weedy, 
 annual mallow, native of Chili, which has been introduced into 
 portions of California, and is recommended by the California 
 Experiment Station as an alkali plant. Analysis made of it show 
 that it contains almost as much crude protein as alfalfa. Sheep and 
 cattle are fond of it, and eat it down closely. Because it -roots 
 freely at the joints, it is, like purslane, difficult to eradicate, and 
 should be introduced with some caution. A closely related species 
 of very similar habit, M. imiltijida is a native of low grounds from 
 Virginia southward. This is also valuable as a pasture plant. 
 
4 62 
 
 Onobrychis saliva (Sainfoin; esparcette ; asparset ; .Bourgoyne 
 Fig. 22). A deep-rooting perennial legume, extensively cultivated 
 in the temperate portions of Europe on dry, calcareous soils which 
 are too barren for clover or alfalfa. The stems are erect or ascend- 
 ing, one to two feet high, ribbed and downy, the leaves unequally 
 pinnate, composed of six to twelve pairs of opposite leaflets, with 
 an odd terminal one. The bright pink flowers are numerous in 
 spike-like racemes, borne on a long stalk. A permeable, well- 
 drained sub-soil is essential for its growth. Like alfalfa, it is 
 quickly killed whenever the ground becomes saturated with water, 
 and is therefore not suited for growth in wet meadows or in marshy 
 
 FK;. 22. Sainfoin (Onobrychis saliva). 
 
 lands. There is no better plant for growing on barren hills, but it 
 does better on the sunny slopes than on those facing north. It is 
 rather difficult to establish, as the plants are easily killed when young, 
 but when once well rooted, sainfoin will live from twenty to twenty- 
 five or sometimes a hundred years, provided the soil is rich enough. 
 One crop of hay can be cut each year. It should be cut at the 
 
time of full bloom, which in the latitude of Washington, D.C., is 
 about the ist of May. In England the average yield ranges from 
 i^ to 2^ tons per acre, and the hay is better and more nutritious 
 than that of red clover. Eighty pounds of seed should be sown per 
 acre, any time from the middle of May to the end of June, and, 
 unlike alfalfa, it should be covered quite deeply to insure germin- 
 ation. If shelled seed is to be had, half as much will suffice. Fresh 
 
 FIG. 23. Prickly pear (Opuntia engelmanni), 
 
 seed must always be used, as it loses its vitality if kept a year. It 
 can be grown in any part of the United States, and should be more 
 extensively cultivated, especially in localities where the ground is 
 too dry or too barren for red clover. The yield of seed ranges 
 from 10 to 25 bushels of 40 pounds. Sainfoin should not be 
 pastured closely, as it does not have the same recuperative ability 
 as the clovers. 
 
 Opuntia engdmanni (Nopal ; prickly pear. Fig. 23). A species 
 
 of cactus which grows wild from western Texas through the arid 
 
 regions of the south-west to California. Its so-called leaves, or flat 
 
 oints of the stem, are sometimes, in large specimens, a foot long 
 
and nine or ten inches broad. They are covered with groups of 
 stout spines from one-half inch to one and a half inches long, which 
 point backward on the stem. Throughout the grazing regions of 
 Texas, where this prickly pear grows, it forms one of the most 
 highly valued fodder plants. It is sometimes fed on the range, but 
 the more common, most economical, and safest method of feeding 
 is to prepare the stems by the removal of the spines. They are 
 singed off by holding the joints a moment in a blaze, or the stems 
 are chopped up in a feed cutter without removing the spines, or 
 they are boiled to soften them. This cactus is chiefly utilised in 
 dry seasons, when there is a shortage of grass on the ranges, the 
 succulent stems containing a large amount of water, and enough 
 starch and gum to sustain life. The best way is, however, to feed 
 with hay or cotton-seed meal. Many thousand head of cattle are 
 marketed every year which have been fattened entirely upon prickly 
 pear and cotton seed. A ration of five to seven pounds of the 
 cotton seed, and fifty to sixty pounds of prickly pear per head is one 
 usually given. The stems vary from one to six, or sometimes ten to 
 twelve feet high. They grow in such abundance, and are propagated 
 so easily, that there is little clanger of their ever being entirely 
 exterminated. If fed alone, without proper admixture of other 
 foods, prickly pear causes laxity, and when fed to working stock a 
 tendency to bloat. 
 
 Mr. W. L. Boyce, of Warraba, Lochinvar, New South Wales, 
 sends the following account of his experiment with prickly-pear 
 ensilage to the New South Wales Agricultural Gazette. It might be 
 mentioned that a sample of this product was brought under 'the 
 notice of the Agricultural and Dairy Conferences, and was favor- 
 ably commented upon : In my article in the Gazette of April last, 
 under the above heading, I mentioned that I had included twenty 
 loads of prickly pears in a stack of ensilage with maize and sorghum. 
 I now have the pleasure of forwarding you a sample, and reporting 
 unqualified success. The cattle like the pears quite as much as the 
 other constituents of the ensilage, and prefer these pears to the 
 steamed pears, which I am still giving them. The ensilage was 
 made in a stack in the open and pressed with home-made appliances 
 and covered with iron. Owing to the drought, the stack is only a 
 small one, which makes my present triumph the greater. The bas< 
 of the stack is 19 ft. by 16 ft. 6 in. and only 3 ft. high in its com- 
 d state. I estimate that the pears amount to one-third of the 
 whole stack. In building the stack I put alternate layers of pears 
 and maize or sorghum, four loads of pears in one layer, but never 
 allowed the pears to be nearer than a foot to the edge. At present 
 I am feeding the cows on this ensilage, steamed pears and barley, 
 all on the same day ; there is a! <1 picking of green herbage, 
 
 yet everything is eaten up clean. The milk test is at present four 
 per cent, of butter fat, which is amongst the highest at my creamery. 
 Now, as this ration has a good proportion of prickly pears, the 
 
4<>5 
 
 facts stated prove that there is considerable virtue in the much 
 despised prickly pear. It only remains for me to add that the 
 pears were placed in the stack whole, including thorns and 
 roots, the largest bunches being afterwards chopped to flatten 
 them. The heat and ferment of the silo has softened the thorns 
 and rendered them harmless. I always add a bag or more of 
 coarse salt to a stack to make the fodder more palatable. 
 
 The Rev. Herbert Heath, who lately left Queensland, in 
 writing to the -Queensland Agricultural Journal, states that he 
 resided for many years in Mexico, and had had many opportunities 
 of observing the uses to which the prickly pear was put to by the 
 
 FIG. 24. Serradella (Ornithopus sativus). 
 
 rancheros. In dry seasons, and even during good seasons, the 
 vaqueros and peons go out on the runs and cut down quantities of 
 mesquite bushes, and make piles of them at intervals over a large 
 extent of country. Labor being plentiful and very cheap, the work 
 is performed in quicker time than might be supposed. Quantities 
 of prickly pear are now cut and thrown on to the heaps, which are 
 then fired. The heat and evolved steam disarm the leaves and 
 
466 
 
 fruit of their thorns and prickly hairs, and the cattle assemble and 
 eat the juicy leaves and succulent fruit with greater zest than they 
 ate the grass. In reply to a question asked about the possibility of 
 destroying and exterminating the plant in Queensland, Mr. Heath 
 said : " You don't know the valuable -fodder plant you have here. 
 I can tell you this : Take away the prickly pear from Mexico, and 
 rancher, rancheros, vaqueros, and all who have to deal \vith cattle 
 may leave the country, for there will be no further employment for 
 them. Cattle will be a thing of the past." 
 
 FIG. 25. Prairie clover (Fetakstemoncandidus\ 
 
 Ornithopus sativus (Serradella. Fig. 24). An annual legume, 
 native of southern Europe and northern Africa, which is valuable as 
 a fodder plant on moist and sandy sterile soils. At the Pennsylvania 
 station the yield from two cuttings was ii tons of green forage. 
 It does not require lime, and is often used as a green manure to 
 bring up the value of sterile fields. The forage, which is much 
 relished by cattle and sheep, has about the same feeding value as 
 red clover. 
 
Petalostemon (Prairie clover ; white prairie clover ; purple 
 prairie clover ; leafy prairie clover. Fig. 25). A number of species 
 of prairie clover are common throughout the prairie region, and 
 westward into the Rocky Mountains. They are erect perennial 
 legumes, with heads of white or purple flowers and finely divided 
 compound leaves. They contribute a considerable amount of 
 forage on the prairie pastures, and should be given a trial in 
 cultivation. 
 
 Phascolus hclvolus (Long-stalked kidney bean). A perennial 
 bean with slender diffuse stems. A single plant makes a large 
 quantity of herbage. Common in the Southern States, where, in 
 certain localities, it produces a large amount of forage. 
 
 Phaseolus perennis (Wild kidney bean). A species closely 
 related to the garden bean, widely distributed over the eastern and 
 southern United States, and as far west as the Mississippi river. It 
 grows in woodland copses and along the banks of streams, and 
 wherever found is eaten greedily by stock. It should be given a 
 trial in cultivation. 
 
 Pisum arvense (Gray winter pea ; Canada field pea ; field pea). 
 The common field pea is a native of Italy, and has been in 
 cultivation for a good many hundred years. It is grown chiefly for 
 its seeds, which are used both as an article of diet and for fatten- 
 ing cattle. It is one of the best soiling crops for milch cows, and is 
 largely used in the Northern States and Canada, and as far west as 
 the Dakotas for this purpose, and for green manure. The seed is 
 sow r n broadcast and harrowed in. It is planted in early spring, 
 and is ready to cut in May or June. For soiling, the fodder is 
 sweet, palatable, and very nutritious. It also makes an excellent 
 quality of ensilage. It grows best on light calcareous loams, and 
 produces heavy crops on rich land. 
 
 Plantago lanceolata (Rib grass ; plantain ; ripple grass ; plan- 
 tain herb ; rib herb). A weed extensively naturalised in this country 
 in lawns and meadows, and truly considered a vile pest, but in 
 Europe frequently recommended for sowing in pasture mixtures. 
 It possesses the advantage of growing on the most sterile soils. 
 Cattle and sheep are fond of it when young. There are a number 
 of American species, widely distributee! in all parts of the country, 
 many of which add value to the scanty spring forage in barren 
 pastures. Some species of the prairie region grow on salt marshes 
 and alkali spots, and would, perhaps, be of value for cultivation on 
 such soils. 
 
 Polygonum aviculare (Knotweed ; duckweed ; dooryard grass. 
 Fig. 26). A weedy annual of the knotweed or smartweed family, 
 common everywhere in dooryards, waste places, and fields. The 
 stems are slender, prostrate or ascending, branching 6 to 14 inches 
 high, and leafy ; the leaves oblong to lanceolate, from one-fourth 
 of an inch to an inch long, pointed at each end, and bluish green. 
 It is very hardy, growing readily on the poorest of ordinary soils, 
 
468 
 
 even in times of drought, and is greedily eaten by all kinds of 
 stock. Stockmen in the north-west esteem it highly, as it furnishes 
 a palatable and nutritious forage, which continues green all summer 
 under all kinds of hard treatment. The dry forage contains nearly 
 19 per cent, of crude protein, so that its value as a flesh former is 
 high, ranking above that of the clovers. 
 
 FIG. 26. Knotweed (Polvgonum 
 aviculare}. 
 
 Polytfonitm eredum (Upright knotweed). A hardy annual knot- 
 weed, widely distributed through the northern States. In the 
 upper prairie region it is highly valued as a forage plant for milch 
 cows. It grows from 10 to 15 inches high, and in rich, moist soils 
 may be cut for hay. The hay is nutritious, containing n per cent. 
 of crude protein. 
 
 Polygonuin sachalincnse (Giant knotweed ; sachaline ; saghalin 
 polygonum). Giant knotweed or sachaline is a hardy herbaceous 
 perennial, 6 to 12 feet high, with strong creeping rootstocks, broad, 
 somewhat heart-shaped, shining leaves nearly a foot long, and 
 small greenish -white flowers appearing late in the season. It has 
 been cultivated for a good many years as an ornamental. Recently 
 
469 
 
 attempts have been made to introduce it into this country as a 
 forage plant, and extravagant claims have been made concerning it. 
 Considering that it is a native of northern Asia, growing along moist 
 river banks upon an island with a cold and very moist climate, and 
 from the recommendations as to its culture by horticulturists who 
 have had experience in growing the plant, it is very doubtful if it 
 will prove a success except in swampy waste lands. The leaves 
 are eaten by cattle, but the small quantity of forage produced and 
 the time which one must wait until production commences, pre- 
 clude its ever being of great value in this country. 
 
 FIG. 27. Mesquite (Prosopts juliftora}. 
 
 Portulaca oleracea (Pusley ; purslane). This well-known weed 
 is of considerable value as an autumn forage plant in the south and 
 south-west. The fleshv leaves and stems are put forth in great 
 abundance during the hottest and driest weather, and it is hard to 
 kill. The same qualities which make it a vile pest in our gardens 
 
470 
 
 and cultivated fields cause it to be highly esteemed by sheep herders 
 and cattlemen in years of drought. Fed to cows, it increases the 
 flow of milk, but causes laxity if too much is given at once. 
 
 Prosopis jiilifiora (Mesquite tree ; screw bean. Fig. 27). A 
 thorny, leguminous shrub, growing in favored localities to a tree 
 20 to 40 feet high, with a trunk 2 l / 2 feet in diameter. It is widely 
 distributed from Texas to southern California, through tropical 
 
 FIG. 28. Mexican clover (RicharJsouia scabra). 
 
 America to Argentina. The leaves are very good browsing for 
 horses and cattle. It bears two crops of beans a year, which are 
 next to barley for fattening horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs. The 
 leaves, pods, and bark are rich in tannin, and a gum, similar to gum 
 arable, exudes copiously from the trunk and branches. The wood 
 is hard, strong, and durable, and takes a hard polish. It is the most 
 common woody plant of the mesas of the south-west, and because 
 of its many uses is an exceedingly valuable species. 
 
scubni (Mexican clover ; Spanish clover ; Ipecac 
 weed ; Florida clover ; water parsley ; bellfountain ; poor toe ; 
 pigeon weed. Fig. 28). An annual weed, native of Central America 
 and Mexico, which has been introduced into the Southern States 
 and has now spread along the gulf westward into Texas. It is a 
 succulent, creeping, prostrate plant, chiefly valued as a renovator of 
 sandy rields on the coast. It is not a true clover, but belongs to the 
 Kiibiac;e, the family in which coffee is included. Reports concern- 
 
 FIG. 29. Greasewoocl (Sarcobatus vermicularis). 
 
 ing it are conflicting. According to some it is a valuable pasture 
 plant, while others affirm that neither cattle nor horses will eat it. 
 On rich lands it can be cut, making a nutritious and palatable hay, 
 which is readily eaten by all kinds of stock. Chemical analysis 
 shows that the hay contains nearly as much nutriment as red clover. 
 It is never cultivated, but appears as a weed after corn and cotton 
 have been laid by. In Florida it is considered an excellent plant to 
 grow in orange groves as a mulch, and to turn under for green 
 manure. 
 
472 
 
 Rnbia tinctoria (Madder). The foliage of this prickly dye plant 
 makes forage of fair quality if cut the second season before the 
 plants have commenced to blossom. 
 
 Saliconiia hcrbacea (Saleratus weed ; samphire ; glasswort). 
 A low, fleshy, leafless herbaceous plant, growing in the borders of 
 salt marshes from Arizona to the Saskatchewan and along the 
 Atlantic coast. It grows on soils too salty or too alkaline to support 
 any other plant. In portions of Arizona and in Utah it is valued 
 highly for winter feed. After frost, stock live almost entirely upon it 
 and "winter fat." 
 
 FIG. 30. Sida elliottii. 
 
 Sarcobdlns wiinculdris (Greasewood. Fig. 29). An erect, 
 scraggy shrub 2 to 8 feet high, with the leafy branches covered by 
 smooth, white bark. It is one of the most common of the shrubs 
 called " greasewood," in the region from Montana to New Mexico 
 and Arizona, and where it is abundant, supplies a considerable part 
 of the winter forage on the ranges. This and the saleratus weed 
 belong to the pigweed family, of which the Australian salt-bush, so 
 widely recommended for culture on alkaline soils, is a member. 
 
473 
 
 Sida elhottii (Elliott's sida. Fig. 30). A low, shrubby or 
 bushy plant of the mallow family, native of the south, which 
 grows ii to 2 feet high on hard, clayey soils and rocky land. It is 
 an excellent pasture plant which readily catches from seed, pro- 
 vided the surface soil is scratched with a rake when the seed is 
 scattered. Cattle, sheep, and hogs are fond of it, but horses and 
 mules do not relish it. The sida has been quite widely introduced 
 in the grazing regions of California. It apparently thrives better 
 without than with irrigation, and is therefore of much value on 
 waste lands designed for permanent pastures. It is not a good 
 soiling crop, and should not be cut for hay. 
 
 FIG. 31. Giant spurrey (Spergula maxima). 
 
 Spergula arvcnsis (Spurrey ; sand spurrey). An annual, pro- 
 ducing a low, tangled mass of succulent stems, with numerous 
 whorled linear leaves. It produces a crop in eight or ten weeks, 
 and is valuable as a catch crop in short seasons, and for soiling 
 sheep and milch cows. It has been especially recommended as a 
 first crop on the pine barrens of Michigan, to turn under for green 
 manure. The air-dried hay contains about 12 per cent, of crude 
 protein. 
 
474 
 
 Spergula maxima (Giant spurrey. Fig. 31). Similar to 
 common spurrey, but making a ranker growth. It is also slightly 
 richer in flesh-forming ingredients, and is the more valuable species 
 of the two. 
 
 Symphytum asperrimum (Prickly comfrey ; comfrey). A 
 coarse, rank-growing perennial herb, with purple flowers in nodding 
 one-sided clusters, and large, rough leaves. A native of the 
 Caucasus, which has been widely introduced and recommended as 
 a forage plant for rich soils. It has been claimed that an enormous 
 quantity of forage may be cut from an acre, but after extended 
 
 Fig. 32. Egyptian Clover (Trifoliniu alc.vandriniim}. 
 
 trials in this country it has been determined to be of less value than 
 the clovers, and is now rarely grown. It is propagated from the 
 roots, which are set in rows 18 inches apart, and 16 inches in the 
 rows. Its cultivation is not recommended, except when it is 
 desired to procure an enormous bulk of forage from a small amount 
 of very rich land. Prickly comfrey has proved a success only in 
 New York, Michigan, and Florida, in the latter State having been 
 recommended as a good forage plant for waste lands. 
 
475 
 
 Taraxcum dens /corn's (Dandelion). A weed, widely distributed 
 over the United States, introduced from Europe in grain and grass 
 seed. Its leaves furnish a scant but palatable and nutritious early 
 forage in pastures for sheep, and the seed is therefore sometimes 
 used as an ingredient of pasture- mixtures. 
 
 Tetragonia cxpansa (New /calami spinach). An annual herb 
 of the order Ficoide;e, native of the seacoasts of Chili, Japan, Aus- 
 tralia, and New Zealand.. Used as a vegetable, and also recom- 
 mended as valuable in sheep pastures and arid regions, and on 
 alkaline or saline soils. 
 
 Fig. 33. Trifoliinn amphianthum. 
 
 Trifolium agrarinni (Golden clover ; yellow meadow trefoil ; 
 yellow hop clover ; field clover ; hop clover ; yellow clover ; gold 
 colored clover ; large golden clover). A perennial wild European 
 clover, widely naturalized on sandy fields and by roadsides in the 
 eastern States as far south as Virginia. It is of considerable value 
 for sandy pastures. 
 
476 
 
 Trifolium alcxandrinnm (Egyptian clover ; alexandrine clover ; 
 bersine clover. Fig. 32). An erect, annual clover, native of Egypt, 
 which in warm climates and upon rich soils makes an exceedingly 
 rapid growth. Two or three heavy crops may be taken from a field 
 in one season. Twenty pounds of seed are required for an acre. An 
 excellent species for trial in the southern States, wherever cane and 
 cotton may be grown. 
 
 Trifolium alpiuum (Alpine clover). A European alpine species 
 of little value in cultivation, although it has been recommended 
 abroad as a forage plant for mountain meadows. 
 
 Trifolium amphianthum. Fig. 33. A low, slender stolonifierous 
 species occurring in Louisiana and Texas upon the most sterile soils. 
 It spreads rapidly, and re-seeds itself freely, producing a large amount 
 of early spring pasturage. It comes into blossom about the middle of 
 May. It is one of our most promising native wild clovers for cultivation. 
 
 Trifolium arvcuse (Rabbit foot clover ; haresfoot clover ; field 
 clover ; field trifolium ; stone clover in part ; Welsh clover, in part ; 
 hard clover ; hair clover ; hare clover ; hare's little paw ; mouse 
 clover ; cat clover ; kitten plant ; pussy-wort ; grey clover ; lamb's 
 tail). A silky branching annual, 5 to 10 inches high, with soft, gray- 
 ish oblong heads of flowers. Common in old fields and on barren 
 lands in the eastern and southern United States. Of little value. 
 
 Trifolium badium (Brown clover, English ; chesnut-brown clover, 
 German). A clover, native of England and northern Europe, which 
 has some slight value as a forage plant in pastures. 
 
 Trifolium bcckuithii (Beckwith's clover). A native of the eastern 
 Rocky Mountain and upper Missouri prairie regions. It has ascend- 
 ing stems 4 to 9 inches high, from strong perennial creeping root- 
 stocks. It is very persistent, and endures all kinds of hard usage. 
 Being much relished by stock, there is a possibility that it may prove 
 of value as a cultivated forage plant. The dry hay contains nearly 
 14 per cent, of crude protein. Beckwith's clover is highly valued by 
 stockmen in the north-west. 
 
 Trifolium caroliiiiauum (Carolina clover). A small, perennial, 
 procumbent, tufted clover, widely disseminated in waste places from 
 Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. It furnishes a small amount of 
 forage, especially in the south-we'stern extension of its range. 
 
 Trifolium filiforme (Suckling clover ; yellow suckling clover ; 
 slender clover ; small-flowered clover ; thread clover ; slender-stalked 
 clover ; little yellow hop clover ; golden clover). Indigenous to 
 northern Europe on sandy clay soils. A very nutritious forage in 
 sheep pastures, it is often used in mixtures with grasses and clovers 
 for wet, sandy meadows. 
 
 Trifolium frn^ifcrum (Strawberry clover ; strawberry-headed tre- 
 foil ; bladder clover). A wild clover, native of England and northern 
 and central Europe, which much resembles white clover in appear- 
 ance and nutritive qualities. It is a valuable species for cultivation 
 in wet meadows. 
 
477 
 
 Trifolium furcatum, A rank-growing clover two to three feet 
 high, native of the Pacific Coast. The flowers resemble those of 
 common red clover, but are larger, sometimes two inches in diameter, 
 and borne on long stalks. It is abundant throughout the coast 
 ranges and affords good pasturage. 
 
 7> /A'////;// hybridum (Alsike clover ; Alsace clover ; hybrid clover ; 
 bastard clover ; Swedish clover ; white Swedish clover ; giant white 
 clover ; perennial hybrid clover ; elegant clover ; pod clover. Fig. 
 34). A perennial, in size and general appearance intermediate 
 between white and red clover. It is better adapted than any other 
 species in general cultivation to wet meadows or marshy lands, but 
 because of its shallow root system will not withstand drought. The 
 
 FIG. 34. Alsike (Trifolium hybridum). 
 
 branching leafy stems grow one to three feet high, and the young 
 flower heads are at first white and later become rose-colored. Its 
 leaves are slightly bitter, and on this account the forage is not so 
 well liked by stock as that of red or white clover ; but it will grow 
 on lands which are too wet for the other species, thriving even in 
 
478 
 
 marshy places where the subsoil is impervious to water and the 
 drainage is bad. It may also be cultivated in the far north and in 
 high altitudes, as it has the power of withstanding severe cold. The 
 forage is succulent and more difficult to cure for hay than red clover. 
 The air-dried hay contains from 10 to 13 per cent, of crude protein. 
 It is a very good honey plant for bees. The seed weighs 65 pounds 
 to the bushel, and 12 pounds will sow an acre. 
 
 Tiifoliinn incarnatum L. (Crimson clover ; scarlet clover ; Ger- 
 man clover ; German mammoth clover ; Italian clover ; French 
 clover, in part ; Egyptian clover, in part ; carnation clover. Fig. 35). 
 An annual, native of the Mediterranean region, which has been 
 long cultivated in the warmer portions of Europe, and is now grown 
 
 FIG. 35. Crimson clover (Trifoliiuu incarnatum. 
 
 in many of the eastern and southern States for an early soiling crop. 
 The stems are erect, tufted, soft-hairy all over, from one to two feet 
 high, and the bright scarlet flowers are borne in elongated heads. 
 In Virginia and southward it should be sown in autumn to furnish 
 winter and early spring forage. It is susceptible to drought. It is 
 
479 
 
 not suited to the northern and north-western States, as it suffers 
 severely from excessive cold. Twenty pounds of seed should be 
 sown per acre. Hay made of crimson clover contains about 13 per 
 cent, of crude protein. To make the best hay, it must be cut when 
 in full bloom ; cut later, there is some danger in feeding it, especially 
 to horses, on account of the bristly hairy bracts of the inflorescence, 
 which form hair balls in the stomach. A number of such cases, re- 
 sulting in considerable loss, have been reported during the past season. 
 
 Trifoliinn involucratum. -An annual one or two feet high, with 
 leafy, branching stems, terminating in from one to three purplish 
 heads. It has a wide range throughout the west. 
 
 Trifolium medium (Cow grass ; cow clover ; large American 
 clover ; mammoth clover ; large clover ; fall clover ; saplin or sapling 
 clover ; pea-vine clover ; meadow clover ; sand clover ; zigzag clover 
 clover trefoil ; medium clover ; early clover ; wavy-stemmed clover 
 zigzag hare clover ; red perennial meadow clover ; soiling clover 
 perennial red clover). A rank-growing perennial, with zigzag stems 
 oblong, entire, spotless leaflets, and stalked heads of purple flowers 
 It is better adapted to wet meadows or marshy lands than is the 
 ordinary clover, and in such places makes a very rank and rapid 
 growth. It has about the same feeding value as red clover, and is 
 well adapted to soiling purposes. Ten pounds of seed should be 
 sown per acre. 
 
 Tri foli u in inegacephaltiin. This wild clover grows in the moun- 
 tains from Montana to California. It is distinguished from red clover, 
 which it somewhat resembles, in having unbranched stems about a 
 foot high, and wedge-shaped five to seven parted leaves which nearly 
 all arise from the base of the stalks. The terminal flower head is 
 about one and a half inches long. It is one of the best native pas- 
 ture plants of that region. 
 
 Trifolium microcephalum. A wild species, very common on 
 lowlands in southern California, and well liked by stock. It should 
 be valuable in cultivation. 
 
 Trifolium minus (Yellow clover). A European annual, exten- 
 sively naturalised in the eastern and southern states in sandy fields 
 and along roadsides. It has a habit similar to that of Japan clover, 
 for which it is often mistaken. It affords a small amount of forage 
 in early summer, but its chief value is that it spreads rapidly over 
 the most barren soils, and thereby prevents the washing away of the 
 surface. 
 
 Trifolium ochroleucum (Sulphur clover). A perennial European 
 species ten to fifteen inches high, with elongated heads of pale 
 yellow flowers. It grows wild upon the driest calcareous soils, and 
 when cut makes a palatable and nutritious hay, which is greedily 
 eaten by cattle. 
 
 Trifolium pannonicum (Hungarian clover). A perennial species 
 indigenous to southern Europe, closely allied to red clover and much 
 earlier, but less readily eaten by stock. 
 
480 
 
 Trifo/ium pmtense (Red clover ; June clover ; early clover ; 
 small red clover; red top clover ; medium red clover. Fig. 36). 
 A biennial or short-lived perennial clover, native of the old world, 
 but now extensively cultivated in both hemispheres. It is ascending, 
 more or less branching, one to two feet high, with trifoliate leaves 
 on long leaf-stalks and oval or blunt leaflets half an inch to an inch 
 and a half long, with a large pale spot on the upper side, and pink 
 flowers in large, rounded, stemless heads. Red clover holds the 
 same position as a forage plant in the eastern and northern states as 
 alfalfa in the south-\vest and \vest, or as cow peas in the south. Its 
 cultivation is almost universal. The seed is sown at the rate of 
 from 15 to 20 pounds per acre, from March to May, either alone, or 
 
 FIG. 36. Red clover (Trifoliuni pralcnse). 
 
 more commonly with grain. It requires a deep, rich, fertile, 
 calcareous loam, neither too wet nor too dry. On the black-waxy 
 and gumbo soils of the Mississippi Valley, red clover is almost sure 
 to freeze out or ''heave" in winter, and on rocky or light sandy 
 soil it suffers from drought in summer. It is mown for hay twice 
 
481 
 
 in the season, the yield varying from three-fourths of a ton to two 
 tons at each cutting. The hay contains from twelve to sixteen per 
 cent, of crude protein, varying according to the fertility of the soil. 
 The yield of seed ranges from three to nine bushels, of sixty pounds 
 each, per acre. It is one of the best money crops of the eastern 
 fanner, and is an excellent one for pasturage, soiling, hay, or to turn 
 under for green manure. 
 
 FIG. 37. White clover (Trijolium repens). 
 
 Trifolinm procumbens (Hop clover ; yellow clover ; shamrock 
 clover ; brown clover ; lesser clover ; low hop clover ; hop trefoil). 
 A low, annual, yellow-flowered species, with spreading or ascend- 
 ing stems, widely naturalised in the eastern and southern states. It 
 is common on sandy fields and roadsides, and furnishes scanty 
 pasturage for stock in early summer. It resembles Japan clover, 
 and in the south is often mistaken for it. 
 
4 82 
 
 Trifolium rcjlcxum (Buffalo clover ; Pennsylvania clover). A 
 native annual or biennial species with ascending downy stems, 
 oblong, finely toothed leaflets, and rose-red flowers, on short stalks 
 in a round, stalked cluster. The flowers are reflexed and brownish 
 in fruit. Widely disseminated from western New York to Nebraska, 
 Kansas, and southward, and especially abundant in the middle 
 prairie region, where it furnishes a considerable amount of palatable 
 and highly nutritious forage, greedily eaten by all kinds of stock. It 
 is a species which should be brought into cultivation. 
 
 Trifolium repcns (White clover ; white Dutch clover ; Dutch 
 clover; creeping trifolium ; white trefoil ; stone clover, in part ; 
 honeysuckle ; honeysuckle grass ; honeysuckle clover ; shamrock. 
 Fig. 37). A smooth perennial, growing wild in New England and 
 Europe, and now widely cultivated. The slender spreading and 
 creeping stems are from four to eight or ten inches long ; the 
 trifoliate leaves are on rather long leafstalks ; the flowers are white 
 or rose colour, borne in loose heads an inch or less in diameter, on 
 very long stalks. It grows on a great variety of soils, forming 
 excellent turf either for pastures or lawns, and thrives under all 
 sorts of hard usage. If sown alone from six to eight pounds of seed 
 should be used, but it is usually mixed with the seed of grasses or 
 other clovers. The forage, though produced in small quantity, is 
 sweet and nutritious and eagerly sought for by all kinds of stock. 
 
 Tamarix Gallica. (Linne). This shrub is a native of southern 
 Europe, north and tropical Africa, southern and eastern Asia, and 
 will withstand prolonged drought and intense cold. "It adapts 
 itself in the most extraordinary manner to the most different 
 localities. It will grow alike in water and the driest soil, also in 
 salty ground, and is one of the most graceful and tractable plants 
 in culture. It is readily multiplied from cuttings, which strike root 
 as early as a willow, and push forth stems with universal vigor." 
 (B. V. M.) Two years ago the Bureau of Agriculture obtained 
 cuttings of the Tamarix from the late Baron von Mueller. Some of 
 these were planted in the eastern district on salt patches, and 
 others on the Swan, and all have done exceedingly well. Those 
 planted on the Swan have made remarkable growth, and the young 
 branches have been lopped, and fed to, and appreciated by, cattle 
 and horses. As this is a salt-loving shrub there is no doubt that its 
 cultivation on the alkali patches in the eastern districts would in 
 time correct the accumulation of salt. It should also- be a valuable 
 plant for the sand plains and the arid deserts of the east. It is an 
 ornamental plant in the garden, the delicate pink flowers in early 
 spring, and the dark green foliage of summer making a delightful 
 contrast to other plants. 
 
 Trifolium ri'siipinulinn (Reversed clover). An annual species, 
 native of the Mediterranean region, similar to white clover in its 
 manner of growth, and better adapted to warm regions than white 
 clover. It has been introduced into and is largely grown in northern 
 
483 
 
 India as a pasture plant, and would be a valuable species to intro- 
 duce for pasturage in the southern states. 
 
 Tri folium rubcfls (Reddish clover ; also known in Germany as 
 red clover ; fox clover ; fox tail clover; red goat clover ; red hare 
 clover). A perennial species, native of southern Europe, similar in 
 appearance to crimson clover, but with purple flowers and much 
 narrower and longer leaflets. It is cultivated for soiling purposes 
 in the warmer portions of Europe, and, though less hardy than the 
 crimson clover, would be a good species for introduction into the 
 southern states. 
 
 Trifulium stoloniferum (Running clover ; running buffalo clover). 
 A low, smooth perennial, which sends out long runners 
 from the base of the stem. The flowers are white, tinged with 
 purple, in loose heads. The leaflets are broadly obovate and 
 minutely toothed. A native species, growing in open woodlands 
 and prairies from Ohio west to Kansas, which is greedily eaten by 
 cattle. It should be given a trial in cultivation. 
 
 Tr {folium subrotundum (Mayad clover). A perennial species, 
 native to and cultivated in northern and middle Africa, up to 9000 
 feet elevation. It is a good species for cultivation in countries too 
 warm for red clover, and ought to do well in the Southern States. 
 
 Trifolium iridentatum. A wild species, occurring in Nevada and 
 Utah, which produces a palatable and nutritious forage in early 
 summer, and is greedily eaten by cattle. It deserves to be brought 
 under cultivation. The Western and Pacific coast states are very 
 rich in the number of wild clovers which occur there. California 
 alone has more than sixty species. All are valuable forage plants, 
 but few, it any, have ever been given a trial in cultivation. 
 
 Triglochin maritimum (Seaside arrow grass ; arrow grass). 
 A marsh plant with cylindrical leaves and flowering stalk i to 3 
 feet high, common along the Atlantic coast and westward across 
 the continent in saline, marshy, and boggy places. It is eaten by 
 cattle, and adds some little value to the native herbage of wet 
 pastures. 
 
 Trigonella fcenum -grcvcum (Fenugreek; buckhorn clover ; cow- 
 horn ; goat's horn ; sevenseed ; Greek hay ; trigonel). An erect 
 annual legume, growing 6 to 12 inches high. The plant has a 
 strong odor, and is valueless for forage unless it is cut before the 
 plant commences to bloom. The seeds are given to horses as a 
 condiment. It is sometimes recommended for pasture mixtures, 
 but has small value for any purpose. 
 
 Ulex europcms (Gorse ; whin ; furze). A perennial leguminous 
 shrub, native of northern Europe, where it is highly esteemed as a 
 forage plant for dry and barren hillsides, in places too steep, or 
 where the soil is too thin to admit of the cultivation of better ones. 
 In some parts of Ireland and Wales the farm horses are almost 
 entirely maintained upon it during the winter months, the crushed 
 two-year-old branches being fed at the rate of about 40 pounds per 
 
4 8 4 
 
 day. Twenty or 25 pounds of seed are required for an acre. It is- 
 a valuable forage plant to sow on barren hillsides. Sheep are very 
 fond of and fatten quickly upon it. 
 
 Vicia americana (Common wild vetch). A smooth perennial 
 with compound leaves, elliptical or oblong obtuse leaflets, and four 
 to eight purple flowers on elongated flower stalks. It grows in 
 moist soil from New York westward to the prairie region. A 
 valuable native vetch, which should be given a trial in cultivation. 
 
 FIG. 38. Bird vetch {Vicia craccd]. 
 
 Vicia cracca (Bird vetch ; chicken vetch. Fig 38). A downy 
 pubescent perennial, with compound leaves of 20 to 24 narrowly 
 oblong, abruptly pointed leaflets, and numerous blue or purple 
 reflexed flowers in a one-sided spike. Common in the borders of 
 thickets from New England to the upper prairie region. The 
 species is cultivated in Europe for fodder, and is recommended for 
 cultivation in wet meadows. In the shade it yields a return three 
 times larger than in open places. It would, therefore, be valuable 
 in woodland pastures and alpine regions. 
 
45 
 
 Viciii Mlh'd (Vetch ; spring vetch ; tares). An annual trailing 
 herb 12 to 20 inches high, with four to five angled stems, simple or 
 branched from the base. The leaflets are broadest above the middle, 
 blunt or notched at the end, and tipped with an abrupt point ; they 
 number usually from 10 to 14. The rather large purple flowers are 
 borne one or two together at the base of a leaf. The plant is soft- 
 hairy all over. This native of Europe and western Asia has been 
 cultivated for upwards of twenty centuries, and is considered one of 
 the best soiling crops in cool, moist climates. In the United States 
 they have only proved adaptable to cultivation in the New England 
 States and Canada. Vetches are sown in April or May, at the rate 
 of two bushels of seed per acre, and the crop is ready to crop by the 
 middle of June or the first of July. Where they can be grown, they 
 are very good summer feed for horses, but must not be fed earlier 
 than full bloom, on account of their diuretic action. They are good 
 for soiling sheep and milch cows, and are said to very materially 
 increase the flow of milk. Because of the high price asked for seed, 
 and the extreme susceptibility of vetches to dry, hot weather, their 
 cultivation is not recommended. A greater and surer return can 
 always be had from red clover. 
 
 Vicia svlmtica (Wood vetch). A perennial indigenous to Europe 
 and northern Asia. It has been grown successfully as far north as 
 67 north latitude and is available for alpine or subalpine pastures. 
 The yeld of forage is large and it is readily eaten by all kinds of 
 stock. 
 
 Viciii tctmspcnna (Lentil vetch ; lentil tare). An old world annual 
 which, according to Langethel, is preferable to the ordinary vetch for 
 sandy soil. It also makes a better and more palatable forage. It is 
 suited to cultivation in the southern States, especially upon light, 
 calcareous soils. 
 
 Vicid I'illosn (Hairy vetch ; sand vetch ; Russian vetch. Fig. 
 39). An annual, native to western Asia, which has been cultivated 
 for about 50 years. Hairy vetch is an excellent soiling crop, one of 
 the best that has been introduced into the United States, although, 
 on account of the high price of the seed and the large amount which 
 must be sown per acre, it has rot been widely cultivated. The seed 
 should be sown at the rate of a bushel and a half per acre, from the 
 part of April to the middle of May for summer forage, or from the 
 middle of August to the middle of September for winter forage. The 
 nutritive value of the hay is very high, analyses by Coudon in 1890 
 showing 23 per cent, of crude portein. The yield varies from i^ to 
 4 tons per acre, according to the fertility of the soil. It has been 
 grown successfuly in all parts of the country and his proved to be 
 hardy in the moist coastal regions of Washington, the dry prairies 
 of South Dakota, and the rich loamy soils along the Gulf. It is deserv- 
 ing of wider cultivation in all parts of the United States. 
 
 Vigna catjang (Cowpea ; southern cowpea ; pea ; field pea ; 
 stock pea ; cherry bean ; Chinese vetch). A leguminous annual of 
 
486 
 
 unknown origin, which has been cultivated in oriental countries for 
 many centuries, both as a forage plant and for the seeds as an article 
 of human diet. It is especially adapted to warm countries and is 
 extensively cultivated throughout the south, having been introduced 
 there about the middle of last century. There are many named 
 forms or cultural varieties, all of which, however, are considered by 
 
 ' 
 
 Fig- 39- Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). 
 
 botanists to be derived from one species. It so readily adapts itself 
 to different soils and changes its characters so readily under cultiva- 
 tion, that there has been much difficulty in determining the limits of 
 the various named forms. The cowpeas are of three general classes, 
 according to their habit of growth, consisting of "bunch" varieties, 
 which grow erect and compact ; " runners," which start off erect and 
 then throw out running branches * and "trailers," which grow flat 
 upon the ground with long stems sometimes 15 or 20 feet in length. 
 There is also much variation in size, shape, and color markings of 
 the seeds, and in the manner in which the seeds are borne in the pod, 
 
4 8 7 
 
 the seeds of some being closely crowded together, called "crowders," 
 and others with the seeds wide apart and the pods constricted 
 between each seed, called "kidney" peas. The bunch varieties are 
 the ones which are best adapted to growing for hay and ensilage, 
 while the runners and trailers are valuable for soiling purposes or for 
 turning under as green manure. The length of season required for 
 maturity also varies greatly, the bunch varieties, as a rule, requiring 
 only a very short season. The feeding value of cowpeas, either 
 green, fed as hay, or preserved as ensilage, is very high, being con- 
 siderably above that of red clover. Cowpeas require a deep, rich, 
 sandy loam, although, because of their strong root system, they are 
 adapted to grow upon almost any soil which is not too wet. The 
 ground should be \vell prepared and the seed should be sown until 
 the soil is thoroughly warmed. Cowpeas, by means of the tubercles 
 on the roots, gather large amounts of nitrogen from the air, and 
 also pump up large amounts of valuable mineral fertilizers from the 
 subsoil. When the stubble is ploughed under after the crop has 
 has been removed, these valuable fertilizing elements potash, 
 nitrogen, and phosphoric acid are left in the surface soil for the 
 use of succeeding crops. At the Rhode Island Experiment Station 
 the total crop of green vines per acre was 35,000 pounds, contain- 
 ing 157 pounds of nitrogen, 109^ pounds of potash, and 32*2 pounds 
 of phosphoric acid, and the additional quantity estimated to be 
 contained in the roots was 17! pounds nitrogen, 10 pounds of potash, 
 and 5*15 pounds phosphoric acid. The pecentages of fertilizers vary 
 greatly, according to the fertility, and to some extent according to 
 the variety grown. Experiments at southern stations have 
 unanimously proved that the best way to utilize fertilizers 
 so produced by a crop of cowpeas is to cut the vines 
 for hay, returning the manure to the fields. A common 
 practice is to plough under a crop at the end of the season, 
 or sometimes to permit it to remain on the ground through the 
 winter, both of which methods result in a loss of a very large 
 part of the value of a crop through leaching. The best method, if 
 the crop is turned under, is to at once plant a winter forage crop to 
 cover the surface of the ground and so prevent washing by the 
 winter rains. The cultivation of cowpeas has extended to California. 
 Some of the varieties having a short season may be grown in the 
 prairie region as far north as Iowa and Nebraska, and are there of 
 considerable value for dairying purposes, because of their resistance 
 to drought, furnishing on rich soil a palatable and nutritious food 
 during the hottest and driest summer months. 
 
 Yucca haccata (Spanish bayonet ; bear grass). A perennial of 
 the lily family, with stout, woody trunk several feet high, crowned 
 at the top with a rosette of long sword-shaped leaves. Of no value 
 as a forage plant, except in seasons of drought, when cattle and 
 sheep on the ranges of Texas and Arizona, where it grows, eat the 
 leaves, perhaps as much for the water which they contain as the food 
 
AN AUSTRALIAN FODDER PLANT FOR THE ARID INTERIOR 
 (Portulacaria Afra. Jacq.) 
 
 The following appeared in the Xew South Wales Agricultural 
 Gazette recently : It is self-evident that it is desirable to grow any 
 good fodder plant that will flourish in the arid interior. Our choice 
 of plants for such situations is not great. Let me draw attention to 
 what Don calls the African purslane tree. The Boers of South 
 Africa name it spekboom (fat tree). It is a tall shrub or small tree, 
 growing up to 10 or 12 feet in height. It has small round fleshy 
 leaves, which is not surprising, since it belongs to the Porlnlaca 
 family, of which w r e have one specially-useful member in this 
 country, the common purslane (Porlulaca oleracea), which has 
 enabled many a mob of cattle to traverse a waterless stage. 
 
 Following is what Baron von Mueller says of the purslane tree 
 in his Select Plants : " Affords locally the principal food for 
 elephants ; excellent also for sheep pasture, according to Professor 
 McOwan ; hence this succulent shrub may deserve naturalisation 
 on stony ridges, and in sandy desert land not otherwise readily 
 utilised. Would likely prove acceptable to camels also. Mr. T. R. 
 Sim states that all kinds of pasture animals eat it readily, and when 
 grass is scarce nearly live on it. Grows on hot rocky slopes. 
 Likes particularly doleritic soil. Displays an extraordinary 
 recuperative power when broken by browsing animals, or when 
 injured from other causes. The trunk will attain one foot in diameter 
 (McOwan). Cultivated by the author already in Victoria forty 
 years ago." 
 
 Its native home is the Karoo, the arid country in South Africa 
 which appears to present so strong a resemblance to much of our 
 far interior. I cannot find any record of it having been tried in the 
 far west, and I recommend it for careful trial for the following 
 reasons : 
 
 1. It may be readily propagated, rooting readily from cuttings 
 
 and even solitary leavesduring the greater part of the year. 
 
 2. It has no thorns or prickles, nor any objectionable charac- 
 
 teristics that I know of. 
 
 3. Like many succulents, it attains its greatest luxuriance in 
 
 hot, dry localities. 
 
 4. Stock are fond of it, its succulent leaves providing both 
 
 food and water for them ; it is reputed to be moderately 
 nutritious. 
 
 I am not inclined to go into ecstasies over any plant, but I see 
 no reason why this one should not usefully supplement the scanty 
 vegetation of our desert country. South Africa has put some of our 
 Salt-bushes to good use ; let us make u.sc of her purslane tree by 
 way of reciprocity. 
 
 It is a very brittle plant ; hence stock easily break the plants up 
 
 in their eagerness to eat them. The same thing applies to the Old 
 
 ; Salt-bush, which will assuredly become extinct unless it is pro- 
 
4 8 9 
 
 tected. This salt-bush and the purslane tree should be fenced in 
 and cultivated, until a considerable number of plants have been 
 raised. A reserve stock should always be kept in what may be 
 called the "nursery." By the way, there should be a nursery on 
 every selection and station for the propagation and acclimatisation 
 of desirable plants. 
 
 There has been published in the Journal of the Bureau of 
 Agriculture from time to time a number of letters from residents of 
 the north-west, descriptive of the indigenous valuable fodder plant 
 known locally as the " milk-bush." The writers all agree as to its 
 value as a fodder plant in the arid districts, and that it will not 
 stand over-stocking. In many sections it has already from this 
 cause entirely disappeared. To quote from Mr. G. J. Brockman 
 " It is a plant now only to be remembered by its name in the 
 north." It is a pity that some measures have not been devised for 
 its preservation in the districts where it has been entirely eaten out. 
 The Bureau is endeavouring to raise plants from seeds and cuttings, 
 and, if successful, young plants will in the near future be available 
 for distribution. Under date of December sgth, 1896, Mr. G. J. 
 Brockman sent the Bureau a number of specimens of the bush, 
 also a pod of seed. The latter, he writes, " is very poor quality, 
 owing to the drought." The Bureau is also indebted to Mr. A. J. 
 Ogilvie for specimens of seeds and plants. Photographs have been 
 taken of the plant (an illustration of which is given) and specimens 
 sent to Mr. F. Turner, F.L.S., for identification and description, 
 who reports as follows : 
 
 " The ' milk-bush ' belongs to the order asclepiadeae. Sarcos- 
 tcnuna Auslrale^ R. Br. 
 
 "Etymology. Sarcoslemma, from sarx, sarkos, flesh; and 
 stemma, a crown, in reference to the thick, fleshy nature of the 
 inner corona. Austral e, southern. 
 
 " Diagnosis. A glabrous, leafless, somewhat fleshy twiner, 
 woody at the base, the branches cane-like, round, often articulate 
 at the nodes, the leaves replaced by minute opposite scales. 
 Umbels sessile on one side of the nodes between the scales. 
 Pedicels about a quarter of an inch long. Calyx-segments ovate, 
 obtuse^ scarcely half a line long. Corolla white, deeply divided 
 into ovate obtuse lobes of about two lines. Outer corona aduate to 
 the base of the gynostegium and about half its length, much undulate 
 and sinuate, but not lobed ; the segments of the inner corona 
 saccate, fleshy, nearly as long as the anthers. Follicles (pod-like 
 fruits) rather narrow, two or three inches long. These are full of 
 seeds, each one of which is surmounted by a tuft of silky-white 
 hairs. This is the only known species in Australia, and is endemic. 
 Plot a Aiistr., vol. iv, p. 328. 
 
 " Remarks. The plant is found in all the Australian colonies, 
 but is more abundant in the warmer portions of the continent. It 
 abounds in a milky juice, which is said to be used by the aborigines 
 
49 
 
 of Port Darwin as a remedy in cases of small-pox. In the Botanical 
 Magazine, Dr. Hooker, in describing Sarcostemma bnmoniana, an 
 Indian species somewhat similar to the Australian plant, says : 
 1 It abounds in milky acid juice, and is hence eaten by the natives 
 as a salad, and sucked by travellers to allay thirst, thus forming a 
 remarkable exception to the usually poisonous nature of the Ascle- 
 piadeous juices.' A plant (Marsdenia leichardtiand) closely allied to 
 the Sarcostemuia, is figured and described in my work on the 
 
 THE MILK BUSH (Stircodi-iiiina Ausimle, R. Br.) 
 
 4 Indigenous Forage Plants of Australia.' It is called ' Dooba ' by 
 the aborigines, and before they tasted the sweets of civilisation it 
 was of considerable economic value to them. The blacks dig up 
 the roots, roast and eat them, and they also roast the young fruits, 
 the seeds of which are considered a delicacy. All parts of the 
 Marsdenia abound in a viscid, milky fluid of pleasant taste. It is a 
 capital forage plant, and both sheep and cattle eat the young shoots 
 with avidity, and they seem to thrive on them. 
 
491 
 
 " Bailey and Gordon, Queensland, list Sarcostcmma Australc 
 amongst the plants reputed poisonous and injurious to stock, and 
 cite t\vo instances of cattle and sheep being poisoned through 
 eating the plant." 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 SPECIAL PRODUCTS OF THE FARM 
 
 (COMPILED BY THE EDITOR.) 
 
 I have headed this chapter the " Special Products of the Farm" 
 to distinguish the crops enumerated and briefly described, from the 
 staple hay and grain crops of most of our farms. By-products 
 would, perhaps, have been a more suitable expression, as many of 
 the products mentioned could only be grown profitably under 
 certain conditions which do not exist in this colony at the present 
 time. There are, however, many of our farmers who have a decided 
 experimental turn, and it is always desirable to encourage experi- 
 mentation \vith new products and advocate diversified farming so 
 long as it can be conducted with profit. The ideal farm is that 
 in which the maximum variety of crops is produced and the 
 minimum purchased. The tendency in Australia is to produce one 
 staple crop and buy everything else. The farmer will, in spite of 
 all advice to the contrary, and with reason on his side, follow the 
 lines of least resistance in his practice, and when labor is dear the 
 line of least resistance often means the line of greatest profit. The 
 following notes will, I hope, be found of use to those who have a 
 desire to diversify the products of their holdings, and in doing so 
 add materially to the comfort as well as the profits of rural existence 
 and enterprise. 
 
 TURNIPS AND SWEDES. It may be said that the turnip is cul- 
 tivated as a culinary vegetable at certain seasons of the year from 
 one end to the other in this colony, but its cultivation as a field crop 
 is very limited, being confined to a few farms in the eastern and 
 south-western districts. It is a question that only the farmer him- 
 self can decide whether it is profitable to grow these root crops, 
 and though the turnip is a staple crop in Great Britain, it is a moot 
 point whether more nutritive crops cannot be grown here serving 
 the same purpose \\ith much less labor and, consequently, more 
 profit. Turnips and swedes are cultivated only with the greatest 
 success where the rainfall is plentiful. They are valuable crops 
 for a rotation, their deep-working proclivities bringing to the sur- 
 face plant food that would otherwise be out of the reach of shallower 
 rooting crops. There are numerous varieties of field turnips and 
 swedes, chief of which are purple tops, yellow mammoth, elephant, 
 green top, white globe, and others. The soils best adapted to turnips 
 
493 
 
 an- light loams, loose and open, and these must be deeply cultivated 
 and thoroughly pulverised. Light soils on a retentive bottom or 
 chiy soils are unsuitable to this crop. The soil should be enriched 
 by a liberal dressing of manure rich in phosphates, such as bone- 
 dust, guano or superphosphates. Nitrogenous manures will cause the 
 plants to run to top. Turnips may be sown broadcast or drilled in, 
 the latter being preferable as permitting subsequent cultivation more 
 freely. From two to live pounds of seed is sufficient to sow an acre, 
 and the plants will have to be thinned out to about six inches apart. 
 Frequent hoeings are necessary to perfect growth. Turnips may 
 be fed on the ground or carted off and fed chopped with hay or 
 other fodder. From 75 to ico pounds of turnips per day with hay 
 is reckoned a ration for an animal weighing 1000 pounds. 
 
 KOHL RABI is a hybrid turnip or turnip-stemmed cabbage. 
 This plant can be grown successfully when turnips cannot, and is 
 not so subject to the fly and other diseases. The seed maybe sown 
 broadcast or in drills, and subsequent cultivation should be the 
 same as for cabbages. The tops are as good as cabbage for table 
 use, and the bulbs, when young, are preferable to turnips as a 
 vegetable. 
 
 MANGOLD WURZEL. This is an excellent root crop, both for 
 stock and in rotation for improving the ground. Mangolds may be 
 grown on salty ground, and when the crop is removed a good deal 
 of the salt is removed with them, and the ground is thus gradually 
 sweetened by successive crops. The mangold requires a plenteous 
 rainfall and does best in deep, rich, well-cultivated and heavily- 
 manured soils ; though in the matter of soils it is more accom- 
 modating than the turnip. Three or four pounds per acre sown in 
 drills and covered to a depth of about an inch is sufficient. It is 
 usual to steep the seed in water for twenty-four hours before sowing. 
 The after cultivation consists in thinning out, and in the free use of 
 the horse hoe, so as to keep the ground moist and the surface free 
 from weeds. Mangolds should be thinned out to a foot apart in the 
 rows, the rows being not less than double this distance apart. In 
 harvesting care should be taken not to bruise or injure the root, 
 otherwise decay sets in very rapidly and spreads to the whole heap. 
 
 CARROTS. The carrot, as a Held crop, may be said to be almost 
 unknown in Western Australia, but no root is more appreciated by stock 
 of all kinds and, weight for weight, it is only slightly less nutritive than 
 the potato, while the average yield per acre is far greater. Horses 
 are particularly fond of carrots, and they should always form a part 
 of their diet if perfect condition is desired. A carrot ration keeps 
 up the milk of cows, and undoubtedly adds a richer flavor and a higher 
 color to the butter. "As clean as a carrot bed" is an old saying. The 
 carrot requires much more attention and hand labor than any other root 
 crop, and is consequently a more expensive plant to grow. The young 
 plants must be kept absolutely free from weeds if a maximum crop is 
 desired. If thoroughly rotten dung cannot be procured it is better 
 
494 
 
 to use artificial manure, but none of a very stimulating nature should 
 be applied. Land enriched by previous high culture is in all cases 
 the best for this crop, as larger roots free from forks and useless 
 appendages will be secured. Plenteous rainfall and a mild climate 
 suits the carrot best, and the cultivation must be deep and fine. It 
 is most productive in deep, light, warm loams overlaying a deep and 
 pervious subsoil. The seed, which germinates slowly and irregularly, 
 should be fresh, and is often soaked for a few hours before sowing. 
 From two to five Ibs. of seed per acre is required, according to the 
 quality, and the covering must be very light. Thinning after the 
 plants are fit to handle, and thorough subsequent cultivation, are 
 essential to a maximum crop of carrots. The tops may be fed to 
 stock, and the roots raised by fork or ploughed out and stored for 
 future use. 
 
 PARSNIPS. The parsnip is, if anything, a more valuable root crop 
 than the carrot. It is, in the first place, easier of cultivation, and pos- 
 sesses greater nutritive qualities. It is invaluable as a food for dairy 
 cattle, and is for this purpose extensively cultivated in Jersey 
 islands. It gives a peculiarly rich, high flavor to butter, and adds 
 to its firmness. There are two varieties of parsnips, the round and the 
 long, the latter being most generally cultivated both as a garden and a 
 field crop. A mild ancl moist climate is essential to a maximum 
 crop of this root, though it is surprising how well it thrives under 
 most trying conditions. It likes a deep friable loam like the carrot 
 and other root crops, and needs similar subsequent cultivation after 
 the young plants arc through the ground. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES. This is an edible tuber, nearly as 
 nutritious as the potato, which is almost ignored in this 
 colony. The stalks are almost as valuable as the tubers, 
 and its cultivation is deserving of every encouragement. It 
 grows as well on light soils as it does on tenacious clays r 
 and thrives where no other root crop would exist. It is not 
 exhaustive to the soil, and it may be harvested in such a manner 
 that the work of harvesting is at the same time the work of re- 
 seeding. It will endure the extremes of heat and cold, and furnish 
 an abundance of fattening fodder when all else has failed. The 
 tubers should be planted in early fall or in the spring in the same 
 way as potatoes, ancl the better the ground and the more attention 
 the plants get, it is needless to say, the better will be the crop. The 
 tubers, which make an excellent table vegetable, may be either 
 forked or ploughed out, or the ground may be fenced off and the 
 pii^s turned in. In France, where this crop is cultivated largely, 
 the stakes arc either cut and used as green feed, or stacked and 
 made into fodder like maize. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. This may be cultivated either for green or dry 
 fodder or ensilage or for the grain. If for the former, some quick 
 growing variety should be selected and the seed sown thickly 
 broadcast. If for grain, the seed is sown in hills at equal distances 
 
apart so as to prevent subsequent cultivation. Light and porous 
 loams, a little on the sandy side, are the best soils for mai/e it' well 
 tilled, but the crops will do well on all soils, except the stillc-t days, if 
 the- land is cither naturally rich, or artificially made so. Maize is a 
 gross feeder, and requires plenty of nutriment, which it absorbs 
 very rapidly. On light soils there is no better fertiliser than well- 
 rolled stable manure, but this is not always available, and artificial 
 fertilisers have to be resorted to. The manures should in all cases 
 be broadcasted over the land, as the maize plant, during the period 
 of its growth, sends out a great number of lateral surface roots in 
 search of food. Thorough tillage is essential to a heavy maize 
 crop. In sowing for grain the land should be deeply ploughed and 
 then harrowed, and marked off into rows and cross rows three feet 
 apart. At the intersections three or four seeds are planted and 
 well covered, about half to two inches deep. There are numerous 
 machines made for planting, which do the work expeditiously, and 
 save time and labor where a large area has to be sown. The sow- 
 ing should not take place until spring, when danger of severe frost 
 is over. The pickling of maize seed prior to sowing has been 
 described in Part II. of the GUIDE, and it is not an uncommon 
 practice to soak the seed for twenty-four hours before planting. 
 The first hoeing should be given when the thinning out 
 is done that is, when the plants are about two inches 
 high, and easily handled. Subsequent cultivation should be 
 as frequent as possible, especially in the drier districts, so 
 as to retain as much moisture in the soil as possible. 
 Cultivation should not be too deep, otherwise the chief feeding 
 roots of the plants will be destroyed. With a view to securing the 
 best seed for next season, while the crop is still standing in the 
 field, just before the gathering, the farmer should select and mark 
 the earliest ripened and best formed ears, so that they may be 
 distinguished at harvesting and put on one side for seed. The crop 
 should be harvested either by cutting the tops when the tassel 
 begins to grow dry, using the tops for fodder, or cutting the plant 
 altogether when the stalk has begun to ripen. The stalks should 
 be tied in bundles and stooked, and when dry removed to the barn. 
 The husking and shelling may be done as required, and when the 
 most favourable opportunity presents itself. There are many 
 varieties of maize in the market, and seed should be selected to suit 
 the district in the matter of ripening. For green fodder Gobbets' 
 corn or ninety day is the best perhaps. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. Flour made from the grain of this plant is univer- 
 sally used in the United States for cakes and in general cookery. The 
 plant itself is chiefly useful as a catch crop for growing on poor soils, 
 and ploughing in as green manure. The plant does best on light soils, 
 and requires a moderate amount of moisture. As a green manure 
 it is less valuable than the clovers, but will grow where these plants 
 will not. The seed may be sown on ploughed ground in the spring, 
 
49 6 
 
 and lightly harrowed in, from three pecks to a bushel (fifty pounds) 
 being ample. The Japanese is the most prolific and earliest variety, 
 yielding from thirty to forty bushels per acre. The grain is 
 excellent feed for poultry. 
 
 FIELD PEAS. Leguminous plants such as peas and beans play 
 a most important part in agronomic economy. Their exact 
 functions and value are fully explained in the part of the GUIDE 
 devoted to manures and manuring, and need not be dilated upon 
 here, where it is sufficient to say that they add nitrogen to the soil, 
 the most valuable and the most expensive constituent to supply by 
 artificial means, and should find a place in the rotation of every farm 
 where it is possible to grow them. There are several varieties of field 
 pea on the market, those in most general use being the clun and the blue 
 kinds. A stiffish loam is the soil the pea likes best, but it will thrive 
 on almost any class of soil, stiff clay excepted, if well cultivated and 
 provided with an adequate amount of moisture and nutriment. An 
 ordinary ploughing is sufficient preparation prior to sowing the 
 seed, at the rate of from two to three bushels per acre. The harrow 
 and roller should follow. It is a good plan to sow a few oats with 
 the peas if they are to be harvested and not ploughed in, as the 
 oat stalks keep them upright and in a better position for reaping. 
 If left to get nearly ripe the pea vines may be harvested with a 
 horse rake. It is not necessary to say that pea vines are a most 
 nutritive fodder for all classes of stock, almost as nutritive as the 
 pulse. The fodder may be fed just as it is, or the pulse may be first 
 thrashed out. . Pigs should be turned on the stubble to glean what- 
 ever peas have been knocked out in harvesting, and will fatten 
 rapidly. Peas may be sown in the south-west at any time of the 
 year, and in the drier districts in June and July. 
 
 YI-TCHKS OK TAKM-.S. This is another leguminous plant, valuable 
 as a soil restorer, and also for fodder. Barley tares, peas and rape 
 make an excellent mixture for the silo. Tares are usually sown 
 with the gercal crops at the rate'of from ^ to i. 1 , bushels per acre. 
 The crops should be cut green or ploughed in, "as the land is soon 
 apt to get foul. Green tares are excellent food for milch cows. 
 
 BKANS. This is a most important leguminous crop in the 
 northern hemisphere, but very little grown in Australia. Beans 
 grow well in a variety of soils, and there is no reason why the crop 
 should not enter more largely than it does into the rural economy 
 of tlu- tanners of the southern hemisphere. A thorough ploughing is 
 the only preliminary preparation required for the crop, unless 
 manure has to be added to the soil. The seed should be sown 
 thickly in drills three feet apart, the seeds four or live inches apart 
 in the rows ; from 2.J to 3 bushels (no Ibs.) will give an acre of 
 tick beans. Subsequent cultivation should consist in horse hoeing 
 and keeping the ground free from weeds and the surface well 
 broken up. When the leaves begin to shrivel, and the pods to 
 turn, the crop should be harvested by pulling up the plants and 
 
497 
 
 stacking them in some convenient spot on rails laid on the ground. 
 They will soon become dry enough for threshing out. The seed, 
 unless thoroughly dry, heats rapidly, consequently beans should not 
 be kept in sacks until all the superfluous moisture has evaporated 
 from them. The stalks are of value as a fodder for sheep and 
 horses, and add much to the richness of the manure pile. 
 
 TEOSINTE (Euclilirna Mc.vii'tina). A fodder plant, native of 
 Southern Mexico and Guatemala, introduced into Australia by the 
 late Baron von Mueller. " The young shoots when boiled con- 
 stitute a fair culinary esculent." This plant is described as being 
 much quicker in growth than guinea grass, and rather slower than 
 maize, but lasting longer as green fodder. It is not so hardy as 
 sorghum. The teosinte is said to yield an immense crop, one seed 
 producing from 40 to 60 stalks, and growing to a height of 12 and 
 18 feet under favorable conditions. One pound of seed will sow an 
 acre. Treatment as for the sorghums. 
 
 EARLY AMBER CANE. This is a useful and valuable fodder 
 plant, a variety of sorghum, but care must be exercised in feeding 
 it to stock, as cases are on record of cattle having succumbed by 
 having been allowed to eat it before it was fully matured. A check 
 in its growth renders it bitter and unpalatable, and it should only 
 be grown where uninterrupted progress is assured. It may be 
 fed green, or made into ensilage, preferably the latter ; if the 
 former, it must not be used until the seed has shot out. The seed 
 should be sown in drills 3 feet apart or broadcast in the spring. 
 When drilled in subsequent surface cultivation is advisable as 
 fostering growth and early maturity. Six to 12 Ibs., according to 
 method of sowing, drill or broadcast, will sow an acre. 
 
 DHOURA, OR EGYPTIAN CORN, WHITE SEEDED. This is a non- 
 saccharine variety of sorghum, producing a great yield of grain. It 
 stands drought well, and grows from six to twelve feet high, and 
 may be repeatedly cut for green fodder. All kinds of stock are 
 exceedingly fond of it. The seed is excellent food for chickens. 
 Twenty pounds broadcast, or fourteen pounds in drills are required to 
 sow an acre. Drills should be three feet apart, and the plants 
 thinned out to a foot or eighteen inches, according to prodigality 
 of growth. Subsequent cultivation as for other sorghums. 
 
 KAFFIR BRANCHING CORN. Another non-saccharine variety of 
 sorghum, of low stocky habit. It does not stool from the root, but 
 branches from the top joints. The whole stalk, as well as the 
 blades, cures into excellent fodder, and in all stages is available for 
 green feed. Withstands drought well, and is said to succeed on 
 land too poor to grow anything else. Sow from September to 
 January. Six pounds required to sow an acre in drills, and ten to 
 twelve pounds broadcast. Subsequent cultivation as for other 
 varieties of sorghum. 
 
 JOHNSON GRASS, OR EVERGREEN MILLET (Sorghum halapcnse). 
 A variety of sorghum which has of late years come into use. It 
 
498 
 
 thrives well in almost all soils and situations, however warm and 
 dry, but where it can be irrigated it produces enormous crops. 
 Cattle, horses, and pigs are fond of it when young. The seed takes 
 a long time to germinate. Fourteen pounds required to sow an 
 acre broadcast. This plant should only be produced on waste 
 corners, as it is exceedingly difficult to eradicate once it has taken 
 hold. Pigs do well on the roots, which, under favourable condi- 
 tions attain the thickness and have the appearance of a bamboo. 
 As a fodder this plant is somewhat overrated, and is best avoided 
 except on land that would otherwise be waste. 
 
 JKRCSALKM CORN. This variety of sorghum belongs to the 
 non-saccharine class. It grows about three feet high, makes one 
 large head on main stalk, and several smaller heads on side shoots, 
 often as many as eight heads on one stalk. The grains are pure 
 white and nearly flat, six pounds of seed being sufficient to plant 
 an acre in drills. This is claimed, and, in the practical opinion of 
 the Editor of the GUIDE, quite justly, to be one of the best and 
 surest grain crops for dry countries and seasons. Drills three feet 
 apart, and subsequent cultivation, as for other sorghums. 
 
 SAIXFOIX, OK ESPARCKTTK (Hciiysanim onobnrhis). Cattle are 
 very fond of sainfoin, whether in its green state or made into hay. 
 It is especially valuable for dry climates, and yields two crops a 
 year. Sainfoin is a perennial, grows upright, reaching a height of 
 from two to three feet, and bearing a broad, flesh-colored flower. 
 If the crop is intended to stand for more than one season, the 
 ground should be clean and well worked. Twenty pounds (in the 
 husk) required to sow an acre broadcast. 
 
 SoKc.urM SACCHARATTM (Syn. holcus). This is a valuable plant 
 in warm districts where the soil is good, for use as green fodder 
 during summer, being similar to maize in that respect. It is found 
 to be more fattening than milk-producing, and, therefore, better 
 adapted for store than for dairy cattle. It also requires the same 
 kind of culture as maixe. Seed may be sown in September, and 
 again in the course of the next two months for succession. It 
 should be sown in drills three feet apart, put in thinly, as its habit 
 is to tiller. The plants may be thinned for use as they progress, 
 until the remainder stand a foot apart. Six pounds in drills, or 
 twelve pounds broadcast, required to sow an acre. 
 
 (ilANT SlTKRKY (SptTtfllltt IHiLl'l' lll(l). TllC SpllITCV is UI1 annual 
 
 plant which is largely grown in Russia for making hay. It is said 
 that milch cows fed on it give superior milk and butter, and sheep 
 excellent mutton. It grows well on poor dry sandy soil almost too 
 poor to grow any other crop. The Runil 'New Yorker says " From 
 four to six weeks after sowing it is in its best condition for pasture. 
 The seed may he sown from September to December." Its value 
 as a manurial plant on light soils is pronounced. It is readily eaten 
 by cows and sheep. 15 Ibs. required to sow an acre. 
 
499 
 
 is Svli'i'stris M'd^iii'ii. This at one time much -boomed 
 fodder plant is a variety of vetch, and is said to grow from afoot to 
 eighteen inches high, but has never attained any reputation in 
 Australia. The seeds germinate badly, and the plant takes a long 
 time to reach maturity, and though great claims are made for it, in 
 the opinion of the Editor of the GUIDE, who has experimented with 
 it no\v for the past eight years, it is better left alone. 
 
 Er.viTiAX, OK IV.AkL MILLET (Pcnicilliiriti sf>if(ila). A very 
 productive and useful forage plant, which has been grown in the 
 driest districts with great success. It is a strong grower, and yields 
 a great amount of green fodder. When the plant first comes up 
 the stems are prostrate, but assume an upright position when two 
 feet long. Stock eat it with great avidity. It can be cut three or 
 four times, sprouting readily, and growing rapidly after each cutting. 
 It should be sown in drills, dropping two or three seeds two feet 
 apart in the drill ; the drills should be three feet apart Four 
 pounds required to sow an acre. The Editor of the GUIDE has 
 cultivated this plant for the past six years and has found it to be one 
 of the most valuable and drought-resisting fodder plants ever intro- 
 duced to his notice. It, like all plants, flourishes best in rich soils, 
 but will give a profitable return in poor soils and really under the 
 most disadvantageous circumstances, and stock eat it readily in all 
 stages of its growth. 
 
 NEW DAKOTA MILLET. This new American variety, according 
 to Mr. William Adamson's catalogue, has proved itself, in experi- 
 ments, to be an immense yielder. It was tried at the Ontario 
 Agricultural College, with twelve other varieties, and yielded a crop 
 averaging 8J tons to the acre, being far ahead of all the other varie- 
 ties, excepting the " Pearl." It is a very strong grower, producing 
 an immense amount of foliage stands the hot, dry weather well, 
 and makes excellent hay, which is greatly liked by cattle. It was 
 tried last season in Xew r South Wales by the Agricultural Depart- 
 ment, and gave every satisfaction. Sow in drills, three feet apart, 
 about 4 to 6 Ibs. to the acre, or 10 Ibs. broadcast. 
 
 CHICORY. The culture of this root should not be attempted 
 unless the soil is of first-class quality, otherwise the expense of 
 preparing the soil, keeping it clean, and digging and harvesting the 
 crop, would exceed its value. The soil should be prepared as for 
 carrots, and the seed dropped at intervals of nine inches, in shallow 
 drills eighteen or twenty inches apart. The end of September and 
 beginning of October is the best time to put in the seed. The 
 young plants should be carefully singled as soon as large enough to 
 handle, and the soil must be regularly cultivated throughout the 
 season. 4 Ibs. required to sow an acre in drills. There is a limited 
 demand in this colony for the root, which is used in a dried state 
 for adulterating coffee. 
 
 . LINSEED, OR FLAX. This should be a profitable crop to grow 
 in the Blackwood and South-western districts, where the soil is 
 
500 
 
 rich and rainfall plentiful, and one to which farmers should pay 
 attention. It is not only valuable on account of the seed, but for 
 the fibre, which is worth about ^40 per ton. The seed should be 
 sown broadcast on well-worked soil, and either very lightly 
 harrowed in, or both harrowed and rolled, according to the con- 
 dition of the soil ; but it requires in every instance to lie very near 
 the surface, for if deposited more than half an inch deep it will not 
 germinate. It succeeds well in the Gippsland (Vic.) district, and 
 should be sown very early in the spring or autumn at the rate of i^ 
 bushels (56 Ibs.) for seed, and 2 to 2\ bushels for cordage pur- 
 poses. 
 
 BROOM CORN. Is a variety of sorghum and should succeed 
 well in this colony. In addition to its well-known commercial 
 value for supplying the fibre for broom-making, it has to a large 
 extent the nutritive properties of the sorghum tribe, and thus forms 
 a useful fodder plant. The seed yield, too, is heavy, and is capital 
 food for poultry. The seed heads (stripped, of course, of the seed) 
 give the fibre for making the well-known American house broom, 
 dandy brushes, clothes dusters, etc. Its value depends on its length 
 and toughness, and these in turn depend on a proper selection of 
 seed and method of curing. It requires similar soil and culture to 
 corn, and the ground should be in good condition. It is frequently 
 planted in drills three and a-half feet apart, leaving the plants six 
 inches apart. September to November is the best time to sow the 
 seed. The varieties now in the market are : California!! golden 
 long-brush, growing from twelve to fourteen feet high. Improved 
 dwarf, an excellent variety, growing a fine brush of good length. 
 Long-brush evergreen, this variety grows about eight to ten feet 
 high, stands up well, and is entirely free from crooked brush. The 
 fibre is long and fine. This is a strictly green variety, and does not 
 get red in the field before it is cut. 
 
 FIELD CABBAGE. Field cabbage may be cultivated either by 
 raising the young plants in a seed bed and then transplanting them, 
 or by sowing the seed in drills where the crop is to go, and thinning 
 out the young plants. The rows should be 3 feet apart and 
 the plants 18 inches apart in the rows. One pound of seed will 
 provide enough plants for an acre when sown in the seed bed. 
 From four to six pounds will be required for drilling. Grant drum- 
 head and Schweinfurt, a very early white variety, are the favorite 
 sorts of field cabbage. 
 
 TuorsAxn-iiKADED KALE. This plant, a tall, branching variety 
 of cabbage, is, in the opinion of the Kditor of the GUIDE (iotinded 
 upon ten years' experience), one of the most valuable fodder plants 
 ever introduced into Australia. It produces more weight of fodder 
 per acre than any other known plant, it is relished by all stock, and 
 may be fed safely at all seasons of the year. It will withstand 
 drought to an extianidiiiarv decree, the writer having secured a 
 crop of 27 tons (weighed) from one measured acre in this colony in 
 
one <>f the driest localities, the rainfall from the time the plants 
 were put out until the crop was harvested being only 3^ inches. 
 The plant, being a deep sucker, does not impoverish the land, hut, 
 on the contrary, does it good, bringing up fresh stores of plant food 
 to the surface for the subsequent use of shallower rooting crops. 
 The plants will last for two and sometimes three years if not allowed 
 to go to seed. Three pickings will yield from 35 to 45 tons of 
 green fodder per acre. Sowing and treatment same us for cabbage. 
 The jersey tree kale is another and very similar variety. In reference 
 to thousand-headed kale, a recent writer in the Agricultural (iazctlc 
 (London) says : "A few days ago I was over the farm of a friend. who 
 farms extensively, as he has recently added another looo-acre farm 
 to a previous occupation of the same extent, making upwards of 2000 
 acres in his holding, and what impressed me was the quantity of 
 thousand-head cabbage on the farms. All the sheep, comprising 
 about 1500 breeding ewes and 400 tegs, were feeding more or less 
 on this crop, and doing well on it. On my remarking on this fact, 
 he said, ' I have given up growing swedes, as it is a most expensive 
 and uncertain crop to grow ; moreover, the difficulty of obtaining 
 hoers when required in haying and harvest is very great. I there- 
 fore now grow thousand-head cabbage in place of them. I drill 
 them in May ; when they get high enough I run the harrows 
 across the rows, and skim them about twice, and that is all the 
 labor required.' Now contrast this with the swede crop, the 
 uncertainty of getting plants, and all the labor of getting them set 
 out and just at the right time. Moreover, the swede crop is very 
 liable to total destruction from a hard frost, whereas the thousand- 
 head cares nothing for frost ; and I knew a neighbor two winters 
 ago, when the severe frost killed everything else, sell three acres of 
 this crop for ^50 per acre for greens. I therefore think sheep 
 farmers in many cases would do well to reduce their swedes and 
 replace with thousand-heads, which come in in this country (Great 
 Britain) from about November up till the end of March." 
 A New South Wales farmer writing about thousand-headed kale 
 says : u Thousand-headed kale is the least known and most 
 desirable of any green crop I have ever seen. It is a plant that 
 produces more feed per acre than any other, does not disagree with 
 any stock, and does not impoverish the land. With me it has 
 never caused sheep or lambs to blow or scour. Eighteen perches 
 per day, with a little oat straw, have kept 270 sheep for three 
 months without the loss of one." 
 
 HEMP. This plant is cultivated with success in the Gippsland 
 district of Victoria, and should do well in the Blackwood country 
 of this colony. It likes rich, moist bottom land, but will grow 
 fairly well in poor soils. It should be sown in drills in autumn or 
 spring so as to produce a more robust fibre. In its raw state hemp 
 is worth about ^43 per ton in Melbourne. 120 pounds seed to the 
 acre, broadcast ; half the amount in drills. 
 
OPIUM POPPY. This plant might be profitably cultivated where 
 children are available for labor on the farm. The seed should be 
 sown in drills three feet apart and the ground must be kept well 
 cultivated. August and September are the best months for sowing. 
 
 WHITE MUSTARD. In some countries mustard is a profitable 
 field crop ; and, when the value of rotation of crops is fully recog- 
 nised, will probably come into cultivation here also. The land 
 requires to be well worked, and the crop will pay for a considerable 
 application of manure. The seed may be sown broadcast, or in 
 drills eighteen or twenty inches apart, for the sake of cleaning the 
 land, in the end of September or the beginning of October. The 
 seed ripens in three months, or less, so that it maybe made available 
 as a fallow crop. The crop should be harvested before any of the 
 pods burst, as if seeds are scattered they foul the land to a serious 
 extent. It may be covered effectually by rolling, without the use of 
 the harrow. A yield of twenty to forty bushels of seed to the acre 
 may be expected. It is very useful for sheep food. Eight to ten 
 pounds required to sow an acre. 
 
 PUMPKINS AND PIG MELONS. The pumpkin is afield crop not 
 to be despised. It likes rich and preferably new land ; seeds should 
 be sown in hills as soon as the ground begins to get warm. 
 Mulching in the late spring is a decided help. Pig, or "paddy," 
 melons are a valuable standby. Seeds may be sown in any waste 
 corner, new ground preferably, and no cultivation or attention is 
 needed. The melons, chopped up, with a little bran and chaff added, 
 make a diet much relished by cows. Pigs do well on the melons. 
 
 SUNFLOWER. This plant should be grown freely where poultry 
 are kept, and the seeds are much relished by fowls. A valuable oil 
 is also extracted from the seeds. When grown in quantities it 
 would be profitable to express the oil and use the marc as 
 food for stock. The stalks, which contain a large percentage of 
 potash, are used in Russia for fuel. The large Russian variety 
 is the best, and seeds should be sown in spring, in drills, about three 
 feet apart. 
 
 THE SUGAR BEET. The profitable cultivation of the sugar beet 
 on a large scale is chiefly governed by the cost of labor. The 
 following, prepared by Mr. A. Despeisses, of the Bureau of Agricul- 
 ture, gives the necessary information as to culture. Varieties. i. 
 White /////VP;V</ Vihnorin sn^ar bed. Originally obtained from 
 the white Silesiun beet, and of the result of methodic and 
 persevering selection, one of the richest and most regular varieties 
 in existence. The yield is about 12 tons per acre, with a pro- 
 portion of sugar in the roots amounting to 16 per cent.,* 
 representing i ton 10 cwt. of extracted Kigar per acre. 
 
 XI'. About time i]iiai UTS only of tin- suvar in the roots can be extracted and crystallised, 
 and the same applies proportionately to the other kinds. 
 
53 
 
 As regards its preservation, it is recognised that it holds its 
 sugar content better than any other variety, and for that reason, in 
 those factories in which the '' Improved Vilmorin " is manufactured 
 in connection with other varieties, it is the custom to keep this for 
 the end of the season and to work up the less reliable beets soon 
 alter they have been pulled. It is also claimed to resist better than 
 any other variety the unfavourable influence of certain soils, such 
 as black soils, rich in organic matter, and of certain manures, while 
 most other varieties under these circumstances become watery and 
 saline in excess, thus seriously deteriorating the quantity as well as 
 the quality of the sugar and checking its extraction. 
 
 This variety is very extensively grown w r here the excise tax is 
 paid on the beet itself and not on the manufactured sugar. 
 
 2. Green-lop Brabant sugar beet. The top, which protrudes 
 from the earth about a couple of inches, is coloured green and 
 carries a foliage vigorous in growth and upright in position. The 
 root is long, smooth and white. It is a very prolific and vigorous 
 variety, requires deep soil, well tilled, the weight of the crop 
 averaging 20 tons per acre, containing about 12 per cent, of sugar, 
 representing about i ton 5 cwt. of extracted sugar to the acre. 
 
 3. French rich sugar bed. A variation of the Brabant beet, 
 preserving in its general aspect, and notably in its foliage, many of 
 the characteristics of the Brabant. It differs distinctly from it in 
 the fact that it grows entirely under the soil, is more slender, with 
 a more reddish skin and more compact flesh. Its yield averages 
 1 6 tons of roots per acre, containing 14 per cent, of sugar, which 
 represents i ton 12 cwt. of extractable sugar. 
 
 4. White red-top sugar beet. Is about equal to Brabant green- 
 top in yield and percentage of sugar, but it does not require such 
 deep soil, and ripens earlier. It is very extensively grown in 
 countries where the tax is paid on the manufactured sugar or on 
 the alcohol and not on the roots. 
 
 5. Early red-skin sugar beet. Is a very good and distinct kindj 
 growing entirely under ground, with leaves lying flat on the soil. 
 It yields about 16 tons to the acre, containing 14 per cent, of sugar, 
 or i ton 12 cwt. of extractable sugar. It ripens early and keeps 
 well. 
 
 6. Klcin-Wanzleben sugar beet. Has a wider cultivation than 
 any other sugar beet. The root is conic.il, straight and even, quite 
 large at the head, and rapidly tapering. It has a brighter colour 
 than the improved Vilmorin, which enters largely in the cross from 
 which it comes ; its leaves are lighter coloured, undulating, and 
 scalloped about the edges. This variety succeeds w^ell in soil of an 
 alluvial nature and mean richness and on level plateaus. In soils 
 very rich in humus it ripens poorly and loses much of its richness. 
 It yields slightly heavier crops than the improved Vilmorin, but its 
 saccharine richness does not exceed 14 per cent. 
 
504 
 
 Preparation of the soil. The best time for ploughing is the 
 autumn, the plough being first run six to seven inches deep and 
 followed by a subsoiler regulated to tear the ground another six or 
 seven inches, thus breaking the arable soil to the depth of twelve to 
 fourteen inches, which is about the average length of a sugar beet 
 root. The land is left in this rough condition all through the win- 
 ter, and is again ploughed not subsoiled in the spring, and 
 prepared for sowing by means of harrowing and rolling. Should 
 the ploughing be delayed till the spring, a quantity of bad seeds will 
 be brought to the surface, which, germinating at the same time as 
 the beet, will over-run the ground and smother the crops ; while, on 
 the other hand, if the soil be ploughed in the autumn the seeds 
 which germinate in the early spring are killed by the second 
 ploughing, harrowing, etc., which precede the sowing. 
 
 Preparation of the seeds. The seeds are very often ''pickled" 
 or soaked previous to the sowing, especially when they are not quite 
 fresh ; and the planting takes place in the spring, whenever the 
 temperature reaches about 55 deg. to 60 deg. F. In the New England 
 district by the end of September. The germinating faculty is 
 materially increased by soaking in water at 100 deg. to 120 deg. F. for 
 twenty-four to thirty-six hours, and the beets thus treated show a 
 more even growth than when the seeds are not soaked. Prolonged 
 immersion, however, in pure water, might remove from the seeds 
 some of their soluble constituents, and for this reason the seeds are 
 often steeped in the juices flowing from the manure heap, which are 
 diluted with about an equal volume of water. A mixture of urine 
 and water in equal parts is just as good. The seeds, during this 
 time, having absorbed about their weight of water, are taken out, 
 mixed with ashes superphosphate of lime is often added to the 
 ashes dried on the surface, passed over a screen, and used for 
 sowing. 
 
 Germination of seeds. Few crops have been so thoroughly 
 studied as regards their requirements, and the treatment they should 
 be subjected to, as the sugar-beet. Experiment has shown that in 
 a soil well prepared and sufficiently moist and it-rated, the seeds 
 require for germination a total of degrees of average temperature 
 equal to 650 deg. F. Thus, if the average daily temperature be 55 
 deg., twelve days will be required for germination ; if 65 deg., only 
 ten clays will be required. Should the seeds be steeped for thirty- 
 six hours in water, or the liquid from the manure-heap wanned to 
 100 deg. or 120 deg. F., the number of days required for germination 
 will be correspondingly reduced, and only nine to ten clays will be 
 occupied. The same principle holds good for the germination and 
 the ripening of many of our economic and ornamental plants. 
 
 Manures. In the rich volcanic or alluvial soils of the New 
 England district, no immediate manuring will be required, except 
 on land which has been under crop for a great number of years. 
 When, however, manure has to be applied, it should not be too 
 
 
505 
 
 new, but thoroughly rotten, in order that the beet roots may not be 
 caused to fork out by coining in contact with hard straw. This 
 forking or branching prevents proper maturing For this reason, 
 stock-yard manure is not directly applied to the beet-root crop, 
 but to the cereal crop which precedes it. Artificial fertilisers, 
 such as superphosphate of lime, are often used instead of stock- 
 yard manure, and may be applied at the time of sowing, either 
 separately or mixed with the seeds. In the case of soluble 
 nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda or sulphate of 
 ammonia, it is always advisable to apply them when the seeds have 
 germinated, and the plant is able to utilise them. Manures in which 
 the phosphoric acid is to the nitrogen in the proportion of two to one 
 give very good results as regards the production of sugar in the crop. 
 Sowing. For experimental purposes, sowing may be done by 
 hand, but when beet growing is attempted on an industrial scale, 
 a seed drill should be used, which delivers the seeds regularly, 
 without waste, and facilitates the subsequent method of cultivation 
 and harrowing. The seeds are sown thickly, at the rate of 16 to 20 Ib. 
 to the acre, in lines 10 to 14 inches apart, and not more than i to 2 
 inches below the ground, a light roller being run on the ground after 
 the sowing. Experiments have shown that at that depth a higher 
 percentage of the seeds will grow than at any other. Also, that close 
 planting gives : 
 
 Roots richer in sugar. 
 
 Containing less saline and organic matters. 
 
 Hence, it is less exhausting to the soil, and produces heavier 
 crops. The inference is that close culture is more profitable, both to 
 the grower and to the manufacturer. In drier localities, the 
 distance between the rows might be increased to 16 or 18 
 inches each way, so as to allow to each plant a greater 
 superficial area for drawing moisture from, and also for 
 diminishing the evaporation through the leaves. For this colony, 
 where hand labour is so expensive, it might be considered a good 
 plan to sow a little wider apart say 18 to 20 inches between the 
 rows so as not to impede the operations of horse hoeing and sow- 
 ing 1 8 to 20 inches apart, whilst restricting the distance between the 
 plants in the line to 9 inches. The thinning should be carried out 
 when the plant has grown two to four leaves. Hoeing is begun 
 as soon as the plants show above the ground and mark the row, and 
 is constantly carried on at intervals of a fortnight as long as the 
 leaves will allow. Early and constant hoeing is strongly to be 
 recommended, as it destroys the weeds when they just show, and 
 also keeps the surface of the soil well pulverised, thus checking the 
 excessive evaporations in the daytime by breaking the continuity of 
 the capillary action in the ground, and besides favouring the absorp- 
 tion of the moisture and dew during the night. After a dry sum- 
 mer a few seed-stalks may appear in the field, and should be 
 removed. 
 
5 o5 
 
 Ripening. The sugar-beets begin to mature in the autumn, and 
 this is shown by the leaves turning yellow and drooping. The roots 
 are then fit for pulling, which is done either by hand, after the root 
 has been loosened by the assistance of the pick or the plough, or by 
 machines which have been devised for the purpose. At all events 
 care should be taken not to bruise or cut the root, which would 
 then decay when stored or heaped up in silos. The leaves are 
 removed from the roots in the held by means of a sharpened bill- 
 hook, the earth shaken off, and the roots heaped up and covered 
 with their leaves till carted away to the stack or silo. 
 
 Stacking: The beet-roots are either delivered at once to the 
 sugar factory or stored for some time. For this purpose, they 
 should be stacked or heaped up in trenches or cellars which should 
 not be too dry, or the roots will wither, nor too damp, or they will 
 rot. The roots should, morever, be protected against frost, but a 
 high temperature is highly undesirable, as favouring the sprouting 
 of the roots and their fermentation ; good ventilation, and means 
 of carrying away of foul air and the carbonic acid gas disengaged 
 from the mass of heaped up roots, should also be provided. 
 
 THE USES AND CULTIVATION OF RAPE. 
 
 BY J. L. THOMPSON, PRINCIPAL HAWKESBURY AGRICULTURAL COLL. 
 (Xew South Wales Agricultural Gazette.} 
 
 The following brief paragraph, under the above heading, ap- 
 peared in the Adelaide Observer, under date 5th December, 1885 : 
 " We have inspected a splendid crop of wheat on the Beefacres 
 estate, in respect to which the tanning community in South 
 Australia ought to be especially interested. Two years ago the 
 field of 150 acres was sown for wheat, but the yield was so poor 
 that the crop was not worth reaping, this result being attributed to 
 long cropping with cereals, which had made the land wheat-sick. 
 Mr. J. L. Thompson, the manager, then determined to try the effect 
 of a rape or colza crop, and this was sown at the rate of 6 Ib. of 
 seed to the acre, without manuring. The rape turned out well, 
 and travellers by coach on Tee-tree Gully Road used to talk about 
 the splendid crop that was to be seen on that journey. The rape 
 served to feed many hundreds of sheep for some months, and then 
 the land was deeply ploughed up, and, in due season, again sown 
 with purple straw wheat at the rate of 45 Ib. per acre, without any 
 man ure whatever. The crop is being reaped with three ' Hornsby's ' 
 and one ' Walter and Woods" string binders, and stands closely 
 at about live feet lii^h. There arc close upon two tons of straw 
 and probably thirty bushels of wheat per acre. This extraordinary 
 result of rotation of crops without manure and with no extra culti- 
 vation except ploughing a little deeper than usual, and especially 
 considering the dry season experienced at Beeiacres, only u inches 
 of rain having fallen during the growing season, ought to be instruc- 
 tive to all tanners in this colony." 
 
507 
 
 The liiv.i'th tithl iist-s of /v//v. The growth and uses of rape are 
 not known or appreciated by the average fanner in these colonies, 
 bnl a fe\v in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales have 
 grown it for many years with great success. I saw in a Victorian 
 paper not long ago, the editor of which has some pretentions to 
 agricultural knowledge, this plant described as a new kind of grass, 
 and as very valuable for feeding sheep, etc. Rape has no affinity 
 to the grass family graminacc;e ; it belongs to the crucifers. Rape 
 (7>Yc /.we*/ canipestns) is extensively grown in some parts of Europe 
 for the oil expressed from its seeds, and to provide pasture that 
 will fatten sheep readily. The rape plant is a native of Europe, 
 perhaps of England, but it is hard to say where it is actually indi- 
 genous and where naturalised. It bears a close resemblance to 
 swede turnip in the early stages of its growth, but usually attains a 
 greater height than the turnip, and produces more of stem and 
 leaves. It has a fusiform and stringy root, while that of the turnip 
 is bulbous. On average soils, when grown in drills, it usually reaches 
 a height of from 18 to 20 inches, but on soils very rich in vegetable 
 matter it sometimes attains a height of between two and three feet. 
 There are several varieties of rape, but the only kind I have had 
 any experience with as a pasture is known as the dwarf Essex. 
 Like the turnip, rape is adapted to temperate climates. It will 
 be found to grow in temperatures that are cool rather than warm. 
 The most suitable soils for growing rape are fairly moist free- 
 working loams, rich in organic matter. Black loams are also suit- 
 able, -containing, as they generally do, a large amount of humus. 
 Good maize, potato, or turnip land will grow r rape. It will also 
 grow on clay soils after the plants get a start, but not so luxuriantly 
 as on the other soils I have mentioned. Rape as a rotation crop 
 cannot, in my opinion, be excelled. As the extract at the com- 
 mencement of this article shows, I had wonderful results with th^ 
 plant in recuperating old worn-out wheat land in South Australia. 
 At Dookie 1 had a similar experience. There, a paddock of 40 
 acres, which in 1886 had been sown with wheat, was not worth 
 cutting, so poor had the returns been reduced from continued 
 cereal growing. In January of the year following I ploughed the 
 land deeply, and exposed the soil to the ameliorating influence of 
 the hot summer sun. Towards the end of March I had it 
 thoroughly cultivated fully 6 inches deep with scarifier, disc 
 harrow, ordinary harrows and roller, until it was brought to a tilth 
 equal to the proverbial " onion bed." Early in April, and just after 
 the first autumn rains, with sufficient moisture to ensure the rapid 
 germination of the seed, I so\ved the rape broad-cast, at the rate of 
 6 Ib. to the acre on the finely-harrowed surface. To cover the seed 
 I simply passed the roller over it. This, I may say, is sufficient 
 covering, the smaller seeds if buried too deeply do not germinate, 
 and the seedsman is blamed unjustly. Nature sows her seeds very 
 shallow, and they germinate and grow well, especially if they are 
 
503 
 
 not wanted to. The plants appeared in less than a week, and the 
 rough leaf in a fortnight. Owing to the moisture and warmth at 
 that season of the year, it grew like magic, and by the end of May 
 was fit for the ewes and lambs. Over twelve head per acre were 
 pastured on this rape, besides numerous milch cows and other 
 cattle, until January, 1888, when the residue, with all the sheep 
 droppings, was ploughed under, but not too deeply. The land was 
 allowed again to sweeten for a few months, and the vegetable matter 
 to decompose. It was next sown with " Chevalier " barley, in the 
 proportion of one bushel to the acre this was towards the end of 
 April. The yield was 25 bushels to the acre of a magnificent sample 
 of malting barley, which was sold for seed at 6s. 6d. per bushel. 
 This prosperous result was gained in a season when the rainfall for 
 the whole year was 14*51 inches. In the following year this land 
 w;is again sown with " Chevalier" barley, and produced a prime 
 sample, which yielded 20 bushels to the acre. In 1890 I sowed 
 this land with Cape barley, oats, a little rape, vetches, peas, and 
 beans for an ensilage crop, and secured a yield of fully 10 tons to 
 the acre of prime succulent herbage. This was cut in November, 
 the land was manured with farm-yard compost, and immediately 
 sown with sorghum, which yielded in the following February 15 
 tons, being 25 tons per acre of cow feed in a dry district. But to 
 return to rape. I have secured better results by sowing it in drills, 
 and, when the ground requires cleaning, this is the best method of 
 cultivation. When drilled in from ij Ib. to 2 Ib. of seed to the 
 acre will be sufficient, but when broadcasted, 5 Ib. to 6 Ib. will be 
 necessary. The seed can usually be purchased at threepence 
 per Ib., so that the cost of the seed is very small. When 
 sown in drills, as the rough leaf appears on the plant, 
 the horse-hoe should be freely used between the rows to 
 keep down the weeds and to keep the soil open and loose, fractur- 
 ing the capillary tubes which bring the moisture from the lower 
 strata, and is dissipated into vapors in the air. No attention need 
 be given to the thinning of rape. Rape being an excellent cleans- 
 ing crop when grown in drills and cultivated, it may, with advan- 
 tage, be grown between two tops of grain. Rape can also be 
 grown as a catch crop, i.e., as soon as a cereal crop is removed, if 
 the land is not too stiff, the stubble land may be simply scarified, 
 harrowed, and brought to a fine tilth, and the seed sown. The 
 crop may be either pastured or ploughed in as green manure. Rape 
 makes a capital soiling crop. The crop can be cut down and fed 
 to cows or other animals in a shed, or scattered over a small pad- 
 dock or yard. But it is as a farm manure that rape is of so much 
 value to the Australian farmer in recuperating his worn-out wheat- 
 sick soil. The question may fairly be asked, how can the growing 
 of rape without manure, and ploughing it in, improve the fertility of 
 the land, seeing that nothing is added to it, but that is only restored 
 to it which was taken out, by the crop ? To this inquiry I reply, 
 
509 
 
 the benefits of a rape crop, so far as I can judge, are as follows : 
 Science- teaches us that a large proportion of the leaves and stalks 
 of succulent herbage is composed of substances taken from the 
 atmosphere, such as moisture, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, &c. The 
 roots of the rape plant permeate the soil, and draw to the surface 
 from the subsoil valuable plant food. The rootlets improve the 
 mechanical texture of the soil, and enrich it in their decay, and the 
 whole plant when ploughed in decomposes, thus contributing con- 
 siderably to the organic matter. Rape contains about 8 per cent, 
 of carbo-hydrates, 2 per cent, of albumen, and a little fat. It can- 
 not be excelled for fattening old ewes, or producing fat lambs for 
 the market. When very young and succulent rape is liable to scour 
 sheep ; to prevent this, a little hay or straw chaff should be within 
 reach of the animals to counteract this tendency. In New Zealand 
 and Canada half a pint of oats per sheep is allowed, with very 
 payable results. Rock salt, in all cases, should be within reach of 
 the sheep. Rape is not suitable as a food on which to feed milch 
 cows exclusively, as it taints the milk. It is, however, capital food 
 for pi^s, and they are very fond of it. 
 
 Fertiliser foi rape. Although rape will give a profitable 
 return during an average season on fair land, thoroughly cultivated, 
 without manure, it is responsive to an application of farm-yard 
 manure. It is probable that the application of a complete fertilizer 
 will give satisfactory results. From experiments carried out with 
 fertilisers applied to this plant, at the Ontario Agricultural College 
 experiment station, Canada, the best results were obtained from 
 the application of nitrate of soda, and the next from the application 
 of salt. 
 
 Precautions to be observed in feeding with rape. Stock should 
 never be turned into rape when hungry otherwise they will eat 
 too much of it and become blown, and probably a large percentage 
 may die. When the man in charge of the sheep at Beefacres 
 put 2,000 ewes into 150 acres of rape for the first time, he lost eleven 
 head within two hours. He then took them out, and put them into 
 a bare paddock ; the sheep all lay down at the gate, wanting to get 
 in again to the rape. When the gate was opened, they required no 
 dog to drive them back to the rape ; they rushed in at full force, 
 and being empty with their long fast, commenced eating most 
 ravenously, with the result that twenty-two died within an hour. 
 The shepherd, terrified, took them all out, and came to me to report 
 progress. I instructed him to then put the sheep in with a full 
 stomach, and leave them there. He replied to the effect that if he 
 did this I should lose the half of them. I assured him that I would 
 take all responsibility. We had, at the time, a field of winter proud 
 wheat, and next morning I went up and gave instructions to let the 
 sheep into the wheat field, where they filled themselves thoroughly. 
 The rape paddock adjoined the wheat one, and the gate w r as opened, 
 so they quietly passed from the wheat into. the rape. Being so full 
 
of wheat, which, by the way. does not blow them like rape, they 
 could not eat the rape so greedily, and, consequently, did not fill 
 their stomachs with gasses. We did not remove them again for 
 two months, nor did we lose another sheep. It is the worst possible 
 plan to put stock into succulent herbage, such as lucerne, rape, 
 clover, etc., for a brief period, and then remove them to a bare 
 paddock. The sheep, which has less brain for its size than the rest 
 of our domestic animals, has, I incline to believe, some reasoning 
 power, and no doubt reasons somewhat thusly : u If I am allowed 
 to remain only half an hour in this fine rape, I must make the most 
 of my time." The consequence is rapid feeding, which speedily 
 distends the rumen or paunch with gas, and if relief is not soon 
 obtained, death ensues. I have been very successful with cattle and 
 sheep, when first put on succulent herbage, by simply putting them 
 on with full stomachs, and then leaving them there. Owners of 
 pure bred pedigree stock should use great care when pasturing 
 valuable animals on rape. In my opinion there is great room for 
 the extension of the rape industry in Australia. One acre will fatten 
 ten lambs. I know of no other plant of the same importance so 
 likely to assist to develop and fatten a cross-bred or long-w T oolled 
 sheep suitable for the English market. In this respect rape is much 
 superior to turnips, inasmuch as it will grow in many parts where 
 turnips would fail. 
 
 THE POTATO. In Part i of the GUIDE some idea is given of the 
 extent of land in the south west division of this colony suitable to 
 the cultivation of the potato, and it is really a reproach to Western 
 Australia that the market for the crop is not better supplied by local 
 producers. The hon. the Commissioner of Crown Lands recently 
 had Mr. F. S. Brockman, of the Survey Department, report on the 
 area of Crown Lands in the south west, suited to and available for 
 potato growing. The report says : 
 
 u The area generally within which the potato can be successfully 
 grown in the colony may be 'considered to lie along the coast line 
 between the Murray river on the north and Albany on the south, 
 and between the costal range and the sea, generally not exceeding 
 ten miles in width. Further inland than this there are many shel- 
 tered spots where a successful crop may be grown, but much land 
 otherwise suitable is too liable to the effects of frost. In the belt of 
 coast country referred to, with an average rainfall of about 40 inches, 
 any locality is suitable for the industry where the soil is loose and 
 rich. Two distinct classes of soil are almost equally good, namely, 
 the rich moist bottom or swamp land, which produces the summer 
 crop, and the loose, strong upland loams, which produce the winter 
 crops. Of these I am inclined to think the upland is the more 
 prolific, though perhaps not so certain a crop ; but, on the other 
 hand, the swamp lands will produce oilier crops in the year in 
 addition to potatoes. With regard to the unalicnated land suitable 
 for the industry, it is difficult to estimate the quantity, for, like most 
 
 
of the good lands of the colony, and especially of the southern dis- 
 trict, it occurs in small patches. To begin at the northern end, we 
 have- some tirst-ratc swamp land in the Harvey area, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Sampson's Brook, and the north Harvey, and between 
 the Harvey and Coolup areas and the coast there are a number of 
 splendid swamps seldom more than 100 acres in extent, and more 
 often much smaller, but unfortunately difficult to drain. From 
 thence south to Quindalup the coast country is practically all held 
 m tee simple, the great locations, Wellington I and 41 and Sussex 
 location 125, tilling up the whole of that stretch of country. Im- 
 mediately to the south of this the western spur of the coast runs to the 
 sea at Cape Naturaliste, and practically no potato land is found on 
 the northern slope. On the southern slope, bogs, swamps and 
 running streamlets are numerous, but the first patch of any extent 
 is to the north of Coweramup Bay, Miamup. Here there are many 
 hundred acres of rich boes suitable for the growth of the 
 summer crop. A little further south the Margaret river runs for 
 several miles through a splendid patch of uplands, equally suitable 
 for either grain or root crops. Thence south to the Blackwood 
 river there are a few line patches, notably on the Boodjijup and 
 Calgadup creeks, where there are many hundreds of acres of both 
 uplands and swamps. From the Blackwood to the Warren I am 
 personally not much acquainted with coast country, but I have 
 gathered information from many reliable sources, and I am assured 
 that from Donnelly river westward there is a large tract of rich 
 boggy flats lying parallel to the coast and immediately behind the 
 coast ridges, of surpassing richness and of many thousand acres in 
 extent, which only require to be brought into notice. As this will 
 probably require some general scheme of drainage (though I am 
 assured no work of a costly character will be necessary) it should 
 be dealt with by some scheme of subdivision before selection, and 
 I recommend that a reliable man (an officer of the department, if 
 possible) should be sent to make a careful inspection, and report 
 upon the locality and the best method of dealing with it. From 
 the Warren river easterly the country contains large tracts of good 
 soils, but at present these are beyond possible access, as there are 
 no ports along the coast. Roughly, I think the whole of the 
 available lands may probably be estimated at 20,000 acres, in about 
 equal proportions of uplands and lowlands, which should be cap- 
 able of producing 50,000 tons of potatoes per annum, worth at least 
 ^150,000 on the ground, at present values." 
 
 The area mentioned by Mr. Brockman does not nearly represent 
 the total area of potato land in the colony. The localities referred 
 to in the report are those where the potato can be made a staple 
 and re-current crop, but there are thousands of acres in other 
 localities where at least one crop of pototoes can be grown between 
 frost and heat in the year. The soils best suited to this crop, and 
 the manuring of them, is dealt with by the agricultural chemist in 
 
5 12 
 
 that part of the GUIDE specially devoted to soils and manuring, and 
 in these notes it is only necessary to say that whatever kind of 
 manure is used potash should always he liberally supplied. 
 
 PREPARING SEED POTATOES. 
 
 This apparently simple operation is too often put past lightly, 
 and without having due heed paid to the importance involved. As 
 in the case of all other kinds of crops, the ultimate success of the 
 potato crop depends very materially upon the character of seed 
 deposited in the soil. Opinion, we may safely assume, is pretty 
 well agreed that soundness and a high degree of vitality are essential 
 qualities in the seed. Apart from these generally accepted qualifica- 
 tions, however, there are other questions of considerable influence 
 which will amply repay full and careful investigation and observa- 
 tion. The point as to whether potatoes should be planted whole 
 or cut into parts or " sets " is, as yet, widely disputed. With a large 
 and important section of potato-growers the use of whole seed 
 is preferred. It is claimed by supporters of that system that the 
 extra cost entailed by the greater weight of tubers required is 
 abundantly recouped by the better results obtained. The entire 
 seed, they maintain, produces a heavier yield, and what is equally 
 important, a crop of more regular size and shape, and therefore a 
 much larger proportion of marketable potatoes. In potato-growing 
 the quantity of saleable tubers is the hrst consideration. It is not 
 excess in number so much as heavy weight that is deemed a profit- 
 able crop. If, therefore, the whole seed produces a better scaling 
 crop without perceptibly reducing the number, the believers in 
 this method have a strong case. And there is good ground for 
 believing that in making such claims they do not overstate the facts. 
 They adopt and advocate the planting of whole seed, because 
 experience has proved to their satisfaction that that is, in the long 
 run, the more profitable system. Testimony to the advantages of 
 this met liod is also furnished by the fact that it is gradually extending 
 the ranks of its already numerous followers. Further striking 
 evidence of the utility of the practice is supplied in the favourable 
 opinion entertained of it by the more extensive and successful 
 growers, notably such as aim especially at producing high-cla<s 
 samples for the seed potato market. It is with this cla-s 
 of growers that the whole seed method finds its chief support. 
 It may be observed that it is not recommended that the largest 
 sized potatoes should be used for seed. The medium si/ed 
 are preferred as being equally efficacious, while more economical. 
 Very small potatoes should on no account be used for seed. Seed 
 potatoes are better to have only a moderate number of eyes. The 
 buds are more likely to be strong and vigorous in growth when this 
 is the case. Although the greater proportion of the most skilled 
 potato-growers advise the use of medium-si/ed whole seed, and the 
 method is increasing in popularity, the plan of cutting tubers still 
 enjoys widespread favor. The chief advantage of this more laborious 
 
 
5*3 
 
 system is the direct saving of seed effected. In cutting the potato 
 it is desirable that at least two eyes be left in each set or part. A 
 surer growth is thereby attained. It is, under all circumstances, a 
 mistake to attempt to cut too many sets from one potato. Three 
 sets may sometimes be got, but two will, as a rule, be more profit- 
 able. Thinly-cut sets, like very small whole seed, will only pro- 
 duce an irregular, inferior crop, wholly unprofitable to the grower. 
 When misses are to be avoided in the crop the following plan of 
 treating the seeds is a good one : The sets are started into growth 
 before planting, and this is how to do it most economically. Make 
 boxes about 30 inches square, and about 10 inches deep. A thick 
 layer of wood ashes is spread on the bottom of the box, and on this 
 the seed is packed, either whole or cut. Then another layer of 
 ashes, and another layer of potatoes, and so on till the box weighs 
 about 100 Ibs. The sets soon commence to sprout. They are then 
 fit for planting. There may be a rope handle on each side of the 
 boxes, which are moved along the rows, and the seed is put into 
 the drills and covered up. Sets that have not started into growth 
 can be returned to the ashes until they do sprout ; or if there is no 
 growth in them, then they can be used otherwise. The process 
 does not take much more time than the ordinary plan of carrying 
 out the seed, but it adds immensely to the certainty of the crop. 
 Where it is desired to pickle potatoes as a preventive of disease, the 
 following device (see next page), described on page 294, part n of 
 the GUIDE, will be found handy. The following simple hints on 
 potato culture will be found of valueto those lacking the necessary 
 experience : 
 
 Seed. i. Keep the seed as cool as possible, to avoid sprouting 
 until wanted to do so, because the first eyes are the strongest and 
 best, and if broken off the next eyes are weaker, and do not produce 
 such good crops. 2. Reject any seed which looks diseased ; do 
 not even use the part that appears sound, because the spawn, which 
 reproduces disease, lives through the winter in the potato, and will 
 develop in favorable weather. 3. Cut the sets a few days before 
 planting. Don't put them in heaps, but spread them out on a dry 
 floor, and dust them over with air-slaked lime, letting the sets take 
 up as much lime as will stick. This allows the cut surface to dry 
 and harden before planting, and helps to protect from disease, 
 because the spawn, which reproduces the disease, can live in the 
 ground a long time, and finds easy entrance into the freshly moist 
 surface, especially when the sets are planted on warm moist dung. 
 4. Don't cut the sets very small, because by doing so enough 
 nourishment is not left to support the young plant, and a sickly 
 plant will not resist disease. 5. Don't plant the sets very close, 
 because the more the air can play about the stalks the healthier the 
 plant will be. 6. Plant early, so that the tubers may be well 
 developed before the period at which blight usually sets in, because 
 the blight always produces the worst effect on the crop when young. 
 
7. " Don't put all your eggs in one basket," but try planting a small 
 quantity of well-known disease-resisting varieties ; for instance, the 
 " magnum bonum " is a heavy cropper, very disease-resisting, raid 
 though rather soft in the early season as compared with the 
 " champion," it keeps well right through the summer. 8. Don't 
 use the very smallest tubers for seed, because they are often not 
 fully grown, and therefore will not produce good results. You 
 would not use the lightest and smallest oats for seed ; why do so 
 with potatoes ? 9. Change seed frequently, and always select seed 
 from a perfectly different class of land to that for which it is 
 required ; merely getting seed from a distance is of slight importance 
 compared with getting sound seed from a different | class of : land. 
 
 10. Keep the crop very clean, use the hoe frequently, because by 
 doing so you keep the plant healthy and avoid its being choked 
 with weeds, which help the disease to spread, ir. Always try to 
 plant on fresh ground on which potatoes have not been grown for 
 several years, because the spawn which reproduces disease can live 
 for several years in the ground, and could affect the sets as stated 
 in No. 3. 12. Earth up repeatedly with line, dry earth after each 
 hoeing, because the coating of earth prevents a great deal of the 
 fungus from reaching the potato when it falls from the leaves ; the 
 coating of earth also protects the potato from injury by slugs, 
 vermin, birds, etc.; and recollect that the disease enters the potato 
 
most easily where the skin is broken. 13. Recollect that the potato 
 requires potash. On most arable land 3 cwt. to 5 cwt. of kainit per 
 aere is of great benefit. 14. To produce its full effect on the crop, 
 kainit should be spread some weeks before planting. 15. Those 
 \vlio only grow small quantities of potatoes for eating would do 
 well to try cropping every alternate row with carrots, parsnips, or 
 some such crop, so as to let the potato drills be as airy as possible. 
 1 6. It is better to use a moderate dressing of farmyard manure, 
 with a small dressing of artificial manure, rather than a heavy 
 dressing of farmyard manure alone, because the warmth produced 
 by a heavy dressing of farmyard manure encourages slugs, worms, 
 etc., which injure the tubers, whilst the artificial manure helps to 
 keep them away. 17. If disease shows itself, earth up well at once, 
 so as to leave, say, 4in. of fine dry earth over the tubers, because 
 the earth-coating protects the tubers from spawn falling from the 
 leaves. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 TOBACCO AND ITS CULTIVATION. 
 
 The following is extracted from an article by Mr. T. Phillips- 
 Gibson, an expert, which appeared recently in the Gazette of the 
 New South Wales department of agriculture, and is thoroughly 
 applicable to the cultivation of tobacco in this colony. 
 
 The tobacco plant is known to botanists by the generic name 
 of Nicotiana (a name confirmed by Linnaeus), in honor of Jean 
 Nicot, the ambassador from the King of France to Portugal, and 
 who first procured seeds, which he forwarded to France. The first 
 description of the plant is given by Ovideo, in a work published in 
 Seville in 1535 ; and Lobel, in an appendix to his History of 
 Plants (1576), gives a drawing of a tube used in smoking by the 
 natives of San Salvador. The genus Nicotiana belongs to the 
 natural order Solanacecc or nightshade family, to which order 
 belongs the potato, tomato, capsicum, henbane and deadly night- 
 shade, all of which are remarkable for the poisonous qualities of 
 their foliage. Of some 50 varieties of the genus Nicotiana all are 
 natives of America except two, namely, X. siiaveolens, Lhem., which 
 is a native of all the Australian colonies, and is known as " native 
 tobacco " ; and X.fragrans, a native of New Caledonia. The best- 
 known species are as follows : 
 
 1. Nicotiana tabacnni, of which there are two varieties, viz., 
 niacroplivlla (Maryland tobacco), and angustifolia (Virginian tobacco). 
 Each of these two varieties- is divided into several sub-varieties, 
 chiefly distinguished by the leaves having stalks or being stalkless. 
 N. tabacuni V. niacwphylla is the variety which affords the famous 
 Cuban and Manilla tobaccoes; it has a broad leaf, which is fine, soft, 
 and thin, and is much valued in the trade for the finer qualities of 
 tobacco and cigar wrappers. A T . tabacuni ?-. angustifohum is the 
 most commonly cultivated variety in the United States and India. 
 It makes good snuff, and is stated to be the kind from which the 
 celebrated Latakia tobacco is made. 
 
 2. Xicolidiiti /7/.v//(v/, best known as Hungarian tobacco, is 
 largely grown in Europe, Asia, and America. There are also two 
 varieties, a large leaved and a small leaved kind, both of which 
 yield tobacco of good quality. 
 
 3. Xicoliana /Vr.wV</, a form of X. lohaciini, produced by climatic 
 influences, but long thought to be a distinct type. This variety 
 affords the famous Shirax tobacco. As this is the kind which may 
 probably be most successfully grown in this colony, and has 
 
5^7 
 
 been recommended for that purpose by Mr. Turner, botanist to the 
 department (Agricnllnnil Gazelle, Vol. II, part I, page 20), special 
 reference will be made to the Persian methods of growing at the 
 end of this article. 
 
 4. Xicoliiinn crispa. This species is much grown in Syria and 
 on the Mediterranean coast, and furnishes leaves for the celebrated 
 Levantine cigars. 
 
 5. Xiiviitiiiii rcpiiiuhi, a native of Mexico. It has small leaves, 
 iHcd for imparting the peculiar aroma to Mexican cigars and cigar- 
 ettes. The remaining species, notably A T . ginned, ^liilinostt, longi- 
 //(>;</, iiuiiii, and sdinjuiiu'ti, are of no commercial importance, -being 
 of interest only to the botanist or horticulturist ; but mention must 
 be made of the beautiful white flowered A", tijjinis, now so largely 
 used as a decorative pot plant and for bouquets. 
 
 CULTIVATION. Of the many conditions which affect the quality 
 of tobacco, the most important is climate ; other conditions 
 may be in a measure modified or else created, but very little can be 
 done with regard to climate. The most rational mode of over- 
 coming this difficulty would be in the selection of seed of the 
 varieties which have been grown with success under similar climatic 
 conditions as prevail in the district proposed to be cultivated. 
 
 Tobacco thrives best in a good soil, rich in vegetable 
 mould ; but light soil containing a good amount of organic matter 
 and well drained will produce an excellent smoking tobacco, and 
 on such soil the finest leaves are grown. The more clay in the soil 
 the thicker the leaves become, and the aroma becomes less, and is 
 consequently less suited for the finer qualities of smoking tobacco, 
 although the weight of yield may be heavier. The opinion of an 
 experienced Ohio planter (Mr. Popenoe) may be of interest. He 
 says : " A rich sandy second bottom I believe to be the best for 
 raising tobacco. Black river bottom will yield more to the acre 
 than any other kind of land, but the tobacco is not of so fine a 
 quality. It grows larger and has coarser stems and a heavier body, 
 and consequently, in my opinion, is not so good for wrappers or 
 fine cut as the second bottom or upland tobacco." 
 
 The site for a tobacco field should have good drainage and be 
 sheltered from high winds, which would split the leaves to ribbons 
 and thus spoil their market value. In countries where it is largely 
 cultivated various methods of culture are adopted to secure this last 
 object, the fields generally being bordered by rows of plants to act 
 as wind-breaks. In Holland they are surrounded by hedges some 
 seven feet high, and are subdivided into small plots by rows, usually 
 tall varieties of peas, which break the force of the wind. Conse- 
 quently the Dutch growers obtain as much as 50 per cent, of " first 
 quality " leaves, while in other places 25 per cent, is considered a 
 good average. In the United States several rows of scarlet runners, 
 or common beans, are used for a similar purpose, while in Cuba 
 and parts of India bananas are planted in rows through the fields, 
 
thus protecting against the wind and preventing the tobacco becom- 
 ing sunburnt. The produce of any of those plants forms besides an 
 important item in the farm receipts. It is, however, recommended 
 that only annual plants be grown for this purpose, peas, beans, 
 sorghum, or maize being all suitable, and thus permit of a proper 
 rotation of crops. 
 
 Having now determined upon the site of the tobacco field the 
 farmer has to consider what kind he will grow, and the means at 
 his disposal to satisfy the wants of the different varieties. Though 
 tobacco is a hardy plant, and will grow under varied conditions, 
 yet, to become a profitable crop, it must not be grown in a situation 
 very different from that to which it is suited by nature. It must be 
 remembered that the plant is a native of a warm climate and 
 thrives best in a moist atmosphere, therefore, in such a climate, by 
 employing ordinary means, tobacco may be made to yield a profit 
 not attainable in less favored situations. A warm, moister climate 
 will permit of the selection of the sorts that fetch the highest price 
 in the market, and in a suitable soil the profit will be such as is not 
 easily realised from any other crop. 
 
 As the Havana tobaccos command the highest price, growers 
 everywhere attempt to introduce and cultivate them. There is, 
 indeed, no difficulty in growing these varieties, but they speedily 
 degenerate if the conditions are not favorable. Virginian tobacco 
 is the most favored in temperate climates, as it does not require 
 such a high temperature, but on account of its botanical charac- 
 teristics it is not much liked by cigar or cut tobacco manufacturers. 
 For these reasons the Persian tobacco, as recommended by this 
 department, will generally prove most satisfactory in this colony, 
 the climate of Persia nearly approaching that of New South Wales, 
 and the formation of the leaf permitting its use in manufacturing 
 the higher qualities of tobacco, or even cigars. It fully meets the 
 requirements of the trade, as stated in the following extract from 
 one of the trade journals, reviewing the results of the 1889 crop : 
 " A high price is generally commanded by the tobacco, no matter of 
 what variety, that has a smooth, thin, and elastic leaf, and which 
 possesses an even golden color and fine aroma, with thin ribs, 
 far apart and even. The wider the leaf, and the less they are torn, 
 the greater the number of wrappers which can becutfivm one pound 
 of tobacco, and consequently manufacturers will pay more for 
 brands possessing these qualities than for others that are un- 
 reliable." 
 
 There are among growers as many varieties of tobacco as there 
 are varieties of cabbage, each district favouring a particular kind. 
 It may, however, be said of the varieties most generally known in 
 this colony, that the Connecticut seed leaf, and Havana, are most 
 in use for wrappers, while the Kentucky, Virginia, and Mai viand 
 are employed for smoking and chewing tobacco. 
 
 
s \a 7>Yrt.v. The first operation necessary in starting tobacco 
 \ving is the formation of a seed bed. The soil for this must be 
 
 light and friable nature, and should he broken up to a depth of 
 [8 inches some months before sowing. In America a warm shel- 
 tered position, such as the side of a barn, is generally selected, and 
 a drain is dug round the bed, the soil being used in raising the sur- 
 face-. It is a common plan to burn a pile of brushwood on top, 
 thus supplying potash, and at the same time destroying the seeds 
 of weeds, or the eggs of insects. The time for sowing in New 
 South Wales is the end of July and the beginning of August, but it 
 must not be sown till danger of late frost is over. Unless the soil 
 of the seed-bed is naturally rich, it should be heavily manured with 
 
 i farmyard manure soon after breaking up, and the surface 
 must be kept free and open, a crust on no account being allowed 
 to form. A second digging, in a couple of weeks, to thoroughly 
 blend the manure with the soil, and reduce it to a line tilth, will be 
 very beneficial ; in fact the liner the soil the greater the proportion 
 of seed that will germinate. The area of the seed-bed will of 
 course depend upon the extent of the proposed cultivation, and as 
 usually about i square inch in space is allowed to each young plant, 
 it will require a seed-bed of 36 square feet (say 9 by 4) to supply 
 seedlings for an acre planted at equal distances of three feet apart ; 
 the 300 odd seedlings not being too many to allow for possible 
 failures in the iield. An ounce of seed contains, roughly, enough to 
 plant about seven acres ; but as it has not a high percentage of vitality 
 it is usual to sow at the rate of half an ounce for an acre ; and being so 
 very small, a common practice is to mix it with about four times its 
 bulk of silver sand, which ensures an even sowing. The seed-bed 
 having been duly prepared, and made as smooth as possible, the 
 mixed sand and seed is evenly sowed over it, and covered with the 
 thinnest possible layer of very line earth, after which a thorough 
 watering with a line rose watering pot is essential. In a hot situation 
 the bed ought to be covered with a sheet or a layer of straw spread 
 over rods raised about four inches from the ground. This not 
 alone protects from the mid-day sun, but checks the rapid evapora- 
 tion from the earth, keeping the surface moist. The young plants 
 will appear in about a week after sowing, and are at iirst 
 very tender ; they require frequent waterings of weak liquid 
 manure ; a solution of guano is very suitable. All weeds 
 must be carefully removed and grubs diligently watched for. In 
 from seven to eight weeks the young seedlings will be tit for trans- 
 planting. 
 
 Field Culture. Land on which it is intended to grow tobacco 
 should be well ploughed not less than nine inches deep ; twelve 
 inches if possible, on heavy soil, is better still. The crop will generally 
 be more successful if the land has lain fallow the season before ; or 
 a rotation of crops, carried out with an intelligent knowledge of the 
 needs of the crops, will be the aim of the practical farmer. The 
 
520 
 
 following system of a three years' rotation will be found one of the 
 best to adopt for ordinary farm operations, and is often followed 
 in the tobacco districts of the United States : First year, wheat. 
 After the wheat harvest, the land is ploughed and sown with clover, 
 constituting the second year's crop. This is either converted into 
 dry feed for cattle or, when having attained sufficient growth, is 
 grazed for some months. It is then ploughed and cross-ploughed 
 during the late months of winter and early spring, after which 
 the field is ready for the tobacco crop of the third year. 
 
 Before planting, the land should be ridged, the distance between 
 the ridges of course depending on the kind of tobacco to be planted, 
 the larger kinds requiring more room than the smaller-leaved and 
 tall sorts, but they should be far enough apart to allow a free 
 passage between the rows of plants without injuring the leaves. 
 Generally, three feet apart between the rows, and the same 
 between the plants, will be sufficient. In some localities the 
 plough is run lightly over the field at right angles, thus forming 
 small hills on which the seedlings are planted. Planting should 
 only be attempted in the evening, or on a cloudy day. Before 
 transplanting, the seed-bed should receive a good watering, 
 so that the young plants may be lifted without injury to 
 the roots. A good plan for lifting is to take up the seed bed, earth 
 and plants together, by shovelfuls, carrying all in a mass to the 
 field, where it is broken up, and each young plant, with a little lump 
 of earth attached, placed in the position in which it is to grow. 
 The planting is not more difficult than that required for cabbages. 
 A good plan is for a boy to walk up along the line, placing the plants 
 alternately to right and left, being followed by the planters, who 
 simply dibble the seedlings in the hills or ridges. A smart boy will 
 lay enough plants to keep two men busy. The plants are usually 
 dibbled in a little hollow, for convenience made by the heel, which 
 serves as a small reservoir for water to start the young plant into 
 life. After each day's planting the ground should be well sprinkled 
 with water, particularly if the weather is dry. Tobacco is usually 
 planted in the quincunx system, as it affords more room for the 
 development of the leaves. It need hardly be mentioned that in a 
 few days any blanks which occur should be tilled up, and during 
 the whole time of growth a close watch must be kept for injurious 
 insects. When once the plants have taken root they grow very quickly, 
 and the after cultivation is simple, though requiring care. When 
 they are from six to nine inches high they require to be hilled after 
 the manner of mai/e and other crops, and if the ground is not 
 naturally rich a top dressing of manure may now be applied. One 
 or two hoeings are necessary during the growing period to keep 
 down weeds, as it must be remembered that everything that detracts 
 from the growth of the plant is detrimental to the quality of the leaf. 
 The larva- of insects may now be troublesome, and a tlnck of ducks 
 turned into the field will prove useful as scavengers or collectors. 
 
Turkey s are often allowed to roam the fields for this purpose in 
 Yirgina and Maryland. 
 
 About three months after planting the tobacco will begin to 
 tlower, when the flower bud appears the heart should be broken off 
 or pinched out, and at the same time the lower or bottom leaves of the 
 plant are to be removed. The pinching of the llower buds sends the 
 sap needed in the formation of the flowers to nourish the leaves, and 
 the bottom leaves being small, dirty, and of an inferior quality would, 
 if harvested with the crop, only depreciate the whole. There seems 
 to be no fixed rule regarding the number of leaves allowed to be 
 matured on each plant, but from an analysis of the usage of 
 different countries the minimum may be stated as six, and the 
 maximum as twenty-two, but this is a point that can only be 
 decided by individual experience, based on the locality and vigor 
 of the plant. Shortly after the plants are topped, suckers will 
 appear at the axils of the leaves, and these must be broken off as 
 soon as possible, or the size of the leaves will be interfered with. 
 Another operation which is, however, only practised in some parts of 
 America and Cuba, is called " priming," and means that shortly 
 before harvesting, the large bottom leaves, which are now probably 
 lying on the ground, are broken off ; but this is not a universal 
 custom, one grower may practise it while his neighbor may not, 
 but, when cutting the crop, will separate these leaves, and sell them 
 as " lugs," at about half the price of the good leaves. A caution 
 may, however, be of use ; when the tobacco is not " primed " it 
 must be " topped " lower, or a risk is run that the upper leaves will 
 not mature. 
 
 In the above directions the expression " broken " is applied to 
 the removal of the flower-buds and leaves ; it is to be remembered 
 that these are not to be cut off, else the sap will run to waste, 
 which should go to strengthen and mature the leaves. 
 
 Tobacco commences to ripen about three months after plant- 
 ing, and is indicated by the leaves assuming a darker green color, 
 succeeded by a marbled appearance, yellowish blotches becoming 
 visible, the leaves will also be found to have a sticky or gummy 
 feel, and the tips bend downwards. The crop having reached this 
 stage is fit for harvesting and curing. 
 
 There are two methods of harvesting, i.e., cutting down the 
 whole plant, or gathering the leaves singly. On no account must 
 either be attempted on a damp day, or until the dew is off the 
 plants. Both these plans of gathering have their advantages. 
 The first is the easiest, and permits of quicker handling, but the 
 leaves have to be sorted afterwards, while the latter, though 
 permitting the sorting of the leaves in the first operation as well as 
 the development of a greater number of mature leaves, is the most 
 expensive and laborious, and in hot climates the single leaf is apt 
 to dry too quickly. In the wanner districts the plant should be cut 
 entire, while in the cooler parts the other method may be followed 
 
5 22 
 
 with advantage. For cutting, a chopper or heavy knife is used, and 
 the method is similar to cutting sugar cane, the plant being caught 
 by the left hand and cut close to the ground at a single stroke. 
 They should be removed with as little delay as possible to a shed, to 
 prevent them becoming sunburnt, and in large plantations tem- 
 porary structures are erected in the field for this purpose, consisting 
 of an open framework laid crosswise about five feet from the 
 ground, and covered by alight roof of boards or straw. The plants 
 are hung on the light cross rods, which are then carried to the 
 drying shed. The process of curing now commences, and on the 
 success of this operation depends in a great measure the ultimate 
 value of the crop. No matter how fine the plants may be, or how 
 heavy the production, an error in curing is sufficient to destroy, in 
 a great degree, the work of the season. The drying shed should 
 have windows and doors sufficient to ensure a free current of air, 
 but in this colony the ordinary barn, built of slabs, will be sufficiently 
 open to answer this purpose. The barn, or drying shed, should be 
 high enough to permit three rows of plants being hung one above 
 the other, say, 16 to 18 feet from floor to roof. The rods, with the 
 tobacco still hung on them as they are carried from the field, are 
 now placed on poles or scantlings in the shed, and may be as close 
 as possible, so long as the tobacco is not crowded or crushed. In 
 8 or 10 days the leaves will turn yellow, during which time sudden 
 changes of temperature must be guarded against. The thin veins 
 dry first, and gradually the ribs and stalks, until at the end of from 
 six to eight weeks they are all entirely dry, and the tobacco will be 
 ready for stripping. 
 
 The name stripping is at once suggestive of the next operation, 
 which simply consists of breaking the stems of the leaves from the 
 stalk, and at the same time sorting the grades. In order that the 
 leaf may not be damaged, this is usually done on a damp day, when 
 the plants having absorbed some moisture from the air, are pliant 
 and elastic ; or, if the weather continues dry, water may be sprinkled 
 over the floor, so that by evaporation moisture may penetrate 
 through the plants. As the leaves are stripped they are sorted 
 according to quality. The " lugs," or worse quality, are at the 
 bottom of the plant, and should be put along with black and ragged 
 leaves. The second quality (" shipping " tobacco), in America is a 
 grade above the lugs ; these are the red or brown leaves, and they 
 should be tied in separate bundles. The highest quality is called 
 " manufacturing," consisting of the finest and brightest leaves, and 
 these are also kept separate. Other terms in use amongst tobacco- 
 growers for these grades are first quality, " wrappers ; " medium 
 quality, " seconds ; " and the lugs are called " fillers." In forming 
 a bundle of the stripped leaves, the butts are held in the hand and 
 pressed tightly till the hand is full, a leaf is then folded so as to 
 form a wrapper two inches wide, this is wound tightly and smoothly 
 around the butts of the leaves from the end downwards for about 
 
5*3 
 
 three inches, the bundle is then opened in the middle and the end 
 of the wrapper neatly tucked through the opening, pressing all 
 down nice and compact ; this forms what is in trade called a " hand." 
 These hands are now laid aside until they are " bulked," an opera- 
 tion in which they are placed in a heap to heat, in order to develop 
 color and flavor by fermentation. Each day's stripping should be 
 bulked the same night before it dries. The tobacco remains in 
 these heaps for about three weeks, care being taken that the leaves 
 do not turn mouldy or over-heated, which is ascertained by pushing 
 the hand into the middle of the pile. At the end of that time the 
 whole will have assumed an even color, and may be hung up to 
 finally dry before packing for market. 
 
 In America tobacco is usually packed (for export) in large 
 barrels or tierces, Cuban tobacco in bales, and Indian in boxes or 
 split bamboo baskets ; in all cases, however, the butts of the hands 
 must be to the outside, the ends of the leaves pointing inwards. 
 They should be packed evenly and firmly to prevent shaking in 
 transit, and each layer ought to be well pressed down until the 
 package is rilled, when it is closed down, marked with the gross 
 and net weights, the name or brand of the grower, and usually the 
 date of packing. On the subject of packing, it must be remembered 
 that a well-packed parcel realises a higher price (from Jd. to id. 
 per Ib.) than a slovenly one, as the leaf is in a better condition, and 
 when unpacked is in less danger of being damaged. 
 
 This, so far as as the farmer is concerned, concludes the labor 
 pertaining to tobacco-growing, as the crop is now ready for market 
 and should be disposed of before sweating, which will take place if 
 held over till the hot weather of the next year sets in. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HINTS ON LAYING DOWN LAND TO GRASS. 
 
 (COMPILED BY W. ADAMSON.) 
 
 The utility of forming artificial pasture for stock, though 
 generally recognised, is not so frequently practised as might be 
 advantageous ; for, by means of it, not only double, but in some 
 cases four times the amount of food may be obtained from an acre 
 of land than it would produce under natural grasses. In such 
 varieties of soil and climate as exist in this country, different modes 
 of preparing the ground for the reception of grass seeds must be 
 followed. In some rich soils, where the climate is moist, good 
 results are obtained from sowing the seeds in the ashes of the burnt 
 scrub, at the rate of 30 Ibs. to the acre, without any other cultiva- 
 tion ; but such a mode would be inefficacious in ordinary soil, which 
 requires to be well and deeply tilled before the seed is sown. The 
 method of 'sowing grass seeds with a grain crop, as practised in 
 more temperate climates, is entirely unsuited to this country, and 
 should never be practised. Whether the land is new or old, it 
 should be broken up by ploughing and subsoiling in the course of 
 the previous season then, on the approach of seed time, well 
 worked and brought to a line tilth with cultivator, roller, and harrow, 
 any rubbish being gathered and burnt, and the ashes spread. The 
 ground will then be ready to receive the seed, which should be put 
 in as soon as the land is sufficiently moistened by the autumn rains. 
 Grass seeds should be lightly covered with a bush harrow, and the 
 ground immediately rolled ; but if clover seed is added, it may be 
 sown after the ground is harrowed, and covered by the roller. 
 Grass should not be allowed to seed the first year, as that tends to 
 cause the plants to die out ; as soon as the flower stems appear, it 
 should be cut with a scythe, or fed off by young cattle, but it must 
 at no period, and especially during summer, be eaten bare. The 
 seed should not be stinted in quantity or variety, as better 
 crops are obtained where different sorts are grown together 
 and the ground well covered, which can only be attained by using 
 a sufficiency of seed ; and though that is not always done, it is 
 decidedly uneconomical to limit the quantity. No less than forty to 
 fifty pounds to the acre should be sown on ordinary soils, with 
 clover seeds in addition. With regard to the proportion of the 
 different kinds to use, that depends so much on the nature of the 
 
525 
 
 soil and the kind of stock to be grazed, that no definite list can 
 be LMVi-n that would be suitable everywhere. The permanency of 
 pastures depends even more upon the good management they receive 
 than upon any other circumstance, for the best pastures will succumb 
 if gra/ed bare in hot weather; and, therefore, the only sure policy is 
 to IISP the paddocks alternately, so that each may have time to 
 recuperate while the others are being grazed. In soils that are not 
 very rich, it is advisable to top-dress the ground with manure the 
 following spring after sowing. Natural pastures may be improved 
 to a certain extent by sowing grass seeds and harrowing them in, 
 without the ground being prepared ; but the benefit to be derived is 
 seldom commensurate with the expenses incurred. 
 
 CRESTED DOGSTAIL (Cynosunis cristatns). Perennial ; height, i 
 to ii feet. A valuable tine short grass. It forms a close, dense 
 turf ~of graceful nutritive herbage, and is little affected by extremes 
 of weather. Stock of all kinds, especially sheep, are very fond of 
 it, until it commences to ripen, when it becomes wiry. On account 
 of its close-growing habit and evergreen foliage, it is particularly 
 valuable for lawns, tennis-grounds, &c., and other places kept 
 under by the scythe. It succeeds well in Gippslancl, and is a 
 capital winter grass. From 3 to 6 Ibs. per acre may be sown along 
 with other grasses. The late Dr. Schomburg, of Adelaide, in one 
 of his reports on his experimental grass plots during the continued 
 drought of the eighties, states : "The drought had no effect on 
 crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus). All stock are fond of it, and 
 it forms a close sward." 
 
 HARD FESCUE (Festuca duriuscida). Perennial ; height, i^feet. 
 A dwarf-growing, hardy, and robust grass. It is one of the 
 most valuable and important of the fescue tribe of pasture grasses. 
 It retains its verdure during continued drought in a very remarkable 
 manner, and is one of the best of pasture grasses. All kinds of 
 stock eat it with avidity, but especially sheep, which always thrive 
 well on the succulent herbage it produces. From the fineness of 
 its foliage and evergreen appearance during winter, it is eminently 
 adapted for sowing in parks and .ornamental grounds. Sow (if 
 alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 RIB GRASS (Planiago lanceolata). Perennial ; height, J foot. 
 Is one of the best-known of our grasses, and holds a place in almost 
 every pasture. Its root is perennial ; its leaves are numerous, 
 lanceolate acute, tapering towards both ends, spreading or 
 prostrate, and of a deep green color, and they stand upon broad, 
 flat, ribbed footstalks, and are accompanied at their insertion with 
 large tufts of soft, white, woolly fibres. It produces its foliage at 
 an early period of the year, and is readily eaten by cattle, sheep, 
 and horses, and is therefore to be recommended as an ingredient in 
 all mixtures for spring and summer pasturage. Sow with other 
 grasses, 2 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
MEADOW FOXTAIL (A lopecnms pmtcnsis). Perennial; height, 2 
 feet. This is one of the most desirable of all grasses for permanent 
 pasture, being early and rapid in growth. It thrives best on well- 
 drained, rich, loamy, and clayey soils, and makes excellent hay. 
 It is eagerly eaten by all kinds of stock. Being somewhat coarse in 
 habit, it is not suitable for lawns or bowling-greens. It is admirably 
 adapted for irrigation, as it grows very early pasturage, and soon 
 revives again with \vater. Sow (if alone) 15 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 TALL FESCUE (Festnca elatior}. Perennial ; height, 3 feet to 5 
 feet. This is a very productive and strong growing variety, and is 
 greatly relished by stock, both as hay and green food. It is most 
 suitable for moist and strong soils, and is considered to be one of 
 the best grasses in cultivation. Being very tall, it is not suited for 
 lawn purposes. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 PRAIRIE GRASS (Bromus unioloides). Perennial ; height, 2^ feet 
 to 3 feet. This is one of the most nutritious of fodder and pasture 
 grasses. It produces enormous crops, and can be cut four or live 
 times a year, providing it is not allowed to go to seed. It succeeds 
 well in "almost any soil, but prefers that which is wet or moist. 
 Stock will eat it greedily, either in the green or dry state. A small 
 proportion of it is valuable in mixtures, but upon the whole it is 
 best alone. The demand for this grass increases year by year, 
 proving that it \vill well repay cultivation. Sow (if alone) 40 to 60 
 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 COUCH, OR BERMUDA GRASS Doob grass of India (Cynodon 
 dactylon). Perennial. Valuable in dry situations. It is of a similar 
 nature to the buffalo grass, but very much finer in appearance. It 
 is exceedingly useful for binding railway embankments, sand hills r 
 dam and river banks, on account of its long creeping shoots, which 
 root at every joint. It also makes a very good lawn when kept 
 well cut. March, April, October, and November are the best 
 months to sow, as during the cold winter months it is unlikely to 
 germinate if put down. Sow 7 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 YORKSHIRE FOG, OR WOOLY SOFT GRASS (Holcns lanatns). 
 Perennial ; height, i^ to 2 ft. Although it is not as valuable as many 
 of the other grasses, nevertheless it will grow well in any descrip- 
 tion of ground, whether poor or rich, swampy or dry, producing 
 crops under the most unfavourable circumstances. In the interior 
 of central Australia, where rain seldom falls, it is said to succeed 
 admirably. On marshy lands, where scarcely any other kind of 
 grass will grow, it should be sown. Sow (if alone) 20 Ibs. to the 
 acre. 
 
 RED TOP GRASS (Agrostis rtil&iris). Perennial ; height, i to 2 
 feet. This is a valuable variety for permanent pasture, and 
 succeeds almost anywhere, but best in rich moist soil. If for 
 pasture, it should be fed close, as cattle do not relish it after grow- 
 ing up to seed. It is usually sown with Timothy and red clover. 
 Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
5*7 
 
 TALL MEADOW OAT GRASS (Jj V/M chitoir). Perennial ; height, 
 2 to 4 ft. A most valuable grass for pastures on account of its early 
 and luxuriant growth. It succeeds well on sandy soils, and also with- 
 stands drought better than rye grass. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the 
 acre. 
 
 WOOD MEADOW GRASS (Poa nciiionilis). Perennial ; height, i 
 to 2 feet. This grass, which is common in England in the woods 
 and thickets, has never been used to any great extent for pasture 
 purposes. It is a valuable variety, and is splendidly adapted for 
 moist and shady places, and should be included in most mixtures for 
 permanent pasture. For lawns and pleasure grounds, overshadowed 
 by trees, it is especially valuable. It is of a much thicker growth 
 than either Poa prattnsis or tririalis, and has a rather drooping panicle, 
 supported on a thin stalk, and the leaves are long, narrow, and soft. 
 If sown in good ground of a rather light character it produces a con- 
 siderable quantity of succulent herbage. Sow (if alone) 30 Ibs. to the 
 acre. 
 
 SHEEP'S FESCUE (Festuca ovina). Perennial ; height, i to i 
 ft. It is supposed to have received its name from Linnaeus on 
 account of sheep being so fond of it. Gmelin, the eminent Russian 
 botanist, says that the Tartars generally pitched their tents during 
 the summer months in close proximity to it, on account of its value 
 to their herds. A large proportion of this grass should be included 
 in all mixtures for dry districts, especially for sheep grazing, as they 
 greatly relish it. Excellent for its nutritive qualities. Being short 
 and dense in growth, combined with its line foliage, it is exceed- 
 ingly valuable for grass plots, etc. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 ITALIAN RYE GRASS (Lolium Italicum). Biennial ; height, 1% to 2 
 ft. A valuable biennial variety, which succeeds well in almost any 
 soil. It yields an abundance of food in the early spring. A little 
 is sometimes introduced into permanent pastures on account of its 
 early growth. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS ; known also as smooth-stalked meadow 
 grass, green grass, June grass (Poa pratensis). Perennial ; height, I 
 to 2 ft. It is one of the most popular grasses for pasture purposes in 
 America. It adapts itself to almost any variety of soil, from dry to 
 moist, and yields very productively at an early period of the season 
 (when all other grasses are comparatively dormant) herbage of the 
 most nutritious properties. It is quite distinct from poas in the 
 colour of the foliage and leaves. When once established it will stand 
 the driest summers. For lawn purposes it is exceedingly valuable, 
 forming a thick turf of even growth. It makes excellent hay. Sow 
 (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS (Poa trivialis). Perennial ; 
 height, 2 to 2^ ft. A valuable grass for good, deep, rich, moist loams, 
 and stiff heavy clays. It produces a constant suppy of nutritive 
 herbage, which is greatly relished by sheep, horses, and cattle. It 
 should be sown in mixture with other grasses for moist and congenial 
 
soils. Being very tender and succulent, it is not adapted for severe 
 cold situations. In appearance it is somewhat like P. pra*ensis, but 
 very different in habit and general properties. Sow (if alone) 30 Ibs. 
 to the acre. 
 
 MEADOW FESCUE (Feslucapratensis], English blue grass ; peren- 
 nial ; height, i^ to 2 feet. One of the best of our natural grasses 
 for permanent pastures, being very early, productive, and most 
 nutritious. It is greedily eaten by all kinds of stock, and has 
 excellent fattening qualities. It succeeds best in moist soils, although 
 it does well in almost any kind of land. In some parts of North 
 America it is said to remain green under the snow throughout the 
 winter, and is not uncommonly called '' evergreen grass." Com- 
 mander Mayne refers to it thus in his book, Four Years in British 
 Columbia and Vancouver's Island : " Cattle and horses are very fond 
 of F. pratcnsis, or sweet grass, and it has a wonderful effect in fat- 
 tening them. I have seen horses on Vancouver's Island, where the 
 same grass grows, which had been turned out in the autumn, 
 brought iti in April in splendid condition and as fresh as if they had 
 been most carefully treated all the time." So\v (if alone) 40 Ibs. to 
 the acre. 
 
 RED, OR CREEPING FKSCUE (Fcstuca rubra). Height, 2 to 3 feet. 
 A valuable grass of creeping habit, excellent for enduring severe 
 droughts. Its roots penetrate so deeply into the soil that it retains 
 its fresh green appearance when all others are burnt up. It is 
 particularly adapted for dry pastures. When just in flower it is 
 more nutritious than at an earlier period. Sow (if alone) 30 Ibs. to 
 the acre. 
 
 COCKSFOOT, OR ORCHARD GRASS (Dadylis glo'mcmla). Perennial ; 
 height, 3 to 6 feet. Of all the pasture grasses, cocksfoot has now 
 become the greatest favourite with stock-holders and farmers in this 
 colony, and is considered a most excellent permanent pasture grass, 
 the selectors of Gippsland preferring it far before the rye grass. 
 All kinds of stock are fond of it ; sheep fatten on it, and eat it most 
 readily ; it grows well on high, ridgy land, or in shady places, and 
 stands our summer heat lirst rate, making it a valuable grass for this 
 climate ; it is very productive during the summer, say from the 
 month of September to that of February ; if it once gets a good root 
 it will stand both floods and drought; it does well on high, light 
 land, which would not be suitable for many of the other gra 
 referred to ; it yields a large quantity of herbage, and from the 
 rapidity of its growth after cutting or feeding off, it is a very desir- 
 able grass to introduce into all pastures ; it is, perhaps, the hardiest 
 of all the perennial varieties. 1 have no hesitation in recommending 
 tins as a pasture grass that must prove of the highest value to all 
 who are engaged in pastoral and agricultural pursuits. Sow on scrub 
 land 20 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 VAK'inrs-LKAYKi) I'Y.scrK (7*Y.s///7 lictt'ivphylln). Perennial; 
 height, 2 to 2^ feet. A native of France, where it is largely grown, 
 
especially valuable for permanent pastures on account of its immense 
 yield of herbage. Having beautiful dark green foliage, it is very 
 suitable for parks, ornamental grounds, etc. Sow (if alone) 30 Ibs. 
 to the acre. 
 
 TIMOTHY GRASS (Phlenin pmlensc). Perennial, height, 2 to 3 feet. 
 This grass thrives best on moist soils or rich wheat-bearing 
 alluvial clay lands ; also on newly-reclaimed moorish soils. It affords 
 twice as much nourishment when its seeds are ripe as when it is 
 cut in Mower, and it is peculiarly valuable for either permanent 
 grass or alternate husbandry on strong, stiff, rather moist soils, in 
 consequence of its first yielding a hay crop and still continuing 
 nutritious. It is of strong growth, and yields abundant feed. On 
 dry soils timothy form a bulbous swelling at the base of the stems, 
 from which next year's growth starts, therefore stock should not 
 be allowed to pasture on it. Sow (if atone) 30 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 WATER MEADOW GRASS (Poa aquiitica). Perennial ; height, 2 to 3 
 feet. This variety is particularly valuable for damp meadows and 
 flooded grounds. In such places it grows luxuriantly and produces 
 a great quantity of herbage, and can be cut three or four times a 
 year. Although rather coarse in growth it is nevertheless very 
 nutritious. Sow (if alone) 28 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL (Anthoxanthiim odoralimi). Perennial ; 
 height, i to i^ feet. It is valuable on account of its delicious per- 
 fume, to which our pastures owe so much of their fragrance that it 
 should be included in all mixtures. The scent which it emits is not 
 so discernible in a fresh as in a dry state. Stock relish it greatly in 
 its young state, or when mixed with other grasses ; and it is well- 
 known in England that pastures in which this grass abounds 
 produce the finest flavoured meats. Having broad foliage, it is not 
 well adapted for lawns. It is not so productive as some of the 
 stronger growing varieties, such as cocksfoot and meadow foxtail, 
 but is of finer quality and comes early. Sow (if alone) 20 Ibs to the 
 acre. 
 
 CREEPING BENT, OR FIORIN (Agrostis alba var. stolonifera}. 
 Perennial; height, i to 2 feet. This grass, although not particularly 
 nutritious for cattle, should be included in permanent pasture mix- 
 tures, in consequence of its value in affording herbage early in spring 
 and late in autumn, before and after other grasses have commenced 
 or left off growing. Its long fibrous roots and creeping habit render 
 it valuable in damp or moist situations. Sow (if alone) 25 Ibs. to 
 the acre. 
 
 CHEWING'S FESCUE (Festucadurtusculavar. Chewing 1 s}. Peren- 
 nial ; height, i foot. A variety of hard fescue, successfully grown 
 in Southland, N.Z., and elsewhere. It thrives luxuriantly on the 
 light, stony soils, and on it sheep fatten rapidly. Its habit is to form 
 a close tuft, and by no means does its roots spread, like many of 
 the other varieties of natural grasses. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the 
 acre. 
 
530 
 
 PERENNIAL RYE GRASS (Lolium peren ne). Perennial ; height, ij 
 to 2 feet. This is one of our most largely cultivated and valued 
 grasses, and its merits are becoming more and more recognised 
 every year. It adapts itself to almost any soil, germinating freely 
 from seed, is easily propagated, and seeds abundantly. It is of up- 
 right habit, bearing abundance of nutritious foliage, which is at all 
 times relished by stock ; it stools out freely, but does not grow in 
 tufts ; its roots are fibrous and penetrating, giving it a permanency 
 that does not belong to many others. In selecting this seed, it is 
 advisable to obtain the heaviest samples, which, although perhaps 
 a little more expensive at the outset, will always prove the most satis- 
 factory in the end. Sow (if alone) 40 Ibs. to the acre. 
 
 NEW HUNGARIAN FORAGE GRASS. It originated in Russia, and 
 is recommended on account of the manner in \vhich it has stood on 
 the Hungary plains, where the dry, sterile nature of the country and 
 the long-continued droughts make so many plants succumb. This, 
 however, stands well, and has been known for thirty years to stand 
 when such robust crops as lucerne have been destroyed. It gives a 
 luxuriant crop, particularly on fresh sandy loam soil, and where the 
 climate is warm. It is found that animals eat it greedily, whether 
 in the green or dry state, so that it can be used as mown or saved 
 for winter use. The seed is sown in the early spring. It is also 
 useful in hlling up gaps where lucerne or clover crops have failed. 
 It will stand under favourable conditions for years, and give as much 
 food in one month as lucerne gives in three months. Sutton and 
 Sons, Reading, say : " It is a perennial, and in our experiments has 
 proved to be one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring. It 
 grows w r ith remarkable rapidity, and yields an immense quantity of 
 succulent herbage, equally suitable for soiling or for ensilage. All 
 kinds of stock eat it greedily, and the analysis made shows that it is 
 richer in flesh-formers than the Italian rye grass." 
 
 PASPALUM DILITATUM. A very valuable hardy grass, producing 
 enormous crops of fodder, and remaining green during the driest 
 summer. It stools out very strongly, and soon tills all gaps if sown 
 very thinly. Four pounds sufficient to sow an acre. An official 
 report from the Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, 
 gives 13 tons 7 cwt. per acre as the result of one cutting at the 
 experimental farm, Richmond river, and three or four cuttings a 
 year are predicted. As a pasture it is described as excellent. 
 
 CLOVERS. 
 
 TREFOIL, OR HOP CLOVER. Black medick (.!/<< ///</() lupnlina). 
 This clover is very distinct, bearing a yellow flower, is erect and 
 branching, and yields a large crop. It should be sown sparingly, 
 otherwise it will smother the other clovers. It is useful for sowing 
 with other grasses, at the rate ot 2 to 3 Ibs. per acre. If sown alone 
 it may be cut for hay. This is a clover highly esteemed in England, 
 where it is known under several different names. It grows on any 
 
soil that contains lime, and although it is an annual, it seeds itself so 
 freely that it may almost be classed as perennial. Stock of all kinds 
 like it, and it should be included in mixtures for all inferior soils 
 except such as are absolutely devoid of lime. 20 Ibs. required to sow 
 an acre. 
 
 BIRDSFOOT TRKFOIL (Lotus corniculaius). Excellent for dry 
 and sandy soils. It is greatly liked by cattle and sheep. Very pro- 
 ductive. Perennial. 
 
 JAPAN CLOVER (Lcspedcza slrintti). This variety is said to suc- 
 ceed well in any kind of soil rich or poor, clay or sandy, dry or wet, 
 and is deep rooted. It is also wonderfully fattening. Very distinct. 
 
 Cow GRASS, OR PERENNIAL RED (Trifolium pratcnse pcrennc). 
 This is distinct from the common red clover, possessing a strong and 
 more penetrating root, and is less affected by either drought or frost. 
 It is of quicker growth than the other varieties, and yields an immense 
 crop, which is highly nutritious. This should be introduced into all 
 permanent pastures. 20 Ibs. required to sow an acre by itself, or 
 4 Ibs. if mixed with other grasses. 
 
 I\KD, OR BROAD CLOVER (TrifoUitni pralcnse). This variety yields 
 an immense crop, but is only of biennial duration. 20 Ibs. required 
 to sow an acre by itself, or 4 Ibs. if mixed with other grasses. 
 
 WHITE CLOVER (Trifoliuin rcpens). Its proper place and treat- 
 ment are prominence among the grasses of a long continuance of 
 artificial pasture, and intermixture with the seeds of those grasses at 
 the time of their being sown. Though creeping, and of low growth, 
 it luxuriantly intertwines with the grasses so as to form a thick and 
 massive mat of herbage ; and is at once so sweet and so very nutritive 
 as to serve in the highest manner all the immediate purposes of 
 pasturage. Another recommendation in its favour is that it thoroughly 
 withstands the attacks of caterpillars. 14 Ibs. required to sow an 
 acre by itself, or 2 Ibs. if mixed with other grasses. 
 
 EGYPTIAN CLOVER (Trifolium alexandrinum). A white flowered 
 variety especially adapted for dry districts. Yields heavy crops. 
 
 ALSYKE, OR HYBRID CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum). A perennial 
 variety, hybrid between the red and white, but of much stronger 
 growth than the latter, and will do well on all kinds of soil, yielding 
 a heavy crop where no other clover will succeed. Alskye clover is 
 highly valuable for permanent pasture. 12 Ibs. is required to sow an 
 acre by itself, or 2 Ibs. if mixed with other grasses. 
 
 BOKHARA CLOVER (Melilotns leiicantha). This variety is greatly 
 cultivated for bees. It attains a height of six feet when in bloom ; 
 is very productive, and useful for ensilage. 10 Ibs. required to sow 
 an acre. 
 
 ITALIAN SCARLET CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum), It yields an 
 abundant supply, and makes a capital hay, which is much relished 
 by all kinds of stock, especially horses. Excellent for an early crop. 
 14 Ibs. required to sow an acre by itself, or 4 Ibs. if mixed with other 
 grasses. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 NOXIOUS WEEDS. 
 
 BY RICHARD HELMS. 
 
 Much depends upon the surroundings and circumstances 
 certain plants are found in to what extent they may become mis- 
 chievous. In cultivated ground all plants which spring up spon- 
 taneously, to the detriment of those specially sown, are noxious, 
 although in other places they may be very useful. For instance, 
 many grasses would soon smother the cultivated plants in a garden, 
 whilst in pasture their usefulness goes unchallenged. Again, other 
 plants, objectionable to the agriculturist or pastoralist, may be much 
 admired by the horticulturist. Considerable elasticity must there- 
 fore be conceded to the term " noxious weeds," as according to 
 different rural pursuits the evil done by certain " weeds " varies. 
 The space occupied by one species of plant, it is certain, cannot at 
 the same time be utilised by another. On this axiom is focussed 
 the objectionable nature of undesirable weeds. The husbandman, 
 whatever his special calling may be, should never neglect bearing 
 this in mind, and constantly endeavour to root up undesirable plants 
 in order that those more useful to him may prosper the better. 
 
 Introduced weeds, as a rule, become so much more harmful in 
 comparison with indigenous plants, chiefly owing to the frequency 
 and rapidity with which they multiply, and great surprise is often 
 expressed at this objectionable proclivity. It is, however, common 
 to many exotics, including animals as well as plants. Throughout 
 nature the struggle for existence is narrowed down to " eat, and be 
 eaten " ; this means that in their original habitat every plant and 
 every animal has a natural enemy, and it is mainly by this means 
 that a check is established to prevent the preponderance of a species 
 and the balance restored. In a new habitat and at a distance from 
 its original home the equalizing agent or natural enemy generally is 
 wanting, and no substitute is found in the native fauna or flora to 
 take its place. A still more important factor influencing the spread 
 of exotic introductions, is the change of climate. The advantages 
 of a mild climate to plants originally found in colder climates is 
 enormous. They develop more luxuriantly ; may, under certain 
 conditions, produce several crops of seeds in succession during the 
 same year ; and may also change their habits considerably. Several 
 instances of plants introduced into Australia from colder climates and 
 distant lands might be quoted as examples. These plants which in 
 their native countries are strictly annuals, dying off at the approach 
 of winter, have become biennials, and in some instances perennials. 
 
533 
 
 Again, it is obvious that plants which have evolved special organs 
 for an expansive distribution are those which will most likely be 
 carried to distant lands, because their seeds become mixed with 
 more varied material than those of the less prolific kinds, and arc, 
 in consequence, the more frequently introduced. It is for this 
 reason that many of the weeds introduced into Australia are 
 extremely aggressive. 
 
 A number of people argue that, because some introduced weeds 
 furnish food to domesticated animals, they are not noxious. But 
 these people entirely overlook the fact that such compensation is 
 only one of degree ; for unless a plant is equal in value to the one 
 it has displaced there is a loss, which increases in proportion to the 
 rate the aggression extends. It may thus happen that a not entirely 
 useless but prolific plant becomes more noxious than one that 
 possesses no compensating qualities whatever, but which is less 
 prolific. Stock soon surfeit of plants found in great abundance, 
 because too uniform a pasture does not furnish every element for 
 their well-doing. The more variable the herbage, the better they 
 thrive ; consequently the poor pasture derived from introduced and 
 rapidly spreading weeds will never compensate for the loss of the 
 plants they suppress. At the best the professed compensation 
 derived from weeds is a poor consolation, and merely serves to hide 
 the indolence displayed over the neglect of their early eradication. 
 
 Another excuse for neglecting an active destruction of weeds 
 is the assertion that if left alone they will disappear by themselves. 
 This may appear to be the case with a few species on very poor 
 soil, but it is then only at the almost complete exhaustion of the 
 same. Anyone who believes that by doing nothing against weeds 
 these will get " sick " of the soil, will have to wait a long time, and 
 then find that the devil was driven out by Beelzebub a more 
 noxious weed occupying the place of the first intruder, and in the 
 meantime the usefulness of the land has gone from bad to worse. 
 
 A considerable number of exotic plants (upwards of 300 species) 
 have from time to time been introduced into Australia, many of 
 which have reached Western Australia. The most objectionable 
 hitherto introduced into our colony have been briefly described 
 in this chapter, as well as some of those which, having already be- 
 come specially noxious in the other colonies, may at any time 
 invade our lands. 
 
 Some general remarks regarding the suppression and eradica- 
 tion of objectionable plants seem desirable. 
 
 It is highly important to root out the invading plants imme- 
 diately after they have made their first appearance. Many at first 
 spring up in cultivated land or near homesteads, and therefore 
 become readily observable and, as a rule, can then easily be 
 mastered before they spread beyond control, which should be 
 taken advantage of. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
 necessity to destroy them before the seeds have ripened. But 
 
534 
 
 it should be borne in mind that the mere cutting down of plants is 
 not always sufficient. With many succulent kinds, and more 
 especially in those with thick stems, the seeds ripen after the plants 
 have been cut down. Such plants, after being cut, should therefore 
 be immediately heaped together and burnt. It is, at the same time, 
 worth bearing in mind the fact that the majority of plants are easier 
 killed when coming into .flower ; indeed perennials can only suc- 
 cessfully be dealt with when they have arrived at this stage, unless 
 they are grubbed out by the roots. Cutting down plants just below 
 the surface is in any case advisable. 
 
 In cultivated land a thorough tillage is the best means of 
 coping with weeds, and is comparatively easy. The greater 
 difficulty arises in eradicating them from pastures and waste 
 lands, particularly when once they have taken a firm hold. To 
 prevent this in such places much more depends upon taking early 
 action to prevent excessive spreading than even in cultivated lands. 
 Anyone discovering foreign plants in such situations, whether it be 
 on "waste lands, commons, highways or byways, or any other place, 
 will serve both himself and his neighbor a good turn by destroying 
 them. Concerted action should at all times be resolved on to 
 confine, where possible, noxious weeds to limited areas. It stands 
 to reason that if one individual in a district neglects the destruction 
 of objectionable plants, whilst his neighbors are contending against 
 them, he places their endeavors at a great disadvantage, as they 
 will have to constantly guard against a reinvasion from his 
 neglected lands. 
 
 A few of the leading agencies of the various ways by which 
 plants get introduced into new habitats may also deserve mention- 
 ing, and be profitably discussed. 
 
 A good number have undoubtedly been introduced togethe r 
 with seeds of culture plants. Not only should always the ripest 
 and heaviest seed be sown, but attention should also be directed to 
 its purity. The best and purest seed will be found the cheapest in 
 the long run, even at a cost of double the price of ordinary or 
 inferior seed. 
 
 Another great source of noxious weeds (and this in late years 
 seems to be particularly applicable to Western Australia) is the 
 introduction of forage. Chaff cut from unclean hay is certain to 
 bring seeds into paddocks or on to open lands where horses run, 
 for many seeds will pass undamaged through them, and germinate 
 all the better after being softened in the intestines. Birds also in 
 this manner sometimes introduce plants from great distances. 
 From this it may naturally be inferred that stable manure often 
 contains large amounts of seeds. Manure brought from town 
 stables, where the horses are mostly hand-fed, may easily contami- 
 nate clean land with weeds, and it is therefore advisable to heap 
 such manure together, and let it rot well before using it. 
 
535 
 
 Goods of all descriptions, but more particularly fragile articles, 
 arc extensively packed in hay, and generally in such that it is 
 naturally of low value for feeding purposes, and probably contains 
 objectionable plants. Many articles are sent in their original 
 packing to all parts of the country, and in this way weeds may 
 become introduced simultaneously in places widely apart from each 
 other. 
 
 Plants coming from nurseries, in pots, or having the roots 
 packed in imss, or, as is sometimes done, in green weeds to keep 
 them moist, are conveyors of many seeds, as has frequently come 
 under my notice when examining such importations. 
 
 Seed capsules, with burs, attach themselves to the hair of 
 animals, and are often carried about for a considerable time before 
 they drop off. Sheep in particular may, in this manner, carry such 
 seeds over long distances. The discovery of the Bathurst bur in the 
 Albany stockyards is a case in point. Little doubt can exist that 
 the seeds of this plant were brought by sheep from one of the other 
 colonies. 
 
 Besides the means of further distributions that suggest them- 
 selves from the foregoing as applying to weeds already introduced, 
 two other important agents must be added, namely, wind and 
 water. 
 
 Many, and particularly the more aggressive plants, produce 
 seeds to which feathery or winglike organs are attached, specially 
 developed for wind distribution. They are thus possessed of the 
 means of floating in an air current, and get widely disseminated 
 from, may be, a single plant that was allowed to mature. Rivers 
 help the wind materially to carry such seeds still further along, and 
 during inundations the rapid currents move those seeds from place 
 to place, which naturally are too heavy to drop far away from the 
 mother plant. Among the debris left behind during floods plants are 
 frequently found to develop which previously were not seen in these 
 localities. 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Argenvme Mcxicana (Mexican poppy ; prickly poppy ; devil's 
 fig). Indigenous to Mexico. An erect annual of hardy growth, 
 reaching a height of several feet. Leaves, whitish-green, deeply 
 incised and spinous ; flowers, large, yellowish-white ; seeds, small, 
 enclosed in a many-chambered capsule. A very objectionable weed. 
 The seeds are more powerfully narcotic than opium. 
 
 Fumaria offfctna/is (Common fumitory). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Asia. A succulent erect or decumbent annual of delicate green 
 colour. Stems soft, and sometimes reaching a length of several 
 feet, but then the plant is always more or less trailing; leaves much 
 divided ; flowers in racemes sometimes one to two inches long, 
 
mcxicana ("Devil's fig," "Mexican poppy.") 
 
 KM- 1- 1 KI- \vi' TO I'I.VIF. A. capsule, open; P., CAMI y ; C, showing how the 
 stamens are arranged around the ovary ; I), pitted seed. All variously magnified, 
 with the exception ot the capsule. 
 
537 
 
 terminal or opposite the leaves, colour variable, from pale pink to 
 purplish. A very profusely seeding plant and growing luxuriantly in 
 cultivated lands. 
 
 Capsclla bur sa pastoris (Shepherd's purse). Indigenous to 
 Europe and Western Asia. Stem erect, sometimes over a foot high; 
 leaves spreading on the ground radiating from the stem, pinnatified, 
 with a large ovate or triangular lobe at the apex ; a few narrow, 
 entire or toothed leaves clasping the stem ; flowers white, minute ; 
 seed-pods, triangular, llattish, notched at the top and with the angles 
 rounded, attached with thin stalks along the stem. A profuse 
 seeder and one of the commonest weeds in tilled soil and waste 
 plaees. It has a strong tapering root which deeply penetrates the soil. 
 
 Rtiphiinus niphanistmm (Wild radish; Spanish radish; jointed or 
 white sharlock). Indigenous to Europe and temperate Asia. An 
 ct or spreading annual or biennial, growing to over two feet 
 high, much branched ; stem covered with stiff hairs at the base ; 
 leaves divided or lobed, the terminal segment large and oblong, 
 covered with short hairs, the upper leaves narrow ; flowers white, 
 pale yellow or lilac ; pods cylindrical, from one to one and a half 
 inches long. A rapidly spreading weed, and very troublesome in 
 cultivated land. 
 
 O.vdlis ccnnia (Drooping yellow-flowered wood-sorrel). Indi- 
 genous to South Africa. An herbaceous bright-green plant, with 
 four-lobed leaves (resembling clover leaves, and therefore in Ger- 
 many called "Sauerklee," (sour clover), on slender stalks, and produc- 
 ing yellow flowers. Very aggressive in light cultivated soil. I have 
 seen parts of orchards densely covered with this weed. It is 
 difficult to eradicate on account of the bulbs formed at the roots, 
 which rapidly multiply, and from which the plant will repeatedly 
 spring up again after having been pulled, except during very dry 
 weather. Inviting as the plant looks, it is not eaten by stock ; 
 even pigs soon tire of it. 
 
 Mnli'ti svlrestris (Marsh mallow; cheeses). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Central Asia. A biennial (and in Australia often triennial), 
 with semi-erect or trailing stems, sometimes more than 3 feet long, 
 more or less hairy on the upper ends ; leaves on a long stalk, almost 
 circular or approaching kidney-shape, smooth above and somewhat 
 pubescent underneath ; Mowers violet to purplish-red ; seeds form- 
 ing a fiat-ribbed carpels, mucilaginous, and known as cheeses or cat- 
 cheeses by children. An aggressive weed in cultivated soil, and 
 common on waste lands and roadsides. The plant is eaten by 
 stock when better plants are wanting. 
 
 Sitla rhombifolia (Paddy's lucerne in New South Wales; jelly 
 leaf in Queensland. Synonym Si da retusa). Indigenous to many 
 warm parts of both hemispheres. A shrub, with thin stems, grow- 
 ing in protected situations to 6 feet ; leaves approaching lozenge- 
 shape, hence its scientific name ; when old, hard and dry, but when 
 young mucilaginous, which characteristic accounts for the Queens- 
 
53 
 
 land vernacular ; flowers yellow, nearly half-inch across when 
 open ; fructification held in a cup-shaped calyx, and containing 
 a number of seeds with hooked awns. This plant is said to have 
 been introduced into Queensland on account of its fibre, which in 
 India is a commercial product. In Australia, except experi- 
 mentally, the fibre has never been produced ; but since its 
 introduction the plant has become very noxious in the tropical and 
 sub-tropical portions of the eastern colonies, and is spreading to the 
 cooler parts. It is found in the southern parts of New South 
 Wales, although not growing so luxuriantly as in the north, where 
 I have seen it entirely occupying the ground over considerable 
 stretches of cleared land. The plant becomes very aggressive 
 where it gets established, and as it seeds freely it will spring up from 
 these again for several years after it has been rooted out, unless this is 
 done on its first appearance, and before it has matured. Cattle and 
 horses will feed on the young shoots, and under stress, on the old 
 leaves, but neither does them much good. F. M. Bailey mentions 
 that the awned seeds have caused the death of young fowls. 
 
 Euphorbia Pepins (Petty spurge wort). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Asia. A small erect branching herbaceous annual, rarely more 
 than eight inches high. Stem reddish when exposed to the 
 sun ; leaves small, bright green, smooth, entire, ovate to elliptical ; 
 flowers minute, greenish yellow ; fructification three-lobed. The 
 plant i<* readily recognisable by its milk-like sap. This juice is acrid, 
 and must be looked upon with suspicion as being poisonous. Found 
 generally in cultivated land and by the roadsides where the ground 
 is disturbed, railway embankments, etc. It spreads rapidly, but is 
 easily suppressed if not allowed to seed. 
 
 E. lathyris (Caper spurge; myrtle spurge), and E. Iiclioscopia 
 (Sun spurge ; cat's milk) have been recorded by Mr. F. Turner as 
 introduced to New South Wales. 
 
 Ricenus cotninunis (Castor-oil plant). Indigenous to India. A 
 shrub, assuming a treelike growth under favorable conditions. 
 Stems reddish or purplish, often covered with a bloom, and many 
 jointed ; leaves, stalked, large, deeply incised, composed of seven 
 long, pointed segments ; flowers numerous, in spikes, the male and 
 female separate ; fructification covered with soft spines. From the 
 nuts the castor oil of commerce is obtained. This plant is very 
 ornamental, and when grown under restriction may become a 
 valuable adjunct to other products. It is extensively cultivated in 
 India and America on account of the oil derived from it. In 
 temperate countries it spreads rapidly, and will occupy river banks 
 and other rich lands to the detriment of the native vegetation. 
 
 I'liiai iiioii (Stinging nettle). Indigenous to Europe and 
 Central Asia. A perennial plant with numerous erect steins spring- 
 ing from the creeping root. The whole plant is covered with stinging 
 bristles. Leaves, dark green, triangular to lanceolate, with the lower 
 corners rounded ; (lowers generally dioecious, (meaning that the 
 
539 
 
 male and female flowers are found on different plants), numerous, 
 clustering on spikes. The stems, often more than three feet high, 
 yield a fibre which formerly was extensively converted into line 
 cambric. On waste lands, roadsides, and along hedges. 
 
 Urtica ur ens (Small nettle). Indigenous to Europe and tem- 
 perate Asia. An erect branching animal, reaching in Australia 
 sometimes to a height of over eighteen inches, covered with stinging 
 hairs ; leaves roundish or ovate, deeply and regularly toothed ; 
 flowers numerous, greenish. Spreading rapidly in cultivated and on 
 waste lands. 
 
 Cerustium rnlgntum (Chick-weecl ; mouse ear). Indigenous to 
 Europe. A succulent and rather variable much-spreading weed, 
 forming matted tufts when growing luxuriantly ; leaves small, ovate 
 to oblong ; near base of stems stalked, higher up closely attached 
 to stem ; flowers white, star-shaped. A very common weed in cul- 
 tivated soil and waste lands once broken. 
 
 Silcnc <i I lieu (CatchHy). Indigenous to Europe, Western Asia, 
 and North Africa. A hairy and viscid plant, with rather wiry stems 
 and a straggling habit ; leaves narrow, the lower widening towards 
 the tip ; flowers small, pinkish white, set in a hairy calyx. 
 Generally found in cultivated land and made-up roadways. It 
 has been reported as poisonous, but I think erroneously. There is 
 little to fear from it in this direction, as none of the domesticated 
 animals feed upon it. It is entirely useless, although not very 
 aggressive. 
 
 Spertfulu un'cnsis (Corn spurry). Indigenous to Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa. A slender annual, branching at the base into several 
 ascending stems, reaching a height of sometimes over a foot ; 
 leaves, slender, narrow, almost cylindrical, one to two inches long, 
 growing six or eight together in opposite clusters and spreading so 
 as to form a whorl ; flowers small, white, on slender stems ; seeds 
 abundant, black, slightly flattened. In northern Germany, imme- 
 diately after the rye has been harvested, this plant is frequently 
 sown and mown for fodder, but more frequently it is later ploughed 
 under to manure the succeeding crop of the winter corn. 
 
 Altiplex horteusis (Garden orache ; mountain spinach). 
 Indigenous to eastern Europe and western Asia. An erect annual 
 with robust woody stem, reaching a height of upwards of five feet ; 
 leaves triangular, the upper narrow-, green above and whitish or 
 mealy underneath ; flowers small, numerous, crowded in a long 
 panicle. Found in cultivated soil. In Europe it is cultivated for 
 spinach. It makes good feed, but spreads readily in tilled soil, and 
 is very exhausting. 
 
 Chenopodium album (White goosefoot ; fat hen). Indigenous 
 to Europe and central Asia extending to the Arctic regions. A 
 hardy, tough, erect annual, from one to two and a half feet high ; 
 pale green or more or less mealy white, especially the flowers \ 
 leaves stalked, mealy below ; the lower ovate more or less toothed, 
 
540 
 
 the upper ones narrow and entire. Flowers numerous in dense, 
 sometimes branched clusters. In cultivated and waste places. An 
 exhausting weed, but furnishing food to stock which compensates 
 to some extent for its aggression. 
 
 Chcnopodium nmbrosioidcs (Stinking goosefoot). Indigenous to 
 America. A weak perrennial shrub, branching from the base, and 
 attaining a height of upwards of four feet ; stems slender, becoming 
 woody when old ; leaves lanceolate - elliptical, emarginate and 
 toothed, smooth, stippled, with numerous minute glandular openings 
 on the underside, the lower between three and four inches long and 
 from one to one and a-half inches wide, the upper gradually 
 diminishing ; flowers small, numerous, in axillary and terminal 
 racemose spikes. The whole plant emits a strong offensive smell, 
 and in consequence is rejected by domesticated animals. 
 
 Chenopodiiiui unirale (Nettle-leaved goosefoot). Indigenous to 
 temperate Europe and Asia. An erect much branched annual 
 reaching a height of over eighteen inches in cultivated lands. Stems 
 redish, robust, succulent ; leaves intensey green, broadly ovate, 
 deeply toothed ; flowers small, abundant, and crowded at the base 
 of the leaves or terminal. A useless and very aggressive weed ; 
 abundant in cultivated lands and waste places. 
 
 Polygonutn aviculare (Wire grass ; crab ; knot-weed ; knot- 
 grass ; iron-weed). Indigenous to Europe, probably originally from 
 Asia. A prostrate much branched weed ; often erect when drawn 
 up by other plants ; stems knotty, wiry, and sometimes upwards of 
 two feet long ; leaves small, narrow, oblong ; flowers whitish, small, 
 and in clusters. This weed is not entirely useless, as stock will eat it, 
 but its feeding qualities are probably not very great, and when old it 
 is not readily digested. 
 
 Riuiic.v acetosclla (Sorrel ; sour dock). Indigenous to Europe. 
 This troublesome weed is, unfortunately, too widely spread not to be 
 known by everyone. The trailing root generally sprouts from the 
 smallest part which makes the eradication of this plant extremely 
 difficult. It has been introduced on many lands with stable manure 
 brought from towns. 
 
 Eniex iuislmUs ( Doublegee ; three-cornered jack ; tanner's 
 curse). Indigenous to South Africa. An erect or trailing suc- 
 culent annual, sometimes developing stems over 18 inches long ; 
 leaves ovate or heart-shaped, rounded at apex, on stems, the 
 lower sometimes over 2 inches long and i [, wide, and including 
 stem 3^ long, the upper diminishingly smaller ; flowers insignificant, 
 situated at the axils of the leaves, the female flowers forming three- 
 cornered spinescent fructifications close to the steins. One of the 
 most aggressive introductions, which during late years has spread 
 to an alarming extent, and seemingly iinds its way to almost every 
 piece of newly-disturbed land in certain districts. Wherever it 
 once gets a start it will rapidly expand and suppress all other 
 
54 1 
 
 vegetation. Iv-Mihnn received this plant from Western Australia 
 in Dnnnii mil's s >,c >;id collection, but regarded it at this early date 
 as a prob.ible introduction. The late Baron von Mueller, who met 
 with the phrit sojn at'ter reaching South Australia, always con- 
 sidered it an introduction, and, although he includes it in his 
 " Census," made a note to this effect. " I think I am in 
 a position to set the still existing doubt at rest, and prove 
 its introduction ; which, moreover, was a deliberate one, for 
 the purpose of cultivating the plant as a culinary vegetable 
 under the n ime of ' Cape spinach.' My informant is Mr. D. 
 Wansborough, who landed at Premantle in 1831. He, with his 
 wife, came from England under contract with Mr. William 
 Tanner. On their way out the ship put in at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, where Mr. Tanner obtained the seed. Eighteen months 
 after arrival in Western Australia Mr. Wansborough entered the 
 services of Mr. j. Phillips as gardener, and in this occupation 
 sowed a bed with the seed of this ' Cape spinach ' at Mr. Phillips's 
 place on the Canning river in 1833. The seed was obtained from 
 Mr. Tanner, and this is the first authenticated instance of the plant 
 having been cultivated ; but it is probable that it was sown the 
 year before, and certainly in the following year. As, however, the 
 plant did not prove a very palatable spinach, and soon became a 
 troublesome weed, causing constant annoyance to the workmen, 
 on account of its spinous seeds (the greater part of the rural w r ork 
 having to be done by hand in those days), it received the name of 
 4 Tanner's curse ' throughout the settlement." 
 
 Phylolacca octandm (Ink plant). Indigenous to America. A 
 tall, much-branching herbaceous plant, growing from four to ten feet 
 high ; leaves large, ovate ; Mowers small, greenish ; fruit very juicy, 
 blackish-purple. A prolific seeder. In damp soil this plant rapidly 
 spreads, mainly through the agency of birds, who greedily eat the 
 berries. Besides this, a closely allied plant, P. decandra is recorded 
 as having been introduced into Queensland. 
 
 Medicago dcnlicnlalci (Burr medick ; toothed medick ; burr 
 clover ; creeping burr). Indigenous to Europe, West Asia, and North 
 Africa. An annual with spreading stems, semi erect or trailing on 
 the ground. In humid costal regions I have seen the stems reaching 
 a length of over three feet, and in New Zealand I have known the 
 plant to be biennial. Leaves, cloverlike, dark green, and sometimes 
 marked with small dark brown spots ; flowers yellow, very small, in 
 little beads on stalks ; pods spirally twisted and covered with 
 hooked or curved prickles. This weed is mainly objectionable on 
 account of the burred pods it produces in great profusion, and which 
 deteriorate the value of wool to an enormous extent when attached 
 to it. As a fodder plant it is only of mediocre value, and as it 
 generally dies down in the dry season and leaves bare patches 
 in the places it has been growing on, it is of little service, but ojbec- 
 tionable because it suppresses better pasture plants. 
 
Emcx australis (" Three-cornered jack," " doublegee," " Tanner's 
 
 curse.") 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, vertical section of a male Ht.wcr ; H. stamen ; C, 
 ovary, showing the three styles, with lar^e fringed stigmas ; I), fruit, with three 
 spine-^cent lobes ; E, fruit seen from abu\e ; F, a seed-like nut. All details of 
 the plant variously magnified. 
 
543 
 
 (Furze ; gorze ; whin). Indigenous to Europe and 
 Africa. This perennial thorny shrub, almost perpetually decked with 
 yellow flowers, is well known in Australia. It was introduced to 
 form hedges, but has spread extensively and become a great nuisance 
 in many parts. Owing to its formidable character, which protects it 
 against outward attack, together with its enormous production or 
 seeds, it becomes rapidly aggressive and smothers all neighboring 
 vegetation. Birds assist also in distributing the seeds. When kept 
 in check, it makes an impenetrable hedge, but as these are easily 
 ignited, it is in many places prohibited to use the plant for this purpose. 
 
 /vi's*/ /'///) ////<>></ (Sweet briar ; eglantine). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Central Asia. This well-known shrub was originally purposely 
 introduced to form hedges as in Europe. The different conditions 
 of the two countries were, however, not taken into consideration. 
 In Europe, where the lands are mostly under high cultivation, the 
 plant is not allowed to spread. In Australia, on the other hand, the 
 large tracts of uncultivated and partly cultivated lands afforded the 
 plant numerous undisturbed centres. It has consequently spread in 
 many places to an alarming extent, and ruined thousands of acres 
 for pasturage. In New Zealand it is equally aggressive. Birds are 
 mainly instrumental in spreading it. It should on no account be 
 allowed to spread, as it is one of the most difficult plants to eradicate. 
 
 Opuntia I'ltlgnris (Prickly pear). This large cactus is well known 
 throughout Australia. In Western Australia it is found in many 
 gardens and, as far as I know, has not yet escaped on to pasture 
 lands, etc. In New South Wales it is occupying thousands of acres, 
 making the land next to useless for depasturing stock upon, and 
 for a number of years the Government has spent large sums of 
 money on its eradication with only partial success. It is one of the 
 most difficult plants to kill as the smallest parts of it will grow. 
 It flourishes particularly well in dry regions. Attempts have been 
 made to utilise the plant as food by chopping it into bits and in this 
 manner breaking its sharp spines, when stock will eat it for a time. 
 
 Ardium majus (Giant burdock). Indigenous to Europe and 
 Western Asia. A perennial plant with a stout tap-root ; stems 
 stout, many branching, and reaching a height of from two to five 
 feet ; leaves large, entire, and fairly hairy ; the lower sometimes 18 
 inches long and 12 wide ; the flower-heads are terminal and form a 
 dense burr of hooked bristlets ; a large plant often developing several 
 hundred of these containing numerous seeds. I do not think that 
 this plant is eaten by a single animal, at least, this is my European 
 experience. The utter uselessness makes this plant particularly 
 objectionable as it spreads rapidly and smothers every other plant 
 under its large leaves. Few plants exhaust the soil to such an extent 
 as this weed. 
 
 Ardium minus. Similar to the previous, but smaller, and 
 differing in some minutae. This weed is reported from New Zealand 
 by Mr. F. W. Kirk. 
 
544 
 
 Cai'diius arvensis (Perennial thistle ; falsely called Calif ornian 
 thistle in Australia and New Zealand. In England called common 
 thistle or green thistle ; and in Canada, cursed thistle). Syn. 
 Cnicus dircnsis, Cirsiitui at reuse, Scrntulti nn'titsis. Indigenous to 
 Europe, Western Asia and Northern Africa. Recognisable by its 
 perennial roots which makes it the most difficult of all thistles to 
 suppress , the male and the female flowers are produced on separate 
 plants ; flower heads of moderate size, purplish, and in clusters on 
 short stalks ; height from two to four feet, and even more in very 
 rich soil. 
 
 Cardinis lanccolatus (Spear thistle ; also, but incorrectly, 
 called Scotch thistle. Syn. Cnicus lanceolalns, Cirsiiini lanceolatutri). 
 Indigenous to the countries surrounding the Mediterranean and 
 ot early introduction into several of the Australian colonies. A 
 robust plant with formidable spines ; easily recognisable by its 
 deeply lobed leaves, which always carry long spines at their points. 
 The lower leaves are very large, and all are covered on the under- 
 side with a soft webby coating ; flower-heads large, pinkish, and 
 developing many seeds which have a large pappus attached, ad- 
 mitting of them being carried long distances. The plant, like most 
 thistles, is very exhaustive to the soil ; it flowers but once, but 
 sometimes may take two years to arrive at maturity, reaching a 
 height of three feet and upwards, and, not rarely, over six feet in 
 good land. In New Zealand I have seen this plant over ten feet on 
 one occasion. 
 
 Canlnus Marianus(Mi\k thistle; varigated th.; spotted th.; Maria 
 th.; blessed th.; holy th.; Our Lady's th. Syn. Gilybinn Muritininn}. 
 Indigenous to Europe, Asiaj and Africa. A very robust thistle with 
 large variegated or mottled leaves, which give the plant a conspicuous 
 appearance. Producing large flower beads and abundant seeds it 
 becomes very aggressive, and rapidly occupies the whole ground 
 on which it once has settled. It is terribly exhausting to the soil, 
 and grows generally to several feet, and not rarely over six feet 
 high. In New South Wales I have several times met with it 
 reaching more than 10 feet, and covering many acres of ground so 
 densely as to be impenetrable. The plant is very nutritious and 
 liked by horses, who in preference feed upon it when it wilts 
 through ripening, as then the prickles are less pungent. Ensilage 
 also has been successfully made of it on several occasions in New South 
 Wales. Fowls, and particularly chickens, do not despise the 
 seeds. 
 
 Caniiins pycnocephalus (Shore thistle ; winged thistle ; slender 
 thistle). Indigenous to Middle and Southern P^urope, Northern 
 Africa, and South-western Asia. In general appearance resembling 
 Cnnhnis tinrnsis, but differing from it by the absence of a perennial 
 root, and having flower-heads without stalks, which, besides, are 
 more slender. 
 
 , 
 
545 
 
 (Star thistle ; purple star thistle.) Indige- 
 nous from Middle Europe to Western Ashi and Northern Africa. A 
 slender stemmed annual, with straggling branches, reaching occasionally 
 
 Carduus pycnoccphalus ("Winged thistle ;" "Slender thistle.") 
 
 a height of three feet ; stem smooth ; leaves small, pinnately lobed, the 
 upper undivided slightly hastate ; flower-heads purplish-blue, either 
 terminal or laterally sessile to stem, armed with formidable spines. 
 
546 
 
 Centaurca inclilcnsis (Malta thistle ; saucy sack ; cockspur th.) 
 Indigenous to Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and South- 
 Western Asia. A slender plant with few small entire leaves. 
 Flower heads small, always terminal, spinulous, and yellow. Height 
 
 Centaurca calcitrapa ( 4< Purple star thistle.") 
 
 to three feet and upwards, particularly when crowded. In New 
 South Wales this plant has become a great nuisance in wheat fields. 
 In Western Australia I have found it sparingly near Perth, but near 
 Pinjarrah it occurs abundantly. 
 
547 
 
 ii sohlHinlis (St. Baniabv's thistle ; yellow star thistle). 
 Indigenous to Europe, Northern Africa, and South-Western Asia. 
 
 Centaurca sohtilialis (" Yellow star thistle.") 
 
 In general character of growth this plant resembles C. calcitrapa ; but 
 its-flowers are yellow, surrounded by reddish spines. In the latter 
 characteristic it resembles C. inclitensis. 
 
The three last mentioned thistles possess no compensating 
 qualities whatever, and on account of their aggressiveness and 
 enormous reproductive powers must be considered amongst the 
 worst introductions. No kind of stock eats them, and when occur- 
 ring on cultivated land they become a great nuisance to the work- 
 men, both during harvesting and later, when hay is to be cut into 
 chaff, which article, moreover, their presence causes to lose con- 
 siderably in value. 
 
 Cryptosttmtna calendulacea (Cape weed," " Cape dandelion "). 
 
 CryplostcnuiHi calcmluhiccd (Cape weed ; Cape dandelion). 
 Indigenous to South Africa. A perennial, succulent, low-growing 
 plant ; leaves usually from 4 to o inches long, lobed to the midrib, 
 the lobes faintly serrated and incised on the lower margin near the 
 midrib, green above and whitish cottony below ; below the midrib 
 is distinctly lined with white. Flowers star-shaped, yellow, with a 
 dark centre, from half to I inch in diameter ; the outer half of the 
 
549 
 
 petals is greyish underneath. A very prolific seeder. The seeds 
 hcmi; surrounded with a wooly HulT are readily disturbed by wind. 
 In many places a marked variety is common, and often inund 
 growing together with the typical plant. This variety is charac- 
 terised by its more slender leaves, which have the lobes irregularly 
 and deeply incised, and are of a darker green above and a less 
 intense white below. The linear markings on the underside of the 
 stems are less white also, and become indistinct towards the tips. 
 This weed must be considered one of the most aggressive intro- 
 ductions. It appears to grow more luxuriant within the region of 
 winter rains in Western Australia than in any part of the other 
 colonies. In cultivated ground I have seen it produce central 
 stems (quite an abnormal characteristic) of over two feet, and some 
 of these, when lying down, develop roots from every node. During 
 late years this weed has spread at an alarming rate, and at present 
 the greater number of orchards, vineyards, and gardens, and many 
 nelcls as well, are infested with it." To some extent this is un- 
 doubtedly due to gross carelessness and the pernicious habit of 
 using it for packing, as adopted by some nurserymen. The 
 succulent weed is well adapted to keep the trees, vines, &c., in 
 excellent condition whilst these are in transit, but it is a 
 deliberate method of distributing a noxious plant far and 
 wide, which should not be tolerated. Although the moist 
 coastal climate seems to be specially favorable to its develop- 
 ment, it nevertheless is certain to spread into the drier 
 portions unless great precautions are taken to limit its distribution. 
 Having met with the plant n^self in the arid parts along the Darling 
 River in New South Wales, and there found it to flourish, proves 
 that it will not be seriously affected by heat and the absence of rain. 
 Wherever the plant establishes itself it suppresses all other pasture 
 herbage. In New South Wales I have observed it to cover large 
 stretches of country, which, when fresh and green and bearing thou- 
 sands of yellow flowers, looked attractive. But when, after prolonged 
 dry weather, the plants had died and shrivelled to insignificant 
 vestiges, the ground was bald of all native vegetation. Sheep feed 
 upon the plant to a moderate extent, pigs eat it, and cattle do not 
 altogether despise it, and under stress eat it freely, but it imparts an 
 objctionable flavour to the milk. Still, as it possesses scarcely any 
 nutritious qualities, they soon get tired of it, and will, as a rule, not 
 touch it if other herbage is present. In pasture land it becomes even 
 more objectionable than in cultivated ground, wherein, by per- 
 severance, it may be suppressed. After being apparently killed by 
 prolonged dry weather, it springs up again alter the first shower of 
 rain, in some instances even from the old roots, but principally from 
 the abundantly produced seeds, which rapidly germinate on being 
 moistened, and grow faster than most other plants. 
 
 Graphalinm Intco-albiuii (Jersey cudweed). Indigenous to the 
 greater part of the temperate world. An annual or biennial from 
 
550 
 
 a few inches to over a foot high, covered all over with a silvery soft 
 down ; stems erect ; leaves narrow, flexid ; Mowers small, yellowish, 
 generally clustered at the termination of the stem. In waste places 
 becoming aggressive in cultivated lands. Quite useless. 
 
 Galinsoga paw (flora (Small flowered galinsoga). Indigenous to 
 South America. An erect branching succulent annual, reaching 
 frequently a height of two feet. Leaves stalked, ovate-lanceolate, 
 
 ptirrijlorn (" Small flowered galinsogii "). 
 REFKKKXCK TO PLATK. Apex of plant (reduced) ; A, flower head (much 
 enlarged). 
 
 flexid, slightly hairy, and of a vivid light green colour. Flower 
 heads small, numerous, \ellow, with live white petals at the margin, 
 situated at the apex and the extremities of the branchlets. The plant 
 is a very profuse seeder, and makes ;i rapid growth. In cultivated 
 land it soon becomes very aggressive during winter and spring. 
 Except in damp soil it dif> <>fl during the hot summer, neverthe- 
 less it should be actively suppressed as soon as it makes its appear- 
 ance. 
 
551 
 
 glabra (Annual cat's ear). Indigenous to Europe, 
 West Asia, and North Africa. An annual plant in its native home, 
 but in humid parts of Australia it lasts beyond the first year. It 
 besides throws far more luxuriantly in its new habitat than in 
 Europe, where the stems are mostly single and rarely above one 
 foot long. In Western Australia I have seen specimens with six 
 and m<>re stems rising from the same root, and reaching a height 
 of over j. 1 , It. The weed was noticed by me to be very common in 
 places in Xe\r South Wales. Stems smooth, erect, leafless, branching 
 towards the top ; leaves moderately emarginate, upwards of six 
 inches long at times, radiating from the root stock on the ground ; 
 flowers bright yellow, situated at the apices of the stem and its 
 branches ; seeds numerous, furnished with a feathery pappus. A 
 useless and aggressive weed, which is never touched by stock, 
 except under stress of circumstances. 
 
 Inula grareolcns (Stinkwort). Indigenous to the Mediterranean 
 region. An annual (but sometimes a biennial in Australia) of 
 branching growth, reaching a height of over three feet ; stem woody 
 near base ; leaves oblong elliptical, moderately toothed and emargi- 
 nate below, slender and entire above ; flowers yellow, forming head- 
 lets situated at the nodes and terminally ; seeds with a pappus com- 
 posed of upwards of 32 bristles; on an average 30 seeds to each headlet. 
 The whole plant is covered with hairs, and produces a viscid exuda- 
 tion of a powerfully offensive odour. Probably the most aggressive, 
 and at the same time an entirely useless plant. The bristles of the 
 pappus are covered with four irregular rows of fine spicules. These, 
 sometimes amounting to over 400 to each bristle, are, when dry, of 
 glassy sharpness and cause acute and painful eczema where they 
 touch the skin. (A full description of such an attack may be found 
 in No. 14, vol. iv. June 3oth, 1897 of the Journal of the Bureau 
 of Agriculture of Western Australia). 
 
 Kentrophylittm lanatum (Gaffron thistle ; woolly thistle. Syn. 
 Carthamus lanatns]. Indigenous to Southern Europe, Northern 
 Africa and South-western Asia. Under ordinary circumstances an 
 annuil plant, but sometimes it springs up again from the same root. 
 A moderately robust plant reaching a height of three feet and some- 
 times more. Leaves, bright green, stiff, moderately lobed, and 
 sharply spinous ; flower-heads, large, terminal, deep yellow, and 
 surrounded with numerous spinous leaflets. 
 
 OuoporJon Acanthi n in (The heraldic Scotch thistle). Indigenous 
 to Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Heads large, pinkish, 
 and single on terminating branches ; leaves much drooping, almost 
 entire or only moderately lobed or indented, irregularly spinous 
 on margins ; stem more or less densely spinous. The whole 
 plant, but more particularly the underside of the leaves, is more or 
 less covered with a webby wooly vestment. This thistle never 
 grows to the height of the falsely called " Scotch thistle " cardiins 
 
lanceolatus. It only resembles the latter superficially in the flower- 
 heads. The leaves, however, differ markedly, and make one plant 
 from the other readily distinguishable. 
 
 Senecio vuiparis (Common groundsel). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Eastern Asia. An erect succulent herb growing to the height of 
 a foot ; leaves irregularly imarginate, glossy green on the upper side, 
 and pilose below ; flowers small, yellow ; seeds with a profusely 
 hairy pappus attached. Generally lotind only in cultivated soil. It 
 is a very exhausting plant which readily spreads. Hogs and cattle 
 eat it occasionally. 
 
 
 Initld 
 
 (" Stinkwort "). 
 
 REFERENCE TO PI.ATK. A. bram-liiet slimvin.u tl nvers (less than natural si/c): 
 B, flowerhead (iniu h enlarged) ; C, seed will) pappus allaelK-il (-jivatly ina^nitied); 
 D, piece of a Juristic of pappus sliowin ;.; shape of spicules (very highly magnified). 
 
 olcrncciis (Common sow thistle). Indigenous to 
 Europe. An annual growing to over ;, U-ct, witli a hollow, smooth 
 stem, containing a milky juice ; leaves stalked, lobed, broadly 
 
553 
 
 triangular at tip, margined irregularly with weak prickles ; prickles 
 also i'ii leaf stalk; llowers, citron yellow, set in irregular clusters ; 
 seed with pappus. A prolific seeder, and found abundantly in many 
 cultivated localities. Unless where this weed becomes obnoxious 
 to cultivated plants it cannot be regarded as very objectionable, as 
 it produces excellent food to all domesticated animals. It is an 
 excellent tonic for horses. 
 
 Ttigcti's glandulifera (Stinking Roger ; wild marigold). 
 Indigenous to South America. A tall annual, growing sometimes 
 over 6 feet high ; leaves simple, and sometimes pinnate, bright 
 green ; (lowers yellow, in large bunches ; seeds with pappus. The 
 foliage is covered with glands containing a strong smelling oil. The 
 plant rapidly occupies cultivated ground, and is very exhausting, 
 but also thrives in other places. Milch cows browsing upon it get 
 their milk contaminated with the odour of the plant, which is also 
 imparted to the butter or cheese made from it. 
 
 Taraxacum Dcns-leonis (Dandelion ; children's clock). 
 Indigenous to Europe. A perennial plant, with thick taproot 
 descending to a considerable depth in the soil and containing a 
 milky juice ; leaves close to the ground, forming a shallow funnel, 
 rather variable in shape, but generally more or less incised near 
 the base, and ending in a broad, lanceolate or rounded lobe ; 
 flowers large, yellow, rising from the centre on hollow tubes ; 
 seeds numerous, attached to a large pappus. Generally found in 
 grassy places, and abundant in cultivated soil. 
 
 Tripteris clandestine*. Indigenous to South Africa. An erect 
 herbaceous annual, branching towards the upper part, and reaching 
 a height of over two feet. Stems almost smooth, or sparingly 
 covered with short soft hairs ; leaves elongate, moderately 
 dentate and emarginate, lightly pilose, at the base often clasping the 
 stem ; flowers brownish to purple in centre, and yellow on outer 
 margin, terminal in clusters ; seed-heads resembling a bur-tool ; 
 seeds, three-winged. The plant secretes a sticky substance, 
 particularly near the flowers and on the young shoots, and 
 has a strong unpleasant smell. A useless and very aggressive 
 plant. 
 
 Xanthium strumariutn (Small burdock ; ditch burr ; burweed ; 
 Noogoora burr, Queensl., clot or cockle burr, Am.) Indigenous to 
 Europe. A tall bushy plant, with broad irregularly toothed leaves, 
 producing numerous burrs ; these are larger than those of the 
 Bathurst burr, more densely covered with hooklets, and with a 
 couple of larger ones at the apex. In Queensland the plant 
 reaches a height of from six to eight feet. It was introduced to 
 Queensland with cotton from America, and to New Zealand 
 it is supposed to have been brought with ballast. A useless and 
 dangerous plant, for besides producing objectionable burrs it is 
 poisonous. The young shoots are eaten by cattle, in which it 
 produces paralysis of the heart, according to Chief Inspector 
 
554 
 
 Gordon's report. Dr. Bancroft confirmed the poisonous nature of 
 the plant from experiments made by him. At Noogoora the first 
 case of poisoning stock was authenticated, whence it received its 
 local name. 
 
 Xanthium spiuosinii (Bathurst burr). Indigenous to Chili, but 
 has long been widely distributed over the warmer parts of the globe. 
 An annual (probably at times biennial in Australia) assuming a bushy 
 spreading growth, and sometimes ascending to over 3 ft. Stem 
 stout, becoming woody near base ; branchlets covered with a silvery 
 bloom, armed with sharp prickles at the nodes ; leaves three*- 
 lobed, lance-shaped, the central lobe much longer than those at 
 the side, green above and silvery below ; llowers situated in the 
 axils of the leaves, where they form clusters of burrs ; burrs elliptical, 
 crowded with hooked bristles. The hard nut is too chambered, 
 containing each a long greyish olive colored seed. A pernicious 
 introduction and especially objectionable on sheep runs. By no 
 other burr is produced an equal deterioration of the wool as by that 
 of A", spinosiiin. The loss may amount to 2d. per pound, which, at 
 the price of wool ruling at present, means upwards of one-third of 
 its value. 
 
 Planla^o lanceohita (Rib grass). Indigenous to Europe. A 
 perennial herb with a thick woody rootstock ; leaves erect, lan- 
 ceolate, sometimes over six inches long, but varying much in size, 
 stalked, longitudinally ribbed ; Mowers small, crowding at the apex 
 of long slender stalks. Abundant in meadows, pastures and waste 
 lands. The plant makes fairly good fodder. 
 
 Plantago major (Broad-leaved plantain). Indigenous to Europe 
 and Central Asia. A perennial plant with large leaves growing from 
 a rootstock ; leaves erect or spreading, sometimes over five inches 
 long and nearly as broad, stalked, ovate, generally smooth but some- 
 times downy underneath, with a number of ribs converging towards 
 the stalks ; Mowers numerous, crowded round a stalk growing 
 from the centre of the plants, and forming a long spike. In culti- 
 vated land, waste lands and pastures. 
 
 Alidad/Us tin't'iisis (Red pimpernel! ; shepherd's or poor man's 
 weather glass). Indigenous to Central and Southern Europe. A 
 succulent procumbent annual from six inches to one foot ; leaves 
 small, ovate, closely set to stems, entire ; Mower bright red. In 
 cultivated and waste places this seed spreads rapidly. Its feeding 
 qualities are small, and it is not readily eaten by stock. 
 
 Anagallis cocnilnns. This weed is by most botanists considered 
 merely a variety of the former. It has very handsome dark blue 
 Mowers, and generally grows more robustly. In Western Australia 
 I have met this plant in cultivation, growing with extraordinary 
 luxuriance, and becoming very obnoxious. 
 
 Gotnphocarpus fniticosus (Cape cotton). Indigenous to South 
 Africa. This annual is an entirely useless weed and very aggres- 
 sive. On account of its handsome appearance it is sometimes 
 
555 
 
 cultivated in gardens. It reaches a height of over four feet ; growth 
 
 branching ; steins containing a milky juice ; leaves bright green, 
 slender, entire ; (lowers white, in umbels near tips of branches ; 
 fructification bright green, sometimes over an inch long, covered 
 with soft prickles (superficially resembling the " thorn-apple ") 
 seeds numerous, bearing a profusion of long white cottony lilal 
 
 Xanthinm spinosnm (" Bathurst burr "). 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, branchlet of plant (natural size) ; B, fruit 
 (enlarged) ; C, leaf, fruit and spines ; D, one of the hooks growing on the fruit 
 (much enlarged). 
 
 ments. The organisation of the attachment of the seed fits this for 
 wide and rapid distribution. Besides being easily carried by the 
 wind, the many fine and flexid hairs allow it to adhere to almost 
 anything, and when blown against railway carriages may be carried 
 for hundreds of miles in this manner. The seed capsules should 
 not be allowed to break, and be burnt to prevent the spread of the 
 plant. 
 
556 
 
 Cuscuta Trifolii (Dodder). Indigenous to Europe and tem- 
 perate Asia. A leafless annual parasitic on lucerne and clover. 
 This remarkable plant sends its reddish or whitish silk-like filiform 
 stems up the host plant and ultimately completely covers it. It 
 supports itself by developing small warts near the nodes of the 
 stem, and by means of these it also depletes its host. The flowers 
 are developed at the nodes and form small headlets. The parasite 
 is very destructive to the fodder plants mentioned, and besides is 
 aggressive to hops and nettles. When buying clover or lucerne 
 seed care should be taken not to have dodder seed mixed with 
 them. 
 
 Datura stramonium (Thorn apple ; mad apple ; devil's apple ; 
 devil's trumpet ; stinkweed. In some ports of North America known 
 as " Jimson weed," a corruption of Jamestown \veed. T. W. Kirk). 
 Indigenous to Western Asia and Europe. It is a common tradi- 
 tion in Europe that the gipsies introduced this plant for clandestine 
 purposes. A succulent tall annual, with bright leaves and hand- 
 some flowers ; height up to four feet, with a strong irregularly 
 branching stem ; leaves, dark-green above and paler below, irregu- 
 larly and sometimes deeply cut, and attached by slender stalks ; 
 flower white, tubular, and five-lobed ; fruit sometimes over an inch 
 long and three-quarters in diameter, green, egg-shaped, covered 
 with cone-like prickles ; when ripe, the fruit splits in four parts 
 and exposes the closely-set dark-brown seeds bedded upon the 
 central pulp. The plant produces a nauseous smell when bruised. 
 It is poisonous, and, although its odour is offensive, it is some- 
 times eaten by cattle in times of dearth. Mr. P. R. Gordon, 
 Chief Inspector of Stock, Queensland, reported a number of in- 
 stances where cattle have been poisoned by this weed. The 
 alkaloid daturia extracted from this plant is a powerful poison, but 
 also a valuable medicine against several diseases. 
 
 Datura lalula (Blue flowering thorn apple). This plant differs 
 mainly from the above in producing blue or violet-blue flowers. It 
 is frequently cultivated as a garden plant. Both species of the thorn 
 apple seem to spread readily when once they are introduced. 
 Probably no plants range over a greater area on the face of the 
 earth. The seeds are heavy and do not possess organs for self- 
 distribution ; it can scarcely be doubted, however, that birds are the 
 means of disseminating them, although I have never observed any 
 to eat these poisonous grains. This plant is considered to possess 
 stronger toxic qualities than the common stramonium. 
 
 Xicotiiiiui gldiit'ti (Tree tobacco). Indigenous to South America. 
 Attaining sometimes a height of over 20 feeet with a stem of over 
 six feet in diameter. A rapid grower, and used on this account as 
 a shelter plant. Leaves stalked, fleshy, smooth, ovate heart-shaped, 
 covered with a whitish bloom, the larger upwards of six inches long 
 and three inches wide, much smaller towards the tips of the 
 
Datura stramonium. ("Thorn apple"; "devil's trumpet"; "stink 
 
 weed.") 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, flower laid open ; B, fruit, splitting by four 
 valves ; C, seed. 
 
Stachys arvcnsis ("Stagger weed," "Hedge nettle," &c.) 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, side view of a flower ; H, flower opened out to 
 show the arrangement of the stamens ; C, fruit enclosed in the calyx ; D, showing 
 different views of the seed-like nuts. All variously magnified. 
 
559 
 
 branches ; flowers yellow, tubular, about i \ inches long, clustered ; 
 seeds in oval capsules. The plant is decidedly poisonous to stock, 
 a reason why its spread should be checked. 
 
 Sulninun uigrum (Black-berried nightshade ; black currant). 
 Indigenous to the greater part of the globe, and considered a 
 native of Australia as well. A well-known common weed, generally 
 found in cultivated soil, waste lands, and newly-broken ground. 
 growing to a height of sometimes 3 feet. A succulent annual 
 poisonous in all its parts. Leaves dark green, ovate, and irregularly 
 toothed'; flowers white, small ; fruit black, soft, enclosed in a 
 tough skin. Children frequently eat the berries without harm to 
 them, although they are distinctly poisonous and will cause nausea. 
 Tii^s seem to be particularly sensitive to the poison of this weed 
 and its berries. They are said to die through eating it, and in 
 consequence the plant is known in certain parts of Germany as 
 " Sautod " (sowdeath). A correspondent from Deniliquin, in New 
 South Wales, writes in the Agricultural Gazette, vol. vi., p. 293 : 
 " Supposed to be the cause of blindness in horses, particularly 
 young animals, who unknowingly eat the plant." 
 
 Solatium sodomaeum (Apple of Sodom). Indigenous to South 
 Africa. A shrubby plant of a spreading habit from three to five 
 feet high, armed with strong prickles at the base of the leaf stalks. 
 Leaves large, deeply lobed and covered on the underside with short 
 white hairs set starlike ; flow T ers violet, upwards of an inch across, 
 growing in small clusters ; berries globular, often over an inch in 
 diameter, green, variegated with yellowish white. Generally found 
 on the sides of roads, and often in rocky soil. A perfectly useless 
 plant with poisonous berries. 
 
 Lithospenniim arvense (Corn gromwell ; .bastard alkanet). 
 Indigenous to Europe and Western and Central Asia. An erect 
 annual, growing over a foot high, with a hoary stem branching 
 towards the top. Leaves lanceolate, dark-green and hairy ; 
 flowers small, white, closely attached to the stem, or terminal ; 
 seeds blackish, wrinkled, very hard. Often very trouble- 
 some in cornfields, and also found in waste places. The root of 
 this noxious weed is red externally and stains the skin if rubbed 
 with it. Peasant girls may probably use it at times to paint their 
 cheeks, for in Germany it is known as " Bauernschminke." 
 
 Mcnllia pnlegium (Pennyroyal). Indigenous to the countries 
 surrounding the Mediterranean ; extending over Europe and 
 Western Asia. A prostrate branching perennial ; strongly scented ; 
 leaves small, narrow ; flowers small, in clusters. In waste places 
 and damp situations. 
 
 Stachys atrcnsis (Hedge nettle ; stagger weed). Indigenous to 
 Europe and Central Asia. A slender, hairy annual with branched 
 stems, erect or slightly decumbent, sometimes over one foot 
 high ; leaves small ovate ; flowers small, of pale purple color. In 
 cultivated or broken lands and waste places. A prolific seeder and 
 
560 
 
 an aggressive and useless weed which is by many considered 
 dangerous and supposed to give cattle the staggers, hence its trivial 
 name. When green it is not readily eaten by domesticated animals, 
 but when mixed with hay, or particularly in chaff, it cannot be 
 avoided by them, and then is claimed to produce the affection 
 called u staggers." Although much doubt exists on this point, it is 
 as well to obviate even a presumed danger, if such it only were, by 
 vigorously suppressing this useless weed upon its first appearance. 
 
 Lanlann camera (Lantana). Indigenous to sub-tropical and 
 tropical America. A perennial shrub attaining in rich soil a height 
 of upwards of 20 feet ; muclr branched and densely matted, it 
 
 Hoincria lincala. 
 
 suppresses, where it becomes established, all other vegetation except 
 strong trees. Foliage dark green, and strong smelling ; leaves lan- 
 ceolate ovate, rough on the upper surface, regularly bluntly toothed 
 round the margin ; llowers in clusters, pink, and later yellow ; 
 berries with a thin blackish pulp. The plant is very ornamental and 
 originally has been introduced for decorative purposes. Its profuse 
 production of seeds, however, has caused it to become widely dis- 
 tributed in many places through the agency of birds. In the north- 
 ern parts of Xew South Wales it has destroyed thousands of acres 
 of the most valuable land, and since its introduction into Kfatc the 
 southern island of the New Hebrides, about ten years ago, it has 
 
become in several places very troublesome. In the islands it goes 
 by the name of the " curse of New Caledonia," probably because it 
 was iirsi distributed from the last named island to those adjacent. 
 In Mauritius it is a terrible pest, where it was also introduced as an 
 ornamental plant more than forty years ago. It can only be eradi- 
 cated with the greatest trouble, as the smallest particle of its roots 
 may throw out suckers after the plant has been cut down and 
 the stalks grubbed up. The only way I know to deal with it suc- 
 cessfully is by cutting it down close to the ground and letting the 
 plants lie over the stocks till the foil owing' year. This will smother the 
 stocks and roots, and if, after a twelve months, the dead brush is 
 burnt the land may then be ploughed, and rarely any of the roots 
 will sprout again. 
 
 Honieria lineala. 
 
 REFEKKNCE TO PL\TE. A, plant (much reduced); B, flower ; C, bulb with 
 bulbils ; D, airial bulbils at node of stem ; E, a single bulbil. (B, C, D, and E, 
 approximately natural size.) 
 
 Homeria lincaia. Indigenous to South Africa. A perennial plant 
 with a bulb of considerable size ; leaves rigid, moderately strongly 
 ribbed; and with a whitish band along the mid rib, often over a foot 
 long; stem sometimes over 18 inches long, bearing the flowers on 
 stalks at the head ; flowers, copper red, the segments sometimes an 
 inch long and three-eighths to half an inch broad, with a small 
 
562 
 
 Rounilca rosca (" Guildford grass"). 
 
 REFERENCE TO PLATE. A, plant with 
 seed capsule ; B, plant showing flower 
 and the growth of a new bulb ; C, 
 flower laid open to show the fertilising 
 organs ; D, seed capsule, with part of 
 covering removed to show seeds. A, 
 reduced by half ; B and C natural size ; 
 D, reduced one third. 
 
yellow-dotted blotch inside at the base. A rapidly spreading plant, 
 multiplying itself not only by seeds and bulbs, but in addition 
 also by bulbiles growing round the bulb and at the axis of 
 the leaves which partly sheath the stem. The plant is 
 malignantly poisonous to stock. It has escaped from deserted 
 gardens where it had been cultivated for its flowers. Some years 
 Ixu-k a large number of stock were poisoned by it near Melbourne. 
 The late Baron von Mueller was deeply impressed with the 
 dangerous nature of this plant, and did all in his power to make 
 those engaged in rural pursuits acquainted with the appearance of 
 this plant. A coloured figure of it appeared in the JonriKif of the 
 tturfiui on the nth December, 1894, reproduced from a drawing 
 sent by that eminent scientist, who never lost sight of the practical 
 side of the rural interests. 
 
 Rouiuh-a rosca (Guildford grass). Indigenous to South Africa. 
 A perennial bulbous plant. Leaves narrow, faintly ribbed and lined, 
 glossy, erect, sometimes over a foot long ; flowers pink, with five 
 petals, about ^-inch across, on stalks rising from centre of plant ; 
 seeds numerous, yellow, almost spherical, about the size of a mustard 
 seed, arranged in six rows ; seed-capsules nearly ^-inch long, splitting 
 when dry into three divisions, each of which is composed of a 
 double compartment. The plant spreads rapidly and soon becomes 
 the almost sole occupier of the ground wherever it establishes it- 
 self, as it multiplies by its bulbs as well as the numerously produced 
 seeds. Any kind of soil seems to suit it, although it prefers damp 
 localities. It is a veritable destroyer of good pasture. Although 
 eaten what are the poor brutes to do when there is nothing else 
 growing ? it is extremely innutritions and when it gets old may 
 become dangerous to stock. Its danger lies not in possessing toxic 
 qualities, but in the toughness of the leaves, which, being very 
 indigestible, will frequently pack into a solid ball within the 
 stomach. Some specimens of enormous size have been taken from 
 horses who died of internal inflammation, probably caused, but 
 Certainly intensified and accelerated by these solid accumulations. 
 This objectionable plant is becoming very common in several parts 
 of the old settled districts of Western Australia. Care should be 
 exercised to prevent it getting established in new localities. On 
 account of its grass-like leaves it may easily escape observation, as it is 
 not readily recognised by anyone previously unacquainted with it. 
 When flowering the pink blossoms betray its presence, and when 
 dug up at any other time the brownish bulbs reveal the true nature 
 of this noxious weed. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 
 A LIST OF FOREIGN PLANTS KXOWN TO OCCUR IN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 The greater number of the plants included in the following list 
 have been accidentally introduced through impure seeds of cereals 
 or other plants of cultivation, with forage, with packing consisting of 
 hay, straw, moss, &c., or soil attached to living plants. A number 
 have strayed from cultivation, and a few have been deliberately 
 introduced. Those marked with an * occur in Western Australia ; 
 but many more besides very probably have found their way to this 
 colony, as only those are marked which were observed during the 
 spring of 1897, and which in most instances were found within 20 
 miles from Perth. 
 
 Raniiiicnlaceae. 
 
 Ranunculus bulbosus ; Buttercup. Eu. 
 
 Ranunculus muricatus. Mediterranean region 
 
 Papaveraeeae. 
 
 Argemone Mexicana ; Mexican poppy. Mexico. 
 Papaver hybrid um ; Wild poppy. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Papaver Rhoeas. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Fniuariaceae. 
 *Fumaria officinalis ; Common fumitory. 
 
 Cruciferae. 
 
 Alyssum maritimum. S.Eu. 
 *Barbarea vulgaris ; Winter 
 
 Am., Tas., Viet., N.S.W T ., X.Z. 
 Brassica campestris. Eu. 
 Brassica oleracea. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Brassica Sinapistrum. Eu., As., N.Afr. 
 Camelina dentata. S.Eu. 
 
 *Capsella Bursa-pastoiis ; Shepherd's purse. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 Lepidium Draba. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Nasturtium acjuaticum ; Water cress. Eu., As., Afr. 
 "Nasturtium ofticinale ; Water cress. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 * (?) Raphaiiiis Raphanistnim ; Wild radish ; Spanish radish. 
 
 Eu., As., N.Afr. 
 
 *Raphanus sativus. Eu., As., N.Afr. 
 Senebiera coronopus. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Senebiera didyma ; Pepper-wort. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Sisymbrium ofticinale ; Wild mustard. Eu., W.As. 
 
 Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 cress ; yellow rocket. Eu., As., 
 
Polygalcae. 
 
 Muraltia Heisteria. S.Afr. 
 P.olygala myrtifolia. S.Afr. 
 Polygala virgata. S.Afr. 
 
 Lincac. 
 Limim gallicum. S.Eu., N.Afr. 
 
 *Erodium cicutariuin ; Storks bill. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Erodium moschatum ; Musky storksbill. Eu., W. As., W. Afr. 
 
 *Oxalis cernua ; Sour grass. S. Afr. 
 
 *Oxalis versicolor. S. Afr. 
 
 Oxalis purptirala. S. Afr. 
 
 Pelargonium sp. ; Garden geranium. S. Afr. 
 
 Malvaceae. 
 
 Malva parviflora ; Small-flowered mallow. S. Eu. 
 Malva rotunclifolia ; Dwarf mallow. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 
 * Malva silvestris ; Marsh mallow. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Modiola Caroliniana 
 
 Modiola multirida. S. Am. 
 
 Sida rhombifolia ; Paddy's lucerne. Warm regions of both 
 hemispheres. 
 
 Euphorbiaceae. 
 
 Euphorbia Helioscopia ; Sun spurge. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Euphorbia Lathyris. S. Eu. 
 
 * Euphorbia Peplus ; Common spurge. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Ricinus com munis ; Castor-oil plant. As., Afr. 
 
 Utiicaceae. 
 
 Urtica dioica ; Perennial nettle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Urtica urens ; Small nettle. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Ficoidcae. 
 
 Mesembryanthemum crystallinum ; Ice plant. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Mesembryanthemum edule ; Hottentot hg. S. Afr. 
 Mesembryanthemum pomeridianum. S' Afr. 
 
 Pottiilaceae. 
 Claytonia caulescens. Am. 
 
 Cat \op1iyUcae. 
 
 Arenaria serpyllifolia. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Cerastium vulgatum ; Mouse ear chick weed. North, hem. 
 Dianthus prolifer ; Pink. Eu., W. As. 
 Lychnis Githago ; Corn cockle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Saponaria Vaccaria ; Cow soap-wort. S. Eu., As., N. Afr. 
 Silene cucubalus. Eu., As. Afr. 
 *Silene Gallica ; Catchfly. S. Eu. 
 *Spergula arvensis ; Spiirry. Eu., W.As., N. Afr. 
 Spergula pentandra. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Stellaria media ; Chickweed. Temperate Northern hemisphere. 
 
5 66 
 
 Amarantaceae. 
 Amarantus albus. Am. 
 Amarantus Blitum. S. Eu., W. As., N Am. 
 "Amarantus paniculatus ; Red leg. As. 
 Amarantus spinosus. As., Afr., Am. 
 Amarantus viridis ; Green amaranth. As. 
 
 Salsolaceae. 
 
 Atriplex hortense ; Garden orache. N.E.Eu., ;\ T . As. 
 Atriplex patulum ; Wild orache. Temperate North, hem. 
 Chenopodium album ; White goosefoot. Eu., As. 
 *Chenopodium ambrosioides ; Stinking g foot. Am. 
 'Chenopodium glaucum ; Oak-leaved g. foot. W T . As., N. Am. 
 *Chenopodium murale ; Nettle-leaved g. foot. W. As., N. Afr. 
 '"Chenopodium olidum. Eu. 
 
 Polygonaccae. 
 *Emex australis. S. Afr. 
 
 *Polygonum aviculare ; Knot-weed. Eu , N. and W. As. 
 Polygonum convolvulus ; Black bindweed. Temp, north, hem. 
 Polygonum lapathifolium ; Smart weed. Eu. 
 *Kumex acetosella ; Sorrell. Temp, north hem. 
 Rumex conglomerates ; Clustered dock. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 
 * Rumex crispus ; Curled dock. Temp. As., N. Afr. 
 Rumex pulcher ; Fiddle dock. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 
 * Rumex sp. (probably R. vesicarius. S. Afr.) 
 
 Phytolaccaceae. 
 Phytolacca Americana. Am. 
 Phytolacca decandra ; Red ink plant. Am. 
 Phytolacca octandra ; Ink plant. Am. 
 
 Leguminoscs. 
 
 Arachis hypogiea ; Peanut, West Ind. 
 
 Argyrolobium Andrewsianum. S.Afr. 
 
 Cajanus bicolor. Trop. As. 
 
 Cytisus scoparius ; Broom. Eu., N.As. 
 
 Genista canariensis. Eu., N.Afr. 
 
 Indigofera atropurpurea. Himalaya. 
 
 Lathyrus Aphaca. Eu. 
 
 Lotus tetragonolobus. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Lupinus spp. Am. 
 
 *Medicago denticulata ; Burr medick. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Medicago lupulina ; Black medick. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Medicago maculata ; Spotted medick. Eu., N.Afr. 
 
 Medicago minima ; Burr medick. Eu., W.A., N.Afr. 
 
 Medicago orbicularis. S.Eu. 
 
 Medicago sativa ; Lucerne. Eu. N.Afr. 
 
 Medicago scutellata. S.Ku. 
 
 Melilotus alba ; White melilot. Eu., N. and W. As. 
 
 
5*9 
 
 *Melilotus parviflora ; Scented melilot. S.Eu., W.As., N.Afr 
 
 Ononis natrix ; Goatroot. Eu. 
 
 Psoralea pinnata. S.Afr. 
 
 Trifolium agrarium ; Hop trefoil. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Trifoliuin arvense ; Hare's-foot trefoil. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Trifoliuin glomeratum. Eu., N.Afr. 
 
 *Trifoiium pratense ; Red clover. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 "Trifoliuin procumbens. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Trifolium repens ; White clover. Temp. Northern Hem. 
 
 Trifolium resupiiiatum. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Trifoliuin subterraneum. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Trifolium tomentosum. S. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Ulcx Europeans ; Furze. Eu., Afr. 
 
 Vicia angustifolia. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Vicia hirsuta ; Hairy vetch. S.Eu., SW.As., N.Afr. 
 
 *Vicia sativa ; Common vetch. S.Eu., SW.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Vicia tetrasperma. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Rosaccd'. 
 
 Alchemilla arvensis ; Lady's mantle. Eu. W.As., N.Afr. 
 *Kosa rubiginosa ; Sweet briar. Eu., N. and W. As. 
 *Rubtis fruticosus ; Bramble. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Afr. 
 Sanguisorba minor ; Salad burnet. Eu., N.As., N.Afr. 
 Sanguisorba polygama. Eu., As. 
 
 Onagrcae. 
 
 Epilobium roseum. Temperate Northern Hemisphere. 
 *CEnothera biennis ; Evening primrose. N.Am. 
 CEnothera tetraptera. Mexico. 
 
 Cacteae. 
 
 Opuntia Brasiliensis ; Prickly pear. Brazil. 
 Opuntia Dillenii ,, Am. 
 
 Opuntia ricus indica ,, India, Trop. Am. 
 
 Opuntia Tuna ,, Mexico. 
 
 *Opuntia vulgaris ,, Mexico. 
 
 Umbellijcrae. 
 
 Ammi majus ; Bull-wort. Eu.. W.As., W.Afr. 
 Bupleurum rotundifolium ; Hare's ear. S.Eu., W.As. 
 Carum Petroselinum ; Parsley. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Crithmum maritimum ; Real samphire. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Daucus Carota ; Common carrot. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 
 *Foeniculum vulgare ; Fennel. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 Peucedanum sativum ; Parsnip. Eu., N.As. 
 
 Cucurbit ace ae. 
 Cucumis myriocarpus ; Wild melon. S.Afr. 
 
 Rubiaceae. 
 
 Galium Aparine ; Cleavers. Temp. North. Hem. 
 Richardsonia humistrata. S.Am. 
 Sherardia arvensis ; Field madder. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 
 
568 
 
 Scabiosa maritima. 
 
 Dipsaceae. 
 Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Passifloreae. 
 
 Passiflora alba. Brazil. 
 Passiflora coerulea. Brazil and Peru. 
 Passiflora edulis ; Common passion fruit. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Compositae. 
 
 Ageratum conyzoides ; Billy goat weed. 
 
 Anthemis cotula ; Spurious chamomile. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Anthemis nobilis ; True chamomile. Eu., As., Afr 
 Arctium majus ; Giant burdock. Eu., W.A. 
 Arnoseris pusilla ; Lamb's lettuce. Eu. 
 Aster dumosus. N. Am. 
 
 Bidens pilosa ; Covvage. Warm parts of the North Hem. 
 Carduus acaulis ; Stemless thistle. Eu., N. and W. As. 
 Carcluus arvensis ; Perrenial th. Eu., X. and W. As., X.Afr. 
 Carduus crispus. 
 
 *Carduus lanceolatus ; Black thistle. Eu., N. As., N. Afr. 
 *Carduus Marianus ; Spotted thistle. Eu. 
 
 Carduus pycnocephalus; Slender th. Eu., N. andW. As., N.Afr. 
 Cathamus tinctorius ; Safflower. S. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Centaurea calcitrapa ; Star thistle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Centaurea melitensis ; Cockspur. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Centaurea solstitialis. Eu., X. \V. As. 
 Chrysanthemum parthenium. S. Eu., X. Afr. 
 Chrysanthemum segetum ; Corn marigold. Eu., W. As., N. 
 
 Afr. 
 
 Chichorium Intybus ; Chicory. Eu., X. and W. As., X. Afr. 
 * Cryptostemma calendulacea ; Cape weed. S. Afr. 
 Cynara Scolymus ; Artichoke. S. Eu., S. W. As., X. Afr. 
 Erigeron Canadensis ; Canadian ileabane. X. Am. 
 *Erigeron linifolius ; Cobblers peg. Tropics. 
 Euryops abrotanifolius. S. Afr. 
 *Galinsoga parviflora. Pern. 
 
 *Hypochoeris glabra ; Annual cat's ear. Eu., W. As., X. Afr. 
 Hypochoeris radicata , Perennial cat's-ear. Eu., X. Afr. 
 *Inula graveolens. Mediteranean region. 
 Kentrophyllum lanatum ; Woolly thistle. S. Eu. 
 Leontodon hirtus ; Hairy hankbit. En. 
 Madia sativa ; Pitch weed. Am. 
 
 *Onopordon Acanthium ; Scotch thistle. Eu., X.As. 
 Osteospermum moniliferum. S.Afr. 
 Picris echioitles. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Picris hieracioides. 
 Senecio scanclens ; Cape ivy. S.Afr. 
 *Senecio vulgaris ; Groundsel. Eu., X.Afr. 
 Soliva anthemidifolia. Brazil. 
 
5*9 
 
 *Sonchus arvensis ; Sow thistle. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 
 
 *Sonchus oleraceus ; Sow thistle. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 
 
 Tagetes glandulifera ; Stinking roger. S.Ani. 
 
 Tanacctum vulgare ; Tansy. N.Eu., N.As., N.W.Am. 
 
 Taraxacum Dens-leonis ; Dandelion. Temp. North. Hem. 
 
 Tolpis barbata. S.Eu., N.Afr. 
 
 *Tripteris clandestina. S.Afr. 
 
 Tragopogon porrifolius ; Salsify. Eu., N.As. 
 
 Wedelia hispida. N.Am. 
 
 *Xanthium spinosum ; Bathurst burr. Chili. 
 
 Xanthium strumarium ; Ditch burr. Eu., N.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Zinnia pauciilora. N.Am. 
 
 Cainpanulacece. 
 Lobelia debilis. S.Atr. 
 Lobelia Erinus. Afr. 
 
 Polemaniaceas. 
 Navarretia squarrosa. Am. 
 
 Plantaginete. 
 
 Plantago coronopus. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 *Plantago lanceolata ; Rib-herb. Eu., N. and W. As., Afr. 
 *Plantago major ; Large rib-herb. Eu., N. and W. Asia., Afr. 
 
 Prijnulac&e, 
 
 Anagallis arvensis ; Pimpernel. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 
 *Anagallis arvensis, var. coerulea. S.Eu., N. and W. Asia., 
 N.Afr. 
 
 Apocyncaf. 
 
 Vinea rosea ; Pink periwinkle. W.Indies. 
 
 Asclepiadeae. 
 
 Asclepias curassavica ; Red flower. W. Indies. 
 *Gomphocarpus fruticosus ; Wild cotton plant. S.Afr. 
 
 Convolvnlaceae. 
 *Cuscuta trifolii ; Dodder. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 
 Solanaceae. 
 
 *Datura Stramonium ; Thorn apple. As. 
 
 Datura fastuosa. 
 
 * Datura tatula ; Blue-flowered thorn apple. 
 
 Lycium Chinense. China. 
 
 Nicandra physaloides ; Apple of Peru. S.Am. 
 
 *Nicotiana glauca ; Tree tobacco. S.Am. 
 
 Nicotiana tabacum ; Common tobacco. Am. 
 
 Physalis Peruviana. S.Am. 
 
 Solanum aculeatissimum. S.Am. 
 
 Solanum auriculatum. E. India. 
 
 *Solanum nigrum. 
 
I.Afr. 
 
 Solanum Pseudo-capsicum. S.Am. 
 
 *Solanum Sodomaeum ; Apple of Sodom. S.Afr. 
 
 Solanum pyracanthum. Madagascar. 
 
 Scrophnltirieac. 
 
 Antirrhinum Orontium ; Snapdragon. Eu., temp. As., N.Afr. 
 *Bartsia latifolia. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Celsia Cretica ; Cretan mullein. S.Eu., N.Afr. 
 Linaria elatine ; Toad flax. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. 
 Linaria genistifolia. S.E.Eu. 
 Linaria vulgaris. Eu. 
 
 Vesbascum Blattaria ; Spurious mullein. Eu., W.As., 
 Vesbascum Creticum. Eu. 
 Vesbascum Thapsus ; Mullein. Eu., N. and W. As. 
 
 Asperifoliac. 
 
 Anchusa officinalis ; Common alkanet. Eu., W.A. 
 Echium violaceum ; Purple bugloss. S.Eu., N.Afr. 
 *Lithospennum arvense ; Common gromwell. Eu., N. and 
 W. As. 
 
 Labi at ae. 
 
 Leonotus leonurus ; Lion's tail. N. Afr. 
 
 Marrubium vulgare ; White horehound. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Melissa omcinallis ; Common balm. Eu., W. As. 
 *Mentha pulegium ; Pennyroyal. G. Eu., W. As. 
 Mentha viridis ; Spear Mint. N. & W. As., N. Afr. 
 Molucella laevis ; Molucca balm. Medit. region. 
 Nepeta Cataria ; Cat mint. N. & W. As. 
 Origanum vulgare ; Marjoram. Eu., N. & W. As., N. Afr. 
 Rosmarinus officinalis ; Rosemary. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Sal via pratensis ; Common sage. Eu., W. As. 
 vSalvia verbenaca ; Vervain sage. Eu., W T . As., N. Afr. 
 *Stachys arvensis ; Stagger weed. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Afr. 
 Stachys palustris ; Swamp betony. Eu., N. As., N. Am. 
 *Stachys sp.? 
 
 Verbenaceae. 
 
 * Lantana camara ; Common lantana. S. Am. 
 Lantana Sellowiana ; Sellow's lantana. S. Am. 
 Stachytarpeta Jamaicensis. S. Am. 
 Verbena Bonariensis ; Vervain. S. Am. 
 Verbena hispida ; Vervain. S. Am. 
 Verbena venosa ; Vervain. S. Am. 
 
 Irideae. 
 
 *Hesperantha falcata. S.Afr. 
 *Homeria lineata. S. Afr. 
 *Ixia sp. p. S. Afr. 
 *Lapeyrousia sp. S. Afr. 
 *Romulea rosea. S. Afr. 
 
 
Sisyrinchium Bermudiana. N. Am. 
 Sisyrinchium micranthum. N. Am. 
 
 Sparaxis grandillora. Afr. 
 
 Trichouema Bulbocodium. S. and W. Eu. 
 
 \Yatsonia angulata. S. Am. 
 
 Amaryllideat, 
 
 _ Agave Americana ; American aloe. S. Am. 
 Zephvrantes Atamasco. Am. 
 Zephyrantes Candida. S. Am. 
 
 Liliaccac. 
 
 Allium fragrans ; Sweet scented garlic. S. Ku. 
 Aphodelus fistulosus. S. Eu. 
 Bulbinella caudata. S. Afr. 
 
 Commelincac. 
 Commelina Africana. S. Afr. 
 
 Pontederaccae. 
 Pontederia cordata. Am. 
 
 Aroideae. 
 
 Colocasia antiquorum ; Tars. Tropical. 
 Richardia Africana ; Trumpet Lily. S. Afr. 
 
 Jnnccae. 
 *Juncus bufonius. Eu., As., Afr., Am. 
 
 Gramineae. 
 
 Agrostis palustris ; Fiorin grass. Eu., As., Afr., Am. 
 Aira caryophyllea. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Aira praecox. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Alopecurus agrestis. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Alopecurus pratensis ; Foxtail grass. Eu., As , Afr. 
 Andropogon Halepensis ; Haleppo grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum ; Scented vernal grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Avena elatior ; Meadow oat grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Avena fatua ; Wild oat. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Briza maxima ; Large quaking grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Briza minor ; Small quaking grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Bromus mollis ; Soft brome grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Bromus sterilis ; Barren brome grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Bromus unioloides ; Prairie grass. Am. 
 Cynosurus cristatus ; Dogtail grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Dactylis glomerata ; Cocks foot grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 *Ehrharta longiflora. Afr. 
 
 Festuca bromoides ; Barren fescue grass. Eu., N. Afr. 
 *Holcus lanatus ; Yorkshire fog grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Holcus mollis ; Creeping velvet grass. Eu., As. Afr. 
 *Hordeum murinum ; Barley grass. Eu., As., N. Afr. 
 
572 
 
 Horcleum nodosum. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Koeleria cristata ; Crested hair grass. Eu., N. and W. As. 
 
 N. Afr. 
 
 Koeleria phleoides. G. Eu. 
 Lamarckia aurea. G. Eu. 
 
 *Lolium perenne ; Rye grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 
 Loliutn temulentum ; Darnel grass. Eu., W. As,., N. Afr. 
 *Panicum spectabile. 
 Paspalum distichum ; Silt grass. Am. 
 Pennisetum longistylum. Abyssinia. 
 
 *Phalaris Canariensis ; Canary-seed grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Phalaris minor. Eu., As., Afr. 
 Phleum pratense ; Timothy grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Poa annua ; Annual poa. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Afr. 
 Poa pratensis ; Common poa. Eu., As., Afr., Am. 
 Poa trivialis. Eu., As., Afr. 
 
 Polypogon Monspeliensis ; Beard grass. Eu., As., Afr. 
 *Stenotaphrum Americanum ; Buffalo grass. Am. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE POISON-PLANTS OF WESTKRX AUSTRALIA. 
 
 il.y DR. ALKX. MORRISON, BOTANIST, BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE.) 
 
 The colony of Western Australia has been known from its 
 earliest days, and even from a time prior to actual settlement, to 
 include in its flora a number of plants having properties dangerous 
 to animal life. Some of these grow in such quantity, and over so 
 large an area of the colony, as to have materially hindered the 
 progress of settlement on its soil, by making the rearing of stock 
 impracticable. The recent impulse towards agricultural settlement 
 has brought the subject of poison-plants into greater prominence 
 than before, and settlers have agitated for assistance in dealing 
 with the pest. The loss sustained by the colony through the 
 poisons, and the detriment they cause to its progress, are of a 
 magnitude not easily realised. The Hon. C. H. Piesse, M.L.C., in 
 speaking of his own personal experience of their effects, has stated 
 that on one occasion he had seen a Hock of 900 sheep in a fresh- 
 burnt patch of York Road poison, and that half an hour afterwards 
 522 were found poisoned. He also expressed his opinion that the 
 south-western portion of the colony would carry 10,000 sheep 
 where it now carries only 100, were it not for these plants. 
 
 The Bureau of Agriculture, recognising the necessity for 
 Governmental action in the matter, made the following statement 
 in its Second Annual Report, for the year ending June 3oth, 1895 
 ('Journal of the Bureau of Agriculture, 6th August, 1895, vol. ii., p. 514) : 
 " The Bureau is of opinion that the poison question is one of the 
 greatest importance, and that every effort should be made to 
 ascertain the nature of the alkaloids in those plants, which infest so 
 large an area of the colony, with a view to discovering whether 
 there are any simple, cheap, and effective antidotes, and whether 
 the alkaloids have any commercial value. The investigation should 
 be botanical, chemical, and veterinary, and the Bureau proposes, if 
 funds are forthcoming, to undertake the botanical and veterinary 
 branches of the investigation." 
 
 In the year 1892 Mr. Bernard H. Woodward, curator of the 
 Perth Museum, had been authorised to collect information from 
 settlers and others regarding the poison plants of the colony, and he 
 accordingly issued circulars, of which a copy is given below, request- 
 ing information on the subject. 
 
 11 1 am authorised by the honorable the Colonial Secretary to 
 make a report upon the poison plants of this colony. To this end I 
 
574 
 
 shall esteem it a favor if you will kindly fill in the blank spaces in 
 the annexed form as far as you can, and also answer the questions 
 asked thereunder. 
 
 The points I hope to settle, if possible, are as follows : 
 ist. The botanical classification of the plants. 
 2nd. The nature of the poisons. 
 3rd. Their effects. 
 4th. The proper antidotes. 
 5th. The commercial or medical value of these poisons. 
 
 The popular and botanical names of the following plants were 
 given : York road Gastrolobiam graiuliflora, G. calycinuui 
 (Bentham). 
 
 Heart-leaved G. bilobum (R. Brown), G. largijoliiun. 
 
 Narrow-leaved G. longifolwin. 
 
 Berry G. parvifolium (Bentham). 
 
 Rock G. Callistachys (Meissner). 
 
 Bloom G. ovalifolium (Henfrey), Oxylobium rctiisuui (Brown). 
 
 Box G. parviflorum^ 0. oxylobioidcs (Bentham). 
 
 Sand plain, blue, Candyup, prickly, bullock. 
 
 The following information was sought Locality and nature of 
 the soil on which it grows ; month of flowering ; usual height of 
 plant ; when dangerous, if all the year or only at flowering or other 
 season ; to what stock it is hurtful, and in what manner it affects 
 them. The questions asked were " Do you consider that there are 
 two varieties of York road, viz., a large and a small, and if so, which 
 do you consider the more dangerous ? Will you be willing to send 
 me specimens of the plants in flower, and also seeds later on, if 
 requested ? Do you know of any other poisonous plants?" 
 
 Replies were sent in from 30 of those to whom the 
 schedules of enquiries had been forwarded, and a quantity 
 of useful information on the prevalence, mode of growth, and 
 injurious effects of the various kinds of poison was obtained by 
 this means. On these returns the following account of the poison 
 plants has been to a large extent based. The information obtained 
 from them may, in some particulars, require correction, and criticism 
 from those interested will be welcome. It is not always clear whether 
 the facts stated in these returns have been acquired in the writer's own 
 experience, or are of a hearsay character. Facts correctly described 
 by the person who has actually observed them are on a different foot- 
 ing from statements derived from others, who on their part may also 
 have got the information on hearsay. The statements may be 
 correct, but there is always a risk of them becoming modified as 
 they are passed from one to another, if not easily confirmed by 
 each person for himself. It is also difficult to distinguish between 
 statements of what has actually occurred and guesses, inferences, 
 beliefs, or opinions, many, in place of stating the facts themselves, 
 giving what are really the impressions made on their minds by 
 
575 
 
 what they had seen or heard. It" an animal is found to show 
 symptoms like those produced by poison-plants, it is desirable to 
 ascertain, if possible, that it had been seen to eat a certain plant, or 
 that portions of it had been found in its stomach after death. 
 Failing this, the beast's illness might as reasonably be supposed to 
 have been due to some other cause. A knowledge of the various 
 poison-plants would enable anyone to decide, from their presence or 
 absence in the neighborhood, whether the animal's sickness 
 might be put down to one of those plants or not ; and a knowledge 
 of the way in which they affect animals would be equally useful. 
 So many plants have been suspected of poisoning stock that simple 
 facts, correctly stated, arc much needed for fixing their character 
 as injurious, or clearing them of suspicion ; and it is to be hoped 
 that those having the opportunity will communicate such definite 
 facts to the Bureau of Agriculture, in order that they may be 
 utilised and placed on record. It \vill be understood, from what 
 has been said, that the following notes, imperfect and fragmentary 
 as they are, are not put forward as a complete account of the 
 poison-plants, but rather that they are meant as a step towards an 
 enquiry into the subject, with a view to elucidating their nature 
 and properties. Before discovering antidotes, or devising means 
 for the prevention of poisoning of stock, or putting the poisons to 
 useful purposes, it is necessary first of all to gather all the informa- 
 tion possible about the plants, and to follow that up with systematic 
 observation and experiment on the action of the poisons, the effect 
 of antidotes, and other means of treatment. Notes of the symptoms 
 of poisoning, the order of their incidence, and the post-mortem 
 appearances, may be made by those under whose observation the 
 occurrence may have happened ; and if these are written down on 
 the spot, and forwarded with specimens of the plant found to have 
 caused the accident, our knowledge of the poisons and their effects 
 may be materially advanced. 
 
 The lirst requirement in discussing any question is to have a 
 clear understanding about the identity of the objects spoken of. 
 In the case of a plant it is necessary to know its name, and if con- 
 fusion is to be avoided that name must be one having a strictly 
 defined application and be generally adopted by the world at large. 
 Such a name is Oxylobium pan'iflonini, definitely associated with a 
 species of plant having certain botanical characters, but known to 
 colonists under a number of different English names, as box, nar- 
 row-leaf, sandplain. In order to be sure of the identity of a plant 
 called by any of these names it is necessary to refer to its scientific 
 description as given in an authoritative work on the subject ; and 
 while a resident of one part of the colony may call it box, another 
 in a different district narrow-leaf, and a third may pronounce it 
 sandplain, the botanist has one name for the three, namely, Oxylo- 
 bium parrifiornm. While it is desirable to know a plant by a well- 
 defined name, applicable to that species alone, it is, on the other 
 
576 
 
 hand, equally necesssry to those who have to study and discuss 
 plants and their natural history to have at hand for convenient 
 reference a collection of specimens of those plants from different 
 localities and showing all the variations in their growth. The 
 name is the key to the information accumulated in books, and a 
 herbarium, as a collection of dried specimens of plants is called, is 
 necessary, as are books, for the acquirement of information regard- 
 ing all those natural objects referable to the vegetable kingdom. 
 Hitherto it has been the custom to send specimens of plants 
 suspected of being poisonous to other colonies, where libraries and 
 herbaria are in existence, in order to have their identity estab- 
 lished, but it is to be hoped that before long this course will not 
 in ordinary cases be necessary. 
 
 It is one of the objects of this account of the poison plants of 
 the colony to supply readers with the means of identifying for 
 themselves such of the known species as they may meet with. A 
 description of each is given, copied, with verbal modifications, 
 from the second and seventh volumes of Bentham and Mueller's 
 Flora AustraliensiS) so that any one on rinding a plant supposed to 
 be poisonous may compare it with the description here given. If 
 it shows the characters denned in the printed description, its 
 identity may be considered established, but any material disagree- 
 ment will show that the specimen does not belong to the species 
 described. 
 
 The most important of the poison-plants of this colony belong 
 to the natural order Legiiminosae, which is characterised, in "its prin- 
 cipal division, by flowers having the form well-known to all as " pea 
 blossoms," and by the seeds being contained in a u pod." They be 
 the botanical names of the genera Gastrolobium and O.vvlobimn 
 which agree with one another in having their stamens all fiee, o: 
 not united to one another, and in their leaves being simple, or no 
 composed of more than one blade or leaflet. The main point o 
 difference between the Owlobiinns and the Gastrolobiums, takin 
 each genus as a whole, lies in the number of seeds in the pod tha 
 of Gastrolobium containing only two, while Oxyhbinin may have fou 
 or more. In Oxylobium parviflorum and O. rcliisiiui, however, the 
 number of seeds does not exceed four, and, in the former, it is often 
 only one or two, probably from failure of the seeds to set. The p 
 may be stalked or not in either genus, but in Gastrolobium it i 
 rarely without a stalk, and is shorter than in O.vvlobiitin, which 
 produces usually a greater number of seeds. The bunches of 
 flowers in the poisonous species of Gastrolobium are commonl 
 longer than in O.vylobuini, and more frequently form the terminal 
 points of the branches, instead of springing from the angles between 
 the upper leaves and the stem. It is sometimes difficult to deter- 
 mine to which of the two genera a given plant may belong, but if 
 more than two seeds are found in the pod it may be set clown as 
 Oxylobium. Plants closely allied to one another, may, however, be 
 
 I 
 
 n 
 
577 
 
 sometimes easily discriminated by their general aspect as they 
 grmv, although their characters as given in books may, by them- 
 selves, appear inadequate. 
 
 HEART- LEAVED POISON. 
 
 (iti^folohiiiin bilohnm. A tall shrub, the young branches 
 angular, and usually silky ; leaves mostly in circles of 3 or 4 round 
 the branches, from oval to narrow-oblong, always more or less 
 wedge shaped, broad at the end or notched, with two short rounded 
 lobes, and with a minute short point, J to i^ in. long or rarely 
 smaller, veined and hairless above, pale and often minutely silky 
 underneath. Flowers numerous, in very short flat-topped bunches 
 rarely exceeding the leaves. Calyx silky, two to four lines long, 
 the two upper points broader and blunter than the others, and 
 united to about the middle. Upper petal about twice as long as 
 the calyx ; lower ones rather shorter, the lowermost deeply 
 coloured. Pod stalked, oval or oblong, rather sharply pointed, two, 
 three, and even four lines long. 
 
 Var. a n gusli folium. Leaves narrow wedge-shaped, but not 
 otherwise differing from the common form. 
 
 The botanical and the common names of this plant both have 
 reference to the two-lobedor heart shape of the leaf. It is reported 
 as found from York southwards to Albany and the Blackwood 
 River, in sandy, rocky, clayey, or loamy soil. The height to which 
 the shrub grows is very variable, like the nature of the soil, the 
 average being about six to ten feet, but the extremes are given as 
 6 inches to 20, or even 25 feet. It begins to flower in August or 
 September, continuing till December or January. It is most dan- 
 gerous to stock when the young shoots come up after bush fires, at 
 flowering and at seeding time, and all kinds of stock are liable to 
 be poisoned by it. 
 
 ROCK POISON. 
 
 Gastrolobium callistachys. An erect shrub of 2 or 3 feet, with 
 twiggy branches, minutely and closely silky-hairy ; leaves scattered 
 or in irregular circles on the branches, very narrow, blunt or some- 
 times even indented at the end, which is tipped with a minute 
 point, i to 2 inches long, flat or with recurved edges, hairless or 
 silky-hairy underneath ; flowers rather large, in terminal racemes 
 of 3 to 4 inches ; calyx silky, fully 3 lines long, the two upper lobes 
 broadly scimitar-shaped, but scarcely united together ; upper petal 
 nearly twice as long as the calyx ; the others about as long ; pod 
 about 4 lines long, broadly oval, scarcely acute, on a stalk of i 
 lines. 
 
 Bentham adds to his description : " This is sent as one of the 
 Swan river poison-plants." 
 
 Found in hilly and rocky country in the north and north- 
 eastern districts of the colony, from the Murchison to the Kalgan, 
 but not plentiful. Grows to a height of I foot to 3, 5, or 7 feet, 
 and flowers between September and December. 
 
578 
 
 YORK ROAD Poisox. 
 
 Gaslrolobiiun calycinum. An erect shrub, nearly allied to G. 
 oxylobioides, but quite destitute of hairs ; leaves opposite or in 
 threes, oblong-elliptical or, more frequently, lancet-shaped, with a 
 pungent point, one to two inches long, rigid, net-veined, and often 
 glaucous ; flower racemes tipping the branches or in the angles 
 formed by the upper leaves with the branch ; flowers few and large 
 in distant pairs or threes ; calyx rive to nearly six lines long, the 
 points or lobes rather linger than the lower part, the two upper 
 ones broad, rounded at the end and united above the middle ; 
 upper petal about three-quarters of an inch in diameter ; lowermost 
 deeply colored, rather shorter than the side ones ; pod on a very 
 short stalk. 
 
 The well-known " York-road " occurs as a small shrub, varying 
 in height from one to three or four feet, growing, according to the 
 reports received, in any soil, from barren sand to rich, but evidently 
 quite at home in soils of the poorest quality. Its period of flowering 
 is from September to December. According to Mr. E. R. Parker, 
 " this plant is very general over all the south-western division of 
 the colony, and took its name from the fact that it destroyed sheep, 
 cattle and goats at different places on the York Road, all the way 
 from Guildford to York, from 1834 to 1884." It prevails much 
 more, he says, in some other parts than in the eastern districts. 
 
 All kinds of stock are subjects to its poisonous effects cattle, 
 sheep, goats, and also horses and it is dangerous at all times, but 
 especially so while young and tender, flow r ering or seeding. It is 
 often noted as particularly deadly after bush rires, when the suc- 
 culent young shoots or seedlings spring up and offer a tempting 
 morsel to stock. At a later stage, the flowers are probably as 
 attractive ; and the seeds, later still, are likely to furnish the poison 
 in a more concentrated and deadly form, while, at the same time, 
 the leaves have become harsher and drier and less palatable. 
 According to one report, the old plant will not poison in Februai 
 or March. 
 
 Some believe there are two varieties of York Road poison, but 
 others think there is only one. It is not unlikely that some other 
 plant may occasionally be mistaken for the true Gastrolobium 
 cinum, or that variations in growth, according to soil, season, or 
 other surroundings, may so alter it as to give it the appearance of 
 distinct species. In such a case, specimens forwarded to th< 
 Bureau of Agriculture may settle the point. 
 
 DESERT POISON. 
 Gastrolobinm gntmlijlonnn. Young branches and flowers softly 
 silky, the full-grown foliage almost without hairs and glaucous ; 
 leaves opposite, or the upper ones scattered, from oval to oblong, 
 blunt or notched at the tip, i to 3 inches long, flat, leathery ; 
 racemes short, loose, in angles of leaves, and terminating the 
 
579 
 
 brandies, with few large flowers on stalklets ; calyx softly hairy, 4 
 to 5 lines long, the lobes or points much shorter than the lower 
 part, the two upper ones broad, scythe-shaped, and united nearly 
 to the middle ; upper petal fully J of an inch diameter, lower 
 petals rather shorter, the lowermost much incurved and deeply 
 colored ; pod stalked, hairy, about J of an inch long, oval, pointed, 
 swollen. 
 
 According to the late Baron von Mueller this tall shrub is a 
 tropic species only, growing in the Nickol Bay district, and also in 
 the tropical portions of South Australia, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland. He has recorded that it poisoned large numbers of 
 
 ie and sheep on the Cape river in 1863-64. According to 
 Bailey and Gordon it is a virulent poison ; but drivers and 
 teamsters state that it ceases to be poisonous after the flower 
 appears. Analysis of dried specimens by Mr. Staiger failed to 
 show the poisonous constituent. It is called the " wallflower " 
 poison-bush, and is also known as the " Australian " and " desert " 
 poison.* 
 
 (jiittrolobiuin oval (foti urn --k low shrub, its young branches 
 hairy, leaves mostly opposite, ovate, rounded or broadly oblong, 
 often notched at the end, to i inch long, margins thickened and 
 nerve-like, not wavy, leathery, hairless above, net-veined and hairy, 
 or at length deprived of hairs underneath ; bunches of flowers 
 scarcely stalked, rather slender, i to 3 in. long ; flowers nearly stalk- 
 less ; calyx hairy, 2\ to nearly 3 lines long ; lower petals deeply 
 Coloured; pod with a very short stalk, ovoid, pointed, about 3 lines 
 long. 
 
 Referred to by Maiden (Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., v. 141) as the 
 " Broom " poison bush. 
 
 See under Ox\lobium retusnin p. 582. 
 
 Gastrolobium o.vylobioides. An erect shrub of i to 2 feet 
 nearly allied to G. calycinitin, which, however, is quite hairless 
 not much branched, without hairs or the young shoots and flower 
 stalks slightly silky-hoary ; leaves opposite or in threes, elliptical- 
 oblong, broad or narrow, tapering to a pungent point, i to ii, or 
 rarely 2 inches long, leathery, rigid, net-veined, and often folded 
 lengthwise ; bunches of flowers terminating the branches, or situated 
 in the angles of the upper leaves, consisting of few flowers in dis- 
 tant pairs or threes ; stalklets of flowers short ; calyx about 3 lines 
 long, silky-hairy, the lobes or points broad, the 2 upper ones united 
 
 * Since the above was written a specimen of this plant has been received by 
 the Bureau from Mr. James Isdell, of Xullagine. He obtained it from Mr. F. H. 
 Hann, an old explorer, who recognised it as identical with a bush he had often 
 seen killing stock in Queensland. Mr. Isdell says it is a bushy shrub, reaching a 
 height of rive feet, and grows in what is generally known as Warburton's Desert, 
 in the country where the remains of the late Messrs. Wells and Jones were found, 
 and it may possibly account for the death of both Messrs. Wells' and Kudall's 
 camels. 
 
to above the middle ; upper petals about twice as long as the calyx, 
 the lowermost rather shorter than the side ones ; pod about 3 lines 
 long, on a stalk very much shorter than the calyx. 
 
 Noted in the Flora Australiensis is one of the poison-plants, 
 and bracketed with Oxylobium patviflonim as the box poison in Mr. 
 Woodward's circular. Specimens and authentic notes of poisonous 
 effects caused by it, are required to settle identity and properties. 
 
 BERRY POISON. 
 
 Gastrolobium parvifolium. A rigid spreading heath-like shrub, 
 the branches hairy. Leaves crowded, in irregular circles round the 
 branches, narrow-oblong, blunt, with a minute point, under ^,-inch 
 long, thick and leathery, convex underneath, hairless and net- 
 veined, the midrib scarcely conspicuous. Bunches of flowers ter- 
 minating the branches, rather dense, rarely longer than one inch 
 when in flower, often two inches in fruit, the stalk and stalklets 
 softly and densely hairy. Calyx veinless and without hairs, broadly 
 bell-shaped, about two lines long, the two upper divisions almost 
 completely united into a blunt upper lip, the three lower ones much 
 shorter. Upper petal twice as long as the calyx ; side ones shorter, 
 almost as broad as long, all narrowed near their attachment. Pod 
 stalked, compressed-globular, oblique, very blunt, hairless. 
 
 Reported from the eastern and south-western districts, grow- 
 ing mostly in sandy and gravelly soils, height one to two or three 
 feet, and flowering between September and January. There is a 
 consensus of opinion as to the greater virulence of this poison 
 during the flowering and specially the seeding stages, some believ- 
 ing it is not dangerous to stock at other times. Mr. E. R. Parker 
 says "it is seldom that any mischief befalls a flock from this poison 
 till October, November, or December, when it is in flower or pod." 
 
 PRICKLY POISON. 
 
 Gastrolobium spinosnm. A shrub of two to four feet, usually 
 quite hairless, but sometimes the young shoots clothed with a very 
 evanescent wool, and the calyx and stalklets with a more persistent 
 down ; leaves mostly opposite, broadly heart-shaped, ending in a 
 pungent point, and bordered with prickly teeth, or rarely almost or 
 quite even-edged, three-quarters to one and a half inches long, often 
 as broad as long, rigid and often glaucous ; bunches of flowers 
 loose, stalked, one to one and a half inches long ; calyx broad, about 
 two lines long, the points much shorter than the lower portion, the 
 two upper ones united nearly to the top ; upper petal streaked, 
 half inch diameter, side ones rather shorter and scarcely exceeding 
 the lowermost, which is broad and deeply coloured ; pod stalked, 
 hairless, bent-oval, four to live lines long, with a narrow point. 
 
 Variety, triungnliirc ; leaves triangular heart-shaped, with pun- 
 gent points only at the angles ; flowers smaller, the bunches looser 
 and more stalked. 
 
This plant, which is easily recognised from its prickly holly-like 
 leaves, is reported from the south-west, central, and north-east 
 districts, and is found in rough scrub and rocky places, or on clay 
 plains. Its height is from two to four (Vet, and it Mowers in Sep- 
 tember and October. Like the others, it is hurtful when in flower 
 or in pod, or after lires ; and it may be assumed that when its 
 spinv leaves are old and dry, it is less likely to be eaten, whether 
 in that state its leaves are equally poisonous or less so than when 
 young and tender. 
 
 Box POISON. 
 
 O.vvlobitun parrijlonini. A tall spreading shrub, the young 
 shoots hoary with a minute silky pubescence ; leaves alternate, 
 opposite or in threes, narrow oblong, slightly wedge-shaped or 
 linear, blunt or notched, mostly about I inch long, leathery, hairless 
 above, minutely silky pubescent underneath, the margins usually 
 recurved ; flowers small, orange-yellow and purple, in slender 
 bunches, terminal or in the angles of the upper leaves, often 2 to 3 
 inches long ; calyx about 2 lines long, minutely pubescent, the 
 points acute, and scarcely so long as the lower part, the two upper 
 ones broader curved and united nearly to the top into a square 
 upper lip ; uppermost petal nearly 4 lines diameter, the lower ones 
 rather shorter ; pod on a rather long stalk, 4 to 6 lines long, hairy, 
 with a narrow point ; seeds only one or two, instead of four, 
 without any outgrowth near their attachment, embedded in a pithy 
 substance lining the cell. 
 
 The box poison is found in the central, eastern, south-west 
 and southern districts of the colony, and grows in all qualities of 
 soil sand, gravel, clay, rocky, or good land. Some believe it to 
 be specially associated with the white gum, so that when that tiee 
 is met with the box poison may be looked for. It flowers between 
 August and December, and attains a height of six or eight feet, the 
 minimum reported being one foot. It is a virulent poison and pro- 
 duces a large quantity of seed, according to Mr. E. R. Parker, who 
 states that he has known the flesh of pigeons that have been feeding 
 on box-poison seeds kill dogs and cats. 
 
 Sandplain poison appears judging from the only scrap of the 
 plant available to be referable to Oxylobium pan'iflonini, and is 
 therefore a variety of box, modified by the particular conditions 
 under which it has grown. It is reported from the sandplains in 
 districts to the north and north-east of Perth, and also from iron- 
 stone gravel ridges at the Kalgan River. It is found from six inches 
 to two, three, or four feet in height, and flowers between August 
 and December, and, like the other poison plants, is most dangerous 
 when in flower or in seed, or when sending up young 
 shoots. 
 
5 82 
 
 Narrow-leaved Poison. This is another variety of Ox\lobiitm 
 parvifionun, reported from the southern districts, from York south- 
 wards ; growing in various kinds of soil it ranges in height from 
 9 inches to 3 or 4, or even 5 feet, and is in flower from September 
 to December or January. Dangerous at all seasons, and very little 
 of it is required to kill any animal. 
 
 Box, sandplain, narrow leaf and marlock poison bushes small 
 to be varieties of the one species of Oxylobium. In the box the 
 leaf is short and very like that of the true box from which presum- 
 ably it has derived its name. In narrow-leaf, on the other hand, 
 the leaves are sometimes to be seen 2 inches in length, and arranged 
 in clusters of 5 to 7 at one level round the branches, instead of being 
 scattered over them. 
 
 BLOOM POISON. 
 
 Oxvlobium rctitsiun. A much-branched, rigid shrub, the young 
 branches angular and hoary or pubscent ; leaves mostly opposite, 
 stalked, ovate or oblong, blunt, square or notched at the end, 
 usually one to two inches long, rigidly coriaceous, hairless and net- 
 veined above, silky or rarely hairless underneath ; flowers reddish- 
 yellow, in dense, almost stalkless, terminal clusters, or rarely also 
 in the angles of the upper leaves ; calyx very hairy, about three or 
 rarely nearly four lines long, divided to about the middle into 
 broadly lance-shaped lobes ; petals about half as long again as the 
 calyx ; pod on a very short stalk, oval, pointed, about four lines 
 long, very hairy ; seeds with an outgrowth near their attach- 
 ment. 
 
 Variety minus. Leaves smaller ; flowers mostly terminal ; calyx 
 less villous. 
 
 Found apparently only in the southern districts, where it grows 
 in poor rocky or gravelly soil, flowering between August and 
 December, and of any height between six inches and six feet. It 
 is by most considered dangerous to stock only when in flower 
 or in pod. 
 
 Two species of plants are set down as corresponding to 
 that popularly known as bloom poison, namely, Oxylobinin rctusitm 
 and Gastrolobium oval (folium ; but from the fact that the former 
 species is recorded in Bentham and Mueller's Flora only from the 
 southern districts of Western Australia, while bloom poison is 
 similarly reported from the same parts, the presumption is that 
 O. n'tiisinn and the bloom poison are the same thing. Besides, 
 Gastrohbiutn oval (folium, at the date of the Flora Australiensis 
 (1864), was only known from the specimens of one collector 
 (Drummond) and was originally described by Henfrey from a culti- 
 vated plant. These facts seem to imply that the latter species is an 
 uncommon one, and therefore less likely to have had its identity or 
 poisonous properties recognised. 
 
 
SYMPTOMS PRODUCED BY THE LEGUMINOUS POISON-PLANTS. 
 
 In the reports received from different parts of the colony the 
 icts produced on animals by the poisons are often set down to 
 the poison plants as a whole, some asserting plainly that they are 
 all alike in their action, others placing their information opposite 
 one or more of the varieties indicated in the schedule, according to 
 their experience. This may, perhaps, betaken to indicate a general 
 agreement in poisonous properties among those poison plants that 
 are most prevalent and best known. The great majority belong to 
 the two genera of the family Leguminosae,Gastrolobium andOxylobium, 
 whieh are at the same time closely allied botanically, and not always 
 easily distinguished one from the other. It should be understood, 
 however, that though similarity in properties may co-exist with 
 botanical relationship, plants in the same family often possessing 
 similar qualities as well as similar structure, yet the agreement in 
 both these respects does not always or necessarily follow. 
 
 The symptoms reported by the different observers include the 
 following : The poisoned animal has a strange expression, the eyes 
 having a wild look ; fulness over the eyes, twitching of the eyelids; 
 it rushes about in any direction as if terrified or mad ; sometimes 
 stands trembling, or shuffles along as if its limbs were stiff, or it 
 staggers and falls. There is difficulty of breathing, and slobbering 
 at the mouth, and if driven the animal may drop dead. Griping 
 and stoppage of the bowels take place, with distension more par- 
 ticularly noted immediately after death. 
 
 So long ago as 1842 Drummond wrote as follows : " The 
 finest and strongest animals are the first victims ; a difficulty of 
 breathing is perceptible for a few minutes, when they stagger, drop 
 down, and all is over with them. After the death of the animal the 
 stomach assumes a brown colour, and is tenderer than it ought to 
 be ; but it appears to be that the poison enters the circulation, and 
 altogether stops the action of the lungs and heart. The raw Hesh 
 poisons cats, and the blood, which is darker than usual, dogs ; but 
 the roasted or boiled fiesh is eaten by the natives and some of the 
 settlers without their appearing to suffer any inconvenience." 
 
 The effect of the poison on dogs appears to be much the same 
 as on grazing animals. Mr. John Wray says : " I have on different 
 occasions had dogs go mad after eating sheep that had died of 
 poison. They rush about as if terrified, and sometimes have 
 threatened the shepherds. They will run away till they drop dead, 
 but I have saved a few by getting them in in time and tying them up, 
 so that they could not run away." Violent exertion is very apt to 
 bring the poisonous action to a climax, the animal dropping dead 
 when allowed to rush about in its delirious condition, or when 
 driven, especially uphill. 
 
 Chewing of the cud is said by some to be unnecessary before 
 the poison takes effect, while a draught of water hastens its action. 
 This indicates, of course, the necessity for the poisonous con- 
 
stituent to be dissolved out of the tissues of the plant before it can 
 be absorbed by the stomach and enter the circulation of the 
 animal. The diffusion of the poison throughout the body of one 
 animal, so that the flesh may be similarly poisonous to another 
 devouring it, thus escaping neutralisation on being subjected to the 
 various vital processes in the animal economy, is in contrast with its 
 destruction by the operations of roasting or boiling, which, accord- 
 ing to Drummond and others, render the flesh quite wholesome. 
 
 Notes on the post iiiorlein appearances observable after poisoning 
 by these plants are somewhat scanty. A change in the blood is 
 said to take place, becoming darker than natural according to 
 Drummond, who also notes that the stomach assumes a brown 
 colour, and becomes more tender than usual. Mr. H. Lukin 
 observes that u the rough inner coating of the paunch will always 
 strip readily on being touched, and this applies in all cases of 
 poisoning with the above poisons." Excessive swelling takes place 
 immediately after death, and is due no doubt to rapid decomposi- 
 tion giving rise to the production of gases that distend the relaxed 
 intestines of the animal. Mr. E. R. Parker observes : "When sheep, 
 horses or cattle die from eating this poison (York Road) decompo- 
 sition immediately after death takes place so rapidly that in a few 
 days the carcase has so decidedly disappeared that one would 
 almost believe that quicklime had been used with that desire. If 
 this was caused by some peculiar properties in the poison, it would 
 be well to know it." 
 
 TREATMENT. 
 
 As might be expected in the case of sickness caused by poisons 
 so powerful and rapid in their action, treatment does not appear 
 to have been satisfactory, as regards any beneficial result. Removal 
 of the poi-onous material from the stomach and intestines is not 
 mentioned, and in all probability cannot safely be clone by the 
 administration of medicines in liquid form, owing to the danger of 
 dissolving out more of the poison, and thus promoting its absorption 
 into the system of the animal. Common soda in solution, and 
 bleeding, have been tried, but without benefit ; indeed, either might 
 rather hasten the death of the animals. No antidote is known to 
 the correspondents who have sent information about the poison 
 plants, but all seem to be in agreement in recommending that the 
 allected animals should not be allowed to drink or to move about r 
 much less to be driven, which is likely to bring about sudden death. 
 Mr. Maiden quotes T.R.C. Walter, who says, "With sheep which 
 have eaten the herb the best treatment has been found to fold 
 them, or shut them up in a yard, so closely packed that they can 
 hardly move, and to keep them thus without food for 36 hours. " 
 By having recourse to this method, which seems to be generally 
 approved, the danger of over-exertion and that connected with the 
 drinking of water are avoided, and nature is given a chance to get 
 rid of the poison before it has had time to bring about a fatal result. 
 
5* 
 
 The means thus taken to save the lives of poisoned animals 
 are preventive rather than curative, and though remedies in the 
 form of antidotes, that would neutralise the poison in the blood, or 
 before it has had time to be absorbed into the blood, would be 
 most desirable, yet in the long run prevention is better than cure, 
 and is the wisest method of coping with the evil. Keeping the 
 siek beasts at perfect rest, and denying them water, hinders the 
 process of poisoning, and may be considered preventive, but 
 evacuation of the stomach and bowels of their contents would stay 
 its further action. An antidote that would kill the poison would be 
 of the greatest value, but it would be better still to prevent stock 
 feeding on the plants. In taking stock through country in which 
 poison plants grow, means should be adopted to prevent them 
 browsing on these bushes. Mr. C. R. Fenwick says : "Sheep and 
 stock may be taken through growing poison without harm, if 
 proper precautions are taken. Some shepherds lose no sheep from 
 the poisons, others lose lose large numbers. It will be found that 
 many of the greatest losses of sheep and stock have been occasioned 
 through neglect and inattention on the part of the shepherds. 
 Various devices and remedies are adopted, full particulars of which 
 should be ascertained." 
 
 ERADICATION. 
 
 More effective still would be the eradication of the poison- 
 plants. This would literally strike at the root of the evil, and when 
 accomplished would save all further trouble. Those who have 
 given their opinions regarding their extermination do not express 
 any doubt as to its feasibility, and it seems to be only a question ot 
 labor, which has its money equivalent in so much per acre. The 
 plants grow in the form of shrubs, mostly of small size, or herbs, 
 and pulling them up by the root, chopping them down, or grubbing, 
 is simple enough and effectual. These operations should, of course, 
 be carried out at such time and season as will most effectually kill 
 the plants with the least expenditure of labor. Chopping down 
 soon after the growth of the young shoots or seedlings, and before 
 the formation of the seed, may be very effectual ; if not, grubbing 
 may be carried out. Exposure of the uprooted plants to the sun 
 in dry or hot weather would help in their destruction, but, to make 
 sure, all should be removed and burned, especially if any seed is 
 likely to have formed. The constant turning over of the soil in culti- 
 vation will secure their extermination, but the land so treated 
 would only be a fractional part of the infested area. The soil 
 in which the poison-plants naturally grow is mostly of a poor 
 character and unlikely to give a proportionate return for labor 
 expended on it, so that their eradication is likely to be slow 
 and imperfect, unless special efforts are made with that end in 
 view. 
 
586 
 
 TOLERANCE OF POISONS. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that certain substances, poisonous under 
 ordinary circumstances, become less so when partaken of frequently 
 in moderate and gradually increasing doses, so that the longer the 
 habit is kept up, larger and larger quantities may be taken without 
 the ordinary poisonous effects appearing. A tolerance of the poison 
 is thus established, as in the case of opium-eaters, who by taking 
 this drug habitually for special purposes become so used to it that 
 they hud it necessary to continually increase the dose in order to 
 attain the same result. At length a dose that would have been fatal 
 at the commencement may be taken without any immediately 
 serious consequences. There is no lack of evidence tending to 
 show that such a tolerance of the bush poisons may be acquired by 
 animals feeding on them. By nibbling at these bushes while grazing 
 on their ordinary food, they may advance from a small quantity to a 
 larger, especially if their proper food becomes less plentiful ; and 
 their systems may be gradually inured to the poison, and a tolerance 
 of it at length reached. Whether, like the opium-eater, the domestic 
 or wild animals derive special enjoyment from their consumption or 
 the poison-plants, or acquire such an inordinate craving for them as 
 to tempt them to take more and more till their health is ruined, is 
 not so evident. The following facts support the view that animals 
 may acquire an immunity from the effects of the bush poisons : 
 (i). Travelling or imported stock, new to the district, are more 
 frequently poisoned than those stationed near the poison plants ; 
 (2). Wild horses and some cattle may graze amongst poison without 
 any ill effects ; (3). The flesh of wild animals when killed and eaten 
 by dogs and cats sometimes poisons them, though not when cooked. 
 Before accepting these statements as conclusive, however, the 
 sagacity of animals in avoiding the poison, and the possibility of 
 some portion of the plants themselves, contained in the stomachs of 
 those eaten, being consumed along with the flesh, have to be taken 
 into consideration. Differences in the degree of virulence of 
 poisonous plants are also known to exist in other countries 
 according to locality and season. A striking illustration or 
 tolerance, as narrated by the Hon. A. R. Richardson, if 
 correctly observed, would appear to show that some forms 
 of animal life may be indifferent to the poisonous principles. 
 The carcase of a poisoned goat was buried, and as it 
 decomposed the maggots creeping from it were devoured by 
 fowls, that sickened and died in consequence. In this case 
 the maggots, being born and bred among the poison, seemed 
 to have acquired a tolerance of it, and at the same time 
 to have been so saturated with it as to convey a fatal dose into 
 the system of the fowls. Mr. K. R. Parker, in referring to the 
 eradication of the box poison, says : " If fed off by sheep when first 
 it springs up it will never shoot again." The suggestion that sheep 
 should be turned in to feed on the young shoots of this virulent 
 
5*7 
 
 poison bush indicates at the least a linn belief in the presumably 
 acquired immunity or freedom of those sheep from the effects 
 ordinarily produced by it on animals. That the immunity of the 
 mascots must have been acquired seems to be supported by the in- 
 teresting fact that some of the poisons are effective against such 
 loxvlv animal organisms as that of scab. Mr. C. S. Brockman says: 
 14 The rock poison has been used as a dip for scab, and proved very 
 effective." 
 
 PALM POISON. 
 
 The Macrozamia Fniscri, sometimes also called Euccphalartos 
 Frtiscri, and incorrectly spoken of as zamia is a native plant having 
 much of the aspect of a palm or of a tree fern. It belongs, however, 
 to the natural order CycaJacac, which has relationship with the 
 Conifcrae or pine tree family, both having their flowers arranged in 
 cones, and their seeds naked instead of being enclosed in a seed 
 vessel. Other members of the same family, belonging to the genera 
 Mi^!\<:iiiiiiii or Encephalartos, Cvcus and Bowenia, are natives of 
 Queensland and New South Wales, but the species found there are 
 different from the West Australian plant, though possessing similar 
 noxious properties. 
 
 The macrozamia is a palm-like plant having a thick stem 
 globose underground, and growing in time to a considerable height, 
 erect and cylindrical, bearing at its summit a crown of thick and 
 leathery pinnate leaves, which, as they become old, bend down- 
 wards and drop off, leaving scars on the surface of the stem. The 
 seeds are in the form of hard nuts, produced in cones that spring 
 up at the base of the leaves, and, like the stem of the plant itself, are 
 very tenacious of life. The plant has long been known to possess 
 deleterious properties, due partly to indigestibility, but more from 
 the poisonous constituents that bring on in the animals feeding on 
 them a series of symptoms ending in partial paralysis of their hind 
 quarters. The disease is known by the names "rickets" and 
 "wobbles," from the "wobbling" character of the gait of the 
 animal affected by it. In New South Wales and Queensland the 
 same complaint affects stock, and has been found to be due to their 
 feeding on the cycadaceous plants native to those parts. 
 
 Mr. H. H. Edwards, Government Veterinary Surgeon, has made 
 experiments with this plant proving conclusively that it is poisonous 
 to animals fed on it. As described by him in his paper on the sub- 
 ject,* a yearling calf was fed with 61bs. of chaffed macrozamia leaves 
 each day, and symptoms of poisoning made their appearance on the 
 seventh day. On the eighth, or second day of poisoning, blood 
 appeared in the urine, but this symptom usually passes off again, 
 seldom lasting longer than twenty-four hours. Between the third 
 and ninth day walking becomes more difficult, the beast wobbles 
 
 * Report of the Government Veterinary Surgeon, Mr. H. H. Edwards, on the 
 disease known as " Rickets " or " Wobbles " (Journal of the Bureau of Agriculture 
 of Western Australia, 1894, I., 225-234). 
 
5 88 
 
 and may fall to the ground ; there is constipation, but the appetite 
 continues good, and there is no thirst ; incontinence of urine comes 
 on, and the animal is short of breath on making any exertion. "On 
 the tenth day, what might be called the minor symptoms pass off, 
 leaving the animal partially paralysed, generally for life." Mac- 
 rozamia poisoning, though serious, is " not a direct cause of death ; 
 animals dying, as a rule, simply from starvation, through inability to 
 move about and procure food." Poisoned animals fatten readily 
 when well fed, and their flesh, as \vell as the milk of cows, retain 
 their wholesome qualities. 
 
 Post mortem examinations showed that the poison had taken 
 effect on the smaller arteries of the body, causing thrombosis or 
 blocking of the tubes, thus interfering with the blood supply of 
 different organs, and leading to incurable disease. The effects are 
 similar to those produced by ergot of rye, one of the most valuable 
 and important drugs in the Pharmacopoeia. No abnormal appear- 
 ances were found in the digestive canal, but the liver was studded 
 with patches of congestion and the kidneys were congested. 
 Thrombosis of the smallest arteries, and of those passing through 
 the bones of the spine to the spinal marrow, was found, with pale- 
 ness of the muscles, exudation between them and blood-stained 
 patches in the neighbourhood of the small arteries ; occlusion 
 of the capillary vessels at the tips of the ears, at the coronets 
 and at the tip of the tail, associated with loss of hair at those parts, 
 leaving the skin bare and shiny. In cases of old standing the 
 horns soften, bend downwards and even drop off. The brain 
 was found to be normal, but reddish watery fluid was found in the 
 spinal column, the spinal membranes were injected, and in old- 
 standing cases the arachnoid was thickened with a fatty albuminous 
 substance under it, while the spinal cord had undergone white 
 softening from the middle of the loins backwards. 
 
 According to Mr. Edwards, no form of treatment is of any use 
 after the second week. A laxative not a powerful purgative 
 should be given lirst of all to clear away the poisonous material 
 from the digestive canal, relaxation of the constricted arteries 
 throughout the system is to be sought, and absorption of the 
 exudation to be promoted. He recommends the following hypo- 
 dermic injection to be made : Eserine, i^ gr., dissolved in 2 dr. 
 rect. spirit of wine, mixed with pilocarpine, i^ gr., in 2 dr. water. 
 These form a strong dose, taking effect in a few minutes, producing 
 salivation and purging, with some constitutional disturbance. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Edwards, it acts as a certain antidote when admini- 
 stered within two weeks of the attack. 
 
 BLIND POISON. 
 
 Slyptintirn ghuica. A leafy perennial, with stems on a creeping 
 rootstock ; under one foot, and sometimes two or three feet high ; 
 woody and branched at the bases ; leaves in two opposite rows, 
 
59 
 
 usually concealing the stem, somewhat flattened or almost round, 
 the blade erect and spreading, linear or lancet-shaped, usually 
 three to four inches long, but sometimes twice that length, and 
 varying from t\vo to four lines in breadth ; llo\vers, in a loose 
 terminal forked cluster, usually leafy at the base, the branches very 
 spreading, the thin stalklets recurved, varying from a half to one 
 inch long ; flowers bine, often turning red in drying ; the segments 
 very acute, five-nerved, about a half inch long ; stamens very much 
 shorter ; filaments threadlike and twisted in the lower halt, with a 
 dense oblong tow-like tuft of hairs under the anther ; anther shorter 
 than the filament, almost spiral after shedding the pollen ; capsule 
 oblong, 3 to 4 lines long, seeds several in each cell, smooth, but not 
 shining. 
 
 The Candynp poison, or blind grass, has been identified with 
 Stypiiiiilni planed, a liliaceous plant met with from King George's 
 Sound to the Swan and Murchison. It is herbaceous, and grows to 
 the height of one foot or more, on rocky and sandy lands, and 
 llowers between September and January. Though a native of the 
 eastern colonies, from Queensland to Victoria, the plant has not 
 been suspected there of possessing poisonous properties. Mr. 
 Maiden says of it " This plant is common in the neighborhood of 
 Sydney, the Blue Mountains, and many other parts of this colony, 
 but I have never heard of it having been reported as a poison plant 
 here." (Agricultural Gazette, N.S.W., 1894., v., 142). In Western 
 Australia, however, its evil reputation in that respect appears to 
 have been long established. The name of blind poison has been 
 given on account of the characteristic effect it produces on the 
 eyesight, causing the animal, according to Mr. Ash, as quoted by 
 Maiden, to go "apparently blind and run into any sort of object." 
 Mr. Ash adds that it seems to be the least fatal of all the poison 
 plants, and slower in taking effect. What its precise action is on 
 the eyes, or on the nervous system or other organs, appears to be as 
 ye! unknown. Mr. A. R. Richardson says '' It is very injurious to 
 horses and other stock, causing extreme paralysis, sometimes 
 blindness, and sometimes death." 
 
 The absence of any reports from the other colonies of symptoms 
 of poisoning attributable to Stypaiuim glauca } coupled with the fact 
 that it is often found growing side by side with Agrostocrinum 
 stypiiiithvitics, a purely West Australian plant, suggests a doubt as to 
 which of these two is really possessed of the pernicious qualities 
 that occasion so marked an effect on the stock devouring it. Failing 
 lematic experiments on animals fed with the plant, or subjected 
 to the poisonous principle extracted from it by chemical means, the 
 aid of settlers would be of great service in clearing up the matter, 
 both as regards the identity of the plant causing the symptoms, and 
 the symptoms themselves, particularly the effect on the pupil of the 
 eye. A description is given below of Agrostocrinum slyptintlroidcs, 
 which is easily distinguished from the other on close inspection. 
 
59 
 
 Agrostocrinum stypandroides. Stems erect, simple, often 2 to 3. 
 feet high ; leaves narrow linear, with rather long sheaths quite 
 closed round the stem and flattened ; flowers blue and showy, the 
 raceme simple or once branched, stalklets thread-like, often above 
 
 1 inch long, usually rough as well as the flower stem ; staens six, 
 shorter than the petals, filaments short and hairless, anthers linear 
 longer than the filaments ; petals 6 to 8 lines long, all five-nerved 
 and equal in length, spirally twisted after flowering, then dropping 
 off, but leaving a bell-shaped base attached below the seed vessel, 
 which is nearly globular and about two lines diameter ; seeds i or 
 
 2 in each cell, black, smooth and shining. 
 
 To this description Bentham appends the following note : 
 " Sent by F. Barlee, with a long leafy ..form of Stypandra glauca, as 
 the plant called blind grass, because it is supposed to cause blindness 
 in cattle and sheep that eat of it." It is easily distinguished on close 
 examination from Slypandra glauca by the petals becoming twisted 
 after flowering and afterw r ards falling off, leaving the lower part 
 still attached below the swelling seed vessel. 
 
 This species may be the blue poison, classed by some in 
 addition to the Candyup, which also is blue, and reported by Mr. 
 J. F. T. Hassell as growing on granite hills between Cape Leeuwin 
 and Mount Manypeaks, reaching two feet in height, and flowering 
 from August to November. 
 
 ADDITIONAL LIST OF WEST AUSTRALIAN PLANTS SAID TO BE 
 
 POISONOUS. 
 
 Antlwccrcis sp. All the species of this genus are poisonous to 
 stock, according to the late Baron von Mueller. 
 
 Beycria viscosa, Miq. Reported poisonous in New South Wales, 
 
 Bill bine, seinibarbata, Haw. A "native onion" or "native leek." 
 A strong poison. 
 
 Cassia Sturtii, R.Br. Suspected in Queensland. 
 
 Ccntipcda orbicularis^LoiIr. (= Myriogync iiu'mila, Less.) Sus- 
 pected in New South Wales. 
 
 Datura Leichardlii, F.v.M. Reported poisonous in Queenslanc 
 
 Didiscus pilosiis, Benth. u Wild, or poison parsnip." 
 
 Duboisia Hopivoodii, F.v.M. Used in medicine. 
 
 Dysphania litloralis, R.Br. Suspected in Queensland. 
 
 Ercmophila uiacnlala, F.v.M. Often suspected in New South 
 Wales, and believed to be poisonous in Queensland. 
 
 fcnphorbiii Dniiiiniondii, Boiss. Has an old and apparently 
 well-established reputation as a poisonous plant, but lately shown 
 by Mr. E. Stanley and others to be sometimes harmless and good 
 feed for stock. 
 
 - fi-i'inopliilti, A. Cunn. Suspected in New South Wales. 
 
 Exocarpus ciipwsifonnis, B.Br. " Native cherry." According 
 to Woolls, as quoted by Maiden, suspected of causing cerebral 
 symptoms similar to those brought on by certain leguminous plants. 
 
59* 
 
 Gotnpholobium sp. Species of this genus have been suspected. 
 
 Goodia inciiu'ii^incn, F.v.M. Named lor the death of twenty- 
 live cattle in West Australia, and believed by Baron Mueller to be 
 poisonous. 
 
 Grnlioln /Vr//rm/m, Rupp. Considered poisonous by F. von 
 Mueller. 
 
 IiiiiiifofiTit tiiistrti/js, Willd. Poisonous according to F. von 
 Mueller.' 
 
 7so/o///</ lirwnii, Ci. Don. Suspected by Drummond, of having 
 poisoned sheep. 
 
 Isolropis jnnccii, Turcz. " Lamb poison." Suspected. 
 
 Lotus titislmlis, Andr. Deadly, according to Baron von Mueller, 
 but doubted by others. 
 
 Mvoporuiii tlcsi'iii, A. Cunn. " Ellangowan " poison bush of 
 Queensland ; " Dogwood " of New South Wales. Considered most 
 dangerous when in fruit. 
 
 Xicolitiiid siitireoli-ns, Lehm. Native tobacco. Poisonous, 
 containing nicotin. 
 
 "Gaoloowurrah " of natives at Port Darwin. Reported poisonous in 
 Queensland, but sometimes found harmless. 
 
 Soliiiiinii nigruin, Linne. Has an old reputation for being 
 poisonous, but fruit sometimes eaten by children, and made into 
 jam. 
 
 Str\'clinos lucitla, R.Br. Reported by Mr. R. S. Ranford from 
 Wyndham, and believed by Baron von Mueller to be poisonous. 
 
 S'tCdinsoiiin sp. Some species have been found in other colonies 
 to be virulent poisons, affecting the brains of sheep, turning them mad, 
 and making them slaves to the poison. 
 
 Tcinplctonin c^cini, Benth. Very poisonous according to Baron 
 von Mueller. 
 
 7 - rctiisii, R.Br. Both this and the foregoing species, 
 according to Maiden, produce spasm and paralysis in stock. 
 
 Ttplirosut purpurca, Pers. This and other species of Tephrosia 
 reputed poisonous. 
 
 Xanthorrlnm sp. Young shoots of a species growing at Jervis 
 Bay, X.S.W., reported poisonous. 
 
 Since the foregoing was written, Mr. H. H. Edwards has 
 published an account of experiments made by him with the Box 
 poison on various animals, in the Fourth Annual Report of the 
 Bureau of Agriculture, October, 1897. In this paper he states that 
 the wild pigeon, being immune, lives entirely on the seeds of the box, 
 and that a dog after eating its flesh will very speedily die in con- 
 vulsions. At the same time the seeds will poison domestic pigeons, 
 and their flesh is found to be poisonous. An aged bay mare was fed 
 with \ pound of box leaves, and the following day symptoms of 
 
592 
 
 poisoning appeared profuse sweating, head hung low, forehead 
 against manger, hind legs wide apart, body unsteady, pupils dilated, 
 pulse soft and slow, temp. 101 Far., mucous lining of mouth, &c., 
 bloodshot and spotted. On the second day the breathing was tremo- 
 rous, the muscles relaxed, excepting those of the jaw, which were 
 spasmodically contracted. The nervous functions became more and 
 more disturbed, till on the third day of poisoning the mare became 
 unconscious and died. Four hours pass after eating the box plant 
 before the horse shows symptoms of poisoning, and he is doubled up 
 with severe pain in the abdomen before the brain becomes affected. 
 
 Mr. Edwards rinds that dogs and carnivorous animals generally 
 are more sensitive than herbivora to the action of the box, as of 
 other vegetable poisons, and that they suffer more severely and 
 disproportionately in their nervous system. The horse is more sus- 
 ceptible than the sheep, sheep more than goats, and these more than 
 cattle. 
 
 Post mortem examination shows engorgement of the blood- 
 vessels with dark blood, which coagulates only feebly, lungs en- 
 gorged, and cavities of heart full of blood. Besides a distended 
 condition of the blood-vessels of the abdominal organs generally, 
 with small petechial spots, the mucous lining of the stomach and 
 small intestines of the horse shows patches of inflammation. 
 
 The results of treatment have been found satisfactory by Air. 
 Edwards, who also recommends, as a preventive of poisoning, that 
 stock should be travelled slowly through poison-infested country, 
 so that the animals will have time to discriminate in the selection 
 of their food as they go along. Hi 
 
PART IV. 
 
 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 
 
 BY "BRUXI" (GEO. A. BROWN) OF THE "AUSTRALASIAN." 
 
 WRITTEN SPECIALLY FOR THE SETTLER'S GUIDE: 
 
 has been happily named " The Land 
 of the Golden Fleece," for since the first British 
 pioneers landed on these shores, the wealth of 
 the colonists has mainly consisted in their flocks 
 of sheep. The future shows the promise of a 
 still further development of this great industry, 
 and we may confidently look forward to a not far distant time, 
 when every portion of our island-continent will be beneficially 
 occupied by the bearers of the golden fleece. With a land covering 
 such a large extent of the world's surface, there is a great diversity 
 of climate, aspect and pasture, and it naturally follows that each 
 division of the country will require a different type of sheep to 
 thoroughly develop its resources. The art of the husbandman will 
 be employed in developing these varying types of sheep, and the 
 more successfully this is done, the more profitable will the industry 
 prove. It is the business of the husbandman to closely watch the 
 tendency of the flock towards any new development of type, and, 
 where such divergence from the general are beneficial, to make use 
 of them. 
 
594 
 
 The occupation of a husbandman has been an attractive one 
 from time immemorial, and in all countries where the inhabitants 
 have attained a high degree of civilisation, the breeding and treat- 
 ment of the domestic animals have always occupied a high position 
 in the estimation cf the leading citizens. Those who wish to 
 achieve success in the art of live stock husbandry, must put their 
 whole heart into the business. An indifferent or careless sheep- 
 farmer very rarely succeeds. In the remarks I am about to make 
 on the subject of sheep breeding, I act on the supposition that my 
 readers have little or no knowledge of the subject, consequently 
 much of what I have to say will not be new to the practical sheep- 
 farmer. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 THE FLOCK. 
 
 TYPE OF SHEEP. 
 
 Australia is such a new land that the husbandman has to make 
 his own experience. He has not the records, written and unwritten, 
 of many previous centuries of practical work to assist him, as is the 
 case with the European husbandman. It is, therefore, all the more 
 necessary that he should exercise great care and judgment in selecting 
 the breed of sheep he intends to cultivate, for upon this selection 
 much of the success of the business will depend. Over the greater 
 portion of our island continent the climate, soil and pasture are better 
 adapted to the breeding of merinos than any other variety of our 
 domestic sheep. Some of the coastal districts, particularly those 
 of the south and east, are too humid, and the rich soil carries too 
 heavy a pasture for the golden-footed merino to retain his health, 
 and in these localities the heavier-bodied British breeds of sheep 
 will be found the more profitable sheep to raise. In the inter- 
 mediate districts, between the coast country and the hot plains of 
 central Australia, and throughout the highlands that occupy such a 
 large area along the eastern part of the continent, the various cross- 
 breds and downs may be raised with advantage. But throughout 
 the whole of central Australia the merino will always be king. 
 True, the Lincolns have invaded this home of the merino, their use 
 being to raise freezers for exportation, but the main body of the 
 breeding sheep are, and I believe always will be, merinos. As 
 far as my experience goes in sheep-breeding in Australia the only 
 sheep that have been bred with success (except merinos) in the hot 
 dry plains of the interior, are the Shropshires. Hampshire downs 
 have succeeded well for crossbreeding in Riverina, but how the 
 pure breed will stand the climate has yet to be learned. An 
 experiment is now being made with Dorset horns, which promise 
 to become admirable farmers' sheep, particularly where lambs are 
 raised for market. Before commencing to establish a flock, the 
 farmer should have a clear idea of what description of sheep he 
 wishes to breed, and he should be satisfied, before embarking in the 
 business, that his country is well adapted for raising such sheep. 
 If he undertakes to breed a variety of sheep that his country is not 
 able to develop thoroughly the undertaking will not likely be 
 successful. 
 
59 6 
 
 TYPES OF THE BREEDS. 
 
 MERIXOS. 
 
 For size of carcase the sheep owner must study his locality, for 
 though by giving a deal of room to each individual, large framed 
 sheep may be raised, it is often done at a disadvantage. It must 
 be borne in mind that it is not the return per individual that leaves 
 the profit, but the return per acre. It may occur that a medium 
 sixed, or a sheep on the small side, will show a better profit on the 
 area occupied than where large and more attractive sheep are raised. 
 Much depends on the shape of the sheep. Hitherto it has been 
 the general opinion that the merino is an unshapely animal, as com- 
 pared with what are known as the mutton breeds, but this is not 
 necessarily so. Though the merino will in all probability never get 
 the shape of the South-down or Shropshire, they can be raised 
 showing excellent points for mutton. Chief among these is a good 
 back and shoulder ; a narrow shoulder and ridge back should be as 
 much avoided in a merino as in any other sheep. These points are 
 often accompanied with good wool growing qualities, and a good 
 backed merino with a well sprung rib is less likely to become 
 open-woolled under a hot sun than a sheep that has a narrow ridge 
 along the back. The points of a merino sheep are usually drawn 
 up relating almost purely to the fleece, but now-a-days the carcase 
 is of no small importance. A good backed and chested sheep is 
 more likely to have a good strong constitution and to be a 
 better doer than a narrow-chestej, ridge backed one. The 
 merino, particularly the ram, should have large pronounced folds of 
 skin on his neck, with good \vool on them and between them. The 
 wool on the back should be close, not falling open. A broad thigh 
 down to the hock, and the arm well woolled ; the merino should be 
 woolled to the fetlocks, not for the value of the wool grown thereon, 
 but as a sign of breeding. A long staple should be avoided in a hot 
 climate, Length of staple gives wool no extra value, and it has 
 a strong tendency to become open and let in dirt. A medium 
 staple if bred for density will give a heavier weight of fleece and as 
 good a price per pound. The first thing is to get merinos with 
 good backs, both in form and fleece, and work up the other good 
 points after by careful breeding. It is well to have the under parts 
 of the sheep well woolled, but the shape of the body and the other 
 parts of the fleece should be attended to first. Very fine wool, once 
 so much admired by the owners of merino sheep, is now seldom 
 seen, even in Tasmania, formerly the home of line woolled sheep. 
 A robust description of wool has been found more profitable than 
 very fine wool, but the robust wool should have character, i.e., the 
 crimps or waves in the fibre should IK- well marked, even, and extend 
 from the skin to the tip. Straight, wiry wool is an abomination in 
 a merino. The fleece throughout should be free from kcinps, that 
 
MERINO RAM. 
 
 The accompanying illustration is from a portrait of the famous merino ram, 
 President, a champion himself, and the sire of champions. He was sold at 
 Sydney, July 7th, 1896, for 1,600 guineas, the purchasers being Messrs. C. B. 
 Grubb and Lawrence of Tasmania. 
 
A LINCOLN! RAM. 
 
 The Lincoln ram, of which the above sketch is a portrait was a good prize 
 taker in Victoria in 1896. 
 
] 
 
 t. 
 
 BORDER LEICESTER HAM. 
 
 The above is a portrait of a Border Leicester ram champion at the Border 
 Union Show at Kelso, 1895. 
 
6oo 
 
 is, white hairs among the wool. The bone should be fairly strong ; 
 very fine bone is very frequently associated with a tendency to de- 
 generacy. It is the fashion to decry the merinos as a mutton 
 sheep, but this is a great error. It is superior to the longwool, and 
 second to the southdown and the Shropshire. The prejudice 
 against it has been caused by its dark color, and not to any lack of 
 quality in the mutton. 
 
 THE LONGWOOLS. 
 
 The Lincoln is conspicuous for the beautiful lustre of its wool. 
 The staple is long, extending in many instances to 10 inches. The 
 old Lincoln was a very ill-shaped sheep, with a large plain head, 
 and very slow in maturing. All that has been altered, and the shape 
 has been improved by a judicious cross with the English Leicester, 
 and the large head has been greatly reduced in size by selection in 
 breeding. Though not as large in frame as of old, the modern 
 Lincoln is yet considerably larger than the Leicester, and he is now 
 marked by almost as early maturity. 
 
 ENGLISH LEICESTERS. 
 
 These are very handsome sheep, and they fatten readily ; 
 indeed their tendency to take on fat, and their well-shaped bodies, 
 have led to their being employed in the amelioration of most of the 
 British breeds of longwool sheep. In Australia the Leicester takes 
 on too much fat to the proportion of lean meat. Leicester wool is 
 now almost as lustrous as Lincoln wool, but the fleeces are lighter. 
 
 The border Leicester is a more robust animal than the English 
 representative of the breed ; its fleece is heavier ; it gives more 
 lean meat in proportion to the fat, and is consequently preferred by 
 sheep breeders in most parts of the world to the old English type ; 
 but neither breed is as much fancied by flock masters as the 
 Lincoln. 
 
 THE COTSWOLD 
 
 is a very shapely sheep, a good doer, yields a fine carcase of meat, 
 and its fleece is about as valuable as that of the border Leicester. 
 It is used for raising crossbreds in a few districts of Victoria, but 
 has never been much fancied by the general run of sheep-breeders. 
 
 THE ROMNEY MARSH 
 
 is a most useful sheep. It is not as attractive in appearance as any 
 of the longwools previously mentioned, and its wool lacks lustre 
 and is of a much coarser type than any other. But in a severe 
 climate, where other sheep are apt to suffer from foot rot and die 
 from fluke, it can hold its own. 
 
 This has been proved in a wet piece of coast country in 
 Victoria. Romneys have been bred on this land for the last thirty 
 years, and no other breed of sheep will last over two generations, 
 and the merinos not as long. 
 
6oi 
 
 The Romney gives a large carcase of excellent mutton, and the 
 breed is largely employed in New Zealand in raising freezers for 
 export. The Romney is not the sheep for a hot, dry country in 
 which the pasture is very scanty, consequently they have made very 
 little way in Victoria and New South Wales. 
 
 THE DOWNS. 
 
 Of the Down breeds of sheep I place the handsome and useful 
 Shropshires at the head of the list. It is essentially a farmer's 
 sheep, and is very frequently the sheep of the small Hock. It is of 
 quiet disposition, yields a good fleece that realises a fair price per 
 pound ; it develops early, and reaches a good weight, and its 
 mutton is excelled only by the South-down. It has spread 
 over a large area of England ; it is a favorite with the thrifty 
 fanners of the United States, and is largely used in Argentina 
 for raising freezers. It is only within the last few years that 
 this sheep has attracted the notice of Australian farmers. In 
 South Australia there are several studs of the breed, the originals of 
 which were selected regardless of price from among the iinest 
 Hocks in the old country. In Tasmania they are spreading, and 
 there is every appearance that they will become the farmer's sheep 
 of Victoria and New South Wales. 
 
 A sheep that has attracted the favorable notice of farmers over 
 so wide and varied an area of the world's surface must have excep- 
 tionally good qualities. That this is so is acknowledged by all who 
 have raised them. In addition to their good frame, handsome 
 shape, heavy fleece, and excellency of mutton, they are remarkably 
 healthy sheep and can scarcely be excelled as foragers. 
 
 THE SOUTH-DOWN. 
 
 This is the original of all the breeds of British dow r n sheep. It 
 is a very handsome sheep possessing all the good qualities of the 
 Shropshire, but with a smaller frame and a lighter fleece that is not 
 quite as valuable per pound. 
 
 The admirers of this breed contend, and with good reason, 
 that South-down mutton is of higher quality and realises more per 
 pound than the mutton of any other down breed. It is much in their 
 favor that all who have raised them become extremely fond of them. 
 Both the Shropshire and the South-down are perfect specimens of 
 mutton sheep, their legs and backs are equalled by no other breed. 
 
 The Hampshire down is larger than the Shropshire and not 
 quite as well shaped. Its fleece shows the influence of the long- 
 wool blood and its pedigree. It has been used in Victoria and River- 
 ina for raising lambs for market, and for this purpose it has no 
 superior. The head of the Hampshire is larger than that of the 
 Shropshire, but it is not thick, and in cross-breeding with merinos 
 fewer ewes are lost than when longvvool rams are used. Still, it is 
 deemed advisable to put the Hampshire ram to comeback ewes. 
 
THE SHROPSHIRES. 
 
 A SHROPSHIRE K\VK, 
 
 This ewe took the champion prize at the New South Wales Sheep Breeders' 
 Show, Sydney, 1896. 
 
 
HAMPSHIRE DOWK RAM. 
 
 Our sketch is that of a young Hampshire down ram, winner of first prizes 
 at the Bath and West of England, Royal Counties, Wiltshire, and Royal 
 Agricultural Society, England, shows, 1895. 
 
604 
 
 The Hampshire is a good mutton sheep, but his greatest 
 recommendation is his early maturity. Up to twelve months old 
 the Hampshire is said to make more rapid progress Jhan any other 
 breed of sheep. It is this quality that renders them so valuable for 
 raising lambs for market. 
 
 The wool of the down sheep having less yolk than either that 
 of the merino or the longwool is said to suffer when the stock are 
 raised in a very hot and dry climate. Against this the example is 
 quoted where Shropshires are raised in hot dry localities, that are 
 as well covered as a merino and yield a heavier fleece of almost as 
 va uable wool. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF THE FLOCK. 
 
 Having decided on the variety oi sheep he thinks is most likely 
 to thrive in his country, the farmer must be careful to secure for 
 his breeding flock animals of sound, robust constitution. This is 
 far more important than a reputation for heavy fleeces, a high 
 value of wool per pound, or a large carcase. A robust constitution 
 is the foundation on which all future excellence maybe most surely 
 raised, and it is the only safe and sure foundation. Sheep that are 
 raised in similar country should be preferred, and if possible the 
 originals should be selected from a flock the history of which the 
 farmer may learn somewhat. 
 
 In a new country it is often difficult to obtain the description 
 of sheep that is desired, and in that case one must be satisfied with 
 the best ewes that are within reach, and make future advances by 
 means of the rams. 
 
 It is better to commence with young sheep, as nearly as pos- 
 sible of the one type, and drawn from the one flock. I am, of 
 course, supposing that it is the intention of the farmer to found a 
 permanent flock. Many flock masters purchase ewes cast for age 
 from a rlrst-class flock, and often pay a good price for them. Such 
 a plan has much to recommend it, for the old ewes are kept in the 
 breeder's flock because they are of great excellence, and often the 
 young sheep are sold because they are not up to the standard. But 
 the old ewes can scarcely be relied on to yield more than one or 
 two lambs, and after tnat they are useless for any purpose but 
 boiling down. At times one can obtain from good flocks a small 
 draught of young sheep that are not culls. I know of a stud flock 
 of the highest standing, the originals of which were very old ewes, 
 but the flock they came from was one of the best, and the man who 
 bought them was a thorough expert. 
 
 UNIFORMITY. 
 
 The e\ves should not only be all of the one age, but they should 
 be of the one type of form and fleece. Uniformity is one of the 
 greatest recommendations a permanent flock can possess. The 
 butcher values it highly, and the wool buyers soon find it out, and 
 will give a higher price for such a clip than for one that promises 
 more but is irregular in the character of wool. 
 
 The character of uniformity is much more easily given to the 
 small flock of the farmer than to the larger one of the squatter, and 
 yet the large flocks are more noted for this quality than the small 
 
6o6 
 
 ones. This defect may be started with the foundation of the flock, 
 and kept up by careless breeding and neglect in the culling of the 
 ewes. With a flock ranging from a few hundreds to a few thousands 
 the breeding should be as carefully managed as in a stud flock. 
 
 I have found that where the farmer can raise the breed of 
 sheep he most fancies, the flock is always better managed and more 
 profitable, than where, from the nature of the soil and climate, he 
 is obliged to raise a variety for which he has no liking. 
 
 The most hopeless of all flocks is that of the man who bought 
 a lot of cheap culls to commence with and breeds regularly from 
 rams for which he pays a few shillings per head. Such a flock in 
 a few years has no type, but possesses in a high degree every bad 
 quality that a flock should not have. 
 
 DIFFICULTIES TO CONTEND WITH. 
 
 There is practically no limit to the enterprise of the Australian 
 sheep farmer, but this business, like every other, is not without its 
 trials and difficulties. In taking up new country, and in entering 
 into the business of a cheep farmer for the first time, many difficul- 
 ties will be encountered ; but, as in the past we have seen these 
 difficulties overcome, so it will in the future, particularly when 
 resolute men put their hearts into the business. Will is power. 
 I have seen a man go straight from the shop to the sheep walk, 
 without the slightest knowledge of the business of sheep farming, 
 and without any apprenticeship in the new walk of life, and yet 
 make a success, simply because he put his whole heart and intelli- 
 gence into the work, and was determined to carry it out to the best 
 of his ability. The difficulties the sheep farmer has to contend 
 with are always more formidable when the climate is hot and dry 
 and the soil poor, though an excess of moisture, on the other hand, 
 is often very unfavorable to the business. 
 
 I can remember when sheep farming was first undertaken in 
 Riverina. The merino grew to a much larger size than in Victoria, 
 but the fleece was of the very worst description. The staple was 
 short and coarse, of very little strength, and full of kemps. The 
 sheep farmers of the western district of Victoria (the Australia Felix 
 of the early settlers) used to predict most sagely that it was an 
 impossibility to grow wool on the northern side of the Murray 
 river. At the present day the province of Riverina produces wool 
 of the highest class, longer in staple than that of Victoria, stronger 
 in fibre, and of equal lustre, and the fleeces weigh heavier. This 
 is the experience that has been gone through with nearly every 
 advance the sheep farmers have made into the great thirst land of 
 central Australia. Districts that twenty-five years ago were regarded 
 as almost desert, are now stocked with sheep that yield fleeces of 
 an excellent and profitable description of wool. 
 
607 
 
 THE CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 
 
 The conditions of life, or, as some writers call it, the environ- 
 ment, require to be carefully studied before selecting the breed of 
 sheep with which to form the flock. The influence the natural 
 surroundings exert upon the domestic animals has been known to 
 husbandmen from the dawn of civilisation. In his writings, 
 Columella shows that he fully understood the matter, and the 
 subject is referred to by many old English writers. 
 
 The experience of an old Lammermuir shepherd, as quoted 
 by Youatt, furnishes a good illustration of the loss that may possibly 
 follow by neglecting this important matter. He says, "I occupied 
 a farm that had been rented by our family for nearly half a century. 
 On entering it the Cheviot stock was the object of our choice, and 
 so long as we continued in possession of this breed everything pro- 
 ceeded with considerable success ; but the Dishley sheep came 
 into fashion, and we, influenced by the general mania, cleared our 
 farm of the Cheviots and procured the favorite stock Our coarse, 
 lean pastures, however, were unequal to the task of supporting such 
 heavy-bodied sheep, and they gradually dwindled away into less 
 and less bulk ; each generation was inferior to the preceding one, 
 and when the spring was severe seldom more than two-thirds of 
 the lambs could survive the ravages of the storm." 
 
 Another still more striking illustration of the effects of the con- 
 ditions of life upon sheep is given in the Journal of the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England (1865). Mr. T. Ellman sent sixty 
 ewes and three rams of the English Leicester breed to a French 
 farmer. These sheep were hea ily woolled, the ewes cutting ten 
 pounds each. On the French farm the sheep were treated in the 
 same manner as the native race (the Norman), and each year the 
 wool on the original sheep and their progeny became lighter and 
 lighter, till in six years time they clipped only three pounds each 
 of very indifferent wool. In the fourth generation they became 
 very long legged, and in their bodies bore a considerable resem- 
 blance to the ordinary Norman sheep, with which they had not the 
 least relationship. 
 
 An instance of the folly of attempting to work against nature 
 was shown when several years ago the Romney Marsh sheep were 
 " improved " by ntroducing the Leicester blood. The result was 
 an improvement in the shape of the young stock, but they had lost 
 the extraordinary hardiness of the Marsh race, and were unable to 
 live in the bleak, exposed country inhabited for centur es by the 
 Romneys. 
 
 In Victoria attempts have been made to breed high-class 
 merinos in wet, cold lowlands, but in every instance the attempt 
 has met with pronounced failure. In one instance it was attempted 
 to form a stud in such a locality, and the original sheep were of the 
 highest merit. Though the greatest care was exhibited in the 
 
6o8 
 
 breeding and management of the flock, they dwindled rapidly, and 
 in a few generations became worthless, of small size, poorly clad, 
 and weak of constitution. 
 
 Already the conditions of life are producing quite different 
 types of sheep of the same breed. The most marked instances of 
 this occur with our merinos. So pronounced is the difference 
 between the merinos from different colonies that the veriest tyro in 
 sheep husbandry can distinguish at a glance between those bred 
 in Tasmania and those raised in Victoria. Riverina has another 
 type, and Mudgee another. Experts can readily distinguish 
 between the sheep raised in many of the districts in each colony. 
 
 The farmer who deals in sheep must have a keen eye as to the 
 adaptation of the sheep he purchases to the natural surroundings 
 on his farm. Master Fitzherbert, in his " Boke of Husbandry " 
 (1532), clearly recognised this, for he gives the following shrewd 
 advice : " And take hede where thou byest any lean cattle or fat, 
 and of whom and where it was bred. For if thou bye out of a 
 better grounde than thou haste thyselfe, that cattel wyll not lyke 
 with the." To the man who regularly deals in sheep I have nothing 
 to say. If he does not know more about the business than can be 
 learned from any treatise he has been premature in going into the 
 business. To the farmer who purchases a lot of sheep to fatten off 
 when he happens to have a self-sown crop to utilise, I would say, 
 "Go where you will get sound, healthy stock, and pay a fair 
 market price for them." The sheep that are put on to a farmer's 
 hands as a great bargain at a low price are generally the last sheep 
 he should have on his place. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 BREEDING. 
 
 THE RAM. 
 
 In the selecting and mating of the breeders, the flock- 
 master must bear in mind that the ram is half the Hock. Therefore, 
 if the farmer is not able to secure ewes of the very highest type of 
 the breed of sheep he desires to raise, all advance toward that 
 standard must be made by means of the rams used in the fleck. To 
 use scrub rams means to go backward, and to save money by pur- 
 chasing moderate animals is false economy. It is money lost and 
 not money saved to adopt such a practice, and he who follows that 
 course will never make a good sheep farmer or raise a profitable 
 flock. 
 
 The ram should be of robust constitution, this is the main point, 
 and come of sound stock. He should be well shaped, showing a 
 good back ; well sprung ribs ; stand squarely on his legs ; have a 
 strong neck, and a good masculine head showing character and 
 breeding. In all breeds there should be no weakness in the fleece 
 on the top of the shoulder and along the back. In merinos the 
 wool should be well supplied with yolk and there should be a pro- 
 nounced black tip to the wool. This tip is not valuable in itself, 
 save that it helps to preserve the wool from the withering effects of 
 the hot sun. A small lock of wool is not a recommendation to a 
 merino ram, and the Lincoln should have a heavy lock with a blunt 
 tip, not a pointed one. The merinos and Lincolns should have 
 wool on the head ; a bald-faced merino ram has some bad blood in 
 his pedigree. The hair on the face of a merino should be soft, not 
 hard and coarse. The ears should be thick and have a soft feel. 
 A thin eared merino ram has bad blood in his pedigree. The eye 
 should be soft, not prominent and fiery. The horn should be of 
 fair size, with a double and spiral curve, not close to the head, or 
 standing wide out. A polled ram is not objectionable on that 
 account. The celebrated flocks bred by Messrs. T. and G. Pass- 
 more, Tasmania, were greatly in-bred to a polled ram used in the 
 flock over half a century ago. The merino ram is a horned animal 
 certainly, but I can see no more use for horns on our sheep than for 
 horns on our cattle. It would be the saving of many a good ram's 
 life if all the horns were off our merino sheep. 
 
6io 
 
 The ram's fleece should be slightly stronger than that 
 of the ewe, and I do not dislike a little strength of wool 
 on the thigh, particularly if such strength is free from kemps. 
 In referring to the loose rolls of skin on the neck of a merino 
 ram the question as to the value of the Vermont naturally crops 
 up. The excessive folds of the skin seen on some Vermont 
 sheep arc to my mind objectionable in the farmer's flock. Indeed, 
 until lately I disliked the Vermont cross altogether, but the facts 
 are so much in their favor that I cannot shut my eyes to them. 
 The Vermont cross has done so much good by adding to the weight 
 of fleece of some very large flocks raised in Central Australia that 
 it is rapidly coming into favor with sheep breeders in all the colo- 
 nies, except Tasmania. In a dry, hot climate a dash of Vermont 
 blood in the sire will do good by thickening the wool, and by 
 giving it more yolk will preserve it from being withered by the sun 
 
 SHOW RAMS. 
 
 The sheep farmer should never purchase a ram that has been 
 " got up " for show. In newly settled districts there is 
 seldom much danger to be apprehended from show sheep 
 being pampered and coddled, but in older settled districts 
 much harm is done in this way. The training the show 
 sheep undergoes to lit him for taking a prize unfits him for 
 " rustling " on the pastures. When a housed and clothed ram is 
 turned out among the ewes and left on the grass for several months, 
 he looks a pitiable object. The beautifully line wool that won such 
 praises in the show-yard changes to a poorly grown fleece of 
 withered staple. The owner finds fault with the ram, \vhereas it is 
 he who is to blame. It is better to select the rams from a well- 
 known flock that possesses the qualities it is desired to impress on 
 the produce. They should be taken off the grass, though they may 
 not be as attractive as show prize-takers. 
 
 Many sheep-breeders, and among them men of large experience, 
 habitually use two-tooth rams, and though they point to large 
 droppings of lambs and a high class of sheep, I clo not like the 
 practice. Using such an immature animal as a two-tooth ram 
 must, in the end, have a deleterious effect on the stock. Where 
 the climate is a hard one, it is much better to wait till the rams are 
 four-tool li before using them as sires. With longwools there is not 
 so much objection to the practice, as they are earlier maturing 
 animals than merinos, and they are raised on more abundant pasture 
 than is usually seen on country suitable only for the merinos. 
 
 The small Hock-owner cannot breed his own rams that may 
 be taken for granted. How, then, is he to obtain them, and whence? 
 He may swap with a neighbour, provided his neighbour's stock are 
 suitable for his purpose. This is a thing that does not often happen, 
 and when it does the rams are getting on in years before his neigh- 
 bour wants to part with them. 
 
6n 
 
 When rams from a stud (lock prove good sires it is an excellent 
 plan to keep to that line of blood. This style of breeding gives 
 great uniformity to the stock. Changing from one stud to another 
 and .totting a different type of ram every year invariably leads to 
 disappointment. 
 
 For many years I used rams drawn from the one stock, and by 
 careful culling I got the sheep at last to be as uniform as if they had 
 been cast in the same mould. Of course, if the breeding in the stud 
 tails off a change should be made, and even if there is no falling off 
 a change is sometimes advisable if rams better calculated to improve 
 the sheep can be obtained. The sheep-breeder should have a 
 standard of excellence in his mind, and all his efforts should be 
 directed to breeding up towards that standard. 
 
 FIGHTING RAMS. 
 
 As the season for coupling approaches merino rams are much 
 given to righting, and the contests are so severe that a ram is 
 occasionally killed. The Americans have adopted an excellent 
 plan for preventing lighting among rams. This consists in fixing a 
 broad piece of stout leather to the animal's horns in front of his 
 face in the following manner : A visor of stiff leather (or if that is 
 not handy, bullock's hide will do) is shaped to extend from the 
 horns to a little below the eyes, and broad enough to cover the 
 face. In one top corner a hole is made sufficiently large to slip 
 over one horn, while at the other top corner a piece is cut out 
 to lit the horn ; ties of leather or string hold this firmly to the 
 horn and the visor is fixed. The ram can see to graze and 
 walk about, he can see the other sheep by slightly raising his head, 
 but directly he lowers his head to fight the view of his opponent is 
 lost to him, and the fight does not take place. This plan is now 
 generally adopted by the owners of stud sheep in Tasmania. A 
 very ancient means of preventing a ram from fighting was to bore 
 a hole through the horn near the head with a gimlet. I have 
 never known this plan tried, but it must be a painful operation for 
 the ram. 
 
 PEDIGREE. 
 
 No matter what breed of sheep is raised, the ram should 
 always be pure bred. I am no worshipper of pedigree merely 
 because it is pedigree, but experience has shown me, in every 
 variety of stock, that breeding from a pure sire is always advan- 
 tageous. The pure bred sire is more prepotent than the mongrel, 
 consequently the sheep-breeder who uses pure bred stock can make 
 a pretty fair estimate of what the produce will be like. It is not 
 so with the mongrel, who has no type to confer on his offspring. 
 But while I recommend the use of pure bred sires in all cases, that 
 purity of breeding must be accompanied by the high qualities of 
 form and fleece which it is intended to impress on the flock. 
 
012 
 
 There is considerable diversity of opinion among flock breeders 
 as to what is the best size of sire to employ. Some are all for size 
 of frame, while as many pin their faith to quality. Some of the 
 most successful stock breeders in England have obtained their best 
 results by means of moderately-sized sires. For myself, I do not 
 object to a ram if he is a trifle on the small side, and for this reason: 
 It is much more easy to obtain a ram on the small side, of excellent 
 proportions, than it is to get a perfectly shaped large ram. With 
 roomy ewes, the medium-sized well-shaped ram will throw better 
 stock than will a large-framed ram not so well shaped. 
 
 The height a ram stands is not a proof of size, indeed, a tall 
 animal is often lighter than one that is short on the leg, but of 
 better proportions. All leggy stock should be avoided, no matter 
 what breed of our domestic animals are raised. 
 
 There is a great variety of opinion as to the number of ewes 
 a ram should serve, and some of the greatest mistakes are made by 
 experienced sheep farmers on this point. When a verv large sum 
 is paid for a stud ram the new owner (with the view of recouping 
 himself for his expenditure) often puts the ram to far too large a 
 number of ewes. I have known such a ram serve several hundreds 
 of ewes in a year, ana to keep up his strength he was fed on the 
 most stimulating food. That he did not do himself justice as a sire 
 is not surprising. When cock fighting was practised it was found 
 that \vhere a game cock was allowed a dozen or fourteen hens, he 
 got fewer really good birds than when he was given four or live 
 hens. The late Mr. James W T hite was the most successful breeder 
 of racehorses in Australia, and he seldom gave a stallion more than 
 half a dozen mares. Panic (a great sire) was given as many mares 
 as were sent to him, and the result was that many of his stock 
 showed temper, though he himself had a tine disposition. If the 
 sheep farmer can afford to limit his rams to fifty ewes he will find 
 it pay him well in the end. 
 
 Though I have recommended the use of pure rams it is not 
 necessary that the sheep farmer should pay a fancy price for his 
 sires. Utility, and not fancy points, are to be studied when the 
 farmer goes to market to purchase rams. 
 
 THE EWES. 
 
 CULLING. In a new country there is generally a strong inclina- 
 tion manifested to breed from every ewe in the flock, so as to 
 stock upas as quickly as possible ; but in this ca^e it is better to 
 make haste slowly. The ewes should be carefully gone through 
 bcldc shearing, and all inferior sheep rejected from the breeding 
 Hock. That man who goes through his ewes after shearing also, 
 makes assurance doubly sure. The Hock will not grow as rapidly 
 as that of the man who breeds from "all and sundry," but the 
 smaller Hock will often yield a higher profit than the lars^e one, while 
 individually the returns are generally in favor of the smaller flock. 
 
6i 3 
 
 The well culled flock is steadily and surely advancing to ;i higher 
 standard of excellence, while the Hock where culling is neglected 
 is almost invariably deteriorating. It is when the stock from these 
 tlocks arc for sale that the advantage of strict culling is seen. 
 There are ready purchasers for the well bred sheep at the highest 
 market value, while purchasers for the badly bred ilock are few, 
 and prices always rule very low. 
 
 When the sheep farmer has attained sufficient knowledge of 
 his business, it is always -better for him to do the culling himself. 
 Having the sheep always under his eye, he has the advantage 
 of a thorough knowledge of the ilock, and if he takes a keen 
 interest in his business he will sotm gain sufficient knowledge 
 to do the work of selecting his breeding Hock. Perhaps, 
 for a year or two, if the flock owner has had no previous ex- 
 perience of sheep husbandry, it might be advisable to secure the 
 services of a thoroughly skilful sheep-classer. This will be a 
 sufficient lesson to any intelligent man who has gone into sheep 
 farming in earnest. When little more than a lad I came into 
 possession of a Hock of sheep in which there were some really good 
 ewes and a considerable number of inferior ones. I culled out the 
 very best for breeding, and though it took me four years to work up 
 the breeding flock to its full size, I was a great gainer in the end by 
 the superiority of the sheep. For years I topped the market in 
 Victoria in the price of wool, and I always got a high price for my 
 fat sheep. 
 
 Directions for classing the wool at shearing time are often 
 given. In my opinion the wool classing should be done when the 
 sheep are bred. The farmer's flock should be of one type, and 
 when I hear of many classes of wool from one small flock I am 
 dubious of the system of breeding. In selecting merino rams and 
 ewes for breeding purposes there is one defect that must be closely 
 watched for, and that is a peculiar growth of the wool known to 
 flock masters as " devil's grip." It consists of a patch of badly 
 grown wool, usually situated on each side of the body just behind 
 the shoulder blade and well up towards the back. Sometimes it 
 runs right across the back. On these spots the wool grows in an 
 unwholesome condition. It is divided into small twisted locks, and 
 the yolk has a different appearance and feel to that on the rest of 
 the body. It gives one the impression that glue has been mixed 
 with the yolk. The cause of this defect I do not know, but sheep 
 showing any indication towards it are avoided by all experienced 
 husbandmen. The general impression among sheep breeders is 
 that " devil's grip " is an indication of weakness of constitution. 
 No matter how good such sheep may be otherwise, they should be 
 promptly cast out of the breeding flock. A ram with " devil's 
 grip " is w r orse than useless, he is harmful. 
 
 The sheep breeder in culling his ewes should always have in 
 his mind a certain standard of excellence which in time he hopes 
 
614 
 
 to arrive at. The late Mr. John Murray, of Mount Crawford, South 
 Australia, who from not very promising originals raised one of the 
 finest flocks of merinos in Australia, said before he died that he had 
 never attained his standard of excellence in a merino sheep. For 
 half a century he had patiently and skilfully raised the character of 
 his flock, and had he lived another year I fancy he would have 
 seen his ideal fully realised. This is the way great flocks are 
 formed, not by running after each change of fashion, but by select- 
 ing a high standard, and following the course marked out, never 
 for a moment losing sight of the end, no matter how far away it 
 may seem to be. . He who tries to achieve this end will make a 
 good sheep farmer ; he who succeeds will be a master in the art of 
 sheep husbandry. 
 
 In breeding sheep, as in breeding all other pasture animals, too 
 much stress must not be laid on individual records, either for weight 
 of fleece or weight of carcase. A heavy fleece and heavy carcase 
 do not always represent the most profitable animal to raise. The 
 conditions of life in the district must be carefully studied, and an 
 estimate made as to what combination of frame and fleece the 
 country will best produce. This matter seldom receives that 
 attention at the hands of Australian sheep farmers which its 
 importance deserves. Because one district, which possesses many 
 natural advantages, will produce highly profitable sheep of a certain 
 type, it by no means follows that a neighboring district, similar in 
 many respects, but not possessing so many natural advantages, will 
 do the same. In this respect we must go with nature, for we 
 cannot contend against her. Herein lies the benefit of an intelligent 
 and close observation of the flock, and this is why the sheep farmer 
 who sees his sheep every day is better fitted to cull the breeding 
 ewes than a man who sees them but once a year. 
 
 There is a great attraction in sheep breeding, but it is a business 
 like any other, and is followed ior gain and not for sentiment 
 therefore, the object of the farmer should be to raise the description 
 of sheep which his country is best adapted to produce, and that 
 sheep is the one that will give the greatest amount of profit per 
 acre. As a modern writer puts it " The art of breeding may be 
 epitomised in the one word, 'selection,' which involves the applica- 
 tion of every established principle of practice and a consideration 
 of the inll.ience of every peculiarity of form." Selection of the 
 breeders has ever been the guiding principle of the leading stock- 
 breeders of England, the most skilful husbandmen in the world. 
 
 In culling the ewes it is advisable to take out of the flock all 
 small-framed weedy animals ; a ewe should be roomy to can v a 
 lamb. In some stud flocks in which close attention is paid to the 
 individual members of the flock, small ewes are sometimes retained 
 among the breeders because the owner knows that they produce 
 good si/ecl, well-shaped stock ; but such ewes are exceptional, and 
 one cannot have any knowledge of them in a general flock. There- 
 
fore it is safer to reject all puny ewes. Culling is nearly always 
 performed while the sheep are in full fleece ; but the wool is not 
 everything, and to ensure a really good flock the sheep-farmer 
 would do well to go through his flock after shearing, when any 
 defects of form can be seen at a glance. In all breeds of sheep it 
 is well to breed for rounded ribs, good shoulders and quarters, and 
 a moderate length of leg. These points are of almost equal 
 importance with weight of fleece. 
 
 CROSS BREEDING. 
 
 In what has gone before, my remarks have been directed 
 towards the establishment and maintenance of a permanent flock, 
 and to do this it is necessary to keep only sheep of one breed. 
 Where cross breeding is kept up, the closest attention must be paid 
 to the breeding, as with a crossbred flock there is no such thing as 
 stability or uniformity. The type of the flock is always oscillating 
 towards the one breed or the other that are employed in the cross. 
 The skill of the breeder is shown in preventing either type from 
 becoming to > pronounced, indeed he must labour to ke p the sheep 
 about midway between the breeds employed. 
 
 The crossbred sheep generally raised in Victoria are between 
 the Lincoln and the merino, and with such widely differing types 
 it may be readily imagined that such a thing as an intermediate 
 breed is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to establish. 
 
 Crossbreds raised from these varieties, though they have no 
 type, are extremely profitable both for carcase and fleece. They 
 mature earlier than the merino, they give a much heavier carcase, 
 and their fleece is considerably heavier than that of the merino. 
 The wool is of a character that finds ready purchasers at prices 
 little, if anything, below those paid for merino wool. In choosing 
 Lincoln rams the great point is to get them well shaped, with good 
 brisket, and well sprung ribs. The fleece must be of long staple, 
 and with a heavy lock, not a thin pointed one. The wool should be 
 lustrous so that the crossbred may have bright attractive wool. All 
 Lincoln sheep should have the characteristic forelock of the breed. 
 
 In raising sheep of the Lincoln-merino cross, rams of the 
 former breed are put to ewes of the latter breed. This is done 
 because merinoes are so much more numerous than Lincolns. 
 When the Lincoln rams are large headed a good many ewes are 
 lost at lambing time. To avoid these losses many sheepbreeders 
 use ewes for crossing that have bred several times, but experience 
 shows that there are fewer losses in the cross with young ewes 
 than with old ones. For a good many years the attention of the 
 breeders of Lincoln studs has been directed to reducing the size of 
 the head, and careful selection has effected a marked change in this 
 respect. The general run of the heads of Lincoln sheep is much 
 smaller than they were a score of years ago. 
 
6x6 
 
 Cross breeding is also practised with border and English 
 Leicesters and with Cotswolds, and each cross has its admirers. 
 One of the best and oldest flocks of crossbreds in Victoria is that 
 raised at Belinda Vale under the management of Mr. Robt. Clarke, 
 and owned for many years by the late Sir W. J. Clarke. The flock 
 has been in existence for nearly 40 years, and has no superior in 
 Australia. Pure sires of both breeds are used, and to secure rams 
 of sufficiently high class two studs are maintained on the estate. 
 
 Another cross much liked by those who raise lambs for market 
 is between the merino ewe and the down ram. The Southdown 
 has been used for this purpose for years, and has given very satis- 
 factory results. The lambs are of the very best quality, and "though 
 smaller than those of other cross are in great favor with many 
 owners of small flocks. Hampshire downs make a fine cross with 
 the merino or the comeback ewe. They give a heavy weight of 
 carcase, a good fleece, and they mature rapidly. The Shopshire is 
 said to be extremely valuable for lamb raising. They have been in 
 use for this purpose for some time past in South Australia, and the 
 results have been all that could be desired. 
 
 Many sheep farmers are of opinion that a crossbred flock cannot 
 be maintained, for the reason that after the first cross there is too great 
 deterioration in the stock raised. But this we have seen in the 
 Belinda Vale flock and others is not the case. A crossbred flock 
 can be kept up, and very valuable animals raised, both for carcase 
 and fleece, but it can be done only by using good rams of pure 
 breed on each side. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to establish a variety midway 
 between the longwool and the merino, but all the sheep so raised 
 have, to my mind, been inferior to the crossbred raised from pure 
 sires of the two breeds. 
 
 lie who would raise good crossbreds must use good rams on a 
 well-selected lot of breeding ewes. It seems to be a fixed idea 
 with many owners of small flocks that a crossbred is necessarily a 
 mongrel, in the worst sense of the term. So they are on many an 
 Australian farm, but there is no necessity for it. Often when a 
 farmer starts sheep breeding he buys far too many sheep, and he 
 buys cheap, I should say, low-priced sheep. With these sheep he 
 uses rams of whose breeding not even the most experienced sheep 
 breeder would ha/ard a guess. They would have made bad 
 wethers, and should never have been kept as rams. Such a flock, 
 with the rams among the ewes all the year, 
 neglected, wandering about the roads to pick- 
 living, is the most hopeless spectacle one could look at. 
 
 If sheep breeding is worth going into at all it is worth doing 
 well. Good sheep are pleasant to look upon ; they cost no more to 
 feed than bad ones, and they give a much higher profit. It is bad 
 husbandry to keep g-><>d sheep badly, and it is still worse 
 husbandry to keep bad sheep at all. On the large farm sheep are 
 
 half-starved and 
 up a precarious 
 
6, 7 
 
 necessary to its full development ; on the small one they are always 
 useful. In raising sheep of the Lincoln-merino cross the pasture 
 should he ample to fully develop the good points of the animal. 
 A lighter grassed country will suit the cross between the Shropshire 
 and Hampshire downs and merino, ;md a still lighter country can 
 be utilised for the Southdown-merino cross. 
 
 An old objection to the down herds is that they do not yield 
 a good tleece of wool, but that objection does not hold good with 
 the Shropshire, which is as well covered as a merino ; the Hamp- 
 shire clown has a larger staple of wool than the merino, while the 
 fleece of the Southdown has been greatly improved during the 
 last decade. 
 
 IN-BREEDING. 
 
 The practice of in-breeding, or breeding from closely related 
 animals, is one that the tyro in sheep husbandry should never attempt. 
 It is invaluable in the hands of a master of the art of sheep 
 husbandry, to lix a type and give prepotency to a stud, but it must 
 be remembered that it confers equal prepotency to lix bad qualities 
 in a race. Where closely related animals have any weakness of 
 constitution, breeding from them renders the produce extremely 
 liable to contract the defects of the parents in an exaggerated degree. 
 
 It is not wise to draw rams from an unbred Hock, unless the 
 sheep composing it are noted for strength of constitution. The 
 Murray merinos in South Australia have been in-bred for over half 
 a century, not a single infusion of outside blood having been intro- 
 duced in that time, and yet the sheep in that flock are of the most 
 robust constitution of any sheep in Australia. In that case, however, 
 the founder of the tlock, and his sons, who now own it, are among 
 the most skilful sheep breeders in Australia. 
 
 LAMBING. 
 
 THE TIME FOR LAMBING. With merinos it is the general 
 custom to lamb the ewes in autumn, when the rains have started 
 the young grass. The advantage of bringing into the shed at 
 shearing time line grown rive-months-old lambs has induced the 
 majority of Australian sheep farmers to advance the lambing time 
 to the earliest possible limit, and as the autumnal rains in these 
 colonies are extremely uncertain, it has often happened that the 
 lambing has commenced before there is a blade of green grass for 
 the ewes, and the result has often been disastrous. Over a very 
 large area of Australia the lambing for the last two years has been 
 a failure, mainly owing to this cause. If one could be sure of a 
 good rainfall towards the end of March, about the middle of May 
 would be a good time to lamb ; but our autumn rains are so often 
 late that it is by no means a safe plan to arrange for the ewes to 
 lamb in the warmer districts of Australia till June. In Queensland 
 spring lambing is a common practice, but in that colony most of the 
 
6i8 
 
 grasses are summer plants, which is in favor of the practice. A 
 late lambing has this disadvantage, that the young lambs are exposed 
 to the cold blasts of winter directly they are born ; but it is better 
 to risk this than to lose the bulk of the lambs, because owing to 
 want of pasture the ewes have no milk. 
 
 When early lambing can be practised it is not advisable to put 
 the rams and ewes together immediately after shearing, as by doing 
 so there will be a large number of misses. This peculiarity in sheep 
 breeding has been observed in many parts of Australia. The ex- 
 planation is generally believed to be that when the fleece is taken 
 off a sheep the rapid growth of wool that follows for a few weeks 
 is a strong drain on the constitution of the animal, and this weakens 
 the generative organs. 
 
 Ewes may be bred from until they are nine years old, but 
 this must be left to the judgment of the flockmasfer. In some 
 districts the ewes last much better than in others, and one ewe at 
 eight years old may be in excellent form, while on another pasture 
 a ewe of the same age may be broken down. The flock should 
 be so managed that the ewes are cast for breeding after rearing 
 their third or fourth lamb. Sheep have been known to breed up to 
 twenty years of age, but these are very exceptional cases. 
 
 Weaning the lambs will depend much on the season, but the 
 lambs should not be left too long on the ewes, as the latter will have 
 too short an interval to recuperate before being put to the ram. Cross 
 weaning, that is, putting the lambs of one half the flock with the 
 ewes of the other, and rice versa, is a good plan to adopt, as it makes 
 the lambs more contented. Where the weaned lambs are put by 
 themselves they often run off all their condition and do not begin 
 to mend for a month at least. Lambs may be weaned after four 
 months old. 
 
 It may happen that the sheep farmer wishes to know for future 
 guidance what ram is the sire of -each lamb, and an excellent plan 
 for accomplishing this was given in the Field some years ago. 
 Before putting each ram to the ewes selected for him, his breast 
 was marked with red, blue, or green, which was daily renewed as 
 it was rubbed oft. At the end of a week the ewes served were 
 drawn off and put in another enclosure with a ram marked with a 
 different colour, so that if any of the ewes returned they would 
 show it. The ewes were marked with a dot of paint of the same 
 colour as the ram. At lambing time each lamb was marked with 
 the colour of his sire, so that at weaning time the Hock master could 
 form a very good idea of the value of his different sires. 
 
 In cold, wet, or exposed situations, where the country is open, 
 there should be some shelter provided for the lambing ewes. 
 Breakwinds are easily and rapidly constructed, and in a severe 
 season would save the lives of many lambs. There is no better 
 return obtained from the money spent on the sheep walk than that 
 employed in the formation of hedges or plantations. Wherever 
 
619 
 
 these have been grown in the older settled districts of Australia, 
 they have proved of very great value. I know of one property that 
 was naturally a bare plain, and on which, so keen was the force of 
 the winter gale, it was impossible to lamb ewes. Since then exten- 
 sive plantations have been grown on this country, and ewes lamb 
 comfortably under the shelter of thick belts of timber. 
 
 In a newly taken up country the farmer may not care to go to 
 the trouble of forming plantations, but he can run up a breakwind 
 with brush wood or branches of trees that will be of great benefit 
 to his ewes at lambing time. 
 
 To iind the percentage of lambs in a flock multiply the number 
 of lambs by 100, and divide by the number of ewes. 
 
 PERIOD OF GESTATION. 
 
 The period of gestation appears to bear some relation to the 
 size of the animal. It is approximately as follows : Elephants, 
 twenty to twenty-three months ; giraffe, fourteen months ; drome- 
 dary, twelve months ; buffalo, from ten to twelve months ; mare, 
 eleven months ; cow, 285 days ; bear, six months ; reindeer, eight 
 months ; sheep and goat, live months ; sow, four months ; dog, fox 
 and wolf, sixty-two days ; rabbit and hare, thirty days ; squirrel, 
 twenty-eight days ; guinea-pig, twenty-one days. 
 
 Mr. Darwin states ( Animals and Plants under Domestication) 
 that it has been observed in Germany that the period of ges- 
 tation is longer in large sized than in small sized breeds of cattle. 
 In sheep the period varies from 143 to 156 days, but in the reports 
 that have been made on the subject the bulk of the ewes lambed in 
 149 to 153 days. The period of the Southdown is shorter than that 
 of the merino by nearly six days. It is believed by some practical 
 sheep breeders that the period of gestation is shorter in the breeds 
 that mature early, which may explain the difference between the 
 Southdown and the merino. It is also the general opinion that the 
 ewe goes longer with a ram lamb than with a ewe lamb. It is a safe 
 thing for the sheep farmer to reckon the period of gestation in the 
 sheep at 150 days. 
 
 INFLUENCING THE SEX. 
 
 It is a fad with many sheep farmers that they can influence the 
 number of ram or ewe lambs at will. This has been a hobby with 
 some sheep farmers for many centuries, and numberless experiments 
 have been made with the view of proving the theories held. As a 
 rule these experiments have been made on such a small scale and 
 extending over such a brief period of time, that they are practically 
 worthless. From what is known on this subject, it seems highly 
 probable that there is generally a small percentage of males in 
 excess of females. Some writers assert that the changes in the 
 relative numbers of the sexes run in cycles, but as to what influences 
 the sex of the offspring of sheep, or, indeed, of any other animal, 
 man included, we are quite in the dark. Scientists know nothing 
 
620 
 
 definite about the matter, and the sheep farmer had better devote his 
 time and attention to improving the general standard of his sheep 
 than waste his efforts in futile attempts to attain results when he is 
 ignorant of the causes that influence them. When country is 
 sparsely stocked, it is a flattering thing for the sheep farmer to think 
 that he can so breed his sheep as to produce a very large percentage 
 of ewes, but I have never heard of any one doing it yet. We often 
 see some stud ewes breed a long succession oi ram lambs when put 
 to a different sire each year, while others treated similarly will give 
 birth to a long succession of ewe lambs. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK. 
 
 OVER-STOCKJXG. 
 
 This is worse than a blunder, it is almost a crime There 
 is no sadder spectacle for the pastoralist than for his sheep 
 to be slowly but surely dying of starvation, and to have the 
 knowledge that his own act in keeping too many sheep on his land 
 is the main cause of the trouble. The loss is not confined to the 
 reduction of the flock by deaths. The survivors have their con- 
 stitutions enfeebled by the severe trial to which they have been 
 subjected, and the effect is seen in the produce for several 
 generations. The pastures are seriously injured by overstocking, as 
 all the wholesome and nutritious plants are eaten out, and in many 
 cases completely destroyed. This is the opportunity for the 
 unwholesome and innutritions plants, which are enabled to take 
 complete possession of the soil. 
 
 Though the evils resulting from over-stocking have been 
 demonstrated time after time in Australia, it is nevertheless the most 
 common fault committed by our flockmasters. When seasons are 
 fairly good the temptation to " stock up " which means to put on 
 as many sheep as the land will carry under the most favorable 
 circumstances seems to be irresistible. All former experiences 
 are neglected and the flock is increased, till a drought (for which no 
 preparation has been made) occurs, and the injury done to the 
 flock is far greater than any profit that accrued during the good 
 time. 
 
 CONSERVATION OF FODDER. 
 
 There are few districts in Australia in which there cannot be 
 some preparation made in good seasons to conserve fodder to help 
 the stock over a bad time. This fodder in the back country, where 
 cultivation is seldom or never practised, may take the form of bush 
 hay or silage. It does not matter much \vhat plants are used so 
 long as a sufficient quantity of rough food be saved to prevent the 
 sheep from dying of starvation. In the hottest and driest localities 
 of our island-continent there occur seasons when there is an abun- 
 dant vegetation. The wise sheep-breeder will be ready to take 
 advantage of such opportunities, and put into hay and silage stacks 
 as much fodder as his means will permit. 
 
 Where the natural grasses are scanty much may be done by 
 fencing in a block of land and either sowing the seeds of the best 
 grasses, or, if they already exist on the land, permitting them to seed 
 
622 
 
 and reproduce themselves. Such a block of land, if kept always 
 understocked, will serve the same purpose as the cultivated paddocks 
 of the localities in which the climate and soil are of a more genial 
 nature. The full use of the land thus reserved will not be obtained 
 for grazing, but that is a small insurance to pay for meeting a time 
 of scarcity. 
 
 BUSH HAY. 
 
 The native grasses of Australia are easily made into hay, 
 little labor being required to perform the work beyond cutting 
 and stacking. On a small property on the Liverpool Plains, 
 New South Wales, I saw, some years ago, the plain dotted over 
 with stacks of hay and silage. A good season gave a very heavy 
 crop of grass, and the proprietor decided to make an experiment in 
 conserving fodder. The grass was cut with mowing machines and 
 run into central points (where stacks were erected), with hay sweeps. 
 The stacks were of moderate size, and I was informed that the 
 total cost of putting the hay and silage into stack was scarcely 2s. 
 6d. per ton. When I saw these stacks they had been up a little 
 over a year and both kinds of fodder were excellent, indeed, the 
 manager had to put fences around the silage stacks to preserve them 
 from cattle and horses. 
 
 From the nature of our Australian grasses they require very 
 little manipulation in being made into hay, indeed the trouble is to 
 get the fodder into stack before it becomes too dry. I have seen 
 bush hay made in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, and 
 it has always turned out a most useful fodder for stock. The sheep 
 may not care for it while they can get the growing pasture, but 
 when a drought occurs and the pastures are bare, they are not par- 
 ticular, and will eat bush hay and hold their condition well on it. 
 
 SILAGE. 
 
 This, I believe, is the coming fodder of Australia. It is a 
 most useful stand-by for the dairyman in the coastal districts, 
 where the soil is rich and the rainfall generally ample, but in the 
 interior it is invaluable for all kinds of stock. With a moderate 
 supply of silage the sheep are safe from that accompaniment of a 
 time of drought impaction of the stomach which kills almost as 
 many in such a time as starvation. From what I have learned of 
 experiments made in Australia there seems to be scarcely a limit to 
 the time this fodder will retain its value. 
 
 Many years ago, during a season of luxuriant groxvth, a stack 
 of silage was made on the Mt. Abundance estate, Queensland. The 
 stack was left for over seven years, and much of the sides fell away, 
 almost in dust. It was so dried up that the men who went occa- 
 sionally to that part of the run used to camp on it. Then came a 
 very bad year, when feed was very scanty. The stock gained access 
 to the stack, and every particle of the silage was eaten, even the 
 dry dust the men used to camp in. 
 
The idea that silage to be kept for any length of time must be 
 conserved in pits, is n>>\v completely exploded. In Australia very 
 lew silage pits are now made, and it has been found that the stack 
 silage is much better for pasture animals than that made in pits. 
 Silage that has undergone a thorough fermentation in stack turns 
 out of a dark colour with a sweet aromatic flavor, while pit silage 
 in which the fermentation is checked by heavy pressure is usually 
 of a green color, and quite sour. Sheep do not take kindly to this 
 sour fodder. In the experiment in stack ensilage made on the 
 Liverpool Plains the stacks were weighted with about a foot of 
 earth placed on the top, but on several Victorian farms weighting 
 stack silage is entirely done away with, and the stock eat every bit 
 of the fodder. 
 
 One of the largest makers of silage in Australia is Mr. C. H. 
 Lyon, of Ballanee, Victoria. He uses neither silage pit nor 
 pressure. As a result of his experience no pressure is necessary, 
 and the silage to be good should be subjected to a thorough 
 fermentation. If a large stack of silage is built up rapidly, the 
 great pressure on the lower portion of the fodder prevents this 
 fermentation, and the result is sour silage that cattle will eat if 
 pressed for food, but that sheep will not touch. In a pamphlet 
 which Mr. Lyon published some time back, he gives the following 
 results of his experiment in feeding sheep on silage : " Within the 
 last year and a half I have fed 14,000 sheep on silage, and all these, 
 with the exception of 1300, were Riverina wethers. In two stacks 
 of silage I had about 1700 tons. It cost me is. 6d. a ton, and saved 
 a loss of 2000. In one instance I was enabled to hold on 8000 
 sheep until rain came. I then sold them well. This last winter I 
 kept nearly 4000 sheep, fed principally on silage. I will get more 
 for the wool of these sheep than I could have got for the sheep 
 themselves four months ago." 
 
 Mr. Lyon's stacks were made 40 feet square, and carried to a 
 good height, but there is no occasion to make stacks of such large 
 size ; indeed for the purposes of the pastoralist, smaller stacks 
 scattered over the run would be more beneficial. They are safe 
 against bush-tires and with a slight covering of earth might be left for 
 years until required. Silage may be made in any weather. Mr. 
 Lyon states that during the making of a large stack, 274 tons of 
 water fell on each acre of land on which he was working, and yet 
 he made 1000 tons of excellent silage when it would have been 
 impossible to make a ton of good hay. The stack was 44 x 38 feet 
 and 22 feet to the eaves, and was left entirely without pressure. I do 
 not think it is necessary to advocate the making of silage on the 
 sheep-walk as a reserve of excellent food during a period of drought. 
 The experiments already made in most of the Australian colonies 
 have fully demonstrated the value of this description of fodder. It 
 has proved as useful in the districts of ample rainfall as in the great 
 thirst land of Central Australia. 
 
624 
 
 FEEDING SHEEP ox STRAW. 
 About two years ago I described the means adopted by a 
 Victorian sheep farmer to help his sheep over a bad time. 
 The paddocks were as bare as a road, and he saw that he 
 must provide some fodder for his sheep or lose them all. 
 He had a number of old straw stacks on the place, and he set 
 to work to cut this straw into chaff. To each bag of chaff he 
 added about a pint of molasses mixed with water and sprinkled 
 over the chaff by means of a watering can. The sheep took to 
 this fodder at once and held their condition well on it. Bagging 
 fastened to four strained wires formed the troughs at which the 
 sheep fed. During the present season this plan of feeding sheep 
 has been adopted on many Victorian farms, and many of the 
 owners of large Hocks in Riverina have also made use of it. With 
 a large flock, cutting the straw into chaff is found expensive, and 
 the plan has been adopted of sprinkling the straw in layers as it is 
 placed in the wagon, and a more liberal allowance of molasses is 
 generally given than that previously stated. The straw thus treated 
 is carted into the paddocks and scattered in long lines, and every 
 particle is picked up. It is no exaggeration to say that the lives of 
 many thousands of sheep have been saved this year in Victoria and 
 Riverina by straw and molasses. 
 
 CONSERVATION OF WATER. 
 
 Second only in importance to the securing of an ample store 
 of fodder is the conservation of a good water supply. The means of 
 securing this end vary so greatly in different parts of Australia 
 that it is impossible to give directions as to the mode of procedure 
 that will cover every instance. The usual modes of watering stock 
 in the warmer districts of Australia are by erecting dams on water- 
 courses or by excavating tanks. Over a large area the latter practice 
 has been generally followed. 
 
 THE DAM. 
 
 A dam on a watercourse is a less expensive mode of conserving 
 water than excavating a tank. The main thing is to put up the 
 dam on a good site, and where the soil is holding. But Australian 
 streams are liable to remain waterless during long periods and often 
 suddenly become raging torrents. In making a dam both conditions 
 must be studied. The site of the dam should be chosen below a 
 good-si/cd water hole, if possible, or where a considerable extent 
 of level country will give a good length of back water. 
 
 In Queensland, where the watercourses are frequently empty 
 for considerable periods and heavy floods suddenly occur, it is the 
 practice to construct the dam witli a hollow curve in the centre. 
 These dams arc faced with large stones, where they can be obtained, 
 and floods pass over them, often doing very little harm. I have 
 seen dams made in this way that had stood several very heavy floods 
 and still held good. 
 
 
Ax AUSTRALIAN SALTHUSH (A triplex scmibticcalntu ). 
 
 This saltbush was recommended by Baron von Mueller for 
 cultivation in the dry alkali country in America. It is worthy :i 
 trial in dry country in Australia. 
 
6*5 
 
 Sometimes the soil where a dam is made is not retentive, but 
 the puddling it receives from the cattle and sheep coming to drink 
 as the water recedes makes the dam perfectly watertight. If 
 possible sites where the soil is not retentive should be avoided, and 
 to make sure a trench should be cut into the subsoil along the course 
 of the proposed dam. Puddling the centre of the dam should not be 
 neglected, and for this purpose there is nothing better than 
 a team of bullocks driven backwards and forwards. If water can- 
 not be had to puddle the centre of the dam the clay may be dry 
 puddled by breaking it up as line as possible, and working it well 
 with the bullocks. 
 
 THE TANK. 
 
 The modern practice in Rivernia and central Australia is to 
 make large tanks. The early settlers in those localities fell into the 
 natural mistake that a tank which held an ample supply of water 
 during fair seasons would hold out during a severe drought. Often 
 instead of enlarging the tank to double or treble its original size, a 
 second small tank was made in the hope that the extra supply 
 would serve all requirements. Sheep farmers have found out by 
 bitter experience that when a long, hot and dry summer follows a 
 dry winter and spring, small tanks are not of the least use, that they 
 are certain to fail long before the dry season is over. 
 
 If it is necessary to examine the sub-soil well in making a dam 
 it is doubly so when a tank is to be excavated. Even when the 
 
 freatest care is exercised the result is at times a disappointment, 
 lany a sheep farmer in central Australia has found when excavat- 
 ing a large tank that he has gone through the clay and come upon 
 a drift, through which the water will run almost as fast as it enters 
 the tank in wet weather. 
 
 Though the tank is often the only way in which a store of 
 water can be conserved, it is nevertheless a wasteful mode of 
 watering stock. To my mind economising the water is of almost as 
 great importance as conserving it in the rirst instance. The sheep 
 going to a tank to drink naturally pollute the water, and as they 
 often go right into the tank much water is carried away in the wool 
 of the under part of the body. This water is lost, and it serves to 
 rot the wool that is saturated by it. 
 
 Mr. Thos. F. Gumming told me that on a station he once held 
 in central Australia he divided 16,000 sheep into two equal 
 portions, which were placed in adjacent paddocks. In one paddock 
 the sheep were watered from troughs pumped from tanks, and in 
 the other they had access to the tanks. At shearing time there was 
 a difference of 7 oz. of wool per head in favor of the sheep watered 
 at the troughs, while the water lasted much longer, and was much 
 cleaner than where the sheep drank at the tank. 
 
626 
 
 To CALCULATE CONTEXTS OF TANK. 
 An ordinary tank is a prismoid, its horizontal sections 
 rectangles. The volume of any prismoidal tank may be found by 
 the following rule : To the top area add the bottom area and four 
 times the middle area. Multiply the sum by the height one-sixth 
 of the product is the volume. 
 
 X.Ii. The easiest way to find four times the middle area is to 
 multiply the sum of the top and bottom lengths by the sum of the 
 top and bottom widths. 
 
 Example. A prismoidal tank is eight feet deep. The top 
 length is 120 feet, its bottom length 80 feet ; its top width is 100 feet, 
 its bottom width, 60 feet. Find its volume ? 
 
 120 X 100 =12,000 
 
 Sox 60= 4,800 
 
 200 x 160 =32,000 
 
 48,800 
 
 6 | 390,4 
 3 | 65,067 (nearly) 
 9 | 21,689 
 
 2,410 (nearly) 
 Answer. 2410 cubic yards (true to the nearest yard). 
 
 WELLS. 
 
 It is always advisable to test the country for well water. 
 Unfortunately much of the underground water in central Australia 
 is often salter than the sea, but brackish water is often obtained, 
 and on this sheep do extremely well. I have known sheep 
 thrive on water so full of salt and other minerals that 
 horses would not drink it though almost dying of thirst. 
 Where a well of drinkable water for stock can be struck it is a great 
 relief to the pastoralist. The tube wells us d in sinking for artesian 
 water in Queensland should be used, as this mode of sinking for 
 water is cheaper and more quickly performed than the ordinary 
 mode of well sinking. In some waters that is quite healthy 
 for sheep, there are chemicals that corrode iron pipes in a 
 very short time. In that case some mode of coating the metal 
 with a protective substance must be employed. I know a piece of 
 country in which the soil in low situations is full of such chemicals, 
 and the rabbit netting sunk in the ground rotted within twelve 
 months. A coating of coal-tar and kerosene, melted together, 
 proved an efficient protection both for wire netting and for the 
 pipes that were used for carrying the water to drinking places. 
 When the water in a tube well does not reach the surface a wind- 
 mill pump with a couple or more of 400 gallon tanks will furnish a 
 good supply of water for stock. 
 
627 
 
 IMPROVING THE PASTURE. 
 
 Australian sheep farmers seldom take much notice of the grasses 
 beyond noting those of which the stock are most fond. Such a 
 thing as endeavouring to cultivate the best of the native grasses was 
 never heard of until within the last half dozen years. Curiously 
 enough, the general opinion was that the native grasses could not be 
 cultivated. This is a great error ; the greatest number of our best 
 grasses lend themselves readily to cultivation, By watching the 
 time the plants shed their seeds, and reserving the land sown with 
 the seeds from stock, in order to let the young plants get 
 established, the pasture in a paddock may be greatly improved. 
 
 The native grasses of Australia are not so well known that one 
 can say which should be grown in each locality. The sheep farmer, 
 if he is an observant man, should be the best authority as to the 
 grasses to cultivate in his district. The evils of over-stocking are 
 seen in the deterioration of large areas of Queensland. The best 
 pasture plants are eaten out, and their places are taken by grasses 
 that the sheep will eat readily only when they are young, and will 
 not eat when dry until they are forced to it by starvation. 
 
 I have travelled over many hundreds of miles of fine country 
 in Queensland, in which nearly all the wholesome and nutritious 
 herbs and grasses have long sinct* disappeared, owing to being eaten 
 out by over-stocking. The country was covered with a coarse, poor 
 grass that when dry was no more fit to keep stock alive than so 
 much shavings. Lightly stocking and burning the country is being 
 practised to improve such pasture. 
 
 There are a great many native bushes on which sheep will 
 browse and thrive admirably. The best of these bushes are the 
 various forms of salt-bush, of which the large, or u old man," salt- 
 bush is the best known. Nearly all the forms of this plant are 
 worthy of cultivation, and no plants can be found that will with- 
 stand heat and drought better. The salt-bushes can be readily 
 cultivated from seed, and in a good season it is said they will 
 grow freely from cuttings. Blue bush, cotton bush, grey bush, 
 and many other bushes may be grown with advantage. The 
 growing of these bushes is of the greatest importance in districts 
 where the rainfall is scanty, and it takes a good many acres to 
 support a sheep. Where these native bushes form the principal 
 support of the sheep portions of the run must be given a periodical 
 rest, or what has happened in Rivernia will be repeated the 
 bushes will be destroyed. 
 
 In Riverina the salt and other bushes have been followed by 
 a good sward of grass, but in warmer and drier districts, where the 
 soil is not of a fertile description, it has been found that when the 
 bushes were destroyed there was scarcely anything left for the 
 sheep to eat. In such country it is useless to attempt to introduce 
 exotic grasses. Nothing will serve the purpose as well as the native 
 
628 
 
 plants, and once the latter are destroyed by close feeding, it will 
 take a considerable amount of time and trouble to re-stock the land 
 with them. 
 
 Of the introduced grasses the Johnson grass will stand heat 
 best, but to give a good return it requires a free, deep soil. Lucerne 
 will stand heat well, but to thrive, its roots must penetrate to mois- 
 ture. A free deep soil in which lime is plentiful is suitable to this 
 plant. In coastal country the buffalo grass and the various couch 
 grasses may answer. Buffalo grass has been used in Victoria on 
 sandy hills near the coast to prevent the strong prevailing winds 
 blowing the soil away, and it has answered the purpose admirably. 
 It is extremely doubtful if it would grow with anything like the 
 same vigour in a hot district with inferior soil and scanty rainfall. 
 
 The prickly pear thrives in the poorest and driest country. 
 Its leaves are succulent and provide both \vater and food for 
 stock, but the spines with which they are covered render 
 them worse than useless. Often in Queensland the stock 
 are driven by hunger to eat the leaves of the prickly pear, but they 
 generally die from their stomachs being lacerated by the spines 
 they swallow. If a practical mode of ridding the leaves of the 
 spines could be discovered, the prickly pear, instead of being a 
 curse, \vould prove a blessing to the pastoralists in the hot dry 
 regions of Australia. Many attempts have been made to accom- 
 plish this end, but as yet no plan has been hit upon to utilise this 
 fodder. 
 
 Mr. F. Turner in his work, Australian Grasses, mentions the 
 following as growing in the arid interior of the continent : 
 
 Silkyheads (Andropo^on bombycinus). Grows principally on the 
 plains of the interior. Will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry 
 weather. It produces a large quantity of seed and the herbage 
 becomes harsh when old, but it may serve as a standby for a bad 
 year. It may be recognised by the stem when crushed emitting an 
 aromatic perfume. The white woolly spikelets give this plant a 
 singular appearance. 
 
 Cottongrass (Panicnin Icucopha'iiui). A good pasture grass 
 noticed by the Elder exploring expedition in Western Australia. It 
 is easily distinguished by the spikelets being covered with long silky 
 purple hairs. A good pasture grass and easily cultivated. 
 
 Branched panic grass (Panic inn cjfiisniii). Grows all over 
 Australia. Makes considerable growth before developing ilower 
 panicles, which renders it a good grass to cultivate for hay. 
 
 Australian millet (Paniciiiii dfcompositum). This grass was 
 collected by the Elder expedition. The natives grind the seeds to 
 make a sort of cake. 
 
 Umbrella or spider grass (Cli Ion's acicnlaris). Grows throughout 
 the interior of the continent. A good pasture grass, growing on 
 sandy or light loamy soils. It seeds freely, and stock like it. The 
 famous Mitchell grasses of Queensland are regarded as the best 
 
629 
 
 pasture plants in northern Australia. Horses prefer hay made from 
 tin-so Brasses to any other. They should be preserved wherever 
 found growing, and increased as much as possible. 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 Where it is possible the runs should be fenced in, if only with 
 a ring fence The more the run is divided into paddocks the more 
 advantageously it can be worked. By dividing into paddocks parts 
 of the run may be given a spell, and this is a great help towards 
 preserving the best pasture. Where rabbits are plentiful there is 
 but one fence that is of any use, and that is rabbit-proof wire- 
 netting ij-inch mesh, sunk 6 inches in the ground. It is usual to 
 employ U-inch mesh, but if the netting is not very well made 
 young rabbits that can do for themselves will get through. I have 
 known this occur on many occasions. Longwools are notorious 
 breakers of bounds, indeed it is doubtful if a wire fenc^ can be con- 
 structed that will keep them in. The best of wire fences is one in 
 which the posts are set wide apart and between which two or three 
 laths or gauges, made of light battens or iron, are stapled to the 
 wires. This keeps the wires in place, and the gauges, being free of 
 the ground, permit the fence to give a little when a sheep comes 
 against it. Where the guages are used, the posts may be set 
 double the ordinary distance apart. Iron gauges are made for use 
 in such a fence, which are much valued. They are light of 
 carriage and hold the wires in position more securely than wooden 
 laths. 
 
 One of the best fences for enclosing longwool sheep that I 
 have seen was on the Yandilla estate, Queensland. It consisted of 
 a 2 ft. broad wire netting, i6-gauge wire and 4-in. mesh. The posts 
 were set 12 ft. apart and a wire was run along the top and another 
 along the bottom of the netting, which was set at 5 in. from the 
 ground on the lower edge. A plain wire above and a barbed wire 
 over all made it a perfectly safe cattle fence. This netting costs 
 about 7 per mile. Where top rails are preferred, and timber of a 
 sufficient size is somew r hat scarce, the plan patented by a Victorian 
 resident is worthy of adoption-. To save weakening a light post, 
 the tops of the posts on each side are smoothed with an adze and 
 the rails are htted one on one side and one on the other. 
 Holes are bored through all three and they are firmly bound 
 together diagonally with a stout wire, which is tightened with a 
 twitch. Light posts will answer for this purpose, and if the wire is 
 well tightened it is stronger than a mortice, as the wire acts as a 
 binder on the post and prevents it from splitting. In putting up 
 the rails they are fastened to the outside of one post and the inside 
 of the next. 
 
 Where it is deemed advisable to run a barbed wire along the 
 top of a line of posts, it is a good plan to fasten it in the following 
 manner. A small hole is bored with a brace and bit two or three 
 
630 
 
 inches below the top of 'the post in the centre. The barbed wire 
 is placed in position and strained, then small wires are passed 
 through the holes made in the posts and twisted round the barbed 
 wire, thus retaining it firmly in position. This plan is much to be 
 preferred to the old practice of stapling the wire to the top of the 
 post. 
 
 All descriptions ot log, chock and log, and brush fences are 
 merely makeshifts. They serve to keep merino sheep within bounds, 
 but are next to useless to retain longwools, and they do not last 
 long. Whatever fence be used the sheep should never be left with- 
 out supervision. They should be accustomed to the sight of men on 
 horseback and on foot. It is when going through a mob of sheep in 
 a large paddock that a good dog is found useful. Sheep left too 
 much to themselves are apt to become wild, and if disturbed by the 
 sudden appearance of a horseman or footman will run for miles. 
 With a dog they can be rounded up, gone among quietly, and left 
 standing in a mob. Good fences, though costing more than bad or 
 indifferent ones, are the cheapest in the end. The sheep do better 
 in well fenced paddocks than in badly fenced ones, as there is less 
 draughting to do. 
 
 BUSH FIRES. 
 
 When all vegetation is dried up to the condition of so 
 much shavings, as is but too frequently the condition of the 
 country towards the end of an Australian summer, bush tires often 
 do an immense amount of harm. In thinly grassed country there 
 is not only the loss of the fodder and the seed of the grasses, but 
 the plants' are greatly weakened, if not killed outright. In thickly 
 grassed countries a fire often does a deal of good by destroying the 
 germs of disease ; but where the grass is scanty a bush lire is the 
 very worst thing that can happen. If it is deemed advisable to 
 burn a paddock, the best plan is to do it after the lirst rains have 
 fallen in autumn, as there is less danger then of the roots being 
 killed than if the lire takes place in summer. 
 
 If the country will permit it, lire breaks should be made round 
 the run, taking in all wire fences. These breaks should be made as 
 soon as the grass will burn in summer. On the open count iy in 
 Victoria I found the night the best time to burn, as the progress 
 made, though slower than in the day time, was much more effectual. 
 Whether or no the burning of lirebreaks is possible, patches on dry 
 bunks should be burned early in the season. Should a great lire 
 occur these patches can be utilised as safe harbors of refuge for the 
 sheep. In settled country it is the custom to run ploughed furrows 
 round the fences and burn between, but this plan is not practicable 
 in back country. These furrows render the work of burning the 
 firebreaks more easily accomplished, and with fewer men than 
 where no furrows are used. A boundary firebreak should be at 
 least 80 yards wide, and with a strong gale of wind even that is not 
 a certain protection. 
 
For beating out or controlling a bush fire the old practice was to 
 use boughs of trees, but these had the inconvenient habit of giving 
 out just when they were most needed. Old bags fastened to a stout 
 6 ft. sapling were then tried, but they soon took fire. The best 
 implement, and the one now in general use on well managed pastoral 
 properties, is a piece of stout leather or bullock hide about 2ft. broad 
 and 3ft. long, securely fastened to a 6ft. pole. Sometimes the hide 
 is strengthened by a piece of hoop iron running for half way up the 
 centre from the end of the pole. The hide is fastened to the pole 
 thus : A cut is made with a saw for a few inches down the pole, and 
 the hide is inserted in this, the whole being securely fastened together 
 by two or three rivets. 
 
 SHKKP FO* HOME USE. 
 
 The sheep used for home consumption and rations are usually 
 the culls for age and inferior young sheep. The killing flock is 
 generally kept in a paddock near the steading, which on account of 
 its handiness is usually overstocked. The result is that the sheep 
 are generally in low condition, and it is often difficult to find among 
 them animals that are fit for killing. To half starve sheep intended 
 for home consumption is false economy ; they should, if possible, 
 have a chance to get into good order, if not to become fat. The 
 general practice is to run the sheep into the yard, catch as many 
 sheep as arc required, and kill them at once. It is a much better 
 plan to let the sheep starve for twelve hours at least before killing, 
 the meat will be the more wholesome and nutritious, besides 
 having a much better flavour. 
 
 The skins should be taken off carefully. The bad skinning of 
 Australian pelts causes them to be of less value than those from 
 any other country. Where it can be managed the skins should be 
 dried tinder cover, and to prevent the attacks of weevil, they should 
 be dressed with a mixture prepared in the following manner : 
 Mix 5 Ib. arsenic and 6 Ib. soda in 10 gallons of water, and 
 boil slowly for half an hour ; when th arsenic is dissolv d dilute 
 with twice the quantity of water. Apply with a brush to the fleshy 
 side as soon as possible after skinning. The skins should be 
 quite dry before being packed to send to market, and the 
 trotters and all offal should be removed. 
 
 YARDING, DRAUGHTING, &c. 
 
 Where a permanent flock is bred the less they are knocked 
 about in the yard the better it will be for them. Sheep can be 
 kept perfectly quiet by those in charge going among them on the 
 run without yarding. When it is necessary to yard the sheep, they 
 should be brought in quietly. On such occasions some shepherds 
 who own a dog are fond of showing off how well he can work. 
 This exhibition, it must be remembered, is at the cost of the sheep, 
 which are rushed along at a headlong pace, and crushed through 
 the gateway into the yard, at a saving of perhaps five minutes' time. 
 
6 3 2 
 
 I have owned a good sized flock, which was generally worked 
 without a dog, and on the Havilah estate, near Mudgee, I saw sheep 
 on mountain runs that never had a dog put on them. The 
 manager had a dislike to dogs, and would not permit a shepherd to 
 take one on the run. On this property I was much struck with the 
 quietness of the sheep as we drove through the paddocks. The 
 injudicious use of a nery, active sheep dog has on many occasions 
 caused the percentage of lambs to be a low one, by harrying the 
 ewes and causing them to slip their lambs. When ewes and lambs 
 are being put in the yard it is better to keep the dogs off and 
 dodge the mob in quietly. 
 
 />, 
 
 SHEEP DRAUGHTING 
 
 Much has been said about easy working yards, but my 
 experience is that good management will do better with very 
 indifferent yards than negligent management with yards constructed 
 on the most improved principle. A square receiving yard with a 
 
633 
 
 smaller one leading to the race is quite enough for the farmers 
 small Hock. From the race a couple of yards will be sufficient for 
 the fanner's purposes. An elaborate system of yards where the 
 sheep may be draughted into live or more lots, may be required on 
 large runs where much work is done among the sheep, but the 
 small Hock-owner has no occasion for such yards. 
 
 Kwes that are to lamb soon should not be run through the 
 draughting yard if it can be avoided. A framework should be 
 erected over the race and covered with sheets of bark, thatch, or 
 corrugated iron, to give some protection to those working among 
 the sheep. 
 
 THE DRAUGHTING YARD. 
 
 \Yhen it is considered desirable to erect a draughting yard it is well 
 to'have them planned so as to work easily, and tocostaslittleaspossible. 
 
 The draughting yards shown in the above sketch have been in 
 use for several years by a Victorian sheep breeder, and he recom- 
 mends them for owners of small flocks. The measurements are all 
 given in the plan, but they may be modified to suit local circum- 
 stances. The erection of these yards will require the following 
 material : 15 gates 6 ft. wide (except the draughting gate), 30 round 
 posts for corners and gates, 420 split rails, and 150 split posts. The 
 branding race may be shortened by omitting the one along the out- 
 side fence. 
 
 Sometimes the outside fences are made with wire instead of 
 rails, and in that case the posts may be lighter, but must be put 
 close together (say about 5ft. apart). Of course smooth wires must 
 be used. The following gauge might suit : The lower three wires 
 4 in. apart, and 4 in. from the ground, then two wires 5 in. apart, 
 and above that two other wires 6 in. apart. It is a good plan to 
 substitute boards instead of rails in the yard leading to the race, 
 and in the race itself. They can be made of ordinary hardwood 
 boards securely nailed on the inside of the posts. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 SHEARING. 
 
 On large pastoral properties there are always proper conveniences 
 for the shearing of the sheep. The owner of a small flock is often 
 placed at a disadvantage. He naturally thinks that it will not pay 
 him to erect a special building for the purpose to be used for two or 
 three weeks at the outside once a j^ear and remain idle for the rest 
 of the time and constantly in danger of fire. A building that will 
 serve as a barn and shed for vehicles and machinery may be easily 
 utilised as a shearing shed, all that is necessary being to clean it up 
 thoroughly before commencing to shear. Such buildings are now 
 coming into use on many Victorian farms. 
 
 I am a great believer in the shearing machine patented by Mr. 
 Wolseley, but few sheds on small sheepwalks are strong enough to 
 stand the strain of their use. In a few years time all the sheep in 
 Australia will be shorn by electric machines. I have seen one in 
 Melbourne which worked in a very satisfactory manner, much more 
 so than did the Wolseley machine for a considerable time after it 
 first came into use. With the electric shearer, any shanty can be 
 utilised, as there is no vibration, the power being conveyed to the 
 cutters by means of insulated wires twisted into a cord. 
 
 The power can be provided in a very easy way. The tread 
 power, which has lately come into so much favor with American 
 farmers, is the one for the purpose. To work this tread power what 
 can be better than a couple of heavy bullocks. I believe this tread 
 power requires only to be known to Australian farmers and pas- 
 toralists to come into general use. It is the cheapest, the most avail- 
 able, and the most effective power that can be applied for cutting 
 chaff, pumping water, cutting firewood, shearing the sheep, working 
 the separator, threshing, grinding and crushing grain, etc., and a 
 thousand and one other purposes. 
 
 In putting sheep under cover, no more should be kept in than 
 can be shorn by ten o'clock the next day. Sometimes in bad 
 weather the flock-owner is apt to crowd as many sheep under 
 cover as will last nearly all next day, but when newly shorn sheep 
 are turned out with empty bellies they are ill fitted to stand 
 exposure, and empty sheep are generally badly shorn. 
 
 Katly shearing is generally practised, as most sheep farmers 
 are anxious to ^et their clip to market as soon as possible. I have 
 seen threat mistakes made by early shearing in the capricious climate 
 of western Victoria. Shorn sheep exposed to one of the cold 
 storms and heavy rains that at times occur in spring, suffer great 
 hardship, and at times many deaths are the result. In shearing the 
 
635 
 
 sheep all double cuts by the shearer should be avoided. Where 
 an over-thickness of wool has been left on the skin at the first cut, 
 it is almost better to leave the wool on the sheep than take it off 
 with a second cut. Such short lengths of fibre as these second 
 cuts give are a detriment to the Heece, and when noticed by the 
 buyer are apt to cause a reduction in the value of the wool. 
 
 Cuts in the sheep's skin are frequent with careless shearers, 
 anxious only to make a tally. The old practice was to dress these 
 cuts with tar, but of late Little's dip has come into general use for 
 this purpose. Carbolic oil in the proportion of one to fifteen of 
 olive oil is sometimes used. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE FLEECE. 
 
 The fleece on being taken up from the shearing floor should be 
 kept well together and spread out on the wool table with the cut 
 end down. The belly should be taken off and thrown into a separate 
 receptacle with the skirtings. These are the lower portions of the 
 arms and thighs. Overskirting is a waste, as good wool is taken 
 from the fleece and put into the pieces, which sell at a lower price. 
 All discolored pieces and wool full of seeds should be removed 
 from the fleece and put with the bellies or the locks, according to 
 their condition. The locks are the heavily stained and very seedy 
 pieces of wool. All dags should be thrown into a manure heap. 
 On no account should they be put into the locks. It occasionally 
 happens from the effect of disease, or a very bad season, that some 
 of the wool has a weak spot in the fibre. This the person who 
 rolls up the fleece can readily tell by removing a small piece from 
 each fleece and trying its strength with the fingers. If there is a 
 decided break in the fibre all such fleeces should be put together, 
 and if a bale or bales of them are made they should be marked 
 " broken fleece." If there is less than a bale of these fleeces the 
 bale should be made up of bellies and pieces, and marked "broken 
 fleece and pieces." 
 
 To roll up the fleece, fold up the sides so as to leave it from 
 i^ to 2 ft. broad. Roll from the tail end, and it may be fastened 
 by thrusting the twisted neck into the body of the fleece. The 
 general usage is to tie with string, smooth white string being pre- 
 ferred, as it does not leave any fibres in the wool, but the tying may 
 be omitted if the fleece is carefully handled. Black and spotted 
 wool should be packed by itself. If it is in small quantity it may 
 be packed with pieces, and the bale marked to show the contents. 
 The wool from a well managed flock has a very attractive appear- 
 ance, while that from sheep that have done badly and been fre- 
 quently yarded is dull and not as well grown. Washing wool on 
 the sheep's back is now very seldom practised in Australia. Shearing 
 in the grease is a saving of time and money, and a great benefit to 
 the sheep. 
 
636 
 
 THE PRESS. 
 
 In the early days of sheep farming in Australia, the great 
 trouble in the back country was the wool press. A lever made of 
 the trunk of a good-sized tree was often used, and many thousands 
 of bales of wool have been pressed by such means. The agricul- 
 tural machinery firms in Sydney and Melbourne now turn out 
 excellent wool presses that are within the reach of the smallest 
 flock owner. They are strongly made, easily worked, and of suffi- 
 ciently light construction that their carriage is easily managed. 
 The screw is absent from these presses, which is a great advantage. 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 4 k 
 
 4! 
 
 >^ 
 
 ^ /Shearing 
 
 In most of the colonies there are regularly established wool 
 sales, at which representatives from the great European and 
 American wool firms are present. It is better for the owner of a 
 small or moderate sized flock to sell his wool at the nearest of thes e 
 
markets than to send it to Europe ; but, whatever plan he adopts, 
 lie should keep to it, as by changing he may hit a bad market at 
 both places. 
 
 WOOLSHKD, BARN AND SHED. 
 
 One of the most useful buildings I have seen to serve the pur- 
 poses of a woolshed, barn, vehicle she:l and store for all sorts of 
 materials required on a farm, is the one of which a sketch is given 
 opposite. It has been in use on a small property carrying about 5,000 
 sheep for many years, and has been found extremely useful for a 
 great variety of purposes. The main building is 20 ft. wide by 
 40 ft. long, and there are two skillions 10 ft. broad along two sides. 
 The divisions in the interior are made by hurdles which have two 
 small projections at each end, which lit into receptacles on the 
 posts (these are shown in the plan, but the post is inverted). The 
 hurdles are made 10 ft. long, and the posts at the catching pens are 
 that distance apart. When the shearing is over the hurdles are 
 removed and put away till next shearing. This leaves a wide 
 space, in which fencing- wire, timber, vehicles, sheepskins, and 
 many other articles may be safely stored and kept from the 
 weather. There is a wide entrance-door on to the batten yard at 
 the other side of the catching pens. This plan may be altered to 
 suit a smaller flock, and the material may be wood or iron. To 
 rill the catching pens small gates are made in the hurdles adjoining 
 to the middle battened yard. This shed was erected at moderate 
 cost ; indeed most of the work may be done by any man handy 
 with tools. An iron roof gives a good supply of water, which is 
 saved in large iron tanks. 
 
 EAR MARKING. 
 
 Formerly all ear marking was done with the knife, but the 
 machine made for the purpose is now in general use. The advan- 
 tages of using the machine are that it makes a clean and uniform 
 mark, and is quicker than the knife. The marks generally used are 
 a half circle, a V and a square, all cut out of the edge of the ear. 
 These marks may be used singly or double with a short space 
 between. The V mark may be cut doubly close together, and thus 
 forms what is called a W. Besides these marks there is the punch 
 hole, which is placed in the centre of the ear, and the swallow tail 
 at the tip of the ear, which is made with a larger V than the one 
 mentioned. There is also a square mark like a quarter taken out 
 at the tip. The slit is a bad mark, for if it is not deep the sides of 
 the cut may grow together again, and if it is sufficiently deep, one 
 side, or both sides, of the slit may droop, which gives the sheep's 
 head an ugly appearance. 
 
 All ear-marks should be registered ; this should be compulsory, 
 and what is described as the rogue's mark, i.e., the ear cut off close 
 to the head, should not be permitted under heavy penalties. The 
 ear-mark for age is a very simple matter. For this five positions 
 
638 
 
 are sufficient. As an illustration, say, the small half circular mark 
 is chosen (it is usually called " half-hapeny "). For the first year it 
 may be placed on the back of the near ear ; for the second year 
 on the back of the off ear ; for the third year on the front of the 
 near ear ; for the fourth year on the front of the off ear ; and for 
 the fifth year a double mark on the back of the near ear. The 
 mark for age can then go back to the first year's mark. This 
 virtually gives marks for six years, as there is no mistaking the 
 weaners for the old ewes. 
 
 Then comes the mark for the flock, which may be called the 
 owner's or station mark. The station or flock mark and the marks 
 for age should be in opposite ears to mark ewes from wethers. It 
 may consist of a square, round, or diamond punch-hole in the 
 centre of the ear. I have seen a Maltese cross punched out of the 
 body of the ear look very well. Punches of any pattern the owner 
 may fancy may be obtained with the ear-markers supplied by the 
 leading ironmongers. 
 
 There is an elaborate system of marking recommended for stud 
 sheep by which each individual sheep may be identified, but I have 
 never seen it in practice. The usual custom with stud stock is to 
 tattoo with Indian ink a number on the inside of one ear, and the 
 flock mark on the other. The metal loop having letter or mark 
 and number is often used with stud sheep, but never with a general 
 flock. 
 
 SHEEP BRANDING. 
 
 A perfect sheep brand one that can be clearly distinguish 
 and will yet do no harm to the wool has yet to be discovered. 
 The European manufacturers are loud in their complaints of the 
 mischief wrought to the weaving machinery by tar brands, and 
 strongly recommend their disuse. The substance sold for sheep 
 branding, known as " tattoo oil," is said to be much superior to 
 tar. It is not high priced, and it is mixed ready for use. Lamp 
 black and boiled oil are frequently used for sheep marking in the 
 proportion of I Ib of lamp black to three quarters of a gallon of 
 boiled oil. 
 
 Some years ago I saw in the Scientific American the following 
 recommended as a waterproof marking for sheep : " Shellac 
 2 oz., borax 2 oz., water 25 oz., gum arabic 2 oz., lamp black suffi- 
 cient. Boil the shellac and borax together in water till they are 
 dissolved and withdraw from the fire. When the solution has 
 become cold complete 25 oz. with water and add lamp black 
 enough to bring the preparation to suitable consistency. For red 
 marking substitute Venetian red ; for blue, ultramarine ; and for 
 green a mixture of ultramarine and yellow." This plan might be 
 used for stud sheep where it was desirable to have a distinct 
 brand. 
 
6 39 
 
 FIRE BRAND INC,. 
 
 This plan of marking sheep is not now commonly practised, 
 but with some studowners it is still employed. The brand consists 
 of sometimes ;i letter branded on the side of the face, but more 
 frequently it is one or more strokes on the side of the face or across 
 the nose. One well known brand is down the centre of the nose. 
 Fire brands should be carefully put on or they cause a great dis- 
 figurement. The usual plan is to put the sheep's neck into a fork, 
 made by sinking a forked branch of a tree to a convenient height 
 for the sheep to stand ; an auger hole is bored through both 
 branches of the fork and a peg run through to keep the sheep's 
 head firmly fixed during the operation. 
 
 IXK MARKING. 
 
 Where a small stud is kept it is a wise precaution to mark the 
 members of the flock with Indian ink. This is done in the following 
 way : A small die, with steel points forming the letter required, 
 can be bought in Melbourne and Sydney, and with this the inside 
 of the ear is punctured. As soon as the points are withdrawn Indian 
 ink, or a substance made for the purpose, is rubbed into the 
 punctures and a permanent mark is established. Besides the letter, 
 figures are marked in the same way. These figures may be the 
 individual number of the animal (this is done where a record of the 
 breeding of each animal is kept), or it may represent the year of 
 its birth. 
 
 DENTITION. 
 
 The age of sheep is determined by the incisor or front teeth. 
 At a month old a lamb has eight incisors or milk teeth, which are 
 temporary. At from ten to twelve months the centre pair of 
 incisors give place to two larger teeth, which are permanent. At 
 from fifteen to twenty months old the second pair of incisors are 
 replaced by permanent teeth. The third pair of milk teeth are 
 replaced by permanent teeth at about two years and three months, 
 and the fourth pair of permanent teeth begin to show at about 3^ years. 
 Though the age of sheep is generally taken from the teeth, it is by no 
 means an infallable guide, as the changes in the dentition are greatly 
 influenced by the nature of the country on which the sheep are 
 grazed. With a dry country and hard pasture the changes in the 
 dentition will be advanced, and where the pasture is of a succulent 
 nature they will be later. With sheep farmers, when the two 
 permanent teeth are well up the sheep is regarded as a yearling ; 
 with four permanent teeth fully grown he is regarded as a two- 
 year-old ; with six permanent teeth, a three-year-old ; and with 
 eight, a four-year-old. 
 
 The following diagram shows the relative positions of the 
 various pairs of permanent teeth in the order of their growth : 
 
640 
 
 i i are the central permanent incisors, or pincers ; 2 2 are the 
 second pair of pincers ; 3 3 are the third pair of pincers ; 4 4 are 
 the fourth pair of pincers, or corners. When the eight permanent 
 incisors are developed the sheep is said to be full-mouthed. After 
 the fourth year the teeth begin to give way, and the sheep is then 
 said to be broken-mouthed. With fair treatment sheep will last for 
 several years after their eight permanent teeth are fully grown, and 
 will hold their condition well ; indeed, it is often found that broken- 
 mouthed ewes when kept in good condition give the best lambs. 
 
 CUTTING THE LAMBS. 
 
 This is usually done when the lambs are about six weeks old, 
 but if the lambs are stout and healthy it may be done earlier in the 
 small flock with advantage. At an early age the lambs bleed less 
 and suffer less pain, consequently they are not likely to loose con- 
 dition as a result of the operation. The tail is generally cut off 
 about 2^ to 3 inches from the body. The knives should be very 
 sharp, and perfectly clean. Many a lamb has died from blood 
 poisoning through a dirty knife having been used in cutting its tail 
 off. The old plan of castrating the lambs was to cut the end of the 
 purse off, press out the testicles with the fingers, and draw them 
 away with the teeth. Many sheep farmers now-a-days prefer to 
 make a slit down the purse to the tip, just sufficiently long to per- 
 mit the testicles to be pressed out. Lambs cut this way are said to 
 heal more quickly than when the end of the scrotum is cut off, and 
 to present a better appearance when the butcher handles them as 
 fat wethers. 
 
 LAMBING. 
 
 Every effort must be made to reserve a paddock with good 
 feed for the lambing ewes. One that has plenty of shelter from 
 the prevailing winds is best adapted to the purpose. With large 
 flocks ot ewes, the best plan to adopt is to secure them from being 
 disturbed in any way, and then let them alone. Some owners of 
 small flocks draw off every day the ewes that give signs of being 
 about to lamb. This work must be done very gently and quietly 
 or there will be a loss of lambs. Sometimes young ewes with their 
 first lambs are inclined to run away from their lambs, and in this 
 case it is usual to confine the ewe in a small space, generally made 
 with four hurdles, until she allows the lamb to suck, after which 
 she may be put with the other ewes. When a lamb dies it is the 
 cu-tom, in small and stud flocks, to skin the lamb and put the skin 
 on a twin from another ewe. A very short confinement with the 
 lamb thus treated will make the ewe take to it. It requires a deal 
 of patience, close attention, and no mean amount of skill to manage 
 the breeding ewes in this way, but the percentage of lambs is 
 sometimes (in case of very severe weather) largely increased by it. 
 
 Where the locality is subject to severe storms at the time 
 for lambing, a few rough windbreaks or shelter sheds come in very 
 
SHEEP 
 INCISOR 
 
 TEM 
 
 => 5 
 
 PER 
 
 M O 
 
 A R S. 
 
 20-22 MTH 
 
 PER** 
 
 TEM 
 
 OP AT 
 
 1 MT* 
 
 TABLE OF DENTITION. 
 
 The above table of dentition was arranged by Mr. E. L. Stroud, 
 V.S., and published by Messrs. Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 
 and Co., London. On the left hand side are shown the temporary 
 incisors and on the right the permanent. The line of appearance 
 of the molars is shown underneath. 
 
642 
 
 useful. Merinos are excellent mothers, though at times a little 
 flighty over the first lamb. All the down breeds are good mothers 
 and the longvvools are also fairly good in this respect. At times a 
 ewe will hide her lamb, and in a bushy country they are sometimes 
 lost. A close supervision of the flock will prevent these losses 
 without knocking the sheep about by unnecessary interference. 
 
 Where cross-breeding is practised on merinos, lambing ewes 
 sometimes have a difficulty in giving birth to the lamb ; a little 
 assistance at such a time will save the lives of both lamb and ewe. 
 The large heads of the crossbred lambs (particularly where Lincoln 
 rams of the old large-headed type are used) annually kill a consider- 
 able number of ewes from difficulties at lambing time. Even where 
 no cross-breeding is employed, the ewe occasionally finds a diffi- 
 culty in giving birth to the lamb, owing to the head and sometimes 
 the shoulders of the lamb being large. A little assistance given at 
 the right moment, with gentleness, will save many a ewe's life. 
 
 In bringing the ewes and lambs up to the yards for lamb- 
 marking, a deal of trouble is often experienced if the work is not 
 gone about in the right way. The Hock should be gently brought 
 together and edged quietly towards the yard without using a dog. 
 Have a good wing of hurdles on one side. If there is any trouble 
 in getting the Hock to enter the yard, cut off a small lot and drive 
 into an inner yard. These will form a decoy to bring in the others. 
 Lambs that are excited by dogs and men shouting as they are 
 brought into the yard often become quite frantic, and will run till 
 they drop from exhaustion. A lamb will not recover from such 
 gallop for months. 
 
 STAGS (OR RAM STAGS). 
 
 Rams that are no longer wanted for use in the Hock, and f( 
 which a purchaser cannot be found, are a trouble if kept as rams, 
 and it seems a waste to destroy them. The usual plan is to castrate 
 them, and use them for food next season when in good condition, 
 or send them to market fat. The castration is performed in various 
 ways. Some sheep farmers merely use the knife, .and lose very 
 few. A rough edged table knife to rub the cord through by 
 scraping up and down is used to castrate horses, and should answer 
 well with rams. Some tie a string round the cord outside the 
 scrotum and above the testicles ; this is twitched very tight, and 
 kept in position by securely tying. By this means the testicles 
 gradually wither away. In other cases what is called blocking or 
 knocking is employed. The cord is placed between two blocks of 
 wood, and the to}-) one is struck heavily with a mallet. This destroys 
 the spermatic cord, and the testicles wither. Ham stags when 
 fattened make excellent mutton, though some people have a prejudice 
 against it. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 Throughout the greater portion of Australia sheep, particularly 
 in the newly settled districts, are singularly free from disease. 
 Indeed it would be safe to say that the sheep in Australia (with the 
 exception of the coastal districts) suffer from no ailment but such 
 as have been introduced into the country. The pioneer sheep 
 farmers in central Australia used to say that their sheep suffered 
 from no disease save starvation in a season of drought. It is a 
 proof of the healthy condition of our sheep that over the greater 
 portion of our island continent such a thing as a remedy for 
 disease in the sheep is almost unknown on the sheep walks. The 
 usual course on a run when a sheep is attacked by disease is to let 
 him take his chance. Where a number of sheep die from some 
 unknown cause, it is usually ascribed to poison plant. 
 
 It has been noticed, however, in the older settled districts that 
 the sheep are beginning to be attacked by a number of diseases 
 \\hich, until lately, were unknown in the land. Many of these 
 diseases have caused serious losses during seasons that have been 
 favorable to their development and dispersion. Some diseases 
 that are now established in the old settled districts are not amen- 
 able to treatment, while others yield to remedies but very slowly. 
 
 The pulse of the sheep at rest beats at the rate of from sixty 
 to eighty beats per minute. It is usually examined by placing the 
 hand on the left side, where the beating of the heart may be felt. 
 Any material deviation from the rate given may be taken as an 
 indication of disease. If rapid, hard and full, it is a symptom of 
 high fever or inflammation. If rapid, small and weak, it is an 
 indication of low fever, loss of blood and weakness. If slow, the 
 probabilities are that the trouble is in the brain ; if irregular, the 
 heart is probably affected. 
 
 The great point in attempting a cure is first to ascertain the 
 real nature of the disease, and not to rush to violent remedies on a 
 mere supposition. 
 
 When sheep die from some unknown cause a careful post- 
 mortem examination should be made, in order to locate the trouble. 
 In making this post-iiiorlciu examination the hands, should be free 
 from any cuts or wounds, or the operator may suffer seriously from 
 blood poisoning. It is well to have a supply of carbolic acid tr 
 apply in a strong solution to the hands, after being well washed 
 
644 
 
 Flockmasters have found salt licks extremely useful in keeping 
 their sheep healthy. At iirst rock salt was generally used for this 
 purpose, but of late Liverpool salt, sea salt, and salt from salt lakes 
 have come into use, and are generally preferred. In some cases 
 sulphate of iron and lime are added to the salt with great 
 advantage. I know of a flock of sheep in a decomposed granite 
 country (which is generally regarded as not healthy), which has 
 been kept in excellent health for many years through the sheep 
 being constantly supplied with a lick composed of the following : 
 Sulphate of iron, 6 Ib. ; lime, 6 Ib. ; crushed salt, i cwt. 
 The whole is thoroughly mixed, and supplied to the sheep 
 in troughs, which are protected from the rain by a small 
 roof. Many licks are used, but the one given has stood the test of 
 a long experience in doubtful country, and can therefore be confi- 
 dently recommended. Sheep should always have the opportunity 
 of taking salt. From the very earliest times salt has been regarded 
 by husbandmen as a great factor in keeping sheep and cattle 
 healthy ; therefore, it is advisable to keep sheep and cattle always 
 well supplied with salt. 
 
 FOOT ROT. 
 
 This disease is very common among merino sheep when kept 
 on a rich soil country with abundant pasture. Of old it was 
 common in the richer coastal districts of western Victoria, but that 
 part of the country has long since been given up to the longwool 
 breeds, which are not so susceptible to the disease. When the 
 sheep were shepherded it was common, but in Victoria it readily 
 yielded to treatment. A strong solution of bluestone is an excellent 
 remedy. When sheep were dipped in arsenic for scab it was 
 found that the dipping cured those sheep that were suffering from 
 foot rot. This led to the use of troughs to run the foot rot sheep 
 through a strong solution of arsenic. The strength used was about 
 \ oz. of arsenic to a gallon of water. Some sheep farmers use 
 double the quantity of arsenic. In treating the sheep for foot rot 
 it is necessary to pare away every portion of the diseased hoof, so 
 as to expose the disease thoroughly to the action of the remedy. 
 Sharp knives must be used to avoid wrenching the sheep's foot 
 and causing unnecessary pain to the animal. A little knowledge of 
 the anatomy of the sheep's foot is necessary to make good work ; 
 but tins is soon acquired by an intelligent man who wishes to learn. 
 Cutting the large vein of the toe must be carefully avoided, as the 
 bleeding is difficult to stop, and the slightest blow will cause it to 
 bieak out afresh. When sheep have been left with long hoofs till 
 the heat has hardened the horn they should be shortened by using 
 the powerful seccateurs made for the purpose, and sold in most of 
 the leading ironmongers 1 shops in Australia. 
 
 During the last ten years foot-rot has invaded Riverina, and in 
 that district, particularly on the rich lands bordering the river 
 Murray, it has proved very intractable. The ordinary remedies, 
 
6*5 
 
 such as Milestone ami arsenic, have failed to effect a cure 111 many 
 instance^. In Iviverina the disease ha> a^iimcd a much more 
 virulent shape than in the western district of Victoria. It frequent- 
 ly extends to the joints of the fetlock and in a very short time the 
 sheep becomes a complete wreck. 
 
 This form of foot-rot has been attributed to the Vermont 
 merinos, to whom its introduction into the country is ascribed by 
 some pastoralists. This I believe to be an error, for I have known 
 the very worst form of foot-rot in a Hock that had no Vermont 
 blood in their veins and had never been brought into contact with 
 Vermont sheep. In the country where this virulent form of foot- 
 rot has appeared the merinos are rapidly giving way to longwools 
 and crossbrecls, and much of the land is being cultivated for wheat- 
 growing on the share system. 
 
 A pastoralist in New South Wales has kept his sheep sound in 
 their feet by the use of the following dressing : I oz. arsenic to 
 each gallon of water, with a handful of salt to each gallon ; boil 
 four hours. When the sheep display symptoms of foot-rot they 
 are run through the mixture twice a week. A Victorian grazier 
 >ays he has found the following treatment very effective : Pass 
 the sheep through a trough 14 or 15 feet long and as many inches 
 wide with three or four inches of water in it, with which a small 
 quantity of lime has been mixed. The lime-water should not be 
 made so caustic as to harden the hoof or injure a healthy skin. It 
 can be used frequently. 
 
 A Vermont sheep farmer claims to have found a cure for foot- 
 rot. He dips his sheep's feet into kerosene and puts a pinch of 
 sulphur between the hoofs. One repetition of the treatment at the 
 end of two weeks, he claims, will effect a cure. 
 
 The trough for running sheep through can easily be made. It 
 should be about 14 inches broad, as many feet long, and about 10 
 inches deep. Sometimes planks or pieces of sheet iron are placed 
 on each side of the trough to save the splash. I believe I was the 
 hrst person in Victoria to use a trough for foot -rot, and not having 
 any planks at hand, I morticed out a straight tree trunk, which 
 answered the purpose well and was used for some time. Where 
 the sheep are liable to foot-rot, they should be run through the 
 trough directly they scald in the feet. Young lambs are often saved 
 from a bad attack of foot-rot by being run through directly they 
 show a scald in the feet. I think a half ounce of arsenic to the gallon 
 of water the best remedy. That foot-rot is contagious I am convinced, 
 as I have known it introduced to healthy flocks by bringing foot-rot 
 sheep on to the run. Unless the conditions of soil and climate are 
 suitable to the development of the disease, foot-rot will never give 
 much trouble. 
 
 FLUKE. 
 
 Also known as rot, liver-rot, and by other names, is a 
 parasitic disease caused by the presence in the bile ducts of the 
 
646 
 
 sheep's liver of a flat parasite, generally known as the fluke, the 
 Fasciola hepaiica of zoologists. It is shaped like a flounder, hence 
 its common name. It is of a light-brown color, changing some- 
 times to flesh-color, and ranges in si/e up to half an inch in length, 
 though specimens are sometimes found much larger. This disease 
 is known over the greater part of the earth's surface where sheep 
 are raised. In wet seasons it occasions very serious losses among 
 the European flocks. 
 
 The life history of this parasite is now fully known, consequently 
 measures may be taken to control it. As yet no means of destroying 
 the fluke in the sheep have been discovered. The fluke deposits 
 an immense number of eggs, as many as seven millions having been 
 obtained from the gall bladder of a single sheep. The eggs are 
 voided by the sheep, and under favourable circumstances (the 
 presence of moisture) they are hatched, and the larval flukes find a 
 host in small snails. Should this host not be forthcoming the larval 
 flukes die. On quitting the intermediate host the parasite, in 
 another intermediate stage, attaches itself to the stems of grass, 
 when it is taken up by the sheep, after which it bores through the 
 internal organs to the liver, where it develops into the mature 
 fluke. 
 
 In the case of fluke it is apparently useless to attempt a cure, 
 consequently the best thing to do is to adopt preventive measures. 
 These are draining marshy, low-lying lands, and if possible top 
 dressing with lime or salt, or both. These kill the small snails, and 
 thus cut off one link in the chain of changes the larval flukes undergo. 
 
 With most of the internal parasites that trouble the domestic 
 animals the parents die after laying their eggs, but the fluke is an 
 exception. I know of a case in point. A number of flukey sheep 
 were brought on to a property which, though containing several 
 nasty spots, was always free from fluke. The sheep were kept on 
 the place for four years, and experiments made showed that they 
 voided lluke eggs all that time. Owing probably to the marshy 
 land being almost a lime bed there were no intermediate hosts for 
 the larval fluke, and consequently they must have died, as sound 
 sheep brought into the place did not become flukey. This shows 
 the clanger of bringing flukey sheep into sound country, as there is 
 apparently no end to the mature flukes as long as the sheep lives. 
 
 Where the country is such that the larval flukes may develop, 
 great cure should be exercised in selecting the sheep that are 
 brought on to the place, as the flukes multiply with such nmazing 
 rapidity that one infected animal is sufficient to infest the run. 
 Various licks are recommended as preventives of lluke. Most of 
 them would improve the health of the sheep and might possibly 
 pr<>ve injurious to the fluke when first taken up with the grass. 
 One favorite lick isS Ib. sulphur to 100 Ib. Liverpool salt. The lick 
 described in another place, composed of lime, sulphate of iron and 
 salt, is excellent. Where the soil is at all favorable to the develop- 
 
6 47 
 
 ment of the larval iluke, one of these licks should be constantly 
 kept within reach of the sheep. 
 
 The symptoms of Iluke are easily recognised. The eyes lose 
 their brightness and the whites assume the hue of bad tallow. The 
 skin becomes moist and has a dull appearance, quite different to 
 the bright hue of a healthy skin, and the wool is easily detached 
 from it. As the disease progresses, dropsy sets in, and the sheep 
 dies almost in a state of rottenness. 
 
 Fluke is seldom, if ever, seen in 'the hot plains of central 
 Australia, and what is known as salt country is also free from it. 
 One of the best preventives of tluke is to burn the pastures every 
 now and again. This kills the snails that form the intermediate 
 host of the larval fluke. Heavy stocking greatly assists in spreading 
 the disease. 
 
 ANTHRAX. 
 
 Also known as carbuncular murrain and splenetic apoplexy 
 in England, is one of the most fatal of the diseases to which 
 the sheep are liable. Like the fluke, it has a very wide range and is 
 dreaded by sheep farmers all over the world. It is a blood disease, 
 and is caused by a microbe which is capable of leading an independ- 
 ent existence for years in the soil. It has the character of an acute 
 inflammatory fever and is communicated by contagion from one 
 animal to another. It thrives best in rich, deep soil, such as that 
 usually bordering the margins of rivers and creeks. Warm, rainy 
 weather is favorable to its developments. There are few, if any, 
 premonitory symptoms and it is difficult to say whether the animal 
 attacked is diseased or not until it is dead. 
 
 The symptoms usually noticed are, the animal is dull and lan- 
 guid, the back is arched, and shortly before death a bloody, slimy 
 matter is, in most instances, ejected from the nostrils and the anus. 
 The post iiior.'c'ii examination shows all the internal organs to be 
 discolored and almost decomposed. It is dangerous to make a post 
 mortem examination of a sheep that has died of anthrax if there 
 should be any cuts or sores on the hands. Anthrax is communicable 
 to human beings, the well known wool-sorter's disease being a form 
 of it. 
 
 Where anthrax is suspected as the cause of death in sheep, the 
 best plan is to burn the body as soon after death as possible. 
 Anthrax is seldom met with in sandy calcareous country, and frost at 
 once arrests its destructive tendency. There is no cure for sheep 
 attacked by anthrax, indeed, the first intimation the flock-master has 
 that the disease is in his sheep, is the finding of the dead animals, 
 usually the best conditioned ones in the flock. 
 
 Fortunately there is a safe and certain preventive of this fatal 
 disease, the discovery of which we owe to the great French 
 scientist, M. Pasteur. He discovered that the attenuated virus of 
 the disease gave immunity to the sheep, and annually many millions 
 of sheep are now inoculated in Europe. The inoculation of 
 
648 
 
 sheep with the attenuated virus of anthrax has been successfully 
 practised in New South Wales and Victoria since 1888. It gives 
 immunity to the animal, certainly for two years, and, it is generally 
 believed, for life. Inoculation with the virus of anthrax requires a 
 skilful operator, and the preparation of the virus is a matter the 
 sheep farmer cannot undertake. The inoculation of sheep in New 
 South Wales and Victoria is performed by experts at a charge of so 
 much per 1,000 head of sheep. 
 
 TICKS AND LICE. 
 
 Badly bred and badly managed flocks are a nuisance to all the 
 adjoining sheep farms, as such flocks are usually infected with ticks 
 and lice, which spread rapidly in every direction Though sheep 
 troubled with these pests can scarcely be described as diseased, 
 they nevertheless give the flock master almost as much trouble as 
 any of the diseases to which sheep are liable. The remedy is a 
 simple one, easily applied, and should be made compulsory. Many 
 dips for killing ticks and lice are put on the market, all of which 
 are probably effective, and some of the best known ones have been 
 specially recommended by the most careful sheep farmers in Aus- 
 tralia. The remedy for ticks and lice is to dip the sheep soon after 
 shearing in a dilution of some well known " dip." In the older 
 colonies small dips are made of iron suitable for the farmer's flock. 
 These dips can be obtained at a moderate cost, and are easily shifted 
 from place to place, which is a great advantage. 
 
 When a farmer cannot obtain one of these dips, he can readily 
 construct one that will serve his turn by making a framework of 
 hardwood and lining it with tongued and grooved inch pine boards. 
 The size is not material, but if it is to be a permanency, the dimen- 
 sions may be 2\ ft. broad, 10 ft. long, and 4 ft. deep at one end, 
 with it battened slope at the other end to allow the sheep to walk 
 out easily. This clip should be well puddled at the back. With a 
 small flock the half of a large cask can be utilised if the materials 
 to construct a permanent dip are wanting. In such a receptacle a 
 good many sheep can be got through in a day. Before dips were 
 made for curing scab, such means were employed for dressing the 
 diseased animals. A stout fiame about the size of a dining table 
 was covered with bullock hide, and on this the scabby sheep used 
 to be saturated with some scab-killing compound. Any means 
 that will rid the sheep of these troublesome pests is better than 
 waiting till a properly-constructed dip can be erected. 
 
 COAST DISEASE. 
 
 Over a considerable portion of the littoral of southern Australia 
 the sheep are subject to a disease which, for want of a better name, 
 is generally described as the " coast disease." As the districts liable 
 to this disease are limited, and generally not good growing country, 
 the nature of the disease has not attracted much attention. It is 
 the general opinion of those having any experience of coast disease 
 
649 
 
 that there is no cure for pasture animals attacked by it as long as 
 they remain in the coast country, but removal to a sound pasture 
 further inland almost invariably effects a cure. This disease is often 
 described as rickets, but the two complaints are dissimilar. 
 
 RICKETS. 
 
 The disease is more frequently seen in cattle than in sheep. It 
 is prevalent in some portions of the coast country where the soil is a 
 sandy loam that has in it scarcely any lime. The animals raised in 
 such country grow weak and stunted, their bones are extremely 
 brittle, and without strength, the slightest fall occasioning a fracture. 
 No stock should be bred on such country, and any animals kept on 
 it should have access to a lime lick. 
 
 FLIES. 
 
 The common-blow fly frequently causes much mischief by 
 depositing its eggs about the tails of sheep that have been scouring. 
 Unless the sheep are attended to at once the maggots soon effect so 
 much mischief that the animal dies. This trouble generally occurs 
 in autumn, when the growth of young grass causes a slight scour in 
 the sheep. It is much worse in Tasmania than in any part of the 
 mainland of Australia. The remedy is to clear away the soiled wool, 
 and rub in a strong solution of one of the ordinary dips. When a 
 sheep is struck by flies it makes sudden, short movements, and con- 
 stantly works its tail with a quick motion. 
 
 THE WORM. 
 
 Under this description are included all the worm-like internal 
 parasites that affect the sheep. There are in reality many forms of 
 these worms. There are at least three distinct forms of strongylus 
 that inhabit the lungs and air passages of sheep, and probably as 
 many inhabit the stomach and intestinal organs. The most common 
 of the worms inhabiting the air passages is the strongylus filar ia, a 
 white-colored worm which is found blocking up the air passages of 
 the bronchial tubes. The disease known in the old country as husk 
 in calves and lambs is occasioned by this worm. Its presence is 
 easily recognised by the attempts of the animal to dislodge them by 
 coughing. 
 
 The life history of these lung and stomach worms is not clearly 
 known, but that they produce an immense number of eggs is certain. 
 Though these eggs often contain living embryos while in the sheep 
 it is doubtful if they ever advance to maturity while they remain 
 there. It is supposed they are expelled from the sheep and undergo 
 some changes before they seek a host in the sheep. Scientists have 
 as yet discovered no remedy for this disease. The practice among 
 sheepowners has been to subject the infected sheep to the fumes of 
 certain drugs in a close building. This is said to have had a bene- 
 ficial effect in many instances, but the slightest mismanagement often 
 causes serious losses by the sheep being choked by the fumes. The 
 introduction of drugs into the windpipe by means of a specially made 
 
650 
 
 syringe is also said to have given good results, but the operation is 
 not as easily performed as one would think at first sight, and often 
 the windpipe is not punctured and the operation is consequently 
 useless. The latest scientific statement in reference to a remedy for 
 lung worm is that injection into the windpipe or, indeed, any other 
 form of treatment, may be looked upon as nearly useless! The 
 embryos of the worm have been found alive in a portion of lung 
 which had been kept for several hours in a strong solution of corrosive 
 sublimate. It is doubted that any drug which could be introduced 
 would kill these worms, even if it killed the sheep. Top dressing of 
 lime and salt, sufficient draining to prevent the formation of marshy 
 spots, is recommended, but probably the best remedy is to remove 
 the sheep to a different pasture. 
 
 Stomach and intestinal worms are usually found in country that 
 is infested with lung worms. The most prominent symptom is 
 scouring, accompanied by loss of appetite and wasting. Abnormal 
 thirst is often shown, and a strong tendency to lick sand or earth. 
 These worms, like those of the lungs, are more severe on lambs than 
 on older sheep. In a worm infested country, when a season favourable 
 to their development occurs, the losses of lambs, or rather weaners, 
 are very heavy. In such seasons the worms are not confined to the 
 rich soil and heavily grassed districts, which are known to be 
 " wormy," but are spread over the soundest and healthiest districts. 
 Such a season occurred about ten years ago in i portion of Victoria, 
 and healthy, lightly grassed plains, on which the sheep never knew 
 disease, were affected, and considerable losses among the weaners 
 occurred. As many of the flocks affected were permanent ones, the 
 sheep of which never left the place till they left it for good, and no 
 fresh sheep were introduced, it rs difficult to account for the rapid spread 
 of the disease. As in the case of the lung worm, veterinarv science has 
 not yet discovered a remedy for this disease. Turpentine has given 
 the hint its action is not to be depended on, though repeated doses 
 are said to have a good effect by killing the young worms. Lysol (a 
 watery solution of tar oil) is regarded as likely to prove the best 
 agent for the destruction of these parasites of the sheep. In the 
 present state of our knowledge, prevention, in the way suggested 
 for lung worms, is about all that can be done, though there are in 
 Australia, in America, and in Britain many so-called cures for the 
 disease. The advice given by those veterinary surgeons who have 
 caret til I y studied the subject, to keep up the strength of the young 
 stock by good feeding and changing them from old, low-lying 
 pastures to newer and higher ones, is, doubtless, the best that can 
 be given. Some years ago, in a neighboring colony, in a district 
 that was badly infected with worms, an experiment was tried 
 by the manager of a large Hock of high-class sheep. On weaning 
 the lambs, instead of putting the young sheep on the pasture, he 
 put them on turnips which he had grown for the purpose. Instead 
 of taking the worm, as was usually the case on that property, the 
 
65- 
 
 young sheep throve remarkably well and came into the shed as 
 two-tooths fully as large as ordinary four-tooths. It was generally 
 believed in the district that there must be some principle in the 
 turnip that gave the weaners immunity from the disease, but it is 
 much more probable that the food gave the sheep sufficient strength 
 to resisyt it. The cultivation of the land may have the effect of 
 destroying the larval worms. The sheep farmer should, if possible, 
 avoid bringing any sheep infected with worms on to his run, and 
 in this lies the advantage of breeding up the Hock from thoroughly 
 healthy originals and drawing the same from Hocks that are known 
 to be sound. I give the following remedies that have been tried 
 and recommended by Australian pastoralists. 
 
 On the Jimbour estate, salt and chloride of potassium, in the 
 proportion of ten of the former to one of the latter, is said to have 
 given relief. 
 
 An American remedy is, a tablespoonful of turpentine in four 
 times as much oil. Of this mixture a tablespoonful is a dose for a 
 sheep. 
 
 The remedy generally used in Queensland some years ago, 
 when the worm was very bad, was i oz. arsenic, I oz. washing 
 soda, i oz. carbonate of soda, boiled in two quarts of water for an 
 hour and kept well stirred. Add ten gallons of cold water, and of 
 the mixture a gill is a dose for a grown sheep. This remedy was 
 strongly recommended, but I fancy many of the lambs died from it. 
 
 A Victorian remedy is, i quart of turpentine and n quarts of 
 milk, well mixed. Of this mixture 3 oz. is a dose. It must be kept 
 well stirred or the turpentine will separate from the milk. 
 
 Running turpentine along the back from the withers to the 
 rump is said to kill the internal worms, but it is a very severe 
 remedy. 
 
 SCAB. 
 
 This is a skin disease caused by a minute insect, which is very 
 difficult to distinguish without the aid of a powerful magnify. ng 
 glass. The.-^e insects multiply in warm, moist weather, when there 
 is a rush of green grass. The disease has not been seen in Aus- 
 tralian Hocks for many years, and as all imported sheep are care- 
 fully examined there is not much danger of its being again intro- 
 duced into our flocks. The old idea that scab was generated by 
 low conditioned sheep bjing exposed to severe weather without 
 sufficient food has long since been exploded. The insect (Acanis) 
 must be present, or the shetp will never take scab. 
 
 Arsenic was used as a cure in the propoition of from j to ^ oz. 
 to the gillon of water. It killed the scab insect, but it occasionally 
 k lied a good many of the sheep, particularly when asuclcU n change 
 from warm to cold wet weather occurred immediately after dipping. 
 Some of the dips for tick are used for scab in countries where it 
 still exists, and they are said to be very effective. Tobacco is a 
 safe and effective cm e in the proportion of i Ib cf tobacco to 8 
 
65* 
 
 gallons of water. The strong, coarse, " knock-me-do\vn " tobacco 
 grown formerly in Victoria and Tasmania, was a go 3d cure for scab, 
 but it has not been seen in these colonies for many years. 
 
 HYDATIDS. 
 
 This disease is known in almost every country where sheep are 
 raised. It is caused by the larval state of a species of tape worm 
 (Tun a ccliinococciis) infesting the dog and wolf. It is not frequently 
 met with, fortunately, as it is difficult to treat, a cure being rarely 
 effected. The mature parasite is about ^ to ^ of an inch long. It 
 reproduces itself by ova, which dogs intestecl with the tapeworm 
 are continually throwing off in the faeces. This ova will float in 
 the air, and if it settles in water may be taken up by sheep when 
 drinking. 
 
 When an animal swallows the ova of the tapeworm the .walls 
 that enclose it are broken down and minute embryos of a spherical 
 shape are set free. These rind their way into the blood vessels and 
 are carried to various organs, principally the liver, lungs, and brain. 
 Here they become encysted that is, surrounded by a sac formed of 
 the tissues of the host. The fluid in this sac is of a milky hue, and 
 in the centre is a membrane surrounding a central granular mass. 
 This disease is communicable to human beings principally through 
 the drinking water. Well-cooked mutton is quite safe. The cure 
 for human beings affected with hydatids is to tap the sac and draw 
 off the contents, but this remedy is seldom, if ever, employed with 
 sheep. The number of sheep that die of this disease is not large, 
 but it may be said to be ever present in some part or other of the 
 country. 
 
 TKRMS USED BY SHEEP FARMERS. 
 
 Lamb. A sheep is called a lamb until it is weaned from 
 mother. 
 
 \Vctincr. This term is used to describe young sheep j 
 weaned. 
 
 nugget. The term hogget is applied to wethers and ewes till 
 they arc shorn as two- tooths, though some people apply the term 
 for a few months longer. Ewes and wether hoggets off the shears 
 are often spoken of. For the ages above this see " Dentition." 
 
 \Vclhcr. A male sheep castrated when a lamb. 
 
 Hnikcn mo/////. A term used to describe sheep whose 
 pennant-iit incisors have decayed. 
 
 /'//// month. A term applied to a sheep that has its full com- 
 plement of eight permanent incisors fully developed. See 
 " Dentition." 
 
 Stores are sheep, both male and female, in low condition, 
 generally purchased for fattening for the market. 
 
 Cull is a sheep rejected from the breeding flock for old age, 
 or some defect of form or fleece. 
 
653 
 
 Comeback. Tliis term is applied to a sheep raised from a cross- 
 bred ewe from a ram of one of the original breeds. It is sometimes 
 described as a Lincoln comeback or a merino comeback. 
 
 CiwshreJ. Sheep bred from two distinct varieties, such as 
 merino and any of the longwool breeds, and merino and any of the 
 down breeds. 
 
 Slag, or nun slag, is a ram emasculated after being used as a 
 sire. 
 
 Yolk. The natural grease or oily matter in the wool of sheep. 
 
 Black lip. This is the formation of the yolk into a hard black 
 spot on the outer edge of the fibres of wool. 
 
 Staple. The length of the wool fibre. A long staple of merino 
 wool may reach 5 inches, a short one be just over ij inches. 
 
 Combing wool is merino wool that is sufficiently long in the 
 fibre to be worked by the combing machine. Anything over 
 i [ inches is now called combing wool. Formerly it was required 
 to be longer. 
 
 Chilling wool is any merino wool that is under ij inches in 
 length of fibre. 
 
 " I\cinps are white hairs seen in badly bred merino wool. 
 These are 'objectionable, as they do not take the dye like true wool, 
 and their presence reduces the value of the wool per Ib. 
 
 Lock. This term is applied to the way the wool grows on the 
 sheep's body. Thus, the Lincoln wool has a heavy blunt lock. 
 Small pointed locks are not liked by sheep farmers. Such fleeces 
 do not weigh well. 
 
 Locks. The stained wool and coarse pieces sometimes growing 
 low down on the thighs of merino sheep; in fact, all dirty coarse or 
 badly seeded parts of the fleece are termed locks. 
 
 Pieces. These are the parts of the fleece not sufficiently coarse, 
 stained or seedy as to go with the locks, and yet not good enough to 
 go with the fleece. 
 
 Break in wool. This is a weak spot in the fibre caused by 
 deficient growth during a period of illness, starvation, or exposure 
 to very severe storms. Where the break occurs the wool is much 
 weaker than elsewhere. 
 
 Dags. This term is applied to the lumps of manure formed on 
 the wool under the sheep's tail, owing to the animal having scoured 
 through a rush of young grass or other cause. Longwools are apt 
 to have dags. 
 
 PREPARING WOOL, HIDES, ETC., FOR MARKET. 
 The following directions for preparing wool, hides, sheep skins, 
 furred skins, etc., for market, have been compiled by Messrs. Connor, 
 Doherty and Durack, Limited : 
 
654 
 
 Wool. After separating the stained pieces and locks, the 
 fleeces should be skirted well (especially if the bellies are burry) 
 and then rolled tightly and pressed into bales. The pieces, bellies, 
 stained pieces, and locks may then be baled separately, or if there 
 is not sufficient of either to be packed in bales, sacks may be used. 
 On no account should fleeces be tied with string. 
 
 Sheepskins. Immediately after being taken off, the skins should 
 be hung out lengthways on wires or rails (wool side down), if 
 possible under trees or other shade, until dry ; the trotters should 
 then be cut off, and the skins painted with anti-weevil composition. 
 They may then be stored in a dry place until sufficient have 
 accumulated to make a consignment. On no account should skins 
 be allowed to hang out exposed to the weather after they are once 
 dry. 
 
 Hides. When flaying, i.e., skinning the beast, care should be 
 taken that the hide is not cut or scored with the knife, as this takes 
 off, at the least, a third of the value. The head of the beast should 
 not be skinned, as that portion of the hide is of no value. As soon 
 as flayed the hide should be spread out under shade and well salted ; 
 after a day or two the blood should be drained off, and -the hide 
 rolled up with the hair side out, and plenty of salt inside. When 
 rolled the hide may be tied with binding twine, but on no account 
 should wire be used. Calf skins should be treated in the same 
 manner. 
 
 I\tin(i oo skins should be pegged out in the shade (all shanks, 
 scalps, and tails cut off closely). After drying the skins should be 
 painted with anti-weevil composition and packed quite flat in 
 bundles. Care should be taken that each skin is thoroughly dry 
 before being packed. 
 
 Opossum skins. When the body is cold strip off the skin, 
 leaving the tail on, and peg out as squarely as possible. When dry 
 paint with anti-weevil composition, and pack flat, fur to fur. 
 Opossums should be trapped or snared, as shooting them or 
 hunting them with dogs destroys the fur. The proper time for 
 opossum catching is from May to end of August, as during that 
 time the fur, which constitutes the value, is thicker and 
 better. 
 
 for anti-weevil composition. Take six Ibs. arsenic and 
 rive Ibs. common washing soda. Dissolve the soda in ten gallons of 
 water in a copper or boiler. When dissolved add the arsenic and 
 boil until the hitter is thoroughly dissolved. To every gallon of this 
 preparation add three gallons of cold water ; mix thoroughly and 
 apply to the flesh side of the skin with a whitewash or other suitable 
 brush. As this preparation is extremely poisonous, care should be 
 taken to keep it where children or animals cannot get access to 
 it. 
 
655 
 
 All consignments sent to market should be distinctly branded 
 or marked (stencil plates should be used for branding wool, and 
 labels for skins, hides, etc.) and each consignment should be fully 
 advised by letter to the consignees. 
 
PART V. 
 
 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 <xj AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 SOILS AND MANURES. 
 
 PART V. of the SETTLER'S GUIDE AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK 
 is devoted to a description of the various kinds of soils, and of the 
 science and practice of manuring. Every effort has been made by 
 the author to keep the work as free from technicalities and scientific 
 names, and to write in such a style as to make his observations 
 readily understood. It is, however, a very difficult matter, well 
 nigh impossible, to treat a scientific subject properly and fully with- 
 out using scientific terms, but it is to be hoped that the readers of 
 the GUIDE will profit by the knowledge conveyed in these pages, 
 and when they arj in doubt upon any particular point, or desire 
 further information, they have only to apply to the Bureau of 
 Agriculture and it will be freely accorded. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 BY S. S. DOUGALL, F.I.C., AGRICULTURAL CHEMIST TO THE 
 BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Earth, or soil, acts as the holder or conveyor of nourishment 
 necessary to the growth of plants, and also gives support to their 
 roots in enabling them to maintain a position best adapted to their 
 growth. 
 
 Soils are the results of the disintegration, weathering, or 
 denudation of rocks. The forces that are concerned in the 
 formation of soils are both of a physical and a chemical nature. 
 The alternate action of heat and cold on rocks produces expansion 
 and contraction, creating small cracks and fissures which, by the 
 further actio i of water, are enlarged, and small fragments of the 
 rock are consequently disengaged. This action may go on until large 
 pieces of the rock are disengaged, which, in their downward course, 
 grind away part of the surface of he rock, which goes to make up 
 the soil. The water not only acts mechanically, but also chemically. 
 AU rocks contain something in their mineral composition that is 
 liable to chemical decomposition by the action of oxygen and 
 carbonic acid. The rain falling to the earth takes up oxygen and 
 carbonic acid from the atmosphere. The oxygen acting on the 
 sulphides oxidizes them into sulphates, which are dissolved in the 
 water and carried away, leaving the rock a porous mass which 
 eventually is broken up into fragments. 
 
 Carbonic acid exerts a greater action on the rocks than oxygen, 
 even the hardest granite crumbling under its agency. It converts 
 the alkalies potash and soda- and alkaline earths lime and 
 magnesia into carbonates and bi-carbonates, which, being soluble 
 in water, are carried away in solution with the separated silica, 
 leaving, in the case of a felspathic rock, a deposit of kaolin. The 
 rain falling on these decomposed rocks carries away small particles 
 which are deposited on the lower levels, or in the nearest stream 
 or river, to be again deposited at some distance, or finally carried 
 out to sea. 
 
 Soils are also formed /// loco by the weathering or disintegra- 
 tion of the surface of rocks which underlie the soil. Being com- 
 posed of particles of the rock from which they are derived they are 
 precisely of the same nature, or very little modified. When the 
 rock under the soil is a shale or slate, a clay soil will be found 
 on the surface ; sandy when overlying a sandstone rock ; calcarerous 
 when overlying limestone ; and overlying granite a soil composed 
 of clay and sand, rich in potash, and modified in its other mineral 
 constituents, according to the nature of the granite it is derived 
 
6 59 
 
 from. From the trap rocks is derived a rich, fertile soil, well pro- 
 portioned in clay, sand, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and rich in 
 potash. With a knowledge of the rocks which went to form a soil, 
 we are in a position to say whether it is likely to be a soil that will 
 grow any particular crop. The soils derived from rocks of the 
 same age are the same in character in one part of the world as in 
 another. 
 
 Geologists divide the rocks into two classes stratified and 
 uustratiiied. This division is quite suitable to the requirements of 
 the agriculturist. The unstratiiied rocks are called chrystalline or 
 igneous rocks, and for agricultural purposes may be divided into 
 two classes granite and trap rocks. The stratified or sedimentary 
 rocks cover the greater portion of the earth's surface, and go to 
 form the greater part of the soils. They lie over each other in hori- 
 zontal layers, like the leaves of a book when laid on its side, and 
 always in a definite position, no matter in what part of the world 
 they are found. 
 
 Granite consists of quartz, felspar and mica in varying propor- 
 tions, and when hornblende replaces the mica it is called a syenite. 
 The fertility of a granite soil is governed by the felspar. It is 
 principally the felspar that goes to make a line soil, and its fertility 
 will greatly depend on whether the felsite is a potash or magnesia 
 felsite. Granites generally form mountain ridges. The rains wash 
 out the line felsite clay or kaolin, carrying the clay down into the 
 low flats, forming a cold, impervious, clayey soil, and leaving only 
 the barren quartz on the mountain side, more especially on the side 
 exposed to the prevailing wind and rain, while on the other side 
 may be a comparatively fertile slope, not having been denuded of 
 its line clay. It is evident that a granite soil to be fertile must lie 
 over a granite, and be derived from a granite containing a potash 
 felsite. 
 
 The trap rocks consist of felspar, hornblende, or augite, and 
 comprise basalt and the greenstones generally. The felspar and 
 hornblende in the trap rocks are both reduced in the weathering 
 to form a soil. By a glance at the composition of these two sub- 
 stances it will be quite evident why trap rocks produce some of the 
 most fertile soils : 
 
 
 
 
 Felspar. 
 
 Hornblende. 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 
 60-00 
 
 52 (JO 
 
 Alumina ... 
 
 
 
 18-00 
 
 J2'00 
 
 Potash and soda 
 
 
 
 17-00 
 
 Trace 
 
 Lime 
 
 
 
 Trace 
 
 iO'OO 
 
 Magnesia ... 
 
 
 
 
 I T ' 00 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 
 
 
 10-50 
 
 Oxide of magnesia 
 
 
 
 
 'So 
 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 . lOO'OO 
 
66o 
 
 Such a soil must naturally be rich. It also shows how a trap rock 
 soil is very little benefited by an application of lime, except on first 
 breaking it up into arable land. The rain having washed the lime 
 down into the soil, it is brought up again by continual ploughing. 
 
 I have said that the stratitied rocks lie over each other in hori- 
 zontal layers. It might be supposed that only the later layers of 
 the sedimentary rocks would be exposed on the surface of the 
 earth. However, the upheavals that have taken place from time to 
 time have tilted up extensi e ridges of the lower rocks and exposed 
 them on the surface. Also the denudation of the upper strata have 
 exposed large tracts of the older strata, forming a variety of soils. 
 Of these soils, where one rincls a soil produced from the new or old 
 red sandstone, or the millstone grits, it is almost always naturally 
 productive. When the soils from the different strata intermingle 
 there is generally produced a productive soil, even though each of 
 the strata from which it is composed is individually of a poor 
 nature. 
 
 Thus the intermingling of a sandy and calcareous soil wi 
 generally produce a good barley soil, and when a clay and lim< 
 stone mix there is generally produced a soil good for growing 
 wheat. 
 
 Soils are generally uniform in their mineral constitution in tl 
 same district ; but it not infrequently happens that a great d 
 ence occurs within a very short distance. This is accounted fc 
 by some physical characteristic of the land, or the manner in whi< 
 one rock lies on another. The following sketch will explain 
 some extent how the different soils are formed, and how there m: 
 be a variation within a comparatively short distance : 
 
 
 A i> an unstratificd rock ; I is a I i me- tone ; 2, .1 sandstone ; and 3 a slate. 
 
 Supposing that the points A and B are some miles apart, it is 
 quite evident that there will be a diversity of soils between these 
 points. liv the denudation that has taken place on I, and to 
 greater extent on 2, an undulation is caused which has exposed 
 at I) and C, and the soils at C and I) will be similar. Th 
 on the rise- on 3 up to A will be different to C and 1) ; i 
 and 2 will be clilieient to either of these; there will still 
 be a different soil at the place where i and 2 intermix. 
 Further, it" we say that i, j, and 3 in themselves are compara- 
 tively poor soils, it will generally be found that where i and 2 mix, 
 
 
 
66 1 
 
 ami at C and I), the soils are fairly good. Thus, by a knowledge of 
 the underlying rocks, \vc can judge of the fertility of the soil. Yet 
 this knowledge is not without its disturbing elements, as in the 
 case of rocks which are cove-red by alluvial deposits that may have 
 been carried from some distance. These cases are tew, and at any 
 rate ihe soil generally contains a large proportion of the rock it 
 overlies, or those in close proximity to it. On the coast line there 
 are to be found some place's where a deposit of arenaceous sand 
 has taken place, where the soil has no relation to the underlying 
 rocks. These deposits of sand are carried by the winds from the 
 sea shore inland, and deposited in greater quantities in some places 
 than in others, owing to some physical contour of the land. But 
 these do not disturb the general conclusions of judging the fertility 
 of the soils by the rocks they are formed from. 
 
 There is another method of judging the value of soils and 
 their adaptibility to certain crops, which I may call that of natural 
 ^election. It is a well-known fact that certain plants are only found 
 growing in certain soils, but these selections are modified by 
 climatic influences. The selection may be extended to more than 
 one class of soil, owing probably to these soils containing some 
 element of food conducive to the growth of the plant, but generally 
 other plants are found growing with it that point to an alteration in 
 the nature of the soil from that in which it is generally found. 
 
 The following is taken from Mr. A. Despeissis', M.R.A.C., 
 flamibook of Horticulture and Viticulture, tirst edition : 
 
 <4 In the ironstone gravel soils are to be found the following 
 trees giving indications -of soils of various degrees of fertility. 
 Underneath the ironstone gravel soil is to be found a clay at various 
 depths, which is generally indicated by the growth of the following 
 trees: (iravelly ironstone is indicated by jarrah, but where there is a 
 certain depth of brown loam the jarrah is associated with grass 
 trees or blackboys. Pockets of deep loam amongst the ironstone 
 gravel are indicated by red gum trees, and wherever jarrah, red 
 gum and blackboys grow together and attain large proportions, there 
 the soil is c rtain to be deep, well-drained, and fertile. Pipe-clay 
 is revealed by the presence of white gum trees. White gum alone 
 is an indication of the predominance of pipe-clay, or of a cold 
 retentive clay and gritty sand soil. Small blackboys growing 
 amongst white gums are evidence of the presence of this stratum 
 of loam on the surface, Jarrah and white gum growing together 
 are indicativ of a mixture of ironstone gravel and pipe-clay. 
 Flooded gums are often associated with blackboys alongside brooks 
 and on alluvial soils bordering water courses, and mark out fertile 
 strips of land rich in potash. In the south-west district the yate 
 tree grows on such soil. Chocolate loam, sometimes of great 
 depth, varying in texture from a heavy loam, is characterised 
 by a greater or smaller admixture of the York gum tree, 
 to the wattle or jam tree. Such land marks splendid corn 
 
662 
 
 land, and is generally found on the slopes of the undulating 
 country which constitutes its home. On the flats the 
 soil is often of a lighter character, there the wattle or jam bush 
 predominates. A lighter loam still is found on the river banks, and 
 is generally overgrown with the above named trees, in company 
 with the banksia and at times with the sheoak. The chocolate 
 loam, or wattle and jam, or York gum land, is considered one of the 
 best balanced in the elements of plant food in the south-west 
 district of this colony. Fields not long cleared and well cultivated, 
 yield in average seasons from 1 6 to 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, 
 and from one and a half to two tons of hay. Rich patches of land 
 occur in this country, and are found where the manna gum tree 
 grows." 
 
 LIGHT COLORED LOAM AND DECOMPOSED GRANITE. 
 Vast areas of land extend beyond the jam country from the 
 Midland railway line in an eastward direction towards Meckering, 
 covered mostly with salmon bark gum tree, with which is associated 
 the gimlet wood or fluted gum tree. By ringbarking, the soil is 
 easily brought under cultivation. The soil consists of a dun colored 
 loam, rich in potash. A corn growing area. 
 
 SANDY SOILS. 
 
 This country supports shrubs of different growth, such 
 banksia and, in places where it is not deep, either white or red gui 
 with, at times, blackboys, and near the coast the willow myrtle or 
 peppermint tree, and on the limestone coast ranges east of the 
 Darling ranges, the tooart. Where limestone or a loam sub-soil 
 underlays the sand at a shallow depth, there vines and stone fruit 
 trees grow with great luxuriance. 
 
 While these conclusions are correct in the main part, they are 
 not to be taken in any way as po-itive. In fact, so far as the white 
 gums are concerned, the analyses of soils I have made lately where 
 the white gum tree was the only or principal timber, are the richest 
 in potash, with the exception of X<>. cS (sec analyses, page o()S). 
 They are not only to be found on clay soils, but also on calcareous 
 clays, where the limestone and clay juncture with each other, and 
 which will be general y found to be rich in potash, and good land 
 for wheat. From the analyses of soils the white gums and morrell 
 gums would seem to indicate a soil rich in potash. I have only 
 ^ivcMi a lew of the analyses of soils w.iich I have made, but they 
 point to the jarrah and rcdgum soils as poor in potash. It would 
 be rash to come to any definite conclusion from the few analyses 
 I have made up to the present, that is, few when we consider the 
 extent and variety of soils thai are to be found in this colony. 
 With a motv extended series of analyses of the soils, together with 
 analyses of the ashes of the indigenous trees of the colony, we shall 
 have much more li.^ht thrown on the subject, which will enable us 
 to come to more definite conclusions as to what soils we are to 
 
663 
 
 expect from the indications given by the varieties of trees that 
 grow on the land. 
 
 Soils are divided into two parts, the surface soil, which is the 
 most tortile, and composed of the liner parts of the s il, and the 
 subsoil, which may be composed of similar substances to the surface, 
 or it may be a coarse gravelly sand or even a stiff clay. . 
 
 Soils are mainly composed of four constituents, clay, sand, lime 
 and organic matter, and generally derive their name from which- 
 ever of these constituents predominates. There is a good deal of 
 vagueness in the terms applied to soils by different persons. They 
 are variously called heavy, light, stiff, cold, damp, sandy, clayey, 
 peaty, calcareous, or loamy, none of these terms meaning anything 
 definite. Professor Johnstone gives the following classifications : 
 Soil, not peaty, that contains no more than 10 per cent, of clay is 
 called a sandy soil ; 10 to 40 per cent., a sandy loam ; 40 to 70 per 
 cent., a loamy soil ; 70 to 85 percent., a clay loam ; and 85 to 95 per 
 cent., a strong clay. 
 
 The fertility of a soil depends mostly on its chemical, physical 
 and biological properties. 
 
 ABSORBTION OF WATER. 
 
 This is a very important property of the soil. Much depends, 
 for its fertility, on its power to absorb moisture, to take in 
 and retain water that may fall on it in the form of rain. This 
 depends greatly on the constitution of the soil, and also on the 
 fineness of its particles. Sandy soils possess this power in the 
 lowest degree, then clay, limestone, and humus in their order. 
 Schiibler gives the following powers of different soils to absorb 
 water : 
 
 PER CENT. OF WATER ABSORBED BY 100 PARTS OF EARTH. 
 
 Silicious sand ... ... 25 
 
 Calcareous sand ... ... 29 
 
 Gypsum 27 
 
 Sandy clay ... ... ... 40 
 
 Strong clay 50 j Arable soil 52 
 
 Fine calcareous earth ... 85 Garden earth ... ... 89 
 
 Humus ... ... ... 190 
 
 It is necessary that the soil should hold sufficient \vater for the 
 nourishment of the plants, as they require water in order to 
 assimilate their food. 
 
 The capillary action of a soil depends greatly on the fineness 
 of the particles. The finer the particles, up to a certain degree, the 
 more water is the soil enabled to draw from the deep sub-soil for 
 the benefit of the plants, hence the necessity of a good tilth. 
 
 THE RETENTIVE POWER OF SOILS. 
 
 This power is very much allied to that of the power of 
 absorbtion. As the rain falls only at intervals in some places, as in 
 this colony, the periods between the showers of rain being often of 
 
66 4 
 
 long duration, it is necessary that the soil should be able to retain 
 a sufficiency of moisture to enable the plant to take up an adequate 
 supply of food in order to attain maturity. It has been shown 
 that silicious sand has the lowest power of absorbtion, and 
 consequently the lowest power of retention, and that humus has the 
 highest power of retention. Hence the great benefit of green 
 manuring a sandy soil, which means the addition of a certain 
 amount of organic matter, or humus. It is also evident that drain- 
 age is of the utmost necessity in clay and peaty soils. Too much 
 moisture in a soil is just as bad, if not worse, than too little. 
 Maerker gives the effect of different proportions of water in the soil 
 upon the growth of summer rape as follows : 
 
 
 Produce (Six plants in each case). 
 
 Water in soil in per cent of 
 
 
 , 
 
 total water-holding capacity. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Weight of Plants (air dried). 
 
 
 Pods. 
 
 
 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Chaff. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 IO 
 
 43 
 
 1'4 
 
 2-8 
 
 I '4 
 
 5'6 
 
 20 
 
 6r 
 
 2'4 
 
 4'4 
 
 2-0 97 
 
 4" 
 
 142 
 
 6-9 
 
 10-4 
 
 67 
 
 24-0 
 
 60 
 
 97 
 
 4'3 
 
 8-1 
 
 4'4 
 
 16-8 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 3'9 
 
 7'3 
 
 vo 
 
 15*1 
 
 IOO 
 
 19 
 
 0-3 
 
 2'0 
 
 O'O 
 
 2'I 
 
 It will be seen that from 40 to 80 per cent, is the amount of 
 water a soil can hold in the best proportions. When less or more 
 the results are not so favorable, as it affects the plant growth in 
 every part. When too much water is in the soil it becomes cold, 
 and a free circulation of air, absolutely necessary to healthy growth, 
 is prevented. A dry soil develops the plant quicker than a damp 
 one. 
 
 The amount of evaporation that takes place in any soil is 
 gre iter when under cultivation than when bare. It also depends on 
 the openness of the soil. An open soil does not lose water so 
 quickly as a close compact one, owing to the capillary power being 
 
 The a Idition of clay to sandy soils greatly increases their 
 retentive powers. On the other hand, clayey and peaty soils are 
 more liable to contract when dried than sand or limestone. 
 The result of this shrinking of clay and peat is to compress the 
 roots of the plants and form such a hard compact mass that air is 
 not allowed to enter into the soil. Sand does not contract on 
 drying. When sand is mixed with clay it keeps it in a porous 
 state, so that the air can always pass through it. 
 
665 
 
 Soils have the power of absorbing moisture from the air when 
 not expired to a hot sun, as at night time. This is a matter of the 
 highest importance in a hot climate, and the value of a soil is 
 greatly dependent on its power of absorbing and retaining moisture. 
 The more power it has of absorbing and retaining water, the more 
 hygroscopic will be the soil. Peat will absorb in one night one 
 twelfth of its weight in moisture, clay one-thirtieth of its weight, 
 while sand absorbs none, or, at most, a mere trace. It will thus be 
 seen that the absorbing, retentive, and hygroscopic powers of a 
 soil are directly dependent on the amount of organic matter or clay 
 that enters into its composition, and that the power can be increased 
 by the judicious addition of clay and organic matter to a sandy soil. 
 In a hot climate, such as we have in this colony, these various 
 powers of a soil necessary to their profitable cultivation should be 
 maintained at their best and improved as far as possible where they 
 are deiicient. The physical properties of a soil are just as impor- 
 tant as the chemical properties for keeping a soil in a fertile state. 
 
 \Ve have seen that clayey and peaty soils contract when they 
 dry, and do not allow of the passage of oxygen and other gases 
 necessary for the plant growth. In the wet state they are so satur- 
 ated with stagnant water that oxygen cannot enter them, hence the 
 great necessity for drainage in these soils, which also prevents 
 sourness of the land, and enables them to absorb oxygen, carbonic 
 acid and ammonia in the form of gases. 
 
 THE ABSORBTIOX OF GASES BY SOILS. 
 
 Soils have the power of absorbing gases from the air, both 
 direct and from rain, which takes up oxygen, carbonic acid and 
 ammonia in its passage through the air to the earth. The soil also 
 receives carbonic acid from the decomposition of organic matter in 
 the earth, and in larger proportions than from the atmosphere. 
 The atmosphere H pr.ncipally composed of oxygen and nitrogen, 
 both of which gases aie absorbed by the soil, more especially 
 oxygen, for which it makes a greater demand than for nitrogen. 
 To enable the soil to receive sufficient of these gases it is necessary 
 that it should be open so as to allow of the free access of air ; this 
 is accomplished by tillage and drainage. It is a well known fact, 
 first proven by de Sansaure, that plants absorb oxygen directly 
 through their roots. The amount any plant absorbs varies at 
 different periods of its growth, and if not supplied freely at that 
 time the growth of the plant is delayed or stopped altogether. 
 
 When seeds are germinating they require a good supply of 
 oxygen to enable them to sprout vigorously, and the young plants 
 require a plentiful supply, as they have not the strength or roots to 
 stretch out in search of supplies at a distance. Hence the great 
 necessity of a good seed bed, and not burying the seed too deep 
 in the soil. The soil absorbs nitrogen from the atmosphere, 
 
666 
 
 although not in such large quantities as oxygen ; yet it does absorb 
 it, more especially when it is sown with leguminous plants. The 
 method by which the plant absorbs the nitrogen from the soil was 
 firstly clearly denned by Schloesing and Muntz, who showed that 
 it was through the agency of micro-organisms. Carbonic acid and 
 ammonia are partly obtained from the atmosphere being carried 
 into the soil by rain. Soils absorb ammonia direct from the 
 atmosphere, but damp soil? have a greater power of absorbing 
 ammonia than dry soils. Soils greatly differ in their powers of absorb- 
 ing gases. Soils that are rich in organic matter absorb gases to a 
 much greater extent than those poor in organic matter. 
 
 It will now be seen that the improvement of a soil in any one of 
 its physical aspects has also the power of improving it in that of 
 others. The addition of sand and lime to a clayey soil, in conjunc- 
 tion with drainage, improves it ; while the addition of lime and 
 clay, along with drainage, to a peaty soil improves it and brings it 
 within cultivation. 
 
 THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 
 
 We have stated that soils are composed principally of sand r 
 clay, lime and vegetable, or organic, matter. They contain, besides 
 these principal constituents, several others in smaller proportions, 
 such as oxides of iron, alumina, potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric 
 acid, chlorine and sulphuric acid. 
 
 The first group of constituents, with the exception of vegetable 
 matter, acts mostly as a support to the plant, enabling it to maintain 
 itself in an upright position. The second group, with vegetable 
 matter and lime, supplies food to the growing plants. The combined 
 action of both groups of constituents is that of holder, or fixer, 
 of the plant food, as well as the medium whereby the chemical 
 changes take place that are necessary for the proper preparation of 
 the food of the plants. The principal elements of the soil that 
 enter into the plant food are nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid, 
 and the-u- are most likely to be deficient in the soil, or in a state in 
 wh eh they are inert, or not immediately available to the plant. 
 Lime, magnesia and other elements of plant food, with the exception 
 of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid, are generally to be found 
 in soils in sufficient quantities for the requirements of a crop. 
 
 The sufficiency or deficiency of the three principal constituents 
 of plant food, in a state lit for the plant to absorb them within the 
 time required for its growth, will generally measure the fertility or 
 barrenness of a soil, so far as its chemical constituents are concerned. 
 The climate, as well as the physical state of a soil, has a great deal 
 to do with the fertility of any soil. 
 
 The following analyses of some soils of Scotland, Kngland, and 
 rn Australia will give some idea <>! the chemical Constitution 
 of soils. The late Professor T. Anderson gave the following result 
 of analyses : 
 
 
66 7 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 Soil 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 Silica 
 
 74'5529 
 
 82-5874 
 
 61-1954 
 
 61-6358 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 
 5*1730 
 
 .V4820 
 
 4-8700 
 
 6-2303 
 
 Alumina 
 
 6-9350 
 
 5-3250 
 
 14-0400 
 
 14-2470 
 
 Lime 
 
 I'22()o 
 
 9392 
 
 8300 
 
 r2756 
 
 Magnesia ... 
 
 ro827 
 
 8366 
 
 I'0200 
 
 r-3938 
 
 1'ol.ish 
 
 '3544 
 
 1687 
 
 2-8001 
 
 2-1761 
 
 Soda 
 
 '4335 
 
 0649 
 
 1-4392 
 
 1-0450 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 '0443 
 
 0970 
 
 091 r 
 
 0396 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 4300 
 
 1970 
 
 2400 
 
 2680 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Trace 
 
 Trace 
 
 0098 
 
 0200 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 10-1981 
 
 ^SSS 
 
 8-5508 
 
 6-8270 
 
 Water 
 
 2-6840 
 
 1-7670 
 
 2-7000 
 
 4-5750 
 
 No. i is a soil on the sandstone of the coal measure under the brow 
 of the Corstorphine Hill, Midlothian. No. 2 is a soil from the Carse 
 of Gowrie, Perthshire. Both of these soils are wheat soils and very 
 rich in potash, especially No. 2. 
 
 The following are the results of some analyses of soils from 
 different parts of England : 
 
 No. i is a sandy soil from Staffordshire ; No. 2 is a clay soil 
 from Cambridgeshire ; No. 3 is a loam soil from Kent (a hop soil) ; 
 No. 4 is a chalk soil from Norfolk ; No. 5 is a peaty soil from 
 Devonshire. 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 * Organic matter and water 
 
 2-82 
 
 7'2I 
 
 5'07 
 
 3'i3 
 
 64-66 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 Alumina 
 
 92 
 88 
 
 577 
 
 445 
 
 363 
 
 3 '5 1 
 
 ['52 
 
 1-63 
 
 } I3-96 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 18 
 
 2-26 
 
 1-68 
 
 28-84 
 
 1-80 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 12 
 
 79 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 "* 
 
 Potash 
 
 07 
 
 76 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 
 Soda 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 oi 
 
 II 
 
 98 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 io 
 
 'IS 
 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 oi 
 
 io 
 
 14 
 
 II 
 
 
 Insoluble silica 
 
 94-84 
 
 78-44 
 
 85-I4 
 
 63-97 
 
 18-60 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 100'OC 
 
 * Containing nitrogen ... 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 2-47 
 
 Equal to ammonia 
 
 'IS 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 2-99 
 
 The following are analyses that I have made recently of some 
 soils from different parts of Western Australia : 
 
668 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 ' 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 M< 'Mure 
 * Organic mailer 
 Insoluble silica 
 Soluble silica 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Oxide of iron and 
 alumina ... 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Potash 
 
 8286 
 3*4449 
 90*3924 
 
 1312 
 
 0332 
 
 47908 
 4 1 60 
 0310 
 
 1-6684 
 
 S'^ 
 
 88-1200 
 
 2744 
 
 0599 
 
 6- 1081 
 
 8000 
 0979 
 
 2-3950 
 3'9044 
 717496 
 1024 
 
 0447 
 
 4-6512 
 16-9080 
 
 1117 
 
 2'OOO() 
 5-6829 
 
 <S2 7(140 
 
 1681 
 035 
 
 9-1721 
 6966 
 1134 
 
 i -9560 
 
 5-4387 
 78-5160 
 1360 
 '0652 
 
 13-2028 
 
 roioo 
 ' 1 394 
 
 7 '"540 
 
 71-2040 
 1000 
 
 i (460 
 
 Io-o52O 
 o,s8o 
 0982 
 
 * Containing nitrogen ... 
 Equal to ammonia 
 
 0275 
 0334 
 
 '"435 
 0576 
 
 0442 
 0537 
 
 042 
 
 051 
 
 084 
 
 102 
 
 1018 
 2329 
 
 Xo. i, from Midland railway, 183 miles, York gum and scrub 
 country ; Xo. 2, from Midland railway, 183 miles, morrel gum, 
 3 feet over limestone ; Xo. 3, from Midland railway, 183 miles, 
 sub-soil from Xo. 2 ; Xo. 4, from Armadale, slope of hill, white 
 gum chieHy ; Xo. 5, from Armadale, slope of hill, white gum 
 chiefly ; Xo. 6, from Armadale, alluvial soil, flooded gum, ti-tree, 
 bracken, reeds. 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 i i 
 
 12 
 
 Moisture 
 
 [-7820 
 
 1-7120 
 
 5 1 60 
 
 roi6o 
 
 5000 
 
 
 : " ( )i -anic matter 
 
 475 
 
 6-1444 
 
 6-8040 
 
 4-2240 
 
 1-0040 
 
 1 '9040 
 
 Insoluble silica ... 
 
 72*8360 
 
 85-4200 
 
 89-4750 
 
 90-6250 
 
 
 93-2OOO 
 
 Soluble silica 
 
 2800 
 
 2900 
 
 0700 
 
 2ooo 
 
 1790 
 
 15oo 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 1445 
 
 <,0, ,<> 
 
 o}21 
 
 0322 
 
 0071 
 
 0307 
 
 Oxide of iron and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 alumina 
 
 16-5035 
 
 5-0254 
 
 2-6779 
 
 3-6078 
 
 2-423 i 
 
 2-3803 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 3160 
 
 6280 
 
 9200 
 
 735 
 
 1-1400 
 
 9403 
 
 Pota-h 
 
 1356 
 
 0238 
 
 0267 
 
 0433 
 
 0578 
 
 
 * c ;';;';' i " i ''K" it ; 
 
 006 
 
 006 
 
 no 
 
 070 
 
 042 
 
 '"7" 
 
 Kqual to ammonia 
 
 008 
 
 oio 
 
 '44 
 
 085 
 
 
 085 
 
 No. 7, from Mooraloo district, mahogany ; Xo. 8, from 
 Mooraloo district, white gum ; Xo. g, trom Coolup, near 
 river, red gum and jarrah ; \<>. 10, from four miles inland from 
 
 ilton, red gum, paper-bark, and peppermint; Xo. 11, from 
 Moorauoppiu, -and plain ; Xo. u, from Mooranoppin, salmon gum. 
 
 It will In- seen from the analyses that soils contain some pro- 
 portion of all the element-, that enter into the plant food. In the 
 analyses of the ^>ils of this colony the magnesia and sulphuric acid 
 
 
66 9 
 
 were not determined, although they were present in Miiall quantities. 
 Good t'ertile soils in Kurope contain from 'i to '43 per cent, of phos- 
 phoric aeid, and from -i to '2 per cent, of potash. These soils are 
 more liable to be depleted of their phosphoric acid than their potash. 
 In the soils of this colony the potash appears to be less in quantity 
 than the phosphoric acid ; except in such places where the white 
 gum and morrell gum are found growing, there the potash is from 
 one to three times the amount of the phosphoric acid. It will also 
 be noted that where the iron, alumina and potash are in large propor- 
 tions in these soils, the lime decreases. No. 3 might appear to be an 
 exception, but it is not, it is a limestone subsoil which has had some 
 of the potash from No. 2 washed into it. That the lime should be 
 low when the potash is high, and the potash high when the lime 
 decreases, will appear natural, when we consider the composition of 
 the rocks that the soils are formed from. The soils are chieily made 
 up from the granite or the trap rocks, or a mixture of both. Granites 
 are mainly composed of quart/ and felspar. The soil from granite 
 will depend for its fertility on the class of felspar the granite con- 
 tains ; whether it is a potash felspar (orthoclase), a soda felspar 
 (albite) or a magnesia felspar (oligoclase). 
 
 The late Professor Anderson gives the following analyses of 
 these felspars : 
 
 
 Orthoclase.. 
 
 Albite. 
 
 Oligoclase. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ! 
 
 2 
 
 T 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 65-72 
 
 65-00 
 
 67-99 
 
 68-23 
 
 627O 
 
 63-5i 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 18-64 
 
 I9-6l 
 
 18-30 
 
 23-80 
 
 23-09 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 
 trace 
 
 "83 
 
 70 
 
 I'Ol 
 
 62 
 
 none 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 trace 
 
 13 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 Lime 
 
 '34 
 
 1-23 
 
 66 
 
 I'26 
 
 4'6o 
 
 2-44 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 
 1-03 
 
 none 
 
 51 
 
 02 
 
 77 
 
 Potash 
 
 14-02 
 
 9-12 
 
 none 
 
 2'53 
 
 1-05 
 
 2-19 
 
 Soda 
 
 1-25 
 
 3'49 
 
 iria 
 
 7-99 
 
 8-00 
 
 9'37 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 'lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 The trap rocks are composed of felspar and hornblende. 
 Sometimes augite replaces the hornblende. No matter which of 
 these is in combination with the felsite, it will be seen from the 
 following analyses that a soil made from the decomposition of such 
 a rock would naturally be a complete and fertile soil, so far as its 
 mineral constituents are concerned. 
 
670 
 
 
 
 
 
 Felspar. 
 
 Hornblende. 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 
 
 65" 5 
 
 52-0 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 
 
 18-5 
 
 I2'0 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 trace 
 
 10-5 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 '5 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 IO'O 
 
 Magnesia ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 15-0 
 
 Potash and soda 
 
 
 
 
 
 16-0 
 
 trace 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 I OO'O 
 
 It would appear as if in a soil made from the disintegration of 
 a trap rock the potash would be found in greater proportions than 
 the lime, but it is not so, for the reason that, in the process of 
 denudation, the potash is carried away in larger proportions, by the 
 action of water and carbonic acid, either to a lower depth than the 
 soil, or into w r ater courses, where it is lost to the soil. 
 
 It will be quite evident from the above analysis that it will be 
 very seldom found that lime will benefit to any great extent soils 
 made from the disintegration of trap rocks after they have been 
 brought into cultivation. That is what has been found in practice. 
 
 These soils derive a certain amount of phosphoric acid from 
 the rocks that they are formed from, and it is less easily washed 
 out of the soil than potash or lime, being more insoluble and not so 
 easily acted upon by carbonic acid. The granites, including 
 syenite, gneiss, and trachyte contain from -2 to 1-5 per cent, of 
 phosphoric acid. Trap rocks and red sandstone from '5 to 1*5 per 
 cent, of phosphoric acid. Limestones and marl from 1*2 to 3*5 per 
 cent. 
 
 \Ye have seen how soils obtain their potash and phosphoric 
 acid. The analysis of soils that I have given show the amount of 
 these plant foods. It is not only necessary to know the amount, 
 but also what is available. 
 
 A soil containing *i per cent, of potash or phosphoric acid will 
 contain from 3,500 to 3,800 Ibs. per acre in a soil 12 inches deep. 
 Yet that soil maybe barren to a crop owing to the potash or phos- 
 phoric acid not being in a soluble enough state for the plant to ab- 
 sorb it in the time that it requires to mature in the soil. These 
 analysis show potential power in the soil. Although we cannot 
 imitate the action of the plants on the fertilisers, as we do not fully 
 understand the process at the present time, we can approximate it 
 so closely by treating the soil with very dilute acid that the results of 
 such an analysis are correct for all practical purposes. Such an 
 analysis is sometimes called a fertility analysis. The field analysis is 
 probably the best for practical purposes, and will be treated with 
 further on. It must not be understood that I place no value on these 
 analyses ; on the contrary, I place a high value on them with regard to 
 
 
671 
 
 the application of manures. The amount of those plant foods that 
 arc soluble in water is very small. Potash is more soluble than phos- 
 phoric acid, the amount of potash that is soluble in a soil varying 
 from 'oor to '010 per cent. Suppose the soil to be cropped con- 
 tains *ooi per cent of potash, soluble and immediately available, 
 and the total potash amounted to 'I per cent., or 3,500 Ibs. per acre 
 of 12 inch soil, then the available potash is only 35lbs. per acre for 
 the same depth. If no potash were added, and the soil cropped 
 with mangels, you could not get a full crop, as that would require 
 the soil to give up about 180 Ibs. of potash. Although the soil con- 
 tained 3,^00 Ibs. of potash, and a full crop required only 180 Ibs. per 
 acre, there would be either no crop or a very poor one, as the 35 
 Ibs. of potash would be so diluted, being spread over so much soil, 
 that the plants would not obtain enough nourishment to maintain 
 their growth. Or if a crop of potatoes were planted in that soil 
 the same thing would happen. A full crop of 6 tons would take 
 76 IDS. of potash from the soil. 
 
 The potash in the soil is brought into an available state by 
 various agencies, such as the action of water and carbonic acid. 
 Gypsum also acts on the insoluble potash compounds and frees the 
 potash. Tillage has a great influence in liberating the constituents 
 of the soil by breaking it up and exposing new surfaces to the 
 action of water and carbonic acid, as well as to the action of the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere. There are other influences at work 
 which increase the fertility of a soil, such as the earth worms, but 
 these will be treated more fully in dealing with the biology of the 
 soil. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, like the potash, must be in an available state 
 and in sufficient quantities for the requirements of the plants. 
 Phosphates are very insoluble in water, and plants cannot assimi- 
 late solid mineral matter. It must be dissolved in water before the 
 plant can take it up into its system. The plants have a power in 
 their roots of dissolving phosphates by the action of the acids they 
 contain acting on the phosphates and dissolving the phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 For this to take place the phosphates must be within the reach 
 of the roots. As the acids that are exuded from the roots are not 
 very strong in their action, for them to have full power the phos- 
 phates should be in a fine state in the soil. Inorganic salts, sul- 
 phates and nitrates, especially the nitrates, have the power, to 
 some extent, of decomposing natural phosphates, but natural humic 
 compounds, in the state they occur in arable soils or peaty earth, 
 do not decompose natural phosphates. The humoid products of 
 the decomposition of farmyard manure have scarcely any effect on 
 natural phosphates ; nor has carbonic a,cid from the decomposition 
 of organic compounds any effect in accelerating the disintegration 
 of the natural phosphates, at least not to any practical degree. 
 
673 
 
 I have been treating only of the mineral constituents of the soil r 
 but no less necessary is the organic matter of the soil to its fertility. 
 If the organic nitrogen was not in the soil in sufficient quantity and 
 readily available, although the potash and phosphoric acid were 
 there in the best proportions, the soil would be either barren or 
 produce but very small crops. The nitrogen, before it can be 
 absorbed by the plant, must be converted into nitric acid or a 
 nitrate. This is accomplished through the agency of micro-organ- 
 isms in the soil. This brings us now to the consideration of the 
 biological properties of soils. 
 
 Every cultivated or fertile soil has within it an enormous 
 number of bacteria ; in fact, the soil is generally said to be teeming 
 with them. The number that is estimated to be contained in 15 
 grains of soil is variously stated to be from one half to a million. 
 These micro-organisms are the silent workers in the soil that pre- 
 pare the necessary food for the plants, as the plants themselves 
 are not capable of absorbing nitrogen in the state in which it is 
 found in organic matter. The importance of these micro-organ- 
 isms to the agriculturist is very great. The soils should be kept in 
 a condition most suitable for these micro-organisms to fully carry 
 out their proper functions. If the soil is not kept in a condition 
 suitable for the nitrification of the organic nitrogen, the very 
 opposite effect may be produced, and loss may take place in the 
 soil by another class of bacteria, which causes the dentritication of 
 the nitrates in the soil with liberations of free nitrogen. 
 
 Our knowledge of the nitrification of the organic nitrogen in 
 the soil is of recent date. The first to discover that it w is caused 
 by the action of bacteria in the soil were the two French chemists, 
 Schloesing and Munt/, who announced their discovery in 1877. 
 It was not till 1890 that we knew the true action of the bacteria on 
 nitrogen in the process of nitrification, when R. Warington and 
 Professor P. Frankland discovered and isolated two different 
 bacteria or micro-organisms that take part in the process of nitrifi- 
 cation. One of these bacteria acts by converting the nitrogen into 
 nitrites, and the other converts the nitrites into nitrates, in which 
 state the plants can absorb it. 
 
 They appear to be able to obtain their carbon from a purely 
 mineral source when no organic matter is present a fact that is 
 opposed to our previous ideas of those micro-organisms, as it has 
 always been held that micro-organisms must obtain their carbon 
 from a vegetable source. The conditions necessary, or favorable, to 
 nitrification arc that phosphoric acid must be present for nitrifica- 
 tion to take place ; it requires the presence of an alkaline base such 
 as carbonate of lime for the nitric acid to combine with as it is 
 formed. The presence of carbonate of soda, except in minute 
 quantities, has a prejudicialxjlYect, or may stop the process entirely. 
 Gypsum has been found to have a good effect. It probably acts 
 by neutralizing the excess of alkalinity, which stops the process. 
 
673 
 
 Oxygen is necessary t<> the development of these micro < 
 If the air is excluded they are certain to die. They can only 
 develop in a soil that has a good supply of air. This will show the 
 necessity ol a good tillage. The better the soil is tilled the more freely 
 will the air have access to it. Moisture in the soil is necessary, 
 and absence of light. Xitrification takes place best at <>u K.. 
 and diminishes from that down to 40" K. and up to i }o" K. Certain 
 substances are poisonous to these micro-organisms ; common salt, 
 for instance. 
 
 There are other bacteria that act in quite the reverse way to the 
 nitrifying micro-organisms by decomposing the nitrates in the soil. 
 These bacteria are only active when air is excluded from the soil, 
 or when the air is limited in the soil and it contains large quantities 
 of organic matter which uses all the oxygen for its oxidation. 
 These conditions will be found in water-logged, peaty, heavy and 
 badly tilled soils. 
 
 There is a third class of bacteria, which are only active in the 
 presence of leguminous plants. They iix themselves on the roots 
 of these plants, and by their action, combined with that of the 
 plant itself, are able to convert the nitrogen of the atmosphere into 
 a state in which the plant is able to assimilate it. The conditions 
 necessary are much the same as for nitrification. No other plants 
 have this power except those of the leguminous order. It is for 
 this reason that leguminous plants enrich the soil with nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrification usually takes place near the surface ; at least, very 
 little takes place at a depth below 18 inches. The depth to which 
 it takes place will greatly depend on the openness of the soil. 
 Roots assist greatly in allowing nitrification to take place at a greater 
 depth by allowing free access of air to the depth they go down. 
 Drainage has the same effect by opening channels for the passage 
 of the air to a greater depth and removing any excess of water 
 from the soil, which would otherwise prevent the free passage of 
 air through it. 
 
 Ammonia is the easiest of all the nitrogenous compounds to con- 
 vert into nitric acid through the agency of these micro-organisms. 
 The earthworms, when present in great numbers, play a very import- 
 ant part in the amelioration of a soil. Feeding on the organic 
 matter of the soil, in order to secure a sufficiency of food they have 
 to pass a very large quantity of earth through the intestinal canal, 
 which they deposit at the mouth of their burrows as a fine earth or 
 casting. These castings contain a very large quantity of organic 
 matter and other plant food readily available for the plants, so that 
 the surface of the soil is enriched by fertilisers brought from a depth 
 by the earthworms. The organic and mineral matter in the castings 
 are thoroughly mixed together in such a state that each of the 
 elements of plant food are easily obtained by th'i plants. By 
 means of the burrows which the earthworms make in the soil, water 
 can penetrate to a much lower depth, and air can penetrate more 
 
674 
 
 freely along their passages. By the combined action of the freely 
 admitted air and water large quantities of mineral and organic 
 matter are converted into plant food. 
 
 The soil is made up of organic and inorganic matter. The 
 inorganic matter is the result of the decomposition of rocks, and 
 the organic matter, or humus, from the decomposition of vegetable 
 or animal matter. 
 
 There is a certain amount of vegetable nutter in the soil 
 derived from leaves, branches, and roots of previous crops, which 
 decay by oxidation, or slow combustion from the action of oxygen 
 on the vegetable matter, or from the combined action of oxygen 
 and the micro-organisms in the soil. The organic matter, or humus, 
 is converged into nitrates and carbonic acid, which acts on the 
 mineral matter in the soil by converting some of the inert food in 
 :1 into active food for the plants. The percentage of organic 
 matter, or humus, in a soil is, to a great extent, a measure of that 
 soil's fertility. The amount found in a good soil is from 5 to 10 per 
 cent. Humus is not directly a plant food, but the product of its 
 decomposition is a very rich source of plant food. Humus is very 
 insoluble in water, but has a very high power of absorbing and 
 retaining moisture. Humus has also the power of absorbing or 
 fixing ammonia. The humates. have the power of iixing bases, 
 such as potash, soda, lime, magnesia, carbonates, or, in other words, 
 they combine with these bases to form insoluble humic sails. When 
 a soil contains too much humus, as in a wet peaty soil, il is very 
 liable to contain free humic acid, which is poisonous to plants. 
 The best cure is drainage and a liberal dressing of lime, which 
 neutralizes the free acid. Light sandy soils nre very light in humus. 
 M<>st ot the soils of this colony are low in humus, therefore they 
 are great lv benefited by the application of farmyard manure, which 
 adds a large amount of humus, or organic matter. 
 
 Green manuring is valuable for the same reason, and improves 
 Us physically as well as chemically. If such crops as mustard, 
 lupins, vetches, or peas are grown and ploughed in when they come 
 to Mower, they not only enrich the soil with organic matter, but 
 they bring up mineral matter lit for plant food from a lower depth 
 by virtue of the length of their roots, which go down into the soil 
 in search of food. They return not only all they took from the soil, 
 but also what they obtained from the nitrogen of the atmosphere. 
 
 hnrning some of the surface clay on a heavy clay soil is a 
 means of rendering that class of soil more porous. Clay is a 
 hydrated silicate ot alumina. When wet it forms a stilt plastic 
 mass impervious to water and difficult to work. When clay is 
 burned it loses its power of hydration and is no longer plastic when 
 mixed with water. Tin- clay is made into a heap on some timber, 
 which is then tired. It is burned until it assumes a red color. It 
 is then scattered on the land, which by this means is made more 
 porous. 
 
 
675 
 
 Mixing of soils, as I have already said, greatly improves them 
 both physically and chemically. The addition of sand to a heavy 
 clay makes it more pervious and admits of a freer circulation of 
 water and air through it. \Yater is one of the most necessary 
 elements of the plant food ; at least it is required in larger propor- 
 tions than any of the others. Water to be of any use to the plant 
 must be a moving water and well Derated. 
 
 If the subsoil is a heavy clay the water gets stagnant in it, and 
 does not allow a free passage of atmospheric air. The organic 
 matter decomposes very slowly, forming poisonous organic com- 
 pounds, which are retained in the deep soil. The roots of the 
 crop passing down into the deep soil in search of food come in 
 contact with these poisonous substances and die off. What was, 
 up to that time, a strong healthy crop, sickens and droops, till it 
 either dies away or remains of a stunted growth. Even if the roots 
 do not pass down to these poisonous substances, as soon as the 
 surface water evaporates, there will be an upward movement of 
 water which will affect the crop more or less according to the 
 amount of these deleterious substances it carries with it from below. 
 Hence the great necessity of deep drains on heavy clay and peaty 
 soils. The drainage of the soils increases their fertility in several 
 ways. Wet soils are cold, and lack a genial warmth. After a long 
 drought they contract and crush the roots, and do not allow the 
 free passage of the roots through them in search of food. When 
 the quantity of water in a soil is too great, the food for the 
 nourishment of the crops will be in a very diluted condition, 
 and the plant will require to absorb a very much larger quantity 
 ot water than is necessary for its proper growth. The pre- 
 sence of so much water in the plant will necessitate a greater 
 evaporation from the leaves, thus producing a lower temperature in 
 the plant than is natural to it, thereby delaying the chemical 
 changes that take place during the plant's growth. The water 
 being carried into the drain will take with it the injurious com- 
 pounds out of the reach of the roots of the plant. It will cause 
 a downward flow of water, which will carry with it a good supply 
 of fresh air into the soil, which is necessary to its fertility. The 
 free passage of air into the soil causes a rapid oxidation of the 
 vegetable matter, converting it into plant food, carbonic acid, and 
 prevents the formation of noxious acid compounds. The decom- 
 position of the mineral matter in the soil tit for plant food is then 
 more active. The formation of hardpans is greatly prevented by 
 keeping the subsoil open. Soluble plant food is carried down to 
 the roots from the surface. 
 
 Tillage improves the soil by dividing the particles of the soil 
 more minutely, rendering it more open and light, and allowing an 
 easier access of air and a freer passage for the roots in their search 
 for food. By turning over the soil more of the insoluble particles 
 are exposed to the weathering agents for the preparation of the 
 
676 
 
 available plant food. Nitrification is more active when there is a 
 good tilth. The roots find their food more easily, as well as an 
 abundant supply of oxygen for the further preparation of supplies. 
 Soils lose their water by two means transpiration, that is, through 
 the leaves of plants, and evaporation from the surface of the soil. 
 The soil draws to the surface water from its deeper store by 
 capillary attraction. Ploughing and surface cultivation by widen- 
 ing the capillary tubes and breaking their continuity, lessens the 
 loss by capillary attraction. 
 
 A well-tilled soil enables more plants to grow on the same 
 space of land, as the roots do not require to spread themselves in 
 search of supplies, but can go down deeper for them. Hoeing and 
 scarifying not only destroys the weeds but prevents too great an 
 evaporation from the surface of the soil by breaking up the con- 
 tinuity of the capillary tubes, and more air enters by the loosening 
 of the surface soil. A good tilth is necessary for the preparation 
 of a good seed bed. 
 
 Lime improves land and increases its fertility by acting on the 
 insoluble potash compounds in the soil and liberating the potash. 
 It decomposes organic matter and promotes nitrification. It fixes 
 phosphoric acid in the soil. It neutralises the acidity in peaty soils, 
 and in soils that are deep and heavily charged with organic matter. 
 It specially improves clay soils by precipitating the fine floculen: 
 particles of the clay, and prevents it from puddling, thereby making 
 it easier to till. Lime should not be put into the land at the same 
 time as ammonia salts or nitrogenous organic matter, as this would 
 cause a great loss of nitrogen. Lime does no good in poor or 
 sandy soils ; in fact, it does them more harm than good, as these 
 soils, being poor in organic matter, the action of lime would be, by 
 reason of its rapid action on the organic matter, to make them 
 poorer still. If it is necessary that these poor soils should have 
 lime, it is best added as phosphate of lime or as gypsum. 
 
 The best method of improving the soil is by a judicious appli- 
 cation of manure in conjunction with good tillage. The judicious 
 application of manure pre-supposes a knowledge of what elements 
 of the plant food are deficient in the soil. That information can be 
 obtained bv a chemical analyses, or by the field or plot analyses of 
 the soil. There is no soil, no matter how poor it may be, but can 
 be made fertile by the proper addition of manure. 
 
 I have already spoken of the chemical analyses of the soil, and 
 will now describe the method of conducting the field <n- pl<>' 
 analyses. I'nder manures and manuring I describe the methods of 
 analysing the soil by lield or plot experiments for one class of crops. 
 It is'better and more thorough to test the soil with two classes of 
 crops, a deep rooted one and a surface feeder, such as wheat and 
 potatoes. It would slu.w at once whether the s il was deficient in 
 any of the plant foods for surface and deep-rooted feeders, 'flic- 
 experiments are made in the following manner : Kach plot to be 
 
6 77 
 
 the same si/e, say about one-tenth of an acre, and may be either 
 
 square or rectangular. A small path divides each plot, and a stake 
 must be plaeed at eaeh corner of the several plots to mark their 
 boundaries. The following is a plan of the blocks : 
 
 I) 
 
 i to 5 are sown with wheat. Xo. i gets no manure ; No. 2, a 
 complete wheat manure ; Xo. 3, the same manure as Xo. 2, with 
 potash left out ; Xo. 4, the same manure as No. 2, with nitrogen 
 left out ; Xo. 5, the same manure as Xo. 2, with phosphoric 
 acid left out. In each of these plots the straw and grain are to be 
 weighed separately. 
 
 A to E are planted with potatoes. E gets no manure ; D gets 
 a complete potato manure ; C, the same manure as D, with the 
 exception of phosphoric acid ; B, the same manure as D, with the 
 exception of potash ; A, the same manure as D, with the exception 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 In the case of the wheat plots, Xos. i to 5, if the soil required 
 no manure, then Xo. i would be as good, or nearly so, as Xos. 2, 
 3, 4 and 5 ; but if the soil needed manure then Xo. 2 would be 
 much better than Xo. i. If 2 was much better than 3, 4 or 5, then 
 a complete manure was required. If either 3, 4 or 5 was as good 
 as 2, that part of the complete manure was not required and could 
 be left out. 
 
 In the case of the potatoes the same reasoning will apply to 
 them as to the wheat, but the results may not come out the same. 
 The wheat might show enough of potash and the potatoes a 
 deficiency, then the surface w r as short of potash, while there w r as 
 enough at a depth, or in the subsoil. Or the potatoes might show 
 a good supply of phosphoric acid, while the wheat was deficient, 
 showing that there was not enough for deep-rooted crops. Some- 
 thing of the same kind might happen with the nitrogen. 
 
 After the exact condition of the soil is known, then you are in 
 a position to say what manure should be used for any given crop. 
 After the crop has been gathered and weight is known, then, by 
 reckoning from the table of the ash of different crops given under 
 
678 
 
 manures and manuring, you will imcl out how much the crop has 
 taken from the soil of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. 
 Deduct that from the different amounts in the manure used, the 
 condition will give you the condition of your soil for the next crop, 
 and so on from year to year. 
 
 It must be remembered that ammonical salts or nitrates cannot 
 be reckoned beyond one year, but if leguminous crops have been 
 sown, they enrich the soil in nitrogen. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 MAXl'RKS AND MANURING. 
 
 There are many systems of fanning in different countries. 
 While some of these are governed by the differences in soils and 
 climate, others are the results of the investigations of scientists into 
 the requirements of the soils and plants in order to ensure a healthy 
 
 .vth. What is best suited to one country is not always the best 
 for others with differing soils or climate. It cannot be expected 
 that a system of fanning which would suit the cold climate and 
 damp soils of England would in every way suit the warm climate and 
 light soils of Western Australia. Each country has, in a measure, to 
 investigate the matter for itself, that is, so far as to the method and 
 time of applying manures to the maintenance of its soils in a fertile 
 state, and also as to the class and quantity of manures it is best to 
 apply. The food that is required by any particular plant in one 
 country is just the food that will be required by the s.une kind of 
 plant in another country ; so we are not called upon to investigate 
 the actual food required by any given plant, as we have plenty of 
 records of a large number of practical and scientific investigations 
 on this subject from a great many parts of the world ; but what 
 we are called upon to investigate is how best to apply the plant 
 food required by the crops in this climate so as to produce a good 
 and profitable crop to the producer. It is the first principle of 
 husbandry to produce at a profit. To do so the farmer must first 
 know what is the food required for the plant he intends to grow ; 
 then to ascertain if the soil contains that food in sufficient quantity 
 to maintain the plant during its growth ; and not only to know if it 
 is there in sufficient quantity, but whether it is in a state that the 
 plant can easily assimilate. If the soil does not contain sufficient 
 food for the plant, or it is in such an insoluble state that the plant 
 cannot assimilate it in sufficient quantities for its requirements, it 
 will be necessary for the farmer to supply what is deficient in the 
 soil to maintain the plants, and to supply it in such a state that the 
 plants can easily absorb it. 
 
 The foods that are required by plants in varying quantities are 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, soda, silica, oxide 
 of iron, sulphuric acid and chlorine. Most soils contain these in 
 sufficient quantities for all the requirements of any crop, 
 
68o 
 
 but unfortunately they may not be in a condition for the 
 plants to absorb them. More especially does this apply to 
 the phosphoric acid and potash. Of the constituents of plant 
 food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the most useful, and 
 are generally in smaller quantities in the soil than any of the others 
 enumerated. Plants require more of these three substances than 
 any of the others, therefore the soil is more easily depleted of them, 
 and we shall in consequence have to deal mostly with them. These 
 three substances must not only be in the soil, but they must be 
 made easily soluble, so that the plant can absorb them as they are 
 required. The soil may contain more than twenty times the 
 amount of potash required by any crop, and yet be barren to that 
 crop, simply because the plant and the other agencies that assist 
 the plant had not the power to cause the disintegration of the 
 insoluble compound, that the potash was in combination with, 
 quickly enough for the requirements of the plant. No crop is likely 
 to take more potash out of the soil than 150 rbs. per acre, and very 
 few as much as that. A soil may contain as much as 'i per cent, of 
 potash, that is equal to 3,500 rbs. of potash per acre in a soil 12 
 inches deep. Yet, with all that amount in the soil, the crop sickens 
 and refuses to grow, or is of a stunted growth, simply because the 
 potash was not then available for its requirements. The same 
 remarks apply to nitrogen and phosphoric acid. If either of these 
 were not present, or in a state not immediately available to the 
 crop, that soil would be in a state from barren to that of 
 being able to grow only small crops. While it is necessary to 
 maintain a proper supply of available food for the plant, care must 
 be taken that neither of these substances are supplied in too great 
 an excess of the requirements of the plant, as they may act 
 deleteriously to the growth of the plant, or even act as a poison. 
 This is brought about by over manuring and using a rotation of 
 crops that takes up chierly the same foods. Such a system is not 
 only expensive and a waste of valuable manure, but very often gives 
 short crops. Different plants take up different proportions of nitro- 
 gen, phosphoric acid and potash, according to their likings and 
 requirements. Whatever they require most must either be in the 
 soil or supplied to them in proportions according to their needs, by 
 manuring. 
 
 Some plants have a greater capacity for the assimilation of 
 certain constituents of their food than others, although the one with 
 the gr-ater capacity for assimilation may not require so much of 
 that particular kin I of food as the other. For inslance, mangolds 
 have a less capacity for assimilating nitrogen than turnips, but they 
 must be given a rich nitrogenous manure, as they need and take 
 more nitrogen than turnips, which requires a phosphatic manure. 
 Again, wheat sown in the winter lias a longer time to gather 
 nitrogen than barley s-uvn in the spring, which, being a shorter time 
 in the soil, requires a more active nitrogenous manure. 
 
68 1 
 
 As ;i rule the different plants in a class ot" crops resemble each 
 other in this respect. Thus, the cereals or gramineous crops have 
 a small capacity for assimilating nitrogen, therefore they require a 
 liberal supply of nitrogenous manure. The leguminous crops such 
 as beans, peas clover, etc., have a small capacity for potash, and 
 require a good supply of potash. Roots generally have a small 
 capacity for assimilating phosphoric acid, and require a phosphatic 
 manure. 
 
 When the soil is cropped, the crop abstracts a certain amount 
 of the substances necessary to the nutriment of plants, which, if 
 carried away, will impoverish the land to the extent of the amount 
 of the different elements of nutrition that the crop has abstracted 
 from the soil. To maintain the fertility of the soil, that which was 
 abstracted from the soil must be put back into the soil, such as in 
 green manuring where the crop is ploughed into the soil, or it must 
 be made up by the addition of artihcial manures. 
 
 Before we can put in an amount equivalent to what was 
 abstracted we must first know what has been abstracted and the 
 amounts. That we get by an analysis of the ash of the crop. 
 
 The tables I. and II. will give some idea of what the different 
 crops extract from the soil. 
 
 TAHLK I. The composition of the ash of plants in per centage 
 (excluding carbonic acid) : 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 6 
 
 5-6 
 
 1*3 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 7. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat grain .. .. .31-54 
 
 2-66 
 
 12 IO 
 
 3''4 
 
 trace 
 
 48-50 
 
 08 
 
 1-88 
 
 10 
 
 Barley grain, with husk .. . 1 21*20 
 
 400 
 
 9'10 
 
 2-40 
 
 '5 
 
 33-17 
 
 2'10 
 
 27-50 
 
 30 
 
 Oat gram, with husk .. . 3748 
 
 2-40 
 
 7 80 
 
 3-00 
 
 
 20-80 
 
 l-8o 
 
 2590 
 
 '22 
 
 Rice grain .. . . . 23 70 
 
 400 
 
 12-10 
 
 3 15 
 
 trace 
 
 55-00 
 
 05 
 
 200 
 
 trace 
 
 Indian corn .. .. . 3795 
 
 300 
 
 7-50 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 4480 
 
 1-50 
 
 i 45 
 
 trace 
 
 Peas (pods) .. .. . 45-4^ 
 Beans (pods) .. .. . 42-50 
 
 2 00 
 
 334 
 
 800 
 730 
 
 550 
 
 6'OO 
 
 '85 
 
 40 
 
 32 55 
 34 66 
 
 473 
 
 '<)O 
 
 30 
 140 
 
 Flax seeds . . . . . 30 55 
 
 261 
 
 1' '23 
 
 9'45 
 
 38 
 
 35'99 
 
 1 43 
 
 1 70 
 
 r/o 
 
 Potatoes (tubers) .. . 6r6o 
 
 TOO 
 
 5-00 
 
 2-40 
 
 
 17-67 
 
 6-25 
 
 1 00 
 
 2 23 
 
 Ytllow globe mangels . . . 35 09 
 
 28-90 
 
 2-50 
 
 250 
 
 66 
 
 6 16 
 
 3 19 
 
 300 
 
 1800 
 
 Long red mangels .. .. 25 18 
 
 32 10 
 
 220 
 
 2'20 
 
 50 
 
 2 10 
 
 4-00 
 
 1 -fio 
 
 3000 
 
 Cow cabbage leaves . . . . 34-85 
 
 4 fio 
 
 440 
 
 l<] MO 
 
 '7 
 
 16-63 
 
 '7 3 ' 
 
 244 
 
 trace 
 
 Carrot root .. . . . . 41-46 
 
 I7f o 
 
 15-36 
 
 1886 
 
 32 
 
 1268 
 
 6'93 
 
 2'OO 
 
 4/0 
 
 Wheat straw . . . . I2'i(> 
 
 1 00 
 
 400 
 
 682 
 
 1 02 
 
 V2O 
 
 5-78 
 
 
 60 
 
 Oat straw . . . . . . 2<rf o 
 
 6-00 
 
 
 8 10 
 
 0-8 3 
 
 4 s'' 
 
 
 5008 
 
 3-25 
 
 Barley straw . . . . 19 32 
 
 4 5" 
 
 2-70 
 
 700 
 
 20 
 
 
 378 
 
 5'' 5 
 
 "70 
 
 Pea straw .. . . 22 co 
 
 r.-oo 
 
 734 
 
 39-00 
 
 I 08 
 
 684 
 
 
 0-18 
 
 520 
 
 Red clover hav .. .. ^I-.SM 
 
 2 I ft 
 
 12-10 
 
 31-09 
 
 
 900 
 
 3-03 
 
 07, 
 
 V i > 
 
 Meadow hay . . . . . . 26-80 
 
 580 
 
 432 
 
 128', 
 
 70 
 
 6<J5 
 
 4-45 
 
 3 1 '04 
 
 7-02 
 
 - J Bromus erectui .. 2592 
 
 50 
 
 480 
 
 IO 20 
 
 23 
 
 8ob 
 
 542 
 
 38-10 
 
 
 in ! Solium perenne . . 30-79 
 
 9-90 
 
 8-25 
 
 3-00 
 
 trace 
 
 900 
 
 5" 20 
 
 21 50 
 
 '730 
 
 Flower ) Annual rye grass . . 27-07 
 
 
 259 
 
 
 28 
 
 1007 
 
 345 
 
 4' 79 
 
 3-06 
 
682 
 
 TABLE II. The average amount of ash, nitrogen, phosp 
 acid and potash per cent, and per ton in some plants : 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Pounds per Ton. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 6- 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 41 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 !' 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 ~ T 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 *" 
 
 1 
 
 2. a 
 
 i 
 
 
 *^r 'u 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat grain . . 
 
 1-9 
 
 I 8 
 
 85 
 
 S3 
 
 40-32 
 
 K/04 
 
 ,i-8 7 
 
 42-56 
 
 Wheat straw . . 
 
 
 '45 
 
 24 
 
 80 
 
 1008 
 
 5 ,v s 
 
 I / ')2 
 
 I 12 CO 
 
 Barley grain . . 
 Barley straw . . 
 
 2 2 
 
 4 5 
 
 40 
 
 75 
 18 
 
 55 
 
 TOO 
 
 
 16-80 
 43 
 
 22-40 
 
 4928 
 10080 
 
 Oats grain .. 2-8 
 
 2 00 
 
 (o 
 
 50 
 
 44-80 
 
 '344 
 
 11 20 
 
 62-72 
 
 Oats straw .. 5 1 
 
 '5 
 
 24 
 
 I '00 
 
 1 T20 
 
 5 3* 
 
 2240 
 
 1200 
 
 Ik-ans grain .. 30 
 
 4'.)0 
 
 no 
 
 I -30 
 
 
 2464 
 
 2912 
 
 67 20 
 
 Beans straw- 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 I'OO 
 
 20 16 
 
 871 
 
 22 40 
 
 112'CO 
 
 Peas grain 
 
 2'5 
 
 360 
 
 < S 5 
 
 
 80-64 
 
 1904 
 
 2 I 'SO 
 
 5600 
 
 Peas straw 
 
 55 
 
 1 00 
 
 '35 
 
 I -00 
 
 22-40 
 
 T * 
 
 22-40 
 
 123-20 
 
 Indian corn .. 
 
 
 > 7 
 
 
 37 
 
 38-08 
 
 
 829 
 
 3 1-36 
 
 Clover hay 
 
 7-0 
 
 240 
 
 57 
 
 1-50 
 
 53 7" 
 
 1277 
 
 
 156-80 
 
 Meadow hay . . 
 
 "5 
 
 1-50 
 
 '4 
 
 roc 
 
 33*60 
 
 8*96 
 
 35 '84 
 
 145*0 
 
 Turnips, vellow 
 
 
 20 
 
 06 
 
 '22 
 
 
 i'34 
 
 4 "- 
 
 1456 
 
 Turnips, white 
 
 68 
 
 '18 -05 
 
 30 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 '5'2? 
 
 Turnips, Swedisli 
 
 60 
 
 25 -06 
 
 22 
 
 560 
 
 ''34 
 
 493 
 
 1344 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 1X3 
 
 '25 
 
 15 
 
 '55 
 
 560 
 
 3 3^ 
 
 1 2 ^2 
 
 2240 
 
 Mangel wur/.el 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 07 
 
 40 
 
 493 
 
 '57 
 
 
 22-40 
 
 Cairots 
 
 () 
 
 2O 
 
 
 28 
 
 448 
 
 2 02 
 
 
 20- if} 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 1 'O 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 493 
 
 4 26 
 
 
 22 40 
 
 In table i. we see the actual components in 100 parts of 
 the ash or mineral matter taken from the soil by various plants. 
 
 No. ii. gives the amount of ash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
 potash in 100 parts of the different crops mentioned. They are 
 also reckoned out to Ibs. per ton of the crops. 
 
 It would seem from table n. that the leguminous plants re- 
 quire a larger supply of nitrogenous manures than the cereals, as 
 they contain more nitrogen. They do not require more, in fact, 
 they are more benefited by potash. The reason for them 
 containing more nitrogen than the cereals is that they have 
 the power of absorbing nitrogen from the air, a power not 
 possessed by other plants, in fact, they arc considered to 
 enrich the soil with nitrogen. Thus it is that cereals which 
 require a good supply of nitrogen, should follow Leguminous 
 crops in the rotation. To show how severe some crops 
 are on the fertility of the soil we will take the case of wheat and 
 potatoes. .Suppose we had a crop of, say 30 bushels of grain and 
 3,100 His. of straw per acre. If the grain alone was sold off the 
 farm it would carry away 34] H>s. of mineral m liter, containing 
 15), His. of phosphoric acid, equal to i 13 H>s. of superphosphate ot 
 30 per cent, tricalcic phosphate made soluble ; tjj, H>s. ot potash, 
 equal to (>S ll.s. of kainit and nitrogen, 3_\\ l\>^., equal to ihj U.S. of 
 a ->7 per cent, sulphate ot ammonia. If the straw was also sold, as in 
 the case of chaff, it would take away iS<y_> ll.s. of mineral matter, 
 containing 21.', H>s. of phosphoric acid, equal to 153 lls. ot super- 
 
68 3 
 
 phosphate; 34.', M>s. of potash, equal to 245 Hs. of kainit; and 40], His. 
 of nitrogen, eq'ual to j^j il.s. of sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 In the case of potatoes, a crop of six tons per acre would 
 abstract 134], Ibs. of mineral matter, containing 20 Ibs. of phos- 
 phoric acid equal to 145.', Ibs. of superphosphate ; 74 Ibs. of potash, 
 equal to 528.', Ibs. of kainit ; and 33], Ibs. of nitrogen, equal to 
 107], Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Thus it would not be advisable to follow a wheat crop with 
 another nitrogen-loving crop without giving it a liberal supply of a 
 nitrogenous manure ; nor to follow potatoes with a crop that needs 
 potash and phosphoric acid without giving a good supply of both. 
 I have already stated that a soil may contain twenty times more of 
 a certain plant food than any plant requires, and yet that soil may 
 be barren. The reason for this is, that it is in combination with 
 other substances that are very insoluble, such as potash in combin- 
 ation with silicates. The plant has not sufficient power in itself to 
 decompose them, and the actions of the disintegrating agents, such 
 as carbonic acid, water, etc., are too slow for the immediate 
 requirement of the plants. If it were not so, the whole, 
 or nearly the whole of the potash and phosphoric acid would be 
 lost to the soil in one year. Ploughing the land assists greatly in 
 the disintegration of the soil and in freeing the potash and phos- 
 phoric acid by exposing fresh surfaces to the action of oxygen, 
 carbonic acid and water. A manure may also be in such a physical 
 state as to be of no use to the plant. A bone manure is a good 
 manure \vhen the bones are ground fine or are dissolved. If bones 
 in pieces were put into a soil with a crop of wheat that is entirely 
 dependent on the bones for its supply of phosphates, it would 
 simply die off, as it could not obtain enough phosphoric acid from 
 the bones to allow it to live. Or another case which may be more 
 to the point, if raw mineral phosphates were used in a tolerably 
 line state, the result would be that there would be either no crop, 
 or one not worth cutting. This does not include Thomas' phos- 
 phate manure. The mineral phosphates to be of any good would 
 require to be ground extremely line, so that the different solvent 
 agencies could have a greater surface to act on. At the best they 
 would prove unsatisfactory. It is false economy to manure the 
 
 f round, the crop is what should be manured in high class farming, 
 [amiring the ground is nor only costly and wasteful, but requires 
 a very long purse and a great deal of patience, and in the end is 
 unprofitable. Give to the crop what it needs so that it can make a 
 rapid and healthy growth, and let next year's crop look out for 
 itself. Xo crop can take all out of the soil', so there is bound to be 
 some left for next year. 
 
 The soils derive their phosphoric acid and potash as well as the 
 other mineral constituents, from the rocks from which they 
 originated, by a process of disintegration and denudation. The 
 different rocks contain different amounts of mineral matter tit for 
 
684 
 
 plant food. Those soils derived from the green sandstone, trap- 
 rocks, lavas and millstone grits are generally considered the most 
 fertile. It is, then, quite evident that the phosphoric acid and potash 
 is inert to plant life until they are freed from their silicates by some 
 decomposing agency. 
 
 The organic matter is derived from the dead vegetables and 
 animals that lived on the land. The most of our knowledge 
 of how plants absorb the organic matter they contain has been 
 obtained within the last fifty years. The carbon is generally con- 
 sidered to be absorbed from the soil and from the atmosphere. 
 The manner in which the plant absorbs its nitrogen has in the last 
 half century given rise to a good many theories and occasioned no 
 small amount of contention between scientists until twenty years 
 ago, when a solution of the problem was given by the discovery 
 in 1877 of the two eminent French chemists, Schloesing and 
 Miint/, that soils were teeming with micro-organisms, or bacteria, 
 converting ammonia salts and nitrogenous matter into nitrates, in 
 which state the plants absorb their nitrogen. This has been inves- 
 tigated by a great many chemists, but the investigations of the two 
 English chemists, R. Warington and Prof. P. Frankland, fully 
 explained the real action that takes place in the soil. They found 
 that there are two different bacteria at work in the soil in the 
 process of converting the nitrogen into nitrates. The one converts 
 the ammonia salts and nitrogenous matter into nitrites, and the 
 other converts the nitrites into nitrates, in which state the plants 
 absorb the most of their nitrogen. In the case of the leguminous 
 plants they have a power of absorbing nitrogen from the atmos- 
 phere which is not possessed by other plants. This po\ver of 
 absorbing nitrogen direct from the atmosphere is obtained through 
 the agency of another micro-organism ; but the manner of their 
 actions on the leguminous plants is at present not known. 
 
 This process of converting nitrogen into nitrates is called nitri- 
 fication, and is of the utmost importance to tanners. Kvery farmer 
 should know the conditions under which nitrification takes place. 
 There is still another micro-organism which, under certain conditions, 
 acts the very reverse of nitrification, and causes a loss of nitrogen. 
 
 R. Warington gives the following conditions for nitrification 
 to take place : First, in moist soil ; second, when the soil is 
 sufficiently porous to admit air ; third, the process is most active in 
 summer, and ceases at the free/ing point of water ; fourth, gypsum, 
 carbonate of lime, potash ;nd soda compounds promote nitrification ; 
 fifth, the nitrifying bacterium cannot liv in presence of light; 
 sixth, the bacterium of nitrification can only live at certain depths in 
 the soil, it is not geuerallv found in the subso 1. He found no 
 nitrification gf>iut> <>u at a depth of seven feet ; >e\eutli, ammonia 
 is always one of the products formed when clung is decomposed. 
 The bacterium is supposed to be capable of converting this 
 ammonia into nitric acid. 
 
 
685 
 
 Nitrification will not commence it" the alkalinity of the 
 ammonia solution exceeds four hundred parts ot nitrogen per 
 million, and an alkalinity tar below this figure retards nitrification. 
 
 Nitrification is more vigorous in the autumn than in the spring. 
 If the land is allowed to be bare in the autumn there is liable to be 
 a threat loss of nitrogenous matter. It would be best to put in a 
 catch crop and plough it in as it begins to {lower. 
 
 Denitritication is the reverse of nitrification. It is the result 
 of the action of a micro-organism or bacterium on the nitrates, 
 which it decomposes and sets the nitrogen free, which escapes into 
 the air, causing a loss of nitrogen. 
 
 It occurs in soils that are water-logged, or in soils with a large 
 amount of organic matter, such as peaty soils, that oxygen cannot 
 enter. There not being enough oxygen in the soil to allow 
 nitrification to take place, the denitrifying bacteria become active. 
 It cannot take place in free open soils. A plant not only requires 
 nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, and the other constituents that 
 are found in the ash for its maintenance ; it requires water just as 
 much as any of the other parts of its food, and in greater proportions. 
 If the plant cannot get enough for its requirements, it sickens and 
 shrivels up. Different soils have different powers of absorbing and 
 retaining water. Soils with a large amount of humus, or decayed 
 vegetable matter, have the power in the highest degree ; light sandy 
 soils possess it in the lowest degree ; clay, not much less than 
 those with a large amount of vegetable matter. 
 
 Schubler gives the following table as the absorptive power of 
 the different soils at 60 deg. Fahr. : 
 
 Per cent, of water absorbed 
 
 by loo parts of earth. 
 
 Siliciqus sand ... 25 
 
 Gypsum ... ... 27 
 
 Calcareous sand ... ... 29 
 
 Sanely clay ... ... ... 40 
 
 Strong clay ... ... ... 50 
 
 Arable soil ... ... ... 52 
 
 Fine calcareous earth ... ... 85 
 
 Garden earth... ... ... 89 
 
 Humus ... ... ... 190 
 
 Schubler in the following table gives the rate of evaporation in 
 different soils at 60 deg. Fahr. : 
 
 In four hours. Time required to evaporate 
 Per cent. <,<> per cent. 
 
 Quart/ ... ... ScS 4hrs. 4inin. 
 
 Limestone ... 76 4 ,, 44 ,, 
 
 Sandy clay... ... 52 5 ,, i ,, 
 
 Stiff ish clay ... 40 6 55 ,, 
 
 Loamy clay ... 46 7 ,, 52 ,, 
 
686 
 
 In four hours. 
 Per cent. 
 
 3 2 
 3 2 
 28 
 
 21 
 II 
 
 Time required to evaporate 
 90 per cent. 
 
 ii hrs. 17 min. 
 
 *5 n 
 5 1 n 
 33 i. 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 Pure grey clay 
 
 Loam 
 
 Fine calcium carbonate 
 
 Humus 
 
 Magnesium carbonate... n 33 
 
 Light soils are not able to stand a drought or a dry season. 
 To improve light soils, dressing with clay, a liberal use of well- 
 rotted farmyard manure, also ploughing in green crops, makes them 
 more retentive. Carbonate of lime (ground limestone), and magnesium 
 salts assist both the absorptive and retentive powers of a soil. 
 
 Plants not only have special likings for certain kinds of food, 
 but they have also special likings for certain soils, at least they 
 thrive best on certain soils. 
 
 Wheat thrives best in a clay soil. 
 
 Oats and clover in heavy and compact soil. 
 
 Barley and turnips in open and free loam. 
 
 Maize in open, free and even sandy soil. 
 
 Potatoes in open rich sandy soil. 
 
 Rye in sandy soil. 
 
 Rice in a stiff, wet, impervious soil. 
 
 Beans and peas in stiff, well drained clay. 
 
 Cocoa tree in a sandy soil of the coast. 
 
 Cotton in dry open alluvial, dry and porous uplands, hot, 
 and somewhat droughty climate. 
 
 Tea plant on warm 
 from clay. 
 
 Earth nut in light sandy soil. 
 
 Oil palms in moist sea sand. 
 
 Cinnamon tree in almost pure sand. 
 
 Hops in fat and fruitful land, open, rich, and calcareous loam. 
 
 Date in sandy but well watered places. 
 
 Coffee in rich dry soils and warm situations. 
 
 Although they do best in these classes of soils the most of them 
 can adapt themselves to other soils, but generally with a change as 
 to quality and quantity. It is well known to farmers that different 
 districts, or in other words, different soils, influence not only the 
 quantity of a crop, but also the quality. 
 
 Oats grown on a clay are of the best quality. Barley on a clay 
 land may give a good crop, but the quality is not so good for 
 malting as thai gn>\vn on sandy marls. Potatoes grown on clay 
 soils arc gene-rally waxy, and those on sandy soils mealy. The late 
 Prof. T. Anderson investigated the influence of different soils on 
 turnips, as to their quality for feeding stock. He examined those 
 grown on heavy clay land. Second. Those grown on the black land 
 between the clay land and the hill land. Third. Those grown on the 
 hill land or light loam. He found that those grown on the light 
 
 sloping banks, or light dry loam, free 
 
 
oS 7 
 
 loam had ;i value almost twice as great for feeding purposes as 
 those- grown on the clay. Those in the black land were almost 
 intermediate between the clay and light loam. 
 
 It has been shown that soils with the lack of one <>f the 
 elements of plant food can be wholly barren to a crop. While that 
 is so, any barren s ul, even pure sand in which there is HOIK- of the 
 elements of plant food, c.m be- made fertile by the judicious addition 
 of artificial manures. 
 
 \Ye will now examine the manures ; what they are composed 
 of and how they are made. 
 
 MANTRKS, OR FKRTIUSKRS. 
 
 It is the general practice to divide them into three classes, and 
 this division 1 intend to follow. 
 
 1. Natural or organic manures. This does not include guanos, 
 or those obtained from deposits in the earth, such as mineral phos- 
 phates or other salts. 
 
 2. Artilicial manures. 
 ^. Special manures. 
 
 Natui al or org mic manures are composed of decayed vegetable 
 matter, the refuse from animals or the organic parts of animals and 
 lish. They may even be a mixture of all these. They depend 
 principally on the organic matter they contain to be classed as 
 manures, espec ally that of their ni rogen, which is high. They 
 have a low manurial value as regards their mineral matter. 
 
 i. Farmyard manure, or the excreta of animals with a m xture 
 of vegetable matter such as straw. 
 
 This is considered by a great many farmers to be a typical or 
 complete manure, that is, that it contains all the ingredients neces- 
 sary to the growth of a crop. While this is the case, it is, never- 
 theless, far from being a complete manure, as the ingredients are 
 not in the best proportions. The mineral matter is there in very 
 small quantity, and in a state that a plant cannot easily assimilate, 
 as it is so insoluble. The nitrogen is also very insoluble and 
 slow in its action. It is generally considered that farmyard manure 
 has a very slow action in supplying food to the plant for the lirst 
 year as compared with other manures. A great many experiment- 
 alists and scientists place a very small value on it as a manure. 
 Ville and Leibig attach very little importance to it. Ville says an 
 artificial manure can be made to give better results and at a less 
 cost. Leibig says, if no other manure was used, the soil would 
 become almost barren to some crops. Sir J. B. Lawes says, all 
 labour spent on the dung adds certainly to the cost, but does not 
 add with the same certainty to its value. 
 
 On his Rothamstecl farm he used most of the farmyard manure 
 that was made on the farm, for mangolds. It depends mostly on 
 its nitrogen for its manurial value, in fact it is virtually a nitrogen- 
 ous manure. It contains only about 48 Ibs. of plant food per ton 
 
688 
 
 The nitrogen in farmyard manure is not halt" so valuable as the 
 nitrogen in ammonia sulphate, as it is so very slowly available. Its 
 composition varies greatly from several causes. The food used, 
 the class of animal, the age of the animals from which it was 
 obtained, the treatment of the animal, the amount of litter used, 
 and the method employed in making it, all act on it so as to alter 
 its composition. 
 
 SOLID EXCRKTA. 
 
 The value of the solid excreta of animals as a manure 
 depends on the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash it con- 
 tains, and these depend on various circumstances. The excreta 
 from horses, cows, sheep and pigs differ from each other in com- 
 position and physical properties. Solid excreta is composed of the 
 undigested food, therefore the class of food taken has the greatest 
 influence on the composition of the excreta. If an animal feeds on a 
 poor diet, the excreta will also be poor. As alreaclv stated, the 
 class, age, condition and treatment of the animal will alter it. 
 Young animals use more nitrogen and mineral matter for their 
 growth than adults. Cows in calf, or giving milk, will use more 
 nitrogen than dry animals. A horse in the stall assimilates more of 
 its food than when at work. Under these conditions less nitrogen 
 and potash will pass off in the dung and more in the urine. 
 
 As the composition of the solid excreta varies under so many 
 conditions any analysis will only represent that individual sample. 
 By taking the average of a large number of analyses we can get in 
 close proximity to its composition. 
 
 The following analyses will give some idea of the composition 
 of solid excreta : 
 
 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF FARMYARD MANTRK. 
 
 
 
 a* 
 
 
 Vodcker. 
 
 Cameron. 
 
 
 
 
 c . 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Woltt. 
 
 I-ciiii; 
 
 
 Gilbert. 
 
 
 M ** 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 Rotten. 
 
 iM-esh. 
 
 cxpost-cl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to rain. 
 
 Water 
 
 7000 
 
 7-4* 
 
 7 r /3 o 
 
 66-17 
 
 75-42 
 
 75'OQ (H) 14 
 
 73-- 
 
 1 Organic Matter 
 
 27-23 
 2'77 
 
 i.V')4 
 13-58 
 
 I4'08 
 6-67 
 
 5-59 
 
 I6-53 
 
 8'05 
 
 24-2I 
 
 o-cji ()-o; 
 
 21-17 
 
 5-61 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 100-00 
 
 lOO'(H) 
 
 ion-no lOO'OO 
 
 I OO'OO 
 
 1 Cont'n^ Nitrogen 
 
 0*64 
 
 38 
 
 410 
 
 64 
 
 7: 
 
 '53 '50 
 
 12 
 
 ,, Potash 
 
 ( >'5} 
 
 -.^ 
 
 
 
 '67 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0'23 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 '45 
 
 32 - 
 
 
 Stoeckhardt found the following percentages of nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid and alkalies in the fresh solid excreta of hordes. 
 cows, pigs, and sheep : 
 

 
 Water. 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 IMiosphoric 
 Acid. 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 ss (winter 
 Cows M 
 
 - 
 Sheep (J Ibs. of 
 per il.Tv) 
 
 feed) 
 
 Kay 
 
 7" 
 4 
 
 So 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 ^o 
 
 (, 
 
 75 
 
 '35 
 '25 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 \ 
 
 '30 
 TO 
 
 5" 
 30 
 
 By the above table it will be seen the dung of the sheep is 
 low*, st in water and richest in nitrogen and phosphoric acid ; there- 
 fore lor equal weights it is the most valuable manure. 
 
 If we take the dried solid excreta from the above analyses and 
 compare them together, we get the following results : 
 
 
 Nitrogen* 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 per cent, 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 2'08 
 
 i '45 
 
 1-25 
 
 Cow ... ... ... 1-87 
 
 1-56 
 
 0-62 
 
 I'* 
 
 3 - oo 
 
 2-25 
 
 2-50 
 
 Sheep 
 
 178 
 
 1-42 
 
 071 
 
 By this it will be seen pigs' dung is the richest as a fertiliser in 
 the three substances of its composition. I would not advise the 
 use of pigs' dung alone on any crop, as it is liable to give a peculiar 
 taste to the crop. It should always be mixed with other farmyard 
 manure. 
 
 Wolff, from investigations he has made, calculates that from 
 100 parts of the organic matter, nitrogen, and mineral matter in the 
 food, dried and free irom water, the following percentages are 
 passed in the solid excreta : 
 
 
 Ccnv. 
 
 Ox. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 39'5 
 
 42'5 
 
 44-0 
 
 44-1 
 
 42-5 
 
 Xitn^en ... 
 
 47'5 
 
 33'9 
 
 467 
 
 32-4 
 
 40-1 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 53'9 
 
 64-6 
 
 57'9 
 
 62-5 
 
 597 
 
 URIXE, OR LIQUID MANTKK. 
 
 What has been said about the solid excreta, regarding the 
 variation of its composition, can also be said of urine. As it contains 
 the substances digested, naturally the quality of the food will have 
 a good deal to do with its composition. The class of animals, the 
 age and conditions of treatment, will also have an effect on it. The 
 quantity of water drunk will alter the composition. This will be 
 
690 
 
 balanced in the case of a large quantity of water being drunk, by 
 the large quantity of urine voided. As the quantity of urine passed 
 by the dilferent animals differs greatly, naturally its composition 
 will also. A horse passes about 12 Ibs. a day, a cow about 70 H>s. 
 per day. Trine is richer in nitrogen and potash than the solid 
 excreta, but poorer in phosphoric acid, in fact it contains very little 
 phosphoric acid. The liquid excreta has a higher manural value 
 than the solid. 
 
 Stoeckhardt tound the following percentages of water, nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid, and alkalies in the urine of different animals. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Sheep (2 Ibs. hay per day ) 
 
 86'5 
 
 I '4 
 
 050 
 
 2'0 
 
 Pigs (winter teed) 
 
 97'5 
 
 '3 
 
 125 
 
 '2 
 
 Horses (hav and oats) ... 
 
 89-0 
 
 1*2 
 
 
 i 5 
 
 Cows (hay and potatoes) ... 
 
 92-0 
 
 8 
 
 
 i'4 
 
 The above table shows that phosphoric acid is only in small 
 quantities in the urine of farm animals, in fact we might say that it 
 is absent, except in the case of pigs. 
 
 Taking the dried urine we get the following results : 
 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. Alk:; 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per cent. per cent. 
 
 Pigs 
 
 1 2'0 
 
 5 8 
 
 Horses 
 
 10 9 
 
 trace I V<> 
 
 Sheep 
 
 1 0'4 
 
 37 i4'9 
 
 Cows 
 
 lO'O 
 
 trace 17-5 
 
 The urine of t ;e pig is richest in nitrogen and phosphoric 
 acid, and poorest in alkalies. The horse comes next in nitn>g< 
 and the cow lowest, but it is highest in potash. 
 
 If we compare Wolff's investigation of urine in the same w; 
 as for the solid excreta, we get the following results. From 100 
 parts of the organic matter, nitrogen and mineral matter dried and 
 free from water, the percentages passed in the liquid excreta 
 are : 
 
 
 Cow. 
 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 A\(. . 
 
 nic matter 
 
 4-0 
 
 4'4 
 
 2'0 
 
 3 '3 
 
 3'4 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 31-0 
 
 54-8 
 
 42*3 
 
 
 47 - 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 
 
 4 ro 
 
 37 5 
 
 39-0 
 
691 
 
 It will now be evident from what has been said, that the solid 
 and liquid excreta should be used in conjunction with eaeli other 
 to make anything like a complete manure. The solid excreta con- 
 tains about all the phosphoric acid, lime and magnesia ; the liquid 
 excreta almost all the potash. 
 
 LITTER. 
 
 The litter that is generally used is one of the straws. For the 
 composition and quantity of the ash in straw see tables i and 2 (pages 
 6Si to 682). 
 
 The litter is used principally as a bedding for the animals, but 
 it has other vafues as regards the manure. It prevents too rapid a 
 fermentation in the manure, increases the bulk of the manure so 
 that it can be spread over the soil more evenly ; it binds light 
 soils and enables them to retain more moisture ; it loosens heavy 
 clay soils if put in fresh ; it greatly helps to prevent the loss of the 
 liquid portion by absorbing it. 
 
 Peat has also been used as a litter ; it not only absorbs more 
 of the urine than straw, but it fixes the ammonia to a greater 
 extent. Peat has not only a greater power for absorbing and 
 ining moisture, but it has a higher manurial value. 
 
 The common bracken has been used as a litter, more especially 
 when young. It is more valuable as a manure, and contains more 
 nitrogen, potash and lime than straw. Rushes and sawdust are 
 frequently used in this colony, the former particularly. 
 
 Horse manure contains less moisture than that from either 
 cows or pigs, and, being drier, ferments quicker than the other two, 
 and is called a hot manure. That from cows and pigs containing 
 so much moisture, the fermentation is slow r , and consequently they 
 are called cold manures. The hot and cold manures are best 
 mixed, as the former assists the latter in setting up active fermen- 
 tation, while the addition of the cold manure to the hot prevents 
 too rapid fermentative action and consequent loss of ammonia, which 
 is volatilized. To prevent this to some extent fixers have been used, 
 such as gypsum, which is spread over the bedding. Munro recom- 
 mends ground peat. These fixers act by absorbing the ammonia. 
 
 In making farmyard manure the pit should be so constructed 
 that the liquid portion cannot drain away, otherwise it will carry 
 away the most valuable constituents of the manure and consider- 
 ably reduce its value. Manure made under cover is far more valu- 
 able than that made in the open, more especially in a hot climate 
 like Western Australia, where there is a long season of dry weather. 
 Continued exposure to the heat of the sun deteriorates it. 
 
 Lord Kinnaird experimented with the manure from an equal 
 number of animals of the same kind and age, and similarly fed. One 
 lot of animals was kept under cover, also the manure ; the others 
 were kept in an open yard. The following are the results of the 
 experiments : 
 
692 
 
 Manure produced under cover. Manure produced in open yard. 
 
 1st year Potatoes, n | tons per acre ist year Potatoes, 7 tons 12 c\vt. per acre 
 
 2nd,, Wheat grain, 45 bush. 2nd,, Wheat grain, 42 bush. 
 
 Straw, 215 ston, Straw, 150 stones 
 
 A great part of this difference is due to the loss of urine that takes 
 place in the open yard. The fermentative action in a manure is 
 somewhat similar to that which takes place in the soil during nitri- 
 fication. The decomposition will greatly depend on the amount of 
 nitrogen it contains, on the temperature, amount of moisture, and 
 access of air. The temperature in the centre of the heap should 
 not be allowed to rise above i5odeg. Fahr., or otherwise it get s 
 what is called fire-fang. 
 
 The temperature should be regulated by the addition of liquid 
 manure or \vater. The heap must not be drenched, or there will be 
 a large loss from drainage. If the fermentation is too rapid it will 
 generally be found to give off a strong odor of ammonia, which is 
 a loss. The heap should be trodden down to moderate the 
 fermentation. A great deal of the value of the manure depends on 
 the manner in which it is made. By want of proper care, the 
 manure by drainage and other causes may be of very little value. 
 Of course the value of farmyard, manure will mostly depend on the 
 food supplied to the animals. 
 
 This will be better explained by giving Lawes and Gilbert's 
 theoretical estimation of the money value of farmyard manure 
 derived from various foods, which is given in the following tables : 
 AYKR.U'.K COMPOSITION OF CATTLE FOODS FREED FROM WATER. 
 
 Linseed 
 Linseed cake 
 Decorticated < 
 Palm-nut cake... 
 I 'n.i.-i .unrated cc 
 Cocoanut cake ... 
 Rape cake 
 
 Peas 
 
 Beans 
 
 Lentils 
 
 i (seeds) 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Malt 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 teal 
 
 i 1 tan; 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 )ds. 
 
 Dry Matter. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Plios. Acid. 
 
 Pot:, . 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 l\r cent. 
 
 cent 
 
 ... 
 
 go'oo 
 
 V6o 
 
 I'54 
 
 1-57 
 
 ... 
 
 88'50 
 
 475 
 
 2 '00 
 
 1-40 
 
 otton cake 
 
 90-00 
 
 6-60 
 
 3'10 
 
 
 
 9 roo 
 
 2-50 
 
 T20 
 
 0-50 
 
 I cotton cake 
 
 87-00 
 
 375 
 
 2'00 - 
 
 
 90-00 
 
 3-40 
 
 1-40 
 
 
 ... 
 
 89*06 
 
 
 2-50 
 
 
 ... 
 
 85-00 
 
 3'6o 
 
 O'85 
 
 0-96 
 
 ... 
 
 85-00 
 
 4-00 
 
 [10 
 
 1-30 
 
 ... 
 
 88-00 
 
 4-20 
 
 "75 
 
 
 ... 
 
 84-00 
 
 4-20 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 r&o 
 
 o'53 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 r<>5 075 
 
 0-55 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 0*50 
 
 ... 
 
 90-00 
 
 
 60) 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1-20 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
693 
 
 AYKKAC.K COMPOSITION OF CATTLE FOODS FUKKD FROM WAII.K. 
 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Foods. 
 
 Per cuit. 
 
 Dry Matter. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 riios. Acid. 
 
 Potalh. 
 
 Malt combs 
 
 QO'OO 
 
 3 '90 
 
 2"OO 
 
 2'OO 
 
 Fine pollard 
 
 86-00 
 
 2-45 
 
 2-90 
 
 14" 
 
 Coar.-e pollard ... 
 
 S<r oo 
 
 2'5o 
 
 3'5 
 
 rs<> 
 
 Hum 
 
 
 2-50 
 
 3'6o 
 
 1-45 
 
 Clover hav ... ... 83'OO 
 
 2-40 
 
 o'57 
 
 1-50 
 
 \ hay ... 
 
 84-00 
 
 1-50 
 
 0-40 
 
 r6o 
 
 aw 
 
 82-50 
 
 
 0'35 
 
 roo 
 
 : raw 
 
 83*00 
 
 0*50 
 
 0-24 
 
 POO 
 
 Wlu-ai straw 
 
 Sj-OO 
 
 o*4S 
 
 0*24 
 
 0-80 
 
 Barley straw 
 
 MS 'oo 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-18 
 
 I 'GO 
 
 Bean straw 
 
 82'50 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-30 
 
 Pool 
 
 oes 
 
 25-00 
 
 0-25 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-55 
 
 Carrots 
 
 I4'oo 
 
 0'20 
 
 o'og 
 
 0-28 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 i6 - oo 
 
 0'22 
 
 O'lg 
 
 0-36 
 
 Swedish turnips 
 
 1 1 '00 
 
 0-25 
 
 0-06 
 
 0'22 
 
 Mangel-vvurzels 
 
 12-50 
 
 0'22 
 
 0-07 
 
 O - 4O 
 
 Yellow turnips ... 
 
 9-00 
 
 (T2O 
 
 (0-06) 
 
 0'22 
 
 White turnips ... 
 
 8-00 
 
 o-iS 
 
 0*05 
 
 0'30 
 
 While there is not much value placed on farmyard manure in 
 Europe, I am inclined to place a much higher value on its use in 
 Western Australia, not only as a fertilizer, but also for the physical 
 or mechanical effect it has on the light soil, which, unfortunately, 
 \ve have too much of in some parts of this colony. These light 
 soils are easily depleted of their plant food and their moisture, 
 as they are not sufficiently retentive. Farmyard manure adds a 
 large amount of organic matter to the soil, thereby making it more 
 retentive of moisture for subsequent use of the crop. This is a 
 matter that is of the highest importance to the farmer and should 
 be looked after as much as possible in a hot climate like this, where 
 the intervals between the falling of rain are very long and droughts 
 are not of unfrequent occurrence. 
 
 Two methods of putting farmyard manure into the land are 
 generally followed. The first is by depositing the manure on the 
 land in small heaps some time before it is ploughed in. This plan is 
 unsatisfactory, as a large quantity of the soluble plant food is 
 absorbed into the soil, so that the remainder of the heap is 
 impoverished. Under these circumstances one part of the land 
 receives an extra supply of plant food and the other very little. 
 This accounts to some extent for some fields being very patchy. 
 It is considered best to cart the manure direct from the pits on to 
 the ground, spreading it out on the land, and ploughing it in as soon 
 as possible, so that every part of the land will be equally enriched. 
 
694 
 
 ESTIMATE OF THE 
 Showing the data, the method and the results of the estimation of 
 
 
 
 NrmoGBK. 
 
 
 Fattening in- 
 
 
 
 crease in live 
 
 
 
 
 
 weight, oxen 
 
 
 In fattening 
 
 
 
 or sheep. 
 
 In food. 
 
 increase, at 
 
 In manure. 
 
 
 
 
 1-27 per cent. 
 
 
 Description of Food. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 xi 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 . 
 
 C . 
 
 r: _. 
 
 i, 
 
 
 If 
 
 N 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 S 
 
 |l 
 
 l] 
 
 2 \ 
 11 
 
 jl 
 
 = 1L 
 
 
 c* 
 
 h 
 
 S. 
 
 ft 
 
 8 
 
 H 
 
 |l 
 
 
 *** 1^ 
 
 
 pEri 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H" 
 
 Y,^ 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 ib. 
 
 p. c. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 p. c. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 ^ s. d. 
 
 Linseed 
 
 50 
 
 448 
 
 3* 
 
 80-64 
 
 5*69 
 
 7-06 
 
 74*95 
 
 91-0 
 
 256 
 
 Linseed cake 
 
 6-0 
 
 373-3 
 
 475 
 
 106-40 
 
 474 
 
 4'45 
 
 101 66 
 
 123-4 
 
 3 i 8 
 
 Decorticated cotton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cake 
 
 6-5 
 
 14 j 6 
 
 66 
 
 147-84 
 
 4-38 
 
 206 
 
 '43'4 6 
 
 174-2 
 
 4 7 i 
 
 Palm-nut cake 
 
 70 
 
 320-0 
 
 2 '5 
 
 50-00 
 
 4*06 
 
 7-25 
 
 5i 94 
 
 63-1 
 
 i ir 7 
 
 Unclean ticated cot- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton cake ... 
 
 So 
 
 280-0 
 
 3'75 
 
 8400 
 
 3-56 
 
 4-24 
 
 80-44 
 
 977 
 
 2 S 10 
 
 Cocoanut cake 
 
 8-0 
 
 280-0 
 
 3'4<> 
 
 76-16 
 
 35" 
 
 4-67 
 
 72-60 
 
 882 
 
 2 4 l 
 
 Rape cake ... 
 
 (10) 
 
 (224) 
 
 4-90 
 
 109-76 
 
 2*84 
 
 259 
 
 106-92 
 
 1 29-8 
 
 3 n u 
 
 Peas 
 
 70 
 
 320-0 
 
 36.- 
 
 80-64 
 
 4-06 
 
 503 
 
 76-58 
 
 03-0 
 
 266 
 
 Beans 
 
 7-0 
 
 320-0 
 
 4-00 
 
 89*60 
 
 4-06 
 
 4'53 
 
 8554 
 
 
 2 1 I II 
 
 Lentils 
 
 7-0 
 
 3200 
 
 4-20 
 
 94-08 
 
 4-0-, 
 
 4'32 
 
 90-02 
 
 1093 
 
 2 14 8 
 
 Tai\s (seeds, 
 
 7-0 
 
 3200 
 
 4-20 
 
 94-08 
 
 4-06 
 
 4-32 
 
 C.0'02 
 
 109-3 
 
 2 14 8 
 
 Indian corn 
 Wheat 
 
 7-2 
 7'2 
 
 311*1 
 
 X 
 
 38*08 
 40*32 
 
 3'95 
 3*95 
 
 10-37 
 9-80 
 
 34-13 
 36*37 
 
 44'2 
 
 i o 9 
 
 I 2 I 
 
 Malt 
 
 7-0 
 
 320-0 
 
 1-70 
 
 38-08 
 
 406 
 
 1066 
 
 34"^ 
 
 41-3 i o 8 
 
 Barlev 
 
 7-2 
 
 311*1 
 
 1*65 
 
 
 395 
 
 
 33 <" 
 
 401 : o i 
 
 Oats ' 
 
 7'5 
 
 298*7 
 
 2'00 
 
 4480 
 
 3'79 
 
 846 
 
 41-01 
 
 4o-S i 411 
 
 Rice meal . . 
 
 7*5 
 
 2987 
 
 1 .,0 
 
 4 *.>" 
 
 379 
 
 8*91 
 
 
 47-1 i 
 
 Locust beans 
 
 9-0 
 
 2489 
 
 T20 
 
 2688 
 
 316 
 
 11 76 
 
 23-72 
 
 28-8 o 14 5 
 
 Malt combs 
 
 80 
 
 2800 
 
 3-90 
 
 8&6 
 
 356 
 
 ( ,,x 
 
 8380 
 
 1088 2 10 II 
 
 Fine pollard 
 Coarse pollard 
 
 7'5 
 80 
 
 2800 
 
 2M5 
 2 50 
 
 54*88 
 56-00 
 
 3*79 
 3-56 
 
 6*35 
 
 51-09 
 
 5^44 
 
 62-0 i u o 
 63*7 i u 10 
 
 Bran 
 
 90 
 
 248*9 
 
 2-50 
 
 56-00 
 
 3-K. 
 
 5<>4 
 
 5' 84 
 
 64-2 I 12 1 
 
 Clover liny ... 
 
 14-0 
 
 160*0 
 
 2-40 
 
 
 20-3 
 
 378 
 
 5i73 
 
 62 8 1 I I 5 
 
 Meadow hay 
 
 15-0 
 
 149*3 
 
 1-50 
 
 33-60 
 
 1-90 
 
 5&5 
 
 3'7o 
 
 3 5 > 
 
 Pea straw ... 
 
 16-0 
 
 140-0 
 
 TOO 
 
 22-40 
 
 ' -s 
 
 7*95 
 
 20-62 
 
 
 o 12 6 
 
 Oat straw ... 
 
 180 
 
 1244 
 
 O'5O 
 
 I 1 20 
 
 
 14 u 
 
 962 
 
 i i 7 
 
 o ^ 1C 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 21 O 
 
 106*7 
 
 "45 
 
 10-o8 
 
 1*36 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 Barley straw 
 
 2.30 
 
 ( '7'4 
 
 0-40 
 
 8*06 
 
 1 24 
 
 I } S4 
 
 77- 
 
 "4 
 
 4 8 
 
 Bian straw... 
 
 22'0 
 
 lors 
 
 '"" 
 
 20 Hi 
 
 1 20 
 
 639 
 
 1X87 
 
 
 oil (1 
 
 Potators 
 
 60'0 
 
 37-3 
 
 "-5 
 
 
 >*47 
 
 
 5 i.i 
 
 
 o 3 i 
 
 Cam.ts 
 
 857 
 
 
 O*2O 
 
 
 
 7'37 
 
 4' '5 
 
 5*9 
 
 026 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 75'0 
 
 2' .) 
 
 
 493 
 
 
 77i 
 
 455 
 
 55 
 
 029 
 
 Swedish turnips 
 
 1 o. , 1 
 
 9O'5 
 
 025 
 
 
 
 4-64 
 
 5 3 1 
 
 65 
 
 33 
 
 Mangel wnr/.els 
 
 ofro 
 
 
 o'22 
 
 
 
 6*00 
 
 
 5" 
 
 O 2 1O 
 
 Yellow turnip* 
 
 
 
 
 448 
 
 o 21 
 
 
 
 5 2 
 
 027 
 
 White tin nips 
 
 1500 
 
 '4') 
 
 0*18 
 
 4-03 
 
 
 471 
 
 3^4 
 
 47 
 
 2 4 
 
695 
 
 Okir.ixxi. M. \\rix-i- Y.\i,t*K. 
 
 the original manure value of cattle foods after consumption : 
 
 I'llo-l'HOKK- AUI>, 
 
 I'ol \MI. 
 
 
 
 In fattening 
 
 
 
 In Fattening 
 
 |1 
 
 In t'ooil. 
 
 Increa 
 
 In manure. 
 
 In food. 
 
 increase. ;it In manure. 
 
 el 
 
 
 v '' pi-r cent. 
 
 
 
 o'l i per cm; 
 
 ^ 
 c - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r: '- 
 
 >- _- 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 ,t 
 
 T 
 
 Wl 
 
 
 
 
 
 r: 
 
 :: 
 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 | . 
 
 f 
 
 'n ~ 
 
 > . 
 
 *J 
 
 j 
 
 a 
 
 f "S 
 
 '~ *J 
 'r. :: 
 
 
 -5.- 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 |f 
 
 if 
 
 1 S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;! 
 
 si 
 
 If 
 
 it 
 
 1! 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ~L ^ 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 * 
 
 OH 
 
 
 p 
 
 ^ D 
 
 -^ z 
 
 % 
 
 r- 1 Cil 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 H" 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 & 
 
 ~ 
 
 ** 
 
 
 p. c. Ib. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 p. C. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 S. (1. 
 
 p. C. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 p. C. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 1-54 34-50 
 
 3-85 
 
 ino 
 
 30-65 
 
 7 
 
 1-37 
 
 30-69 
 
 0-49 
 
 1 00 
 
 30-20 
 
 6 3 2 19 5 
 
 2 -co 44 '80 
 
 3-21 
 
 7 '7 
 
 4*'S9 
 
 
 1-40 
 
 3i'3f> 
 
 041 
 
 1-31 
 
 3095 
 
 6 5 3 18 6 
 
 3"io 
 
 69-44 
 
 
 4-26 
 
 66-48 
 
 16 8 
 
 2'OO 
 
 44-80 
 
 0-38 
 
 o 85 
 
 44'42 
 
 9 3 5 13 o 
 
 
 
 TTS 
 
 10 23 
 
 24-13 
 
 6 u 
 
 050 
 
 1 1 20 
 
 035 
 
 3-13 
 
 10-85 
 
 23 i 19 lo 
 
 2'CO 
 
 4480 
 
 241 
 
 
 42-39 
 
 10 7 
 
 2'OO 
 
 44-80 
 
 0-31 
 
 069 
 
 44'4 l > 
 
 5 " 354 
 
 I-40 
 
 31 30 
 
 241 
 
 768 
 
 28-93 
 
 7 3 
 
 2-00 
 
 44-80 
 
 031 
 
 0-69 
 
 
 9 3 3 " 7 
 
 2-50 
 
 5600 
 
 1 93 
 
 3'45 
 
 54-07 
 
 3 b 
 
 i '50 
 
 33-60 
 
 0-25 
 
 "74 
 
 33 35 
 
 " " 454 
 
 085 
 
 1904 
 
 275 
 
 14-44 
 
 If -2<J 
 
 4 J 
 
 0-96 
 
 2150 
 
 <)-35 
 
 1 63 
 
 21 15 
 
 45 2 15 o 
 
 no 
 
 
 275 
 
 11-16 
 
 2189 
 
 5 <> 
 
 1-30 
 
 29-12 
 
 "'35 
 
 I'20 
 
 28- 7 7 
 
 6 o 3 3 s 
 
 075 
 
 ^80 
 
 7S 
 
 1637 
 
 M05 
 
 3 r> 
 
 0-70 
 
 15-68 
 
 <> 35 
 
 2-23 
 
 '533 
 
 32 314 
 
 080 
 
 17., 2 
 
 2/5 
 
 1535 
 
 15-17 
 
 3 9 
 
 080 17<)2 
 
 "35 
 
 i 95 
 
 1757 
 
 3 
 
 3 2 I 
 
 060 
 
 1344 
 
 
 1994 
 
 10-76 
 
 2 8 
 
 O'S7 8'29 
 
 "34 
 
 4-10 
 
 7-95 
 
 I 8 
 
 5 I 
 
 0-85 
 
 1904 
 
 
 ,4-08 
 
 16 V) 
 
 4 i 
 
 053 
 
 1 1 87 
 
 "34 
 
 2 80 
 
 ii ^3 
 
 2 5 
 
 8 7 
 
 0-80 1792 
 
 2 7^ 
 
 15-35 
 
 I5'7 
 
 3 9 
 
 0-50 
 
 11 20 
 
 "'35 
 
 3 13 
 
 1085 
 
 2 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 075 
 
 16-80 
 
 268 
 
 '595 
 
 14-12 
 
 3 '> 
 
 0-55 12-32 
 
 0-34 
 
 2-76 
 
 1 1-98 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 I 
 
 0'6o 
 
 i V44 
 
 2-57 
 
 Ci9-i2) 
 
 1087 
 
 2 8 
 
 050 
 
 11-20 
 
 " 33 
 
 2-94 
 
 1087 
 
 2 3 
 
 9 lo 
 
 (O'(0) 
 
 ('3'44> 
 
 257 
 
 (19-12) 
 
 (108 7 ) 
 
 (2 8) 
 
 (037) 
 
 (8-29) 
 
 33 
 
 (4-00) 
 
 (7V>) 
 
 (I 8) 
 
 ' 7io) 
 
 
 
 2*14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 44-80 
 
 7-41 
 
 5-38 
 
 4239 
 
 10 7 
 
 200 
 
 44-80 
 
 "31 
 
 0-69 4449 
 
 9 3 
 
 !() 9 
 
 200 
 
 64 96 
 
 257 
 
 3-96 
 
 62-39 
 
 IS 7 
 
 I- 4 6 
 
 3270 
 
 <>'33 
 
 i 01 32 37 
 
 6 9 
 
 13 4 
 
 3 '5" 
 
 78-40 
 
 2-41 
 
 3-07 
 
 75-99 
 
 19 o 
 
 i 5 
 
 33 < o 
 
 0-31 
 
 Ot)2 33-29 
 
 6 n 
 
 17 9 
 
 3<o 
 
 80-64 
 
 2-14 
 
 2-65 
 
 7850 
 
 ,9 8 
 
 i-45 
 
 32 4 
 
 0-27 
 
 , s:; 
 
 3221 
 
 6 8 
 
 lX 5 
 
 o-57 
 
 1277 
 
 1-38 
 
 10-81 
 
 1 1 -39 
 
 2 IO 
 
 150 
 
 3360 
 
 0-18 
 
 "54 
 
 33-42 
 
 7 o 
 
 i 3 
 
 0-40 
 
 896 
 
 T2S 
 
 14-28 
 
 7 68 
 
 I II 
 
 i 60 
 
 35-84 
 
 0-16 
 
 045 
 
 3568 
 
 7 5 
 
 8 7 
 
 035 
 
 7-84 
 
 1-20 
 
 1531 
 
 6-64 
 
 I 8 
 
 roo 
 
 2240 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-67 
 
 22-25 
 
 4 
 
 o ]S lo 
 
 024 
 
 5-38 
 
 1-07 
 
 1989 
 
 4'3i 
 
 i i 
 
 I 00 
 
 22-40 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-63 
 
 22 26 
 
 4 8 
 
 o u 7 
 
 0-24 
 
 5*38 
 
 092 
 
 1710 
 
 4-46 
 
 i i 
 
 080 
 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-67 
 
 I -'So 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 M 10 I 
 
 0-18 
 
 4-03 
 
 0-84 
 
 20-84 
 
 3-19 
 
 o 9 
 
 roo 
 
 2240 
 
 11 
 
 0-49 
 
 22 29 
 
 4 
 
 <> lo I 
 
 0-30 
 
 6 7 2 
 
 0-88 
 
 13 10 
 
 5-84 
 
 i 5 
 
 rod 
 
 22 40 
 
 o-ll 
 
 "49 
 
 22-29 
 
 4 ^ 
 
 o i; 7 
 
 0-15 
 
 3-36 
 
 0-32 
 
 952 
 
 304 
 
 o 9 
 
 055 
 
 12-32 
 
 0-04 
 
 032 
 
 12-28 
 
 2 7 
 
 o 6 5 
 
 0-09 
 
 2"02 
 
 O'22 
 
 10-89 
 
 1-80 
 
 o 5 
 
 0-28 
 
 6-27 
 
 003 
 
 0-48 
 
 6 24 
 
 i j 
 
 4 3 
 
 0-H) 
 
 4-26 
 
 O-26 
 
 6-10 
 
 400 
 
 t o 
 
 036 
 
 806 
 
 0-03 
 
 "37 
 
 8-03 
 
 i 8 
 
 5 5 
 
 O06 
 
 i'34 
 
 O'l8 
 
 1343 
 
 i 16 
 
 o 4 
 
 0-22 
 
 493 
 
 002 
 
 0-41 
 
 4 ( /i 
 
 I 
 
 "47 
 
 0-07 
 
 157 
 
 0'20 
 
 12-74 
 
 1-37 
 
 o 4 
 
 040 
 
 896 
 
 0-03 
 
 "'34 
 
 8-93 
 
 I 10 
 
 050 
 
 (006) 
 
 (i-34,> 
 
 0-14 
 
 (10-78) 
 
 (120) 
 
 (o 4) 
 
 (022) 
 
 <4'93) 
 
 0"O2 
 
 (034) 
 
 '4'<;i ) 
 
 (I o 
 
 (<> 3 ID 
 
 005 
 
 ri2 
 
 0-13 
 
 11 61 
 
 o-99 
 
 o 3 
 
 0-30 
 
 672 
 
 0-02 
 
 030 
 
 67,, 
 
 i 5 
 
 040 
 
POISONED MANURE. 
 
 Manure made from straw that has been affected by rust, 
 mildew, smut and bunt, should not be mixed with the general 
 manure. The spores of the fungi that cause these diseases are in 
 the straw as well as in the grain. They hibernate well until the 
 spring in farmyard manure, and are then ready for active life. 
 Such a manure should not be used to manure cereals, otherwise 
 one is sure to have another attack of these diseases in the next 
 crop. The land from which the diseased crop has been removed 
 should not be used for cereals or the same class of crop at least for 
 two years following. It is very possible that some of the failures 
 of rust-proof wheats that have occurred have been due to the 
 application of infected manures, or through being sown in land 
 where fungoid spores were lying dormant until the time of the 
 growth of the crop commenced. The haulms and diseased tubers 
 of potatoes that have been attacked by the potato disease should 
 not be thrown on the manure heap. If they are mixed with the 
 manure the fungus of the potato disease is introduced into the whole 
 of the dung. The diseased tubers and haulms should be burnt. 
 For manure made from straw affected by the fungi of either rust, 
 mildew, smut, or bunt, Griffiths recommends an application of 
 ferrous sulphate, one pound to the gallon of water, to be applied to 
 the manure before ploughing it into the land. He also recommends 
 a top dressing of half a cwt. of ferrous sulphate per acre to wheat 
 likely to be attacked by the fungi, shortly after it has appeared 
 above ground. 
 
 Farmyard manure is estimated to contain from 13 to 14 per 
 cent, of organic matter containing -4 to '65 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 The mineral matter from 4 to 6-5 per cent., containing 4 to 7 per 
 cent, of potash and -2 to -4 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
 
 From these ligures Warington has calculated that one ton of 
 farmyard manure contains from 9 to 15 Ibs. of nitrogen and potash, 
 and 4 to 9 Ibs. of phosphoric acid. These quantities of nitrogen 
 and phosphoric acid calculated to (95 per cent.) nitrate of soda (97 
 per cent.) sulphate of ammonia, and (25 p r cent.) superphosphate, 
 give respectively equal to 96 Ibs. of nitrate of soda, 45 to 75 Ibs. of 
 sulphate of ammonia and 35 to 79 Ibs. of superphosphate. 
 
 A light dressing of farmyard manure is from 7 to 10 ton- per 
 acre, medium or ordinary from 12 to 18 tons, heavy 20 to jS tons, 
 and very heavy 30 tons. Farmyard manure should always be used 
 in conjunction with artificial manures. 
 
 IRRIGATION WITH Liorin MANTRK. 
 
 It is held by not a few practical market gardeners that it is an 
 economical method to apply the liquid portion of farmyard 
 manure, by irrigation, as a top dressing to the voting crop. 
 It not only supplies moisture, but also a large amount ot soluble 
 plant food easily assimilated by the young crop, which will enable 
 
6 9 7 
 
 it to maintain a healthy and rapid growth at the most critical 
 period. Hv the filtration of the liquid into the soil, carrying with 
 it the soluble manure to the roots of the plants, they have an imme- 
 diate supply ot" food and are not placed under the necessity to the 
 same extent to expand in all directions in search of food ; and in 
 the later stages ot their growth they will be better able to take up 
 supplies from the more insoluble manures. A healthy and rapid 
 growth in the early stages will better enable the crops to resist the 
 attacks ot" the various pests that they are liable to. This is pure 
 and simple a method of top dressing. The great benelits to be 
 derived from top dressing will be treated later on. Liquid manure 
 should be applied in a very dilute state. It is too concentrated as 
 it runs from the stable or barn drains or from the manure heap ; it 
 should be diluted with a large addition of water. If the liquid 
 manure is applied in a concentrated form it is liable to do more 
 harm than good. 
 
 Liquid manure is not a complete manure. We have seen that 
 the liquid excreta of cows, horses, sheep, and pigs contains a large 
 percentage of nitrogen, and most of the potash and the solid excreta 
 contains all the phosphoric acid. To convert the liquid portion 
 into a more complete manure the tank for the reception of the 
 liquid manure should be placed at the end of the manure heap. 
 The heap should be drenched occasionally with water to dissolve 
 out as much as possible of the mineral and organic matter which is 
 allowed to run into the tank. 
 
 The following device taken from SI awl's Irrigation for the 
 Farm ami Garden for a cheap and simple manure tank, of which- a 
 section is shown in the accompanying woodcut, may be made as 
 follows : A pit or vat, D, is dug and cemented with water-lime, or 
 lined with plank, so as to be perfectly water-tight. This vat is 
 covered with a plank floor, through which a wooden pump passes, 
 and rests upon the bottom of the tank. The si/e of the vat, of course, 
 will correspond with what is required of it. A useful size for a 
 market garden, or for a farm where a few acres of soiling crops are 
 raised each year, w r ill be 16 feet square and 8 feet deep. At the 
 end of the \ at another excavation is made sufficiently large to con- 
 tain the pile of manure or materials for a compost that can be 
 gathered and used. This excavation, seen at B, may be 24 to 30 
 feet long, as wide as the vat, and gradually increasing in depth from 
 3 or 4 feet at the further end, to 6 or 8 inches more at the end 
 connecting with the vat. The excavation should be floored with 
 double boards, with a coating of .isplialt or tar between them, and 
 the sides cemented. A coarse grating of stout poles or timbers are 
 laid across this shallow portion of the vat, and is supported in the 
 centre by blocks or short posts placed at intervals beneath it. 
 Smaller poles or rails are laid upon these timbers not more than 6 
 or 8 inches apart. 
 
698 
 
 Upon these poles the manure is piled in a Hat heap, made 
 hollow or dishing at the top, so as to collect all the water that may 
 fall upon it. The heap need not be more than live feet high, which 
 is sufficient to cause an active fermentation to be kept up through 
 the whole of it. The materials of which this heap is composed will 
 include everything of a mineral or organic character useful for 
 manure, that can be procured stable manure, straw, rushes, weeds 
 sawdust, peat muck, leaves, wood, earth, night soil, leather scraps, 
 tanner's waste, butcher's offal, ashes, plaster, and bone dust and 
 the skilful operator will add from time to time such chemical sub- 
 stances as he needs to enrich the compost. The water in the vat 
 
 should be frequently pumped out for use and a fresh supply poured 
 upon the heap. A pump that will not readily be choked should be 
 used. One with a collapsing bucket, with leathern sides, and of a 
 conical form, is the most useful. The waste water from the roofs 
 might be discharged upon the heap by a simple arrangement of 
 spouts. The object desired, vix., to gather every soluble part of 
 the manure into the vat, should be forwarded by every possible 
 means. The distribution of the liquid manure may be (lone by 
 horse or hand cart distributors, or by pipe and no/xle, according to 
 whichever is most suitable. 
 
MANURES, 
 
 I Mood in the natural state contains from 2-5 to 5 per cent, of 
 nitrogen and about 7 JUT cent of ash. Dried blood contains 6 to 
 i () per cent, of nitrogen. The commercial article seldom contains 
 more than u per cent, nitrogen and a little over i per cent, of 
 phosphoric acid. Blood dried by means of hot water or steam does 
 not char and is easily ground to a powder. Acid clotted blood is 
 made by adding sulphuric acid to the blood to prevent its decom- 
 position, and then drying it by steam. It contains 6 to 7 per cent. 
 nitrogen. It is generally in small semi-dried pieces. Mixed with 
 ground bones, bone ash, or mineral phosphates, it makes a dark 
 coloured manure with a very strong smell, something like a guano. 
 Lean tlesh has a composition nearly similar to that of blood. The 
 carcases of diseased horses, cows, dogs, etc., are treated 
 with sulphuric acid and dried by means of steam. The mixture 
 is generally mixed with superphosphates to give them nitrogen. 
 Blood and flesh manures are principally valuable as nitrogenous 
 manures. The nitrogen is not so valuable in these manures as in 
 sulphate of ammonia, it is not soluble enough for many crops. 
 The crops that are most benehted by blood and flesh manures are 
 wheat, hops, turnips and fruit trees. These manures are best 
 adapted to light soils. Whether these manures can be compared 
 in any way with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, so far as 
 economy is concerned, will depend on circumstances. If they 
 have to be carted long distances, the charges will preclude the use 
 of them as manures, as they are very bulky. One thing against the 
 use of them to any great extent in Western Australia will be the 
 ash, which, although small in amount, contains about 70 per cent, 
 of chlorides, which is not an element that it is advisable to introduce 
 into the soils here, as in a great many cases they are already too 
 highly charged with them. 
 
 HORN, HIDES, LKATHER CLIPPINGS, AND HAIR. 
 These contain nitrogen from 14 to 17 per cent., and ash about 
 i per cent. They are only valuable for the nitrogen they contain. 
 Although they contain so much nitrogen they are of very little value 
 as a manure, as their action is too slow in the soil, taking from two 
 to four years for complete decomposition. They are mostly used in 
 manure works for mixing with mineral phosphates and sulphuric 
 acid in the making of superphosphates. It is a cheaper method of 
 adding nitrogen to these superphosphates than using ammonium 
 sulphate. Woollen waste or shoddy contains about four to ten per 
 cent, of nitrogen. It is principally used as a cheap method of 
 addng nitrogen in manufacturing superphosphates, and after treat- 
 ment with sulphuric acid it is used as a manure for hops. 
 
 ANIMAL, OR MEAT-MEAL GUANO. 
 
 This is made from the refuse after treating the carcases of 
 cattle by the Liebig's process for the making of the extract sold 
 
yoo 
 
 as meat, or Liebig's extract of meat. It contains from 3 to 8 per 
 cent, of nitrogen and from 15 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
 It is principally made in South America. Xe\v Zealand and Queens- 
 land, in the tinned meat works. It is also made in Germany from 
 the carcases of diseased animals by treating them with steam to 
 extract the fat and gelatine, the refuse being dried and ground 
 up for a manure. " This manure generally contains less phosphoric 
 acid and more nitrogen than that made in the tinned meat works. 
 These manures are not of a high class value, their action in the 
 soil being slow, owing to most of their constituents being in a very 
 insoluble state, and not in such a state that they can be readily 
 taken up by growing crops. These manures are mixed up with 
 dried blood and fiesh, and further mixed with bone ash, steamed 
 bones or mineral phosphates, and sold under the name < f bone 
 dust. They have no right to be called or sold as bone-dust, as 
 thev are nothing of the kind, nor are they of the value of bone- 
 dust as a fertilizer. I would consider that any manufacturer or 
 merchant who sells such a mixture is committing a fraud if he sells 
 it as bone-dust. 
 
 FISH MANURES, OR GUAXO. 
 
 These are made from the refuse of fish after extracting the oil, 
 also from tish that is not marketable, as well as from that which has 
 become tainted, and from the iish bones, scraps, and entrails from 
 canneries in America, Norway, and to some extent in England. 
 These manures contain from 6 to 8 per cent, of nitrogen, and 6 to 7 
 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Those Iish manures made from the 
 raw fish are not so valuable as those made from the boiled iish, as 
 the oil in the raw tish guano retards the fermentation of the manure 
 in the soi . The same also applies to the me.t-meal or flesh 
 guano. 
 
 Dr. A. Vollcker gives the analyses of two samples of dried tish 
 manures : 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Moisture 
 1 Organic matter and water of combination 
 - 1'hosphoric acid 
 
 I4-31 
 605 
 
 ' ', ' S 7 
 46-91 
 
 Lime... 
 
 i i ' j 7 
 
 1 4 '4S 
 
 Iron oxide, alumina, magnesia, S:c. 
 Insoluble matter 
 
 ;|3 
 
 12-22 
 
 5''4 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 ' Containing nitrogen ... ... ... 8 - o6 6'62 
 Ki]iial to ammonia ... ... ... <i 7 ' V <M 
 '" ,, tricaldc phosphate ... ... ... i.V-'i i(n\ 
 
701 
 
 T. Fairley gives the following analysis of a sample : 
 
 Moisture ... 16*46 
 
 Organic matter and salts of ammonia 58' 10 
 
 Phosphate of lime, magnesia, etc. '5'-?o 
 Calcium sulphate ... ... 0^96 
 
 Alkaline salts ... ... ... 6-55 
 
 Insoluble silicious matter ... 273 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 Containing nitrogen ... ... 7*87 
 
 Equal to ammonia ... ... 9-55 
 
 These manures should be used at a rate of 5 cwt. per acre in 
 conjunction with potash and a small quantity of soluble phos- 
 phates and some ammonium sulphate. They should be placed in 
 the ground some weeks before the seed in autumn to allow them 
 plenty of time to ferment. 
 
 Fish guanos are made in Norway with a large percentage of 
 potash. One firm manufactures two kinds of these manures cod 
 and potash, and herring and potash. The first is branded C.P. on 
 the bags, the other S.P. on the bags. The following are analyses 
 of the two brands : 
 
 C.P. Brand. S.P. Brand. 
 
 Nitrogen (equal to ammonia) ... 7*0 7*5 
 
 Phosphates (fish bone) ... 2O - o 8 - o 
 
 Potash sulphate ... ... i5'o 15-0 
 
 Magnesia ... ... ... io'O lO'O 
 
 Sand ... ... ... ro ro 
 
 Water ... ... ... 5-0 5-0 
 
 They are recommended for cereals, roots and leguminous crops r 
 spread broadcast on the land and harrowed in. They are also recom- 
 mended for vegetables, using 7 cwt. to the acre. 
 
 There is no doubt that the fish manures are valuable, although 
 slow in their action in the ground. They are cheap manures, and to 
 be compared with the high class manures, they must be cheap to 
 come into general use. With so much fish all along our coast, and 
 the amount of waste, not only from those fish that are not saleable, 
 but also from those that are saleable, I am surprised that something 
 has not been done to convert these valuable waste products into 
 readily saleable manures. I am sure it would prove a remunerative 
 business to any company or firm undertaking the making of them. 
 
 These manures are sometimes used by unscrupulous 
 manufacturers to mix with superphosphates with the view of adding 
 nitrogen to their superphosphates. The analysis would not show 
 whether the nitrogen was from bones or fish. The nitrogen in 
 fish is not so valuable as that in bones. 
 
702 
 
 GRKKX MAM* KING. 
 
 This system of manuring, like most others, has its drawbacks as 
 well as its benefits. It is not so much used now as formerly in the 
 older countries, on account of the more general supplies of artificial 
 manures, and their soils are not so much benefited by green manur- 
 ing as those we have here will be. The soils generally in Western 
 Australia are of a light nature, an \ low in humus matter, which 
 gives them a low retentive and absorbtive power, and are more 
 rapidly depleted of their mineral plant food. They are, then, in a 
 state of not being able to fix the manures added to them so well as 
 those with plenty of organic matter and mineral matter. One of 
 the great benefits to the soils here by growing a catch crop, of say 
 mustard, rye, lupin, rape, buckwheat, vetches, clover or turnips, is 
 that b*y ploughing in the crop just as it flowers, the soil receives a 
 large amount of organic matter, also the large amount of mineral 
 matter which the crop brings up from the sub-soil to the surface 
 is returned to the soil, binding the particles more compactly 
 together, the soil becomes more tenacious, and being better able to 
 retain more moisture nnd increasing its power to fix ammonia and 
 the inorganic plant food. This is only one of the means 
 that can be used for increasing the tenacity of the soil. It 
 would be more beneficial still if before ploughing in 
 the green crop, it had a good heavy dressing of clay, and the 
 two would act much better than if used singly. Another 
 reason for its use in this colony is that so much of the crops that are 
 grown are made into chaff and sent away from the farm, so that 
 the en L ire amount of organic and inorganic matter taken from the 
 soil by the crop is lost for ever to that soil, and artificial manures 
 cannot make the humus good, at least to any great extent. Were 
 it not for the particular benefits to be derived from it in this hot 
 climate, no one would care to advocate green manuring while \ve 
 have s-) many cheap artificial manures, which are much better by 
 far as manures. 
 
 OIL CAKKS. 
 
 The several oil cakes that are to be found in the market have a 
 very high value as manures. Although they have a high manure 
 value, they are too high priced to be used as manures direct. They 
 are best used as feeding stuffs, and the manure obtained from the 
 dung of the animals. The values of the manures from the different 
 feeding stuffs will be found in Lawes and Gilbert's table of values 
 (pages 694 and 60.5). 
 
 ARTIFICIAL MANTKK. 
 
 We have already seen that farmyard manure is not in itself cap- 
 able of maintaining the soil in a fertile condition, even where the 
 straw is used on the farm. Where the whole or part of the straw is 
 sent away, as when chaff is made and sold off the farm, the soil will 
 be brought to an impoverished condition in a much shorter time. 
 By the employment of artificial manure, we are enabled 
 
 
703 
 
 maintain the conditions of complete fertility, it" \ve use them in a 
 judicious manner. They supply large quantities ot" the mine-nil and 
 organic matter necessary for the crop, and that in small hulk. They 
 act as direct carriers of food to the- plant. They act both chemi- 
 cally and mechanically on the soil, by stimulating and aiding the 
 disintegration of the inert mineral matter, and rendering active the 
 process of nitrification, they enable the soil t > attract a larger amount 
 of moisture as well as act in the capacity of fixers of plant food in 
 the soil. It has been said that artificial manures are exhausted in a 
 year, a :d this is used as an argument against them, but it has been 
 proved that with the exception, perhaps, of nitrate of soda, which is 
 liable to be washed out of the soil, they are not exhausted in 
 the first year ; even if we were to acknowledge that they 
 are exhausted so speedily, it is always more econ mical to 
 manure the crop than the ground. Some scientists harp on the 
 point that we are still in the dark as to the ac.ion of many of these 
 manures in the soil, ('.ranted this is so, we have still sufficient light 
 to guide us to an intelligent and profitable use of them. leather 
 than sit down in our partial darkness doing nothing it is better we 
 should march on with the light we have, hoping that scL nee will 
 still further enlighten us some day on the dark points. 
 
 Of course no single simple manure would be of any good to a. 
 crop unless the other elements required were in sufficient quantities 
 in the soil. The farmer ag tin may have taken it for granted that 
 the merchant has supplied him with the manure he ordered. 
 Unfortunately in too many cases these manures are not what they 
 are intended to represent. Further, the soil may not be suited to 
 the crops, and climatic influences may have something to clo with 
 failures as well as the manures. 
 
 To apply them with economic success the farmer must know 
 the requirements of his soil and the action of the individual 
 manures upon them. 
 
 The first of these manures that we will consider will be the 
 bones in their various states. 
 
 RAW BOXKS. 
 
 Bones in a coarse state of \ and \ inch were at one time used 
 largely for pasture land. To a great extent this use of coarse bones 
 has been abandoned and the more economical bone dust or bone 
 meal has taken its place. Bones are a rich phosphatic manure con- 
 taining nitrogen equal to 4 to 5 per cent, of ammonia and 45 to 54 
 per cent, of phosphate of lime. The Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England's standard requires a guarantee of nitrogen equal to 4 per 
 cent, of ammonia and 45 to 48 per cent, of phosphatic lime. The 
 following are analyses of bones : 
 
704 
 
 N". i. 
 
 Moisture ... ... ... i2'O2 
 
 Organic matter ... ... 2871 
 
 Phosphate of lime ... ... 4</^ 
 
 Carbonate of lime ... ... 4-37 
 
 Alkaline salts ... ... 4-55 
 
 Sand ... ... ... i '07 
 
 lOO'OO lOO'OO 
 
 i. Nitrogen ... 3-44 373 
 
 Equal to ammonia ... ... 4-17 4-53 
 
 BONE DUST, OR BOXE MEAL. 
 
 Bones ground to a very tine state are far more active in the 
 soil than when coarse. In the line state a larger surface is exposed 
 to the action of oxygen and other agencies which cause the bones 
 to ferment and render them more easily soluble. Bone dust is a 
 slow manure. That made from steamed bones is more soluble 
 than that made from raw bones. Bone clust is much more valuable 
 than mineral phosphates or the phosphatic guanos, not only because 
 it contains a fair percentage of nitrogen, but also because it is more 
 soluble in the soil than either of these other phosphatic manures. 
 It is beneficial as a top dressing for pasture land if 7 to 10 c\vt. per 
 acre is given. The crops that are most benefited by it, however, are 
 turnips, potatoes, hops, vines, and tobacco, giving from 5 to 6 cwt. 
 per acre as a dressing in conjunction with potash. It is best 
 adapted for light soils. 
 
 I must protest against the mixtures sold in Western Australia 
 under the name of bone dust, which are merely composts 
 of dried blood, flesh, and some bones, with either bone ash or 
 mineral phosphates. Bone ash and mineral phosphates have not 
 an agricultural value equal to bone dust. They are not so easily 
 rendered soluble in the soil. A compost, or any other substance, 
 should be sold only under the name that would designate its com- 
 position, and not under the name of something entirely different 
 from it. I understand the merchants are not entirely to blame for 
 this state of things, the farmer being in a great measure culpable. 
 When speaking to a merchant about this, he informed me that he 
 could not sell pure bone dust. Farmers would not have it. What 
 they want is something that stinks. If smell is the farmer's criterion 
 of a manure, in these composts they certainly get all they want. If 
 manures are bought and applied to the soil on the basis of smell, 
 one need not be surprised that the results are not so satisfactory as 
 are otien anticipated. 
 
 Kermeiit'.-d bones are prepared by mixing the bones with heavy 
 soil or clay. The heap is then drenched with urine and covered 
 with peaty soil or clav aii'l allowed to ferment tor two or three 
 weeks. Fermented bones are more soluble and quicker in their 
 action than raw bones. 
 
70S 
 
 Boiled bones arc prepared by boiling the bones or by treating 
 them with steam under a high pressure, which extracts a lar^e pro- 
 portion of the fat and gelatine they contain. The bones are ren- 
 dered more porous and brittle. They contain from I. 1 , to 2 per 
 cent, of nitrogen and from 54 to 63 per cent, of phosphate of lime. 
 They arc of less value, as far as the nitrogen is concerned, than raw 
 bones, but they are more valuable in the phosphates, which are not 
 only higher bn; more soluble. Konig found that raw bones did 
 not disappear before four years from the soil, while boiled bones 
 disappeared in ten months. 
 
 Dissolved bones are prepared by treating them with sulphuric 
 acid to convert part of the insoluble phosphate of lime into a 
 soluble state. This is the most valuable bone manure, and one of 
 the best soluble phosphatic manures. There is not so much of this 
 manure made now as formerly, the cheaper superphosphates made 
 from mineral phosphates, phospho-guanos, bone ash, and bone 
 charcoal taking its place. 
 
 BONE ASH. 
 
 By burning bones the organic matter and moisture is burned 
 out of them, leaving a white ash which contains from 64 to 86 per 
 cent, of phosphate of lime, but no nitrogen. It is principally used 
 for the manufacturing of superphosphates. It is sometimes used to 
 adulterate bone manures, or when dissolved, sold as dissolved 
 bones, which it has no right to be called, as it is no more bones 
 than mineral phosphates are. It is certainly inferior to bones in its 
 action in the soil. 
 
 Bone black or bone charcoal is made by burning bones in 
 closed retorts or kilns. The nitrogen distills over as ammonia, 
 and is collected in sulphuric acid. The black charred mass is 
 taken out of the retorts and cooled. Bone black is principally 
 used in sugar refining. After some time it loses its power of 
 clarifying the sugar solution from coloring matter, and it is then 
 used to make superphosphates. It is slightly superior to bone ash r 
 but very much inferior to bones as a manure. 
 
 The use of these two phosphates in the soil will be best dealt with 
 when we come to superphosphates, as they are generally made into 
 these. 
 
 COPROLITES, OR MINERAL PHOSPHATES. 
 
 Coprolites have been found in a great many parts of the world. 
 Those found in the sedimentary rocks are generally in an amorphous 
 or non-crystalline state, and called coprolites. Those found in the 
 older rocks are crystalline, are called apatite, and the non-crystalline, 
 phosphorite. Those that are sent into the market contain from 60 
 to 88 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate. As a manure they are of very 
 little value in the raw state, although there are some people who 
 hold a different opinion. For them to be of any value in the raw 
 state they must be ground to a very fine powder and used on soils 
 deficient in lime. They must be used in large quantities to do any 
 
706 
 
 good, 10 c\vt. per acre, and even more than that. They are mixed 
 and sold in enormous quantities every year for making sun 
 phosphate, which is the principal use they are put to. 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATES, OR DISSOLVED MINERAL PHOSPHATES. 
 
 These manures are made from coprolites, bone ash, bone 
 charcoal, and phosphatic or mineral guanos. They are made in 
 very large quantities in almost every part of the world. So great is 
 the demand for these manures that about 600, coo tons are made 
 annually in England alone. This will give an idea of the great 
 faith the farmers in England have in superphosphates, and that not 
 without good reason, as the results derived from the use of them 
 fully justifies anything that has been said in their favor. They are 
 made by mixing ground coprolites, apatite, bone ash, bone black, 
 or phosphatic guanos, with sulphuric acid, specific gravity r6o to 
 1*70. The mixing is done by machinery constructed for the pur- 
 pose, and the mass is then run into a closed pit which is connected 
 with a Hume that carries the fumes or gases (fluorine, carbonic acid, 
 etc.) to a condensing tower, or otherwise they would be very 
 annoying to the workmen, as well as dangerous to their health. 
 After the mas-> has spent itself in the pit, when it becomes some- 
 what dry it is thrown out by workmen with wooden shovels. It is 
 then ground in a roller mill for the purpose of more thoroughly 
 mixing and breaking up the lumps into a state fit for the market. 
 The action of the sulphuric acid on the phosphates is to 
 convert the insoluble tricalcic phosphate into soluble mono- 
 calcic phosphate. The sulphuric acid does this by com- 
 bining with the lime that is in combination with the phosphoric 
 acid. Thev are made in two qualities or quantities of phos- 
 phate of lime made soluble. The lower class contains ab mt 
 25 per cent, soluble phosphates, and the high class 30 to 40 per cent, 
 soluble phosphates. This does not mean, as might appear, 
 that there is 25, 30, or 40 per cent, of the soluble mono- 
 calcic phosphate in the manure, but that these are the percentages 
 of tricalcic phosphate made soluble. There are also the concen- 
 trated or double superphosphates, containing from 60 to 85 per 
 cent, of soluble phosphates. These concentiated manures are very 
 costly to make and necessarily are dear. Whether it is any benefit 
 to use them will greatly depend on whether they have to be con- 
 veyed long distances where the carriage is high, otherwise there 
 is no special benefit from them over the ordinary superphosphates. 
 By using them you lose the benefit of the sulphate of lime that is 
 in the ordinary manure, which might necessitate the use ot gypsum 
 or sulphate of lime. The enormous extent to which the manure is 
 used in every country proves it is the universal method of applying 
 phosphates to the SOll to obtain a quick and increased return for 
 the money invested. 
 
 
707 
 
 The superphosphate, \vhen applied, being soluble in water, is 
 dissolved by rain and the moisture in the soil, and thoroughly per- 
 meates the soil, where the lime, iron, and alumina salts decompose 
 it, rendering it insoluble and depositing or fixing it in the soil in 
 such a line impalpable state that the plants can easily assimilate it 
 and have no difficulty in obtaining a good supply. By being in 
 this very line state equal dissemination through the soil is secured, 
 and the micro-organisms can obtain an unlimited supply of food for 
 their growth and activity in order to supply the plants ; whereas if 
 the manure had been placed in the soil in an insoluble state, even 
 if in a line powder, its uneven distribution through the soil would 
 limit the action and numbers of the active micro-organisms. By 
 reason of the great activity of this manure a quick and healthy 
 gro\vth is secured to the young plant, which is consequently better 
 able to cope with any attack from the pests that plants are liable to. 
 
 Although superphosphate is one of the most valuable manures, 
 it is not in itself a complete manure. It is simply a supplier of 
 phosphoric acid and lime. It has to be used in conjunction with 
 either a potash or nitrogenous manure, or both, according to the 
 requirements of the crop. A great many manufacturers make super- 
 phosphates with either potash or nitrogen, or both, in them. These 
 superphosphates are generally sold under special names, such as tur- 
 nip manure, potato manure, &c., &c. As a rule these special manures 
 are not worth the high prices asked for them. They are very often 
 made up of some nitrogenous substance that is of very little value 
 in the soil as a manure, such as ground, steamed or vitrolised 
 leather, ground spent tan bark, shoddy, etc. The farmer who 
 supplies himself with these, generally from reading some glow r ing 
 advertisement or handbill, will have more of sorrow and vexation 
 of spirit to trouble him at harvest time than the burden of his crops. 
 The chemist is not able to discriminate, by mere analysis, between 
 the almost valueless nitrogen in leather and the highly valuable 
 nitrogen in bones when mixed with superphosphates. 
 
 Although there are a great many special manures made, for 
 which a high price is charged, this has no relation to their value. 
 There are also a good many firms w r ho manufacture special 
 manures that contain all they say, and which are made of the best 
 materials. Those who buy them generally get full satisfaction, as 
 far as this class of manures can give satisfaction. Even if they 
 should be genuine, why buy them ? They are made for whoever 
 will buy them, the same to all round. Surely the requirements of 
 every soil are not the same. The farmer should know the 
 requirements of his soil for any given crop better than the manu- 
 facturer. This unintelligent manner of buying manure has had much 
 to do with the failure in the use of superphosphates in the hands 
 of some farmers. It will prove more satisfactory and cheaper for 
 the farmer to bay superphosphates, potash salts, and nitrogenous 
 manures separately, and mix them on the farm according to the 
 
requirements of the soil and crops. He will then know what he is 
 putting into the soil, and can wait patiently for the results, with a 
 little more certainty of obtaining a crop. 
 
 There is scarcely any doubt that superphosphates will benefit 
 most crops that require phosphoric acid, and give a larger return 
 than insoluble phosphates. From our present knowledge of the 
 soils of Western Australia, I am inclined to think more superphos- 
 phates will be required here than in England, as they are generally 
 poorer than in England as regards phosphoric acid. The crops 
 that are benefited by superphosphates are turnips, potatoes (but 
 not mangolds), wheat, barley, but not so useful for oats. The 
 amounts generally used are for turnips, 3 to 4 cwt. ; potatoes, 4 to 
 6 cwt. in conjunction with potash ; wheat and barley, 3 cwt. per 
 acre. 
 
 Dr. Aitken, of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 
 experimented with root crops and bone meal, coprolites and apatite, 
 dissolved and undissolved. The soluble gave an increase of 50 per 
 cent. over the insoluble. Grain crops in a rotation following the 
 roots, showed the effect of the soluble phosphates, increasing the 
 yield of grain 15 per cent, and straw 12 per cent., clearly proving 
 that the roots did not exhaust the soluble manure. 
 
 Professor J. M. Cameron obtained an increase of 39 per cent, 
 with root crops for soluble as against insoluble phosphates. 
 Although superphosphates will benefit most crops, they are not of 
 much benefit in soils that are poor or very deficient in lime, owing 
 to the want of the necessary base to render* the soluble phosphates 
 insoluble ; the soluble phosphates having an acid reaction which 
 injuriously affects the young plant. This is putting an extreme case, 
 as there are few soils so deficient in lime that they cannot fix the 
 soluble phosphates. This acidity in the superphosphates is reduced 
 to a minimum by the use of dryers in the finishing of the manure. 
 Twenty-five to thirty years ago, they were so badly made that there 
 was scarcely a superphosphate in the market that did not contain 
 free sulphuric acid. Looking over my laboratory note-book of the 
 analyses of superphosphates and dissolved bones sent by members 
 of the Highland and Agricultural Society, Scotland, for icSjj, the free 
 sulphuric acid ranges from a trace to 6 and 7 per cent. 
 
 The following are average samples of superphosphates and 
 dissolved bones as supplied to the market at the present time: 
 
 Mineral Dissolved 
 
 Superphosphate. Bones. 
 
 Moisture ... ... in-J4 I2X>6 
 
 1 Organic matter ... S-gy >_' - o6 
 
 Soluble phosphates ... '74- '4'^5 
 
 Equal to tricak-ic plms- / ,_. 
 
 phatc rendered soluble \ 
 
 Insoluble phosphates ... 3'oS -O'95 
 
709 
 
 Minei.il 
 Superpliospak's. hom-x. 
 
 Sulphate of lime and 
 
 alkaline salts ... 41)'" 1 itS-S^ 
 
 Insoluble ... ... 4 - oS 1-41 
 
 lOO'OO 10000 
 
 1 Containing nitrdgen ... ... 3-09 
 
 Kqual to ammonia ... ... 375 
 
 It will be as well to delay making a comparison between 
 superphosphates as a fertiliser and other phosphatic manures, until 
 we get t > the basic slag or Thomas's fertiliser, which I intend to 
 take next. 
 
 THOMAS s PHOSPIIATKS, OK BASIC SLAC. 
 
 In the year 1879 Thomas and Gilchrist patented their process 
 for the dephosphorising of iron in the making of steel. Before 
 that time the process in use was that known as the Bessemer, 
 which fai'ecl so far as to be ineffectual in reducing the amount of 
 phosphorous in the pig iron made from iron ore, which contained 
 too large a percentage of phosphorous to make steel. The 
 Bessemer process, known a; the acid process, had a lire-brick 
 lining in the converter. The Thomas- Gilchris: process is 
 the reverse, or basic process. The converter is lined with 
 a dolomite limestone ; the molten pig-iron is poured into the 
 converter, a quantity of lime equal to about 20 per cent, of the iron 
 in the converter is added, a hot blast of air, under pressure, is 
 injected through the molten mass, oxidising the phosphorus, which 
 in turn combines with the lime in the slag to form phosphate of 
 lime. The basic slag was first made in England, but it was in 
 Germany that it was rirst used as manure. To bring the slag into 
 a tit state to be used as a fertiliser, the molten slag is treated with 
 super-heated steam or poured into hot water to break it up into small 
 fragments and make it more easy to grind into the hue powder which 
 is necessary before it can be profitably applied to the land. Many 
 patents have been taken out to make or improve the slag as manure. 
 These have all been abandoned, as they were founded on illcon- 
 ceived notions of how the slag would act on plant life. The great 
 desideratum with the basic slag as a manure is that it should be in a 
 very tine powder, and if not in this state it should not be bought. 
 It contains from 14 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to 
 30 to 42 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate. The phosphoric acid in 
 the slag is not in the tricalcic state as in all other animal and mineral 
 phosphates, but it is in the tetracalcic form. So far I have avoided, 
 as much as possible, the use of scientific terms, but in this case I must 
 resort to scientific formula to explain the difference between these 
 two kinds of phosphates in order to enable the reader the better to 
 understand how the phosphates in the slag are more soluble than 
 those in natural phosphates. 
 
Tricalcic or insoluble lime phosphate has the formula 3 
 P, 5 . 
 
 Basic slag has the formula 4 Ca O, P 2 O 5 . To put this more 
 graphically, although less scientifically, the insoluble phosphate 
 would be composed thus : 
 Lime ) 
 
 Lime [ Phosphoric acid. 
 Lime ) 
 Basic slag. 
 Lime } 
 
 Lime f p hos phoric acid. 
 Lime | 
 Lime ) 
 
 It is a well-known fact that the more lime there is in combina- 
 tion with phosphoric acid the more insoluble the compound is. 
 Basic slag is an exception ; it is more soluble than the tricalcic 
 phosphate in any other mineral or animal phosphate. Before we 
 explain the reason for the basic slag being more soluble, we will 
 show the formula of two other phosphates. 
 
 Soluble or mono-calcic phosphate Ca O, 2 (H 2 O), P 2 O 5 obtained 
 
 by treating the tricalcic phosphate with an acid thus : 3 Ca O, 
 
 P 2 O 5 -4- 2 H 2 SO 4 = Ca O, 2 (H 2 O), P 2 O 5 -+- 2 Ca SO 4 , the soluble 
 
 phosphate may be shown thus : 
 
 Lime 
 
 Water 
 
 Water 
 
 The other phosphate called dicalcic or precipitated phosphate 
 lime and reverted phosphates 2 Ca O, H 2 O, P 2 O 5 
 or Lime j 
 
 Lime Phosphoric acid. 
 Water I 
 
 The mono-calcic or soluble has 56 par s of lime for every 142 
 parts of phosphoric acid and is ihe most soluble. The dicalcic 
 phosphate has 112 parts of lime for every 142 points of phosphoric 
 acid, it is far less soluble than the mono-calcic, but more soluble than 
 the tricalcic. 
 
 The tricalcic phosphate has 168 parts of lime for every 142 
 parts of phosphoric acid, it is the most insoluble of phosphates. 
 
 The basic slag li;is 224 parts ( f lime for evvry 142 parts of 
 phosphoric acid. Although it has more lime th;m the tricalcic it is 
 much more soluble than and differs little Irom the dicalcic. 
 
 The reason for this is, that the tetrabasic phosphate is a super- 
 saturated salt. It has less chemical affinity to resist decomposition 
 when brought in contact with any substance or agency that can 
 cause decomposition. 
 
 Professor Wagner has experimented with basic slag, super- 
 phosphates and other manures, as to the amount of phosphoric acid 
 
 > Phosphoric acid. 
 
 ) 
 
 ed dicalcic or precipitated phosphate of 
 
each of the manures supply to a crop, and also the amount to the 
 after crops. These show that 100 Ibs. of phosphoric acid in super- 
 phosphate has the same effect as 200 Ibs. of phosphoric acid in 
 basic slag, but the after effects are better from the basic slag. Of 
 100 parts of phosphoric acid there was removed by the first year's 
 crop : 
 
 Superphosphate ... ... 63 parts. 
 
 Peruvian guano ... ... 22 parts. 
 
 Hone meal ... ... ... 7 parts. 
 
 Coprolites ... ... ... 6 parts. 
 
 Basic slag, Xo. i, finest ... 39 parts. 
 
 Basic slag, No. 2, fine ... ... 43 parts. 
 
 Basic slag, Xo. 3, coarse ... 15 parts. 
 
 XX'agner then gives the amounts out of 100 parts of phosphoric 
 acid left by the first year's crop and that was removed by the three 
 succeeding crops. I have calculated these figures out to parts, or 
 percentages of the original 100 parts tisrd, which shows the after 
 effects more clearly. 
 
 Calculated to percentage of 
 original 100 parts. 
 
 Superphosphate ... 30 part ii'io per cent. 
 
 Peruvian guano ... 9 parts 7-02 
 
 Bone meal ... ... 13 parts 12*09 ,, 
 
 Coprolites 6 parts 5*64 ,, 
 
 Basic slag, No. i, finest ... 14 parts 8^54 ,, 
 
 Basic slag, Xo. 2, fine ... 29 parts J 6'53 
 
 Basic slag, X"o. 3, coarse... 24 parts 20-40 ,, 
 
 XYagner found that 36 per cent, of slag was soluble in carbonic 
 acid water, while only 8 per cent, of nvneral phosphate was soluble. 
 The amounts found to be soluble in citrate of ammonia were slag 
 74 per cent., mineral phosphates 4 per cent. To have any effect 
 the slag must be in a fine powder. If used alone, it should be 
 applied four or five weeks earlier than superphosphates. The 
 following analyses of basic slags are : i, by Munro and Wrightson ; 
 2, by A. H. Griffiths: 
 
 Xo. I. No. 2. 
 
 Lime 41-54 43 '4 
 
 Magnesia ... 6*13 6'2O 
 
 Ferrous oxide ... i4'66 ir64 
 
 Ferric ... 8-64 5-92 
 
 Alumina ... 2'6o 172 
 
 Phosphoric acid ... 1 4'3 2 iS'ii 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... '31 '41 
 
 Sulphur ... -23 -30 
 
 Yanadium ... '29 '24 
 
 Silica ... 7-40 6*90 
 
 Manganous oxide 3-81 3-51 
 
 09-93 99'99 
 
712 
 
 Basic slag is specially suited to clay, peat and sandy soils, also 
 moor-land and wet meadows. Maercker has found that for barley, 
 potatoes, oats and sugar beets on moor-hnd soil, basic slag is better 
 than superphosphates and precipitated phosphates. He recom- 
 mends when sown in the spring 2 cwt. of basic slag and i cwt. of 
 superphosphates as being the most profitable. They can be mixed 
 and sown with potash and nitrate of soda. The mixture should be 
 made just before sowing, as if it is allowed to stand for a week or 
 two it sets. It cannot be sown or mixed* with sulphate of ammonia, 
 as it contains free lime, and would cause a loss of ammonia. The 
 ammonia must be applied some time after the slag. It will be found 
 very advantageous to sour land by neutralizing the acidity, 
 as well as acting as a manure. The phosphoric acicl in basic slag has 
 only half the effect that the phosphoric acid in superphosphate has ; 
 that is, 100 Ibs. of phosphoric acid in superphosphates will have 
 the same effect as 200 Ibs. of that in basic slag will have. The 
 results of the following experiments by Wagner will show this, and 
 also the difference between basic slag and superphosphates and 
 Peruvian guano, bone-meal, and ground coprolites on the same 
 crops. Nitrogen and potash were added to the superphosphates, 
 slag, bone-meal, and coprolites, so as to make them equal in other 
 respects to the Peruvian guano, and so that the test should be con- 
 fined to the phosphoric acid. The crops experimented on were 
 barley, wheat, and Hax. The amount of crops obtained by the use 
 of superphosphate \Va- T ,ner called 100, the other amount of crops 
 by the different manure shows the percentages, as compared with 
 superphosphates, as 100. This will give the manunal values of the 
 other phosphates : 
 
 
 .Manure, 
 per acre. 
 
 Bdrleyi 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Superphosphate ... 
 
 3 cwt. 
 
 IOO 
 
 ICO 
 
 IOO 
 
 Peruvian guano ... 
 
 4 n 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 Bone-meal 
 
 54 II 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Coprolite (ground) 
 
 5l >i 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 
 
 Basic slai^ ( finest ) 
 
 4i n 
 
 65 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 (fine 
 
 4i n 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 (coarse) 
 
 :! 
 
 J 3 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 As basic slag generally contains about So per cent, of line and 
 20 per cent, of coarse phosphates, its value compared with super- 
 phosphates will be 50 or one-half, that of Peruvian guano one-third, 
 
bone meal and o>nr<>lite one-twelfth. The after effects of the basic 
 slag are superior to those of superphosphate, and it is again supe;i'>r 
 to superphosphates in soils deficient in lime. 
 
 Liechti and Yogi experimented with oats by the pot-culture 
 method as carried out by Wanner. They used a meadow soil, poor 
 in phosphoric acid and which had never received any manure. 
 The same quantities of nitrogen and potash were added to each of 
 the mineral manures so that they should equal the bone manures 
 in that respect. The following are the results : 
 
 Amount ot~ 
 phosphoric acid 
 applied. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Weight of crop, 
 j^rain and 
 straw. 
 
 
 None ... 
 
 *4'3 
 
 '35 
 
 Superphosphate ... 
 
 1 67*0 
 
 I -00 
 
 ,, 
 
 3?5. : 9 
 
 35 
 
 Basic slag 
 
 171*5 
 
 I'OO 
 
 
 
 3*8-4 
 
 roo 
 
 Phosphorite 
 
 IS'* 
 
 4-21 
 
 ... ... 
 
 14-0 
 
 '35 
 
 Raw bone meal ... 
 
 15-9 
 
 I '00 
 
 * * * 
 
 18-4 
 
 35 
 
 Glue free bone meal (line) ... 
 
 16-6 
 
 35 
 
 (coarse) 
 
 16-0 
 
 These experiments of Liechti and Vogt's confirm what has been 
 discovered by others, that basic slag is equal to superphosphates in 
 some soils. We have seen that, as far as after effects in the soil 
 are concerned, bone meal compares very badly with basic slag or 
 superphosphates, although formerly the reverse opinion was held. 
 More information on this subject can be gained by reference to 
 some of Professor Maercker's experiments, undertaken at the 
 request of the Association of Bone-meal Manufacturers of Saxony. 
 The experiments were conducted i-\ the same manner as Wagner's, 
 by pot culture, which gave corresponding results in the field. They 
 proved the conclusions of Wagner and others as to the immediate 
 and after effects of the manure. 
 
 Working with barley in a sandy soil, which is considered 
 favourable to bonemeal, each pot, in addition to the manure, to be 
 operated on, received an equal quantity of ammonium nitrate, 
 sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, sulphate of magnesia and 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
The following are the results : 
 
 Amount of Phosphoric- 
 Acid applied. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Weight of Crop. 
 Grain and Straw. 
 
 6 
 i -5 
 
 i'5 
 
 Superphosphate. 
 
 
 Bone Meal. 
 
 M 
 
 IOI'56 
 
 114-38 
 
 5-96 
 I2'l8 
 
 These experiments were carried on for several years with 
 practically the same results. Another set of experiments was 
 carried out with a mixture of superphosphates and bonemeal to see 
 how far the one would assist the other. The same class of soil and 
 barley was used as in the previous experiments, and the following 
 are the results : 
 
 Amount of 
 phosphoric acid 
 applied. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Increase of yield 
 over un manured 
 pot. 
 
 Increase due to 
 bone meal. 
 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 167-29 
 
 
 3 ' 
 '3 ' 
 
 Superphosphate 
 Hone Meal 
 
 90-97 
 
 + 7-3^ 
 
 3! 
 
 Superphosphate 
 Bone Meal 
 
 104-67 
 
 -f-2I'O2 
 
 ,11 
 
 Superphosphate 
 Hone Meal 
 
 105-91 
 
 + 22-26 
 
 '61 
 6! 
 
 Superphosphate ) 
 Bone Meal | 
 
 15274 
 
 -1455 
 
 6 | 
 
 1-2 I 
 
 Superphosphate | 
 Bone Meal ) 
 
 15605 
 
 -11-24 
 
 tin* shows that the addition of bone-meal to superphosphate gives 
 little or no advantage to the crop, in fact, when the superphosphate 
 is given in sufficient quantities for the requirements of the crop, the 
 addition of bone-meal is injurious and causes a loss. 
 
 The next set <>f" experiments will show the after-effects of the 
 manures on oats sown in the soil in which wheat lias been grown 
 the previous year. There was only a nitrogenous manure adde< 
 the second year. The following are the results : 
 
Amount ol~ phosphoric 
 acid added first year. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Increase i yield of 
 oats second year. 
 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 1474 
 
 6 
 
 Raw bone meal 
 
 I 2 }6 
 
 6 
 
 r.luefree bone meal 
 
 i6'i4 
 
 2 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 43*41 
 
 2 
 
 Raw bone meal 
 
 i3'5 
 
 2 
 
 Glue free bone meal 
 
 22" -4 
 
 8 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 65'57 
 
 8 
 
 R-uv bone meal 
 
 3 5 '4 
 
 8 
 
 Glue free bone meal 
 
 26-11 
 
 The results in the above experiments show that where only enough 
 superphosphate was applied for the previous year's crop, the results 
 are about equal, but where more manure is applied than is required 
 for the first crop, the effects on the second crop are more marked 
 in the case of superphosphate than bone-meal. To carry the ex- 
 periments still further the t>ame pots after the oats were gathered, 
 with only the addition of some nitrogenous manure, were compared 
 with the pot that had not received any manure. The crop that was 
 chosen was mustard. The following are the results : 
 
 Amount of 
 phosphoric acid 
 added first year. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Increase in third crop 
 (mustard) over un- 
 manured pots. 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate 
 Raw bone meal 
 Glue free bone meal 
 
 - 0'3 
 
 1*2 
 1*2 
 1*2 
 
 Superphosphate 
 ' aw bone meal 
 Glue free bone meal 
 
 + ] 73'9 
 - 4'9 
 
 r8 
 
 1-8 
 1-8 
 
 Superphosphate 
 Raw bone meal 
 Glue free bone meal 
 
 4~ o^ '2 
 + 33'9 
 
 Professor Maercker further experimented with superphosphates, 
 dissolved raw bone meal, dissolved glue free bone meal. The copy 
 of the results of these experiments with dissolved bones, which I 
 have, does not say whether he added nitrogen to the super- 
 phosphates to equalize it with the nitrogen in the bones. From 
 the results it is almost evident he must have done so, otherwise we 
 could not expect the results he obtained. He says that dissolved 
 bone meal is almost equal in value as a fertilizer to superphosphate. 
 I should be inclined to place a higher value on dissolved bones as they 
 contain a certain percentage of nitrogen, and the insoluble phos- 
 
7 i6 
 
 phate in bones is more valuable than the insoluble phosphate in 
 superphosphates. He may, however, mean that the addition of 
 nitrogen to the superphosphate equalises it with the dissolved 
 bones and that they are then equal ; but this will greatly depend 
 upon what form of nitrogen he is adding. If it is in the form of a 
 nitrate or ammonia salt, he is adding a more valuble nitrogen than 
 that found in dissolved bones, and he would then be comparing 
 the dissolved bones with a superphosphate and a valuable nitro- 
 genous substance and not with a superphosphate alone. It will 
 take more experiments to convince scientitic men that a mineral 
 superphosphate is as valuable a manure as dissolved bones. The 
 following are the experiments made by Professor Maerckcr upon 
 barley in a light sandy soil, very poor in phosphoric acid : 
 
 Amount of 
 
 
 Increased yield 
 
 phosphoric acid 
 
 Manure. 
 
 of barley over 
 
 applied. 
 
 
 unmanured pots. 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate ... 
 
 167-29 
 
 6 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal ... 12871 
 
 6 
 
 ,, glue free bone meal 160-29 
 
 1'2 
 
 Superphosphate ... ... 204*44 
 
 I '2 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 18402 
 
 I'2 
 
 ,, glue free bone meal 
 
 180-42 
 
 1-8 
 
 Superphosphate ... 
 
 202-40 
 
 1-8 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal ... 200*05 
 
 1-8 
 
 glue free bone meal 
 
 227-50 
 
 
 
 The next year oats were grown in the pots after the barley, 
 nitrogenous manure being added to each, but no phosphates. Th< 
 following were the results : 
 
 Amount of phosphoric 
 acid added lirst year. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Increase yield of second 
 crop (oats) over 
 uninunured pot. 
 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 1474 
 
 6 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 [6-06 
 
 6 
 
 glue free bone meal 
 
 ij-No 
 
 ~2 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 43 '4 ' 
 
 ~2 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 30-07 
 
 2 
 
 ,, glue free bone meal 
 
 40-13 
 
 s 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 "5-03 
 
 8 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 42-99 
 
 8 
 
 glue free bone meal 
 
 75-04 
 
The third year's crop was mustard, sown in the pots after the 
 oats, nitrogenous manure only being added to eaeh pot, and the 
 following arc the results : 
 
 Amount ii" phosphoric 
 acid added first year. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Increase yield of second 
 crop (mustard) over 
 unmamired pot. 
 
 6 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 52'9 
 
 6 
 
 Dissolved raw b tie meal 
 
 [21*2 
 
 6 
 
 ,, glue free bone meal 
 
 1037 
 
 2 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 '73 '9 
 
 2 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 151-2 
 
 > 
 
 glue free bone meal 
 
 117-9 
 
 8 
 
 Superphosphate 
 
 196-9 
 
 ; 8 
 
 Dissolved raw bone meal 
 
 206-2 
 
 8 
 
 ,, glue free bone meal 
 
 1757 
 
 These experiments may be disconcerting and unpalatable facts 
 to those who feel it difficult to give up long cherished ideas as to 
 the different values of manures. But they are facts, and facts that 
 it would not be advisable to discard, if one wishes to make the best 
 of the soil and manure applied to the crop. They point out that 
 the most profitable manure is that which has the quickest action on 
 the crop and produces the greatest yield, and that it is more 
 economical to manure the crop than the soil. 
 
 GUANOS. 
 
 These manures are varied in their composition and equally as 
 varied in their action upon crops. Many of the so-called guanos 
 would be more properly called mineral phosphates, as they are of 
 little more value as manures than mineral phosphates. No matter 
 what their origin and composition may be, they have passed 
 through a transition of partial decomposition into a state differing 
 but little from a deposit of mineral phosphates. Since the intro- 
 duction of guano into England in 1841, by the Earl of Derby, its 
 use as a manure has passed through many stages. So rapid was the 
 increased consumption of this product, that it rose from about 2,000 
 tons in 1841 till it reached, in 1870, almost 300,000 tons annually, 
 since when it has declined until it probably does not now reach 
 50,000 tons a year. The reasons for this are that the rich 
 Peruvian guano deposits have been worked out and large quantities 
 of inferior guanos have been brought into the market, but the chief 
 reason of all for this decline in the use of guano is the introduction 
 of superphosphates, which are found to be not only cheaper but 
 to give better results than most of the guanos now on the market. 
 
7 i8 
 
 The best guanos that have been found are those on the west 
 coast of South America and the south-west coast of Africa, most of 
 which have long ago been worked out. It is scarcely within the 
 scope of this book to give a historical account of these earlier 
 deposits, or even to enter into any lengthy account of those in 
 existence at the present time. Some of these are nitro-phosphatic, 
 containing from 3 to 13 per cent, of ammonia, and some of them 
 contain as much as 3 per cent, of potash. Other very large 
 deposits are purely phosphatic, containing no nitrogen, or at most 
 a fraction of a per cent. 
 
 Guanos of the nitrogenous class that are imported into 
 England at the present time contain from 3 to 6 per cent, of 
 ammonia, and 20 to 45 or even 50 per cent, of phosphatic lime, 
 excepting those from the Ichaboe islands, on the south-west coast 
 of Africa, and Angamos Island, in Peru, which contain from 8 to 14 
 per cent, of ammonia, and 12 to 30 per cent, of phosphates. These 
 islands annually furnish only small quantities of guano, which con- 
 sists of the fresh excreta of birds, and is gathered every year by 
 the natives. The nitro-phosphatic guanos are scarcely to be found 
 in the market of Western Australia, nor are they likely to be so for 
 some time to come, unless fresh discoveries are made near at 
 hand. The chief supply of guanos sent to the markets of the world 
 is purely phosphatic, and is used for the purpose of making super- 
 phosphates. Of this class there are some enormous deposits in various 
 parts of the world. The guano deposits found on the coast of 
 Western Australia are of this class and are best suited to the making 
 of superphosphates. As a manure, direct, this class of guano, even 
 if used in conjunction with potash and nitrogenous matter, is slow 
 in its action and inferior to bone-meal and not much better, if any, 
 than coprohte mineral phosphate. This guano should be applied 
 in a very fine state to give the best results. At the best these guanos 
 are not the most profitable manures that can be used. The phos- 
 phatic guanos may be applied at the rate of 3 to 9 cwt. per acre, 
 according to the percentage of phosphoric acid they contain and 
 give the best results on soils low in lime. 
 
 XlTKOGENOUS MANURKS. 
 
 The two best nitrogenous manures are sulphate of ammonia 
 and nitrate of soda. They are by far the richest in nitrogen and 
 also the quickest and most certain in their action on crops. 
 
 Some time back the most favoured method of applying nitrogen 
 to the soil by means of artificial manures, was by the use of guanos 
 rich in ammonia. Since these rich guanos have become more scarce 
 in the market, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda have taken 
 their place. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia is the most concentrated form of nitrogen 
 as a manure, and one of the most active and readily available plant 
 foods. It is much quicker in its action than any form of organic- 
 
719 
 
 nitrogenous matter. Ammonia is principally obtained from the 
 destructive distillation of some organic matter, as in the manufac- 
 ture of gas from coal, when it is obtained as a by-product in the 
 witer used to purify the gas. The gas liquor contains from f nr to 
 eight ounces of ammonia per gallon. The crude gas liquor is 
 placed in a large boiler with some burnt lime, and heated by HUMUS 
 of steam to drive oft" the ammonia gas, which is passed into a tank 
 containing sulphuric acid. The ammonia combines with the sul- 
 phuric acid to form sulphate of ammonia, which crystallises out, the 
 crystals being ladled out of the tank on to a shelf to drain, where 
 they are dried, and the mass is then ready for the market. Large 
 quantities are also obtained in the process of manufacturing shale 
 oil by the Beilby- Young furnace ; from blast furnaces, coke ovens, 
 and also in the process of manufacturing bone charcoal. Sulphate 
 of ammonia, when pure, contains 25 per cent, of ammonia. The 
 best sulphate of ammonia found in commerce contains only 98 per 
 cent., equal to 24^5 per cent, of ammonia. Sulphate of ammonia is 
 a whitish crystalline powder, some samples being colored grey to a 
 dirty brown. These latter samples should be tested for impurities, 
 such as ammonium sulpho-cyanate, which is very poisonous to 
 plants. This can be easily detected in a sample by dissolving a 
 little in water, then adding one or two drops of ferric chloride, 
 when, it the sulpho-cyanate is present it will give a deep red color 
 to the solution of ammonium sulphate. 
 
 It has its best action on clay and loam soils, but should not be 
 used on soils rich in lime or otherwise, there will be a loss of 
 ammonia through its being set free by the lime. It should not be 
 used in a mixture with basic slag or Thomas's phosphates for the 
 same reason. 
 
 The ammonia in the sulphate is not absorbed directly by the 
 plants. It is first converted into nitric acid in the process of 
 nitrification by the micro-organisms in the soil, in which state it is 
 absorbed by the plant. It is more easily converted into nitrates 
 than any other organic compound of nitrogen. In about six 
 months the most of the ammonia will be converted into nitrates. It 
 is easily fixed in the soil, which prevents the loss by drainage that 
 takes place in the case of nitrates, nor is it carried down into the 
 sub-soil out of the reach of the crops, as happens with nitrates. 
 
 Its application to cereals, potatoes, and other root crops has 
 been very successful, but not so with rye, lupins, or leguminous 
 crops. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia is very seldom used by itself, being 
 generally employed in conjunction \vith phosphates and potash. 
 For cereals I to i^ cvvt., and for root crops from i^ to 2\ cwt. per 
 acre should be applied. It is best to use one-half "at the time of 
 sowing and to use the other half as a top dressing when the young 
 crop is a short length up, and the application should be made in 
 wet weather when possible. When sowing it alone as a top 
 
720 
 
 dressing, it should be thoroughly mixed with six or seven times its- 
 bulk of soil to ensure an equal distribution. It has the effect of 
 increasing the grain yield without any detriment to the straw. 
 
 It is stated by some authorities that by steeping seeds in a 
 solution of sulphate of ammonia the crop is greatly increased, more 
 especially with potatoes, which are said to have given phenomenal 
 crops. This action is said to hasten germination, to supply readily- 
 available nourishment to the embryo plant and hasten a healthy 
 growth to the young plant when it is most liable to disease, thus 
 enabling it to resist and overcome the attack of pests. The best 
 solution to use is i Ib. of ammonium sulphate, i Ib. potassium 
 nitrate, and 5 galls, of water. There are other authorities who 
 either deny or doubt any such benefit from the steeping of seed in 
 a solution of ammonia. At the present time the matter is so much 
 in dispute that, until further investigations are made, the value of 
 the solution must remain a matter of opinion. 
 
 Until we have dealt with nitrate of soda and potash we will 
 postpone any comparison between ammonium sulphate and 
 nitrates. 
 
 SODIUM AND POTASSIUM XITRATE. 
 
 Nitrate of soda is principally obtained from the west coast of 
 Southern America, Peru, Chili, and Bolivia. It is sometimes called 
 Chili nitre and Chili saltpetre. It is found in the desert or barren 
 sand that stretches from north to south for over 600 miles along 
 the foot of the Cordilleras. The sand is lixiviated with water to 
 extract the nitre, the solution is then evaporated. The crude salt 
 obtained is called caliche. It has the following composition,, 
 according to Roscoe and Schorlemmer : 
 
 Sodium nitrate ... 
 ,, sulphate 
 ,, chloride 
 
 iodide ... 
 Calcium sulphate 
 Magnesium sulphate 
 Insoluble matter 
 Moisture 
 
 64-98 
 
 3-00 
 
 28-69 
 
 2-70 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 II. 
 27-85 
 
 18-30 
 
 68 
 
 4-20 
 
 (roo 
 
 IOO'^ 
 
 The caliche sand does not rise to the suriacc, and is generally 
 covered with two layers. The top layer or chuca consists of sand 
 and gypsum, while the intervening layer called costra is a con- 
 glomerate of clay and breccia or small fragments of rocks. The 
 caliche when pnrilicd generally contains from 1)5 to u<S per cent. 
 of nitrate of soda. The purified salt is greatly used for the manu- 
 facturing of sulphuric and nitric acids, also for making nitrate ol 
 
potash to be used in the manufacture of gun-powder. It is h 
 used in agriculture as a source of nitrogen, and it is when put t<> 
 this use that we have to deal with it. 
 
 Nitrate of soda is purely and simply a nitrogenous manure. 
 Its nitrogen is in the most valuable form and one most easily 
 assimilated by plants which absorb their nitrogen from the soil in 
 the form of nitric acid. The use of this manure greatly assists the 
 absorbtion of phosphates by plants from the soil. Lawes says that 
 organic matter in the soil is reduced much quicker by nitrates than 
 by ammonia. Nitrate of soda, as a general rule, increases the 
 weight of a crop more than sulphate of ammonia. The crops most 
 benefited by nitrate of soda are the cereals, beet-root, mangolds 
 and potatoes, the leguminous crops only when used in small 
 quantities, as they are able to obtain a large part of the nitrogen 
 necessary for their growth from the atmosphere. Nitrate 
 of soda is sometimes said to be an exhauster of the soil. 
 This is scarcely correct, and the ill-founded assertion has 
 caused a great deal of unjust prejudice against the use of nitrate 
 of soda as a manure. The fact of the matter is that it gives an 
 increased crop. The increase must naturally take more mineral 
 matter out of the soil, but only in the proportion to the increase of 
 crop. For what it takes out it gives a large return, or as Storer puts 
 it, " You cannot eat the cake and have the cake," but if the crop 
 eats the cake it gives you more money to buy more cakes. There 
 is no increase of the per centage of the ash in the crop, as will be 
 shown by the following results of Maercker's on the use of nitrate 
 of soda. 
 
 Unmanured soil. 
 
 Soil manured with ^ to 2 cwts of 
 nitrate of soda. 
 
 Result of four experiments. 
 
 Result of twelve experiments. 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 6-45 per cent, 
 ash. 
 
 2 % 8 per cent, 
 ash. 
 
 6'42 per cent, 
 ash. 
 
 273 per cent. 
 ash. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, when pure, contains 16-4 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 It is generally sold with a refraction of 5 per cent, or 95 per cent, of 
 purity, which contains 1575 per cent, of nitrogen, about equal to 
 19 per cent, of ammonia, therefore 125 parts will equal as much as 
 100 parts of ammonium sulphate in ammonia. Xitrate of soda is 
 very soluble and difficult to fix in the soil, so is easily washed out, 
 more especially if there is no crop growing to take it up at once. It 
 gives no results the second year, or at least very little. It 
 is generally applied as a top-dressing at different times, which gives 
 
the best results. Part may be put in at the same time as the 
 artificial or farmyard manure and the remainder in one or two dress- 
 ings. This saves it from being lost by being washed out by rain or 
 the moisture in the soil. The usual amount applied is from i to 
 2 cwt. per acre, and the part used as top-dressing should be mixed 
 with some soil to ensure uniform distribution of it over the land. 
 
 The relative manndal values of nitrate of soda and sulphate of 
 ammonia are dependent on several circumstances. In some cases 
 the nitrate of soda is superior to the sulphate of ammonia and in 
 others the reverse is the case. Sulphate of ammonia cannot be 
 used in calcareous or chalky soils and is injurious to beet-root, rye, 
 and lupines, more especially when the plants are young. In the 
 case of barley, Prof. Tanner says, "that sulphate of ammonia im- 
 proves, and nitrate of soda invariably injures the malting character 
 of barley." But nitrate of soda gives the highest yield of 
 albuminoids, therefore, barley grown with nitrate of soda has a 
 higher leedii g value than that grown with sulphate of ammonia. 
 Tobacco appears to be most benefited by sulphate of ammonia, and 
 Lawes and Gilbert prefer it for their wheat experiments at 
 Rothamstead. 
 
 Most soils can easily convert the ammonia into nitrates and 
 also fix it in the soil. When nitrates are applied to wet soils, or 
 after rain, they are liable to be washed from the soil or out of the 
 reach of the crops. Owing to their extreme solubility no result 
 can be expected from nitrates after the first crop, for the reason, if 
 the crop does not use up all the nitrates put into the soil, they are 
 beyond the reach of the next year's crop. Kven granting that 
 nitrates are more rapid in their actions on plant growth than the 
 ammonium sulphate, there are other things to take into considera- 
 tion that may counterbalance any superiority nitrates may have. 
 In this colony nitrate of soda is much dearer th:m sulphate of 
 ammonia, and, further, 100 Ibs. of the sulphate contains as much 
 nitrogen as 125 Ibs. of nitrate of soda. The price of nitrate of soda 
 is from /."in to {."17 per ton, while sulphate of ammonia is frm 
 \2 to /;u ios. per ton. The sulphate of ammonia is by tar the 
 cheapest, as it is only about 75 per cent of the price of the nitrate 
 and it contains 25 per cent, more nitrogen. Where it can be 
 applied in place of the nitrate of soda, it will be the cheapest and 
 verv nearly as effective. The following experiments by (iriltiths 
 will show to some extent the agricultural value of various nitro- 
 genous manures and the importance of top dressing : 
 
 GYPSUM, 
 
 Tin- tken for the experiments were wheat, potatoes, and 
 
 clover. Twenty-one plots of land of one acre each were taken. 
 The lii-st *evcn consisted of good quality clay land, and grew 
 wheat, the second seven consisted of sandy loam, and grew 
 potatoes ; the third seven plots were laid down with clover. 
 
The manures were as follows : 
 
 Plots i, S, 15 eai-h \v;is manured with i^ cwt. of nitrate of soda 
 as a top dressing in three instalments of 56 Ibs. each. 
 
 [Mots 2, 9, 16 each was manured with i^ cwt. of nitrate of soda 
 at one time. 
 
 Plots 3, 10, 17 each received 2 cwt. of potassium nitrate in one 
 instalment. 
 
 Plots 4, n, 18 each received i cwt. of sulphate of ammonia in 
 one instalment. 
 
 Plots 5, 12, 19 each received i cwt. of chloride of ammonia in 
 one instalment. 
 
 Plots 6, 13, 20 each was manured with 24 tons of farmyard 
 manure in October (for wheat), and September (for potatoes and 
 clover) they did not receive any dressings of artificial manures. 
 
 Plots 7, 14, 21 received no artificial or farmyard manure. Each 
 plot of land (except Nos. 6, 7, 13, 14, 20, 21) received 12 tons of 
 good farmyard manure in the month of October (for wheat), and 
 September (for potatoes and clover). 
 
 WHEAT CROPS. 
 
 Plots Nos. i to 7 had previously grown root crops, and each 
 was sown in the month of November with six pecks of good wheat. 
 The following are the results : 
 
 Dry wheat crop. 
 
 No. i. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5 . 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 Grain 
 Straw 
 
 Total crop 
 Grain in bushels 
 
 Ibs. 
 4000 
 8126 
 
 Ibs 
 
 33 6 
 0241 
 
 Ibs 
 1680 
 2201 
 
 Ibs. 
 2720 
 
 4354 
 
 Ibs. 
 2240 
 4002 
 
 Ibs. 
 1418 
 2200 
 
 Ibs. 
 880 
 2480 
 
 12,126 
 
 9601 
 
 3881 
 
 7074 
 
 6242 
 
 3618 
 
 1600 
 
 50 
 
 4 2 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 18$ 
 
 II 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Plots Nos. 8 to 14 had previously grown oats ; on each plot 
 were set 7 cwt of potato tubers. The following are the results : 
 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 No, 9, 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 No. n. 
 
 No. 12, 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 Tubers 
 Haulm 
 
 Ibs. 
 22,400 
 8126 
 
 Ibs. 
 18,480 
 
 599 2 
 
 Ibs. 
 5,680 
 5226 
 
 Ibs. 
 17,360 
 
 55 2 I 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 '3-44 
 4628 
 
 Ibs. 
 15,120 
 5023 
 
 Ibs. 
 11,300 
 
 399 
 
 Total crop ... 
 
 29,728 
 
 26,472 
 
 20,906 
 
 22,88l 
 
 18,068 
 
 20,143 
 
 15,209 
 
 Tubers in tons 
 
 1O 
 
 V 
 
 7 
 
 r\ 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 5 
 
724 
 
 CLOVER CROP. 
 
 Plots Nos. 15 to 21 had the season before grown barley. Each 
 plot was sown with 12 Ibs. of red clover seeds in the autumn. The 
 following are the results : 
 
 
 X... 15. 
 
 \<>. 16. 
 
 X<>. 17. 
 
 X<>. IS. 
 
 Xo. in. 
 
 
 Xo. 21. 
 
 Red clover 
 hay (dry) 
 
 Ibs. 
 7840 
 
 Ibs. 
 6720 
 
 Ibs. 
 44 8l 
 
 Ibs. 
 6l6o 
 
 Ibs. 
 3922 
 
 Ibs 
 4476 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 33 6c 
 
 Prod uce in tons 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 2j 
 
 If 
 
 2 
 
 ii 
 
 Each of the crops was grown under similar circumstances as 
 far as the date of sowing, composition of the soil, the amount of 
 rainfall, sunshine, etc., were concerned. All the experiments were 
 performed in duplicate with almost identical results. The con- 
 clusions that Griffiths draws from these experiments are : 
 
 1. That nitrate of soda is a good manure for cereals, root an< 
 leguminous crops generally, increasing the yield over other nitro- 
 genous manures. 
 
 2. That it is better to use the nitrate of soda in fractions as a 
 top dressing, as the crops progress in growth, rather than at one 
 time, for a larger yield is obtained in each case. This appears to 
 be directly due to the manurial value of the nitrogen contained in 
 the nitrate of soda, and indirectly due to its action on the dormant 
 nitrogenous constituents of the soil, for there is an increase in the 
 nitrogen of the crops over that applied in the form of nitrate of 
 soda. It is probable that nitrates favor nitrification. 
 
 3. It was found that in those crops grown with nitrate of soda 
 the albuminoids are increased, and, generally speaking, the soluble 
 carbo-hydrates are also increased. Hence their higher value as 
 feeding stuffs. 
 
 4. The amount of chlorophyll (green coloring matter) an 
 starch grains in the leaves of those crops grown with nitrate o 
 soda, are increased more than in the others. 
 
 5. That nitrate of soda is a better manure for potatoes than 
 potassium nitrate, although potash manures are generally used for 
 these crops. 
 
 6. When nitrate of soda is used, the harvest of all crops is fully 
 two weeks earlier than by other nitrogenous manures. 
 
 7. Crops grown with nitrate of soda resisted the attacks of 
 micro-parasitic organisms, while the use of potash manures en- 
 couraged the attacks of these organisms. The resistance to the 
 germinating power of the spores of parasitic fungi on the part of 
 the crops grown with nitrate of soda is due to the rapid develop- 
 ment of the chlorophyll in the leaves, and so places the plants be- 
 yond the destructive influence of parasitic fungi. 
 
 i 
 
725 
 
 8. Ammonium chloride is n >t a ^ >od nitrogenous manure. This 
 is attributed to the chlorine in the ammonium chloride, which may 
 act as poison. When we- come to the potash manures I shall have 
 more to say regarding the poisonous effects of chlorides. 
 
 From these experiments of Griffiths it is evident that the labour 
 spent on fractional dressing is m re than repaid by the large increase 
 of crops. 
 
 In comparing the values of nitrate of soda and sulphate of 
 ammonia, it is generally stated that a dry soil is best for the nitrate 
 of soda, and that the sulphate acts better in a wet soil, in fact, 
 nitrate of soda is more liable to do injury than good in a heavy clay 
 soil, while the sulphate of ammonia will do good in almost any 
 soil. 
 
 From these conclusions it might be argued that nitrate of soda 
 is by far the best nitrogenous manure to apply to the soils of 
 Western Australia. This, at the present time, I am not inclined to 
 admit, at least not until we have proved it to be so by practical 
 experiments. The conclusions I have given are those arrived at 
 by a great many experimenters in Great Britain, Europe and 
 America, where the conditions and soils are not quite the same as 
 we have in Western Australia. The soils here are much lighter and 
 the rains are confined to a much shorter period, although the total 
 rainfall is not so very much different in the actual amount for a year. 
 The rains being heavier and soils lighter than in these countries, 
 the nitrates will be more easily washed out, causing a large loss of 
 valuable manure, whereas the same thing would not take place in 
 the ca e of the sulphate of ammonia. Although we have not yet 
 had any experiments here as to the relative values of the two 
 manures, there have been some made in Victoria by A. N. Pearson. 
 From the results of these experiments he comes to the following 
 conclusions, which I will give in his own words. "In Europe, with its 
 cold winters, the nitrogen in the nitrate of soda^is more quickly taken 
 up by fruit trees and by root crops than the nitrogen of sulphate of 
 ammonia ; but I have tried the two in comparison with each other 
 five or six times on fruit trees and root crops in this country, and 
 find that this superiority does not exist here ; in fact, if anything, 
 the nitrogen in the sulphate of ammonia gives the better results/' 
 Our soils and climate being more comparable to those of Victoria 
 than to those of Europe, we can accept the results of Pearson's 
 experiments in Victoria as being applicable to this colony, at least 
 until the contrary is proven. 
 
 POTASSIUM NITRATE. 
 
 Potassium nitrate, saltpetre or nitre, is found as an efflorescence 
 on the surface of soils in a great many parts of the world, but prin- 
 cipally in India. The greater part of the nitrate of potash is made 
 from nitrate of soda by a double decomposition with a potash salt. 
 It does not give the results that might be expected from it; on 
 
7 26 
 
 potatoes, that require both nitrogen and potash as a manure, nitrate 
 of soda gives quite as good results and is much cheaper. Nitrate 
 of potash is too dear to be used much as a manure. 
 
 POTASH MANURES. 
 
 Potash is one of three main elements that enter into the food 
 of almost all plants. It is found in large quantities in the ash of 
 root and leguminous crops ; more than the half of the ash of 
 potatoes is potash, varying from 55 to 60 per cent. The crops that 
 are most benefited by the application of potash are legumes, which 
 require a liberal supply. Potash for agricultural purposes is 
 principally obtained from the deposits at Stassfurt, in Germany. 
 The chief potash salts used as manures are kainit and the double 
 sulphate of potash and magnesia. Kainit contains from 12 to 14 per 
 cent, of potash. The following is an analysis of a fair sample : 
 
 Moisture ... ... ... 3-21 
 
 Water of combination ... ... io'4i 
 
 Potassium sulphate ... ... 2 4'43 
 
 (equal potash i3'2o) 
 
 Calcium sulphate ... ... 3' 13 
 
 Magnesium sulphate ... ... I 3'^3 
 
 Magnesium chloride ... ... 1 4'S4 
 
 Sodium chloride ... ... 29*59 
 
 Insoluble ... "86 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 The double sulphate contains about 50 per cent, of potasl 
 Most soils contain a good percentage of potash from 'i to 3*0 per 
 cent, and will average about '2 per cent. Most of the soils that 
 I have analysed in Western Australia contain less than 'i per cent, 
 and very few over ~2 per cent, of potash. The soils in this country 
 being lower than most other countries in potash, this should be 
 taken into account when applying manure, and more especially where 
 potatoes are grown and chaff sold oil the farm, or otherwise the land 
 will become too poor in potash to produce goodcrops. Potash is easily 
 fixed in the soil, and various soils have different powers of retaining 
 or fixing it. The clay soils have the greatest power, peaty soils 
 less, and sandy soils the least. This fixing is accomplished by 
 chemical double decomposition, whereby the soil forms insoluble 
 Compounds with potash. 
 
 Proi"e.or \Yay found from '00003 to "00031 per cent, of potash 
 in drainage from arable land. Potash is not a manure that should 
 be applied alone, but in conjunction with some other manure, such 
 iiperphosphates or farmyard manure, and will then give sur- 
 prisingly large crops. The quantity generally used is from one to 
 two c\vt. of the sulphate of potash and live to seven c\vt. of kainit 
 per acre. 
 
 I 
 
7^7 
 
 Another compound of potash that has been used to a great 
 extent is the chloride or nnirate of potash. It is a manure that is 
 not to be recommended, more especially for the soils of this colony. 
 Professor Jamieson and others have shown that in a great many cases 
 it aets as a plant poison. The action that appears to take place- in the 
 decomposition of the chloride of potash by lime is the formation of 
 calcium chloride, which is very poisonous to plants. Tobacco 
 grown with it is not good, only an inferior quality of tobacco being 
 manufactured from the leaf. Potatoes become waxy when grown 
 with it, and it acts injuriously to sugar-beet by lowering the per- 
 centage of crystalli/able sugar. This does not occur with the sul- 
 phate of potash, but only when the chloride or murate is used. 
 Another clanger from the use of it is that it increases the amount of 
 chlorides in the soil. It is much easier putting these into the soil 
 than taking them out of it. In a great many places in this colony 
 there is too much chlorides in the soil. In some cases the soil is 
 fairly poisoned with them, so that hardly anything will grow in it, 
 and in others in a very sickly state. This state of affairs is also 
 brought about by irrigating with water containing a larg^ per- 
 centage of common salt, (chloride of sodium) also by using water 
 from saline springs flowing over land. A case in point came under 
 my notice lately, that of a large spring near Xortham, where nothing 
 grows near the course of the stream that flows from this spring for 
 a mile along its course. Before using water for irrigation one 
 should find out whether it contains anything injurious to vegetation. 
 The crops that do best in saline or salty soils are mangolds and 
 cabbage. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 Lime is one of the principal plant foods, and is as necessary to 
 the plant as nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Most soils con- 
 tain lime in suffi.ient quantities for the requirements of all kinds of 
 crops, although there are soils too poor in lime to supply the 
 requirements of a crop, such soils being generally poor* and sandy. 
 Pasture land, as far as its surface is concerned, is liable to become 
 too poor in lime. The lime in a soil tends to sink down, at least in 
 pasture land. Thus we see how permanent pasture land is benefited 
 by lime. In arable land the plough brings the lime back t > the 
 surface until such time as it passes beyond the reach of the 
 plough. 
 
 Until recent years we had no clear ideas as to the action of 
 lime in the soil, and still a great deal remains clouded in obscurity. 
 What I might call the multiplicity of the actions of lime on the soil 
 a d the ill-conceived notions of these actions, probably the result 
 of the contradictory experiences of farmers in different parts of 
 England has had much to do with the condemnatory ideas some 
 farmers hold regarding lime. There is no doubt its actions are 
 beneficial on some soils. It acts in three different ways mechani- 
 cally, chemically, and biologically. 
 
728 
 
 Lime, as applied to the soil, is in three different states : Car- 
 bonate of lime, a compound of lime and carbonic acid, such 
 as limestone or chalk, and sometimes called mild lime. 
 Also as burnt or caustic lime obtained by burning the 
 carbonate to drive off the carbonic acid, and sometimes called 
 quicklime. As gypsum, a compound of lime and sulphuric 
 acid obtained as a by-product in several manufactures ; having a 
 manurial value differing from the carbonate and the caustic lime. 
 The mechanical actions of the carbonate and the caustic lime are 
 much the same, only the caustic is much quicker than the carbonate. 
 
 Heavy or clayey soils when they get wet puddle and become 
 sticky, so that they are difficult to handle. This puddling is owing 
 to the particles of the soil being in a very fine state, and getting into 
 what may be called a semi-state of suspension. The clay when it 
 dries contracts and gets caked or packed, which makes it difficult 
 to work. The effect of lime on such a soil is to precipitate or 
 coagulate the fine particles of clay, something in the manner in 
 which sewage is purified by lime, which causes the suspended 
 solid matter to be precipitated and leaving the water clear. The soil 
 is also made more open and pervious, thereby allowing the water to 
 drain away. It also makes the soil more friable and easy to work. 
 The lime does not contract when it gets dry, as the clay does, th 
 making the soil more porous, friable and easy to break up. 
 
 Lime, while thus acting on clayey soils, curiously enough, has a 
 reverse action on light sandy soils. It assists to bind the soil, 
 making it more retentive of moisture and giving it a great 
 capacity for absorbing moisture from a depth by increasing i 
 capillary power. 
 
 When caustic or burnt lime is used, it should be first slacked 
 by allowing it to absorb moisture or pouring watt r over it. Caustic 
 lime is best for clayey and peaty soils and soils rich in organic 
 matter. Th,e rules are : 
 
 For heavy soils use caustic lime. 
 
 For light soils use carbonate of lime. 
 
 For soils rich in organic matter use caustic lime. 
 
 For soils poor in organic matter use carbonate of lime. 
 
 CHKMICAL ACTION OF LIMI:. 
 
 Lime acts more powerfully chemically than mechanically. It 
 acts directly as a plant food. It acts by liberating potash from its 
 insoluble and inert compounds, and bringing it into a state fit for 
 the plants to absorb. It also promotes the formation of hydrated 
 double silicates, which lix or retain in the soil the ammonia and 
 potash supplied by manure and in a state lit for the plants to 
 absorb them. Soils rich in organic matter, such as peaty 
 soil or rich nr-adows, generally give rise to an excessive amount 
 of organic acids, which cause sourness in the soil and act 
 as a poison upon plants. The herbage that grows on these is 
 
generally coarse, and with very little value as a feeding stuff. The 
 action of lime on tnese S'nls is to neutralise these organic acids and 
 prevent their formation, to sweeten the soil and promote the growth 
 of the line and nutritive grasses and to kill the coarse scrub. It 
 decomposes organic matter in the soil, bringing it into a in >re 
 soluble state and lit for the plants to absorb. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL ACTION OF LIMK. 
 
 This is one of the most important actions in the soil of lime, 
 which is one of the most active agents in the process of nitrifica- 
 tion. Its presence enables the micro-organisms in the soil to 
 decompose and convert the nitrogenous compounds into nitric acid, 
 which combines with the lime, the lime holding the nitric acid in 
 readiness for the use of the plants. I have already shown that 
 aicidity stops the process of nitrification, and may even cause the 
 reverse process of denitrification. I have also stated that too great 
 an alkalinity will also stop nitrification, and care must be taken that 
 not too great an alkalinity is created in the soil. In the case of over 
 liming the best cure is farmyard manure. 
 
 GYPSUM, 
 
 This salt of lime acts much in the same way as lime. It de- 
 composes the insoluble compounds of potash, setting them free 
 and making them available to the plants. It absorbs and fixes 
 ammonia in the soil. It promotes nitrification. When super- 
 phosphates are used, the soil always receives a certain amount of 
 gypsum, as it is one of the largest component parts of superphos- 
 phates. 
 
 The crops that are most benefited by lime are the cereals, more 
 especially barley, and clover, potatoes, turnips and mangolds. 
 The quantity that it was usual to apply unde the old method of 
 liming was from four to six tons per acre every 12 to 14 years. 
 It is now, h nvever, considered more economical to apply one 
 to two tons every three or four years. Lime should be lightly 
 harrowed in. 
 
 SPECIAL MANURES. 
 
 These will be best treated upon when specifying the manures 
 for the different crops. Special manures should contain potash, 
 phosphoric acid and nitrogen in some form. 
 
 There are a great many special manures made and sold 
 as such. Some of these, I am afraid, are only special in name, 
 with very little speciality in their nature. There are certainly 
 some special manures that are all it is professed for them, made by 
 linns who not only make manures, but wish to make a name 
 for themselves also ; while there are others, and those in large 
 numbers, whose sole aim is how to make, and how to 
 increase their profits at the expense of farmers. Why buy 
 these special manures ? The farmer who does so trusts blindly to 
 what the manufacturer tells him, and throws over his own judgment. 
 
73 
 
 The prices paid for these special manures are as a rule far beyond 
 their agricultural value. The chemist by ordinary analysis is not 
 able to help the farmer to discriminate between the valuable 
 nitrogen in bones and the almost valueless nitrogen of leather. 
 The manufacturer very often sells the manures through merchants 
 who know nothing of the constitution of the manure and less of the 
 requirements of the farmer, and the merchant's traveller will almost 
 go as far in his praises of these manures as to declare that one can 
 grow potatoes on a bare boulder of granite with only a dose of their 
 extra-special potato manure. 
 
 The farmer knows, or ought to know, more about h's land and 
 its requirements than either the manufacturer or the merchant, then 
 why should he not use that knowledge and buy the different 
 substances he requires, and mix them as required. He can have 
 them analysed to see what they contain and that they are what they 
 were sold to him for. He may, if he is unwise, take it for granted 
 that their substances are as they are stated, but if he does the crop 
 will not. Should the analysis prove them to be different to wha it 
 was intended to purchase, the farmer should either refuse to take 
 them, or insist upon reduction in the price, which no right-minded 
 merchant will ever object to. I do not intend to refer to any of these 
 special preparations in detail, but will gke the requirements of the 
 different crops as foun 1 by practical experience. The farmer can 
 then, from his own knowledge of what his land requires, use his 
 own discretion as to the class of manures he purchases. 
 
 In order to show that the purchaser of artificial manures is 
 fully protected against fraud on the part of the vendor, the Fe 
 Stuffs and Fertilizers Act of Western Australia, with its regulations. 
 is here introduced. A perusal of this will show that it is entirely 
 the farmer's own fault if he is victimised. 
 
 AN ACT TO REGULATE THE SALE OF AGRICULTURAL FKKTII.ISKKS AND FKI 
 
 STUFFS, 
 
 ntcd A>, nth .SY/> tcnihci . 
 
 BF it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly of 
 We-tern Australia, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of 
 the same, as follows : 
 
 1. (1.) Every person who sells for use ;is a fertiliser of the soil any article 
 manufactured or found in the said Colony, n imported from abroad, shall .-iiMi and 
 give to the purchaser an invoi. e .-taring the name of the ai tide ami whether it i> an 
 artificially compounded article or not, and what is at Ira-i the percentage of the 
 nitrogen, soluble and insoluble phosphates, and potash, it any, contained in the 
 article ; and this invoice shall have effect as a warranty by the seller of the statements 
 contained therein. 
 
 ( 2 ) For the purposes of this section an article shall be deemed to be manu- 
 factured it it has been subjected m any artificial process. 
 

 2. (i.) Every person who sells, for use as food for cattle, any article which has 
 
 been artificially pi vpai ed, .-hall give to the purchaser an invoice Mining the name of 
 tlu' article and whether it has been prepared Irom one substance or seed, or t'roin more 
 than one substance or seed, aiul this invoice shall have effect as a wananty by the 
 seller of the statements contained therein. 
 
 (2.) \Vhere any article sold tot use as food for cattle is sold under a name or 
 description implying that it is prepared from any particular substance, or from two or 
 more particular substances, or is the product of any particular seed, or of two or more 
 particular seeds, and without any indication that it is mixed or compounded with any 
 Other substance or seed, there shall be an implied warranty by the seller that it is 
 pure, that is to say, is prepared trom that substance or those substances only, or is a 
 product of that seed or those seeds only. 
 
 (3.) On the sale of any article for use as food for cattle, there shall be implied 
 a warranty by the seller that the article is suitable for feeding purposes. 
 
 (4.) Any statement by the seller of the percentages of nutritive or other 
 ingredients contained in any article sold for use as food for cattle, made after the 
 commencement of this Act, in an invoice of such article, or in any circular or adver- 
 tisement descriptive of such article, shall have effect as a warranty by the seller. 
 
 3. (r.) If any person who sells any article for use as a fertiliser of the soil or as 
 food for cattle commits any of the following offences, namely : 
 
 (a.) Fails without reasonable excuse to give, on or before, or as soon as 
 possible after the delivery of the article, the invoice required by this 
 Act ; or 
 
 (b.) Causes or permits any invoice or description of the article sold by him to 
 
 be false in any material particular to the prejudice of the purchaser ; or 
 
 (c. } Sells for use as food for cattle any article which contains any ingredient 
 
 deleterious to cattle, or to which has been added any ingredient 
 
 worthless for feeding purposes and not disclosed at the time of the sale : 
 
 he shall, without prejudice to any civil liability, be liable, on summary conviction, for 
 
 a first offence, to a fine not exceeding Twenty pounds, and for any subsequent offence 
 
 to a fine not exceeding Fifty pounds. 
 
 (2.) In any proceeding for an offence under this section it shall be no defence 
 to allege that the buyer, having bought only for analysis, was not prejudiced by the 
 sale, or that the article sold, though deficient in one or more constituents, was not 
 defective in other constituents. 
 
 (3.) A person alleged to have committed an offence under this section in 
 respect of an article sold by him shall be entitled to the same rights and remedies, 
 civil or criminal, against the person from whom he bought the article as are available 
 to the person to whom he sold the article, and any damages recovered by him may, if 
 the circumstances justify it, include the amount of any fine and costs paid by him on 
 conviction under this section, and the costs of and incidental to his defence on such 
 conviction. 
 
 4:. The Governor may appoint an agricultural analyst (hereafter referred to as 
 the analyst), and may, from time to time repeal or alter regulations for carrying this 
 Act into effect. Such regulations shall be published in the Government (raze tic, and 
 shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament within fourteen days after such 
 publication, if Parliament be then sitting, and if Parliament be not then sitting, within 
 fourteen days after its next meeting ; and all such regulations, when so published, 
 shall have the force of law, and shall continue in force, unless repealed as aforesaid, or 
 disallowed by both Houses of Parliament, 
 
 5. Kvery seller and every buyer of any article used for fertilising the soil or as 
 food for cattle shall be entitled, on payment to the analyst of a fee in accordance with 
 the regulations, to have the article analysed by the analyst and to receive from him a 
 certificate of the result of his analysis. 
 
 The certificate of the analyst as regards fertilisers shall be in the form and contain 
 the particulars mentioned in the Schedule hereto or as near thereto as circumstances 
 permit, and every analyst shall report to the Minister as he directs the result of any 
 analysis made by him in pursuance of this Act. 
 
732 
 
 6. If the buyer, on receiving delivery of any fertilizer or feeding stuff and before 
 otherwise breaking the bulk thereof, shall, in the presence of the analyst, a Justice of 
 the Peace or a police constable, and in accordance with the regulations, take three 
 samples of the article and cause them to be marked, sealed, and fastened up, and shall 
 deliver or send by post prepaid one sample with the invoice or a copy thereof to the 
 analyst and shall deliver or send by post as aforesaid another sample to the seller, and 
 retain the third sample for future comparison, then the following paragraphs (a) and 
 (ft) shall have effect : 
 
 (nf.) At the hearing" of any civil or criminal proceeding with respect to any 
 article analysed in pursuance of this section, the production of a 
 certificate of the analyst shall be sufficient evidence of the facts therein 
 stated, unless the person against whom the certificate is proposed to 
 be put in evidence requires that the analyst be called as a witness. 
 (ft.) The costs of and incidental to the obtaining of any analysis in pursuance 
 of this section shall be borne by the seller or the buyer, in accordance 
 with the results of the analysis, and shall be recoverable as a simple 
 contract debt. 
 
 In this section the word " delivery " shall not include delivery to an agent for the 
 
 purpose of carriage. 
 
 7. On the request of the buyer or the seller of any fertiliser or feeding stuff and 
 on payment of the fee prescribed by regulations, the analyst or some person appointed 
 by him in that behalf shall, before or at the delivery of the article, take the samples 
 on behalf of the buyer, and thereupon paragraphs (rt) and (ft) of the last preceding 
 section shall apply. The word " delivery " shall have the same meaning in this section 
 as in the sixth section of this Act. 
 
 8. If any person knowingly and fraudulently 
 
 (a.) Tampers with any paicel of fertiliser or feeding stuff so as to procure 
 that any sample of it taken in pursuance of this Act does not correctly 
 represent the contents of the parcel ; or 
 (ft.) Tampers with any sample taken under this Act ; 
 
 he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding ^20, or to imprison- 
 ment for a term not exceeding six months. 
 
 9. A prosecution for an offence under this Act may be instituted either by the 
 person aggrieved, or by any person authorised in that behalf by the Minister. 
 
 All offences against this Act shall be summarily punishable upon conviction before 
 any two or more Justices of the Peace in Petty Sessions. 
 
 10. Section A of the schedule to " The Shortening Ordinance, 1853," shall be 
 incorporated with, and taken- to form part of this ACL to all intents and purposes, and 
 in as full and ample a manner as if the said section had been introduced and fully set 
 forth in this Act. 
 
 11. (1.) This Act shall apply to wholesale as well as retail sales. 
 
 (2.) For the purposes of this Act the words "soluble" and "insoluble" 
 shall respectively mean soluble and insoluble in water ; and the word " cattle " shall 
 mean horses, camels, asses, mules, bulls, cows, oxen, heifers, calves, sheep, goats, 
 swine, poultry, and dogs. 
 
 12. This Act may l>e dteil as "The Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act, 1895," 
 and shall come into operation on the first day of January, 1896. 
 
 In the name and on behalf of the Oueen I hereby assent to this Act. 
 ALEX. C. ON SLOW. Administrator. 
 
 SCHEDULE. 
 
 of Ccttitkatc by A 
 
 I, the undeisi^ne.l. A.M., analyst, do heieby crilify that on the 
 .lay ot , 18 ,1 received a sample, labelled hen' 
 
733 
 
 of jertiliser, ami of the manufacturer or importer, his place of business, trade 
 mark, or figure (if atiy)~\ for analysis, the result of which is as follows, viz. : 
 
 Percentage of nitrogen. 
 Percentage of soluble phosphates. 
 Percentage of insoluble phosphates. 
 Percentage of potash. 
 
 REGULATIONS, 
 
 (Gazetted June 5, 1896.) 
 "FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS ACT, 1895." 
 
 By virtue of the provisions of Section 4 of " The Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs 
 Act, 1895," His Excellency the Governor in Council has been pleased to make the 
 following regulations : 
 
 Affiliations under " The Fertilisers and Feeding Stuff's Act, 181)5." 
 I. The fee payable to the Agricultural Analyst (of the Bureau of Agriculture) 
 by the buyer or seller of any article manufactured or found in the colony of Western 
 Australia, or imported from abroad, used for fertilising the soil, for an analysis of same, 
 shall be as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 For determining percentage of nitrogen ... ... ... 7 6 
 
 potash ... ... ... 7 6 
 
 ,, ,, phosphoric acid in soluble form ... 12 6 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, in insoluble form ... 12 6 
 
 2. The fee payable to the Agricultural Analyst by the buyer or seller of any 
 article used as food for live stock, which has been artificially prepared or manufactured 
 in the colony of Western Australia, or imported from abroad, for an analysis of same, 
 shall be as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 For determining percentage of water ... ... ... 2 6 
 
 ,, ,, ,, albuminoids ... ... ... 7 9 
 
 oil ... ... ... ... 5 3 
 
 fibre ... ... ... ... 5 3 
 
 ,. ,, ash ... ... ... ... 26 
 
 3. Every seller and every buyer of an article used for fertilising the soil shall be 
 entitled, on payment to the analyst of the fee or fees in accordance with Regulation I, 
 to have the article analysed by the analyst, and to receive from him, within fourteen 
 days, a certificate of the result of his analysis. 
 
 The certificate of the analyst shall be in the following form : 
 
 I, the undersigned, A.B., analyst, do hereby certify that on the 
 day of , 1 8 ,1 received a sample, labelled [here state name 
 
 of fertiliser, and of the manufacturer or importer, his place of business, 
 trade mark, or figure (if any)'], for analysis, the result of which is as 
 follows : 
 
 Percentage of nitrogen. 
 
 Percentage of soluble phosphates. 
 
 Percentage of insoluble phosphates. 
 
 Percentage of potash. 
 
 4. Every seller and every buyer of any article used as food for live stock, which 
 has been artificially prepared or manufactured in the colony of Western Australia or 
 imported from abroad, shall be entitled, on payment to the analyst of the fee or fees 
 in accordance with Regulation 2, to have the article analysed by the analyst, and to 
 receive from him, within fourteen days, a certificate of the result of his analysis. 
 
734 
 
 5- The buyer, on receiving delivery of any fertiliser or feeding stuff, and before 
 otherwise breaking the bulk thereof, shall, in the presence of the analyst, a Justice of 
 the Peace or a police constable, take three samples of the article and cause them to 
 be marked with the date and place of sampling, the names of the persons present, the 
 figures or trade mark on each package, sealed, and fastened up, and shall deliver or 
 send by post (prepaid), one sample with the invoice or a copy thereof to the analyst, 
 and shall deliver or send by post as aforesaid another sample to the seller, and retain 
 the third sample for future comparison. 
 
 6. On the request of the buyer or seller of any fertiliser or feeding stuff, and on 
 payment of the fee prescribed by Regulations Nos. I and 2, the analyst, or some 
 person appointed by him in that behalf, before or at the delivery of the article, shall 
 take the samples on behalf of the buyer. 
 
 
 4th June, 1896. 
 
 L. LINDLEY-COWEN, 
 
 Secretary, Bureau of Agriculture. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 The best results from soil and manure are obtained by following 
 some system of rotation of crops. The method of growing the 
 same crop year after year on the same land tends to give weak crops, 
 which are more liable to be attacked by insect and fungoid diseases. 
 By using a system of rotation, the crops are more vigorous in their 
 growth and are therefore better able to resist these attacks. The 
 pests that attack one class of crops do not generally attack that of 
 another. The pests attacking one class die out for the want of the 
 nourishment they require before the time recurs for the crop upon 
 which they thrive to be replanted in that soil. Again, a system of 
 rotation economises manure. One class of crops require more of 
 one kind of plant food than another. By varying the crops accord- 
 ing to requirements of each, the best immediate ;md after results 
 arc obtained from the manure, and at the same time the soil is 
 maintained in a fertile condition. Whatever system of rotation 
 is followed will be dependent greatly on the soil and the 
 climate. A rotation that suits well in one district does not necessarily 
 suit so well in another. The laws of supply and demand for 
 certain crops will also govern to a certain extent what is best to 
 grow, for it is no use growing a crop that one cannot sell at a 
 profit. 
 
 M. Yille's system of manuiing is so much quoted by different 
 authorities that I think it will be best to give it in his own words, 
 and then suggest such modifications of it as 1 think will be more 
 suited to the requirements of this colony. This distinguished 
 French chemist, Bfl already stated, places a very low opinion on 
 farmyard manure as a manure, and states distinctly that a soil can 
 be maintained in a high state of fertility by the use of artilical 
 manures only. In all his formulae he gives potash, phosphoric 
 
735 
 
 acid, lime, an 1 nitrogen as the only substances which it is necessary 
 to add to the soil, all the others being contained in the soil in 
 sufficient quantities for the requirements of the crop. 
 
 The following table gives the composition of the chemical 
 manures according to Ville's formuhu : 
 
 NORMAL MANURE No. i. 
 
 For colza, hemp, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and meadow land, 
 5.? 8 Ibs. per acre only. 
 
 Strength per rent, in 
 tili/ing MKUUT. 
 
 fer- 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 6'5 
 
 Ammonic sulphate ... 
 
 20-83 
 
 22C 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 5-0 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 29-17 
 
 308 
 
 Potash 
 
 8-0 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 33-34 
 
 352 
 
 Lime 
 
 17-0 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 i6'6o 
 
 176 
 
 
 - 
 
 100 00 
 
 1056 
 
 NORMAL HOMOLOGOUS MAXURI-; No. IA. 
 Used for the same purposes and in the same quantity as No. i. 
 
 Strength per cent, in fer- 
 tilizing matters. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per acre. 
 
 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 6*6 Calcic superphosphate 
 5-00 Potassic chloride at 80 
 
 33'34 
 10-66 
 
 35 2 
 I 7 6 
 
 Potash 
 
 8'33 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 32-50 
 
 343 
 
 Lime 
 
 13-00 Calcic sulphate 
 
 17*50 
 
 i*5 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 1056 
 
 NORMAL MAXURK No. 2. 
 For cabbages, beetroots, carrots and garden stuff. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 6'5 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 33'34 
 
 352 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 ^'OO 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 16-66 
 
 176 
 
 Potash 
 
 8-00 
 
 Sodic nitrate 
 
 25-00 
 
 264 
 
 Lime 
 
 15-00 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 25-00 
 
 264 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 1056 
 
736 
 
 NORMAL HOMOLOGOUS MANURE No. 2 A. 
 Used for the same purpose and in the same quantity as Xo. 2. 
 
 Nitrogen ... 6*5 
 Phosphoric acid ^'oo 
 Potash 8*33 
 Lime 14*00 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic chloride at 80 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 3333 35 2 
 16*66 176 
 11*66 123 
 25-00 264 
 
 
 
 100*00 1056 
 
 NORMAL MANURE No. 3. 
 For potatoes, tobacco, flax and vines. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 4-00 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 40*00 
 
 352 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 6*00 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 30-00 
 
 264 
 
 Potash 
 
 14-00 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 30*00 
 
 264 
 
 Lime 
 
 19-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JOO'OO 
 
 880 
 
 NORMAL MANURE No. 4. 
 For vines, tobacco, fruit trees and ornamental plants. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 4-60 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 40*00 
 
 528 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 6-00 
 
 Potassic nitrate 
 
 3334 
 
 440 
 
 Potash 
 
 i5'5 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 26'66 
 
 35-' 
 
 Lime 
 
 17*00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 1320 
 
 NORMAL MANURE No. 5. 
 For maize, Jerusalem artichokes, sorghum, turnips, sugar-cane. 
 
 Strength per cent, in 
 fertilizing matters. 
 
 
 IV r Cent. Per Acre 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Potash 
 Lime 
 
 2-50 
 
 7'5 
 8-00 
 
 22'GO 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 Ibs. 
 50*00 528 
 
 1 6*66 176 
 33\34 35- 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 1056 
 
 
737 
 
 XOKMAI. MAXTKK Xo. 6. 
 For tl;ix, 1'or lace making, leguminous plants, lucerne. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Potash 
 Lime 
 
 270 
 6 - oo 
 9 - oo 
 
 22'OQ 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 Pnlassic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 40-00 352 
 
 20'00 176 
 
 40-00 ^j 
 
 
 
 100-00 880 
 
 INCOMPLETE MANURE No. i (without potash). 
 For colza, cereals, meadow land. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 7-00 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 40-00 
 
 352 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 6'oo 
 
 Ammonic sulphate 
 
 35-oo 
 
 308 
 
 Potash 
 
 O'OO 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 25-00 
 
 22O 
 
 Lime 
 
 17-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 880 
 
 INCOMPLETE MANURE No. 6 (without nitrogen). 
 For clover, sainfoin, lucerne, and leguminous plants. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 O'OO 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 
 40*00 
 
 352 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 6-00 
 
 Potassic chloride at 80 
 
 20-00 
 
 176 
 
 Potash 
 
 lO'OO 
 
 Calcic sulphate 
 
 40-00 
 
 35^ 
 
 Lime 
 
 22'OQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 880 
 
 M. Ville gives the following manure for a single crop without 
 the addition of farmyard manure. 
 
 For wheat 528 Ibs. of No. IA, and in the spring 44, 88, or 
 132 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia. He says, on condition that this 
 manuring is repeated every year, a crop of 33 bushels per acre is 
 obtained. 
 
 For barley, oats, rye, and natural meadow land, he gives 
 528 Ibs. No. i A, for the meadow land, he applies one-half in the 
 autumn, the other half in the spring. If the oat crop appears too 
 light, a further quantity of 44 Ibs or 88 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia 
 is given in early spring. 
 
 Beetroot, cabbages, carrots, hops, and garden stuff, he gives 
 1056 Ibs. of normal No. 2. In the case of beetroot, if he wished to 
 obtain the largest possible yield, he used the normal stimulating 
 N o. 2 instead of the above, which is composed thus : 
 
NORMAL STIMULATING MAXUKK Xo. 2. 
 
 Calcic superphosphate 
 Potassic nitrate ... 
 Sodic nitrate 
 Calcic sulphate ... 
 
 3^2 Ibs. per acre 
 176 
 39 6 M 
 
 220 
 
 "44 
 
 For potatoes he used normal manure X^o. 3, 880 Ibs. per acre. 
 With exhausted soil 1056 Ibs. per acre of normal No. 2 should be 
 used. 
 
 Vines and fruit trees, he uses 1320 Ibs. of normal, Xo. 4. 
 Turnips, swedes, Jerusalem artichokes, sorghum, sugar-cane and 
 maize, 1056 Ibs. per acre of normal, No. 5. 
 
 For beans, horse beans, haricot, clover, sainfoin, tares and 
 lucerne, he uses 880 Ibs. of incomplete manure, X'o. 6. 
 
 For a rotation of crops for two years of colza and wheat. First 
 year, 1056 Ibs. of normal manure. No. i. Second year, wheat, only 
 ammonium sulphate, 264 Ibs. per acre. 
 
 A rotation of maize and wheat. For the first year maize gives 
 1056 Ibs. per acre normal manure, Xo. 5. Second year, wheat, only 
 ammonium sulphate, 264 Ibs. per acre. 
 
 With a rotation of four years. Potatoes, wheat, clover and 
 wheat. First year, potatoes, 880 Ibs. per acre of normal manure, 
 Xo. v Second year, wheat, ammonium sulphate, 264 Ibs. per acre. 
 Third year, clover, 880 Ibs. per acre of incomplete manure, Xo. 6. 
 Fourth year, wheat, ammonium sulphate, 264 Ibs. 
 
 Rotation for live,- years. Potatoes, wheat, clover, colza and 
 wheat. First year, potatoes, 880 Ibs. of normal manure, Xo. 3. 
 Second year, wheat, 264 Ibs. of ammonium sulphate. Third year, 
 clover, 880 Ibs. of incomplete manure, Xo. 6. Fourth year, colza, 
 3^2 Ibs. of ammonium sulphate." Fifth year, wheat, 204 Ibs. of 
 ammonium sulphate. 
 
 With the use of farmyard manure in a live-year rotation of 
 potatoes, wheat, clover, wheat and oats, he uses the following mix- 
 tures : First year, potatoes, farmyard manure 44 tons per acre and 
 440 Ibs of normal manure, X T o. 6. Second year, wheat, 176 Ibs. of 
 ammonium sulphate. Third year, clover, 880 Ibs. of incomplete 
 manure, No. 6. Fourth year, wheat, 17') Ib-;. of ammonium sul- 
 phate. Fiflh Near, oats, 244 Ibs. of ammonium sulphate. 
 
 It will be seen from the above that Yille has two standard 
 elements in all his manures, that of superphosphate and sulphate 
 lime, and that they vary only in the nitrate of potash, chloiuK 
 potash, nitrite of soda and sulphate of ammonia. Tins is narrow- 
 ing the manure* elements, or sources of manure, down to an 
 unnecessary limit to the exclusion of other valuable 1 manures. It 
 was seen from Drs. Liechti and Vogt's experiments that as good 
 results were obtained from basic slag as that from superphosphates. 
 
730 
 
 It must ill so be remembered that superphosphates d<> not give such 
 good results in soils that are low or deficient in lime. In a soil low 
 in lime a large dressing of farmyard manure in conjunction with 
 either bone-meal, ground steamed bones, or basic slag, gives better 
 results than superphosphates. 
 
 I have calculated Ville's formulae to the manures that are more 
 in use at the present time, omitting that of the sulphate of lime 
 which may be added, if required, or ground limestone may be 
 applied in its place. If ground limestone is added, it should be 
 put into the soil some weeks before the other manure, more 
 especially if sulphate of ammonia is to be used, the same may be 
 said of basic slag. Lime and basic slag are liable to cause a loss of 
 ammonia by decomposing the sulphate and setting the ammonia 
 free. Then in calcareous soils there is no need for the addition of 
 the sulphate of lime. In the following recalculations of Ville's 
 formuhe the sulphate of lime is left out : 
 
 NORMAL MANTRK, No. i. 
 
 
 WhtMi k;iinit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 Superphosphate of lime. 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 " 
 Sulphate of ammonia 
 
 Ibs. per acre. 
 .. I 7 6 
 
 74 
 
 .. 165 
 
 , 7 6 
 
 kamit ... 26^; 
 165 
 
 415 
 
 604 
 
 NORMAL MAXURK, No. 2. 
 
 When kainit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 Superphosphate of lime. 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 " 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Ibs. per acre, 
 
 350 
 I 4 8 
 
 345 
 
 Kainit 
 
 350 
 525 
 
 345 
 
 < S 45 
 
 1220 
 
740 
 
 NORMAL MANTRK, Xo. 3. 
 
 Ibs. per acre. 
 
 Superphosphate of lime... 350 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 " 176 
 Nitrate of soda 235 
 
 761 
 
 When kainit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 Kainit 
 
 628 
 
 -'35 
 1213 
 
 NORMAL MAXTRK, No. 4. 
 
 When kainit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 Superphosphate of lime.. 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 " ,, 
 Nitrate of soda ... 
 
 Ibs. per acre. 
 . 528 
 2OO 
 350 
 
 $1* 
 
 Kainit ... 700 
 35 
 
 1078 
 
 1578 
 
 NORMAL MAXURF, Xo. 5. 
 
 When kainit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 
 Ibs. per acre. 
 
 
 Superphosphate of lime 
 
 ... 528 
 
 528 
 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 " 
 
 140 kainit ... 5_'5 
 
 Ammonium sulphate 
 
 ... 112 
 
 112 
 
 7 8o . 
 
 Il65 
 
 NORMAL MAXCRK, No. 6. 
 
 When kainit is used in place of 
 sulphate of potash. 
 
 Ibs. per acie. 
 
 Superphosphate of lime... 350 
 Sulphate of potash, 50 148 
 Ammonium sulphate ... i 12 
 
 Kainit 
 
 350 
 148 
 
 112 
 
 6lO 
 
 987 
 
 III the above formula/ I have taken out the chloride and 
 nitrate of potash. In the first place, I consider the chloride of 
 potasli is not a desirable manure to use in this colony ; and the 
 nitrate of potash is too dear and does not give any better results 
 than the nitrate of soda. When sulphate of ammonia is intended 
 
to be used in place of nitrate of soda, a fifth less of the sulphate 
 will be required. \Yheii nitrate of soda is to be used in place of 
 sulphate of ammonia one fourth more will be required than of the 
 sulphate. It must be remembered that the nitrate of soda is much 
 dearer than sulphate of ammonia ; and that Pearson in Victoria 
 obtained better results with the latter than the former, as it is 
 better adapted to the soils and climate there, which will most 
 probably be the case here.* 
 
 When farmyard manure is used less quantities than those 
 mentioned by Ville can be used. The quantities laid down must 
 not be considered as hard and fast lines in any case, as one soil 
 differs from another. A great deal also depends on the previous 
 manuring and crop that has been taken off. 
 
 The cereals generally require a rich nitrogenous manure. 
 When wheat is grown in a rotation after roots or a leguminous 
 crop, it is considered economical to have sufficient mineral manure 
 left in the soil for the wheat from the previous crop, and only to 
 supply a rich nitrogenous manure, such as sulphate of ammonia or 
 nitrate of soda. In the case of a light soil it is also advisable to add 
 some superphosphate or bone-meal, 2 cwt. of the former and 
 3 cwt. of the latter. 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert have grown year after year wheat on the 
 same land with the following mixture added annually : 
 
 Potassium sulphate ... 2Oolbs. 
 
 Sodium sulphate ... loolbs. 
 
 Magnesium sulphate ... loolbs. 
 
 Superphosphates ... 3^cwts. 
 
 Ammonium sulphate ... -2Oolbs. 
 
 The yield per acre during the thirty-seventh season was 
 35 ] bushels and 40 c\vts. of straw. 
 
 Land continuously unmanured gave in the thirty-seventh season 
 1 1 !> bushels and 10] c\vts. of straw. The following experiments 
 were made by Lawes and Gilbert with wheat and different manures, 
 and extending over a period of 40 years (1852-91). They show the 
 difference between the mineral manure and the nitrogenous, and 
 the mixture of mineral and nitrogenous. The mineral manure in 
 itself gives very little over the unmanured land ; the nitrogenous 
 manures give a very decided increase, but the combination of the 
 two gives a very large increase. 
 
 * Since calculating out these formuUc, I have been informed that several 
 large deposits of gvpsum are said to exist near the Midland and Yilgarn railways, and 
 also in a. smaller degree in the Swan district. The gypsum or calcic sulphate was 
 omitted, as I did not know it could he obtained at a sufficiently low rate to allow of its 
 being used as a manure. By adding the amount of calcic sulphate given in Ville's 
 formulae to those I have calculated out, a more extended use of superphosphates ran 
 be employed on soils poor in lime. At present I have no knowledge of the purity of 
 these deposits of gypsum, but there is every possibility that they aie not pure, so it 
 would be advisable to use at least 25 per cent, more than that stated by Ville. 
 
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743 
 OATS. 
 
 Oats, like :i 1 cereals, require a good supply of readily available 
 nitrogenous manure. It is a shallow rooted crop, deriving all its 
 food from near the- surface. It is generally sown in spring in 
 England, requiring a much shorter time for its growth than wheat. 
 For these reasons it requires a more soluble and readily available 
 manure than wheat. Farmyard manure is not considered a suitable 
 manure for oats, as it is too slow and insoluble for the requirements 
 of the qu ck growing crop. If it is intended to use larmyard 
 manure for the crop it should be put in with the previous crop in 
 sufficient quantities to leave plenty for the <at crop. Kven then, to 
 get any good results superphosphates or steamed bonedust with a 
 soluble nitrogenous manure should be sown with the crop, and a 
 top-dressing of either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia after 
 the crop is well through the ground. It is wonderful the results of 
 the top-dressing with either of these nitrogenous manures on a 
 backward crop. 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert used the same manure in their experiments 
 on the continuous growing of oats on the same land as they used 
 for wheat, with the exception that they used 400 Ibs. of sulphate of 
 ammonia for the oat crop, and 200 Ibs. for the wheat. Stockhardt 
 experimenting with oats found that they greedily absorb nitrogen 
 during nearly the whole of the period of their growth, therefore 
 sulphate of ammonia should prove the better manure than nitrate 
 of soda. The experiments show how several top-dressings of the 
 crop act beneficially. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 Barley, like all cereals, requires a liberal supply of nitrogen, 
 although it is scarcely so greedy in this respect as wheat and oats. 
 It is in a great many respects like oats, and in England is generally 
 sown in the spring. It is also a shallow rooted and quick growing 
 crop, drawing its food from the surface soil, necessaiily the manure 
 used must be easily assimilated and within ready access of the 
 roots, as they have to absorb all they require during a very short 
 period of growth. The same remarks in reference to oats apply, 
 also to barley, regarding th~ unsuitableness of farmyard manure, 
 which can only be prolitably used under the same conditions. 
 
 Greater care is required in the manuring of barley than oats, 
 so that the distribution is equal all over the field, in order to obtain 
 a uniform sample, more especially if it is intended for malting 
 purposes. 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert, for the continuous growth of barley on the 
 same land, use the following mixture : 
 
 275 1 s. of nitrate of soda 
 200 ,, sulphate of potash 
 
 100 Ibs. of sulphate of so la 
 100 ,, magnesia 
 
 3^ cwt. of superphosphates. 
 This produced in the twenty-ninth season, on the same plot of land, 
 
744 
 
 a crop of 59^ bushels of grain and 32^ cwts. of straw per acre. The 
 land continuously unmanured for twenty-nine years gave only i8| 
 bushels of grain and 9J cwts. of straw. 
 
 Cooke from his experiments recommends the use of i cwt. of 
 nitrate of soda, 2 cwt. of superphosphate, and i to i cwt. ot sul- 
 phate of potash ; these quantities to be maintained or lowered 
 according to the previous treatment of the soil. Professor Tanner, 
 in his investigations in the growth and qualities of barley, found 
 that for malting purposes, that grown with ammonium sulphate was 
 much superior to that grown with nitrate of soda, so if the 
 barley is meant for malting purposes the nitrate of soda in the above 
 mixtures should be changed to 210 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia in 
 the first, and 90 Ibs. sulphate of ammonia in the second The 
 barley grown with nitrate of soda was highest in albuminoids, con- 
 sequently the best for feeding purposes. To grow barley for malt, 
 use sulphate- of ammonia ; to grow it for feeding, use nitrate of soda. 
 
 Phosphates alone give very poor results, in fact no better than 
 no manure, unless the soil is very rich in nitrogenous matter. 
 
 ROOT CROPS. 
 
 Root crops demand a liberal supply of manure, which they use 
 in large quantities. They require more manure than any other 
 crop and give a larger proportionate return per acre than other 
 crops. Phosphates may be said to be the prime essential manure 
 for all root crops, but a general manure containing nitrogen and 
 potash, as well as phosphates, must also be applied if a maximum 
 crop is desired. The varieties of root crops differ somewhat from 
 each other as to their actual requirements beyond phosphates. 
 Potatoes require and assimilate a large amount of potash, while 
 mangolds and beet roots are more greedy of nitrogen. 
 
 The different reqirements of each variety should be attended 
 to very closely in the manuring of root crops, as they are so liable to 
 diseases, more especially in the early stages of their growth. By 
 supplying proper nourishment they are more able to resist the 
 attacks of the pests that are apt to prey upon them. Root crops 
 are grown in a great many places entirely with farmyard manure, 
 enormous quantities are scarcely profitable, as the root crops do not 
 appear to be able to assimilate their food readily from farmyard 
 manure. Some of the benefits they derive from this manure appear 
 to be of a mechanical rather than chemical nature, its action on the 
 soil being more in the direction of keeping it open, creating warmth, 
 retaining moisture. The best effects have been produced with not 
 more than ten tons per acre of farmyard manure ploughed in some 
 months before sowing, with an addition of mineral manures at the 
 time of sowing. 
 
 TURNIPS, 
 
 Turnips have a peculiarity of absorbing a large amount of 
 sulphuric acid, and this may account for the opinion held by som< 
 
745 
 
 farmers that gypsum is necessary to the growth of this crop. 
 Most soils contain sufficient sulphuric acid in themselves for all 
 the requirements of a crop of turnips. The benefits from gypsum 
 are more indirect through its action on the soil than by any direct 
 effect on the crop. By using superphosphate enough gypsum or 
 sulphate of lime is given, as it is largely contained in superphosphate. 
 Large crops are obtained by using 10 to 12 tons of farmyard 
 manure per acre, ploughing it in in the autumn and using 3 to 4 cwts. 
 superphosphates, [, c\vt. of sulphate of potash (if kainit is used, i^ 
 to 2 cwts.) at the time of sowing. Instead of the superphosphate, 
 10 to 12 cwts. of Thomas's phosphate or genuine bone-meal may be 
 used with good effect, but of course, for reasons previously given, 
 superphosphate has the best effect on turnips. 
 
 MANGOLDS. 
 
 Mangolds require more of a nitrogenous manure than turnips, 
 and although they require a large supply of phosphates, they are 
 enabled, being a deep-rooting plant, to obtain a large supply from 
 the soil. A good nitrogenous manure is what they delight in. 
 The following mixture will prove beneficial and give good crops : 
 Ten to twelve tons farmyard manure in the autumn followed at 
 sowing time with 3 cwts. of superphosphates, I cwt. sulphate of 
 ammonia and i cwt. kainit, or 8 cwts. of Thomas's phosphates or 
 genuine bone-meal may replace the superphosphates. 
 
 There is one thing regarding mangolds, and even cabbages, 
 that I would call the attention of farmers in this colony to, and this 
 is that they can be grown on soil with a percentage of salt in it that 
 would sicken most other crops ; in fact they appear to be benefited 
 by some salt. 
 
 BEETROOT. 
 
 Beetroot requires a good complete nitrogenous manure con- 
 taining phosphates and potash. The nitrogen may be given either 
 in the form of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. If the beet- 
 root is grown for sugar-making, nitrate of soda should be used as 
 it gives a greater production of chrystalizable sugar. Yille's Xo. 2 
 manure modified may be used ; using 12 tons of farmyard manure 
 in the autumn, and at the seed-time 2\ cwt. of superphosphates, or 
 7 to 8 cwts. of Thomas's phosphates (basic slag), 2\ cwt. of nitrate 
 of soda, and i cwt. of sulphate of potash. The nitrate of soda to be 
 sown at seed-time. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 Potatoes may be grown in almost any soil if they are liberally 
 treated to manure. This crop demands a good supply of phosphates 
 and also potash, but the manure used must be complete if the best 
 results are to be obtained. Potatoes are very exhaustive to a soil 
 making great demands on its fertility, but no farm crop responds 
 better to a liberal manuring, and re-pays it better in the crop. 
 
746 
 
 As already stated, farmyard manure is used in some places in 
 large quantities, as much as 44 tons per acre being applied. The 
 potato is a plant that cannot easily assimilate its food from farmyard 
 manure as it is a surface feeder and should be liberally supplied 
 with readily available nourishment. A great deal of the apparent 
 benefit potatoes derive from farmyard manure is owing to its 
 mechanical action on the soil. 
 
 Xitrate of potash has no better effect on the crop than nitrate 
 of soda, and the former is much dearer than the latter. Xitrate of 
 soda naturally gives better results than sulphate of ammonia. 
 Potash is best used in the form of a sulphate. The chloride 
 of potash should never be used for growing potatoes, and 
 the same thing applies to tobacco. Jamieson has proved that it 
 acts as a poison on these crops, and this has been confirmed by Munro 
 and Wrightson. Potatoes grown with the chloride of potash are 
 generally waxy. Although this crop demands a large amount of 
 potash, of which the ash contains from 55 to 60 per cent., vet the 
 application of too much is liable to increase the potato disease. 
 Superphosphate is undoubtedly the best form in which to apply 
 phosphates to this crop. The following mixture should ensure a 
 maximum crop, everything else being favorable : Fifteen tons 
 farmyard manure, ^ cwts. of superphosphates, i cwt. nitrate of 
 soda, or 9 cwts. of Thomas's phosphate might replace the super- 
 phosphate, and 4 cwt. of kainit the sulphate of potash. If farmyard 
 manure is not used, then use 5 cwts. superphosphate, 3 cwts. 
 sulphate of potash, and 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS CROPS. 
 
 Leguminous crops are benefited most by potash manures, for 
 which they have a special liking. Although they absorb a large 
 amount of nitrogen, more than even cereals, yet they derive no 
 benefit from the addition of nitrogenous manures, on the contrary, 
 such manures may prove hurtful to them. This is a fact that has 
 been known to farmers for a long time, but only lately has the 
 explanation been made known by the discoverv that leguminous 
 plants have the power (which is not possessed by any other class 
 of plants, at least tb any great extent) <f absorbing nitrogen from 
 the air. ThK as already explained, takes place through the agency 
 of micro-organisms in the soil. Leguminous plants not only absorb 
 large quantities ol nitrogen from the air; but they al>o greatly enrich 
 the soil with nitrogen. Thus we see how land that has grown 
 leguminoiH crops for M>HU- time becomes so charged with nitro- 
 genous matter that it does not appeal" 1" grow any more ; Mich a^ a 
 field growing clover for some years when it gets clover-sick. It is 
 for this reason that cereals do best in a rotation after clover, the 
 large amount of nitrogen left in the soil by the previous crop being 
 available for the cereal crop. 
 
747 
 
 T.l \\s AND IV. AS. 
 
 Farmyard manure was at one time considered to be the 
 necessary manure lor peas and beans, and is still held by SOIIH 
 be the best manure for them. Hut it has been proven that they can 
 be grown even more successfully with artificial manures than farm 
 yard manure. The manure must have potash in it to be of any use. 
 Phosphates and nitrogen, either singly or together, have very little 
 effect on the crop when potash is absent, (iypsnin is said to have 
 a good effect on them, but the only action it appears to have is to 
 influence the decomposition of the insoluble compounds of potash, 
 thus setting the potash free for the use of the crop. It will be found 
 cheaper to add potash ready for the crop than adding gypsum to 
 hasten the decomposition of combined potash. 
 
 Heans and peas may be manured with success with the follow- 
 ing mixture : Eight to 10 tons of farmyard manure and 2 cwts. of 
 superphosphates, or 4 cwts. of Thomas's phosphates, and i cwt. of 
 sulphate of potash, or _>.\ cwts. of kainit. 
 
 If no farmyard manure is used, then 3 cxvts. of superphosphates, 
 2 cwts. sulphate of potash, or 6 cwts. kainit and I, cwt. nitrate of 
 socla, mixed with the phosphates and potash, but not to be used as 
 a top-dressing. 
 
 Clover may be treated with farmyard manure, or 6 cwt. of 
 Thomas's phosphates and 2 cwt. sulphate of potash per acre. 
 
 POUDRKTTK AS A MANURE. 
 
 This manure is made from nightsoil by drying the collected 
 excreta, either by itself or with the addition of some chemical. It 
 contains sometimes as much as 2 per cent, of nitrogen, but more 
 often not more than i per cent., about 3 per cent, of calcium 
 phosphate and 1^5 per cent of potash. It is very seldom worth the 
 price asked for it. Sometimes it is enriched by the addition of 
 superphosphate. It is too bulky to allow it to be used except near 
 to where it is made. Pouclrette, made from earth-closets, Gilbert 
 and Voelcker have shown to be of very little value. 
 
 Sewage also is of very little value to the farmer. Sanitary 
 authorities use it from a hygenic point of view, irrespective of cost, 
 rather than from an agricultural standpoint. It is very variable in 
 its composition, being governed by the refuse from which it is made. 
 Scott and Morton state that London sewage contains 3 Ibs. of solid 
 matter per ton, consisting of i Ib. of organic matter containing 
 nitrogen equal to 3 ozs. of ammonia ; nnd 2 Ibs. of mineral matter 
 yielding T> oz. of phosphoric acid and i^ ozs. of potash, equal to 5 
 ozs. of fertilizing matter. If this is valued at the same price per 
 unit as an ammoniacal guano, it would be worth only 2d. per ton of 
 sewage. One ton of guano contains as much fertilizing matter as 
 1 200 tons of sewage. Sir C. A. Cameron gives the value of Dublin 
 sewage at i^d. per ton. If the sewage is passed on to land for 
 
748 
 
 irrigation purposes the whole of the fertilizing matter is received 
 into the land. If some of the precipitation methods are used to 
 purify the sewage, the sludges obtained contain almost all the 
 phosphoric acid, very little of the ammonia, and almost none of the 
 potash. The late Prof. Way gives the following analyses of sewage 
 before and after treating it with lime. 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Grains per gallon. 
 Before. Afterwards. 
 
 2*63 
 3-66 
 
 '45 
 3-80 
 
 It is evident very little can be expected from sewage-sludges, 
 except from the phosphoric acid. Sewage irrigation farms have 
 been most successful in growing grass and green fodders for feed- 
 ing milch-cows, but both the milk and butter are liable to be 
 tainted. Vegetables have also been grown successfully with 
 sewage. 
 
 In the buying of manures too much must not be taken for 
 granted. It does not follow that because so-and-so used a particu- 
 lar manure last year or the year before, and had a good crop by 
 using so much of it per acre, that the same results will be secured 
 on the land in another season. The farmer may have seen his 
 neighbor's good crop which was obtained by using so many 
 hundred pounds per acre of a particular manure, and he comes to 
 the conclusion this is just what he wants to give him a good crop 
 on his land. But he arrives at this conclusion without a proper 
 knowledge of the constituents of the manure, as well as without 
 knowing what is required by his soil for a particular crop. His 
 neighbour's soil may contain a sufficiency of potash. The manure 
 may contain little or none, but lit- gets a good crop, because the 
 soil already contains all the potash required, and the manure con- 
 tains all the other elements of food for that crop, while his neigh- 
 bour's soil contained sufficient potash his might be deficient in this 
 constituent, and no matter how much nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
 he gives to the crop which requires a liberal supply of potash, the 
 result will, in most cases, be little better than if he applied no 
 manure. What he wants to know, when lie lias decided what he 
 intends to grow, is, what is his land deficient in that the crop 
 requires. This knowledge can be obtained by chemical analysis 
 and also by the use of experimental plots. This latter method 
 should be undertaken by all tanners so that they may know in what 
 respects their soils are deficient, and thus be able to maintain them 
 always in a fertile- state. Km! her reference will be made to ihe>e 
 experimental plots. The farmer is now supposed to know what his 
 crop will require, and also the constituents of fertility his soil is 
 deficient in. He must then see that the manure he proposes to buy 
 
74<> 
 
 contains all the plant food necessary tor the crop and is in Mich a state 
 that it can be easily assimilated by tin-crop. He should not accept 
 the word of the vendor in too great faith, for the majority of the mer- 
 chants \\ ho sell manures, though honest enough, kno\v nothing about 
 their composition themselves, and have to accept the statements of 
 the manufacturers. The former should have the manure analysed, 
 and find out definitely \vhetherit does or does not contain all that is 
 said to be in it. No merchant can object to have his merchandise 
 analysed and give a guarantee of its composition. Very often the 
 percentage is given irom so much to so much, and one may safely 
 reckon on the lowest percentage when calculating out the value. 
 It is the experience of almost every agricultural chemist that there 
 is scarcely any class of goods so much adulterated and sold under 
 so much misrepresentation as manures. Supposing the manure 
 does possess the good qualities claimed for it, are the different 
 elements of plant food combined in sufficient quantities and in the 
 best proportions ? This should be ascertained before purchas- 
 ing. 
 
 What I have already stated in these pages I will reiterate : 
 That unless one knows thoroughly what a compound manure is 
 composed of, it is best to buy the different elements of food for the 
 crops separately, and mix them on the farm ; one has then some 
 definite idea of what is going into the ground, and can expect a 
 return from it. When one buys sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of 
 soda, phosphates or potash salts, one should always obtain a 
 guarantee of the percentages and have them analysed. It generally 
 pays to do so. 
 
 I have said that every farmer should find out what plant food 
 his land has in sufficiency, and what it is deficient in. Chemical 
 analysis will tell a great deal about the soil, but it will not tell all, 
 as there are a great many things regarding the assimilation of the 
 food by the plants that the chemist has not yet solved. By field 
 experiments or analysis we can obtain the knowledge of what the 
 soil is deficient in and what it has sufficient of. Every farmer 
 should not only be able to analyse his land by field-plot experi- 
 ments, but should make a point of doing it, and thus acquire the 
 knowledge as to how to get his land into a complete fertile state, 
 and then maintain it in that state. Until he does so, it is generally 
 a process of plough, harrow, and guess. Guess stands for 
 manuring. 
 
 These field- plot experiments are conducted in the following 
 manner : In the field, whether rich or poor land, that is to be 
 tested, a spot should be chosen as nearly level as can be found, 
 with as uniform a depth and quality of soil as possible. The plots 
 may be six in number, one-tenth of an acre each, with a small path 
 dividing each, as shown in the sketch. At every corner of each plot a 
 post is placed to mark the boundary. The plots are best square, 
 but they may be parallelograms, but it is absolutely necessary they 
 
750 
 
 should all be exactly of the same size. All the plots are to be 
 ploughed in the one day, and also sown and manured on the same day. 
 If we take, say, wheat as the test crop, each plot must be sown 
 with the same quantity and same variety of wheat. No. I receives 
 no manure ; No. 2 receives one-tenth of what is required for an acre, 
 of normal manure No. I ; No. 3 plot receives the same manure, with 
 the nitrogen omitted ; No. 4 receives the same manure without the 
 phosphates ; No. 5 plot receives the same manure without the 
 potash ; No. 6 plot no manure. The crop from each plot should be 
 gathered the same day, and the grain and straw weighed separately. 
 This completes the analysis of the soil, and we have only to calculate 
 the results from the figures obtained ; and to show how this is done 
 we will take a series of experiments made by G. Ville, at Vincennes, 
 on wheat, with the following results : 
 
 Crop per acre, bushels. 
 
 No. 2 plot, normal manure ... 43 
 
 ,, 3 ,, manure without nitrogen 14 
 
 4 M n phosphates 26^ 
 
 5 ,, ,, potash ... 31 
 
 ,, i and 6 plots, no manure, averaged 12 
 
 The conclusions arc evident. This soil requires, above all, 
 nitrogenous matter, it is also insufficiently supplied with potash and 
 phosphates of lime. From the above results \vc arc in a position to 
 say what quantity and class of manure is required tor any ^ivcn 
 crop. Hut we have still another tiling to consider, how to maintain 
 the soil in a fertile condition, and to know when it is ^cUin^ 
 deficient in any of the plant foods. 
 
 To accomplish this the amounts of phosphoric acid, potash, and 
 nitrogen added in manure from the commencement of the year in 
 which the test has been made, must be kept account of in a book 
 for the purpose and for every succeeding year, thus, the amounts 
 per acre, were, say : 
 
75' 
 per ;u TC. 
 
 170 Ibs. superphosphate containing jo phosphoric acid 35'.? Ibs. 
 
 74 Ibs. sulphate of potash containing 50 p;>t;ish ... 37-0 Ibs. 
 105 Ibs sulphate of ammonia containing _>o ",, nitrogen 35-0 Ibs. 
 
 Then, from the weight of the crops the amounts of these plant 
 foods which are annually carried away can be calculated from the 
 tablcson pages oSi to ()8_>. That carried away by the crops, subtracted 
 from the amounts added in the manure, will leave either a plus or a 
 minus quantity for each of the plant foods. Where a minus 
 quantity occurrs it must be made good in the next year's manuring, 
 and where a plus quantity occurs it can be credited to next year's 
 manuring, thereby keeping a constant balance of plant food in the 
 soil. It must be remembered that leguminous crops take little or 
 no nitrogen from the soil, on the contrary, they generally enrich the 
 soil with nitrogen. 
 
 Anyone wishing to commence these tests and desiring fuller 
 information on any point can have it on applying to the Secretary of 
 the Bureau of Agriculture ; and after having conducted his experi- 
 ments can, by sending the full data of the seeds and manures used, 
 \vith the complete we ght of the crops removed, have the 
 conclusions to be arrived at from the data sent, forwarded to them. 
 
 The great aim of manuring is to produce a full crop by 
 supplying food readily available to the plant. Once more I repeat 
 it is more economical to manure the plant than the soil, giving in 
 unstinted quantities where required ; when the requirements of the 
 soil are not known it is always best and cheapest to supply a 
 complete manure containing phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen, 
 excepting the last in the case of leguminous crops. Manuring 
 should be done with discretion, a judicious but not too large 
 a supply of any of the elements of plant food that may be required 
 must necessarily increase the profits of the farmer. Too heavy an 
 application of manures does not produce sufficient increase in" the 
 crop to compensate for the extra cost, in some cases it may be 
 actually injurious. 
 
 In manuring it would be as well to remember : 
 
 1. That wheat and oats require more nitrogen than rye and 
 barley. 
 
 2. That a dry light soil requires more nitrogen and potash 
 than a clamp, heavy one. 
 
 3. That organic soils or those rich in humus, require more 
 phosphoric acid and less nitrogen (nitrate) than soils poor in 
 organic matter. 
 
 4. That if the previous crop was a nitrogen gatherer, that is, a 
 leguminous crop, a less quantity of nitrogen is required for the 
 next crop. 
 
 5. That if the previous crop was a nitrogen consumer, that is, 
 cereals, potatoes, etc., a large quantity of nitrogenous manure is 
 required to keep the soil in a fertile condition. 
 
752 
 
 6. That seed drilled in requires more nitrogen than that sown 
 broadcast. 
 
 7. That soil rich in lime requires more superphosphate than 
 one poor in lime. 
 
 I have been writing these pages for farmers who not only admit 
 the necessity of manuring their land but actually do manure it. There 
 are not, it is to be hoped for the credit of the colonies, any farmers 
 who will deny the beneiits to be derived from manuring ; yet there 
 is, I am sorry to say, a large number who never give their land any 
 manure but that derived from stocking. Cropping takes a large 
 amount of the plant food from the soil, and this must be returned 
 in some way or other if the soil is to maintain its fertility. Stock 
 only enrich the land to less than the extent of what they take off it. 
 The droppings do not necessarily return all that is taken from the 
 soil. In the case of milch cows, for instance, a large amount of 
 fertilizers is carried away in the milk, and fat stock also remove all 
 that has been eaten into their systems to make up -the Mesh and bone. 
 Within the last few days I have heard of a man who has followed 
 the course of cultivation without manuring for forty years. His 
 land now produces, when cropped, the remarkable amount of four 
 bushels of wheat to the acre. Does it seem surprising that that 
 man should be in pecuniary difficulties? 
 
 It is scarcely worth while attempting to follow the reasons, or 
 absolute want of them, of this ruinous method of farming. The 
 excuse a great many farmers make is that they are going to take one 
 more crop and then manure the next, but the next never appears to 
 be any better treated. These are the men who rail most about 
 farming being unprofitable, the bad markets, bad government and 
 bad seasons. Sometimes they will tell one all they need is a good 
 shower of rain in order to secure a good crop. This reminds me 
 very much of a gentleman farmer in Scotland who was too mean to 
 pay for manure. His land got so poor that he thought it advisable 
 to sell the estate. A certain wealthy Scotch iron manufacturer, who 
 had been brought up on a farm in his young days, went to see the 
 estate with the view of buying it. After examining the land the 
 following colloquy took place between Mr. Ironmaster and Mr, 
 Want-to-sell-an-estate : 
 
 Mr. Ironmaster: "Your land seems to be very barren." 
 
 Mr. Want-to-sell-an-estate : " Not at all sir, not at all ; it onb 
 wants a good shower of rain to make everything spring up and 
 show that it is exceedingly fertile." 
 
 Mr. Ironmaster : " What is that you say, a shower of rain, did 
 you say ! a shower of dung would do it more good." 
 
PART VI. 
 
 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE 
 << AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. <> 
 
 DAIRYING. 
 
 BY ALEX. CRAWFORD, 
 (Consulting Dairy Expert to the Bureau of Agriculture.) 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Western Australia there is probably no branch of 
 agricultural industry offering so good an open- 
 ing to the investment of capital, nor one promising 
 such immediate success, as dairying. 
 
 At the present time, and for some years to come, 
 the bulk of the butter consumed here comes, and 
 will come, from the Eastern colonies ; but before it can reach here 
 and be put on the retail market it has to undergo the many vicissi- 
 tudes of climate and carriage, and is generally three weeks old at 
 the least. By this time the delicate aromatic flavor so desirable 
 in fresh butter is nearly always gone, and although the butter may 
 be sound and sweet, it is almost flavorless and fails to tempt the 
 appetite in the way that freshly made butter does. The result is 
 that really first class dairy butter made in the colony commands 
 almost double the price that the imported article brings, and the 
 demand is far beyond the supply, and still growing. 
 
 At the present time there are very few dairy farms in Western 
 Australia, and still fewer where really good butter is made. This 
 is not the fault of either the climate, the land, or the cattle. In many 
 districts of the colony no one need ask nor seek for better soil to 
 
754 
 
 dairy on, and the terms upon which the land can be obtained froi 
 the Government are such that a very small capital indeed is require* 
 to secure an area large enough to keep in comfort a family able and 
 willing to work, and not only in comfort, but allowing a fair sum 
 to be put by each year for a rainy day. Probably in no c.ther part 
 of the world at the present time can an independence be secured 
 with less capital and less hard work in agricultural pursuits than in 
 Western Australia. 
 
 While the goldfields are attracting thousands from far and 
 near, and the influx of people continues in a steady flood, it is to be 
 feared that many are forsaking the solid substance when they set 
 their faces towards the great gold-centres eastwards, only to grasp 
 at the shadow, leaving a competence and the fertile districts of the 
 south-west behind to still await the plough of the husbandman and 
 the cheering sound of happy and successful industry The 
 Government of Western Australia, being fully alive to the fact that 
 the small farmers are the back-bone of a country, is offering induce- 
 ments sufficient to tempt settlers from all parts of the world. 
 
 Under the Homesteads Act of 1893 anv person who is the 
 head of a family, or a male over 18 years of age, and who does not 
 already hold over one hundred acres of land, may apply for a free 
 grant of land on simple conditions, which are briefly : 
 
 That after the application for the land has been approved he 
 shall, within six months, take personal possession of the land, and 
 reside upon it for at least six months out of each year for the iirst 
 five years. 
 
 I 
 
 This opens up a prospect to the working man such as can 
 had nowhere else in Australia. For six months in the year he can 
 go sa y at harvest and shearing or ploughing time and earn 
 money sufficient to keep himself and family in actual necessities 
 that cannot be raised on the farm, while the other six mouths can 
 be spent in improving the farm and preparing it for crops or 
 pasture. 
 
755 
 
 On his holding the farmer can have his home and family, who, 
 while he is away, can keep the household going by rearing pigs, 
 poultry and bees, and by cultivating a small garden that will grow 
 vegetables sufficient for themselves, and if there is any surplus it 
 can be sold or fed to the poultry and pigs. If money is available to 
 purchase a cow or two, the returns will probably be at least 10 a 
 year from each cow, and in a climate like this the necessities outside 
 those which can be raised on the farm are few, and will require a 
 very small outlay of ready money. That the first condition is not 
 meant to be oppressive is found by the land not being forfeited if 
 the residential clause is riot complied with in case of sickness or 
 other valid reason. 
 
 The next condition is that within two years a habitable house 
 of not less value than ^30 be erected, or ^30 value be expended in 
 clearing or cropping. This does not mean that ^30 cash 
 must be laid out, but improvements worth that amount 
 must be effected, which can be done by the owner's 
 own labour. Or two acres of orchard or vineyard, properly 
 prepared and planted, can be substituted. Within live years one- 
 fourth of the land must be substantially fenced, and one-eighth 
 cleared and cropped. At the end of seven years, if the conditions 
 are fulfilled, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the 
 Survey and Crown grant fees, which in most instances would not 
 exceed 7 73. 
 
 If it is desired to obtain the freehold of the land earlier, this 
 can be done after twelve months residence, putting on all the 
 required improvements, and paying five shillings per acre in 
 addition to the fees already mentioned. In what is known as the 
 south-western portion of the colony certain areas have been selected 
 that are suitable for homestead farms, the quality of the soils and 
 the rainfall having been taken into consideration. But if dairying is 
 the object in view, the areas to the south and south-east of Perth are 
 the most suitable. Here they are nearly all within a reasonable dis- 
 tance of the railway, the soil is rich, water is easily obtained, and 
 the rainfall is good. 
 
756 
 
 One word of warning is perhaps needful to the intending 
 settler, either from the old world or the new. In the districts imme- 
 diately south of Perth there are few natural grasses, low scrub taking 
 their place, some of which is edible, and on which horses and 
 cattle do fairly well, but require a very large area on which to 
 pasture. For this reason it is not advisable that a start should be 
 made unless sufficient capital is in hand to keep the selector going 
 for at least three months. The districts in which land may be 
 secured for homestead farms suitable for dairying, are as follows : 
 
 Jandakot is the nearest area to the capital, the nearest 
 part being about 15 miles distant. The soil consists of sandy loam, 
 chocolate soil, and in the swamps, heavy black loam, which when 
 drained is suitable for intense cultivation. This area being so 
 conveniently situated to both Perth and Fremantle is admirably 
 adapted for milk producing and sending it to the city to be retailed. 
 The cost of clearing in many cases would be almost repaid by 
 sending firewood either to Perth or to the lime and brick burners. 
 The chief drawback is the want of good main roads through the 
 district, but this is being remedied each year. Milk could easily be 
 taken into the railway morning and night for dispatch by train to 
 the capital. To anyone not accustomed to the sandy soils of 
 Western Australia, much of the country, at first sight, is no doubt 
 disappointing, the presence of sand and the absence of natural 
 grasses making it appear poor, and it is not until one actually sees 
 what can be done that any idea of the value of the land can be 
 formed. Crops of oats five feet high, maize twelve and thirteen 
 feet, fruit trees bending and breaking under their burden, 
 potato and other root crops thriving, actually turn the wilderness 
 into a garden. The rainfall is about 30 inches, coming down 
 mostly in the winter and spring, while little or no rain falls in the 
 summer months, so that a considerable quantity of ensilage would 
 be required to feed the cattle during the dry season. This can be 
 easily and cheaply done on account of the wonderful growth in the 
 spring time. Where couch grass is sown in this district it produces 
 a large amount of green feed in the summer, but it becomes a very 
 nasty weed when it gets into the orchard or vineyard. In many 
 
 
757 
 
 parts lucerne would grow well and provide good summer forage, 
 the roots going down to the moisture, often not more than 8 or 10 
 feet below the surface. 
 
 The Serpentine agricultural area is on the South-western 
 railway, not far from Pinjarrah, and about 30 miles from Perth. 
 It is situated not far from the Serpentine river, and in the near 
 future will probably have irrigation works in connection with it, 
 much of the land being admirably adapted for irrigation. The soil 
 is rich, and will grow almost anything, and the location is also 
 well adapted for producing milk to be sent to Perth by rail. The 
 rainfall is about 38 inches per annum. 
 
 The Coolup agricultural area is on the South-western 
 railway line, the nearest portion being about 56 miles from 
 Perth. The soil in this reserve is sandy loam, very rich 
 in some places, and fairly good all over. The land is un- 
 dulating in places, and the timber not very heavy. Nearly 
 all the timber found here will burn readily green, so that 
 the cost of clearing is not very heavy. The nearest station is 
 Pinjarrah, from which there is a good train service to Perth. 
 There is a good rainfall (about 35 inches), and well distributed. 
 
 The Harvey agricultural area is about 76 miles from Perth, 
 on the South-western railway. The land varies considerably in 
 quality, but is mostly good, some of it especially rich and suited to 
 any kind of agriculture. Water, in many places, is obtainable at a 
 depth of from 12 to 20 feet, and from a good well sufficient land 
 could be irrigated to provide crops for ensilage for a large number 
 of cattle at a very small expense. Oil some of the best land the 
 timber is rather heavy, and it is worth from ^5 to 6 per acre to 
 clear the land, but once cleared it will yield very good returns. 
 There are in this area some very large flats consisting of alluvial 
 deposits, in some places from six to eight feet deep, that would 
 make magnificent pasture if laid down with artificial grasses, such 
 as rye, cocksfoot, timothy, or some of the fescues. The .rainfall is 
 good, being between 30 and 40 inches per annum. 
 
 Collie is the next area set apart in this direction, it is 
 about eight miles from the important seaport of Bunbury. Most 
 
758 
 
 of the land here is taken up, being very fertile and especially well 
 watered. About 18 or 20 miles distant is the Boyanup area, on 
 which there is a large proportion of really good land. It is situated 
 on the line of railway running between Bunbury and Donnybrook, 
 and about 12 miles distant from the former. Much of the land here 
 is admirably adapted for dairying. 
 
 The Preston agricultural area is distant about 25 miles 
 from Bunbury, and not far from Donnybrook railway station. 
 Much of this area is first-class land, consisting of deep alluvial 
 deposits, and water is easily obtainable. The flats are well adapted 
 for lucerne growing or intense cultivation. The best of the land is 
 rather heavily timbered, and it is worth up to ten pounds per acre 
 to clear the densest of it. There are many creeks and small 
 rivers running through it, and in many places irrigation could be 
 carried out at a very little outlay. The rainfall is over 30 inches 
 per annum. 
 
 The Tweed agricultural area, although the most distant 
 from Perth, is perhaps the most suitable for dairying. It is about 
 35 miles from Donnybrook and close to the town of Bridgetown, on 
 the Blackwood river. The railway is now being constructed close 
 to it. The physical features are quite distinct from any of the 
 others already mentioned, the country being very undulating, and 
 consisting of in some places rich chocolate soil, and in others of 
 ironstone gravelly soil. The timber in places is very heavy. The 
 rainfall is over 30 inches and in places almost 40 inches per 
 annum. The cost of clearing is considerable, but as a cheese and 
 butter district it is scarcely to be surpassed in the colony, and will 
 be a very important agricultural centre shortly after the rail- 
 way is completed. Water in most places is obtainable at from 60 to 
 100 feet. 
 
 There are many more agricultural areas, all, as well as those I 
 have alluded to briefly, fully described in Part I. of the GUIDE, but 
 most of them are more adapted for cereal, or fruit or wine growing, 
 than for dairying, being in warmer districts, with a much smaller 
 rainfall. In various districts many kinds of poison bushes are found, 
 but on the areas mentioned little or none grows. When speaking 
 
759 
 
 of dairying it is taken as including poultry and pig rearing, so as to 
 get the best returns from the waste products, and in order to give 
 some idea of the profits that may be obtained in these lines, the 
 following are the wholesale quotations for dairy produce at the date 
 of writing, January, 1898 : 
 
 Bacon, lod. to is. per Ib. ; rolls, is. ; flitches, io[,d. ; hams, is. 
 to is 2d. ; butter, in bulk, is. 2d., in half pounds, is. 4d. to is. yd. 
 if the brand is favourably known ; cheese, gd. to 9^d. ; eggs, 2s. 6d. 
 to 2s. Qd. per doz. ; fowls, 6^. 6d. to 73. 6d. per pair ; ducks, 73. to 
 8s. per pair ; turkeys, 143. to 255. per couple. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that there is a large margin 
 for profit, and that the rearing and selling of a few pigs and poultry 
 alone would keep the household expenses going. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 OLD AND NEW METHODS. 
 
 The dairying industry within the past seven years has advanced 
 from being a comparatively small and insignificant branch of 
 farm work to a position of importance second to none in the 
 eastern colonies, not only on account of the amount of money that 
 it brings in, but also because of the quickness of the returns. 
 Monthly accounts are the general rule, but among some farmers, 
 who make their own butter instead of sending their milk to the 
 creamery or factory, the terms are cash weekly from the agents. 
 In fact, until of late years dairying was looked down upon, at least 
 by the male portion of the community, and if any of them were 
 asked about how the cows were milking, the reply would be, " Ask 
 the old woman ! She attends to the butter-making. ' On their 
 part, the women folk were not slow to recognise, to a certain 
 extent, the advantages of this state of affairs, and they claimed as 
 their perquisite the money obtained from the sale of the dairy 
 produce. When the factory system came to be introduced, this 
 was one of the principal objections that was urged against it by the 
 women that they would not get money then as in the past, and in 
 many cases it was hard work to overcome it. 
 
 It was not difficult to show that under the new method of 
 working women were the most beneritted by the change, and we 
 would ask to day : What is the position of a woman who attends to 
 a moderate-sized dairy, run on the old-fashioned lines ? With 
 many it is a drudgery that few of the negroes in the old slave days 
 were subjected to. It may seem a simple matter to attend to a 
 dairy under the old system, to those who have never tried it, but 
 the work is not only much of it hard, but it is continuous, com- 
 mencing early in the morning and continuing on until often all 
 hours of the night. The following is about the routine : Up 
 early in the morning milking, when that is over, straining 
 and setting the milk, then washing and scalding all the 
 milking utensils. After breakfast, skimming the dishes, then 
 feeding the calves with skim milk, again washing and scalding 
 dishes no mere "wipe round," as every good dairy woman 
 knows, but a thorough good scrubbing. Then comes the churn, 
 washing it out, scalding and cooling it ; then the churning, in the 
 cold weather keeping at it hour after hour, and the butter will not 
 break, or in the hot weather the cream swells up and tills the churn 
 with froth, and when the butter does come it is so soft and oily 
 that the buttermilk cannot be worked out of it, and it has to be put 
 away to harden, which means getting up next morning perhaps 
 about three or four o'clock to salt it and get it printed in time 
 to send to market. 
 
 I 
 
 
76i 
 
 The mere physical exertion in working butter on the old 
 system with the h;inds, especially in winter, was downright hard 
 work, and with some almost a matter of impossibility, not having 
 what are known as cold hands. Some persons seem to have 
 naturally hot hands, and do as they will, they cannot prevent the 
 butter sticking to them and getting greasy, while others can work 
 
 the butter and have no 
 trouble of that kind 
 at all. Now all this 
 handling either is, or 
 ought to be, a thing of 
 the past, as butter- 
 workers are made that 
 can extract the butter- 
 milk and thoroughly 
 incorporate the salt 
 much better and more 
 quickly than can be 
 done by hand. Then 
 there came another 
 general wash-up of 
 churn and all con- 
 nected with it. Under 
 this old system, with 
 many life was a mere 
 existence, hardly worth 
 living toiling and 
 slaving week days and 
 Sundays, Heaven only 
 knows how many hours 
 a day ! In the days of 
 ignorance there was, 
 perhaps, some excuse 
 for this state of things, 
 but there is certainly 
 none n o w - a - d a y s . 
 Dairy information is 
 spread broadcast over 
 the land, the cream 
 
 Gen. 
 
 oo- 
 
 90- 
 
 70- 
 
 60- 
 
 80- 
 
 10- 
 
 Dairy Thermometer. 
 
 place of the old- 
 fashioned milk dishes, 
 the butter worker has' 
 done away with the 
 handling of the butter 
 and labour of salting. 
 By the old methods, 
 physical strength was 
 required ; under the 
 new, brains and skill. 
 With those who make 
 their butter at home, 
 a good deal of work 
 still remains, but the 
 improved churns, the 
 use of a thermometer, 
 and the working on 
 recognised lines, 
 instead of by rule of 
 thumb, has reduced 
 the work to a minimum. 
 But to dairy in the 
 irost profitable way, 
 the milk should be 
 taken to a factory or 
 or creamery, or if there 
 is none sufficiently 
 near, the milk can be 
 separated and the 
 cream sent twice or 
 three times a week to 
 the nearest butter 
 factory, as there the 
 cream can be looked 
 
 separator has taken the 
 
 after and attended to in a way that is not possible on the farm, 
 unless expensive machinery is erected. There is also this advantage 
 in having butter manufactured at the factory, that a more regular 
 and uniform article can be turned out than when it is made 
 at home. Where butter is made from the milk of a comparatively 
 small number of cows, if one of them eats anything that affects the 
 milk, the butter is more apt to be tainted than where the milk of a 
 great number is blended, or at least the taint is more easily 
 
detected. Again, unless a proper place has been built for keeping 
 the milk or cream the probabilities are that taints of many kinds 
 will be absorbed by the cream while waiting for churning ; while 
 at the factory suitable arrangements are made for the care of the 
 cream from the time it comes in to the factory until it is packed 
 ready for the market in the form of butter. 
 
 Much discussion has arisen at times as to the comparative 
 merit of hrst-class home-made butter and first-class factory. All 
 things considered, the home-made butter will probably satisfy the 
 taste of a connoisseur better than the factory, for the reason that 
 more delicate flavors are to be found in it at times. All the cattle 
 supplying milk on the farm are probably grazing on the same 
 pasture, and if it be rich in clover or particular kinds of grasses 
 which give a flavor to butter, it will be much more distinct than 
 where the milk is mixed up with that ot other cattle 
 that are on different pastures. But however the home-made 
 butter may at times surpass the factory, it can never compete 
 with it for regular and uniform quality. Under the old system a 
 considerable amount of skill was required to make passable butter, 
 and as no rules were laid down that people could go by, every one 
 was a law unto him or herself, and this deterred very many from 
 going into dairying, not knowing how to make good butter, and not 
 having the means of learning at their disposal. A considerable 
 amount of expense is required under the home system, as it is not 
 much use trying to make good butter without having a convenient 
 dairy and the requisite dairy utensils. 
 
 But here comes in the great advantage of the modern method. 
 Anyone with ordinary common sense can start dairying with a fair 
 chance of doing well at it. The milking is perhaps the hardest 
 work attached to it, and even that after some practice becomes 
 comparatively easy. With a factory near at hand, all the dairy 
 work can be done with a few milk tins and milking buckets. Many 
 persons who have been brought up in the towns, and who have 
 longed to go out into the country, have been deterred therefrom on 
 account of not knowing anything about farming. If they can only 
 secure a piece of fairly good grass country they need not fear to 
 commence dairying with a few cows, and as they gain experience 
 with the lew they can be improving their land and increasing their 
 herds at the same time, and feel assured of at least a good living ;md 
 a healthy life. It opens up the way for those to go on to the land 
 who could never have done so before, because with a few cows to 
 start with they have an assured income that will keep the house 
 going, while it leaves time for them to improve their land or grow 
 other crops, the returns of which will be so much clear profit. In 
 the other colonies to-day there are hundreds on the land doing well 
 notwithstanding the bad" times the agricultural depression and low 
 prices who, were it not for dairying, would to-day be simply 
 
existing as workmen in some of the large cities on a mere pittance, 
 but who now, with their families, can live in comfort. 
 
 lint in all this, one must not go away with the idea that dairy- 
 ing is easy work. In one sense it is, but it is very binding work- 
 also night and morning, wet or dry, hot or cold ; Sundays and 
 during the week the cows must be milked, and milked at regular 
 hours. Want of regularity interferes greatly with the yield of 
 milk, and to get the best returns the temper of the master, and all 
 who come about the cattle, must be kept in check. A good dairy 
 cow is a delicate fragile machine in the hands of man, that very 
 little will put out of order and destroy its utility. 
 
 In this country at the present time, with the thousands of acres 
 available in the southern districts that can be obtained on the most 
 liberal terms ever offered anywhere, with a good soil and a good 
 rainfall, any man, married or single, with the desire to make an 
 independence for himself, can do so, and with a less amount of 
 hard work than could be done on the land in any other part of the 
 world. With the rapidly growing population it will be many years 
 before the supply here will be equal to the demand, and those who 
 go in for dairying in the early days of the colony's prosperity are 
 the ones who will obtain the " cream." Owners of large properties 
 in the southern districts could not do better than to sub-divide 
 them and let them on a sharing system, supplying the cattle and 
 farm, and getting so much per cent, of the gross returns from the 
 dairy produce. The calves could all be reared, and would be quiet 
 and lay on tiesh better than if reared in the bush. In the other 
 colonies this is looked upon as by far the most profitable way of 
 dealing with the land in many districts. 
 
 As to whether a person should go in for dairying solely 
 and on a large scale depends upon many things the district 
 in which he is situated, the amount of his capital, and on 
 the quality and quantity of the land at his disposal, and also on his 
 taste and judgment for cattle. But it may be safely said that there 
 is no farm in the southern district of Western Australia on which a 
 moderate amount of dairying would not pay, and in conjunction 
 with it, poultry and pigs would help considerably to swell the yearly 
 income. 
 
 One important fact should constantly be kept in mind in 
 dairying, that a few cows, well looked after, will pay much better 
 than double the number neglected. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LAYING OUT THE DAIRY FARM. 
 
 The ultimate success of dairy work will depend to a great 
 extent on the farm and how it is laid out, the soil, the rainfall and 
 the water supply. It is quite possible to make a living on a poor 
 farm badly attended to, but every dairy farmer wants to make 
 something more than a mere existence. There is an old saying, 
 and a very true one, ' Poor land makes poor farmers," and it keeps 
 them poor too. If a person can afford it, it is better to pay a fair 
 price for good land than get bad land for nothing. It is most 
 discouraging for the worker on a poor farm to see his neighbour, 
 who does not work nearly so hard as he does, always having better 
 crops, his cattle always in better condition, and the whole family in 
 better circumstances. Of course, there will always be some farms 
 that are better than others, but while land is so plentiful and cheap 
 there is really no excuse for a man going on bad land when there is 
 so much good available at the present time. 
 
 Those who are intending to settle on the land should not be in 
 too great a hurry to do so without having a good look round to see 
 which are the best districts. If dairying is to be the sole or main 
 industry, secure land in a district with a good rainfall and as 
 temperate a climate as possible, with good natural water, if available, 
 and good drainage. If a good flat or two can be secured, so much 
 the better. The advantage of this will be felt in growing summer 
 fodder. The farm should be undulating, but the hills not too steep. 
 Although a temperate climate is the best adapted for dairying, if 
 the factory system is at work it will not matter much if it is rather 
 on the warmer side, provided the rainfall is good and there is plenty 
 of water available. Some of the most successful dairies are in hot 
 districts, where water is plentiful and green feed is grown all the 
 summer through by means of irrigation. 
 
 The soils in this colony differ so much from those of the eastern 
 colonies that a new-comer is apt to judge by appearances, and 
 neglect land that is sandy and think it is valueless. Anyone who has 
 not actually seen the results obtained from some of the sandy 1 >ams 
 here could not credit the amount of crop that is grown upon them. 
 Make inquiries from those who have been in thedistrict fora consider- 
 able time as to what the capabilities of the land arc. When a farm has 
 been secured and the improvements been gone on with, do not 
 ring all the timber. Leave some growing here and therefor shelter 
 as well as for appearance. It is often snd that stock do not need 
 any shelter in this or that district. They may do well running 
 
765 
 
 about without it, but they will do much better with it and amply 
 repay any attention in this direction. Milch cows require shelter 
 from the heat of the summer's sun and from the cold, bleak winds 
 of winter, and they should never be put into a paddock that is not 
 provided with it. If the trees are such as do not afford a good 
 protection, plant some quick growing ones in clumps that will. In 
 commencing dairying, attention should be given as to the means of 
 getting milk to a creamery or cream to a factory. 
 
 It is not much use starting to dairy if the farm is so far away, 
 or the roads so bad that it is impossible to send the cream either 
 to the railway station or butter factory, unless the farmer is prepared 
 to invest a fair amount of capital in dairy appliances. If the dairy 
 is a large one, it will pay well to do that, especially if cheese-making 
 is gone in for. 
 
 Where it is possible, it is well to have the milking yards nearly 
 in the centre of the farm, so that all the paddocks may be available 
 for the cattle with as little exertion as possible. 
 
 Above all things, if you wish to live at peace with your neigh- 
 bours, see that your fences are thoroughly sound ; even if they cost 
 you a little more to put up, the money is well spent, and will be 
 repaid to you a hundredfold in days to come. 
 
 Do not go in for large paddocks, as cattle like a change of 
 pasture frequently and do much better if they are moved from 
 paddock to paddock without being kept in one until every- 
 thing is eaten out of it. If the cattle are treated thus they will fall 
 off in their milk, and although it may increase again when they are 
 put on better feed, still they will never do as well as if they had not 
 been allowed to fall away. More feeding value will be obtained 
 from the small paddocks when they are not allowed to be eaten 
 down too close and the cattle are continually \valking over them. 
 The various grasses that come in at different periods of the year 
 will have a chance of coming forward and providing food that would 
 otherwise have been nipped off at the start. Land treated in this 
 fashion will carry nearly half has much more stock as it would in 
 large paddocks. 
 
 Try and arrange that your yards shall be on the slope of a hill, 
 so that they may be well drained and all surface moisture be readily 
 got away. If there are any large trees growing on the proposed 
 site, if they can be used for shelter from the sun, by all means let 
 them remain. The difference in the behaviour of cattle in the 
 summer time in a sheltered yard and one without it, needs only to 
 be seen to be appreciated. In the one where shade is available the 
 cows may be seen contentedly either standing or lying down chew- 
 ing their cud ; in the other, exposed to the sun's rays, they are 
 restless, whisking their tails about, tossing their heads, and every 
 now and again rushing one another, and all the time uneasy and out 
 of temper, which means that when they come to be milked the 
 milkers will get of temper also, to the great loss of the dairyman. 
 
Have the milking bails well under cover, so that when being milked 
 the cows may be protected from the weather, and if possible have 
 the milking sheds darkened, then in the summer the flies will not 
 be nearly so troublesome, and thus save much irritation to both man 
 and beast. See that the bails are securely erected, so that when 
 young cattle are being broken in they may not break away and 
 thus give more trouble afterwards. In fact, let everything about 
 your farm that cattle have anything to do with be substantial and 
 solid. 
 
 Do not encourage your cattle in bad habits, they learn them 
 soon and easily enough. For instance, do not put a crop for fodder 
 in with only an apology for a fence round it. Some of the cows 
 will soon see that if the fence is not ornamental, neither is it useful, 
 and will find a weak spot and get through. If one gets in others 
 will soon follo\v, and when they are discovered there will be the 
 usual shouting and chasing and the cattle rushing through the fence 
 without looking for the place they came in. Much damage will 
 probably be done to the crop, the cattle be worried arid excited, 
 and worse still, they know the fence is weak and whenever they are 
 near there again they will break in. Nor is this the worst feature, 
 they have learned to break fences and they will break down or 
 through fairly good fences by keeping at it, pushing and pulling 
 with their horns until something gives way. Many cows, old in the 
 knowledge of fences, will walk round one ana pick the weakest 
 parts with as much certainty as a man would. If the fences are 
 good, so that stock cannot get through them, they will soon cease 
 to try, and much petty annoyance will be saved. I wish to speak 
 strongly on this subject of substantial fences, for only those w r ho 
 have kept quiet milch cows, or have lived among neighbours who 
 do, can have any idea of the amount of ill-feeling they continue to 
 create among neighbours who would otherwise be on most friendly 
 terms. An outlay of a tew pounds, or a few clays' extra work at 
 the beginning, would have saved the trouble. In a country like 
 this, one may think it does not matter much, as the feed outside is 
 not much better than the feed inside. Quite true at present, but it 
 will not be always so. The agricultural people have scarcely 
 awakened in many districts yet to the possibilities around them ; 
 but this will not long continue, and where only native grasses and 
 scrub are now growing, in a few years or less will be cultivated 
 land, and the good fences will be needed then, and remember 
 that once a fence is up, if it is not the right kind, there is but a 
 small likelihood of its ever being made right until a new one is 
 needed in its place through its days of usefulness having expired, 
 and this may only be expected about once in a lifetime. Do not use 
 slip-rails; lazy people coming into ;i paddock are apt to leave them 
 down or not put all of them up, or put them up carelessly, and 
 cattle soon learn how to take them down themselves. Of course 
 they can be made fast pegged or locked but as boys are often 
 
7 6 7 
 
 sent to bring in or out the cattle, something attracts their attention 
 and the fastening is overlooked, and perhaps in one afternoon 
 many pounds' worth of crops may be destroyed. Several strong 
 and cheap gates, as well as all classes of fencing, are fully 
 described in Part II. of the GUIDK. Wherever cattle are kept all 
 fences shouLl at least have a top rail ; if they have two, so much the 
 better, but a top rail and six wires will make a very good and 
 economical fence. A paddock should always be made to keep the 
 bull in, and the fence of this ought to be made extra high, with at 
 least two rails, or better still, three. In laying out the paddocks, 
 it" there is not natural water available, wells or tanks should be 
 sunk, say where four paddocks join, in the corner of one. By 
 doing so one set of troughs will do for all four, as they can he 
 moved through the fence into whichever paddock they are required ; 
 or if it is preferred to have the troughs permanently fixed, one set 
 of troughs set close along side or partly under the fence will serve 
 two paddocks. 
 
 The cultivation paddock should also be so arranged as to 
 adjoin three or four grass paddocks, when, in case of green feed- 
 ing or ensilage making, the cattle could be fed with the least 
 amount of labor of carting. Much time, money, and trouble might 
 be saved if, instead of laying out the farm haphazard, as careful 
 attention were given to it as in the laying out and building of a 
 house. There is no sense in having to cart feed a mile or two 
 when it need not be carted a quarter the distance. Neither is it a 
 wise thing to cart green stuff to a silo a mile in one direction w r hen 
 it has to be taken perhaps two miles in another afterwards. I can 
 fancy I hear many farmers say, " Sure, any fool knows that," or, 
 " Does he take us all for idiots ?" No, I do not ; but for the past 
 ten years, having had a very close connection with farm life, 
 inspecting farms, reporting on them, and judging them, I can say 
 that many farmers act as though they had no brains at all, and 
 often make their horses and themselves walk a mile with a load 
 when 100 yards would do, and my experience has been that few 
 farmers sit down and consider how to lay out their farms so that 
 they may be worked to the greatest advantage and at the greatest 
 saving ot labor. This colony being young, and many of the farms 
 not having been laid out, I would draw particular attention to the 
 necessity of working to a plan. Go over your farm, carefully 
 examine it, and see where you \vill build your house and outbuild- 
 ings, where you will cultivate, and then lay it all out on paper and 
 see how you can sub-divide it so as to work economically and to 
 the best advantage. You may not perhaps be able to complete 
 your plan for years never mind, keep on working with that end 
 in view T , and ultimately you will reap your reward having a farm 
 where no unnecessary expense is required to work it. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 DAIRY BUILDINGS. 
 
 Owing to the scattered population in the farming districts of 
 this colony, for some years to come most of the milk will be 
 separated on the farm, and either the cream churned there or sent 
 to a factory. This being so, it will be necessary to have a dairy of 
 some kind to keep the cream in, and the cooler the dairy can be 
 kept in summer the better will be the result in making the butter. 
 \pensive plans have been recommended, but none I have 
 seen answer better than those I will describe, and the buildings are 
 cheap and easily constructed. One kind is built above ground of 
 either weather-boards, slabs, stone r sun-dried bricks. A 
 convenient size for the produce of a small herd is 12 feet by 
 which leaves plenty of room to store the cream and move about. 
 The walls eight feet high, and the roof should have a good pitch, 
 the length of the rafters being, say, three-fourths the width of the 
 building. The dairy should be ceiled with tongued and grooved 
 soft wood if available, if not, hard wood can be used, but it should 
 be lined with calico to prevent dust dropping down. In both gables, 
 above the ceiling, there should be louvre windows or shutters that 
 can be opened or shut at will, so that after a hot day. if a cool 
 breeze comes at night, the cool air may be allowed to circulate 
 over the ceiling. In the dairy there should be two windows, and 
 these lined with wire gauze to keep out insects. If the windows 
 are hinged, so much the better, as -when required to be opened they 
 wifl allow the greater draught. The windows should be of such a 
 size as will allow the light to get in and keep the dairy bright and 
 cheery. Sunlight is a splendid disinfectant, and no dairy should be 
 kept dark. Another reason for having the dairy bright is, that dirt 
 and all kinds of offensive matter may be seen at once. If the dairy 
 is dark it will rarely be kept as clean as it ought to be. The floor, 
 where possible, should be of stone, concrete or bricks, with a fall in 
 one direction, so that it may be thoroughly washed and easily dried. 
 
 nail gutter running along the low side with an exit through the 
 wall will be found to answer well, as then plenty of water can be used 
 and get away freely. The roof should be of shingles, or if they are not 
 available and good bark can be obtained, it will answer the purpose. 
 
 erandah all round the dairy will add much towards keeping it 
 cool. A building erected as above would not of itself keep cool in 
 the hot weather, but to obtain that result quick growing creeping 
 plants should be planted all around and trained right up over the 
 
769 
 
 roof. Amongst those that maybe used are ihlu lius ami 
 
 The common passion vine t; v be 
 
 grown with other creepers, and will give good returns from its 
 
 fruit, bearing IK cr the tir.->t season. Once the creepers 
 
 cr the dairy right over, it will keep cool even in the hottest 
 
 her. 
 
 The other kind of dairy is one that is either under ground 01 
 partly so. An economical one is made by excavating, say, to a 
 der IT feet and putting a wall four feet high above that, the 
 
 earth that is taken out being packed up against the walls nearly 
 level with the top. The eaves of the roof should be carried at least a 
 foot below the wall plate. The roof should be made as described in 
 the first-mentioned. If the ground is such that it is difficult to get 
 a drain from the floor of the dairy, a hole, say a foot or 18 inches 
 square and i foot deep, should be made at the lower corner, so that 
 all the washing water may run there, when it can be taken out and 
 carried A concrete or brick floor will be the best for this. 
 
 Creepers should be grown over the roof of this dairy ; also, when- 
 ever it is at all possible, water should be laid on to the cl 
 
 The dairy should always be at a considerable distance from 
 the milking-yard. or any other place that gives off unpleasant 
 smells. It should not be near the fowl-house or stable, neither 
 should the fowls, pigs, or calves be allowed about the building. If 
 
 parator is used it should never be worked in the dairy during 
 the summer, for the separator gives off a continual current 
 heated air. A separate building, or part of the dairy verandah, 
 may be used for separating, and the cream cooled before taking it 
 
 the dairy. On large dairy farms a little forethought in laying 
 out the milking yards and dairy may save a great deal of la: 
 such as arranging that the milk may run from the milking yards by 
 gravitation to the separator, and from there again to the calf j 
 or pig troughs. 
 
 If dairying is to be carried on successfully it will be necessary 
 in most districts that a supply of artificial feed should be produced 
 for both winter and summer use. Green feed, such as 
 maize, sorghum, etc.. may be used with advantage in 
 the summer, but in the winter, when the weather is cold 
 and bleak, the cattle will require something not so cold 
 and watery as these, and nothing answers better than g 
 ensilage, fresh from the pit or stack, for it is not only appetising 
 but warm, and cattle milk well on it in winter. To have this 
 always available it will be necessary to cultivate to a certain extent, 
 and tor this purpose some of the best land should be set ap 
 After the first few crops are taken off the best of land it will begin 
 to need manure, for it is the height of folly to cultivate two acres 
 of land if the same quantity of produce can be obtained from one ; 
 and yet this is being constantly done. Year after year the same 
 land is cultivated and nothing put into it to compensate for all that 
 
770 
 
 has been taken away, consequently new land has to be cleared and 
 broken up so as to obtain the same amount of forage ; and peopl ; 
 complain about the land and grumble because it is not like what it 
 used to be. [Part V. of the SETTLER'S GUIDE is devoted to the 
 manuring of lands, and those who contemplate dairying in the 
 most profitable manner cannot do better than thoroughly study 
 this part.] Manure the land heavily, and do not be afraid to 
 demand big returns. Take two, three, or even four crops off the 
 land in the year. It can be done if you look after it well. Wherever 
 possible sow all crops in drills, so that the land between the drills 
 may be cultivated and kept stirred and open as long as may be 
 without damage to the growing crops. Keep the weeds down and 
 the soil loose and open, and even in a dry season fair crops may 
 be looked for, and not in vain. What is wanted is not large areas 
 of poor land under cultivation, but small areas of rich land, and if 
 not naturally rich, made rich thoroughly well cultivated and 
 forced to yield heavy crops. 
 
 A dairy farmer has other work to do than to spend half his time 
 in ploughing and working poor land. It is a waste of time, so much 
 extra work on the horses, so much extra wear and tear on the 
 implements, and the results unsatisfactory. If you think it is not 
 possible, try one acre, or even half an acre. You can get in, say, 
 barley or rape early and have one good cutting, probably two, then 
 a crop of turnips or peas, and then maize, or sorghum, in the one 
 twelve months, and see what returns you get from it as compared 
 with the other land in proportion to the time and labor expended 
 on it. One fair trial will convince you that there is money in it. 
 As to the matter of what crops should be grown and how they should 
 be treated, I will not go into that now, but will deal with it later on. 
 
 As to the permanent pastures in some parts of this colony, 
 many of the better class of Knglish grasses might be grown with 
 great advantage instead of couch grass, which, in nearly all other 
 parts of Australia, is looke 1 upon as little better than a weed, and 
 steps taken to eradicate it and stop it spreading. Of course, the 
 grasses that are suitable to one district are often not suitable to 
 other districts, and experiments will have to be made. These experi- 
 ments will be of the greatest value to the agriculturist and dairy farmer, 
 as he will then have reliable information to go upon and save himself 
 years of fruitless endeavour. In districts where there are good 
 native grasses it would be well worth the time and labor to gather 
 the seeds of the best of them, sow in pots and then cut for seed to 
 be sown on the farm. Many of these grasses stand our climate 
 much better than any of the so-called artificial grasses will, and not 
 only so, but in the other colonies some of the best flavored and 
 best keeping butter comes off the pastures where the cattle are fed 
 entirely on native grasses. Witli a very little trouble in a couple of 
 years enough seed could be saved to sow a number of acres, and 
 would amply repay the small expense. 
 
 
77' 
 
 As before mentioned, a good water supply is essential for 
 dairying successfully, and so far as I have seen this is to be found 
 principally in the hilly country. Most of the hilly country is fairly 
 heavily timbered and has a good rainfall, but would not pay to clear, 
 and in its present state does not grow much grass suitable for 
 pasture for cattle. Judging from my experience in other countries, 
 I should say that if most of the timber was rung and all the scrub 
 cut and burnt, and on top of the burnt ground cocksfoot and 
 English rye grasses with clover were sown, in a very short time, if 
 not too heavily stocked, there would be a magnificent pasture 
 where the rainfall is adequate. On some of the loamy hill sides 
 where the rainfall is 40 inches or over, other grasses might be used, 
 such as meadow foxtail, prairie, timothy, and both white and red 
 clovers. The lirst year the grasses should not be allowed to seed, 
 but cattle should not be put on them until they have a linn root in 
 the ground. In obtaining grass seeds, farmers should be careful to 
 see that they are reliable. Poor seed is dear at any price. On rich 
 flats that are not wanted for cultivation lucerne and prairie grass 
 may be grown to advantage. When lucerne is sown it should 
 always be sown in drills and kept cultivated between the rows until 
 it is well up. On no account sow Italian rye grass, as it is not 
 perennial, and will probably not be seen after the iirst season. 
 When sowing grasses a very calm day should be chosen. 
 
 When laying out the dairy farm, fence off a piece of the best 
 land you have and sow the grasses that will thrive best in it, and 
 reserve this for your calves and never overstock it. A good paddock 
 for calves will be a wonderful help to them, and even when milk is 
 scarce they w r ill often thrive well in it. See that there is good, 
 warm shelter in it for winter and good shade for summer. 
 
THE LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Before treating upon the cattle, I would like to say a few words 
 about the horses required upon the farm. Unless the roads or 
 paddocks that are being cultivated are exceedingly heavy, do not go 
 in for very heavy horses. They are nearly always slow, and down- 
 right wasters of time. If you are ploughing they crawl along at the 
 rate of from a mile to a mile and a half an hour, and it is no use 
 trying to hurry them up they will spurt for a few yards and then 
 drop back again into their old gait. They are not built for fast 
 work, and they cannot do it except at great exertion to themselves. 
 They may be all there for good solid, heavy pulling, but life is too 
 short to use them where a lighter and more active h' rse will do. 
 If you can get a horse that will walk three miles an hour and do his 
 work comfortably, instead of an animal that will walk one and 
 a half miles, it means that you will do twice as much work with 
 him in the day, and this is a most important consideration, for on a 
 dairy farm time means money. In fact, in heavy ground a good, 
 strong, clean-limbed, active horse will show less symptoms of fatigue 
 after a hard day's work than a heavy, hairy-legged Clydesdale, not- 
 withstanding that the former may have accomplished half as much 
 more work during the day. The active, clean-legged horse is also 
 more adapted for general use, and can be used in the buggy and 
 spring-cart as well as in the plough and harrow. As a matter of 
 fact, really first-class farm horses are few and far between. There- 
 is a mistaken notion that any horse is good enough for a farm, and 
 never was a greater mistake made. It is this same principle carried 
 out all through that makes so many fanners poor. If you want to 
 be successful the best is not too good, and you cannot afford to sell 
 your best horses. You may sell them, but you are out of pocket in 
 the long run. We lind the same principle when applied to the 
 farmers themselves. If a lad is not so sharp and intelligent as his 
 brothers, you hear : ''Oh, make a fanner of him ; he is good for 
 nothing else ! " Well, if he is not he will never make a farmer. A 
 successful farnu-r must be intelligent, wide-awake, and a keen 
 observer. If the cleverest boys were made farmers, and their le>s 
 endowed brothers put to business, it would be better for both. 
 Some of the most successful fanners 1 have ever met with were 
 men who had good business training, and had made money at it, 
 and who went on the land from pure love of it, or because their 
 health had broken down at other work. They applied their business 
 knowledge and habits to their farm work and did well from the 
 
773 
 
 very start made money where many of their neighbors, on the 
 same kind of land, could scarcely keep the \voll" from the doOT, 
 But, to return to our horses, where you have to use more than one 
 together, see that they are evenly matched as to pace. It will be 
 economv to give a good price for a horse that will walk at the same 
 rate as the one you have, better than get a quicker or a slower -me 
 at a lower price. If they are not matched thus one horse will all 
 the time be having the greater share of the work, and it will be 
 irritating to the tempers of both the horses and the driver to keep 
 trying to make the one keep up with the other, or holding the 
 faster one back. It will not signify nearly so much if one be 
 smaller than the other, so long as their pace is equal. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 \Ye shall now proceed to describe the cattle that we have to 
 choose from, and in doing so I would ask my readers to bear in 
 mind that it is a dairy farm that we are writing about, and what 
 would be suitable for a dairy farm may not suit general farming, 
 nor would the animals that are most profitable in general agriculture 
 pay on a dairy farm. 
 
 There is no hard and fast rule that can be laid down as to 
 what kind of cattle is most suited for dairying. Dairying may be 
 divided into three kinds, viz. : First, producing milk for daily con- 
 sumption ; second, producing milk for butter-making ; third, pro- 
 ducing milk for cheese-making. These three divisions may be con- 
 siderably mixed up, and often are. Thus, a dairyman may make 
 butter at one time of the year, and rind that at another time it pays 
 him better to make cheese. Or, he may make butter when milk^is 
 plentiful, and tind that it pavs him much better to sell his milk 
 when it is scarce. So the kind of dairying to be adopted will have 
 to be considered in establishing a herd of milch cows. Xor is this 
 all, the character of the farm itself must be taken into account. If 
 the feed is poor, or the land very hilly, no one need expect success 
 from large framed cows, which have to keep walking about all day 
 long to try and rill themselves, never having a moment for rest. 
 The amount of nourishment required to keep up the wear and tear 
 upon the muscles is so much taken from the milk, represented either 
 by a smaller quantity, or less butter fat. Where a large framed beast 
 would be always poor, a smaller beast might thrive and do well. 
 On rich pastures, where there is plenty of feed, put on as large 
 cattle as you \vish, but never put them on the hills and poor country. 
 Where a co\v has to walk about all day she does not even get the 
 good of what she eats ; to get the full benefit she should have time 
 to he do\vn and chew her cud. When eating, cows to a great 
 extent simply bolt their food for the time being ; and as soon as the 
 cravings of hunger are over they lie down and masticate it all over 
 again thoroughly, when it then passes into the stomach and is 
 properly digested. If a cow has not time to thus fulfil the provision 
 
774 
 
 of nature, much of her food passes through without being properly 
 digested, and this is a dead loss to the cow and her owner. Every 
 effort an animal makes exhausts a certain amount of nourishment ; 
 therefore, the less exertion made the greater quantity of nourish- 
 ment there will be available for milk and cream. As to the different 
 kinds of cattle that are available for dairying, nearly all the various 
 breeds can be utilised, with the exception of the Polled Angus and 
 . Devons, and I have heard of individuals of this latter breed giving 
 good butter results, but it is very exceptional, and for all practical 
 purposes they may be left out of our consideration. 
 
 \Ve would then have Durhams, or Shorthorns, Herefords, 
 Holsteins, Ayrshires, Alderneys, and included in these are Jerseys 
 and Guernseys, as in these colonies these three separate breeds are 
 rarely kept distinct. Kernes and Dexter Kerries so far as I can 
 find out, I do not think there are any of the two latter breeds in 
 this colony, but lately they have been introduced into the hilly 
 districts of the eastern colonies, and with great success. Then we 
 have the various crosses of all the above breeds, and we con- 
 tinually meet with people who tell us that the crosses are far 
 superior to the pure bred cattle for dairy purposes. Against that 
 we have the fact that all the great records ever made have been 
 from pure bred cattle, carefully bred for many generations. Thus 
 we have the pure bred Jersey cow, " Lily," at five years old, giving 
 23 quarts of milk a day, and yielding 24^ Ibs. of butter in the week. 
 Then we have three pure bred cows, Ayrshires, belonging to the 
 Duke of Westminster, that gave 1106 gallons, mo gallons, and 1448 
 gallons respectively in 12 months ; this last one being at the rate of 
 almost 16 quarts per day the whole year through. There is also 
 the record of three Holstein cows at Troy (N.Y.). One gave an 
 average of 27 quarts a day, another 28^ quarts, and the third 29^ 
 quarts per day during a week's test. The first one gave 25^2 Ibs. of 
 butter for the week, the second 23*7 Ibs., and the third 2875 Ibs. 
 These were not only good milkers, but two of them had won prizes 
 in the open class at the New York show, for Holstein cows. X<> 
 records from cross-bred cows that I have ever seen or heard of 
 come near these. Not that I would for a moment deny that there 
 arc good cross-bred dairy cattle. I have known what are called 
 common cows give as high as 16 and 17 Ibs. of butter in a 
 week, but pure bred cattle have beaten their records, and from a 
 pure bred beast you are far more likely to get a calf that will inherit 
 the milking properties of its mother than you arc from :i crossbred. 
 All dairymen will know as a fact, as well as all breeders of any kind 
 of stock, that if you breed from cross-bred stock you never can tell 
 what the result will be. It may take after its sire, or after its dam, 
 or it mav strain back for generations to a great-grandsire, dam, or 
 even father. 
 
 I am not by any means advising dairymen to go to the expense 
 of purchasing a pure bred herd right oft" ; but, what 1 would strive 
 
775 
 
 to impress upon each and all is, to use only pure bred bulls in their 
 herds, and see that the bull is from a good milking strain, even it 
 one has to give a seemingly big price for him. His cost will be 
 nothing compared to the herd when the heifers begin to come in. 
 Let no one think when he commences dairying that lie- can go and 
 buy a good dairy herd right off. It may happen that a fair herd 
 can be purchased at a boiui-fidc clearing sale, but that is only a 
 chance in a lifetime. The probabilities are that if you arc a lair 
 judge of cattle about one out of every four you buv will be lit 
 to keep and rear calves from. The only sure way to get together a 
 really good herd is to breed it. You will have to buy the best you 
 can L-et to start with, then pick out your cows according to how 
 they turn out, and have the heifer calves from the best, and making 
 sure the bull is from a milking strain and pure bred. By doing this, 
 in a few years you can get together a really good herd, and, by 
 judicious culling, every year it will be improving and the average 
 yield gradually rising. The best investment that can be made for 
 the dairy farm is a good bull. Even with poor cows to start with, 
 no man need despair of getting a fair herd together if he can only 
 obtain a milking strain on the sire's side. It is then only a matter 
 of time and careful selection. 
 
 THE CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE. 
 
 Of these we have thn. e sub-varieties, viz., the Jerseys, Guernseys, 
 and Alderneys ; but they are often indiscriminately spoken of, and 
 in many shows are all shown under the name of Alderney. There 
 is a difference in them, more as regards colour in the case of 
 Jerseys and Alderneys, as in size and form they are the same, but 
 the Guernsey is a larger framed beast, and coarser in all its points, 
 and is seldom self-coloured, being generally fawn coloured, or 
 yellow, with patches of white. They get the credit of being 
 heavier milkers than the others, the mik being equally rich. They 
 are not often found outside the Island of Guernsey at present, as 
 mostly all breeders have gone in for the more graceful types found 
 in the other islands. 
 
 For a great number of y^ars these cattle have been noted for 
 the richness of their milk and the fine quality of their butter, and 
 have been particular favorites for families keeping a cow lor their 
 own use, not only for their milking qualities, but also on account of 
 their quiet habits and h mdsome appearance. . It is a strange fact, 
 that of all cattle the cows of this breed are the most docile, and the 
 bulls the most wicked and uncertain in their tempers. Of late 
 years many herds have been established and kept pure both in the 
 United Kingdom and the United States for dairy purposes only, 
 and have returned very good results. The one great objection to 
 them is that as a rule they are more delicate and require more care 
 and attention than any of the other breeds. In Australia when on 
 good pasture they thrive and do well, and in many places are used 
 for crossing purposes to improve the quality of milk, and the young 
 
77 6 
 
 stock seem hardy and much better able to thrive on coarse fo( 
 than the pure bred animals. The milk of this breed is more 
 adapted to butter making than for cheese, being rich in butter fat, 
 and the fat globules so large that the cream rapidly rises to the 
 surface, and when the milk is used for cheese-making there is 
 generally a considerable loss of butter fat. 
 
 While on the subject of Channel Island cattle mention may be 
 made of the Brittany, as a number of them have been imported at 
 one time and another into the Australian colonies, but never seem 
 to have taken well with the public generally. They would be 
 admirably suited to many of the hilly and colder districts, being 
 small and active, very hardy and good foragers, yielding large milk 
 returns for their size, and of good quality. They do not stand 
 nearly so high as the Jerseys, and have very short legs and are of 
 much thicker build. Their color is either black, or black and white. 
 
 THE HOLSTEIX-FRKSIAXS. 
 
 Of late years these cattle have become remarkably popular in 
 America, and for quantity of milk given in twelve months, and hest 
 return of butter for the same time, held the world's records. They 
 were originally Dutch cattle, and have been bred with great care 
 a d attention in America until they far surpass the original stock 
 both in appearance and milking qualities. They are very striking 
 in appea~anc3, hiving larg;: frames and a ^lo^sy black color with 
 white patches. The steers are ^aid to make very good b..ef. In 
 the United Kingdom thcv have never obtained a fooling, being con- 
 sidered delicate and subject to all the diseases that cow ilesh is heir 
 to. At one time they, or closely allied 'stock, were largely kept in 
 the dairies around London, but the death rate was so high that the 
 dairy people gave up keeping them. This has not been the 
 experience of American breeders, nor of those who have kept them 
 in Australia, and at the present time they are very largely used for 
 crossing by many of the most experienced dairymen in Victoria. 
 Their milk is not very rich, but is quite equal to the average quality) 
 and the a:nount given in one day frequently reaches over jo quarts, 
 and sometimes 25 and 27 quarts. They have, as a rule, good teats 
 and ;ire easily milked, are quiet and docile, ami beat- house- feeding 
 wel 1 . Xot many have been imported into the colonies. Young 
 bulls bring good prices, and are well worth the money paid for 
 them, manv of the half-bred cattle almost equalling the pure in 
 quantity and often excelling them in quality. T> be kepi success- 
 fully they must be well fed and not have to wander far m order to 
 iill themselves. Their milk is well suited for cheese-making. The 
 last ot the dairy breeds that we have arc the 
 
 KKKKY AND DKXTKR KKK-KIKS. 
 
 These are a purely Irish production, and are about the smallest 
 cattle knoAMi. In height they are frequently not more than 3001-37 
 inches, and their udder reaches so near the ground that sometimes 
 
777 
 
 it is rather difficult to milk them. They are generally pure black in 
 color, but sometimes they are found of a rich blood red. They 
 are docile, very hardy and active, can climb hills almost like stoats, 
 and will live and thrive where other breeds would die of starvation. 
 For their si/.e they are the greatest milkers of any of the dairy 
 breeds, often gi\ -ing four or live times their own weight of milk in a 
 single season. When crossed with other cattle they generally 
 degenerate as milkers, but the cross-bred stock show a great 
 adaptncss for laying on flesh which is of the finest quality. A few 
 of them have been introduced to Australia, but the prices asked for 
 their stock put it out of the reach of most dairymen to obtain them. 
 They are so admirably suited for the hilly country and poor districts 
 that it is a pity there are not more of them in the colonies. For use 
 in private families they cannot be surpassed and are very 
 economical to keep. 
 
 As the breeding of pure-bred stock is not within the reach of 
 .all dairy farmers, the question will naturally arise as to what are the 
 best crosses, or what is the best breed of bull to introduce into a 
 herd ; so much depends upon the class of cattle that we already 
 possess that no hard and fast rule can be laid down, at the same 
 time certain lines may be followed with advantage. Thus, if the 
 cows are hardy and good milkers, and it is desired to improve the 
 quality, a cross with some of the Channel Island breeds will 
 probably have very good results. If the cattle are not very good 
 milkers and generally a weedy lot, the Ayrshire might be used ; or, 
 if small in size, a shorthorn from a good milking strain. A really 
 good all-round cross is that between the Ayrshire and any of the 
 Channel Islanders, they are good, useful, all-round dairy cows, 
 whose milk is fairly rich in butter fat, and suitable for either butter 
 or cheese. Some magnificent milkers have been the produce of 
 Jerseys and Holsteins, and are remarkably handsome cattle 10 
 look at. 
 
 I have given up to the present a general idea of what the 
 characteristics of the various breeds of cattle are ; but even if pure- 
 bred cattle only are kept they will need most careful culling to keep 
 them up to the highest standard. Only the calves from those that 
 prove themselves by actual test ought to be kept, and those that do 
 not come up to the fair standard should be sold or got rid of at the 
 first opportunity. A good beast eats no more than a poor one, but 
 may give double the return in cash in a single season. Every cow 
 in a herd ought to be thoroughly and constantly tested, not only for 
 quantity and quality, but also for her staying properties. Some 
 cows will give, shortly after calving, a great quantity of milk for a 
 few weeks and then drop off until the yield is very small, while 
 others will only give a moderate supply at first, but will ke p it up 
 for months with little or no falling of. Any cow that does not give 
 at least 3*6 per cent, of butter fat is not good enough to keep, and 
 should be replaced with a better animal as soon as possible. By 
 
77 8 
 
 attention and culling in a very few years it is quite possible to bring 
 a herd up to a stan ,ard of 4 per cent, to 4-4 per cent, of butter fat 
 in their milk, while specially good cows may go up as high as 5 or 
 6 per cent, of butter fat ; these, however, are very few and 
 between. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 One of the most important things for a dairyman to remember 
 is, that the returns he gets from his cattle are greatly dependent on 
 the food provided for them and the treatment they are subjected to. 
 If cows are neglected in the winter time and kept in cold, bleak 
 paddocks, without shelter, they will not yield anything like the 
 returns they would if properly cared for. In fact, they would thrive 
 much better if they had less food and more warmth. It is very poor 
 policy to starve or neglect a cow in winter, thinking she can make 
 it up in the spring, for in the first place the co\v has to make up ilesh 
 again before she can be expected to come to her full milk, and that 
 is a tedious and wasteful process. It is much easier to keep a cow 
 in good condition than to get one into it. Again, if the cow is dry 
 she will probably be in calf, so that a great deal of extra nourish- 
 ment is required ; or it may be that she is in calf and milking also, 
 and in that case the strain upon her system is very great, and unless 
 properly looked after, the cow, the calf and the milk returns will 
 suffer. It will pay much better to keep fewer cows, and see that 
 they are properly attended to and have plenty to eat, than to keep 
 more that are continually on short rations. There is one mistake 
 that many dairy farmers make, and that is, they think that the 
 quality of the milk can be greatly improved by feeding very rich 
 foods. As a matter of fact experiment has shown that the food has 
 very little effect on the quantity of butter fat in the milk. A cow, by 
 good and judicious feeding, may be made to increase the quantity 
 of her milk up to 50 per cent, or over, but if the milk is tested the 
 percentage of butter fat will be found to have changed but little. 
 Some years since the writer made the experiment as follows : 
 Three good milking cows about two months calved were taken, 
 each averaging 12 quarts of milk a day on ordinary grass feed. 
 They were put into a small paddock and in the mornings given a 
 large bucket of bran that had been steamed, with about four pounds 
 of treacle added to it. They then had as much chaffed green maize 
 as they would eat ; at noon they had a bran and treacle mas i 
 again, ^and chaffed oaten hay mixed with chaff d mai/e ; at night 
 they had a mash of maize meal and treacle and chaffed oaten hay 
 and maize. One cow steadily increased in quantity for nine days, 
 and from twelve quarts per day went up to 19^. The amount of 
 butter fat in her milk, as shown by a Babcock milk tester before she 
 was put on extra rations, was 3*8 per cent. ; at the end of two 
 weeks the milk went only one per cent, higher, giving 3^9 per cent. 
 
780 
 
 Another cow increased to 18 quarts in eight days, and there was no 
 increase in the percentage of butter fat. The third one before the 
 exper.ment gave 4-2 per cent, of butter fat, and at the end of two 
 weeks, when she had increased to 20 quarts, her milk was found to 
 be two-tenths per cent, less, only giving 4'o per cent, butter fat. 
 
 Of course, the total yield of butter for the week in each case 
 was very much greater than it had been before, but that was on 
 account of the extra quantity of milk the cows gave, and not due to 
 the increase in the percentage of butter fat. The experiment was 
 kept up for a month and the percentage of butter fat varied very 
 little after the first fortn'ght. 
 
 A similar result took p'ace among the suppliers to a large butter 
 factory in the Western district of Victoria. A number of fanners 
 bought ten tins of treacle among them, and ted it to their cows 
 night and morning. When the milk was tested they were greatly 
 astonished to find that there was little or no increase in the per- 
 centage of butter fat, and immediately charged the manager of the 
 factory with swindling them. There was a great row, and the 
 suppliers refused to furnish any more milk to the factory, unless 
 they got what they called fair play. The manager tested a 
 quantity of milk in their presence, but they were not satisfied, and 
 then said the tester was wrong. At last it was decided to obtain 
 the services of one of the Government analysts. He came down 
 and tested the milk, and proved that the manager was correct, 
 much to the disgust of the farmers ; but they all admitted that the 
 quantity of milk h:id increased considerably, but they did not 
 reckon that the increas- was equivalent to the extra expense. 
 That this is approximately correct almost any one can prove for 
 himself. Suppose you have a Jersey cow, and that she is in poor 
 condition and on poor feed, you will find that although she gives 
 very little milk it will always be rich in cream. The quantity 
 may increase or fall off, but the milk will always be rich. From 
 the foregoing it will be seen how important the question of feeding 
 is in order to get the best returns possible from the cows. Of 
 course, it will not pay to feed cows on a large scale with as much 
 bran and chal't" and treacle as thev can eat, at prices such as are 
 quoted for them now, but both in summer and winter milch cows 
 should have something more than can be obtained in the ordinary 
 grass paddocks. For summer feed a good supply of green fodder 
 should be grown, and in almost any part of this colony, with a little 
 care and trouble, green teed could he had at almost any time of the 
 year, or if it cannot be grown, an excellent substitute can lv used in 
 the form of ensilage, oi which I shall speak later on. For winter 
 teed something more nutritions is needed, and if bran is not too 
 expensive it is one of the best winter fodders, so also is mai/e, 
 boiled or steamed until it is quite soft. At that time of year what 
 is wanted is some food rich in carbo-hydrates to supply warmth and 
 make up for the extra amount of animal heat required. A really 
 
7*' 
 
 first-class food for milking rows in winter is ensilage made of good 
 sweet oaten straw and rape. The rape and oaten straw are put in 
 
 the silo layer about, and the dry straw absorbs a great deal of the 
 
 juice from the succulent rape, so that when it comes to be taken out 
 the whole mass is of a screen colour. One winter I fed about 100 
 cows on this mixture, all the winter through, and never had better 
 results. The silage was taken fresh out of the pit in the morning 
 and fed direct to the cows. Coming out fresh it was warm and the 
 cattle not only milked well, but kept their condition remarkably 
 well. They had the same ration at night also, each cow getting on 
 an average about 30 pounds of silage a day. They also had the run 
 of grass paddocks with fair grass in them. Another good useful 
 winter fodder I found to be oaten chaff and green barley, the latter 
 also chaffed, mixed up together about 24 hours before use and put 
 in a heap and allowed to heat and then fed warm to the cattle. 
 
 Ciood results were also obtained from maize stalks that had 
 been gathered and carefully stacked and protected from damp after 
 the cobs had been taken off. These were cut up in the chaffcutter 
 and mixed with green cape barley or green oats, and allowed to 
 heat, also fed warm to the cows. On each of these mixtures the 
 cattle milked well and kept their condition all through the winter. 
 For summer feed, ensilage was found to be excellent, especially the 
 sour ensilage, although the cows did very well on the sweet 
 ensilage, but not so well as on the former. The best crops for 
 dairy cattle, to be fed in the form of silage, are maize (chaffed), 
 sorghum (chaffed), peas and oats, or peas and barley, oats, wheat 
 and cape barley. 
 
 For direct green feeding all the foregoing were found excellent, 
 also lucerne, (where only milk is required for use, but not if it is to 
 be made into butter or cheese, as both these are tainted by it), 
 mangolds, and on a piece of river flat one can scarcely get a better 
 return from any crop than from the long red variety, and no crop will 
 more amply repay care and trouble than mangolds. Manure heavily, 
 do not leave them too close, cultivate often and deep, and keep 
 all weeds down. Thirty to forty tons per acre is no unusual crop 
 if well looked after, and for summer feed when the grass is dry it can 
 scarcely be surpassed. They may also be used in winter if chaff or 
 bran is mixed with the n. 
 
 Pumpkins, and the still more humble pig-melon, chopped, and 
 fed into chaff and bran, are not to be despised. The latter can be 
 grown anywhere perfectly on newly broken land without any care 
 or attention, and yield an enormous return and come in at a time 
 of the year when succulent feed is most scarce. 
 
 Potatoes are also good feed, and they have the property of 
 making the butter very firm. Turnips are not good for dairy cattle, 
 as they taint milk, butter and cheese, and the taint is so unpleasant 
 that few people care even to use the milk. Ensilage has also 
 been charged with tainting milk, but if it does, it is not when it 
 
comes from the cow. If milk is allowed to remain for some time in 
 the cow-shed, and ensilage is lying about, it will certainly absorb 
 some of the taint from it. If, however, it is taken away from the 
 milking-yard or shed immediately beyond the smell of the silage 
 there will be no taint from it, and the butter made from the milk 
 resembles that made from spring grass. 
 
 If the district where cows are kept for dairy purposes is devoid 
 of salt naturally, it ought to be always kept in troughs within easy 
 reach of all the cattle. Rock-salt is not so good as the ordinary 
 salt, and the cattle will take just as much as their systems require 
 and will thrive and milk much better than if kept without it. Before 
 leaving the matter of feeding, it may of be some advantage to give 
 a few hints on ensilage-making, both in pit and stack. 
 
CHAPTKK* VI. 
 
 ENSILAGE. 
 
 If the average farmer a few years ago had been asked, " What 
 is ensilage, or silage ?" very few could have given an intelligent 
 answer, but now probably ninety per cent, would have a very good 
 idea of not only what it is but also how it is prepared. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the knowledge thus possessed is not put 
 into more general practice, and the loss to dairy fanners more 
 especially converted into gain by a free use of ensilage. If dairy 
 farmers generally could only be induced to try the making of 
 ensilage for one season, and compare the returns obtained from 
 their cattle for that time as against the results of previous years, by 
 comparison with the outlay in capital and labor, very few of them 
 would ever be without a supply on the farm again. 
 
 Silage comes in useful for feeding nearly all the live stock 
 about the farm. The milch cattle the young stock the calves, 
 horses, pigs, sheep, and even poultry and geese, seem after a time 
 to like it, especially if it is green and juicy. Brood sows while 
 suckling their young do very well on it with other food as well, for 
 if that is not supplied they get thin, as the ordinary silage is 
 deficient in the fat-producing constituents, although this can be 
 overcome by growing proper crops. 
 
 At the present time probably those who suffer most from not 
 using silage are the milk producers who sell milk in the cities. As 
 a rule there is no good pasture near enough for the cows to go out to 
 daily, and where they are allowed to graze on the commons the 
 feed is rough and not at all calculated to cause a good How of milk, 
 or even keep the cattle in good condition. Consequently other 
 food has to be bought, mainly chaff and bran, and at the present 
 prices (^"8 a ton for chaff and 6 to 7 for bran) the margin 
 left for profit is very small indeed. An objection may be raised by 
 those engaged in the trade that they have no farms on which to 
 grow crops, but it does not require a farm to grow sufficient 
 ensilage to feed twenty or thirty head of cattle. Three or four 
 acres of land could easily be rented close to our large towns that 
 would grow enough to do away at least with the use of chaff and 
 to reduce the bran ration by at least one-half. At all the urban 
 and subuiban dairies there is always a good supply of manure, and 
 this could be carted to the cultivation paddock and ploughed in 
 in due time. Maize could be sown in the proper season, or, if the 
 land is naturally damp, amber cane or some other of the various 
 varieties of sorghum. The reason for suggesting the latter is that 
 
784 
 
 a second or even a third cutting may often be obtained and may be 
 used as green feed, or cut for silage as desired. Maize will yield a 
 heavier crop, if well manured, than a single cutting of sorghum r 
 but if more than one cutting of the latter be secured it may 
 more than make up the difference. In sowing the maize it 
 is always well to put it in in drills and cultivate afterwards, 
 as long as it is possible without injury to the plants. The seeds 
 should be sown close together in the drill so as to have the stalks 
 thin and easily cut and eaten. Treated thus, and well manured, a 
 return of at least twenty tons of green fodder per acre nvght be 
 looked for and if this is made into ensilage, that amount of feeding 
 matter, less a very small percentage of loss, may be looked fo . 
 That means that twenty cows getting between thirty and forty 
 pounds of silage per day could be fed for two months, or giving 
 them fifty-six pounds per clay, it would last them forty days. Six 
 acres properly looked after and well manured could be made to 
 keep twenty cows for a year, and only a small quantity of bran or 
 maize meal would have to be purchased. 
 
 Notwithstanding all that has been written about the use of 
 silage, there are many still who refuse to believe in it. A gentle- 
 man in England some little time ago made the following experi- 
 ment. He had a 26-acre paddock of English rye grass, one half of 
 which he made into hay, the other into silage. Twenty cows in 
 full milk were then taken, and to ten he fed as much of the hay as 
 they would eat. The other ten got as much of the silage as they 
 wanted. The experiment was carried on for some months and the 
 silage was found to last quite three times as long as the hay. Dur- 
 ing the time of the experiment the silage-fed cattle gave much 
 more milk, and kept up the quality, than those fed on hay. Out- 
 side persons were asked to compare the conditions of the cattle 
 and they all gave it in favor of the silage-fed. They were in better 
 condition and their skin softer than the hay-fed animals. The 
 result, therefore, was that the silage-fed beasts gave more milk, were 
 in better condition, and were fed three times as long from 13 acres 
 of land as those that were fed on hay produced from the same area. 
 With some, thinking that ensilage taints the milk, there is still a 
 prejudice against it, and there is no doubt that milk sometimes is 
 tainted by ensilage, but that is not through the cow eating it, but 
 through carelessness on the part of the milkers. 
 
 Sometime since a farmer who had invested a considerable 
 amount of capital in making silos wrote to me saying that he had 
 gone to all this expense on my recommendation, and the result was 
 that he had only lost his time and money and all his crops he 
 had put into the silos, but the creamery he sent his milk to refused 
 to take it, as the milk smelt of the ensilage and spoilt the butter. 
 I wrote telling him it was a matter of impossibility, and in reply 
 I was asked to come and see for myself. I gladly availed myself of 
 the invitation and arrived late at night. Xext morning 1 went out 
 
7*5 
 
 to the cow sheds ;incl saw UK- HHMI feeding the 1 silage to the cattle. 
 It was brought along the cow sheds in a cart, and uas lilted by the 
 men into the feed-boxes by then" hands. As soon as all in (lu- 
 shed were fed the same men started milking without washing 
 their hands. The first tiling they did was to milk a little on 
 each hand to wet it and then start milking, and every now and 
 again they would dip their lingers in the milk. \Vhcn the milking 
 01 that lot of COWS was finished, a distinct llavour of silage could 
 be smelt in the milk. That lot ot" cattle were turned out and 
 another lot brought in and fed in the same way, but before the 
 men started to milk 1 said they should wash their hands with soap 
 in warm water. This was done and the milk was perfect and 
 without the least trace of the smell of the silage. After that the 
 silage was fed to the cattle with a fork, and the hands always 
 washed before milking ; and now that farmer swears by silage, and 
 has twice obtained the prize for the best silage in the district. No 
 one need have the slightest fear of tainting the milk, no matter 
 how much is fed to the cattle, if the milk is not allowed to stand 
 near the silage and thorough cleanliness and common sense are used. 
 
 The use of silage is far beyond the experimental stage, and on 
 most of the farms in England a silo is considered one of the most 
 useful adjuncts of the farm. In America and Canada it has come 
 into general use, not only for the milch cows but for general 
 fattening, and the results obtained from the use of silage and straw 
 or a little mixed meal have resulted in giving much better results 
 at less cost than any other feed. 
 
 In the report of the Ottawa experimental farms there is a full 
 account of a series of experiments lasting over several years, in 
 which the silage-fed steers gained in weight 35^8 pounds per head 
 more, and cost 2|d. less per day for feeding than those fed on -hay, 
 roots, straw and meal, and on the average for two years the cost 
 for food consumed per 100 pounds increase in live weight was 
 64*64 per cent, greater in the ration of hay, roots, straw and meal 
 than it was in the ration for silage, straw and meal. 
 
 The actual rations were : No. 2, consisting of cut hay 20 lbs. r 
 roots 40 Ibs., straw (cut) 5 Ibs., oil-cake 2 Ibs., ground peas 2 Ibs.. 
 ground barley 2 Ibs.; total, 71 Ibs. 
 
 No. 3, the silage ration consisted of corn silage 50 Ibs., straw 
 (cut) 5 Ibs., oil-cake 2 Ibs., ground peas 2 Ibs., ground barley 2 Ibs.; 
 total, 61 Ibs., thus the gain in feeding the latter ration for every 100 
 pounds the beasts put on was 3536 per cent., or a saving of ^35 
 143. in every .100 spent. In the face of facts like these the wonder is 
 that the use of silage has not become universal in this colony, 
 where there are such long and dry summers, and such a scarcity of 
 feed for at least four or live months every year, and at the present 
 price of cattle and sheep it would pay to top them up on a similar 
 ration, provided the farmer grows all the feed himself, letting mai/.e 
 and meal take the place of oil-cake. 
 
The result of a long series of experiments in feeding milcl 
 cattle at Chicago was also strongly in favor of the use of ensilage, 
 not only as regards the increased quantity of milk obtained, but also 
 in the saving in the cost of feed. For fattening purposes it was 
 found that corn or m li/e silage was deficient in the quantity of fat 
 producing food and what is known as Robertson's mixture has 
 been found to give good results. It consists of whole plants of 
 Indian corn, horse beans (Fabcr vulgar is) and the heads of sun- 
 flowers. This mixture should be composed of about ten tons of 
 Indian corn to two and a half tons of horse beans and one ton of 
 sunflower heads. To obtain these proportions a quarter of an acre 
 of sunflowers and half an acre of horse beans should be grown for 
 each acre of mai/e. It gives good results for either milch or store 
 cattle, but, for the latter, requires some meal added to it. Many 
 farmers object to the making of silage on the score of expense, 
 thinking it is necessary to make expensive pits. This is a great 
 mistake. First-class silage can be made in stacks with very homely 
 appliances. At the same time there is no doubt that a pit is most 
 convenient, nor is it at all necessary to go to much expense in the 
 construction thereof. In good solid clay lands, if not wet, only a 
 foot or two of the top need be boarded up, or waste timber from 
 the saw mills can be used for slabbing if the soil requires it. For 
 weighting many contrivances are used, some very expensive if not 
 very effective, others very simple and effective also ; such as 
 throwing back some of the earth, using logs or posts and rails. 
 One of the most convenient forms of applying pressure, if a wind- 
 mill is available, is to have several iron tanks and let the mill pump 
 water into them, this answers for either stacks or pits, and when it 
 is desired to empty them the water can be easily allowed to run 
 away, using a piece of hose as a syphon. 
 
 There is another advantage in having a pit, that is, the green 
 fodder can be chaffed and by means of a traveller carried direct 
 into the pit, and where coarse iodcler such as mai/e, amber cane, 
 sugar cane, etc., is used, this is a great improvement, for not only 
 is the silage more easily taken out, but it loses much less than 
 if the green stuff had not been chaffed, as in that case it would not 
 have lain close together, and all the spaces would have been full of 
 air, and there would probably be bad spots in it. In a properly 
 constructed pit there is practically no loss, except, perhaps, a little 
 on the very top, and even that can be prevented by pulling a little 
 straw over it and under the weights. 
 
 Stacks have this advantage, they can be built anywhere that is 
 most convenient for feeding the cattle, and require no expense to 
 speak of in their preparation. It must be remembered, however, 
 that in all stacks there is more waste all round, unless protected by 
 straw or some other material on the top also. 
 
 Stacks should be built wide and high, for after a few days the 
 green stuff shrinks greatly, and a stack loft, high the day it is built 
 
7 H 7 
 
 may only be live a few days after. Where water is not available 
 a very simple and effective means of securing pressure is to get 
 good strong saplings about 4ft. wider than the stack. Two can In- 
 used every 5ft. along the stack, one above and one below, put down 
 before the stack is built, the ends of the saplings extended 2ft. on 
 either side beyond the stack ; on the upper sapling a stout rope is 
 fixed on either side, 2 or 3 feet longer than the stack is to be high. 
 When it is required to press the stack a double block and pulley is 
 used, and the upper sapling is hauled down by means of the block 
 and pulley as near the lower one as possible, and then made fast by 
 the rope already attached to it. The best way to do it is to start at 
 one side of the stack, and with the rope attached to the upper 
 sapling haul one end down and then make fast, then on the other 
 side fix the block and pulley and haul down until the sapling is level. 
 Haul the next one down first on the opposite side to the first one, 
 and by thus alternating them the stack can be kept plumb. 
 
 It is not necessary to either fill a pit or complete a stack right 
 off ; they can be added to almost any time, and, if thoroughly 
 trodden on at first, will take no harm for several days without 
 pressure. Both pits and stacks should be made deep, as by that 
 means a considerable amount of pressure is obtained from the 
 weight of the material alone. 
 
 Every dairy farmer ought to always have a considerable quan- 
 tity of silage on hand ; if not needed one season it will keep over 
 until the next, or for a good many seasons ; and should a dry year 
 come there is always a stand-by for the cows or any other stock 
 that may require it. Sheep, pigs and horses will all eat it and do 
 well. 
 
 The making of silage is quite independent of the weather, it 
 can be made in wet weather as well as in dry ; thus crops can be 
 grown and utilised for silage at any time of the year. The expense 
 attached to making it is small, while the feeding value is very 
 great. 
 
 The crops suitable for ensilage are many, and can be grown 
 to suit all climates, thus, grasses, clover, tares, peas, beans, lucerne, 
 trefoil, oats, wheat, barley, rye, and all the sorghum tribe, and maize. 
 Silage can be fed entirely to cattle from 50 to 70 pounds per day, 
 according to size, and they will thrive on it, or it may be given as a 
 ration with any other kind of food. 
 
 Cattle will nearly always eat sweet ensilage right off, but some- 
 times they refuse the sour silage for some days, but eat it greedily 
 enough after. 
 
 Fair average silage weighs about 48 to 50 pouuds to the cubic 
 foot, and for either summer or winter feed no dairy farm should be 
 without a good supply of silage. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MILK AXD CREAM. 
 
 In order to realise the proper manipulation and methods oi 
 dealing with milk either for butter-making, cheese-making, or 
 retailing, it is necessary to understand its composition, its charac- 
 teristics and peculiarities. 
 
 Milk is composed of a number of substances held in solution 
 or suspension in water. The proportions of these vary greatly in 
 different animals, and even in individuals of the same breed a con- 
 siderable amount of variation is found, more especially in the per- 
 centage of butter fat. The chief constituents of cow's milk are : 
 water, varying from 82 to 88 per cent. ; butter fat, from i"j to 6*6 
 per cent. ; casein, from 2'8 to 5^5 per cent. ; albumen, from '38 to 
 60 per cent. ; milk sugar, 2-9 to 5-25 per cent. ; mineral substances, 
 6 to 9 per cent. These are about the outside limits of variation, 
 but the following may be taken as a fair average composition of 
 ordinary milk : 
 
 I'CT cent. 
 
 Water - - 87-60 
 
 Fat - 3-25 
 
 Albumen 0-45 
 
 Casein - 3-40 
 
 Su<jar . 4 -- 5 
 
 Ash or mineral substances 
 
 ICO'OO 
 
 Milk when drawn from the udder of the cow, if she be quite 
 healthy, is free from germs of any kind, and if put into a vessel 
 thoroughly sterilized, without being allowed to be contaminated 
 with any of the germs that are constantly floating in the air, or 
 that are continually falling from the body of the cow, will keep for 
 months or even years in a perfectly sweet condition, and will not 
 turn sour ; but, unless the most extraordinary precautions are 
 taken, it is almost impossible to obtain the milk germ-free, and, 
 commercially, it is impracticable. 
 
 In diseased animals germs of the particular disease by which 
 they are infected pass through with the milk, and may thus cause 
 disease in the systems of those who drink the milk. This is 
 especially the case in tuberculosis, which is readily conveyed from 
 an affected cow to the human system ; in fact, it has been 
 pointed out by many scientists, who have made this matter a 
 careful study, that this dreaded disease is rarely ever found 
 among those who do not use cow's milk or flesh in any form, 
 
whilst union^ tho^e \vlio do use the milk or llesh, the proportion of 
 humanity suffering with tuberculosis increases almost in the same 
 ratio as the quantity per head per annum used. Hence the u;ieat 
 and urgent necessity ot" having all dairy and butchers' stock under 
 regular, constant and capable inspection. Xot only should the 
 be inspected at regular intervals, but all the surroundings where 
 stock are kept should be constantly inspected, and in any place 
 where proper precautions are not taken no milk should be allowed 
 to be used for human consumption ; and not only should the stock 
 and the premises be under constant supervision, but the persons who 
 milk the cows should be inspected also, to see that they are not 
 suffering from any skin or other infectious disease, and severe 
 punishment should in all cases be meted out to any person milking 
 or having anything to do with the preparing of the milk, suffering 
 from any disease. Milk is at the same time one of the most useful 
 and also" one of the most dangerous articles of human food, and it 
 is the duty ol the state to see that its people are protected from the 
 ignorance and carelessness of those who sell milk or its products in 
 any form. 
 
 Fig. I. A convenient method of carrying the milk from the milking shed to the 
 dairy where a large number of cows are milked. 
 
 The most common sources of infection are : Keeping or milking 
 animals in close, ill-ventilated sheds where the atmosphere becomes 
 fairly saturated with germs of all kinds, good and bad, the latter 
 often greatly out-numbering the former. 
 
 Dirty cow-yards, where manure is allowed to accumulate, and 
 where the drainage is deficient or non-existent, compelling cows to 
 feed on unhealthy pastures, or allowing them to drink impure 
 water, are all sources of infection. How can pure milk be obtained 
 from cattle allowed to wander about the suburbs drinking stagnant 
 drainage water and eating all kinds of refuse. 
 
790 
 
 Milk should never be kept after it has been drawn from th( 
 cow, in the cow-shed or milking yard, or in rooms not properly 
 constructed, or in badly ventilated dwelling-houses ; or in places 
 opening off the dwelling-rooms. The sources of infection are from 
 germs or bacteria, but in addition to these many extraneous 
 substances are found in milk for which there is no excuse, 
 such as manure particles, fungoid growths, cow hair, human hair, 
 particles of skin (cattle and human), insects, threads of various 
 kinds, earthy matter, etc. These are often the result of improper 
 straining, not cleaning the cattle, or washing their udders or teats 
 when they are dirty before milking. All this want of care, atten- 
 
 Fig. 2. Apparatus for wei^hinjj milk immediately after milking. 
 
 tion, and cleanliness is not only injurious to the consumer, but tells 
 heavily against the suppliers, as milk in a condition like this will 
 not keep half the time that it would if it were properly looked 
 after. Neither will the butter or cheese have as good a flavor or 
 bring nearly as good a price ; so that, outside all reasons of health, 
 the pocket alone should make people more careful in all things 
 pertaining to dairy matters. 
 
 When the milk is just fresh from the cow, it has a considerable 
 amount of animal flavor in it, and if kept without being thoroughly 
 exposed to the air, this flavour remains, and its presence deteriorates 
 the quality of the butter and cheese made from it, while the milk 
 
itself has an unpleasant taste, and rapidly goes sour. In order to 
 do away with tins the new milk should be thoroughly exposed to 
 the air and, if possible, cooled. This can be done most cllectually 
 by means of a Lawrence cooler, figure 3. 
 
 
 Fig. 3. A is a vat into which the milk or cream is poured and runs out from a 
 wide-mouthed tap into a V shaped trough which is perforated with holes so that 
 the milk or cream can escape over both sides of the cooler. B is a corrugated 
 copper cooler, thoroughly tinned over all, and hollow inside, over which the milk or 
 cream slowly flows. C is where the milk or cream e-cape- into the can. I) is where 
 cold water is allowed to flow into the cooler, and rising up in it overflows at the out- 
 let E. The cooler can be swung under the cream spout of the separator and thus save 
 the trouble of lifting and carrying 
 
 By this contrivance a stream of cold water is constantly passing 
 through two corrugated sheets of copper, tinned on the outside, 
 over which the milk is allowed to run in a very thin layer. Milk 
 
792 
 
 thus treated will keep nearly as long again as milk not so treat< 
 and all animal odour is removed. \Vhere this appliance is not 
 procurable the milk can be greatly improved by means of passing a 
 current of fresh air through it. 
 
 The specific gravity of ordinary milk is given at 1*031, which 
 means that a vessel holding, say, 1000 pounds of water if filled up 
 with the same quantity of milk, would weigh 31 pounds more. But 
 the various constituents of milk, if separated, differ greatly in their 
 specific gravity, thus the fat is lighter than either milk or water, 
 having only a specific gravity of '930, and thus it is that the fatty 
 
 _ _ PIPETTE 
 
 ACID MEASURE 
 
 Fisj 4. Li-tei-B;ilu-(K-k Milk T 
 
 portion, or cream, rises to the surface when the milk is allowed to 
 remain quirt. 'The fat in milk is in small globules, and they vary 
 greatly in size in different breeds and individual cows. The si/e of 
 
 globules varies from | .' part of an inch in diameter t< 
 and it is this variati n in si/e that makes the cream from some 
 cow's milk rise SO much more quickly than the- cream from others. 
 
The larger the globules arc the more quickly they rise t<> the 
 surface ; while the smaller, the slower they rise. This also explains 
 why it is that in the hoi weather we eaimot get so much ci earn 
 from the milk bv the ordinary setting system as in winter, lor in 
 summer the milk rapidly sours and thickens, which stops the 
 upward progress of the fat globules, but in winter the milk keeps 
 sweet and fluid much longer, when most of the globules are apt to 
 reach the surface. 
 
 Fig. 5. Lister-Babcock Milk Tester. 
 
 This is one of the advantages of the cream separator, that all 
 the cream is obtained from the milk independently of the weather. 
 
 Milk in which the fat globules are very large, or in which the 
 cream rises very rapidly, is more suited for butter-making than for 
 cheese. If used for cheese-making the cream rises so rapidly that 
 in setting the milk much of it rises to the surface and is not 
 
 FiG. 6. Lister-Babcock Testing Outfit. 
 
 incorporated in the curd, but is lost in the whey. The milk with 
 the small fat globules rising slowly has not time to reach the 
 surface before coagulation takes place, and the globules are well 
 incorporated throughout the curd. 
 
794 
 
 We have spoken of the milking-sheds, the yards, cooling an< 
 testing of milk, now we will follow the course of the milk from th< 
 time that it is drawn from the cow until it is made into butter. 
 
 We will suppose the cow has been brought into the milking 
 
 bail and is ready for 
 milking. Having been 
 properly secured, the 
 udder and teats should 
 be carefully \vashed 
 and dried. Before 
 milking each cow the 
 milker should wash his 
 or her hands. The 
 milker should sit in 
 close to the cow, and 
 it will be well for the 
 proprietor or manager 
 to see that the milker's 
 finger nails are not 
 allowed to be long, for 
 this is a very common 
 source of giving cows 
 sore teats ; the naiJs 
 cutting the teats during 
 milking. To milk 
 properly and in a 
 cleanly manner, the 
 teats ought not to be 
 wet, but the milking 
 done dry. Many per- 
 sons, who have been 
 milking all their lives, 
 will object to this and 
 say that a cow cannot 
 be properly milked 
 unless the teats are 
 kept constantly damp 
 with milk. This is a 
 
 The milk immediately after milking is taken to the cream 
 separator, and the cream as it comes from the cream spout is run 
 over a cooler and then into cans, while the warm new skim milk is 
 fed to the calves. When the separating is over, the cream is taken 
 to the dairy which, in the summer time, is kept as cool as possible, 
 while in the winter, if the weather is very cold, it may require to 
 be heated. The cans containing the en-am are left uncovered, 
 unless it may be with muslin to keep Hies and other insects out. 
 The cream should be stirred up with a wooden ladle at least three 
 times a day, so that it may all mature evenly. If not stirred a hard 
 
 great mistake, and 
 although when tried 
 for the first limeit may 
 feel a little awkward, 
 after a short time it will 
 be found easier than 
 the other way. The 
 wet method is a filthy 
 one, and, where the 
 udder and teats have 
 not been washed, great 
 drops of dirty milk may 
 frequently be seen 
 dropping into the milk- 
 ing bucket and leaving 
 a dirty stain on it, 
 while the milker's 
 hands are covered with 
 dirt. Such treatment 
 as this serves to spoil 
 the flavor of the butter 
 and induces bad fer- 
 mentations, w h i ch 
 make the butter 
 rapidly lose its keeping 
 properties. 
 
 :. 7. Halx-nck Tcslin; 
 Bottle. 
 
cream forms on the top, and this sometimes will not break up in 
 the churning, and thus leaving lumps oi" cream in the butter, which 
 will spoil its appearance and prevent its keeping. 
 
 In hot weather, if the cream is not cooled and put into a per- 
 fectly sweet vessel, a rapid fermentation will sometimes occur, and 
 the cream swell up to several times its original bulk. When such 
 a change as this occurs it is a very difficult matter afterwards to 
 churn it, and the resultant butter will be of very little value. 
 Where the number of cows warrant it, cream of the same age 
 should only be churned, as the result is more satisfactory, but of 
 course in small dairies this cannot be done, so particular care 
 should be taken to have all the cream at the same stage of ripeness. 
 
 
 
 Fig. ,8. Simple an angtnunt for 
 
 separator by hoi>c works. 
 
 On no account should fresh cream be mixed with matured cream 
 just before churning. If it is desired to churn the cream of a late 
 milking it should be mixed with the matured cream at least 12 
 hours previously and thoroughly stirred several times. If fresh 
 cream is mixed with matured or ripened cream and churned at 
 once we have the following result : If the churning is stopped 
 immediately the butter breaks, as it should be, there will be a great 
 loss of butter in the butter-milk, as it takes longer to churn iresh 
 cream than ripened ; or if the churning is continued until all the 
 butter has come, that of the matured cream vnll lose in quality and 
 become greasy through over churning. In either case there i> a 
 waste. 
 
The word ripened, or matured, has been used several times, 
 and what is meant by the term is, that the cream has undergone a 
 certain amount of fermentation and become si ghtly sour, after 
 which we get butter with a better flavor, better keeping quality, 
 and more of it. 
 
 Some persons prefer what is called sweet-cream butter, that is 
 butter made from fresh cream when perfectly sweet. To some 
 this kind of butter seems perfection, but to most it is devoid of 
 flavor, and even were it equal to that made from ripened cream, it 
 does not keep sweet for more than a day or two. From the dairy- 
 man's point of view it is not at all profitable, as there is a very 
 serious loss of butter in the butter- milk, often as much as 7 or 8 
 per cent., and this alone would prevent this process being folk/wed 
 if it were more generally known, but it is rare that a dairyman ever 
 tests his buttermilk to see whether there be any loss or not. 
 
 Another disadvantage is that the fresh cream is hard to churn in 
 wai in weather, often taking hours and sometimes swelling up, the 
 butter not coming at all unless a quantity of the cream be taken 
 out of the churn and cold water added. Before the cream is put 
 into the churn its consistency should be examined, and if on the 
 thick side, water should be used to thin it down, as it is better to 
 err on the side of having the cream too thin than too thick. With 
 very thick cream there is 'early always a considerable loss in the 
 buttermilk. The thicker the cream, as a rule, the greater the loss. 
 Cream that gives about 45 per cent, its weight of butter is about 
 correct, and less likely to be over-churned or leave any loss than 
 when it is either thicker or thinner. I have not infrequently known 
 cream to vary from 30 per cent, to 90 per cent, of butter ; in the 
 latter case it was almost a solid mass and had to be worked through 
 a sieve and mixed with a great quantity of water to get it to churn 
 at all, and even then the butter was not good. This cream was 
 obtained from a separator that was driven at a speed almost double 
 the average rate, through a wrong sized driving pulley having been 
 put on the ^iaft. It was fortunate that no serious accident 
 occurred. Where no separator is employed and the old method 
 of setting milk in dishes is used, the cream is more likely to be on 
 the thick side, especially if the milk is scalded. Where it is desired 
 to scald the milk, the temperature should never be raised above 
 180 degrees from 170 to 180 degrees is a good temperature, and 
 in the hot weather better results will often be obtained from 
 scalded milk than that set naturally. After the milk is heated up 
 t<), say, 170 degrees, it should then be cooled as rapidly as possible. 
 [f a fair supply of water is available the dishes may be set in a 
 trough made for the purpose, and a constant stream of water 
 all iwed to How around them. 
 
 l>v scalding in summer more butter may be obtained from the 
 milk than by ordinary setting ; as the milk will keep sweet longer 
 and thus give the cream more time to rise. In warm weather, if 
 
7"7 
 
 the milk is set immediately after milking, it will sometimes go thick 
 in u or 15 hours, and when that occurs the cream globules eannot 
 force their way through the thickened milk to the sin taee. and thus 
 so much cream is lost, or, at least, the butter returns are short, and 
 the calves or pigs get the benefit ol' it. It is a rather suspicn >us 
 sign, if no other feed is given, to see calves keep very fat, and a 
 examination into die method of skimming might disdo^- 
 where a heavy loss takes place. It will not pay a butter farmer to 
 fatten calves at the expense of the churn. 
 
 Having seen that the cream is of the right thickness for churn- 
 ing, the next thing to do is to see that the temperature is correct. 
 If this is looked after it will save many a weary hour's work in 
 turning the churn. Always use the thermometer, and never depend 
 on the feel or touch to gauge the temperature. To show how 
 deceptive the touch is, any one can try an experiment for them- 
 selves. Have some water at 60 degrees and cool the hand by 
 putting it into very cold water for a little time, then put it into the 
 water at 60 degrees. The water will feel quite warm. Xow put 
 the hand into warm water and let it get thoroughly heated and put 
 it back into the water at 60 degrees and it will feel quite cold. 
 Thus the temperature to the touch will depend altogether upon the 
 state of the hand at the time of trial. As a general rule, the proper 
 temperature to churn at is about 58 to 60 degrees, but a certain 
 allowance can be made according to the outside temperature. Thus, 
 if the weather is very cold, it will not do any harm if the tempera- 
 ture goes up to 62 or 63 degrees, or, if very hot, down to 55 or 56 
 degrees. If allowed to go lower, the time of churning will pro- 
 bably be greatly prolonged, or if higher, the butter may come too 
 quickly and be soft and greasy, or it may not come at all. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CHURNS. 
 
 Of churns and churn-making one might truly say there is no 
 end. New churns, for which all kinds of advantages are claimed, 
 from making butter in the space of a few seconds to that of extract- 
 ing from 25 to 50 per cent, more butter from the cream than any 
 other variety, are being continually put on the market. 
 
 The operation of churning consists of separating the fat 
 globules from the milk, and to so separate them that they are not 
 broken is the whole art of churning. Rapidity in churning, 
 although it may save labor, frequently results in the breaking of the 
 fat globules, thus causing a greasy butter. It must be remembered 
 that the ability of a churn depends greatly on the temperature and 
 ripeness of the cream at the time of churning, and no churn has yet 
 been made that will give satisfactory results at all times unless 
 these important conditions are attended to. So far as is known the 
 earliest form of churn consisted of skins of animals, into which the 
 whole milk was placed, and these were hung on the back of a 
 camel or ass, which was kept at a trot until the process of churning 
 was completed. Since that time churns, fearfully and wonderfully 
 made, have been put before the public, many of them at enormous 
 cost, but of late years it has been proved that the principle of the 
 old skin churn, viz., concussion, is in reality the correct one. 
 
 There is no doubt that good results are obtained from many 
 different varieties, but if quality of butter and quantity, together 
 with good keeping properties, are wanted in a changeable climate 
 like that of Australia, so far the best results have been obtained 
 from the concussion churns. These vary greatly in shape and 
 method of working, still the principle involved is the same in all. 
 Until within late years in many places the whole milk was churned, 
 and in large dairies this involved churning every day, and some- 
 times several times daily. The churning was generally done by 
 hand power, and not till within comparatively recent years was 
 horse or steam power applied. 
 
 The most common form of churn was the " barrel," not such 
 as we understand the barrel churn of the present clay, but a conical 
 structure that stood upright, narrowing into a neck to clasp the lid, 
 and then widening out again. A wooden splasher in the form of a 
 cross had a pole inserted into the centre of it, and this pole stood 
 about two feet above the top of the churn, coming through a hole in 
 the lid. When churning commenced this pole or handle was 
 moved up and clown, the splasher attached to it moving through the 
 
milk, and it" the churning was * accomplished in ;in hour and a half 
 or two hours the dairyman or maid was quite satisfied. It was 
 hard work and slow, but tin- butter thus obtained, it' the milk w is 
 properly ripened, was of good keeping quality. After a tune it was 
 seen that to swing the barrel horizontally, and have a moveable 
 beater in the churn would save labor, and this was the next form. 
 Then someone thought it would be better to have the ehnrn 
 revolving and fixed boaters inside, and for a long time this form of 
 churn was very popular, but there was always ( ne verv great 
 objection to it the difficulty in cleaning and the impossibility of 
 being able to see if the churn was properly clean through the 
 necessarily small opening in the side. 
 
 The next step was back to the churn in vertical position, but 
 instead of the old splasher, beaters were put in that were attached 
 to cog-wheels, so that they could be turned with a crank 
 handle, or have a pulley attached and .be driven by horse 
 power. From this time forward the shape of the churn 
 began to change to oblong, square, round at the bottom 
 
 '- ^""^ 
 
 Fig- 9- Cherry's Churn. 
 
 and square at the top, and many forms of beaters were used, some 
 so fixed as to be revolving in opposite directions at the same time 
 were once fashionable as they churned quickly, but the results were 
 not satisfactory, some of the butter being invariably over churned 
 and its keeping qualities spoilt. 
 
 At the present time the churn most used in small dairies is that 
 shown in figure 9, and is known throughout Australia as the 
 Cherry churn. It is a beater churn, which is a point against it, but 
 in all others it has much to recommend it, being well-made, easily 
 cleaned, and well ventilated all through the churning process. It is 
 made in many sizes, but where a large machine is required a con- 
 cussijn churn would give better results, both as to the quantity and 
 quality of butter obtained. 
 
8oo 
 
 Of late years very few, if any persons, churn the whole milk r 
 the cream only being used, and this requires, comparatively speaking, 
 very small churns, and the labour is thus reduced to a minimum. 
 ~ The reason that concussion churns are not used for very small 
 dairies is that the small churns of this kind are difficult to clean 
 unless the whole top is made to open, and this adds greatly to the 
 initial cost. 
 
 Fig. lo. Barrel Churn. 
 
 Another kind of churn used for small dairies is that shown in 
 figure 10, the action is similar to the Cherry, but it is not quite 
 so easy to clean, nor can it be inspected so as to make sure that it 
 is properly washed. 
 
 Fig. II. ReeUxn^uhir Churn. 
 
 Figure n. shows a concussion churn suitable for comparatively 
 small dairies. It is a square box swung diagonally, the churn 
 revolving, and it answers its purpose fairly well, but has the same 
 objection as the former its interior cannot be inspected thoroughly. 
 
 
Figure 12. is another square box churn and differ.-, i'roin the last 
 in that it is swung tro.n the centre at both ends, it givc^ 
 results in every uay, but no churn is perfect that cannot be 
 thoroughly inspected, and with the lid made in this fashion, that is 
 impossible. 
 
 For large dairies and factory purposes the concussion churns 
 were- first made in the form of figure 13, but owing to the difficulty 
 of keeping them clean that form was changed and that of figure 14 
 has been almost universally adopted. Here it will be seen that 
 the whole top of the churn lifts off, and every p:irt of the churn can 
 be thoroughly cleaned, and the butter obtained from this class of 
 churn is as nearly perfect as butter can be. 
 
 Fig, 12. Square Box Churn. 
 
 There are many other kinds of concussion churns that give 
 good results, thus, a barrel churn is made with spindles in either 
 side at the centre of the bulge and the barrel revolves end over end, 
 but there is often a difficulty, where the whole end comes out, of 
 preventing a leakage, and when made of large sixe it is heavy to 
 turn. Then there is the swing churn that is hung on four rods and 
 swings to and fro. In this, however, the churn is apt to be slow. 
 
 One form of beater churn gives very good results, and this is 
 known as the " Streamlet." Here the churn is divided into two 
 compartments, the beaters being on one side. At the back of the 
 beaters is a board perforated at the bottom for about six inches. 
 When the beaters revolve the cream is kept going round in a con- 
 stant current and as the butter breaks it rises to the surface, and is 
 prevented from getting to the beaters by the board, the unchurned 
 
802 
 
 cream and buttermilk being drained through the perforations, so 
 that there is no chance of the butter being over-churned ; 
 where the buttermilk is used for sale or feeding purposes 
 this churn does not answer well, as a large quantity of 
 water has to be used so as to keep the cream thin enough 
 to How ; otherwise the results are good. Another form of churn 
 that great results were looked from was a beater churn that 
 was used, and is still to a certain extent, in Denmark. It is barrel- 
 shaped, set vertically, with a beater revolving in the centre. This 
 beater is hollow, as is also the shaft driving it ; all round the beater 
 small holes are perforated, and by means of an air pump a constant 
 current of air is sent through the cream. This was supposed to 
 add greatly to the keeping properties of the butter, as all foul and 
 
 
 Fig. 13, Revolving Box Churn. 
 
 noxious gasses and vapours were expected to be carried off. The 
 results, however, did not come up to expectations, and although 
 the churns are still used in many places, the air attachment is not 
 used witli them. 
 
 Some years ago a churn was invented that performed the 
 operation of churning by means of air only. The cream was put 
 in a glass vessel with an opening at the top to let the surplus air 
 out, and air was pumped in through a hole in the bottom. The 
 process certainly in time produced butter, but a pint of cream 
 swelled to such an extent that a gallon measure would not hold it. 
 As showing what could be done it was a success, hut as a practical 
 utensil it was a failure. 
 
 There, is one more method of obtaining butter that has been 
 written about a great deal some years ago, but which the writer 
 lias never tried nor seen tried. As a novelty it is mentioned. The 
 cream is placed in a calico bag and buried alvmt 10 or u inches 
 deep in the earth and allowed to remain from iS to 24 hours, and 
 
803 
 
 it is claimed at the end of that time that perfect butter will be tin- 
 result. One man writing in the .s< /<//////< American some yeai 
 
 churned that he won a great in. my pri/es for butter made in this 
 way. The method is given for what it worth. 
 
 In all churns what is wanted is an instrument that will churn 
 the cream equally that some of the cream will not be churned 
 some time before the rest. In beater churns this is the difficulty, 
 the cream that comes into actual contact with the beaters often 
 turning into butter a considerable time before the cream that does 
 not. The consequence is that if churning is stopped as soon as 
 the cream breaks, a great deal of butter is lost in the buttermilk, 
 while, on the other hand, if churning is continued until all the 
 
 Fig. 14. Factory Churn. 
 
 cream is thoroughly churned, the butter that came first gets over- 
 churned, i.e., the small sacs holding the fat globules are broken 
 and the butter becomes greasy. When this latter is the case the 
 butter loses its keeping properties. This any one can verify for 
 themselves by stopping churning as soon as the butter breaks and 
 running off all the buttermilk, leaving only the butter behind. The 
 buttermilk is then churned for some time longer and butter will be 
 found in it. 
 
 A perfect churn will churn the cream evenly, provided all the 
 cream is of the same degree of ripeness. If the buttermilk from 
 the churn is analysed, it will be found to be almost free from 
 butter fat, only a trace being discovered (often as little as -02 per 
 
804 
 
 cent.) ; while with badly-constructed churns it is not uncommon t 
 find from 2 to 5 per cent, of butter fat in the buttermilk, and in 
 this case the loss to the dairyman is very threat, and in even a small- 
 sized dairy will run into pounds in the course of a single season, 
 and may make all the difference between a profit and a loss in the 
 dairy accounts. 
 
 Many kinds of material have been tried for making churns, bu 
 none give such good results as wood. Oak is probably the best, 
 but it is heavy and expensive, and in these colonies the best churns 
 are made out of well-seasoned kauri pine, and these, if properly 
 looked after, will last a lifetime or longer. 
 
 After churning, when washing the churn do not put boiling 
 water into it first. If that is done it hardens the casein in the 
 cracks and corners and makes it almost impossible to remove. 
 Tepid water should first be used to thoroughly rinse the churn, 
 and after that boiling water, quickly emptied out and the churn 
 allowed to dry. The churn should always be kept in as cool a 
 place as possible, with plenty of fresh air about it, and left open so 
 as to keep it sweet. 
 
CIIAI'TKK IX. 
 
 BUTTER-MAKING, 
 
 The churn, before being used, should lirst be thoroughly washed 
 with cold water. Roiling water should then be put in and care 
 taken to let it have access to every part of the churn. The hot 
 water is then allowed to escape and the churn thoroughly cooled 
 down with cold water, by so doing the pores of the wood are con- 
 tracted and the sticking of the butter to the wood prevented. Some 
 dairymen use brine for cooling the churn, and its use is advan- 
 tageous if the churn is not made of first-class wood, or if it is very 
 old. Hut with a new churn, made of well-seasoned wood, it is not 
 necessary. If this practice is followed immediately after and before 
 churning there will never be any necessity for the use of s ->da or 
 other chemicals. Of course, it is taken for granted that the churn 
 has been properly made and there are no crevices or cracks to 
 allow the cream to lodge in ; if such should be the case, there is 
 only one remedy, and that is to burn /'/, for a little bad cream 
 remaining in the cracks is sufficient to spoil every churning, and it 
 is almost impossible to thoroughly cleanse such a churn. ^ 
 
 The cream should be poured through a wire sieve into the 
 churn, so that any lumps that may be in it can be broken up and 
 thus ensure uniformity of churning. It is also useful in case any 
 foreign matter may have dropped in. 
 
 We now corne to the question of colouring. In the winter and 
 spring, if the cattle are on green feed, there will never be any 
 necessity for artificial colouring, but when the pastures dry up the 
 butter comes out a sickly white, then colouring is required, but care 
 must be taken not to overdo it, as one extreme is quite as bad as the 
 other. The usual way of colouring butter is to add some annatto 
 prepared in oil, which mixes with and is thoroughly incorporated 
 with the butter. As soon as the cream is put into the churn the 
 required qnantity of colouring is added and churning started at once. 
 
 Damage is often done to the butter by churning too fast. When 
 starting the speed should be slow and then gradually increased up to 
 the usual rate, which, taken as an average, is about 45 turns a minute ; 
 then, just before the butter breaks, the speed should be reduced 
 again. When churning is first started the cream gradually swells 
 a d compresses the air, and unless this is allowed to escape there 
 is a danger of straining the churn. After a few turns, if there is an 
 air hole in the churn, it should be opened every now and again, so 
 long as there is any air coming away. With many people 
 there is a difficulty in knowing exactly when to stop churning, and 
 
8o6 
 
 consequently there is a danger of over-churning. If the churning 
 is done by hand, as soon as the butter commences to break, the 
 cream will sound watery and can be distinctly heard splashing in 
 the churn ; it will also be much easier to turn. The churn should 
 now be opened at once, and if the grains of butter are as large as 
 sago the churning has gone far enough, and care must be taken not 
 to over-churn. Cold water is now added in the proportion of 
 about one-sixth of the original quantity of cream, and the churn 
 started again very slowly and only a few turns given. If the butter 
 is very line and the grains not larger than the head of a pin, the 
 same proportion of cold water is added, but the churn is turned 
 quickly a few times and this brings the grains to about the proper 
 size. 
 
 The reason for adding cold water is, that it hardens the globules 
 and prevents them sticking together, and thus allows the butter- 
 milk to get away for freely. It also thins the milk and allows the 
 iine particles of butter to come to the surface quicker, and helps to 
 clear them of any casein that might otherwise stick to them. Just 
 before the butter c^mes, or when it is coming, the lid of the churn 
 should be taken off, and the lid and slides, and wherever any cream 
 is adhering, should be carefully washed down with cold water r 
 otherwise the cream that remains unchurnecl may get into the 
 butter and spoil its appearance by causing white specks in it. The 
 butter-milk is now allowed to drain off, passing through a hair sieve 
 to catch any particles that pass away in it. If a proper sieve can- 
 not be easily obtained the butter-milk may be strained through a 
 piece of muslin doubled. When all the milk has been allowed to 
 run off, the churn should be half-filled with cold water again and all 
 adhering particles of butter to the sides or beaters of the churn care- 
 fully washed off. The churn should then be slowly rocked if it is a 
 concussion churn, or if a beater, turn the beaters slowly so as to allow 
 every particle of butter to come in contact with the water, then 
 allow the water to escape. This should be continued so lon^ 
 as the water shows any sign of milkiness at all. Of course, during 
 all this time the butter is supposed to be in a granular state, if it 
 should have gone into lumps it cannot be properly washed in the 
 churn. If the butter is in a correct condition it will readily separate 
 one grain from another, and although it may appear in lumps in the 
 churn after the water has been run off, as soon as fix-sh water is 
 added the granules will all separate again and float on the water. 
 
 If the weather should be rather warm and a difficulty be omul 
 in getting the water cool, salt added to the water will help 
 greatly in hardening the granules and getting rid of the butter- 
 milk. The amount of water required and the number of changes 
 will depend greatly on the quality and condition of the cream. If 
 the cream is composed of globules that are large they will rapidly 
 rise and wash freely, but if the globules are small they will 
 wash slowly. As to the condition, if the cream has been well 
 
807 
 
 looked after, thoroughly stirred and allowed to ripen to a proper 
 degree and churned at the correct temperature, it will wash freely, 
 and about three changes of water will be sufficient. If, on the 
 other hand, the cream has been rather fresh or over ripe, or the 
 temperature too hot, it may take six or seven, or even more changes, 
 but in all cases the butter milk should be got rid of hclnrc the butter 
 leaves the churn if not, the probabilities an- that it will sub.-,c- 
 quently be oxer-worked and the grain spoiled. The correct amount 
 of washing can always be gauged by the colour of the wash water 
 as it comes away. If it is desired to brine salt the butter, it should 
 be done before removing it from the churn. A strong solution of 
 brine is made there is no difficulty in making it the required 
 strength, as more salt can be added to the water than will be dis- 
 solved, so if the salt and water are mixed an hour or two before 
 being used and the mixture is well stirred occasionally, and it is 
 found that some of the salt remains undisturbed in the bottom of 
 the vessel, then a saturated solution is obtained, only the clear 
 
 Scotch Hand-;. 
 
 liquid must be poured off, and the residue can be used again. The 
 brine is then poured into the churn and the butter allowed to float 
 in it, being gently turned every few minutes for about half an hour. 
 It will readily be seen that unless the butter is in a granular form 
 the brine cannot get at all the particles, so if the butter has by any 
 means got into lumps it cannot be properly brine salted. After 
 half an hour the butter may be taken from the churn, being lifted 
 with wooden pats, or, as they are sometimes called, " Scotch hands," 
 and placed on the butter-worker loosely ; it is then allowed to drain 
 for live or ten minutes, and then slowly worked so as to get all the 
 surplus moisture out of it, and to consolidate it into one mass. 
 When this has been done, it is ready for printing. If it is desired 
 to dry salt the butter, the following process may be followed : 
 Put the butter from the churn in a tub or wooden vessel and weigh 
 it, then place it on the butter-worker, or, if a butter-worker is not 
 
available, on a board that has been carefully scalded and cooled, 
 and allow it to drain for a few minutes. Turn the worker a 
 few times so as to squeeze out most of the water remaining, then 
 add salt according to taste, at the rate of from a quarter of an ounce 
 to one ounce to the pound of butter. The salt should be rolled out 
 and all lumps well broken and then dusted in the butter through a 
 rine sieve. Then give the worker a few turns slowly and put the 
 butter away in a cool place for a few hours. This allows the salt 
 to get thoroughly dissolved and mixed with the butter, and will save 
 over-working. When the salt has thus been thoroughly dissolved 
 
 
 Fig. 15. Butter Worker. 
 
 the butter is' again put on the worker, and a lew turns will extract 
 all the surplus moisture and leave the butter with a perfect grain, 
 and not a trace of strcakiness. If a butter worker is not available 
 a very fair substitute can be used by having the board already 
 spoken of and a wooden Hour roller, the latter should be well 
 scalded and cooled, and used for no other purpose. When the 
 butter has been placed on the board and allowed to drain the roller 
 is slowly passed over it, up and down and across, the salt sprinkled 
 o i as before described, and then the butter turned up into a lump 
 with the pats, and slowly rolled again. About one-half the salt 
 should only be put on at first, and the rest after the second salting, 
 
the butter then put together again and put away until th 
 dissolves. \Yheu that has taken plaee ihe roller may IK- used 
 to press out the moisture, and the butter will be ready lor printing. 
 The roller should be used slowly, and not worked rapidly back- 
 ward and forward, or by so doing the grain of the butter max be 
 broken. 
 
 Fig. 16. English Hutiet Worker, for small dairies. 
 
 The butter has now reached that stage when it is ready for 
 being packed for market. The method of getting up the butter is 
 one of great importance and is well worthy of care and troubl -. 
 Many farmers seem to think that so long as the butter is of 
 good quality it matters little what it looks like. Xo greater mistake- 
 can be made. 
 
8io 
 
 If the butter is good to start with, well and neatly got up and 
 properly packed, it will often bring wholesale id. per Ib. more than 
 the same butter would if roughly packed. In fact, I have seen 
 inferior butter, well got up, bringing more money in the salerooms 
 than much better butter that had not the same care and attention 
 spent on it. If this is so in the wholesale market, how much more 
 
 Fig. 17. Compound Butter Worker, for power. 
 
 Fit,'. I X. Triangular Butler Worker. 
 
 will it hold good in the retail ? Tin- very I'act of butter being 
 nicely and tastefully got up tempts the appetite, and causes far 
 more to be D -nsiimed. 
 
 The foregoing remarks apply to packing both in bulk and in 
 rolls, blocks, or punts, but more especially to the three latter. 
 
8n 
 
 The case should not be forgotten, cither, and it one with t 
 in regular use, should be thoroughly well sealded, both inside and 
 out, and kept nice and fresh-looking. Duller thai lias to be kept 
 for a length of time in boxes is often spoiled by the germs of old 
 stale butter that have been left from many previous consignments. 
 
 PRINTING. Ti.e old-fashioned round print is now gradually 
 becoming a thing of the past, and the sooner it has disappeared 
 the better, for many ( i ing, and consequently 
 
 reasons. It is almost ' \ take up space that 
 
 impossible to print it I \ / could be better utilised. 
 
 without letting the / ^N^^xA \ Not packing well in the 
 hands come in con- \ J[ t^f_ ] case they are more apt 
 
 tact with the butter \lllB ' to et ^ noc ^ e ^ a bout 
 
 a thing that should be NlllHll |rf/ anc ^ disfigured when 
 studiously avoided. in transit. They are 
 
 The prints do not lie printin" no * sll itable for table 
 
 close together in pack- use, being difficult to 
 
 cut if the butter is firm, and when the print is cut in two it is 
 unsightly. The best form for domestic use is the half pound block, 
 either oblong or round. These pack well, lying close together ; 
 they cut well and look well, either perfectly plain or with the name 
 or initials of the owner, or any other design upon them. 
 
 They can be quickly made without the hands touching the 
 butter at all, with the ordinary butter pats, or Scotch hands. After 
 they are made, a small block, bearing any device, can be used for 
 pressing on them, or, if that is not desired, the plain look can be 
 taken from them by making diagonal marks with the edge of the 
 pat and crossing them. Numerous devices can be arranged by any 
 one possessing a little taste. Where a large quantity of butter is 
 to be printed it will be found more economical to use a mechanical 
 weigher and printer. 
 
 A very simple and efficient form is that of an oblong box that 
 hokls exactly half-a-pound, or pound, as the case may be. All that 
 is required is a butter board and the box print, any design can be 
 put on the top of the box that is desired to go on the print. The 
 butter board is well scalded and cooled, and the butter put in a 
 heap on one end, the other end left free for printing. A wooden 
 tray for putting the butter on is placed on one side, and if parch- 
 ment paper is used, a quantity of it is placed beside it. 
 
 The print is now taken firmly in both hands, and, face down- 
 wards, stuck into a heap of butter and then rubbed backwards and 
 forwards on the clear part of the butter board to get rid of the 
 surplus. The print is then put on a square of butter paper and the 
 paper turned up at the sides and ends, this is then placed on the tray 
 close to the side, and each succeeding print is placed closely up 
 against its neighbor ; by this means the butter on the tray forms an 
 almost compact solid mass that will not move unless the case is 
 turned right over. 
 
The parchment paper prevents one print from sticking to the 
 other. By using these appliances, after a little practice, 150 to 200 
 prints per hour can be weighed and printed. So long as the box 
 is the correct size epch print will be exactly the correct weight. 
 
 When the boxes are iirst bought they are generally made a 
 little on the large side, and when it is hrst used the print should be 
 weighed and if found over weight a shaving can be taken oft" the 
 bottom of the print, or, if that would be too much, it can be rubbed 
 
 ; i.^. io. .Machine for \Vei.dnn.u and Printing Butter 
 
 down with sandpaper until the exact weight is given. After a time 
 tin- wc-ight will be light, as the bottom ot" the box wears away, and 
 this can be remedied by taking, say, a quarter of an inch off all 
 round and putting four slips of wood on, fastening them witli brass 
 screws The slips should be ;: of an inch in thickness, and the 
 Correct size got by planing or sand-papering down as in the first 
 case. The cost of a well-made print of this kind varies from about 
 5s. for a plain one, to 2os. or 3os., according to the design that is 
 engraved upon it. 
 
"3 
 
 For those who have a still larger quantity <>f butter to get 
 through, there are large printing inaehuies made that hold ln.iu 50 
 to uo pounds, and print and weigh from ;> to i _> blocks or mil* at 
 a tune. These are worked on quite a different principle, and 
 Consist of a large b >x with two or three small holes at one end 
 where the butter is forced through. These holes can be. made either 
 square, oblong, round, or halt round. A sliding block, the e.\:iet 
 si/e oi the box and worked by a screw, forces the butter out on a 
 set ot" small wooden rollers that allow it to pass freely over them, 
 and when the rope lias reached the end a wire cutter is brought 
 down that divides the butter into the proper lengths and weight. 
 This wire cutter can be adjusted by means of thumb screw* so as 
 to give the exact weight, a:id can be used for making pounds and 
 half-pounds. 
 
 These machines are generally used in the large factories, where 
 thousands of pounds have to be weighed and printed daily. They 
 cost from live guineas up to fifteen, these latter being driven by 
 power. There are many other kinds of mechanical printers, but 
 these described here are the ones that have given most satisfactory 
 results and require least adjusting. 
 
 For packing bulk butter, by far the best method is in square 
 boxes, containing 28 or 56 pounds; these pack well and require little 
 space for storing, and the butter can be taken out in the form of a 
 solid cube. Great care must be taken to see that the wood used is 
 absolutely tasteless, otherwise the butter will soon acquire the taste 
 and flavour of the wood, and spoil. So far as is known there is no 
 wood indigenous to Australia that can be used, but the kauri and 
 white pine of Xew Zealand answer the purpose admirably. Kauri 
 being the more expensive, the white pine is exclusively used. 'If it 
 is desired to keep the butter a considerable time, and no proper 
 cool room or chamber is available, good casks are the best, as they 
 can be made almost air-tight, but the casks must be good and clean 
 and nothing ever have been used in them that would in any way 
 taint the butter. The great object in packing to make the butter 
 ke p well, either in boxes or casks, is to get the butter into all the 
 corners in a solid mass, and thus prevent the air remaining in. To 
 do this it is necessary to have a rammer and put the butter in in 
 small quantities and thoroughly ram each layer. Much butter is 
 spoilt for want of this precaution. Great care should be taken to 
 keep the outsicles of the boxes clean as well as the insides, buyers 
 do not care to look at boxes that have a dirty appearance. 
 
 In everything connected with butter remember that appearances 
 go a long way. 
 
CHEESE MAKING FOR FARMERS. 
 
 The method of cheese making that is given here is not the usual 
 method adopted at the factories, nor even among the very large 
 dairies, but is more suitable for small farmers milking up to 
 say 100 cows. Cheese making is much more difficult to learn and 
 properly carry out than butter making, and it would pay anyone who 
 has never made cheese to go and get a few practical lessons in the 
 art be ore commencing on his own account. Every dairy farmer 
 should thoroughly understand how to make both cheese and butter. 
 At some times of the year it may pay better to make cheese, while 
 at others butter will pay best. Approximately speaking, two and 
 one half gallons of milk will make one pound of butter, or two and 
 one half pounds or cheese. From this, by comparing the prices of 
 cheese and butter, it can easily be seen which is likely to pay the 
 better. There is also this to be taken into consideration, that the 
 butter is ready ior sale and consumption at once, while the cheese 
 will not be for at least six weeks or two months. 
 
 In the manufacture of cheese, if anything, more care is 
 required to be taken of the milk than for butter making especially 
 of the night's milk. Xo preservatives must be used to keep the 
 milk sweet, as they interfere with the process of making. On no 
 account must the milk of newly calved cows be used for at least 
 seven days after calving. 
 
 The plant required consists of a double-jacketted vat, curd 
 knife, strainer or cooler, quantity of cheese cloth, t lennometer, 
 press, hoops, and measuring glass. The size of these depends upon 
 the quantity of milk to be treated and will vary in price from {."35 
 to ,100. To make the best cheese the whole milk is required, that 
 is, milk from which no cream has been removed. It is always 
 advisable to have some of the night's milk to mix with the morning's, 
 and in very cold weather milk a day old will not do any harm it it 
 has been properly looked after. I>oth the old and the new milk is 
 put into the vat, or, as it is called by some people, the tub, and the 
 temperature gradually raised to So degrees. Coloring matter (a 
 preparation of annatto) is then added at the rate of from 2 to h fluid 
 ounces to the 100 gallons. It will be found that the quantity 
 required will vary greatly according to the feed the cattle get. 
 This can only be found by experience. When the coloring 
 matter has been thoroughly mixed and the milk has become 
 uniform in colour, the rennet is added. The quantity varies 
 according to the quantity of old and new milk used. If there is 
 
s, 5 
 
 much old milk, less rennet will he required, if there is much new 
 milk, more will he needed. If it is desired to have the ch< 
 rapidly m.iture, ahout double the quantity is used, hut, when this is 
 done, the cheese must he sold and consumed quickly, as otherv. 
 it will get hard and dry. 
 
 When the prepared rennet is used, from six to eight ounces to 
 the 100 gallons is an average amount, but when home made rennet 
 is used only practice will tell how much is needed. Before adding the 
 rennet to the milk mix it with about double the quantity of warm 
 water, then add it to the milk and mix thoroughly and rapidly. 
 Allow the milk to sett e and then keep the surface gently 
 in motion until it begins to thicken. By doing so it will keep the 
 cream from rising to the surface and afterwards being lost in the 
 whey. The vat should then be covered with the cheese cloth and 
 allowed to remain for about forty minutes, when it should be ready 
 for cutting. 
 
 To tell if the curd is properly set, put a piece of wood into it 
 about as thick as a linger and push it along ; if the curd threads in 
 long lines before it, it is quite ready for cutting ; if it gives, and is 
 soft, it is not long enough set. 
 
 The horizontal curd knife is first used trom end to end of the 
 vat, and then the vertical knife, both across and lengthwise. The 
 curd is now allowed to settle, and the whey to rise, for about live 
 minutes. Heat is then added, and the whole slowly heated up to 
 100 degrees Fahr., stirring it almost constantly all the time to keep 
 it from sticking together. This process is called cooking the curd. 
 
 In the early stage the curd is soft, and requires careful handling, 
 but, as the cooking goes on, the curd grows hrmer and begins to 
 contract in si/e as the ,vhey is being gradually expelled. The time 
 that is required to cook the curd will vary from half an hour to 
 several h urs, and until the cooking is complete the temperature 
 must be kept up to 100 degrees Fahr. To tell when the curd 
 is properly cooked and when it has reached the proper stage of 
 acidity is one of the most important things in cheese making. 
 When the curd is first cut the whey is sweet and sugary, but, as the 
 cooking process goes on, this sweet taste is gradually lost, and the 
 whey becomes slightly acid. It is just at this stage that the cooking 
 in the vat is stopped, and the whey allowed to run off. This is 
 generally done by means of a tap with a strainer, or with a syphon. 
 A cheese cloth is then put over the strainer and the curd is put on 
 it and all the whey allowed to drain off. In order to do this freely, 
 the curd is kept constantly turned and not allowed to cake. When 
 it has cooled to about 68 degrees Fahr., it is salted at the rate of 
 about 2?, pounds of salt to 100 gallons of milk. The curd is now 
 ready for the press, and is put into hoops, and slight pressure 
 applied, which will force the whey gradually out. As the whey 
 escapes the pressure can be increased until the whey stops coming. 
 After this the curd is taken out of the hoop and a muslin bandage 
 
8i6 
 
 put on, put back in the hoop again and in the press. Heaviei 
 pressure is now applied, which should be increased a few hours 
 later on. Next day the cheese is taken out of the press and put 
 into the curing room, where it has to be turned every day for six 
 weeks or two months. The temperature of the curing room should 
 be kept as nearly as possible at about 65 degrees Fahr., and not 
 allowed to become too dry. Should the temperature rise above that 
 the newer cheese should be turned twice a day. The cheese in the 
 curing room should be kept dry by wiping with a cloth, and should any 
 crack, or get broken, th cracks should be tilled up with butter to keep 
 the Hies out. Should a cheese swell up a knitting needle should be 
 pushed down into it to let the gas escape. If the weather is cold 
 the temperature of the curing room should be kept up at nights. This 
 can be done by putting a small charcoal lire in the centre of the room. 
 If calves are to be fed on the whey it must be run off before it becomes 
 at all acid, otherwise it will cause scouring and perhaps kill them. 
 With properly made cheese there will be little nourishment in the 
 whey, so that it is desirable to add something to it for the calves. 
 Flour, maize-meal, treacle, or linseed, or cotton seed cake are 
 mostly used. Calves fed on whey only do not thrive well ; pigs 
 will do much better on it. 
 
 A bucket of whey should be allowed to stand over for an hour 
 or two after each making and then carefully examined to see if 
 there is any fat on it. If so, the milk has not been properly set, 
 or the curd has had too rough handling afterwards. When the 
 whey is taken off it should be a greenish colour ; if white, there is 
 waste, and more care must be exercised. In careless setting most 
 of the cream may be lost, and a poor hard cheese produced instead 
 of a rich one. 
 
 THE FACTORY SYSTEM OF CHEESK MAKINV,. 
 
 In making Cheddar cheese the greatest care is required in 
 examining the milk, and any in the least tainted should 
 be returned to the supplier. Only whole milk should be used, 
 that is, milk that has had none of the cream taken from it. 
 When the milk is received it should be thorough strained 
 and put into the vat and heated up to 80 cleg. Fall. The 
 rennet is then added, and in most factories it is the custom to 
 use the artificial article, as it is made of a standard strength and, 
 a-> a rule, is more to be relied upon than that made direct from the 
 calf's stomach. The usual proportion of rennet is 4 ounces to 100 
 gallons, but before adding it live ounces ol the milk is measured 
 out and one teaspoonful of rennet added. Stir the milk and rennet 
 well tor about live seconds and watch it carefully, and if it should 
 thicken in from 1410 17 seconds the milk in the vat is then ripe 
 enough and ready for adding the rennet. The colouring matter 
 (annatto) is then added at about the proportion of two ounces to 
 100 gallons of milk ; the milk is well stirred for about three minutes, 
 
<s, 7 
 
 until it is all a uniform colour, and the rennet then added, the milk 
 behii; kept well stirred all the time and for about live minutes 
 afterwards ; then allow it to settle. The surface ot the milk can 
 be kept in very gentle motion until it shows si^ns of thickening, 
 which ought to be in about twelve minutes. By so doin<r it pre- 
 vents the cream rising to the surface, much of which would be lost 
 in the whey. 
 
 Up to the present we have supposed that the milk has been of 
 exactly the right degree of ripeness, but should the milk in the tea 
 cup not thicken within the time mentioned, 14 to 17 seconds, as 
 will often be the case in cold weather, often taking from 20 to 30 
 seconds to thicken, then the milk must be kept up in temperature 
 in the vat for some little time longer and heated up to 88 or 89 
 degrees Fah., and the tea cup test tried every now and again until 
 the correct result is obtainable. 
 
 Unless a person has had a considerable amount of practice it is 
 often difficult to tell the exact time when the milk begins to thicken, 
 and the following simple test may be of use : When the milk is put 
 in the tea cup put a small piece of wood into it, half a wooden match 
 will answer very well, then add the rennet and stir rapidly and the 
 moment the milk begins to thicken the match will cease revolving 
 and come to a standstill. The milk when set is covered over with a 
 cheese cloth and allowed to remain until the proper time for cutting 
 the curd arrives, and the way to know when the curd is ready for 
 cutting is as follows : The milk took 12 minutes to thicken after 
 the rennet was added, or should have done so, if it was exactly ripe. 
 The exact time should always be noted by the watch and a note 
 taken of it. Twice and a half times the time taken to thicken will 
 give the time when the curd should be cut ; for instance, if the milk 
 thickened in 12 minutes the curd would be ready for cutting in 30 
 minutes, that is, twice 12= 24, and the half of 12 six, that is 30 
 minutes from the time of thickening, or 42 minutes from the time of 
 setting. 
 
 The curd is now ready for cutting and for this purpose two 
 knives with many blades are used, one of which has the blades hori- 
 zontal, the other vertical. 
 
 The knife with the horizontal blades is the one most used, and 
 great care should be exercised to see that the cutting is done sharp 
 and clean and that the curd is not bruised and broken during the 
 process. The horizontal knife cuts the curd into layers by using it 
 up and down the whole length of the vat, then the vertical knife is 
 used in the same direction and this cuts the curd into long strips, 
 but cutting them across the vat the curd is cut into cubes of the 
 required size. 
 
 When the curd is thus cut heat is added so as to raise the 
 temperature up to 100 degrees Fah., the curd all the time being kept 
 gently in motion, care being taken not to break it or bruise it ; a 
 special kind of rake is used for the purpose ; about three-quarters of 
 
8i8 
 
 an hour is the usual time for getting the heat up. When this tem- 
 perature has been reached the hot water surrounding the vat is 
 allowed to run off and the curd allowed to settle and to remain for 
 about an hour and a half, the vat being kept well covered so as to 
 retain the heat. By that time the curd should have developed the 
 amount of acidity required and the whey should be allowed to run 
 off. In order to be sure that the proper amount of acidity has been 
 developed, what is known as the hot iron test is applied. A piece of 
 round iron is heated almost to redness and a handful of the curd 
 taken and well squeezed in the hand so as to get rid of as much of 
 the whey as possible and the hot iron is applied to it. When the 
 iron is drawn away from the curd it draws out fine threads one- 
 eighth of an inch long ; the time has come for drawing off the whey. 
 If, however, the threads are not produced, the proper amount of 
 acidity is not yet come, and the whey must be left in the curd for 
 some time longer. 
 
 After the whey has been taken off the curd is removed to the 
 cover and allowed to remain about 10 minutes so as to allow it to 
 mat, that is, to stir together so as to form a solid lump. After mat- 
 ting the curd is cut into squares for convenience for going through 
 the curd mill and also to allow of the drainage of the whey. 
 
 The curd is still kept covered and turned about every quarter 
 of an hour. This is kept up for an hour to an hour and a half until 
 a further stage in acidity has been developed. The hot iron test is 
 again applied and if now the threads spin out to about three-quarters 
 of an inch in length it is time to put the curd through the curd- 
 cutter. If the threads are not the proper length the curd will have 
 to remain some time longer in the cooler and be tested until they 
 are of the proper length. The curd, after being put through the 
 cutter, comes out in strips about three inches long by about half an 
 inch thick, and this must be kept stirred and worked about to pre- 
 vent matting until it has cooled down to about 72 degrees Fah., 
 when it is ready for salting. 
 
 The salting is done at the rate of two pounds of salt for each 
 100 gallons of milk ; after thoroughly mixing the salt allow tlie curd 
 to remain for about 15 minutes so that the salt may get properly 
 dissolved. There is no fear of it matting now, once the salt is added 
 all inclination to stick together is lost. The curd is now ready for 
 putting in the hoops and pressing. There are numerous kinds of 
 presses, but the most convenient form is that known as the gang 
 press, where a number of cheeses can be pressed in the one press. 
 When the hoops with the curd are first put into the press only a 
 light pressure should be applied for at least the first half hour, later 
 on a steady heavy pressure may be applied. After the curd is firm 
 enough it is taken out of the hoops and bandaged and then returned 
 to the hoops again and dressed for about 16 to 18 hours, when they 
 are ready for removal to the cheese room. 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 CUSTOMS STATISTICS. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND PRODUCE 
 IMPORTED. 
 
 The following figures, furnished by the Collector of Customs 
 will show most clearly the prospects before the producers of 
 Western Australia. The amount of produce imported, that might 
 be just as well grown in this colony, is really wonderful, and 
 is evidence of the consuming power of an ever-expanding 
 population. 
 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1892 
 
 | 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 "1897 
 
 Agricultural Im- 
 plements 
 Animals, living... 
 Bacon, Hams, etc. 
 Beans 
 
 9,387 
 11,618 
 
 
 
 8450 
 32,022 
 7,097 
 
 
 11,519 
 67,003 
 9,in 
 
 6,937 
 36,254 
 11,871 
 
 
 
 7,909 
 
 22,120 
 84 
 
 
 
 11,491 
 
 *58,473 
 26,193 
 2 77 
 
 17,756 
 190,67= 
 68,182 
 352 
 
 5,693 
 52,718 
 20,820 
 
 Bran and Pollard 
 Butter 
 Cereals . . 
 Cheese 
 Coffee 
 Eggs 
 Flour 
 Fruit, dried 
 Fruit, green 
 Hay and Chaff... 
 Honey ... 
 
 7,998 
 16,023 
 
 14,24^ 
 5,2ic 
 
 1,477 
 16] 
 27,846 
 4,92: 
 1,164 
 2,574 
 
 7,014 
 22,781 
 28,285 
 
 7,ooi 
 1,679 
 849 
 
 6,056 
 i,55i 
 9,38i 
 
 14,135 
 29,059 
 49,112 
 7,064 
 1,629 
 1,874 
 
 48,323 
 6,848 
 2,229 
 15,753 
 
 11,485 
 36,148 
 
 30,394 
 6,870 
 1,490 
 
 2,122 
 46,120 
 5,622 
 
 2,743 
 2,060 
 
 10,805 
 50,354 
 48,147 
 7,235 
 
 3,186 
 4,996 
 44,300 
 6,463 
 5,431 
 37,745 
 
 26,644 
 
 73,999 
 126,557 
 
 11,201 
 
 3,895 
 11,920 
 
 62,712 
 
 4,426 
 8,878 
 51,819 
 
 1,340 
 
 43,394 
 148,971 
 i6o,8o( 
 30,118 
 5,178 
 33,389 
 152,135 
 6,649 
 13,402 
 
 73,245 
 2,831 
 
 12,631 
 28,429 
 23,884 
 5,029 
 
 54^071 
 1,832 
 3,975 
 14,539 
 838 
 
 Milk, preserved... 
 Oatmeal... 
 Onions ... 
 Pepper ... 
 
 3,6oc 
 1,464 
 376 
 
 6,937 
 
 8,048 
 2,325 
 1,329 
 
 9,792 
 2,974 
 i,234 
 
 17,639 
 6,023 
 
 3,25-1 
 
 37,167 
 
 5,353 
 3,989 
 1,215 
 
 47,466 
 9,698 
 10,620 
 1,791 
 
 2i,573 
 3$o 
 
 Plants, Seeds, etc. 
 Potatoes... 
 Sacks 
 Vegetables, pre- 
 served 
 Wines ... 
 Woolbales 
 
 3,'276 
 6,219 
 
 1,212 
 U449 
 
 3,553 
 
 2,385 
 5,88o 
 17,181 
 
 i,794 
 13,732 
 4,066 
 
 3,278 
 7,238 
 5,26o 
 
 3,220 
 I4,8o6 
 
 1,868 
 
 3,529 
 4^994 
 
 2,828 
 12,716 
 1,998 
 
 5,823 
 
 10,121 
 2,631 
 
 8,614 
 19,320 
 2,790 
 
 4,686 
 10,219 
 
 14,987 
 36,604 
 2,158 
 
 955 
 33,6oi 
 
 35,989 
 7i,693 
 2,630 
 
 i,552 
 ii,436 
 7,570 
 
 6,507 
 19,281 
 
 24 
 
 * To April ist. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 LAND LAWS. 
 
 CONDITIONAL PURCHASES. 
 
 There are several modes of obtaining land under conditional purchase, as 
 prescribed by the following clauses of the Land Regulations and Homesteads 
 Act : 
 
 SELECTION WITH RESIDENCE INSIDE A SURVEYED AGRICULTURAL AREA. 
 
 Section 53 of ihc Homesteads, Act takes the place of Clause 46 of tlie Land 
 Regulations 
 
 This section is only applicable to land within a surveyed agricultural area. 
 
 The maximum area allowed to one person is 1000 acres, and the minimum 
 loo acres. 
 
 The price is los. per acre, payable as rent at the rate of 6cl. per acre per annum 
 for 20 years ; application must be accompanied by the rent due for the first year, 
 or part of a year, as prescribed by Clause 101 of the Land Regulations. 
 
 The lessee must, within six months from the date of approval of his application, 
 take personal possession of the land, and must reside upon portion of it, as pre- 
 scribed by the Act. 
 
 The improvements required are that within two years one-tenth of the land 
 shall be fenced, the whole within five years, and within ten years a sum equal to 
 los. an acre shall be expended in prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost 
 of the exterior fencing. 
 
 At the expiration of the lease, or at any time after five years from the date of 
 commencement of the lease, provided that all conditions have been complied with, 
 and the fencing and improvements maintained, a Crown grant may be obtained on 
 payment of the balance of purchase money and prescribed fee of 308, 
 
 A statutory declaration, in the form prescribed by Schedule No. 16 of the Land 
 Regulations, shall be furnished to the Minister on or before the 1st of March in each 
 of the first five years of the lease, and at the end of the tenth year-, and also when 
 applying for the Crown grant, setting forth that the required conditions of 
 residence, fencing, and improvement have been fulfilled. 
 
 PERSONS NOW HOLDING LAND IN FEE SIMPLE <>K I'NDKK SPECIAL OCCUPATION 
 LICKNSK WISHING TO TAKE MOKK LAND. 
 
 Section 34 of the Homesteads Aet takes tlie place of Clause 4; of the Land 
 Regulations. 
 
 This section is intended for those who possess land in fee simple or special 
 occupation under the present or any former Land Regulations, or who may be the 
 holder of a lease of such land from the owner, anil reside upon a port inn of such 
 land, and is applicable either- within an agricultur.il area or outside oi it. 
 
 Under this section a person can take up from looto looo acres anywhere from 
 land available for selection within lo miles of his homestead. 
 
 The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same as under Section 
 33 ; but if the land is not surveyed, the c< nuliti< m- >\\M date from the date of survey 
 instead of from the commencement of the lease. 
 
1 K'l H SELECTION WITH RESIDKXCE. 
 
 Clause 48 (>/'///< Land Regulations 
 
 This clause is intended for those \vho wish to apply for land outside an 
 agricultural area, and intend to reside upon it. 
 
 The rent and conditions are tin- same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads 
 Act ; the only difference being that Section 33 is intended fora surveyed agricultural 
 area ; and Clause 4S tor land outside of an agricultural area ; hut if the land is not 
 surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the 
 commencement of the lease. 
 
 SELECTIOX WITHOUT KESIDEXCE EITHER IN A SURVEYED AREA OR BY FREE 
 
 SELECTION. 
 
 Clause 4<) of the Land Regulations 
 
 This clause is intended for those who do not reside upon their own land, and 
 who do not wish to reside upon the land taken up. 
 
 This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land 
 outside of an area. 
 
 The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same under this clause 
 as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act, but double the expenditure on im- 
 provements is required in lieu of residence ; and if the land is not surveyed, the 
 conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement 
 of the lease. 
 
 SELECTION BY PASTORAL LEASEHOLDERS INSIDE THEIR LEASES. 
 
 Clause- 50 of tlic Laud Regulations 
 
 Any pastoral lessee in the South-west Division, at any time within 14 years 
 from the 2nd March, 1887, may select land within his lease (not in an agricultural 
 area) in one block adjoining his homestead, net exceeding 5 per cent, of the area 
 held by him on lease within such division. The minimum area shall be 500 acres, 
 and the maximum 3000 acres. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are 
 the same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act ; but if the land is not sur- 
 veyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the com- 
 mencement of the lease. 
 
 DIRECT PURCHASE. 
 
 Clause 54 of the Land Regulations 
 
 The price of land under this clause is not less than ten shillings an acre, 
 payable as follows, viz. : Ten per cent, on application, and the balance within 
 one month after the application has been approved. 
 
 This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land 
 outside of an area, and residence is not required under it. 
 
 From 100 to 5000 acres can be held outside of an agricultural area, and from 
 100 to 1000 within an agrieultural area by one person, but in either case only 
 three separate selections can be made. 
 
 The improvements required are that the land shall be fenced in within three 
 years from the date of survey, and 5*. an acre expended upon it in improvements 
 within seven years from such date, but if the land is surveyed at the timu it is 
 applied for, tlie conditions shall date from the commencement of the license. 
 
 The foregoing clauses refer only to the South-west Division of the colony, or 
 to lands in the Eastern and Eucla divisions set apart under Section 31 of the 
 Homesteads Act. 
 
 GARDEN BLOCKS FIVE TO TWENTY ACRES. 
 
 Clause 55 of the Land Regulations 
 
 The price of land under this clause is not less than i per acre, payable on 
 application. It is intended for those persons who require land for vineyards, 
 orchards, and gardens in small blocks of from 5 to 20 acres, either within an 
 agricultural area, if small blocks have been surveyed in it, or outside of an area. 
 
Residence is not required, and not more than 20 acres can be obtained under 
 this clause by any one person. 
 
 The improvements required are that the land shall be fenced, and one-tenth 
 part shall be planted with vines or fruit trees, or otherwise be cultivated as a 
 vegetable garden, within three years from the date of survey. 
 
 If the land required is outside the South-west Division, it must be within a 
 special area, or within ten miles of a town site. 
 
 SELECTION IX SPECIAL AREAS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION. 
 
 Clause 52 of the Land Regulations 
 
 This clause is applicable only to land within a surveyed special area. The 
 price is los per acre, payable at the rate of is. per annum for ten years, and 
 application must be accompanied by the rent due for the year or part of the 
 year, as prescribed by clause 101 of the Land Regulations of 1887. 
 
 The maximum area allowed to one person is 5000 acres, and the minimum 
 is 100 acres, and not more than five applications shall be entertained from one 
 person. 
 
 The improvements required are that within two years the whole of the land 
 shall be fenced on the surveyed boundaries, and that before the expiration of the 
 lease an amount equal to los. per acre shall be expended on the land in prescribed 
 improvements, in addition to the cost of the exterior fencing. 
 
 At the expiration of the lease, or at an> time during its currency, provided all the 
 conditions have been complied with, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment 
 of the balance of purchase money, and the prescribed fee of 308. 
 
 PASTORAL LEASEHOLDERS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION MAY SELECT UNDER 
 CERTAIN CONDITIONS. 
 
 Clause 53 of the Land Regulations 
 
 Under this clause any pastoral lessee in the Kimberley, North-West, Gascoyne, 
 and Eucla divisions, who, at any time within fourteen years after the ist March, 
 1887, shall have stocked his land in accordance with the regulations, may obtain, 
 for the purpose of a homestead, a block of land within his lease not exceeding one 
 per cent, of the total quantity held, on the same terms and conditions prescribed 
 for purchase under Clause 52 of the regulations. The minimum area shall be 500 
 acres, and the maximum 5000 acres. 
 
 In any case on failure to comply with the conditions, the land shall be forfeited 
 and revert to the Crown, with any improvements that may be upon it, and any 
 purchase money paid shall be forfeited. 
 
 No person under eighteen years of age can hold land under conditional 
 purchase. 
 
 PASTORAL LEASES. 
 
 Leases of pastoral lands within the several divisions are granted on the 
 following terms : In the South-West Division, in blocks not less than 3000 
 acres, at a rental of l per thousand per annum. In the Gascoyne and North- 
 West Divisions, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of ros. pel- 
 thousand per annum ; in the Kucla Division, in blocks of not less than 20,000 
 acres, at a rental of los. per thousand per annum for all that portion of the 
 division situated to the westward of a north line from Point Culver, and 5s. per 
 thousand per annum for the remaining portion of the division ; in the Kastern 
 Division, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 2s. nd. per thousand 
 per annum for the first seven years, and 15*. for each of the remaining years of 
 the lease ; in the Kimberley Division, in blocks of not less than 50,000 acres when 
 on a frontage, and not less than 20,000 acres when no p.ut of the boundary is on a 
 frontage, at a rental of los. per thousand per annum. 
 
 In any case where land applied for is shut in by other holdings, and does not 
 contain the minimum area fixed by the regulations, "a lease may he granted for a 
 lesser quantity. 
 
A pastoral lease skives no right to the soil or to the timber, except for fencing 
 
 or other improvements on the lands leased, ami the lands may be reserved, sold, 
 
 or Otherwise disposed of by the Crown during thelea-e. 
 
 Any pastoral lessee upon being deprived by the Commissioner of the use of 
 any land held under pastoral lease shall, subject to the provisions of the Land 
 Regulations, receive fair value for all improvements on the land of which he has 
 been deprived ; in the event of the land being selected from his lease under con- 
 ditional purchase, he is entitled to claim from the conditional purchaser fair value 
 
 of any lawful improvements on or. appertaining to the land applied for, and for 
 severance ; the value of the improvements to be ascertained by arbitration as pi-e- 
 scribed by Clause 108 of the Land Regulations. All pastoral leases expire on 31*1 
 December, 11)07. 
 
 Reduction of Rent Jot Stocking Any lessee in the Kimberley Division, or in 
 that part of the Kucla Division westward of a north line from Point Culver, may 
 have a reduction of one-half the rental due under the regulations, if within fourteen 
 years from the 1st day of January, iSS;, he have in his possession, within the 
 division, 10 head of sheep or one head of larger stock for every thousand acres 
 leased. 
 
 Penalty for Son-Stocking A penalty of double rental for the remaining 
 portion of the lease is imposed, except in "the South-West Division, if the lessee 
 has not, within seven years, complied with the conditions as to stocking. 
 
 l6o ACRES GRANTED FREE. 
 Free Homestead Farms. 
 
 Under "The Homesteads Act, 1893," and Amending Act, 1894, any person 
 who is the sole head of a family, or a male 18 years of age or over, and who does 
 not already hold over 100 acres of land, may apply for any Crown land which has 
 been surveyed and thrown open for selection in the South-Western Division of 
 the colony, or in the Eastern and Eucla Divisions, if situated within 40 miles of a 
 railway, 'as a free homestead farm, subject to the undermentioned condi- 
 tions : 
 
 Application in either case must be made on the prescribed form, accompanied 
 by a fee of i. On approval an occupation certificate is issued, within six 
 months from the date of which the selector shall take personal possession of the 
 land, and shall reside thereon for at least six months during each of the first five 
 years of occupancy. 
 
 In certain cases, of illness or for other valid reasons, absence may be allowed, 
 and forfeiture waived. 
 
 Within two years a habitable house must be erected of not less than 30 
 value ; or 30 expended in clearing and cropping ; or t\vo acres of orchard or 
 vineyard properly prepared and planted. Within five years one-fourth of the land 
 must be substantially fenced, and one-eighth cleared and cropped. Within seven 
 years the whole "must be fenced, and at least one-fourth cleared and 
 cropped. 
 
 At the end of seven years, if all the conditions have been fulfilled, a Crown 
 grant may be obtained on payment of survey and Crown grant fees, but if the 
 conditions are not carried out, the land is forfeited. 
 
 The Crown grant may be obtained after twelve months' residence if the 
 required improvements have been made, and on payment of 53. per acre, together 
 with the fees referred to in preceding paragraph. 
 
 A homestead farm cannot be mortgaged or transferred until all conditions 
 entitling the holder to a Crown Grant have been fulfilled. 
 
 The holder of a homestead farm may hold other land under existing Land 
 Regulations, 
 
 Any person holding land, not exceeding i< o acres, and residing upon such 
 land, may obtain a homestead farm from any Crown lands adjoining his holding, 
 subject to all the preceding conditions except that of residence, which in that case 
 may be performed upon his former holding in lieu of on the homestead 
 farm. 
 
SECOND AND THIRD CLASS LAND MAY BE SELECTED AS HOMESTEAD LEASES. 
 
 Homestead Leases. 
 
 Under Part II. of "The Homesteads Act, 1893," leases of second or third 
 class land are granted, called homestead leases, but which are really another form 
 of conditional purchases. 
 
 The area of a homestead lease shall not be less than 1,000 acres, or 
 more than 3,000 acres in second class land, nor less than 1,000 acres, nor more 
 than 5,000 acres in third class land. 
 
 The lease is for a term of 30 years, dating from the ist January preceding the 
 date of application. 
 
 The rent for third class lands is id. per acre per annum for the first 15 years 
 of the lease, and 2d. per acre per annum for the remaining period of 15 years, and 
 for second class lands 2d. and 3d. per acre per annum respectively. 
 
 The conditions are as follows : The lessee shall pay one half the cost of 
 survey, in five yearly instalments ; within six months from the date of the approval 
 of his application, he shall take possession of the land either by himself or by an 
 agent, and for the next five years, for at least nine months in every year, reside 
 upon the land. 
 
 Within two years from the 1st January or July, as the case may be, 
 preceding the date of the approval of his application, he shall fence in at least 
 half of the land, and within the next two years shall fence in the remainder. 
 
 During every yearof his lease, from the sixth to the fifteenth year, both inclusive, 
 he is required to expend in improvements on the land comprised in his lease, if 
 second class land, an amount equal to 8d. per acre, and if third class land, an 
 amount equal to 5d. per acre for the whole area comprised in his lease. 
 
 Any excess of moneys expended during one year shall be carried forward to 
 the credit of the sum required to be expended in the succeeding year or years. 
 
 The following shall be deemed improvements : Sub-division, clearing, 
 cultivating, grubbing, draining, ringbarking, tanks, dams, wells, and any other 
 work upon the land which increases or improves its agricultural or pas' oral 
 capabilities. 
 
 If the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from ;he date of survey, 
 instead of from the date of the lease. 
 
 At the expiration of his lease, if all the conditions have been complied with, 
 the Crown grant of the land may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fee. 
 
 If at any time during the continuance of the lease, on proof that he has paid 
 the prescribed rent and survey fees, and that he has complied with the conditions 
 of residence, and that he has fenced the land on the surveyed boundaries, and has 
 expended on prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of such fencing, a 
 sum equal to the aggregate rents payable in respect of the lease for the last 25 
 years of the term, and that the improvements so made are in good order and con- 
 dition, and has paid to the Minister the difference between the aggregate amount 
 of rents then already paid in respect of the lease and the value of all the lands 
 comprised therein, calculated at the rate of 6s, 3d. per acre, if the land is second 
 class, and 3s. 9d. if third c'ass, the lessee shall, upon payment of the prescribed 
 fee, be entitled to a Crown grant of the land comprised in his lease. 
 
 No transfer of a homestead lease shall be approved until the lease has been 
 in existence for five years. 
 
 RENTS 
 
 All land rents are calculated from ist January to 31*1 December, and are 
 payable in advance to the Collector of Land Revenue, Perth, or at the various 
 resident magistrates' offices throughout the colony, on or before the 1st March. 
 
 The rent on leases and licenses applied for during the year shall be calculated 
 from the 1st day of the quarter preceding the application (except in the case of 
 poison leases and homoteacl leases, for which a full year's rent must always 
 be paid). 
 
 In the event of the lessee not paying his rent on the ist day of March, he is 
 subject to a fine of 5 per cent, for the first month, 10 per cent, for the second, 15 
 
per cent, for the third, and 20 per cent, for the fourth month, after which, if the 
 rent anil line he still unpaid, the lease or license shall be foi feited. 
 
 During the month of January in each year a complete list is published of all 
 lea-*--; and licenses, showing the rents or instalments and purchase money due for 
 the current year, and after the 3ist of March another list is published, 
 particulars of all those on which the rents have not been paid. 
 
APPENDIX III. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BANK ACT, 1894, AMENDMENT ACT, 1896. 
 
 Under these Acts advances can be made to holders of land in fee simple 
 special occupation lease, conditional purchase license, or under the provisions 
 of "The Homesteads Act, 1893." 
 
 Advances. Advances are only made for the purpose of effecting improve- 
 ments, and no advance will be made upon any land which is otherwise encum- 
 bered, nor will any security over fee simple lands other than a first mortgage 
 be accepted as sufficient. When the proposed security consists of lands held 
 under special occupation lease or conditional purchase, the applicant will be 
 required to execute an absolute transfer of all his right, title, and interest in the 
 land, together with all improvements thereon, to the manager of the bank ; and 
 when the security consists of land held under the provisions of " The Homesteads 
 Act, 1893," the applicant will be required to transfer his interest to the Crown. 
 
 Form of improvements. Advances are made for the purpose of effecting 
 either one or more of the following improvements : Clearing, cultivating or 
 ploughing, ringbarking, fencing, draining, wells of fresh water, reservoirs, 
 buildings, and any other form of improvement which, in the opinion of the 
 manager, will increase the agricultural or pastoral capabilities of the land. 
 
 Proportion of value of proposed improvements to be advanced. In cases where, 
 in the opinion of the manager, ample security is offered, three-fourths of the fair 
 estimated value of the proposed .improvements may be advanced, but one-half is 
 the proportion generally allowed. 
 
 Mode of payment of advances. All advances are paid proportionately as the 
 improvements are effected, i.e., applicants can have "draws " while the work is 
 proceeding. 
 
 Rate of interest, Interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum 
 will be charged upon all advances, and must be paid half-yearly, on the soth 
 June and 3ist December in each year. Interest is only charged on the actual 
 amount of the advance made, or such proportion of the loan or loans as the 
 applicant may have drawn. 
 
 Fees payable. All applications must be accompanied by a valuator's fee 
 equivalent to I per cent, of the amount applied for. No charge is made for the 
 purpose of drawing any mortgage or transfer, 
 
 Repayment of loans. All loans have a currency of thirty years. During 
 the first Hive years simple interest only is payable. At the expiration of live years 
 from the 1st day of January or the 1st day of July, as the ease may be, following 
 the date of every advance, the borrower shall begin to repay the principal sum 
 at the rate of one-fiftieth of the amount half-yearly, until the whole Iras been paid. 
 Provided always, that the advance maybe repaid sooner than is herein provided, 
 and in larger instalments, at the option of the borrower. All applications must 
 be for one or more of the following sums, viz. : 50, 75, HH>, and extending 
 up to ;8oo. 
 
 Further particulars and application forms may be had on application to the 
 Manager, Agricultural Bank, Perth. 
 
APPENDIX IV. 
 
 THE STOCK ACTS AND REGULATIONS. 
 
 WHAT THE LEGISLATURE HAS DONE THE ACTS AND REGULATIONS. 
 
 (Compiled at flu' request of the Bureau, by Mr. Norman Malcolm, Stick Injector.) 
 
 The Western Australian Government has succeeded, in the drafting of its 
 Stock Acts and Regulations, in doing that which the Parliaments of the various 
 other colonies have failed in, viz., in presenting them to the public in so concise 
 and concentrated a form as to make the intention of the Legislature patent to all. 
 The law relating to diseases in stock is consolidated (with the exception of scab 
 in sheep) in "The Stock Diseases Act, 1895," which gives the Governor in Council 
 almost unlimited range of power in the control of stock matters. As an instance 
 of this the Governor may, by Order in Council, published in the Government 
 Gazette, prohibit or permit the introduction or importation of stock from time to 
 time from any country or place, while he may exempt any stock from the operation 
 of certain provisions of the act. But even here the power does not rest, for the 
 Governor may make, vary, alter or revoke from time to time, any regulations made 
 under the act, and, in cases of special emergency, any such Order of the Governor 
 in Council may be transmitted by telegraph. The penalty for wilfully disobeying, 
 contravening or omitting to observe any such order is limited to 100. 
 
 OUTBREAKS OF DISEASE. 
 
 In the event of a stock-owner discovering any infectious or contagious disease 
 or if he suspects the presence of any such disease among his stock, within 24 hours 
 he must give written notice to the nearest inspector, at the same time isolating the 
 infected or suspected animals until the arrival of the inspector. Should the inspector 
 deem it necessary, he may, on finding such diseased stock, or stock affected with 
 tick, or lice, or any parasite, seize and place them in quarantine, where they are 
 treated as the inspector may direct, at the owner's expense, until clean ; or if the 
 disease is of such a nature that, in the opinion of the inspector, such stock should 
 be destroyed, the inspector shall report the case to the Minister controlling the 
 department, who may order the destruction of the stock at the owner's expense. 
 In the latter case the carcases of any infected stock must be destroyed by the 
 owner, his agent or servant, within 24 hours, in default of which either is liable to 
 a penalty not exceeding 100, while a similar penalty may be inflicted if the 
 carcase of an infected animal is cast into any stream, river, pond, lake or other 
 water. 
 
 A special clause is also inserted in the Regulations under " The Stock Diseases 
 Act, 1895," for dealing with animals suspected of being affected with tuberculosis, 
 by which an inspector may subject such animal to the tuberculine test. 
 
 IMPORTED STOCK. 
 
 AJ1 stock imported into Western Australia from the Australian colonies and 
 New Zealand, excepting Queensland and the Northern Territory of South Australia, 
 must be accompanied by the certificate of a government inspector at the port of 
 shipment, that they are clean, in addition to the declaration of the owner or 
 breeder, or the manager of the farm or station from which they come, that the 
 stock were free from disease at the time of their departure, and had been, to the 
 best of his belief, for three months preceeding shipment. On being accompanied 
 by such documents, if passed by an inspector at the port of landing, all stock are 
 
10 
 
 admitted into the colony without further restriction, with the exception that cattle 
 not intended for immediate slaughter have to perform 30 days' quarantine, and 
 camels, 40 days. 
 
 In the cases of Queensland and the Northern Territory of South Australia, 
 all stock are prohibited from entering the colony on account of the tick pest, with 
 the exception of working bullocks, and horses used in the carrying trade, and for 
 station work between the Northern Territory and Western Australia. 
 
 In addition to the declaration of an owner and breeder, stock coming to 
 Western Australia from outside the Australasian colonies and New Zealand must 
 be accompanied by the certificate of a qualified veterinary surgeon, to the effect 
 that when the stock were placed on board the vessel conveying them they were 
 in a sound and healthy condition, entirely free from any disease, or any indication 
 of it. They must also perform the following periods of quarantine : 
 
 Sheep ... ... 14 days. Pigs ... ... 30 days 
 
 Horses ... ... 14 , Dogs ... ... 6 months 
 
 Cattle ... ... 30 , Goats, Deer, Liama, I , 
 
 Camels 40 , and Antelopes \ 3 
 
 But if during the period of quarantine any sign of disease be exhibited, then f 
 if not ordered to be destroyed, they shall be kept in quarantine for any period an 
 inspector may direct, and treated as he deems necessary. 
 
 All cattle and sheep intended for immediate slaughter may be landed on the 
 permit of an inspector, and removed to such place as he may direct, and shall not 
 be again removed alive without his written permission. 
 
 No stock can be landed in the colony at any port other than Fremantle, 
 Albany, Champion Bay, Cossack, Eucla, and Esperance, unless first inspected and 
 passed by an inspector of stock at one of these ports. 
 
 With regard to the introduction of cattle by land into Western Australia, it is 
 provided that notice must be given in writing to the inspector of stock in the 
 district into which they are to be introduced seven days prior to the introduction 
 of the cattle, and a certificate, signed by a qualified Government inspector, must 
 be produced, showing that the cattle were successfully inoculated against pleuro- 
 pneumonia immediately prior to their departure for Western Australia. 
 
 The crossing place for stock in the Kimberley district, via South Australia, is 
 that portion of the Orel station where the Negri crosses the border of the two 
 colonies, and in the Eucla district the crossing is where the present road from 
 South Australia enters this colony, about eight miles north-east from Eucla. 
 
 An inspector can prevent any stock he considers diseased from entering 
 Western Australia, and any person introducing such diseased stock is subject to 
 a penalty of live pounds per head. 
 
 In connection with those stations where land is held by one owner in South 
 Australia and Western Australia adjoining, a special regulation provides, that, on 
 the written authority <i the Chief Inspector of Stcck, stock may be brought over 
 the border from the owner's land in South Australia to his land in Western 
 Australia for a specified period within six calendar months, for the purpose of 
 depasturing. Stock entering the colony by reason of such permission do not 
 become " introduced " stock, and they are not allowed to be on any other land in 
 Western Australia than that mentioned in the permission. 
 
 No imported stock, nor the effects of any attendant, shall be landed or intro- 
 duced into the colony until the same shall have been examined by an inspector, 
 and a permit granted by him for their landing, this permit to be exhibited when 
 required by an inspector or member of the police force. No fodder put on board 
 any vessel fur the use of imported stock, or any linings used therewith, can be 
 landed on any account. 
 
 The fees for examination of stock imported from beyond the Australasian 
 colonies are as follows : 
 
 For horses and cattle, I to 5, 
 
 For every additional lu-ail. 
 For sheep, swine, and goats, I to 50, 
 
 s. 
 o 10 
 
 O I 
 O 1C 
 
II 
 
 For every additional head, ... ... o o I 
 
 For each dog, ... ... ... ... o 10 o 
 
 For camels, I to 3, ... ... ... o 10 o 
 
 For every additional head, each, ... ... o I 6 
 
 The fees for examination of stock imported from the Australasian colonies and 
 New Zealand are : 
 
 s. d. 
 For horses and cattle, I to 3, .. ... o 10 o 
 
 For every additional head, 
 For sheep, swine, and goats, I to 50, 
 
 For every additional head, 
 For each dog, ... 
 For camels, I to 3, 
 
 For every additional head, each, 
 
 Provided that the whole amount of fees for 
 
 006 
 050 
 o o i 
 026 
 o 10 o 
 o i 6 
 
 inspection of any one shipment by the 
 
 same owner shall not exceed ^5. 
 
 QUARANTINING OF STOCK. 
 
 The chief quarantine ground for stock in the colony is at Woodman's Point, a 
 distance of seven miles from Fremantle, where excellent accommodation has been pro- 
 vided for the care of animals while performing the prescribed periods of isolation. A 
 special quarantine ground has, however, been declared for camels, to the north of 
 Fremantle, and dogs imported from any place outside the Australian colonies and 
 New Zealand must be quarantined either at Rottnest Island, near Fremantle, or 
 Geake's Island, near Albany. 
 
 The Governor may at any time proclaim temporary quarantine stations anywhere 
 within the province, either for the purpose of isolating imported or diseased stock. In 
 the case of the latter, the period of quarantine is left entirely to the discretion of the 
 inspector. 
 
 All expenses in connection with the quarantining of stock must be paid by the 
 owner, and in default of payment the stock may be sold by the inspector to recover 
 the cost of quarantine. 
 
 "THE DROVING ACT, 1894," 
 
 Under this Act all stock become " travelling stock " which are taken or driven , 
 or are about to be taken or driven, to any place more than forty miles from the run 
 upon which such stock were depastured previous to starting. 
 
 If the actual proprietor of any stock intends to act as drover he shall provide him- 
 self with a way bill in the form of the first schedule, and sign it in the presence of a 
 subscribing witness ; but whenever any person other than the proprietor, or the 
 proprietor's manager, acts as drover, he must be provided with a delivery note in the 
 form of the second schedule. Should the way bill or delivery note be accidentally lost 
 or destroyed, the drover shall apply in writing to the nearest justice of the peace, stock 
 inspector, or officer in charge of a police station, for an interim way bill or 
 delivery note, as the case may be ; such interim note or way bill only to 
 be granted on the production of satisfactory proof of the loss of the original, and the 
 payment of -i. Any justice of the peace, constable, inspector of stock, or authorised 
 agent of an inspector, or the owner of any run through which stock are travelling, 
 may inspect the way bill or delivery note and the stock. Any proprietor, manager, or 
 drover failing to comply with the requirements of this section shall, on conviction, be 
 liable to a penalty not exceeding 50. 
 
 All travelling horses, asses, mules, camels, and horned cattle shall be moved not 
 less than eight miles per diem, and sheep or goats not less than five, or when through 
 enclosed lands seven miles per diem towards their destination. If it can be satisfactorily 
 proved to any justice of the peace or inspector, or the occupier of the run through 
 or along which such stock are travelling, that, owing to some unforseen cause the 
 compliance with the foregoing provisions would entail unnecessary hardship, they may 
 be varied as deemed expedient. 
 
12 
 
 Drovers must give notice before allowing stock to approach within ten miles of the 
 head station or homestead on any run, not less than 24 hours, nor more than three 
 days prior to the approach. Notice is not necessary in the case of horses, camels, or 
 cattle bo 1 1 a- fide used for saddle, packing, or draught, or where the number of horses, 
 camels, cattle, or other stock (excepting sheep) shall not exceed 20. Any drover 
 neglecting to give the notice required by this section shall be summarily punished 
 before two justices of the peace, and is liable on conviction to a penalty not exceeding 
 $o. 
 
 Travelling sheep have to be branded with the letter T on the rump, the brand to 
 be at least three inches in length. The penalty for neglecting to comply with this 
 section does not exceed 20. 
 
 If any travelling sheep or cattle are brought back to the run from which they 
 started to travel, or to any run in the same district, the proprietor of such sheep or 
 cattle shall pay to the inspector of stock in the district, or to the resident magistrate, a 
 travelling charge at the rate of twopence per hundred sheep, and twopence per ten 
 head of cattle per mile for the whole distance travelled from the time they started, 
 provided always that the provisions of this section shall not apply to any sheep or 
 cattle being bona-ftde moved to another run of the some owner for change of pasture, 
 nor to any sheep or cattle sent bona-ftdc to, and returning unsold from market. 
 
 FIRST SCHEDULE. 
 
 "DROVING ACT, 1894." 
 
 Proprietor's Way Bill. 
 
 I, , do solemnly and sincerely declare 
 
 that I am the actual proprietor f or the manager of the proprietor] of the stock 
 named in the schedule bolow, consisting of (number in "H'ords) (description of s ock) 
 which are travelling from 
 to by 
 
 Signed at this day of 18 
 
 Before me, 
 
 (Witness) 
 
 (Signature) 
 
 Proprietor or Manager. 
 
 SCHEDULE REFERRED TO ABOVE. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Description of Stock. 
 
 Brands or Marks of Stock. 
 
 
 
 
 (Signature) 
 
 Superintendent or Proprietor. 
 
SECOND SCHEDULE. 
 
 " DROVING ACT, 1804." 
 Del n't- ry Xofe. 
 
 This is to certify that I have this day delivered into the charge of 
 
 , as my drover, the (sidle number in icon Is) (dcseriplioti of stock) 
 mentioned in the schedule below, for the purpose of their being 
 by him to at 
 
 Signed at this 
 
 Before me, 
 
 ( Witness) 
 
 day of 
 (Signature) 
 
 Proprietor or Manager. 
 
 SCHEDULE REFERRED TO AHOVE. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Description of Stock. 
 
 Brands or Marks. 
 
 
 
 
 (Signature) 
 
 Proprietor or Manager. 
 
 THIRD SCHEDULE, 
 
 " DROVING ACT, 1894," 
 
 Interim Way Bill (or Delivery Note). 
 
 18 
 
 It having been represented to me that , the drover of the (state 
 
 number in words) (description of stock) belonging to 
 
 mentioned in the schedule below, has accidentally lost his way bill \_or delivery note] 
 while travelling from to , this interim way bill 
 
 [or delivery note] is hereby granted to such drover for such stock. 
 
 (Signature) 
 
 Inspector or Officer. 
 
 SCHEDULE ABOVE REFERRED TO. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Description of Stock. 
 
 Brands or Marks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Signature) 
 
 Inspector or Officer. 
 
"THE BRANDS ACT, l88l." 
 
 The laws regulating the branding of live stock, and providing for the registration 
 of brands, are consolidated in "The Brands Act, 1 88 1," and came into operation on the 
 first day of January, 1882. This act compels every owner of cattle and horses to 
 have a brand, which must be registered, and penalties are provided for neglecting to 
 brand. A justice of the peace may authorise any person to drive in and impound any 
 unbranded cattle above one year old, and horses above two years old, which may be 
 at large in the bush, and these may be sold if unclaimed ; should proof of ownership 
 be established, however, prior to the sale, the property is protected. 
 
 Owners of sheep may also register fire and wool brands, and ear marks ; this is 
 not compulsory, but such brands and marks are protected. 
 
 Persons convicted of branding stock not their property, or defacing brands on 
 stock, are punished by imprisonment. 
 
 SCAB IN SHEEP. 
 
 Although no cases of scab have been reported in Western Australia since May, 
 1895, "The Scab Act, 1891," is still in force, and gives almost unlimited power to the 
 inspectors of sheep. This act provides that the owner must muster his sheep at any 
 time if called upon to do so by an inspector ; that the owner who obstructs an 
 inspector in the exercise of his duties is guilty of an offence ; that a list of diseased 
 flocks must be published every month in the Government Gazette; that at the 
 entrance of every diseased run must be posted the notice : " Scab on this run "; that 
 notice of infection must be given to the inspector or resident magistrate of a district 
 within forty-eight hours thereafter ; that infected runs must be quarantined ; that 
 flocks must be dipped as often as an inspector shall require and direct ; that infected 
 flocks must be shepherded during the day, and folded at night ; that any infected or stray 
 suspected sheep may be destroyed ; that the carcases of such sheep must be destroyed ; 
 that the cost of carrying out the act be defrayed by owners by contribution fixed each 
 year by the Governor in Council ; that every owner must furnish a return to the 
 resident magistrate of the number of sheep owned by him in that district each year ; 
 that when a district has been declared clean for three years it shall be exempt from the 
 yearly contribution ; that no owner shall be entitled to compensation for sheep de- 
 stroyed under the authority of the act ; that an inspector may burn, without com- 
 pensation, any enclosures or yards in which he may know infected sheep to have been 
 within the preceeding six months. 
 
APPENDIX V. 
 
 STOCK AND CROP RETURNS, 1896. 
 
 The following returns for the year 1896 were compiled by the 
 Registrar-General, and give the number of stock and acreage under 
 crop in Western Australia for that year. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN DIVISION. 
 
 rial District. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Camels. 
 
 Donkeys. 
 
 Victoria ... 
 
 6,043 
 
 12,985 
 
 3,726 
 
 256,435 
 
 821 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Toodyay ... 
 
 6,004 
 
 7,397 
 
 8,508 
 
 136,284 
 
 345 
 
 
 
 
 Swan 
 
 2,26l 
 
 449 2 
 
 1,880 
 
 8,518 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 York 
 
 3,128 
 
 1,664 
 
 5,474 
 
 121,600 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Perth 
 
 2,811 
 
 2,416 
 
 1,109 
 
 826 
 
 ii 
 
 96 
 
 2 
 
 Fremantle 
 
 1,222 
 
 i,397 
 
 1,418 
 
 1,036 
 
 18 
 
 247 
 
 1 
 
 Murray ... 
 
 1,850 
 
 3,542 
 
 934 
 
 9,076 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 
 Wellington 
 
 2,799 
 
 10,088 
 
 1,392 
 
 17,121 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Williams .. 
 
 3,7i7 
 
 1,960 
 
 2,669 
 
 141,862 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blackwood 
 
 i,547 
 
 8,266 
 
 454 
 
 23,870 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sussex 
 
 1,885 
 
 6,446 
 
 656 
 
 452 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Plantagenet 
 
 i,547 
 
 2,342 
 
 746 
 
 59,344 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 34,8i4 
 
 62,995 
 
 28,966 
 
 776,424 
 
 1,667 
 
 352 
 
 9 
 
 NORTH AND NORTH-WESTERN DIVISION. 
 
 Magisterial Distiict. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Camels. 
 
 Donkeys. 
 
 Gascoyne... 
 
 2,575 
 
 7,572 
 
 6 7 
 
 380,141 
 
 540 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 Ashburton 
 
 1,872 
 
 5,495 
 
 116 
 
 189,277 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 Roebourne 
 
 3,975 
 
 7,759 
 
 145 
 
 347,270 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 Pilbarra 
 
 2,544 
 
 14,774 
 
 114 
 
 160,552 
 
 174 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Broome 
 
 152 
 
 5424 
 
 206 
 
 3,650 
 
 107 
 
 
 18 
 
 West Kimberley ... 
 
 980 
 
 30,772 
 
 52 
 
 179,364 
 
 224 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 East Kimberley ... 
 
 512 
 
 6,071 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 221 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Kimb'y. Goldfields 
 
 i,79i 
 
 52,457 
 
 25 
 
 43 
 
 494 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Total 
 
 14,402 
 
 130,324 
 
 862 
 
 1,260,297 
 
 1,796 
 
 31 
 
 58 
 
i6 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN DIVISIONS. 
 
 
 Magisterial District. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Camels. 
 
 Donkeys. 
 
 Broad Arrow . ... 
 
 332 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 7 6 
 
 71 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 Murchison 
 
 1,429 
 
 4,327 
 
 154 
 
 52,766 
 
 22 
 
 416 
 
 I 
 
 East Murchison ... 
 
 47 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 397 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 Yalgoo 
 
 914 
 
 1,510 
 
 39 
 
 103,497 
 
 158 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coolgardie 
 
 1,929 
 
 143 
 
 595 
 
 i,594 
 
 no 
 
 2,557 
 
 7 
 
 N.E. Coolgardie ... 
 
 434 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 324 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 
 East Coolgardie ... 
 
 589 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 North Coolgardie 
 
 827 
 
 50 
 
 102 
 
 1,272 
 
 31 
 
 430 
 
 1C 
 
 Yilgarn ... 
 
 1 66 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 267 
 
 no 
 
 9 
 
 
 Dundas ... 
 
 197 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 450 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 i 
 
 Esperance 
 
 1,018 
 
 355 
 
 233 
 
 51.51 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 H 
 
 Total 
 
 8,3H 
 
 6,474 
 
 1,326 
 
 212,255 
 
 564 
 
 3,601 
 
 37 
 
 Grand total for the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 colony 
 
 57,527 
 
 199,793 
 
 3i,i54 
 
 2,248,976 
 
 4,027 
 
 3,984 
 
 104 
 
 GRAIN CROPS. 
 
 District. 
 
 Broome 
 
 District. 
 
 Dundas... 
 
 Esperance 
 
 Total 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN. 
 NORTH AND NORTH-WESTERN. 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 I 
 
 Wheat. 
 40O 
 6 
 
 406 
 
 District. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 All other 
 Grain Crops. 
 
 
 7.OTI J 
 
 2 
 
 478 
 
 i 141.', 
 
 
 Toodyay .. 
 
 I) (H>; l 
 
 I 
 
 j.8al 
 
 Ivi 
 
 11 
 
 
 I 0/8* 
 
 0.', 
 
 IO7 
 
 
 80 
 
 York 
 I'cith 
 
 6,820! 
 
 20 
 
 Il 
 
 10 
 
 163! 
 
 28 
 
 FrcmanUe 
 Murray ... 
 Wellington 
 
 Williams 
 lilackwood 
 Sussex 
 IMaiitajicnct 
 
 25* 
 
 2ig\ 
 
 820 
 4.917 
 3394 
 1 08 
 
 26* 
 
 0* 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 60 
 2341 
 
 157 
 
 39 
 26 
 
 10* 
 
 12 
 
 ir 
 
 7-i 
 
 201 
 2i 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 45 
 7 
 3 
 
 101 
 
 3i 
 
 Total 
 
 31,082* 
 
 29i 
 
 i,753 
 
 
 340 
 
VIXKS AXI) OTIIKR FKTIT CROPS, 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN, 
 
 GKAI i \ i 1 OTHKR FRUITCROPS. 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 Total Area 
 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 li 
 
 under 
 
 District 
 
 -jj 
 
 S 
 
 
 's ^ 
 
 ! 
 
 || 
 
 r 
 
 Crops. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 pq 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Victoria ... 
 
 I I 
 
 14* 
 
 6* 
 
 25* 
 
 2 7 * 
 
 4 
 
 20,364* 
 
 Toudvav 
 
 3 '7 
 
 130* 
 
 262 
 
 131 
 
 161 
 
 
 28,283* 
 
 Swan 
 
 38H 
 
 1541 
 
 194* 
 
 164 
 
 223* 
 
 
 
 7,204* 
 
 York 
 
 
 531 
 
 3o| 
 
 1 14.' 
 
 98 
 
 I 
 
 23,I24| 
 
 Perth 
 
 "41 
 
 33] 
 
 ui| 
 
 76 
 
 HO! 
 
 9* 
 
 1,237* 
 
 Freinantle 
 
 
 38| 
 
 19; 
 
 38* 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 945 j 
 
 Murray ... 
 
 82J 
 
 
 42 
 
 2* 
 
 130* 
 
 7 
 
 3,203 
 
 Wellington 
 
 4 6i 
 
 50 
 
 5i 
 
 
 165 
 
 
 6,676* 
 
 Williams 
 
 
 351 
 
 551 
 
 io5i 
 
 io5i 
 
 
 
 I5,5I3J 
 
 Blackxvood 
 
 1 6* 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 L597* 
 
 Sussex ... 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 2 s 
 
 34* 
 
 
 
 1,601* 
 
 Plantagenet 
 
 
 2| 
 
 I4f 
 
 53* 
 
 
 
 
 r ,337i 
 
 Total 
 
 937* 
 
 544i 
 
 8io* 
 
 1,027.} 
 
 i,357* 
 
 25 
 
 111,089* 
 
 NORTH AXD NORTH-WESTERN, 
 
 Broome ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?t 
 
 2f 
 
 
 9* 
 
 Gascovne 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 Ashburton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 Pilbarra 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 East Kimberley... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Kimb. Goldfields 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 4i 
 
 Roebourne 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 i 
 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 Total 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 6* 
 
 ... 
 
 92* 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN. 
 
 Esperance 
 Murchison 
 Dundas ... 
 
 Total 
 Grand total 
 
 1 
 
 
 ::. 
 
 E 
 
 ;;: 
 
 E 
 
 ^5i 
 400 
 
 H 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 556 
 
 IH738* 
 
 To which must be added : 
 
 Acreage under permanent artificially sown grasses 
 New ground cleared during season and prepared for | 
 next season f 
 
 Land in fallow 
 
 4,043* acres. 
 24,945* acres. 
 22,561* acres. 
 
HAY, GREEN FORAGE, AND ROOT CROPS. 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN. 
 
 District. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Green 
 Forage. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Onions. 
 
 All other 
 Root Crops. 
 
 Market 
 Gardens. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 11,505* 
 
 56 
 
 36| 
 
 2f 
 
 4.] 
 
 35i 
 
 Toodyay 
 
 16,607 
 
 70 
 
 9f 
 
 2 
 
 M 
 
 8* 
 
 Swan ... 
 
 4,635i 
 
 107 
 
 24i 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 43i 
 
 York 
 
 I5,639i 
 
 8 
 
 171 
 
 I* 
 
 
 
 I 9 i 
 
 Perth 
 
 645 
 
 40 
 
 33! 
 
 6i 
 
 Hi 
 
 53 
 
 Fremantle 
 
 632! 
 
 lo* 
 
 50 
 
 I0| 
 
 8| 
 
 33* 
 
 Murray 
 
 2,37o 
 
 67* 
 
 26i 
 
 o* 
 
 28J 
 
 42i 
 
 Wellington 
 
 4-742 
 
 ii8| 
 
 239* 
 
 6* 
 
 I2i 
 
 3i 
 
 Williams 
 
 9,738 
 
 125 
 
 3i 
 
 n 
 
 28 
 
 2f 
 
 Blackwood 
 
 904 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6* 
 
 Sussex ... 
 
 967 
 
 178 
 
 104 
 
 8* 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 Plantagenet 
 
 874* 
 
 19 
 
 136 
 
 14* 
 
 i6i 
 
 17 
 
 Total 
 
 69,260^ 
 
 8i5i 
 
 7i8| 
 
 59 
 
 I 3 2f 
 
 293i 
 
 Total 
 
 Esperance 
 
 40 ... i c) 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN. 
 136 ... oj 
 
 
 NORTH AND NORTH-WESTERN. 
 
 
 Distiict. 
 
 Hay. Potatoes. Onions. 
 
 Market Gardens. 
 
 Gascoyne ... 
 
 IO ... ... 
 
 19 
 
 Pilbarra 
 
 30 ... ... 
 
 2 
 
 Kimberley Goldfields 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Broome 
 
 _ ... .... 
 
 5 
 
 East Kimberley 
 
 ... ... 
 
 IO 
 
APPENDIX VI. 
 
 RAILWAYS. 
 
 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES. 
 EASTERN RAILWAY. 
 
 From Frcmaiitlc Station- to the following Stations and Stopping /'/<r. < \. 
 
 Height Distance 
 above 
 sea level. Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 ISt 
 
 Class. 
 
 2IKl 
 
 Class. 
 
 ISt 
 
 Class. 
 
 and 
 Class. 
 
 S'OO 
 500 
 20-50 
 34*35 
 5i35 
 78-40 
 3760 
 35'05 
 34'' 
 52-70 
 
 25-40 
 4I-&5 
 
 202-15 
 479-80 
 
 685-45 
 925-10 
 1018-65 
 97J-50 
 898-75 
 100575 
 080-60 
 723-95 
 00500 
 064-90 
 778-20 
 
 60965 
 519-50 
 
 533-io 
 534-05 
 547-90 
 547-90 
 57690 
 57950 
 6io-65 
 607-00 
 639-40 
 646-55 
 64700 
 
 778-20 
 7J500 
 470-30 
 
 '} 
 
 6 
 
 .1 
 
 12 
 
 si 
 
 20 
 22 
 
 2 4 
 
 & 
 
 29 
 31 
 
 34 
 35 
 
 ft 
 
 jj 
 
 62 
 
 67 
 72 
 
 75 
 77 
 82 
 82 
 
 1 
 
 96 
 99 
 103 
 
 107 
 no 
 
 17 
 62 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5. d. 
 
 3 
 3 
 o 6 
 o 9 
 I 3 
 
 : i 
 
 I 8 
 
 2 
 
 I 6 
 i 9 
 3 
 
 \l 
 
 3 9 
 
 M 
 
 4 9 
 
 i 
 
 6 9 
 
 11 
 
 9 o 
 
 9 9 
 lo 6 
 
 II 
 
 II 3 
 
 12 2 
 12 2 
 
 12 5 
 
 13 2 
 
 14 8 
 14 9 
 15 5 
 16 o 
 16 6 
 
 Fremantle, East 
 Kremantle. North 
 Cottesloe (late Bullen's) 
 
 Clnrcinont 
 
 o 3 
 o 3 
 o 7 
 
 II 
 
 I 6 
 6 7 
 i 9 
 
 i n 
 2 4 
 
 2 II 
 
 3 3 
 3 6 
 3 8 
 4 o 
 
 H 
 
 5 2 
 
 it 
 
 6 4 
 6 10 
 7 6 
 8 6 
 9 2 
 9 10 
 
 10 8 
 II 6 
 
 12 
 
 12 4 
 
 13 2 
 13 2 
 
 13 6 
 14 4 
 
 !! I 
 
 16 8 
 17 4 
 17 lo 
 
 O 2 
 O 2 
 
 i 
 
 o 6 
 
 O 10 
 II 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 I 4 
 
 i 8 
 
 I 10 
 2 O 
 2 I 
 
 I 4 
 i 6 
 i 9 
 3 I 
 3 2 
 3 4 
 3 9 
 4 I 
 4 6 
 5 2 
 5 7 
 6 o 
 
 6 6 
 7 o 
 
 M 
 
 8 I 
 8 I 
 8 3 
 8 9 
 9 9 
 9 lo 
 lo 3 
 lo 8 
 
 II 
 
 o 5 
 o 5 
 
 II 
 
 i 4 
 
 I 2 
 
 i 3 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 5 
 4 lo 
 
 ?! 
 
 6 o 
 6 6 
 7 o 
 7 9 
 8 o 
 8 6 
 9 6 
 10 3 
 " 3 
 12 9 
 13 9 
 M 9 
 
 16 o 
 17 3 
 
 18 o 
 18 6 
 19 9 
 19 9 
 20 3 
 
 21 6 
 
 23 8 
 24 o 
 
 25 
 
 26 o 
 26 9 
 
 Perth. West 
 Perth, Central 
 Perth Fast 
 
 Bayswater 
 /unction to Racecourse. 
 
 Midland Junction 
 24-M le Siding 
 
 Darlington 
 
 Smith's Mill 
 
 Mahogany Creek 
 Mundaring 
 Sawver's Valley 
 Lion" Mill 
 Chidlow's Well 
 Lacev's No. 3 Mill 
 Byrie'ld's Mill 
 
 Coates' 
 
 Mount Baker ... 
 
 Clackline 
 Junction for Newcastle. 
 Mokine 
 Spencer's Brook 
 Junction for Northam. 
 Muresk 
 Woodside 
 G reason's 
 Burges's Siding 
 Mackie's Crossing 
 York 
 Hicks' ... 
 Gilgering 
 Dale Bridge 
 
 Edward's Crossing 
 Beverlt-y 
 RucecoursQ Branch, Junction Station. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Newcastle Branch, Junction Station. 
 Clackline 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coorinja 
 
 II 8 
 
 12 2 
 
 7 i 
 7 5 
 
 s; 
 
 ic 8 
 
 II 2 
 
 
20 
 
 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES Continued. 
 
 Height Distance, 
 above 
 sea level. Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 ISt 
 
 Class. 
 
 2nd 
 Class. 
 
 ISt 
 
 Class. 
 
 2nd 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 Northam Branch, Junction Station. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 5. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 5I9'50 
 
 72 
 
 Spencer's Brook 
 
 ... 
 
 16 II 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Springhill Siding 
 
 II 8 
 
 18 3 
 
 I 7 '"6 
 
 lo 8 
 
 ... 
 
 76 
 
 Burlong Pool .. 
 
 12 2 
 
 I 9 9 
 
 18 3 
 
 II 2 
 
 490-80 
 
 78 
 
 Northam 
 
 12 6 
 
 
 18 9 
 
 II 6 
 
 490-00 
 
 79 
 
 East Xortham 
 
 12 10 
 
 23 II 
 
 19 3 
 
 II 9 
 
 643-00 
 
 87 
 
 Grass Valley ... 
 
 I 4 2 
 
 25 4 
 
 21 3 
 
 13 
 
 695-00 
 
 lor 
 
 Muckering 
 
 16 4 
 
 26 5 
 
 24 6 
 
 15 o 
 
 735'oo 
 
 "5 
 
 Cunderdin (hJoorabbin) 
 
 18 lo 
 
 27 9 
 
 28 3 
 
 17 5 
 
 774'oo 
 
 129 
 
 Tanimin 
 
 21 4 
 
 28 10 
 
 32 o 
 
 19 9 
 
 809-00 
 
 144 
 
 Kellerberrin ... 
 
 23 8 
 
 
 35 6 
 
 21 II 
 
 831-00 
 
 154 
 
 Doodlekine 
 
 25 2 
 
 3 7 
 
 37 9 
 
 23 5 
 
 822-00 
 
 i66 
 
 Mines Hill R ... 
 
 27 4 
 
 34 4 
 
 4 I 
 
 25 5 
 
 1048-00 
 
 1 80 
 
 Merredin 
 
 29 6 
 
 36 4 
 
 44 3 
 
 27 5 
 
 113300 
 
 194 
 
 Burracoppin ... 
 
 31 lo 
 
 38 lo 
 
 47 9 
 
 29 8 
 
 1291-00 
 
 219 
 
 Boddalin (29-Mile Rocks) 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 r2iroo 
 
 ?34 
 
 Parker's Road 
 
 38'"6 
 
 7 I 
 
 57 9 
 
 35 n 
 
 1163-00 
 
 248 
 
 Southern Cross 
 
 40 10 
 
 7 5 
 
 61 3 
 
 38 o 
 
 ... 
 
 266 
 
 Yellowcline 
 
 4* 5 
 
 7 8 
 
 63 8 
 
 39 o 
 
 
 278 
 
 Karalee 
 
 44 7 
 
 7 lo 
 
 66 II 
 
 41 8 
 
 ... 
 
 289 
 
 Kooraravvalyee 
 
 t"T / 
 
 46 3 
 
 
 
 O O 
 
 <-9 5 
 
 43 3 
 
 ... 
 
 306 
 
 321 
 
 Boorabin \ 
 Woolgangie | '" 
 
 49 I 
 
 10 
 
 II 7 
 
 73 8 
 
 45 n 
 
 ... 
 
 34 2 
 
 Bullabulling ... 
 
 55 I 
 
 13 2 
 
 82 8 
 
 51 6 
 
 
 36o 
 
 Coolgardie 
 
 58 3 
 
 14 7 
 
 87 5 
 
 54 6 
 
 
 
 384 
 
 Kalgoorlie 
 
 62 3 
 
 15 7 
 
 93 5 
 
 58 3 
 
3J 
 
 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES Continued. 
 GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY. 
 Fares from liererley. 
 
 Height Distance 
 above 
 sea level Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 Tickets 
 
 avaiulile 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 2nd. 
 Class. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 2nd. 
 Class 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 8 
 
 24!$ 
 
 Albany 
 
 40 
 
 30 o 
 
 60 o 
 
 45 o 
 
 i month 
 
 47 
 
 2 3 OX 
 
 Marbellup 
 
 38 6 
 
 
 57 9 
 
 43 5 
 
 ., 
 
 432 
 
 214* 
 
 Hav River 
 
 35 10 
 
 20 1 I 
 
 53 <> 
 
 !" 5 
 
 tt 
 
 8^0 
 
 2031 
 
 Mount Barker 
 
 34 o 
 
 25 6 
 
 
 3 3 
 
 n 
 
 802 
 
 191 
 
 Kciulcnup 
 
 31 10 
 
 23 n 
 
 40 7 
 
 35 ii 
 
 
 
 946 
 
 
 Tenderden 
 
 30 2 
 
 22 8 
 
 45 3 
 
 34 ^ 
 
 
 
 83 s 
 
 175 
 
 Cranbrook 
 
 29 4 
 
 22 O 
 
 44 o 
 
 33 o 
 
 ., 
 
 803 
 86 7 
 1073 
 
 I 
 
 1381 
 
 
 Pootenup 
 Tambellup 
 Brooniehill 
 
 28 o 
 25 8 
 
 23 2 
 
 21 
 
 19 3 
 17 5 
 
 42 o 
 38 6 
 34 9 
 
 3i 6 
 28 ii 
 
 26 2 
 
 " 
 
 1022 
 
 126] 
 
 
 Katanning 
 
 21 2 
 
 15 " 
 
 31 9 
 
 23 11 
 
 ,, 
 
 923 
 
 I13< 
 
 
 Yaraben 
 
 19 o 
 
 14 3 
 
 28 6 
 
 21 3 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 IO2; 
 
 
 Lime I akc ... 
 
 17 2 
 
 12 11 
 
 25 9 
 
 19 5 
 
 
 014 
 8 4 
 
 
 
 Wa>;in Lake 
 
 A / 
 
 15 8 
 
 li 9 
 
 j z 
 23 6 
 
 17 8 
 
 7 days 
 
 935 
 
 83i 
 
 
 Buchanan River 
 
 14 o 
 
 10 6 
 
 21 
 
 15 9 
 
 ,. 
 
 1014 
 
 73 
 
 
 Wolwolling 
 
 12 2 
 
 9 2 
 
 18 3 
 
 13 9 
 
 ,, 
 
 1114 
 1109 
 
 6* 
 54' 
 
 
 Xarrogin 
 Cuballing Pool 
 
 10 8 
 9 2 
 
 8 o 
 6 ii 
 
 16 o 
 13 9 
 
 12 
 
 10 5 
 
 " 
 
 962 
 
 
 
 Popanying Pool 
 
 7 o 
 
 5 3 
 
 10 6 
 
 7 " 
 
 
 
 
 3ii 
 
 
 Pinielly 
 
 5 4 
 
 4 o 
 
 8 o 
 
 6 o 
 
 ,, 
 
 786 
 
 19 
 
 
 Brookton 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 6 
 
 5 o 
 
 3 9 
 
 
 
 667 
 
 7i 
 
 
 Mount Rokeby 
 
 i 4 
 
 I O 
 
 2 
 
 i 6 
 
 
 
 647 
 
 
 Beverley 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Torbay Bt\-i n cJi . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 Torbay Junction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 442 
 
 17 
 
 Torbay Mills 
 
 O 10 
 
 o 8 
 
 i 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. 
 
 From Perth to the following Stations. 
 
 Height 
 above 
 sea level 
 
 68-10 
 I8'45 
 
 IO2OO 
 
 181 40 
 17065 
 12840 
 10685 
 146 gc 
 27-00 
 6670 
 i" 55 
 10800 
 89-55 
 
 I2O 1O 
 6925 
 O6'20 
 
 34-50 
 
 44-30 
 2760 
 1050 
 
 Distance 
 
 Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 and. 
 Class. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 and. 
 Class. 
 
 3 
 8 
 16 
 19 
 
 21 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 54 
 62 
 
 
 
 80 
 86 
 93 
 99 
 
 102 
 107 
 III 
 H5 
 
 
 s. d. 
 o 6 
 
 i 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 11 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 S 
 
 19 o 
 10 4 
 n 8 
 
 12 8 
 
 13 4 
 14 4 
 15 6 
 16 6 
 17 o 
 17 lo 
 18 6 
 19 2 
 
 s. d. 
 o 4 
 o lo 
 
 I S 
 2 
 2 2 
 
 3 o 
 3 7 
 
 5 8 
 6 6 
 7 4 
 7 II 
 8 4 
 9 o 
 9 8 
 lo 4 
 lo 8 
 
 II 2 
 
 II 7 
 
 12 
 
 s. d. 
 o 9 
 
 2 O 
 
 4 o 
 4 9 
 5 3 
 
 I I 
 
 13 6 
 15 6 
 17 6 
 19 o 
 
 20 O 
 2l 6 
 
 23 3 
 24 9 
 25 6 
 20 9 
 27 9 
 28 9 
 
 J. d. 
 6 
 
 i 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 o 
 
 SI 
 
 5 5 
 
 8 6 
 9 9 
 
 11 
 
 n II 
 
 12 6 
 
 13 6 
 
 M <> 
 15 6 
 16 o 
 16 9 
 17 5 
 18 o 
 
 Canningtou 
 
 Kelmsci'tt 
 
 
 
 Jarraiiclale Junction 
 
 North Dandalup 
 Pinjarrah 
 
 Drake's Brook 
 
 Cooicernup Brook 
 
 Mornington 
 Brunsw.ck 
 Collie ... 
 Waterloo 
 Hcton Junction 
 Bunbury 
 
22 
 
 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES Conti 'nncd. 
 
 SOUTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. 
 
 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 Height Distance 
 
 
 
 
 above 
 sea level. Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 and. 
 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 Bunbury and Donnybrook Branch. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1050 
 
 
 Bunburv 
 
 
 
 
 
 2675 
 
 5 
 
 Picton junction 
 
 o 8 
 
 o 5 
 
 I 
 
 o 8 
 
 89.00 
 
 9 
 
 Darclanup 
 
 I 8 
 
 I I 
 
 2 6 
 
 I 8 
 
 122-15 
 
 16 
 
 Boyanup Junction 
 
 2 8 
 
 I 8 
 
 4 o 
 
 2 6 
 
 208-35 
 
 25 
 
 Donnybrook ... 
 
 4 4 
 
 2 9 
 
 6 6 
 
 4 2 
 
 
 
 Bunbury, Boyanup, and Bussrlton Branch 
 
 
 
 
 
 10-50 
 
 
 Bunbury 
 
 
 
 
 
 122-15 
 
 16 
 
 Boyanup 
 
 2 8 
 
 I 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 6 
 
 48-50 
 
 27 
 
 Coolingup 
 
 4 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 6 9 
 
 4 3 
 
 49-60 
 
 32 
 
 Ludlow 
 
 5 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 8 o 
 
 5 o 
 
 20 '05 
 
 36 
 
 Wonnerup 
 
 6 o 
 
 3 9 
 
 9 o 
 
 5 8 
 
 6-50 
 
 42 
 
 Busselton 
 
 7 o 
 
 4 5 
 
 10 6 
 
 6 8 
 
 NORTHERN RAILWAY. 
 
 Table of Passenger Fares from Gcraldton to the following Stations : 
 
 Height Distance 
 above 
 sea level. Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE, 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 2nd. 
 Class. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 and. 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 Geraldton and Walkaway. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 .v. d. 
 
 J. d. 
 
 V^O 
 
 
 Geraldton 
 
 
 
 
 
 84-30 
 
 'a 
 
 Race Course ... 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 70- / 5 
 
 12\ 
 
 Ho.-teiial 
 
 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 ?> 
 
 1 11 
 
 9560 
 
 15! 
 
 Wiley's ... ... 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 6 
 
 9090 
 
 19} 
 
 Walkaway 
 
 4 
 
 2 1 
 
 ;"> 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 
 Geraldton and Northampton. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5'3 
 
 
 Iton 
 
 
 
 
 
 116-25 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Cliapinan 
 White 1'cak ... 
 
 8 
 1 8 
 
 5 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 1 8 
 
 3 ( )i ' S 
 
 I 1 ) 
 
 Taylor*! 
 
 'A '2 
 
 2 
 
 4 9 
 
 8 
 
 4&I*60 
 
 21 
 
 Oakahi-lla 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 3 8 
 
 
 25 
 
 Mcduire 
 
 4 '2 
 
 2 7 
 
 6 3 
 
 3 11 
 
 36370 
 
 27 
 
 MITCV'S 
 
 4 6 
 
 J 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 3 
 
 354' 
 
 28 
 
 Ryan's 
 
 4 8 
 
 1 11 
 
 7 9 
 
 4 5 
 
 
 
 Bowcf't 
 
 5 
 
 3 2 
 
 7 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 34 
 
 Northampton ... 
 Geraldton and MuIIewa. 
 
 r, s 
 
 3 7 
 
 8 6 
 
 5 5 
 
 S <o 
 
 | 
 
 Geraldton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Mtillevva Junction 
 
 1 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 797-80 
 
 13 
 
 Mi H >D vooiiooka 
 
 2 7 
 
 1 8 
 
 a li 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 I'i 
 
 Xo. i Tank ... ... ... . 
 
 4 1 
 
 2 8 
 
 6 2 
 
 4 
 
 71370 
 
 22 
 
 Nc.-wiiH-n acai i a 
 
 1 M 
 
 H *2 
 
 7 3 
 
 4 9 
 
 79-705 
 
 903-25 
 
 34 
 
 (irecimugh River Crossing 
 
 Mu.Uw.i' 
 
 7 10 
 I.'. 7 
 
 5 2 
 10 4 
 
 11 9 
 
 2-1 5 
 
 7 9 
 15 6 
 
The following table' gives an approximate uk-a of HR- prc-M-nt 
 general rates of freight on the GovcniKMit railways : 
 
 Hii\\ CJnirf, /'( >/<//(><*, Flour, OiJ/s, tind other Cereals, i'rnit. I' arm <in<i 
 
 (iiirden 1'rodnee. 
 
 miles. 
 
 75 
 miles. 
 
 [OO 
 
 miles. 
 
 miles. 
 
 200 
 
 miles. 
 
 Rates per ton. 
 
 s. (1. s. d. S. d. s. (1. s. d. 
 
 68 89 10 10 14 o 17 i 
 
 />;/(>, Cotil, Sand, (ifiirel, Lime, Limestone, and Road Metal. 
 
 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 
 
 50 6 i 71 92 ii 3 
 
 Aerated Waters, Butter, Cheese, Honey, lee, Soap, reef, Pork, Ale tiiidSt^nt, Bacon, 
 
 11 it ins, and Candles. 
 
 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 
 
 13 4 17 6 21 8 27 ii 34 2 
 
 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES Continued. 
 MIDLAND RAILWAY. 
 
 Height Distance. 
 above 
 sea level. Miles. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 SINGLE. 
 
 RETURN. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 Class. 
 
 and. 
 Class. 
 
 ISt. 
 
 2nd. 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 
 5. d. 
 
 i. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4I-65 
 
 
 Midlandjunction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 Upper Swan ... 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 9 
 
 165-84 
 
 23 
 
 Muchea 
 
 3 9 
 
 2 9 
 
 5 9 
 
 4 8 
 
 
 10 
 
 Chandala 
 
 5 
 
 3 9 
 
 7 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 329-46 
 
 40 
 
 Ginjjin 
 
 6 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 6 
 
 6O2'22 
 
 48 
 
 Mooliabeenee .. 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 52 
 
 Calialla 
 
 8 9 
 
 6 6 
 
 13 
 
 9 9 
 
 
 6l 
 
 Wannamal 
 
 10 
 
 7 6 
 
 15 
 
 II 6 
 
 568-64 
 
 69 
 
 Mojfumber 
 
 11 G 
 
 8 C 
 
 17 8 
 
 13 
 
 
 76 
 
 Gillingarra 
 
 12 9 
 
 9 6 
 
 19 
 
 14 3 
 
 
 86 
 
 Kooj^an 
 
 14 3 
 
 10 7 
 
 21 6 
 
 16 
 
 665-56 
 
 ,,s 
 
 Moora 
 
 16 3 
 
 12 3 
 
 24 6 
 
 18 8 
 
 
 IIO 
 
 Coomberdale 
 
 18 3 
 
 18 9 
 
 27 6 
 
 20 t; 
 
 852-17 
 
 
 Watlieroo 
 
 20 8 
 
 15 3 
 
 30 6 
 
 22 9 
 
 
 I4n 
 
 Marchajjce 
 
 23 3 
 
 17 6 
 
 
 2*5 ;> 
 
 866-27 
 880-81 
 
 IS 
 
 Coorow 
 Carnamah 
 
 25 3 
 
 28 3 
 
 19 
 21 
 
 88 
 42 
 
 28 6 
 31 6 
 
 
 183 
 
 Three Springs ... 
 
 30 6 
 
 22 9 
 
 45 9 
 
 34 8 
 
 860-35 
 
 195 
 
 Arrino 
 
 32 6 
 
 24 3 
 
 48 9 
 
 36 6 
 
 
 207 
 
 Yandanook ... .. ... . . 
 
 34 6 
 
 25 9 
 
 51 9 
 
 38 9 
 
 503-33 
 
 217 
 
 Mihginew 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 54 3 
 
 40 9 
 
 
 223 
 
 Lockier 
 
 37 
 
 27 9 
 
 55 9 
 
 41 9 
 
 
 230 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 38 3 
 
 28 9 
 
 .-.7 :; 
 
 43 
 
 1 1 "O'" 1 *" 
 
 241 
 
 lr\\'in 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 fl'l I) 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 243 
 
 Yaradino 
 
 40 6 
 
 30 3 
 
 60 9 
 
 45 6 
 
 3O'lo 
 
 
 Dongara 
 
 42 
 
 31 6 
 
 63 8 
 
 47 6 
 
 
 268 
 
 Bokara 
 
 44 9 
 
 38 6 
 
 f>7 d 
 
 50 8 
 
 90-90 
 
 274 
 2/7 
 
 Greenough Road 
 Walkaway 
 
 45 9 
 46 S 
 
 34 3 
 34 6 
 
 68 6 
 69 6 
 
 51 3 
 51 
 
RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 
 
 TO*- 202 Main Library 
 
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 . 
 
 -! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 1/83 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
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YC,07 r j4U 
 
 171