-^ e^ J LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF TH LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF TH J 11 OF CALIFORNIA TT OF CALIFORNIA ^^^m ^ m LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ••V 'Izl w A COMPENDIOUS AND COMPLETE SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, OR A Vieiv of the Present State OF THE WORLD. BEING A FAITHFUL ABRIDGEMENT OF THE AMERICAN tTNIVERSAL GE06» RAPHY, (EDITION OF 1812,) WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS MAD£ FROM INFORMATION SINCE RECEIVED. BY JEDIDIAH MORSE, D. D. A. A. 8c S. H. & S. A. Soc, Author of the Amcricoit Uiurei'sal Geography, American Gazetteer, &c. J'ic. ILLUSTRATED BY A REPRESENTATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM, AND SIX MAPS OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE, BOSTON : PUBLISHED BY THOMAS AND ANDREWS, And soM at their Bookstore, No. 45, N«;wbury-Street ; by EASTBUHN, KIRIC, & Ce~ J^sif-Kork ; M. CAREY, Philadelplua ; and the BootKUeis generally.— Jan. 1814. Joseph T. Buckineham, Priutsj-. A COMPENDIOUS AND COMPLETE SYSTEM OF ♦MODERN GEOGRAPHY. OR A Fieiv of the Present State OF THE WORLD. BEING A FAITHFUL ABRIDGEMENT OF THE AMERICAN UNIVERSAL GEO©. RAPHY, (EDITION OF 1812,) WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS MADE FROM INFORMATION SINCE RECEIVED. ' BY JEDIDIAH MORSE, D. D. A. A. & S. H. Ec S. A. Soc, Author of the American Univeisal Geography, American Gazetteer, &c. kc. ILLUSTRATED BY A REPRESENTATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM, AND SIX MAPS OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE, BOSTON : PUBLISHED BY THOMAS AND ANDREWS, AskI soM at their Bookstore, No. 45, Nfwbury-Street ; by EASTBUBN, KIRK, Se Ce- >'ew."Vork ; M. CAREY, Philailelpliia ; and the BooltKUars generally.— Jan. 1814. Joseph T. Buckinghaun, Priatcr. DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSET1 S, to wit : ^ _ District Clerk's OJke, BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the seventh day of January, A, D. 1814, Had in the thirty sl^hth year of the independence of the United States of America Jedidiah Morse, of the said dis- trict, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whtivof he claims as author in tJie ■words following, to wii : " A toinpendioin and complete System of Modem Geography, Ov a View of the present State of the World. Beinp a ftithfiil Abridgement of the American Uuivei-sa! Geography (edition of 1812) with Corrections and Additions made from InfonnatioD since received.- By Jedidiah Morse. D. D. A. A. & S. H. & S. A. Soc. Author of the American Universal G«ogra" ?hy, American Gazetteer, &c &c. Illustrated by a Representation of the Solar System, and six laps of the principal Divisions of the Globe.'' In Conformity to the act of the congress of the United States, iutitled, " an act for the encour- agement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprie- lors of such copies, during the time- therein mentioned ;" and also to an act intitled, " an act sap- plementar)' to au act. intitled, "in act for the encouragement of lianiing. by securing the copies of maps, cliarts, and books, to the authors aud proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned ; and extending die beuctits thereof' to the arts of desiguing, engraving aud etching tii&' tocicftl, vid oUier prints." WILLIAM S. sn AW, Clerk of the District of Massachusetts > ADVERTISEMENT, THIS volume has been compiled and published at Ihe solicitation of a number of the author's judicious literary friends and correspondents, with a view to ac- commodate those famihes with a system of geography, (a work which has become almost necessary, to all who take an interest in the wonderful events of the present times) whose means are inadequate to the purchase of his larger work ; and also, and particularly, to furnish academies, and public and private schools of a higher grade, than those in which his smaller abridgement is used, with a volume of a size and kind suited to their more enlarged scale of instruction. Such a volume, of moderate size and price, the author has abundant reason to believe, has long been considered as a desideratum among the classical books of our country. If it shall be found, as the author hopes, that this work fills this blank in the list of our books of useful instruction, his design, :vill be accoinplished. Charlestoivn^ Jan. X^ 1814. ■7*>'>0 *;:./■ INDEX. ABYSSINIA 640 Berlin , 436 Acapulco 280 Bermudas 360 Africa 622 Birman Empire 554 Agra 578 Bokhara 597 Albany 169 Bologna 500 Albemarle sound 109 Bombay 580 Aleppo 520 Bootan 544 Alexandria (Egypt) . 634 Borneo 608 Algiers 627 Boston 141 Alligator swamp 113 Bourbon island 660 Amazon river '65 Bourdeaux . 451 Amazonia 338 Brazil 339 Amboyna isjand 611 Brcslau 435 America 54 Brest 451 American islands 360 British Empire 370 Amsterdam 439 Brunswick 461 Andes mountains 70 Brussels 443 Anhalt, house of 463 Bucharia b^^l Antigua 306 Buda 4,70 Antwerp 443 Buenos Ayres 344 Apalachian mountains 113 Cabul 579 Arabia 599 Cadiz 483 Arkansas river 268 Calcutta 577 Arrowauks Indians, 329 Cahokia 206 Asia 516 California gulf 60 Asphallites lake 523 mountains 71 Astrachan 527 Cairo 633 Atlantic ocean , 52 Cambodia 547 Australasia 612 Canaries 659 Austria 466 Candia 514 Ava 558 Canton 535 Babelmandel 364 Cape Bretcn 92 Babylon 521 Cape of Good Hop© 645 Baffin's bay 59 Caraccas 322 Bagdad 521 Caribbean islands 303 Bahamas 289 Carthagena 317 Ballsiown springs 173 Cashmir 579 Baltic sea 363 Caspian sea 365 Baltimore 212 Casscl 46 i Barbadoes SIC Cayenne 330 Barbuda 305 Cayuga river 199 Barca 631 Caxamarca f O f Barcelona 482 Celcbe2ian islands 610 Barcelona (Venezuela) 323 Ceylon island 584 Basil 476 Champlain lake 113 Bavaria 464 Charleston (Souih-Cai olina) 244 Bayonne 452 Cherokee Indians 257 Bayreuth 466 Chesapeake bay 108 Belgvade 512 Chickasaws 257 Bennington J2l Chili 351 Eurampooter river 367 Cliimborazo 70 China INUJ 532 t!.A.. Euxine sea V 662 Choc taws 257 Falkland islands 361 Ciampa 548 Ferro islands 417 Cochin 582 Fishery of Newfoundland 84 Cochhi China 548 Fixed stars 32 Coimbra 493 Fiorence 498 Colombo- 585 Floridas 273 Colorado river 69, 358 Formosa island 537 Columbia District 215 Fox islands 74 Columbia river 69 France 445 Comets 29 Frankfort 466 Connecticut 153 French Guiana 32S river 110,161 Gallapagos 351 Constantinople 511 Ganges 367 Contiucnis 51 Geneva 477 Copenhagen 415 Genoa 498 Coperuican system 20 Georgia 249 Corea 541 Germany 456 Cork 401 Ghent 443 Corsica 454 Gibraltar 489 Coos iijland 524 straits 364 Creek Indians 257 Gilolo island 610 Cuba 293 Glasgow 293 Cumberland river 110 Globes and their use 34 Curacoa 314 Goa 583 Cusco 334 Gottingen 161 Cyprus 524 Governments of America 58 Damascus 520 Granada 483 Danish America 75 Greenland 77 Danish Empire 407 Green mountains 114 Dantzic 464 Grenada 3H Danube river 367 Guadaloupe .S07 Dardanelles 364 Guatemala 284 Delaware stat^ 182 Guayaquil :517 Denmark 412 Guernsey isle 388 Deseada 308 Guiana 327 Detroit 201 Gulf stream 60 Divisions of the earth 51 Hague 440 Dominir.o St. 295 Halifax SS Dominica 308 Hanoverian states 461 Dresden 460 Hartford 158 Dublin 401 Harvard College 138 Dutch Guiana 327 Havanna 294 Eartli 23,49 Hayti 295 jEtna, mount 504 Heckla mountain 77 Edinburgh 393 Helena St. 650 Egypt 633 Hesse, grand duchy of 462 Elizabeth islands 148 Hindostan 566 England 371 Hispaniohi 295 English Guiana 328 Holland 437 Eiie lake 63 Hudson river no Essequebo river 331 sea 59 Euphrates river 593 Hudson 169 Europe 369 Huron lake 62 vi INDEX. Jamaicft 298 Malta 506 Japan 550 Manillas 609 Java 607 Mantna 500 Iceland 75 Maps and their use 42 Jcdctu 602 Mari gal ante 308 Jersey isle 3€8 Maracaibo 32S Jerusakm 521 Marietta 198 Illinois river 109 Marseilles 450 territory 205 Martha's Vineyard 108 Indian ocean 52 Martinico 309 Indiana territory- 203 Maryland 209 Interesting tables 661 Massac fort 207 Ionian republic 507 Massachusetts 134 Ireland 399 Mauritius 660 Isle of Shoals 129 M'Kenzie's river 69 Isle of Man 388 Mecca 602 Isle of Wight 388 Medina 602 Ispahan 590 Mediterranean sea 362 Italy 495 Mecklenburg, house of 46:2 Juggernaut 580 Mexico 277 Ivica 488 gulf 60 Julian calendar 47 Michigan lake 63 Kamtchatka sound 364 territory 200 Kaskaskias 206 Michilimackinac 203 Kentucky 225 Milan 500 .Kingston (Upper-Canada) 86 Miles, length of in differ- Lakes of America 61 ent countries 45 La Plata 347 Mindanao 609 river 68 ,349 Minorca 48,8 La Guira 32S Missisippi river 65 JLa Pas 347 territory- 200 Lapland 405 Missouri river 65 Leghorn 499 Mobile river 112 ■Leipsic 460 Modena 500 Leoo Kcoo islands 549 Moluccas 610 JL,eydcn 440 Montserrat 307 Lima S34 IMonireal 82 Liverpool 380 Monte Video 345 Long island 174 Morocco 629 sound 108 Moosehead lake 134 Louisburg 93 Munich 467 Louisiana 260 Nankin 534 "Low Countries 437 Nantucket 147 Lower-Canada 80 Naples kingdom 501 Xucca 499 Narragansett bay 108 Lyons 451 Nassau 290 Madagascar 658 Natchez Indians 257 Madeira 659 Navigator's islands 615 Mad.id 482 Naxia 515 Magdeburg 461 Nepavil 545 Majorca 488 Netherlands 442 Maine District 130 Newbern (North -Carolina) 332 Malaga 484 Newark (Upper-Canada) 86 Malava 560 New-Bedford 143 Hew-Brkain New-Britain (N. America) New-Biunswick New-Caledonia Newfoundland New-Granada New-Hampshire New-Haven NewHoliand New-Ireland Nc w- Jersey New-London New -Mad rid New-Orleans Newport New-York city New-Zealand Nevis Niagara river 1 1 fort Kiger Nile Norfolk island (Virginia) North-America North-Carolina Northern ocean Northwest Coast Norway Nova-Zembla Nova-Scotia Nubia ©paro isles Oporto Oceans, account of Gkefonoco swamp Ohio river Ontario lake Orkney islands Oronoco river Otaheite Owhyhee Pacific ocean Palermo Pamlico sound Panama Papua Parana river Paria, gulf of Paris Parma Paramaribo .INDEX. 615 Patagonia 79 Patna 9 1 Pearl river 615 Pegu 84 Pekin 315 Pclew isles 124 Pennsylvania 158 Penobscot rivey 612 Pensacola 615 Pei'nambuco 175 Persia 159 Peru 265 Petersburg (Russia) 265 Philippine islands 151 Philadelphia 162 Pisa 1 68 Flacentia 616 Poland 306 Polynesia 6, 64 Porto Bello 64 Porto Cavallo 366 Porto Rico 365 Porto Santo island 613 Portland 221 Ponchartrain lake ' 7 1 Portsmouth (N, Hampshir 229 Port Royal 52 Portugal 74 Portuguese Guiana 407 Potosi 43 1 Potowmac river 87 Prague 637 Presque isle 62 1 Princeton (New-Jersey) 493 Providence 52 Prussia 256 Pyramids of Egyp'c 196 Ptolemaic system 109 Pyrenees 64 Quebec 598 Queenstov/n 69 Quito 620 Raisin river 619 Raleigh 52 Rappahannoc river 503 Rariton river 103 Red sea 3 i 7 Red river 614 Religions, account of S50 Rhode Island 324 Rliodes 450 Richmond 499 Riga SSQ BXQ Janeiro vu 358 577 259 558= 534 617 186 1 33 274 342 586 332 428 609 192 499 84 431 617 317 323 GOi 659 131 •276 ■e) 126 300 490 323 346 Hi 470 63 180 151 432 632 19 454 •82 S€ o 1 7 203 232 225 181 363- 26g. 49 148- 524 221 428. Tiii INDEX. Rio Negro 359 Switzerland 475 Roanoke river 112 Syrian Christians 584 Rome 498 Tangier 625 Russian Empire 424 Tartary 595 America 73 Tchoka 540 Saba 505 Tennessee 234 Salonika 512 river 109 Samaicar.d 597 Terra del Fuego 360 Sandusky river 200 Tibet 541 Sandwich isles 619 Tides 44 Santa Cruz 304 Tigris 593 Santa Fe de Bogota 3i7 Timor 608 Santa Martha 318 Tobago 312 Santee river 112 Tottola 304 Santorini 515 Tranquebar 5a2 Sardinia 505 Tripoli 631 Savannah river 112, 252 Trenton 179 Saxony 459 Trinidad 312 Scheldt 444 Trois Rivieres 82 Scioto river 199 Truxillo 334 Scotland 388 Tunis 630 Seringapatam 582 Turin 499 Siam 562 Turkey in Asia 519 Sicily 505 in Europe 509 Smyrna 520 Tychonic system 20 Socotra isle 661 Tyre 521 Solomon islands 615 Valdivia 355 Solar system 19 Valencia 482 South-America 315 Van Diemcn's Land 616 South-Carolina 240 Ubes St. 493 Southern Georgia 361 Venice 500 Southern states 209 Venezuela 319 Spain 478 Vera Cruz 280 Spanish America 269 Vermont 118 Guiana 327 Vernon mount 221 Spitzbergen 73 Vesuvius mount 498 Spice islands 610 Vienna 470 St. Bartholomew 305 Vincenncs 204 St. Christophers 306 Virginia 217 St. Lucia 310 Virgin isles 303 St. Martin's 305 United States 94 St. Eustatius 305 Upper-Canada 85 St. Domingo 295 Uraguay river 350 St. Jago 354 Utrecht 440 St. John's 84 Wabash river 110 St. Lawrence gulf 60 Vv ashington city 215 St. Thomas 304 Warsaw 460 Stockholm 421 West-Indies 285 Suez 602, 634 Westphalia 460 Sumatra 606 Winnipiseogec lake 129 Susquehannah river 111 Wurtemberg 465 Superior lake 62 Xarayes lake 65 Surat .'580 Yale College 157 S\Yeden 418 Zealand island 413 INTRODUCTION, RISE AND PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY. GEOGRAPHY is a term,* derived from the Greek language, and literally signifies a deacrifition of the earth. It treats of the nature, figure, and magnitude of the earth ; the situation, ex- tent, and appearance of different parts of its surface ; its produc- tions and inhabitants. The time when attention was first paid to the pleasing a«d use- ful study of geography, is unknown. It seems to be the general opinion, that the Greeks, who were the first cultivators of this sci- ence in Europe, received it either from the Egyptians or Babyloni- nians ; but it cannot be determined to which of these two nations belongs the honor of having invented it. Geography was very imperfect in its beginning, and has advanc- ed slowly towards its present degree of perfection. The true fig- ure of the earth wai unknown to its first inhabitants, and the earli- est opinion seems to have been that, which would most naturally result from the first information given by the senses. It was con- sidered as a large circular plane ; and the heavens, in which the sun, moon, and stars appear daily to move from east to west, were supposed not to be elevated to a very great height above it, and to have been created solely for its use and ornament. It is not known who first rejected this erroneous hypothesis, and shewed that the figure of the earth is spherical ; but it seems to have been done at a time of remote antiquity. It appears that the situation of places was first determined accord- ing to climates ; and that geographers were then guided, in fixing on the climates., by the form and colour of certain animals, which were to be found in different countries. The appearance of Ne- groes, or what they called Ethiopians, and of the larger sized ani- mals, as the rhinoceros and elephant, suggested to them the north- ern and southern limits of the torrid zone. A different and more scientific method was used by the Egyptians and Babyloniuns, who determined the situation of places, or their distance from the equa- tor, by observing the length of their longest and shortest days. And ihese observations were made with a species of sun-dial, having a stilus ov griomon, erected perpendicularly upon a horizontal plane, by which the length of the shadow of the gnomon, in proportion to its height, might be measured. It may be conjectured that travelling., soon after it began Ca be much practised in the world, gave rise to a kind of geography. * Vv^yfK(^ix, from y~i ths caftb, and vp»p to describe, 10 INTRODUCTION. Some, Avho bad performed joumies, made a rough sketch or de- scription of their routs, for the information of others who might af- terward wish to travel in the same. The earliest specimen of this kind, of which we have an account, is that of Sesostris, an Egyp- tian king and conqueroi", who, as Eustathitis relates, " having trav° ersed great part of the earth, recorded his march in maps, "and gave copies of his maps not only to the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great astonishment." Sonne have imagined that the Jews made a map of tlie Holy Land, when they gave the different por- tions to the nine tribes at Shiloh ; for Joshua tells us, that they w-ere sent to walk through the land, and that they described it irs seven fiarts in a book. Homer was first distinguished among the Greeks for his knowl- edge of the different nations of the earth, and the countries they inhabited. He has described so many places, and with such a de- g-ree of accuracy, that Strabo considered him as first among the geographers of ancient times. A taste for the sciences led Thales, the father of Grecian phi- losophy, into Egypt, where he lived with the priests. On his re- lui'n, he taught his countrymen that the earth is globular, and may be divided into five zones, by means of five parallel circles, viz; the equator, the two tropics, and the two polar circles ; and that the eqirator is cut obliquely by the ecliptic, and perpendicularly by the meridian. Thus he made them acquainted with the principal circles of tl>e sphere.* He also taught them, that the year con- sisted of 365 days, which he learned from the Egyptians. Anaximander, a disciple of Thales, was the author of the first Grecian map on record, which is mentioned by Strabo. The knowledge of the earth was indeed very limited at that time, as it scarcely extended beyond the temperate zone, and did not even comprise the whole of that. The extent of the representation of the Avorld from cast to west was twice as great as from south to Borth ; hence the reason, why distances on the earth in the former direction were denominated longitude ; and those in the latter, lat- itude. Maps were afterward muUiplied. Eratosthenes was the first, who introduced a regular parallel- of latitude. He began it at tlie straights of Gibraltcr ; continued it through the island of Rhodes and the bay of issus ; and extended it to the mountains of India. In drawing t'^is parallel h-e was reg- ulated by observing- \'/here the longest day was 14| hours, which ivfas afterwards found by Plipparchus to be die latitude of 36 de- grees. Eratosthenes soon after attemptctl not only to draw other paral- lels of latitude, but also to trace a meridian at rigiit angles to these, pas.^iing through Rhodes and Alexandria down to Syene and Meroe; and, as the progress he tlms n;ade naturally tended to enlarge his ideas, he at last attempted the much more difficult operation of de- termining the circumference of the globe, by an actual measure- meutof an arc of one of its great circles. He knew that the sun,' * See Explanation of Terms INTRODUCTION. U at the summer solstice, was vertical to the inhabitants of Syene, a town on the confines of Ethiopia, under the tropic of Cancer, where tliey had a well sunk for the purpose of ascertaining the time of the solstice, which would be on the day when the rays of the sun fell perpendicularly on the bottom of the well. He observed by the shadow of a wire set perpendicularly in a hemispherical bason, how far the sun was distant from the zenith of Alexandria at the lioon of the same day ; and found that distance to be one fiftieth part of a great circle in the heavens. Then Syene and Alexaridria being supposed to be under the same meridian, he concluded the distance between them to be the fiftieth part of a great circle upon the earth ; and this distance being by measure 5000 stadia, he con- cluded the circumference of the earth to be 250,000 stadia ; but, as this number divided by 360 would give 694— stadia to a degree, either Eratosthenes himself, or some of his followers, assigned the round number 700 stadia to a degree ; which multiplied by 360, makes the circumference of the earth 252,000 stadia ; whence both these measures are given by different authors as that of Eratosthe- nes- The map of Eratosthenes appears to have contained little more than the states of Greece, and the dominions of the successors of Alexander, digested from the surveys that had been made. TiMOCHARis and Aristillus, who flourished about 300 years before the Christian era, seem to have been the first who attempt- -€d to fix the longitudes and latitudes of the fixed stars, by consid- ering their situation with respect to the equator.* One of their ob- servations gave rise to the discovery of the precession of the equi- noxes, which was made by Hipparchus about 150 years afterward ; and he made use of their method in order to delineate the paral- lels of latitude and the meridians on the surface of the earth ; thus laying the first solid foundation of the science of geography, as we have it at the present time, and uniting it more closely to astronomy. Although latitudes and longitudes were thus introduced by Hip- parchus, it does not appear that any subsequent writers on the sub- ject attended to them before the time of Ptolemy. At the begin- ning of the second Punic war, according to Polvbius, when Hanni- bal was preparing for his expedition against Rome, by crossing from Africa into Spain, and so through Gaul into Italy, the Romans measured or surveyed all these places with the greatest care. Ju- lius Caesar caused a general survey to be made of the whole Ro- man empire, by a decree of the senate. Three surveyors, v/ho were said to have been very wise men and accomplished pbiloso- phers, were appointed to this business, and to each was assigned a different division of the empire. Zenodoxus completed his survey of the eastern part of the empire in 14 years, 5 months, and 9 days; Theodotus finished the northern part in 20 years, 8 months, and 10 * The longitudes and latitudes of the stars were referred to the equator both by Timocharis and Hipparchus; and never uniformly to the ecliptic, till after the precession of the equinoxes was fully established by Ptolemy. 12 INTRODUCTION. days ; and PolyclltuS) the southern part in 25 years, 1 month, and 10 days. This survey was begun iu the year 44, and finished in the year 19, before Christ. Strabo and Ptolemt were the most eminent of the ancient geographers. Strabx) relates very little more than he saw himself ; he made a vast number of voyages to obtain the information that was necessary, in order to give the requisite certainty to his ac- counts, and is very short in what he relates from others. He was a philosopher, as well as a geographer. Good sense, perspicuity, accuracy, and solidity of judgement, are visible in every part of his works. The geography of Ptolemy is more extensive ; it takes in a greater part of the earth, while it seems to be equally circum- stantial every where ; but this extent renders it liable to more er- Tors. He had the merit of carrying into full execution and prac- tice die invention of Hipparchus, for designating the situation of places on the earth by latitude and longitude, after it had lain dor- mant upward of 250 years ; and thus he greatly advanced the state of the science. The Roman empire had been enlarged to its greatest extent, and all its provinces well known and surveyed, when Ptolemy, a- bout 150 years after Christ, composed his system of geography. The principal materials used in composing this work were, the proportions of the gnomon to its shadow, taken by different astrono- mers at the times of the equinoxes and solstices ; calculations founded upon the lengths of the longest days ; the measures or computed distances of the principal roads contained in the Roman surveys arid itineraries ; and the various reports of tra-vellers and navigators^ who often determined the distances of places by hear- say and conjecture. All these were compared together, and di- gested into one uniform body or system ; and were afterward trans- lated by liim, as far as was necessary in adopting the plan of Hip- parchus, into the new mathematical language of degrees and mi?!' •utes of longitude z.i\Ci latitude. The degree of accuracy in the latitudes and longitudes, given by Ptolemy, depended upon the veracity of the facts or suggestions communicated to him, from which they were afterward deduced. We must not therefore be surprised at the multitude of errors to be found there, when his original materials were so imperfect for executing so large a workj as the fixing of the longitudes and lati- tudes of all the places, coasts, bays, and rivers of the then known world. His system, with all its imperfections, continued in vogue till the beginning of the 17th century; and the capital errors of Ptolemy's work kept their place in all maps, by a sort of unques- tioned prescription, down even to that time. Little was done in geography from the days of Ptolemy to the restoration of learning in Europe ; for the Arabian geographers copied and retailed allhis prhicipal errors. They observed indeed, xjnder their Caliph Almanon, in the beginning ot the ninth centu- ry, a degree of latitude on the plains of Shinar near Babylon, and found it equal to 56§ Arabian miles, each of which is 4000 cubits, »r 6000 feet ; hence they determined the circumference of the earth. " INTRODUCTION. 13 The sticients were acquainted with but a small portion of the earth's surface. On the west, the Atlantic ocean and British isles limited their knowledge. The Fortunate islands, now called the Canaries, were the remotest known lands towards the south. Their notions with regard to the northern countries were very imperlect. Though Scandinavia was known, yet that and some other countries on the same continent were considered as large islands. It is not easy to determine what place the ancients understood by Ultima Thule ; many take it for Iceland, but Procopius thinks it was a part of Scandinavia. Their knowledge of Sarmatia and Scythia Was far from extending to the sea, which bounds Russia ancl Gi-eat Tartary on the north-east. Their discoveries went no farther than the Riphean mountains, which now divide Russia from Siberia. The western frontier of China seems to have bounded their knowl- edge on the east. Ptolemy indeed had a very imperfect notion of the southern parts of that extensive empire. How far the ancients extended their discoveries witli regard to Africa cannot be certain- ly known. Some are of opinion, that they were acquainted with the whole coast, having sailed round the southern extremity, now called the Cape of Good Hope, ancl extended their voyages from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. Ptolemy, however, supposed that Africa was not surrounded by the sea, but extended in its breadth eastwardly till it joined to India. In the fifteenth century the Portuguese, animated with the de- sire of finding a passage to the East-Indies, pushed their enquiries along the western coast of Africa, till they found the Cape ot Good Hope, in I486. In 1497, Vasqucz de Gama doubled the Cape, and the next year made a voyage to India, and thus" completed the discovery of that country by the east. The passage being thus o- pened, several European nations, desirous of shainng in the rich commerce of the east, sent their ships to the Indian Sea, where they discovered the Asiatic islands, and penetrated to the empire of Japan. The voyages of the Russians have completed our knowl- edge of tbe eastern parts of the continent of Asia. The Portuguese had just crossed the equator, when Christo- pher Columbus, a native of Genoa, conceived the idea of finding India by a western course. In 1 492, he crossed the Atlantic ocean : but, instead of the Indies he discovered the new world. The improvements in geography at the time of the revival of learning; in Europe, and since, have been very much owing to the great progress of astronomy. More cor!:ect methods and instru- ments for observing the latitude have been invented ; and the dis- covery of Jupiter's satellites afford a much easier method of find- ing the longitude, than was formerly known. Solar and Innar eclipses, transits of Mercury and Venus over the sun's disc, and occultations of the fixed stars by the moon, also furnish means for determining longitudes. And since t!ie limar lahlesf were improv- ed by Professor Mayer, and time kecfiers by Mi-. Harrison ancl others, this important object has l)een obtainable by nuasiiring- dis- tancea of the moon from the su7i and from certain fixed utarx, and bij keeping time. The voyages of different nations brought to our U INTRODUCTION. Icnov^ledge a vast number of countries utterly unknown before. The late voyages of Capt. Cook and other navigators, together vv'ith. the travt'is of Messrs. Bruce, Park, Mackenzie, and many others, contributed greatly to the improvement of geography during the 18l1< century ; so that now the geography of the utmost extremi- ties of the earth is in a fair way of being much better known to the moderns, than that of the adjacent countries was to the antients. This science, however, is yet very far from perfection ; and our best maps ought to be considered only as unfinishetl works, which are to be altered and corrected by farther obstjrvations and discov- eries. ASTRONOMY, AS CONNECTED WITH THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Astronomy is the science, which treats of the heavenly bodies. By it we learn the figure and dimensions of the earth, and the relative situations of places upon its sm face. Hence the propriety of giving a short account of this science in an Introduction to Geography. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Angle. An angle is the space included between two lines, which meet each other. Circle. A circie is a regular figure, bounded by a curve line, every part of which is cquaily distant from a point within it, called the centre. The circiinifercnce of a circie is the curve line, which bounds it. The radius of a circle is the distance from the centre to the circumference ; and the diameter is equal to two radii, or the longest straight line, that can be drawn in a circle. The circum- ference of every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; each degree into 60 minutes ; each minute into 60 seconds. An arc of a circle is the measure of an angle. Thus a right angle is an angle of 90 degrees. An arc of a circle' is part of its circumference. Sphere, A sphere is literally a ball, or globe. By the celestial sphere is meant, the apparently concave orb, which surrounds the earth, and in which the heavenly bodies appear to be situated at equal distances from the eye. In order to facilitate the knowledge of the places of these bodies in the sphere, several circles are sup- posed to be described on its surface, and are denominated circles of the sphere. The circles of the celestial sphere are supposed to have their centres coincident with the centre of the earth, and to mark correspondent circles on the earth's surface, where their planes cut it ; so that the celestial and terrestrial spheres or globes are considered as concentric, and as having concentric circles on their surfaces. Great circles. Great circles are those, whose planes pass through , INTRODUCTION. 15 tTie centre of the spliere, and, of course, divide it into two equal parts. Of these there are four, the Jiquator, the EcU/itic^ the Me- ridian., and the Horizon. Small circles. Those circles, whose planes divide the sphere un- equally, are called small circles. Their planes do not pass through its centre. Of these there are four, also ; the two Tro/iics, and the two Polar Circles. Axis. The axis of the earth, or any heavenly hody, is an imag- inary line, around which it performs its diurnal rotation. Poles. The poles are the extremities of the axis. Equator. The Equator is a great circle, whose plane divides the earth and the heavens into nortliern and southern hemispheres. The axis of the earth makes a right angle with its plane. It is oft- en called iheEquinoctial ; because, when the sun is directly over it, the days and nights are of equal lengths in all parts of the world. Meridian. The Mei'idian is a great circle, whose plane divides the earth and the heavens into eastern and western hemispheres. There is an indefinite number of meridians ; for all places, that lie cast or west of each other, have different meridians. They all pass through the poles of the earth, and cut the equator at right angles-. The meridian of any place also passes through the zenith of that place or the point directly over our heads ; and through the nadir., or the point under our feet. The word meridian is derived front meridics^ mid-day / because, when the sun is on the meridian of any place, it is noon at tliat place. Geographers usually assume the meridian, which passes through the metropolis of their own country, as the first meridian. But as great inconvenience and confusion result from this practice, the first meridian, throughout the following work, will be that of the Royal Observatory at Green- wich, near London. EcUfitic. The Ecliptic is a great circle, whose plane makes an angle of 23 28 with the plane of the equator. Considered as a cir- cle in the heavens, its circumference is the path, which the earth describes annually in its revolution round the sun. The points, hi which the ecliptic intersects the equator, are called the equinoctial points ; because, when the sun is in either of those points, it shines on both poles, and the day is then equal to the night throughout the. earth. The meridian, which passes through these points, is called the equinoctial colure. The two points in the ecliptic, which are 90 degrees distant from these, are called the solstitial /loints ; because, when the sun is in either of them, it is summer in the nearest hem- isphere. The meridian passing through these points is calledthe solstitial colurcy and is the only meridian which cuts the ecliptic at right angles. The sun passes through the equinoctial points oti the 20th of March, and the 23d of September. The former is call- ed the vernal ; the latter, the autmnnal equinox. The sun is in the solstitial points on the 21st of June, and the 21st of December. The former is called the summer ; the latter the ivintcr solstice. The ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts of 30 degrees eacl;, called signs. These begin at the vernal intersection of the ecliptic ■«pith the equator, and are numbered from west to east. The name ^ 16 INTRODUCTION. and characters of the signs, with the moriths in which the sun eii ttrs them, are us follows ; Latin names. English names. Characters, Months. i Aries The Ram T March <■» Taurus The Bull « April O Gemhii Tlic Twins n May- 4 Cancel* The Crab So June 5 Leo The Lion Si July 6 Virgo The Virgin nR August 7 I^ibra The Scales £: September 8 Scorpio The Scoqnon "I October 9 Sagittarius The Archer Jf November 10 Capricornus The Goat Jcf December 11 Aquarius The Water Bearer January- 12 Pisces The Fishes >£ February The first six are called northern signs ; and the last six, southern. Zodiac. The Zodiac is a broad belt in the heavens, 16 degrees ^vide ; in the middle of which is the ecliptic. It comprehends the orbits of all the planets. Horizon. There are two kinds of horizons ; the sensible, and the rational. The sensible is the small circle, which limits our prospect ; where the sky and the land or water appear to meet. There are as many of these as there are places. The rational ho- rizon is a great circle, whose plane divides the earth into upper and lower hemispheres. Each place, has its own rational horizon, so that there are as many rational horizons, as there are spots on the earth's surface. The rational horizon of every place is that threat circle of the earth, whose circumference is every where 90 degrees distant from the place. The poles of the celestial hori- zon are the zenith and the iiadir. Declination. The declination of a heavenly body is its distance iiorth or liouth of the equator, measured on a meridian. Trofiics. The Tropics are two small circles, drawn parallel to the equator, at the distance of 23 28 on each side of it. The north- ern is called the tropic of Cancer ; the southern, the tropic of Cap- ricorn. The sun never passes the&e circles ; but, when it has ar- rived at either, it turns, and goes toward the other. They, of course, bound those places where the sun is vertical. Folar Circles, 'i'he Polar circles are two small circles, parallel to the tropics, and are described round the poles at the distance of :• 5 28 from them. The northern is called the arctic circle ; and ;he southern, the antarctic circle. These circles bound those places where the sun selb daily. A direct or right sphere is that, where both the poles are in the horizon, and the sun, moon and stars ascend directly above, and descend directly below the horizon. This position is peculiar ta xhose places, which are under the equator. /vn oblique sphere is that, where all the diurnal motions are ob- liciue to the horizon. This is common to all pans of the earth, ex ■ INTRODUCTION. ir cept those under the poles and the equator. In an oblique sphere, one of the poles is elevated above, and the other depressed belowj the horizon. A /larallel sfihere is when one pole being in the zenith and the other in the nadir, the equator and all its parallels are parallel to the horizon. This position is peculiar to ^hosc parts which lie di- rectly under the poles. Zones. The surface of the ear^h is supposed to be divided into five unequal parts, c'dUtij zones, each of which is terminated by two parallels of latitude. Of these five zones, one is called the torrid or buriiing- zone ; two are sly\Qd frigid or frozen ; and two, te7nperate. The; torrid zone I?, that portion of the earth, over every part of which the sun is perpendicular at some time of the year. The bi'C'adth of this zone is nearly 47 degrees ; extending from 23 de- J^^Vees and 28 minutes north to 23 degrees and 28 minutes south latitude. The equator passes through the middle of this zone, which is terminated on the north by the parallel of latitude, called the tropic of Cancer, and on the south by the parallel called the tropic of Capricorn. Many parts of the torrid zone are remarkably populous ; and so fruitful, that two harvests a year are very common. All sorts of spices and drugs arc almost solely produced there ; and it furnish- es more perfect metals, precious stones, and pearls, than all the rest of the earth. This zone comprehends the East and West-Indies, Philippine Islands, the greater part of South-America and Africa, and almost ail Capt. Cook's discoveries, including the northern parts of New- Holland. The frigid zones are those regions round the poles, where the sun does not rise for some days in the winter, nor set for some days in the summer. The two poles are the centres of these zones, which extend from these points to 23 degrees and 28 minutes; that is, they are bounded by the northern and southern parallels of latitude of 66 degrees and 32 minutes. That part that lies in the northern hemisphere is called the north frigid zone, and is bound- ed by a parallel, called the arctic, or north polar circle ; and that in the southern hemisphere, the south frigid zone, and the parallel of latitude, which bounds it is called the antarctic^ or south polar circle. The northern frigid zone comprehends Nova-Zembla, Lapland, part of Norway, Baffin's Bay, part of Greenland, and part of Sibe- ria. The southern frigid zone has no land known to us. The two tem}ie,rate zones arc the spaces contained between the tropics and polar circles. The northern temperate zone contains almost all Europe, the greater part of Asia, part of Africa, the United States of America, and the British colonies. The southern temperate zone comprises . the south part of New-Holland, (including Botany Bay) Cape of Good Hope, and Cape Horn. In the frigid zones the longest day is never less than 34 hours j 18' INTRODUCTION. in the temperate zones it is not quite so much, and in the toYii^ never more than 13|^ hours. Climates. The word climate has two siu:nifications, one geo'- gtafihical and the other astronamical. In common language, the word is used to denote the difference in the seasons and the tem- perature of the air. Whei. two places differ in these respects, they are said to be in different cliu^ates. In an astronomical sense, a ciimaie is a tract of the earth's sur- face, included between the equator and a parallel of latitude, or be- tween two parallels, of such a breadth, that the length of the day^ in one is half an hour longer than in the other. Within the polar circles, however, the breadth of a climate is such, that tiie length of the longest day, or the longest time of the sun*s continuance above the horizon without setting, is a month longer in one paral- lel, as you proceed toward the elevated pole, than in the other. There are 30 climates between the equator and either pole. In' the first 24, between the equator and either polar circle, the period of increase for every climate is lialf an hour In the other six, be- tween either polar circle and its pole, the period of increase for each climate is a month. Latitude. The latitude of a place is its distance from the equa- tor, reckoned in degrees. Sec. north or south, on the meridian. The greatest latitude is that of the poles, which are 90 degrees distant from the equator. If the place be situated between the equator and the north pole, it is said to be in north latitude; if it lie be- tween the equator and the south pole, it is in south latitude. The elevation of the pole above the horizon is always equal to the latitude of the place ; for to a person situated at the equator, both poles vi'ill rest in tiie horizon. If you travel one, two, or more degrees north, the north pole will rise one, two, or more degrees, and will keep pace with your distance from the equator. Longitude. Every place on the surface of the earth has its me- ridian. The longitude of a place is the distance of its meridian from some other fixed meridian, measured on the equator. Lon- gitude is either east or west. All places east of the fixed or first meridian are in east longitude ; all west, in west longitude. Opposition. A body is in opposition with the sun, when the earth is directly between it and the sun. Conjunction. A body is in conjunction with the sun, when they are both in a straight line with the earth, and on the same side of it. If the body is between the earth and the sun, it is said to be in its inferior conjunction ; but when the sun is between it and the earth, the body is said to be in its superior conjunction. (Quadrature. A body is in quadrature, whea a line, drawn from the centre of the body to the centre of tlie earth, makes a right angle with a line, drawn from the centre of the earth to the centre of the stm. Elongation. The greatest elongation of a heavenly body is its greatest apparent distance from the sun. Eccentricitij. The eccentricity of the orbit of a planet is the- INTRODUCTION. . ip rd'iBtance from the sun to the centre of the orbit ; the sun not being ,in the centre, but in one of the foci. Ajihelion. A planet is in its aphelion, when it is farthest from the sun. Perihelion. The perihelion is that point in the orbit of a planet, which is nearest to the sun. A Digit is a twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon. Planets are bodies, which revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular, whose planes make a very small angle with the plane of the ecliptic ; and with a motion accoi'dijig to the order of the signs of the ecliptic, or from west to east. Satellites or moons^ are bodies revolving round the planets, which are called xhoiv jlirimaries ; and, in company with them, round the sun. Asteroids are very small bodies, revolving round the sun, in or- bits making larger angles with the plane of the ecliptic, and with motions either direct., i. e. from west to east ; or retrograde^ i. e. from east to west. Comets are bodies revolving about the sun in extremely elUptic- .al orbits ; vi^hose planes may make any angle with the ecliptic, ai>,d whose motions are cither direct or retrograde. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. The system of heavenly bodies, to which the earth belongs, is composed of the Sun, the Planets, the Satellites, the Asteroids, and the Comets. The Sun, the most glorious of the heavenly lum.inaries, is the source of light, and heat, and motion, to all the bodies which re- volve around it. The number of Planets is seven ; the names of which, according to their nearness to the sun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ju/iiter, Saturn, Herschel. The two first are called inferior plan- ets ; the four last, sufierior. The number of Satellites is eighteen. The earth has one ; Ju- piter four ; Saturn seven ; Herschel six. These revolve round their respective primaries, and accompany them in their annual revolutions round the sun. The number of Asteroids at present known is four. Their or- bits lie between those of Mars and Jupiter. Their names, accord- ing to their nearness to the sun, are Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. The number of Comets belonging to our system is not yet as- certained. Astronomers have, at different periods, supposed the principal bodies, which compose the solar system, arranged in different or- ders. Such a supposed arrangement is called a System of the world. The most distinguished of these systems are the Ptolemaic, the Tychonic, and the Co}iernican. Tne Ptolemaic System is so called from Claudius Ptolemy, a celebrated astronomer of Pelusium in Egypt ; not because he was the author of it, but because he adopted and endeavored to sup- 20 INTRODUCTION. port it. According to this hypothesis, the earth is immoveably fixed in the centre of the universe, and all the other bodies revolve round it from east to v.est in the space of twenty-four hours, at dis- tances, which increase in the order, in which they are here named, •viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. The sun and planets were supposed to be firmly set in separate crystalline spheres, inclosed by a concave one, containing the fixed stars, which would of course be all equally distant froiYi the earth. Above this starry sphere were imagined to be the two crystalline spheres, the firimum mobile, communicat- ing motion to all the interior spheres ; and, finally, the empyrean heaven, or heaven of heavens, to which a cubic form was attiibuted. Beside the above motion, performed in the course of twenty-four hours, the sun and planets were supposed to revolve about the earth in certain stated or periodical times, agreeably to their annu- al appearances. The phenomena to be explained by this system are inconsistent with it; and show its absurdity in a very satisfactory manner. The Tychonic or Brahean System was invented by Tycho !Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark. With Ptoiemy he supposed the earth to be at rest in the centre of the universe, and the moon, the sun, planets, and fixed stars, to revolve about it in twenty-four houis. He also supposed that these bodies had an annual motion around the earth ; that the moon's orbit was nearest to the earth ; then the sun's ; and that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, revolved about the sun as their centre, and accompanied it as their primary in its annual revolution round the earth. As he denied the earth's diurnal rotation on its axis, he was obliged to admit one of the most gross absurdities of the Ptolemaic hypothesis, tb.at is, the revolution of the wiiole universe, to its farthest visible limits, about the earth's axis in the space of a day, produced by the pri- mum mobile. Some of his followers, however, varied from his system so far as to ascribe this apparent diurnal motion of the heav- ens to a real rotation of the earth on its axis, and were therefore called Sevii-Tijcho7iics. The CopERNiCAN System is so called from Copernicus, a na- tive of Thorn in Royal Prussia, and is the true Solar System. It had been taught by some of the Pythagorean philosophers, but was nearly lost, when Copernicus undertook to restore it, and pub- lished new and demonstrative arguments in its favour. It supposes the sun to be in the centre of the system, and all tlie planets to move round the sun in the order already mentioned. These, to- gether with the satellites, asteroids, and comets, form the constitu- ent parts of the Solar System. This supposition readily solves all the appearances observable in the motion of the planets, and also agrees with the strictest phi- losophical and mathematical reasoning. All the planets are opaque and spherical bodies, and receive their light from the sun. Their orbits are not circular, but elliptical, or oval, and have one common focus, which is occupied by the sun. Hence, in their revolutions, they are sometimes nearer to, and INTRODUCTION. 3i sometimes farther from, that luminavy. The influence of the sun is the cause of the niolioiis of the planets ; and this influence in- creases as their distance from the sun decreases. Hence also we sec the reason >vhy the planets move faster, as they approach nearer to the sun, and slower as they recede from it. If a right line, called by some tiie -uecior radius^ be drawn from the sun through any planet, and supposed to revolve round the sun with the planet, this line will describe, or pass over, every part of the plane of the orbit ; so that the vector radius may be said to describe the area of the orbit. In the soiar system are observed two principal laws, which reg- ulate the motions of the planets. These laws are the following : \. " The planets describe equal areas in equal times." That is, the vector radius, in equal portions of tin\e, describes equal areas or portions of the space, contained within the planet's orbit. 2. " The squares of the periodical times of the planets are as the cubes of their niean distances from the sun." That is, as the square of the time, which any planet takes to describe its orbit, is to the square of the time, taken by any other planet to describe its orbit : so is the cube of the mean distance of the former from the sun, to the cube of the mean distance of the latter from the sun. These laws, together v/ith the facts that the orbits of the planets are elliptical, and that they have the sun in a common focus, were discovered by Kepler, a distinguished astronomer, who ilourishcd about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and who deduced them from a multitude of observations ; bui the first, who shewed the reason of these laws, was the great Sir Isaac Newton. By the second law the relative distances of the planets from the sun are known ; and were the real distance of any one of them determined, the real distances of all the others would be obtained. By the transits of Venus over the sun in 1761 and 1769, we now know the real distances of the planets from the sun much better than before : these, together with other necessary particulars ior forming a competent idea of the solar system, are exhibited in Table 1. The limits tp which we are confined will not admit of our intro- ducing the usual proofs to establish the Copernican sy.stem. The Su7i. The Sun is the centre of the system, and is immense- ly larger than all the otiier bodies which compose it. Its diame- ter is 883,246 miles, and its density (that of tlie earth being 1) is nearly!. It weighs 333,928 times as much as the earth, and is 1,380,000 times as large. It appears fi-om calculation, that a body weighing 1 pound on the earth, would weigh 2 77 pounds on the sun. It revolves, on its axis, in 25 days, 14 hours, 8 minutes ; and in its orbit, in the same time, around the con)mon centre of gravity pf the system. Its revolution in its orbit, as is that of all the plan- ets, is from west to east. The plane of its orbit is not coincident with that of any of the planets ; but is nearest to coincidence with the orbit of Venus. The axis of the sun makes an angle of about 821 degrees with the plane of the earth's orbit. The sun, though to, the naked eye it appears so extremely blight ; yet, with a tele- 22 INTRODUCTION. scope of but very small powers, is discovered to have dark spots oil 'ts burfiice. Thf se are a!so very various in their magnitudes. yH-A\ ^v!;i'^') ;n>p«jart:d in 1779, was more than 31,000 miles in di- ameter, and was visible to the naked eye. The sun has a revolu- tion on jis axis it is not ascertained whether it has an atmosphere. Mercury. Mercury is the smallest of the planets. It is 3224 iXiUcs in diameter, and 36.583,825 miles from the sun. Its bulk is to that of the earth, nearly as 1 to 15 ; and its weight, as 0-165 to 1. A body weighing I pound on the earth, would weigh 1-03 pounds on Mercury. It is not known whether it revolves on its axis ; yet, as all the other planets do, it is naturally concluded that this does also. It revolves round the sun in 87 days, 23 hours ; or little less than 3 ;Tionths. It emits a very briuhi, white light. Mercury can .be seen or.iy a few days at time. It is visible in the evening a- bouttije eastern elongation. It then disappears about 6 or 7 weeks, after which time it may b<-: seer! m liiC morning, rising before the sun. In about 10 wcelvS, it re-appears ia the west, setting after the sun It has no moor., nor arjy out 8 years ; when the planet is at us greatest north latitude, and near its fart'-icst distance from the sun. Venus is 7687 miles in diameter, and its mean distance from the sun is 68,368.008 miles. Its bulk, compared vatb that of the earth, is nearly as 8 to 9 ; and its weight, as 0-89 to 1. A body weighing I pound on the earth would weigh 0-98 pounds in Venus. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in 23 uours, 22 minutes, and it moves in its orbit 81.000 miles an hour. When Venus appears to the west of the sun, it rises before him in the morning, and is called the morn- ing star ; ana when it appears to the east of tlie sun, it shines in the evening, after the sun sets, and is called the evening star ; be- ing in each situation, alternately, about 290 days. The axis of Ve- nus is ii.clined 75 degrees towards the plane of its orbit. Mercury and Venus are inferior planets. Their orbits are with- in that of the earth. Mercury never appears more than 28 20 from the sun, nor Venus more than 47 48. Of course, they and the sun are never in opposition, i. e. on opposite sides of the earth. They have both, however, an ivferior conjunction, when they pass between the earth and the sun ; and a auperior conjunction, when they pass behind the sun. In their inferior conjunctions, they sometimes pass directly over the sun's disc. This passage is call- ed a transit. In their transits, they appear like small, round, black •spots, moving rapidly over the face of the sun. This appearance j>roves them to be opaque bodies. The transits of Venus are not so frequent as those of Mercury. The last transit of Venus was xi\ 1.769 5 the next will be in 1874. The last of Mercury was in INTRODUCTION. 2.3 1'502 ; the two next will be in 1815, and 1822. . The greatest heat on the planet Venus probably exceeds the heat of the torrid zone about as much, as that exceeds the average heat of 60 degrees north latitude. The Earth. The Earth is a spherical body. This is obvious from the following considerations : First, Such a figure is best a- dapted to motion. Secondly, When you stand upon the shore of the ocean, the spherical form of its surface is manifest to the eye^ Thirdly, From analogy ; as all the other planets and heavenly bodies are spherical. Fourthly, The higher the eye is placed, the more extensive is the prospect ; but on a plane absolutely horizon- tal, objects at a given distance would be visible, whether the eye •were high or low ; nor would any of them vanish, till the angle, under which they must appear, became too small to be perceptible. Fifthly, To people on shore, the mast of a ship appears before the JiuU ; but, were the earth a plane, the hull would appear long be- fore the mast, by reason of the much greater angle which it sub- tends. Sixthly, To people at sea, the land disappears, though near enough to be visible, were it not for the convexity of the water. Seventhly, The earth has been sailed round by Magellan, Drake, Dampier, Anson, Cook, and since by many others. This could not have happened, if the earth had not been of a globular figure. Eighthly, The boundary of the earth's shadow upon the moon, in a Junar eclipse, is always circular ; and nothing but a spherical body can, in all situations, produce a circular shadow. The unevennesses of the earth's surface have no effect upon its shadow on tlie moon; for the height of Chimborazo, the highest mountain on the globe, is less than the 2000th part of the earth's diameter. The earth is not, however, a perfect sphere, but an oblate sfiheroid ; that is, its equatorial diameter is longer than its axis. The difference of these diameters is about 34 miles. The mean diameter of the earth, or the diameter in latitude 45 degrees, is 7928 miles. OT course, the equatorial diameter is 7945 miles, and the length of the earth's axis is 791 1. The equatorial circumference of the earth is about 24,970 miles ; its mean circumference, in latitude 45 de- grees, is 24,917 ; and its meridional circumference, 24,863. The number of square miles on the earth's surface is 197,459,101 ; ancp 260,909,292,265 is the number of cubic miles contained in the earth. It performs a rotation on its axis once in 24 hours. The earth is surrounded with a thin, invisible, elastic fluid, call- ed air, the whole body of which forms what is called the atmo-^ sphere. The density of the air is not always the same, it being sub- ject to be expanded by heat and contracted by cold. In its mean state it is found to be about 850 times lighter than water. The height of the atmosphere is not yet ascertained. The be- ginning and ending of twilight, indeed, show that the height, at which the atmosphere begins to refract the sun's light, is about 44 or 45 miles. But tnis may not im.probably be owing to the height to which the aqueous vapors arc carried. Thatitactually extends much higher, is proved by the fact, that atmospheric meteors have 9imn been seen at tlic heig;ht of 90 miles. liSfTRODUCTION. Notwithstanding the seeming inequality in the distribution oi light and darkness, it is certain, that, throughout the whole world, there is nearly an equal proportion of light diffused on every part, if we disregard what is absorbed by clouds, vapors, and the at- mosphere itself. The equatorial regions have indeed the most in- tense light during the day, but the nights are long and dark ; while on the other hand, in the northerly and southerly parts, though the 'uni shines less powerfully, yet the length of time that it appears above the horizon, with the longer duration of tv/ilight, makes up for the seeming deficiency. Mars. The diameter of Mars is 4139 miles, and its mean dis- tance from the sun is 144,000,023 miles. Its annual revolution oc- cupies 1 year, 321 days, 23 hours, 31 minutes, and its rotation on its axis 24 hours, 39 minutes, 22 seconds. It moves in its orbit at the rate of 50,000 miles an hour. Its bulk, compared with that of the earth, is as 7 to 24 ; its density, as 7 to 10 ; and its weight as 49 to 240. One pound on the earth would weigh 0-34 in this plan- et. Mars is of a fiery red colour. By tire telescope, dark spots arc discoverable on its surface ; but round its poles, particularly the southern, an intense and permanent brightness. Mars is an oblate spheroid. Its axis is to its equatorial diameter,as 98 to 103. It is an opaque body, never appearing horned, like Mercury and Venus, but sojuetimes gibbous. It has an atmosphere of consid- erable extent. Jufiiter. Jupiter, the largest of the planets, is 89,170 miles in diameter, and 49 i, 702, 301 miles from the sun. lis bulk, compar- ed with that of the earth is nearly as 1400 to I ; its density as 5 to 22 ; and its weight as 312 to 1. One pound on the earth would weigh 2-53ros. in Jupiter. Its shape is that of an oblate spheroid. Its polar diameter is to that of its equatorial, as 12 to 13 ; and the diflerencc of their lengths, is upwards of 6000 miles. Its ecliptic and equator are nearly coincident ; that is, its axis is nearly per- pendicular to the plane of its orbit. Hence this planet lias no sen- sible change of seasons. If its axis were incUned any considerable number of degrees towards the plane of its orbit, just so many de- grees round each pole would, in their turn, be almost six years to- gether in total darkness. It revolves on its axis in 9 hours, 55 min- utes; and round the sun \i\ 11 years, 3!4 days, 18 hours, 45 min- utes. Its hourly motion in its orbit is 30,000 miles. From a com- parison of the most ancient, with the inodern observations, there is some reason to conclude, that the period of its revolution is decreas- ing. Jupiter is surrounded by faint substances, called belts. These were discovered in 1665. Tliey are parallel to each other, and to the equator of tne planet. The quantity of light and heat enjoyed by Jupiter, is to that enjoyed by the Earth, as 37 to 1000. Saturn. The diameter of Saturn is 79,042 miles, and its distance frorn the sun is 901,668,908 miles. Its bulk is proportioned to that of the earth nearly, as 1000 to 1. Its density, as 26 to 288, and its weight, as 98 to 1, A body weighing lib. on the earth, would weigh 1-02 on this planet. It is an oblate spheroid, its axis being to its equatorial diameter, as 10 to 1 i. It revolves on its axis in 10 INTRODUCTION. 35 hours, 16 minutes, 2 seconds, and round the sun in 29 years, 166 days, 15 hours, 25 minutes. Its hourly motion in its orbit is about 22,000 miles. The intensity of the sun's light and heat, is about 9^ times greater at the Earth, than at Saturn. This planet has belts discoverable on its disc ; but they are not so large or numerous as the belts of Jupiter. The most remarkable appearance, however, attending this, or indeed any of the planets, is a large ring, entirely separated from the planet itself, and yet completely surrounding it. The plane of the ring coincides with the plane of Saturn's equator, so that the axis of the planet makes a right angle with it. When the outer edge of the ring is turned towards the earth, it is invisi- ble, except with telescopes of very gieat powers ; eitlier on ac- count of its thinness, or of its almost total incapacity to reflect light. The ring is double, or is composed of two rings, having the same plane and the same centre. The outside diameter of the larger ring is 204,883 miles, and its inner diameter 190,248 miles; so that tlie breadth is 7318 miles. The outside diameter of the smaller ring is 184,393 miles, its inner diameter 146,345, and its breadth 19,024. The space between the rings is 2,977 miles. There is no visible connection between the two rings. They both, however, revolve on a common axis, in 10 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds ; a period longer than that of Saturn's rotation by 16 minutes, 13 seconds. The ring is doubtless no less solid than the planet ; and it is observed to cast a strong shadow upon it. Its light is also gen- erally brighter than that of the planet, for it appears sufficiently bright when the telescope scarcely affords light enough for Saturn. The thickness of the ring is probably less than 1000 miles, and its outer edge is not flat, but spherical. As the planet revolves round the sun, the plane of the ring is always parallel with itself, so that in each Saturnian year, it is twice turned edgewise towards the sun. HerscheL This planet is called in England Georgium sidus, on the continent of Europe, Uranius., and generally, in this country, HerscheL There is no reason to believe that it had ever been ob- served by any inhabitant of the Earth before the 13th of March, 1781, when it was discovered by Dr. HerscheL Its diameter is 35,1 12 miles, and its distance from the sun, is 1,803,534,392. Its hourly motion in its orbit is 1 5,000 miles. Its bulk, compared with that of the Earth, is nearly as 90 tol, audits weight as 16-84 to I. A body on the Earth weighing lib. would weigh 0-931b. in this planet. The period of its revolution round the sun is 83 years, 150 days, 18 hours. It has not yet been determined whether it revolves on an. axis. Yet there can be no doubt of this fact, as its shape is that of an oblate spheroid. The quantity of light and heat, communicated to the Earth by the sun, is at least 360 times as great', as that enjoy- ed by Herschel ; and the diameter of the sun, as seen from it, is not more than twice the apparent diameter of the planet Venus, as seen from the Earth. The plane of its orbit is nearly coincident with the plane of the ecliptic. Owing to its immense distance few discoveries have been made respecting it. Satellitts. A satellite, or ip.oon, is a body revolving round a 4 26 INTRODUCTION. planet, and, in cotnpany with the planet, round the sun. Of these' there are 18 in our system, distributed in the following manner :■ 1 to the Earth ; 4 to Jupiter ; 7 to Saturn ; and 6 to Herschel. The Moon. The moon's diameter is 2 1 80 miles. This is to the diameter of the Earth nearly as 20 to 73. Its surface is to that of the Earth as 1 to 1 3^ ; its bulk as I to 49 ; its density as 5 to 4 nearly ; and its weight as 1 to 39. Its mean distance from the Earth is 239,029 miles, which is to the sun's mean distance nearly ly as 1 to 390. The angle which its orbit makes with the ecliptic Varies from 5 degrees to 5 18 The moon revolves round the Earth in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. The interval of time between one new moon and the next, is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. If the Earth stood still, or had no revolution round the sun, every month •would be of the former length ; but as the Earth, during a lunary revolution, materially alters its place, it takes the moon 2 days 5 hours to regain what it has lost by the earth's motion. Tiie moon's orbit, to a spectator on the sun, always appears concave. In difter- ent parts of its orbit the apparent size of the moon is found to vary. This is owing to the elliptical shape of the orbit. It is found by observation, that the moon always turns the same side towards the Earth. Hence it must perform a rotation on an axis, and the time of this rotation must be equal to the time of the moon's synodic revolution, or 29 days, 12 hoUrs, 44 minutes. Hence, also, though the lunar year is of equal length with ours, yet it contains only a- bout 12^ days, every lunar day being a little longer than 291 of our days. The side of the moon, which is towards the Earth, during its day, receives light both from tlie sun and from the Earth ; andi during its nigln, only the light of the Earth. The other side of the moon has, half of the time, the light of the sun ; and the other half is in total darkness. The spots, visible on the moon, are occasion- ed by the mountains and vallies on its surface. These mountains were formerly supposed to be of a very great height. This, how- ever is a mistake. The highest observed by Herschel, is IyVo" ^i^^. Very few of the others are more than half a mile. It is not deter- mined whether the moon has an atmosphere. No clouds or va- pours, hoAvevcr, can be discovered near its surface. When the moon is in conjunction Avith the sun, she is said to be neiu^ and is then invisible : As she goes eastward she appears horned^ till she gets 90 degrees from the sun, when she appears half enlightened, OY dichotomized ; from thence, till she comes into opposition, she appears more than half enlightened ov gibbous ; and at opposition she appearsyu/^. From opposition to conjunction her apparent bright part decreases, as it before increased. Mr. Bouguer, from experiments on lunar light, concludes that 300,000 moons would not make a stronger light, than that of clear bright sunshine. The light of the moon condensed by the best mirrors produces no sen- sible effect upon the thermometer. The earth in the course of a month shows the same phases to the lunarians, as the moon does to ns ; the earth is at the full, at the time of new moon, and new at the time of full moon. The surface of the earth being about IS INTRODUCTION. 27 (times greater than that of the moon, it affords 13 times more light to the moon, than the moon does to us. It is remarkable, that, when the moon is full, near the middle of September, there is less difference between the times of two suc- cessive risings, than there is, when she is full at any other season of the year. By this means she affords an almost immediate sup- ply of light, after sunset, for a whole week together, which is very beneficial at that season for gathering in the fruits of the earth. Hence this full moon is called the Harvest Moon. Eclipses. An eclipse of the moon is caused by its entering into the earth's shadow, and consequently it must happen at the full moon, or when she is in opposition to the sun, as tlie shadow of the earth must lie opposite to the sun. An eclipse of the sun is caused by the interposition of the moon between tlie earth and sun, and therefore it must happen when the moon is in conjunction with the sun, or at the new moon. If the plane of the moon's orbit coincided with the plane of the ecliptic, there would be an eclipse at every conjunction and oppo- sition ; but the plane of the moon's orbit being inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, there can be no eclipse at conjunction or opposition, unless at that time the moon be at, or near, the node. The ecliptic limits of the sun arc to those of the moon, as 17 2] to 1 1 34, or nearly as 3 to 2, and hence thei'c will be more solar than lunar eclipses, in about that ratio. But more lunar than so- lar eclipses are seen at any given place, because a lunar eclipse is visible to a whole hemisphere of the earth at once ; whereas a so- lar eclipse is visible to a part only, and therefore there is a greater probability of seeing a lunar, than a solar eclipse. Since the moon is as long above the horizon as below, every spectator may expect to see half the number of lunar eclipses which happen. If the earth had no atmosphere, when the moon was totally e- clipsed, she would be invisible ; but by the refraction of the atmo- sphere, some rays will be brought to fall on the moon's surface, on which account the moon is rendered visible, and of a dusky red color. An eclipse of the moon arising from a real deprivation of light, must appear to begin at the same instant of time to every place on that hemisphere of the Eaith, which is next the moon. Hence, it affords a ready method of finding the longitudes of places upon the Earth's surface. The diameters of the sun and moon are supposed to be divided into 12 equal parts, called digits., and an eclipse is said to be so jnany digits, according to the number of those parts, which are in* volved at the greatest darkness. The greatest number of eclipses, which can happen in a year, is seven, and when this happens, five will be of the sun, and two of the moon. The least number which can happen is two, and these must be both solar ; for in every year there must be two solar e- clipses. The mean number in a year is about four. In a total eclipse of the sun, the planets, and some of the bright* est of the fixed stars have been seen. 28 LNTRODUCTION. Jupiter's Moons. These are four in number, and were discov- ered by Galileo, Jan. 8, 1600. Their distances from the planet, periodical times, 8tc. may be learnt from the tables at the close of our account of the solar system. The first and third are larger than the earth : the second and fourth are considerably less than Venus, though larger than Mars. They all revolve on their axes, and also round the phirvet, from west to east. The progressive motion and velocity of light was discovered by observations on the satellites of Jupiter. These satellites are eclipsed at regular intervals, and tables of the times when these eclipses are to happen, are constantly published. It is found that, when the earth is exactly between Jupiter and the sun, his satel- lites appear eclipsed 8^ minutes sooner, than they would be accord- ing to the tables ; but that, when the earth is at its greatest dis- tance from Jupiter, these eclipses happen about 81 minutes later, than the tables predict thern. Hence it follows that light takes up 16~ minutes in passing over the diameter of the earth's orbit, which is about 190 millions of miles. This is nearly at the rate of 200,000 miles a second. By means of them also Jupiter's distance from the earth may be discovered, and the longitudes of places on the earth's surface. Satellites oj' Saturn. Of these Huygens discovered the fourth in 1665 ; Cassini the fifth in 1671, the third in 1672, the first and second in 1684' ; and Herschel the sixth in 1787, and the seventh in 1788. These last arc nearer to Saturn, than the other five ; but, to prevent confusion in the numbers with regard to former obser- vations, they are called the sixth and seventh. The tables exhibit their periods and distances from their primary. The third satellite is the largest of all ; the first and fourth are nearly of the same size. Satellites oj" Herschel. These are six in number. The second and fourth were discovered by Herschel in 1787 ; and, what is en- tirely singular in our system, he observed, that their orbits made an angle of more than 99 degrees with the ecliptic of the primary. The otlicr four were also discovered by Herschel. The first and fifth in 1790, and the other two in 1794. Their light is exti^mely fault ; but the fourth is somewhat the brightest. The sixth, at its greatest distance, is farther removed from the earth than any body, if we except the comets, that is known to belong to our system. Of all the bodies hitherto described, the satellitesof Herschelalone revolve fiom east to west, or in a retrograde direction. Jsteroidx* These bodies were entirely unknown, till the com- xnencement of the present century. They appear of the size of stars of the 8th magnitude. It was owing to their diminutive size, that Herschel rtfused them a place among the planets, and gave them the name of Asteroids, though they are really primary planets, re- volviiig round the sun. Ceres was discovered by Joseph Piozzi, at the royal observatory at Palermo, January 1, 1801. It appears like a star of the 7th or • From a^fi staff and aSo; af^earance. INTRODUCTION. 29 $th maj^nitude. Its diameter is estimated by Dr. Herschel at 1 60 miles, but this cannuot be relied oii as exact. All the astt voids are too sn'.ali to be measured with precision. Their orbits arc all between those of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres revolves in 4 years, 7 months, 10 days. Its mean distance from the sun is 263,533,000 miles. Pallas was discovered by Dr. Olbers of Bremen, March 28, 1802. It appears sometimes like a star of the 7lh map,nitude, and some- times considerably less. Its diameter is I 10 miles. Its periodical revolution is 4 years, 7 months, 1 1 days ; and its distance from the sun 267,438,000 miles. The orbits of Ceres and Pallas are said to cross each otlier. Juno was discovered by Mr. Harding, at Lilienthal, near Bre- men, September 1st, 1804. It appears like a star of the 8th mag- nitude. Its periodical revolution is a little Ioniser than those of Ceres and Pallas. Its diameter is 119 miles. Its distance from the sun is 286,541,000 miles. Vesta was discovered by Dr. Olbers, March 29, 1807. It may be seen by the naked eye, like a star of the fifth or sixtii magnitude, and very much like the planet Herschel. The aiii^le whicn its di- ameter subtends, is about half a second. Its periodical revoiuiion is 3 years, 2 months, 5 days, and its mean distance, 206,596,000 miles. These elements all require to be corr'ected by future obser- vations. \ TABLE OF ASTEROIDS. Names. IVhen l)isco-vered. Periodical time. Distance f I om the Sun. Inclin on of the Orbit Eccen- tricity. Vesta Ceres Pallas Juno March 29, 1807 January 1, 180! March 28, lacl- Scptem. I, 18U4 y. m. d 5 2 4 7 h 4 7 1 i . jngert/uii ihctnvoluc ■ . 206,596,C0(i 263,663,000 267,438,000 286.541,000 o 7 8 10 %7 34 40 0-095 0-097 0-246 0-25 Thus, of the 30 bodies, beside the comets, belonging- to our sys- tem, only eight were known to the ancients ; viz. the Sun, Mercu- ry, Venus, the Earth, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Of the remaining 22, 4 were discovered in the l6th century ; viz. Jupi- ter's 4 moons, by Galileo : 5 in the 1 7th century ; viz. Satuni's fourth moon by Huygens ; and his first, second, third, and fifth., by Cas- sini : 9 in the 18lh century ; viz. Saturn's sixth and seventh moons, the planet Herschel, and his six moons, all by Dr. Herschel : and four already in the 19lh ; viz. Ceres, by Piozzi ; Pallas, by Oibers j Juno, by Harding : and Vesta, by Oibers. Comets. Coinets are bodies revolving in very eccentric ellipses about the sun in one of the foci. When a comet is west of the sun, and sets after it, it is said to be tailed ; because a train of light fol- so INTRODUCTION. lows it, in manner of a tail. When the sun and the comet are on opposite sides of the earth, the train is principally hid behind the body of the comet, and the little that appears has the form of a border of hair, or coma., whence it is called hairy ; and whence the name comet is derived. The substance of the bodies of comets must be extremely solid, or they would be dissipated in their peri- helion, or nearest approach to the sun. According to Sir Isaac Newton, the comet of 1680 endured a heat 28,000 times as great as that of the sun, in midsummer ; or about 9,000 times as great as the heat of boiling water ; or 2,000 times as great as the heat of red hot iron. Little is ascertained respecting the real magni- tudes of comets. Their apparent magnitudes are also very various. That, which appeared in the time of Nero, was, as Seneca relates, apparently as large as the sun ; and that of 1652, according to He- velius, did not seem to be less than the moon, though of a very pale, dim light. The number of comets belonging to our system has never been ascertained. Conjecture has limited it to 450. The elements of 97 of them have been determined with some degree of accuracy. The angles, which their orbits made with the plane of the ecliptic, were found to vary from I to 88 degrees. The perihelion distance of the comet of 1351, was just equal to the earth's mean distance. The perihelion distance ot 24 of the others, w^as greater than this, and of the remaining 72, less. Tlve least distance of the comet of 1680, was only 122,000 miles from the surface of the sun; while its greatest distance was 12,189,000,000 miles. The perihelion distance of the comet of 1759 is about 52,000,000 miles ; its aphe- lion distance 3,342,500,000. These are the only two comets whose periods are known. Ihatofthe latter is about 76 years. It ap- peared in 1759, 1682, 1607, 1531, and 1456; and will probably re- appear in 1835. The period of the former is 575 years. It ap- peared in 1680, 1 106, 531, and in 44, before Christ, and probably %vill not re-appear, till 2255. There is also strong reason to con- clude, that the comet of 1264 was the same with that of 1556. If so, its period is 292 years; and it ought to appear again in 1848. Dr. Ilalley imagined, that the comet of 1661 was the same with that of 1532 ; and that its period was 129 years ; but in 1790, it was found to have violated its engagements. Dr. Ilalley had the honor first to foretel the return of a comet. It was the comet of J 759. The velocity of a comet increases as it approaches the sun. That of 1680, in its perihelion, moved with the amazing velocity of 880,000 miles an hour. The comet of 1744, had a tail of the length of 23,000,000 of miles ; and that 1759, of more than 40,000,000. The orbits of comets make very different angles with the plane of the ecliptic : 50 out of the 97, whose elements have been calculat- ed, had a direct motion, or from west to east ; and 47 from east to west. The comet of 1 680, on the 1 1th of November, at I hour, 6 minutes, P. M. was only 4000 miles north of the orbit of the earth. If the earth at that time, had been in the part of its orbit nearest to the comet, their mutual gravitation must have caused a change in the plane of the earth's orbit, and in the length of our year. INTRODUCTION, 31 The following tables, taken, with some alterations, from Clarke's Commentary on the Bible, will present a full and interesting sum- mary of the bodies in our solar system, together with their magni- tudes, distances, periods, Sec. TABLE I. SUN AND PLANETS. Buli, Weight, Time of rota- Inclination Hourly Weight OfMbat Names. Diameter the Earth the Earth tion on their of axis to motion in being 1. 1,380,000 being 1. axis. Equator- tbeirorbits ' surface, 27-7 Sua 883,246 d. h. m. s. 333,928 25 14 8 Mercury 3,224 1 TT 0-1654 unknown unknown 111,256 10333 Venus 7,687 £ 0-8899 23 22 75°00' 81,398 0-9771 Earth 7,928 1 1 23 56 4 23 28 75,222 1-0000 Moon 2,180 ^V 1 ■ST 27 7 43 5 I 43 2,335 0-1677 Mars 4,189 7 1400 00875 1 59 22 28 42 56,212 03355 Jupiter 89,170 5121 9 55 33 3 22 30,358 2-3287 Saturn 79,042 1000 97-76 10 16 14 SO 00 22,351 10154 Sat. Ring 204,883 10 32 15 30 00 22,351 Herschel 55,112 90 16-84 ' unknown unknown 15,846 0-9285 ^Mean distances Proportion\Inclination of Periodical Revalu- Names. from the Sun. of Liyht\ orbits to the tion Sidereal Revolution Iff Heat Ecliptic. O 1 II J. A. h. m. s. y. d h. m. s. Mercury 36,583,825 6-25 7 87 23 14 S3 87 23 15 40 Venus 68,360,058 2-04 3 23 45 224 16 41 27 224 16 49 11 Earth 94,507,428 I- 1 5 48 48 1 6 9 12 Moon 94,507,428 1- 5 9 27 7 43 5 27 7 43 12 Mars 144,000,023 0-44375 1 51 1 S21 22 18 27 1 321 23 30 36 Jupiter 491,702,30; 0-036875 1 19 \5 11 315 14 39 2 11 317 14 27 11 Saturn 901,668,90R 0-01106 2 30 45 29 164 7 21 50 29 17614 36 43 Sat Ring 901,668,908 0-01106 29 164 7 21 50 29 176 14 36 43 Herschel 1,803,534,392 000276 48 83 294 8 39 84 29 29 TABLE II. ASTEROIDS. ' Diam- 1 Propor- Propor- Dittance from Inclination of Names eter, in tional tional the Sun, Periods. orbit to the miles. bulk. surface. Ecliptic. y. d. h. m. s. 1, Ceres I61-6y2,VoO 1 ■JToo" 250,000,000 4. 21313 41 56 10 37 34. Pallas 1 in ' 1 5-jW 270,000,000 33 42 Juno IIQ ■ 1 1 4?C"0" 285,000,000 13 [Vesta 1 ( 7 5 50 32 INTRODUCTION. TABLE III. Jupiter's satellites. SaUl- Bulk, the Bistancefrom Periodic Hevalu- Synodic Re-volu- Greatest distance lites. Diameter. Earth Juf,ter. tion. tion. from the Earth . being 1. 1 d. h. m. s. d. h m. s. I. ■^50 266,000 I 1 8 27 S3 1 I8 2S36 II. 6 \ 423,000 3 13 13 42 3 13 17 54 ill. 1 3 676,000 7 3 42 33 7 3.59 36 IV. 2 i SIS [1,189,000 16 16 32 8 161851 7 TABLE IV. SATELLITES OF SATURN. Satellites. Distance from Saturn. Periodic Revolution. Synodic Revolution d. h. m. s. d. h. m. s. VII. 107,000 22 37 23 22 37 30 VI. 135,000 1 8 53 9 1 8 53 24 I. 170,000 1 21 18 26 1 21 18 55 II. 217,000 2 17 44 51 2 17 45 51 III. 303,000 4 \2 25 \l 4 12 27 55 IV. 704,000 \5 22 41 13 15 23 15 20 V. 2,050,000 79 7 53 42 73 22 3 13 TABLE V. SATELLITES OF HERSCHEL. Satellites. Distancefrom Herschel. Periodic Revolution. Synodic Revolution, 1 d. h. m. s. d. h. m. s. I. 226,450 5 21 23 22 5 21 25 II. 293,053 8 16 51 43 8 17 1 19 III. 342,784 10 22 58 20 10 23 4 IV. 392,514 13 10 56 29 13 11 5 1 V. 785,028 38 39 4 38 1 49 VI. 1.570,057 107 7 35 10 107 16 40 OF THE FIXED STARS Those Stars, which, when seen by the naked eye, or through tel- escopes, keep constantly in the same situation with respect to each other, are called fixed starn. They are easily distinguished from the planets by their twinkling. They appear of various magni- tudes. This may arise fiom their different sizes, or distances, or both. Astronomers have distinguished them, from their apparent magnitudes, into six classes. Tht first contains those of the largest apparent size, the second those which appear next in bigness ; and t>o on to the sixth, which includes all those that can just be seen Avithout telescopes. Those, which can be seen only by the help of the telescope, are called telcscofAc stars. INTRODUCTION. 33 Number of stars of each magnitude. Place. Magnitudes. 1st 2d 3d 4t.h 5th 6th Total. In the Zodiac 5 16 44 120 183 646 1014 In the Northern Hemisphere 6 24 95 200 291 635 1251 In the Southern Hemisphere 9 36 84 190 221 323 865 Total 20 76 223 512 695 1604 3130 The stars in the preceding table are so numerous, that it would be impossible to furnish names for them all and retain those names in the memory. To remedy this inconvenience the ancients distribut- ed them into consrel/alions, to which they gave the names of birds, beasts, fishes, Sec. from an imaginary resemblance between the forms of the constellations, and of those animals. The stars of each constellation are numbered, according to their magnitude, by the letters of the Greek alphabet, x is the largest, /3 the second, y the third, Sec. This division of the heavens was very ancient ; for some of the constellations are mentioned by Homer and Hesiod, by Amos and Job. The whole number of the constellations is 90. Of these 48 are ancient, and 42 modern ; 33 north of the Zodiac, 12 in the Zodiac, and 45 south of it. Those stars, which have never been arranged into constellations, are called unformed stars. Those, whose dis- tance from the nearest pole is less than the latitude of the place, never set below the horizon, and are called circumfiolar stars. The circles, which they appear to describe in consequence of the earth's rotation, ai'C called cirr/e* of p.erpeHial a[iparition. Those stai's, whose distance from the farthest pole, is less than the latitude of the place, never I'ise above the horizon. They also receive the same name ; and the circles, which they appear to describe, are called circles of fierjietual occultation. The real number of the fixed stars cannot be ascertained. Be- fore the invention of the telescope, it was not supposed to surpass 3000. But since that event it has been found, that to the greater perfection that instrument is brought, the greater, in a very high proportion, is the number of the stars, which may be observed. Galileo found 80 stars in the belt of Orion's sv^ord. De Rheita counted 188 in the Pleiades, and more than 2000 in the constella- tion of Orion, of which only 78 are visible to the naked eye. The fixed stars, as seen through a telescope, are found to be be collect- ed in clusters. When a small magnifying power is used, these clusters appear like small light clouds, and hence have been called nebiilx. Dr. Herscliel has given a catalogue of more than 2000 nebulse, which he has discovered. When these nebulas are examined with a telescope of great magnifying power, they are found to consist of immense multitudes of stars. Dr. Herschel is of opinion, that the starry heaven is replete with these nebulae : that each nebula is a distinct and separate system of stars ; and that each star is the sun or centre of its ovrn system of planets. Tli^t 5 34 INTRODUCTION. Vight, irregular zone, which we call the Milky Way, he has very carefully examined, and concludes that it is the particular nebula to which our sun belongs. In examining it, in the space of a quar- ter of an hour, he has seen the astonishing number of 1 16,000 stars pass through the field of view of a telescope of only 15' aperture j and, in 41 minutes, he saw 258,000 stars pass through the field of his telescope. It is probable that each nebula in the heavens is as extensive, and as well furnished with stars, as the milky way ; that many nebulae, within the reach of the telescope, have not yet been discovered ; and that very many more lie beyond its reach, in the remote regions of the universe. If this be true, the number of 75,000,000, which La Lande assigned, as the whole number of the fixed stars, will be seen to fall far short of the truth. The distance of the fixed stars, however, is so great, that their number will, probably, never be calculated with certainty. The diameter of the earth's orbit is 190 millions of miles. Of course, when the eye is placed at one end of this diameter, it is so much nearer given stars, than when at the opposite end. Yet this im- mense distance makes no apparent difference in the size of any of them,norany difference in their relative situations. The distance of the nearest fixed star is estimated tobe more than 5,000,000,000,000 miles from us, a distance which a cannon ball, moving at the rate of 480 miles an hour, would not pass over in less than 1,180,000 years. Astronomers generally, however, have calculated the dis- tance of the nearest fi'xed star, at 400,000 times the diameter of the earth *^s orbit. The real magnitudes of the fixed stars are not known. In as- tronomical calculations they are generally supposed to be equal to that of the sun. With regard to their nature we can make nearer approaches to certainty. We know that ihcy shine by their own light ; 1st, be- cause reflected liglU is too feeble to shine at all to such an immense distance, and much more with the bright lustre of the fixed stars ; 2dly, because if they borrowed their light from any large luminous body whicl) was near them, that body would itself be visible. They resemble the sun in several other particulars. Many of them are observed to revolve on an axis ; to have spots on their surface, and changeable spots, too, like those of the sun. Hence they are very fairly concluded to be suns, each one a centre of light, and warmth, and motion for its own system of planets. THE GLOBES, AND THEIR USE. A globe is a round body, whose surface is every whet-e equally remote from the centre. But by the globes, sometimes called ar' /j^f/a/i'-/y6fs, is here meant two spherical bodies, whose convex surfaces are supposed to give a true representation of the earth and the apparent heavens. One of these is called the terrestrial, the other the celestial globe. On the convex surface of the terrestrial p-lobe, all the parts of the earth and sea are delineated in their rel- ative size, form, and situation. INTRODUCTION. '3S On the surface of the celestial globe, the images of the several constellations and the unformed stars are delineated ; and the rel- ative magnitude and position, which the stars are observed to have in the heavens, are carefully preserved. In order to render these globes more useful, they are fitted up with certain appurtenances, whereby a great variety of useful pro- blems are solved in a very easy and expeditious manner. The brazen meridian is that ring in which the globe hangs on its axis, represented by two wires passing through its poles. The circle is divided into four quarters of 90 degrees each ; in one semicircle the divisions begin at each pole, and end at 90 degrees of the equator, wiiere they meet. In tiie other semicircles, tne di=- visions begin at the equator, and proceed thence toward each pole, where they end at 90 degrees. The graduated side of this brazen circle serves as a meridian for any point on the surface of the earth, the globe being turned about till that point come under it. The hour circle is a small circle of brass, divided into 24 hours, the quarters and half quarters. It is fixtd on the brazen meridian, "with its centre over the north pole ; to the axis is hxed an index, that points out the divisions of the hour circles as the globe is turn- ed round its axis. Sometimes the hour circle, with its divisionsj is described or marked about the north pole on the surface of the globe, and is made to pass under the mdcx. In some of Aclams's globes, the equator is used as an hour circle, over which is placed a semicircular wire, carrying two indices, one on the east side of the brazen meridian, and the other on the west. The horizon is represented by the upper surface of the wooden circular frame encompassing the globe about its middle. On this wooden frame there is a kind of perpetual calendar, contained in several concentric circles. The inner one is divided into four quarters of 90 degrees each ; the next circle is divided into the J 2 months, with the days in each according to the new style ; the next contains the 12 equal signs of the zodiac or ecliptic, each being di- vided into 30 degrees ; the next the 12 months and days according tp the old style ; and there is another circle, containing the 32 points of the compass, with their halves and quarters Although these circles are on most horizons, yet they are not always placed in the same order. The quadrant of altitude is a thin slip of brass, one edge of which is graduated into ninety degrees and their quarters, equal to those of the meridian. To one end of this is fixed a brass nut and screw, by which it is put on and fastened to the meridian ; if it be fixed in the zenith, or pole of the horizon, then the graduated edge rep- resents a vertical circle passing through any point of the horizon, to which it is directed. Beside these, there are several circles, described on the surfaces of both globes ; as the equator., eclifitic^ circles of longitude and right ascensio7i, the tro/iics, jiolar circles^ parallels of latitude and declination, on the celestial globe ; and on the terrestrial, the equa- tor, eclijitic, tro/iici, fiolar circles, fiarallels of latitude, hour circles. 3d INTRODUCTION. or meridians^ to every 1 5 degrees ; and on some globes, the sfiirat rhumbs flowing from several centres, cvWeA Jiies. In using the globes, keep the graduated side of the meridian to- wards you, unless the problem require a different position. With respect to the terrestrial, we are to suppose ourselves situated at a point on its surface ; with respect to the celestial, at its centre. The motion of the former represents the real diurnal motion of the earth ; that of the latter, the apparent diurnal motion of the heav- ens. The following Problems, as being most useful and entertaining, are selected from a great variety of others, which are easily solv- ed with a terrestrial globcy fitted up with the aforesaid appurte- nances. I. The latitude of a place being given, to rectify the globe for that place. Let it be required to rectify the globe for the latitude of Boston, 42 degrees 23 minutes north. Elevate the north pole, till the horizon cut the brazen meridian in 42 23, and the globe is then rectified for the latitude of Boston. Bring Boston to the meridian, and you will find it in the zenith, or directly on the top of the globe. And so of any other place. II. To find the latitude and longitude of a place on the globe. Bring the given place under that half of the graduated brazen meridian, where the degrees begin at the equator, and under the graduated side of it ; then the degree of the meridian over it shows the latitude ; and the degree of the equator, under the meridian, shows the longitude. Thus Boston will be found to lie in about 42 23 north latitude, and 71 west longitude from Greenwich. III. To find the sun^s place in the ecliptic. Look the day of the month on the horizon, and opposite to it, you will find the sign and degree the sun is in that day. Thus on the 25th of March, the sun's place is 4|- degrees in .^ries. Then look for that sign and degree in the ecliptic line marked on the globe, and you will find the sun's place ; there fix on a small black patch, so is it prepared for the solution of the followuig problems. JVote. The eaith's place is always in the sign and degree oppo- site to the sun ; thus, when the sun is 4| degrees in Aries, the earth is 4^ degrees in Libra ; and so of any other. IV. To find the sun's declination, that is, its distance from the equi- noctial line, either northward or southward. Bring its place to the meridian ; observe what degree of the meridian lies over it, and that is the declination. If the sun lie on the north side of the line, the declination is north, but if on the south side the declination is south. INTRODUCTION. $r Thus on the 20th of April the sun has 1 1 i^ degrees of north de- clination, but on the 'i6th of October, it has 12^ of south declina- tion. JVote. The greatest declination can never be more, either north or south, than the distance of a tropic from the equator. V. To find where the sun is vertical on a7iy day. Bring the sun's place to the meridian, observe its declination, or hold a pen or wii'e over it; then turn the globe rouiid, and all those countries which pass under the wire, will have the sun vertical, or nearly so, that day at noon. Thus on the 16th day of April, the inhabitants of the north part of Terra Firma, Porto-Bello^ FhUi/i' pine Isles, southern parts of India, jidys&ima, Ethiopia, and Guinea^ have the sun over their heads that day at i2 o'clock. J\''ote. This appearance can only happen to those who live iu the torrid zone. VI. To find at any hour of the day, what o'clock it is at any /dace. Bring the place where you are, to the brass meridian ; set the index to the hour, turn the globe till the place you are looking for come under the meridian, and the index will point out the time re- quired. Tl\us when it is 10 o'clock in the morning, at Boston, it is 24 minutes past 12 at Olinda in Brazil, and 8 at Mexico in New- Spain ; the former being at 55 degrees west longitude, and the latter at iOO degrees west longitude. JVote. By this problem you may likewise see at one view, in dis- tant countries, where the inhabitants are rising, where brtakfasting; dining, drinking tea, where going to asscinblies, and where to bed. VII. To find at what hour the sun rises and sets any day in the year at a place, the latitude of which does not exceed 66i degrees; and also on what point of the compass it rises and sets. Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place ; bring the sun's place to the meridian, and set the index to 12 ; then turn the sun's place to the eastern edge of the horizon, and the index will point out the hour of rising ; if you bring it to the western edge of the horizon, the index will shew the hour of setting. Thus on the 10th day of April, the sun rises at half an hour af- ter five o'clock at Boston, and sets half an hour before seven. JVote. In summer the sun rises and sets a little to the north- ward of the east and west points ; and in winter a litllc to the south- ward oithcm. It, therefore, when the sun's place is brought to the eastern and western edges of the horizon, you look on the lio- rizon directly against the little patch, you will see the point of the compass on which the sun rises and sets that day. 38 INTRODUCTION. VIII. Tejind Che length of the longest and shortest day^ at a given filace. Rectify the globe for that place ; if its latitude be ncith, bring the beginning of Cancer to the meridian ; set the index to 12, then bring the same degree of Cancer to the east part of the horizon, and the index will show the time of the sun's rising, which dou- bled, gives the length of the shortest night. If the same degree be brought to the western side, the index ■will show the lime of the sun's setting, which doubled will give the length of the longest day. If we bring the beginning of Capricorn to the meridian, and proceed in all respects as before, we shall have the length of the longest night and shortest day. Thus in the great Mogul's dominions, the longest day is 1 4 hours, and the shortest night 10 hours. The shortest day is 10 hours, , and the longest night 14 hours. At Petersburg, the capital of Russia, the longest day is about 19| hours, and the shortest night 4| hours. The shortest day 4^ hours, and the longest night \9\ hours. jYote. In all places near the equator, the sun rises and sets at 6 o'clock, through the year. Thence to the /zo/cr circles.) the days increase as the latitude increases ; so that at those circles the lon- gest day is 24 hours, and the longest night the same. From the polar circles, to the poles, the days continue to lengthen into weeks and months ; so that at the pole, the sun shines for six months to- gether in summer, and is below the horizon six months in winter^ JSTote also, that when it is summer with the northern inhabitants, it is winter with the southern, and the contrary ; and every part of the world partakes of an equal share of light and darkness. IX. To measure the distance from one place to another. Only take their distance with a pair of dividers, and apply it to the equinoctial, that will give the number of degrees between them, which, being multiplied by 60, (the number of geographical miles in one degree) gives the exact distance sought : or, extend the quadrant of altitude from one place to another, that will show the number of degrees in like manner, which may be reduced to miles as before. Thus the distance from London to Madrid is W^ degrees. From Paris to Constantinople 19^ degrees. From Bristol in Eng- land to Boston 45 degrees, which, multiplied by 69|-, (the number of English miles in a degree) gives 31271 miles. J^fote. No place can be further from another than 180 degrees, that being half ilie circumference of the globe, and consequently the greatest distance. PROBLEMS SOLVED ON THE CELESTIAL GLOBE. The equator, ecliptic, tropics, polar circles, horizon and brazen meridian are exactly alike on both globes. Both also are rectified in the same ma nner. INTRODUCTION. 99 N. B. The sun's place for any clay of the year stands directly a- gainst that day on the horizon of tlue celestial globe, as it does on that of the terrestrial. The latitude and longitude of the celestial bodies are reckoned in a very different manner from the latitude and longitude of places on the earth ; for all terrestrial latitudes are reckoned from the e- quator and longitudes from the meridian of some remarkable place, as of London by the British, and of Paris by the French. But the astronomers of all nations agree in reckoning the latitudes of the moon, planets, comets and fixed stars, from the ecliptic ; and their longitudes, and that of the sun, from the equinoctial colure, and from that semicircle of it, which cuts the ecliptic at the beginning' of Aries ; and thence eastward, quite round to the same semicircle again. Consequently those stars, which lie between the equinoc- tial and the northern half of the ecliptic, have north declination, but south latitude ; those which lie between the equinoctial and the southern half of the ecliptic have south declination, but north latitude ; and all those which lie between the tropics and poles have their declination and latitudes of the same denomination. Prob. I. To find the right ascension and declination of the sun, or any fixed star. Bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the brazen meridian ; then that degree in the equinoctial which is cut by the meridian is the sun's right asce?ision ; and that degree of the meridian which is over the sun's place is its declination. Bring any fixed star to the meridian, and its right ascension will be cut by the meridian in the equinoctial ; and the degree of the meridian that stands over it is its declination. So that right ascension and declination on the ce- lestial globe are found in the same manner as longitude and lati- tude on the terrestrial. II. To find the latitude and longitude of a star. If the given star be on the north side of the eclipdc, place the 90th degree of the quadrant of altitude on the north pole of the e- cliptic, where the twelve semicircles meet, which divide the eclip- tic into the twelve signs ; but if the star be on the south side of the ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant on the south pole of the ecliptic : keeping the 90th degree of the quadrant on the proper pole, turn the quadrant about, until its graduated edge cut the star ; then the number of degrees on the quadrant, between the ecliptic and the star, is its latitude ; and the degrees of the e- eliptic cut by the quadrant is the star's longitude, reckoned ac- cording to the sign in which the quadrant then is. METHODS OF FINDING THE LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES Or PLAGES FROM CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS. What is meant by latitude and longitude has already been suf- ficiently explained ; it remains that we show the methods of find- ing both by celestial observations. 40 INTRODUCTION. Of finding the latitude. There are two methods of findint; the latitude of any place. The first is by observing the heit^ht of the pole above the horizon ; the second by discovering the distance of the zenith of the place from the equator. The elevation of the pole is always equal to the latitude ; and is thus found. As there is no star, towards which either pole points directly, fix upon some star near the pole. Take its greatest and least height when it is on the meridian. The half of these two sums (proper allowance being made for the refraction of the atmosphere) will be the latitude. The other method is this. The distance of the zenith of any place from the celestial equator, measured in degrees on the meridian, is equal to the latitude. Fix npon some star lying in or near the e- quator. Observe its zenith distance when it is in the meridian. If it is directly in the equator this will be the latitude. If it is nearer than ihe equator add its declination to its zenith distance ; if farther, deduct its declination from its zenith distance ; the sum or differ- ence will be the latitude. Of finding the longitude. There are three approved methods of discovering the longitude ; 1st, By the moon's distance from the sun or a fixed star ; 2d, By a time-keeper ; od, By an eclipse of the moon, or of one of Jupiter's satellites. The last only will be de- scribed in this place. By the earth's rotation on its axis in 24 hours, the sun appears to describe, in the same space of time, an apparent circle of 360 degrees in the heavens. The apparent mo- lion of the sun is therefore 15 degrees in an hour. If two places therefore differ 15 degrees in longitude, the sun will pass the me- ridian of the eastern place 1 hour sooner than the western. The commencement of a lunar eclipse is seen, at the same moment of lime, from all places where the eclipse is visible. Ifthen an eclipse of the moon is seen to commence, atone place, at 12 o'clock at night, and, at another place, at 1 o'clock ; the places differ 15 de- grees in longitude, and the last lies eastward of the first. The nautical almanac, published in London, and calculated for the me- ridian of Greenwich, contains the exact time when the eclipses of the moon commence at that place. When the time of the com- mencement of an eclipse at any place has been observed, a com- parison of it with the time in the almanac will determine the differ- ence of tiniebetweenthe place and Greenwich. If the hour is later than the hour in the almanac, the place is situated to the east of Greenwich; if earlier, to the west. As 1 hour in time is 15 de- grees in motion, so is one minute, 15 minutes, and one second, 15 seconds. This would be the easiest and most accurate method of ascertaining tlie longitude, if we could determine the precise mo- ment of tivne when a lunar eclipse commences. But xXixs, cannot, in general, be determined nearer than 1 minute, and often not near- er than 2 or 3 minutes. A variance of i minute would make tlie difference of 15 minutes or miles in longitude ; of 2 mhiutes, 30 minutes ; and of 3 minutes, A5 minutes. This objection docs not lie a',';ainst the method of ascertaining the longitude by t!^e eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. The telescope enables us to determine the precise moment when they arc im- INTRODUCTION. 'a mersed in the shadow of their primary. The hour at the place, therefore, being ascertained, and compared with the hour in the almanac, we are enabled to determine, as before, the exact differ- ence of longitude. On the equator a degree of longitude is equal to 60 geographi- cal miles ; and of course a minute on the equator is equal to 1 geo- graphical mile. But as all the meridians cut the equator at right angles and approach nearer and nearer till they cross each other at the poles, it is obvious that the degrees of longitude decrease as you go from the equator to the pole. They do not however de- crease uniformly, for a degree of longitude in latitude GO degrees, is 30 miles, or half as long as a degree on the equator. A TABLE Showing the number of geographical miles contained in a degree of longitude in each parallel of latitude from tlie equator. 3 -Si tc-n ;i 10 11 12 13 U 15 16 ir 18 19 59 .59 >9 59 59 20 21 22 Q. S •S ^ c ^ o o 99 96 91 85 77 67 55 41 26 59 09 581 89 58; 68 }58; 46 8 22 57i 95 67 38 06 73 561 39 56l 01 55.1 63 6 23 5,5 24 54 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 s,s 23 81 38 93 46 97 47 96 43 88 32 74 15 54 92 28 62 96 28 58 88 , 16 i.2i 42 9j "O 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 51 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 -a C — o 41 68 40 92 14 36 57 76 94 11 35 27 34 41 33| 55 32i 68 79 90 30; 00 291 09 28; 17 24 30 35 40 44 >2\ 47 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 n 50 52 53 54 54 53 53 51 50 47 45 42 38 34 ' 31 27 22 18 14 09 05 00 ■{m* INTRODUCTION. SIAPS, AND THEIK. USE. A map is the representation of soaie part of the earth's surface^' delineated on a plane, according to the laws of projection ; for as the earth is of a globular form, no part of its spherical surface can be accurately exhibited on a plane. Maps differ from the globe in the same manner as a picture does from a statue. The globe truly represents the earth ; but a map not more than a plane surface represents one that is spherical. But although the earth can never be exhil)ited exactly by one map, yet by means of several of them, each containing about 10 or 20 degrees of latitude, the representation will not fall very much short of the globe in exactness ; because such maps, if joined to- gether, vrould form a convex surface nearly as round as the globe itself. Cardinal Points. The north is considered as the upper part of' the map ; the south is at the bottom, opposite to the north ; the east is on the right hand, the face being turned to the north ; and the ivest on the left hand, opposite to the east. From the top to the bottom are drav,-n meridians, or imea of longitude ; and from side to iiklc, fmra lie is of latitude. The outmost of the meridians and par- allels arc marked with degrees of latitude or longitude, by means of which, and the scale of mile-i., which is commonly placed in a corner of the map, the situations, distances, 8cc. of places may be found as on the artificial globe. Thus to find the distance of two places, suppose Philadelphia and Boston, by the map, we have only io measure the space between them with the compasses, or a piece of thread, and to apply this distance to the scale of miles, which shows that JBoston is 286 miles distant in a straight line from Phil- adelphia. Tf the places lie directly north or south, east or west, from one another, we have only to observe the degrees on the me- ridians and parallels, and by reducing these to miles, we obtain the distance without measuring. Rivers are described in maps by black lines, and are wider toward the mouth than toward tlie head or spring. Mountains are sketched on maps as on a picture. For- ests and woods are represented by a kind of shrub ; bogs and mo- rasses, by shades ; sands and shallows are described by small dots ; and roads usually by double lines. Near harbors, the depth of the water is expressed by figures, representing fathoms. Air is a fine, invisible fluid, surroundiaig the eailh, and extend- ing some miles above its surface ; and that collection of it, togeth- er with the bodies it contains, circumscribing the earth, is called the atmosphere. Few natural bodies have been the subject of more experiments '{ban the air ; and from these it appears, that it is both heavy and elastic. By its gravity it is capable of supporting all lighter bod- ies, as, smoke, vapors, odors, 8cc. And by its elasticity, a small tolume of air is capable of expanding itself in sucii a manner as to INTRODUCTION. A2 311 a very large space, and also of being compressed into a much smaller compass. Coid has the property ot compressing air, and heat of expanding it. But as soon as the cause of expansion or compression is removed, it will return to its natural state. Hence, if an alteration be made in any part of the atmosphere, either by heat, or cold, tiie neighboring parts will be put in commotion by the effort wiiich the air always makes to recover its former state. Wind is notiiing more than a stream or current of air, capable of very different degrees of velocity, and generally blowing from one jioint of the horizon to its opposite. The horizon, like all other cir- cles, is divided into 360 degrees ; but as these divisions arc too mi- nute for common use, it is also divided into 32 equal parts, called rhu?nbs, ov pouita of the comfiass. Winds are denominated east, west, north, south. See. according to the points of the compass on which ihey blow ; and, with respect to their direction, are distribut- ed into three classes, viz. general, periodical, and variable. Central winds arc such as blow always nearly in the same di- rection. They are found to prevail in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans between the latitudes of about 2S degrees north and south ; blowing generally at the equator from the east, on the north side of it between the north and east, and more northerly the nearer the northern limit ; and on the south side, between the south and east, and more southerly the nearer the southern limit, and are also call- ed tro/iical or general trade ivinds. Periodical winds are such as blow nearly in certain directions during certain periods of time. The monsoons or i/iifring trade ivinds, and the land and sea breezes, are of this kind. The monsoons blow six months in one direction, and then six months in the oppo- site, the changes happening about the times of the equinoxes. These winds chiefly prevail in some parts of the Indian Ocean. The land and sea breezes are winds, which blow from the land in the night, and from the sea in the day time, changing their direc- tion every 12 hours. They obtain in some degree on the coast of every country, but are most remarkable between the tropics. At the islands between the tropics, the sea breeze begins about nine o'clock in the morning, and continues till about nine in the even- ing ; a land breeze then succeeds and conthiues till about nine the next morning. The periodical winds arise from the difference in the tempera- ture of the air over land, and of that over water, occasioned by their not acquiring or losing equal degrees of heat in a given time. The Indian ocean is bounded on the east and north by part of Africa, Arabia, Persia, and India, the shores of which are situated within the limits of the trade winds ; and the sun, after the vernal equinox, renders the air above these extensive tracts of land hotter than that above tlie adjacent sea, and thus produces a wind, which soon be- gins to blow toward the land. This direction of the wind continues from April to October, when the sun having passed to the south side of the equator, the air over the land toward the north becomes colder than that over the water, the direction of the wind is invert- ed, and it blov/s on the opposite point the remaiiiing six months of 44 INTRODUCTION. the year. And with respect to the land and sea breezes, the effect of the sun in healing the air over the land in the day time being greater than the heat it produces in the air over the adjacent seas, sea breezes arise ; and in the night, the air, which before was hot- test, becomes and continues coldest, and a land breeze is tlie con- sequence. Variable winds arc those, which are subject to no regularity of duration or change. All the winds in latitudes higher than 40° are of this kind. Variable, as well as periodical, winds are principally owing, with- out doubt, to the different temperatures of air incumbent on land and water. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude, and be- tween the longitudes of Cape Verd and the easternmost of the Cape de Verd Islands, is a tract of sea, which seems to be condemn- ed to perpetual calms, attended with dreadful thunder and light- ning, and such frequent rains, that it has acquired the name of the Rains. This phenomenon seems to be caused by the great rarefac- tion of the air on the neighboring coast, which causes a perpetual currentof air to set in from the westward, and this current meeting here with the general trade wind, the two currents balance each other, and cause a general calm ; while the vapors carried thither by each wind, meeting and condensing, occasion these frequent del- uges of rain. Dr. Derham, from repeated observations upon the motion of light, downy feathers, found that the greatest velocity of the wind was not q^Dove 60 miles in an hour. But Mr. Bruce justly observes, that such experiments must be subject to great inaccuracy, as the feathers cannot proceed in a straight line ; he therefore estimates the velocity of winds by means of the shadow of a cloud over the earth, by which he found, that, in a great storm, the wind moves 63 miles in an hour ; in a fresh gale, 2 1 miles an hour ; and in a small breeze, 10 miles an hour. Mr. Rouse rnakes the velocity of a hur- ricane 100 miles an hour. TIDES. By the term tide is meant the regular alternate rising and falling of the water in the seas and rivers. The phenomena of the tides occasioned a variety of opinions among the ancient philosophers, and the cause was considered as one of the greatest mysteries in nature. It remained in obscurity till the latter end of the 1 6lh cen- tury, when Sir Isaac Newton clearly pointed it out, and showed the ?Lgreement of its effects with the observed phenomena. A heavy body, being thrown up in the air, falls again to the earth in a direction perpendicular to its surface, or in a line tending to its centre. The cause of the body's falling is a species of attraciion, called gravity or gravitatioji. This principle operates not only be- tween the earth and all bodies near its surface, but also between all ihe bodies which compose the solar system, and probably between ^11 the bodies and systems of the universe. And it is abundantly INTRODUCTION. 4S proved by experiment and observation, that the force of gravity is inversely as the squares of the distances of the bodies from one another, that is, the force decreases in the same ratio as the squares of the distances increase, and -vice -versa. The flowing and ebbing of the sea are to be attributed to the at- traction of the sun and moon ; but principally to that of the moon on account of its less distance from the earth. The attractive force of the moon varies at different distances, be- ing greater at a small distance and smaller at a great distance. Its power is found to diminish as the squares of the distances increase. Thus, if at the distance of 10,000 miles, the attractive force be con- sidered as 4, at the distance of 20,000 it will be only I. Hence the ■ivaters on the side of the earth directly under the moon are more attracted by the moon than the central parts of the earth, because they are nearer to the moon, and the central parts of the earth are more attracted than the waters on the opposite side of the earth. Consequently the Avaters directly under the moon will be as it were attracted from the centre of the earth and be made to rise towards the moon ; and the centre of the earth will be as it were attracted from the waters on the side of the earth opposite to the moon, so that those waters will be less near the earth's centre than if the moon did not operate, i. e. they will rise. On the meridian direct-- ly under the moon, therefore, there will be a high tide and a simi- lar one on the opposite side of the earth, at the distance of 180°. On each side, however, at 90° distance from that meridian, in con- sequence of the moon's very oblique attraction, the waters will be depressed. The tides are higher than ordinary twice a month, viz. about th& times of the new and full moon ; and these are called sfiring tides. Because at these times the attraction of the sun conspires with that of the moon, or their agency is in the same right line ; and conse^ quentiy the tides must be more elevated. When the two lumina- ries are in conjunction, or en the same side of the earth, they both conspire to raise the water on the nearest and remotest part ; and when they are in opposition, that is, when the earth is betweer-i them, the part nearest to the one is remotest from the other, and -Dice versa, consequently the effects of their agency are united. The tides are less than ordinary twice a month ; that is, abouc the times of the first and last quarters of the moon ; and these arc called neafi tides. For in the quarters of the moon, the sun raises the water where the moon depresses it; and depresses it where the moon raises it ; the tides arc made therefore by the difference- «f their actions. LENGTH OF MILES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. There is scarcely a greater variety in any thing than in this sen of measure; not only those of separate countries differ, as the French from the English, but those of the same country vary in thf different provinces, and all commonly from the standard. Tims the common English mile differs from the statute mile, and thv French have three sorts of leaeues. .46 iNTRODUCTI(:)N. We shall here give the miles of several countries, compared, ■with the English, by Dr. Hally. The English statute niiie consists of 5280 feet, 1760 yards, or & furlongs. Eleven Irish miles arc equal to fourteen English. The Russian verst or werst is iiitlc more than | English. The Turkish, Italian, and old Roman less, niiie is nearly I Ejv glish. The Arabian, ancient and modern, is about 1^ English. The Scotch mile is about )| English. The Indian is almost 3 English. The Dutch, Spanish, and Polish, ib about 3| English. The German is more than 4 English. The Swedish, Danish, and Hungarian is from .5 to 6 English. The French conunon marine league is nearly 3, and The English marine league is 3 nautical miles. , SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF LENGTH. Digit 7- I 12 24 96 144 192 (1920 Palm 24 26 48 480 Span 12 16 160 Cubit SO Fathom Ezekiel's Rod 1, 20 1-^ Arabian Pole Eng. Yds. Ft. Inches. 0912 3-648 10'944f 1 9-S88 2 1 3-552 3 1 11-328 4 2 7-104 13.1 10 Schasnuij, or MeasuringLine4S 1 11 04 Cubit 400 2000 4000 12000 96000 TIIE LONGER SCllIPTURE MEASURES. Eng. Miles. Yds. Feet. 1-824 Stadium G 243 0-6 bath Day's Journey 1216 0* Eastern Mile 1 672 0- Parasang 4: 256 0- 48 24 8 I A Day's Journey 33 288 '0' 10 SO 240 llfJTRODUCTION. 4f The East used another span equal tn one third of a cubit. The above are sacred measures) in the lengths of which there iHust necessarily be some degree of uncertainty. Arbuthnot makes the sacred cubit equal to 1-7325 feet. He also observes, that the 'Jews sometimes made use of a profane cubit, the length of which he determined to be 1-485 feet- niFFERENT TIMES ^YHEN THE DAY BEGINS ; AND 4 SHOUT'' ACCOUNT OF THE OLD AND NEW STYLE. The ancient Egyptians and Romans supposed the day to begin at midnight ; and it is also now considered by the United States of America, Great-Britain, France, and most European countries, as beginning at that time. In astronomy, however, it is supposed tO' begin at noon, or the time when the sun is on the meridian. The beginning has been fixed at sunrise by some nations, as the ancient Babylonians, Persians, &c. and at sunset by others, as t!ie ancient Jews, Grecians, Sec. In the Julian calendar or old style, a method of reckoning tirhe, adopted by Julius Cxsar, about 45 years before the birth of Christ, which was much preferable to any that preceded it, a year was sup- posed to consist of 365 days and 6 hours ; each of 3 years in suc-^ cession was consid-^red as a common year of 365 days, and on ac- count of the annual excess of 6 hours, another was added to cvery fourth, which consequently consisted of 366 days, and was called leaji yeai\ As the solar year, or the time of the apparent annual revolution of the sun, is not exactly 365 days and G hours, but near- ly 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 48 seconds, it follows, that the Julian year exceeded the solar by about 11 minutes and 12 sec- onds. This annual excess amounts to 1 day in 129 years. Not- withstanding this inaccuracy, the Julian style was generally used in Europe till the year 1582, when it was reformed by Pope Greg- ory the thirteenth, who introduced what is called the Gregorian of new style. It having been found that the vernal equinox, which had been fixed to the 21st of March by tiie council of Nice, held in the yeaP 325, happened the 1 1th of March in 1582, the difference of 10 davs between the civil and real time was taken from the October of that year, and the 2 1st of the next March reduced to the true time of the equinox. But the Protestant states refused, at that time, to accede to the new style, which the Pope had enjoined on all the ecciesiastics within his jurisdiction, and exhorted the Christian princes to adopt in their respective dominions ; and it did not com- mence in the British em.pire, of which the present United States of America then made a part, till the year 1752, when tlie error having increased to 1 1 days, they were, by an act of parliament, struck oiU of the calendar Irom the month of September, the third day, according to the old style, bciiig called the fourteenth. The reformation of the calendar consisted not only in expunping the excess of the civil al)ove the real time, but also in the introduc- tion of a principle which should prevent a like accumulation of er- 48 INTRODUCTION. ror in future. According to the old style the last year of every century is a leap year, but in the new only every fourth of these leap years is retained, the rest being considered as common years. This diminution of the number of leap years nearly balances the error, "which, at the rate of 1 1 minutes and 12 seconds a year, amounts to 1 day in 129 years, and 3 days in about 4 centuries. It is, however, to be observed, that at the above annual rate of 1 1 minutes and 12 seconds, the accumulation in 4 centuries is 3 days, 2 hours, and 40 minutes, so that the deduction of 3 days in 4 cen- turies, falls short of the difference between the civil and real time by 2 hours and 40 minutes, which error will become equal to 1 day m 36 centuries. UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. THE EARTH. i;XTENT, RELIGIONS, DIVISIONS, ARRANGEMENT. p fTlHE globe, which we inhabit, contains on its sur * JL face about 197 million square miles. Religions. The religion of our first parents before the Fall, was JVatural Religion. After the Fall, the religion of Adam, and, for a considerable time, that of his posterity, was PatriaTchal. The first corruption of the patriarchal religion was Atheism^ or a denial of the existence of God. The second was Gentilism, or the worship of false gods. Gentilism spread rapidly and exten- sively ; and, for more than 2500 years, has been the religion of the great body of mankind. The covenant with Abraham did not give rise to a new religion. It was merely a modification of the patriarchal. The Jewish Religion was instituted at Mount Sinai, 1491 years before Christ. The children of Israel were taken by God to be his peculiar people, on the single condition, that ihcy would, acknowledge and worship him as their God. This religion ceased in effect at the death of the Redeemer ; for then the Spirit from on high was withdrawn, and God refused to accept the offering of the worshipper. Considerable numbers, however, have in every sub- sequent age observed the rites of the synagogue. Christianity was planted by the Apostles of Christ immediate- ly after his death. By the end of the 4th century it overspread the whole Roman Empire, and numerous and powerful churches were found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These all, at length, became subordinate to two, the church of Rome, and the church of Con- stantinople. The churches of Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, Ar- menia, and Africa were under the control of the latter, while all the west and north of Europe was subject to the former. The temfioral power of Rome was much more weakened by the early attacks of barbarians, than that of Constantinople. This gave the spiritual power an undue influence in the government ; and, when Charlemagne made FrriDce the seat of the western em- pire, the Pope was without a rival in Italy. 7 Xo THE EARTH. The patriarch of Constantinople, on the contrary, had always a master in the empire. His power was chiefly spiritual. The first serious check to the usurpation ot Rome was given in the 12th and 13th centuries, by the Waldenscs and Albigenses in the south of France. In the 1 6th century, it found in Luther, Me- lancthon, Zuinglius, and Calvin, antagonists too formidable to be met ; too wily to be circumvented. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and the north of Germany, Scotland, England, and Swit- zerland, were finally emancipated froiTi popish thraldom ; and the other nations of Europe loosened their fetters. The Reformers took the name of Protestatits, from their pro- testing, in 1529, against a decree of the emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires. The great branches of the protestani religion were the Lutherans, the Episcopalians, and the Presbyterians ; for under this latter name may be ranked the Congregational churches of Geneva, Switzerland, Holland, and United America, with as much propriety as the church of Scotland. The Greek Church, the other great branch of the christian com- munity, suffered extremely by the capture of Constantinople. The power of the patriarch was curbed, and several of his richest pro- vinces were dismembered. The churches of Africa, except the Abyssinian, were in a great measure rooted out ; while those of Armenia, Syria, and Asia Minor, were brought under the most distressing- bondage. These losses, however, were supplied, in a degree, by the accession of European Russia, the most important part of the patriarchal empire. Beside the Romish, the Greek, and the Protestant religions, there is still another branch of the christian church, till lately un- known in Europe. This includes the Christians of Cochin, in Hin- dostan. They were established in that country at no distant pe- riod after the ascension of the Redeemer ; and, for many centuries, knew no worshippers of the true God, but themselves, and the Christians of Antioch. The Mahometan Religion is usually considered as having com- menced at Mecca, in 618, the 40th year of the Impostor's life. Its fundamental articles are, that there is one God, and that Alahoinet is his Prophet. Mahometanism soon became divided into two great sects, the Schiites, the followers of Ali; and the Su?inites, the followers of Omar. The former established itself in Persia. The latter overspread Arabia, Turkey, and its dependences. Thus the great religions of the world are the Pagan, Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan. •< The Pagan overspreads northern, central, and eastern Asia ; the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans ; ceniral and southern Africa the northern parts of North-America ; and the central and southern parts of South-America. Of the 765 millions, who inhabit the globe, wc believe that about 475 millions are Pagans, viz. about 450 in Asia, 20 in Africa, and 5 in America. The Jews are dispersed over the globe. A small body politic has lately been discovered in Cochin, who are supposed to have i>€ltlcd there scon after the time of the transportation to Babylon, THE EARTH. si The Vv'hole number of Jews on the globe has comnionly been esti- mated at 3 millions. Christianity is the religion of all Europe, except about one third of the population of Turkey ; of all America, that is not Pagan ; of Abyssinia, and various European settlements in Africa ; and of Georgia, Cochin, and a few Portuguese and English settlements in Hindostan and the Asiatic isles. The whole number of Christians on the globe is, probably, about 214 millions, viz. 177 in Europe, 30 in America, 4 in Africa, and 3 in Asia. The remaining 73 millions are Mahometans, overspreading northern Africa, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Persia, and the south- eastern part of Russia in Asia, and extensively diffused over Hin- dostan and Turkey in Europe. Their high priest is the Mufti, who resides at Constantinople. It will readily be observed that these numbers are not supposed to be accurate. They are, however, according to the best information which we can obtain, probably not far from the truth. Divisions. The two great natural divisions of the earth are land and loater. About 42 million square m.iles make up the va- rious divisions of land, and about 155 millions are covered with vi^a- ter. The following are the divisions of land. Continents. A very large extent of country is called a Conti- nent. Of these there are two, the eastern and nvestern. The east- ern comprehends Europe, Asia, and Africa; the western. North and South-America. The eastern has been generally estimated to con- tain 22,600,000 square miles, and the western 14,000,000. The present population of both, including the islands, is, according to the best data, which we possess, about 765,000,000, or 18y^^ to each square mile of land on the globe. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, are sometimes also called the four quarters of the tvorld. Kew- Holland, the largest island on the globe, has sometimes been considered as a third continent. Peninsulas. A Peninsula is a tract of land, surrounded by wa- ter, except at one narrow 7ieck, by which it is comiected with the main. Islands. An Island is a tract of land, smaller than a continent, entirely surrounded by water. The principal islands on the globe, are New-Holland, between the Pacific and Indian oceans, usually estimated to contain 4,000,000 square miles ; Borneo, Madagas- car, Sunjatra, all in the Indian ocean ; Great-Britain, Iceland, and Terra del Fuego, in the Atlantic j Nova Zembla and Spitz- bergen in the Frozen ; and Saghalien, Jesso, Niphon, New-Guinea, and New-Zealand, in the Pacific, Isthmuses. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land, joining a pen- insula to the main. The two most noted isthmuses are that of Da- rien, which unites North and South-America, 34 miles wide ; and that of Suez, which connects Africa with Asia, 60 miles wide. Promontories. A Promontory is a tract of land, Jirojccting far vito the sea without an ist/nnus. Capes. A Cape is the termination of a promontGry, or of anv 62 ^ THE EARTH. other tract of land, running into the sea. The most noted capes arc Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Sable, and Cape Florida. Mountains. A Mountain is a tract of land, considerably elevflt' ed above the adjacent country. Mountains are usually found con- nected together in long chains or ranges ; sometimes, however, they are single, isolated eminences. The longest range of moun- tains in the world is the A7ncrican Range, which reaches from the Straits of Magellan to the Frozen ocean, almost 10,000 miles, and comprises the Andes in South-America, the Cordilleras, of Mexi- co, and the Rocky mountains of North-America. The most noted single mouiiiauis are Mont Blanc, Ophir, Peak of TenerifTe, Etna, Hecla, and Vesuvius. Ihe followuig are the divisions of water. Oceans. The largest divisions of water are not, like those of land, separated from each other. On this account, considered as a ■whole, they frequently receive the name of the. Ocean or the Sea. The word Ocean, however, in a subordinate and more common sense, means a large collection of water, sefiarated partly by land, and partly by a supposed or imaginai'y boundary, from some other collection. Of these there are four. 1. The Pacific, which has America on the east, and Asia, the Indian ocean, and New-Holland on t|ie west; on the north it is con- nected with the Frozen ocean by Behring's straits. The distance of America and Asia, at Behring's straits, is 48 miles.* This ocean soon widens rapidly. In lat. 59° it is about 1400 miles ; in 50°, 4300 ; in 5° north, its widest point, 10,900 ; at its southern extremity, 63,000. The large rivers which empty into it, are the Kianku, Hoang-ho, Amoor, Columbia, and Colorado. 2. The Atlantic, which is bounded by America on the west, and by Europe and Africa on the east. Its width between Nor- "way and Greenland is not more than 700 miles ; between Labra- dor and Great-Britain, 1700; between the United States and France it is about 3000 ; in lat. 23° north, its widest point, more than 4500 ; across obliquely from Brazil to Africa, about 1500 ; and in lat. 34° south, upwards of 3500. The large rivers, which empty into the Atlantic, are the La Plata, Amazon, Oronoko, Bravo, Mis- sisippi, St. Lawrence, in America, and the Rhine in Europe. 3. The Indian ocean, which lies between Africa on the west, Asia on the north, and New -Holland on the east. Its width, in lat. 7" nortli, is about 2800 miles ; on the equator, 6000 ; and in lat. 35° south, 4800 The promontory of Hindostan divides the north- ern part of this ocean into the Arabian sea, on the west, and the bay of Bi. ngal on the east ; an imaginary line, passing from the cape of Good Hope to New-Holland, is supposed to separate it from the Southern. The great rivers which flow into it are the Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Burrampooter, Irawaddy and Maykaung, or Japan- ese river. 4. Tlie JVurthern ocean, which lies north of America, Asia, and Europe. It is commonly said to be 3000 miles over. It communi- • Sauer's Expedition, page 257. TI?E EARTH. 53 G^tes-with the Pacific and Atlantic The shores of this ocean have been but partially explored. To this ocean the iierrinj; resort in thp autumn to breed their young. About the middle ot winter they proceed towards the south in three great divisions The smallest squadron passes through Behring's straits, and visits the coasts of Kamschatka and Alaska. The mam body, passing between Norway and Greenland, reaches Iceland, about the beginning of March, in a close phalanx of sur- prising depth, and such extent, that the surface is supposed to equal the dimensions of Great-Britain and Ireland. Here they divide. The western division, passing between Greenland and Iceland, covers the shores of America, as far as the Chesapeak. The van- guard of the eastern reaches the Shetland isles in May, and tiie main body arrives in June, towards the end of which month, and through that of July, they are in their greatest perlection. From Shetland, one division passes through the German sea, and arrives at Yarmouth in October. The other passes to the west along both shores of Ireland. In the month of October, they are supposed to return to the Arctic ocean.* Arrangement, It will be the object of the following work to give an accurate and comprehensive account of the present state of the various countries on the globe ; together with such a summarv- of their history, as will enable our readers to ^timate their relative importance in the various periods of time. Of the four quarters of the world, America, the most interesting to our countrymen, will be first described. Europe, Asia, and Af- rica, will follow in their order. The countries, which compose the respective quarters of the globe, will be arranged with a general reference to their geograph- ical situation. Such an arrangement will best serve to fix on the mind a clear impression of their relative position ; and it need not, like the arrangement of Pinkerton, be changed with every new edi- tion of a geography. Each country will be described under the two following general heads. Historical Geography, and Natural Geography, The historical geograf-ihy oi dt country is supposed to include its Extent, Boundaries, Names, Original Population, Historical Epochs, Antiquities, Religion, Government, Population, Colonies, Army, Navy, Revenue, Political Importance and Relations, Manners and Customs, Language, Literature, Arts Universities, Cities and Towns, Roads, Inland Navigation, Manufactures, and Commerce. In short it comprehends all that information respecting the present state of each country, which would be useful to the historian, who, at some future period, might be employed in writing its history. J^atural geograjihy comprises Climate and Seasons, Face of the Country, Soil and Agriculture, Islands, Seas, Bays, Sounds, Swamps, Lakes, Rivers, Mountains, Forests, Botany, Zcologj-, Mineralogy, Mineral Waters, and Natural Curiosities. ^ Pinkerton. AMERICA. AMERICA. Uxtent. WE" cannot speak with certainty as te the extent of America, because its northern limit has never been ascertained. Its whole length is about 9600 miles. Its greatest breadth, from the extremity of the promontory of Alaska, to the easternmost point of Labrador, is 4570 miles ; while its least breadth across the Isthmus of Darien, is only 34 miles. The average breadth, is about 1500 miles. The greatest breadth of South-America, is 3230 miles. America extends from cape Horn, in lat. 56 S. to at least lat. 80° N ; and from long ,35^ to ] 68° W. from Greenwich, It contains, exclusive of its islands, upwards of 14,000,000 square jniles. Boundaries. America has the Atlantic on the east, the Pacific on the west, and the Northern or Frozen ocean on the north. On the south, the continent is separated from the island of Teri'a del Fuego, by the straits of Magellan. Divisions. We shall consider this great continent under the three grand divisions pointed out by nature, North-America, the Wkst-Indies, and South-Ambhica. Original Fo/mladon. We shall state, in a few words, the result of our own enquires on this subject. I. The Greenlanders and Esquimaux v/crc emigrants from the N. W. shores of Europe. A colony of Norwegians was planted in Iceland in 874. (Greenland was settled by Eric Rufus, a young Norwegian, in 9S2; and before the eleventh century, churches were founded and a bishopric erected at Garde, the capital of the settle- ment. Soon after this. Bairn, an Icelandic navigator, by accident, discovered land to the west of Greenland. This land received the name of Vineland. It was settled by acolony of Norwegians in 1002, and, from the description givenof its situation and productions, must have ])een either Labrador, or Newfoundland.* Vineland was west of Greenland, and not very far to the south of it. It also pro- duced vines spontaneously. Its situation corresponds with both Labrador and Newfoundland. II. The other tribes of North-America, and all the nations of South-America, probably came from the N. E. coast of Asia, across Behring's straits. The distance from East cape to cape Prince of Wales, is 4 8 miles. Several islands lie in the straits. In the winter tlic passage is frozen ; in the sunmier the natives continual- Iv cross, in canoes, from one coast to the other. The Araucanians, the Peruvians, the Mexicans, the Moheakan- ncews, Iroquois, and the Cliipewyans, ail had traditions of their ancestors hav ing come from the west, or north-west. This harmo- ny of their traditions could hardly have existed, if they had not been true. The v?.rIouy nations of America undoubtedly emigrated at dif- * Mallet's Northern Antiijuitrcd. AIvfERICA. 55 fetent periods, and always by tribes more or less numerous, and possessed of very different degrees of civilization. J^ative Tribes. The principal nations and tribes, which occupied the immense territories of the western continent, beginning at the south, were the Araucanians, the Peruvians, the Caraibes, the Mex- icans, the Arrowauks, the Sioux, the Moheakaneews, the Iroquois, the Knisteneaux, the Chipewyans, and the Esquimaux. The Indians of Chili and Pataijonia all spoke one language. We Gall them Araucanians, after the name of their most powerful tribe. They were more civilized than most of the Tartars. They are at this day, a powerful, compact, independent republic* The Peruvians were farther advanced in civilization, when A- merica was discovered, than the European Russians in the time of Peter the Great. . The Arrowauks and the Caraibes inhabited the West-Indian Islands, and the shores of Guiana and Caraccas. The Mexicans constituted a powerful empire. They were still farther advanced in civilization than the Peruvians. The country lying west of the Missisippi and north of Mexico, as far as the parallel of 52° N. was inhabited by many independent tribes, whom, for want of a better name, we call the Sioux, after the name of the tribe now the most numerous. The MoHEAKANEEwsf inhabited the greater part of the north- ern states, and probably New-Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Of many of their tribes we have authentic accounts. The Iroquois, or, as they are commonly called, the Six Na- tions, inhabited the northern and western parts of the state of New- York, and a part of Pennsylvania and Ohio. The Knisteneaux still occupy a vast extent of country, around the southern shore of Hudson bay. Their language is the same with that of the people, who inhabit the coast of British America, ©n the Atlantic, with the exception of the Esquimaux ; and con- tinues along the coast of Labrador and gulf and banks of St. Law- rence, to Montreal. The Chipewyans are numerous. They consider the country between lat. 60° and 65° N. and between Ion. 100° and 1 10° W. as their home. Their language is copious, and difBcult to be attain- ed ; and is spoken in many dialects by the tribes, who wander over an immense tract of country. Between them and the Frozen ocean lie the Esquimaux, and on the North-West Coast, is a nation dif- ferent from both. The Esquimaux possess the sea coast from the Atlantic through Hudson's straits and bay, as far as M'Kenzie's liver, and probably farther. They never quit the coast ; and agree in appearance, manners, language, and habits, with the inhabitants of Greenland. Their progress has been only westward. | There are many small tribes, unconnected with these, which e'annot be enumerated. Diacoveries. The following are the principal epochs of discovery' *MoUaa. t Dr. Dwight's Manuscript observations. \ M'Kenzie, II. 304. 56 AMERICA. 861 . Iceland, which is really an American island, was 'discovered by Nardoddr a Norwegian. 982. Greenland was settled by Eric Rufus, a young Norwegian ; and, before the eleventh century, churches were built and a bish- opric erected at Garde, the capital. 1002. Vineland, which is probably Labrador, possibly New- foundland, was discovered by Bairn, an Icelander. A small colo- ny of Norwegians was planted there. The fate of this colony has never been fully ascertained. 1492. Christopher Colon, or, as he is commonly called, Christo- pher Columbus, a native of Genoa, set sail from Palos in Spain, under the auspices of Ferdhiand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Arragou. His armament consisted of three vessels ; the largest, the Santa Maria, a ship of no considerable burden, was commanded by Columbus as admiral. Martin Pinzon was captain of the second, called the Pinta. The third, the J\''igna, was under the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. The squadron was victu- alled fur 12 months, and had on board 90 men, mostly sailors, to- gether with a few adventurers. The expence of fitting out the expedition was 4000 pounds sterling ; and to raise this sum the queen generously offered to pledge her own jewels. On the first of October, he was, by his own reckoning, 770 leagues west of the Canaries. His men began to mutiny, and he was forced to promise to return, if land did not appear in three days. Fortunate presages soon arose, such as land-birds, a cane newly cut, a carved piece of wood, and the branch of a tree, with fresh red berries. On the 1 1th of October, a little before midnight, Columbus, from the forecastle of the Santa Maria, discovered a light at a distance ; and shortly after the cry of land I land ! re- sounded from the Pinta, the headmost ship. Rodrigo de Triana was the name of tiie mariner, who was so fortunate as to announce this intelligence to his countrymen. With the dawn of Friday, October 12th, a beautiful isle appeared, two leagues to the north. The crewb of all the ships unitedly sang Te Deum, with shouts of joy and transports of congratulation. They then threw themselves "at the feet of Columbus, and begged him to forgive their incredu- lity and disobedience. The island was one of the groupe, called the Bahamas. Colum- bus named it San Salvador, but it is now better known by the na- tive name of Guanahani.* He soon afterwards discovered Cuba and Hispaniola. After vis- iting the Azores, on his return, he arrived at Palos, on the 15th of March, 1493. In September of this year, Columbus sailed upon his second voyage to America ; discovered the islands, Dominica, Marigalante, Guadaloupe, Montserrat, Antigua, Porto Rico, and Jamaica ; founded a town in St. Domingo, being the first Euro- pean seltlen ent in the new world ; and returned to Spain in 149 6. 1496. In the spring of this year, Giovani Gaboto.f a Venetian, under a commission from Henry VII. sailed from England, dis- ♦The Cat island of the English mariners. f In English, John Cabot. AMERICA, ^7 covered the coast of Labrador, and coasted northerly, as far as the 67th degree of latitude. 1497. In company with his son, Sebastian Cabot, he discovered Bonavista, on the N. E. side of Newfoundland ; and, before his re- turn, traversed the coast from Davis's straits to cape Florida. 1498. This year Columbus made his third voyaiJfe, and, Au^. 1, discovered the Continent, at the mouth of tiic Oronoco, lOLjether witb the island of Trinidad. He then returned to Hispaniola ; and in October, 1500, was sent back to Spain in chains J .' I 1500. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on a voyage to the East-Indies, dis* covered Brazil. 1502. Columbus made his fourth and last voyage. He discov- ered the bay of Honduras, and coasted thence easterly 200 leagues, as far as the gulf of Darien. During this voyage, he was ship- wrecked on the island of Jamaica. He returned to Spain in 1504. On his arrival he received the fatal luews of the death of his pa- troness. Queen Isabella.* 1513. Vasco Nugnez de Balboa, from the mountains of the isth- mus, discovered the Pacific ocean. He afterwards waded into it, and took a formal possession of it, in the name of the king of Spain. In the same year John Ponce, a Spanish captain, discovered East-Florida. 1520. Ferdinand Magalhaens, or Magellan, a Portuguese gen- tleman, in the employ of the court of Castile, discovered the straits of Magellan, and sailed through them into the Pacific ocean. No European before him had ever sailed on its waters. To him it owes its name. 1534. James Cartier, in the employ of Francis I. of France, on the day of the festival of St. Lawrence, discovered the gulf and riv- er, which bear that name. 1553. Sir Hugh Willoughby discovered the island of Spitzber- gen. 1578. Sir Francis Drake coasted along the whole western shore of South- America. In 1579 he discovered California, and took possession of the country under the name of Kew-Albion. He passed thence to the Moluccas, or Spice islands, Sept. 29, 1579, and arrived in England, Nov. 3, 1580, after an absence of two years and ten months. 1585. John Davis, an experienced navigator, sailed to the west- ern coast of Gret.nland, and explored Davis's straits. On another voyige he proceeded as far north, as the island of Disco, and dis- covered Cumberland's straits. * This illustrious man was afterwards created duke of Veragua. He died of the gout At ValUdolid, oa the 20th of May, 1506, in the 59th year of bis age % and was buried at Seville with this most honorable inscription. A Cast ilia y a Leon Nuevo Mundo dio Colon. To Castile and lo Leon Colon gave a new world. The body of Columbus was carried to the West-Indies, and buried In fh% the Cathedral at St, Domingo, in Hispaniola. 8 5t AMERICA. 1607. H^nry Hudson explored the eastern coast of Greenland^ as fir as 82° north. 1 609. In a second voyage, he discovered Hudson's river and as- cended it, as far as Albany. 1610. This year Hudson made his tliird voyage, and discovered the straits of Hudson, and the larijc inland sea, known by the name of Hudson bay. 1616. Captain Robert Bylat, and William Baffin, went in search of a north-west passage to India. Baffin claims to have discover- ed that the body of water lyinj^ between Greenland and America is a bay, and not a strait ; and, of course, that Greenland is not an island, but a part of the continent. Little credit, however, is giv- en to his representations, and it is not yet ascertained whether Greenland is a peninsula or an island. 1728. Captain Vitus Behring sailed from Kamtschatka, N. E. as far as lat. 67°. 1745. In this year, the Aleutian or Fox islands, stretching west Irom the promontory of Aiashka, were discovered by some Kamt- schadale voyagers, who were driven by stress of weather near to tlie American coast. 1772. Mr. Hearne, while exploring the interior of North- Amer- ica, discovered the Frozen sea, in about 110° west long, and in lat. 70** north, Mr. M'Kenzie, in 1789, discovered it in the same lati- tude, and in about 135° west. Religions. The religions v;hich exist in America are the Jewish^ the Chrialian^ and the Pagan. A fev/ Jews are scattered over the large towns of the United States, Mexico, the West-Indies, und South-America. This is al- most the only country in which this scattered and devoted people have not been persecuted. Of Christians, Roman Catholics are most numerous in America. They coinpose the rhief European population oi Canada, and the whole of that of Brazil and Sp.vnish Aaierica. Tliey arc found, al- so, in considerable numbers in Maryland, in several of the capital towns in other parts of the United States, and in the West Indies. Almost all the inhabitants of the United States are Protesta'.Jts, ss are those of Nova Scotia, New-Bi-unswick, New-Britain, Green- land, and the islands in the West-Indies, which were settled by the English. The native tribes of North-America, a few converts to Christian- ity excepted, are Pagans ; as are the nations in Amazonia and Pat- agonia, as weil ;is most of the tribes in the conquered provinces of South-America. Governments. The United States constitute a Federal Re- public ; Greenland aiid British America are provinces ; Brazil is nov/ an independent kingdom ; Spanish America is struggling to be free ; Araucania, in Chili, is a republic ; the island of St. Do- mingo calls itself an errpirc ; and the Aborigines, wiiere they are unsubdued, with th.e exception of the Araucaiuans of Cliili, consti- tute numerous independent petty kingdoms. AMERICA. SS Pofiulation. On this subject we have scarcely any thing to guide us but conjecture. That of the United States is known. That of Britislj America can be nearly ascertained. That of Span- ish America and Greenland can be guessed at ; while at that of aboriginal America one would hardly venture to guess. From the best information which we have been able to obtain, we are howev- er led to conclude, that it does not exceed 35,000,000. Nor do we believe that it falls greatly short of that number. Climatt and Seasons America extends thi-ough the torrid and jiorthern temperate zones ; through a great part of the southern temperate, and a considerable proportion ot tiie northern frigid zones. The winteis of North-America cire colder, and the sum- mers hotter, than those of Europe in the same latitudes. They bear a much nearer a.ffinity to those of eastern Asia. The weather also is extremely variable. The equatorial regions of America are never subjected to the intense heat, which prevails in the same regions in Africa. The compkxiun ot the abuiigines of Peru and Brazil is red, and is but a few sliades darker, than that of the In- dians of New-England. This milder temperature is owing to the vicinity of the Andes. The temperate regions of Soutli-Anierica are colder than the corresponding latitudes of North-America. It is also said, that the Nortli-West Coast of America is much warm- er than the N. E. in tue same pu-allels Face of the Country. Ameirca contains no immense deserts similar to the Zaara of Africa, or the extensive sandy plains of cen- tral Asia. Seas. Hudson Sea (commonly called Hudson Bay) is con- sidered as commencing at cape Chidky and cape Waisingham, that is, in long. 65° VV. It reaches 3(j° of longitude ; which, in lat. 60°, will be about 1050 miles. It lies between 51° and 69° "N. iat. Its length of course is 1250 miles. Labrador bounds it on the E. and New North and New South Wales on the W. Its shores, from Moose river, or the bottom of the bay, to cape Churchill, are gen- erally low and shallow, with a muddy or sandy bottor« ; ;vnd the lands are wooded with pines, birch, larch, and wil'ows. From cape Churchill to cape Walsingham, the coacjis are :J1 nigh and i'ocky to the very sea, and woodless, except the moutlis of Pock- erekesko and Seal rivers. Nor are there any trees for a great dist- tance inland. The whole western shore is fac'.id with islands, at some distance from the land. Caribbean Sea. The great mass of waters reaching from the peninsula of Yucatan, on the west, to the Windward Islands on the east, and having Porto Rico, Hispaniola, and Cuba, on the north, is usually called the Caribbean sea. It extends from 61° to 90" W. long, and from 8° to 22° N. lat. The bay of Honduras is near its western extremity. East of this bay lies the gulf of Darien. Bays. The great bays or gulfs of the American continent are Baffin's bay ; Hudson bay ; the Caribbean sea ; and the gulfs of St. Lawrence, Mexico, and California. Baffin's Bay lies between Greenland on the east, and Labrador and the countries north of Hudson bay, on the west. According 6D AMERICA. to Baffin's narrative, it is a very large bay, extending not less than 1 300 milts from N. to S and near its northern extremity, not less than 600 from E. to W. Its width, near the southern extremity, in that part improperly called Davis's straits, is not more than 350 miles. The Gulf of Mexico has East-Florida on the N. E. West-Florida and Louisiana on the N. and Mexico on the W. and S. It extends from 1 8° to 30° N. and from 83° to 98" W. It communicates with the Atlantic and the Caribbean sea, between cape Sable and cape Catoche. Its southern extremity is called the bay of Camficachij. The Gulf of St. Laivrence has Labrador on the N. Newfound- land and Cape Breton on the E. and Nova-Scotia and Canada on the S. and W. It extends from about 46° to 52° N lat. It has three communications with the ocean, one between Nova-Scotia and Cape Breton, called the gut of Canso ; a second between Cape Breton and Newfoundland ; a third between Newfoundland and Labrador, called the straits of Bellcisle. The depth of this gulf is 240 miles, and its width at the mouth, 90 miles. Gulf of Calf ornia. This is a bay lying between the peninsula of California and Mexico. Its general course is from N. W. to S. E. It lies between lat. 20 20, and 32 30, N. and between long. 105° and 114° E. Its greatest length, from cape Corientes to the mouth of the Colorado, is not less than 900 miles. Its average breadth is about 200 miles. The gulf communicates with the Pacific ocean between ca}ie St. Lucas., the southern extremity of the peninsula, in lat. 22 48, and cafie Corientes on the Mexican coast, in lat. 20 20.* The Gulf Stream \s, a remarkable current, occasioned by the general trade winds. Commencing at the equator, near the coast of Africa, by a westward course it crosses the Atlantic, and run- ning along the shores of Guiana and Terra Firma, passes through the Caribbean sea, and coasts the gulf of Mexico. It then issues from the gulf, between cape Florida and the island of Cuba, and traversing the coasts of East-Florida, the United States, New- Bi unswick, and Nova-Scotia, proceeds to the banks of Newfound- land There it turns to the S. E ; and, passing the Azores, it makes for the coast ol Africa, near which, at the equator, it com- mences anew its former circuit. It is easily distinguishable from the other waters of the ocean by the gulf M'eed, with which it is ev- ery where interspersed; by being 8 or 10 degrees warmer than the surrounding sea ; and by not sparkling in the night. In liigh latitudes, also, it is always covered with a thick fog. It passes about 75 miles from the shores of the southern stales. The dis- tance increases as you go northward. Its breadth is about 40 or 50 miles, widening to the north. Its common rapidity is 3 miles an hour, and it takes about 20 days for it to run from cape Florida to Newfoundland. Northeast and east winds narrow the stream, :fender it more rapid, and drive it nearer the coast. Northwest and west winds have a contrary effect. Skilful navigators, in their voyages from Europe to New-England, pass the banks of Neiv- * Venegas, Hist California. Section 11 AMERICA. 61 %. foundland in 44" or 45° N. lat. and sail thence between the north- western limit of the guli stream and the shoals and banks of Sable Island, George's Bank, and Nantucket. Islands. The principal islands are Spitzbergen, Iceland, Ter- ra del Fuego, Cuba, Hispaniola, and Newfoundland. The two first have commonly been considered as European isles ; but they are much nearer to Greenland than to Norway. They will all be particularly described hereafter. Lakes. The northern lakes of this continent may be considered imdcr three great divisions. 1. Those whose waters are discharg- ed into the Arctic ocean. 2. Those whose waters pass into ffud- son bay. 3. Those which are emptied into the gulf ot St. Law- rence. 1. Lakes whose waters are discharged into the Arctic ocean. Of these the two principal are lake of the Hills and Slave lake. Lake of the Hills. This lake, according to M-Keuzie, reaches from 106° to ill 80 W. and from 58 40 to 59 40 N. If this account be correct it is about 180 miles long, but every where narrow. Fort Ciiipewyan, the great rendezvous of the western traders, lies near its southwestern extremity, in lat. 58 40 N. long. 110 30 W. It receives the waters of Eik river at the S. W. unci and discharges them at the N.W. end. After running 20 niiies due N. they flow into Slave river. Slave Lake. According to M'Kenzie's map, this lake lies be- tween lat. 60 30 and 63° N. and between long. 110^' and 1 19° W. Its length from E. N. E. to W. S. W. is about 270 miles ; and its circumference, owing to its irregular shape, not less than 1000 or 1 100 miles. Slave river enters it near the western end, and leaves it at the N. W. corner, in lat. 61 20 N. long. 118 30 \V. where it first takes the name of M'Kenzie's river. 2. Lakes whose waters empty into Hudson bay. Of these, there are two classes : those emptied by Chui chill's river, or the Missi- nipi ; and those emptied by Nelson's river. Of the former, la/ce la Locke, the source of the Missinipi, is 20 miles in length ; Buffalo lake, 24 miles below, is 35 miles long and from 6 to 12 broad, and receives river LaLoche at the N. W. end ; lake La Crosse, still lower, is 35 miles by 12 ; Biack Bear lake, a little more than 200 miles still lower on the stream than Bufialo lake, is 45 miles long. The Missinipi, leaving Black Bear lake, pursues an easterly course of 115 miles to portage de Traite, the height of land between the Missinipi and lake Winnipec, and thence runs N. E. to Hudson bay. We have mentioned these lakes rather on account of their connection, than their size. Of the latter of these classes Cedar lake, 34 miles long and 12 broad, is the largest connected with the Saskatchawinc before it falls into lake Winnipec ; and Rainy lake and lake of' the H'oods are the two largest connected with Winnipec river. Rainy Lake. This is 45 miles long, but every where narrow. At the east end it receives Winnipec river, and discharges it at the west end. This lake is chiefly important as being part of the. northern boundary of the United States. f,2 AMERICA. Lake of the Woods, is nearly circular, and its diameter is about 75 miles. Winnipec river flows into it, 120 nnles btiow Rainy lake ; and runs, after leavinti; the lake of the VVoocis, 250 miles, before it empties into lake Winriipec. Lake Wixnipec stretches from VV. N. W. to S. S. E. Its. S. E. end is in iat. 30 37 N. In 51 45 it contracts to a mere strait, and is only 2 miles wide. Its N. W. end is in 54 30. Its length is at least 280 miles, and its surface larger than that of any of the American lakes, except lake Supeiior. At a small distance W. of lake Winnipec, and parallel with it, lie two long and narrow lakes, Bed Deer lake, and lake Munitoba ; whose united length, on M'Kenzie's map, is not much less than that of lake Winnipec. The Saskatchawine enters lake Winnipec, in Iat. 55 15, on the W. side. Red river, which is said to rise near the Missouri, fails into its southern extremity. In the S. W. in Iat. 50 37, it receives Winni- pec river. Its waters are discharged through Nelson's river intp Hudson bay. S. Lakes, which empty into the gulf of St. Lawrence.- The most distant source of these waters is the river St. Louis, which rise^ near the head of the Missisippi, and empties into the southwest exr tremity of Lake Supebior. This is the largest body of fresh water on the globe. It lies between Iat. 46 31, and 48 40 N. and between Ion. 84° and 92 10 W. Its length is 400 nules, and its circumference, including its various bays, is 1 600. On its south side is a remark" able promontory, 60 miles in length, called point Shagoimago. Along its north shore is the safest navigation, as it is a continued embankment of rock from 300 to 1500 feet in height. Here are nu= incrous coves and sandy bays, convenient for landing, frequently sheltered by islands from the swell of the lake, which is often no very faint imitation of the swell of the ocean. The soil on the eastern shore is rocky and barren, yielding only stinted trees, bram- bles, and fruits of humble growth. The south side of the lake, east of point Shagoimago, is almost a continual straight line of sandy beech, interspersed with rocky precipices of limestone, sometime^ rising to an hundred feet in height. There is not a bay or a creek in this whole distance. The embankments, from that point west- ward, are in general of strong clay, mixed with stones, which ren- ders ilic navigation irksome and dangerous. Lake Superior re- ceives from the N. E. the waters of Michipicoten river, which rises near the source of Moose river, a stream falling into James bay at Moose fort; and, from the N. W. the waters of lake St. Ann, through Nipegon river, which rises near a branch of the Albany,^ river, which falls into James bay, at fort Albany. About 100 miles west of cape Shagoimago, a considerable river falls into the lake, the head of which is composed of a great assem- blage of small streams. This river is remarkable for the abundance ol virgin copper that is found on and near its banks. Lake Huron. The length of this lake is 250 miles, and its circumference, including the coasts of the bays, 1 100. It lies be- tween Iat. 43 30 and 46 30 N. and between ion. 80° and 84 30 W. AMERICA. ^3 The entrance is crowded with numerous islands. The principal of these is St. Joseph, on which there has been since the surrender of the upper posts, in 1794, a military cstablis ment, the westernmost which tlic British have erected. About 200 miles E. of the straits of St. Mary, in lat. 45 53, it receives, from the N. the waters of lake N'episingui, throutijh French river. Tliis lake is 36 miles long, and 15 broad ; and its distance from lake Hnron is 75 miles French river has many islands in its course, and us banks consist of hills of entire rock. The northern coast of lake Huron is the same, but lower, backed at some distance by high lands. The waters of lake Simcoe, about equal hi size to lake Nepibingui, fall into lake Huron from the east. JvAKE MicHFGAN. The situation of this lake is between lat. 42 (0 and 45 30 N. and between Ion. 85° and 87° \V. It is 300 miles long and 945 in circumference. A large bay, on the N. W. side of it, is called Green bay Michigan is separated by a barren tongue of land, 90 miles long and 24 broad, from lake Superior. The S. E. extremity of this promontory is called the Detour. About 40 miles to the S. W. of this point is the island of Mlchilimacki- nac,* just without the straits of the same name, through which the waters of the Michigan fall into the Huron. Fort Michilimackinac is on the south side of the strait. It stands so near the water's edge^ that, in a west wind, the waves break against the stockade.f The waters of lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron are all dis- charged, through Huron river, h»to lake St. Clair. The length of this river is about 40 miles, and the circumference of lake St. Clair, 90. It discharges its waters through the river or strait called De- troit (or the strait) into lake Erie. This lake is of an oval form, and navigable for large vessels. The fort of Detroit is situated on the western bank of the river of the same name, about 9 miles be- low lake St. Clair. The settlements are extended on both sides of the strait or river for many miles towards lake Erie, and some few above the fort. Lake Ehie^ is situated between 4 1 " and 43° of N. lat. It is 20a miles long, from E. N. E. to W. S. W. and 710 miles in circum- ference. A point of land projects from the N. side into this lake, several miles, towards the S. E. called Long Point. Presque Isle is on the S. E. shore of this lake, about lat. 42 10. From this to fort Le Beuf, on French creek, is a portage of 1 54. milfis. About 20 miles N E. of this is another portage of 9i miles", between Chataughque creek, emptying into lake Eric, and Cha- tauglique lake, a water of AUegatiy river. Fort Eric stands on the northern shore of lake Erie, and the west bank of Niagara river, in Upper Canada. I'his lake at its N. E. end, communicates with lake Ontario, by the river Niagara, which runs from S. to N. about 30 miles, including its windings, embrac- * Pronounced Mlslilhnackina'zu. f For further info.inution concerning this lake and its environs, see Midhan Territory. ^ Erie, Erige, or Erike, or the lake of the Cat. Berne fin. 64 AMERICA. ing in its course Grand island, and receiving Tonewanto creek, iVom the E. About the middle of this river, are the celebrated Falls of Niai^ara, which are reckoned one of the greatest natural curiosities in tiie world. The waters which supply the river Ni- agara rise near 2000 miles to the N. W. and passing through the lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie, receiving in their course constant accumulations, at length, with astoiiisliing gran- deur, rush down a stupendous precipice of 1 37 feel perpendicular ; and in a strong rapid, that extends lo the distance of 8 or 9 miles below, fall near as much more ; the river then loses itself in lake Ontario The water falls 57 feet in the distance of one mile, be- fore it falls perpendicularly.* A spectator standing on the bank of the river opposite these falls, would not imagine them to be more than 40 or 50 feet perpendicular height The noise of these falls, in a clear day and fair wind, may be heard between 40 and 50 miles. When the water strikes the bottom, its spray rises to a great height in the air, occasioning a thick cloud of vapours, in which, when the sun shines, may be seen, morning and evening, a beautiful rainbow. Fort Niagara, built by the French about the year 1725, is situated on the east side of Niagara river, at its en- trance into lake Ontario, about 43 20 north latitude. Lake Ontario is situated between 43° and 45° north latitude, and between 76° and 80° west longitude. Its form is nearly oval. Its greatest length is from southwest to northeast, 160 miles according to Heriot, and its circumference 450 miles. On the northeast, this lake discharges itself through the river Cataraqui (which at Montreal, takes the name of St. Lawrence) into the Atlantic ocean. The waters of lake Ontario are discharged at its northeast end, into the river St Lawrence, which runs a northeast course of 690 miles, and empties into the gulf of St. Lawrence. It meets the tide upwards of 400 njiles from the sea, and is so far navigable for large vessels. This noble river, if considered as rising at the source of the Lt. Louis, is at least 2000 miles in length ; and, in its quantity of water, is surpassed by no river on the globe, except the Amazon and La Plata. It meets the tide upwards of 400 miles from the sea, and is so far navigable for large vessels. Its size may be estimated from the following fact. In Niagara river, 3 miles from lake Erie, in the fall of the year, its width is 7 furlongs, or 1^ of a mile, its average depth 2 1 feet, and its rapidity 6 miles an Lour. The commercial advantage of this river will be great in proportion to the population of its banks. The Indian trade, in a great measure, takes its current down the St. Lviwrence, particu- larly since vessels of a considerable size are constantly building for the navigation of the lakcs.f Nicaragua Lake. This is a large lake in the isthmus of Darien, * It is believed by the inhabitants in the neighborhood of these falls, that formerly they were 6 miles lower down thin they now are, and that the change has been produced by the constant operation of the water But on a careful examination of the banks of the river, there appears to be no good foundation for this opinion. Qen. Lincoln, t Smyth, AMERICA. 65 cotnmtlnicating with the gulf of Mexico by Nicaragua river. It is said by Crutweil, to be 300 miles in circumference. At its west end, it is connected, by a narrow strait, with a small lake, called lake Leon. Xarayes Lake. This is the largest lake in South-America. It lies in the province of Paraguay, and the river Paraguay, the prin- cipal source of the La Plata, passes through it. It is said to be very extensive, but we are not informed of its exact dimensions. Rivers. The rivers of An>erica, also, in their length, their ra- pidity, and their quantity of water, will bear a comparison with any of the rivers of the old world. They reach from one side of the continent to the other ; and are not, like most of the rivers of Eu- rope and Asia, confined within the limits of a single country. Amazon. This is the largest and lonifpst river on the globe. It is sometimes called the Orella7ia, more frequently the Maranon-j but usually the Amazon. Its source is the lake of Lauricocha^ near the city of Guanuco, in lat. 1 1° south. It passes by Jaen, in. lat. 9 21 south. Thence in a direction a little north of east, it falls into the ocean ; where its mouth is of such an enormous breadth, that its southern bank lies under the equator, and its north- ern nearly 2° north. The distance from its source to Jaen, ac- cording to Ulloa, is 730 English miles ; and the distance from Jaen to the ocean, following the windings of the river, 3300 miles. Its whole length, therefore, is 4030 miles, and its breadth at tha mouth is 150 miles. The Amazon is navigable as far as Jaen 5, and the tide flows up 600 miles from its mouth. Its principal southern branches are the Yucayale, which joins the Amazon in lat. 4 15 south ; where its width is so great, as to leave it doubtful,, which is the principal stream : the Cuchibara, which runs a course of 1200 or 1300 miles ; and the Madera, which is navigable as far South as Santa Cruz, in lat. 17 30; its whole course being 1700 or 1800 miles. The chief branches, from the north, are the NapO|. the Putuamayo, and tlae Caqueta. Missouri. We are not acquainted with any attempt to explore this river, except that made by order of the government of the United States in 1804, 5, and 6. According to their account, the Missouri, near its source, is formed of three branches, which unite at one place. These branches, by the map annexed to their ac- count, rise among tlie Rocky mountains, the northern one near lat. 48° north ; the southern near lat. 42" north ; and all near Ion. 122* west. The northern branch, the only one our travellers explored, was navigable 248 miles. The distance from the confluence of these streams to the Great Rapids, is 283 miles; thence to the conflu- ence with Plate river, 1945 miles, and thence to the confluence with, the Mi3sisippi,630 miles, making a total of 3106 miles, the distance v/hich the Missouri is navigable above its confluence with the Mis- sisippi. This is 1395 miles from the gulf of Mexico. We our- selves believe, that the length of the Missouri, before it meets the Missisippi, is, probably, about 2400 miles. INTissisiFPT-. This river rises iji lat, 47 38 north? snd Ion. 95 * m AMERICA. tvest. Its course is southeasterly to the Falls of St. Anthony, about; SOO miles. From these falls this river is beatable to its junction with the Missouri, a distance of 1030 miles,* in which its course is neJirly south. It is not so lon^, deep, or rapid as the Missouri branch.! The Missisippi receives the waters of tlie Missouri in lat. 38 27 north. Ion. 89 36 west. Its course thence to the mouth of Red riv- er, a distance of 1068 miles, is nearly S. by V/. and from Red river to the gulf of Mexico, a distance of 327 miles, about S. E. the whole distance being 1395 miles. | Its mouth is nearly in the same longitude with the mouth of the Missouri. Or the point w^here it mingles its waters with the Missisippi. The following table of the distances of various places on this riv- er is obtained from Sohultz's Travels. We believe they are gen- erally accurate. From the Missouri to zvliole luholt miles, distance. miles, distance. St. Louis 14 14 Natchez 142 998 St. Genevieve 73 87 Loftus' heights 55 1055 Kaskaskias river 16 103 Line of demarca-'J Grand chain of rocks 75 178 tion between U. i. 5 105S Mouth of Ohio 15 153 S. and Florida J New-Madrid 75 268 Red river 10 1 068 St. Francis river 240 508 Baton Rouge 104 1172 Arkansas 107 615 New-Orleans 136 1308 ¥azoo 241 856 Fort Balize 87 1395 The Louisiana bank, from the Missouri to cape Girardeau, 1 57 miles, continues generally high, except the interval land on the margin of the river ; yet it forms throughout all this distance, only a moderately elevated ridge, from one to four miles from the river. At cape Girardeau it begins to assume the appearance of a rough and mountainous country. This continues 15 miles to the Grand Towers, where the ridge is a perpendicular rocky precipice, 200 feet high. From the Grand Towers to the Grand chain of rocks, 6 miles, the land gradually descends to its genei'al level, which it afterwards continues, without interruption. The Indiana or east- ern side, on the contrary, fi'om the great bend to tl.e mouth of the Ohio, is a plain, level country, except a ridge of hills, which com- menres at the American bottom, 62 miles south of the bend, and terminates near the Kaskaskias, preserving a distance of from 3 to 12 miles from the river. From the grand chain of rocks to fort Placquemine, 43 miles be- low New-Orleans, a distance by the river of 1 173 miles, the Louis- * Schultz. ^ The Missouri being much larger than the Missisippi branch, some modem geographers are beginning to give the whple river the name of Missouri, whic^ Sprobably its proper name. iS«hultz» AMERICA. 6? iiana bank is but a little higher than the ordinary level of the river. It preserves this height for a space from a quarter of a mile to 2 miles wide ; westward of which, throughout this whole extent, is a •swampy country of from 20 to 50 miles in breadth. This bank is inundated every spring, and often in the autumn ; and the super- abundant waters of the river are thus poured out over the whole surface of the swamp, and render it entirely incapable of being in- habited or cultivated. In the narrov/ strip, also, on the margin of •the river, there is scaixely a spot in all this distance, that furnishes a site for a town or a village, which is safe at all times from inun- dation ; New-Madrid, the only town on the western side below cape Girardeau, has been once inundated ; and the street intended to front on the river, has been washed away, in consequence of a change in the current. A considerable part of the eastern shore is also inundated, except where it is prevented by the narrow bluffs and headlands. . Of these there are 14 between the Ohio and the gulf. The following table exhibits the names, distances, and breadths on the liver, where they are known, of these bluffs. From the great bend to the miles, front. ^Ues. frot^. Iron banks 293 - - Chalk banks 5 Upper Chickasaw bluffs 154 1 Natchez 77 25 Second Chickasaw bluffs 1 1 Third Chickasaw bluffs 26 Fourth Chickasaw^ bluffs 52 Walnut hills 253 The banks on both sides throughout this distance, are almost uni- ■versally covered with forest trees. From fort Placquemine south both banks are mere swamps to the river's mouth. The Missisippi has many islands, some of which are 5 or 6 miles in length, but they are all low and subject to inundations. They are constantly changing their position and appearance. The navi- gation of this river is impeded by what the boatmen call sawyers and planters., hy falling banks^ and luooden islands. Below cape Girardeau, in consequence of the lownessof the ad- jacent country, the river has worn outlets, or Bayaus., in the banks, through which its waters are impelled with great rapidity, and which endanger the passing boats. Several of these are properly branches of the main river, conducting a part of its watei-s to the sea. Beside these Bayaus, the main branch of the Missisippi has three mouths, or passes. The east Jiass is 20 miles long, and has 16 feet water over the bar. It is the pass principally used ; and, immediately above the bar, which is very narrow, has water suf- .ficient for a ship of the line. The scuth pass is 22 miles long, and the south west 25. They have both about 8 or 9 feet over the bar. Fort Balize stands on a little island at the north side of the east pass. The breadth of the Missisippi at New-Orleans is a mile and a quarter, its depth from 30 to 40 fathoms, and every whert from the bar to the mouth of the Ohio, sufficient to float a ship of the Mne. ronf. 1 4. 1 I Grand gulf Petit gulf Natchez 53 20 77 1 White cliffs 20 1 Loftus' heights 35 10 Little cliffs 103 Baton Rouge 2A ^8 AMERICA: Fogs are very frequent on the Missisippi, and those so thick, as to render objects at the distance of 100 feet invisible. They com- monly rise only to the height of 30 or 40 feet. The usual current of the river is 3 rriiles an hour. The passage of ships from the Balize to New-Orleans takes up from 5 to 30 days, vhile a light wind will cai'ry ships down in 12 hours. From New- Orleans to Natchez the voyage often takes up from 60 to 80 days. Ships rarely ascend above this place. Boats descend from Natch- ez to New-Orleans in one week, but are about 3 weeks in return- ing. The principal branches of the Missisippi, below its junction with the Missouri, are the Ohio from the east, and the Arkansas •and Red rivers from Louisiana. St. Lawuewce. The St. Lawrence has two sources both trib- utaries of lake Superior. The OrctdVtl Jirf, T,„ ' lamm- — ' iiMiiilr- — { ""niiumi I'lii'b,),,^/ h n SPITZBERGEN. 72 Aboriginal America includes the territories lyin£^ north of New- Mexico and Louisiaaa, west of the British possessions, and east o£ the Russian. These will be described in the order they have been named. RUSSL\N AMERICA. SPITZBERGEN. Situation and Extent. SPITZBERGEN" consists of one large island and numerous smaller ones oa its coast. They lie in the Frozen ocean, 150 miles east of Greenlaiid. The main island is between lat 76° and 80 7 N. and between Ion. 9° and zO° Jt,. 300 miles long, 140 bread. Discox'ery. Sir Hugh Willoughby discovered Spitzbergen ia 1553. In i77a, capt. Phipps determined it to be an island. Climate and Seaaotis. Tlie longest day, and of course the long- est night, in Spitzbergen is between 4 and 5 months. Duiing the continuance of its night, from the latter part of October, to the be- ginning of February, the weather is so intensely cold, as to render the country almost uninhabitable. Face of the Country. These islands have never been explorcd- The coasts, in most places, are inaccessible. Tliey are formed of high, barren, black rocks, without the least mark of vegetation ; in many places bare and pointed ; in others covered with snow. Harbora. Sclimelrenburg harbor lies on the western side, in lat. 79 44 N. Ion. 9 51 E. It is well sheltered from all winds, is 13 fathoms deep, and has a sandy bottom. Magdultn Bay and Ham- burger\'i Bay lie also on the west side. On the northern shore is the harbor of Vogel Sung. Mountains. There are many summits on the island, but none of very great height. In the surrounding ocean there are also many- mountains of zee. Sonic of them rise 1500 feet out of the water. General Remarks. Spitzbergen, when first discovered, was en- tirely destitute of inhabitants ; nor were any found on it by the En- glish, when they visited it in 1773. It is, however, the constant re- sort of the Dutch whalers, and 20 or 30 sail visit it every summer. Every year, also, a ship goes from Archangel to winter on the western coast. At this lime it is uninhabited.* The extreme se- verity of its climate, the barrenness of its soil, its distance from the track of commerce, and the impossibility of visiting it during two thirds of every year, will forever render it, what it was obviously in- tended to be, a mere resting place for fishermen. * Tooke's Russian Empire, iii. 92. 10 SPITZBERGEN. 73 Aboriginal ./imerica includes the territories lyin^ north of New- Mexico aad Louisiaaa, west of the British possessions, and east of the Russian. These will be described in the order they have been named. RUSSIAN AMERICA. SPITZBERGEN. Situation and Extent, SPITZBERQEM consists of one large island and numerous smaller ones oa its coast. They lie in the Frozen ocean, 150 miles east of Greenland. The main island is between iat 76° and 80 7 N. and between Ion. 9° and ^0° t.. 300 miles long, 140 braad. Discovery. Sir Hugh Willoughby discovered Spitzbergen in 1553. In 1 773, capt. Phipps determined it to be an island. Climate and Seasons. Tiie longest day, and of course the long- est night, in Spilzbc;rgen is between 4 and 5 months. During the continuance of its night, from the latter part of October, to the be- ginning of February, the weather is so intensely coid, as to render the country almost uninhabitable. Face of the Country. These islands have never been explorcd- The coasts, in most places, are inaccessible. They are formed of high, barren, black rocks, without the least mark of vegetation ; in many places bare and pointed ; in others covered with snow. Harbors. Schmelrenburir harbor lies on the western side, in lat. 79 44 N. Ion. 9 51 E. It is well sheltered from all winds, is 13 fatlioms deep, and has a sandy bottom. Magdultn Bay and Ham- burger^H Bay lie also on the west side. On the northern shore is the harbor of Vogel Sang. Mountains. There are many summits on the island, but none of very great height. In the surrounding ocean there are also many mountains of ice. Sonie of them rise i 500 feet out of the water. General Remar/cs. Spitzbergen, when first discovered, was en- tirely destitute of inhabitants ; nor were any found on it by the En- glish, when they visited it in 1773. It is, however, the constant re- sort of the Dutch whalers, and 20 or 30 sail visit it every summer. Every year, also, a ship goes from Archangel to winter on the western coast. At this time it is uninhabited.* The extreme se- verity of its Climate, the barrenness of its soil, its distance from the track of commerce, and the impossibility of visitmg it during two thirds of every year, will forever render it, what it was obviously in- tended to be, a mere resting place for fishermen. * Tooke's Russiaa Empire, iii, 92. 10 74 NORTHWEST COAST. NORTHWEST COAST. Extent. THE most southern settlement of the Russians is at Portlock harbor, between 58° and 59° N. They claim, by right of discovery, the whole coast from this station northward, as far as cape Prince of Wales, comprising not less than 2500 miles of sea- coast ; together with the numberless islands, which line the shore, and the long chain of islands, which reaches from the promontory of Alaska almost to the coast of Kamtsciiatka. Islands. The principal of these isles, are the ylleutian or Fox islands, which lie in a curve line southwest of Alaska. The vvest- ternmost, Attoo, about 300 miles from Kamtschatka, is about 40 iniles long. Unalaska, 120 miles long, is the most important of all these islands It has on the N. E. side 3 large good harbors. It contains two volcanoes, near one of which is a copious hot spring. The inhabitants of these islands are of a middle stature, of tawny brown colour, with black hair. They are tributaries to the Rus- sians, and tiieir principal employment is hunting for Russian ad- venturers ; who pay them in beads and tobacco. The whole num- ber of inhabitants in the Aleutian islands is estimated by Mr. Sauer at 2500. From Alaska eastward, the whole coast is lined with islnnds. The principal of these is Kodiak., about 150 miles long, and 70 broad. The inhabitants are called Kinaghi. In their mode of life they very much resemble the Aleutians. They often live to the advanced age of 100 years. They are ai)out 5000 in number. They speak the same language with that spoken on the American coast,* between Kodiak and Portlock harbor; though in most of its words different from the Aleutian. The men are all employed by the Russians in hunting and fishing, and the women in curing the fish and drying the skins. They pay tribute to Russia. The Coast. The natives on tlse coast, from z\]aska to Portlock liarbor, are very numerous. According to Shelikoif's narrative, not less than 50,000 had, in 1784, professed obedience to the Russian governmcnt.f The Indians farther north appear still to be inde- pendent. FusHian Settlements. The principal of these is on the south- eastern side of Kodiak, made in 1784. Other establishments are at at Unalaska, on the island of Afagnack, and on the coast, at Cook's inlet, cape St. Elias, port Etches, port Mulgrave, and Portlock har- bor. In all these settlements, according to Hassel, there are about 800 inhabitants. Discoveries. Cook, in a single voyage, did more to discover these regions than all his prectecessors had done in 50 years. He a«'.cert:iintd the line of the American coast, and the vicinity of the continents ; and traced the eastern coast of Asia as high as 68°, ar.d the -western coast of America as high as 71° N. latitude. * Sauer's Expedition, p. 191. f Coxe's Russian Discoveries, 285, DANISH AMERICA. 7S DANISH AMERICA. DENMARK once ewned three of the West-India islands ; but tht sc iiave lattiy been wrested trom her, and she now claims on the western continent only Iceland and Greenland. ICELAND, Situation and Extent. ICELAND is an island, situated 120 miles E. oi Greenland, and 700 W. of Norway ; between lat. 63* and 67° N. and between Ion. 13° and 28° W. Its length from east to west is 400 miles, and its breadth 270.* Historical Epochs. 861. Discovered by Nardoddr, as he was driven out of his course by the winds, on his return from Norway to Fcrro. 878. Settled by a colony of Norwegians under Ingolfz ; and in 60 years time the whole island was inhabited. 1 120. Iceland was converted about this lime to the Christian re^^ ' ligion, after the exertions of 240 years. 1261. The island became subject to Hakans, king of Norway. 1363. With Norway it was subjected to Denmark, and has ever since been a colony of that government. lieligio7i. The Lutheran is the present religion of Iceland. It was introduced in 1551. Its chuicli enjoys a happy traiiquillity. It composes two sees ; that of Skalholt, containing 127 pansuts j and that of Hoolum, containing 62. All the ministers are native Icelanders, and receive a yearly salary of 400 or 5uO rix dollars from the king, exclusive of what tiiey have from their congrega- tions. Government. The governor, who is appointed by the crown of Denmark, resides at Bcssested, lat. 64 6 north. Ion. 22 56 west. His power is not very great. P'jjiulation. The number of inhabitants is 60,000. At the be-'' ginning of the 15th centvuy they were far more numerous. Revenue. Iceland yields an annual revenue to the Danish mon«- arch of about 30,000 crowns. Character and Manners. The ancient Icelanders lived by war, piracy, and the chace. The introduction of Christianity and the loss of their independence pi-oduced a great change in their character and mode of living. They are middle-sized, well made, though not very strong, and generally ill featured. Their poverty does not prevent them trora being unusually hospitable. They are obliging and iaithful, sub- missive to government, zealous in their religion, and warndy at- tached to tlieir native country. They are not very industrious ; are fond of amusements ; particularly of athletic diversions j of • Von Troii, Let, III, 76 ICELAND. games of chance, in which, however, they never play for money j and of visiting each other for the purpose of reading and reciting the history of Iceland. Those who live on the coasts, are employed principally in fish- ing ; those, who live in the interior, in the care of their cattle. Few of them outlive 60. The prevailing diseases are the scurvy, gout, St. Anthony's fire, jaundice, fevers, pleurisy, and lowncss of spirits. Language. The Icelandic language is tie same with that, wliich was formerly spoken in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. The Danish is also usually spoken by those v/ho live on the coast. Literature. While the traces of literature were destroyed, in the north of Europe they were caiefully preserved in Iceland. Poetry flouiished long belore the introduction of the Roii>hi> letters, and seven of the early poets, of SA-alds, have survived the fliglu of eight centuiies. The list ot their poets, who have lived sin^ e that pericd, contains no less than 240. Their language is peculiarly rich in poetical expressions. The nunibtr of their historians and writers of annals is also very great. The period when literature most flourished in Iceland, was between 1 120 and 1350. At pres- ent, they are far from being an ignorant people. The peasants, ^11 of them, can read ; and, beside being well inst) ucti d in the piin- ciples of their religion, they are also acciuainted with the history of their country ; and many of them can repeat irom memory the finest passages of their poetb. Pinning was introduced into the island in 1530, arid many valuable editions have proceeded from the Icelandic press. Cities and Tctv7is. The principal towns of Iceland are Skalholt, "Hoolum, Thingvalla, Bessested, and Patrixhord. The two last are seaports. The greater part of the h)habiiants live on scattered farms The coast is however thickly settled. Manufactures and Commerce. The men manufacture leather, ■work at several mechanical trades, and a few in gold and silver. The women sew, and spin, and make coarse black cloth. There is a woollen manuiactory at Rcikavik- The trade of Iceland since 1734 has been in the hands of a com- pany, which pay 6000 dollars annually. This cpmpany sends to Iceland about 30 ships every year, loaded with corn, bread, wincj iron, and wood ; and carries away fish, flesh, butter, blubber oil, skins, wool, woollen cloths, and not less than 2000lbs. eider down. Climate and Seasons. The climate is not unwholesome, as the Tisual heat is not extreme, nor the cold in general very rigor(;U£.. The thermometer has been known however to rise to 104° ol Fah- renheit; and, in the winter of 1753, 54, the cold, occasioned by the ice in the surroundh)g occtin, was so intense, that horses and sheep dropped down dead on account of it. J'ace of the Country. The surface principally consists of Tidges of mouniains'ancl barren rocks. The mountains are many of them covered whh eternal snows; tiey cross the country iii every direction and render the greater part of it incapable of culti- yation. ^02/ and Jp-.iculture. The husbandry of the Icelanders is con- GREENLAND. Yf fined to the raising of cattle, slurp, and horses. Corn will not eiow. The inland parts of the iblaiidb do not lie waste. One finds every Avlierc, at little distances, farms cunsisling almost wholly of meadow land. Alountains. The mountains, one of which is elevated 6861 feet above the sea, and another 6000, are generally volcanic ; and the number of euipiions have been prodigiously great. Mount Heckla is in the southern part of the island, 25 miles from the seacoast. Its height is 5000 feet. Duihig its eruptions, ashes and stones are said to be often thrown to the distance of 150 milts. The lava thrown out in the eruptions of this and the other mountaijis is often suffi- cient to cover many miles of country, and to destroy many farms and villages. GREENLAND. Situation and Extent. CAPE Farewell, the southern extremity of Greenland, is in lat. 59 38 north, and in Ion. 42 45 west. How far the country reaches north has never been ascertained. It is known to extend fartlicr than lat. "8° N. It is bounded on the W. by what is < ailed Baffin's bay and Davis's straits, which separate ic from Labrador. Original Population. The natives of Greenland are Esquimaux, the same people who inhabit Labrador, and the northern coast of America, as far as M'^Kenzie's river, and probably to the western extremity of the continent. Historical Epochs. 982. Greenland was discovered by the Nor- "wegiars, who planted a colony there. 'J'his colony was scattered over botli ti^e eastern and western coasts. Those in the west are said, about that time, to have been exterminated by the natives. "What became of the eastern colonists is not known. It is conjec- tured that the descendants of the eastern colony are still living. 1576. An attempt was made by the English, under admiral Frobisher, to settle the countiy. 1712. The Gretnland company at Bergen, in Norway, trans- ported a colony to the western coast, in lat. 64° north. The rev- erend Harjs Egede accompanied them, as their minister. To him we are indebted for the best account of modern Greenland. He made several attempts to explore the eastern coast, but could not reach it. Religion. The Danes and Norwegians are Lutherans. The Aborigines are Pagans, except a number in the south, around New- Herrnhut, and Lichtenfels, whom the Moravian missionaries have been instrumental in converting to Cliristianity. Population. The colony from Norway occupy the western coast from lat. 64° to 68° north. They are believed to am.ount to from 7000 to 10.000. It is impossible to ascertain the number of the natives. They are said to have an)ounted in 1733 to 30,000, '.vhen the smallpox destroyed great numbers of them. In 1746, 78 BRITISH PROVINCES IN NORTH-AMERICA. their numbers were estimuted by a factor who resided here 40 years, at 20,000. Fishery. Greenland is valuable principally on account of its fisherits. In 1785 Great-Britain empioyeu 133 ships in this fish- ery, and the Dutch 65. Character and Manners. The natives, in their appearai^ce, rcr sembie the Laplanders. They are vigoious and hcaltiiy ; but short-lived ; very quiet, orderly, and good-natured. Ihcy are ex- tremely filthy in their mode of living. Their whole business is ipshing and hunting. Toivns. There is a Danish settlement called Good Hope, in lat. 64°, and another in Disco bay, called Disco, not far honi 68°. New-HeiTnhut, Lichtenfels, and Lichtenau are the principal Mor javian establishments. These places are the residence of the INIo- ravian missionaries. The native inhabitants around the two fiist of these places have all been baptised, so that no trace of paganisn^ is now left in that neighbourhood.* Climate, Seasons, Face of' the Country. Summer continuesfrom the last of May to the middle of September. The sea coasts are often infested with fogs, that are alike disagreeable and unhealthy. Near the shore the low lands are clothed with verdure ; but the inland j-nountains are perpetually covered with snow. Above lat. 68°, the cold is prodigiously intense ; and, towards the end of Au- gust, the whole coast is covered with ice, which lasts till May. Gi eenland is generally mountainous. The mountains are barren. Some of them are visible 4© leagues at sea. BRITISH PROVINCES IN MOKTH- AMERICA, Extent. BRITISH North-America includes the vast extent of country, bounded S. by the United States ; E. partly by the Atlan- tic and Davis's straits, and partly by Hudson bay; N. partly by Hudson straits and bay, and, westward of that bay, by unexplored rec,ions ; W. by the territories occupied by the Chipewyans and the Kijisteneaux. The islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, St. John's, and several smaller islands in the gulf of St. Lawrence, be- long also to the British. Potiulation. The population of these various territories, from the best estimate that can be made, amounts to about 400,000 or 420,000 souls. FoliticaL Divisions. The countries which compose British North-America are the following, viz. New-Britain Upper Canada Cape Breton Isl. Lower Canada Nova-Scotia St. John's Isl. Newfoundland Isl. New-Brunswick These eight territories are reduced to six separate independent provinces or governments. w '-* Periodical account of the brethren, 180i> NEW-BRITIAN. S§ I. Lower Canada, which comprises New-Britain, Lower Cana- da, properly so called, and Newfoundland. II. Unper Canada. III. Nova-Scoiia. IV. New-Brunswick. V. Cape Bieion. VI. St. Joiin's. The four fii-gt of these provinces have their own legislatures, aifd are governed by their own laws ; the two last by the laws of Eng- land. Tiie governoT general of British America usually resides at Quebec, in Lovver Canada. He is governor, for the time being, of th.it one of the six provinces in which he happens to be personally: present. The governor general of Nova-Scotia, is governor, for the time bein r. of that one of the four last mentioned provinces in which he happens to be personally present. He usually resides at Halifax, ill Nova-Scotia. Eacli province has its own lieutenant governor, who acts as gov- ernor in the absence of the governor generals. NEW-BRITAIN. Extent.) Dtvisionsy and Inhabitants. THIS extensive country comprises three distinct territories ; 1. Labrador, or the country east of Hudson bay ; 2. New-South-Wales, or the country lying southwest and west of James bay ; 3. New-North-Wales, or the country lying north of the pre- ceding. The whole country may be considered as reaching from lat. 50® to 53* N. and from Ion. 56° to 1 K) 30 W. Its length is not less than 1800 xTiiles, from E. to W. its breadth is about 850. Labrador is 850 miles long, from N. to S. and 750 broad. The Esquimaux Indians occupy the whole peninsula of Green- land, the coast of Labrador, and the whole northern coast of Amer- ica. They are universally believed to be of European origin. Religion. The great body of the inhabitants in these extensive and dreary regions are Pagans. The Moravians have missionaries stationed at Okkak, Nain, and Hopedale, where, from accounts as late as 1805, it appears, that they are laboring with increasing suc- cess. Pofiulalion. At the forts there are small detachments of Britisli troops ; at Nain, Okkak, and Hopedale, on the N. E. coast of Lab- rador, there are small settlements established by the Moravians. The country of the Knisteneaux is thinly, and that of the Esqui- maux still more thinly, peopled. Face of the Country. The country north of Churchill river, is » flat country, and has received the name «-)f the Barren Grounds- go LOWER CANADA. The country south of that river is level, also ; but generally wood- ed with pines, birch, larch, and willows. Both the eastern and western coasts of Labrador are bordered with innumerable islands. The country is every where uneven, rocky, or mountainous. The mountains are freque,ntly very lofty, and almost devoid of every species of herbage. The vallies are sandy and unproductive. Rivers. These are the Churchill, or Missinipi, whose general direction is about E. N. E. its len;jth about 750 miles ; the Severn, Albany, and Moose rivers. The rivers of Labrador are generally small. Lakes. West of Hudson bay lie numerous lakes discovered by Mr. Hearne. The largest are Doobauut lake, Yath-Kyed lake, stnd North-lined lake. LOWER CANADA. kxtent. LOWER CANADA lies between 61° and 71° W. Ion, and between 45° and 52° N. Uu. Its greatest length from E. to W is 800 miles. Its greatest breadth is about 450 miles ; the average breadth is 250. Boundaries. Bounded N. by New-Britain ; E. by New-Britain and the gulf of St Lawrence ; S. Ijy New-Brunswick, Maine, New- Hampshire, Vermont, New-York and Upper Canada ; W. by Up- per Canada. Divisions. This province is divided into 21 counties, which are subdivided into ])arishes. Historical E/iochs. 1497. Discovered by John Cabot, a Vene- tian, in the service of the English. 1608. Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as a strait, called, by the Indians, Quebec, where, on the 3d of July, he began to build, and here he passed the following winter. At this time the settlement of Canada commeiiccd. 1759. Sept. 13. An English army, under gen. Wolfe, made a successful attack on Quebec, whicli surrendered on the 1 8th. 1760. The whole i)rovii>ce of Cannda surrendered to gen. Am- herst, and was con firmed to Great Biitain by t!ic treaty of 1763, under v/bose dominion it has since coininued. 1775. Canada was invaded by a body of provincial troops under gen. Montgomery ; Montreal was taken, and an unsuccessful at- tempt made upon Quebec, in which the general was slain and his troops routed. 1778.* An act was pissed by the parliament of Great Britain, ex- pressly restraining itself forever, from iuiposing any taxes or duties m the colonics, except for the regulation of trade, the produce of which taxes, or duties to be diposcd of by the provincial assem- blies. * In the 18th year of George IJf. LOWER CANADA. «> ■i784. Canada was made the seat of a general governmentj to which ttie otiier provinces were, in a manner, made subject. 1791. Upper and Lower Canada were divided, and each const!- Uited a distinct government independent of the other. Religion. Auout nine tenths of the inhabitants are Roman Cath- olics. Of the remaining tenth the greater part are Episcopalians. A few are Presbyterians. There are 15 clergymen of the church of England in the province, with a bishop at their head, and about 140 Roman Catholic, who also have a bishop. The catholics have 1 1 missionary stations in different parts of the British dominions, which are supplied with missionaries. Thereare 3 ministers of the churcii of Scotland, 1 at Quebec, 1 at Montreal, and 1 at New- Oswegatchie.* Government. The governor general of British America, is the ordinary governor. He is appointed by the crown, A lieutenant governor chosen in the province executes that office in his absence. The legislature is made up of a legislative council and an assem- bly, who with the governor, have power to make laws. The legis*- lative council is composed of '.5 members, who hold their seats for life ; unless forfeited by 4 years continual absence, or by swearing allegiance to some foreign power. They are appointed by the governor general with the approbation of the king. The house of assembly consists of 50 members in the several towns and counties* The governor with some of the council selected by the crownj constitute the high court of appeals in the province. Pofiuladon, The number of inhabitants, in Lower Canada, iti 1783, was by actual enumeration 1 13,012. The number, in 1806» was, according to Mr. Heriot, 150,000. In 1811, they were estimat- ed at between 200,000 and 300,000.t The greater part of these? are descendents of the original French colonists. We are not cer- tain whether the aborigines are included in this estimation ; but believe they are not. Their number is probably about 20,000 Army. The militia of Lower Canada is organized in 30 divisions^ with their proper officers. Eight of these divisions are within the district of Quebec, 3 in that of Three R ivcrs, 6 in that of the East- ern townships, and 13 in that of Montreal. Re-venue. The only revenue to Great Britain arises from an ad- vantageous commerce. The expenses of the civil list amount to 25,000/. sterling, one half paid by the province, the other b^y Great Britain ; of the military establishments, with repairs of forts, to 100,000/. of presents to the savages, and salaries to officers em- ployed in trading with them, to 100,000/. more. Language. The French is universally spoken. The English i^ restricted to the few British and American settlers. Universities. Of these there are two, one at Quebec, the other, at Montreal, both belonging to the Roman Catholics, and respecta- ble institutions, well endowed, and furnished with learned profes" sors. * Quebec Alotfnac for isih t 1'»'8' 11 i2 LOWER CANADA. Cifies and Towns. Quebec is the capital of the province. It' stands on a point of land en the northwest side of the river St. Law- rence, lat. 45 48 39 north, Ion. 7112 6 west, at its confluence with the river St. Charles and about 320 miles from the sea and 1 80 from Montreal* The streets are irregular, uneven, narrow, and unpavcd. The houses are almost universally of stone, small, ugly, and inconvenient. The fortifications are extensive but irrej^ulaf. A large garrison is maintained, but 5000 soldiers would be neces= sary toman the works. The number of inhabitants, in 1806, was 1 5,G00.t The St. Lawrence, opposite the town, is only a mile wide. A little below it widens to 4 or 5 leagues, and continues that width' to the sea. It forms here a safe and commodious bason for ships, and is from 20 to 23 fathom.s deep. Montreal, stands on the east side of an island in the river St. Lawience, v/hich is 30 miles long, and 12 broad. The town is 200 below lake Ontario, and 1 80 miles above Quebec, in lat. 43 35 north, Ion. 73 1 1 west, at the head of ship navigation. The St. Lawrence is 3 miles wide at this place. The city forms an ob- l(/ng square surrounded by a wall. The houses stand on a side hill, and may be seen at one view, from the harbor. The number of inhabitants in 1809 was estimated at 16,000. The distance of the town from the southeast bank of the river is half a league. Trois Rivieres is pleasantly situated on the northern side of the St. Lawrence, 50 miles southwest of Quebec. La Prairie is a little village on the opposite side of the river to Montreal. Sorelle lies 45 miles below Montreal, and contains 100 scattered Iiouses. Its chief business is ship building. Inland A''avigation. There are two routes westward to fort Chepf wyan, the great rendezvous of the western traders. The southern is up the St. Lawrence and the lakes to the falls of St. Mary. The other is up the Ottawas to the mouth of Little river, up that river 45 miles ; thence by land to lake Nepisingui 10 miles ; thence down that lake and French river, and across by the north- ern shore of lake Huron, to the falls of St. Mary. This last route is alone taken by the men employed in the fur trade. The other is taken to transport merchandize for the western country to De- troit and Michilimackinac. The river Sorelle connects lake Champlain with the St. Law- rence between Montreal and Quebec, and furnishes the former of these two tovv^ns an advantageous connection with the northern parts of New-York and Vermont. MannfacmreH and Commerce. Ship-building is carried on at Quebec and at Sorelle with considerable success. Flour, biscuit, and pot-ash, are extensively manufactured for exportation. The sugar consumed in the interior is all of it manufactured from the juice of the maple. A few coarse linen and woollen cloths arc :!:aanuj[actured for home consumption. • Quebec Almanac for 18n» f H?rK>t» LOWER CANADA. 85 In 1 802 the expoi'ts exceeded half a million sterling. Besides furs and fish there were exported in that year 1,010,000 busliels of wiicat, 38,000 barrels of flour, 32,000 cwt. of biscuit, large quanti- ties of potasli, and considerable quantities of American ginseng. la the export of these articles 21 1 vessels were einpioyed, amount- ing to 36,000 tons. The substantial articles of export in 1810 were peltries, lumber, flour, pork, and beef. The vessels cleared in tliat year were 661. Their tonnage amounted to 143,893; theii** seamen to 6,578. The lur tiade has become a very interesting object. The Nortliwest company was formedin 1783. They employ in the con- cern 50 clerks, 71 interpreters and clerks, 1120 canoe-men, 35 guides, and about 140 canoes. Each canoe v/ill carry about 8,400 lbs. weight, and is navigated by 8 or 10 men. The produce of 1810, consisted of the following furs and peltries, 98,523 Beaver skins 2,536 Fisher skins 10,751 Bear do. 59,521 Raccoon do. 2,645 Otter do, 19 Wolf do. 9,971 Musquash do. 534 Elk do. ,554 Martin do. 32,551 Deer do. 169 Mink do. 2,428 Cased and open Cat do. 327 Lynx do. 1,833 Swan do. 517 Wolverine do. 2,684 Hare do. Climate and Seasons. Winter commences early in Novem- ber, and lasts till April. The ice on the rivers is usually two feet thick, and that close to the banks of the St. Lawrence, is common- jy 6 feet. The snow usually lies from 4 to 6 ieet deep. Face of the Country. Lower Canada is every where hilly, and in many places mountainous. Far the greater part of ihe country- is still covered with forests. Soil and .Agriculture. The soil is generally a loose, 1)lackisk earth, ten or twelve inches thick, covering a bed of clay. It is veiy fertile. Marl is employed as a manure, and is found in great a- bundance on the banks of the St. Lawrence. Wheat is raised in large quantities for exportation. Barley, rye, and other sorts of grain are productive. A little tobacco is raised lor private use^ Culinary vegetables thrive very well. The meadows, which are well watered, yield excellent grass, and feed great numbers of large and small cattle. Rivers. These are the St Lawrence, the Sorelle, the Saguenaij and Black rivers. The Connecticut runs a little distance in this province. These rivers may be traced on the map. Botany. The trees of New»=England, with the exception of the various species of oak, are found in both Canadas, but generally in- ferior in their size. Evergreens predominate in the forests. Zoology. See this article under tlie head United States. Jxatural Curiosities. The falls of Montmorency are situated up- on a river of the same name, which empties into the St. Lawrence on its northeasterly side, in the district of Beaupour, about 3 leagues below Quebec. They are 20 rods from the confluence of the two 84 NEWFOUNDLAND ISLAND. rivers, and may be distinctly viewed as you sail down the St. Law- rence. The river is 50 yards wide, and so rapid, that the quantity ()f water is very great. About 50 feet above the perpendicular cas- cade, the water begins to tumble over rocks at an angle of 45°, till it arrives at its great leap ; where it falls in one unbroken, uninter- rupted sheet to the bottom. The height of the perpendicular fall ..is 240 feet. NEWFOUNDLAND ISLAND. Situation and Extent. NEWFOUNDLAND limits the north- ^eastern side of the gulf of St. Lawrence. It is separated from New-Britain by the straits of Belleisle, and from Cape Breton by the principal mouth of the gulf. It lies between lat. 46 45 and 52 3 1 >J. and between Ion. 52 3 I and 59 40 W. Its length is 38 1 miles, and its breadth varies from 40 to 287. Its shape is triangular. Settlement. 1497. Sebastian Cabot discovered the island. 1504. Some French fishermen came upon the coast, and fished upon the banks. 1610. Mr. John Guy, with 39 others, began a settlement at Con- revaiUng religion of the province. 66 UPPER CANADA. Goverriinent and Civil Bivi.sions. Upper Canada has a lieuten- ant governor who acts as governor in the absence of the governor general. The legislature is composed of a legislative council and house of assembly. The former contains not less than 7 members, the latter not less than 16. The manner of election and the tenure of office are the same as in Lower Canada. The legislature meets annually in May, and has the sole power of taxation. This province is divided into the following 19 counties, which are subdivided into townships ordinarily of 9 miles by 12. The constitution, which guarantees to the people their political privleges, was received from the British government iri 1791. '1 hat governnjent bears the whole expense of the civil estabiishmcnt. Fofiulation. The number of inhabitants, in 1783, wau iU,OUOin 1806, 80,000.* They are composed chiefly of emigrants from Isfew-England and New-Jersey. Towns. York, the seat of government, stands on York harbor, in 43 35 N. directly opposite the mouth of Niagara tivcr, which is 40 miles distantby water, and 100 by land. Tlie town is projected to extend a mile and a half in length, from the bottom of the harbor, along the lake. Many houses are already comphied, some of %vhich display considerable taste. It v*as laid out in 179 1. \\ iih- jn the last JO years its growth has been rapid. Kingston is in lai. 44 8 N. Ion. 75 41 W. It stands at the head of the St. Lawrence and occupies the site of fort Fronlenac. It lias an excellent harbor, in which tlse king's shipping on lake On- tario winter. It has an episcopal church, a hospital and a barrack for troops. Newark stands on the west bank of Niagara river, at its mouth, in lat. 45°. It extends a mile along the lake. It contains two churches, one Episcopal, the other Presbyterian. Quccnstown stands on Niagara river, 7 miles above Newark. It contains an Episcopal church. Chipawa is a little village, 3 miles above the Falls, and 6 above Queenstown. Elizabethtown, in the district of Johnstown, near lake Ontario, was settled in 1784, chiefly by Bruish people. The London mis- sionary society have a missionary established here. Miiuia. The militia embraces all the males, except the Friends, Tunkers, and iSlennonists, from 1 6 to 45. Climate. The climate is much milder than in the Lower pro- vince. Face of the Country. This country is generally level, and, in many ])arts, little elevated above the lakes. iSuH and yjgiiculiure. The soil is generally good. The agri- culture is yet in its infancy. The whole country, which is cleared, produces good wheat, Indian corn, flax, and grass in abundance, ilopscf a good quality grow spontaneously ; also plums, mulber- Tie<;, blackberries, strawberries, raspberries, and grapes. Orch* '» Heriot's TraysJ?. KOVA-SCOtlA. tl ards herein to bear fruit. Penches, cherries, and cui'raiits are abun- dant Good pofk is often fattened entirely in the woods. Rivrr.s. These arc the 67. Lawrence^ Ottawas^ Moose, Albany^ Trent, Thamfs, Cliifiaiua, Holland, lake jViJiissing, French.^ Micbi- fiico'en, and the JVi/iigon rivers. Lakrs. Half of /a/^-fs Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron, SuperioTf Hainy lake, lake of the Woods, 2ir\(\ lake IVinnifiec hclou^ io Up- pv.-r Canada. Lake JMl/m/iing lies north of Huron, about 40 miles 3on'^ and 15 wide, and lake Simcoe east of it, about as large. Lakes St. Anne. Srurg-eon, St. Jone/i/i, and several others lie N. and N-* W- of lake Superior. Bay. Th.' bay of Qiiinti is a very Ion?;, narrow harbor, on the northern sho;"e of lake ()ntario. It is navigable 50 miles far the vessels of the lake. NOVA-SCOTIA. Extent. N'OVA'-SCOTIA is a large peninsula, stretching; from the province of New-Brunswick into tlie Atlantic. It lies be- tween lat. 43 30 and 48 4 N and between Ion. 58 50 and 67" W- Its length is -K)? miles, its breadth 154, and it contains about 14,000 square miles. Boundaries. Bounded N. E by the gulf of St. Lawrence, and the straits of Northumberland and Canceau ; E. S. and S. W. by the Ati. antic ocean ; W. by the bays of Fundy and Verte and the province of Ncw-B; unswick with which it is connected by an isth- mus abovit 18 milt^s wide. Historical Efiochs. In the year 1594, one May, an Englishman, touclipd upon the coast. 1598 The Isle of Sable was peopled by a number of French convicts, I'^ft there by the Marquis de la Roche, who explored the west of Nova-Scotia, but made no settlement. 1605 Henry IV. of France granted the Sieur de Montz a patent- of the American territories from lat. 40° to 48° N. In the follow- ing year that adventurer made a settlement at Annapolis. 1613. Annapolis was destroyed by an English expedition front- Virginia. 1621. James I. of Scotland granted sir William Alexander J* patfiit of Nova- Scotia. 1749. An expedition sailed from Engb.nd under general Corn* wallis, consisting of 2700 persons. Parliament devoted 40,000/, sterling to defray the expense, and 30,000 annually to support the settlement till 1755. The progress of the settlement for the firs':. 1 1 years was slow. 1760. The capture of Canada relieved the settlers of their dan- gers from the Indians and French, 1763. Nova-Scotia by the treaty of Paris was finally ceded to Great B-fii^^-in Religion. The estabii-shcd religion is that of tbe c'hiivc'h ©f Is NOVA-SCOTIA. iEn^land, Tl)e diocese of Nova-Scotia includes New-JBrunswick» Cape Breton, and St. John's island. It was made a bishopric in 1787. There are 19 missions. The ministers are supported part- ly by the society in England and partly by the government. The Presbyterian clergyman at Halifax has the same allowance from government, as any clergyman of the church of England. Government. In 1808, the civil and military authorities were joined in the person of the governor, and the provinces of Nova- Scotia, New-Brunswick, St. John's, and Cape Breton, erected into one military command of which he is the Ijead. The legislature consists of three authorities, the governor, the £ouncil, and the house of representatives. The power of the governor varies with his instructions. The powers of the two houses of assembly resemble those of the parliament. The house of representatives consists of 59 members ; 20 of whom are county members, and the remainder are sent by ihe dif- ferent townships. Their proceedings are regulated by the parlia- mentary precedents of Great Britain. Divisions. Nova-Scotia is divided into 8 counties which are subdivided into townships. FofLulatio7u The number of inhabitants is between 70,000 and $0,000. The great body of the people are of English origin. Con- siderable numbers are from Massacliusetts and Connecticut. Af- ter these the Scotch and Irish are most numerous. There are a few Germans, also, and a few French Acadians. The Micmacs were the aborigines of the province. They in- habit the eastern shore, between Halifax and Cape Breton. They are supposed now to have about 300 fighting men, fast diminishing. Colleges and Schools. In 1789 King's college, was established by an act of the legislature at Windsor. A charter was granted, in 1802 ; and a liberal fund established for the support of the in- stitution. It has a valuable library. There are three scholarships of 30/. per annum, established by tlie society for the propagation of the gospel, for the encouragement of students in divinity. The university scholarships are only 20/. per annum. The president's salary is 400/. that of the professors 100/. Almost every village in the province has a small school ; and each mission has a schoolmaster, wno receives a salary from the society for the propagation of the gospel. Chief Toivns. Halifax, the capital of the province, is in lati- tude 44 40 N. on a spacious and commodious harbor, of a bold and safe entrance. The town is built on the west side of the har- bor, on the declivity of a commanding hill, whose summit is more than 300 feet above the level of the sea. The town is laid out in oblong squares. The streets cut each other at right angles. The town and suburbs are about two miles in length, the general breadth is a quarter of a mile. It contains 1000 houses and 8000 inhabit- ants. At the north end of the town is the king's naval yard, com- pletely supplied with stores of every kind for the navy. Halifax is reckoned inferior to no place in British Aijicrica for a seat of NOVA-SCOTIA. 41 ^^ovemmenk ; as well from the harbor being open and accessible, at ali seasons otthe year, as from its easy entrance, and its proxi- mity to the principal interior settlements of the province. The country around the town is very rocky, and the soil bad, and in gi-n; ral very unfit for cultivation. PicTou is a growing settlement in the county of Halifax. It is built on the bay of Pictou, on the northeast coast of the province. It contains 40 houses, and 500 inhabitants, who are chiefly Scotch. Liverpool is a commercial settlement on the sea coast in Queen's county. It is built on Liverpool bay, and contains 200 houses The other principal towns are Lunenburgli, Barrington, Argyle, Yarmouth, Digley, Annapolis, and Windsor. Roads. The principal post road in the province is that from Halifax to Digby, 150 miles. There are two packets established between Dighy and St. John's in New-Brunswick, for the convey- ance of the mails over the bay of Fundy. Both cross once a week. There are two roads from Halifar. to Pictou ; one througlj Trurb, 100 miles long.: the other, by the head of Marquadaboit, 1 10 mile« long. There is no settlement in the .province, which has not si road opened with. Halifax. Trade. In 1753, the exports amounted to 29,552/. ; the imports to 934/. In 1810, the iiY>ports from Great Britain alone, into the single port of Halifax, amounted to 600,000/. ; and the imports into the whole province to 1,200,000/. The exports consist chiefly of timber, fish, and lumber, to Great Britain and the West-Indies. The export of timber has of late years been very extensive, and the numerous harbors, from the bay of Chaleurs, to the bay of Fundy, inclusive, have been covered with vessels for cargoes of timber. More than 200,000 tons were ex- ported from that district in lyiO. The fisheries, however, afford the principal article of export. Climate ajid S?asoiLs. The winters of Nova-Scotia are gener- ally mild and salubrious. The average height of the thermome- ter, in the winter of 18U9, at Windsor, wus o0°. During that win- ter the harbor of Halifax was frozen over, which had not happened for 20 years. The average height of the thermometer, in the sum- mer of 18 1 0, was 68". Once in the month of August, 1799, it rose to 100°. It never was higher in the province. The spring is u- sually late, and the wes-ther rainy and unhealthy. The summer is warm, though seldom to an e:rcess. The rains are not often vio- lent, and rarely continue long. The first two months of the au- tumn are healthy, mild, and pleasant. Face of the >Countrti. The N. E. shores present to the stranger a gloomy and forbidding appearance. Between Halifax and Tor- bay the settlements are poor, and icvf ; and the shore rocky and barren. The S. W. coast bears the marks of industry and cultivation, particularly the county of Lunenburgh. All the counties that bor- der on the bay of Fundy arc mountainous, and ;h§ uncleared hills are covered with hard wood mi various kinds. Sd NOVA-SCOTIA. The most remarkable land on the south shore of Nova-Scotia is the hi^h land of Aspoiageon, which lies on the promontory which separates Mahone from Margaret's bay. The summit of this land is al)<>ut 500 foet perpendicular from tlie level of the sea. In King's county there are more than 10,000 acres, and in Cum- berland county 20,000 acres, of marsh land that is dyked Thtre are also great quantities of the same land in Annapolis and Hants counties. Soil and Agriculture. The soil oftheS. W. counties is rich and productive, and in general consists (fa coarse loam. Graia ^rows abundantly in every part of these counties ; and enough jnight be raised in then) to supply the %vhoIe of Nova-Scotia. The soil on the sea coast is generally barren, and the agricul-^ ture very little improved. The county of Lunenburgh is an entire exception to these remarks. The country west of cape Canceaa is more improved, and there «re many flourishing settlements. Bcijs. Between Canceau, and cape Sable, the two extremities of this province, there are perhaps more bays and harbors than on any other coast in the w{>rld. The bay of Fundy is the largest. It puts up between New" Brunswick and Nova-Scotia, from the south, about 150 miles. Its breadth at its rnouth is 100 miles; but from the gut of Annapolis to St. John's is only 36 miles. The bay branches toward the north. The vi'estern branch is called Chignecto channel ; the eastern the bason of Mincifi. The 3outi>ea?/Lern arm of this bason is called Co- bequid bay. Tides rise in the bay of Fundy 30 feet, in the bason of Minas, 40 feet, in Chignecto citannel, 60 feet. The rise of the tide is very rapid. Capes. The principal capes ave cape Sable, at the southern, and cape Canceau, at the northern, extremity of the province. Lakes. The largest, lake Rossigitoi, 20 miles from Annapolis, IS the source of Liverpool river. Farters lake lies a little east of Halifax, and empties its \/aters into the ocean about 1 5 miles east of that place. It is 15 miles bug, and half a mile broad. Foto-^ nvack^ or CAffs/cT lake, is on the road from Chester to Windsor, 15 miles from the former. Shubenaccadie is 20 miles from Halifax, and 7 from Windsor. Kivers. Annaj'wlis river, in King's county, is navigable at high -tides, for vessels of 100 tons, 14 rhiles. The Shubenaccadie, runs es miles, into Chebequid bay. The Pigaquiu, after a course of 29 miles, falls into the bason of I.Iinas. Vessels of 400 tons go up at liigh tide 10 miles to Windsor, and those of 100 tons, 5 miles far- ther. Mineralogij. A good deal of iron ore has been found near An- Viapolis. Pieces of copper ore were found some years ago at cape d'Or and Haute isle, and near cape Chignecto, but none lately. There are many extensive coal mines at Cumberland, and oth- ers in many parts of the province. The province abounds in lime-^ ^tone, \>:hich is found in every county. Great quantities of gypsjiiK PROVINCE OF NEW-BRUNSWICK. *l &re quarried in Hants, and at Canceau, and exported to the othei' •provinces and the United litaies. There arc extensive quarries of freestone near Pictou. PROVINCE OF NEW-BRUNSWICK. Boundaries. BOUNDED west by the District of Maine ; north by Lower Canada, and the sea ; and S. S. E. by Nova Sco- tia and the bay otFundy. Po/ndation. The number of inhabitants probably exceeds 40,000, although we have no means ot ascertaining how far. Chief Towns. St. John, the capita!, is situated on high ground, at the mouth of the river St. John. The streets are spacious and regular. It contains upwards of 1000 inhabittints, several well built houses, a handsome church and city hall. Frcderickton, the present seat of government, formerly called St. Anne's, lies about 80 miles up the river St. John, and is regularly laid out, in spacious streets, crossing each other at right anglesi It has a church, several well built houses, and upwai'ds of 500 in*- habitants. Rivers, Soil, isfc. St. John is the principal river in this provuice. From its entrance into the bay of Fundy, to its main souicc, is 35(3 miles. The tide flows 80 miles up this river. It is navigable fop sloops of 50 tons 60 miles, and for boats 200. Its general course from its source is E. S. E. It is the common route to Quebec 5 furnishes the inhabitants with heiring, salmon, bass and sturgeon. About one mile above the city of St. John is the only entrance into this river. It is about 80 or 100 yurds wide, and about 400 yards in length. The banks of this river, enriched by the annual fresnets^ are excellent land. About 30 miles from th« mouth of tiiis river conmienccs a tine level country of rich interval and meadow lands, well clothed with timber and wood. This river has many tributary streams, among which is the Madam kisvvic, on whiclx are rich intervals that produce all kinds of grain in the highest perfection. On another branch, the Kennebeccasis, is Sussex vale, a well inhabited and rema^-kably fertile tract of land, on which stands tae> academy for the instruction of the Indians, erected under the di- rection of the " Incorporated Company for the Propagation of the Gospel in New-England, and parts adjacent, in America." Thia. «;Jiaritable institution was transferred from New-England to tl:is. province after the peace of 1783. At this academy 40 Indian children are fed, clothed, and instructed, under the direction of a, board of commissioners, of which the governor of the province is^ president. This noble river, in its numerous and extensive branches, waters- and enriches a large tract of excellent country, a great part of which is settled and under improvement. The uplands, in general arc covered with a fine g^•^Yth ©f t>imber; sugU ^s pine ai>4 spm*£, m ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON. hemlock and hard wood, principally beech, birch, maple, and some ash. The pines on this river are the largest to be met with in Brit- tish America and afford a considerable supply of masts (some from 20 to 30 inches diameter) for the British navy. There are 3 rivers which fall into the bay of Passamaquoddy ; viz. the Scoodic ; the Merramichi, and the Petitcodiac rivers. Thfr river St. Croix empties into Passamaquoddy bay, and forms a part of the boundary between New-Brunswick and Maine Bays and Lakes. The coast of this province is indented with numerous bays and commodious harbors. The principal are Chaleur, Merramichi, Verte, which is separated from the bay of Fundy by an isthmus about 18 miles wide ; bay of Fundy ; CLen- igto or Chignecto bay, and Passamaquoddy bay, bordering on the Di&trict of Maine. ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON. Situation and Extent. THIS island lies between lat. 45 28 and 47° >J. and between Ion. 59 44 and 61 29 W. from London, and about 135 miles eastward of Halifax. It is about 109 miles long j and from 20 to 84 broad ; and is separated from Nova-Scotia by a narrow strait, called the Gut of Canceau, which is a commu- nication between the Atlantic ocean and the gulf of St. Lawrence. Face of the Country. The shores of the island are bold and safe to approach. On the eastern side the land is low, on the north- west the cliffs are high. Harbors. 1 he principal harbors are Arichat, Louisburg, Main, or Dieu Spanish river, and St. Ann's on the eastern side ; and on the western side. Port Hood, Margaret, Chetican, and St. Peter's, which last is a very commodious place for carrying on the fishery. Lake. The Bras d'Or is a large lake of water which nearly intersects the island, in a line from north to south, leaving a portage of only a quarter of a mile betv»'een the lake and the sea. A num- ber of large rivers empty themselves into the Bras d'Or, and open an easy communication with all parts of the island. Soil and Productions. There is a great proportion of arable land. That on the banks of the lake is considered equal to any in North- Amsrica. The island abounds in timber and hard wood, such as pine, beech, birch, maple, spruce and fir. Population. There are about 3000 inhabitants ; of which num- ber two thirds are French Acadinns. Government. The legislative power is in the hands of the lieutenant governor and council, who are appointed by the king, as are all tbe other officers of the government. The expense of the establishment, paid by the British government, annually amounts to 2200/. sterling. Tonvns. Sydney is the seat of government, and is built on th?- southeast branch of Spanish riyer. XSLAND OF ST. JOHJ^. 95 jirkhat is on the isle Madam, and entirely inhabited by fisher^ aien. Mines. At the mouth of Spanish river are the coal mines, whicli are a royalty and yield a revenue of 12,000/. yearly. Poihical Inifionance. This island, or rather Louisburg, may be considered as the Dunkirk of North-America, and the key to Can- ada ; and the very valuable fishery in its neigliborhood depends for its protection o)i the possession of this place, as no nation can carry it on wiii.out some convenient hailjor of strength to supply and protect it, and Louisburg is the principal one for these pur- poses. Trade. In 1743, while this island belong-edto the French, they caught l,149,wOO quintals of dry fish, and 3,500,000 do. of mud fish, the value of both which, including 311 6i tons of train oil^ drawn from the blubber, amounted to 926,577/. lOs. sterling, ac- cording to the prime cost of the fish at Newfoundland. The whole value of this trade, annually, at that period, amounted to a million sterling. No less tiiun 5 54 ships, besides shallops, and 27,uOO sea- men, were employed in this trade. Charlevoix, in his history of France, says, " This fishery is a more valuable source of wealth and power to France, tlian even the mii:es of Peru and Mexico would be." At present ilie inhabitants of tliis island take about 30,000 quintals offish, annually, which are shipped for Spain and the Strait, piincipally by merchants from Jersey, (in England) who yearly resort here, and keep stores of supplies for the fishermen. History. Though some fishermen had long resorted to this island evtry summer, the French, who took possession of it in Au- gust, 1713, were properly the first settled inhabitants. They changed its name to that of /a/c Royale. This island remain< d in possession of the French till 1745,whea it was captured for the crown of Great Britain by a body of troops from New-England under the command of lieutenant general Wil- liam Peppereli. ISLAND OF ST. JOHN. Situation and Extent. THIS island is pleasantly situated ia the gulf of St. Lawrence, near the northern coast of the province of Nova-Scotia, and is 103 miles long and from 10 to 35 broad. Soil and Productions. Its soil is rich and watered by several fine rivers. While the French possessed this island it was called the granary of Canada, which it furnished with great plenty of conv as well as beef and pork. Cafntal Charlotletown is its principal town and is the residence •f the lieutenant governor, who is the chief officer on the island. Pofiulation. The number of inhabitants at present is estimateit at about 5000. Go-vernmKnt, This island is attached to the province of Nova- Seotia. ^4 tNlTED STATES The other islands in the gulf of St. Lawrence worthy of notice^ are, ANTICOSTI, near the mouth of St. Lawrence river, about 120 miles ion;^ and 30 broad. It has no convenient harbor, and is un- inhabited. The MAGDALEN ISLES, lyinej in 61 40 W. Ion. and between 47 13 and 47 42 N. lat. and inhabited by a few fishermen These islands were fornierly frequented by sea-cows, but they are now become scarce. ISLE PERCEE, about 15 miles south of cape Gaspre, is a small but remarkable island, being " a perpendicular rock, fiierced with 2 natural arches, through which the sea flows. One of these arches is sufficiently high to admit a large boat to pass freely through it.** UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.* (exclusive of LOUISIANA.) Extent. THE United States lie between lat. 30° and 49 3/ JS'.t and betvgeen Ion. 67° and 95 6 W.| The distance Irom the soutliern bend of the St. Mary to the parallel of the northern limit of the lake of the Woods is 1390 miles. The breadth of the coun- try, in lat. 3 1 °, is 620 miles ; in lat 36'', 790 ; in lat. 42°, 1 130 ; and in lat. 47°, 1320. It contains about 1,000,000 square miles, or 640,000,000 acres, of which 51,000,000 are supposed, by Capt. Hutchins, to be covered with water. Boundaries. Bounded N. by Upper and Lower Canada ; E. by New-Brunswick and the Atlantic ; S. by East and West-Florida ; W. by the Missisippi, which divides it from Lfiuisiana. Divisions. The Union originally consisted of 13 independent States. It now consists of 17 such states, of 1 district, and 4 Ter- ritories ; exclusive of Loui-nana State and Louisia?ia Ttrritori/, which are not a part of the United Slates proper. In common language, the whole country, including Louisiana, is now divided into two great sections, called T/ie jVort/icrn Slates and T/ie Sout/icr?! States. On the west, the rivrr Ohio is consid- ered as the boundary between them : on the east, the snuihem lim- it of Pennsylvania and Delaivare This line is fixed on for several reasons. To the south lies all tlie country which has a tropical climate and productions, and a broad, level pine barren along its whole extent of coast. To the south also lies the whole of the * Louisiana may now be considered as part of the United States ; but is not included within tiie following limits, but considered under a separate head, as an annexed territorv. f The most southern bend of St. Mary's river, is in lat. 30° N. and the north- western extremity of the lake of the Woods, is in lat. 49 S7 N. (See I. JVrKen- 2ie,72.) \ The District of Maine does not go farther east than Ion. 67° W. The head »f the Missisippi is in Ion. 95 6 W, (See I. M'Kenzie, 72.) OF AMERICA. 9a Slave Country and the region in which are found the great body of the neg-oes. By tiiis division the states and territories are distributed as follows s NORTHERN STATES. Massachusetts Pennoylvania New-Hampshirj5 Michigan Territory Vermont Illinois Territory Rhode Island Ohio Connecticut Indiana Territon*- New-Yurk Delaware. NiiAV-jERSET SOUTHERN STATES, Maryland South-Carolina Columbia District Georgia Virginia Mississippi Territory Kentucky Louisiana North-Carolina Louisiana Territory Tennessee Original Po/iulation. The aborigines of the Northern states were the Moheakanneews, and the Iroquois. The Moheakan- neews had probabiy been here centuries before the Iroquois in- truded upon them from the northwest. All the Indians north of the Potowinac,eastofthe ISIisslsippi, and south of the St. Lawrence, except the Iroquois, are known to have been tribes of this nation. The tribes south of the Polowmac were the Cherokecs.,XhQ Crteksy the Chickasaio.'i., Chactaivs, and Tuscaroras. Moheakanneews. The Moheakanneews of New-England composed 10 distinct tribes, speaking different dialects of the i>ame language. The Abenaguis or Tarrateens inhabited Maine ; the Pigwackets, the eastern and southern parts of New-Hampshire ; the Coos Indians, the western part of that state and the state of Vermont ; the Wampanogas in the old colony of Plymouth ; the Massachusetts round about Boston ; the Nipnets in the county of Wurcester ; the Nashaways, a small tribe in the same county ; the Moheakanneews or Stockbridge Indians, in the county of Berk- shire ; the Narragansetts, in Rhode-Island ; and the Pequods, in Connecticut. For the character and manners of these Indians we must refer our readers to the writei:s who have treated of the his- tory of New-England. iRoquois. The Iroquois occupied both sides of the Mohawk, and all the western part of the state of New- York, the novthAvest- ern parts of Pennsylvania, and a part of the country on lake Erie, in the state of Ohio. Their territories comprehended about 60,000 square miles. Their influence however v/as felt through all the adjoining country. They constituted 6 tribes, the Mohawks, Onei- das, Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, and Tuscaroras. The Mo- hawks were the oldest and most powerful tribe. The Tuscaroras "Were the youngest. They joined the confederacy long after th© ♦thersj ha'^ing migrated from jS^orth-Carolina. S^S UNITED STATES Historical Epochs. 1723. The British Government proposeQ to the colonies to form one general government. The object was to facilitate the collection of troops. This proposal was rejected. 1741. An expedition, British and American, went against the island of Cuba, but returned without accomplishing its object. 1745. Louisburg, a French fortress in the island of Cape Breton, was taken, June 16, by an expedition from New-England. 1754. A union of the colonies under one colonial government was again proposed, and prevented by the colony of Connecticut. 1755. An expedition from New-England subdued the French force in Nova-Scotia, and reduced the province. The same year the British and Americans made an unsuccessful attempt to l^reak up the French settlements on the Ohio. General Braddock, their leader, was killed, and the remains of his army- saved by the skill and bravery of col. Washington. The same year a French expedition from Canada, commanded by baron Dicskau, was defeated, on the shore of lake George, by- sir W. Johnson. 1765. The stamp act passed the British Parliament. This was the fust attempt to lay a direct tax on the colonies. The right to lay the tax was denied, and the first colonial congress was conven- ed at New-York, which declared the rights and grievances of the colonies, and presented a petition to the king, and a memorial to l)oth houses of parliament. 1773. The destruction of the tea in the town of Boston, and of the Gaspee schooner at Newport, took place. 1775. The battle of Lexington on the 19th of April roused all America. The provincial congress of Massachusetts immediately voted to raise an army of 30,000 men. On the 17th of June occurred the battle of Brecd's-hill, so honorable to Atr.erican valor. About the same time, the articles of confederation Avere proposed by the second congress at Philadelphia. On July 2d, general Washing- ton took the command of the American army. 1776. The British, March 17th, were compelled to evacuate Boston, and sailed for Halifax. On July 4ih^ the colonies ivere d''.clared independent states. The British took possession of New-York, Sept. 15th, and in a short time the surrounding country fell into their hands. General Washington retreated across the Delaware. 1777. The Americans under gen. Washington were defeated at Brandy wine, Sept. 11. On the 17th of October gen. Burgoyne surrendered his whole army to gen. Gates. 1778. The treaty of alliance with France was formed, Feb. 6. 1780. The defeat ot" the Americans at the battle of Camden. 1781. The defeat of the British, under Tarleton, by gen. Mor- gan, a:t the battle of the Cow pens, on the 17th of January. On the ath of Sept. defeated col. Stewart at the battle of Eutaw, and clear- ed Carolina of the Briiislt troops. On the 19th of October Cornwallis surrendered Itis army to gen» V/asliington in Virginia. * OF AMERICA. &? J782, Peace was concluded, on the 30th of November, between Great Britain and the United States. The independence of America was acknowledged by Holland, April 19, 1782; by Sweden, Feb. 5; by Denmark, Feb 25; by Si)ain, March 24 ; by Russia in July, 1773 ; by Prussia in 1785. 1787, Sept. 17th. The federal constitution was agreed on by del- egates from all the states except Rhode island. On tlie 30th of April, 1789, General Washington was inaugurat- ed president of the United Slates at Mew-York. 1803. Louisiana was purchased of France for 15 millions of dol- lars, and annexed to the United Slates. 1812. On the 18th of June, war was declared against Great Britain. Religion. The constitution establishes no one form of religion, but secures to every citizen the free exercise of his own. The great body of the people denominate themselves Christians; a small proportion of them are Jews. The following are the denominations of Christians : Congrega- tionalists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Friends, Methodists, Bap- tists, German Lutherans, Dutch Reformed, Roman Catholics, Mo- ravians, Mennonists, Tunkers, Universalists, and Shakers. The CoNGREGATiONALiSTS are the most numerous denomina- tion. There are about 1000 congregations of this denomination in New-England, beside a considerable number scattered through the middle and southern states. Their whole number is probably not less than 1 200, and nearly an equal number of ministers and candi- dates. After them Presbyterians are the most numerous. They have a constitution and a confession of faith. Their supreme ec- clesiastical judicatory is styled The General Assembly of the Pres- bijteria7i Church Subordinate bodies are synods, presbyteries, and church-sessions. There were withii> the bounds of the gen- eral assembly in 1810, 5 synods, 36 presbyteries, 772 congrega- tions, and 434 ministers ; besides a considerable immber of licen- tiates. Few of the Presbyterians are found in New-England. The number of Episcopal churches in 1808, in the Northern, States, was 133, and of ministers, 114; in the southern, 105 church^ es and IN ministers; in all 240 churches and 225 ministers. Bish- ops have been consecrated in the eastern district, consisting of Vermont, New-Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode-Island; and in Cunnecticut, New- York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South-Carolina. The Friends compose about 400 congregations. Methodists. The great body of this denomination live in the interior of the southern states, though tlicy are scattered through- out the union. They style themselves Tht United Societies of the Mfthoclist Efdncofial Church. Their number, in 1809, amounted to 159,500.* These are the Wesleian Methodists. The Baptists are independents in their government and disol-* pline. * Christian Observer, ¥111. 670. 15 9g. UNITED STATES Of this denomination there were in 1793, 45 associations, I0o"2 churches, '-291 ministers, and 73,471 members. The Lutherans have about 100 c on i^ re gat ions in Pennsylvania and New-York. Tliey are of German extraction. The German' Calvinists are about equally numerous. These two denomina- tions live together in perfect harmony. Tne Dutch Reformed Church contains about 80 congrega- tions, coinpo-intf one synod styled The Dutch Reformed Syyiod of JVew-York and J^riv-Jemey. The RoMAisr Catholics are more numerous in Maryland, than in any other state, fiicy probably amount to 75,000. They have one archbishop in Baltimore ; and four bishops : one in Boston, one in New York, one in Piuladclphia, and one in Bardstown, Ken- tucky. Except in MaVyland, they arc found principally in the large cities, and are almost universally foreigners, or tlicir imme- diate descendants. riie Moravians, in 1788, amounted to about 2000 souls^ Their principal sntUments art Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Litiz in Penn- sylvania, Hope in New-Jersey, and Wacho\ia, on the Yadkin, in Korth-Caro'ina. They style themselves The United Brethren of the Protestant Efv.scop.ai Church. They were introduced into America by count Zinzcndorf, in )74l. The MENNONisTscame intoGermantown, Pennsylvania, in 1692/ That is now their principal settlement. Their whole number in that state, in 1770, was upv/ards of 4000, divided into 13 churches, and 42 congregations, under the oare of 15 clergymen, and 53 li- centiates. The TurncERS. Their principal settlement is Ephrata, 60 miles T^est of Philadelphia. In 1770 those in Pennsylvania were 2000 in number, beside a few in Maryland. The Universalis rs are of two kitids, the followers of Dr. Chauncey, embracing many of the Unitarians, and those of Mr. John Murray. The latter sect has a number of churches, govern- ed by a constitution formed in 1789, by a convention of their min- isters at Philadelphia. The Shakers Their principal settlement is at Nisqucunia, above Albany- They have anot'uer in New-Lebanon, another at Enfield \\^ Connecticut, and one in Canterbury in New-Hampshire. A still smaller sect, called Sandemanians, has existed in the United States, but is now nearly extinct. The Jews are not numerous. Th< y have synagogues at New- port, New- York, Phiiadtlplia. Charleston, and Savannah. Government. The United States were originally British colo- nies. On the founh of July, 1776, the colonies declared themselves ?ree and independent. At the same time, by their delegates in congress, tiiey published articles of confederation, in whieh they styled themselves The United States of America. These articles, after the vvai had ceased to give them vigour, were found inadequate. A convention met in Philadelphia in the summer of 17S7, cousisting of delegates chosen by each state, to OP AMERICA. 9,9 iix upon the necessary amendments. This convention prof>oscd a C.'ti.stitui.ion, winch was afterwards adopted by the several slates, anci whicii, suice its adoption, has been materially altered. The u gislative power is lodged in a Congress, consisting of 4, senaie :ud\ r.ousc of representatives. Tilt Senate consists of two members from eai h state, who arc chosen by the state It-gislaiure, and hold their office 6 years. The period of service of one ti.irdofthc seuaiors tcrmii.atcs every 2 years. A senator must be 30 years of age, and must have been a citizen of the United States 9 years. The house of representatives consists of iBenibers apportioned among the several states acccraing to the whole aniouni of their lu/iitc, and to three fifths of the aniount of their black., population. They are ci oscn by the electors of the most numerous biancn of the state legislature ; hold their ofSce 2 years ; must be 25 year^ of age ; and must have been 7 years citizens of the United States. Each state, at present, sends \ repres^-ntative tor every 35,000 per- sons, estiinatcii acccrding to the above metl.od. If the president withhold his assent to a hid, tvcotliirds of both houses must ap- prove of it, or it cannot become a law. The exe« uiive power is vested in a president, a vice president, and oilier suiiordinate officers. The president and vice president hoiil their offices 4 years, 'i'hey are chosen by electors appointed by each state in sufh a manner as its legislature directs. Each state has as many electors as the sum of its members in I)oth hous- es of congress. The president and vice president cannot be in- habitants of the same state, and mu=t be natives of the U.ited States, or have been citizens at the time of the adoptionof the con- stitution. Tlie president is commander in cnief of the army a id navy. The vice president is president of tlie senate. The presi- dent and the senate have the sole power of uiaking treaiies. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, and such in- ferior courts as congress may institute. The judges of all nation- al courts hold their offices during good behavior. The senate constitutes a high co'urt uf imjieachmeni. A majority of two thirds is necessary to a conviction. The house of representatives has the sole power to impeach. Courts. The courts of the United States are of three kinds, a supreme court., circuit courts^ and district courts. The first is es- tablished by the constitution ; the two last by laws of congress. The supreme court consists of a chief justice, and six associate judges. It is only a court of appeals, and a court of errors. The attorney general of the United States is the public prosecutor be- fore this court. The circuit courts consist of a judge of the supreme court, and the district judge of the state. The United States, for this purpose, are divided into 7 circuits, and 25 districts. The first circuit includes the districts of New-Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts, and Rhode-Island ; the second, those of Vermont, Con- necticut, and the two districts of New- York ; the third, those of lOa UNITED STATES. New-Jersey and Pennsylvania; the fourth, those of Maryland and Delaware ; the fifth, those of Virginia and Norlh-Caiolina ; the sixth, those of South-Carolina and Geortjia ; the seventh, those of' Phio, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Beside tliese the districts of Maine, Columhia, Michigan, Indiana, Missi'^ippi, Orleans, and Louisiana, have each disitrict judges, though they are not yet forjiv- ed into circuits. The circuit court sits twice a year in each district composing the circuit, in one of which the judge n"iust reside. The jurisdic- tion of these courts is expressly limited by the 2d section of the 3d article of the constitution. Zaw«. The laws, to which the citizens of the United States are subject, consist oi national and state laws. The national laws are all ivritteij. They consist of the consti- tution of the United States, public treaties, and acts of congress. The state laws are divided into written and imivritteii. The writ- ten are the acts of the state legislatures. The unwritten is the eovimou law of the state, where that is ascertamcd. In other cas- es, the common lavi' of England is generally adhered to by the state courts, where the circumstances of the country do not render it inapplicable. By an act of congress, the laws of the several states are regard- ed as rules of decision m trials at common law-, in the courts of the United States. Of course the laAvs of the state in which the trial is held, regulate the court- As part of the laws of the states are ■unwritten, this act gives a common law jurisdiction, iii civil casesy to the federal courts. In criminal cases no such provision exists. The ficnal code of the United States rests, therefore, upon the con- stitution and acts of congress, The state courts are bound, in their decisions, by the national laws, as well as by the laws of the state. Fcjiulation. The number of inhabitants in the United States, in 1790, was 2,950,000; in 1300, 5,505,666; in 1810, 7,230,514. The increase in the first ten years was 1,355,666, and the ratio of increase 34-y per cent. The increase in the second ten years was, 1,924,840, and the ratio of increase ^6^ per cent. The inhabitants of the United States are composed of three classes : Europeans and their descendants ; Africans and their de- scendants ; and the Aborigines. These classes are ranged accord- ing to thfeir respective numbers. The lirst is niade up of English^ German, Dutch, French, Irish, Scotch, Swedish, Svvi:is, and Welsh emigrants and their descend- ants The great mass of the inhabitants are of English origin New- England was settled entirely by Englishmen, except a few towns in the hilly country of the county of Hampshire in Massachusetts, yhich were settled by a colony of Irishmen ; and a few Scotch and Irish settlements in New-Humpshire. With these exceptions the settled hihabitants of New-England are even now entirely of Eng- lish origin. Nor are the occasional residents of a different descrip- l^oiij except heife and there a straggling foreigner, of some Euvc- OF AMERICA. 101 yopean nation. The English and their descendants, also consti- tute a large majority of the wiiite inhabitants of tlie other states. Probably niiic tenths of the inhabitants of European extraction are of this description. The Germans compose about one fourth part of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania. Considerable numbers of them are also found in New-York and New-Jersey. The Dutch settled trhe state of New-York, and are still conside- rably numerous there. Numbers of them are also found in New- Jersey and Pennsylvania. They are generally farm< rs. A small colony of French Protestants settled on Staten ibland and at New-Roclieile in the state of New-York. They were supe- rior in their character to most colonists. A number of respecta- ble French families have, at various times, settled in Charltrston, S. Carolina. A few others of this description are found in New- Jersey, and other states. The great bofiy of the later French em- igrants to the United States, are mere adventurers. Tiie Irish emigrants live principally in Pennsylvania. Consid- erable numbers also are found in New-York, New-Jersey, and Kentucky, and are scattered in m.ost parts of tlie United States. The Scotch are generally industrious, good citizens, well in- formed, honest, and moral. They have settlements in New- Hampshire, New- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania and North-Ca- rolina. A considerable number of Swedes are found in New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. They are a peaceable and well in- formed people. There is a settlement of Swiss in the Indiana Territory, who ra'e engaged in the culture of grapes, and making wine. Several small settlements of Welsh emigrants have been made in Pennsylvania and New-York. These are a very honest, indus- trious, sober people. The second class of inhabitant^ are Africans, brought here iii slaveships, or their descendants ; no less than 1,1 85,223, of these degraded people are still held in slavery in this land ol liberty and equal rights. Upwards of 1 86,000 people of color are freenien. Great numbers of those who make up these two classes, are but partially of African origin. The nmlattoes in the low country of the southern states may probably, at no distant period, outnumber the genuine blacks. The Aborigines constitute a third class, and are far less nume- rous than either of the others. A few are found in each of the Kew-England states, and on the east end of Long-Island. These have lost the little respectability, which numbers would give them, and are in quite a degraded state. Considerable numbers of the Iroquois still remain in the state of New-York. They have very^ valuable possessions of land. They are fast losing all that charac- terized their fathers. The£herokees in I'ennessee and the Mis- sisippi Territory are numerous, v/ealthy, and more than half civil- ized. The same is true of the Creeks in Georgia. The Chicka- gaws and Choctawa in the Missisippi territory are considerably iQ2 UNITED STATES r-umerous. Michicijan and Indiana Territories have considerable numbers of untamed Inttians of the Chipevvay tribe ; and the lerri- lory northwest of tlie Illinois and west of lake Michigan, their an- cient patrimony, is at present entirely possessed by Indians. The Avhole number of Indians in the United States, probably, does not exceed 60,000. Army. The grand defence of the United States consists in a well disciplined militia, of about 6 or 7ou,000 men. A'avy. The navy of the United States, in the beginning of the year 1 8 lO consisted of the following vessels ; 3 frigates ot 44 guns, 3 of 35, and 3 of 32, and 1 1 others of smaikr rank amounting to 5132 guns in the whole. Beside these there are 4 bomb-ketches and 170 gxinboats. Each of the gunboats mounts 1 ii;un. The expeace of thp navy for the year ending Sept 3()th, 1810, was 1,674,735 dollars 50 cents. The appropriation for this department in 1811 was 1,870,274 dollars. Re-vt7iue. The revenue of the United States arises from duties on the tonnage of vessels entered at the various custom houses, on imported goods, wares, and merchandize, from the sale of public: lands, and on the postage of letters. The expenditures in the i2 years, from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1801, were 81,743,688-29 ; and, in the succeeding 9 years, 1215239,253-67. The receipts into tiie treasury of the United Statesduring the year endingSept. 30th, 1811 ,exceedecig 1 3,500,000.* The amount of the revenue in ordinary years may be estimated at 14,000,000 of dollars; more than thirteen fourteenths of which arises from duties on commerce. The original debt, in 1791, was g75,463,467 ; the debt contract- ed since amounts to 47,790,481 ; making a total of 123,253,948 ; of this sum there was paid off before Jan. 1st, 1811, 72,495,022, leaving, at that time, an existing debt of 53,i72,302-32 ; which is less than th.e orighia! debt, by 22,291,165-20. Mint. The mint was estabUfehcd in 1791. The purity of the silver coin is the same with that of Spain ; that of the gold coin with that of the strictest European nations. The gold coins are eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles, and dollars. The silver are dollars, half dollars, quarter dollars, dimes, and half dimes. The copper are cents and half cents. The denominations increase and decrease in a tenfold proportion. In ordinary computation, the only denominations used are dollars, cents, and mills. These last ui'e merely nominal. Post Office. The amount of postage from Jan. 1st, 1790, to Oct. 1st, 1809, was 5,305,093 dollars ;' and the expenses of the es- tablishment 4,549,601 dollars, 55 cents. The number of post offi- ces in the year 1 79 1 was 75, and in 1811, 2403. Since the number of post offices has been so much increased, and the transportation of the mail so widely extended, this branch of the revenue has very much diminished. The amount of post- age, in 1809, did not equal the expense of the establishment. t President's message, Nov, 1811. OF AMERICA. 103 Manners and Customa. The g;reat body of tlic inhabitants oS tlie United States are of Englisli origin. Their character and manners, therefore, are fornieci on the English plan, varying from it however, and from each oilier, in consequence of the diversities in government, state of society, wealth, climate, and soil. The governments of the several states, and of the union, are e- lective and popular. Every officer and mai^istrate is appointed, directly or indu'ectly, by the people They pass every law, pro- pose every measure, form every tieaty, and dispose of all public property 4)y themselves, or by those whom they elect to oflice. The effect of this state of things on public men has been, on the ©ne hand, to check the pride of place and the insolence of office ; and, on the other, to persuade many of them to descend to calum- ny, flattery, trimming, and falsehood. Its effect on the communi- ty at large has been to inspire, on the one hasid, a high sense of personal independence, and a jealous care of national freedom i and, on the other, to destroy the necessaiy distinctions in society, and put all men on a level ; to give importance to mere numbers, and take it away from intelligence and worth ; to divide the com- munity into parties, and in a great measure to break up between them the common civilities of life ; to give a degree of coarseness to public manners, and to lower very n^uch ti)e estimation of those, which are refined; to give newspapers and the most profligate oi" their editors, a prevailing influence over the public sentiment, and thus to deluge the community with calumnies and falsehood. Languages. The English language is almost imiversally spoken. All records are kept in it throughout the country, and all public business transacted. The German, Dutch, Sv;edish, Irish,, Welsh, and French are spoken more or less, and in all of ihetn public worship is in some place or other regularly performed. The German is spoken very extensively in Pennsylvania, and ia parts of New-York. Literature. Few men, in America, have originally sufficient property, to justify them in devoting their lives to the pursuits of literature. Our colleges have no well endowed i'cllowbhips to^ supply this deficiency. A government merely popular can neve? extend to learning, any thing like English patronage. And Mae- cenases are indeed but rarely found in a country, where wealth or office is the general object of pursuit. The corsscqucncc is thac men of learning, of the Erjglinh ntamfi^ are seldom if ever found in tlie United States. The regular clergy, however, are not, as a budy^ behind the English clergy in theological or general learning. Well informed men, and men of liberal education are numeioui along the sea-coast, and in most of the large tov/ns in the iiiterior. In no country on the globe, except S< otland, is common learning so universally diffused as in New-England. In the best scniina- rics the Greek, Lai in, and Hebrew languages. Philology, Geogra- phy, Mathematics, Natuiil Pidlosophj, Chemistry, Logic, Rhetor- ic, and Theology, are taught l)y ri;rit;uions and lectures to .in ex tent not surpassed, in the general course of instruction, at Oxfjrd and Cambridge. 1Q4 UNITED STATES Roads. In New-England, the soil is generally a hard loam, on which the heaviest wheels make little or no impression. In New- Vork it is generally clay. In this respect New-York is unfortu- nate. But ihe the whole of this district is usually covered with tJnoAV in tiie winter The snow furnishes an easy way of transport- ation for heavy articies in sleighs, and prevents the necessity of l)sing the roads in the opening of the spring. Below lat. 36° the roads arc never materially injured by frust, though in the low country, they are much injurtd by rains, and the ground is cut up by wheels in the spring, so as to render them, in some places al- most impassable. Over this whole extent, from the coast to 100 or 200 miles back, the country is a dead level, and generally a sandy plain with a thin covering of soil. The roads in many parts, arc a deep, heavy sand, and no stones or gravel can be procured within any suitable distance, to make them better. In the back country good roads may generally be made at no very great ex- pence. The great post road of the United States is that leading from Maine to Georgia, in the general direction of the coast, and pass- ing through the principal sea-ports. Its length is about 1600 miles. This road is generally good, as far as Philadelphia ; thence southward it is in great part indifferent. It has been proposed to turnpike this road through its whole extent. The estimated ex- pence is 4,800,000 dollars. This estimate is doubtless far below the truth. Dr. Ramsay, in a recent ingenious publication, has projected ■a.road of healthy as he styles it, to pass from Georgia to Maine, along the eastern foot of the Allegany mountains, and high- lands of New-England. Inland Navigation. The great inland navigation, furnished by the lakes which form the northern boundary of the United States, will appear obvious from an inspection of the map. The chief in- terruptions of this navigation, between the bottom of lake Superior and the gulf of St Lav.rence, are the fails of St. Mary's, those of Niati;ara, and several in the St. Lawrence, between lake Ontario and IMontrcal. A canal, on the British side, has already been com- pleted around the first. The expense of a canal 10 miles in length around the falls of Niiigara, large enough to receive the vessels of the lakes, is estimated at 1,000,000 dollars. The elevation of lake Eiie above lake Ontario is estimated at 450 feet, and that of lake Ontario above the river at Montreal, 200 feet. An inspection of the map of the United States will shew, that, if four inteniiptions were removed, they would possess a ^?V/e- ivater inland navigation from Massachusetts to the St. Mary's. These interrujjtions are the tract between Boston harbor and Taun- ton ; that between lirunsw'ick, on the Raritan, and Trenton, on the Delaware; that between Christiana Creek and Elk river; and th.at between Elizabeth river, in Virguiia, and the Pasquotank, in North-Carolina. The whole distance across all these tracts is 9» miles. Were four canals completed in these places, vessels might pass from lioston harbor up the canal to Taunton river, down thai )?ver ar;d Nairagansett bay. and up the Smmd to New-York ; a- OF AMERICA. 4J&5 etwern the main land and a chain of islands to the south- ern l)oundary ct the country. The length of ihc first canal v/ould he 26 miles, at an csliniaied expence of 1,250,000 dollars; that of tlic second 28 miles, at an expence of 800,000 dollars ; that of the third 22 miles, at an expence of 750,000 dollars ; and tliat of the fourth 22 naies, at an expence of 250,000 dollars : making a total of 3,050,000 dollars. It should Le observed, however, that 200,000 dollars have been laid out on the third, and that the fourth is al- ready completed, though not to the necessary width. The expense of liiese canals is estimated on the supposition that they are to be adapted to vessels drawing 8 feet water. A cai.ai has been proposed from lake Erie to the Hudson. The distance is about 30(J miles. The waters of lake Erie are about 600 feet higher than those of the Hudson, and the canal is to de- scend constantly and rej^ularly as it proceeds eastward. It is pro- posed that it should pass over Genessee river in an aqueduct, 26 feet high ; the mouth of Seneca lake, in one 183 feet high, and that ol Cayuga lake in one 1 30 feet high. The state of New-York is now engaged m attempting this great national work, at a calcu- lated expense of 5 millions of dodars. The object of it is to turn the trade of the western country from Montreal, to the city of New- York. Manufacturer. The follov^ing summary includes those manu- factures only whose value has been ascertained with considerable accuracy. Manufactures of wood - - S 20,000,000 Leather - - - - 20,000,000 Soap, and tallow candles - - 8,000,000 Spermaceti candles and oil - - 300,000 Refined sugar - - - 1,000,000 Cotton, wool, and flax - - - 40,000,000 Cards - - - - 200,000 Hats - - - _ 10,000,000 Spiritous and malt liquors - - 10,000,000 Iron . . - - 13^00,000 S 123,OwO,000 The value of manufactures exported in the year ending Sept. 30th, 1810, was 2,174,000 dollars. Commtrce. The trade of the United States is divided into fo- reign and domestic. The great articles of exportation are cotton, flour, wheat, tobac- co, beef, pork, lumber, naval stores, fish, rice, Indian corn, pot and pearl ashes, shoes, candles, cut nails, ardent spirits, and refined su- gars. In the year ending Sept, 30ih, 1810, the articles of domestic growth export-ed were as follows i 3 4 SOS- UNITED STATES Produce of the sea the forest agriculture Manufactures Uncertain g 1,481,000- 4,978,000 33,502,000 2,174,000 231,000 S 42,366,000 The destination of all the exports was as follows : 1. To Europe and the Mediterranean. Northern powers and Germany - - g 22,010,000' Trance and Holland - - * - 120,000 Great Britain ... - 12,520,000 Spain and Portugal, Madeira, Azores, and Canaries 1 1,050,000 Italy, Trieste, Levant, and Barbary » - 2,200,000 2. To all other countries. riorida (principally Amelia island) British North-American colonies Spanish America and Brazil Other West-Indies - - - Sast of Cape of Good Hope In the same year the shipping of the United 1,350 281 tons. Amount of the exports of the United States. Exports. [ S 47,960,000 S 2,500,000 1,470,000' 8,520,000 4,990,000 1,300,000 S 18,860,000 States amounted t» Years. Domestic Foreign Total. Produce; Produce. Dolls. Dolls. Dolls. 1790 14,200,900 1,799,100 16,000,000 1791 14,600,000 3,799,202 18,399,202 1792 15,060,500 5,945,068 21,005,563 1793 15.420,900 10,590,888 26,011,788 1794 16,200,100 16,843,625 33,043,725 1795 18,064,050 29,791,506 47,885,556 1796 20,024^02 1 47,040,076 67,064,097 1797 24,052,671 27,242,039 51,294,710 1798 27,991.413 33,335,998 61,327,411 1799 33,142,187 45,523,335 78,665,522 1800 31,840,903 3y, 130,877 70,971,780 1801 46.577-.792 46.642.723 93,020,515 1802 36- 82,173 35,774,971 71,957,144 1803 42,205,961 13,594,072 55,800,033 1804 41.467,477 36,231,597 77,699,074 1805 42, ."87,002 53,179,019 95,566,021 1806 41,253.727 60,283,236 101,536,963 1807 48,699,592 69,643,558 108,343,150 1808 9,433,546 12,997,414 22,430,960 1809 31,405.702 20,797,531 52,203,233. !810 42,366,675 24,391,295 6 6,757,9 7 €t OF AMERICA. W7 Face qf the Country. The United States, considered as a coun- try, may with i"nore propriety be cliaracterized as uneven, tbaa as ievel or /lilly. In so extensive a tract, iivered with water ; about 40,000,000 consist of a mountainous country ; which is almost uni- versally forested, and which, from the nature of its surface, rathei' than of its soil, is unfit for the purposes of cultivation ; and about 29,000,000 acres are either sandy, or covered with so thin and poor a soil, as to offer slight encouragement, except to the mo-it perfect agriculture. The acres of water are, according to Mr. Hutchinsj distributed in the foUowiiiij' manner : Acresu In the lakes , - - - - 46,340,000 In the bays ----- 2,6f>0,000 In the rivers .-.,--. 2,ooo,ooo 51,000,000 The principal barren tract is the seaboard, from New- Jersey :SOuthvvard. Beside this, the greater part of the state of Rhode Island, and the southeastern counties of Massachusetts, are sandy. Of the 520,000,000 acres susceptible of aclvasita^eous cultivation, only 40,950,000 acres were estimated by Mr. Biodget to be under actual improvement, at the beginning of the year 1811. This estimate we believe to fall far short of the truth. The land of New-England is princii^lly devoted to the culture of Indian corn, grass, rye, ous, flax, wheat, buckwheat, barley, and hemp ; and a far greater proportion of Newr-Eiigland is under cul- tivation, than of either of the other great divisions. The improved land of the middle states is eTnp'oyecl in the cuiiivation of wheat, Indian corn, grass, oats, buckwheat, fiax, barley, potatoes, spelts, and rye. The agricultural productions of the southern states arc cotton, wheat, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, indigo, (formerly) barley, and hemp. Wc have arranged these various articles, in the three J108 UNITED STATES great divisions of the covmtry, according to the quantity raised in each, as far as we have been able to ascertain it. The staple of New-England, is Indian covn ; that of the middle states, wheat and tobacco ; and that of the southern, cotton and rice. Bays. The Chesapeake is a very spacious bay, 200 miles in length, from Havre de Grace to the southern extremity, and from 7 to 18 miles in breadth ; and covering 1,700,000 acres. It is gen- erally as much as 9 fathoms deep, and afiords many commodious harbors, and a saf^and easy navigation. Tliis bay receives the waters of the Susquchannah, Potowmac, Rappahannock, York, and James rivers, besides numberless suiailer streams both from the eastern and western shores. It opens, from the west, into the Atlantic, by ji mouth 12 miles wide, between cape Charles and cape Henry ; the former in lat. 37 12, the latter in 37° N. both in Virginia. Delaitake Bay separates New-Jersey from Delaware. It is 65 miles long from Fisher's Point to cape Hcnlopen ; and, in the broadest part, 30 miles wide ; containing 630,000 acres It re- ceives the waters of no large river, except the Delaware. It opens, from the N. W. Into the Atlantic, between cape May, in New- Jersey, in lat 38 55, and cape Henlopen,in Delav/are, in lat. 58 47, by a mouth 20 miles bror>d. MASSACHUs-iiTTs Ba'v is a part of the ocean putting up between cape Anne and cape Cod. Its length is about 60 miles, and the distance of the two capes 45. It stretches from N. W. to S. E. The southeastern part is called Barnstable bay Narragakset Bay, in Rhode Island, is 35 miles long. It cov- ers an area of about 185,600 acres. It communicates with the ocean between point Judith, on the west, and point Seaconet, on the east. Its bearing is from N. to S. Sounds. Long Island Sound, between Connecticut and New- York on the north, and Long Island on the south, is !40 miles long, and from 3 to 25 broad. It has two communications with the ocean. The eastern is broad and unobstructed. At the west end by a narrow strait, 1 mile wide, opposite New-York, it communi- cates with York bay, and througli that with the ocean, at Sajidy Hook. The sound affords a very safe and convenient inland navi- gation. Pamiico Sor :ci> lies betv/cen the eastern shore of North-Caro- lina, and a chain of sand islands, which stretch along the shore of that state through half its extent. The southern purt of this body of water is commonly designated by this name ; but there is evi- dently nothing which intervt>nes to separate it from the nortliern part. Tal:en in its whole extent, from its northern extremity in Princess Anne county in Virginia, to cape Lookout, it is not less than 200 miles long. Its breadth varies from S to 20 miles. Ocrecoc is the only inlcl that will admit vessels cf burden. There Ss here 14 feet v.ater at lov/ tide. Six miles v^itivin this inlet there is a hard saiid slioal, called the SivasA, lyi»gr '^'^ross the channel. Oil t;iis there h only 9 feet water at full tide. Ships drawing 10 ^feet water lind ^ood anchorage between the inlet and the sound OF AMERICA. 109 There are bars at the mouths of all these uilets, which arc perpet- ually shifting their places. Pamlico sound receives the waters of Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico, and Neus rivers. Albemarle Sound puts up from Pamlico, into North-Carolina, a distance of 60 miles. It is from 8 to 12 miles broad. It is the estuary of the rivers Roanoke and Chowan- Capes. The raost noted capes in the United Stales are capo Anne, cape Cod, cape Malabar, Montauk Point, Sandy Hook, cape May, cape Henlopcn, cape Charles, cape Henry, cape Hattcras, cape Lookout, and cape Fear. Rivers. The northern and western frontiers, the St. Lawrence, and the Missisippi, have already been described. The largest river nvifhin the UPiited Stales is the Ohio. It first receives this name at Pittsburg-, at the junction of the Allegany and Monongahela. The Allegany heads in the Allegany moun- tains in Pennsylvania., near the sources of the Gencssee and Tyoga. Its whole length is not less than 400 miles. It is navigable for a distance of 200 miles from Pittsburg. The Monongahela rises in Virginia, west of the Laurel range, near the head waters of the Poiowmac and the Greenbriar. Its whole length is about 300 miles, and it is a smaller stream than the Aiiegany. They imite, as has been already mentioned at Pittsl)urg, and forn\ th« Ohio. The Ohio is a most beautiful river. Us current is gentle ; its waters are clear; and its surface, with scarcely an exception, unbroken by rocks or rapids. Its v>'idth at Pittsburg is 440 yards. Its average width through the whole course is about 600 yards. Its length, as measured according to its various meanders, is 1033 miles. It affords, in the spring, 30 or 40 feet water to Louisviiio 401 miles from its mouth ; and a sufficiency at ail times for boats to Pittsburg. The only serious obstruction in the river is the rap- ids at Louisville, in lat 38 8. The whole descent at these rapids, in the summer is 22 feet. It is proposed to canal these falls. The Illinois is considerably longer and larger than the Wabash. It rises in tiic N. E. part of Indiana territory S. E. of lake Michi- gan, flows through a very pleasant, fertile country, and falls into the Missisippi, 20 miles above the junction of tiiai river with thtt Missouri, and 204 miles above the Oliio.* Its current throiiglwut is gentle, and it is navigable 450 miles. It is 400 yards wide at its mouth. t The great branches of the Ohioare the Wabash, the Cumberland, and Tennessee. The Tennessee is formed by the confluence of two branches, the northern and southern. The northern rises in the western mountains of Virginia, in lat. 37°. It is called the Holston. It runs about 340 miles before the confluence, and is navigable for boats 240, to Long Island. The southern branch, called tl.e Ten- nessee, rises in the northern mountains of Georgia, and after run- ning about the same distance, unites with the Holston, 30 miles below Kuoxville. The united stream pursues a west course 40 • ScbulU!, lib 29i 4?, t Idem, 42» UQ UNITED STATES miles, and receives the Clinch from the north ; then turning south- vest, in 60 miles it receives the Hivvassee from the south, 66 miles above the Suck or Whirls where the river breaks through the Cum- berland mountain. The river from this place to the Muscle Shoals, a distance of 250 miles, is uniformly smooth and unobstructed, 'i'hese are 20 miles in length. Hence to the mouth, a distance of 250 miles, the river is navigable throughout the year. The Ten- nessee uniies with the Ohio 57 miles from its mouth. Its whole length is 1026 miles. It was called by the French the Cherokee ; and the whole river was formerly called by the Americans the Uolston. Cumberland river, rises in the Cumberland mountains in the S. E. part of Kentucky. From its source to the falls is about 100 miles; and to this place it is navigable for boats. After running 100 miles farther it enters the state of Tennessee, and puisues a S. W. course to Nashville, 200 miles. There turning to the N. W. it runs 200 miles farther, and enters the Ohio, 12 miles above the Tennessee. Is is 300 yards wide at the mouth. It is naviga- ble for large vessels to Obed's river, 90 miles above Nashville. Its whole length is about 600 miles. The Wabash, a northern branch of the Ohio, is a beautiful riv- er v/ith high and fertile banks. Its whole length is from 650 to 700 miles. It is navigable at all seasons for boats drawing 3 feet water, 412 miles, to Ouiatanon, a small French settlement on the ■west side of the river, and for large canoes 197 miles farther, to the Miami carrying place, 9 miles from the Miami village. This village stands on the JSIiami of the Lakes ^ which empties into the west end of lake Eric. The communication between Detroit and the Illinois and Oliio countries, is up Miami river, across the car- rying place 9 miles, when the rivers are high, and from 18 to 30, when they are low, and down the Wabash to the Ohio. Tiie inouth of the Wabash is 270 yards wide, and is 146 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. The large Atlantic rivers will be described in their geographic- al order. The Connecticut is the great river of Nevv'-England. Its principal branch rises in New-Hampshire, runs north across the boundary of Canada, and, making a large semicircular bend, turns southward. About 14 miles north of the 45th degree, it is joined by the western branch called Indian river. The course of the Con- necticut is on the v/hole west of south. After crossing the line, it divides the states of Vermont and Nev/-Hampshire, and passes through those of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Its whole length is 410 miles. There are 6 falls hi this river, viz. the Fifteen Mile falls between Littleton and Dalton, in lat. 44 25 ; the falls at Han- over ; Bellows's falls at Walpole, 44 feet ; Miller's falls at Monta- gue, 66 feet ; the falls at South Hadley, about 70 feet, and the falls at Enfield. The river is navigable for vessels drawing 10 feet wa- ter 36 miles to Middietown ; and for small sloops, 50 miles to Hartford. By means of canals it has been rendered passable tor boats to Barnetj at the foot of the Fifteen Mile fallsj about 250 6F AMERICA. 11? miles above Hartford, following the windings of the river. Proba- bly no river of the same extent has more interval land than the Connecticut ; and we believe that none of the Atlantic livers ia the Uniicr. States, except the James, Susquehannah, and the Po- towmar, empty more water into the ocean. The Hudson is principally a long, narrow arm of the sea. It rises m tiie northern part of New-York, between lake Champlaiii and the St. Lawrence. It is a remarkably straight river, and its course is from N. to S. Its length is 230 miles. It is navigable for siiips, 1 oO miles, to Hudson ; and for sloops of 30 tons, 50 miles further, to Albany. The tide in this river flows more than 16(? miles. There are two falls between Albany and fort Edward. They are the only obstructions to the passage of boats for the dis- tance of 50 miles. About 30 miles from the ocean the river divides, and embosoms the island of Manhattan, on which stands the city of N^w-York.. riie Delaware rises in the S. E. part of New-York, near the heaci wat'-rsof .the Si/squehannah, and of the Schoharie, a branch of the Mohawk. It empties, through Delaware bay, into the ocean - and may be considered as terminating about 5 miles below New- castle, in DeiavvLire, or 40 miles below Philadelphia. To tliis last oil)' it is navigable for a 74 gun ship, for sloops 35 miles further to Ti- nton fails, for boats of 8 or 9 tons, 100 miles further. The whole length of the Dciaware, from its source to the bay, is about 300 miles ; and the distance thence to the ocean is 65. The tide rises to the foot of Trenton fails. The SusquEKANNAH rises in lakes Otsego and Otcgo, in New- York, about 20 miles from the Mohawk. It crosses the Pennsyl- vania line three times, and is crooked in every part of its course. Batteaux ascend the Susquehannah to the lakes in which it rises. The Susquehannah empties into the Chesapeak. at Ha.vre des Grace. The distance fiom its source to its mouth is about 40O miles, from its mouth, across Chesapeak bay, to the ocean, 200. Tlie Susquehannah empties more water into the ocean, than any of the Atlantic rivers within the United States. Tiic PoTowMAC, from its source, is the boundary between Ma- ryland and Virginia. It rises near the head waters of the Monon- gahela. The course of the river, from its source to Cumberland, is N. E and its length about 140 miles. Its course thence is S. E. Cutnberland is 188 miles above tide water, and »91 above the citv of Washington. The distance of Washington from the mouth ot th'. Puto'.vmac, in the Chesapeak, is 300 miles. Its width at the. mouth IS 7^ miles, and li at yViexandria. James river, in Virginia, rises at no great distance from the head waters of the Potowmac, the Mouongahela, and t!ie Green- briar, a oranch of the Great Kaniiawa. For about 80 miles it runs S. W. parallel with the Allegany range. It then turns and pui- snes a course a little S. of E, till it falls into the southern extremi- ty ot" Chesapeak bay. This is the seconil of the Ailantic rivers, and naturally tne most navigable of n!j. A 40 gun ship can go ujk to Jamestown ; vessels of 250 tons to Warwick ; and those »f 125 il'2 UNITED STATES tons to Rockets, a mile below Richmond. Thence there is 7 feet water to the town. The Roanoke is fon-ned hy two branches, the Staunton and the Dan. Both rise in the Allegany range, the former in Virginia, the latter in North-Carolina, a small distance Ironi the Virginia line. They unite a few miles from that line in Virginia, and forming the Roanoke pursue a southeasterly course to Albemarle sound. It is navigable only for siiallops, and for these not more than 60 or 70 miles, on account of the falls in the back country. The sources of the Pedee are in the Allegany range, at no great distance from those of the Kanhawa and Tennessee. Its course is S. E. It is called the Yadkin from its source to the mouth of the Uwharre, a few miles below the narrows ; and the Pedee thence to the ocean. It is navigable for sloops of 70 tons, about 130 miles, to Greenville, and for smaller boats to Chatham, 20 miles higher. The Santee is larger and longer than the Pedee. Their sources are in the same range, at a small distance apart. It is called the Cataioba in Nortli-Carolina, and tl'.e Santee in South- Carolina. It is navigable for sloops of 70 tons to Camden, 140 miles. The Santee runs aboui 240 miics in Soutli-Carolina. It empties into Winyaw bay 12 miles below Georgetown. Its course is S. E. It is connected by a canal with Cooper river, which emp- ties into Charleston harbor. The Savannah is somewhat longer than the Santee. It is form- ed by the confluence of the Keowee and the Tuguio, both of vihich rise in the Allegany range, near the North-Carolina line. The course of the Savannah is S. E. It is navigable for large vessels to Savannah, 17 miles from the ocean, and for boats of 100 feet keel to Augusta, which, by water is 340 miles above Savannah, (127 by land.) The whole length of the Savannah is probably from 430 to 470 miles. The Alatamaha rises near the Savannah, in the same range of mountains. It is formed by tiie waters of the Okmulgee and the Oconee. The whole length of the Alatamaha is aI>out 500 miles. These are all the large rivers of tiie United States, which fall directly into the Atlantic. There are two others, tlie Apaliehico- ia, and the Mobille, which empty into the gulf of Mexico. The Apalachicola rises in the northern part of Georgia. Fov a considerable part of its course, it serves as a boundary between Georgia and tl.e Missisippi territory ; afterwards, for a small dis- tance, between Georgia and West Florida ; and, south of Flint' river, between West Florida and East Florida. This river is lon- ger than the Alatamalia. It is navigable for boats and gallies some distance higher than lat. Sl°N. Little, however, is known re- specting it. The iSlojjiLLE, 40 miles from its mouth, branches into the Ali- bama and tiic Tombigbee. These rivers are each about 400 miles in length. The Alibama rises in Georgia, near the Hiwasse, a branch of the Tennessee ; its course is S. W. The Tombigbee rises in the northern part of the Missisippi territory, near t!je sources cf the Yazco, It is navigable, for schooners, about 60 or 80 miles ; OF AMERICA. HS and, for boats, it is said to be passable nearly its whole lenc^th. Its' course is a little E. of S. The Mobiile, after tlie junction, runs S. 40 miles, and empties into Mobiile buy, and ilirough that, into the gulf of Mexico. The smaller rivers v/ill be described in our account of the sep- arate stales. Lakes. In our account of America we described the lake of the Woods, Rainy lake, lakes Superior, Michi;^an, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario. All these, except Michii^an, are half in Upper Canada, and half in the United States. Michigan lies wholly within the United States. Lake Champlain lies between the states of Vermont and New- York. From Skeensborough, at the southern extremity, to lat. 45°y it is 100 miles long. Its breadth varies from 1 to 25 miles. In lat. 45° it narrows to a river, called tlie Sorellc, which after a course of 100 miles falls into the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Quebec. i^iwarAfm. These are not very numerous, and are principally found in the southern states. Okefonoke is a large swamp in the southeast extremity of Georgia Dismal. This is a large swamp in the eastern part of Virginia and North-Carolina. It occupies a surface of about 150,000 acres, generally covered with trees ; in the moist parts with juniper and cypress ; and in those th-at are drier with white and red oak, and several species of pines. These forests abound with bears, wolves, and deer; and, unlike most of the southern forests, are tilled with underbrush. The Chesapeak and Albemarle canal passes through it; and is fed by a lake in the swamp, called lake Diummond, whicii is 15 miles in circumference, and 6 feet higher than the wa- ter of the canal. The southern part of the swamp proves excel- lent rice land ; and is, at the same time, said to be healthy. Alligator. This, also, is in tiie eastern part of North-Caroli- na, in CuiTituc county, south of Albemarle sound. Near the cen- tre it contains a large lake ; the waters of whicli are conducted by an artificial canal to the Skuppernong. The object cf this canal was to drain the swamp, and a large number of acres round the lake have thus been converted into an excellent rice plantation. It is very large ; but we are unable to form aviy exact estimate of its extent. Mountains. The principal chain of mountains in the United States, is the Apalachian. It consists of two principal ranges, and i';s w''ole breadth may be estimated at 1 LO miles. The western, or Allegany, preserves a distance of from 250 to 300 miles from the coast. Its southern extremity is near the great bend ot the Teuessee, where it is called the Cumberland moun- tains. It pursues a northeasterly course through Virginia, and a part of Pennsylvania, to the sources of the Susquehannah, where it assumes a more easterly direction, till it teiminates. uiicier the name of the Catskili mountain, within 5 miles of the Hudson. The Catskill mountain is the highest in the ran;j,c and is the only high !14r UNITED STATES mountain in it north of Virejinia. The range in Virginia and Ten- nessee is considerably elevated. The eastern or Blue ridge is narrower than the western, and parallel with it. Its northern extremity is the hii;hlands at West Point. In its southwest course it traverses under various names, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. 0n the borders of North-Carolina it is joined by a spur from the Avestern range, and thence to its southern extremity, 60 miles- south of the northern line of Georgia, becomes the principal mou.n- tain. Between these two ranges lies the fertile limestone -vaalley, which, although occasionally interrupted by transversal ridges, and in one place by the dividing or Allegany ridge, may yet be traced from' Newburgh and Esopus, on the Hudson, to Knoxville en the Ten- Hcssee. In Virginia, east of the Blue ridge and parallel with it, is a lov/ j^ange called the South mountains ; and west of the Allegany range is another, called the Laurel mountains. These are short com- pared with the other, and of so moderate a height, that they only serve to break the descent from the two principal ranges, to the country below them. The mountains of New-England are either long ranges, or sep» arate summits. The western or Taghconntuc range, begins at Ridgefield, in the county of Fairfield, in Connecticut, 12 miles from Long Island sound, and passing through the counties of Litchfield and Berkshire, may be said to unite v/ith the Green mountains at Williamstown, in Massachusetts, being there separated only by the iiarrow valley of Hoosac river. The highest summit in this range is- Taghconnuc mountain, in Egremont, in the southwest corner of Massachusetts It is probably upwards of 3000 feet high. The CiRKEN mountain range begins at New-Haven, two miles- from the sound, in a noble bluff called JVest Rock, and extends thence to the Canada line ; sloping, however, with a gradtial de- clension in the northern parts of Vermont, and in Canadabecoming merely a collection of small hills The two highest summits of this range are the Camel's Rump, and the mountain of Mansfield, both in the county of Chittenden, in Vermont, and both probably up- wards of 5000 feet high. The Mount Tom range commences also at New-Haven, at another precipice called East Rock, two miles from the sound ; and passing through the counties of New-FIaven, Hartford, and Hampsliire, extends into Canada through tiie whole length of the state of Ntw-Hampshire. Connecticut river breaks through this 3*ange below Northampton, in Massachusetts. Ti.e Blue hills in Southington, Connecticut ; Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke in the vicinity of Northampton and Hadley ; and Mount Toby in Sun- derland, are the principal su)nmits. The Lyme range begins at Lyme near the mouth of Connecticut river, and unites with the Mount Tom range after it has crossed t^iat river in the county of Hampshire It hiis no remarkable sum- mita, and never rises to any considerable height OF AMERICA. 115 The White mountains in New-Hampshire are a round clump with numerous summits, loosely connected with the Mount Tom range, which passes somewhat webtof them. Mount VVuMn'^toyi^ the highest of these summits, is said to be more than 11, (.'00 feet uhove the level of the ocean, and far higher than any other land in the United States. It is covered a great pait of the ytar with siiow, and in this situation is seen 90 miles ai sea, and 160 from its b-.ise. The Pondiclurry mountains, a shori but lotty spur from the W'lite mountains on the northwest, may be considered as connect- int-; tliem with tne Mount Tom range. T ere is a characteristic difference between the mountains of JSTtw -England, and the Apalachian ranges. The former j-un par- aiki with the great rivers of the country and perptndicuiarly to thi- loast. Tlie latter run parallel with the coast, and transverse- ly to the courses of the rivers. Zoology. America contains at least one half, and the United Spates, about one fourth of the quadrupeds of the known worid. Si)nie of them are common to both continents ; others are peculiar to the western. Comparing individuals of the same species, in the two contintnts, some arc perfectly similar; between others there is some difference jn size, color, or other circumstances ; in a few instances the animal of the eastern contment is larger than the Anierican; in most the reverse is the case. The following is u catalogue of the cjiuadrupeds in the Uniied States.* Mammoth * Sallow Cougar* Woodcbuclc * American Rat * Bison * Grey Cougar Urchin * Slirew Mouse * Muose * Mountain Cat * Hare * Purple Mole * Caribou * Lynx * Racoon * B.dck Mole * Red Deer * Kincajou * Fox Squirrel * Water Rat * Fallow Deer * Weasel * Grey Squirrel * Beaver * Roe * Ermine * Red Squirrel * Musquasls * Bear * Martin * Striped Squir.* Morse * Wolverene * Mink * Flyhig Squir. * Seal * Wolf * Otter * Field Mouse Maniti * Fox * Fisher Bat Sapajou '■* Catamount * Skunk * Ground Mouse Sagoin * Spotted Tygcr* Opossum * Wood Rat A description of these animals may be found in the American Universal Geography. N. B. Those animals to which an asterism (*) is prefixed, are fur animals, whose skins are sometimes dressed in alum, with the hair on, and worn in dress ; or wliose fur or soft hair is used for various manufactural purposes. The fallow deer, grey fox, martin, otter, opossum, woodchuck, bare, some of the squirrels, and the beaver, have been tamed. Probably most of these and some others might be perfectly do- * The author is indebted to Dr. Fisher, of Beverly, for a great part of this uticle. il6 UNITED STATES mesiicated. It has been observed of our wild animals in general, that they are not of so savatje a nature as those in Europe. Birds. The linnts of this abridgement forbid even an enumera- tion of the names of the birds f'f the United States. The birds of America, says Catcsby, generally exceed those of Europe in the beauty of their plumage, but are much inferior to them in the melody of their notes. The middle states, including Virginia, appear to be the climates, in North- America, where the greatest numl)er and variety of birds of passage celebrate tlieir nuptials and rea^' tiieir offspring, with ■which they annually return to more southern regions. Most of our birds are birds of passage from the southward. The eagle, the pheasant, groiis, and partiid!:;e of Pennsylvania, several species of Vv'ood peckers and crows, blut^ jay, robin, marsh hen, several spe- cies of sparrows or snow birds, and the swallow, are perhaps near- ly all the land birds that continue the year round to the north of Virginia. Very few tribes of birds build or rear their young in the south or maritime parts of Virginia, in Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; yet all those numerous tribes, particularly of the soft billed kind, •which breed in Peiuisylvania, pass, in the spring season, through these regions in a fcv/ w^cks time, ntaking but very short stages by the way ; and again, but few of them winter there on their re- turn southwardly. It is not known how far to the south they continue their rout dur- ing their absence from the noithern and middle states. Mineralogy. Iron exists in great abundance throughout the United States. Lead mines are wrought in various places, partic- ularly in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Zinc and inangancae are found in New-York. Copper miiics have been discovered in Khode Island, New-Yoik, and New-Jersey ; and very extensive and rich ones on the southern shore of lake Erie. Native cjuickdlver is fouiid near Reading, in Pennsylvania. A silver mine exists in New-York. Gold has been found in North-Carolina. Coal is found in the greatest abundance on James river, in Vir- ginia, and in great quantities, also, in Rhode Island, New-York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Native snlfihur exists in very great quantities in New-York, Marble is very abundant in Massachu- setts, Connt'Cticut, and New-York. Gy/isu?n, alian, and asbestoq^ are iound in various places. An extensive mine o^ ijel/oiv ochre has lately been discovered in Connecticut ; as has likewise a large jnass o! pure siliceous cai th, filttd to make the best of porcelain. Mimrul Springs. The most noted of these are Bailstown and New-Lebt'non springs, in tl e state of New-York ; Hot springs and Sweet ^prin^s in Virginia, and Stafford springs in Connecticut. The salt springs of Ononda.^o iii New-York, i!\e Wabash saline, and the salt sjirings on the Great Kanl.awa, will, together with these, [:>e particularly described h( reafter. J^aniral Curiosities. Probably no other country presents so in- teresting an o!)ji ct to t'le eye of curiosity as the falls of Niagara. They are situated in that part of the St. Lawrence, which runs be- OF AMERICA 117 tween lakes Erie and Ontario, and is called Niagara river, 21 miles from tlit fomi*. r and 15 from the latter. The St. Lawrence is pro- bably suipasbtil by no river, but the Amazon, m its annual tribute to the ocean, its size is never swollen in the sprinjj, nor sinuuk in the autumn. Its width, at the lerry, 2 niiies from lake Erie, is about 1 mile, its average depth 25 feet, and its ave!ai;c rapiciiiy froui thence to Chipeway, 6 miles an hour. At the hrvy it is n.uch greater. The bed of the river from lake Erie to Queenstown, 7 miles below the falls, is a mass of solid liniestone rock- Above Cliipeway there is no appearance of a rapid. Still the ripple on the surface, and the constant rise in the height ef the bank, evince a very uncommon descent in the level of the river. About 1^ mile above the principal fall the surface is broken by a s^reai juim- ber of shelves or ledges of rocks, which extend in an irregular suc- cession down to the cataract, and reach, many of them, ahiiost across the river. These shelves are nearly paiallel, and the river where they conmience is about 3 miles wide. Its waters instantly become convulsed, and its surface broken by numberless hillocks of foam, assuming every variety in their figure and dimensions. The force exerted by the waters, as they roll over these ledges of rocks, gives a grandeur to the scene, which nothing but the cata- ract below can rival. The whole descent in these rapids is 57 feet. Immediately above the falls the river turns to tiie N. \V. and is instantly contracted to a quarter of its previous wicitli. 'I'liis contraction gives a degree of impetuosity and violence to the cur^ rent, hardly surpassed when it is falling fiom the precipice. The water is precipitated over an immense mass of limestone rock, which forms the bed of the river. The width of the river, iu a straight line at the falls, is^ of a mUe. But as its principal forco is exerted in the centre, the brow of the precipice has been worn into the shape of a horse shoe, and its whole wiiiding widtli is not less than a mile and a half. This distance is divided by a small ■woody island, called Goat island, near the American side, which divides the cataract into two. The elevation of this island above the surface of the stream, is not very great, but it presents, towaids the N. W. a bold, perpendicular front of bure solid rock, the whole height of the cataract. The width of the fall between Goat island, and the American side, is about one fifth of the whole, and that of the island itself another fifth ; although the quantity of water on the British side is probably ten times as great as on the other. The Table Rock is a part of the Canada bank, which is on the margin of the great sheet of falling water. It furnislies altogether the most interesting view of the falls. The eye looking up the river beholds it tumbling with strange magnificence over the ledges of rocks, which, seen from this place, appear close together, and appear to cor.stitute a single broken cataract. The immense jnass of waters, greatly increased in their rapidity by this descent, and perhaps still more by the contraction of the river, rolls with an almost instantaneous motion to the brow of the precipice, and shoots many yards beyond, as it falls over it into the abyss below. The depth of \he precipice, the roar of the cataract, the mass of il8 VERMONT. the waters, and above all the inconceivable exertion of power, ove?- "whelm the mind with emotions of sublimity and grandeur ; and fill it with new and clearer views of the weakness and littleness of roan. From the surface of the stream beneath, there arises a thick and constant cloud of vapor, which mounts above the precipice, to the height of more than 100 feet In clear weather three primary rainbows are frequently visible at once in various parts of this cloud. These, when the sun is near the horizon, appear complete semi- circles, and are often of singular lustre and beauty. Beneath the fall lies a thick mass of foam, which, for a great extent, covers the surface of the water. The whole perpendicular descent is 152 feet. The depth of the river, beneath ihe fall, is probably far greater, for the tallest trees, descending perpendicularly, are lost for several minutes beneath the water before they reappear. The banks of the river below are on both sides perpendicular, of solid rock, and of the same height with the fail. They continue of this height 7 miles to Queenstown. Here tlie cataract is supposed to Jiave commenced after the deluge, and from this place to have worn its way backward to its present spot. No one who examines the ground will doubt for a moment that this has been the case ; and those who have lived for 20 years on the bank all attest to this retrograde motion. These falls arc in lat. 43° N. The individual states and territories will next be described ki iheir order, as they lie from north to south, beginning with VERMONT^ Extent. VERMONT lies between lat. 42 44 and 45" N. and between long. 71 33 and 73 26 W. The whole north end is on ihe parallel of 45°. Its mean length is i 57| miles. Its breadth «n the Canada line 90, and on the Massaciuisetts 40. The aver- age breadth is 65 ; the number of square miles is 10,237, and of acres, 6,552,000. Bou7idaries. North by Lov/er Canada ; east by Connecticut river, which divides it from Nf.w-Hampshire ; south by Massa- chusetts ; west by New- York and the deepest channel of Poultney liver, East bay, and lake Champlain. JDivisions. Vermont is divided into 12* counties, and 246 towns. The counties are arranged as follows beginning from the S. E. * A new county, making the 13th, by the name of Jefferson, was formed at the session of the legislature in 1810, of part of the counties of Chittenden, Caledonia, and Orange, of which Montpelier is the centre; which is to be or- ganized when there are erected a court house and gaol, approved by the judges pf the fupreme cobrt. VERMONT. l\9 Counties. Towns. Population. 1800 1810 Windham 23 23,531 26,760 m 5-< ■^ . Windsor Orange Caledonia Essex Orleans Franklin Grand Isle Chittenden Addison •^ ' Rutland U3 I L Bennington 23 26,969 31,837 21 18,239 25,247 22 9,332 18,730 19 1,479 3,087 23 1,439 5,830 19 7,573 16,427 5 2,489 3,445 23 11,490 18,120 23 13,417 19,993 27 23,834 29,486 18 14,607 15,893 Chief towns, sq. miles in each CO. r Westminster ■< Brattleborough (^ Newlane f Windsor \ Woodstock Chelsea C Danville I Pcacham Guildhall C Craftsbury I Brovv'nington St. Albans North Hero Burlington C Middlebury I Verge nnes Rutland C Bennington I Manchester 736 898 745 771 685 832 729- 82 804 715 65S 611 Total 12 246 154,449 217,895 87 16- JVame. Vermont is merely verd mont, the French for green mountain. It is said that Ethan Allen conferred the name on the mountains, and thence it was transferred to the territory. Historical Epochs. Vermont was originally possessed by the Coos Indians, and other tribes of Moheakannnews. Massachusetts first claimed the territory. In 1718 that government gave 49,000 acres in the S. E. part of the state, to Connecticut, for some land which had been granted by INIassachusetts within the limits of the Connecticut charter. In 1725 a fort was erected at Brattlebo- rough. From 1741 till 1764, Vermont was considered as belong- ing to the jurisdiction of Nevv-Kampshirc, and, in 1760, a number of towns were settled. In 1764 parliament annexed Vermont to New-York. The government of that province claimed the right of soil, and dispos!;d of lands which had been granted by New- Hampshire, and settled by the grantees. This occasioned a long and violent dispute between the settlers and the claimants under NfJW-York. In 1790, New-York, for 30,000 dollars, v/ithdrew its chtims ; and, in 1791, V;>r;noni was admitted a member of the union. The Green Mountain Boys were soaie of the best troops, in tljC revolutionary war.* Religion. There are 89 Congregational chm-ches in Vermont^ 2 Presbyterian, 23 Baptist, 2 Episcopalian, 1 Univcrsalist, and I Fiiends. Go-vermnent. By the constitution, the supreme legislative pow- ♦The history of this state has been well written by Samuel 'Williams, LL. I?l- 5»ublished in HS-ijand a new edition iu 1310. iSO VERMONT; er is vested in a house of representatives of the freemen of the" state of Vermont, to be chosen annually on the first Tuesday in Sep- tember, and to meet the second Thursday of the succeeding Octo- ber: this bfxly is vested with all the powers necessary for the le- gislature of a free state — two thirds of the whole number of repre- ^5entalives elected make a quorum. Each inh-.ibited town throus^hout the state has a right to send one representative to the assembly. The supreme executive power is vested in a governor, lieuten- ant governor, and twelve counsellors, chosen annually. Every person of the age of 21 years, wfo has resided in the state one wiiole year next before the election of representatives, is enti- tled to all the privileges of a freeman of this state. Each member of the house of representatives, before he takes his seat must declare his belief in one God — in future rewards and punishments, and in the divinity of the scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, and must profess the Protestant religion. Courts of justice are to be established in every county through- out this state. Population The number of inhabitants was in the year ir90$^^';J^^V"r^5,589 1810 52'7''^f^;^hif J 217,895 I 271 blacks 5 C 750 blacks ^ lonn S 153,908 whites) 1800 < ' ,„ 1 I I r 154,455 \ 557 blacks 5 The increase, in the first 10 years, was 68,860 ; and in the se- cond 10, 6:>,445. At the first census Vermont was the IJth state in point of population ; at the second, the 13th ; and, at the third, the 13th. Milicia. In 1796 there were, on the militia rolls 19,500 men- These were formed into 4 divisions, consisting of 8 brigades and 22 regiments. The increase since may be estimated according to the increase of the inhabitants. By the constitution of the state the governor is captain general of all the forces of the state ; and the lieutenant governor, lieutenant general. Subordinate to these is one major general to eac!i of tlie four divisions, and one brigadier general to each of the eiglit brigades, chosen by the legislature. Revenue. The revenue of this state arises from rates and taxes granted from time to time by the legislature, and assessed in pro- ])ortion to the polls and rateal)le estate. The law determines what is taxable estate, and fixes the value at whicii it shall be taxed. All persons liable to be taxed are required" to deliver to the listers* annually in July, a correct list of all their taxable property. Character. The inliabitants of this state are an assemj^lage of pcc»plc from various places, of different sentiments, manners, and habits ; tliey have not lived tOij,ether long enough to assimilate and form a gcr.eral character. Assemble together^ in imagination, a. number of individuals of different nations; consider them as liv- ing together amicably, and assisting each other through the toils and difficulties of life, and yet rigorously opposed in particular re- ligious and political tenets ; jealous of their rulers, and tenacious of their liberties, (dispostions which originate naturally from the VERMONT, 121 itread of experienced oppression and the habit of living under a free governmcni) and you liave a pretty just idea of the cixaracter of the people of Vermont. The inhabitants of the several towns seem generally disposed, as soon as they are able, to settle a minister of the gospel among them. Missionaries from Connecticut and Massaciiusetts, to the new and scattered settlements, have been generally well received and treated with gratelul respect and kindness. JLitcratwe. Vermont has two colleges. One is at Burlington> established in 1791, and has been liberally patronised by the state, and styled a university, but as yet has had few students. The oth- er is at Middlebury, supported chiefly by private bounty, and is a flourishing seminary. It was founded in 1800, and has 120 stu- dents. One or more academies are established in most of the coun- ties in the state ; and grammar schools ia every counf.y. The land reserved for a university amounts to about 33,000 acres, and for grammar schools about the same. Common schools are establish- ed in every town. The land reserved for these exceeds 80,000 acres. Tonvns. Bennington, one of the oldest towns in Vermont, was settled in 1764. It is in the S. W. part of the state. The public edifices are a Congregational church, a court house, and a gaol. The population in 1810 was 2524. Windsor is a beautiful village, about 45 miles from the Massa- chusetts line, on the banks of the Connecticut. The houses are very neat and handsome, and the trade is flourishing. The bridge thrown here across the Connecticut is one of the handsomest oa the river. Population in 1790, 1542 ; in 1800, 221 1 ; and in 1810^ 2757. Ascutney is a fine summit on the S. W. part of the town, 2051 feet above the sea, and 1732 ai)ove the river. Rutland lies upon Otter creek, in the western part of the state, 16 miles east of the south end of lake Champlain. it has a Congre- gational church and a court house. Population in 1790, 1407; in 1800, 2125 ; and in 1810, 2379. Middlebury is a pleasant village on the east bank of Otter creek, 20 miles from its mouth. It contains a Congregational church, 2 collegiate buildings, a court house and gaol, a considerable brew- ery, a gun and card manufactory, a forge, a printing oflicc and bookstore, 3 grist mills and 4 saw mills. Population in 1790, 395 j in 1800, 1263; and in 1810,2138. Burlington stands on a most beautiful harbor on lake Champlain, on elevated ground, commanding a noble view of the lake and the adjacent country. The prospect from the top of the college iivy*.' surpassed by none in New-England, except that from Mount Ho.-, lyoke, and that from the dome of the statehouse in Boston. Pop- ulation in 1810, 1690. Moiiipolier, a little north of the centre of the state, is the seat of gov«'Vi:m( nt. Manufactures. There are several distilleries for corn spirits in this state. At Middlebury is a porter brewery on a very large scale. The iron niannfaciure is carried on to a considerable ex- i25^ , VERMONT. tient in the counties of Bennington, Rutland, Addison, aiid Chitten=» den. In common seasons, larp;e quantities of maple sugar are man- ufaciured for home consumption. It has been estimated, by a competent judge, that fi;e average quantity made for every faiiiily back of Connecticut river, is 200ib a year. Most families manu- facture, in their houses, the greater part of their common clothing, from flax and wool raised on theiV own farms, of an excellent qual- ity. Bank-. There is but one bank in this state, called the Vermont State Bunk, established in 1806, wholly the property of tlie state*- It consists of four branches, at Burlington, Middlebury, Wood- stock, and Westminster. It is under the management of 13 direct- ors, appointed annually by the legislature. Commerce. The inhabitants in the S. E. part of the state trade ■with Hartford and Boston ; in the middle with Boston ; and in the N. E. with Portland ; in tlie S. W. with New-York ; and in the N. W. with New-York and Montreal. This last has been especial- ly true since the interruptions of American commerce. Burling- ton, on lake Champlain, is the only port of entry. The exports in 1810 amcmited to 432,631 dollars. They consist chiefly of lum- ber, horses, beef, pork, butter, cheese, wheat, flour, iron, nails, pot and pearl ashes. The imports cannot be fairly estimated, as they are principally sent through other slates. ♦ Climate. The winter is cold but (the sky is usually) serene and the weather uniform. Snow lies commonly about four months, from December to March ; and, on the highlands, falls four feet j Ric'dord, pursues ibe saiue course to Micid^coui bay. It is 75 miles long, and is navitjabie to the falls in SwaiUoi.-, 7. inilos. Tiie Lamoille proceeds frcn a poiici m Glover, and runs N. oi W. about 75 miles, to lake Cliampiam ; wliicn it enters in the north part of Colchester, it receives 14 tributaries, and is a fine, sniootii, and pleasant stream, running through a rich, level, and fer-- tile country. Onion river, formerly called French and Winooski river, rises in Cabot, 14 miles W. of the Connecticut, and runs S. W. 20 miles; and then N. VV. 60, to lake Champlain. It has 14 tributaries, and is navigalile 5 miles. Its course is through a mountainous, but very fertile country. In Colchester, 6 miles from its mouth, the channel for 15 rods is through solid rock, 50 feet wide and 70 deep. In Waterbuiy, 30 miles higher, there is a similar passage, but the channel is much narrower, and a huge mass has rolled down from the ledge, and formed a complete natural bridge. The mouth of Onion river is 5 miles south of the Lamoille, and 3 north of Bur- lington bay. Otter Creek rises in Peru, 30 feet only from the source of the Battenkill, which takes an opposite direction ; and, running W. of N. 90 miles, falls into the lake at Ferrisburg, receiving in its course J 5 tributaries. There are useful falls at Rutland, Pit'sford, Mid- dlebury, and Vergennes. To the last, vessels of considerable bur- den may come up 6 miles from the mouth. Between the falls the current is very slow, the water deep, and navigable for the largest boats. Lakes. Lake Champlain has been described. It contains about 600 square miles,* more than two thirds of which are in Vermont. Lake Memphremagog lies chiefly in Lower Canada. It is 40 miles long, but only 7 or 8 miles ol the south ehd are in this state, covering 15 square miles. Its chief tributaries in Vermont are i^iyde, Barton, and Black rivers. * Hutchine estimates its contests st 50C,P00 acrc^ 124 NEW-HAMPSHIRE. Mineralogy, Iron mines abound on the west side of the moun- tain. They are worked at Tinmouth, Shaftesbury, Rutland, Shore-s ham, Monkton, and Mihon. Several others liave been discovered. A lead mine, wilh a very rich orC; has been found in Sunderland. Rich pyrites is found in Shrewsbury. In Rutland there is a fine vein of pipe clay. Marble is found in almost every town from Ben- nington to the Michiscoui. In Bennington, a quarry has been o- pened, which has peculiar fineness and beauty. NEW-HAMPSHIRE. Extent. NEW-HAMPSHIRE lies between lat. 42 41 and 45 UN. and between Ion. 70 40 and 7-2. 28 W. It is 168 miles long, from north to south. Its greatest breadth is 90 miles ; in lat. 44° it is 55 miles, and at tht- northtin extremity but 19. It contains 9,491 square miles, or 6,074,240 acres. Boundaries. N. by Lower Canada ; E. by Maine, and the At- lantic ; S. by Massachusetts ; and W^. by the west bank of the Connecticut ; no part of that river is within the jurisdiction of Ver- mont. The extent of sea coast is 18 miles. Divisions. This state is divided into six counties, viz. Counties. No. of towns. Population. Chief towns. No. ofinh. in 1810. 3,991 Coos Grafton Cheshire Hillsborough Rockingham StrafTord 24 35 35 42 46 31 28,463 40,988 49,249 50,175 41,595 Lancaster 5 Hciveihill ^ Hanover C Charleston \ Keene Amherst Exeter Portsmouth Concord C Dover \ Durham r 717 1,105 937 1,501 1,646 1,554 1,759 6,934 2,393 2,228 1,449 Total 213 214,460 JK^ame. This territory received the name of J^e w- Ham fj shire from Capt. Mason, the original patentee. (In the earliest grant, made to Mason and Gorge s in 1 622, it is, however, styled Laconia.) In the histories of Indian wars it is also called Cafitain Mason's Patent, and fi.scataquay trom its principal river. Hutory. Ti.is tract of country was discovered in 1 614, by Capt. Jolin Snath. The first sttilement was made at the mouth of the Pistutanua, on the south bank, and also 8 miles farther up, at what is now Dover, in 1623. Ti e towns governed themselves, till 1641, ■when thty were taken under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. In 1675, occuned the first Indian war, tailed PI ilip's war; which p« rvaded thx- whole of New-England. In September, 1679, New- Hampshire was separated from Massachusetts, and made a royal NEW-HAMPSHIRE. Uj government. In 1689 occurred the second Indian war, called king William's war ; in 1703, the third, culled queen Anne's war, in which the Indians were assisted by the Canadian French ; in 1723, the fourth, called the Three Years' or Lovell's war ; and, in 1754, the filth and last, which terminated in 17 60, in the reduclion of Canada In 1775, New-Hampshire, in common with the otiicr stales, ceased to be a royal provmce, and the same year a teiiipo- rary constitution was formed lor its i^overnmenu The present con- stitution was a.i'.recd on in 1785, and went into operation m June, 1784. An insurrection took place in 1786. Tht insurgcnis as- sembled at Exeter and took the legisiaiure prisoners, and held them so several hours. The citizens appearing in arms crushed it in its infancy. Religion. The principal denominations of Christians in thia state, are Congregationaiibts, Presbyceriaus, Episcopalians, Bap- tists, Universalists, anci Quakers. There is a small society o( Sandemanians in Portsmouth, and another of Shakers at Enfield. Government. The executive power is vested in a governor and council. The governor is chosen by the people annually. He must be worth 500/. If there is no choice, the legisiaiure fill the vacancy. The council consists of 5 persons, 2 chosen by the sen- ate, and 3 by the representatives. The legislature are called The General Court. Each branch has a negative on the other. The senate consi&ts of 12 members. A senator must be worth a free- hold of 200/. Each town, containing 150 rateable polls, sends one; representative, and every addition of 500 polls entitles it to another. A representative must be worth 100/. The judiciary is composed of a superior court, having four judges, which makes two circuits annually through the counties ; of an infeiior court in each county, having four judges, and sitting four times a year ; of a court of general sessions in each county, consisting of the justices of the peace, and sitting the same week with the inferior court ; of t^ court of probate in each county, having one judge, and sitting monthly; and of justice's courts. All judges hold their officer during good behaviour. Fofmlalion, The number of inliabitants was, in the year 1749 - - 30,000 1790 - - ' 141,885 1767 - - 52,700 1800 - - 183,858 1775 - - 82,200 1810 - - 214,460 New- Hampshire at the first census, in 1790, was the 10th state in the union, in point of population ; at the second, the 1 1th, and at the third, the 14th. Militia. The number of inhabitants in this state between I 6 and, 45 years of age, according to the last census, is 39,396. This fact will enable any one to form a pretty correct idea of the military strength of this state. The proportion of the actual militia to ilie whole number of m.ales between 16 and 45, in New-England, i;-; about as 10 to 19. The militia of New-Hampshire is organized in ihe same manner as in Massachusetts. Literature, The college of New-Hampshire is in Hanover. It l%5 NEW-HAMPSHIRfe. ■was called Daixtmouth College, from William, carl of Dart- snouth, one of its principal benefactors ; and stands in a plairfj aboufc half a mile cast of Connecticut river. The charter was procured by rev. Dr. Whcelocli, its first president, in 1769. The funds of the college consist chiefly of lands amounting to about 80,000 acres. The revenue of the college arising from this source amounts, at present, to about 1333 dollars a year. This with the tuition makes an income of 3500 dollars. The officers of the college are a presi- dent, who is also professor of civil and ecclesiastical history, a pro- fessor of divinity, a professor of mathematics and natural philoso- phy, a professor of kuiguages, and two tutors. Beside these there is a professor of chemistry, and a professor of medicine, connected •with the medical department. The number of undergraduates is upwards of 170, and 50 in addition, who attend the lectures and in- struction in the medical department. For the medical establish- n^ent an edifice is to be erected this year, at the expense of the state, to be of brick, 75 by 32 feet, and 28 in height. The institu- tion is possessed of a very valuable chemical and medical appara* nus. The library contains about 4000 volumes. Connected with the college is Moore's charity school. There are several academies in the state. That at Exeter, call- ed Phillips's Exeter academy, was incorporated in 1781, and has funds amounting to about g 80,000, and between 60 and 80 students. It is in high reputation. Tiiere arc others at New-Ipswich, At- kinson, Amherst, Charleston, and Concord. Every town is obliged bylaw to have one or more common schools, Toivns. Portsmouth is the largest town in the stale. It stands 2 miles from the mouth of the Piscataqua, on the south bank. The harbor is one of the best on the continent, having a sufficient depth for vessels of any size. Here arc 3 Congregational churches, I Episcopalian, and 1 Univcrsalist ; a state house, a work house, find 2 banks. Population in 1800, 5339 ; and in 1810, 6934. Exeter stands at tbfc head of navigation on the Swamscot, a branch of the Piscataqua, Avhich has ])ei'e sufficient depth for ves- sels of 500 tons. It is well siiiiated for a manufacturing town, and contains 2 Congregational churches, an academy, court house, and gaol. Population in 1810, 1759- Concord is a pleasant, flourishing town, on the west bank of the Mcrriinac, over which there are here two bridges. Much of the trade of tl^.e upper country centres here. The canals and other improven.cnts lately made on the Mcrrimac, which iiave opened a lioat communication between this town and Boston, have increas- ed the imppitance of this place. It will probably become the per- jnancnt seat of government. It has 2393 inhabitants. Ch.arlesion is a pleasant town on Connecticut river, built chiefly on one street, and containing a cliurch, court house, and gaol. In the south part of the town lies a large and beautiful interval. Pop- -ilation nol. The village of Dartmouth in Hanover, is 36 miles above Charles- to!s and stands en an elevated ^hin. It i^ laid out in squares, ar.d NEW-HAMPSHIRE. 12Y is "Weli built, containing a church, academy, college, and chapel, and 2135 inhabitants. Haverhill is at the Lower Coos or Great Oxbow, a singular bend in the Connecticut, forming one of the most delightful intervals in the world. It has two churches, a court house, and 1105 in- habitants. Keene is one of the prettiest towns in New-England, and pleas- antly situated a few miles east of the same river, having a church, court house, gaol, and 1 646 inhabitants. Manufactures. Furnaces and iron works are established in the lownslup of Franconia, in the N. W. part of the state. Near 9fe» looms in the township of Hanover furnish a sample of the effects of the growing spirit of the people for linen and woollen manufac- tures in the western part of the state. The people in the country, generally, manufacture their own clothing and considerable quan- tities for exportation. The other manufactures are pot and pearl ashes, maple sugar, bricks and pottery, and some iron ; the latter not sufficient however, for home consumption, though it might bf5 made an article of exportation. Trade. The chief articles of export are timber of various kinds, dried and pickled fish, whale oil, tar, flax seed, beef, corn, oxen and cows, horses, sheep, bricks, pot and pearl ashes. The amount in 1810, was g 234,650, and in 1798, S ^23,242. This decrease was owing to the restrictions on American commerce. The im- ports consist of West-India rum, gin, molasses, wine, porter, sugars, tea, coffee, cotton, cheese, nails, cordage, salt, sea-coal, steel, lead, and grindstones. About 27 scliooners and 20 boats with 230 men, exclusive of those belonging to the isles of Si.oals, are annually employed in the fisheries. The product of these fisheries, in 1791, was 25,850 quintals. The inhabitants, in the S. W. parts of the state, trade witli Boston ; in the middle and north as far as Haver- hill, with Portsmouth ; and farther north, with Portland. Canals and Turn/iikes. Five canals have been formed on Con- necticut river, 2 of which are within the limits of New-Hampshire. By these the navigation is opened in this fine river for nearly 250 miles from its mouth. A short canal has been formed round Amoskeag falls in the Merrimac, and several others around falls above. Another has been cut through the marshes of Hampton and Salisbury, 8 miles, and meets the Merrimac opposite Newbu- ryport. Six turnpike roads are constructed, intersecting the most important parts of the state, viz. from Walpole to New-Ipswich ; from Windsor to Amherst ; from Concord to Portsmouth ; from Concord, tlirough Londonderry, to Boston ; from Hanover to Bos- cawen, and from Haverliili lo Warr :n. Eight others have beeu formed to facilitate intercuurse in different directions ; and some beside have b.'en undertaken, aiid v/ill soon i>o conipleted. l''ace of tkc Cou7itrij. The snore of New-Humpsliire is chiefly a sandy beaci;, within which are salt marshes intersected by creeks. Only two bluffs appear on the coast, the (ireat and Little Boar's Heads ; both in Hampton. For 20 or 30 miles from the sea the country is either level, or made up of little hills and vallics. Thti?. 128 NEW-HAMPSHIRE. commences the first range of mountains- Beyond thesei are sev^ eral detached mountains ot considerable elevation. Still farther back is another rani^e ; east of the Merrimac, and between" that and the Connecticut is the princip:d range in the state. The moun- tains are ail covered with wood ; tiie higuest only have their tbps bare. Tlie couiVtry on the whole may be called niuuntainous. Soil and .Agriculture. The soil of the state is generahy very I'eniie, and hardly any such thing as a barren is ki own. The in- terval lands on tiie larsj^e rivers yre the richest : ti.ey yield great crops of hay, and from 40 lo 50 Dushels of wheat to the acre ; while the uplaiidb y!>.!«.l 20. Tiit uplands are very rich pasture. Orch- ards are muuipiying and productive. Rivers. Tiie Connecticut, Ameiiscoggin,and Saco, rise in New- Hampshire, and the wesievn bank of the first, is it^ west bovindary. The Merrimac is formed by two braiicncs. 'I ne northern, tlie .Pemigiivaaset, has its sourcs m Moosi hillock, and in a mountain lying between that and the White mountains. In Sanborntown it is joined by the IVmmfiiseogee., the eastern branch, a short stream, ^vhich comes from Winnipiseogee lake, on the N. E. Here the united stream takes the name of Merrimac river; and, after a, course of about 65 miles, in a S. by E. course, and 35 in one N. N. E. falls into the sea at Newbury port. Its piincipal tributaries from the west are Blackwater, Comoocook, Piscataquoag, Souhe- gan, and Kashua ; from the east, Suncook and Beaver. Hookset falls in the Merrimac are 8 miles below Concord, which have been lately canalled. The river falls 15 feet in 30 rods. Eight miles lower dow'n is Amoskeag fall, which consists of three large pitch- es, in half a mile ; in all 80 feet, which have also been canaJlecL It has another fall called Patucket falls in Massachusetts, which have experienced the same improvement. The Contoocook, the chief tributary of the Merrimac, rises in Massachusetts, and ruiis N. N. E. 60 or 70 miles, eniptying a lit- tle above Concord. The Piscataqua heads in a pond in the N. E. corner of Wake- field, and pursues a S. S. E. course to the sea, forming the boun- dary between Maine and New-Han;ps!ure. From its head to the falls ui Berwick It is called Salmunjutl river ; and thence to the Cociieeho, the JVi-ivicliatvannoc. Its whole length is about 50 miles. Six miles above Porlsmouih, a bridge was built over the Piscata- qua in 1794. it is 2600 feet long, and is built chiefly on piles. The remainder is a stupendous arch, with a cliord of 244 feet, over vater 46 feet deep. It cost 68,000 dollars. Ujijier Aramonoositc rises oii the north side of the While moun- tains, and rims N. N. E about 15 miles, where there is a carrying place of 3 miles, to the Ameriscoggin. It then turns west, and j'uns 2u miles to the Connecticut, emptying at Northumberland. I.onvcr or Greai Animonoo.'iuc heads on the west side of the White mountains, a few rods from tlie source of the Saco, and pursues a southwesterly course of 40 miles, to the Connecticut, emptying between Bath and Haverhill, where it is IOC yards wide. Ashue- NEW-HAMPSHIRE. 129 lol river heads in Sunapee mountain, and runs S. S. W. to the Con- necticut, about 40 miles, emptying at Hinsdale. Lakes. Winni/iiseogec lake is the largest in the state ; being 24 miles long from S. E. to N. \V. and iVom 3 to 12 miles broad. U7nbagog.i the next largest lake, is in the northeastern part of tiie state. A small portion of it is in Maine, and it discharges its wa- ters by a short stream from the E. into tlie Ameriscoggin. Squavi lake, N. W. of the Winnipiseogee, is 5 miles long and 4 broad. Ossa/ue lake lies E. of Ossapee mountain ; and, through a river of the same name, empties its waters into the Saco. Suna/iee lake, N. of Sunapee mountain, is 8 m.ilea long and 3 broad, and empties through Sugar river into the Connecticut. Messabesic is a large pond in Chester, and discharges its waters into the Merrimac, from which it is distant 4 or 5 miles to t!ie eastward. Mountains. The first range, about 30 miles from the shore, is called the Blue Jlills. Farther back the mountains rise higher, and assume more of a connected character. The White mountain range enters the state in the western part, and passes between the ■waters of the Connecticut and Merrimac, pursuing a course N. by E. till beyond the source of the Pcmigcwasset, it bends more to the right, and proceeds N. E. by N. towards the sources of the Ameriscoggin. The White mountains are a spur from the main range, and have already been described. Mooseliillock, the lofti- est summit in the main range, is about 4500 feet high. Sunapee is in the same chain farther S. and still further the Monadnoc, the height of which is 3254 feet above the sea. Its base is 5 miles long from N. to S. and 3 broad. Its sunmiit is a bald rock ; on some parts of it are large piles of broken rocks ; and the sides present volcanic appearances, Tliese are also discoverable on West Riv- er inountain, in Chesterfield, on Connecticut river. About the year 1730 the garrison effort Dummer was alarmed with frequent explosions, and with columns of fire and smoke emitted from the mountain. The san:ie appearances were exhibited in 1732. ISLANDS. The Isles of Shoals, 8 in number, lie 9 miles S. E. of Portsmouth Sight house, and 21 N. E. from the light houses of Newburyport, in hit. 42 59 N. long. 70 30 W. from London. They were dis- covered by Capt. Smhh in 1614, and called Smith's isles. They consist of barren rocks, and are inhabited by about 100 souls, who subsist by fishing. Before the revolutionary war, these isles con- tahied about 600 inhabitants who carried on the fishery to a great extent. The dinnb Jinhi as it is called, of these isles, is in high es- teem, at the tables of connoisseurs in fisli. These islands are partly in Massachusetts, and partly in New- Hampshire, arid have been till lately, neglected by both, as to the moral and religious instruction of their inhabitants. See a full ac- count of these isles in the Historical Collections, vol. vii. p. 242. 17 130 DISTKICT 01' MAL of the port by parliament, the next year. Tiie gen- eral court proposed a second congress, and chose delegates. It mefat Pldladelphia in September. The legislature resolved itself into a provincial assembly, and met at Concord. The battle of Lexington wab fought on the 19th of April, 1775, and an army iinmediately raist d by the province. The battle of Breed's liill, so honorable to American valor, was fought June 17th, and the eastern part of the state was the theatre of vvar till March, 1776. The state constitution was agreed on in March, 1780. The complete abolition of slavery was effected in 1783. MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. 137 A serious insurrection took place in the western counties in 1786, in consequence of the burden of the taxes. The great body of the insurgents were in Hampshire county, and were headed by Daniel Shays. It was quelled early in the following year by gen. Shep- ard. Religion. The most numerous denomination is that of the Con- gregationalists, of which there are about 350 churches, vviiich are supplied by nearly an equal number of pastors and candidates. The Baptists are next in number, then the Methodists, Episcopa- lians, (which have 14 churches and 8 ministers) Universalists, and a few Quakers. Government. The executive consists of a governor, lieutenant governor, and a council of 9 members. Tiie tvvo first are chosen by the people annually. The council is chosen by the Icgisiaiui'e out of the 40 returned as senators ; and, if they decline, fiom the mass of the people. The legislature, called also The General Cowr^, consists of a Senate and Huuse of Rcprese.itatives, both chosen annually by the people. The senators are chosen by dis- tricts. The representatives by the towns. Each town having 1 50 rateable polls sends one, and another for every additional 225 polls. They assemble annually in May and January. The governor's as- sent is necessary to the passage of a bill, unless (after he withholds it) two thirds of both houses vote for it. The judiciary is compos- ed of a supreme court, having 5 judges, and sitting twice a year in each county ; county courts having 5 judges ; a court of probate in each county ; and justice's courts. These courts are subject to different modifications by law. Po/iulation. The number of inhabitants in Massachusetts, in- cluding Maine, was in the year 1731 about 1 20,000 . ^ ? 373,324 whites 1 742 about 1 64,000 I 5,463 blacks 1749 220,000 C 416,393 whites ,„,„ C 255,8 10 whites >„., __, I 6,452 blacks , I 5,2 14 blacks 5 .. \ 465,303 whites > iTo^ S 353,133 whites^ „_ \ 6,737 blacks t \ 4,377 blacks 5 At the first census, Massachusetts was the second state in point a£ population, at the second and third, tl.e fourth. Its white popula- tion in 1790 was the largest, and is now the third. The annual emigration from this state is larger than from any other, though not so large in proportion as from Connecticut. Militia. The militia of Massachusetts is composed of white male citizens from 18 to 45 years of age. It is completely armed and organized, and in as good a stiite of discipluie as any real mil- itia in the world, it being assembled by companies three times a year, for discipline, and once tor revising the rolls and making re- turns, and also once by regiments or battalions for review and in" spection. In Jan. 1805, from returns then made to the governor, there were in this whole commonwealth 10 div'sions, in which were 58,87<> infanlrvi 267? cavslry. and 55r?l artillery, makings, 18 ' %Sg MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. total of 64,039. In 1 8 1 1 , there were 1 3 divisions, which formled* 38 brigades, in which were 103 regiments of infantry 71 companies of cavalry 70 companies of artillery Whole number of infantry (including officers) 64,930 Do. cavalry 2,730 Da. artillery 3,050 70,710 The whole number of persons in the commonwealth, between 16 and 45 years of aee, is 133,354; so that the militia rolls contain a little more than half the number between these ages. Revenue. The taxes of the year 18 lO amounted to gl66.723-29 On the first of Jan. 1811, the state ovvt-d S809.884 64, and there was then due to the state 551,055,958-94, leaving a balance in its favor of 8250,074-30. Bank}}. There are at present 17 banks in Massachusetts prop- er, and 5 in the District of Maine. Manners. Every town is provided with schools, and with one- or more churches. Children of both sexes acquire the rudiments of learning, and great numbers of the inhabitants are liberally edu- cated. Most of them attend public worship on the sabbath, and good order and sobriety prevail during the week. The public execution of a native citizen is a very rare occurrence, and the num- ber of petty offences is small, compared with that in most other countries. The state's prison, or penitentiary, contains short of 200 prisoners. The great body of the people are agriculturists. They live in towns, and are the proprietors of the soil; there are few poor in the European sense of the word ; but many individuals who are opulent. Respectability and a competence are open to all, and are possessed by the mass of the inhabitants. Literature. There are two public seminaries in Massachusetts proper, viz the university of Cambridge, and Williams College. Harvard College, now the University in Cambridge, takes i'.s date from the year 1638. In that year, the Ri v. John Harvard, of Charlestown, died, and left a leg;acy of 779/. 17.9 2rf. sterling, being one half of his estate, to the public school at Newton, (now Cambridge ) In honor to the memory of so liberal a benefactor, the court ordered that the school should take the name of Harvard College The general govcrnmc-nt of the college is committed to a cor- poration and a board of overseers. The board of overseers consists of the y;overnor, lieutenant governor, council, and senate ; of the president, and clergy of tl'C towns of Boston, Cambridge, Water- town, Charlestown, Roxbury, and Dorchester. The corporation consists of the president, five fellows and the treasurer. To the corporation is committed all the estate of the college. All elections to fill up vacancies in their own body are made by the corporation ; they also choose all the executive officers ; but; all these elections are laid before the board of overseers for thei^- MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. 139 conOjrrence, as also all their votes for the enaction of standing laws, granting of salaries to the officers of the university, and con- ferring of academical degrees. Otiier affairs respecting the uni- versity, the corporation manage according to their own discretion. The executive government consists of the president, professors, tutors, a regent, the librurian, and two proctors. Their busmest. is to watch over the morals of the students, to see that the standing laws are obeyed, and to make discretionaiy regulations in cases not provided for by the laws. The professors and tutors give instruction in the university. There is a professor of divinity, of mathematics &nd natural phi- losophy, of Hebrew and other oriental languages, of biblical criti- cism, of rhetoric and oratory, of logic, nutaphysics, and etliics, of natural history, of the Latin, and of the Gieek languages. Of the four tutors, one teaches the Latin language ; another tiie Greek ; another geography and the elements of geometry, natural philoso- phy, and astronomy. The instructions of the tutors are given pri- vately to the classes separately ; those of the professors ii^lectures, and to the two upper classes only. The students are annually examined in the several branches to •which they have attended in the course of their education, before a committee of the corporation and overseers. All academical degrees are piibjicly conferred by the president on the commencement day, which is the last Wednesday in Au- ■gust, annually. This is one of the most splendid anniversaries in the United States. For a number of years before the revolution, there were from 180 to 190 undergraduates at the university. During the war they very much decreased. Since the conclusion of the war they have been gradually increasing, and there were in 18U2, 220 under- graduates ; in 181 1, 255. Indigent students are much assisted iq their education, by charitable funds belonging to the university. In the year 1782, a medical institution was formed in the univer- sity. It consists of a professorship of anatomy and surgery, of the theory and practice of medicine, of chymistry and materia medica, and of clinical medicine. Each of the professors is established upon a foundation. These professors give a complete course of lectures in their several branches, commencing on the first Wednesday in October, annually, at Boston ; and are pursued till each professor has fin- ished his course. The senior class, and medical students attend these lectures. There are four handsome public buildings occupied by the stu- dents ; also a chapel, and a large hall containing public rooms. The library contains 17,000 volumes, and is annually increasing. Exclusive of the Boylston medical library, which is large and val- uable, this is the largest collegiate library in America. The philo- sophic&J apparatus is also complete and excellent. The latitude of Harvard Hail is 42° 28' 28" N. the longitude 71° 7' 3o" W- Williams College, in Williamstown, in the northwest corner of the state, was founded in i793, and named after Col. Ephraim 140 MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. Williams, its principal benefactor. The legislature of the college is composed of a corporation of 15 members, of which the presi- dent is one ; a president, a professor of law and civil polity, a pro- f^sor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and three tutors. There are two collegiate buildings for the reception of students. The commencement is on the first Wed/iesday in September. Phillips Academt, in Andover, JO miles N. of Boston, was founded and handsomely endowed inl778, byibe Hon. Samuel Phillips, esq. of Andover, and his brother the Hon. John Phillips, LL D. of Exeter, and incorporated in \7iiO. It is under the di- rection of a board of 13 trustees, and the immediate care of a prin° cipal, who is a trustee, eoc officio, an assistant and a writing master. The design of this foundation, according to its constitution, is, " The promotion of true piety and virtue, the instruction of youth in the English, Latin, and Greek languages ; together with writing, arithmetic, practical geometry, music and oratory, logic and geography ; and such other of the liberal arts and sciences, or lan- guages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and the trustees sliall direct." Its funds amount to between g50,000 and 260,000. Lib(^ral provision was made in the funds of this academy, by the late Dr. John Phillips, for the assistance of indigent young men of genius and piety, and of students in divinity. Provision having been made for the puipose, in the original con- stitution of this respectable academy, a theological institution ■was established, and annexed to it, which was opened for the in- struction of students in divinity, in the autumn of 1808. This new and distinct branch of Phillips Academy was founded by Samuel Abbot, esq. who gave g20,000 to support a professor of Christian theology, and madam Photbe Phillips, relict of the late lieut. gov. Samuel Phillips, and her son the Hon. John Phillips, esq. of Ando- ver, who gave the buildings. To this theological institution is an- nexed an .'Associate Foundation^ made by Moses Brown, and Wil- liam Bartlett, esqrs. merchants of Newburyport and the Hon. John Norris, of Salem, who gave each 5^10,000, for the support of an associate professor, and of theological students. William Bartlett, esq. has also given g20,000, as a fund for the support of a professor of sacred rhetoric, and has erected two houses for the accommodation of the professors. In addition to these liberal do- nations, the late Mrs. Norris, relict of the Hon John Norris, above named, has bequeathed ^30,000 to this institution. The trustees of Phillips academy have the immediate care and direction of the theological, as well of the academical institution. The theological institution is also under the inspection of a board of visitors, con- sisting of two clergymen and one layman* (together with the * The present board of visitors are Rev. Timothy Dwight, D. D.LL. D. president of Yale coIlegeT p^jmanent Rev. Samuel Spring, D. D. > Board." Hon Georire Bliss, esq. Mofes Brown, esq 1 xkr. a V/iUiam Bartlett, esr. I ifounati MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. 141 ioundcrs during life) who have a voice in the election and removal of the professors, and ether usual xnaitatoriul pov/ers. The immediate instruction and government of the students is committed to three professors, viz. a professor ot Cliristian tlieolQ- gy, a professor of sacred literature, and a professor of pulpit elo- quence. The present number of students, consisting of graduates from the colleges, is between 50 and 60, the grealt;r part of whom are supported, either wholly or in part by the funds of the institu- tion and by private bounty. The whole scheme of divine truth, as revealed in the holy scriptures, is here proitssedly taught, and a fair view of all the controverted doctrines of Christianity and forms of ecclesiastical government and discipline exhibited, from tUc iiblest writers on all sides, and the pupils left free to form each ids own opinions. The professors are always to be nien, wlio, having exj.mined for themselves, siiall have embraced, as the genuine doc- trines ot the gospel, the great doctrines of the reformation, sum- jiiUiily expressed in .the assembly's shorter catechism. Tlic libiary, at present, consist of 2500 select volumes of the most appropriate and excellent authors. Tills institution promises to be a fruitful and salutary nursery to the church, and an important mean of elevating tlie standaid of theological learning, and of correcting and harmonizing religious opinions among the clergy of New-England. DuMMER Academy, in Newbury, was founded in IfSG, isun= der fifteen trustees, has funds yielding glOOO a yea;, a commodi- ous building, and a handsome library. Leicester academy, in the town of Leicester, was incorporated in 1784; Bristol academy at Taunton, in 1792; and Derby acad- emy at Hingham, in 1797. There ai^e public academies also at Plymouth, Sandwich, Ded- ham, Lynn, Westford, Groton, Deerfield, and oih.ers. By a law of the state, every town containing 50 families must maintain a common English school ; and every town havint>- 200 families, a grammar school for instructing in Latin and Greek, Penalties are inflicted on those who disobey this law. Literary^ Religious, and Bentvoltnt Societies. Thet;c institu- tions are numerous and respectable, and exhibit a fair trait in the character of the inhabitants. Their good influence is felt to u great extent throughout the commonwealth. Tow7is. Boston is the largest town hi New-England. It was settled in November, 1630, from Charlestown, and called Shazamit by the Indians, and Trimomitain by the first settlers. It was aU terv/ards named Boston, out of respect to the Rev. Mr. Cotton, formerly minister of Boston in England. It stands on an irregular peninsula, 2 miles lone, and in the broadest place 1 mile and 1. 39 yards wide, at the head of Massachusetts bay. The buildings cover up- wards of 1000 acres. The peninsula is joined to the main land at the south end, by a narrow isthmus, called Roxbury neck. The har- bor, east of the town, is large enough to receive 500 ships in a good depth of water ; while the entrance will scarcely admit 2 ^ihips abreast. It is diversified by 40 islajids. On one of these 142 MASSACHUSETTS PROPER. stands Fort Independence, 3 miles from the town, which commands the entrance : the works arc new and strong. The wiiarves and quays are about 80 in number. Long wharf is 1743 feet long, and 104 broad. On the north and west of the town is the estuary of Charles river. The streets of the town are gentrally narrow and crooked, and laid out without regard to convenience or taste. Those in West-Boston, State and India streets, and a few others, ought to be excepted. There arc 97 streets, 36 lanes, 26 alleys, and 18 courts. The number of houses, in 1800, was 2870. Those in the old town are generally plain ; but in \Vesl-Bo3ton and round tne common, there is more magnificence in tlie builduic;s, than, m the same compass, in any town in the United States. The population ©f Boston, m 1790, was 18,u38; in ;800, 24,937; and in ISia, 33,250 * The [)ublic buildings are an old and new statehouse, Faneuil hail, a handsome courtliouse of stone, a thcacre, concert hall, gaol, almshouse, exchange, athenaeum ,Franklin place, which is the depository of the valuable collections of the Historical Society, 23 churclies, viz. 10 Congregalionalists, 2 Episcopalians, 3 Baptists, I Unitaiian, 1 Friends meeting house, 2 Meti^odists, 1 Roman Catholic, 1 African Baptist, and 1 place of worship for travelling preachers. Several of the churches are elegant edifices. The uthenaum is the noblest thing of the kind in America. The ex- change is an immense pile, 7 stories high, 124 fcct long, and 103 wide, containing 202 rooms. The new state house fronts south- east upon the common, which is a handsome open field, containing 45 acres, and limited on the east by the Mall, a fine walk 600 yards long, and adorned by two rows of trees. The building is 173 feet k)ng, 61 deep, and 50 high, besides an attic story in the centre, 60 feet wide and 20 high, and a circular dome above it, 30 feet high, and 50 in diameter. On the top of the dome is an elegant circular lantliorn, supporting a gilt white-pine cone. Boston has 4 banks, the capital of which amounts to S7, 600,000. It contains 30 distil- leries, 2 breweries, 8 sugar houses, 1 1 rope walks, a casting fur- nace, a large glass house, and extensive manufactures of paper liangings, cards, candles, and stone ware. In commerce it is sur- passed only by New-York and Philadelphia. The country market is excellei\t, as is the fish market, except as to shell-fish. Boston is not a city, but a town, governed by 9 selectmen, chosen annually by the people. Lat. 42 23 N. Ion. 71 5 W. Salem was settled in 1628. The Indian name was Alaumkeag, It is the second town, both in age and size, in New-England, and is 1 3 miles N. E. of Boston. It is built on a peninsula, formed by two small inlets of the sea. The northern is Beverly harbor, a s lie in a row of about 18 miles in length, on the S. E. side of Buzzard's Bay. They are about 16 in num- ber ; the chief of which are Nashawn, Pasqui, Nashawcnna, Pine- quese and Cattahunk. Nashawn is famous for its excellent wool and cheese, and was the property of the late Hon. James Bow- doin, Esq. They are all in Duke's county. Castle island is about three miles from. Boston, and contains a- bout IB acres of land. This island has been ceded by Massachu- setts to the government of the United States, and named Fort Independence. Very expensive fortifications have been erected by direction of the general government to defend tlj^e harbor a.- sifainst maritime enemics» RHODE ISLAND. Extent. THIS state is situated between 41 17 and 42° N. lat. and between 71 6 and 71 52 W. Ion. Its north line is 29 miles Jong, and its west, 49. Its greatest width is 37 miles. Contents ^ote in Massachusetts Register, for 1802 p. 180, on this subject is worthy the ;ittcntion of the wealthy and humane. RHODE ISLAND. 149 of the whole slate 1580 square miles; of which about 190 are water, and about 90 are included in the islands. Boundary s. N. and E. by Massachusetts ; S. by the Atlantic ; and W. by Connecticut. JDivmo7is. It is divided into 5 counties and SI townships. The following is a list of the counties with their inhabitants in 1810 Counties. No. of tow ns. Population. Chief towns. 179Q 1800 1816 Providence 10 24,391 25,854 30,769 Providence Newport 7 14,300 14,845 16,294 Newport Washington 7 18,075 16,135 14,962 S. Kingston Kent 4 8,848 8,487 9,834 Warwick Bristol 3 3,211 3,801 5,072 Bristol Total 31 68,825 69,122 76,931 It sends two representatives to Congress. Original Population. The Narragansett tribe of Indians occu- pied Rhode Island, when the country was settled, in 1 620 the number of their fighting men was estimated at 3000 or 4000 ; and, in 1670, in the time pf Philip, at 2000. Historij. The first settlement in this state was made by Rogef Williams,anda party of malecontents, from Massachusetts, in 1635. In 1638, a deed was procured from the Indians of Aquidnic, or Rhode Island, and 18 men there formed themselves into a body politic, and pitched upon Mr. Coddington, their leader, for their chief magistrate. In 1643, a charter was obtained for the whole colony, by Sir Henry Vane. The charter, which is the present constitution of the state, was obtained of Charles II. in 1663. The state had little to do with the early Indian wars ; but in 1746 the inhabitants raised 300 soldiers, and equipped a iiloop of war witl* 100 seamen, towards the intended expedition against Canada. Tht; expedition was unfortunate. In the revolutionary war they were honorably active. In December, 1776, Rhode Island was occu pied by British troops. In August, 1778, an unsuccessful attempt ■was made by Gen. Sullivan to dislodge them. In May, 1789. Hhode Island adopted the federal constitution. Religion. The Baptists arc the most numerous denomination. The tenets of most of them are Calvinistic ; some are Arminian., and a few are Seventh-day Baptists. A still smaller number are called Separate Baptists, claiming peculiar sanctity. The othei denominations are Congregationalists, who have 8 ministers ; Epis copalians, who have 4 ministers, one of whom is the bishop of the eastern diocese ; Moravians and Jews. In this state religion is not supported by law. The number of the clergy is small ; and the state of religion and morals, in a great part of the state, is la- mentably low. Government. The charter of 1663 is the constitution of the state. The legislature is composed of a council of 12, including the governor and deputy governor, all chosen annually, and a house; of representatives, consisting of deputies from the several townsj, chosen twice a year. There is one supreme court, which sit:i i5U RHODE ISLAND. twice a year m each county, and an inferior court of common pleas and general sessions ol'thc peace for each county, sitting also twice a year. Population. The number of inhabitants was in the year 17-- ■» o ^n., K>„.K. c --,--- 1790^ 948 slaves ^68,825 1748-^ :':4o Z^ZIA 34,128 I 03,tOO VV11I1.C3 J 69,122 I 1774 5 13,352 whites^ f 64,470 whites ") J 2,633 blacks 5 '^^ 1790^ 948 slaves l68,« 5 29,755 whites) <,. ,93 ^ 3.4i 7 ftee blacks J ^l 4,373 blacks 5 '^*''* f 65,438 whites 1 „-, 535,939 whites^ I800«j 380 slaves l( ^^' I 4,697 blacks ^ *^'^^^ (_ 3,304 free blacks J 54,435 whites 5 f 73,2 14 whites S 5,243 blacks^ ^' i810-j l(-8 slaves 176,931 ,_-„ ,48,538 whites? (^ 3,609 free blacksj ^^^^\ 3,361 blacksS ^''^■'•^ The inhabitants are chiefly of English descent. There are from 300 to 500 Indians in the state, the greater part of whom reside at Charlestown. They speak the English language, and are decreasing in numbers. Militia. The militia of this slate amount to between 7 and 8000 men, organized and disciplined in a manner similar to the rest of the New-England militia. Manners. The mass of the people on the west of the bay, have generally been ignorant, irreligious, and loose in their morals. The tone of religious sentiment, and of morals, in Providence, Newport, Bristol, and other towns adjoining on the east of the bay, has been greatly raised by the imigrants from Massachusetts and Connecticut, and the establishment of regular institutions. In the Avhole region west of the bay, the traveliei sees fev/ of the im- provements in science, agrirukurc, roads, manufactures, or mode of living, which he finds in the neighboring states ; and meets with little of that civility, for which the rest of New-England is re- markable. The missionary labors in this region, have been fol- lowed with good effects. Literature. Brown university, at Providence, was founded in 1764, at Warren ; and avus removed to Providence in 1770. It received its present name in 1 804, from Nicholas Brown, Esq. who gave the iusliiution 5000 dollars. The collegiate legislature is composed of two branches, aboard of fellows, 12 in number, including the president, who, with 7 oi the others, must be Baptists ; and a board of trustees, in number 35, of wiiom 22 are Baptists, 5 Friends, 5 Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists. The fellows alone confer degrees. A majority of both branches must coi>cur, in every other legislative act, to make it valid. This university, as it is denominated, has the following professorships, viz. of law ; of metaphysics and moral philosophy ; of the oriental languages ; of anatomy and surgery ; of materia medica and botany; and of chemistry. The president is at present, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. The professors and tutors may be of any denomination. The library contains about 30(jO volumes. The philosophical apparatus is valuable. The number of students is 132. The college building is 159 feet by 46, and 4 stories high. RHODE ISLAND. 15i It contains 48 rooms, and is pleasanilv situated on a commanding eminence. Academics are established at Providence, Newport, Bristol, Warren, East-Greenwich, and Soutii- Kingston; the pre- ceptors ot which depend mostly on theii pupils for support. A l'.iw was passed some years since, cstabiishini^ town schools throuLjh the state, after the manner of their neighbors on each side of them; but it was found unpopulaiv and repealed! Schools, however, are now kept during the winter months, in most of the towns in the slate, though the laws make no provision for them. The teachers, therefore, in the country towns, are but scantily re- warded. The state of society, on the whole, is improving. Chief To'iuns. Providence is the third town in New-England, In point of population. It stands in lat. 41 5 1 N. at the head of Narraganset buy, on both sidts of it. A sJiort bridge, over a nar- row part of the Jjay, connects both parts of the town. On the east side of the bay, there is a siiiglc street, neariy on a level with the water, and parallel with it, which is the seat of most of the business. The land back of this street rises instantly at an angle of 12 or 15 degrees, and the other streets have a fine, but incommodious ele- vation. The houses west of the bay, are chiefly new, and well built ; the most of the elegant and splendid houses are on the other side. There are 3 cluirches west of the bay ; 2 Congregational, and 1 Baptist ; and 4 on the other side ; \ Congregational, I Bap- tist, 1 Friends, and 1 Episcopalian, These three last are among" the handsomest edifices, of the kind in the union. The town lib- rary is deposited in the court house, 'J"!ie population, in 1790, was 6380 ; in 1800, 7514; and in 1810, 10,071, The commerce of the town is extensive ; and the inhabitants are industrious and enterprising. Newport is built on a very fine bay in the southvvfest part of the island of Rhode Island. It lies in lat, 41 29 N. T)ie town lies N. and S. upon a gradual acclivity from the water, furnishing a beautiful view from the harbor and the neighboring hills on ti^e main. The houses arc chieOy of wood, and about 1000 in number. The population, in 1790, was 6716; in 1800, 6739; and in 1810, 7907, The public buildings are 4 Baptist churches, 2 Congres'a- tionalist, 1 Episcopalian, I Friends, 1 Moravian, and 1 Jewish svr- agogue ; a state house, and an edifice for a public library. The. packets between Newport and New-York are said to surpass anv thing of the kind in Europe. Bristol is a thriving town, on the east side of the bay, 15 miles N. of Newport. It has a Congregational and an Episcopalian church, and 2693 inhabitants ; and carries on a considerable com- merce. Roads. A turnpike passes from Providence \V. S. W, through Scitudte and Coventry, meetin.;.': a similar road in Li.sbon in Con- necticut, v.'hich leads through Wir.dham to Hartford, Its length in this state is about 25 miles. Another strikes tlie Connecticut line south of this, and passes through Norwich, New-London, to New-Haven and .\cvv-Yurk. This is tVtc great sonthern road from Botton to N^ew-York. A turnpike leads from Providence, \32 RHODE ISLAND. 4 miles north to the river, meeting there the turnpike to Boston^ Most of the roads are verjrmuch neglecte-d. Manufactures. In 1 809, 1 7 cotton mills were in operation with' in the town of Providence and its vicinity, working^ i 4,296 spindles, and using 840,000 pounds of cotton, which yielded 5 10,000 pounds of yarn. About 1100 looms were employed in weavin,^. At that time 7 additional mills were erecting in the vicinity of the town. One was in opei'ation in East Greenwich with 500 spindles. The cloths manufactured were bed-licking, swipes and checks, ging- hams, shirting and counterpanes. They are superior to imported goods of the same kind. There was tlien a woollen manufactory in Warwick and another at Portsmouth. About 50,000 hats wore then made annually, worth %5 each, exclusive of felt hats. A num- ber of pnper mills are established. Linen and tow-cloth are made extensively, as well as rum, cards, chocolate, and the coarser man- ufactures of iron. Bariks. There are no less than thirteen banks in this small state, containin^^ together a capital of ;S1?845,0(>0. Trade. The chief exports fiora Rhode Island are flax seed, lumber, horses, cattle, beef, pork, fish, poultry, onions, butter, cheese, barley, grahi, spirits, and cotton and linen goods. Up- wards of 600 vessels enter and clear annually at tlie several ports. In 1804 the amount of exports was Sl5735,671, and in 1810, Sli331,576. The inhabitants, particularly those of Newport, and Bristol, were a little while since largely concerned in the slave trade. This was done in defiance of the laws of the state ; and there is strong reason to believe that the severe penalties of the national law have not terminated this inhuman traffic. Climate. The climate is more damp than that of Connecticut ; as the moist winds of tlie ocean that visit the latter, lose part of their dampness in passing Long Island. The winters are here a little milder, but the N. E. winds are more unpleasant, though less so than on the eastern coast. The summers are delightful. Face of the. Countrxj. The N. W. part of the slate is hilly and rocky, and the hills continue, though with a small elevation, through the northern third of the state. The rest of the country is chiefly level. !SoiL and Agriculture. A large proportion of the land is lean und barren. It is generally much better tilted for pasture, than for grain. It produces, however, maize, rye, barley, oats, and in some places wheat enough for home consumption Cider of an t'xccilent quality is made for exportation; chiefly in Cranston, Johnston, and Smithfield. 'I he five western towns in the county of Washington, called the Shannock purchase, are an excellent grazing country, and are inhabited by a number of large and wealthy farmers. They export great quantities of butter and cheese of the very best quality, and their neat cattle weigh from (6 to 18 cvrt. The northwest parts of the state are thinly inhabit- ed, and are the most rocky and barren. Rivers. The principal rivers in tliis state arc the Pautucket^ •;vhich empties into Providrnrc bay, 1 To f^ driver., the Paucatuc,dLnil CONNECTICUT. 15S Pautuxet, which may be seen in their origin and courses, on the map. Bays. Narragansett bay has been described. Mount Haup bay is the N. E. extremity of it, and is about 5 miles long and 3 wide. Providence bay sets up 15 miles N. N. W. from Narra- gansett bay, and is from 1 to 3 miles wide. Greenwich bay is the N. W. end of Narragansett bay. Mountain. Mount Haup, on the west side of the bay of that name, was once the capital of the Wampanoags, and the residence of Piiilip. It is an inconsiderable eminence. Mineralogii. Iron is found in great plenty in several places. There is a mine in a valley near Pautuxet river, about 12 miles from Providence. In Cu.nberland, is a mine of copper mixed with iron ore, strongly magnetic. Limestone is found in great a- bundance in Providence county, of which lartje quantities of lime are made, and exported to the other stun s. A valuable coal mine has lately been found on the north end of Rhode Island. Jtilands. Rliodf Island, ttoni which the state takes its name, is 15 miles long, and on an averaii;c 3|. 'iroad, containing about 52 square miles. It includes 3 townslups. Its soil, climate, and sit- uation, are delightful. It suffcri d much during the war. Be- tween 30,000 and 40,000 slieep are fed on the island, besides neat cattle and horses. Block Island, or Manisses; is 7 miles south from Charlestown and 2 1 E. by N.from Montauk. It is 7 miles long and 4 broad, con- taining: 21) square miles. It composes the town of New Shoreham, has 722 inhabitants, and is famous for its cattle and sheep, butter and cneese. Codfish, in considerable numbers, are caught on its coast. Canonnicut lies E. from Rhode Island, and is about 10 miles long, containing 10 square miles. It forms a township, called Jamestown, with 504 inhabitants. The soil is luxuriant. Prudence Isle, N. of Canonnicut, comprises about 5 square mile's. CONNECTICUT. Extent. THE line between Connecticut and Massachusetts, as settled in 1713, was found to be about 72 miles in length. The line dividing Connecticut from Rhode-Island, was settled in 1728, and found to be about 45 miles. The sea coast, from the mouth of Paukatuc river, which forms a part of the eastern boundary of Connecticut, in a direct southwesterly line to the mouth of Byram river, is reckoned at about 90 miles. The line between Connecti- cut and New-York, runs from latitude 41° to latitude 42 2, 72 miles. Connecticut contains about 4674 square miles ; equal to 2,991,360 acres. It lies between lat. 41° and 42 2 N. and between Ion. 71 29 and 73 24 W. Boundaries. Bounded N. by Massachusetts ; E. by Rnode Island ; S. bv Long Island sound ; W. bv New-York. 20 ' ■" i54 CONNECTICUT. Divisions. It is divided into 8 counties, 4 bordei'in^ on Massa- chusetts, and 4 on the sound ; which are subdivided into 1 19 townships. Population. 44,733 37,064 34.707 40,950 28,611 41,3''5 20,723 13,779 Counties. No. of towns. Hartford 18 New-Haven 17 New-London 13 Fairfield 17 Windham 15 Litchfield 22 Middlesex 7 Tolland 10 Chief towns. No. of inh. Hartford 6,003 New- Haven 6,967 New-London 3238 Fairfield 4,125 Windham 2,416 Litchfield 4.6.>9 Middktown 5,382 Tolland 1,610 Total 119 ■ 261,942 History. A house was erected by the Dutch, at Hartford, in 1633 ; and anotlier at Windsor, by William Holmes, from the Ply- mouth colony in October of the sanio year. A settlement was made at Windsor and Hartford by a small col- ony, from Massachusetts ; and another at Saybrook, by a company from England, in 1635.- The first court was held at Weathersfield in 1636. The next year a war began with the Pequods, which terminated in the con- quest of their country. In 1638 New-Haven \ras settled by a colony from England under Theophilus Eaton. The next year (1639) the constitution of the Connecticut colony was formed ; and, a few months afterwards, that uf the New-Haven colony. The charter of Connecticut colony v»'as granted by Charles II. in 1662, into which the substance of the two original constitu- tions was incorporated ; and, in 1 665, the two colonies uiuted. In Dec. 1675, a body of 300 English and 150 Indians, marcjicd from Connecticut into the country of the Narragansetts, destrc^'td their principal fort, and subdued the tribe. An attempt was made in 1687, by Sir Edmund Andross, to seize the charter of the colony, but the wisdom and courage of the legis- lature rendered it abortive The assembly, v/hich, till 1698, had sat in one house, was then divided into two. In 17('8, the Saybrook platform was received and adopted as the ecclesiastical constitution of the state. The most important expedition against the state, in the revolu- tionary war, was made from New-York, by gov. 'I'ryon, in 1779. He burnt several towns and plundered others. No state in the union was more active in that war than Connecticut, or contributed move in proportion to its size and ability, to its successful termhia- tion. The assembly, at the close of the war continued the charter of Charles II. as the constitution of the state.* • The history of this state has been written with great fidelity by Rev. Ben- jamin TrumbHll, D. D. CONNECTICUT. Hi JReligion. The following table will exhibit the state of the seve- ral reiij^ioub denominations of Christains in Connecticut, in 1811; the first number in each Cjilumn denoting the number oi churches. the second of the clergy of the several denominations. Counties. Congregaiionalists. Episcopalians. Baptists- Hartford 35 32 8 4 13 5 iNcw- Haven 34 32 14 10 2 I^Jcw -London 21 13 3 .2 15 12 Fairfield 29 20 16 5 8 f Windham 28 20 .2 1 14 1^ Litchfield 32 31 33 6 9 4 Middlesex 17 17 6 3 5 A Tolland 15 11 2 1 i 1 Total 211 176 64 32 67 44 There are but 12 churches and 7 ministers of all other denomi- nations in this slate. The Episcopal congregations average about 40 families or 250 individuals. The Baptist congregations are about equally large. The number of Congregationalists is at least 220,000 j their con- gregations averaging upwards of 1000 individuals, or 160 families. Government. The charter of Charles II. contains the constitu- tion of the state. The legislature is styled the general assembly, and is composed of a council and house of representatives. The council consists of the governor, lieutenant governor, and 12 assist- ants. The governor presides, and has a vote and a casting vote. They are all chosen annually in April : the two first directly from the mass of the people ; the assistants from a nomination of 20^ which is filled up by the people in the preceding October. Every freeman is eligible to either of those stations. The house of rep- resentatives, consisting of 199 members, is chosen twice a year j 80 towns sending two representatives, and 39 sending but one. The judiciary is composed of a supreme court of errors, consist- ing of 9 judges, meeting twice a year, at Hartford and New-Haven; of 3 superior, or circuit courts, each consisting of three of the nine judg-es, who ride the three circuits alternately, and hold a court in each county, twice a year ; of a county court in each county, con- sisting of 1 judge and 4 justices of the quorum, and sitting in 4 of the counties three times a year, and in the other four twice ; of a city court in the 5 cities, consisting of a mayor, and 2 aldermen, and sitting monthly ; of a probate court in each of the 28 probate dis- tricts, consisting of one judge, and sitting whenever the judges di- ' rect ; and of justices' courts, consistmg of a single justice of the peace. Population. In 1671, Connecticut contained 2050 men, or abouL 10,250 inhabitants, and in 1679, 2507 men, or 12.535 inhabitants. The number of inhabitants was in the year 156 CONNECTICUT. C 128,218 whitest ,n,pf.. ("232,374 whites'] ^*^ "» 3.587 blacks^ '-^''"^^ 1790J 2,764 slaves l237,94e 5 141,076 whiles? , .. ^^^ L 2,808 free bl ^^^^l 4,590 blacks S **^'^^^ f 244,721 whites ■) ,*.,. 09^392 whites) ,„-„,^ 1800-} 95 1 slaves 1251,002 ^^^^l i;464 blacks j '^W5 | 5,330freebli ,-j,« 5 202,597 whites; oo« sm f 2o5,l 79 whites 1 ^'^"^l 6,273 blacks 5 ^^«'«'" iglO^ 310 slaves 1261,942 (^ 6,453 free bl. J Militia. The militia of this state, amounting to between 25,OOQ and 30,000, are or,u;anized in four grand divisions, each embracing 2 brigades, 8 in the whole, which are subdivided into upvvards of 30 regiments, of which 8 are cavalry. They have the usual pro- portion of artillery. Revenue. The revenue of 1811 was as follows : Tax on rateable estate and on polls - - S46,67470 Interest on stock in U. S. funds - - - 16,437-19 Dividends on bank stock - . - 9,788-20 Duty on writs. Sec. - - - - 6,291-98 79,192-07 The funds of the state, exclusive of the school fund, were in October 181 1, as follows : Six per cent, stock (real capital) - - 127,153'2S Six per cent, deferred stock (real capital) - 1 15,480 65 Three per cent, stock (real capital) - - 50,03806 Bank stock . - - - • 129,200 00 S42 1,8.71-94 This sum, added to the school fund, makes a sum total of 1,622,937 77. The state owes no debt of any kind whatsoever. Banks. There are 9 banks in the state which have a capital of 82,309,600. Manners and Customs. The inhabitants are, with very few ex- ceptions, of English origin. Most of them are farmers, with farms of from 50 to 500 acres; who hold their lands in fee simple. All the male inhabitants, arrived to manliood, probably, without excep- tion, can read, write, and cast accounts ; great numbers of them have had a collegiate, and a much greater number, an academical education. A church is planted within a little distance from every man's door ; and a very great majority of the inhabitants attend public worship twice every sabbath. The bible is possessed by every family, and by every individual in many families : it is no where more read, or more regarded. The state has always enjoy- lic occasions is singular ; particu- larly at city, town, and freemen's meetings, and at military reyi rtmoveu to New-rHaven. Its leg- islature is a corporation, consistiiig of the president of the college, who is also president of the corporation, the governor of the state, the lieutenant governor, and six senior assistants, ex officio., and ten fellows, who are all clergymen ; who, with the president fill up their own vacancies. Other powers are possessed by ail the members of the board in common. The corporation meet annu- ally. A committee of three or four members, of whom the presi- dent ejc officio is one, is appointed by them, every year, to superin- tend the concerns of the institution. This committee meets four times a year. The immediate government and instruction of the students is committed to the president, to a professor of divinity, of mathematics and natural philosophy, of chemistry and mineralogy, and of languages and ecclesiastical history, and to 6 tutors. The number of students (1812) is 305. They are divided into 4 class- es. The senior class recites only to the president, and, with the junior, attends the lectures of the professors. The thrt e lower classes are all divided into two divisions, each of which is committed to its own tutor, who has the sole instruction of it. The library contains about 6000 volumes, and has a fund yielding about S200. The students have libraries amounting to 2000 more. The phi- losophical and chemical apparatus are very handsome, and are complete. The chemical laboratory is far the best in the union. The college possesses a very handsome mineralogical cabinet, containing about 2500 specimens ; and, during the present year, two cabinets, one consisting of more than 6C0O choice specimens, and the other of about 18,000, the two noblest collections ever opened in the United States, have, with a liberality highly honora- ble, been deposited in this seminary by Col. Gibbs of Boston. The academical buildings consist of three colleges, each 4 stories higli, and 104 feet by 40, containing 96 convenient chambers, a chapel, a lyceum, and a large dining hall and kitchen in the rear of the oth- er buildings. The chapel and lyceum are between the colleges, and project beyond them. A medical institution is established in the seminary, but has not begun its operations. It is to consist oi three professorships beside that of chemistry, one of the materia inedica, one of anatomy and surgery, and one of the theory an^ practice of physic. The funds of the college are small 1 5a CONNECTICUT. Bacon academy, in Colchester, was founded, in 1801, by Mr. Pierpont Bacon of that town, who bequeathed it S3u,000. It is a very flourishing institution, and has usually about 90 scholars. An Episcopal academy was founded at Cheshire, about 1799. The legislature granted it, by lottery, g 15,000. It has about 60 Students, and is flourishing. There are seminaries of the same kind at Canterlmry and Plain- field, and flourishing academic schools at Fairfield, Danbury, Litchfield, Ellsworth, Windsor, Hartford, Norwich, Plaiiifield, J«Jew-London, Woodstock, and various other places. Great num- bers of the students of Yale college are prepared for it in tne fam- ilies, and by the histruction, of clergymen. The state has a large fund, called the school fund, under the direction of a comniissioner, amounting, iu October, 1811, to S 1 ,20 1 ,065-83. It is the avails of lands formerly belonging to the state, and sold by them in 1795 to a conipai»y of speculators The yearly interest, together with S 12,000 from the public taxes is an« Dually devoted to the maintenance of common scuoolmasters. Cities and Toivns. in Connecticut there are 5 incorporated cities, viz. Ncw-Havcn, Hartford, New-London, Norwich, and Middletown. Nev/-Haven, the largest town in the state, is at the head of a iiarbor, which sets up from Long Island sound. The city covers about a squaie mile, and was originally laid out in 9 squares of 52 rods on a side, separated by streets 4 rods in width, and forming 1 large square, 172 rods on a side. The central square is an open «-reen, and is a very beautiful public walk. The houses are 750 in number, of v.'hich 314 are built on the streets forming the squares. Tht y are chiefly of v/ood, generally neat. The public edifices are the collegiate buildings of brick, on the N. W. side of v.he green ; 5 churches ; 3 Congregational, 1 Episcopalian, and I Methodist ; a handsome state house and gaol ; 3 neat school hous- es, and an alms house. There are here 15 public schools and 8 pirvate ones. The population of the township, in 1 790, was 4484 ; hi 1800, 5157; and hi 1810, 6967. That of the city, in 1787, was 3530 ; in 1798, 4000; in 1800, 4049; ami in 1810, 5772. The state of society in this town is uncommonly agreeable. The capital steadily employed in commerce exceeds g2,500,000. The exports, in 1806, amounted to 466,367, besides half as much more shipped at New-York ; and the number of tons of shipping, in 1800, to 11,011. The amount of duties, in 1803, was Si 37,086. Hartford, the second town in size in the state, lies on the west bank of Connecticut river, 50 miles from its mouth, in the -midst of a very pleasant and fertile country. The houses stand chieCy on a single street parallel with the river, and about 60 I'ods from it. The public edifices are a very handsome state house ; 2 Congregational churches, one of them of brick, and among the ;nost elegant in New-England ; 1 Episcopalian and 1 Baptist; and a handsome bank. About half of the houses are of brick, many of them 3 stories high, and well built. Their whole number is about CiONNFXTICUT. 15? 500. The population of the town, in 1800, was 5347; and in 1810,6003; that of the city, in 1810, was 3995. New-London stands on the west side of the Tfiamcs, 3 miles from its mouth. The river is here a mile wide ; and the town is defended hy fort Trumbull, about half a mile below. The rivcv forms a large, safe, and commodious harbor, and has 5 fathom?; ■water. The city contains one Congregational, and one Episcopa- lian church, and about 500 houses. Its population, in 1810, was 3238. Norwich is 14 miles north from New-London, and at the head of navigation on the Thames. The city contains a court house, two Congregational churches, and one Episcopalian; and 3253 inhabitants. There are numerous mill seats in the township, and various manufactures aie carried on here to some extent. MiDDLEToWN is on the west bank of Connecticut river, \5 miles south from Hartford. It has two Congregational churches, one Episcopalian, one Baptist, and one Methodist ; and carries on a considerable trade. In 1 810 the city had 2014 inhabitants, and the town 5382. The country around Middlctown is uncommonly handsome. Danbury, Weathersfield, Farmington, and various others arc also flourishing and handsome towns. Roads. In 1808, 50 turnpike companies had been incorporated to lay out as many roads in this state. At that time, 39 of them, extending 770 miles, were completed. The most expensive, that from Hartford to New-Haven, 34 miles, cost upwards of 880,000. The common roads in the state are generally good. Manufactures and Inventions. The farmers in Connecticut, and their families, are mostly clothed in plain, decent, homespun cloth. Their linens and woollens are manufactured in the familv "way ; and although they are generally of a coarser kind, they arc of a stronger texture and much more durable, than those imported from Great Britain and France. Many of their cloths are fine and handsome. A woollen manufactory has been established at Hartford. In Ncv/ -Haven are linen and button manufacteries ; and a cotton manufactory, lately established on a large scale. In East-Hart- ford are glass-works, a snufi'and ix)wder mill, and iron works, and a slitting n)ill. lion v»'orks are established also at Salisbury, Nor- wich, and other parts of the state. At Stafford is a furnace, at v/hich are made large quantities of hollow Avare, and otlier iron- mongery, sufficient to supply the whole state. Paper is manufac- tured in many places. Nails, of every size, are made in almost every town and village in Connecticut, and sold at a better rate than they can be had from Europe. Ironmongery, hats, candles, oil from flaxseed, leather, shoes and boots, are here manufactured. The manufacture of tin platts into culinary vessels, is one of the most useful in this state. It is estimated that plates and irun wire, to the amount of S250,000, are used in this manutVicturc annually, and the lir; ware thus made is sold in all parts of the United Siatest., m Florida, Loui>;iana, and Canada. Metal bv.ttons to tlie aujoun'-. 160 CONNECTICUT. of nioi-e than §100,000 have been manufactured at Watcrbury and other places ; and wooden clocks to an equal amount, in different parts of the state. In Hu'iiplireysville a woollen manufactory has been established on a large scale. The clotli which is made here we understand is of a superior quality. Much credit is due to colonel Humphreys for the introduction of the Merino breed of sheep, and for his other exertions in promoting the manufactures of his country. Here is a larc^e manufactory of fire arms, of the best quality, es- tablished by the inp;enious Mr. Whitney. Commerce. There are five ports of entry in Connecticut ; Fair- field, New-Haven, Middletown, New-London, and Stonington. The amount of exports in 1804 v/as Sli516,I10; and, in 1810, S768,643. Almost allthe produce of the western part of the state is entered at the New-York custom house ; and the exports in the ok fort Wiliiara Henry on lake George. An unsuccessiul auack was made by gen. Abercrombie, in 1758, on the French fort at 'J'iconderoga. In 1759 gen. Amherst took Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; and gen. John- bon defeated a French army near Niagara, and took fort Niagara. In 1765 the stamp act was successfully rt sisted, and in 1767 the powers of the provincial assembly were conditionally taken away by parliament. The ijasembly, in 1769, denied the right of parlia- ment to tax the inhabitants. In Sept. 1776, the British occupied New-York. The battle at White Plains was fought Oct. 28, and fort Washington taken Nov. 16. Ticonderoga and Crown Point were occupied by Burgoyne, in 1777. On the 20ih of April, that year, the state constitution v/as estab- lished. In 1779 gen. Sullivan undertook an expedition against the Iro- quois Indians, and destroyed great numbers of their villages. The British evacuated New-York, in 1783. Original and fireseiit Indian Pofiulation. The Iroquois, or Six Nations, occupied a great part of the state, when it was first settled and for a long period afterwards. The Delawares, a tribe of the Moheakanncew nation, then pos- sessed the S. E. part of the state. Numb t j of smaller tribes of the same n£.tion weie near them. The body of the Six Nations inhabit the western parts of this state. The principal part of the Mohav/k tribe reside on Grand river, in Upper Canada ; and ihere are two villages of Senecas on the Allegany river, near the north line of Pennsylvania, and a few Delawares and Skawaghkees on Buffalo creek. Including these, and the Stockbridge and Mohegan Indians, who have migrated and settled in the vicuiity of Oneida, there were in the Six Nations, in 1791, according to an accurate estimation made by Mr. Kirkland, 6,330 souls. He adds, that among these there are comparatively but very few children. The Oneidas inhabit on Oneida creek, 21 miles west of fort Stanwix. The Tuscarcras migrated from North-Carolina and the frontiers, of Virgiiiia, and were adopted by the Oneidas, with whom they have ever since lived. They were originally of the same nation. The Senecas inhabit on the Genessce river, at the Genessee cas- tle. The Mohawks were acknowledged by the other tribes, to use iheir own expressions, to be " the true old heads of the confedera- cy." The great body of this tribe now live in Canada. The Onondagas live near the Onondaga lake. There are very few of the Delaware tribe in this state- NEW- YORK. 165 Religion. The great body of the people of this state are Presby- terians. The Episcopalians are probably the next most numerous class. In 1811 they had 42 churches and 47 clergymen. The other denominations are the Dutch Reformed, Baptists, Friends, German Lutherans, Moravians, Methodists, Shakers, Catholics, and Jews. Tnert' are also a few of the followers of Jemima Wilkinson. The ministers of every denomination in the state are supported, with few exceptions, by the voluntary contributions of the people, raised, generally, by subscription, or by a tax upon the pews. Grjvermn£7it. The legislature is composed of a senate and house of representatives. A certain number of senators is chosen by each district. They hold their seats for 4 years, and a fourth part of the members is elected every year. The representatives are chosen, by the several counties annually. Voters for senators must possess a freehold to the value of S250 clear of debt. Voters for repre- sentatives must possess a freehold to the value of IgSO, or have rent- ed a tenement of 40 shillings yearly value. A council of revision, composed of the governor, chancellor, and the judges of the su- preme court, is empowered to revise all bills passed by the two houses, and to return them to the house where they originated. If this is done, two thirds of both houses must repass them, or they are defeated. If it is not done in ten days from the time a bill is passed it becomes a law of course. The executive is composed of a governor, lieutenant governor, and council of appointment. The governor is chosen every 3 years. The lieutenant governor, chosen for the same time, is president of the senate. The council of appointment consists of the governor and one senator from each district, chosen annually by the legisla- ture. It has the appointment of all subordinate officers, cxecuiivs and judicial. Tlie courts in the state are, a high court of erroi's and impeach- ment, composed of the lieutenant governor, chancellor, judges of the supreme court, and the senate ; a court of chancery, consistinji; of a chancellor appointed by the council of appointment, a supreme court, consisting of 5 judges appointed in the same inanner; a court of admiralty ; a court of exchequer ; a court of oyer and ter- miner and general gaol delivery; a court of quarter sessions; county courts consisting of 3 judges ; and justices' courts. Such parts of the common and statute laws of England, as were recog- i)ized in April, 1775, are still parts of the law of the state. Pojiulation. The number of inhabitants was in the year 1749 100,000 f 535,063 whites"), ^',cc^ 96,775 whites? ,,- „,_ 1756 \ ,c^ .o 1 ' 1 ^ 110,317 ^ 13,542 blacks 5 <; 220,008 whites ) f 918,690 whitest '"""^ 1 8,889 blacks S' 1810-^ 15,017 slaves 1959,04? 100,000 r 555,063 whites") C 96,775 whites^ , _ l80o4 20,615 slaves C 586,050 \ 13,542 blacks 5 *'"''' '^ (_ I0,374freebl. ) ^ 220,008 whites ) , \ 18,889 blacks^ {3 14,133 whites') 21,324 slaves I; 4,663 free bl. J /hites"] [_ 25,333freebl.J 1790-; 21,324 slaves 1340,120 {' i6S NEW-YORK. The items of the census of 1810 were as follows : males. • females. iotal. Under 1 6 years of age 239,635 226,756 466,391 Between J 6 and 45 180,661 170,944 351,596 45 and upwards 53,985 46,718 100,703 Total 474,231 444,418 918,699 By tiue table it appears, that the population, in 1756, has been in- creased, by its whole amount, once in 7 years. The increase, in the last 10 years, v/as 372,444, and the ratio of increase 63 5 per cent. Should this ratio continue, the population, in 1820, will be 1,576,720. This state has 131,895 more white inhabitants than any state in the union, and is the second in the whole amount of its pop- ulation. Mililia. The number of militia, in 1789, was 42,679; in 1790, 44,259; in 1791,50,399; in 1800,64,011; and in 1809, 102,id68. The whole number of males between 16 and 45 is 180,652. Finances. JNevv-York is the lichest state in the union. The funds of the slate, at the commencement of the year 1811, exclu- sive of the school fund, amounted to S4,19 1,805-25 ; the revenue of which, in 1810, wa.s ^278,489-95. JJeside this, the receipts of the treasury for that year, from other sources, amounted to ^625,042-83. The state debt, at that time, was §880,000. The state also possesses about 1,000,000 acres of land, which still re- main to be sold. The estimated expence for the year 181! was S258,365-22. Manners and CustGms. The Dutch were the first settlers of ^ew-York. They settled chitfly on Manhattan and Long islands^ on the Hudson and Mohawk rivers ; and their descendants are still found in these places. The ancestors of the inhabitants in the eastern and middle parts of Lotvs^ island, were either natives of England or the immediate descendants of the first settlers of New-England, and their manners and cu;>toms are similar to those oi their ancestors. The counties inhabited by the Djiitch^ have adopted the English manners in a great degree, but still retain many modes, particularly in their re- 'iit^ion, which are peculiar to the Holh.uiders. They are industri- ous, neat and economical in tl>c management of their farms and -heir families. Whatever business they pursue, they generally follow the old tvack of their forefathers, and seldom invent any new improvements in agricullure, manufactures; or mechanics. i3ebidcs the I>utch and English there are many immigrants from Scotland, Ireland, and Germany, and a few from France. Many Germans are settled on the Mohawk, and some Scotch people on the Hudson, in the county of Washington. Most of the Scotch and Irish arc in the city of New-York, and retain the manners, the re- ligion, and some of them the language gf-thcir respective countries. The French immigrants settled principally at New-Rochelle and on Staten Island, and their descendants, several of tliem, have filled iiome of the highest offices in the United Slates. NEW-YORK, 1.5? probably two thirds of the popidation of tins stale are now com- posed of New-Englandeis, ov their immediate dcbcendanis. These are, chiefly, immigrants from Massachusetts and Connecticut, and they retain much of the Nev/-Ent^iand character. Although there is no law of the state to compel the support of clergymen, yet these people are settling them in every town where their numbers are^ sufficient to maintain one ; before the state had paid any atlentioa to the support of common schools, they had established them in ai- Biost every settlement. The character and manners of the inhabitants are progressively improving, and it has a large body of men in the several profes- sions of distinguished eminence and worth. Literature. After the revolution, the legislature established a corporation, consisting of 21 members, (two of whom are the gov- ernor and lieutenant governor,) who are styled " the regents oC the university of New-York." They are entrusted with the care oZ the literature of the state ; have the power to establish and chartez" colleges and academies ; and are to report annually the state o'i these institutions to the legislature. There are three colleges in this state. Columbia college, in the city of New- York, was founded in 1754; and till the revolution, had the name of King's college. It is entrusted to a corporation of 24 members. The instructers compose two faculties ; a faculty of arts, and a faculty of physic. Tlie faculty of arts consists of a pre^ sident, provost, and professors of mathematics and natural philoso- phy, of logic and geography, of languages, of chymistry and agri- culture, of oriental languages, oflaw, and of the French language. The faculty of physic, called " the college of physicians and sur- geons," under the late establishment, consists of a president and vice president, joint professors of anatomy, surgery and physiolo- gy — professor of the theory and practice of physic, and clinical medicine; of chemistry ; of obstetrics and the diseases of v/oniea and children ; of therapeutics and clinical medicine ; of the insti- tutes of medicine ; of Batural history ; of medical jurisprudence ^ and of mineralogy and pharmacy. In 1803, the legislature of this state appropriated g20,000 for the support of tills useful and risinij establishment. The botanical garden established in this state, has been placed under the direction of the professors and trustees o£ this medical institution.* This institution promises to rank shortly among the first and most useful of the kind in our country. The college building is a stone edifice, 150 yards from the Hudson; containing 43 chambers, a chapel, dining-hall, library, museum, anatomical theatre, and philosophical cham!>er. The annual reve- nue of the collegiate funds amounts to go, 850. Union college, in Schenectady, was incorporated by the regents of the university, in 17'94. The corporation consists of 24 mem- bers. The instructers are a president, professors of mathematics and natural philosophy, of Greek, and of Latin, and one tutor. The funds, in 1796, a'motmted to S42,422'60, and 1504 acre-; o^^ • Am^x, Med. aud Phil. Rojistcr, 168 NEW- YORK. land. The legislature has since, by loUciy, granted the institution about 890,000. This seminary is on the whole flourishing. Hamilton college lately established at Clinton has been richly endowed l>y the legislature. It was established in 1812, and has very promising prospects. In 1811 there were upwards of 40 acadenaies. A fund, devoted to the support of common schools, amounts to §483,326 29; the income of wl'.ich, in 1810, amounted to S36,427-64. Beside this, the fund has 314,770 acres of unsold land. A common school is, by law, to be established within the limits of every 4 square miles A long time probably will be necessary to furnish the state with com- mon schools, on the Connecticut footing ; with as good a system, as competent directors, or as unexceptionable instructers. Cities and Towns. The city of New-York was founded by the Dutch, in 1614 ; and was then called JVetv- Amsterdam. It is built on the S. end of the island of Manhattan, an island 15 miles long, and no where more than 2 wide. Its width at the S. end is less than 1 mile. The harbor is a large bay, formed by the union of the Hudson with die strait of the sound, called East river. It is 4 riiilcs wide from Long Island to the Jersey shore, and extends 9 miles from the city to the Narrows, through which it communicates with the ocean. It has every where sufficient depth for the largest vessels. The city reaches about o^ miles on the East river, and 2 miles on the Hudson ; is, on an average, a mile wide ; and is about 8 miles in circuit. The 3 principal streets are Pearl street, Broad- way, and Greenwich street. The first is parallel with the East Tivcr ; the other two with the Hudson ; and they all run the whole length of the city. These are intersected, though not at right an- gles, by streets running from river to river. Pearl street, near the E^st river, is uneven, narrow, and crooked and is the great seat of business. Broadway, in the middle of the city, is 70 feet wide, and Tuns N. and S. It is generally very well built. Greenwich street near the Hudson is almost straight, and is wide and handsome. The battery is a fine public walk at the southern extremity of the island, containing several acres. The park is a small field of the same l;in,d in front of the new city hall, containing half an acre. The modern houses in New-York are all of brick, and are gene- rally well built. Many of them are handsome. The old ones are i\o\ very numerous ; but many of them are of wood, and of a mean appearance. The new city hall is a large and noble building of white marble. The state prison is 2 miks from the southernmost point of the city, on the bank of the Hudson. It is inclosed by a wall 16 feet high, is extensive, but has not been found entirely se- cure. The city contains 8 Presbyterian churches, 8 Episcopalian, 4 Dutch Reformed, 3 Scotch Presbyterian, 2 German Lutheran and Calvinistic, 3 Methodist, 2 Baptist, 1 Moravian, 1 Catholic, and 1 French Protcstarit ; in all 35, and 1 synagogue. The population of the city was in the year 1697 4,302 1790 33,131 3 756 10,381 ISOO 60,439 1771 21,863 1805 75,770 1785 23j6H 1810 93,914 NEW- YORK. 165 The inhabitants are more thaii one third of New-England origin. i\fter these the most numerous are the Dutch and Scotch ; and then the English, Irish, and French. The commerce of the city is far before that of any town in America ; and, in the course of 20 years, it will probably equal that of any city in the world, except London. It imports most of the goods consumed between the Rar- han and the Connecticut, a coast of 130 miles, and between the ocean and the lakes, a distance of 400. Albany was founded by the Dutch in 1623, and by them called Fort Orange. It capitulated to the English, Sept. 24, 1664, who called it Albany., in honor of the duke of York and Albany ; and was incorporated in 1686. It stands on the W. bank of the Hud- son, 1 60 miles N. from New-York, near the head of sloop naviga- tion. The streets are geiierally crooked, but several of them are broad and well paved. It contains 2 Presbyterian churches, 3 Dutch Reformed, 1 Episcopalian, 1 High Dutch, 1 Methodist, 1 Friends, and I Catholic: in all 9. In 1712, the population was 7iearly 4000, of whom 450 wore negro or Indian slaves. In 1797, it had 863 houses, and 6021 inhabitants; in 1810, 9356. A major- ity of the inhabitants are Dutch, and many of them arfe New-Eng- landers. Schenectady was built by the Dutch, upwards of 120 years since; and stands on the S. bank of the Mohawk, 16 miles W. N. W. of Albany, and the same distance W. from the mouth of the Mohawk. The streets are narrow, dirty, and crooked, and the houses are almost universally of the Dutch order of architecture, Tiie public buildings are a Presbyterian, Dutch, and Episcopal church, and the college edifice. The population in 1790 was 3472 ; in 1800, 5289 ; and in 1810, 5909. Hudson stands at tiie head of ship navigation, on the E. bank of the Hudson, 124 miles N. from New-York, and 36 S. from Albany. The first house was erected here in 1784. The population in 1790, v/as 2584 ; in 1800, 3664; and in 1810, 4048. The city is laid out in large squares, divided by spacious streets, crossing each other at right angles. Each square contains 30 lots, 2 deep, divid- ed by a 20 feet alley. Each lot is 20 feet in front and 120 deep. Water is brought to the town by an aqueduct from a spring 2 miles distant. PouGHKEFSiE is ott the E. bank of the Hudson, halfway between New-York and Albany. It has 5 churches, and a very flourishing academy. The situation of the town is pleasant. Population in 1800, 3246; in 1810, 4670. Brooklyn is 1 mile from New-York, on the opposite side of East river. It contains an Episcopal, a Dutch, and a Methodist church. The shore here is extremely bold. Population in 1800, 2378 ; and in 1810, 4402. Troy is a beautiful town on the E. bank of the Hudson, 6 miles N. from Albany. It contains 3895 inhabitants. Lansingburg is 3 miles N. from Troy, on the same bank of the river, and opposite the mouth of the MohaAvk. Its population is 1658. 2? 170 NEW-YORK. Utica is a commercial village of Whitestovvn on the Mohawk,- 100 miles westward of Albanv. All these are very thrifty towns. Roads. The number of incorporated turnpike companies is 135. Their stock amounts to S7, 558,000 ; and their roads, when com- pleted, will extend 4500 miles, about one third of which is already made. Bridges. There are 36 bridge companies in the state, with stock amounting to g5O9,O00. Mamifacturts. In 1810 there were in this state, as reported ta the sccretaiy of state, 33,u68 looms, which mariufacturrd 3,257,192 yards of woollen cloth, 5,399,836 of Unen, 162,563, of mixed, and 216,199 of cotton ; there were also 867 tan works, 591 distille- ries, 42 breweries, 124 hat factories, 427 fulling mills, and 413 carding machines. The number of paper mills in the state was then 28 ; of glass works 6 ; of poAvder mills 2 ; of rope walks 18; of sugar houses 10; of oil mills 28 ; of blastfurnaces 11; of air furnaces 1'.); of cut nail manufactories 44 ; of forges 48 ; of trip hammers 49 ; of rolling and slitting mills 1 ; and of cotton manufactories 25. The following is the value of the various manufactures ; Cloth 85,682, 828-62 Cordage 538,OOC-O0 Leather 1,299,542- 16 Refined sugar 420,706 00 Distilled liquors 1,685,79440 Oil 49,283-75 Malt liquors 340,765-68 Cut nails 276,932-80 Paper 238,268-00 Other iron 651,980-00 Hats 249,035-00 Glass 716,800-00 S! 2,109,536 4a powder 10,400-00 The quantity of salt, mnde in that year, was 525,000 bushels. Silk, to the amount of 2240 skeins, was made at Cayuga, The ar- ticle of flour probably exceeded in value tither of those in the table ; the quantity of pot and pearl ashes and maple sugar is also veiy great ; but we have seen no returns of the quantity or value of either of the three. Commerce. The amount of exports from this state was, in the year 1807, S25,35'',963 and in 1810, 817,242.230. Of these last, glO,928,573 were of domestic produce, and 86,313,757 of foreign. The shipping belonging to the state, in 1810, was 27 6. 5 60 tons, be- side that on lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain. Wheat is the staple of the state. The other great articles exported are Indian corn and meal, lumber, iron, pot and pearl ashes, and naval stores, fish, and refined sugar ; beside the productions of tlie south and of foreign countries. Probably more than one third of the domestic exports of this state is derived from New-England and New- Jersey. Climate and Seasons, This state stretches tlirough more than 4 degrees of latitude. There is a considerable diversity in the tem- perature of the two extremes. The greatest range of the ther- mometer is from 24° below, to 95° above the cypher of Fahrenheit. Face of the Country. That part of the state which lies between the Hudson and Chenango may be characterized as mountainous^ and the direction of the ranges is from S. W. to N. E. A narrow NEW-YORK. in tract on and near tlie Pennsylvania line is generally hilly. The ctuiiiiy between that and lake Ontario is an extensive level, with- ciM a "ill ni the whole extent deserving the name of a aiountain> lav : vMUitry around lake Ontario, on the S. and E. has a very si;;guis.!- surface. Lake Erie is more trian 300 feet above lake Ontario. The country around it is of course much higher. This high tract is a level and reaches eastward a great distance. The descent from it towards Ontario is not irregular and impercepti- bl(: ; but is made by three successive pitches, or steeps, with a \vidc interval of level land between them. The country in the nortlieastern part of the state is generally hilly ; and the lu.ight of land, between Champlain and the St. Law- rence, is a range of mountains of considerable height. A strip of land about 30 miles wide along the St. Lawrence is uneven. At that distance it becomes rough and broken. Soil and ^ifriculture. The whole tract of country between the Susquchannah and the Genesee is very ferlilc. This is particu- lat'iy true of Seneca county, wliich lies bt:tween Seneca and Cayu- ga hikes, ot the valley of the Chenango, and of the Genesee flats. These last include a strip of about 60,000 acres, lying on both sides of the river, in some places nearly two miles wide. These flats prouuce 100 bushels of maize lo the acre, and are probably as rich as land can be. West of the Genesee the soil is less uniformly good. Dutchess and West-Chester are excellent land, and in high cultivation. The country along the Mohawk, west of the Oneida village, is very rixh. The extensive flats of Herkimer have been cultivated a long period, and have lost none of their fertility. In the counties southeast of the Chenango, the hills are covered with #ne limber, and when cleared make excellent pasture ; and the intervening vallies produce grass and every kind of grain in abun- dance. The country north of the Mohawk is also generally fertile. The basis of the soil within 20 miles of the St. Lawrence is a stiff clay, on the high grounds covered with loam, and in the low grounds appearing on the surface. The lands along the Black river are among the best in the state. Wheat is more extensively raised in this state, than all other grains. The next after it, is maize. This and peas are exported in large quantities. Rye is chiefly raised for the distilleries, and barley for the breweries. Dutchess county is one of the oldest, and is under the best cultivation. In the new settled parts of the state the farmers have such an abundance of excellent land that they pay little attention to improvements in agriculture. The returns lately made lo the secretary of stale were incom- plete respecting the agricultural concerns of New-York. The wxmhsY oi sheefi returned for Dutchess was 83,855, for Albany 34,342, for Jefierson 20,000, for Cayuga 49,872, and for Onondaga 44,893 : in all 332,962 in a population of 157,135. The same pro- portion for the whole state, exclusive of the city, would make the whole number of sheep upwards of 1,280,000. The number of homes returned for Dutchess was 14,341, or nearly 1 to 3|- individ- uals ; and oineat cattle to 51,650, or more than 1 to an individual- J72 NEVV-YORK. A similar calculation gives the vvhcle number oftiie first 247,000, and of the last 886,000. Bivers. Niagara river and the St. Lawrence are both on the frontiers. The Hudson, which runs wholly in this state, has already- been described. The Allegany, Susquehannah, Delaware, Passaic, and Hackensac, all find their sources here. The Mohaivk rises N. of Fort Stanwix or Rome, 8 miles from Black river, and running S. 20 miles to the site of the old fort, there turns eastward. Its course is thence E. by S. 130 miles, to the Hudson, into which it empties opposite Lansinburg, 169 miles above New-York. Its chief tributaries from the N. are Great and Little Canada creeks. On the S. the Scoharie joins the Mohawk at Fort Hunter. Its waters have scooped out a wide and deep ravine for more than 80 miles. The Genessee rises in Pennsylvania, and ptu'sues a northwesterly course of about 50 miles, and then a northeasterly one of 70, to lake Ontario. Osnvego river rises about 20 miles N. of Rome, where it is call- ed Wood creek. At Three river point, it receives the Seneca-, or the western branch, and takes the name of the O&ivego. Its course hence is N. W. 45 miles, to lake Ontario. Black river heads near the sources of Great Canada creek, and, after a course of 107 miles, empties into Hungry bay, 20 miles S. of the outlet of lake Ontario. Racket river rises near the Hudson, and runs 12 miles to the St. Lawrence. Grass river runs about 90 miles, emptying a little W. of Racket river. The Ostvrgaichie pursues a crooked course of 80 or 90 miles to the St. Lawrence. Lakes. Erie, Ontario, and Champlain each form a part of the boundary of New-York. Lake George lies S. W. of lake Champlain, and is 37 miles long, and from 1 to 7 broad. On each side it is skirted by lofty moun- tains. Its banks, however, are uncommonly regular and hand- some ; and its water is so transparent, that tie bottom is visible at almost any depth. It embosoms more than 200 beautiful islands, most of which are covered with white pine, cedar, spruce, and hemlock trees. It falls into lake Champlain by a channel 3 miles in length, in the course of which its waters fall upwards of 100 feet. Scaroon lake, in Montgomery county, is one of the sources of the Hudson, and is !2 miles long and 1 broad. Oneida lake is 20 miles long and 5 broad. It abounds in the salmon of the lakes. From the south it receives the waters of Ca- zenovia lake, through the Chittenango. Onondago, cr Salt lake, is 6 miles long and 1 broad, and, at the N. end, fiows thiough a short channel into Seneca river. Hksneateles lake is 14 miles long, and 1 bread. Its waters flow into Seneca river, where it enters Cross lake. Onvosco lake is 1 i miles long and 1 broad, and is discharged into the same river. NEW-YORK. 173 Cayugii lake is 40 miles long, and from 2 to 4 broad, aboundinjj wilh sulmuii, buss, eels, and cat iish. Seneca lake is 40 miles long, and from 2 to 3 wide. Its outlet, the Scayacc, runs N. of E. 12 miles, and falls into Cayuga lake near its nioiitii. Its length, from that lake to Mud creek, is about four. Cro(>kcd lake is 15 miles long and from 1 to 2 \yidc. A short stream connects it with the Seneca. Canandagua lake is 15 miles long and nearly 2 bro:id. INUid lake, Honeyoy, Hemlock, and Canesus lakes are from 5 to 7 mile.s long. Chataughque lake lies 9 miles from lake Erie. It is 18 miles long and 3 broad. Its waters flow through Conncwango creek in- to the Allegany. Boats go from the head of this lake to NeAV-Or- leans, a distance of 2430 miles. Otsego and Caniaderago lakes are the two souices of the Sus- quehannah. The first is 9 miles long and 1 wide. The other is nearly as large. Oswegatchie lake is iS miles long, and nearly parallel v;it.h the St. Lawrence. Bays. New-York bay is 9 miles long and 4 broad, and spreads to the southward of Manhattan island ; having Long island on the E. and New-Jersey and Staten island on the W. On the N. }t opens into the Hudson ; on the N. E. through East river, into the Sound ; on the W. between Staten island and Bergen neck into Newark bay ; and on the S. between Staten and Long islands, through the JVar7-Qivs, into Amboy bay and the Atlantic. South bay is an arm of lake Champlain, at its southwestern ex- tremity. Wood creek flows into the strait which joins it with the lake. Hungry bay is an arm of the Ontario, 20 miles S. of the St. Law- rence. Mountains. The Catskill mountains are the highest land in the state. They lie within 2 miles of the Hudson, are estimated to exceed 4000 feet in height, and are said to be ihe N. E. termina- tion of the Allegany ridge. Roundtop mountain, near Catskill (measured by Lieut. Partridge) is 3566 feet above the level of the sea, and High Peak, in the same vicinity, is 3486 feet. A part of Taghconnuc mountain is in Columbia county. The highlancls front upon the Hudson for 18 miles, and are between 40 and 60 N. of New- York. They are the N. E. termination of the Blue ridge. Minerals. Iron ore is spread over the stale. Lead is found in Herkimer county, and silver at Philipsburg. Mines of zinc and copper have been discovered. Slate and plaster of Paris are a- bundant. Coal, sulphur, marble and ising glass have also been found. Mineral Waters. Ballstown springs, 30 miles N. of Albany, are in the bottom of -a bason of about 50 acres in extent. The soil, for 6 miles around, is poor and sandy. The waters are strongly impregnated with iron, soda, common salt, and carbonic acid Their temperature in summer is 49° of Fahrenheit. They are deemed a specific in loss of appetite and indigestion, and are high ly serviceable in hypochondriac and bilious cases, in obstructions; 174 NEW-YORK. and cutaneous disorders, and in the stone and gravel. They are hurtful in inflammatory disorders and consumptions. Saratoga springs are 10 miles northeast from Ballstown. The ingredients are the same in both springs, but are strongest in those of Saratoga. New-Lebanon spring is in the township of Canaan, 29 miles S. W. from Albany. Isla?ich. Long island is separated from Connecticut and the county of Westchester, by the sound ; from York island by the East river ; and from Staten island by the Narrows. It is 140 miles long, and from 1 to 15 broad. When first discovered, Wa- yandancc, the principal sachem in Suffolk county, lived at Man- tauk. The population of the island, in 1790, was 41,782 ; in 1800, 42,097 ; and in 18 iO, 48,752. It is divided into 3 counties, King's, Queen's, and Suffolk. King's, at the west end of the island, is 10 miles long, and 8 broad, contains 6 townships, and is inhabited chiefly by Dutch. Its largest town is Brooklyn. Queen's lies cast of King's, is 30 miles long, and 12 broad, con- tains 6 townships, and is inhabited partly by Dutch and partly by English. Hempstead, the most populous township, contains 5804 inhabitants. Suffolk is 100 miles long, and 10 broad, and compre- hends two thirds of the island. It contains 9 townships, and is in- habited almost wholly by English. It was first settled by emigrants from Lynn, in Massachusetts. A ridge of hills extends, on the north side of the island, from Jamaica to Southhold. The south side is chiefly flat land, naturally covered with yellow pines. King's county, and the western part of Queen's, have been rendered fer- tile and productive by husbandry. The greater part of Suffolk has a poor, thin soil, and much of it is not worth cultivating. The north side is the best. Hempstead plain, in the eastern part of Queen's, is 16 miles long from east to west, and 8 broad. It is a perfect level, covered with nothing but a wild, rank grass, except in three or four places, in which are found a few trees of stinted growth : (these places are called Inlands.) South of the plain, lies another, 2 miles wide, called the Shrvb-oak filai7i, from its be- ing every where covered willi shrivelled shrub-oaks, none of which arc above 4 feet high, and many of them probably 100 years old. An extensive shrub-oak plain also lies on the eastern border of Hempstead plain, but is in Suffolk county. The eastern end of the island opens like a shark's mouth. The southern promontory, in the township of Easiharapton, is 20 miles long and rarely more tlian 1 wide. The extremity is a cape, well known to mariners, called Montauk pinnt ; on which a light-house is erected. The northern promontory is chiefly in the township of Southliold, and is 12 miles long, and every where narrow. Its cape is called Oyster-pond pouit. The principal rivers are Pcconic river, which empties into Great bay, Connecticut river which empties on the S. side of the island. Roconkama pond, near the centre of the island, between Smithtown and Islip, is oliserved to rise and fall every 7 years. Manhattav hland iias already been described. NEW-JERSEY. \75 Staten island., 9 miles S. of Manhattan island, i^ separated by Arthur Kull sound from New- Jersey, on the N. and W ; has York bay on the N. E. the Narrows on the E. and Amboy bay on the S. It constitutes the county of Richmond, is IS miles lone-, and 6 or 7 broad. It contains 4 townships. The population in 1790, was 3835 ; in 1800, 4563 ; in 1810, 5347. The inhabitcUits are chiefly of Dutch and French extraction. The land is generally rough and hilly ; but on the south side is a considerable tract of level good land. The chief village is Richmond, in the township of South- field. Fresh Kill is the name of the largest creek. NEW-JERSEY. Extent. NEW-JERSEY is situated between lat. 39° and 41 2^ N. and between Ion. 74*^ and 75 29 W. It is 160 miles long, from N. to S. Its least breadth, in the centre, is 42 miles ; the greatest breadth, in the north, is 70, and in the south, 75. The state contains about 8320 square miles, or 5,324,000 acres. Boundaries. On the N. is New-York, from which it is separat- ed by a line drawn from the mouth of Mahakamak river, in lat. 41 24, to a point in Hudson river, in lat. 41° ; on the E. and S. E. it has Hudson river, New-York bay, and the Atlantic ocean ; on the S. W. and W. Delaware bay and river, which separate this state from the states of Delaware and Pennsylvania. Divisions. The state is divided into 13 counties and 1 16 towns. Counties. No. of Population, Chief towns, towns, in 1790. in 1800. in 1810. Cape May* 3 2,571 3,066 3,632 Cumberland* 8 8,248 9,529 12,670 Bridgetown Salem* 9 10,437 11,371 12,761 Salem Gloucester* 10 13,360 16,115 19,744 5 Woodbury \ Gloucester Burlington* 12 18,095 21,521 24,979 C Burlington I Bordenton Hunterdon* 10 20,253 21,261 24,553 Trenton Sussex* J 15 19,500 22,534 25,549 Newtown Bergenf "^ 7 12,601 15,155 16,603 Hackinsac Essexf .10 17,785 22,269 25,984 5 Newark I Elizabcthtowii Middlesext ) 8 15,956 17,890 20,381 Amboy Monmouthf J 7 16,918 19,872 22,150 Freehold Sosnerset 7 12,296 12.815 14,728 Boundbrook Morris 10 16,2i6 17,750 21,828 Morristovvn Total 13 116 184,139 211,149 245,562 Mame. In th^-. original patent by the duke of York to lord Berke- * These 7 counties lie from S. to N. on Delaware river. Cape May and Gloucester extend across to the sea. t These 4 counties lie from N- to S. on the eastern side of the state. ir6 NEW- JERSEY. }y and sir George Carteret, the province is called J^ova-Cxsafed^ or J^'erj-Jcrseij. This name was given in compliment to Sir George, whose family came from the isle of Jersey. It had pre- viously been considered a part of .Vcw-jy^therlands. History. This territory, in 1664, was included in the patent of Charles 11. to his brother, the duke of York and Albany, who soon ■piiicv conveyed it to Berkeiy and Carteret. In the same year, three inhabitants of Long island purcliased a tract of land of the Indians ; and, settling on it, called it Elizabethtown. The next year the colony received its own governor, sir George Carteret, and became a distinct province. In 1676 the province was divided into East and West- Jersey. In 1688 the Jerseys, with New- York, were annexed to New- Eiigland by royal authority, but the scheme miscarried. In 1702 West-Jersey was resitrned to, and in due form accepted by, queen Anne, who united it to East-Jersey, and made both one royal government. The united provinces were called New-Jersey. New-York and New-Jersey had from that time a common govern- or, till the year 1738. The constitution of the state was formed in 1776. This state, for severa;! years, was occupied by the American and British armies during the revolutionary war. In proportion to her population and wealth, the losses of this state in men and property^ were greater than those of any of the other states. When gen. Washington was retreating through the Jerseys, almost forsaken, her militia constituted, for a time, the principal strength of his ar- iny. At the battle of Trenton (Dec. 26, 1776) the British receiv- ed a check, which turned the tide of the war in favor of the Uniteri States. The battle of Princeton, the January following, obliged the British to retire to winter quarters. The battle of Monmouth was fought in June, 1778. Many towns and places in this state were rendered signal by some battle or exploit during the war. Religion. Presbyterians are the most numerous denomination. In 1811, there were 64 churches and 42 clergymen. There were 33 Dutch Reformed churches and 42 clergymen. The Episcopal thuixh at that time comprised 24 churches and 10 clergymen. The Baptist church is connected with the New-York and Phila- delphia Bapiibt associaiions. The first then comprised 1 1 church- es, 2 clergymen, and 1 licentiate ; the last 19 churches, 1 1 clergy- nten, and 3 licentiates. The Methodists make New-Jersey one of their districts, and di- vide it into 8 circuits. The district is committed to a presiding elder, and each circuit to an itinerant. These are appointed by the annual Philadelphia conference, and the itinerants are subject to an interchange once a year. The number of communicants in all the circuits, in 1811, was 6739, of whom about 500 were people af color. The Congregational churches are regulated by a convention. Their ntimber is 9, and they have 5 clergymen. Kew-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the eastern shore o£ NEW- JERSEY. 177 Maryland, compose a district, which is under the direction of the yearly lijcetirig of Friends at Piiiladelphia. Eleven quarterly meetings are held annually in this district ; of which four are held in New-Jersey. Eiijhtcen monthly meetings ra'C held here, and tlie Friends have 44 meeting houses in the state. Government. The legislature is composed of a legislative coun- cil and house of assembly. The council is chosen annually, and consists of 13 mem!)ers ; each county choosing one. A member must be a freeholder in the county, reside in it the year preceding his election, and possess property worth 1000/. The assembly consists of 35 members. They are chosen annually, must reside a year in the county previous to the election, be freeholders, and hold property worth 500/. The executive is composed of a governor, chosen by a joint bal- lot of tiie legislature ; a vice president, chosen by the council : and a privy council, consisting of any three members of the legislative, council. The governor is president of the council, chancellor, surrogate general, and captain general. The governor and legislative council are the high court of ap- peals, and have the sole power of pardoning. This court sits twice a year at Trenton. The court of chancery is a court of law and equity, of which the governor is the sole judge. It is held 4 times a year at Trenton. The supreme court consists of three judges, who continue in of- fice 7 yfears, and sits 4 times a year at Trenton. The qualifications of a voter are property amounting to 50/. and a year's residence in the county previous to the election. Pofiula'Aon. The number of inhabitants in New-Jersey was in the year ,«.^„ C 43,r583 free inh. > .- o^-r. f 194,325 whites '^■^'1 3,981 slaves ^ ^^'^^^ 1800* 1745 S 56,797 free inh.> ^^ (^ 4,600 slaves ^ ,^„ ( free inh.5 . ,^ ,._ 1810-{ 10,85 1 slaves }► 245,562 u84 -J , > 140,435 I slaves \ {169,924 whites "j li, 423 slaves I 184,139 2,792 free bl.J The items of the census of 1810 were as follows : n^ales. females. tot^ whites. Under 16 years of age 56,728 53,849 110,577 Between 1 6 and 45 ' 42,625 42,553 85,178 45 and upwards 16,004 15,109 31,113 r 194,325 whites') -j 12,422 slaves [-211,149 (_ 4.402 free bl. 3 {226,868 whites"! 10,85 1 slaves I: 7,843 free bl.J Total 115,357 111,511 226,868 New- Jersey was, by the census of 1790, in point of population, the ninth ; by that of I'SOO, the tenth, and by that of 1810, the twelfth state in tlie union. Militia. The militia of New-Jersey according to the returns of IRIO consisted of ]r8 NEW-JERSEY. 4 1 regiments of infantry 3 1,27"4 men^ 5 regiments of cavalry 1,632 1 regiment of artillery 784 47 33,710 These were commanded by 20 staff officers, 159 field officers, and 560 captains. Manners and Cui>to?n.^. Many circumstances concur to render these various in difP.-rent parts of the stat-e. The inhabitants are a collection of Low Dutch, Germans, English, Scotcli, Irish, and New-Englanders, or their descendants. National attachment and mutual convenience have generally induced these several kinds of people to settle together in a body, and in this way their peculiar national manners, customs, and character are still preserved, es- pecially among the poorer class of people, who have little inter- course with any but those of their own nation. Religion, although its tendency is to unite people in those tilings that are essential to happiness, occasions wide differences as to manners, customs, and even character. The Presbyterian, the Quaker, the Episcopalian, the Baptist, the German and Low Dut.ch Calvinist, the Methodist, and the Moravian, have each their distinguishing characteristics, either in their worship, their discipline, or their dress. Literature. There is a college in New-Jersey, at Princeton, called Nassau Hall, founded about the year 1738. It has 24 trus- tees. The governor of the state and the president of the college are, ex q^cio, two of them. The establishment consists of a president, three professors, two tutors, and a grammar master. The president is also professor of moral philosophy, history, and eloquence. There is a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, including astronomy and chemistry, which is treated, not only in its relation to medicine, but to agriculture and manufactures. To the tutors is committed the instruction of the two lowest classes in the college. The grammar master teaches writing, arithmetic, and the elements of' the Latin and Greek languages. A theological seminary, which, has two professors, has been lately established at Princeton, v/hich promises to be extensively useful to the Presbyterian churches in the United States, and pro- motive of the interests of religion generally. There have been heretofore in the winter session generally from 70 to 80 students in the four classes cfthe college, exclusive of the grammar school. In the summer session from 80 to 90. This number has lately been considerably increased. The annual income of t'pe college at present, by fees of the stu- dents and otherwise, is about 1000/. It has also funds in posses- sion, to tlic amount of Si 0,000, for the education of poor and pious youth for the ministry of tlie gospel ; and an estate in Philadelphia for the same purpose, of between 2 and 300/. per annum, a legacy of the late Mr. Hugh Hodge, a man of eminent piety. The college library contains about 4000 volumes. There arc besides in the college two respectable libraries belonging to the wo literary societies. NEW-JERSEY. 179 The college edifice is of stone, 180 feet in length, 54 in breadth, and four stories high, divided into forty-two convenient chambers for the accomodation of the students, besides a dining hall, chapel, and room for the library. Its situation is elevated and very pleas- ant and healthful. The college has been under the care of a succession of presi- deiits, eminent for piety and learning ; and has furnished a num- ber of civilians, divines, and physicians of the first rank in America,* aud connected as it now is, with a theological seminary, its pros- pects of future prosperity and usefulness are very encouraging. Queen's college, in New-Bi'unsvvick, was founded by ministers of the Dutch church, for the education of their clergy, and incor- porated in 1770. Within a year or two, under its present venera- ble head, it has become a flourishing seminary. Its legislature is a board of trustees consisting of 29 members, of wiiom the presi- dent, governor, and chief justice, are always three. The instruct- ors are a president, who is professor of theology ; a vice president, who is professor of moral philosophy and belles lettres ; a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy: one tutor ; and a principal of the grammar school, connected with the college^ There are 15 incorporated academies in New-Jersey, scattered over the state. Cities and Tonuns. Newark is pleasantly situated at a small distance W. of the Passaic, near its mouth in Newark bay, and 9 miles W. of the city of New-York. It is a flourishing, well built town, and contains a handsome court house, a gaol, 3 Presbyterian churches, 1 Episcopalian, and I Baptist. It contained in 1310, ^008 inhabitants. Trenton, the seat of government, stands on the E. bank of the Delaware, opposite the falls, and 28 miles by land, and 34 by water from Philadelphia, lat. 40 15 N. The public buildings are a state house, court house, gaol, academy, 2 Presbyterian cliurches, 1 Episcopalian, 1 Baptist, and 1 Friends. The population of the town in 1790, was 1946 ; and in 18!0, 3002. Perth Amboy (city) took its name from James Drummond, carl of Perth, and Ambo, the Indian name for point ; and stands on a neck of land included between Rariton river and Artiiur Kull sound. Its situation is high and healthy. It had in 1810, 815 in- habitants. Burlington is built chiefly on an island in the Delaware, 1 mile long, I of a mile broad, and 18 N. E. from Philadelphia. The pub- lic buildings are 4 meeting houses, for Friends, Episcopalians, * Accessus. Presidents. Exitus. 1746 Rev. Jonathan Dickenson, 1747 1748 Rev. Aaron Burr, 1757 1758 Rev. Jonathan Edwards, 1758 1758 Rev. Samuel Davies, 1760 1761 Rev. Samuel Finley, D. D. 1766 1767 Rev. John Witherspoon, D. D. 1794 1795 Rev. Samuel Stanhope Smith, D. D. resigned 1812 1812 Rev. Ashbel Green, D. D. 180 NEW-JERSEY. Methodists, and Baptists, one for each, an academy, city hall, and gaol. In 1803, it contained 282 houses, and 2256 jnhabitants ; and in 1810, 2419 hihabitants. New-Brunswick is built on the S. W. bank of the Rariton, 14 jiiiles from its ntioiuh, and 53 N. E. from Philadelphia. The great road from New-York to Philadelphia passes throup;h this town. The public buildings are the college edifice, 1 Episcopalian church, 1 Dutch Reformed, and 1 Presbyterian. The population in 1810, was 6312. Half of tl;e inhabitants are of Dutch origin. ' Princeton is a pleasant village of about 80 houses, 52 miles from New-York, and 42 from Phiiadeipliia. Its public buildings are a large college edifice of stone, already described, and a Pres- byterian church buili of brick. Its situation is remarkably healthy. Elizabethtown (borough) is 15 miles from New-York. In the compact part of the town, there are about 150 houses. The public buildings arc a very handsome Presbyterian brick church, an Episcopal church also of brick, and an academy. In 1810, it had 2977 inhabitants. Manufactures. In Trenton, Newark, and Elizabethtown, are a considerable number of very valuable tanneries, where excellent leather in large quantities is made, and a part of it exported to the Neighboring markets. Newark is the seat of a considerable shoe manufactory. In Gloucester county is a glass house. Paper mills and nail manufactories are erected and worked to good advantage in several parts of the state. But the iron manufacture is, of all others, the greatest source of wealth to the state. Iron works are erected in Gloucester, Burlington, Sussex, Morris, and other coun- ties. In Morris county alone are no less than seven rich iron mines, from which might be taken ore suflicient to supply the U- ijited States ; and to work it into iron are two furnaces, two rolling and slitting mills, and about 30 forges, containing from two to four lires each. These works produce annually about 540 tons of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs, besides large quantities of hollow ware, sheet iron, and nail rods. In the wivole state it is supposed there is yearly made about 1200 tons of bar iron, 1200 do. of pigs, 80 do. of nail rods, exclusive of hollow ware, and various other cast- ings, of which vast quantities are made. Coinjnerce. The amount of exports from the ports of this state, in 1810, was S4SO,267 ; but a much greater amount is annually exported from the state through New-York and Philadelphia. These two cities import almost all the foreign merchandize con^ sumed in the state. Th.e articles exported are flour, wheat, horses, cattle, hams, cider, lumber, flaxseed, leather, and iron. The New- York and Philadelphia markets are constantly supplied with large quantities of provisions and fruits from New-Jcrscy. The aggre- gate tonnage of the state of New- Jersey for tlie year 1S05, was 22,958 tons. Face of the Coimtry. The tliree northern counties are moun- tainous. The next four are agreeably diversified with hills and vallies. But at Sandy Hook commences that long range of fl?.t NEW-JERSEY. 181 Irviid, which lines the coast of the middle and southern states. The greater pan of the 6 southern counties are of this description. Soil a}id Ji;rkuUure. The mountainous parts of the state have generally a strong soil, and are a fine grazing country. '1 he farm- ers there raise great numbers of cattle for the markets of New- York and Philadelphia. They also raise wheat, rye, maize, buck- wheat, potatoes, oats, and barley, enough for their own consump- tion. They keep large dairies, and make great quantities of but- ter and cheese. In the counties that are uneven and hilly, the soil is likewise generally rich, and very productive of the various kinds of grain, particularly wheat and maize. Near New-York and Phi- ladelphia, great attention has been paid to the cultivation of fruit and vegetables. A narrow tract of country on the Delaware, in Burlington and Gloucester counties, is rich and fertile ; as are various similar tracts, in the southern half of ihe state, on the small rivers and creeks. In Salem, Cumberland, and Cape May, there are also very extensive tracts of salt meadow on the river and bay. With these exceptions the greater part, at least four fifths of the 6 southern counties, or two fifths of the whole state, are barren. They produce little else hut shrub oaks and yellow pines. Rivers. The Delaware and Hudson are on the W. and E. sides of this state. The Rariton is formed by two considerable streams, called the north and south branches ; one of which has its source in IMorris, the other in Hunterdon county. It passes by Brunswick and Am- boy, and mingles v/ith the waters of the Arthur Kull sound, and helps to form the fine harbor of Amboy. It is a mile wide at its mouth, 250 yards at Brunswick, and is navigable about 16 rnilcs. The Passaic is a very crooked river. It rises in a pond in the county of Orange, (New-York) and runs about 20 miles before it enters New-Jersey. Pursuing a southerly course, it receives the Pegunnoc and the Rockaway from the west, and falls into Newark bay, after a course of about 65 miles. It is navigable 10 miles, and is 230 yards wide at the fcrry. The fall in this river at Patterson is one of the most interesting cataracts in the union. The Hackensac rises in the county of Rockland, in New-York, and running in a direction parallel with the Hudson for 40 miles, falls into Newark bay, a little distance east of the Passaic. It is navigable 15 miles. Great Egg Harbor river rises in Gloucester, and runs southeast A5 miles, to the Atlantic, emptying into Great Egg Harbor bay. It It is navigable 20 miles for boats of 200 tons. Maurice river runs south by east 30 miles, and empties into Delaware bay. It is navigable for sloops of 100 tons, 20 miles ; and, tor small craft, nearly to its source. Most of the little creeks; on the coast are navigable for boats the greater part of their course. ihtMusco7iecunk runs southwest about 40 miles, and falls into ihe Delaware, a little below Easton. The other branches of the i^clawarc are Flatkill, Paulinskill, the Request, and Rancocus. ^nys. Delaware bay is the southwestern boundary of this slate ; IS2 DELAWARE. and New- York hay lies east of Bergen neck. Newark bay lies west of Bergen neck, and is about 5 miles deep, and 2 wide. Amboy bay, between Scaten island and Middleton, is about IS miles deep ; and, in the widest part, 12 broad. It is of a triangular shape, and opens between Sandy Hook (on which stands a light house 100 feet high) and Long island, into the Atlantic At the liead of the bay, Arthur Kull sound connects it with Newark bay and New-York bay, and at the northeastern angle, it opens through the narrows and New-York bay, into the Hudson and Long Island sound. Arthur Kull Sound is the narrow, crooked, strip of water between Staten island and the Jersey main. The northeastern end A)pens into New-York bay, between Bergen neck and that island ; and the southwestern into Aniboy bay, between the same island and Amboy. It is about 22 miles long, and rarely 1 mile wide. Moimtains. The South mountain, which is one ridge of the great Allegany range, crosses this state in about latitude 41°. The Kit- tatinny ridge passes north of the South mountain. Several spurs from, these mountains are projected in a southern direction. The highlands of Navesink are on the sea coast near Sandy Hook, in the township of Middleton, and are the first lands that are discov- ered by mariners, as they come upon the coast. They rise about 600 feet above the surface of the water. DELAWARE. Extent. DELAWARE is 96 miles long from N. to S. Its greatest breadth is 36 miles, and its least 10. The area is about 2120 square miles. It lies between lat. 38 29 30, and 39 54 N. and between Ion. 74 56, and 75 40 W. Boinidaries. Bounded N. by Pennsylvania ; E. by Delaware river and bay, and the Atlantic ; S. and W. by Maryland. Divhions. This stale is divided into 3 counties and 25 town- chips. Counties. No. of Population. Chief towns. towns. 1790. 1800. 1810. Newcastle 9 19,688 25,361 24,429 Newcastle Kent 5 18,920 19,554 20,495 Dover Sussex 1 1 20,488 19,358 27,750 Georgetown 25 59,096 64,273 72,674 It is entitled to 2 representatives to Congress. JS^ames. This country, when ceded by the duke of York and Al- bany to William Pcnn, was called The Territories of Pennsyhm' nia. When it obtained its own assembly (in 1703) it was called The Three Lower Counties on Delaware ; a name, which it retain- ed, till the formation of a constitution, in Sept. 1776, when it took that oi Delaware. This name was derived directly from the bay, but, originally, from lord De la War, who completed the settle- ment of Virginia, and died in the bay, in 1618, on his way to Vir- ginia. DELAWARE. 18a History. A colony of Swedes and Finns settled at cape Henlo- pen, which they called Paradise point, in 1627. In 1630 they built a fort at Lewistown ; and, a year after, another near Wilminc;;ton, and laid out a small town. Soon after the Dutch, at New-York, contested their ri^ht to the west bank of the Delaware. The Dutch put up a fort at Newcaiitle, in 1651, which the S.vedes took from them the next year. In 1655 the Dutch reduced the Swedish colony, sent the princi- pal inhabitants prisoi^ers to Holland, and received the rest imuer their protection, making the country a part of their colony of New- Netherlands. When the English, took possession of that colony, in 1664, for the duke of York, his governors claimed jurisdiction over the west bank of the Delaware, and continued to exercise it till 1682. In that year, the duke gave William Ponn a deed of Newcastle, and of a district 12 miles round it ; and another of a tract from 12 miles S. of Newcastle to Hoai kill. In 1703, a partial disunion took place between the Three Lower Cotmties, and the colony of Pennsylvania ; and, by agreement, they were placed under the government of their own legislature. The boundary line, between the Counties and MaryiaiKl, was settled, after a long dispute between the proprietors, in 1760. In 1765, deputies were sent from the Lower Counties to the first congress at New-York. In April, 1775, Richard Penn, proprietor of Pennsylvania, re- signed his jurisdiction, over the Counties^ whereby they became a distinct colony ; and, in the September of the following year, a con- vention of representatives chosen for the purpose, formed a con- stitution : and the territory, taking the name of Delaware., became a free and independent state. During the revolutionary war, Dela- ware suffered severely ; her citizens were distinguished for their exertions and her troops for their valor. A new constitution was formed for the state in June, 1792. lielig-ion. In this state there is a variety of religious denomina- tions. Of the Presbyterian sect, there are 24 churches ; of the Episcopal, 14 ; of the Friends, S ; of the Baptist, 7 ; of the Metho- dist, a considerable number, especially in the two lower counties of Kent and Sussex : the number of their churches is not exactly as- . eertained. Besides these there is a Swedish church at Wilmmg- ton, which is one of the oldest churches in the United States. Government. The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. The representatives are chosen annually, and by counties. Each member must be 24 years of age, have a free- hold in the county, and have been a citizc;n and inb.abitant of the state, tliree years, and of t'ne county, one year, immediately preced- ing tiic election. The senators are chosen trieniualiy, and by coun- ties ; they must be 27 years of age, have a freehold in the county ef 200 acres, or an estate of 1000/. and have resided the same peri- od as the members of Uie other house. One third of the senator* go out annually. The assembly meet in January. The. governor is chosen by the freemen iricnnlalh-, and can ho\<\ 184 DELAWARE. the cftice only 3, out of any term of 6, years. He must be 50 years old, and have been a citizen of the United States 12 years, and of Delaware the 6 preceding his election. He appoints to all offices, the appointment of \Vhich is not provided for by the constitution. The speaker of the senate in case of the absence, death, or resigna- tion of the governor, acts in his room. All persons who have resided in the state two years next before the election and have paid taxes, and the sons of such persons, are voters. The courts are a court of chancery, a supreme court, courts of oyer and terminer and general gaol delivery, a court of common pleas, orplians' courts, I'egisters' courts, courts of quarter sessions in each county, and justices' courts. There may be 3 or 4 judges of the supreme court and of the court of common pleas ; one of whom must reside in each coxinty. They and the chancellor hold their offices during good behaviour ; and together form the high- est court, called the high court of appeals, of which the chancellor is president. Pojiulation. The number of inhabitants was in {46,310 whites ~J Too, 361 whites"! 8,887 slaves 159,096 1810^ 4,177 slaves [.72j6r4 3,899freebl. j (_ ISjiSefreebl. J {49,852 whites"! 6,143 slaves 164,273 8,278 free bl. J The items of the census of 1310 were males. Under 16 years of age 14,112 Between I 6 and 45 11,016 45 and upwards 2,878 Total 28,006 27,355 55,3(51 Delaware had a smaller population than either of the other states, at each of the national enumerations. Militia. The militia of this state constitute one division, con- taining three brigades, one in each county. Each brigade com- prises three regiments. The whole number of the niiliiia, in 1810, .including ofiicers, was 8346. Literature. There is an academy at Wilmington, and another at Newark, incorporated in 1769. The legislature, during their session in January, 1796, passed an act to create a fund for the es- tablishment of schools throughout the state. Towiifi. Wilmington is a pleasant town, 27 miles southwest of Philadelphia, containing 700 houses, mostly brick, and about 4200 inhabitants. It is situated two miles west of the river Dela- ware, between Christiana and Brandywine creeks, which at this place, arc about one mile from each other ; but uniting below the town, they join the Delaware in one stream 400 yards at the mouth. The Christiana admits vessels of 14 feet draught of water to the rown ; and the Brandywine those of 7 feet. There are 6 places of as follow : females. total whites. 13,411 27,523 11,068 2^,084 2,876 5,754 DELAWARE. 19.S iRiblic worship, vii. two for Presbyterians, one for Friends, one for Episcopalians, one for Methodists, and one for Baptists. Dover, in the county of Kent, is the scat of government. It stands a few miles from Delaware river, and consists of about 100 houses, principally of brick. Newcastle is 33 miles below Philadelphia, and agreeably sit- uated on the west bank of Delaware river. It contains about lOO good houses, and was formerly the seat of government. This is the first town tljat was settled on Delaware river. It curries on a brisk trade with Philadelphia and Baiiimore. , The other towns of importance arc Milford, Duck Creek Cross Roads, Port Penn, Newport, Christiana bridge, Lewistown, and Georgetown.* Canal. The Delaware and Chcsapeak canal is to pass between E!k river and Cliristiana creek. It has already been described. Another canal is to be opened between Lcvites creek and Reho- both bay. JManufdctiires. Almost the whole of the foreign exports of Delaware are from Wilmington : the trade from tb.is state to Phi- ladelphia is great, being the principal source wlience that city chaws its staple commodity. No less than 150,000 barrels of flour, 500,000 bushels of wheat, 170,0(^0 bushels of Indian corn, besides Ijarley, oats, flax-seed, piper, slit iron, snuff, salted provisions. Sec. 8cc. to a very considerable amount, are annually sent from the wa- ters of the Delaware state ; of which the Cln'istiana is by far the raost productive, and probably many times as much so as any other creek or river of like magnitude in the union — 245,000 barrels of flour, and other articles to the amount of 80,000 dollars more, be- ing from this creek ; of which, to the value of 550,000 dollars, are manufactured on its northern bank, within two or three miles of ihci navigation. Commerce. The exports from Delaware, in 1804, amounted to g697,396 ; and, in 1310, to g 120,342. Flour is the capital article. Lumber is also exported in large quantities, and is procured chief- ly from the Cypress swamp. Face of the Country. The northern half of the county of New- castle is hilly. The rest of the state is generally level and low. Large tracts of land in the spring and early in the summer are overspread with stagnant water, which renders them unhealthy, and unfit for agriculture. The spine, or height of lund, in the pen- insula between the two bays, is in this state. In the south it com- raences in the Cypress swamp, and preserves a general para.llelisni with the west coast of Delaware bay, at the distance of about 15 miles from it. lu the upper county it is on the border of Mary- land. Its progress is marked by a chain of swamps, in the two lower counties and a part of Newcastle, from which the waters de- sc'jnd on each side to the Delaware and Chcsapeak. The height of this ridge between Elk river and Christiana creek is 74 feet. Soil and Agriculture. Delaware is chiefly an agricultural state. • For an account of these, see Amer. Ga?;. 24 Wef PENNSYLVA>riA. The general aspect of tlie country is very favorable for cultivs" tion. In the county of Newcastle, the soil consists of a strong clay; in Kent, there is ayconsiderable mixture of sand; and in Sussex- tiie quantity of sand altogether predominates. Wheat is the staple of this stale. Ii throws here in such pei^'ection as not on- ly to be particularly sought by the manufacturers of flour through- out the union, but aiso to be disthiguished and preferred, for its su- perior qualities, in foreign markets. The county of Sussex, besides producing a considerable quantity of grain, particularly of Indian corn, possesses excellent grazing lands. This county also exports very large quantities of lumber, obtained chit fly from an extensive swamp, called the Indian riverj or Cypress swanip. Rtvers. The Delaware, is, for a small distance, the eastern boundary. Brandywine creek rises in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and, running E. of S. 45 miles, falls in*o the Delaware, 2 miles below Wilmington. Cliristiana creek rises ot) the confines of Maryland, and pursues an easterly course of 25 miles to the Brandywine, fall- ing in about a mile from the Delaware, it is navigable lor boats to Christiana bridge, 13 miles. Duck creek is the frontier of Newcastle and Keiit. The names of the other streams are Jones's creek, Motherkill, Mispillion creek, Broadkill, and Indian river. This last receives the waters of the Cypress swamp. The Nanticoke runs a part of its course in Delaware. Bays. Delaware bay is half in this state and half in New-Jer- s*ey. Rehoboth bay, south of cape Henlopen, is separated by a narrow bar from the ocean. Swam/is. More tlian half of Cypress swamp lies in Delaware, It is 12 miles long, from N. to S and 6 wide, containing nearly 50,000 arres. It is a liigh and level bason, extiemely wet, though on the ridge between the Chesapeak and the Atlantic. It contains a very great variety of plants, trees, wild beasts, birds, and reptiles. T-he succession of swamps farther north has been mentioned. PENNSYLVANIA. £xtent. THE shape of Pennsylvania is more regular than that of any state in the union, except Connecticut. Its northern and aoutliern lines are chit fly in two parallels, and its western is a me- ri ian line. The greatest length is 307 miles from E. to W. The greatest Iireadth is \ 8 ), and the common breadth between the two parallels, 160 It lies be tween lat. ^9 42 and 42 17 N. and between Ion. 74 32 and 80 27 W. The state contains about 46,800 square miles. Boundaries. Bounded on the N. by lake Erie and New York ; on the E. by a small p.;it of New-York, and Delaware river, which separates il from New-York and Nt w-Jersf y ; on the S. by the States of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia j and on the W. by PENNSYLVANIA. m Virginia and Ohio. On the western line Ohio extends ^0 milesj and Virginia ^8 j on the southern, Virginia 54, and Maryland 196 miles. Divisions. This state is divided into 43 counties and 644 towns «s follow : Counties. No City and county > of Philadelphia 5 Montgomery Bucks Delaware Chester Lancaster Berks Northampton Luzerne Dauphin Northumberlandi Wayne Adams Allegany Armstrong Beaver Bedford Butler Ciawford Cumberland Fayette Franklin Green Huntingdon Lycoming Mercer Mifllin and Center 20 Somerset Venango Warren Washington Westmoreland York Erie Cambria Indiana Clearfield JefTerson Tioga Potter jM'Kean fotsil (S4* 602,545 ^10,091 3, towns. No. inh. No. inh. Chief lowns. in 1800. in 1810. 18 81,009 111,200 Philadelphia 30 24,150 29,703 Norristovvn 32 27,496 32,371 Newtown 21 12,809 14,734 Ctiestcr 40 32,093 39,596 Wesi-Chester 25 43,403 53,927 Lduca&icr 38 32,407 43,156 Reading 35 50,062 38,145 Laston 29 12,839 18,lu9 Wiiksbarre 15 22,270 31,883 Hai risburg 26 27,797 36,327 Suiibury 12 2,562 4,125 18 13,172 15,152 Gettysburg 16 15,U87 25,317 Piitbburg 7 2 399 6,143 12 5,776 12,lo8 Beaverton 15 12 "39 15,746 Bedford 13 3916 7,346 14 2,346 6,178 Meadville 18 25,3a6 26,757 Carlisle 19 20,159 24,714 Union 14 19,638 ?3,083 Chamberston 10 8,605 12,544 Wayncsborougt 18 13,0o8 14,778 Huntingdon 18 5,414 11,006 Williamsport 16 3,320 ■ 8,277 ■20 13,609 22,813 C Lewisburgand I Bellefont 15 10,188 11,284 Somerset 8 1,130 3,060 Franklin 2 233 827 Warren 23 28,298 36.289 Washington 14 22,726 26,392 Gieensburg 22 25,643 31,958 York 6' 1,468 3,758 Erie 3 2,117 7 6,2! 4 1 875 Clearfield 1 161 JefTerson 2 1,687 1 29 Potter 1 142 188 PENNSYLVANIA. Jiame. The name of this state is merely that of the original proprietor, Penn, and a connnon termination, derived from ii/ZiyQ, a tvood or forest, annexed. It was given to the territory in 1681. History. In consequence of the recommendation of Gustavus Adolphus, a colony of Swedes and Finns, in 1627, caine over to America. They landed at cape Henlopen, and bought the lands of the natives from that cape to the ialls of the Delaware, which they called Keiv-Sivedeland' Stream. Of these lands they accordingly took possession. In 1630, they built a fort at Lewistown, near cape Henlopen ; and, the next year, another at Christiana. They formed various settlements along the west bank of the Delaware^ as high as Trenton, and in the interior towards the Susquehannah ; iand instituted a regular government, founded on wise and correct principles. This small colony was in a thriving state until the dis- pute with the Dutch, who were already established in New-York, and set up a prior claim to the Delaware. Unsupported by a dis- tant mother country, then involved in war with five principal pow- ers of Europe, it was conquered in the year 1654, and afterwards became, with the other Dutch possessions in North-America, part of the British dominiors. In JVhuch, I6§1, Charles II. granted a charter to William Penn, the son of admit al sir William Penn, of all the territory between Delaware river and bay, and lord Baltimore's province of Marylaiid. In July of the same year, Penn disposed of 20,000 acres for 400/. to a company consisting chiefly of Friends : a colony of whom came over towards the close of the year, and commenced a settle- ment above the confluence of the Schuylkill with the Delaware. Penn, the next year, published a frame of government, and a body of laws, agreed on between him and the purchasers ; and obtained of the duke of York his deed of release for the tenitory, and two deeds conveying to him a tract of land at first called The 2'errito- ries of JPen'iinyh'artia ; afterwards The Three Lonver Cauntits on JDeluware Penn himself arrived in October, and called an assem- bly of the province at Upland, (Chester) in December, by which the three lower counties were annexed to the province. He now purchased of tlie natives as much of the soil as the colony needed. In 1683 he granted the freemen a new charter, and the assembly ■was first held at Philadelphia, which he had planned the preceding 3^ear. Ten years aflervvards the king and queen assumed the gov- ernment into their own hands, and appointed a common governor for this province and New-York. In 1694 Penn was reinstated in the government, and he appoint- ed a lieutenant governor of the province. Two years after, the as- sembly of the province prepared a new frame of government, ■which was approved of by the governor, who granted a new char- ter. In 1700, the assembly surrendered this charter, and Penn the next year prepared his last charter, which was accepted by a ma- jority of the assembly, but rejected by the representatives of u e Territories ; in consequence of v/hich it was agreed (in 1703) tl at tlie representatives of the province and those of the territories PENNSYLVANIA. i$9 should compose two distinct assemblies entirely independent of each other. In 1742, the deputies of the Six Nations relinquished a very large tract on the Susquehannah to the state. In 1758, gen. Forbes marched with a company from Philadel- phia, and reduced fort Du Quesne, which was called Pittsburg. In the early part of the revolution the legislature of this state of- i'ered the proprietors 130,000/. in lieu of all quit rents, which was accepted by them. In Sept. 1777, this state was made the theatre of war. The bat- tle of Brandywine was fought on the 1 1th of that month, in which the Americans were defeated ; and Philadelpliia was taken by sir William Howe on the 27th. The battle of Germantown, unfortu- nate to the Americans, was fought on the 4th of October. In No- vember the British took fort Mifflin and Mercer. In June, 1778, the British evacuated Philadelphia and marched into New-Jersey. The Pennsylvania line, with part of the New-Jersey troops, in Jan- uary, 1781, revolted, complaining of a want of pay and of suitable clothing ; the complaints were redressed, and subordination was restored. In 1795, and 1797, the city of Philadelphia was visited with the yellow fever. In the latter year 1275 persons died. An insurrection took place, 1794, in the 4 western counties, to resist the laws of the union, laying a duty on distilled spirits. On the approach of a respectable force, in October, the insurgents laid down their arms, and were pardoned. In 1799, the seat of the state government was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster ; and, in 1 800, the seat of the federal gov- ernment was removed from Philadelphia to Washington. Religion. In Pennsylvania were the following denominations of Christians, with the number of their respective congregations, ta- ken from the minutes of the proceedings of each society, about 10 years since, viz. Presbyterians 86 congregations ; German Calvin- ists 84 ; German Lutherans 84 ; Friends or Quakers 54 ; Episco- palians 26 ; Baptists 15; Roman Catholics 1 1 ; Scotch Presbyte- rians 8 ; Moravians 8 ; Free Quakers 1 ; Universalists 1 ; Cove- nanters 1 ; Methodists sfeveral, besides a Jewish synagogue : In all about 400 religious societies. The present number exceeds 600. Govern7nent. The constitution of the state was established SepL 2, 1790. It vests the legislative power in a senate and house of representatives. The number of senators cannot be less than one fourth, nor greater than one third, of the number of representatives. They hold tlieir offices 4 years, and one fourth of them are elected each year. They are chosen by districts. The qualifications for the senate, are the age of 25 years, and 4 years residence immedi- ately preceding the election. The number of representatives can- not be less than 60, nor more than 100. They are chosen annual- ly by the city of Philadelphia, and the respective counties. The qualifications for a representative are the age of majority, and 1 year's residence immediately preceding the election. Tl-.e legis- ^90 PENNSYLVANIA. lature meet once a year in December. The executive ^wet ig vested in a governor, who must be 30 years of aj^c, and have resid- ed in the state the 7 years next before his election. He is elected for 3 years ; but cannot be chosen above 9 out of any 12 yf.ais. He has the appointment of subordinate officers. If the governor return a bill presented for his approbation, two thirds of each house Ti:iust concur to render it a law. All persons have a right of voting, who pay taxes. The elec- tion takes place in October. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court consisting of 4 judges; courts of oyer and terminer; courts of common pleas; orphan's courts ; register's courts ; courts of quarter sessions ; and justices' courts. The judges of the supreme court, and of the courts of common picas, hold their office during good behavior. Pofmlation. The number of taxable inhabitants, in 1760, was 55,657 ; in 1770, 39,765 ; and, in 1793, 91,177. The whole num- ber of inhabitants was in the year 1749 about 220,000 f 586,095 whites' "602,365 1790-' of inhabitants was m the year > about 220,000 1*586,095 whites T r 424,099 whites"! 1800«{ 1,706 slaves I )X 3,737 slaves 1434,373 (^ 1 4,5 64 free bl. J (_ 6,537 free bl. J f 786,804 whites 1 r 1810«J 795 slaves ^8 10,09 It 22,492 free bl. J The following were the items of the census of 1810 : males. females. total whites. Under 15 vearsof age 201,070 192,712 393,782 Between 16 and 45 148,396 146,786 295,. 82 45 and upwards 52,100 45.740 97,840 Total 401,566 385,238 786,804 Pennsylvania is entitled to 23 representatives to Congress. Militia. In 1 800, there were in this state, Infantry in battalion 66,1 16 Flank companies 18,648 Artillery and cavalry 8,467 Total 93,221 The state at that time contained 602,545 souls. Supposing the STiilitia to hear the same proportion to the whole number of inhabi. itants in 1810, as in 1800, they will now amount to about 125,000. Manners and Custows. About half of the inhabitants are of English and New-England origin, about a fourth German, and an eighth Irish. The rest are Scotch, Welch, Swedes, and Dutch. Tiicse various classes retain in a great degree, their own national character. The Germans, Duich, and Catholic Irish retain their ov/n languages, and many of them cannot speak English. The Swedes, who have the character of " probity, mildness, and hospi- tality," have blended the English language with their own, and speak neither w^ell. The diversities of religion here arc also very- great. The inhabitants, who are of English and New-England origin, are mostly Friends, Episcopalians, and Presbyterians. They PENNSYLVANIA*. i91 live principally in the city of Philadelphia, and in the counties of Chester, Philadelphia, Bucks, Mom<^omeiy, and Luzerne. The Irish, and descendants of Irisli, are chiefly settled in the western and frontier counties ; a large prcjpoilion of them are Presbyterians from the north of Ireland. Tncre are likewise many Roman Cath- olics from this nation. The Germans are most numerous in the north paVt of the city of P.iiladelphi'ii, and in the counties of Philadelphia, Montgomery, Bucks, Dauphin, Lancaster, York, and Northampton ; chiefly in the four last ; but are spreading in other parts. Tiity consist of Lutherans, (who are the most numcruus seel) Calvinists, Moravi- ans, Catholics, Mennonists, Dutch B ipdsls, (cortupliy called Tan- kers and Dunktrsy by way ofreproactij and Zwingfeliers, who are a species of Quakers. These are a:l distinguished for their tem- perance, industry, and economy. Tlie Germans liave usually a- bout a fourth of the members in the assembly ; ar.d some of them have arisen to the first honors in the state, and now fill a number of the higher offices. Literature. Dickinson college* at Carlisle, was foui<.ded in 1 78 ", and put under the care of 40 trustees. It has a principal, wlio is professor of logic, metaphysics, and moral philosophy, a professor of mathematics ; of the learnt d languages ; of modern languages ; a lecturer on natural philosophy and chemistry, and a tutor ; a phi- losophical apparatus, and a library of about 3000 volumes ; lO^OOQ acres of land, and S^ 0^666 67 in funded certificates. The number of students is about 100. This seminary is flourishing. There is an institution in Piuladelphia, called the university of Pennsylvania. The philosophical apparatus, which was before very complete, has been lately increased to the value of several hundred pounds. The funds of the university produce annually a revenue of about 2365/. The aggregate number of students, in the several schools, is, on average, about 500 ; and the number usually admitted to degrees in each year, about 25. The medical estab- lishment connected with it is the most respectable in the union. In 1787, a college was founded at Lancaster, and named Frank- lin college, after Dr. Franklin. This institution hitherto has beeu merely nominal. At Washington, in the western part of the state, a college was established about 1892, with a fund of several thousand acres of land. The Episcopalians have an academy at Yorktown, in York ccun= ty. There are also academics at Gcrmantuwn, at Pittsburg, at AUenstown, and other places. The sciiools for young mt n and women in Bethlehem and Naz- areth, under the direction of the people called Moravians, are a- mong the best esiablisnmi.-nts of t!ic kind in America. Besidca these, there are numerous private schools in different parts of the stite ; and, to pro note the education of poor children, the legisla-* ture has appropriated a large tract of land for the establishment cf * Named after the Hon. John Dickinson of Pennsylvarsia. l?r PENNSYLVANIA: tree schools. A bill for establishing schools throughout the state^,' waa passed February, 1796. Much, however, remains to be done on this subject. Cities and Towns. Philadelphia, the Indian Coaquannoc, and alter New-York, the most populous city of the union, was planned ajul founded by William Penn, in 1682 ; and, incorporated in 1701. Tt lies on the narrow isthmus between the Schuylkill and Delaware. Tlie city extends E. and W. 2 miles between the two rivers, ancf N- and S. 1 mile on the Schuylkill, and 3 on the Delaware. The streets cross each other at right angles. Nine, of two miles in length, run from river to river, and 23 of 1 mile or upwards, run N- and S. The houses are pi'incipally of brick, three stories high, and built in a plain, neat, style, without much display of ornament. Those in Sanson street are uniform ; as are most of those in Wal- ii\it and Second streets. The number of houses in 1769, was 4474. The population in 1790, Avas 28,522, in 1800, 41,220, and in 1810, 53,722 ; exclusive of the suburbs. Including the suburbs, in 1810, there were 92,247 inhabitants in Philadelphia. The city contains 35 churches. The most numerous denominations are Presbyte- rians, Friends, Episcopalians, Baptists, and Catiiolics. The trade of the city is very extensive. It imports foreign •roods for the greater part of the state, for half of New-Jersey, and for Delaware ; and is now contending with New-York, New-Or- Jeans, and Montreal, for the commerce of the western country. The Delaware is navigable, as far as Philadelphia, for ships of any size, and for sloops to Trenton. The Schuylkill is navigable, for Jarge ships, as high as the town. Almost all the exports from Pennsylvania, except what go down the Ohio, are snipped from: this city. The aggregate tonnage for the year 1810, was 125,431 tons. The Philadelphia library contains more than 20,000 volumes ; xnost of them well selected, and accessible to all persons. The chief literary and humane societies are the American philosophical society ; the college of physicians ; the society for promoting po- litical inquiries ; th and liable to inunuaiious. The streets cross each other at right a Isles, and the plan ot the town n semliles that of Phiiarlelphia. It contained in 1808, about 400 houses, and in 1810, 4768 inhabitants. It has a courthouse, gaol, 4 churches, and an academy. Pittsbur,^ is 3u3 miles VV. by N. from Pniladeiphia ; its ncisjjhboring hills abound with coal ; it is already an important n)anufacturing town ; and is probably destined to be one of the large cities of the west- ern country. Lat. 40 31 44 N. Ion. 80 8 W* Carlisle, 125 miles W. by N. from Pniladeiphia, is built on a pleasant plain, near the southern bank of Conedogwinet creek. The streets cross each other at right angles The public build- ings are a court house, gaol, college, and 4 churches. Population in 1800, 2032 ; in 1810, 249 1. Canals. It has long been an object of contemplation to establish a water communication between lake Erie and Philadelphia. The country was surveyed in 1790, by public commisisioners, who pro- posed the following route, the whole distance of which is 561 miles. Up the Sclmylkill to Reading; thence to the he«.d waters of the Tulpehocken, which were to be connected by a canal with those of the Quitapahilla, a branch of the Swetara, and down this last to the Susquehannah ; thence up the Susquehannah, the Juniata, and the Frankstown branch, to Frank's Old town ; thence by a canal to Poplar Run, and by a portage of 18 miles across the mountains to the Little Connemagh, and down that river and the Kiskemanitas to the Allegany ; thence up the Allegany and French creek to L© Bceuf ; and thence by a portage of 15 miles to the lake. Attempts have been made to complete the two first stages since 179 1 ; but hitherto, owing to the want of funds, they have not been eoiDpleted. At tlie Conewago falls in the Susquehannah, in the gap of the Blue Ridge, the descent of which is 19 feet, a canal has been com= pleted for several years, 1 mile in length ; expence §14,000. Commtrce. The value of the exports from this state was in 1799, ^12,43 1,967, and in 1810, JSIO>993;398. Oftlxis last sum J54.75lj634 25 ft)* PENNSYLVANIA-. vfcve of domestic produce, and §6,313,757 of foreign. The trade' with the eastern and southern states is chiefly by barter. Climate. The climate of Pennsylvania is perceptibly more tem" perate than that of the Ne\v-Enp;Iand states. The winters are never so severe, and tlie summers are i^enerally warmer. Snow" lies on the ground but a short period in the winter, and sleighs are but little used. This is however generally a healthy country, and has but few peculiar diseases. J'^ace of the Country. The counties of Bedford, Huntingdon, Mifflin, Cumberland, Franklin, Dauphin, and part of Northumber- land, Berks, and Northampton, are mountainous ; the mountains, stretching in a N E. and S. W. direction a little E. of the centre of the state. The rest of the country is generally level or uneven. The streams in this state have a i.^reat n'lmhtr of falis, suitable for every kind of mill works, and labor saving machines. Soil and Agriculture. A great proportion of the state is good land ; and no inconsiderable part excellent The two richest tracts are, one en the south line, comprising York and Lancaster counties, and the valley of Franklin and Cumberland ; and the other in the N. W. including the land between lake Erie and the* sources of the eastern branches of the Allegany. Generally the soil is more fit for grain than grass. The borders of the streams and rivulets are good natural meadows; but the turf of other un- improved lands is greatly inferior in the quantity and quality of ita grass to that ofthe eastern states. This is a serious inconvenience^ and renders it necessary for the farmers to cultivate large quanti- ties of clover and other artificial grasses. Wheat is the grain of far the most general cultivation. It flourishes admirably, and fears no enemy here but the Hessian fly, whose ravages however are not so fatal as in New-England. Maize is of the next importance. Buck wheat yields a very considerable crop throughout the coun- try. Rye, within the last ten years, has been very generally culti- vated for the distilleries. The crop of barley is constantly increas- ing with the number of the breweries. That of oats is sufficient for the demand. The Germans cultivate spelts for their horses. Hemp is now raised extensively in the western part of the state^ and the crop is very rapidly increasing. Flax has a portion of ground on almost every farm. Potatoes yield a great crop. Rivers. The Delaware is'thc eastern boundary. The Susque-. Iiannah and the Allegany run the greater part of their course ia this state ; the Ohio 42 niiles ; the Monongahela partly in Virgin- ia ; the Tioga chiefly in New-York, and about 3 miles in Pennsyl- vania. All these have been described. The Schuylkill., a branch of the Delaware, rises N. W. of the Kittatinny mountains, and empties opposite Mud island, 5 miles in a straight line below Philadelphia. Its whole length is about 120 miles. The Lehigh rises near Wilksbarrc, and makes its way to the Delaware, at Easton, 75 miles from its source ; of which distance it is navigable, for boats, 30 miles. The Sivctara and Conestoga both run S. W. about 40 or 45 milcsv PENNSYLVANIA, IM «,ad fall into the E. side of the Susquehannah. The'former is boat- able 15 miles. I The Juniata rises in the Allegany ridge, and empties into the Susquehannah 15 miles above Harrisburg. Its whole length is about 180 miles. The western branch of the Susquehannah heads near the sources = gum. It is ccmmodiously laid out, with spacious streets intersect- ing each other at right angles, into 1000 house lots of 90 feet iu front by 180, and open squares, reserved for convenience and orna- ment. It has a gaol, courthouse, and academy. The number o^ inhabitants is 1403. Lat. 39 24 21 N. Chilicothe, the seat of government, is situated on the west side cf Scioto river, above 100 miles from its mouth. It contains a gaol^ a state house, a Presbyterian church, and 1369 inhabitants. Tlie Scioto is beatable 40 miles above CliiUcothe. Cincinnati stands on the north bank of the Ohio, opposite the mouth of Licking river. It contains 2540 inhabitants, and is 90 miles N. W. of Lexington, and 779 W. by S. of Philadelphia. N» lat. 39 6, W. long. 85 44. LiteratvTc. Out of the lands purchased by this state from the Indians, 580,159 acres have been appropiiated toward the endow* ment and support of a university, an academy, and schools, and for the maintenance of public worship An act establishing a university passed the legislature of this state, December 12, 1801. It is named the " Ohio University,"* and is fixed at x\thens on the Hockhocking, 40milesby land, from the Ohio. Its funds consist of lands wiiich are thought to be supe- rior in point of pleasantness and lertiiity to any iu tlie state. Thfc corporation to consist of the governor of the state for the time be- ing, the president, and not more than 15, nor less than 10 trustees. Commerce. The exports from this country consist of flour, corn, hemp, flax, cotton, beef, pork, smoked hams, of venison, whiskey, peach brandy, oak staves, lumber, ?^c. raw and tanned hides, and peltry. The building of ships to cany the produce of this country to market is a business lately cunmienced, and is increasing with the growth of this country. In 1802, and since, a number of vessels of from 115 to 204 tons, have been built at Marietta, and descended the river to New-Orleans, and thence proceeded to the West-In- dies. This promises in future to be an increasing and lucrative branch of business in this thriving country. The amount of the value of exports is not ascertained. From the whole of the territory of the United States, (embracing as I sup- pose the state of Ohio, and Indiana territory, and exclusive of fort OHIO. 199 Massac, Detroit, and Michilimakinac) there were exported in 1804, to the value of 1,959,423 dollars.* Face of the Country. A great part of this country is agreeably tineven, and cannot be called mountainous, nor even hilly. In the upper or northern parts of the state, hov/cver, the land is hilly, and in many places too rough to admit of much cultivation. In some parts, also, iii the country dividing the waters of the Oiiio from th« lakes, there are tracts extending several miles so flat, that the wa- ter stands till midsummer, rendering it waste land. Soil and Productions. The ilat or bottom lands on the Ohio are remarkably fertile ; in some places however their extent is small. A small proportion of the hills and mountains aie unlit for agricul- tural purposes, being either too steep, or faced with rocks. Very little waste land is to be found in any part of this tract of country. The hills are of a deep, rich soil, covered with a heavy growth of timber, and well adapted to tiie production of wheat, rye, indigo, tobacco, &c. Rivers. The Ohio, which nearly half surrounds this state,! has already been described. The Muskingum, (which signifies elA-'t^ eye) is a gentle river, confined by banks so high as to prevent its overflowing. It is 150 yards wide at its lonflucnce with the Ohio, 180 miles below Pitts- burg, and navigable by large batteaux and barges to the Three Legs ; and by small ones, to tlie lake at its head. The Hock/wcking; (which, in the Delaware tongae, signifies(5o7y river) is navigable for large boats about 7*0 nules, and for small ones much further. ^ The Scioto opens an extensive navigation. It is passable for large barges for 200 miles, with a portage of only 4 miles to the Sandusky, a good navigable stream that falls into lake Erie. Through the Sandusky and Scioto lies the most common pass from Canada to the Ohio and Missisippi; one of the most extensive and useful communications that are to be found in any country The stream of the Scioto is gentle, and no where broken by falls. The Little Miamii% too small for batteaux navigation. The Great Miaitii, jissereniet, or Rocky river, has a very stony channel, and a swift stream, but no falls. The other rivers in this state run northerly into lake Erie. Grand river, whose mouth is about 70 yards wide. For 3 miles it has depth of water for vessels of any size, except on the bar at its mouth, which has only 8 feet water. At particular seasons it is boatablc nearly to its source. Cuyahoga, ov Cayuga, sometimes called the Great river, empties in at the south bank of lake Erie, 40 miles eastward of the mouth of the Huron ; having an Indian town of the same name on its bank. It is navigable tor boats ; and its mouth is wide, and deep enough to receive large sloops from the lake. Near this are the celebrated •Report of Secretary of the Treasury. f The Indians call the Alltjraiiy branch, as well as the maijl river, Ohio, and Af-peax to kn»vv it by no othejr name^ Micftt, 200 BilCHTGiVN TERRITORY. tocks which project over the lake. Tiiey are several miles ifli lein^th and rise 40 or 50 feet perpendicular out of the water. Sandu-iky river rises near a braiicli of the Great Miaaii, between which is a portai^e of 9 miles. It pursues a N. E course, and 4Bmplies into the S. W. corner of Sandusky bay. The Miami of the lafceft^ talis into the S. W. corner of lake Erie. A southern l)ran>;h of this river communicates with the Great Mi- ami, by a portatje of 5 miles. The nortlicrn branch flows from a pond, and communicates with St. Joseph's river, a water of Michi- gan, by a portage of 1 5 miles. Mintralogy. On the banks of tiie Hockhockingare found inex= Jiaustible quarries of freestone and beds of iron ore. Beds of white and b;uc clay suitablj for the manufacture of glass, crockery, and earthern w;acs, Lave also been found here in some few instances. Red boie and many other useful fossils have been observed upon thfi brancias of the Hockhocking. Minesof pit coal are inexhausti- ble from Pittsbui gl! many miles down the river, and in other parts of the start On the banks of the Ohio the strata of stone are hor- izontaliy tlLsposed. There are valuable salt springs on the Sr iotcJ river, aliO near the Muskingum, and on the military tract, which are the property of the slate. MICHIGAN TERRITORY.* Boundaries and Extent. THIS territory is bounded S. by the Stale of Ohio and the Indiana territory ; W. by lake Michigan ■which separates it from the Uliuois territory ; N. and E. it is bound- ed by U[)|)er Canada, from which it is separated by a small part of lai>.c Superior, St. Maiy's river, Huron lake and river, lake St. Clair, and Detroit river. The greatest length of the territoiy, from S. E. to N. W. is 500 miles, from N. E. to S. W. it is 300. The number of bquare miles, both of land and water, is estimated at 150,000. Divisions. The territory is at present divided into four districts. In the south is ti •. district of Erie ; next lies the district of Detroit ; Mext that of Hui'< u ; and in the north, the district of Michilimak- inac. History. In 1' 67, Lewis XIV. sent a party of soldiers to this territory to protect the French fur trader^). The soldiers, between that time and 1683, built a fort at Detroit, and another at Michili- makinac ; and soon extended their commerce west of lake Michi- gan to the Indians on the Mississippi. The Iroquois, however, steadily opposed their progress. Tne French government neg- lected the settlement, arid it never flourislad as a colony. The ■war of 1766 dispossessed the French of all their North-American possessioiis, and, among the rest of this territory. It remained in * The author is indebted to his excellency governor Hufct fof the infornia« tloa comaiaed in the lullowing account of tbij territory. Michigan xERRixdRY. . m & neglected state in the hands of the British, till the peace of 1783 gave it over to the United States, and a governor was appointed in July, 1787, for all the territory N. W. of the Ohio. In 1796, the fort of Detroit was ceded by the English to the United States, a- greeably to treaty ; and this fine peninsula was formed into a coun- ty, called the county of Wayne. In 1805, it received the name of the Michigan territory, wass formed into a distinct government, and a governor appointed over it. In the summer of 1812, it fell into the hands of the British, who - are still (July 1813) in possession of it. Religion. The greater part of the inhabitants of this country are Catholics. The Protestants as yat have no settled minister, though they are very desirous of getting one. The missionaries of the Methodists, who have visited this country for some years back^ have made many converts among the lower orders of people. Government. Before its capture, the legislative power was vested in a governor and a supreme court, composed of three judges, all appointed by the president of the United States. The executive power was vested in the governor ; and the judicial in the three judges, and such civil magistrates in the various districts as the governor shall appoint. PopulaUon. The number of inhabitants was in the year {whites 534 1 f whites 4,618") slaves 3 l55l 1810^ slaves 24 I free blacks 1 3 J t f'"^^ blacks 1 20 J 4762 The items of the census of 1810 were as follows : males. females, total whites.. Under 16 1151 972 2123 between 16 and 45 1346 679 2025 45 and upwards 340 130 470 2837 1781 4618 Of these 120 were free blacks, and 24 slaves. Besides these there were about 150 persons employed in the In- dian fur trade. Militia. The militia consisted of two regiments, each contain- ing 8 companies ; a legionary corps, consisting of four companies, one of cavalry, one of mfanlry, one of artillery, and one of riflemen j a battalion, consisting of four companies of infantry ; ar^ a corps at ;Michilin)akinac of two companies. Manners and Customs. The late immigrants have all the com"* mon characteristics of new settlers. The descendants of the origf- inal French settlers employed in the fur trade, are sunk in a de- graded and miserable state, occasioned by the nature of their em- ployment, and associating with Indians. Toivns. Detroit stands on Detroit river, 18 miles N. of lake Erie, and 10 o. of lake St. Clair. The old town was wholly de- stroyed by fire in 1805. The new town is well laid out ; the streets cross each other at I'ight angles, and the situation is pleasant. It tontained in 1810, including the garrisonj 770 inhabitants, and 80 S6 203' MICHIGAN TERRITORY. dwelling houses. The fort is of an oblong figure, built with stock*' ades, and completely commands the garrison. Inland Navigation. Three of the largest lakes border on this territory, and it is bounded on two sides, and one end, wholly by navigable waters. Manufactures. The following is a list of the manufactures in this ten-itory in 1810 Sides of leather 2720 Pounds of candles 6500 Saddles 60 Yards ofwoollen cloth 2405 Hats 600 Yards of flax stuffs 1195 Gallons of whiskey ] 5,400 Yards of hemp mixed 20 Gallons of brandy 1000 Barrels of cider 1500 Pounds of soap 37,000 Commerce. Detroit and Michilimakinac are both ports of entry in this tei-ritory. The exports from the former, in 1810, amounted to g3,l 15, of which only S44 were of foreign produce. No returns were received from the port oi Michiliraakinac. The state of Ohio furnishes this country with beef, pork, whiskey, cheese, and butter. Climate. The climate is cold and healthy. Winter sets in aiout the middle of November, and lasts till the middle of March, without much variation. Very little snow falls ; but the ice, on the rivers and borders of the lakes, is always good for travelling, through the winter. The fever and ague and goiters are the com- mon diseases of the territory. Face of the Country. The general face of the country is flat. Nothing like a mountain is knowr^ The eastern shore of lr.ke Michigan has a range of highlands of considerable extent. It com- mences about 100 miles S. of Michilimakinac, and reaches south- ward upwards of 50 miles. They are mere sand hills fronting per- pendicularly on the lake, and are some of them 300 feet high. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is generally rich. It is estimat- ed that \ipwards of 20,000,000 acres of this territory are excellent. The Indian title to 8,000,000 is extinguished, of which 200,000 have been purchased by, and are secured to, individuals : the re- mainder belongs to the United States. The agricultural produc- tions, in 1810, were 20,000 bushels of apples, 10,000 of maize, 12,000 of wheat, 8000 of oats, 100 of barley, 1308 of buckwheat, 12,540 of potatoes, 3024 of turnips, 1000 of peas, and 1500 barrels of cider. Ri-oers. The St. Mary's is the outlet of lake Superior. At the distance of 22 miles from that lake are the straits and falls of St. Mary's. Here the river is less than a mile wide, and falls, in ~ of- a mile, 25 feet. Boats can pass down safely in the centre of the falls, but their common passage is along the shore. Below the falls, the river widens, and is in some places 10, in others 20, miles wide. It is filled with beautiful and fertile islands. Its length is nearly 70 miles. The St. Clair is the outlet of lake Huron, and runs nearly S. 40 miles. It is generally f of a mile wide. The land along the shore is low. It is navigable for the largest vessels, except at its dis- charge into lake St. Clair, where there is a bar of sand with 6i feet of water. i INDIANA TERRITORY. 3^*3 ■T)etroit viver is 27 miles long, and runs in a S. W. direction 12 railes, and thence due S. 15 to lake Erie. It is navigable for the largest ships, and is generally from a mile to a mile and a half, .and in some places three miles, broad. The Huron rises in the country west of lake St. Clair, and run- ning eastwardly 60 or 70 miles, falls into that lake, 30 miles N. from Detroit. It is navigable only for boats. The town of Gaud- enhutten is on this river, planted by the Moravian brethren. The Saganau is 30 miles long, empties into the bottom of Saga- nau bay, and is navigable only for boats. The Rouge rises in the country W. of Detroit, and, running eastwardly 60 miles, falls -into Detroit river, 6 miles below the town. It is generally 100 feet wide. The largest vessels of the lake find a safe and convenient winter harbor 5 miles up this river. It is navigable 50 or 60 miles for boats. The Raisin runs in a S. E. direction about 70 miles, and falls in- to lake Erie 15 miles from Detroit river. The Huron of Erie, rises near the source of the St. Joseph and after a course of 100 miles S. E. empties into lake Erie. The St. Joseph is extremely crooked, and, winding westward more than 200 miles, falls into lake Michigan, near its southern extremity. It is navigable for boats almost the whole distancCj but not at all for large vessels. Jjokes. More than half of Michigan, half of Huron and St. Clair, a part of Superior, and probably a part of Erie, belong to this ter- ritory. Jslafids. The island Michilimakinac lies between Michigan and Huron, and is ,7 miles in circumference. The ground on which the fort stands is 150 feet above the level of the lake, and 100 yards from the shore. The fort is neatly built, and exhibits a beautiful appearance from the water. The village is on the shore at the right of the fort, and consists of about 30 houses. The harbor is deep and safe. On the N. E. side of the island, near the shore, and 80 feet above the lake, is an arched rock. The arch is 20 feet in diameter, at the top, and 30 at the base. The climate is cold but healthy. The winter lasts for 5 months with unabated rigor. This island is still a place of rendezvous for the N. W. traders., their clerks and servants. They generally assemble here in June and July, often to the number of ,£00. There are numerous other islands in the lakes and rivers. INDIANA TERRITORY. Extent. THIS territory lies between lat. 37 45 and 41 50 N. and between 82 42 and 85 45 W. Ion. Its average Ictgth is about 370 miles, and its average breadth about 130. Boundaries. E. by the State of Ohio :* S. by the Ohio river, * It is not yet ascertained whether Michigan territory does not make a par*^ of the northeastern and eastern bcundnry. 204 INDIANA TERRITORY. which coasts the territory for 525 miles and separates it from Ken- tucky : W. for 213 miles, by the Missisippi, which divides it from Upper Louisiana : N. W. by the Illinois, which divides it from Illinois territory : and N. for a small distance, by lake Michigan. Divisions. This territory is divided into 3 counties and 27 town- ships. Counties No. of towns. No, ofinh. Chief towns. Dearborn 9 7310 Clark 6 5670 Clarkesville Harrison 3 3595 Hariison K.nox 9 7945 St. Vincennes Total 27 24,520 Original Po/iulation. The Kickapoos, Pyankeshaws, Musqui- tons, Ouiatanons, and Twigtwees inhabited this country, and, in 1780, had together about 1250 warriors. The Delawares have since x-esided here. History. This territory, till January, 1801, formed a part of the Northwestern territory, when it was erected by Congress into a territorial government with usual powers and privileges. On the 7th Nov. 1811, a bloody battle was fought in this territo= Ty, at Tippecanoe, upwards of 100 miles above Vincennes, between the troops of the United States and the Indians, under the influence nnd command of the Prophet, a superstitious, designing, infatuated Indian. Pofiulation. This territory contained in {4577 whites"! ("23,890 whitesl 135 slaves 14875 1810-j 257 slaves [.24,520 165 free bl. J (^ 393 free bl. J Chief Town. Vincennes, the capital, stands on the bank of the "Wabash, 150 miles from its mouth, in lat. 33° N. The township contains 893 inhabitants, and is 743 miles from Washington. The ibrt stands on the E. side of the Wabash river. Militia. In 1808, the militia of this territory (which then em- braced that of Illinois) was 2057. The number of males between 16 and 45, is 4600, the greater part of whom are capable of beai'- ing arms. Inland A'avigation. The communication between Detroit, and the Illinois and Ohio countries, is up Miami river, to Miami vil- lage, thence by land 9 miles, when the rivers are high, and from 18 to 30, when they are low, through a level country to the Wa- bash, and through the various branches of the Wabash to the place of destination. Commerce. The commerce of this territory centres at Vin- cennes. The merchants bring their goods from Canada, down the Wabash, from Orleans up the Missisippi, and from the eastern states dowi» the Ohio, and up the Wabash. Climate, Face of the Country, Soil and Froductions. These nearly resemble those of Ohio. Rivers. The W.abash empties into the Ohio, by a mouth 270 •fO-rds wide, 887 miles below Pittsburgh. In the spring, summary ILLINOIS TERRITORY. 205 and autumn, it is passable with batteaux drawing; 3 feet water, 412 miles, to Ouiatanon ; and for large canoes 197 miles farther, to the Miami carryini? place, 9 miles from Miami village on Miami riv- er, which empties, into the southwest part of lake Erie. White river is one of the largest tributaries of the Wabash. It comes in from the N. E. 20 miles below Vincennes. The Theakiki and Plein rivers, which unite below lake Dupatre, and form the Illinois river, are witliin this territory. White Water river, which empties into the Ohio, at Cincinnati, is also a water of this territory. Mineralogy. A silver mine has been discovered about 28 mi!e$ above Ouiatanon, on the northern side of the Wabash. Salt springs, lime, .and free-stone, blue, yellow, and white clay, are found in plenty upon the Wabash. No iron ore has been found in this tract. On Big river, and all the streams Avhich run into the Ohio, is found a plenty of sea coal. There are salt springs near the Wabash river, which have been ceded to the United States by certain Indians, at which an estab- lishment of salt works has been made, under the patronage of Con» igress. ILLINOIS TERRITORY, Extent. ILLINOIS territory lies between lat. 37° and 49 57^, and between long. 85 45 and 95 6 W. Its length from the Ohio to the northern line, is 870 miles ; its breadth i"rom the head of the Missisippi eastward, to the western boundary of Michigan tcrrito-' ry is about 650 miles ; opposite the S. end of lake Michigan, 200 miles ; at the mouth of the Illinois, 150 miles ; and on the Ohio 50. The whole tract contains about 200,000 square miles, exclu- sive of the waters of lakes Superior and Michigan, large sections of which are included in it. Boundaries. The northern boundary of the United States, which passes through lake Superior, separates it from Upper Canada on the N. : on the E. it has lake Michigan, and the Indiana territory : on the S. E. the river Illinois, which divides it from Indiana : on the S. W. and W. the Missisippi, which separates it from Louisia- na : and on the N. W. it is bounded by a line drawn from the N. W. corner of the lake of the Woods, southwesterly to the most r.orthern source of the Missisippi. Kame. It derives its name from the river Illinois, an Indian word, signifying a man of full age, in the vigor of his years. Illi- nois river, is the river of men.* Divisio'As. That part of this territory which is settled by v/hite people, is divided into two counties, viz. St. Clair and Randolph^ which are subdivided into 12 townships. 9 Hinnipen, £0S ILLINOIS TERRITORY. Countieg. Towns. Inhabitants. St. Clair 9 5007 Randolph 3 7275 12 12,282 Original Population. When Carvar visited this country in 1 768> lie found the Winnebagoes, a warlike nation, settled on Fox river, where they still inhabit ; the Saukies on the upper part of the Ou- isconsin, and near the portage ; and the Ottigaumies nearits mouth, and above it along the Missisippi. The Chepeways, or, as M'Ken- Eic calls them, the Chepewyans, then possessed the country S. of lake Superior, that on the Chepeway and a great extent westward. The Nandowessies, then also occupied a large tract of country, S. W. of the Missisippi, in Upper Louisiana. Whether the same or different tribes now occupy this country we are unable to say. it is, however, possessed by Indians, and they still have a title to the great body of the land. In 1780, there were, according to Hutch- ins, 1 2 tribes, inhabiting different parts of this territory, viz. the Kiciiapaos, Pyankeshaws, Musquiions, Ouiatanons, Kaskaskias, Piorias, Mitchigamas, Outtagomies, Musquatons, Muscotins, Cut" tamacs, and Musquakeys. These tribes together were estimated to contain 5300 fighting men. History. Previous to the year 1756, the French had settlements at Kaskaskia, Caliokia, and other places in this territory. At that time they were dispossessed by the British, who held the country till the revolution. It was a part of the Indiana territory till 1809, when it was erect- ed into a separate government. Population. The civilized population of this territory was in {208 whit.-s"! r 1 1,501 whites 1 2 slaves l2!5 1810-j 168 slaves I 12,282 5 free bl. J |_ 613 free bl. J The items of the census of 1510 were as follows ; males. females. total. Under 16 3211 2810 602 i Between 16 and 45 2613 1947 4560 45 and upwards- 556 364 920 Total 6380 5121 11501 Chief Towns. Kaskaskia is the capital. It stands on the south- "west bank of the river of the same name, 12 miles from its mouth, hxxx. not half that distance from the Missisippi, in a direct course. It contains about 100 houses, many of them well built; several of stone with gardens, and large lots adjoining. It now contains 622 inliabitants. Cahokia is 65 miles north of Kaskaskia, on the southern side of Cahokia creek, a mile from its mouth. About the year 1774, this village contained 50 houses, some of them well built, and 300 inhabitants, with 80 negroes, and large stocks of cattle, swine, fcc. 3t has now 71 1 inhabitants. Goshen is the capita! of St. Clair county, and has 1725 inhabit ants. ILLINOIS TERRITORY. 207 Miiitia. There are 2613 white males, between 16 and 45 years of age. Of these the greater part are capable of bearing arms. Fort. Fort Massac was built by the French on the west bank of the Ohio, near its mouth, in lat. 27 15, 1 1 miles below the mouth of Tennessee river. It stands on a high, stony bank. The stones appear to be composed of ferruginous matter and gravel. A con- siderable quantity of land, both above and below the fort, is annual- ly inundated. A number of troops are stationed here.* Inland Mavigation. The Illinois furnishes a communication with lake Michigan, by the Chicago, between which and the IlU" nois there are two portages, the longest of which does not exceed 4 miles. The Thsakiki, also, another branch of the Illinois river, extends nearly to tlie St. Joseph, which empties into lake Michi- gan. Commerce. Fort Massac is a port of entry, and from it was ex- ported, foreign articles, in the 4th quarter of 1803, to the value of 17,320 dollars. Face of the Country. Between the Kaskaskia and Illinois riv- ers, which are 84 miles apart, is an extensive tract of level rich land, which terminates in a high ridge, about 15 miles before you reach the Illinois river. Soil. The Illinois river is bordered by , ^ Counties. "Harford Baltimore Ann-Arundel Frederick Allegany Washington Montgonnery Prince George Calvert Charles ^St. Mary'^s in 1790. 14,976 38,937 22,598 30,791 4,809 15,822 18,003 21,344 8,652 20,613 15,544 Population, in 1800. 17,626 59,030 22,623 31,523 6,303 18,650 15,058 21,185 8,297 18,172 13,699 in 1810. 21,238 75,810 26,668 34,437 6,909 18,730 17,980 20,589 8,005 20,245 12,794 Total Western 212,089 233,166 263,425 fCecil g J Kent « Queen Ann '^ J Caroline 11 Talbot I Somerset Dorchester Worcester 13,625 12,836 15,463 9,506 13,084 15,610 15,875 11,640 9,018 11,771 14,857 9,226 13,436 17,358 16,346 16,370 13,066 11,450 15,648 9,453 14,230 17,195 18,108 16,971 ehieftoy/nsi Bellair Baltimore Annapolis FredericktoWK Cumberland tlizabethtown Marlborough St. Leonard Port Tobacco LeonardstowrH' Elkton Chester Centrevilie Denton Easton Princess Ann< Cambridge Snow Hill- Total Eastern 107,639 108,832 117,121 : Totalin the state 319,728 341,548 380,546 JSPame. Charles I. of England (in his patent to lord Baltimorcj in 1632) gave the name of Marylaiid to this territory, in honor of 3iis wife, Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry the great of France and Navarre. It was then taken from Virginia. History. This territory was originzjly included in the patent of the South-Virginia company, and considered as a part of Virginia, till June 20, 1 652, when the patent was granted to Cecilius Calvert, lord of Baltimore, in Ireland. The proprietor offered 50 acres in fee to every emigrant, and gave equal privileges to all classes of Christians. In 1634, the first colony, consisting of 200 Roman Catholics, planted itself on the north side of the Potowmac, at a place called St. Mary's. The first legislature was convened at St. Mary's in 1638, which divided the territory into baronies and manors, and passed a variety of laws. The next year the legislature passed a law establishing the house of assembly. In 1642 a colony from Maryland took possession of the Schuyl- kill ; but were immediately dispossessed by the Dutch from New- Netherlands. Owing to the intrigues of one Claiborne, the prov= ince was this year engaged in a calamitous Indian war. In 1645 Claiborne raised a rebellion, and drove Calvert from the province. MARYLAND. gU The constitulion of Maryland was settled in 1650 ; the legisla- ture divided into two houses ; and the province into thi'ee couniies. Parliament violently assumed the government in 1 652, and entrust- ed it to commissioners. A second insurrection took place in 1656, headed by one Fendal ; and two years afterwards the commission- ers surrendered to him the government. The next year the upper house of assembly was dissolved. The government, in 1662, reverted to lord Baltimore; who re- assumed the administration and established a mint. Tlie assembly encouraged the importation ofnegro slaves, in 1671. Maryland resisted the encroachments of parliament in 1769; and, in 1775, was forward in promoting the revolution ; but did not sign the articles of confederation till 17'81. The present constitu- tion of the state was formed in August, 1776. Religion. The number of Episcopalian churches in 1811 was 30, and of clergymen 35. The Presbyterians are believed to be more numerous. The Roman Catholics were the first settlers ; and there are more of them in Maryland than in all the other states. The other denominations are Methodists, German Lutherans and Calvinists, Baptists, Friends, Mennonists, Nicoliies, and Sweden- borgians. Government. The legislature is styled the general assembly^ and consists of a senate and house of delegates. The senate is chosen by electors, who are elected by the freemen, (on the first Monday in September) every fifth year, two from a county and one from each of the cities of Annapolis and Baltimore. The electors meet at Annapolis, a fortnight after they are chosen ; and elect, by bal- lot, 9 senators from the western shore, and 6 from the eastei'n ; who hold their station 5 years. They must be 25 years of age ; have resided the preceding 3 years in the state ; and be worth above iOOO/. The delegates are chosen annually on the first Mon- day in October. Four are sent by each county ; and two from eacli of the two cities. They must be 2 1 years of age, residents in the county, or city, dui-ing the preceding year, and worth above 500/. The assembly meets annually on the first Monday in No- vember. The privilege of voting is possessed by all white per- sons, who are 2 1 years of age, and have paid taxes. The governor is chosen annually, on the second Monday in November, by a joint ballot of both houses j and, on the same day, an executive council of 5 persons is chosen in the same manner, for the same time ; who must have the same qualifications as senators. The governor must be 25 years of age, a resident the preceding 5 years, and worth 5000/. of which 1000/, must be freehold estate. He cannot be chosen but 3 years successively. Fojiulation. The number of inhabitants was in the year r 208,649 whites "J 1790^ 103,036 slaves 1319,728 1810^ II 1,502 slaves J.380,546 (_ 8,043 free bl. J {216,326 whites^ 105,635 slaves 1341,548* 19,587 free bh J * Exclusive of the district of Columbia^ 213 MARYLAND, Maryland is entitled to 9 representatives to congress. In the two first national enumerations Maryland was the 6th state in point of population ; and, in the third, the 8th. The increase of white inhabitants in the last 10 years was 18,791, or 8 per cent, and that of the blacks, 20,207, or 16Jj^ per cent. Militia. The militia of this state amount to about 30,000, con- sisting of able bodied men, between 18 and 43, and organized in the manner they are in the other states. Finances. The funds of Maryland on the first of November, ISll, amounted to §1,721,852. The slate, in 1804, recovered, in the court of chancery in Eng^ land, a claim, amounting to about §800,000. Its funds are so large, that no state tax is imposed on the personal or landed properly of the citizens. Manners and Custo7ns. The inhabitants, except in the populous towns, live on their plantations. They arc made up of various na- tions of many different religious sentiments ; few general observa-» tions, therefore, of a characteristical kind will apply. They ow^e lit- tle money as a state, and are willing and able to discharge their debts. Their credit is very good ; and although they have so great a proportion of slaves, and possess a share of that pride that ever grows on slavery, yet a number of influential gentlemen have evin- ced their humanity and their disposition to abolish so disreputable a traffic, by forming themselves into a society for the abolition of negro slavery. Literature. There are three college in this state, viz. Washing- ton college, in Kent county ; St. John's college, at Annapolis. These two colleges are well endowed and flourishing, and consti- tute, " The University of Maryland." The French Catholics have a college at Baltimore, with 70 or 80 students. Washington academy, in Somerset county, is well endowed. Provision is made for free schools in most of the counties ; though some are entirely neglected, and yery few carried on with any success. The legislature of this sate has lately appropriated g25,000 per annum for the encouragement and support of schools. Chief Toivna. Baltimore is the largest towii in Maryland ; and the third in popxilation, and the fourth in commercial import- ance, in the United States. It stands at the head of Patapsco bay, which sets up 18 miles N. W. from the Chesapeak. The situation of the town is low, and but moderately healthy. A creek falls into the head of the bay, dividing the town into two parts ; the eastern and smallest of which is called the Old town. Four bridges are thrown over this creek. Many of the houses are well built. The population, in 1790, was 13,503; in 1800,26,514; and in 1810, in the city 35,583, of whom 7686 were blacks ; and in the precinct? J0,972, of whom 2657 were blacks j total in the city and precincts 46,555, of whom 36,212 were whites, and 10,343 blacks. A con- aide rable number of the inhabitants are French emigrants from Cape Fran9ois, and many of them are Europeans. The commerce of Baltimore is very extensive, and is carried on with all parts of MARYLAND. 213 the world. The exports in 179 8, amounted to more than S'-SiOOOjOOO; and in 1805, the tons of shipping- were 72,210. The Bahimoie. bank has a capital of S300,000. Lat. 39 21 N. lonsj. 77 4b W. Annapolis is 30 miles S. of IJahimore, on the S. bank of the Severn river, a small distance from its mouth. The slatchouse is a. noble edifice, and stands in the centre of the city. From this point the streets diverge in every direction, like the radii of a cir- cle. Fredericktown is a fine flourishing inland town, of upwards of 300 houses, built principally of brick and stone, and mostly on one broad street. It has 7 places of worship, beside other public build- ings. Elkton is situated near the head of Chesapeak bay, on a small river, which bears the name of the town. It enjoys great advanta- ges from the carrying trade between Baltimore and Philadelphia. The tide waters extend to this town. Inland JVa-oigation. A part of the Delaware and Chesapeak ca- nal is to be in Maryland. The canals to improve the Potowmac are also undertaken by a company incorporated by the states of Maryland and Virginia. Chesapeak bay and the Susquehannah completely divide the state : the Potowmac is its southwestern boundary, and has been rendered navigable to the Shenandoah ; so that no part of the state east of the Blue Pvidge is more than 30 miles from navigable waters. Many of the creeks and arms of the Chesapeak are also navigable 20 or 30 miles into the country. Manufactures. Wheat is manufactured into flour in Frederick county (where there are 80 grist mills) to a great extent. Here are also two glass works, two iron works, two furnaces, two paper mills, and 400 stills, which make vast quantities of rye whiskey ; some single distilleries produce 12,000 gallons a year. Commerce. The exports from Maryland, in 1779, amounted to ^16,299,609; in 1804, to S9, 15 1,939 ; and, in 18 10, to 86,489,018. Flour is the staple of the state. Tobacco is also a most important article. The other exports arc pig iron, lumber, maize to a con- siderable amount, and beans, pork, and ilax seed in smaller quan- tities. The aggregate tonnage of this state, in 1805, was 108,040 tons, and in 1810, 153,786. Face of the Country. The land, in the counties on the eastern shore of the Chesapeak, is generally level and low ; and, in many places covered with stagnant water. On the western shore, tiie land, between the bay and the lowest falls of the rivers, is in great part level and free from stones. From these falls to the Blue Ridge, the country is successively imeven, hilly, and mountainous. It continues of this latter description thence to the vi'cstern limit of the state. There are, however, several fine valiles between the •western mountains along the course of the Youhiogany. Soil and Agriculture. The soil of the good land in Maryland is of such a nature and quality as to produce from 12 to 16 bushels of wheat, or from 20 to 30 bushels of Indian corn per acre. Ten bushels of wheat, and 15 bushels of corn per acvv? arc the annual average crops in tlie state at large. 214 MARYLAND. Wheat and tobacco are the staple commocfilies-. Two articles are said to be peculiar to Maryland ; the genuine ivhite wheat which grows in Kent, Queen Ann's, and Talbot coun- ties, on the eastern shore, and which degenerates in other places ; and the bright kite's foot tobacco, which is produced on the Patux- ent below ElkriuJge in Prince George's county. Rivers. The Potowmac is the whole southwestern boundary of Maryland. The Susquehannah runs in the state about 16 miles, emptying at Havre dc Grace. The Youhiogany flows near the western line of the state, running in it a northerly course of 40 miles. These have already been described. The Patuxcnt rises a little N. of the parallel of Baltimore, and about 30 miles W. of that town. It runs S. E. and S. about 110 miles, to the Chesapeak, emptying between Drum and Cedar points. It admits vessels of 250 tons to Nottingham, 46 miles, and boats to Queen Ann, 14 miles farther. The Patapsco heads in the northern part of the state, and runs S. and S. E. to Elkridge landing ; where it falls down a moderate precipice, and, turning eastwardly, spreads into a broad stream, like a bay. It falls into Patapsco bay, at Whetstone point, about two miles below BaltiiTU)re, and is navigable to Elkridge landing, eight miles. On the eastern shore the Pocomoke rises in Cypi'ess swamp, and runs. S. and S. W. 40 miles, to Pocomoke bay. The Wicomico runs S. W. about 2.0 miles. The JVanticokc rises in the ridge of the peninsula, in Dela>yare ; and runs S. S. W. 25 miles in that state, and 20 in Maryland. It is the largest river between the two bays. The Chojitank rises on the border of the same state, in the same ridgi', and runs S. by W- 50 miles, and W. by N. 15. It is a broad navigable stream. Chester and Sassafras rivers, flow north of the Choptank. Elk river rises in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and runs E. of S. 22 miles to Elkton, where it receives the Little Elk from the N. W. Thence it runs S. W. 13 miles to the Chesapeak, the whole of v/hich it is navigable for vessels drawing 12 feet water. Bays. Nearly two thirds of ihe length of the Chesapeak lies in Maryland. The creeks connected with it are nothing but branches of the Chesapeak from 10 to 20 miles long, with a little stream of fresh water flowing into the head of each. The largest of these hays on the western shore are Patapsco bay, and the mouth of Pa- tuxcnt river. Moimiains. The various ridges of the Allegany mountains cross the western and narrow parts of this state. Mineralogy. Iron ore, of an excellent quality is found in plenty in many parts of the state. Two beds of coal have been opened within a mile of the city of Baltimore. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, S15 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Extent. THIS (Ustrict is a square with a side of 10 miles, and of course contains 100 square miles. It lies on both sides of the Potowmac, about 120 miles from its mouth, embracing a section of that river, extending from the southern part of Alexandria, to a point 5 miles above Georgetown, including a part of one of the Po- towmac canals. It was ceded by the states of Maryland and Vir- ginia to the United States, in 1790 ; and was accepted by congress- in July of that year. Tliis district includes the towns of Washing- ton, Georgetown, and Alexandria. Divisions and Government. The district is divided into two counties ; the county of Washington, on the north side of the Po- towmac ; and the county of Alexandria, on the south side. In the former, the laws of Maryland are continued in force ; in the latter, those of Virginia. Congress however makes what laws it pleases for both. A circuit court is established in this district, consisting of 3 judges. The supreme court of the United States sits at Wash- ington, on the first Monday of February annually. Religion. Presbyterians and Episcopalians are the two prevail- ing denominations in the district. There are also here Roman Catholics, Methodists, and Baptists, ail of whom have places for public worship. Population. The number erf inhabita^its in theT district wrs, in the year {10,066 whites 1 f 16,079 whites") 3,244 slaves 1 14,093 ISlO-j 5,395 slaves 124,023 783 free bl. J (_ 2,549 free bl. J The items of the white population of 1810 were as follows : males. females. total. Under 16 years of age 3,637 3,730 7,367 From 16 to 45 3,627 3,387 7,0.14 45 apd upwards §65 832 1,698 Total 8,130 7,940 16,079 Chief Towns. Washington city is built on the Maryland side of the Potowmac, on a point of land, between what is called the Eastern Branch and the Potowmac. Its plan, as laid out, extend* nearly 4 miles up each of those rivers. It coutaincd in 1800, 3,210 inhabitants, in 1803, 4,353, of whom 940 were people of colour, in 1810, 8,208, of whom 5,904 were whites, and 2,304 blacks. le had, in 1803, 880 houses, about one half of brick and stone, the rest. of wood. These buildings are hi 5 separate divisions or villages ; one near the capitol, one near the navy yard, one at Greenleaf's point, one near the president's house, and one near Georgetown. This last is the smallest, and that at GrceuleaPs point is the most solitary. There are 4 places for public worship, one for Presbyte- rians, one for Roman Catholics, one for Baptists, and one for Epis- copalians. During the session of congress the chaplains are per- mitted to preach ia the representatives' room. The president's SI 6 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. house is 170 by 85 feef, two stories high, it is built of free whi(3 stone, the roof covered with slate. The plan of the capitol is to present, when completed, a front of 362 feet, but only the N. wing is yet erected. The public offices occupy two buildings, each about 450 feet from the president's house, having a front of 120 feet, two stories. This city became the permanent seat of the national gov- ernment in 1800. Lat. 38 53 N. long. 77 45 W. from Greenwich. Alex;vndria, formerly Bclhaven^ is at the southern corner of the district, and has an elevated and pleasant situation. It is built on the plan of Philadelphia. Many of the houses are handsome. Its public buildings are a Presbyterian church, one, also, for Epis- copalians, an academy, courthovse, gaol, and bank. It contained^ in 1800,5,071 inhabitants, and in 1810,7,227. Its exports, in 1810, amounted to S930,G34, and the tonnage, in 1807, to 1 1,320 tons. Georgetown, on the Maryland side, is separated by Rock creek from the city of Washington, and lies 4 miles from the capitol and 8 from Alexandria. It is built on a number of small hills, and has a pleasant situation. It has 4 churches, the Episcopalians, Presby- terians, Baptists, and Methodists having each one. The other public buildings are the Catholic college, an academy, courthouse,- and gaol. Population, in 1810, 4,948. The exports, in 1810, amounted to g 107,439 ; the tonnage, in 18o7, to 2110 tons. Lilcrature. The Roman Catholics have a college in George-^ town, which is well endowed. There are academies at Alexandria and Georgetown. • Co?nmerce. The exports from this district in 1810, amounted to gl,038,103, of which ^984,453, were of domestic produce, and •5553,640 of foreign. The aggregate tonnage in 1807, was 13,431 tons. Georgetown and Alexandria are the only ports. Rivers. The Potowmac intersects this district and is navigable, close to the bank, for large ships half a mile above Greenleaf's point, and in tlie channel some distance farther. The Eastern Branch, as it is called, rises in Maryland, and flows about 20 miles. It is chiefly a bay of the Potov/mac, and is navigable 4 miles along the bank for the largest ships. Rock creek runs southerly about 1 6 miles. Tiber, or Goose creek, is a small stream, running through the city. Its source being 236 feet above the level of the Potow- mac, it can be niade the reservoir of aqueducts for any part of the city. Four Mile Run falls into the Potowmac from the Virginia side, opposite the Eastern Branch. Canals^ Bridges, Turnpike, Road. A canal, connecting Tiber creek with the Eastern Branch, has been partially executed ; the tide flows into it 5 or 6 inches deep. Two bridges are built over Rock creek, which divides the city from Georgetown. The bridge near the mouth of the creek has three arches, is about 135 feet in length and 35 wide. The other 650 yards above, is supported by piles, is about 280 feet long and 18 wide. Companies have been incorporated by congress tor the purpose of opening a canal, to connect the Potowmac river, with the Eastern Branch, through a part of the city of "Washington. Also for erecting a bridge, over the Potowmac, witlun this cUstrict. Also for making a turnpik^e Virginia, aif iroiri Mason's causeway, to Alexandria. A road fi'om this district to New-Orleans, through the Indian territories is making, the dis- tance estimated at about 1000 miles. VIRGINIA* Extent. THIS state lies between lat. 36 30 and 40 40 N. ; and between Ion. 75 25 and 83 40 W. Its length, on the southern line Ss 440 miles. Its greatest breadth is 290. The number of square miles is estimated at 70,000. A narrow strip of land runs north-' ward between Pennsylvania and the Ohio river ; another wedge- like strip passes between Kentucky and Tennessee ; and the coun-* ties on the eastern shore, are the lower part of a peninsula, separ- ated from the rest of the state by the width of the Chesapeak. Ex- clusive of these, Virginia is compact. Boundaries. Bounded N. by Pennsylvania and Maryland ; E. hy the Atlantic ; S. by North-Carolina and Tennessee ; W. by the Cumberland mountains and Big Sandy river, which divide it from Kentucky ; and N. W- by Ohio river, which divides it from the state of Ohio, coasting the state for 291 miles. Divisions. This state is divided into 98 counties. JVame. Queen Elizabeth, in 1584, gave the name of Virginia to a much larger tract of country, than that included in its present lim* its, as a memorial that its discovery was made under a virgin queen. Juan Ponce, a Spaniard, as early as 1512, had discovered Florida s and the French and Spaniards gave that name to a tract of country of indefinite extent, in which Virginia was included. History. Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584, obtained of queen Eliza- beth a patent for discovering remote heathen and barbarous lands* An expedition under Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlow set sail iri April, and arrived on the American coast on the 4th of July, of that year. They landed at the island of Wocokom, on the 26th of that ftionth, and soon aftei' on the main land of Virginia. In 1606 king James divided the territory called Virginia into 2 districts. North and South-Virginia. A permanent settlement wa§^, jnade the next year, at Jamestown, under governor Wingfield. In 1610 lord Delaware was entrusted with the entire govern- ment, and furnished large supplies to the colony. In 1612 the third charter was granted. In 1613 Jolin Rolf married Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, an Indian chief, and three years after carried her to England, where she died. She left a son, from whom sonic of the most respectai>le families in Virginia have descended. The adventurers, in 1615, had the title to their lands vested in them ; before, they had held them as tenants at will. A large colony came over in 1618, under lord Delaware, who died on the voyaL'^;, and the next year the first colonial assembly •^vas convoked at Jamestown. A colony of 1216 persoas arrived ia 1620. aijaong whom ^ycre 90 38 $18 VlRCrlNlAi gh'ls, " young and uncorrupt," who came ovei' to marry as itiany of tiie adventurers. They succeeded so well that 60 more came over the next year. The husbands were oblit^ed to buy them of the company, and gave for them notes, payable in tobacco. The price of a wife was at first 100 pounds of tobacco ; it afterwards rose to 150 pounds. A new form of government was brought over in 1621, and in" 1622, 347 of the colonists were massacred by the Indians. The charter of the Virginia company v/as vacated in 1624; and the ne-^t year Charles I. made the province immediately dependent on the crown. All the country south of lat. 36 30 was taken from Virginia in^ 1630, and called Carola^ia.- Maryland was taken from it in i632. Severe laws were passed for the suppression of dissenters in 1633. The civil privileges of the colony were entirely restored in 1639. The province, in 1652, submitted to Cromwell ; but, in 1659, before the restoration of Charles II. threw off the government of the protectorate, and reinstated Sir William Berkely, the royal governor. The laws of England were adopted as the provincial laws in 1661. The ancient constitution was restored the next year, and the church of England reestablished. A Dutch squadron arrived on the coast in 1673, and did great in- jury to the colonists. Two insurrections took place in 1675, but wei'e suppressed. The next year was the era of Bacon's rebellion, which cost the province 100,000/. Col. Washington, in 1754, marched with a body of troops to the Ohio against the French and Indians. He surprised and took Fort Du Quesne, (Pittsburg) but was compelled, by a large army, to retire from the fort, and, the next day to surrender. His troops were allowed the honors of war, and permitted to return home. In 1755, General Braddock marched against Fort Du Qnesne ; but in penetrating through the wilderness, he incautiously fell into an ambuscade, and suffered a total defeat. General Braddock was killed, but the enemy not pursuing the vanquished across the riv- er, being eager in plundering the baggage of the dead, a part of his troops were saved by flight, under the conduct of General Wash- ington, at that time a colonel, who then began to exhibit proofs of those military talents, by which he afterwards conducted the armies of America to victory, and his country to independence. This province was forward in resisting the encroachments of the :mother country, in 1765 and 1769. The constitution of the state was adopted on the 5th of July, 1776. In 1781 the state was made the theatre of the war; and, on the 19th of October, in that year, the British army, under lord Cornwallis, surrendered at Yorktown. This interesting event decided the contest in favor of America, and laid the foundation of the peace, which was concluded the following- year. Kentucky was erected into a separate district in 1782, and en- tirely separated from Virginia in 1786. Religion, The present denominations of Christians in Virginia I VJRGINiA, S.l» .are Presbyterians, who are the most numerous, and inhabit the western parts of the stale ; Episcopalians, who are the most ancieat .settlers, and occupy the eastern and first settled parts of the state. Intermingled with these are great numbers of Baptists, Methodists., and Friends. Gova'n77ie?it, The legislature is called the general assembly y and is composed of a senate and house of representatives. The senate consists of 24 members, who are choscnibr 4 years, by dis- tricts- One fourth of the senate goes out yearly. A senator must be 25 years of age, and a resident and freeholder within the district. The representatives are chosen annually, two from each county, and one from several cities and boroughs each. They must be freeholdei's and reside.nts in the county- The governor is chosen annually by joint ballot of both houses, and can hold the office but 3 years in 7. lie lias a privy council of 8 members, chosen by joint ballot of both houses. The two houses remove two of its members every 3 years, and appoint two new ones. The council chooses its president, who in case of the death, resignation, or absence of the governor, acts in his stead. The governor and council have the power of pardoning. Pofiulation. The following numbers are the results of calcula- tions, or actual enumerations made in the respective years. 1600 490 1749 85,000 1617 ,400 C .70„000 whites I 1618 600 "^"^ i 100,000 blacks 5 ^^"'"°^ 1623 2,500 1640 ^20,000 1790- •J 660 30,000 .._, C 38,000 whites ) f 5l4,280whites') I 2,000 blacks 5 ^^'^^^ 1800-j 543,796 slaves 1880,200* 1675 50,000 (_ 20,124freebl.J 1681 1 4,000 tithables ("551,534 whites' {25,023 tithables 1 1810- 35,583 women &c l60.,606 children J The items of the census of I*' 10 were as follow ; raales. females. total. Under 1 6 years of age 140,696 132,922 273,618 Between 16 and 45 104,040 106,062 210,102 45 and upwards 35,302 32,512 67,814 {442,117 whites 1 292,627 slaves i747,610 12,866 free bh J {5 14,2 80 whites "I 543,796 slaves 1880,200* 20,124freebl.J {551,534 whites') 392,5 18 slaves J. 974,672 30,570 free bl. J Total 280,038 271,496 551,534 At each of the 3 national enumerations, this state, in point of pop- ulation, was the first in the union ; but, in 1790, its number of whites was inferior to that cf Massachusetts ; and in 1800 and 1810 to those of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New-York. The in- crease, in the last ten years, of the number of whites, was 37,254 or 7-j?\j. per cent. ; that of the number of blacks was 57,168 or \5^^ per cent. The immense number of mulattoes in the low country explains this otherwise unaccountable disproportion. *'jixclusive of the district of Columbia. S20 VIRGINIA. Militia. The number of the militia in 1810, did not much cX" ceed 50,000, and these indifferently armed and disciplined. The intersection of Virginia by so many navigable rivers, ren= ders it almost incapable of defence. As the land will not support a great number of people, a force cannot soon be collected to repel a sudden invasion. Mannem and Customs. The inhabitants of Virginia are chiefly planters, living on separate plantations and not in villages. Labor, iji the eastern and most populous district, is carried on almost wholly by slaves ; who, in many of the counties, arc much more numerous than the whites. The law which provides that no man shall be compelled to support any religious worship? place, or min- ister ; and the sequestration which had previously been made of all the glebe lands in the state, belonging to the Episcopal church, for public use ; have done more to root Christianity out of Virgin-? ia, than the efforts of a century probably can do to restore it. There are but few places for public worship, of any denomination, in the lower parts of Virginia, and these are small, and have but few at- tendants. The religious and moral state of the great body of the inhabitants, must of course be deplorable. To the credit of this state, a law has lately been passed requiring that all persons elect? ed to any civil office in the statCj previously to his entering on it^ duties, shall take an oath in public coui-ts, that he has not, since the passing of this law, been concerned directly nor indirectly in any duel J and that he will not be thus concerned in future. This law, it is said, has already had its e'ftect in checking this prevalent vice. Literature. William and Mary college, at Williamsburg, was founded by William III. in 1691, who gave it nearly 2000/. ster- ling, 20,000 acres of Jand, and a penny a pound on all tobacco ex- ported from Virginia and Maryland. There are now six profes- sorships in this college, one of moral philosophy, natural philoso- phy and the belles lettres ; one of mathematics ; one of law ; one of modem languages ; and two of humanity. The philosophical apparatus is complete, and the library extensive. A grammar school, connected with the college, has about 50 or 60 boys, who are instructed by two professors, and an usher. The annual ex- pense of their board, cashing, and tuition, is about twenty guineas, A college is established in Prince Edward county, called " Ham- den Sidney college ;" another at Lexington, called Washington college. This latter seminary, by the liberality of individuals, has a libiuiy, philosophical apparatus, and buildings to accommodate 50 or 60 students. In 1796 it was endowed by General Washing- ton with one hundred shares in the James river company. These shares, which are estimated at six or eight thousand pounds cur" Tcncy, it is expected will soon produce sufficient to increase the li- brary and buildings, to inaintain a competent number of masters and professors. There are several academies in Virginia — one at Alexandria- one at Norfolk — one at Hanover, and others in other places. A plan was devised some time since by a committee of the leg-' VIRGINIA. 221 islature to establish comtnon and grammar scliools throughout the Slate on a new plan ; but we believe it has met wiih little success. Chief Tonvrifs. Virginia is not, like New-England, divided into townships ; and there are lew towns of considerable size, in this or any of the southern states. Richmond, the seat of government, is situated on the N. side of James river, just at the foot of the falls. The public buildings are an Episcopal church, a handsome siatehoiise, a courthouse, and gaol. It had a theatre, which, in December, 1811, was consumed during an exhibition, and with it the governor of the state, and nearly 100 others, among the most respectable persons in the state. A handsome church has since been erected on the site of the theatre. N. lat. 2>7 40, W- ion. 77 50. Population in 1790, 4000 J in 1800, 5739; and, in 1810, 9735, of whom 4937 were blacks. Norfolk is on the E. side of Elizabeth river ; which is here from 350 to 400 yards wide, and has 1 8 feet water up to the town. The harbor is safe, commodious, and large enough to contain 300 ships. It contained, in 1790, 2959 inhabitants ; in I8v)0, 6746, and in 1810,9183, of whom 4414 were blacks. Lat. 36 55 N. Ion. 7Q 23 W. 114 miles E. S. E. of Richmond. Petersburg is on the S. E. bank of the Appomattox, 25 miles S. of Richmond, and just below the falls. It contains an Episcopal church, a courthouse, and gaol. It is the emporium of a consider- able district of North-Carolina, as well as of the southern part of Virginia. It has exported in a single year to the value of nearly gi,500,000. Population in 1810, 5668, of whom 3262 were blacks, Lat. 37 14 N. Ion. 78 8 W. 25 miles S. of Richmond. Williamsburg is situated between two creeks, branches of James and York rivers. The distance of each landing place is about a mile from the town. The public buildings are an Episco- pal church, a college, capitol, courthouse, gaol, and hospital for lu' natics. Population in 1810, including James city, 4094 ; of these about 1500 arc in Williamsburg. Lat. 37 16 N. Ion. 76 48 W. 60 miles E. of Richmond. Mount Vernon, the celebrated seat of Washington, is plea- santly situated on the Virginia bank of the river Potowmac, where it is nearly two miles wide, and is about 280 miles from the sea, and 127 from Point Look Out, at the mouth of the river. It is 9 miles below Alexandria. Canals. The Shenandoah in the last 8 miles of its course falls 80 feet. Six different canals, 20 feet wide, 4|^ deep, and extending altogether 2400 yards, have been opened around the most difficult falls, and rendered the river passable. The distance on the Appo" mattox, from the upper end of the falls to tide water at Petersburg, is 5 miles ; and the descent upwards of 30 feet. The canal is 16 feet wide, and 3 deep, and admits boats of 6 tons. The capital amounts to upwards of 5S60,000. Manufactures. A manufacture of small arms has been estabi. lished at Richmond by the state, on an extensive scale. It is sup- plied with iron, coal, &c. by water. The materials are landed at S22 • VIRGINIA. tiie doors of the buildings, which stand on the margin of the canal, whence the works derive an inexhaustible supply of water, by Bieans of which the greater part of the labor is performed. Commerce. The exports from Virginia in 1804 amounted to^ 5^5,790,001 ; and in 1810 to §4,822,611, of which §4,632,829 were ef domestic produce, and §189,782 of foreign. Tobacco is the capital article of export, and next to that is wheat flour. Pork, maize, lumber, tar, pitch, turpentine, coal, and furs are the other chief articles. The aggregate tonnage of this state for the year 1805 was 71,488 tons, and for 1810, 83,924. The exports from this state, before the revolution, covimunibus finnis, was estimated by Mr. Jefferson, in his notes, at about §2,900,000. In 1758 the state exported 70,000 ho£';5heads of to- bacco, which was the greatest quantity ever produced in the state jn a single year. Climate. The temperature of the coast is warmer than that of ihe interior, and the warmth decreases gradually to the summit of the Allegany. The mean heat of 5 years (1772 — 1776) was 60|° of Fahrenheit. The greatest average heat of any one day, during that time was 82|° ; and the least 38^"^. The extremes of temper- ature were 98° above, and 6° below of Fahrenheit. Sudden changes of temperature are common. The S. W. wind is the most common on the coast in all seasons. In the interior the N. W. The average annual fall of rain during the period already men? lioned, at Williamsburg, was 47-038 inches ; of which 9-153 inches fell in August, more than double the quantity of any other month, Face of the Country. The first ridge of mountains is, in this state, generally about 150 miles from the sea. Beyond that quite to the western boundary of the state, the country is mountainous ; the ridges of the Allegany occupying a greater breadth of country in Virginia, tban in any other state. Between the various ridges, however, there are long valleys parallel with them, often of consid- erable breadth, and containing some of the best and most pleasant land in Virginia. Belovi' the mountains, the country is a success aion of hills and valleys as far as the lowest falls of the rivers. These, in the Potov/mac, are 3 miles above the city of Washing- ton ; in the Rappahannoc at Fredericksburg ; in the James at Rich- mond ; in the Appomatox a little above Petersburg, and in the Roanoke about 10 miles above Halifa:: in North-Carolina. Th^ width of the tract below these falls in a strait line varies from 1 10 to 13G miles. This tract is called the Low country, and is chiefly a sandy plain, covered with the long leaved or pitch pine. Soil and Agriculture. The soil in the tide-water country is gen- erally poor. Its chief productions are maize, oats, and peas. Wheat is raised in some parts of it, a little rice also in the southern swamps. Between tide-water and the mountains the land is prin- cipally good. This is the tobacco country. Great quantities of wheat are also raised here. This grain has been almost wholly substituted for tobacco in the northern upland counties, and suffi-f cient cotton is raised for homp consumjuion in those S. of Jarae| VIIlGINiA'. 22S" ^;ivei'. The sGutheastern counties produce cider and cider brandy m large quantities ; and those on the eastern shore abundance of peach brandy. Among the mountains the farmers raise large num- bers of cattle and hogs ; and westward of them, hemp is becoming the staple production. Maize is cultivated throughout the state. Rivers. The Ohio is the N. W. boundary for many miles ; and the Potowmac the N. E. through its whole length. James river runs vhoUy in tliis state ; the Roanoke partly in Virginia, and part- ly in North Carolina ; the Monpngahela and Great Kanhawa chief- ly in Virginia. The Youhiogany barely rises here. All these have been described. The Rappahannoc rises in the Blue Ridge, and pursues a S. E. course of 200 miles to the Chesa)vak. It has 4 fathoms water to Hobb's Hole, and 2 from thence to Fredericksburg, 1 10 miles frona its mouth. York river rises in the easternmost ridge, and is formed by the Pamunkey and Mattapony, which unite at Delaware. Its course is S. E. to Yorktown, and tlience N. E. 11 miles to the Chesapeak, into which it falls at Toes point. At Yorktown it affords the best harbor in the state for vessels of the largest size. It holds at high tide, 4 f:\thoms water. It is capable of navigation for loaded flats 70 miles above its mouth. The whole length of this river is about 180 miles. The Piankatank runs S. E. about 40 miles between Rappahan- noc and York rivers, and receives small craft 8 miles. The Shenandoah, after a N. E. course of 250 miles aloog the ■western skirts of the Blue ridge, unites it waters with the Potow- mac at Harper's Ferry, just above its passage through the moun- tains. From Port Republic to within 8 miles of Harper's ferry, a distance of near 200 miles, the Shenandoah is naturally navigable. The Rivanna, a northern branch of the James, runs S. E. 4(J miles, and empties near Columbia. It is navigable from the South mountain to its mouth, 22 miles. The Chickahomminy, a lower branch on the same side, runs 60 miles in the s»me direction. A bar at its mouth has only 12 feet water. Vessels of that drauglu ascend the river 8 mile* ; those of 10 feet 12 miles ; and those of 6 tons burthen 32 miles. The Appomatox, the chief southern branch of th.e James, runs N. E. S. E. and E. about 120 miles. Vessels of 15 feet draught sjo up to Broadways, and those of 4 feet to Petersburg. Above the fells, which are now caiiallcd, and which are 5 miles from Peters- buig, it has been rendered navigable for boats to Farmville, 80 miles above Petersliurg. Blackwater, Nottaway, and Meherrin rivers form the Chowan^ They run chiefly in Virginia. The Great Kanhawa is a branch of the Ohio. From the falls to the mouth of Greenbriar is 100 miles, and thence to the lead mines 120. It is 280 yards wide at its mouth. Tlie principal branches of the Great Kanhawa, as you ascend it, are Louisa or Coal river from the west — Elk, 60 miles from its mouth — Gaully river, more than 100— Greenbriar, nearly 20Q. The three latter from the cast- 5^24 VIRGINIA. The Little Kanhawa is 150 yards wide at the mouth. It afforcfsf & navigation of ten miles only. Big Sandy river heads very near Cumberland river in Cumber- land moumains. It runs N. about luO miles, and falls into the Ohio opporiite Galliopolis, where it is 60 yards wide. It is the boundary of Virginia and Kentucky, and is navigable 60 miles for loaded batteaux. The Goiandot runs N. N. W. 80 miles into the Ohio and may- be navigated by canoes 50. Several of the head waters of the Tennessee are found in this State. Swamfi. A considerable part of Dismal swamp lies in Virginia." Mountains. The mountains of this state are all in ridges, runJ nlng in a N. E. direction. These are all parts of the Allegany or' Apalachian mountains. The Allegany ridge is the spine of the country, is broken by no river but the Susquehannali, and is gen- erally about 3000 feet high. Its course is nearly N. in Virginia, as far as the angles of the James and Kanhawa; and afterwards about N. N. E. The Cumberland mountains are the boundary be- tween Virginia and Kentucky for about 80 miles. Their course is N. E. and they run nearly parallel with the Laurel ridge, through' the state. Mineralogy. There are valuable lead mines on the Kanhawa, opposite the mouth of Cripple creek, and 25 miles from the North- Carolina boundary. The proportion is from 50 to 80 pounds of pure metal to 100 pounds of washed ore. The most common is 60 pounds to the 100 pounds. The ore is very abundant. A coft-- fier mine was opened in Amherst county, on the W. side of James river, and another in Bedford county on the opposite side. They are not now wrought. Twelve iroji mines are now open ; four on James river, and two in the northern part of the state in the valley west of the Blue ridge. Black lead abounds in Winterham', in the county of Amelia. The country, on both sides James river, from^ 13 to 20 miles above Richmond, and for several miles north and south, abounds m mineral coal of an excellent quality. The pits which have been opened lie 150 or 200 feet above the bed of the river, and are little incommoded by water. It is very abundant, also W. of the mountains. One emerald has been found here ;• atnethysts are frequent, and rock crystal common. Good marble a- bounds on the N. side of the James river, at the mouth of the Rockfish ; sonie entirely white, but generally variegated with red, blue, and purple. This marble is part of a vein of limestone, whicli commences in Prince William county, and running S. W. crosses the Rivanna, 5 miles below South mf>untain, and thence proceeds to the mouth of ihe Rockfish. It is no where more than 100 yards wide. Limestone is found every where W. of the Blue Ridge. KENTUCKY. 335 KENTUCKY. Extent. THIS state lies between 36 30 and 39 10 N. lat. ; and between 82 50 and 89 20 W. Ion. Its length, on the southern line, is 300 miles, Its greatest breadth is 180 miles, and its least 40. The Ohio winds along the whole of its northern side. The number of square miles is 50,000. Boitndaries. The Ohio winds on the N. 700 miles, and separates Kentucky from Indiana territory, and from a part of the state of Ohio ;* Big Sandy river for 80 miles, and Cumberland mountains separate it, on the E. from Virginia : on the S. it is divided from Tennessee by the parallel of lat. 36 30 : and the Mississippi, on the W. separates it from Upper Louisiana, coasting the state 60 miles. Divisions. This slate is divided into 54 counties. Kentucky is entitled to send 10 representatives to congress. JVame. The name of this state is derived from K' ntucky river. History. This country was first explored by Col. Daniel Boone in 1770. The first family settled in it in 1775. It was erected in- to a separate county by "Virginia in 1777 ; and into a separate dis- trict in I78i. In 1785, a convention was formed for the purpose of procuring an entire separation from Virginia. This was effect- ed the following year. It continued an independent district till June 1, 1792, when it was received into the union, as a member of the United States. The first settlers were exposed to the attacks of the Indians, till general Clarke, in 1778, scoured the western wilderness, and took all their posts, as well as those of the French and English. Religion. There are three prevailing denominations of Chris- tians in Kentucky, Presbyterians, B ipiists, and Methodists. The Baptists are the most numerous. The Presbyterians arc the sec- ond denomination in point of numbers. They have 50 clergymen, ■who are generally men respectable for their learning and piety, of •whom about 40 are attached to the general assembly of the Presby- terian church, and 10 to the associate reformed synod of Kentucky, The doctrines of these last, as well as those of the first, with some exceptions, are strictly Calvinistic. The Methodists are considera- bly numerous. There are a few Catholics, and still fewer Episcopalians. The Catholics have a bishop at Bardstown. ^ In Kentucky the laws make no provision for the support of re- ligion. This fact accounts for the great numbers of the inhabitants •who profess no religion. Government. The legislature is called the general assembly ^ and consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senators are chosen by districts, and hold their seats 4 years. One fourth of their number are re-chosen annually. A member must be a cit- izen of the United States, and 35 years of age ; must have resided in the state the 6 preceding years, and the last year in the district. • On the course of the Ohio, that river separates Kentucky &oiB te4i/ip3; fo? 525 miles, and from Ohio for I^, 29 226^ KENTUCKY. Their number cannot exceed 38. The representatives are choseBi annually on the first Monday of Auy^ust, chiefly by counties, and in a few instances by towns. They cannot exceed 100 in number. A member of the house must be a citizen of the United States, and 24 years of age ; and must have resided the two preceding years in the state, and the last of them in the county or town. The as- sembly convenes on the first Monday of November. The governor is chosen. by the people once in 4 years, and is in- eligible the succeeding 7. He must be 35 years of age, and a cit- izen of the United States ; and must have resided in the state the 6 preceding years. The lieutenant governor is chosen for the same period in the same manner, and must possess tiie same qual- ifications. He is president of the senate. No bill, to which the governor dissents, can become a law, unless, upon a reconsidera- tion, a majority of both houses agree to it. Fofiulation. The population of this state was in the year {61,133 whitesl f 324,2o7 whites! 12,430 slaves 173,677 1810-{ 80,561 slaves V 406.51 L n4freebl.j (, l5713freebl. J r 179,871 whites"! 180o4 40,343 slaves [.220,955 t 741 free bl. J The items of the census of 1 8 10 were as follow : white males, white females^ total. Under 16 years of age 91,938 86,519 178,45r Between ] 6 and 45 59,325 55,431 114,75^ 43 and upwards 17,542 13,482 31,024 Total 168,805 15 5,432 324,237 The increase in the first ten years was 147,278 ; and in the sec- ond ten, 185,556. The blacks in both periods increased considera- bly faster than the whites. At the first enumeration, Kentucky was, in point of numbers, the 1 3th state ; at the second, the 9ib ; and at the third, the 7th. Militia. The militia of this state amount tn between 40,000 and 50,000 men, organized in the manner of the Virginia railiiia. Manners and Cicstoins. The inhabitants are emigrants from every state in the union, and from almost every country in Europe. There is of course a great mixture of complexion, language, relig- ion, feelings, habits, and character. A considerable number of the settlers were men of education, respectability, and worth ; who Bave imparted a good influence around them ; but a large majority were of a quite different class of people. Literature. A seminary by the name of the Transijlvania uni~ •versity^ has been established at Lexington. Its legislature is a board of 21 trustees. It is under the direction and instruction of a president, who is professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy ; of 5 professors, one of moral philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and history, one of the ancient languages, one of surgery, one of the materia medica, and one of botany ; and of a teacher of the French language. It has from 60 to 8.0. students, beside stu.- K-ENTUCKY. ilents in medicine. The library contains about 1500 volumesu There is a piiilosophical apparatus. The annual revenue of the institution, exclusive of the fees for tuition, amounts to S2700. There are a few respectable schools in the slate, which are the result of indivicluai exertion. The legislature, a few years since, gave 6000 acresof land, lying in Green River county, for the support of common schools. By being divided into small p>arctls, it has not, as yet, produced one respectable common school. Towns. Lexington is situated in a delightful plain, about 40 xniles in diameter, and half encircled by Kentucky river, which, for a course of 60 miles, is no where more than 20 from the town. It contains 1 handsome Presbyterian church, 1 for Baptists, 1 for •Methodists, and 1 for Episcopalians, a college edifice, and 4326 in- habitants. It is the seat of several flourishing manufactures. Frankfort is the seat of government. It stands on the E. bank W the Kentucky, ^bout 30 miles from Lexington, containing 1090 inhabitants. Roads. The roads in Kentucky are in the situation, which niiglit be expected in a country so lately settled ; generally not good. Canal. The Ohio, at the rapids in Louisville, descends 22 feet in less than 9 miles. Boats pass these with difficulty, and larg« vessels not without danger at the freshets. This state has incor- porated a company for the purpose of canalling these rapids with a capital of 8500,000, of which only a small portion is subscribed, and the work is not yet begun. The proposed canal must be near- ly 2 miles long, 20 feet broad at the bottom, and 68 at the top. It ^ust be dug generally about 16 feet deep. Manufactures. The following account of the manufactures of Kentucky for 1810 was returned to the office of the secretary of State. ■value, hides tanned 70,432 g255,212 740,242 2,057,081 690,600 308,932 38,561 78,407 324,870 33,648 18,600 393,400 267 2000 24,450 Tanneries Distilleries Looms Hemp Maple sugar Powder mills Fulling mills Salt works Saltpetre Paper mills Ropewalks Cotton bagging Manufactories Spinnning machines 1 5 Forges 3 Furnaces 4 53 33 36 6 38 spu-its cloth powder cloth salt i: paper cordage bagging galls. 2,220,773 yds. 4,685,375 tons 5,755 lbs. 2,471,647 lbs. 115,706 yds. 53,038 bushels 324,870 lbs. 201,937 reams 6200 tons 1,991^ yds. 453,750 spindles 1656 159,445 g5,098,998 ISommerce, The staple commodities of this state are hemp; 22« KENTUCKY, wheat, and tobacco. It is but a few years since the planters turned their attention to the cuiiure of hemp. These and the other arti- cles of export are carried do^v^l the Ohio and Missisippi, to New- OrleaiiS, whence the foreign articles of consumption are chiefly brought up these rivers. Climate. The atmosphere is very moibt. This renders the ground generally muddy throughout the winter and early in the spring. Colds, rheumatisms, and inflammatory fevers are very common in those seasons ; and these last in July, August, and Septeniber. The inhabitants seldom experience the extremes of heal and cold. The greatest heat in 1798, ^Yas 89'^ of Fahrenheit. The weather in the spring and fall is delightful. The S. W. wind blows at least half of the time. The intensely cold winds are all from the N. W. Snow seldom falls deep, or lies long. The win- ter, w hich begins at Christmas, never exceeds 3 months, common- ly but 2, and is so mild that cattle subsist without fodder. Face of the Country. The S. E. part of the state is mountainous*. Below the mountains the country for some distance is hilly ; but the body of the state is uneven. There are considerable tracts of level land, and the state at large would be more healthy and pleas- ant if more hilly. The whole state, below the mountains, reposes upon an immense bed of liraestone, from 1 to 20 feet, and usually 5ibout 8 feet below the surface. Like other limestone countries, it is poorly watered, and has scarcely any mill streams, which are not dry after harvest. SoU and Agriculture. Probably thers is no tract of country of the same extent, which has a better soil than Kentucky. Wheat was, for a short time, the chief article of cultivation. At present little more is raised than is necessary for home consumption. A great quantity of rye is raised, but almost wholly for the dis- tilleries. Hemp, for several years past, has been the capital arti- cle of produce, and will soon be far more valuable than all the oth- ers. From 700 to 1000 weight per acre, is an ordinary crop. ]Maize is extensively cultivated. Rivers. Tbe Missisippi is the western, the Ohio the northern^ and tl'.e Big Sandy the eastern boundary. The Tennessee runs about 50 milts in the state, and the Cumberland at least half of its course. Tlie Kentucky rises in the S. E. part of ihe state, and pursues a ;N. W. course ot 280 miks, to the Ohio; emptying 121 miles be- low tl-.e Miami, by a mouth 250 yards wide. The course is crook- ed and irregular, and the banks are generally high and rocky. It is navigable for boats of considerable size, 180 miles, in the win- ter tides ; but as low as Frankfprt, they can pass only about half the y^ear. Green river rises in Lincoln county, and pursues an irregular westerly couise of 280 miics, to the Ohio, emptying 120 miles below Louisville. It is navigable at all times for loaded boats 50 liiilf s, where there are impassable rapids, above which the naviga^ tion is good 20 miles to the mouth of Barren river. Licking river heads near the Kentucky, and runs N. N. W. a- NORTH-CAROLINA. ^29 ibout 1 80 miles to the Ohio; empiyhif^ opposite Cincinnati, by a mouth 150 yards wide. It is nuvit^able about 70 miles. Salt river falls into the Ohio at the Bi;^ Bend. Mou7itains. Cumberland nionniains bouiid tiie state for about SO miles on the S. E. Various other low ranges lie farther west ; but we have seen no particular account of iliem. Minerals. Iron abounds in various places ; but the metal is not of the best quality. It is well adapted for hollow ware, but does not answer for malleable iron. There is an immense Cjuarry of marble on the banks of the Kentucky. It i:s of a greyish cast, beautifully variegated, and suscepiilile of a high polish. On the banks of the same river, 20 miles from Lexington, tlicre is a pecu- liar mineral, which is semitransparent, always brcai;s in a r/z^Tn- boidal form, and has the double refracting power of the Iceland crystal. Mineral Waters. There are 5 noted salt springs or licks in this country : viz. the higher and lower Blue springs, on Licking river, from some of which, it is said, issue streams of brinish water the iBig Bone lick, Drennon's licks ; and Builit's lick, at Saltshurgii. The quantity of salt made at the various salt licks in 1810, a- jnounted to 324,870 bushels. NORTH-CAROLINA, Exteiit- THIS state is situated between 33 50 and 36 SO NT. j and between 75 45 and 84° W. Its length in lat. 35 7, is 430 iniles. The greatest breadth is 180. In the S. W. it terminates in a point. The eastern part is much the broadest, and the whol® •winding of the coast is not less than 300 miles. The number of square miles is 48,000. Bou7idaries. On the N. by Virginia ; on the E. and S. E. by the Atlantic ; on the S. W. and S. by South-Carolina ; and on the W. and N. W. by Tennessee. Divisions. This state is divided into 62 counties ; each county is subdivided into towns. This state is entitled to send 13 representatives to congress. JVames. This state was at first a part of the Florida of the Span- iards and French, and of the Virginia of the English. It was next included in the patent of South- Virginia ; then in that of Curolana ; and afterwards in that of Carolina. In 1729, it received the name of JVorth-Carolina^ in consequence of its being made a distinct province. Original Pofiulation. In 1700, there were 13 tribes of Indians in this province. The whole number of souls in these tribes, Lawson reckoned to be about 4U00. Five other tribes came to North-Carolina about this time, containing 750 souls. ». pf ail ^hese tribes there are now remaining in North-Carolina z. 230 NORTH-CAROLINA. few of the Tuscaroras only, who live in Bertie county, amounting, in 1790, only to about 60 souls. History. North ■Carolina was early discovered, and the first English colony ever planted in America was settled on the island of Roanoke, in Pamlico sound, in 1585. The next year the colony returned to England. Tlus country was included in the territories granted by charter at various times under the names just recited. The first permanent settlement was made on the eastern bank of the Ciiowan, and called Albemarle, in honor of gen. Monk. The emigrants came from Nansemond, in Virginia, and settled here about 1660, In 1669, the first assembly was constituted and convened at Al- bemarle. The first assembly for the whole province met atCharles- town in 1674. The crown purchased the whole of Carolina of the proprietors, in 1729, for 17,500/. sterling ; and the king immediately divided it into two provinces. In ) 769, this province resisted the oppressions of the ministry. Two years afterwards, about 1500 of the inhabitants, assuming the name oi regulators, rose in rebellion. Gov. Tryon fought and de- feated them : 300 were killed in the battle, and, of those taken, 13 ■were condemned for high treason, and 6 executed. Religio7i. The western parts of the state are settled by Presby- terians from Pennsylvania, the descendants of Scotch-Irish emi- grants. Almost a.11 the country between the Catawba and Yadkin, as well as that lying on those rivers, is thus peopled. A few set- tlements of German Lutherans and Calvinists are intermixed. There are some Presbyterians also in the lower country. The Moravians, in 1751, purchased a tract of 100,000 acres of lord Granville. It lies between the Dan and Yadkin, is called Wacho- via, and contains a number oi flourishing villages, the three largest of which are Salem, Bethany, and Bethabara. The Friends have a settlement in New-Garden, and congrega- tions at Perquimons, Pasquotank, and Crane creek- The Methodists and Baptists are numerous in the middle coun- try, and considerably so in the lower districts. The numbers of the first are much greater than those of any other in the state. Government. The legislature is styled the general asaembhj, and consists of a senate and house of comm.ons. The senators are chos- en annually, one from each county, and must possess 300 acres of land, and have resided the preceding year in the county. The members of the house of commons are chosen annually, two from each county, and one from each of six towns, and must have resid- ed there the preceding year, and be possessed of 100 acres of land. Votei-s for senators must possess 50 acres, and have resided in the county one year. Voters for commoners must have resided one year, and paid taxes. The governor is chosen annually by a joint ballot of both houses ; and is eligible 3 years in 6. He must be 30 years of age, have a fpeehold worth g 1000, and iiave resided in the state 5 years. Tli$ I^ORTH-C AROUND. 231 tf«ecu6ve council consists of 7 persons chosen annually, by a joinc ballot of the two houses. Fofiulation. North-Carolina contained in the vear 1749 45,000 ("337,764 whites') {238,204 whites") I80oJ 133,296 slaves (.478,103 100,572 slaves [.393,751 (^ 7,043 free bl. J 4,975 free bl. J f 376,410 whites") 18104 168,824 slaves I 555,5C'» (_ 1 0,2 6 6 free bl. J The items of the census of 1810 were as follow : males. females. total. Under 16 years of age 98,357 95,474 193,831 Between 16 and 45 ' 69,086 71,877 140,965 45 and upwards 21,189 20,427 41,616 Total 188,632- 187,778 375,410 Militia. The number of fencible men in this state may be esli- inated at about 60,000, organized as in Virginia. Manners mid Customs. The Norlli-Carolinians are mostly plant- ers, and live from a half a mile to three and four miles from each other, on their plantations. They have a plentiful country, no ready market for their produce, little intercourse with strangers, and a natural fondness fur society, which induce them to be hospitable to travellers. Since the peace, there has not been greater progress in the arts of civilized life made in any of the states, than in North-Carolina* Instead of dissipation and indolence, formerly too prevalent among' the inhabitants, we generally find a more orderly, inciustrious pco-^ pie, who arc, in some measure, indebted for this reform to the great' immigration of farmers and artizans from the northern states, who have roused the spirit of industry among them, in a country where' it may be cultivated and cherislied to any degree. The schools that have lately been erected in different paitsofihe state, have greatly contributed to the advancement of knovvludge, and the im- provement of the people. Literature. In 1789, the legislature of this state laid the foun- dation of a university, by an act for that purpose, providing hand- some funds. The site of the institution was fixed at Chapel HilU 28 miles W. of Raleigh. The college has a professor of sciences, ■a professor of languages, three tutors, and about 100 studentPi There is a library, philosophical apparatus, and a small cabinet of euriosities. The students are from North-Carolina, Virginia, Ten- nessee, and Kentucky. A college edifice of brick, 100 feet by 40, two stories high, and another ISO by 40 feet, 3 stories high; liou^cs for the president and steward, of wood, constitute the public buildings belonging to the university. There is a very good academy at Warrenton, which had, some years since, 120 scholars. The academy at Fayctteville has about- tli« same nunjber. There is aiso an academy at Guilford, at Lum'- 5S2 NORTH-CAROLINA. berton, at Nc-wbern, at WJIliainsborough in Granville county, &t Chai ham courthouse, and HillsljoroUijh. In this state, a snedica! society was incorporated in 1799. It is a ■(valuable institution. They have encotn-aged the culture of various medicinal articles, wliich thrive here very well. Paima christi and other medicines promise to be articles of exportation. CUies and Toivns. Newbern, the largest town in the state, stands at the confiucisce of the Trent with the Neus, on a sandy point of land between the two rivers. The public buildings arc a small Episcopal church, a handsome courthouse, and a gaol, ail of brick, and a tneatre, which was formerly a distillery. The houses are almost wholly of wood, and are indifferently built. The pop- ^ilation in 1800, amounted to 2467, of whom 1298 were slaves. It carries on a considerable trade with the West-Indies. Lat. 35 20 N. Ion. 77 25 W. Fayetticville stands on Cross creek, near its junction witU Blount creek, and a mile from its entrance into Cape Fear river. There arc upwards of 400 houses. Tlie public buildings are a Presbyterian cliurch, a handsome courthouse, and a townhouse„ Fayetteville is better situated for commerce, and vends more mer- chandize tlian any inland town in the state ; and few places are inore eligible for the establishment of several important manufac- tures. Wilmington is S4 miles from the sea, on the E. bankof Claren- don river. Population in 1800, 1689. The trade is considerable. Edenton, on the N. side of Albemarle sound, has about 150 in- tiifferent wood houses, and a few handsome buildings. Raleigh is the seat of government, and stands 120 miles in a direct line from the coast, and 40 from the Virginia boundary. The city has about 120 houses, and upwards of i 000 inhabitants. Commerce. The amount of exports from this state, in 1804, was S923,687 ; and in ISIO, §403,949; of which S401, 465 were of domestic produce, and S2484 ol foreign. A great proportion of the produce of the back country, consisting of tobacco, wheat, and vnaize, is carried to tite Virginia and South-Carolina markets. The exports from the low country arc lunjbcr, tar, pitch, turpentine, i'osin, maize, furs, tobacco, ])ork, tallow, bees wax, and myrtle wax. Cheese, cider, apples, potatoes, iron, tin ware, furniture, hats, and ishocs, are imported from New-England; and foreign merchandize chiefly from New-York. The aggregate tonnage of this state for the year 1805 was 34,090 tons. Climate. June is the most healthy month ; often May and July may be callr^d healthy. Summers diy and cool are the most salu- brious. More deaths occur in February and March, from inflam- rhatory complaints of ih.e head and breast than in any part of the year. In tiie hilly country fluxes are common, and Vv-ry fatal to children. Pulmonary consumptions, epilepiies, apoplexies, teta- nus, and rickets, are hardly known in Noith-Caroiina. Ring worms, tetters, scurvy in the teeth and gums, are common The western iiilly )>arts of the state arc healthy. From the first of July, to the iirst ol" September, the mercury ranges between 80 and 96; and J^ORTH-CAROLfNTA. 233 sometimes, though seldom, it rises above 100. The winters are so mild in some years, that autumn may be said to continue till spring. Wheat harvest is in the beginning of June, and that of In- dian corn early in September. Face of the Country. The flat or low country in North-Caroli- fta extends about 80 iTiiles from the sea. Its natural growth is the pitch or long leaved pine. Between this and the lower falls of the rivers lies a belt of land, about 40 miles wide, conisisling of small sand hills, and covered with pitch pine. Beyond these falls the country is a land of hilis and vailies, and farther back it is moun- tainous. Inland and river swamps are numerous in the fiat coun- try. They abound with cypress and bay trees. Soil and Agriculture. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and flax grow tvell in the back hilly country, but tobacco is ihe iiiost important article of agriculture. Cotton and hemp are cuid^'ated there to a considerable and increasing extent, and the first more abundantly in the lower part of the hilly country. Maize and puise are ex- tensively cultivated thruughout the state ; rice in some of the swamps of the low country. The greater part of the low country is not woith cultivating. It is valuable only for its timber, tar» pitch, and turpentine, v/hich have been considered as the staple commodities of the state. Rivers. The Roanoke runs partly in Virginia, and the Yadkin, and Catawba partly in South-Carolina. They have heretofore been described. Cape Fear river is formed by Haw and Deep rivers. These rise in the same mountains, and running, each about 90 miles, unite 7 miles above Buckhorn falls. The course of the river is thence S. and S E. about 160 miles to the ocean, into which it empties be* tween CapeFearisland and Smithville. It is navigable for sea ves- sels 25 miles above Wilmington, for large Isoitslo Fayetteville, 65 miles farther, and for smaller boats above th'\ forks. About 6 miles fron^ Wilmington the river divides and encompasses a considera- ble island, below whieh it has more the appearance of u bay than a river. Clarendon river, or the N. E. branch, is a stream, that runs nearly S. about 90 miles, and unites v/ith the east arm of Cape Fear river, just above Wilmington. Black river is a longer streamj which rises in the upper country, and running parallel with the Cape Fear, falls into it a little below Appleby, TheNeus rises in the upper country, a little above Hillsborough, and near some of the branches of the Roanoke. It runs on the whole S. E. and falls into Pamlico sound at its southwestern ex- tremity. Its length is about 220 miles, of which it is navigable for sea vessels 52, for large boats 90, and for small boTits, to Smithfield, 160. Cotecney creek is the principal tributary on the E ; and the Trent on the W. This last empties at Newbern, and is navigable for sea vesels 12 miles, and for boats 25. The Pamlico is formed by Tar riyer and Fislung creek, which tmite a little above Tarborough. The last is the longest stream, and heads near Warrenton. The course of the Pamiico is about S. E. and it empties its waters into the western extremity of Pam- ^4 TENNESSEE. Kco sound. Its length is about 1 80 miles. It is navigable fo«i' •vessels drawing 9 feet water, to Washington, 40 miles, and for' large boats to Tarborough. The Chowan is formed by the Nottaway and Blackwater, which- "anite on the Virginia line, and the Meherrin, which falls in from the W. 10 miles below. All these rise in Virginia, and pursue ar southeasterly course. The Meherrin, the longest, inins about 100 miles. After the confluence the Chowan runs S. E. and S. 40 miles, and falls into the head of Albemarle sound, near the Roan- oke, by a mouth 3 miles wide. Sivamfis arid Sounds-. Dismal and Alligator swamps, and Pam- lico and Albemarle sounds have already been described. Cap.es. Cape Hatteras is one of the most noted capes on the coast. Itisinlat. 35 I5 N ; and is a point running out from th©^ middle of a long narrow sand island, which separates Pamlic* sound from the ocean. Cape Lookout is south of cape Hatteras, opposite Core sound. Cape Fear is remarkable for a dangerous shoal, called, from its form, the Frying Pan. Mountains. The Allegany ridge crosses the western part of- the state, and the Blue ridge lies farther east. But we have been able to obtain no satisfactory account of the mountains of North- Carolina. Mineralogy. A gold mine has been lately discovered in Cabar- rus county in this state, which had, in 1805, furnished the mint of tl^e United States, with virgin gold, which has pi'oduced, 1 1,000 ^B$ TENNESSEE. Historical JEpoc/is. About the middle of the last century, the Shawanee Indians, who lived on the Savannah river, in Gtnrgi^^ yemoved and settled themselves on the Cumberland riv( v,near the present site of Nashville. Tbey were not suffered, however, long to remain in this fine country ; but were driven off by the more powerful Cherokees. This country was included in the secontj charter granted by Charles II. to the proprietors of Carolina ; and in a subsequent^ division it was made a part of North-Carolina. Its situation was so remote from the sea board, beyond rude mountains, and exposed to savages, that no settlement of white people was begun, till near the commencement of the revolutiona- yy war. The first settlers stationed themselves on the Watauga viver. Here they continued several years unnoticed by the gov- eriiment of Norih-Carolina, and under no laws but those of their own making. Their operations in the war were connected with those of the v,^estern settlers of Virginia. The year 1776 was signalized by a formidable invasion of the Cherokees. Their intention was to depopulate the country, as far as the Kanhawa, because this brave people had rejected, with ^ iioble firmness and indignation, the proposals of Henry Steuart and Alexander Cameron for joining the British standard, and were al- jnost unanimous in their resolution to support the measures of Con- gress. This invasion issued in a total defeat of the Indians. The first appearance of any persons from this district, in the public councils of North-Carolina, was in the convention that formed the constitution of that state in 1776. Tennessee became a distinct territorial government in 1790, and jn 1796, was erected in due form into at; independent state, making the 16th in the union. Religion. The most nr.merous denominations of Christians in this state are Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians. There are a few societies of the Scotch Seceders, and a few Friends. GovermneJit. By the constitution of this state, which was form- ed and ratified at Knoxville, February 6, 1796, the legislative au- thority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of representatives. The number of representatives is to be fixed once in seven years, by the legislature, according to the num- ber of taxable inhabitants. The senators are never to be less than one third, nor more than «ne hair the number of the representatives, and arc to be chosen tipon principles similar to those for the choice of representatives. The election for members of both houses is biennial. The executive power of the state is vested in a governor, who is chosen by the electors of the members of the legislature ; the per- son having the highest number of votes is chosen. The governors are to be chosen biennially, and are eligible six years out of eight. Every freeman of 21 years of age, possessing a freehold in the county, and having been an inhabitant of the state for six months preceding, may vote for the members of the legislature. TENNESSEE. 251* Pojiulation. The number of inhabitants in Tennessee was in {31,913 whites') f 2 15,875 whites") 3417 slaves 135,691 1810-j 44,535 slaves 1251,727 361freebl.J ^ JSirtrcebl.J {91,709 whites') 15,384 slaves 1 105,602 309 free bl. J The actual increase, in the first 10 years, was 69,911 ; and, ia ihe second, 156,125. The increase percent, was in the first 10 years 187'3 ; and, in the second, 135'4. The items of the census of 1810 were as follow : males. females. total. Under 1 6 years of age 61,664 58,139 119,803 Between 16 and 45 39,443 37,488 76,931 45 and upwards 10,656 "8,485 19,141 Total 111,763 104,112 215,875 The inhabitants migrated chiefly from the Carolinas and Virgin- ia. But there are intermingled settlers from most of the other states and from Europe. Indiayis. There are no Indians in the state, except a few towns of the Cherokees ; which are in East-Tennessee. South of West- Tennessee live the Chickasaws. The latter were always friendly to the white people ; nor is there any probability, that they will wish ever to be otherwise. Some in both these nations are rich, and have attained to a considerable degree of improvement. Militia. The number on the militia roils, is between 20,000 and 50,000 men. Manners and Customs. In these particulars there is a greater resemblance between Tennessee and the southern states, than the northern. Several years ago the assembly passed an act against the barbarous custom of duelling, disfranchising the parties con- cerned ; since which no duel has occurred. On the whole the state of society is improving. Colleges and Academies. Acts of incorporation were passed, by the territorial government, for three colleges in East-Tennessee ; one in Washington county, one in Greene, and the other in Knox. The first, called Washington college, is without funds. The sec- ond, called Greenville college, has some endowments, and is in a fiourishii^ condition. The third is near Knoxville, and not at present in operation. It is, however, entitled to the benefits of a donation from congress, which, there is an expectation, will pro- duce to it a capital of 50,000 dollars. In West-Tennessee, there is a college at Nashville, recently es- tablished, by the name of Cumberland college. The building erected for the accommodation of the students is of brick, three stories high, and containing 22 rooms with fire places. Cumberland college has a similar endowment with that at Knox- ville. It has also some other property. A spirit for education seems to be increasing. Chief ToiiKiSj^ K.NoxyjLi.p is situated in the county of Knox, on .188 TENNESSEE. 4he north fcank of the river Holston. The number of inhabitant^ in 1801, was 518 ; — free males 198, females 159, slaves 161. The increase since is not kno^vn. Nasha^lle, situated on the south bank of Cumberland river, ^about lautudc 35°, nearly 190 miles westward of Knoxville, is now the largest town in the state, and in a thriving condition. It con- stains a handsome brick courthouse, a markethouse, and a bank ; and adjacent is Cumberland college. Manafuciures. In East-Tentiessee there are several furnaces, forges, and bloomerics, for the manufacture of iron, a rolling and a slitting mill, and two paper mills. In West-Tennessee there are several furnaces and forges, and one or more bloomeries, and a paper mill ; also several machines for the spinning of cotton ; and several for the manufacture of hemp and cotton into bagging, as ■well as rope walks. Salt is also made in great quantities in this state. Commerce, The principal exports from this state hitherto hav© been cotton and tobacco. But the people are beginning to rais© hemp in large quantities. Corn, potatoes, beef, pork, lard, and fowls, are carried in boats to New-Orleans, to advantage. The banks of Cumberland are as inviting to the ship builder, as those of Ohio ; abounding with excellent materials. And the riv- er rises high enough, in the wet season, to float vessels of any di-* mensions Goods imported are brought from Philadelphia and Baltimore to East-Tennesse in waggons ; and to West-Tennessee principal- ly by waggons as far as Pittsburgh, and then by water down the Ohio, and up the Cumberland. But Orleans sugar, and some oth- er groceries, come up the Missisippi. The freightage to West* Tennessee by this channel, is about 5i dollars a hundred. And steam boats, it is expected, will soon facilitate importation and les^ sen the expence. Clhnate and Seasons. The climate is agreeable ; but the ob* nervations for describing it scientifically have not been attended to. Face of the Country. The face of the country is greatly varie- gated, exhibiting many beautiful vallies, and some extensive tracts, which are either level or gently sloping, especially in West-Ten- nessee. But there are parts of it broken and unfit for culture. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is a mixture ; a great propor- tion of it clay. On Cumberland, Uuck, and many of the rivers, it is of a very superior quality. Corn i.s produced in abundance. It is excellent for hemp. Cot- Jon does well ; and so does wheat and other small grain, where the land is not too rich. It is tolerable for flax, and lor sweet pota- toes, as well as for the other kinds. Tobacco grows thriftily ; it will answer also for upland rice, and for indigo. Vines, garden plants, and fruit trees grow luxuriantly ; and, as far as experiments have been made, it produces the grasses, both for pastures an^ meadows. But of many of these articles the inhabitants are very negligent. TENNESSEE. 259- ^tt Sfii^itig's, tS'c. Salt springs and licks are found in various' j^laces, especially in West-Tennessee, but no works are yet erected for the manufacture of salt. " On the waters of French Broad river, is a fine large, clear, medicinal, warm spring. Numbers of persons from the Carolinas, Georgia, and the southern parts of Virginia, have e:!:perienced its salutary effects in various complaints^ The heat of the water i& such, that at first going into it, it is hardly supportable."* Rivers. East-Tennessee is veined by a number of boatable riv- ers, the principal of which is the Holston. This river rises in Vir- ginia ; and in Tennessee unites with a secondary branch called the North Fork, 100 yards wide at the mouth, and boatable 80 op 70 miles. Not far from their junction it receives the Watauga, from North- Carolina ; and, a few miles above KnoxviUe, the French Broad, through a part of the same state, from South-Carolina. The lat- ter enters the state of Tennessee at a breach of the mountain, which, constitutes its eastern limit ; and is boatable nearly up to that place- From the southeast comes in the Pigeon, and from the northeast the Nolachucky ; both boatable. Below Knoxville the Holston unites with the Tennessee, which rises near the confines of Georgia, and is boatable 30 or 40 miles» Its junction with Clinch is lower, at the place called Southwest Point. Clinch rises among the mountains of Virghiia ; boatable, as estimated, 200 miles. In Anderson county it receives Powell's, a more westerly branch, boatable about 100 miles. West-Tennessee, besides being bordered by the Missisippi, is^ bisected by the Tennessee and the Cumberland. Oby, a boatable river, proceeding from Cumberland mountain, unites with the Cumberland four miles after the entrance of the latter into the state. Mountains. The mountains of this state are ribs of the Alle- gany. Stone, Yellow, Iron, Bald, Smoky, and Unaka mountains, are names applied to different portions of that grand ridge, which separates it from North-Carolina. Its general course, as well as that of most of the others, is nearly from the northeast to the south- west. The principal mountains between this and the Cumberland mountain, are Bay's mountaui, Copper ridge, Clinch mountain, Powell's nv3untain, and Walling's ridge. They are of enormous length, and neaiiy parallel to each other, and between them there are excellent vallies, several miles in width Cumberland mountain is the largest eminence in the state. Its summit is extensive, and much of it level. There are several Toads across it, and settlers along tliose roads. And though the soil is meagre, it answers for clover, small grain, and orchards. It gives origin to various rivers and creeks ; some of which fall in- to the Clinch, some into the Tennessee, and some into the Cum- feerljfnd,. * Gov. Blovint, g-40 SOUTH-CAROLINA. West-Tennessee is not mountainous. Parts of it are brokeii "With ridges and knobs, but much of it is sufficiently level. Mineralogy. Iron ore is found in abundance both in East and West-Tennessee, enough for their own wants and to supply the lower countvicB, which are said to be destitute. A great deal of saltpetre is also manufactured in the state, from the nitrous caves ; sold, generally, at 12^ cents a pound. Some lead mines have beeiy discovered. SOUTH-CAROLINA.* E:&tcni. THIS state lies between lat. 32° and 25 8 N. ; and between Ion. 78 24 and 83 30 W. The greatest length of the state, from the mouth of the Santec to the N. W. angle, is upwards of 340 miles. The breadth on the coast is 170 miles ; at the western extremity, it terminates in a point. It contains 24,080 square miles ; of which 14,5 10 are between the falls of the rivers and the Atlantic, and 9570 above the falls. Boundaries. On the N. and N. E. by North-Carolina ; on the E. by the Atlantic ; and on the S. W. and W. by the Savannah and' Tugulo rivers, which separate it from Georgia. Divisions. This state is divided into 28 districts. Districts. No. inhab, in 1 800. No. inhab. in 1810c Charleston 57,480 63,179 Chester 8,185 11,479 Spartanburgh 12,122 14,259 Laurens 12,809 14,982 Marlborough ' 4,966 Darlington 18,299- 9,047 Chesterfield ^ . 5,564 Union 10,235 10,995 Pairfield 10,097 11,857 Pendleton 20,052 22,897 Newberry 12,006 13,964 Marion 6,914 8,884 I^exington 1 6,641 Williamsburgh 5 J5,766 6,871 Orangeburgh J 13,229 Lancaster 5,012 6,318 Edgefield 18,130 ^3,160 tJeorgetown > Horry ^ 23,933 15,679 4,349 Barnwell 7,376 12,280 Abbeville 13,553 21,156 Kershaw 7,340 9,867 Greenville 11,504 13,133 * The following description of South Carolina has been improved from MS. remarks by judge Dessaussure.but more largely from Dr. Ramsay's late excellent hiitory of this state, io 2 vols. 8ve. 1809. SOUTH-CAROLINA. 241 districts No. inhab. in 1800. No. irthab. in 1810. Suiiipter 13,103 ' 19,054 lieaufort 20,428 25,887 York 10,248 10,032 Richland 6,0'j7 9,027 Colleton 24903 26,359 Total 343,j9l 415,115 This state is entitled to 9 representatives to congress. JVame. This was a part of the Florida otthe early Spanish and French, and of the Virginia and South- Virg-inia of the early Englisli voyai^ers. With North Carolina and Georgia it received the name of Carolana, in 1630 ; and, that of Carolina, in 1663. The name of Soutli-Carolina was given it, when it was separated from Nortli- Carolina, in 1729 It then included Georgia. Hi.'Hory. The coast of tiiis state was discovered by the early American voyagers. In 1670, the first settlement was made under gov. Sayle, at Port Royal ; who removed wilh his colony, the next year, and planted old Charlestown, on the west bank of Ashley river, and 9 years af- ter they abandoned that settlement and began to build on the pres- ent site of Charleston. Mr. Locke's constitution for the govern- ment of Carolina, arrived in 1 670, and though for a while in opera" tion, was found wholly inadequate to the state and necessities of the colony. In 1682, the province was divided into 3 counties. A colony of French refugees, in l690, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nanlz, settled in Carolina. The proprietors, in 1 693, ■wholly abolished Mr. Locke's constitution, and restored the people to their rights under their charier. The next year rice was intro- duced into the province, from Madagascar, by gov. Thomas Smith. The church of England was established, by law, in 1703. The French and Spaniards, from St. AugUbtiiie, invaded Charles- town, in 1706, but Avere repulsed with loss. The Yamasaeta^ a powerful tribe of Indians, invaded Charlestown, in 1715, and were defeated. The colonists throughout Carolina threw off the pro- prietary government, in 1719, and established one for themselves. The next year the privy council sanctioned their proceedings ; and, in 1729, parliament, for 17,500/. purchased the territory of the pro- prietors for the crown, when it was divided into the two provinces of North and South-Carolina A Swiss colony settled at Purysburgh in 17.13, a German colony at Orangeburgh in 1735, and an Irisn colony at VViiliamsburgh in 1737. In 1740, a most formidable insurrection of the negroes took place, v/hich was instigated by the Spaniards. The culture of the indigo plant was introduced into South-Carolina, 1743, by Miss Lucas. In 1752, 1600 foreign Protestants arrived in Carolina. The province suffered severely from the incursions of the Cher- Si ur SOUTH-CAROLINA. okees, in 1760; who, in the following year, were completely re- duced. In 1764, a large colony of Germons settled the town of London - derrv. The peace of Sijuth-Caiolina was threatened, in 1768, by back country settlers, under the name of Regulatoi's. In 1769, this, with tiie other provinces, began openly to resist the oppressive measures of the Briti'>h ministry. In 1774, an insurrection of the tories in tlVis state was suppressed. The British troops occupied Charleston, and a considerable part of Carolina, in 1780. Several actions were fought here during that and the succeeding year, the most decisive of which was the" battle of Eutaw Springs, in 1781, which, in effect, terminated the war in this state. The coristitutibn oFthe state was agreed on in 1790. Original Population. When South-Carolina was settled by the English, it was in the occupation of 28 nations or tribes of Indians. The principal of these were the Cherokees, the Catawbas, the Creeks, the Chickasaws, and the Choctaws. The Cherokees in- habited the v/cstern part of the state; they ceded this territory to Carolina, in 1777, and now reside beyond the mountains. The Catawbas were settled in the northern part of the .state, and still keep part of their original possessions, at present occupying a tract of country 15 miles square, on ea.ch side of Catawba river. They nre fast decreasing. Of the 28 original tribes, 26 have entirely disappeared. Religion. In this state there are 10 Episcopal churches, o of ■which are in the city of Charleston, and 16 clergymen of this de- jiomination, 4 of whom have no cures. They have a bishop. The Presbyterians of different descriptions are organized in five presbyteries, viz. The presbytery of Charleston, the most ancient in the state, consisting of 5 churches ; two in the western pa'A of the state, consisting of more than 20 ministers, who have in thtir connexion more than 60 congregations ; another presbytery, recent- ly formed, embracing several churches in Georgia, with a number in the lower parts of Carolina ; and a presbytery of seceders, con- sisting of 9 ministers, and having under their care 22 congrega- tions. The first and last e:fcepted, these presbyteries are in con- nexion with the general assembly of the Presbyterian church. The Baptists have 5 associations, consisting of 100 ministers; 130 churches, 10,500 communicants, and about 75,500 adherents.* The Independents or Congregationalists have 7 churches, and 6 ministers. The Methodists have 26 travelling, and upwards of 90 local, preachers, who preach about 18,000 sermons annually, for a connr- pcnsation of S20S0.t They have about 200 stations for preaching; ■which cost, on an average, but about S ••'^5 each. Beside the above, there are a few German and French Protestants. Quakers, Roman Catholics, and Jews. The greater part of these denominations reside in the city of Charleston. ** RaiBsay's Hist, vol, ii. p. 25, 28. J- Ibid. p. 3!. SGUTH-CAROLINA. 243 Government. The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senate is composed of 43 members, chosen every 4 years, by districts. A senator must be a free white man, 30 years of age, must have been a citizen and resident in the state the 5 preceding years ; and, if a resident in the district, must be worth SOO/. stei'ling ; if not, 1000/. Half of the senators are cho- sen every 2 years. The house of representatives consists of 124 members, chosen every two years, by districts. A representative must be a free white man, 21 years of age ; must have been a citi- zen and resident in the state the three preceding years ; and, if a resident in the district, must be worth 500*acres of land and 10 vc- groes^ or a real estate valued at 15U/. sterling ; if not a resident, he must have a freehold worth 500/. The governor is chosen, every two years, by a joint ballot of botli houses. He can hold the office only two years in six. He inust be 30 years of age, and possessed of a real estate worth 1500/. sterling ; and, must have been a citizen and resident 10 years. A lieutenant governor is chosen for the same time and must have the same qualifications. The governor has power to pardon, ex- cept in cases of impeachment. Pojiulaiion. The following numbers are the result, partly of estimates made at the time, and partly of actual enumerations. 5,500 whites r 140,178 whites'] 14,000 whites i790-j 107,094 slaves I 249,073 14,000 whites > „^^ (_ 1,801 freebl. J 18,000 blacks 5 -"-'""" r 196,255 whitesl 7'o33 whites > „_ „„„ ISOO^j 146,151 slaves I 345,591 22,000 blacks 3 ''^'''' | 3, 185 freebl J 30,000 r 2 14, 196 whites") 40,000 whites ^ ISIO-j 196,365 slaves I 415,1 15 90,000 blacks 5 ^ """'""" [^ 4,554freebl.J The items of the census of 1810 were as follow ; males. females. total. Under 16 years of age 56,862 54,126 110,988 Between 16 and 45 41,421 39,557 80,978 45 and upwards 11,304 10,926 22,230 Total 109,587 104,609 214,196 The increase in the first 10 years was 96,5 18 ; in the second 10, 69,524. The proportion of blacks to whites is much greater in .this, than in any other state. It is nearly as 20 to 21. Militia. The militia is divided into 2 grand divisions, each com- manded by a major general. These divisions comprehend 9 brig- ades, 39 regiments of infantry, 8 regiments and a squadron of cav- alry, and 1 regiment and a battalion of artillery, besides artillery companies, Avhich are attached to some of the re gimrnts of infantry. The whole amounts to about 40,000 men. Revenue. The average of taxes annually collected, is abouj 135,000 dollars, and the state receives from other sources about 175,000 dollars, making in the whole a revenue of §310,000. The (expenditures on an average amount to about 220,000. In lB04j 1^44 SOUTH-CAROLINA. the state had a balance in their treasury of g75 4,775 ; 300,000 of which they invested in the stock of their state bank, and with part of the remainder they endowed the college at Columbia. The le- gal rate of interest in this titate is 7 per cent. The taxes are on lands and negroes. Manners and Customs. In the back country, the farmers have fevs^ slaves, cultivate their own lands, and live on plantations. In the low country almost all the whites live on plantations. The on* ly laborers here are slaves, who constitute njore than two thirds of the inhabitants. The evils necessarily attendant on slavery are of course extensively felt. Among the virtues of the Carolinians, Dr. Ramsay enumerates the love of liberty, hospitality, charity, and a sense of honor. Among the vices, drunkenness, a disposition to contract debts, and indo- lence. Hunting, both as a business and a diversion, has always been useful and fashionable in Carolina. Dancing is a favorite dir version among the young people. Great attention is paid to music, and many attain to excellence. The complexion of the Carolinians inclines to a greater degree of sallowness, than is common in more northern latitudes. JJteratrirt. In 1785, three colleges were constituted in this states on the same day, one at Charleston, one at Winnsborough, and the other at Cambridge ; but they are colleges in name only, in truth only grammar schools. In 1795, a college was established in the town of Beaufort. Its funds amount to between 60,000 and 70,000t dollars. It has many natural advantages favorable to the proper education of youth. The assembly, in 1801, passed a law for building and endovving a college at the seat of government, by the name of South-Carolina College. It is under the management of a board of trustees con- sisting of the governor, judges, and other great officers of state, and of 13 other gentlemen, selected for their character and talents. The instructers are a president, three professors, and two tutors. An extensive library and handsome philosophical apparatus have been presented by the state. The legislature has endowed this seminary with an annual income of S6000, and is constantly hold- ing out to it a fostering hand. The college building is handsome, and will accomodate 90 students. This is their present number. The president's house is one of the best in the state, and those of the professors are very handsome. The institution is now flour- ishing. There are academics at Charleston, two in Newbury district, one at Spartanburgh, a most respectable one in Abbeville district, and another at Pincville, in St. Stephen's district, and others in va- rious parts of the state. There is a general and increasing desire among the Inhabitants to give an education to tluir children. For- merly those of wealthy parents were sent in considerable numbers to Oxford and Cambridge, in England ; now many more are sent to Harvard and Yale. Cities and Toions. Charleston city is the largest place in the State, and in the whole country south of Baltimprc j and the i^ftb SOUTH-CAROLINA. 24p in size in the United States. It is built on a peninsula, between Asbley and Cooper rivers, which unite imniLdiaiely below the city, and form a capacious and convenient liarbor. The tide here rises usually 6^ feet. The Ashley is 2 100 yards wide opposite the town, and the Cooper 1400. Both are deep, and navigable for large ves- sels. The town is 8 miles from the ocean, and its site is elevated but a few feet above the height of spring tides. It is a mile and a quarter long, and three quarters wide. The streets extend east and west between the two rivers ; others intersect them nearly at right angles, from N. to S. They are from 35 to 70 feet in width. The new houses are of brick, and many of them are elegant. Thct public buildings are an exchange, a slatehousc, an armory, a poor house, and an orphan house ; 2 Independent or Congregaiional churches, 3 Episcopalian, 2 Presbyterian, 2 Methodist, 1 German Lutheran, 1 Baptist, 1 orphan house church, 1 French Protestant, I Friends, 1 Catholic, and 1 synagogue. One of the Ccngrega- tioiial churches is an elegant brick edifice, built in the form of a circle, the inner diameter of which is 83 feet. The population oi the city in 1790, was 16,359; in 1800,20,473; and in 1810,24,711 ; viz. 1 1,668 whites, and 13,143 blacks, of whom 1 1,671 were slaves, Unaifected hospitality, affability, and politeness, are characteristics oi[ the respectable people of Charleston. Lat. 32 44 30 N. Ion- 80 39 45 W. 538 miles S by W. from Washington. Georgetow^n is on a point of land between Sampit creek and Georgetown bay, about 13 miles from the sea. Vessels, drawinij more than 12 feet v/ater, cannot enter its harbor. The public buildings are a courthouse, gaol, and 3 churches for Episcopalians, Methodists, and Baptists. The number of dwelling houses is a- bout 120, of families about 150, and the population, in 1810, was about 2000j of whom between 6 and 700 were whites. Columbia, tlie seat of government, stands on the cast side of theCongaree, just below the confluence of Saluda and Broad rivers, is laid out in a regular manner, contains about 100 houses, and is a very flourishing town. The public buildings are 2. college edi- iices for the students, and 2 others for college officers, astatehouse, courthouse, meeting house, and gaol. It is 115 miles N. W. of Charleston. Lat. 34 1 N. Beaufort, on Port Royal island, contains an Episcopal, a Bap- tist, and an Independent church, and about 120 houses. It is 70 miles southward of Charleston. C-AMDEN, on the E. side of the Waterce, 35 m.ilcs N. E. of Co- lumbia, contains a Presbyterian, a Methodist, aiid Baptist church, a courthouse, and gaol, and about 150 houses. It is the largest inland town in Carolina. Inland JVavi!fa(io7i. A canal, 22 miles in length, connects San--, tee and Cooper rivers. The ascent, from the Santee to the high-. est intervening ground, is 35 feet, and is effected by 4 locks ; thes^ descent to the Cooper is 68 feet, and is effected by 9 locks. The locks are of brick and stone, and are 60 feet long, by 10 wide. The •canal is 20 feet broad at the bottom, ai.I 35 at tl)e top ; and ha.s. ^46 SOUTH-CAROLINA. ^ A feet depth of water, ndmittino; boals of 20 tons. The espence :was Sf>5'J,667. The loll docs not exceed SI 3,000. Manufactures. Domestic manufactures, in the upper distnctSj nearly supply the wants of families, but none are made for export- ation, articles of iron excepted. Commerce. The exports from this state, in 1811, amounted to S4jS6i,279. Cotton is the capital article, and exceeds in value all tiie ethers. Rice is now of the second consequence. At the com- mencement of the American revolution, the average quantity an- nually exported was about 142,000 barrels. The annual export since the introduction of cotton has been about 100,000 barrels. The other articles are lumber, pitch, tar, turpentine, beef, pork, ip- djgo, and tobacco. Of this last article, y,646 hogsheads were ex^ ported in IT^g. Ciimate, The climate of South Carolina is a medium between that of tropical countries and of cold temperate liilitudes. It resembles the former in the degree and duration of its summer heat, and the latter in its variableness. Since 1791 the difference between the coolest and warmest summers has ranged between 88 and 9 3, and the difference between the mildest and coldest winters has ranged on a few particular days from 50 to 17. The degree of heat in Charleston is considerably less than in the interior west- ern country. April, May, and June are in common the healthiest months, with the exception of the cholera infantum and bowel dis- eases among children. August and September are the most sick- ly ; April and ISIay the driest ; June, July, and August the wettest j November the plcasantest. November and December are the best months in the year for strangers tp arrive in Carolina. Such should calculate so as not to make their first appearance either in summer or in the face of it, or in the first months of autumn. In winter the mountains near the western boundary of the state are often covered with snow. From thence to the sea shore snow but seldom falls so as to cover the ground, except on extraordinary oc- casions. In jNIarch and April the planting season begins and con- tinues till June. In July and August the heats increase, and the iieavy rains set in attended at times with severe thunder and light- ning. September is the principal month of harvest. In October jlhe weather is generally rnikl and clear. About the middle of this month frosts commence and generally terminate in the month of March. Sharp cold weather seldom commences before Decem- ber, though in November, the evenings and mornings are generally cool. The average annual fall of rain for 7 years (1795 — 1801) was 57'14 inches. The quantity, in 1799, the most abundant year, was 83-4 inches; that in 1800, the least abundant, was 38-6. In the upper country the climate is much like that of New-Eng- land ; except that it is less severe in v/inlcr, and rather warmer in summer. Since lS(iO it has been less healthy than formerly. Face of t lie Country. Tliis state is sometimes divided, as to its surface, into Low and Upper country ; and sometimes into Lowj Middle, and Upo'V". T.he Upper country includes all the lane! SbUTH-CAROLIN^A. Wf atove the falls of the rivers; the Middle includes a tract of 40 miles broad, lying- below this ; and the Low is intended sometime?'^ to comprise ihe Middle and all the country below it ; and some- times only the country between the Middle and the sea coast. Ac- cording to the second division, the Low country reaches frnnii the sea about 80 miles. This tract is an almost absolute level, entire- ly destitute of stones, and produces extensive forcstsof pitch pines, which are caWed pine barrens. In this distance, by a gradual as- cent from the sea coast, the land rises about 190 feet. Mere if you proceed in a W. N. W. course from Charleston, commences a curiously uneven country. The traveller is constantly ascendinc: or descending little sand hills, which nature seems to have disu- nited in a frolic. This continues till you arrive at a place called T/ie Ridge, 140 miles from Charleston, a remarkable tract of higi> ground, as you approach it from the sea, but level as you ad- vance northwest from its summit. It is a fine high, l^ealthy belt of land, well watered, and of a good soil, and extends from the Savannah, to Broad river, in about G 30 W. Ion. from Philadelp'.iia. Beyond this ridge, commences a country exactly resembling the northern statca, or like Devonshire in England, or Languedoc in France. This, by way of disiinction, is called the Copper country, ■where are different modes, and different articles of cultivation ; where the manners of the people, and even their language, have a different tone. The land still rises by a gradual ascent ; each suc- ceeding hill overlooks that which immediately precedes it, till hav- ing advanced\220 miles in a northwest direction from Charleston, the elevation of the land above the sea coast is found by mensura- tion to be 800 feet. Soil and Agrlr.ulture. The river swamps and the marshes in the Middle and Low country are excellent rice land. 'These tv.-o districts^ with these exceptions (and the exceptions bear but a small proportion *,o the whole extent) arc a sanj\- family use. The color of the fleece is that of nankeen cloth, which it retains as long as it is worn. The growth of rice is confined ahnost exclusively to the low country. The best tide lands produce 2400 pounds of clean rice to the acre, and the tide plantations generally from 120(' to 1.100 pounds. The inland plantations prodiKe from '^f^O to ]50^« 245 SOUTH-CAROLINA. pounds to the acre. The kinds of rice are the whiter gold Guirteej bearded, short gra'mcdy and hr^hland rice.* Tobacco and indiqo were foimerly much cultivated in this state i- at preseni very Utile attention is paid to them. The crop of maize 15 large. It is cultivated in each of the three districts, but chiefly- in the upper. The best lands, on the banks of the large rivers*, yield from 50 to 70 bushels ; the lands in the upper country, gen- erally, from 30 to 50 ; those in the middle and lower, from 10 to 30. The culture of grapes, tigs, and of the olive have been par- tially introduced, and might be made productive. Hemp and flax are grown in the upper country, for domestic use. Wheat there yields 15 bushels; and in the best lands, from 20 to 25. Barley has been successfully cultivated, and some exported, it has yield- ed from 50 to 70 bushels an acre. Rivtrs. Every part of the state is intersected with rivers. Its side, which borders on the sea, is watered by the Waccam aw, Pc- dee. Black river, Santee, Wando, Cooper, Ashley, Stono, Edisto, Asheppo, Combahec, Coosaw, Broad, and Savannah i-ivers» Some of these have two mouths, others have several heads or branches- Most of these rivers have a margin of swamp extending from half a mile to three miles. The short ones head in swamps, but the long ones in the mountains or other high grounds. They all run in a southeastern direction from their heads to the sea, which if extended, would cross the mountains and vallies in an acute angle to the south of eas';. Waccamaw river takes its rise in North- Carolina, and empties into Georgetown bay. Broad, Coosaw, Port Royal, and other short rivers are properly arms of the sea. Their ■waters are deep, and their navigation safe. Broad and Port Royal rivers can safely and conveniently accommodate a large navy. They insulate a great part of Beaufort district, aud by their wind- ings and iunciions form islands. These generally are suitable to the culture of cotton or indigo. Savannah river is bold and deep, and its navi [Ration extends from the sea to Augusta for boats of 70 tons. At this place the falls of the river commence. Beyond it the navigatif m is continued for 60 miles to Vienna for boats of 30 tons or mor e. The Santee and Pedee have already been described. Harbors. Tne only harbors of note are f.hose of Charleston, Port Royal, and Georgetown. The bar at the entrance of Winyaw bay, wliich leads to Georgetown, does not admit vessels drawing more than 12 feet water ; and is in many reapects a very danger- ous pla ;e. Charleston harbor is spacious, convenient, and safe. It is for med by the junction of Ashley and Cooper rivers. Its en- trance i 1 guarded by fort Johnson. Twelve miles from the city is a bar, o-7cr which arc four channels ; one by the name of Ship channel, has 18 feet water; another 16^; the other two are for smaller a vessels. The tides rise from 5 to 3 feet. Port Royal has an excel) ent harbor, of sufficient extent to contain the largest fleet in the wo rid. • Rice ■« 'as introduced into Carolina, from Madagascar, by gov. Thomas Smith, (wh( ne descendants are among the most respectable people in this state) about the y »r 1693. GEORGIA^ 549 Monntains. Table mountain in height exceeds 3000 feet. Its bide is an abrupt precipice of solid rock 300 yards deep, and nearly- perpendicular. Ooienoy mountain is in the vicinity of Table mountain. From it a cataract of water descends 6 or 700 feet. This forms the southern head branch of Saluda river. Oconee mountain, near the head waters of Keowee and Tugo- loo rivers, is 5 or 600 yards above the adjacent country. From it there is a most beautiful prospect of Georgia and of the Cherokee mountains. Glassey and Hogback mountains are situated near the boundary line of Greenville and Spartanburg districts. Waters flow from them which form the sources of the Tyger and Pacolet rivers. Mineralogy. Iron oie of an excellent quality abounds in the upper country, particularly in the districts of Pendleton, Green- ville, Spartanburg, and York. Red and ijellow ochres are found in \oik (iistiict ; limestone at Eutaw springs, near Orangeburgh, and on the banks of Thicketty creek, also on King's mountains in York. district ; mill stones at Beaver creek on the Catawba ; asbestos and slate near the headwaters of Lynch's creek ; a quarry q^ grey stone, resembling freestone, at Beaver creek ; soa/i stones in York dis- trict ; rock crystal^ white jlint.^ fuller's earth and eniery^ occasionally in the middle and upper country ; marlc in the lower ; lead ore of a rich quality, in the Cherokee mountains ; copper ore in several places. Islands. The sea coast is bordered with a chain of fine sea isl- ands, around which the sea flows, opening an excellent inland nay- igation, for the conveyance of produce to market. GEORGIA. iLxtent. THIS state lies between lat. 30 42 and 35° ^4". ; and between Ion. 80 20 and 85 54 W. Its length is 270 miles. Its breadth, at Savannah, is 250 ; on the southern boundary, 170; and on the northern, 120. It contains about 62,000 square miles. Boundaries. On the N. by the parallel of 35° which divides the stale from Tennessee and North-Carolina ; on the N. E. by Savan- nah river, which separates it from South-Carolina ; on the E, by the Atlantic ; on the S. by East-Floriiia ; on tlie S. W. corner, for aljout 30 miles, l)y West-Florida ; and on the W. by the Missisip- pi territory. The southern boundary is, as far as it goes, the same wit'n that of the United States. The western is, more minutely, for a little distance the river Tennessee ; then a straight line, com- mencing at the Indian town of Nickajack,on that river, and passing in a direction nearly S. E. by S. till it meets the Chatahouche, at the mouLh of a small river, in lat. 32 25 N. Divisions. That part of the state, which is settled, is divided into 4 districts, and 3S counties. 250 Eastern District Middle District Western District Soutliern District GEORGIA. Tov/ns. Free persons. Slaves. Totai; 9 12,260 26,999 39,259^ 9 56,593 26,109 62,702 9 55,176 32,087 87,263 11 43,186 20,023 63,209 Grand Total 38 147,215 105,218 252,433 This state is entitled to 6 representatives to congress. The eastern district comprehends the sea coast ; the southern lies W. of it ; the middle lies N. of the southern, and N. W. of the eastern ; and the western N. W. of the middle. J\fa7nc'3. The French and Spaniards early g-ave the name of Florida to a large undefined tract of country, reaching northward from the gulf of Mexico. The English, at the same time, gave it the name of Fir/^-mic, and South-Virginia. The name of Carolana was given, in 1630, to all the country south of lat. 36° ; and that of Carolina to the country between 36° and 31° N. in 1663. This state Vv'as included under each of these territories. Its present name was given to it, in 1732, in honor of George II. History. The early history may be seen under that of South- Carolina. In 1732, the country between the Savannah and Alatamaha was granted by George II. to gen. Oglethorpe and others. He with 40 others landed at Yamacrav/ bluff, the site of the city Savannah, on the 1st of February, 1733. In 1752, the trustees surrendered the province to the king. A general court was established, in 1755. In 1763, George III. annexed the country between the Alatama- ha and St Mary's to the province. Georgia, in 1775, acceded to the union of the colonies and sent deputies to the congress. In February, 1777, the first state constitution was adopted, and the then existing parishes were formed into counties. The country was invaded, in 1778, by a body of troops from Flor- ida, who burned a few buildings, and carried off some property ;. and, soon aflerv/ards, by a Britivh army under col. Campbell, v/l)o took Savannah, Dec. 29. Count D'Estaing made an unsuccessful attempt to retake it in October, 1779. The town and slate were evacuated by the enemy in July, 1782. The second constitution was adopted in Riay, 1785, and amended- in May, 1789. In 1795, the legislature sold, to several companies, about 22,000,000 acres o^ the western territory for ^500,000, v,'hich was paid into the treasury. The original purchasers soon after sold it, at an advanced price, to vrwious gentlemen, chicfiy in the middle and eastern states. The next year, the succeeding legislature de- clared the sale unconstitutional, and ordered the records of it to be burnt ; but kept the money. This was one of the most disgraceful acts, which perhaps was ever perpetrated by a free government. In May, 1798, the present couotitution was adopted. In 1^02, by a treaty held at fort Wilkinson,. on the Oconee, the GEORGIA. , 251 Creeks ceded to the United States (vvhicli lias been since ceded to Georgia) a large tract of country, embracing the S. W. corner of Geoi'gia. Religio7i. The inhabitants of this state, -who profess the Chris- tian ixlij^ion, are of the Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Bap.ist, and Metliddist denominations. The two lat^:^ are much the most numerous. They have but few regular tuinislers amonii; them. Gover7ime7it. The legislature is styled the general assembhj^ and consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senate are chosen annually by counties, one Irom each. A senator must bt; 25 years of age, possessed of a real estate of g500, or pay taxes for SlOOO within the county, and have been a citizen of the United Slates 9 years, and of this 3, and have resided within the county the year preceding. The representatives are chosen annually by counties ; each sending at least one, and none more than four. A representative must be 2 1 years of age ; possessed of a freehold worth g250, or of S500 taxable property, v/ithin the county, and have been a citizen of the United States 7 years, and of tiiis 3, and have resided the preceding year in the county. The aasembly meets annually, on the second Tuesday in January. The governor is chosen for two years, by the general assembly. He must have been a citizen cf the United States 12 years, and of this state 6 years ; muse be 30 years of age ; and possessed of 600 acres of land and other property to the amount of g4000. In case of his absence, resignation or death, the president of the senate is ^ox- t.vnov iiro temfiore. Ail persons, 21 years of age, who have paid taxes one year, and resided in the county the 6 montiis previous to the election, are voters. Population. The population of Georgia was in tlie year 1749 6,000 6,000 r 102,261 whitc-i") {r52,886 whites! 1800-< 59,404 slaves I ^ 29,264 slaves }. 82,548 (_ 1,019 freebl. J 145,414 whites'] 105,218 slaves I 252, i,80l freebl. J irgo-j 29,264 slaves f. 82,548 (_ 398 freebl. J 162,684 The items of the census of 18 10 were as follow : white males, white females. total. Under 16 years of age 39,953 37,520 77,473 Between 16 and 45 28,407 25,811 54,218 45 and upwards 7,485 6,238 13,723 Total 75,845 69,569 145,414 The increase in the number of whites during the last 10 years was 43,153, or 42^^^ per cent. ; that of the blacks was 46,596, or 71tV P^^' cent. The whites were greatly increased by immigration. The importation qf slaves, during the whole of this period, was for- bidden. Indians. The Creeks cr Ahiskogees inhabit the western half of Georgia, and the eastern part of the Missisippi territory ; and are the most numerous tribe in the union. They are composed of va- rious hordes, who, after a series of bloody wars, united against the 252 GEORGIA. Chactaws. Their union rendered tbem victorious over the Chac« taws, and formidable to all the other tribes. Their wrhole number some years since amounted to 17,280 ; of whom 5860 were fights jng men. They are a well made, hardy, sagacious, and politic peo- ple ; extremely jealous of their rights; and averse to parting with their lands. Their principal towns lie in lat. 32°. They are settled in a hilly but not mountainous country. The soil is fruitful in a high de- gree, and well watered, abounding in creeks and rivulets, from whence they are called the Creek Indiaiis. Militia. There are about 25,000 men on the militia rolls in this state, in general badly armed and disciplined. Manners and Customs. No general character will apply to the inhabitants at large. There is so little uniformity, that it is diffi- cult to trace any governing principles among them. An aversion to labor is too predominant, owing in part to the relaxing heal of the climate, and partly to the want of necessity to excite industry. An open ami friendly hospitality, particularly to strangers, is an or- namental characteristic ot a great part of this people. The evils of slavery are felt here, and by many lamented, as is the case in ail the low country south of Delaware. A considerable number of gentlemen, of respectable characters, have lately exerted themselves in behalf of the unfortunate blacks, and a degree of infamy is now attached to the character of the man %vho is guilty of cruelly towards them. Literature. The legiblature, in 1785, incorporated what is call-. ^d the University of Georgia. It consists of one college ; and of an academy, established, or to be established, in each county. This body of institutions is under the direction of a corporation called the Senate of the l/niversiti/, and composed of the president of the xiniversity, the governor, senate, speaker of the house of represent- atives, chief justice, and a number of gentlemen, who by them-? selves constitute a board of trustees for the college, and are per- manent members of the senute of the university. The college is established at Athens, in Clarke county. The president of the university is its president. It has also several professors ; but liitherto has not flourished equal to the public expectation. The senate of the university appoints a board of commissioners, in each county, tp superintend the academy of the county and the inferior schools. This board receives its instructions from the. senate, and is accountable to it. The rector of each academy is an officer of the university ; and is appointed by the president, with the advice of the trustees, and commissioned under the public seal. The funds, for the support of these institutions, consist of about 50,000 acres of land of an excellent quality, and about 6000/. ster- ling in bonds, and in houses and town lots in Augusta. Public property, also, to the amount of 1000/. has been set apart, in each county, for building and furnishing an academy. Chief Towns. Savannah is built on a sandy bluff, 40 feet above low water mark, and 18 miles from the bar at the mouth of the river. The river runs N. of this bluff close to tlie town ; on the S, GEORGIA. 25S lies a level sandy pine barren, two miles across ; on the E. and W- are extensive marshes. The jjublic buildings are a Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, and Catholic church, and a synagogue, a court house, a prison, an exchange, a poor* house, an academy, and barracks calculated for the accommoda- tion of 300 troops. There is a strong, well built battery on the S. side of the river, at five fathom hole, 3 miles IjcIow the town, calculated for 12 guns. The population of the ciiy, in 1787, was about 2300; in 1800,5146; and in 1810, 2490 whites, 2195 slaves, and 530 free blacks: in all 5215. Augusta is built on a fine plain, on the S. W. side of the Sa-. vannah river, where it is 500 yards wide, and deep enough for boats of 50 tons, 127 miles, by land, N. W. of Savannah. The streets are wide, and cross each other at right angles. The public buildings are 3 churches, an academy, courthouse, gaol, and mar- ket. There are 300 dwelling houses, and 2476 inhabitants. MiLLEDGEviLLE, the scat of government, is in Baldwin county, on the S. W. bank of the Oconee, 160 miles W. N. W. from Sa- vannah, and 80 W. from Augusta. Population 1246. Athens, on the S. W. side of the N. branch of tlie Oconee, has 243 inhabitants, and is the seat of the university. Manufactures. The following articles were manufactured in 1810. The nominal value of each is annexed. Cotton cloth yds. 3,591,612 Slj745,806-00 Cotton and wool 441,205 275,761-25 Woollen 5,591 4,192-25 Cotton and flax 10,722 8,051-50 Linen 1,790 1,79000 Cotton bagging 9,463 5,593-37-|- Total, yards of cloth 4,060,383 g^2,04l,194-37| Rum, peach brandy, > 113. 545 ^32 408,841-50 gin, and whiskey 5 «," * ^ j^y Tanned hides 17,521 70,084-00 Beer barrels 1,878 11,268-00 82,533,387-87^ Beside nails, bar iron, gunpowder, soap, and candles. The in- habitants, in the interior, are in the habit of manufacturing their clothing and bedding for common use. This practice is gaining; ground near the coast. Commerce. The exports from the state, in 1810, amounted to 552,424,63 1-17. The following were the important articles. Upland cotton lbs. 9,282,71 1 g 1,407,406-65 Sea island do. 2,523,331 756,999-30 Stained do. 83,605 12,540-75 Total 11,889,647 g2,176,946-70 Rice tierces 10,588 190,50400 Lumber 23,559-56 Tobacco hhds. 283 10,98000 •SJ54 GEORGIA. Canes (1000) 608|- 3,649-20 Deerskins lbs. 12,120 3,030*00 Maize bushels 2,730 2,047-50 Hogs 300 1,800-00 Flour barrels 190 1,520-00 Tar barrels 564 1,128 00 Beef barrels 106 1,060-00 Jndigo lbs, 788 788-00 In 1811, the exports amounted to g2, 568, 866. Climate, The disorders of the climate originate pai'tly from the ■badncssof the water, which, in the low country, is generally brack- ish ; and partly from the noxious vapors, which are exhaled from the stagnant waters, and putrid matter in the rice swamps. The long continuance of warm weather also produces a general relaxa- tion of the nervous system ; and, as a great proportion of the in- habitants liave no necessary labor to call them to exercise, indo- lence is the natural consequence ; and indolence, especially a- mongst a luxurious people, is ever the parent of disease. The immense quantities of spirituous liquors, v/hich are used to correct the brackishness of the water, form a species of intemperance, which too often proves ruinous to the constitution. The winters in Georgia are very mild and pleasant. Snow is seldom or never seen. Vegetation is not frequently prevented by severe frosts. Cattle subsist tolerably well through the winter, without any other food than what they obtain in the woods and sa- %rannas, and are fatter in that season than in any other. In the hilly country, which begins about 50, and in some places 100, miles from the sea, the air is pure and salubrious, and the water plenty and good. From June to September, the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer commonly fluctuates from 76° to 90°. In winter, from 40° to 60'^. The most prevailing Aviuds are southwest and east ; in winter northwest. The east wind is warmest in winter and coolest in summer. The south wind, in summer and fall par- ticularly, is damp, sultry, unelastic, and of course unhealthy. Face of the Country. The sea islands consist of a species of land called Immmuck^ which produces the black-seed cotton, and of salt marsh. A narrow margin on the coast of the main, consists q\?>o o^ hammuck lands and salt marshes. Immediately back of this, commence the pine barrens, interspersed with numerous in- land sv.amps. The rivers and creeks have, also, near their mouths, marshy lands, called brackish stvamjis, and higher up, river-tide swamps, which are entirely fresh. Both of these, and the salt marshes, are ovei'flowed partially or wholly at the return of the tide. The pine barrens reach from 60 to 90 miles from the coast. Beyond this, commences a country resembling the middle country of South-Carolina, which is from 30 to 40 miles wide, and termi- iiates at the lower falls of the rivers, as at Augusta on the Savan-f nah. At the termination of this tract commences a more desirable re- ?;ion. Here the long leaved pines disappear, and the short leaved comiTicnce } but the oak and the hickory are the common growlh, GEORGIA. 255- Farther back at Washington and Grecnsborough, the fcriile lands' are again broken by black-jack, chesnut, and pine ridges, which become more frequent and extensive near the mountains. The only tract, that can be called mountainous, is close to the northern line of the state, near Tennessee. It will be observed that nothing is here said of the country S. W. of the Oakmulge and Alatamaha, except near the sea. Almost the whole of this is occupied by In- dians, and has not been thorou^^hly explored. Soil and .igriculture. The lands in the upper country are of four sorts. The best ?ivc ihc loiv grounds. These lie on rivers and creeks ; and have a soil, that is a mixture of rich black mould with a small quantity of line sand. They produce abundantly Tuaizc, potatoes, pompions, melons, peas, beans, hemp, llax, tobac- co, cotton, and all kinds of vegetables. In some instances 100 bushels of maize have been raised to the acre. The natural growth of this land is walnut, oak, hickory, poplar, and ash ; and the un- derwood is the cane and v/ild pea-vine, which disappear soon after the country is settled. Land of the second quality, called mulatto- land., has a fine dust of a reddish, yellov/ color, approaching to a clay. The natural growth is oak, hickory, dogwood, and poplar. It bears wheat, rye, oats, bai-ley and all the productions just recited abundantly; but its crops suffer seriously from a drought, and from much rain. Crab-grass grows on it in great abundance, and is frequently cut aud cured for hay. Grey-land is of the third qual- ity. The soil is a mixture of grey mould, with a small portion of coarse sand, on a foundation of clay. Its productions are the same, ■with those of the mulatto lands, but less plenteous. It is not how- ever so liable to be affected by the extremes of wet and dry weath- er. The natural growth is oak, hickory, and short-leaved pine, with underwood of the same species. The fourth quality, called Aarrc72g, is poor and chiefly unproductive. It yields, however, great quantities of coarse grass in summer, affording abundant pas- turage for cattle and sheep. The soil is a mixture of sand, grey earth, clay, and pebbles ; interspersed with quarries of stor.e and rocks. The natural growth is the black-jack, chesnut, chinqua- pin and short leaved pine. These four descriptions of land are found in the western district, and in the upper half of tlic middle and southern, composing about half oTthe settled parts of the slate. The other half of the state, including the eastern district, and the low country of the middle and southern, consists almost wholly of pine barrens. Rivers. The Savannah is the N. E. boundary. The Tcnncs- see touches the N. W. corner of the state. The Alatamaha runs its whole distance in Georgia. The Alibama rises in Georgia. The Chatahouche rises in the state and is for a considerable di!5- tancc its western boundary. These have already been described. The Ogeechee liCads in Greene county, IT'O miles from the ocean, and 50 from Savannah river. It v/inds in a souiheasterlv di- rection, about 200 miles ; and eujpties into Hassabaw sound, "and 15 S. W. nf the Savannaii. The Satiila heads near the waters of Flint river, and pursues a. 055 MISSISIPPI TERRITOItY. crooked course, in an E. S. E. direction, to the Atlantic. It runar about 190 miles, and discharges its waters against Cumberland isl- and. St. Mary's river, a part of the southern boundary of the Unit- ed States, heads in Okefonoke swamp. It issues from the south side, near the centre ; and, at first takes a southern direction, for a considerable distance ; then, after bending eastward, turns to the N. and proceeds as far as lat. 30 40. Its course is thence nearly- due E. for 60 miles to the ocean, into which it empties between Amelia and Cumberland islands. Flint river rises in the country of the Creeks. It runs S. and. then S. W. more than 200 miles ; and in the S. W". corner of thu state, discharges its waters into the Chatahouche, which here takes tiie name of the Apalachicola. Swamfis. Okefonoco is an Indian word, and means livinoj trround or shaking ground. This swamp has been said to be 300 miles in circumference, but is not in fact more than 180. From it, are formed the two rivers called by the Indians Lockiacufco, or St. Mary's, and Alopahaw, or St. Juan. The gentleman who fur- nished this article,* penetrated tiiis swamp on foot about 10 or 12 miles. About 4 of it is Baygall swamp, so tliick with under growth and bamboo briers, as to be almost impenetrable. The remainder, cypress ponds, some spots of rich hammuck and pirje barren land, and of the latter there is no doubt so much that a passage might be found quite through the swamp, dividing those ponds connect- ed with the sources of the two rivers before mentioned. The only inhabitants of which there were any traces, were alligators, snakes, frogs, and insects ; of these there were abundance. From the best information that can be obtained this swamp is about 60 miles in length from E. to W. and 40 in breadth. There is another swamp called Cypress swamp, between Flint and Satitla rivers, of which wc have no accurate information. Mountains. Cunaw-hee mountain is the southern termination of the Blue ridge. It rises, like a sugar loaf, out of the rich plains of Franklin county, and is about 1500 feet above the level of the sea. It is 60 miles from the N. line of the state. The ridge north of it is much lower. The country below it gradually descends in^ to hills, towards the headwaters of the Oconee, Oakmulge, and Chatahouche rivers. Westward of this range are some 'igh lands, which occasionally rise to the elevation of mountains, but we have MO particular account of them. MISSISIPPI TERRITORY. Extent. MISSISIPPI territory extends from lat. 3 1" to 35° N. and from Ion. 84 4.'5 to 91 20 W. It is 340 miles in length, from E. to W. and 277 in breadth ; containing about 70jOOO square miles. • Capt. Hugl) M'Call. MISSISIPPI TERRITORY. 25? Boundaries. Bounded N. by Tennessee, from which it is sepa- rated by the parallel of 55° N. ; E. by Georgia, from which it is separated, for a little distance, by Tennessee river, then by a istraiglit line commencing at the Indian town of Nickajack, on that river, and passing nearly S. E. by S. till it strikes the Chattahou- chie in lat. 32 25 N. and then by the Chattahouchie ; S. by West- Floridaj from which it is divided by the parallel of 31° N ; and W". by tlie Missisippi, which coasts the territory for 610 miles ; divid- ing it for 320 miles from Louisiana state, and for 290, from Upper Louisiana. A'ame. It talces its name from the river which forms its west- ern boundary. Orii^inal Fo/iulutiov. The Creek or Muskogee^ Cherokee, Chactav/, and Chicasaw Indians have been for ages, and still are, inhabitants of the greater part of this territory. The ChcTokets inhabit the country north of the Creeks, border- ing on the river and slate of Tennessee, having the Apalachian mountains on the E. Their country formerly extended \V. to the Missisippi and N. to that of the Six Nations ; but was surrendered by the treaty at Westminister, 1729, to the crown of Great-Britain. In the beginning of the year 1810, there were in the nation, 12,395 Indians. The number of females exceeded the males 200. The whites in the nation were 341, one third of whom have Indian wives, 1 13. The Chactaivs inhabit a very fine and extensive hilly country, with intervening and fertile plains, between the Alibama and Mis- sisippi rivers. Several years since they had 43 towns and villages, in 3 divisions, containing about 6000 souls. In 1808, this nation sold to the United States a large tract of their territory, lying on the Pearl and Tombigbcc rivers. The Chicasaw^ inhabit a fine tract of country on the head branches of the Tombigbec, Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the N» W. corner of the Mibsisippi territory. They have 7 towns ; the central one lies in lat. 34 23 N. and Ion. 89 30 W. The number of souls has been estimated at 1725, of which 575 were fighting; men. The JSTatchez^ formerly a powerful nation, and more civilized than any other Indian tribes, inhabited the country on the E. side of the Missisippi, around the present town of this name, particular- Iv south of it. Nothing now remains of tins nation but its name. The French completed their destruction, in 1730. The Yazoo Indians, who inhabited on the river of that name, are now extinct, as a people. Hifitory. A part of this territory has long been inhabited by white people. In 1539, Ferdinand de Soto, with 900 men, besido seamen, from Cuba, proceeded as far as the Chicasaw country, lat. 35° or 36°, and, in 1542, died and was buried on the bank of the Missisippi. Since this period, this country has often changed masters. In 1773, gen. Putnam, capt. Enos, and Mr. Lyman attempted % settlement on the I>ousa Chitto, which failed. 33 2i9 MISSISIPPI TERRITORY. In 1779, the British took possession of the Natchez countrf,- wliich at this pi riod was settling fast by immigrations from the northern stales. In 1795, when this territory belonged to the state of Georgia, its legislature sold to 4 different companies about 22,000,000 acies of its lands ; which have been since purchased principally by gentle- men in the middle and eastern states. Serious disputes have since arisen concerning these lands, which arc now in a train of adjust- ment between the United States and their present holders. In 1800, this territory was erected into a separate government, with the same privileges, which are enjoyed by the other territorial governments. By treaty, in Dec. 1801, at fort Adams, the Chactaw Indians re- linquished to the United States all the land in the MissUippi ter- ritory between the old line of demarcation established by thi. Biit- ish and the Missisippi river, bounded S. by the 31° of lat. and N. by the Yazoo river. Divisions and Pofiulation. This territory is divided into II counties, whose population, according to the census of 1810, was as follows: Counties^ Whole population. Slaves. Adams 10,002 5,671 Baldwin 1,427 717 Amite 4,730 1,422 Claiborne 3,102 1,538 Franklin 2,116 735 Madison 4,699 948 Jefferson 4,001 1,792 Washington 2,920 900 Warren 1,114 473 Wayne 1,253' 262 Wilkinson 5,068 2,630 40,352 17,088 Of the number of males, 7489 were between 1 6 and 45. Religion. There are but few clergymen of ariy denomination in this territory. It is in great part missionary ground. Government. The governor and secretary arc appointed by con- gress, and hold their offices at their pleasure. The territory may send one representative to congress, who has the privilege of de- bating, but not of voting. The question whether this territory shall be erected into a state, has been before congress, but has not been decided. Chif^f Toivns. Natchez, the capital, is pleasantly situated on a considerable eminence, on the east bank of the Missisippi. Here is a printing office, and several very extensive mercantile stores. There is also a Roman Catholic church. It contains 1511 inhab- itants, of whom 459 are slaves. Washington has 324 inhabitants, of which 182 are slaves. Road. By consent of the Chactaws a road has been made from MISSISIPPI TERRITORY. «S9 the northern settlements of the Missisippi levritory, through the Chactavv country, to the lands claimed by the Chicasaws. Commerce. The exports during the year 1811 amounted to S1441. Climate. White frosts, and sometimes thin ice, have been known here, but snow is very uncommon. The latitude of this territory is that of Palestine. Snil^ Productions.! Agriculture,^ Rivers, Inland J^faxngation, isfc. The lands bordering the rivers and hikes arc [generally well wood- ed ; but at a small distance from them, are very extensive natural mea. lows, cr savannas, of the most luxuriant soil, composed of a bhick mould al)0Ut 1^ feel deep, very loose and rich, occasion; d, in part, l)y the frequent burnintj of the savannas ; below the black mould is a stiff clay of different colors The soil of this country, says Mr. Hutchins, speakini^ of the tract between lat. 31° and 32°, is supcrinr to any of the lands on the borders of the Missisippi, for the production of mi;i;y articles. It produces in equiil ab\inuance iiidian coin, rice, hemp, flax, indi- go, cotton, wiiich is .low the staple, pol herbs, pulse of every kind, ana pasuiiap;e ; and the tobacco made here is estoemed preferable to any cultivated in other parts of America. Oranges and h.;mons are plenty. Hops grow wild ; all kinds of European fruits arrive to great perfection, and no part of the knov/n world is more favor- able for liie raising of every kind of stock. Toe river Yazoo is upwards of 100 yards in width, runs from the N. E. and glides through a hcalthv, fertile, and pleasant coun- Pearl river rises in the Chactaw country, and is navigable up- wards of 150 miles. It has 7 feet water at its entrance, and deep water afterwards. In 1769, there were some settlements on this river, in wiiich were raised tobacco, indigo, cotton, rice, Indian corn, and various sorts of vegetables. The land produces many kinds of timber fit for pipe and hogshead staves, masts, yards, and all kinds of plank for ship building. Pascagoula river empties into the gulf of IMcxico by several mouths, which together occupy a space of 3 or 4 miles, which is one continued bed of oyster shells, with very shoal water. The westernmost branch has 4 feet water and is the deepest. After crossing the bar, there is from 3 to 6 fathoms water for a great dis- tance, and the river is said tobe navigable more than 1 50 miles. The soil on this river, like that on all the others that pass through Geor- gia into the gulf of Mexico, grows better as you advance to its source. But the principal river in the territory of which wc are now speaking is the Mobile, which is formed by the Tombigbee and Alibama. Curiosities. On the head waters of the Mobile are found oyster shells. They are of an astonishing size, and in such quantities as to forbid the idea of their being carried there from the sea, which is 300 miles distant. Tiic Chicasaws say they were there when their fathers came into the countiy. They use the shells in mak- ing earthern ware. 260 LOUISIANA. LOUISIANA. Boundaries and Extint. THE 'uoundaries of Louisiana are not selllcd on the E. on the W. or on the N. On the E. the United Stales insist that the Pcrdido, a rive: of West-Florida, which emp- ties 140 miles E. of the mouth of lake Ponchartrain, is the true boundary : while Spain insists that the Missisippi from lat. 31° to the Ibberville, (129 miles on the river,) and bciuw, the Ibberville itself, with lakes Maurepas and Ponchariraiiij constitute the eastern boundary of Louiaiana. On the W the viceroy of Mexico claims, that his jurisdiction reaches eastward to the Bio Alermentas or MeccicaiiOy emptying in- to the gulf in lat. 29 ST N. and in Ion. 93 12 W. ; while the Unit- ed States insist, that the Rio Bravo del J\''orte, which empties into the gulf of Mexico in lat. 25 50, and Ion. 07 50 W. is the boun- dary between Louisiana and Mexico. Tlie interval of sea coast, between the Mexicano and Bravo is about 600 miies. For rea- sons hereafter to be stated, we are led to believe, that the Bio Col- orado^ is the true western boundary. This falls into the northwest corner of the guif, about halfway between the other two, in lat 29 15 N. and Ion. 97 10 W. On the N. Louisiana is unlimited ; but may fairly be considered as reaching to Winniptc river and lake. The extent of coast between the mouth of lake Poncliartrain* and that cf the Mexicano is about 280 miles ; between the Ms-xicano and the Perdido 4^0 ; between the Perdido and Colorado 720 ; and between the Perdido and Bravo 102u. -Divisions. Louisiana is divided into two governments, the state cf Louiiiiaija-, arid the territory of Louisiana. The state of Louisiana comprehends, i. The coupjtry between the Perdido on the E. the Missisippi on the W. the Ibberville and the gulf on the S. and the Missisippi territory on the N. 2. The island of Orleans, which is the tract of land lying be- tween the Missisippi on the S. W. and the Ibberville and lakes Maurepas and Poncliartrain, on the N. E. The Ibberville is a bayau or arm of the Missisippi, which leaves it on the E. 208 miles from its mouth, according to the course of the river, and flows, through lakes Maurepas and Ponchartrain, to the gulf of Mexico. The island stretches from E. S. E. to W. N. W. in a straight line, about 160 miles. Its breadth varies from 6 to 25 miles. 3. All the territory W. of the Missisippi and S. of lat. 33°, The territory of Louisiana comprehends all the country W. ol. the Missisippi and N. of lat. 33°. The former is bounded N. by Louisiana and Missisippi territo- ries ; E. by the Missisippi between lat. 33° and 31° N. which for 390 miles coasts between it and the Missisippi territory, and far- * This iai in lat. 30° N. and Ion. 89 40 W. LOUISIANA. 261 ther S. by the Perdulo,* which divides it from the rest of West- Florida ; S. by the guliof Mexico ; and W. by Mexico. The latter has Mexico on the W. ; the state of Louisiana on the S. ; the Missisippi, which separates it from the Missisippi teiiito- ry, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois territory, or. the E. ; and un- explored regions on the N. .Yame. The name of Louisiana was given to the territory in lionor of Louis XIV. by Mons. de la Salle. History, This country was first discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, in J541 ; it was afterwards visited by col. W(;od, in 1654 ; by capt. Bolt, in !670 ; and in 1682, by Mons. de la Salle, from Canada, who was the first who traversed the river Missisippi. t In 1684, he left France with a colony of about 170 men, for the mouths of the INlissisippi. By mistake, they passed tlie place of destina- tion, and landed, Feb. 1685, in the bay of St. Bernard, about 300 miles W. of the mouths of the Missisippi. Most of them perish- ed. In 1699, Mons. Ibberville of Canada, laid the foundation of the first French colony on tlie Missisippi. The country now for the first time was called Louisiana.:}: The French remained in quiet possession of this extensive coun- try, except frequent contests with the Indians, till 1762. The Natchez tribe of Indians proved for a time a formidable en- emy to the colony ; but in the year 1731, the whole tribe was near- ly extirpated. In 1736, and again in 1740, the colonists were en- gaged in bloody wars with the Chicasavv Indians, in the former of which the French were defeated ; the latter terminated in peace, which has not since been interrupted. In April, 1764, the French court announced to the inhabitants, that in Nov. 1762, Louisiana, embracing New-Orleans, and the whole territory W. of the Missisippi, had been ceded to Spain by a secret treaty. They did not submit to this vmjust measure with- out manly opposition, so that complete possession of the country was not obtained by Spain, till the 1 7th of August, 1769. By the treaty of peace, in 1763, Canada with the whole territory belonging to France, eastward of the middle of the Missisippi to the Ibberville, thence through the middle of that river to the lakes Maurepas snd Ponchartrain to the gulf of Mexico, was ceded to Great Britain. || By this treaty, the boundaries of the British prov- inces were extended southward to the gulf of Mexico, and west- ward to the INlissisippi, the navigation of which to its mouth was to be free to both nations, and Louisiana was limited N. by Cana- da, and E. by the Missisippi, excepting that it included the island of New-Orleans, on its E. bank. This state of things remained till the American revolutionary war, during which, Spain, in 1779, 1780, and 1781, took from Great Britain, the two Floridas ; the United States, according to their present limits, became an inde- pendent government, leaving to Great Britain, of all her American provinces, those only which lie N. and E. of the United States. All * The Perdido has been made the boundary by the government of the United Ctates ; we know not by what authority, I Hutchins. I Raynal. \ Sec Treaty. 252 LOUISIANA. these chan-ges were sanctioned and confirmed by the treaty of 1783. From that jjcriod, these respective proportions of North-America remained without any change of proprietors, till the treaty of St. Ildefonso, of Oct. 1, 1800. By this treaty, Spain ^'^ promises and engages on her part ^ to cede to the French republic.^ six months af- ter the full and entire execution of the conditions and stipulations therein contained relative to the Duke of Parma, the. colony or prov- ince of Louisiana y with the same extent that it actually has in the. hands of Spain, that it had ivhen France possessed it, and such as it should be after the treaties subsequently e7itered into bettveen Spain and other states." " This treaty was confirmed and enforced by that of Madrid, on the 2 1st of March, 1801. From France it passed to the United States by the treaty of the 30lh of April, 1803, as above mentioned, with a reference to t»he above clause as de- scriptive of the limits ceded."* The above recited clause from the treaty of Ildefonso, which makes a part of the treaty of the SOlh of April, 1803, between the United Slates and the French republic, contains our title to Louis- iana, for which the government of the United States engaged to pay to the French government, the sum of 60,000,000 of francs, in- dependent of the sum fixed by another convention for the payment of the debts due by France to the citizens of the United States.t In December, 1803, Louisiana was, in due form, delivered by the commissaries of Spain, to the commissioner of France, Mons. Laussat, who delivered it over to the commissioners of the United States, gov. Claiborne and gen. Wilkinson, on the 20th day of the same month. In Nov. 1808, at the treaty of fort Clark, the Great and Little Osage Indians agreed, for certain stipulated advantages, that the boundary line between them and the United States should be as follows, viz. "beginning at fort Clark on the Missouri, 5 miles a- bove Fire Prairie, and running thence a due S. course to the river Arkansas, and down the same lo the Missisippi, ceding and relin- quishing forever to the United States, all the lands which lie east of the said line, and N. of the southwardly bank of the said river Arkansas, and all lands situated northwardly of the river Missou- ri." They further ceded, at the same time, a tract of 2 leagues square to embrace fort Clark. * Jefferson. I For the payment of this sum of 60,000,000 francs, it was stipulated that " the United States shall create a stock of 1 1,250,000 dollars, bearing an inter- est of six per centum, per annum, payable half yearly in London, Amsterdam, or — . . .111,-.^ ^r,-, fr\l^ J„ll ^_J:„™ .^ .»,«> .^.-nr^z-v*. iMtii^c ', 1 lie ^iiiiLipai ui njc urtivj Dik/i,ft. i.^' v^*- .*-.... .--v-. t'^" .•* ».-.' v.*. — ry U-- United States, in annual payments of not less than 3,000,000 of dollars each ; of which the first payment shall commence 15 years after the date of the ex- chanf^e of ratifications ; this stock shall be transferred to the government of France, or to such person or persons as shall be authorised to receive it, in three nontbs at most, after the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, and after Lou- isiana shall be taken possession of in the name of the governjnent of the United States LOUISIANA. 263 The territory of Orleans was made a state, by the name oF Lou- isiana, in 1811; and the country between the Ibberville and the Perdido was taken possession of in the latter part of that year, and in 1812. Religion, The state of religion in this newly acquired territory is sufficiently deplorable. The Spaniards and French who remain here are professedly Catholics. The clergy consist of 2 canons, having each a salary of 600 dollars, and 25 curates, 5 for the city of New-Orleans, and 20 for as many country parishes, who receive each from 360 to 480 dollars a year. There is also, at New-Or- leans, a convent of Ursulines, to which is attached about 1000 a- cres of land, rented out in three plantations. The nuns are now ill number not more than 10 or 12, and are all Frencli. The emigrants from the states are principally adventurers, more Intent on gain than concerned for their religious interests. They have few places of worship. The whole of this country is proper Jnissionary ground. Pofiulatio7t. The number of inhabitants in the whole of Louis- iana was estimated, in 1757, at 10,000. An accurate census was- taken, 1766, by order of gov. UUoa, the result of which was as fol- lows ; TMen 1893"} ixn^-.^ J Women 1044 I ^^^.~\ WhU^^-^, Boys 1575r'''L,.o« LGids 1244J Y^^^''^ Slaves 5940J An incomplete census, taken in 1804, gave the following results*! Whites 21,244") Free blacks 1,768 [.35,932 Slaves 12,920 J The following is the result of the census of 1810. r Whites 34,511") State of Louisiana < Free blacks 7,585 C76,556"1 (.Slaves 34,660) Lor^r*- r Whites 17,227) >i^7,40. Territory of Louisiana -< Free blacks 607 1 20,845 J (_ Slaves 3,011 J The items of the census of 1810 were as follow : males. rUnder 16 years of age 8,339 State of jBeiwecn 16and45 8,093 Louisiana «< 45 and upwards 2,508 t. Total 18,940 Under 16 years of age 4,783 — ., r I Between 16 and 45 3,637 ^/"'.^ry°f<^ 45 and upwards 967 Louisiana females. total. 7,972 16,311 5,900 13,99S 1,499 4,007 15,371 34,311 4,478 9,261 2,800 6,437 562 1,529 9,38/ 7,840 17,227 Grand total 28,327 23,211 5l,53§ 264 LOUISIANA. County of Orleans ]stDistrict 32,402 Germans Coast L Acadia ad Dislrict The state of Louisiana is divided into 5 districts, as follows ; Populaiior>. Parish of Orleans, viz. City and suburbs of N. Or. Precincts of New-Orleans Parish of Plaquemine St. Bernard St. Charles St. John Baptiste St. James Ascension Assumption I Interior of La I Fourche [^Ibberville Ibberville Baton Rouge Point Coupee Concordia Oiuichitta Rapides Catahula I Avoyelles [_Natchitoches Natchitoches Opelousas Atakapas I La Fourche ^13,320 3d District- Point Ccupce ^ Concordia 'Ouachitta Rapides 4thDistrict<^ J StbDistrict Natchitoches Opelousas Atakapas 8,897 8,520 12,417 76,556 This state is entitled to send one representative to congress. Divisions of Louisiana territory. Population. District of St. Charles ii505 Do. of St. Louis 5667 Do. of St. Genevieve 4C20 Do. of Cape Girardeau 3888 Do. of New-Madrid 2103 Settlemeuts of Hopefield and St. Francis 188 Do. on the Arkansas 874 20,845 Militia. The militia of this extensive country amounts to about 15,000 men ; but of their present condition we have no authentic information. Inkabitants and Character. At least two fifths, if not a e^reat^r proportion of all the settlers on the Spanish side of the Missisippi, are supposed to be Americans. Below New-Orleans the popula- tion is altogetlier French and the descendants of Frenchmen.* Language. Spanish, French, and English are all spoken at New-Orleans ; but neither of them vath any considerable degree of purity. ♦ TefTerson, LOUISIANA. 263 Literature. There are no colleges, and but one public school, which is at New Orleans. The masters of this were formerly paid by the kinej. They taui^ht the Spanish language only. There are a few private schools for children. Not more than half of the inhabitants are supposed to be able to read and Wi'ite, of whom not more than 200 perhaps are able to do it well. Cities. New-Orleans is the only town ot" any considerable consequence in the whole of Louisiana. It was founded in 1717, and stands on the east bank of the Missisippi, 87 miles from its mouth, 1308 below that of the Missouri, and 1115 below that of the Ohio. It is on the S. W. side of the island uf Orleans, 4 miles W. from lake Ponchartrain, with which it is connected by the capal of Carondolet, in lat. 29 5 1 N. Ion. 89 55 W. The town is regular- ly laid out, the streets cross each other at right angles, and are generally about 40 feet broad. The side walkr are paved with bricks or flat stone, but the middle of the streets arc unpaved. Thr houses of the principal streets near the liver are built of brick, and are covered with slate or tiles. The back part of the town is chief- ly of wood. The length of the town along the river is upwards of a mile, and its breadth more than halt a mile. In tlie centre of the town stands the cathedral and the town house, and in front ot them an open square covered with grass. The Lcvce is an em- bankment of earth about 6 feet high, commencing at fort Placque- mine, 43 mileb below, and reaching to the Ibberville, at the head of the island, 121 miles above the city, according to the course of the river. It makes an excellent road about 20 feet wide, which is dry at all seasons of the year ; and passes directly in front of the town along the margin of the river, affording a very pleasaiit even- ing walk. In the evening after sunset it is crowded with company. All the markets are on the Levee. At the S. E. end of the town stands a building, lately occupied as a convent by a number of Ur- sxiline nuns. The city, suburbs, and precincts of New-Orleans contain 24,552 inhabitants, of whom 13,728 are whites, and 10,824 slaves. There are also a number of Indians. Great numbers of the whites are French ; certainly more than half. The different grades have each their different amusements. New-Orleans, in the licentiousness of its morals, rivals the cor- ruption of the old world. St. Louis is a village of 200 houses beautifully situated on the Missisippi, 14 miles below the Missoiu-i, in lat. 38 18N. Ion. 89 36 W. Considerable settlements are made on the banks of the latter river for several hundred miles. This town and its district contains 5667 inhabitants. St. Genevieve is 73 miles below St Louis, in lat. 37 51 N. ion. 89 28 W. It is the storehouse of the mines in its neighbor- hood. Population, with its district, 4620. New-IVIadrid is 181 miles below St. Genevieve, in lat. 36 34 N. Ion. 89 20 W. It is the lowest settlement on the west side of the river, and contains, with its district, 2103 inhabitants It haf- been much injured by earthquakes. Mobile is described under West-Florida. **'';fi 266 LOUISIANA, Inland j\'av:gcJion. The navit^ation of the Missislp-pi has becr^ already minuteiy descfibcu.* The Missisipyi itself, the great riv- ers connected with it, Red river, the Arkanbas, the Ohio, the Mis' souri, the Illinois, and their branches open an extent of inland nav- igation of which there is h.irdly a parallel on the globe. The dif- ficulty of ascending the INIissibippi, however, deprives IMew-Or- leans of maiiy of the advantatres it would otherwise enjoy. The easiest and most usual mode for coasting vessels to transport their merchaiidize to New-Orleans is to ascend lake Ponchaitram to the inouth of bayau St. John, 'i'he goods are here put into boats, car- ried up the bayau 6 miles, and thence through the canal of Caron- dolet, to ti ; ^ity walls. This canal is 2 miles in length, and leads IVoni lake Ponchartrain, by way of the bayau of St John, to the city of New-Oileans, and is to be extended to the Missisippi. It is about to be deepened sufficiently throus^hout to admit an easy and safe passage for gunboats, if on a survey it shall be deemed practi- cable. For this p-^rpose. congress, in Feb. 1809, appropri-ated 25,000 dollars. Manufactures. There arc but few doiBCstic maniuactnres. Tlic Acadians manufacture a little cotton into quilts and cottonades ; and in the remote parts of the province, the poorer planters spin and weave some negro cloths of cotton and wool mixed. There is one machine for spinning cotton in the parish of Ibberville, and an- other in the Opelousas ; but they do little or nothing. In the city, besides the trades wliich are absolutely necessary, there is a con- siderable manufacture of cordage, and some small ones of shot and hair powder. There are likewise in and within a few leagues of the town, 12 distilleries for making taffia, which are said to dis- til annually a very considerable quantity ; and 1 sugar refinery, said to make about 20r),ooo lbs. of loaf sugar.f Commerce. The difficulty of ascending the Missisippi, has, in a great measure, cut off New-Orleans from supplying the western states with foreign merchandize. Miiherto it has been found cheaper to purchase articles in New-York and Philadelphia and carry them by laiul to Pittsburg, at the forks of the Ohio, and thence down that river to the various towns on its banks, tiian to transport them up the Missisippi and the Oliio. The experiment of the steam boat is now trying in the western waters. If boats of that description, sufficiently strong to resist the saii-tjers, plant trc^ .sleeping sawyers, and wooden islands, which abound in the Missis- ippi, can be made to ascend it with loads of merchandize, at the rate of 3 or 4 miles an hour, and to travel safely by night, as well as by day, New-Orleans maj'^ !)id defiance to the efforts of Montre- al, New-Yoik, and Philadelphia, to engross the foreign trade of the whole western country. Should the experiment fail, most of the commerce she Avould otherwise enjoy, will probably be divid- ed between those three cities ; and it will fall of course, chiefly to the one which can supply foreign goods at the lowest price. In 1802; 26S sail, includhig 18 public armed vessels, entered the * Page Co. f Jefferson. , LOUISIANA. 267 Missisipi«. Of these, ITO were American, 97 Spanlbh, and 1 french. The tonnage ot'tlic 250 mcichant vessels amonnied to 33,725 In the same year, 265 sail, measuring 31,241 tons, left the Missisippi ; viz. 158 American, measuring 21,383 tons j 104i Spanish, measuring 9753 ; and 3 French, mcuLiuring 105. In the same year the imports into Louisiana and the Floridas from the United States amounted to S 1)224,7 10 ; and the exports to the United States from those countiies to 1,006,2 1 4. The whole imports in 1804, were estimated at S2, 500,000 ; and tiie exports at g2, 157,005. The exports from the port of Oilcans, in 18 10, a- mounted to Sl>890,952; of which Sl37'53,974 weie of domestic produce, and §136,978 of foreign. In 1811, tlic exports of domestic produce amounted to §2,501,842, and of foreign to S 143,208 ; total S2, 650,050. The bulky articles of the western country, particu- larly flour, corn, meal, and beef, go down the Missisippi, and are cleared out at New-Orleans. The exports from Lotiisiana, of its own produce, consist chiclly of cotton, sugar, molasses, and furs, Clunate. The weather at New-Orleans, in the winter, is very pleasant ; in the summer it is hot and sultry. The climate of all Louisiana, below the Ohio, is described as every where unhealthy. This is owing to the nature of the surface, and to tlie sv.amps and marshes, which so extensively deform it. Along the Missouri, and farther north, it becomes more salubrious. Face of the Country. The wilderness north of the Missouri is still unexplored. The bank of the Missisippi, from the bend 'at the mouth of the Missouri to cape Girardeau, 157 miles, continues generally high, except the interval land, from 1 to 4 miles wide, 'on the margin of the river ; yet it forms throughout this distance a ridge of only moderate elevation. From cape Girardeau to the Grand Chain of Rocks, 2 1 miles, the bank assumes a mountainous aspect. Below this chain, the bank is but little higher than the ordinary level of the water, and in freshets is almost every whei^e overflowed. The bank is also only from one quarter of a mile to two miles wide, and the country west of it, from 20 to 50* miles in breadth, is an immense swamp to the river's mouth, annually over- flowed to a great depth during the season of freshets, and the rest of the year covered with stagnant water. This water covers an extent of more than 40,000 square miles, and is incapable of being converted to any useful purpose. The country lying west of this swamp, between it and the viceroyalty of Mexico, has been little explored. Humboldt describes it as consisting of vast steppes or savannahs, covered with grass, partly marshy and partly more el- evated and firm. The Spaniards have no settlement east of the Colorado ; and there arc scarcely any near the coast, west of the Missisippi. Fort Claiborne, on Red river, and accordhig to Hum- boldt's map, in iat. 32° N. and Ion. 95° W. is the farthest of the American settlements westward. Soil. The steppes or savannahs west of the Missisippi swamp are described by Mr. Jefferson as too rich to bear forest trees, and * Eilicott says from 35 to 40, 268 LOUISIANA. as covered with a tal! rank grass, in which numberless herds of buffaloes and deer are lost. The cultivable land near New-Or- leans, is extremely fertile ; as is much of that near the Missouri, and on the other western branches of the Missisippi. On this head, howevei*, much information is still to be expected. Biz'ers. The rivers in that part of the state of Orleans, which lies east of the island of Oileans, are described under the article West-Florida ; as is the Ibberville with lakes Maurepas and Pon- chartrain. The Missouri and Missisippi have heretofore beenmi^ nutely described.* The river St. Pierre falls into the Missisippi 10 miles below the falls of St. Anthony. Carver says he sailed up about 200 rnilcs, aod found it deep and navigable. It rises far to the west, and is a river of very considerable consequence. The river De Moines is a large stream emptying into the Mis- sisippi between the St. Pierre and Illinois. The St. Francis falls into the Missisippi 508 miles below the Missouri, in lat. 34 44 N. and Ion. 90 29 W. by a mouth 200 yards wide. It is navigable upwards of 200 miles. Its course is S. E. and its head waters arc at no great distance from the Osage, a branch of the Missouri. White river falls into the Missisippi 595 miles below the Mis- souri, by a mouth 150 yards wide. It runs in the same direction with the St. Francis, and is navigable more than 100 miles. The Arkansas empties 615 miles below the Missouri, and 20 be- low White river, in lat. 34 1 N. Ion. 9 1 4 W. A natural canal, leaving White river 4 or 5 miles above its mouth, is said to com- municate with the Arkansas, about 22 miles above its entrance in- fo the Missisippi. The Arkansas is navigable 500 or 600 miles. It rises in Mexico. Humboldt supposes that it may be the same with the Napestle, a river, which rises according to his map, in lat.. 40° N. Ion. 109° W. at a small distance from the source of the Kio Bravo del Norte, and pursues for a while a S. E. course to- wards the Missisippi. The Arkansas having been explored a great distance, is found to run where it should have been expected to run, if it were a continuation of the Napestle, and no other outlet for this last is knov.'n. If this be its real source, the Arkansas TTJUst be at least 1500 miles long. lied river falls into the Missisippi in lat. 31 5t N. Ion. 91 57 W. ■S068 miles below the Missouri, 10 miles below the line of demar- cation. It rises in Mexico, and is there according to Humboldt, believed to be the same with the Rio de Pecos, which rises near 38° N. and 104° W. a little northeast of the village of Taos. This belief depends on t'le same facts, as the similar one in the case of the Arkansas. Its length on this supposition is upwards of 1200 miles. The village of Rapide, is almost 100 miles up Red river; * Page 65. ■f The line of demarcation between the Missisippi territory and West-Florida is in lat. 31°, and Red river empties in 31 5 ; yet the mouth of Red river is 10 miles below the Florida line. This is owing to the fact that the Missisippi, iar,- mediately below that line, makes a circular bend of 52 miles to gain 6. SPANISH AMERICA. 269 ^lat of Avoyelles, 150 ; and that of Natchitoches,* about 240. Fort Claiborne is still higher. Bayau Chafaila leaves the Missisippi 3 miles below the mouth of Red river. The channel of the bayau and of Red river are of about the same dimensions, and Schultz conjectures that the bayau •was formerly the outlet of that river. The Missisippi is known to be constantly changing its channel. About 4 or 5 miles to the east of where it now runs, there is a string of small lakes, which appear to have formerly been its bed. If they were, and Red river ran in the present channel of the Missisippi (as the nature of the ground indicates that it must have done) it would have founa no other out- let than the bayau. On this supposition, there was once a narrow strip of land, 5 miles broad, between the two rivers. The narrow neck, 6 miles across, mentioned in the preceding note, is gradually ■wasting away by the force of the current. When it is worn through, Red river will probably resume its former course. The Rio Mexicano, or Mermentas, empties into the gulf in lat. 29 37 Ion. 93 12. It is short and of no consequence except as the contested boundary of Louisiana. The Sabine is a larger and longer stream, emptying about 40 miles west of the Mexicano. The Rio de la Trinidad is drawn on Humboldt's map about 50 miles east of the Colorado, as a still longer and larger stream. Mineralogy. The celebrated lead mines of Louisiana lie in a tract of country, about 50 miles long and 25 broad, called The Mines. This tract commences about 25 or 30 miles W. of St. Genevieve. Mine le Mott is the nearest to the Missisippi ; the Mines of Gar- berie, 17 miles from that ; the J^'evj Diggings, 13 miles farther; thence to Aline le Berton, 3 miles ; thence to the Old Minefi, 5 ; ■which are 83 miles from St. Louis. Mine le Eerton was discover- ed about 60 years ago. The ore is very abundant in all this tract, and is very rich. At the works, the price of the ore is 18 or 20 dollars a tliousand weight, and that of the metal 5 doUai s a hundred weight. Most of the ore will produce from 80 to 90 per cent, of pure metal. About 912 tons were smelted in 1807. The quanti- •^y of metal is probably inexhaustible. The conveniences for smelt- ing are very indifferent. There is but one air furnace in the -whole country. This is at Mine le Berlon. An extensive shoe ?nanufactory has been established at the same place. SPANISH AMERICA. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Extent. SPAIN haslong claimed about half of the vv'estern con- tinent. On the Pacific, she claims from cafie Mendocino, in lat. /il^N. to tJie southern extrem.ity of the continent; though her • Pronounced Na^adosh. sro SPANISH AMERICA. highest northern settlement is Puerto San Francisco, in lat. of 43 N. and her hil;hc!^l t>omhern on the continent, fore Mauliin, in lat. ,41 43 S. Th.e lei!.i;th of coast betMcen these two settlements is more than 1900 marine leagues. On the Atlantic, Spain claims the whole coast from the mouth of the S(, Afari/s in lat. 30 45 N. to ca/ic Sable ; and thence N. and W. on the gulf of INIexico, to the mouth of lake Ponchartrain in lat. 30"^ N, and 89 40 W. The United States, however, insist that Louisiana reaches E. of lake Ponchartrain, 140 miles, to the mouth of the Pi-rdido, in lat. 30 15 N. and ion. 87 35 W. The United States also insist that the Rio Bravo del jYorte^ in lat. 25 50 N. and ion. 97 50 W. is the W. limit of Louisiana on the gulf. Spain on the contrary contends tliat it reaches no farther than the mouth of the Rio ISIcrmentas, or Mt'xica7io, in lat. 29 37 N. and Ion. 93 !2W. From the mouth of the Mexicano, Spain claiqns the whole coast of tl;e gulf of Mexico, of the Caribbean sea, and of the Atlantic, to the mouih of the Esatqutbo, in lat. 7° N. Ion. 58 40 W. On the S. E. coast of South-America she also claims fromthe mouth of the little river Chuy, in lut. 33 40 S. to the extremity of the continent ; although her real soutliern limit, by the treaty with the Pampas, i% ca/ie Lobos, in lat. 37 45 S. Divisions. The following arc the great divisions of this extern sive territory. I. In North-America. 1. East-Florida. 2. West-Florida. Now partially claimed by the United States. 3. Viceroyaity of Mexico or New-Spain. 4. Capiaiiigcneralship of Guatemala. II. In the West-Indies. 1. Captaingeneralship of Cuba. '2. Captaiugeneralsliip of St. Domingo. 3. Captaingeneralship of Porto Rico. III. In South-America. 1. Viceroyaity of New-Granada or Western Terra Firma. 2. Captaingeneralship of Caraccas, Venezuela, or Ea^stcrn Ter.- ra Firma. 3. Viceroyaity of Peru. 4. Viceroyaity of Buenos Ayres. 5. Captaingeneralship of Chili. Religion. The C atholic is the religion established in all these rouniries. Tlicre are three tribunals of the inquisition in Spanish America; one at Mexico, one at Carthagena, and one at Lima. For a considerable period, the attention of these bodies had been chiefly confined to the suppression of offensive books. The cata- logue of prohibited authors, printed in 1790, contained the names of 5420; many of whom were among the first writers that the Vt'orld has produced. Government. The supreme direction of all the provinces wa'^ committed to the council of the Indies. This council was first es* tublished by Ferdinand, in ijll. and brought into a more perfect SPANISH AMERICA. 27 \ form by Charles V. in 1524. It lately consisted of a president, 22 counsellors, 4 secretaries, besides other ofTrccrs ; and was divided into 4 camaras, or chambers ; two of which v.'ere especially charg- ed with affairs of administration, a third with appeals from the le- gal decision of the royal audiences ; and the fourth, composed of the oldest counsellors, with the numimilion of viceroys, captaingen- erals, governors, and other magistrates, archbishops and bishops The whole council, also, was entrusted with the enaction of laAvs. All ordinances relative to the government and police of the colo- nies, originated here, and must have been approved by two thirds cf all the members before they were issued in the name of the king. The captaingenerals possess power in their own provinces, scarcely inferior to those of t'ne viceroys, but with less of pomp, and fewer of the insignia of royally. The jurisdictions, or intendencies, into which each of the colo- nies is divided, have each its own governor or intendant, who takes the title of lieutenant general, has important civil powers, and is supreme military commander of the jurisdiction. The royal audiences are the supreme tribunals of justice, both in civil and in crimirval causes. Of these there were 13 ; 1. Guadalaxara, > . , . i* r-»T • „ ,, . ' >■ in the viceroyalty ol r.Iexico. 2. Mexico, 5 3. Guatemala, in that captaingeneralship. 4. Havannah, in Cuba. 5. St. Domingo, in Hispaniola. 6. Panama, "J 7. Santa Fe de Bogota, i-in New-Granad*a. 8. Quito, 1563, J 9. Caraccas, 17 86, in Venezuela. 10. Lima, 1542, in Peru. 11. St. Jago, in Chili. 12. La Plata, 1559, ? • „ * 13. Buenos Ayres, 1783,5 "' '"°' ^''''" Each audience con::.ists of a president, a regent, a number of audi- tors or judges, fiscals for civil, criminal, and fuiancial affairs, and one or more reporters. Each member has the title of irig/i?ici'&: The audience in the absence of the viceroy has ail the viceroyal powers and prerogatives. It is tlie high court of justice in each colony, receives appeals fronj all civil and criminal tribunals, and is the court of final appeals in all causes where not more than S 1 0,000 is concerned. As a deliberative body the viceroy is direct- ed to consult it on every emergency. If he acts contrary to the advice of the audience, he takes the sole responsibility on himself. The audience has also the power, in certain cases, of reir.onstraliiij^ against the political regulations of the viceroy, and of laying the matter before the council of the Indies. That body also looks to the audience for correct information iu case of any dispute between a viceroy and a subordinate governor. In/iadiuvits. There are six great classes of inhabitants iu Span- ish America. 1. The 'iv/iitcs ; 2. Thu Indians ; 3. The nrgrtjefi } 4. Tlic nn-i-ri-osy or dcsccndunts cf whites and Indians ; 5. The 2-72 SPANISH AMERICA. mulatioes, or descendants of whites and negroes ; 6. The Safiiboeaf or descendants of Indians and negroes. The whites compose two classes, 1. The Eurofieans ; 2. The Creoles., or whites of European extraction born in America. Coinage. The following statement of the whole coinage of Span- ish America, in the year 1796, is given in the written report of the viceroy Don Francisco de Taboada y Lemos, to his successor, the marquis of Osorno. Coined at Mexico at Guatemala at Lima at Potosi at St. Jago de Chili at Popayan at Santa Fc de Bogota 24,200,000 24,000,000 > North 200,000 5 America ^ 6,000,000"^ 4,600,000 I c 1- r 1,500,000 J>^°"t." S 14,000,000 1,000,000 ^"^erica i 1,200,000 J . . Total as 8,200,000 Commerce. It was early the object of the Spanish moharchs to secure the produce of the colonies to the mother country. They accordingly prohibited all intercourse between them and foreign nations. Previous to 1778, when a free commerce was extended to most of the provinces, only 12 or 15 register ships were employed in the trade with Spanish South-America, and these seldom perform- ed more than one voyage in three years. The following table wilt tJxhibit the effect of the decrees of 1778, in a single year. Trade between Spain and Spanish South-America, in 1778. Imports to South-America. Exports from S. Ameriaa. Ports. Ships. spdiiish Foreign Xotal. Duties. Shipb. Value of Duties. produce. produce. £ cargoes. £ £ £ £ £ Cadizl 63 332,701 922,543 1,255,244 66,926 57 860,257 24,388 Corunna 25 69,691 66,826 136,507 7,184 21 683,328 43,38T Sarcelona 23 163,290 52,513 215,803 8,384 25 107,714 1,932 Malaga 54 85,637 12,927 98,564 3,618 10 24,746 120 St. Andero 13 19,128 99,807 118,935 7,666 8 114,852 1,680 Alicant 3 5,299 2,308 7,607 328 8 29,896 TenerifFe 9 170 30,165 30,1 C5 1,735 6 43,164 2,780 705,911 ,1,156,924 1,862,8.35 95,845 135 1,863,957 74,287 In 1788, the commerce between Spain and Spanish South- Atmc" ica was as fullow? -. FLORIDAS • %i Imports from Sotith- America. Exports from Ports. Spunisli produce. Foreign produce. Total. S. America. £ C £ £. Seville 95,276 14.342 109,618 3,249 Cadiz 2,281,311 3,038,346 5,319,657 18,382,885 Malaga 318,801 33,684 35J,485 296,738 Barcelona 742,210 52,083 794,293 886,162 Corunna 249,833 249,838 2,040,400 St. Sebastian 9,114 79,488 88,602 283,883 Alfaquez 21,610 360 21,970 6,231 Gijon 1,544 28,300 29,844 16,052 St. Andero 127,072 281,949 409,021 657,398 Alicant 13,564 815 14,379 15,878 Pal ma 14,972 14,972 6,852 Canaries 55,264 32,991 88,255 71,586 3,930,576 J 3,562,358 7,492,934 22,6-67,320 FLORIDAS, Extent. THIS country lies S. of the United States, betweeA lat. 25"and 31^ N. and between Ion. 81° and 91 50 W. The length of the whole country, from the Missisippi eastward to the Atlantic, is 6 1 miles. The Apalachicola divides East from West- Florida. The length of the former, from cape Sable S. to the St. Mary's N. is 400 miles ; its breadth, from the Apalachicola W. to the coast E. is 190, but the average breadth of the peninsula is not :!aore than 150 miles. The length of West- Florida, including the tract between the Ibberville and the Pcrdido, in lat. 31" from the Missisippi to the Apalachicola, is 420. Its breadth from the par- allel 31° N. to the gulf, varies from 40 to 80, and averages about 50. Bojindaries. East-Florida is bounded on the N. by Georgia ; on the E. by the Atlantic and the Florida gulf; on the S. by the same gulf; on the W. by the gulf of Mexico, and the Apalachicola, which separates it from West-Florida. West-Florida is bounded on the N. by the Missisippi territory ; on the N". E. corner for 25 or 30 miles, by tlie Chataliouche, which divides it from Georgia ; on the E. by the Apalachicola, which separates it from East-Florida ; on the S. by the gulf of Mexico, and by the river Ibberville and the lakes Maurepas and Ponchar- train, which divide it from the large island of Orleans; on the W. by the Missisippi, which, for 129 miles, separates it from the state of Louisiana. The United States, however, insist that West-Flor- ida reaches no farther W. than the mouth of the Pcrdido, in Ion. 87 35 W. Divisions. The division of the country into East and West- 35 274 FLORIDAS, Florida was made by the English, while the countvy was in their hands, in 1763. The Spaniards recognize the division. The U- nited States, in 1811, took forcible possession of all that part of West-Florida that lies between the mouths of lake Ponchartrain, and of Rio Perdido. History. Sebastian Cabot discovered the country in 1497. Ponce sailed along the eastern coast in 1512, and going on shore, April 2d, took possession in tl^ name of the king of Spain. The iirst attempt to settle it was made, in 1524, by Luke Vasquez ; the second, in 1528, by Pampilo de Navvaez, v/ho had received a grant of the country from Charles V. ; the third by Ferdinand de Soto, governor of Cuba, in 1539 ; and the fourth by John Ribault, a Frenchman, in 1 562. Pedro Melandez, a Spaniard, broke up the French settlement, in 1565 ; and Dominique de Gourgues, a sol- dier of Gascony, drove away the Spaniards, in 1568. The king of Franco disowning the acts of De Gourgues, the French soon quit- ted the country, and the Spaniards reoccupied it. In 1763, it was ceded to Great-Britain in exchange for the Ha- vanna. West-Florida was taken by the Spaniards, in 1781, and both countries ceded to Spain, in 1783. The government of the United States has claimed West-Florida since the cessiori of Lou» isiana. Religion. There arc few churches or clergy of any denomina» tion in this country. The prevalent form of the Christian religion is that of the Roman Catholic. The whole country is proper mis- sionary ground. Government. Each of the provinces has a governor of its own. Both are within the jurisdiction of the captaingcneralof Cuba, and of the audience of the Havanna. Poindano?!. The number of Spaniards and Creoles is verysmall, probably not more than 20,000 in both provinces. The wandering- Creeks, or seminoles, possess most of East-Florida. Towns. St. Augustine is the capital of East-Fidrida. It stands on the E. const, lat 29 45 N. SOlcaguesN. of the gulf. It is of an oblong figure, intersected by 4 streets at right angles. The tov/n is fortified, has a church and monastery, and about 3000 inhab- itants. The breakers at the entrance of the harbor have formed 2 channels, whose bars have S feet water each. New-Smyrna, in East-Florida, is situated on a shelly bluff, on the W. bank of the S. branch of Musquito river, about 10 miles above the capes of that river, lat. 22" N. It is inhabited by a colo- ny of Greeks and Minorquies, established by Dr. TurnbuU. Whea Mr. Bartram visited it, it was a thriving town. Pensagola is the principal town in West -Florida. The harbor is on the N. shore of the gulf of Mexico, 1 1 leagues E. of' Port Lewis and Mobile, and 15S W. of the islands of Tortuga. It is a beautiful body of water, spacious, and safe from all winds, and has 4 fathoms at its entrance, deepening gradually to 7 or 8. The bar lies in lat. SO 18 N. and Ion. 87 17 W.* and admits of vessels drawing no more than 21 feet water. • Ellicott. FLORIDAS. 275 Mobile is built on the W. side of Mobile river, at its entrance into Mobile bay, 30 miles from the gulf of Mexico. The situation is handsome, and some of the houses tolerably good. Tbe town is 60 miles W. from Pensacola. The two towns contained, in 1799, about 1500 inhabitants. Commerce. The trade of East-Florida centres in St. Augustine, that of West-Florida, in Pensacola and Mobile. The exports of Pensacola, consisting of skins, logwood, dying- stuff, and silver dol- lars, amounted, while in possession of the British, to 63,000/. sterl. annually. The average value of imports for 3 years from Great Britain was 97,000/. Mobile, during the same period, annually sent to London skins and furs, to the amount of from 12,000 to 15,000/. sterling. Face of the Countrij. A ridge of low hills runs through tiie peninsula of East-Florida ; but both coasts are level and low for a considerable distance. West-Florida is chiefly a flat country. There is a little upland near the northern boundary. Soil. There is in this country a great variety of soils. Neither province can ever be very valuable on account of xts productions ; but both are of great consequence to the United States ; East-Florida for its coast and harbors ; and West-Florida, also, as it is the outlet of many large and iiavigable rivers in the Missisippi territory. Rivers. The St. John rises in a large SAvamp near the centre of the peninsula, and pursues a northerly course to the Atlantic, emp- tying 3 1 miles north of St. Augustine. The Apalachicola falls into St. George's sound, the western pail of Apalachy bay, by three mouths. The western is the main chan- nel, and is in lat 29 44 38 N. The Coene'cwA empties into the v/est end of Pensacola bay. It has been incorrectly called Escambia, but that is really a small tributary, falling into the Coenecuh from the west, 25 miles above the head of the bay. The Coenecuh rises in the Missisippi terri- tory, in which it runs a considerable distance, and is navigable for small craft nearly to the line. The Mobile is formed hy the Alibama and Tons!)igbec, about G miles north of the boundary. These two rivers, after accompany- ing each otiier 3 miles, again separate. The western branch from thence to Mobile bay is called the Mobile. The Alibama retains its own name, until joined by some of its own vi?aters which separ- ated from it above the confluence with the Toinbigljee. After this junction it is called the Tensaiv, till it falls into the bay. The Ten- saw falls into the northeast corner, and the Mobile into the north- west, about 12 miles apart. The navigation of l30th is excellent. The raficagoiUa rises in the Missisippi territory, and empties about 33 miles v/cst of Mobile bay. Fearl river empties into the northern outlet of lake Ponchartrain, 50 miles W. of the Pascagoula. Its banks arc annually inundated for some distance north of the boundary. The navigation is much obstructed by logs of wood. The IbbervUle is » dai;au, or outlet, of the Missiisippi, conimenc- 376 FLORIDAS. ing 15 miles below Baton Rouge, and 121 above New-Orleans. It is navigable 3 months in the year, for boats drawing 5 feet water. For several months it is wholly dry. In the season of freshets the waters of the Missis! ppi flow through the Ibberville into lake Mau= repas, and thence into lake Ponchartrain. The Ibberville and these lakes are claimed by Spain as the southern boundary of West= Florida. Lakes. Lake Ponchartrain is a beautiful sheet of water, situat- ed between the large island of Orleans on the south, and West- Florida on the north. It is about 35 miles long from east to west, and 25 broad ; and, generally, 12 or 14 feet deep. It opens by several mouths into the bay of Espiritu Santo. The lake is chief- ly surrounded with marshes. Lake Maurefias.^ 12 miles long and 8 wide, receives the Ibbei't ville at its W. end, and, by a short river or strait, about 5 miles in length, communicates at the F.. end with lake Ponchartrain. Bays. Jifialachy bay is on the W. side of the peninsula of East- Florida, and the N. E. corner of the gulf of Mexico. St. Joseph's bay a little to the W. is formed by a sand-bar which sets up in a N. N. W. direction, from cape St. Bias, about 2C miles. St. Rose's bay opens into the gulf, between the E. end of St. Rose's island and a long sand bar which separates the bay from the gulf. Pensacola bay is irregular in its shape and sets up northward about 25 miles. The mouth of Perdido bay is about 8 miles farther W. Mobile bay sets up due N. 30 miles between Dauphin island on the W. and Mobile point E. The opening is about 5 miles across^ The bay soon expands eastward to the breadth of 25 miles. The Tensaw falls into the N. E. corner and the Mobile into the N. W. The water in the bay is too shoal for large shipping. Hillsborough bay, on the W. coast of East-Florida, opens into the gulf in lat. 27 36 N. Ion. 83° W. It is very capacious, and will admit any vessel drawing not more than 24 feet water. Boca Grande or Charlotte harbor, on the same side of the pen- insula, opens in lat. 26 43 N. and Ion. 82 30 W. It has 15 feet •water on the bar, and good anchorage. The bay of Spiritu Santo is on the E. side of the mouth of the Missisippi. There is another bay of this name on the W. side of the peninsula, S. of Apalachy bay. It has a good harbor : but the adjacent land is low. Charlotte harbor and Chatham bay are still farther south on the same side of the peninsula. Islands. A string of islands and saiid-bars lies along the coast of West-Florida. These islands and the coast are in many place? covered with forests of live oak. MEXICO- 277 VICEROY ALTY OF MEXICO, or NEW,SPx\IN, Extent. THE territones subject to the viceroy of Mexico ex^ tend, on the Pacific, from Puerto Santo Francisco,* in lat. 37 48 N. and ion. 122° W. to the boundary of Guatemala, in iat. 16 12 N. and Ion. 94 15 VV. On the gulf of Mexico, the northeastern limit is unsetllfd. On the part of Spain, the Rio Mcrmcntcifi or Mtxica- no, emptying in lat. 29 57 N. and in Ion. 93 12 W. is claimed to be the western boundary of Louisiana ; while the United States in- sist, that Mexico extends no farther E. than the Rio Bravo del J^'orte, which fails into the gulf in lat. 25 50 N. Ion. 97 30 W. The interval between these rivers is a tract of about 600 miles of sea coast. According to the evidence afforded by Humboldt, the real Hne of separation between Mexico a J Loui:.iana is the Rio Colo- rado,! wiiich falls into the gulf in lat. 29 15 N. and Ion. 97 10 W. The southern limit of the vicei'oyalty on the gulf is supposed to be on the eastern shore of Yucatan, in about iat. 15 30 N. The length of coast on the Pacific is upwards of 2600 miles. Its greatest breadth on its northern line is 960 miles ; its least on its soui'iern is 160 miles. Boundaries. On the N. lie the unexplored countries of North- western America ; on the E. Louisiana and the gulf of Mexico ; on the S. E. the captaingeneralship of Guatemala ; on the S, W. ?ind W. the Pacific ocean. Divisions. This viceroyalty, in 1776, was divided into 12 intcn- dencies, and 3 provinces. They are arranged, as follows, into 3 classes, proceeding in each instance from N. to S. square miles. J. Provinces of the western coast 41&,933 1. Province of New-California 16,278 2. Province of Old- California 55,880 3. Intendency of Sonora 146,635 4. Intendency of Guadalaxara 73,628 5. Intendency of Valladolid 26,396 6. Intendency of Mexico 45,401 7. Intendency of Puebla 20,65 1 8. Intendency of Oaxaca 34,064 * Cape Mendocino, in lat. 41° N. is claimed by Spain as the northern boun- dary of New- California; but Port St. Francis is the highest settlement. f Monsieur de la Salle, in 1683, planted a colony on the bay of St. Bernard, near the E bank of the Colorado, without having appearatl to encroadi on the rights of Spain. No settlement of France was ever planted W. of the Colo ado and no Spanish settlement E. of it. The acts of the parties appear to have con- cluded them. As the United States claim under France, they have only her rights. The Colorado must therefore be considered as the boundary. If the Bravo were the eastern boundary, a large part of this extensive province would be comprised in Louisiana. 2-8 MEXICO. II. Provinces of the interior 197,995 9. Province of New-Mexico 43,731 10. Intendcncy of Durango 129,247 11. Intendency ofZacatecas 18,039 12. Intendency of Guanaxuato 6,978 III. Provinces of the eastern coast 290,613 lo. Intendency of San Luis Potosi 213,109 14. Intendency of Vera Cruz 31,720 15. Intendency of Merida or Yucatan 45,78.4 Total 907,541 Two grand divisions of the viceroyalty ought also to be mention- ed. The northern part of the country, and far the most extensive, is called military government ; and is governed by two brigadier generals. JVames. According to Humboldt, all the country between lat 14° and 21° N. was called, before the Spanish conquest, Anahuac. The name Mexico was applied by the Indians only to the city, and signifies, in the Aztec language, the habitation of the god of war. History. The empire of Mexico was subdued by Cortez, in the year 152 I. The ancestors of the Mexicans, according to their traditions, consisted of several savage tribes, who, about the. 10th, or 1 1th cen- tury of the Christian era, moved in successive migrations from un- known regions to the N. and N. W. and settled in Anahuac* About the beginning of the 13th century, a tribe, more polished than the rest, advanced from the borders of the Californian gulf and took possession of the plains adjacent to the great lake, near the centre of the country.! The peninsula of California was discovered by Cortez, in 1536, after enduring incredible hardships, and encountering dangers of almost every species. During a long period it continued to be so little frequented, that even its foi'm was unknown, and in most maps it was represented as an island. Sir Francis Drake was the first -ivho took possession of it, in 1578, and his right was confirmed by 'the principal king or chief in the whole country. New-Mexico was discovered by a missionary, in 1581, but was not subdued till 1 6 14. The missions were established here in 1660. The capital of Santa Fe was founded in 1689. In 1765 a war commenced between the Spaniards and natives, which ended in 1771, in the submission of the latter. The late revolutionary movements in Mexico and South- Ameri- ca form a new and interesting epoch in their history, of which, as they relate to Mexico, particularly, we have no specific informa- tion. Religion. The church of Mexico is placed under the care of an archbishop, whose appropriate diocese is the intendency of Mexi- -t-o, and. 8 bishops. Tiie following is a list of the dioceses, and the stated revenue of each : • Robertson. f Clavigero. MEXICO. 27-9. Mexico Pucbla Valladolid Guadalaxara Durango double piastres. 1 30,000 110,000 loOjOoa 90,000 35,000 Monterey Yucatan Oaxaca Sonora double piastres^ 30,000 20,000 18,000- 6,000 Total 539,000* The number of Mexican clergy is about 10,000, the half of whom are regulars, who wear the cowl. If lay brothers and sisters or servants are included, they may all be estimated at 13,000 or 14,000. The lands of the Mexican clergy amount to 500,000/. or> 600,000/. sterling ; and the capitals of the religious communities;, secured on mortgage, to 44,500,000 double piastres, or dollars. Govermnent. The jurisdiction of the viceroy extends over the •whole country, but is more immediately confined to the southern intendencies. The limits of the jurisdictions of the two audiences have already been stated ; as have those of the two brigadier gen- erals in the north. The intendencies are each committed to an in- tendant. The provinces of New-Mexico and the two Californias have no intendants, and are left to the immediate management of the missionaries. Pbfiulation. Only one census has ever been taken of the inhab- itants of this viceroyalty. This was under the administration ot count Revillagigedo, in 1793. Like similar enumerations, in the other Spanish colonies, it fell far short of the truth : Humboldt says at least one sixth. The following table contains the result of the census of 1793 ; also Humboldt's estimate of the population in 1803, founded on that census, on the known omissions, for which only one tenth is allowed, and on the natural increase, calculated from the proportion between the number of births and deaths : Intendencies. 1793 1803 Principal towns. Inhab. in 1803. 700 New-California > Old-California 3 12,666 15,600 Monte roy 9,000 Loretto Sonora 93,396 121,400 Culiacan 10,800 New-Mexico 30,953 40,200 Taas 8,900 Durango 122,866 159,700 Durango 12,000 San Luis Potosi 255,2a0 334,900 San Luis Potosi 12,00':^ Zacatecas 118,027 153,300 Zacatecas 33,000 Guadalaxara 485,000 630,500 Guadalaxara 1 9,500 Valladolid 289,314 376,400 Valladolid 18>00O Guanaxuato 397,924 517,300 Guanaxuato 70,600 Mexico 1 ,162,886 1,511,800 Mexico 137,000 Puebla 625,620 813,300 Puebla 67,800 Vera Cruz 120,000 156,000 Vera Cruz 16,000 Oaxaca 411,366 534,800 Oaxaca 24,oori Merida .358,261 465,800 Merida io,aO'> Total - 1,483,529 5,840,000 •112,300/. sterling. 280 MEXICO. Grounding his calculations on the known excess of births over deaths, Humboldt supposes the population in 1808 exceeded 6,500,U00. Languages. The number of native lant^uages exceeds 20. Of these 14 have grammars and dictionaries tolerably compic-te. Literature. In the Snanish settlemtntb are a number of valua- ble inbtltutions for the ecijcation of tiie aborigines. T ,ere are also several colleges and universities, but tiie lanatical and sectarian spirit of their instructers render them of little value. Cities mid Towns. Mexico, the largest town in Spanish Amer- ica, is situated in the valley of Mexico, in lat. 19 25 45 is^ and ion. 99 5 30 W. The centre of the town is nearly 3 miles \V. of the shore of lake Tezcuco. Humboldt dates its foundation in 1325. The streets run nearly from N. to S. and from E. to W. and are long, broad, and regular. Most of them are paved, and ail arc clean, ar.d well lighted. The site of the town is almost an uniform level ; and it forms a great square, of which each side is about 3000 yards. The objects here, particularly calculated to strike a travel- ler's attention, are the cathedral ; the treasury ; the convents, of vhich 23 are monasteries, and 15 nunneries; the hospital, which maintains 1400 paupers, with a revenue of 10,470/. sterling ; the acordada, a collection of prisons ; the school of mines, with its col- lections in physics, mechanics, and mineralogy ; the university and public ilbiary, the buildings of which are unworthy so ancient an establishment ; the academy of tine arts ; and the large equestrian statre of C unles IV. The census of 1793, gave a population of 1 12,925, I it fell considerably short of the actual nunil^jr. Hum- boldt estiv ated it in ) 803 at 1 37,000, consisting of 2500 Europeans, 65,000 Creoles, 33,000 Indians, 26,500 mestizoes, and 10,000 mu- lattops. ' PuKBLA stands in lat. 19° N. and Ion. 98° W. in the plain of Acax- ete, at an elevation of 7380 feet above the level of the ocean. Its population, according to Humboldt's estimate, is 67,800. It is about 30 leagues E. S. E. of Mexico. GuANAXUATo was founded in 1554, and stands about 50 leagues N. W. of Mexico. Its elevation is 6836 feet above the ocean. The population, according to Humboldt, is 41,000 within the city, and 29,6U0 in the niinLS surrounding it, of whom 4500 are Indians- tola! 70.600. Zacatecas lies more than 100 leagues N. N. W. of Mexico, and coii'.ains, according to Humboldt, 33,000 inhabitants. Oaxac A lies near the E. bank of the Rio Verde, about 80 leagues S. S. E. of iviexico, and contains 24,000 inhabitants. AcAPULco is on the Pacilic, in lat. 16 30 20 N. and in Ion. 99 46 W. Its port is the best on the western coast. The town was formerly large and populous, while the trade by the galleons con- tinued. Its steady population does not now exceed 4000, and they are chiefly mujatlous. Vera Cruz is on ihe gulf of Mexico, in lat. 19 11 52 N. and Ion. 96 9 W. The cuy is beautifully and regularly built, and in- habited by well informed merchants. It stands in an arid plain, MEXICO. 261 destitute of running water, on whic!- N. winds, that blow impetu- ously from October till April, have formed hills of moving sand. The population is about 16,000. The fortress of San Juan de Ul- l6a, on an island near the tovvn, cost 8,334,000/. sterlinsj^. Monterey, the capital of the two Califurnias, and the residence of their governor, is a mere hamlet, with a dangerous harbor. It was founded in i770. St. Leon and Granada are both situated on lake Nicaragua, where the Andes are said to terminate. Santa Fe is remarkable as the most northern town of any note ill New-Mexico. A bishop and provincial governor reside here. Roads. A road was long since opened, from I^ouisiana to Mex- ico, by the inhabitants of the former territory ; who went to pur- chase horses in the interior provinces. According to Humboldt, it is 540 geographical leagues, or 1920 miles long, equal to the dis- tance of Madrid from Warsaw. From Mexico it passes through Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Charcas, Saltillo, Loredo on the banks of the Bravo, Bejar, Chichi, the Adayes, fort Claiborne, and Nachi- toches. A carriage may pass from Chihuahua, in lat. 28 45, to Santa Fe, in lat. 'is 15. A sort of caleche is generally used. The road is beautiful and level, and passes along the eastern bank of the Bravo, crossing it at the Passo del Norte. The banks of the river are very picturesque, and are adorned with beautiful poplars and other trees peculiar to the temperate zone. A courier goes on horseback from Guatemala to Mexico, and thence, through Guadalaxara and Real de Rosario, to Santa Cruz, at the mouth of the Mayo. Here he crosses the gulf, and disem- barks at Loretto. From this village letters are sent from mission to mission, to Monterey and Port St. Fiancis. They thus traverse a route of more than 920 geographical leagues, or 3100 miles j equal to the distance of Lisbon from Cherson. Climate. Only two seasons are known in the tropical regions of Mexico, even as far as lat. 28° N. ; the rainy season of four months, which commences in June or July, and ends in September, or Oc- tober ; and the dry season of eight months, which lasts from Octo- ber to May. The first rains commence on the eastern coast, and are accompanied with strong electrical explosions. They begin at Vera Cruz 15 or 20 days sooner than on the central table land j and there, sooner than on the Pacific. The most rains fail on the highlands. Face of the Country. The lands on Ijoth roasts, are low grounds, intersected with very hiconsiderable hills. In the south, these tracts are narrow, but wider on the west, than on ihe east. Farther north, near the borders of San Luis Potosi and Guadalaxara, the low coutj- try widens ; and above the parallel of lat. 2-i°, is of very considera- ble ijreadth. Merida, or the peninsula of Yucatan, is chicHy of this description ; however, a chain of hills of small elevation intersects it from S. W. to N. E. The whole of Vera Cruz is level, and ail of it low, except the high plain between Perotc and the Pic d' Ori- zaba. Nevv-Santander, New-Leon, Cohuuila; and Texas, are almost 56 282 MEXICO. unifersally plains of small elevation. In Guadalaxara and Sonera on the W. there is also a broad tract of low ground between the sea and the mountains. In Old-California the level land is narrovr on both coasts ; and New-California is only a narrow plain W. of the monntains. The Cordillera in Mexico docs not, like njost other ranges of tnoxintains, consist of a narrow ridge, or of several such ridges par- allel with each other, with valleys between them ; but it is many leagues in breadth, and the top is a broad plain, or table land, from 6000 to 8000 or 9000 feet above the level of the ocean. The -valley of Mexico^ is about 230 miles in circumference, and has an elevation of about 7400 feet. The lake of Tezcuco is near- ly in its centre. The length of the valley from the southern shore of lake Chalco, in a N. W. direction to the Cerro de Sincoque, is 65 miles ; and its breadth 43. The mountains which surround it are of considerable elevation above it. Many such valleys, but gene- rally of a smaller size, are found scattered over the top of the table land. Soil and Jgricultzire. This soii of the table land is rem.arkably produciive. Maize is far the most important object of agriculture, and the year in which the maize harvest fails is a year of famine for Mexico. Humboldt estimates the common produce at 150 fold. In the most warm and humid regions it will yield from two to thi ee harvests annually, but generally only one is taken. It is planted from the middle of June, to the end of August. The com- mon anijiial produce of tlie whole of Mexico is estimated by Hum- boldt at 17 million fanegas, or 1765| million pounds, avoirdupois. Rye r,nd barley are cuhivtsted in the highest regions. The best ciimaie for wheat, is found to be th.e annual average of 64°, or 65°. Humboldt estimates tl-.e common wheat harvest at 220|. millions of pounds, avoirdupois. Oats are very little cultivated. The banana of Mexico, called the platano-arton^ probably yields more nutiimcnt on a given spot of ground, than any other vegetable. In the best lands, the fruit gi'ows sometimes from 1 1 to 12 inches in length, and ol'trn from 8 to 9. In such soils, a cluster of banan- as will contain from 160 to 180 fruits, weighing from 60 to 90 pounds. The plant is cultivated by suckers. In 8 or 9 months, the clusters begin to develop, and the fiuit n)ay be collected in the lOth or 1 1th. After the fruit is plucked, the old stalk is removed, and a new one springs up spontaneously. A spot of ground of 100 square n^etrcs, (1076 square feet) may contain from 30 to 40 plants. In one year the produce will exceed 4400 pounds of fruit. Two species of the juca (out of whose root the maniac bread is made) are cuhlvalcd, tiie siveet and the bitter ; but they will not grow at a greater height than 2000 or 2500 feet above the level of the ocean. This bitad is remarkably nutritive. The juca is culti- vated like the potato, and is ripe in 8 months. The Mexicar.s now possess all the garden stuffs and fruits of Europe. Onions, leeks, garlic, haricots, cresses, and artichokes, were indigenous. The central table land produces in the greatest abundance, cherries, prunes, peaches, apricots, figs, grapes, melons. MEXICO. 283 apples, and pears. The fine native fruits are the anana or pine apple, tasconia, or sapote, mameis, guava, chilimoya, and anona. Rivers. The " Rio Bravo del Norte. It has its annual freshets like the Missisippi. The Avatcrs begin to swell in April, are at their height in May, and fall towards the end of June. The Passo del jVorte^ is a village planted at the place, where the road from Chi- huahua to Santa Fe intersects the Bravo. In 1 752 the whole bed of the river, for more than 30 leagues above, and 20 below the Passo became suddenly dry. The water precipitated itself into a newly formed chasm, and reappeared near San Eleazario. Alter a lapse of several weeks, it resumed its ancient course. The Choncos is a large branch from the \V. running, according to the map of Hum- boldt, about 400 miles, and emptying at the Presidio del Norle, in lat. 30 30 N. The Puerco is somewhat longer, and flows nearly parallel with the Bravo, emptying in lat. 50°. lib waters are re- markably muddy. The Colorado of California has also been described. The Gila, its largest tributary, rises according to Humboldt's map, in the Cordillera ; and runs a little S. of W. about 600 miles, falling into the Colorado, near its mouth. The other Colorado is but little known. It is a long and large river, running probably about 700 or 800 miles in an E. or S. di- rection, and emptying into the N. W. corner of the gulf of Mexico, in lat. 29 1 5 N. The Rio de las Nueces is a large stream N. E. of the Bravo, and parallel with it. The river Tula, or Montezuma, under the name of Gautillan, rises in the Cordillera, which skirts the valley of Mexico on the W. It runs in the valley about 30 miles ; the first 20 in a N. E. and the last 10 in a N. N. VV. direction. Just at the bend, it passes about a mile W. of Ukc Zumpango, and leaves the valley at the N. W. corner, passing between the Cerro de Sinccque, on the W. and the Loma of Nochistongo, on the E. Continuing the same course to iat. 20, it there bends a little to the E ; and at length, being joined by the Panuco, takes the name of Rio Tempico. It is the largest river of tlie eastern coast S. of the Bravo. The river Santiago issues from the iiitle lake of Lorma, 20 miles S. W. of Mexico without the valley, and at the foot of the range that skirts it on the W. After a course of 250 miles, in which it is called Rio Larma, it enters the E. end of lake Chapala. This it leaves again on the N. side, at the distance of about 30 niiles from its entrance ; and taking the name of Rio Santiago, runs W. N. W. and S. W. about 400 miles farther. It euters the Pacific by a broad mouth in lat. 21 30 N. The Zacatula is a stream of considerable length in the inten- dency of Mexico. The Culican, Mayo, and Haiqui are the larg- est rivers of Sonora. Lukes. Lake Chapala is far the largest in Mexico. It lies W. by N. of the capital, just above the latitude of 20*^ ; covering, according to Humboldt, nearly 160 square marine leagues, or 1225 sqviare miles i and, by his luap, is about 90 miles long, ftnd 20 bread. 284 GUATEMALA. There are four lakes in the valley of Mexico, The Lake of Chal-r (po, at the southern extremity of the valley, covers 50 square miles. The Lake of Tczcuco, as well as the other three, was formerly much larger than it is at present. It lies N. of the Chalco, about 4 miles from it ; and is 14 miles long from S. S. W. to N. N. E. and 8 broad, containing 77 square miles. The floating gardens^ on its surface are probably the most elegant exertion of horticulture. The Lake of San Chribtoval lies less than a mile N. N. W. of Tezcuco, and covers 27| square miles. Its length from N. to S.. is 10 miles. Its surface is 1 1 feet 8 inches above lake Tezcuco. Lake Zumpango, N. W. of San Christoval, and 3 miles from it, covers a surface of 10 square miles, and is 29 feet higher than Tez- cuco. The Rio Guautillan, the present source of the Montezuma, formerly emptied into this lake, but to prevent inundations, it,s course was diverted out of the valley. The lake of Pascuaro is in the intendency of Valladolid, and is a most beautiful sheet of water, affording several delightful situations for towns. The lakes of Mextillan and Parras are in Durango. The former is the largest in the viceroyalty, except Chapala. Mineralogy. In Skinner's account of Peru wc are informed, that the produce of the Mexican gold mines, in 1790, was 5024 mark? of gold, at SI 25 the mark ; and 2,179,455 marks of silver, at g8. the mark. These sums were actually coined at Mexico, and amounted to §628,000 in gold ; and to §17,435,640 in silver : total SI 8,063,640. CAPTAINGENERALSHIP OF GUATEMALA, Extent. THIS country, the most southern in North-America, reaches on the Pacific from the Barra de Tomala, in lat. 16 12 N. and Ion. 94 15 W. to Punta Gorda, in about lat. 9° N. ; and, on the gulf of Mexico, from the southern limit of the province of Merida, to the mouth of Rio Doradas, in about 10° N. Its length, along the Pacific, is about 770 miles. Its greatest breadth, across the covui- try of Honduras, is o8u ; but, at each end it is much narrower. Boundaries. On the N. lie the province of Merida, in Mexico, and the bay of Honduras ; on the E. the gulf of Darien ; on the S. X'- the province of Vcragua, in New-Granada ; on the S. W. the Pacific ; and on the N. W. the province of Oaxaca, in Mexico. '' DiDi&ions. This country is divided into t!ie following provinces : Chiapa Honduras Vera Pas Nicaragua Guatemala Costa Rica Government. Itio governed by its own captain general and au- dience, botii of whom reside at Guatemala. Population. It is said to be the most populous country in Span- ish America ; but we have seen no estimate of its actual popula- tion. Tiie English have a settlement at Honduras, on the N. coast,_ containing, according to captain Henderson, 200 whites, 500 mu- WEST^INDIES. 285 lattoes and free blacks, and 3000 slaves. The Indians in Honduras are still very numeroub. Tonvns. Guatemala is the capital. It stands on the river Vac- €US, near the Barra d' Istapa. Lat. 13 40 N. Ion. 90 30 W. It is a large town, containing a university and numerous convents and churches, but we have seen no estimate of its population. It is an archbishopric. Leon is the capital of Nicaragua, stands on the W. side of the lake of Leon, and is a bishopric. CivDAD Rkal is in the province of Chiapa. It is deiightfuliy situated in a plain surrounded with mountains, and almost equi- distant from the two oceans. It contains a noble cathedral, 3 u^o- nasteries, and 1 nunnery. Chiapa de los Indos is the largest Indian town.in Guatemala. It lies W. of Civdad Real, and has about 20,000 Indian inhabitants. The number of whites is small. Bartholomew cle las Casas, the celebrated apostle of the Indians, was the first bishop of Chiapa. The town contains numerous cloisters nnd churciies. Productions. This country procucts great quantities of choco- late, cochineal, cotton, indigo, honey, some balsam, and woad. The merchandize of the province is generally conveyed to the port of St. Thomas, in the buy of Honduras, to be sent to Europe. River, Lakes, iP'c. The river Chiapa is a considerable stream, emptying into the bay of Campeachy. The lakes of Nicaragua and Leon have heretofore been described. The Rio St. Juan is t-he outlet of the former. WEST-INDIES. Situation THE islands, which have received this name, lie be- tween lat. 9 30 and 28° N. and between Ion. 59 30 and 85 20 W.. Trinidad is at the southern extremity, Barbadoes at the eastern, Marinilla Reef at the northern, and Cuba at tlic western. Divisions. They are divided into 4 pi incipal groupes. I. The Bahamas or Lucayas L^lands. These consist of a great number of keys or rocks-, and of 1 4 prin- «;ipal islands, or groupes of islands. 1. Turk's Islands ■8. Watling's Island 2. Caicos 9 Guanahani Inaguas 10. Elt'uihera 4. Mayaguana 11. Ncw-Providcnce 5. Crooked Island Group 12. Andros 6. Long Island 13. Abaco 7. Exuma 14. Great Bahama II. 77ie Greater ■ ./Antilles. V- Cuba 3. Jamaica ?• Hispaniola 4. Porto Ric» SB*' WEST-INDIES. III. The Caribbean Islands. 1. The Leeward Islands. f"l. St. Thomas , ,.. . 2. St. John , , ^'j << 3. Torlola Islands j . -.7- • o ^ 4. Virgin Gorda J>. Santa Cruz 2. Anguilla 3. St. Martin St. Bartholomew Saba Barbuda 4. 5. 6. 1. Martinico 2. St. Lucia 3. St. Vincent 4. Barbadocs 7. St. Eustaiius 8. St. Christopher 9. Nevis 10. Antigua 11. Monserrat 12. Deseada 13. Guadaloupe 14. Marigalantc 15. Dominica Windward Islands. 5. Grenada 6. Tobago 7. Trinidad IV 1. Margaritta 2. Tortuga 3. Orchilla The Lesser Antilles. 4. Bonair 5. Curracoa 6. Aruba JSTames. Columbus called these islands The Indies, supposing that they were really a part of India. After the discovery of India by Vasco do Gama, in 1498, by an eastern course ; the India of the ancients and the neighboring islands received the name of the JEast-Indies ; and the India of Columbus, that of the West-Indies. The islands, called by the English The Bahamas^ are styled The L.ucayas by the Spaniards. The word Ajitilles is generally said to be a contraction of a/zf/- insulx., or islands ofifiosite to the continent. Columbus named the Caribbean islands after the Caraibes or Ca- ribbees, the Indians who occupied them when they were discovered. The English sailors give the names of Windward and Leeward islands to the two divisions of this group, in consequence of their relative situation with regard to the trade winds. The Spaniards, however, give the former name to all the Caribbean islands, and the latter to the Greater Antilles. The Lesser Antilles received their name not of right, but of ne- cessity, as no other had been given to the group. Discoveries. Columbus discovered the Bahamas and Greater Antilles, in his first voyage, the Caribbean isles in his second, and the Lesser Antilles in his third. Oiiginal Pojiulation. The Lucayans possessed the Bahamas ; the Arro-vauks the Greater Antilles, and probalily a part or the whole of Trinidad ; and the Caraibes the other Caribbean islands, at the time of their discovery. The Arrowauks, however, were the original occupants of these also. Religion. A majority of the whites in these islands are Catho- lics ; all those in Cuba, Hispaniola, and Povio Rico are of this de- WEST-INDIES. 28r seription ; and a majority in those of the Caribbean islands, which were settled by the French. The church of England is, however, the established religion in all the English islands. The great body of the negroes are still pagans, if they may be said to have any re- ligion at all. In the Spanish islands, they arc taught by their mas- ters the Catholic prayers ; but they merely leavn them by rote. In the English islands, and in those lately belonging to France, they never were taught any thing. One exception ought, however, to be made. TheMoravians have for a long period sent missionaries to the English and Danish islands to convert the negroes to Chris- tianity. In spite of the opposition of the colonial assemblies, the persecution and miserable example of the planters, and the extreme degradation of the blacks themselves, the missionaries have met with considerable success. The number of converted negro slaves under the care of the missionaries, in 1787, was as follows : In Antigua exactly 5,465 In Si. Christopher, a new mission, about 80 In Barbadoes and Jamaica 100 In St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John 10,000 Then living in the West-Indies 15,645 In St. Christopher they have met, since that period, with great suc- cess, and the whole number of converted blacks is now far greater. We should not have believed, but on the most irresistible evidence, that the profligate planters, and, if possible more profligate legisla- tures, have, in many of the islands made the most decided and suc- cessful opposition to the labors of the missionaries. Go-verinnents. The nature of the governments of the Spanish colonies lias alre'^ -'y been explained. In the English islands the government is vested in a governor or captain general, appointed by the crown ; in a legislature, consisting of a council appointed by the crown, and of a house of assembly chosen by the frceiiolders ; and in various superior and inferior courts, the judges to which arc appointed by the crown. The governor is the Ordinary or judge of probate ; and in most islands the sole chancellor ; but in some tlie council, together with the governor, constitute the court of chance- ry. No bill can become a law in any island without the assent of the governor. After his assent is obtained it is a law till the dissent of the crown is officially signified. If the assent of the crown is once officially procured, no subsequent dissent can afterwards ab- rogate the law. All laws must be in conformity with the laws og England. Possessors. Cuba, the eastern part of St. Domingo, and Porto Rico, together with a few islets among the Virgin islands, belong to Spain ; the western part of St. Domingo is independent ; Svvederv claims St. Bartholomew ; IMargaritta belongs to the republic of Venezuela ; several of the Lesser Antilles are uninhabited and un- claimed. The Bahamas, Jamaica, the Leeward islands, with the trifling exception already made, all the Windward islands, and Bo- nair, Curracoa, and Aruba belong to the English. It is proper,, however, to remark that the Dane^ 'lately possessed St. Thomas, 288 WEST-INDIES, St. John, Sama Cruz and their dependencies; the'T)utch, St. Eu- staiius, Saba, Curracoa, Bonair, and Aruba ; and the French, Gau- daloupe, IMartinico, St. Lucia, and Tobago: and that these islands arc now, in common lanc;uage, respectively called the Danish^ l)utch, and Frtnch West-India islands. Inhabitants. The present inhabitants of these islands are the na- tives the whites, and the blacks. The whites are of two descrip- tions, Europeans and Creoles. The Creoles are whites born in the Wcfit-Indics. The blacks are of two descriptions ; ./ree/?co/;/e' of color and slaves. The free people of color include all the mixed^ and rs-sost ol the genuine blacks, in the Spanish colonies ; niost of the firsL, and a few of the last, in the English ; and but a small por- tion ot botli in the French. The slaves constitute tbe great majority of the inhabitrnts in all the islands, except the Spanish. The ap- pearance and character of the slaves depends much on the district in Africa from which they are brought. As to the treatnn«::nt of the slaves the Spanish code is the most mild and equitable. The Alrican institution has lately turned the attention of parliament to the cruelty of the English slave code, and to the fiend like tortures inflicted by many of the planters. We hope most sincerely, that the evils arising from both will soon be in a good degree remedied. Climate and Seasons. Edwards divides the West-Indian year in-* to four seasons of very different length. The spring commences ^vith the month of May. The first periodical rains set in about the middle of the month. They continue about a fortnight. The thermometer, in this month averages 75 degrees, and commonly^ fails 6 or 8 immediately after every diurnal rain. Summer com^ TTicnccs al^oiit the first of June. The weather becomes dry, set- tled, and salutary ; not a cloud is to be seen ; a?"d the sky shines will) serene brightness. The heat is very great m the morning, till about 10 ; when the sea breeze sets in, and blows with force and regularity from the S. E. till late in the evening. The medium heal is now 80°, and the mercury is seldom above 85° or below 75". During the latter fiart of the summer, which may be considered as lasting till the latter part of September, coolness and ccmfort are sought in vain ; instead of a regular breeze from the sea, there are laint breezes and calms alternately ; and the thermometer occa- sionally rises above 90°. The rains commence in the beginning ot October. The heavens pour down cataracts, and the earth is deluged. These violent rains last through the greater part of of November. The hurricane season comprises the months of August, S( picmber, and October. About the first of December, a considerable change is i>erccived in the temperature of the air ; and a new season commences, which lasts to the end of April.. The weather becomes steadily serene and pleasant, and the tem- peralure cool ar.d deliglitrul. This lasts till the month of May, and is, to the sick and the aged, the climate of paradise. ylgric lit litre. Sugar is the capital object, of agricultural atten- tion in these islands. The three next in importance are cotton, indgo, and cofi\ e ; and afier them cacao, ginger, allspice, arnotto, idoes, pimento, cloves, and cinnamon. Maize, yams, and sv.ect po- BAHAMAS. S1&) tatoes, arc alsdf'extensively raised in the field for home consump- tion. Sitffar is a native of America, for it was found in the Greater Antilles by Columbus ; and the Caraibes had it in their own islands before they were planted by Europeans. BAHAMASo Extent. THESE islands lie between lat. 20° and 27° N. and between Ion. 69° and 8u° W. They stretch from tlie bank of the Nativity in tlie S. E. to Marinilla Reef in the N. W. upwards of 900 miles. Situation. They lie directly N. of the Greater Antilles, and are separated from Cuba by the Old Bahama channel. The ijulf of Florida, or the New Bahama channel separates them from the E, coast of East-Florida. Througli tbis channel the gulf stream passes. History. Columbus discovered Guanabani, one of this group of islands, on the 12th of October, 1492 ; and New-Providence, the most important in the group, on the 17th of the same month. In 1667, Charles II. granted all the Bahamas to the duke ©f Albemarle and 5 others, proprietors of Carolina. In 1672, the first settlement was commenced in the island ot New-Providence, and called Nas- sau. The islands, soon utter, became the resort of pirates j and the regular inhabitants suff'ered severely, and for a longtime, from their attacks, and those of the Spaniards. The celebrated Black Beard, alias John Teach, was their leader. He -.vas killed off the coast of North-Carolina, Nov. 22, 1718. The islands were soon cleared of pirates, and a permanent settlement made at Nassau, under governor Rogers. The town was fortified in 1740 Early in the American war, the town was taken by the Americans, but speedily aband(jned. The Spaniards took it again in 17815 but it was retaken by col. Deveaux, with ah(;Ut 70 troops, though garri- soned by 700. Since that time, all tho islands have been in the hands of the English. Original Pofiulation. The aborigines were called Lucayans. When first discovered they were about 40,000 in number. Co- lumbus and his men were welcomed by them, with kindness and hospitality. Scarcely 20 years had elapsed, however, before the Spaniards transported them all, by force 6r artifice, to Hispaniola, to dig in the mines. Some few effected their escape from that isl^ and, though many were frustrated in tlie design. Government. These islands are all under a governor general, appointed by the crown. He is commander of the militia; insti- tutes and determines the sessions of the legislature ; and possesses a negaiive on their proceedings. His income is nearly 3000/. ster- ling. Pofiulation, The inhabitants are of two descriptions, the rest' dents and the wreckers. From the loose data furnished by the sub- sequent account of the several islsiids, we are induced to believi* ■37 2C0 \ BAHAMAS. that the population of all these islands amounts to 4000 whites, aRci' 1 1,000 blacks, total 15,000. The residents are chiefly loyalists and their descendants, who emigrated from Carolina and Georgia, at the close of the Ameri- can war. M'Kinnen describes the whites generally as having regular-fea- tures, and the women as singularly beautiful. They are common- ]ly of an amiable and beneficent disposition, mild to their slaves, and public spirited. They are generally acquainted with what is going on throughout the Bahamas, and readily engage in plans of general or local improvement. Cafiital. Nassau, the capital of all the Bahamas, is on the N. side of the island of New-Providence. Its harbor is formed by a long narrow slip of land, called Hog island, running from E. S. E. to W. N. W. Several small keys near the W. end of this, render the harbor almost completely landlocked. The body of the town is on the S. side of the harbor, and extends on a pretty steep accliv- ity, to the summit of a ridge, which runs in the general line of the coast. The streets are regularly disposed, and remarkably well paved. The town is as well built as any in the West- Indies. The houses are chiefly of stone, the materials of most of which were brought from the Bermudas, a distance of more than 200 leagues^ The discovery of several excellent quarries in the island has rem- edied this great inconvenience. In ihe western part of the town is a large open square, the N. side of which, near the water, is bound- ed by palisadoes. Immediately S. of this square, on the ridge, are a large fortress and barracks fur the troops. There are two churches, for one of which the legislature voted 5G00/. atone ses- sion ; and a new court house, and gaol, and a work house. In 1803, 10.000/. had been appropriated for building an elegant house for the governor general. In 1801, the town contained 1599 whites, 752 free blacks, and 3861 slaves ; total 6212. It is divided into 2 parishes, each of which has a rector, supported liberally, partly by the inhabitants, and partly by the English society for propagating the gospel. The commerce of the town is extensive ; and is car- ried on with England, with the West-Ilulies, and with the United States, which supply it with live stock ami provisions. The envi- rons of the town consist of gardens, pastures, pineries, and orange groves. The roads along the shore, for some miles on each side of the town, are excellent. The climate is delightful. Banks. There ai e tv/o noted banks in these seas ; the Great and Little Bahama banks. The Great Bahama bank lies between lat. 21 40 and 26° N. and between Ion. 74 50 and 80 20 W. Its length from Verde Key in the S. E. to Isaac's Key in the N. W. is 450 miles. Its breadth in the S. is about 140 miles. Little bank is bounded by Florida gulf, on the W ; N. W. chan- nel on the S ; N. E. channel on the S. E ; and the Atlantic on the N. E. Its length from the Hole in tUe Wall, in the S. E. to IVIa- ranilla Reef, in the N. W. is about 1 80 miles, and its breadth from 40 to 70. BAHAMAS. 291 "Santareen, Elcuthera, Guanahani, and Caicos banks, are all of 'Considerable extent. These banks are said to consist, in a great measure, of sea shells, in the form of sand, more or less worn or rounded by the action of the water. Keys. These are rocks or sand islands, scattered in immens* profusion over this part of the ocean. Their number has been computed at 700. Climate. In the winter the weather is very inconstant. The winds, however, are then far le&s boisterous than in the more north- ern seas. Strong gales are common, in March, from the N. and N. E. The proper hurricanes of the more southern West-Indies do not reach these islands. In the hurricane months, however, the gales often stiffen to a tempest, and are very destructive in their ravages. They are so far ordinary that regard is had to them in the mode of building. In 1 800, or the year after, one of these tem- pests drove 100 vessels ashore in the safe and sheltered harbor of Nashau. The greatest heat, in summer, seldom exceeded 90° ; and the greatest cold, in winter, 50°. All the islands are healthy. Face of Che Country. These islands are heaps of limestones and shells, covered with vegetable mould. The keys are chiefly rocky and sandy : on some of them a few trees are found. All the large islands that front directly upon the Atlantic, and almost all the etiiers, stretch from S. E. to N. W. and the ridge of each is in the same direction. Soil. The soil of all the islands is a thin, but rich, vegetable mould. If the natural growth is cleared by burning, the mould burns with it, and the soil is ruined. If not, it yields, for a number of years, luxuriantly, and then is exhausted. Without manure, which cannot here be procured in any considerable quantity, it will yield no longer ; and the planter is compelled to clear a new plan- tation. Tiie chief article of culture in these islands is cotton. Guinea corn is raised in all of chem, and is highly nutritive. Here, also, are pine apples and oranges. Ponds. Most of the Bahamas have numerous salt ponds. Those of Turk's island are the most valuable. The islands con- tain no IVesh water streams. The wells are necessarily dry to a considerable depth. Zoolopcy- The only tame animals possessed by the natives, it is said, were /larrpts^ and a species of doi^s that did not bark. A num- ber of cats left on Guanahani by the early voyagers have muki- p.ied astonishingly over all the Bahamas. Lizards and guanas are abundant and are thought a luxuiy. The tall red bird is common ; its flesh is very rich. Large flocks of flamingoes are found in the buys. The bald headed pigeon, the wild pigeon, and green parrot abound iu the fields and plantations. The humming bird and ground dove frequent the pineries and groves, and the mocking bird enlivens the shore with its sprightly , melody. %93 GREATER ANTILLES. The fish caught here are the hynde, grunt, sword fish, kmg fisii^ jew fish, hog fish, angel fish, bill fish, hound fish, parrot fish, trum- pet fish, gar fish, bream, ten pounder, and crab. Alligators are oc- casioBally caught for the table. The flesh is hard and white, and resembles that ot a sturgeon. Island.'). Besides the keys already mentioned, the Bahamas con- sist of 14 islands or groups of islands. The following are their names in a geographical order, commencing from the S. E. I'urk's Islands Watling's Island Caicos Guanahani, St. Salvador, or Cat Island Inaguas Eleuthera and Harbor Islands Mayaguana New-Providence Crooked Island Group Andros lyong Island Abaco or Lucaya Exuma Great Bahama GREATER ANTILLES. Situatipn. THIS group lies between Ion 65 oQ and 85** W. and between lat. \7 40 and 23° N. Cuba, Hispaniola, and Porto !Rico, lie in a line, from E. S. E. to W. N. W. Jamaica is S. of Cuba, and W. of Hispaniola. Aborigines. The original inhabitants of.all the West-Indies, ex- cept the Bahamas, were Arrowauks. At the time of the discovery they were the sole possessors of the Greater Antilles, and the chief possessors of Trinidad. From the other islands they had been ex- terminated by the Caraibes. All the islanders of this name had a common origin, spoke one language, possessed the same institu- tions, and practised the same superbtitions. These islands were divided into great kingdoms, subject to pow- erful caciques or hereditary monarchs. There were 5 in Hispan- iola, several in Cuba and Jamaica, and but one in Porto Rico. EJach kingdom was subdivided into numerous principalities ; the princes of which held them by the tenure of service. The regal authority was absolute, but was administered with great mildness. Edwards fixes on 3,000,000 as the aboriginal population of the Greater Antilles. Peter Martyr, on the authoriiy of Columbus, states that of Hispaniola at 1,200,000 ; that of Cuba was estimated at 1,000,000; and the remainder were probably nearly equally di- vided between Jamaica and Porto Rico. '■■' The Arrowauks were a miid, and comparatively a cultivated people. The climate and the fertility of the islands naturally ren- dered them indolent. That necessity, which urges men to action, and, by exercise invi(;orates the fibres, was here unknown. Many instances are recorded of their generous and compassion- ate turn of mind, of their benevoience and hospitality. Excessive sensuality was the predominant defect in their character. Tiie great 5>.ody of the nation in the Gi eater Antilles were exterminated with- in 20 years after the discovery of Columbus. ©HEATER ANT&LES. iJ9a £a,land8. The Greater Antilles consist of 4 large islands, viz. Cuba Jamaica Hispaniola Porto Rico, CUBA. This is the most western of the West- India islands, and larger than all the rest- It lies between Ion. 74° and 85° W. and between iat. 19 45 and 23° N. It is 700 miles long, from E. S. E. to W. N. W ; and, in the widest part, 150 broad ; containing about 51,000 square miles. Nicholas and Old Bahama channels lie betwccii it and the Bahama bank, on the N. E ; and the Windward cjiai)ncl, on the E. divides it from Hispaniola. The distance across from point Maysi to the Mole is 45 miles. The distance from cape Cruz to Jamaica is 90; and from cape Sable in Florida, to Cuba, 130 ; but from the edge of the Florida bank, only 90. It is divicicd into, 18 jurisdictions. Columbus called this island Juanna, in honor of the prince, the son of Ferdinand ; but it soon resumed, and has ever since retained, its native name of Cuba. Columbus discovered it on the 27th of October, 1 492, but supposed it to be a part of the continent. Sebas- tian de Ocampo ascertained that it was an island in 1508. A body of troops from Hispaniola, 300 in number, under Diego Velasquez, conquered the island in 151 1. Havanna, the capital, was built by Velasquez in 1519 ; taken by the Buccaneers in 1659, and by the English in 1761. The inhabitants are catholics. There are two bishoprics. The oldest, that of St. Jago de Cuba, comprehends the eastern half of the island ; and was established originally at Baracoa", and after- wards removed to St. Jago. That of Havanna was not erected till 1788. This island was at first a part of the viceroyalty of Mexico^ We have not been able to ascertain the year, in winch, with Porto Rico, it was erected into a captaingeneralship ; nor the year, in which Porto Rico was taken from it and made a separate govern- ment. A royal audience is established at Principe ; and cabildos and other interior courts in the various towns and villages. M. Thiery, according to an enumeration which he saw in the house of the governor in 1788, estimated the population at 266,000. Since that period it has been much increased by emigrations from Spain, and from the Spanish part of St. Domingo ; and is probably, at present, not less than 350,000. The regular troops at the Havanna are 2 regiments of veterans, 2 of light infantry, and 1 squadron of dragoons; in all 10,000. The militia of that town are 1600. In the other large towns, bodies of regular troops are also stationed, and a militia is found all over the island. The language of the inhabitants is an impure Spanish. Its com- mon appellation is the Creole-Sfianish. The mode of education adopted is ridiculous. The Aristotleian philosophy is alone taught, and the other branches are much the same as were in vogue dur- ing the dark ages. The university at the Havanna was founded in 29i GREATER ANTILLES. ■177 i. It has I professor of philosophy, 2 of theology, and 2 ofLatr- in. The state of the common schools is deplorable. The Havanna is the largest town. It is on the N. side of the island, abou'. 45 leagues from cape Sable, and 80 coastwise fronn cape San Antonio, its harbor is one of the best in the world. The entrance is by a narrow channel half a mile long, difficult of access, and suongly Ibriified the whole distance, with platforms, works and artillery. The celebrated castle of Moro, fort San Carlos, and fort Diego, also protect the town. No less than 800 cannon are mount- ed on all the works. The rivers Lagida, and Almendariz, fall into the harbor E. of the town. The harbor is a league in breadth, and capable of receiving 1000 ships of war. It has 6 fathoms of water, and is so safe that vessels ride securely without casting anchor, v The shape of the town is semicircular, the diameter being form- ed by the shore. It is built on the W. side of the harbor. The squares are irregular, and the streets narrow ; some of them are paved with iron wood, which is extremely durable. The houses are disfigured with heavy balconies, and wooden railings, and are by no means elegant. There are 1 1 churches in the town, all rich- ly ornamented, several monasteries, and 2 hospitals. The arsenal is a superb edifice. The population has been estimated, by an in- telligent traveller, at 70,000. A great deal of wealth is collected liere. The aumber of cabriolets is 3000. The commerce of the town is more extensive tUan that of any other in Spanish America. Provisions are plentiful and cheap. Principe is the residence of the audience, and the proper capi- tal. It stands near the centre of the island,^ and is said to be nearly as large as tlie HavariUa. Bayamo, or St. Salvador, is near the S. coast, on a river, which empties into a large bay, of the same name, and contains 13,000 in- habitants. St. Jago r>E Cuba, farther E. than Bayamo, on the same coast, is surrounded by a hilly country, and has a spacious and secure harbor ; the entrance being by a channel 2 leagues in length, and defended by a casile. The population is said to amount to 35,000 or 40,000. San Carlos de Matanzas lies about 20 leagues E. of the Ha- vanna, has a good port, and 7000 inhabitants. Hoiguin, 30 miles E. of Trinidad, and Guiza, contain each 6000. The commerce of the 'island is chiefly in the hands of Catalonian merchants. The principal imports are hardware, linen, silk, clocks -and watches, wines and spices. The great articles exported arc iugar, tobacco, chocolate, coffee, wax, cotton, mahogany, fruits, cattle, and swine. In 1792, the export of sugar was upwards of 2,000,000 arrobas ; that of tobacco 120,000 arrobas for the manu- factory at St-ville, while 14,000 were reserved for the use of the isl- and and the other colonies ; that of wax at 20,000 arrobas ; and that of cotto!), 6000. In that year, 121 cargoes of negx^oes were im- ported. The land near the sea is generally level, except in the S. E. part of the island. All the interior is mountainous. The soil is every GREATER ANTILLES. 29. i where very productive. It is doubted -whether there is so larp^e a spot of ground on the globe, more fertile than this. There are 6000 plantations, and 3700 farms. Not the IGOth part of the island is un- der cultivation. A chain of mountains runs from E. to W. from cape Moysi to cape Antonio. The Paps of Managua, a little S. E. of Havanna, are the highest summits. They often look above the clouds. Sad- dle hill, near Honda bay, is a well known eminence. The course of the ridge thence to cape Antonio is S. W. and its name the Higli Lands of Buenavista. The Pan of Matanzas near San Carlos, and the Anvil near Barracoa, are landmarks of the sailors. PiNos, or the Isle of Pines, lies S. W. of Xagua bay, about 20 miles from the coast ; and is 25 leagues in circumference. It is- mountainous, and covered with pines. HISPANIOLA, ST. DOMINGO, OR HAYTL Hispaniola lies between lat. 17 40 and 20° N. ; and between Ion. 68 30 and 74 30 W. Its length, from cape Engano to cape Ti- buron, is 430 miles. Its greatest breadth, from cape Beata to point Isabella, is 160. It contains about 28,000 square miles. The Windward channel separates it from Cuba and Jamaica. The natives called this island HayiU a name which Dessalines- lately revived. Columbus named it Espanola^ or Little Spain : which, in pronunciation, nearly resembles the Hinfianiola of the En- glish. Bartholomew Columbus named the town of St. Domingn after his father, Domingo Columbus. From the town the name was at length transferred to the whole island. Columbus discovered the island on the 6th of December, 1492, on his return from Cuba : and landed the same day, at a small bay, which he called St. Nich- olas. Here he left 38 Spaniards. This was the hrst Europeaiv colony in America. Columbus founded a second town on the N. coast in November of the same year, and called it Isabella. His brother Bartholomew founded the town of St. Domingo in the S. E. part of the island in 1496, which thenceforth became the capi- tal, and the chief focus of population. Sir Francis Drake pillaged the capital in 1536. The Ficnch buccaneers from Tortuga established themselves on the west end of the island about the year 1655. About 10 years after, this colony attracted the notice of the French government, which deputed Berirand Dogeron to transform them into civilized beings. He introduced French wo- men among them, reconciled the idle to labor, and allured new inhabitants to the island. In I 669 the number of planters amount- ed to more than 1500. Cape Fran9ois was built by Gobin, in 1670. The cvilturc of the sugar-cane was introduced in 1688. The planters, in 1695, made a descent on Jamaica, and carried off a considerable number of negroes. The next year, the English, from Jamaica, plundered Cape Fraii9ois, and reduced it to ashes, Spain ceded the western half of the island to France, by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. Port au Prince, ia 1702^ was made the sea^- of government. J96 GREATER ANTILLES. In 1722 the French colony was freed from the yoke of exclusive trading companies. This was the era of its commencing prosper- ity. A company was formed at Barcelona, in 1757, to build up the Spanish colony which had always languished ; but the decree of Charles III. in 1765, opening a free trade to all the Windward isl- ands, first gave it life and activity. A new line of demarcation was run between the two colonies in 1776. An alarming insurrection of the negroes broke out, in the French colony in 1791 ; v.hich deluged half of the northern province in blood. The national assembly, in 1792, proclaimed the political e- 31 93,177,512 49,94 t,56r Coffee lbs. 7 1,663,! 87 71,663,187 68,151,180 5 1,890,748 Cotton lbs. 6,698,858 12,397,716 6,286,126 17,572,252 Indigo hhds. 95 1,607 8,564,463 930,016 10,875,120 Cacao lbs. 150,000 120,000 Molasses hhds. 23,061 2,767,320 29,502 1,947,132 Tafia hhds. 2,600 312,000 303 21,816 Raw hides No. 6,500 52,000 7,837 78,870 Tanned do. No. 7,900 1 18,500 5,186 93,548 Tortoise shell lbs. 5,000 50,000 Guiacum, aca and mahog j°^? lbs. any 5 Livres 1,500,000 Livres 40,000 171,544,666 200,301,634 or S22,030,260 or g25,723,312 The amount of duties paid in 1791 was 6,924,166 livres. The imports from France, in 1788, amounted to 86,414,040 livres. The three principal articles were dry goods, wines, and flour. In the same year 98 French vessels imported from Africa 29,505 negroes, which sold for 61,936,190 livres. The imports from foreign countries, in that year, were 16,538,820 livres, in 1022 small vessels, measuring 71 ,162 tons ; making a total of imports hi 1788of 164,389,050 livres, in 1700 vessels of all descriptions. This is exclusive of the inland trade with the Spaniards. A part of the interior is iTio\intainous ; but in the eastern part of the island are extensive plains or savannas, occupied by immense herds of swine, horses and horned cattle. The soil, in general, is fcj-tile in the highest degree, well v.ater- 298 GREATER ANTILLES. ed, and producing every variety of vegetable for use and beauty. The following tables will exhibit the state and progress of agricul- ture in the French colony : Produce of the different plantations. 1720. 1788. Sugar lbs. 22,400,000 163,405,500 Indigo lbs. 1,200,000 150,000 Coffee lbs. 6,289,000 Cacao lbs. 150,000 Molasses lbs. 34,453,000 Number of the different plantations, &c. 1754. 1789. So gar-plantations 599 792 Indigo-plantations 3,379 3,097 Coffee-plantations 2,810 Cacao-trees 98,946 plantations 69 Cotton-plants 6,300,367 plantations 705 Cassia-trees 22,000,000 Horses and mules 63,000 Horned cattle 93,000 Banana trees 6,000,000 Potatoe plots 1,000,000 Yam plots ' 226,000 Trenches of maniac 3,000,000 Cultivated acres 2,290,000 Far the greater part of the Spanish province, in 1789, was still a wilderness. At that lime they had only 24 sugar works. Their chief business was hunting wild cattle in the plains. About 1 1,000 head of horned cattle were annually furnished to the French colony, besides great numbers of horses and mules. Immense quantities of hides were also exported. The Bite, or the Bite of Leogane, is a very large bay, at the W. end of the island, setting up between cape Maria, on the S. and cape Nicholas or the Mole, on the N. Samana bay sets up at the E end of the island, between cape Sa- mana, on the N. and cape Raphael, on the S. These capes are 7 leagues apart. The bay is 20 leagues long, and, on an average, 5 broad. JAMAICA. Jamaica lies between lat. 17 40 and 18 30 N ; and between Ion. 76 18 and 79 57 W. Its length, from Point Morant, in the E. to South Negril, in the W. is 1 70 miles ; its greatest breadth is 60. The number of square miles is estimated by Edwards at 6000. Jamaica is 30 leagues from Cuba ; 40 ii'om St Domingo, and 180 from the Musquito shore. Parishes. Villages. 5 6 8 13 7 8 GREATER ANTILLES. 299 The island is divided as follows : Counties. Situation. Towns. Cornwall In the west 3 Middlesex In the middle I Surry On the east 2 Total 6 20 2r The aborigines of the island called it Jamaica, and Columbtis preserved the name. He discovered it on his second voyage, on the 5th of May, 1494 and marked it out as an estate for his family. In May, 1695, an English expedition, under Penn and Venables, conquered the whole island. Ever since that time it has remained in possession of the English. The bishop of London claims this, and the other British West- Indies, as a part of his diocese ; but his jurisdicton is renounced and barred by the laws of Jamaica. The captaingeneral of the island is usually a nobleman of high rank, and is appointed by the crown. His stated salary is 5000/. ; but the perquisites are very great. The whole is not less than 10,000/. sterling. The legislature consists of a council of 12, nom- inated by the crown, and holding their places during life ; and of a house of assembly, 43 in number, elected by the freeholders. The revenues of the island consist oid^perjietual re-venue accord- ing to the law of 1728, amounting to 12,000/. of v/hich 8000/. are appropriated ; and of annual funds, provided by the legislature, amounting to 70,000/. of which about 40,000/. is a provision for the troops stationed on the island. The contingent expences, exclusive of the appropriations, in 1788 exceeded 75,000/. The estimated value of all the property in the island, in 1787, was as follows. Plantations and their stock £25,000,000 Slaves at 50/. per head 12,500,000 Property in towns and vessels 1,500,000 Sterling £39,000,000 The estimates of the ^wpulation of Jamaica, in 1787, and at pre- sent, are as follows : 1787. J811. Whites 30,000 40,000 Maroons 1,400 "J Free negroes 10,000 L 350,000 Slaves 250,OOOj Total 291,400 390,000 The number of regular troops in the island is always considera- ble. The militia are computed at 8000. A respectable naval force is usually on the coast. St. Jago, St. Jago de la Vega, or Spanishtown, stands on the river Cobre, 6 miles from its entrance into Port Royal bay. Kingston lies on the N. side of a beautiful harbor, opening into Port Royal bay, about 20 miles S. of E. from St. Jago. It contain- 300 GREATER ANTILLES. ed, in 1788, 6^539 whites, 3280 free blacks, and 16,659 slaves ;■ ifjt all 26,478. MoNTEGO Bay, in Cornwall, in the N. W. is an opulent, flour- ishing town, and in 1788 contained 225 houses, of which 33 were capital warehouses. Port Royal stands near the extremity of a peninsula, which bounds Port Royal bay, on the S. E. It is about 10 miles S. from Kingston ; and, after St. Jago, is the oldest town in the island. It contains about 200 houses, a royal navy yard, the navy hospital, anci barracks for a regiment of soldiers. Savanna-j.a-Mau, in the S. W. contains cbout 60 houses. Falmouth is a very flourishing town in the N. W. The climate of the coast is hot and sultry, with little variation from January to December. This is particularly true of the south coast, where the average temperature, from June to November, in- clusive, is 80°, and but little cooler in the other six months. Ork the tops of the mountains the general state of the thermometer i& from 55" to 63. It has been observed as low as 44°. In the north of the island the country, at a small distance from the shore, rises into hills, which are more remarkable for their beauty than boldness. In the south the cliffs are rough and pre-* cipitous, and at the foot of the lower range of hills lie vast plains or savannas, displaying all the pride of the richest cultivation. The number of acres in the island amount to 4,080,000. Of these only 1,907,589 had been located in December, 1791. Even all this is not improved. The lands in cultivation were then dis-- tributed nearly as follows ; 767 sugar plantations, averaging 900 acres each 690,000 1000 pens, or breeding and grazing farms, at 700 each 700,000 Plantations of cotton, coftee, pimento, ginger, Sec. 350,000- 1,740,000, Edwards supposes that the remaining acres amounting to 2,340,u00, are chiefly unfit for cultivation ; not inerely on account of the bar- renness of the soil, but principally on account of its mountainous situation. Black river is the deepest and largest in Jamaica. It is naviga-^ ble for fiat bottomed boats and canoes about 30 miles, and eip.pties about 20 W. of Pedro blufl', in the S. W. part of the island. Point Morant, or East Cape is the eastern extren/ny of Jamaica in Ion. 76 10 \V. and is the usual point of departure for ships bound through the windxVard passage. Portland Point is the most southern cape ; and South-Negril the most vvesteni. A ridge of lofty mountains, called the Blue mountains, traverses, the island from E. to W. The Blue mountain Peak, in the main ridge, is 743) feet above the level of the sea. Numerous groves of pimento are found every where on the hills, on the N. side of the island. The mountains are, in general, cov- (!;rcd with excellent timber. Perhaps no country in tlie world affords so rich a variety of ex- cellent fruits, indigenous and exotic. GREATER ANTILLES. 301 The island of Great Cayman is equidistant from Jamaica and Cuba. It is inhabited by descendants of the old buccaneers, about 160 in number. Their chief business is piloting, and fishing for turtle. The two Little Caymans., N. E. of this, are not inhabited. Pedro shoals, or the Bivora bank, lie S. of the western half of Ja- maica, extending upwards of 30 leagues from E. to W. The Cis- cabel is a rock at the W. end ; Pedro keys are near the middle ; and the Portland rock, at the E. end, is 10 leagues S. of Portland point. PORTO RICO. Porto Rico is situated between lat. 17 54 and 18 30 N. and be- tween Ion. 65 30 and 67 8 W. It contains about 4140 square miles. Columbus gave the island its present name oi Porto, or Puerto Pico. The island was discovered by Columbus on his second voyage, in 1493. Juan Ponce explored it in 1508, and founded the town of St. John de Porto Rico, in 1514. The number of inhabitants is now estimated at 200,000. St. John de Porto Rico, the capital, is on the N. side, about 15 leagues W. from cape St. Juan. The harbor is spacious and safe, and admits vessels of any burden. The town is well built, and con- tains about 30,000 inhabitants. The fortifications are strong and commanding. It was long the chief seat of the English contraband trade, and is considerably populous. There are two other seaports on the island, Maraguand and Mia- guesse. Maraguand is on the N. side, a few miles only E. of point Bruquen. The harbor is good and safe. The body of the town is 3 or 4 miles up in the country. It contains about 5000 inhabitants. ' Miaguesse is on the W. end, a few miles N- of cape Roxa. The town stands 5 miles up the countiy, is handsomely built, and con- tains about 6000 inhabitants. Hurricanes are not unfrequent. That of 1742 was remarkably destructive. In 1778, there were on the island 5861 plantations and farms of every description. These were then stocked with ^3,195 horses, 1515 mules, 77,384 horned cattle, and 49,058 sheep and swine. The produce for that year was 2737 quintals of sugar, 1 163 of cotton, 19,556 of rice, 15,216 of maize, 7458 of tobacco, and 9860 of molasses. Cape St. Juan is the N. E. extremity of the island, cape Mala the S. E. and cape Roxa the S. W. Cape St. Francis is the termi- tion of a promontory on the W. end not far from the N. side, and. point Bruquen the N. W. extremity of the island. 202 CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. THIS range extends from lat. 9 30 to 18 45 N. ; and from Ion. 59 30 to 65 20 W. The form of the range is the arc of a circle, commencing at Trinidad, the most southern ; and bending N. E. and then N. W. to Bieque, or Crab island, the most western. The Atlantic is on the E. and the Caribbean sea on the W. The Mosquito shore, the western coast of the Caribbean, lies 500 leagues W. of the middle of the range. The Cape Verd islands, on the African coast, lie 35 degrees of longitude, or 780 leagues, to the eastward, in the same parallels. These islands have already been mentioned, as consisting of two groups ; the Leeward islands in the N. ; and the JVindivard islands in the S. The earliest inhabitants of this numerous group were Arrow- auks ; tribes of the same nation, Avhich occupied the Greater An- tilles. At a period, however, long before the discovery of Ameri- ca, this peaceful nation had been chiefly exterminated by the Ca- raibes, Caribs, or Caribbecs, a warlike and ferocious people from Guiana on the continent. They still occupy all the coast of that province. The Caraibes, therefbre, must be considered, like the Mexicans, as one of the great nations of the continent. The Caraibes of these islands lived in villages that had the ap- pearance of a European encampment. Their cabins were built of poles fixed circularly in the ground, and drawn to a point at the top. Though not as tall as the generality of Europeans, their frames were robust and muscular ; their limbs flexible and active ; and their eyes possessed a penetrating quickness and wildness, that seemed an emanation from a fierce and martial spirit. Their nat- ural complexion was that of a Spanish olive. A few remains of the nation are scattered over various parts of the Caribbean Archipelago. But in Spanish and Dutch Guiana they still remain a formidable body, sufficiently numerous to repel the aggressions of the colonists, and possessing the proud indepen- dence, tlie invincible love of liberty, and the ferocious courage, which so strongly characterized their ancestors. LEE TV J Jin ISLAjYDS. The islands thus denominated extend from lat. 15 15 to 18 45 N. ; and fiom Ion. 60 55 to 65 20 W. On the S. Dominica is the most remote ; on the E. Dcseada ; on the N. Ancgada ; and on the Yv. Bieque or Crab island. This last is only 3 leagues from Porto Rico, one of the Greater Antilles; and Dominica is but 10 from Martiniqvie, the most northern of the Windward islands. The Virgin islands, Anguilla, St. Martin's, Saba, St. Eustatius, Barbuda, St. Christopher's, Nevis, Antigua, and Montserrat, all constitute a single colonial government, under a governor general. Dominica has its own governor. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. 303 VIRGIN ISLANDS. This is a small group lying E. of Porto Rico, between lat. 17 40 and 18 45 N. ; and between Ion. 64 10 and 65 20 W. The ex- treme island on the N. and E. is Anegada ; on the S. Santa Cruz ; and on the W. Bieque. Of these islands the Spaniards claim Bieque or Crab island, and Colubra, Green, or Serpent island ; together with Great and Little Passage island, and the Tropic keys, all lying between the two first mentioned. These islands are attached to the government of Por- to Rico, and are of no consequence. The following is a list of the principal English islands with their dependencies. Islands. Dependencies. 1 St Thoma 5 ^'"^^^' Little Saba, Great St. James, Little St. ^ James, and Bird islands. 2. St. John Lavango, Cam, and Witch islands. „ Tortol 5 ^^^'•' ^^^" Dyke's, Little Van Dyke's, Guano, l Beef, and Thatch islands. {Anegada, Nicker, Prickly Pear, Mosquito, Cammanoes, Dog, Fallen City, Round Rock, Gin- ger,Cooper's,Salt,Petcr's,andDeadChestislands, 5. Santa Cruz or St. Croix. Columbus discovered these islands in 1493, and named them Las Virgiyies or The Virgins. The Dutch buccaneers took possession t)f them in 1648, and were driven out by a stronger party of English buccaneers, in 1666. The immediate government of these islands is vested in a coun- cil of 12, appouited by the crown ; and a house of representatives. The president of the council acts as governor in the absence of the governor general, who resides at Antigua. These islands pay 400/, toward the salary of the governor general. Four and a half per cent, annually was paid by the inhabitants on all produce, as the price of their government. These islands are many of them very dangerous to navigators^ There is a bason, however, betweenV'ii'gin Gorda, Tortola, and St, Thomas, called Sir Francis Drake's Bay., 7 leagues long and 4 broad ; in which ships may anchor, and be sheltered and landlock- ed from all winds. The following is a list of the exports from Tortola and Virgin Gorda, and their dependencies, in 1787 : Sugar cwt. 79,203 Rum galls. 21,417 Molasses galls. 2,01 I Cotton lbs. 289,077 Dying woods (value) >C6)65l 2 6 Other articles (value) ;£2,340 18 5 The whole value of the exports of that year was 166,959/. 12s. 6d. and the various articles were carried in 40 vessels, measuring 65 1 6 tons, employing 436 men. The exports from St. Thomas, St. Jolin's, and Santa Cruz we have not seen. Those from Santa Cruz exceci all the other four. .304 CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. Spanish Islands. Bieque or Crab island is 3 leagues from Porto Rico. It is 14 miles in circumference, has a rich soil, and a 5:jood road for shippini^ on the S. Colubra is of about equal size, lies 4 leagues N. of Bieque, halfway between Porto Rico and St. Thomas, and 5 leapjues from each. Great Passage island is 12 miles E. of Porto Rico, and between the other two. It is about 7 miles long and 2 wide. Little Passage isla?id is in its neighbor- liood. The Tro/iic keys are a collection of rocks, a little W. of Great Passage island. St, Thomas. This island is 9 miles long from E. to W. and 3 broad ; and 12 leagues E. of Porto Rico. It has a safe and commo- dious harbor, guarded by a single fort. It \vas, while in the bands of the Danes, a well known resort of smugglers. Sugar, tobacco, potatoes, millet, and maniac are the chief objects of cultivation. The soil is sandy, and is badly watered. St. John. This is 5 miles long and 1 broad, and 2 leagues E. S. E. of St. Thomas. It is well watered, and has a harbor, called Cratvl Baijf the best between Antigua and Porto Rico. The soil is indifferent, and the exports trifling. ToRTOLA. This island is 15 miles long, and 6 bi'oad, and but a short distance N. of St. John. The country is mountainous, but imdcr high cultivation. It is one of the healthiest islands in the West-Indies, and has a large and safe harbor. Sandy Bay and Road Toivn are the two principal settlements, both well fortified. This is the most valuable of the Virgin islands, except Santa Cruz. Virgin Gorda. The English call it Penniston^ and corruptly Sfiunishiown. It is 8 miles \\. of Tortola. It is badly watered, and has few inhabitants. A mountain in the centre of the island is af- firmed to contain a silver mine. Anegada^ the largest of its depen- dencies, is low, and almost covered by water at high tides. Santa Cruz. The French call it ^f. Croicc. It is 30 miles long and 9 broad ; and lies 21 leagues S. E, of cape Mala, in Porto Rico, and 12 S. of St. John. Columbus discovered it. The Span- iards, English, and Dutch were by turns masters of it for a long pe- riod. In 1 65 1 it was bought for the knights of Malta, who sold it, in 1664, to the French West-India company ; and by them it was ceded to Denmark, in 1696. The English took it, with St. Thomas and St. Jolm, in 1808. Its population is estimated at 3000 whites and 30,000 negroes. The soil is very fertile. The annual produce of sugar has been from 30,000 to 40,000 hhds. and other West-In- dia commodities in proportion. ANGUILLA. Anguilla.^ or Snake island, was so called from its winding tortu- ous shape. It is about 30 miles long, and 6 broad ; and lies 25 leagues E. by S. of Virgin Gorda, and 50 from Porto Rico. The climate is healthy, and the inhabitants strong and vigorous. The exports, in 1770, amounted to near 6000/. in sugar, rum, and cot- ton. Maize is cultivated extensively. Caribbean islands. sos st. martin's. §t. Martin's is 15 miles long from S. W. to N. E. ; 12 broad} and 5 S. of Anguilla. The Spaniards settled it early, but abandon- fed it in 1650. The French then took possession of the northern half; and the Dutch of the southern. The Eng;lish plundered the t^rench division in 1689, and took possession of it in 1744, and of the whole island soon after the late subjugation of Holland. To- bacco is the chief article of cultivation. But the island is princi- pally valuable on account of its salt pits. There is a good harbor at the N. W. end of the island. ST. BARTHOLOMEW. This is a small island, not more than 24 miles in circumference) and 5 leagues S. E. of St. Martin's. It was first peopled in 1648* by Poincy, the French governor of St. Christopher. Admiral Thornhill plundered it in 1689. Jx was not restored to France till mew. The Dutch long possessed it, but the English took it m 1781. The inhabitants are chiefly Dutch. It has no port. The access to it is by a road cUt out of the rock, by which only one maU tan mount at a time. BARBUDA. Barbuda is 20 miles E. S. E. of St. Bartholomew, and is 20 miles long, and 12 broad. It belongs to the Codrington family, to which it produces 5000/. a year. The inhabitants, about 1500 in number, are employed chiefly in agriculture. Sombrera^ a little island, 20 leagues N. N. W. of Anguilla, is a dependency of Barbuda. ST. EUSTATIU3. St. Eustatius is 4 leagues S. E. of Saba, and 3 N. W. of St. Chris" lophcr. It is a huge pyramidal rock, rising out of the waves, 29 miles in circumference. The Dutch settled it about the year 1600- It contains about 5000 whites, chiefly Duteh, and 15,000 negroes. There is but one landing place, and that strongly fortified- 39 3^6^ C^ARmBEAN ISLANDS. ST. CHRISTOPHER. This island is 20 leagues W. S. W. of Barbuda, is 42 miles in circuit, and contains 43,726 acres, or almost 70 square miles. Its length from S. E. to N. W. is 18 miles, and its common breadth about 4. Columbus was so pleased with its appearance, that he called it after his own name St. Christopher ; the sailors call it Sf. Kitt's. Columbus discovered it in 1493. It was first settled by the English in 1623. Basseterre, the capital, is on the S. "W. coast. It contains 800 houses, and is defended by three batteries, Sandy poi«t, also on the W- side, is defended by two batteries. The produce of St. Christopher, in 1787, consisted of 235,528 cwt. 2 qrs, 12 lbs. of sugar, 334,609 galls, of rum, 8154 of molasses, 318 lbs. of indigo, 484,640 lbs. of cotton, dying wuous in value 5989/. \s. 6d. and other articles in value 33,456/. 195. 4rf. ; making a total value of 510,014/. Os. 5d. The interior of the island consists of many rugged precipices and barren mountains. Near the shore, the country is level Of the 43,726 acres, 17,000 are devoted to sugar, and 4000 to pastur- age. Cotton, indigo, and provisions, occupy but little, probably not more than 2000 or 30GO. The rest of the island is unfit for cul- tivation. NEVIS. This beautiful little spot is nothing more than a single mountaiir, rising like a cone in an easy ascent from the sea ; the circumfer- ence of its base not exceeding 24 miles. It is only 2^ miles S. E. of St. Christopher. The island is divided into 5 parishes. Colum- bus called it A'ieves, or The Snows, probably fi'om its resemblance to a mountain in Spain of that name. It was settled by English emigrants from St. Christop>her, in 1628. The population consists of about 1000 whites, and 10,000 negroes. All white men, not ex- empted by age or decrepitude, are enrolled in the militia, among which there is a troop of 50 horse. The capital, Charlesiown^is on the W. side of the island. Here is the principal fortification. The average preduce of sugar is I hhd. of 16 cwt. per acre. There are about 8000 acres of cane land, of which half are cut an- nually, and 4000 hhds. is the annual crop. ANTIGUA. Antigua is 16 leagues E. of Nevis, and 18 E. by S. of St. Chris- topher. It is 50 miles in circumference, and contains 59,838 acres. or 93^ square miles. It is divided into 6 parishes, and 1 1 districts, and contains 6 towns and villages. Columbus discovered it in 1493. It was settled by the English from Barbadoes, in 1674. The governor general of the Leewai'd Islands usually resides here. The population, in 1774, consisted of 2590 whites and 37,808 slaves, besides free negroes. The military establishment consists CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. SOT of 2 regiments of infantry, 2 of foot militia, 1 squadron of dragoons, and one battalion of cavalry. St. John's, the capital, is built on an ex cellent harbor on the W. shore. The entrance is defended by fort James. It is the largest and most commercial town in the whole government. The pro- diice of the island, in 1787, consisted of 284,526 cwt, 1 qr. 18 lbs. of sugar, 716,546 galls, of rum, 5910 of molasses, 26 lbs. of in- digo, 160,510 of cotton, dying woods in value 4142Z. 6s. 6d. and other articles in value 48,006/. 10*. 3d. : making a total value of 592,596/. 15a. 8d. MONTSERRAT. This is the most southern island under the governor genera!, and is 7 leagues S. E. of Neyisj and 8 S. W. by W. of Antigua. It is 9 miles each way, and contains about 30,000 acres, or neai'ly 47 square miles. It is divided into 4 districts. Columbus called it Montserrat, after a mountain of the same name in Spain. He discovered it in 1493. It was first settled by English emigrants from St. Christopher, in 1632. In 1648, there were 1000 white families on the island, constituting a militia of 360 effective meo. The population, in 1791, was 1300 whites, and 10,000 negroes. The produce of Nevis and Montserrat united, in 1787, was expoi't- ed in 122 vessels, measuring 10,287 tons, and manned by 904 seamen J and consisted of 110,284 cwt. qr. 21 lbs. of sugar, 289,076 galls, of rum, 1313 of molasses, 140 lbs. of indigo, 92,472 of cotton, dying woods in value, 352/. 7s. 6d. and other articles in value, 1363/. 3s. Sd. : making a total value of 214,141/. 16s. 8d. Almost two thirds of the island are mountainous or barren. The average wop for 4 years, 1784 — .1787, was 2737 hhds. of sugar of 16 cwt. 1 107 puncheons of rum, and 275 bales of cotton. GUADALOUPE. Guadaloupe consists really of two islands, divided by a short and naiTow channel called the Salt river. No vessel of more than 50 tons burthen can pass through the channel, though in various places there is a sufficient depth for ships of 500 tons. The channel is a clear, smooth stream above 2 leagues long. Columbus gave it its present name, from the resemblance of its mountains to those of Guadaloupe, in Spain. He discovered it in 1493. The French first settled the island in 1635. The English took it in 1759, and restored in 1763 ; retook it in 1794, and lost it in the latter part of the same year. In 1 8 10 it again fell into theijr hands. In 1813 it was, surrendered to Sweden. It contained in 3,825 whites") r 13,261 whites") 1700^ 325 free bl. 1 10,875 \779\ 1,382 free bl. I 99,970 { 6,725 slaves J (^85,327 slaves J {13,466 whites.") 3,044 free bl. 1 101,971 85,461 slaves J 'tc > 9,643 whites? c^-tq'? f 13,466 whites, ^^i 41,140 slaves S^^'^^^ 1788 SOS CARIBBEAN ISLANDS- The white inhabitants are almost wholly of French descent. 4. few Caraibes still remain on the island, but they have lost all th<^ characteristics of their nation. Basse Terre is the name of a seaport on the S. W. coast) regii« larly built and defended by a citadel. The exports from Guadaloupe to France, in the years 176? and 1775, were as follows I 1767. 1775. quintals, quintals, ^usjar 164,021 188,386 Coffee 34,205 63,029" Cotton 11,955 5,193 Cacao 456 1,024 Indigo 1,438 Ginger 1)884 Beside Campeachy wood, hides, confections, liqueurs, and ratifia. The value of the imports and exports, in 1767 and 1788, was as fol- lows: ' Imports. Exports. 1767 livres 4,523,884 7,103,838 1788 francs 5,362,000 15,053,000 PESEADA. This island is 12 miles N. E. from point Chateau. It is 12 miles long, and 6 broad. As it was the first land made by Columbus, in" liis second voyage, he named it Deseada or the desired land. It is a very modern colony. In 1788 it contained 213 whites, 33 free blacks, and 619 slaves : total 865. There is no regular town. MARIGALANTE. Marigalante lies 5 leagues S. of Grande Terre, and 8 E. of Bas° se Terre. It is of a circular form, 14 leagues in circumference. Columbus named it after the ship in which he sailed. He discov- ered it in 1493. The French settled it in 1647. The Dutch took' it twice. The English also in 1691, 1759, and lately with Guada- loupe. Its annual produce is stated at 1,000,000 lbs. of sugar^ 600,000 of coffee, and 100,000 of cotton. DOMINICA. Dominica is 10 leagues S. S. E. of Old Fort Point in Guadaloupe. It is 29 miles long, and 1 6 broad ; and contains 186,436 acres, or 29 1| square miles. Columbus called it Dominica, because he dis- covered it on Sunday, Nov. 3d, 1493. The population in 1788, consisted of 1 236 whites, 445 free blacks, 14,967 slaves, and 20 or 30 families of Caraibes : making a total of about 16,800, Roseau, the capital, is in the S. W. part of the island, contaiR" ing in 1788, 500 houses besides negro cottages. • ^ CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. m The white inhabitants of the island are more than half French, &nd are catholics. The Caraibes are quiet and inoffensive. ' The produce of the island, in 1787, was exported in 162. vessels, measuring 18,126 tons, and manned by 1814 men ; and consisted of 71,302 cwt. 1 qr. and21 lbs. of sugar, 63,392 galls, of rum, 16,803 'of molasses, 1194 cwt. 3 qr. 2 lbs. of cacao, 18,149 cwt. 3 qr. 6 lbs. of coffee, 11,250 lbs. of indigo, 970,816 ibs. of cotton, 161 cwt. of ginger and other articles in value 1 1,9 12/. 10s. 9d. : making a total value of 302,987/. 15s. WJA'DW^RD JSLJJVnS. These lie between lat. 9 30 and 1 4 50 N. and between Ion. 59 30 and 62 W. Martinico is the most northern, Barbadocs the jhost eastern, and Trinidad the farthest S. and W. MARTINICO. Martinico lies 10 leagues S. S. E. of Point Cachacrou, in Domi- nica, and is 50 miles long, from N. W. to S. E. ; generally about 16 broad; and 140 in circumference. It is divided into 28 par- ishes, and contains about as many towns and villages. The natives called the island Mad,anina. French emigrants from St. Christo» pher, settled it in 1635, and in a little while extirpated the natives. The population was in the year r^ 6,597 whites ") f 11,619 whites') 1700^ 507 free bl.&sav. [.21,650 1776-j 2,892 free bl. 185,779 (_ 14,566 slaves J (^71,268 slaves J {11,588 whites *) f 10,603 whites 1 2,524 free bl. (.85,254 1788-j 4,851 free bl. 188,870 71,142 slaves J (^73,416 slaves J Port Royal, the capital, is on the W. coast, on a large bay, forming one of the best harbors in the West-Indies. The French ships of war in these seas always wintered here. The citadel cost 325,000/. sterling. St. Pierre, also on the W. coast, but farther N. is a port of en- try, and the most commercial town in the island. It contains about 12,000 inhabitants. The houses are on a side hill are all white, and make a beautiful appearance in the bay. The bay is of a cir- cular shape, and easy of access, but unsafe in storms. ' The commerce of the island, in 1769 and 17S8, was as follows z Imports Exports. 1769 sterling £583,412 ,^536,631 1788 1,195,115 1,201,875 Of the imports, in 1788, 763,959/. were from France, and 431,l56i, from other countries. The exports of 1769 employed 202 vessels,' The capital articles were 1 89,1 95 quintals of sugar, 68,5 1 3 of cof- fee, 11,731 of cacao, 6048 of cotton, 2518 of cassia, 783 hhds. of" timi, 307 of molasses, besides indigo, sweetmeats, chocolate, snuff, rope yarn, liqueurs, dying wood, and hides. A part of the imporia Iv^re always sent to the Spanish Maiu. 310 CARIBBEAN ISLAJ^DS. ST. LUCIA. St. Lucia lies 9 leagues S. of Martinico. It is 32 miles long, from N. to S. and 12 broad. There are 9 parishes ; 8 on the W, side, and but I on the E. The island was discovered oja St. Lucia's day. The English first settled here about 1635. There is here an English governor, but we know not how the government is organized. The population of the island was in the year i7fiqS 25524free persons > ,^y C 2,397 whites') ^'°^ I 10,270 slaves J '' 1776-J J,050freebl. I 14,199 j[ 10,752 slaves J Little Carenage bay is on the west side, and is the beet harbor in all the Caribbean islands. The exports, in 1769, a^otinted to 11 2,000/. sterling. ST. VINCENT. St. Vincent lies 8 leagues S. S. W. of St. Lucia ; and is 24 miles long from N. to S. and 10 broad ; containing about 84,000 acres, or ISli square miles. It was discovered on St. Vincent's day, January 22d. The English part of the island includes 23,605 acres, and is di- vided into 5 parishes. The blacks claim about as much. The rest is incapable of cultivation. The military force consisted, in 1791, of a regiment of infantry, a company of cavalry, a black corps, and 2 regiments of foot militia. The population, in 1788, amounted to 1450 whites, and 11,853 negroes, exclusive of the in- dependent blacks. Kingston, the capital, is built on a bay, on the southwest coast, to which it gives name. There are 3 other villages. The pro- duce of the island, in 1787, was exported in 122 vessels, measuring 12,636 tons, and manned by 969 men; and consisted of 65,028 cwt. 1 qr. and 27 lbs. of sugar, 88,266 galls, of rum, 9656 of molas- ses, 634 cwt. 1 qr. and 5 lbs of coffee, 761,880 lbs. of cotton, 143 cwt. qr. 24 lbs of cacao, and other articles in value 2,591/. 1 Is. 5 a total value of 186,450/. 145. 8rf. BARBADOES. Earbadoes lies 28 leagues E. of St. Vincent, and 26 E. S. E. of St. Lucia ; being the most eastern of all the West-Indies. It is 31 miles long from N. to S. and 14 broad, containing 106,470 a- cres, or about 166| square miles. It is divided into 5 districts, and 1 1 parishes, and contains 4 towns. It received its name from the Portuguese, who discovered it on their voyages to Brasil- An English ship, in 1605, took possession of it in the king's name. At that time the Caraibes had chiefly or wholly, abandoned it. The first colony was planted in 1624, and Jamestown founded. In the civil wars the inhabitants took part with Charles I. They were however conquered, in 1 65 1 , by the parliamentary troops tmder Ayscue and deprived of their government. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS. Stf The number of whites, in Barbadoes in 1724, was 18,295; and of negroes, in 1753,69,870. The population, in 1786, was 16,167 whites, 838 free blacks, and 62,1 15 slaves ; total 79,120. The number of slaves, in 1792, was 64,330. There is a college at Bridgetown, founded by Col. Codrington, the only one in the British West-Indies. It has not flourished. Bridgetown, the capital, is in the southwest part of the island, at the head of Carlisle bay. This bay is a league and a half lonij, and a leagvie broad, convenient and safe, but the rocks at the bot- tom are apt to cut the cables. The number of houses is about 1500, and of the inhabitants 12,000. The town has often been- destroyed by fires and hurricanes. The produce of the island, in 1787, was exported in 243 vessels, measuring 26,917 tons, and manned by 1942 men ; and consisted of 137,766 cwt. qr. 16 lbs. of sugar, 415,489 galls, of rum, 13,489 of molasses, 5,561 cwt. 2 qr. 18 lbs. of ginger, 2,705,975 lbs. of cotton, 245 cwt. qr. 5 lbs. of fustic, and other articles to the val- ue of 46,124/. 7s. llf/. ; making a total of 539,605/. 14s. \0d. The quantity of sugar increased in 7 years (from 1786 to 1792) front 8,659 hhds. 82 tierces, and 3,419 barrels, to 17,073 hhds, 125 tierces and 2,698 barrels. GRENADA. Grenada lies 20 leagues S. S. W. of St. Vincent, and 36 froni cape Thi-^e points, in Venezuela. It is 24 miles long from S. S. W. to N. N. E. and 12 broad; containing about 80,000 acres, or 109|^ square miles. It is divided into 6 parishes, and Caviacou forms a seventh. Columbus named it after Grenada in Spain. He discovered it in 1498. Du Parquet, governor of Martinico, settled it in 1 650. The colonial act of 1784 provides stipends of 390/. currency ior 5 clegymen, 1 for St. George, 3 for the remaining parishes, and 1 for Cariacou. There are also valuable glebes in each parish. There are still a few Catholic clergy in the island. The population in 1785 was 1000 whites and 23,925 negroes. The number of free blacks in 1 787 was 1115. About 500 regular troops are maintained here, together with 3 companies of king's negroes, who served in the American war. In 1 777, there were 5 regiiuents of militia, with a company of free blacks attached to each* St. George, the capital, formerly Fort Royal, lies on a spacious bay, in the southwest part of the island. Its harbor is one of the' best in the West-Indies. The town is divided by a ridge running into the sea. The church is on the ridge and n^^^arcr the promon- tory is an old fort large enough for a regiment. The produce of the island and its dependencies, in 1 787, was ex- ported in 138 vessels, mianned by 1824 men, and measuring 25,764 tons; and consisted of 175,548 cwt. qr. and 9 lbs. of sugar,- 670,390 galls, rum, 4300 molasses, 8812 cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. of cof- fee, 2716 cwt. 3 qvs. 18 lbs. of cacao, 2,062,437 lbs. of cotton, 2810 of indigo, antl other aiticlcs iu valvKi 64.545/. O.v, SJ. ; makini:'- c total of 614,908/. Pe, 3f/. SI2 CARIBBEAN ISLAND^. The coviiiliy is mountainous, but no where inaccessible. I^ abounds with spriugs and rivulets. Cariacou island lies 5 leagues N. N. E. of Grenada, contains 6913 acres, has Hillsborough for its capital, is very fertile, and produces 1,000,000 lbs. of cotton, besides maize, yams, potatoes, and plan- tains. Isle Rhonde contains 500 acres, devoted to pasturage and Cotton. These and a number of islets in the neighborhood are call- ed The Grenadines. TOBAGO, Tobago lies 30 leagues S. E. by E. of Grenada, and 42 S. S. W- of Baibadoes. It is 30 miles long from E. N. E. to W. S. W. and 9 broad. Columbus discovered it in 1498, and called it Tobago. A small colony of Dutch first settled it, in 1632, and called it J^eiv- Walchtri-n. Its population, in 1776, was thought equal to that of St. Lucia. If so, it amounted to 2397 whites, 1050 free blacks, and 10,752 slaves ; in all 14,199. Scarborough is the name of a tov/n on the southeast coast. In th.e northwest the country is mountainous ; generally, it is pleasantly uneven. Its soil is chiefly a rich black mould, calcuiat* ed for ail the productions of the climate. Its fruits are uncommon- ly excellent. TRINIDAD. Trinidad lies 15 leagues S. S. W. of Tobago, 35 S. S. E. of Gren^ ada, and 4 from point Paria, on the continent. In size it is the fifth of the West-Indies, and tlie largest of the Caribbean islands ; be- ing 60 miles in length from N. to S. and having an average breadth jf40. It was taken by the English in February, 1797, and ceded to them by Spain at the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. An English governor resides here. The island is thinly peopled. We have seen no statement of the actual population. Some of tho whites are Spaniards and some English. It is said that a consider- able number of the natives are still found in the eastern part of the island, but wc do not know whether they are Arrowauks or Ca- raibes. Povt Es/iauoy on the west side of the island, is the principal sea- port. In 1806, it contained about 3000 inhabitants. Tiu-ee distinct ridges of mountains cross the island from west to east ; the northern, middle, and southern. Marshes of considera- ble extent are found in various places. Of land susceptible of cul- tivation, there aren-eckoned, by M'Callam, in 1803, acres. suitable for sugar 420,160 coffee 302,400 cotton 50,560 cacao 98,280 870,400 or 1350 square miles LESSER ANTILLES. . 313 : Three navigable rivers fall into the gulf of Paria, the Caroni, Gurracara, and Coura. The Caroni is navigable 20 miles, but has & bar at its mouth. The two chief rivers of the eastern coast, are the Ortoire, and the Oropuche. The Orioirc has, for 20 miles, from 2 to 5 fathoms, but is barred at the mouth. The Oropuche is navi.^able about 10 miles. A canal is proposed between the Ari- po, a branch of the Caroni, and the Guaro, a branch of the OropU" che. It will furnish a navigation across the island. There is a remarkable lake, or plain, in Trinidad, known by the name of the Tar lake. It is on the W. coast, and is 2 miles broad. In approaching it, there is a strong sulphureous smell, which is jjrevalcnt in many parts of the ground to the distance of 8 or 10 rhiles from it. In the rainy season it is covered with water. This evaporates in a few days after the rains have ceased, and the surface is every where soon cracked by the he;it of the sun into numberless divisions. It has the consistence of pit coal. It is very friable, and ■when liquid is of a jet black color. It is of a very considerable depth, and the surface is broken with great difficulty. A gentle heat renders it ductile ; hence, mixed with a little grease or com- ttion pitch, it is much used for graving the bottoms of ships. This substance is also found in various other places within 20 miles ; and there is a number of hot springs in the neighborhood. LESSER ANTILLES. THESE islands lie between lat. 10 30 and IS 25 N. and between Ion. 63 20 and 69 50 W. ; and stretch from S. by E. to N. by W. along the northern coast of South-America, in a direction nearly parallel with the Greater Antilles. Margarita,* the most eastern, is 2 lu farther east than Porto Pvico ; while Cuba is 15 10 farther ^vest than Orubilla, the most western. The following is a list of the pi'incipal islands, with the smaller ones in the neighborhood of each : ^ . 5 Cubagua, Coche, Feayles, Sola, the Testigos, Margarita. ^ Blanca, and the Seven Brothers, Tortuga or Sal Tortuga. Orchilla. The Roca islands. Bonair; Aves. Curagoa. Little Cura§oa. Aruba or Oruba. Orubilla. MARGARITA. As this island, with its dependencies, now constitutes an integral part of the republic of Venezuela, a description of it will be given in our account of that country. * Margarita is the most eastern, except the Testigos, and vafious other rocks in its neighborhood, 40 3.14 LESSER ANTILLES. The other islands except Curagoa are too unimportant to neei & description here. CURACOA. Curacoa is 8 leagues W. of Bonair, and 1 6 from cape Roman, on the main. It is'about 60 miles in length from S. E. to N. W. and from 10 to 16 broad. The Spaniards first settled it ; the Dutch took it from them in 1632. It fell into the hands of the English during the present war. The inhabitants are almost wholly Dutch- They have long been distinguished for their industry and enter- prize. The principal town is Amsterdam, in the S. W. part of the island. The harbor has been made an excellent one by the indus- try of the inhabitants. It is defended by a strong fort. The towa is one of the largest and finest in the West-Indies, and is said to contain about 30,000 inhabitants. The public buildings are nume- rous and handsome ; the private houses are large and convenient,, and the magazines are capacious and well stored. The trade of this island was, in time of peace, chiefly contraband with Caraccas, and Western Terra Firma ; and was worth to the Dutch half a mil- lion sterling. The Dutch furnished the Spanish colonies with ne- groes from Africa, and with woollens, linens, laces, silks, ribbands, hard ware, naval and military stores, brandy, spices, and India cali- coes, and received in return, gold and silver coined or in bars, ca- caS) vanilla, Jesuit's bark, and cochineal. In time of war this island became also the common emporium of the West-Indies. The soil of the island is naturally barren, but has been rendered very productive. The Dutch converted the pastures, on which vast numbers of cattle were fornu;rly raised, into sugar and tobacco plantations. Here are extensive salt works, which afford a consid- erable supply to the English Islands, and the Spanish main. SOUTH-AMERICA. Extent. THE southern half of the western continent reaches from cape Isidro, in lat. 54^ S. to cape de la Vela, in lat. 12° N. ; and from cape St. Roque, in Ion. 34 30, to cape Blanco, in ion. 81* W. Its length from N. to S. is 4570 miles ; its greatest breadth is 32 30. boundaries. On the N. is the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic^ ■on the E. the Atlantic ; on the S. the straits of Magellan ; on the \V. the Pacific ; and on the N. W. the isthmus of Darien, which connects it with North-America. Divisions, The whole of this extensive country, except that oor cupied by the aborigines, was lately divided into colonial govern- ments, belonging to Spain, Portugal, Holland, and France. The possessions of Holland and France have fallen to England. Portu- gal is removed to Brazil, and the province has become, and proba- fe»ly will continue, the mother country. The present divisions of the eountry are as follows : 1. Viceroy alty of New-Granada. 2. Captaingeneralship of Venezuela. Q T7.,~i:oKr«„:or,, ;,,^i.,,i:^^ ^ J* Dutch Guiana or Surinam 3. Ene-lishliuianajiocludmg -< - y^ , r^ ■ r^ ° ° 12. rrench Guiana or Cayenne. 4. Viceroyalty of Peru, belonging to Spain. 5. Amazonia. 6. Kingdom of Brazil, including Portuguese Guiana. 7. Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres ? , , . ^ . 8. Captaingeneralship of ChiU J belonging to Spain. 9. Patagonia. The line of demarcation between the Spanish and Portuguese territories, as well as the boundary between Portuguese Guiana and Cayenne, are given at large in the Universal Geography, Vol. I. p. 696, 697. NEW-GRANADA. Extent. NEW-GRANADA reaches on the Pacific from Punta Gorda, in about lat. 9° N. to the mouth of Rio Tumbez, in lat. 3 25 5. On the Caribbean it extends from \he mouth of Rio Dorados, in about lO^" N. and 82 30 W. to the mountains of Santa Martha, a little W. of lake Maracaibo, in Ion. 72 30 W. The territory is about 1080 miles long, from N. to ,S. and has an average breadth of about 280. Boundaries. On the N. lies the gulf of Darien and the Carib- bean sea ; on the N. E. and E. Venezuela, including Spanish Guia- na, and Portuguese Guiana ; on the S. Peru ; on the W. the Pa- cific ; and en the N. W. Guatemala. SOUTH-AMEKICA. Extent. THE southern half of the western continent readiec from cape Isidro, in lat. 54° S. to cape de la Vela, in lat. 12° N. ; and from cape St. Roque, in Ion. 34 50, to cape Blanco, in lou, 81* W. Its length from N. to S. is 4570 miles ; its greatest breadth is 3230. Boundaries. On the N. is the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic^ on the E. the Atlantic ; on the S. the straits of Magellan ; on the W. the Pacific ; and on the N. W. the isthmus of Darien, which connects it with North-America. Divisions, The whole of this extensive country^ except that oor cupied by the aborigines, was lately divided into colonial govern- ments, belonging to Spain, Portugal, Holland, and France. The possessions of Holland and France have fallen to England. Portu- gal is removed to Brazil, and the province has become, and proba- bly will continue, the mother country. The present divisions of the eountry are as follows : 1. Viceroyalty of New-Granada. 2. Captaingeneralship of VenezU'Cla. o v.. loun.,;^,,. ;^,>i.,,i:r. ^ ^- Dutch Guiana or Surinam 3. English iiutana, includmg -< _ ,-, , r-. ■ n> ® ° 12. irench Guiana or Cayenne. 4. Viceroyalty of Peru, belonging to Spain. 5. Amazonia. 6. Kingdom of Brazil, including Portuguese Guiana. 7. Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres ? , , . „ . 8. Captaingeneralship of Chili J 'belonging to Spam. 9. Patagonia. The line of demarcation between the Spanish and Portuguese territories, as well as the boundary between Portuguese Guiana and Cayenne, are given at large in the Universal Geography, Vol. I. p. 696, 697. NEW-GRANADA. Extent. NEW-GRANADA reaches on the Pacific from Punta Gorda, in about lat. 9° N. to the mouth of Rio Tumbez, in lat. 3 25 S. On the Caribbean it extends from tlie mouth of Rio Dorados, in about 10° N. and 82 JO W. to the mountains of Santa Martha, a little W. of lake Maracaibo, in Ion. 72 30 W. The territory is about 1080 miles long, from N. to S. and has an average breadth of about 280. Boundaries. On the N. lies the gulf of Darien and the Carib- bean sea J on the N. E. and E, Venezuela, including Spanish Guia- na, and Portuguese Guiana j on the S. Peru ; on the W. the Pa- cific 9 and en the N. W. Guatemala. 12. Novita 13 Rapasa 14. Popayan III. Under the jurisdiction of the audience of Quito. 15. Barbacoa 16. Pastes 17. Atacames 18. Quito 19. Rii)bamba 20. Guayaquil 21. Macas 22, Cuen^a 23. Loja 24. Juen de Bracamoros SIS NEW-GRANADA. Divisions. New-Granada is subdivided into 24 provinces. One of these, Veragua, is in North-America ; and two others, Panama and Darien, are on the isthmus. These three compose Terra Fir-^ ma proper. The following are the provinces, beginning at th^ N W. _ I. Underthe jurisdiction of the audience of Panama. 1. Veragua 2. Panama 3. Darien II. Under the jurisdiction of the audience of Santa Fe. 4. Choco 5. Zinu 6. Carthagena 7. Sunia Martha JB. Merida 9. San Juan de los Llanos 10. Santa Fe 1 l.'^ntioquia History. New-Grenada originally constituted a part of Peru. Two audiences were erected in 1547, one at Panama, the other at Santa Fe de Bogota : and tli6 territories under the jurisdiction of both were constituted a captaingeneralship.' Quito was made the seat of an audience in 1 563, but the territories subject to it still be- longed to Peru. In 1718 New-Granada was erected into a vice- loyalty ; Quito and Venezuela were annexed to it, and the audi- ences of Panama and Quito Were abolished. Four years after these two audiences were restored, the viceroyalty was abolished, and every thing placo;d on its former footing. In 1739 the territo- ries dependent on the three audiences of Panama, Santa Fe, and Quito were again erected into a viceroyalty. A congress, assembled at Carthagena, in November, 1811, de- clared the country independent. It proved an empty declaration. Rtligion. There is an archbishop at Santa Fe, and bishops at Carthagena, Panama, Santa Martha, Popayan, and Quito. IVlissions are established at various places in the interior ; but we have nd particular account of these. Go-vermnent. All the provinces were under the government of the viceroy, who resided at Santa Fe, and had similar powers with the viceroy of Mexico. ' The jurisdictions of the three audiences have been mentioned. Pojiulatioji. The population of New-Granada has been estimat- ed by some at 600,000, by otliers at 1,000,000. Probably, accord^ ing to Humboldt, it does nut fall short of 2,000,000. Manners and Cuf^toins. Of the whites, the Chapetones^ or Euro- peans are not numerous. Most of them formerly returned to Spain after acquiring a con a third mestizos, a third Indians, and the rest blacks of the various grades. i Carthagena stand in lat. 10 25 48 N. and in Ion. 75 21 14 W. on a large bay i2l leagues from north to south, defended from every \vind, with a sufficient depth of water, and good anchorage. The site of the town is a sandy island, artificially connected, at the west end, with the main. The streets are straight, broad, uniform, and well paved. The houses are chiefly of stone, of one story, and have balconies and lattices of wood. The churches and convents are well built and numerous. It contains about 15,000 inhabitants. They depend wholly on the clouds for fresh water. Many of them are afflicted with the leprosy. Panama stands on the S. side of the isthmus, in lat. 8 57 48 N. and Ion. Sn 2i W. It has a wall of freestone, and was formerly supplied with a garrison. The population is about 10,000, The harbor is formed by several islands, and is safe. Ships only come within 3 leagues of the city. Formerly it was a place of great trade. Guayaquil, stands on the west bank of the river Guayaquil, in lat. 2 1121 S. about 6 leagues from its mouth. The houses are bf wood, and are large and beautiful. The population is about 10,000 souls. The river is navigable to the town for vessels of any size, and affords the best harbor on the coast. Popayan stands in lat. 2 50 N. and Ion. 75 50 W. on the east side of a mountain of considerable height, called /►/, from the re- semblance it bears to that letter. The population is stated by UUoa, at between 20,000 and 25,000. The Molino, issuing fron'i the mountain of M, runs through the city. Porto Bello stands on a fine harbor, on the Caribbean sea, in lat. 9 33 5 N. Ion. 79 50 20 W. It was formerly a place of con sHerablc note, but has greatly declined. sit NEW-GRANADA. Neiva stands on the Magdalena and contains about 2000 souls^ Santa Martha lies on the east coast of a large bay of the Car- ibbean, called Boca Grande, about 130 miles northeast of Cartha- gena. It has a fine well protected harbor, and is a town of con- siderable size. It served as a place of rendezvous to the early in- vaders. Commerce. Formerly the galleons from Cadiz brought once a year immense quantities of European merchandize to Porto Bello lor the supply of South-America, and received in return the pre- cious metals and the other commodities of those countries. Dur- ing the long period in which this system lasted, the English car- ried on an immense contraband trade along the whole coast At present the English engross almost the whole trade of this country, and a direct trade is now carried on with the various ports. If this slate of things continues for a considerable period, a spring will be given to agriculture and commerce. This trade is most profitable to the English, as they receive great quantities of the precious metals in return. Climate and Seasons. These vary, in this extensive country, with the varieties of elevation and of latitude. In the N. the season galled winter is from the end of May to December. During tliis period there is an almost constant succession of thunder, rain, and tempests. From December to the end of April is the dry season. Among the mountains every variety of climate may be experi- enced. Their tops are covered with snow. In descending, one sTieets successively with sp'dng, summer, and autumn. Rivera. The great river Magdalena rises on the eastern side of Coconucu, a volcano of the Andes. It thence pursues a northerly course, to tlire bay of Boca Grande, emptying near the head of that bay, about 40 miles S. W. of St. Martha, in lat. II 8 N. It is nav- igable for ships of a considerable size to Honda, lat. 5 16. Its whole length must be nearly 1000 miles. The Cauca rises on the other side of the same volcano, and, it is said, within a few rods of the source of the Magdalena. It winds along the western skirts of the chain of Santa Martha, and unites with the Magdalena in lat. 9 35. We know not how far it is navigable. At the confluence the streams are nearly equal. Several branches of the Oronoco are found in this viceroyaltjr. The river Guayaquil is the largest primitive stream in the south. It rises in the Andes, and flov/s westward, to the gulf of Guayaquil. In winter it is navigable for large vessels to Caracol, 120 milesi, in summer to Babahoyo, 105 miles. Thus far the tide rises. It is a league broad at the mouth, and still broader at Guayaquil. In winter it is only a torrent. The Tumbez is the southern boundary of the viceroyalty. Mountains. The Andes traverse this country from north to south. Its loftiest summits arc in the jurisdiction of the audienc« of Quito. The peak of the crater of Pachinca, near Quito, as iiieasured by Humboldt, is 15,940 feet above the level of the sea ; that of the porphyritic mountain of Antisana 19,150; and that of Colapaxi 18,890. Tunguragua he found to be 16,500 feet hig^, VENEZUELA. S-I^ atnd Chinaborazo 21,440. These admeasurements are believed to fiave been accurate. Mineralogy. There arc many gold mines in various parts of the •ountry, particularly in the provinces of Quito, Popayan, Antioquia, and Choco. The silver mines of Marquetones in the dititrict of Pampelona are inferior in richness only to those ofPotosi. Platina is said to be found only in Choco. Copper and lead mines are abundant. The emerald mines of Muzo, in the mountains of Ito- CO, 50 miles N. of Santa Fe, are the most celebrated in the world. VENEZUELA. Extent. VENEZUELA reaches, on the northern coast of South-America, from the mouth of the Essequebo to cape de la Vela, in Ion. 72 30 W. This includes upwards of 1000 miles of sea coast. At the eastern end, according to the limits which are assigned to it by Depons, it has a width of 350 miles, and farther W. of 650. W of the Oronocoit may be considered as extending- S; to the Apure, a branch of the Oronoco. Boundaries. On the N. lies the Caribbean sea ; on the N. E. the Atlantic ; on the E. the river Essequebo, which divides it from English (late Dutch) Guiana ; on the S the Oronoco ; and on the S. W. and W. New-Granada. The immense circular peninsula between the Essequebo and Oronoco is the country called Spanish Guiana. It is chiefly a wilderness, inhabited by savages, and has few European settlements, except ©n the Oronoco. Divisions. According to Depons it is divided into- Margarita Venezuela, in the middle, and Cumana, in the east Maracaibo, in the west Guiana, in the south History. Columbus discovered the country and sailed along the coast from the Oronoco to Margarita in 1493. Two missions were attempted, by the Catholic priests, in 1512 and 1517, at Cumana; but the missionaries were massacred, and the scheme abandoned in 1519. The first attempt at conquest was made by Gonzalo Ocarn- po, in 1520. From the little island of Cubagua, near Margarita, as a station, he made various incuisions upon the coast of Cumana and reduced a few of the chiefs to a temporary submission. The king^ of Spain immediately placed the country under the jurisdiction of the audience of St. Domingo. In 1718, this country was taken from the jurisdiction of the audience of St. Domingo, and placed under that of Santa Fe, the capital of New-Granada ; but it was re- stored to St. Domingo in 1722. In 1786 a royal audience was es- tablished at Caraccas ; the country was made a separate province ; and the government of it committed to a captain general. A conspiracy was formed, in 1797^ by three state prisoners, to overthrow the government. An untimely disclosure alone defeat- ed it. In 1 806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, placed himselt r>20 VENEZUELA. at the head of an eKpedition, fitted out partly at St. Doming0 aaa partly at New-York, and sailed for ihis country. His object was to liberate it from the Spanish yoke. Finding bis force wholly in- adequate, lie abandoned his men, many of whom were citizens of the United States, to the mercy of the provincial government, and left the enterprize to its fate. In 1811 the inhabitants revolted from the Spanisli yoke and de- clared themselves independent. They have since been reduced. Aborigines. All the Indians of this country, when it was first ex- plored, were divided into independent tribes, containing-, usually, from 1000 to 10,000 individiials. ,The Cai-acras were the most nu- merous nation. They occupied the site of the city of Caraccas ; and, in 1556, within a circuit cf 40 or 50 rniles, were computed to amount to 150,000, under the control of upwards of 30 caciques. The other tribes were the Quiriguiris, the Cumanag-otos, the Gua* raunca, the Caraib-es, Caribs, or Caribbees, the Ororiocos, the Onie- eras, the Ofto?nai-j2ic6, and the Goa/iiros., who were among the most ferocious of the maritime Indians. Several of these tribes are still unsubdued. The concjuered Indiana are treated by the Spaniards with great lenity and kindness. They live in villages, and are governed by their own caciques. jiciigion. The tribunal of the inquisition at Carthagena had the superintendency of Caraccas. There arc 1 archbishopric and 2 bishoprics in this territory. Govern7nent. Previous to the late revolution of Venezuela, the government was entrusted to a captain general and a royal audience, and to this form it is probably now restored. Pohidat.ion Depons, from the best data in his possession, esti- mated the population in 1804 as follows : Provinces. Whites. Slaves. Frccdmen. Indians. Total, Venej including \- 1C0,0C0 150,000 200,000 50,000 500,000 nezu^'la,") icluding I 1C0,0C( "^arinas J Vc :Maracalbo 20,000 30,000 40,000 10,000 100,000 Cumana I6.O0O 24.000 32,000 8,000 80,000 Guiana 6,800 10,200 13,600 3,400 54,000 Margarita 2,800 4,200 5,600 1,400 14,000 145,600 218,400 291,200 72,800 728,000 Revenue. Depons gives the foHowing staternent of the receipt^ and expendituriis for 5 years, from 1793 to 1797, inclusive : Receipts. Expences. Total for 5 years 86,747,766 S7,428,967 Average 1,349,553 1,485,793 ^ . In this estimate are not included the receipts from bulls, which an- nually pioduced £26,000 ; nor the duties on tobacco, wluch yielded 8700,000. The specie in circulation, in 1804, was estimated at 83,000,000 ; about one quarter in clipped raoney. Venezuela. i2l Jniiij. The following was the state of the army in 1804 ; except that we have added I company of the line since formed in the prov- ince of Varinas : Infantry. ] Cavalry. Description. Comp. ,,, „- Wh. Bl. Iroopsof^ 24 the line 3 Artillery 7 12| Militia 57 5 5 Total 88 65; VVh. 1,751 700 4,680 Bl. 1,250 4,230 Total. Wh. 1,751 1,950 8,9 10 350 Bl. Total 175 525 Total. 1,751 1,950 9,435 ,^7,131 5,480 12,6111350 175 525 13,136 This force was thus distributed amontj the provinces : Caraccas 6558 Maracaibo 1218 Cumana 2916 Margarita 1247 Guiana 1120 Varinas 77 Maimers and Custoi^ia. The 'ivhites mentioned in the table in- clude the chafietones and the Creoles. The freedmen include the matizoes., most of the muiattoes^ and a few blacks. The slaves comprise most of the blacks and a few ?nulat(oes. The number of the natives of Spain in Caraccas has always been siiKill ; the court having laid many restrictions on emigration. The whites are therefore composed chiefly of Creoles. The general manners and intercourse of the inhabitants are not correct. A thousand topics of conversation, which a well bred stranger would stare at, are familiarly introduced and discussed before large circles of both sexes. This grossness is owing to the excessive corruption of morals prevalent in this country, and in all the Spanish colonies. The minds of the Creoles arrive early to maturity, but their vig- or is soon broken by indulgence. They are universally languid and unenterprising, ignorant and superstitious. All the inhabitants are excessively litigious, and the number of lawyers is very great. The Indians of this country have narrow foreheads, eyes of mid- dling size ; black, lank, and long hair, sharp noses, large mouths, thick lips, broad faces, and large heads. Their color is copper. Their limbs are large and muscular, but not strong. The com- mon stature is about 5 feet ; among some of the tribes, from 5 to 6. They are generally lazy, taciturn, thoughtless, stupid, and false. The wild Indians on the coast are more ferocious than in the inte- rior. Some of them are cannibals. They are fond of war and rank treachery and perfidy among military virtues. Their victories have always been gained by treachery, never by valor. The Caraibes alone attack their enemies face to face. Language. The language of the Creoles is a corrupt Spanish, with many Indian words intermixed. Few of them understand its grammar. Thf-y usually speak it in a soft, languid manner. Literature. There is a seminary at the city of Caraccas, consist- ing of a college and a university united. The university was found- ed by the king, in 1723 ; the college, more than 60 years beibre, by Anthony Gonzales d'Acunna, a bishop of Caraccas, distinguish- ed for his piety, who died in 1682. This dovible establisliment has 41 322- VENEZUELA, a school for reading and writing, and three Latin schools. It is un- der the government and instruction of a chancellor, a rector, and 12 professors : 3 of rhetoric ; 2 of philosophy, one of whom must be a layman or a secular priest, the other a dominican ; 4 of theol- ogy, two for the scholastic, one for the rrioral, ard one for the posi- tive or explanatory, who must he a dominicaii ; 1 of the civil law j 1 of the canon lav/; and 1 of phytic. The funds of the institution, in 1804, amounted to g47,748 producing, annually, g2387. In that year the students were divided as follows : In the lower classes, comprehending i^hetoric 202 In philosophy 140 In theology 36 In the canon and civil law 55 In physic 1 1 At the school for singing by note 22 466 The degree of bachelor is conferred by the rector; those of licen- tiate and doctor by the chancellor, who must be a canon. The oath of every student is to maintain the immaculate conception ; ta teach and practise neither I'egicide nor tyrannicide ; and to defend the doctrine of St. Thomas. The system of education pursued here is very defective. The boys are not taught their own language nor arithmetic, and they never learn either. The books which they study are the Latin grammar of Nebrija, the philosophy of Aristotle, the institutes of Justinian, the Curia Philippica, and the theological writings of Go- jiet and Larraga. Cities and Towns. Cahaccas, the capital, was founded, in 1567, by Don Diego Losada. It is built in a valley, which extends from E. to W. 4 leagues, between the moimtains of that vast chain, which- coasts the sea from Coro to Cumana. This valley has an elevatioa of 406 toises, or 2598 feet above the level of the sea. Mountains of equal height lie on the N. and S. at a small distance from the city. Its site is a square with a side of 2000 paces ; and its surface every where uneven and irregular, just as nature left it. The houses are well built ; some are of brick ; but the greater part of masonry, in frame work, after the manner of the Romans. There are 5 yarish churches, and 3 private ones, 3 monasteries, 1 house of pre icners, 1 hospital of capuchins, 2 nunneries, I house of Educandass 1 hos- pital for men, another for wcnieu, and a thii 1 tor lepers. A great part of this city v/as destroyed by an earthquake in the beginning of the year 1812. The whole population, in 1802, was between 41,000 and 42,000 ; of whom a fourth were whites, a third slaves, a twen- tieth Indians, and the rest freedmen. These last are artisans. The number of servants is very great. Beggars throug the streets. Thefts and assassinations are frequent ; the last are committed chiefly by the Europeans. The police is ill administered. The climate of Caraccas is delightful. The temperature varies, in win- ter, from 52° to 73° ; and, in summer, from 69° to 85°. It lies in lat. 10 31 N. and in Ion. 66 43 W. VENEZUELA. 323 CuMANA, a quarter of a league south from the gulf of CariacQ, OB a sandy dry soil, was built in 1520, and is the oldest city in the whole of Terra Firma. The river MansanarM waters it on the south. There is 1 church and 2 monasteries. It contains 24,000 inhabitants, chiefly Creoles, who are of a superior character to their countrymen. They are industrious and enterprising. A fort on the hill Goniains 230 regulars, and a company of artillery. The climate is warm, but healthy. Lat. 10 37 37 N. Ion. 64 10 W. Maracaibo is situated on the W. bank of the lake of Maracai- bo, about 6 leagues from the northern extremity of that strait. The number of inhabitants was 22,000, in 1801, when the town received an additio-i of 2000 from St. Domingo. About 5000 are slaves, 5000 freed persons, and the rest whites. The in'.iabitants are ex- cellent soldiers and sailors, and are better informed than the rest of their counirymen. There are here 1 parish church, I chapel, 4 monasieries, and 4 nunneries. The climate is very hot, but not un- liealt'-y to the natives. Lat. 10 SO N. Ion. 71 46 W. 140 leagues from Cviri'.ccus. Barc elona, on the left bank of the Neveri, has 1 parish church, a hospital of Franciscans, and 14>000 inhabitants. GuANARA stands on the Guanara, one of the tributaries of the Apura. Population 12,300. The situation of the town is delightful. The riches of the inhabitants consist chiefly in ctittle, which are ex- ported by Coro, Porto Cavello, and the Oronoco. Lat. 8 14 N. Ion. .69 55 W. 92 leagues S. S. W. from Caraccas, and 24 S. E. from Truxillo. PoRTo Cavello has the best harbor in Spanish America. It contains I church and 2 hospitals. The population is 7500. The whites are chiefly engaged in commerce, and the town is the em- porium of a wide extent of country. La Guira, the port of Caraccas, is more frequented than any on the coast. The road is open to every breeze, and the depth does not exceed 8 fathoms, at a quarter of a league from the beach. The houses are meanly built, and the streets narrow, crooked, and bad- ly paved. It has one parish church, and contains 6000 inhabitants ; of whom 3000 are in the gunboats, and 711 in the garrison. The road from Caraccas to La Guira is cut straight over the mountains. The distance is 5 short leagues, which loaded mules perform in 5 hours, and under the saddle in 3|. The ascent from La Guira to the top of the mountain is 6095 feet, and the descent to Caraccas 1497 feet. In wet weather the road is extremely laborious. Manufactures and Commerce. The most important manufac- tures are those of tobacco, indigo, and sugar. The commerce of the country was never of any consequence, till 1634, when the Dutch siezed on Cura^oa. From that time, for a whole century, the Dutch carried on a very important contraband trade with the inhabitants ; and of 65,000 quintals of cacao, the an- nual produce of the province, only 21,000 were exported in the regular channels. The exports, in 1796, from Spain to La Guii'a, the only port at that time thrown open, were as follows : S24 VENEZUELA. In free and national articles g932,S8l-73 In articles of contribution 753,442-37^ In foreign articles 1,429,487-S74- S3, i 18,81 1-50 The duties on these articles, on entering, amounted to §281,328. The exports to Vera Cruz are also considerable ; but the con- traband trade with the foreign colonies of otlier nations v.'as very great, particularly with Jamaica, Cuiai^oa, Trinidad, and Surinam. The amount of impoits in this trade, in 1^04, was estimated at g937,oOO. This we prcoume was exclusive of those from Jamai- ca ; for, in 1801, no less than 400 vessels were employed in the contraband trade with that island. Porto Cavello alone employed 100, and exported in that year to Jamaica articles to the amount of S 1,300,000. The capital articles of export from the country are tobacco, cacao, indigo, cotton, mules, hides, and coffee. At present the ports are all thrown open to the ships of all na- tions. The island of Jamaica, however, will probably engross the chief trade, as it does that of the whole coast of New-Gianada, JNIexico, and the Spanish islands. Climate. We know of no place that has a more delightful tem-r perature, throughout the year, than the city of Caraccas. It is thus stated by Depons In winter. In summer. Generally at 6, A. M. 58° 72° at 2, P. M. 73 79 at 10, P. M. 68 75 the maxintum 76 85 the minimmn 32 69 Winter and summer are the only seasons. Winter commences in April, and lasts till the first of November. It is merely the rainy season, and is colder only in consecjuence of the rays of the sun be- ing hidden by clouds. During this season it rains one day with anotlier for the space of 3 hours, and oftener in the evening than in the morning. Some days, however, are entirely dry, and in others it rains incessantly. Durmg winter all the rivers are in a state of inundation, and the low plains become temporary lakes. In sum- mer rains occur but occasionally. Face cf the Country. The northern part of this country, near the sea, is mountainous. The land between the Guarapiche and the Oronoco is a mere level. North of the Orowoco, commences a plain, in the east narrow, but gradually widening westward, as far as the mouth of the Apura. There the Oronoco bends to the south, and the plain in that direction becomes at once of unknown width. Westward it reaches 4 or 5 degree* of longitude, to the mountains of New-Granada. The country on the Oronoco, in Guiana, is also a plain ; but the rest of tl\at province is not, as yet, sufhciently ex- plored. Soil and Agriculture. The soil of this country is described as generally rich. The vallies, between the mountains north of the Uronocoj are fitted for any species of culture ; and arc the seat o^ VENEZUELA. £35 Itiost of the valuable plantations. That of Aragoa, in 1786, contain- ed 186 plantations. The plains of the Oionoco furnish immense pastures, and numberless herds of cattle arc dispersed over theii- whole extent. The land near and on the coast of Venezuela is gen- erally good ; as is that of Cumana, from the Venare to the city of Cumana. But the whole of the coast eastward, as far as the Gua- rapiche, is dry, sandy, and ungrateful. Much of the province ol Maracaibo is of the same kind. A rich tract, however, commences 25 leagues south of the city, and all thiit lies south of the lake, is among the best land in the country. The soil of Guiana is described, as throughout, very fertile, and of a most active vegetation. Lower Guiana, which has been most explored, is said by Depons to be exceeded in richness by few lands in America. The agriculture of this country has always languished. The great objects of agricultural attention are cacao, indigo, cotton, sugar, and tobacco. The raising of cattle, in Guiana and on the plains of the Orono- po, constitute almjost the exclusive object of the inhabitants. Rivers. The Palmar and Sulia are the chief tributaries of lake Maracaibo. The Tocyyo rises 15 leagues S. of Carora, and runs N. E. from that town 50 leagues. It is navigable to Banagua, 40 leagues. It flows through a fertile country abounding in forests. The Aroa and Yaracay run N. E. each 40 leagues, and empty, the first 10, the latter 13, E. of the Tucuyo. The Yaracay is navi- gable to within 2 leagues of St. Philip. The Tuy rises in the mountains of San Pedro, 10 leagues S. W. of Caraccas. It runs E. about 50 leagues, and is navigable to St, Lucia. The Unare, or Venare, separates the provinces of Caraccas and Cumana, and runs N. between 30 and 40 leagues. It is navigable 6 leagues, to Santa Antonia. The Neveri runs W. or N. 20 leagues, and empties just below Barcelona. It is too impetuous to bs navigable above that town. Tlie Manzanares is only distinguished by having Cumana on its banks, a quarter of a league from the sea. Its mouth is 10 leagues E. of the Neveri, and 27 of the Unare. The Guarapiche rises on the east side of Mount Brigantin, and runs northeast to the gulf of Paria. It is about 45 leagues iij length, and is navigable to the fork of Fantarna. The Oronoco has already been described. Its upper branches* on the left side, above the Meta, are not in this country, and the Meta runs chiefly in New-Granada. The Apura, the next branch on the same side, rises in the mountains south of lake Maracailio, and runs southeast and east about 520 miles, falling into the Oro- noco by several mouths, which embody a number of large islands- About 20 leagues from the Oronoco, its northern arm receives the St. Joan frorn the north, and still lower down the Guarico, both rivers of the province of Venezuela. The Apura is navigable up- "ivards of J 80 miles. '.26 VENEZUELA. The Caura Is said to rise in the mountains of Parima, near the sources of tiie Oronoco. Its course is west of north, and it falls into the Oronoco about 40 leagues above St. Thomas. The Cau- capana, a smaller stream, enapiits from the same side about 20 IeuL.ues below. The Caroni, far the largest southern tributary, heads in tlie eastern part of Guiana, and empties about 20 leagues bciow St. Thomas. According to the map of Dejjons, its length exceeds 400 miles. The Guani is the largest branch, of the Ebsequebo. Lakes. Lake Maracai'oo is in the western part of this country. Its form is nearly that of a decanter, lying from south to north, with its neck communicating with the gulf of Maracaibo. Its length, from the mouth to the southern extremity, is 50 leagues j its greatest breadth 30 ; and its circumference 150. It is easily navigated by vessels of the greatest burden. Hurricanes are not frequent. Its Avaters are usually fresli and fit for drinking. A strong north wind renders tliem brackish, as far as Maracaibo. Here the neck of the lake is 3 leagues wide. The Lake of Valencia, the Tacarigua of the natives, from E. N. E. to W. S. W. is 13A leagues long ; and, in the widest part, 4 broad. It lies in a valley, surrounded with mountains, except on the west. It is about 6 leagues from the sea, from which it is sep- arated by inaccessible mountains. It receives 20 rivers, and has no visible outlet. Within a few years its waters have seriously de- creased. The land deserted by it is of astonishing fertility. Its water is heavy, and of a nauseous taste. It contain* numerous islands, and is not easily navigated. Ba]in. The large bay, through which the lake of Maracaibo opens into the main sea, puts up between the peninsulas of Coci- nas and Pa; agoana. In some of the maps it is called the Lake of Venezuela ; in others the Lake of Maracaibo. The latter is ob- viously the most proper. Its greatest width is upwards of 120 miles, and the width of its mouth, between capes Chichibatoa and Macoi'i, 40. The bay of Covo is triangular, and is on the east side of the pe- ninsula of Paragoana. The bu}' cf Tacaragua is a league and a half east of the Tuy. It is 7 leagues long, and abounds in alligators and shell fish. A quicksand at the mouth renders it inaccessible from the sea. The gulf" of Cariaco extends 10 leagues from east to west ; and, in the widest part, is 4 leagues broad. In the middle its depth is from 80 to 100 fathoms, its waters are as placid as those of a lake, because they are sheltered by mountains from every wind, exc« pt from the sea bieeze, which blows S. W- hy W. The guHofParia called by the Spaniards Trinte, has Trinidad on the east, and the coast of Cumana on the northwest, west, and south. On the north it opens into the main ocean, between point Pana on the west, and point Blanco on the east. Between these capes three islands intervene, making four openings. The largest, between cape Paria and Chacachacares, is 2 leagues broad, and is called liie Dragon's Mouth. The second, between that island GUIANA. 32i and Navios, called the Vessel's Mouth, is much smaller. The third, between Navios and Monas, is (he Egg^'s Alouth. The fourib between Monas and cape Blanc is called Los Monos or the Mon- key's Mouth. This gulf is 25 leagues from east to west, ami 15- from north to south. Its depth varies from 8 to 30 fathjnis. The Guarapiche and several mouths of the Oronoco fall into tliis gulf. It opens on the southeast between capes Foleto and Ycacos, into the channel of Trinidad. It is extremely difficult to enter the gulf, through either opening, on account of the immense force of the waters of the Oronoco. JN'atural Curiosity. In the mountain of Tumeriquiri, there is an immense cavern, called the cavern of Guacharo., famous amonp: the Indians. A river, of some magnitude, issues from its mcmih, and millions of nocturnal birds have chosen it for their habiiaiion. The Indians suppose that it is the passage, through which the soul goes to the other v/orld. ISLAND OF MARGARITA. This island lies N. of the peninsula of Araya, from which it is separated by the channel of Margarita, 8 leagues in width. It lies between lat. 10 50 and 11 10 N. and between Ion. 53 50 and 64 50 W- The island consists of two peninsulas (the eastern of which i& the largest) connected by a narrow isthmus. The population is stated, by Depons, at 14,000, viz. 5500 whites, 2000 Indians, and 6500 slaves and free people of color. Assumfition is the capital; and stands near the centre of the island. GUIANA, THIS name is .ittached to the very large extent of country, be- tween the mouths of the Oronoco and Amazon ; an extent of sea-' coast of 1 100 miles. The Amazon bounds it on the S ; the Negro, on the S. W. ; the Casiquiari and the Oronoco, on the W. ; the O- ronoco, ou the N- W. ; and the ocean, on the N. E. and E. As the Negro and Oronoco unite by means of the Casiquiari, this- whole tract is a real island.^ entirely separated by water from the- rest of the continent. From the mouth of the Amazon W. N. W. to the mouth of the Apura, a tributary of the Oronoco, it is about 1260 miles in length ; and from the Negro to tlie ocean, about 700 in its mean breadth. This country was lately divided into Spanish, Dutch, French, and Portuguese Guiana. S/ianish Guiana extends on the coast, from the Oronoco, to the Essequebo. In the interior, it is bounded, on the N. W. W. and S. by the Oronoco ; and on the E. by the Essequebo. It has al- ready been described under the article Fenezuela. Dutch Guiana extended, from the Essequebo to the Maroni, 350 iwiles along the coast. According to the map of Depons, it reach- 52S ENGLISH GUIANA. ed into the mlerior, on the Essequebo, about 220 miles, to lat 4 15^ and, on the Maroni, about the same distance, to the mouth of the Araoua, in lat. 3 15 N. French Guiana extended along the coast from the Maroni to the Arovvary, or Aracuari, 450 miles. The Maroni was its western boundary, as far as the mouth of the Araoua, below which it ex- tended westward to the Essequebo ; and by the treaty with Portu- gal, in Sept. 1801, France appears to have considered it as reach- ing to the Blanco or Parima. Its southern boundary N. was the Arowary to ils source, in lat. 1 30 ; and thence, a line running due W. to its western frontier. This last was agreed on between France and Portugal in 1801. Previous to that time this province extend- ed on the coast only to the Oyapoc ; which empties just W. of cape Orange, only 220 miles from the Maroni. Dutch and French Guiana, having lately fallen into the hands of England, now constitute English Guiana. Portugue.ie Guiana extends along the coast from the Arowary (o the Amazon, about 120 miles. The Amazon is its southern bound- ary ; and the Negro its southwestern. The parallel of lat. 1 30 N. separates it from French Guiana, as far as the Bianco ; and thence westward, from Spanish Guiana, as far as the Negro. ENGLISH GUIANA. Extent. This extensive country, comprehending both Dutch and P'rench Guiana, reaches, on the coast, from the Essequebo to the Arrowary, 800 miles. Its length, in the S. from the ocean west- ward to the Essequebo, is about 500 miles. Its greatest breadth, in the W. from the Portuguese line northward to the ocean, is aboiit 350. In the E. the coast tends gi'adually southward, and makes the width much less. JBou7idarics. On the N. and E. is the Atlantic ; on the S. Por- tuguese Guiana ; on the W. the Essequebo, which divides the ter- ritory from Spanish Guiana. Divisions. We have already mentioned, that the western and smallest part of this country lately belonged to the Dutch ; and the eastern to the French. The Dutch territory was divided into 3 districts : Surinam, on the E. extending from the Meroni to the Corantyn, IbO miles ; Berbice, in the middle, between the Coran- tyn and Abary creek, 70 miles ; and Demerara, on the W. between Abary creek and the Essequebo, 100 miles. Demarara province was subdivided into two districts, Essequebo on the W. and Dema- rara on the E. We know not wliethcr French Guiana had been subdivided. ■A'amcs. The name Guiana has long been g-iven to the whole country between the Oronoco and Amazon ; but we know ncithe!* its origin nor tlie time when it was first applied. The Dutch colo- ny has most generally been called Surinam, a name derived from the river, on which Paramaribo, the largest town, is situated. The teNGLISH 6UIANA. m Trench colony is generally called Caijenne, the name of a city iii Normanciy, first given to the capital, and thence transferred to the colony. Hitilory. Vincent Pinzon discovered Guiana in 1500. He trav- ersed the whole coast from the Amazon to the Oronoco. In 1605 Robeit Hdi'cote, an Entjlishman, planted a colony at the mouth of the Oyapoc ; and, on his relurn, obtained a patent for the whole of Guiana. The scheme, however, miscarried. It has since chania^ed masters many times. Surinam fell into the hands of the Encjlish near the close of the last century, and was restored in 1802. It It was taken again ijy the English, on the 4th of May, 1804. Cay- enne was taken in 1809. Aborigines. The Indians very far in the interior of Guiana are not known Those near and on the coast constitute four distinct nations. The Caraibes are the most numerous, brave, warlike, and industrious. They reside chiefly on the coast in Spanish Guiana, between the Oronoco and Essequcbo, though considerable num- bers are found on tiie east side of the latter. They are always at variance with the Spaniards, and frequently commit hostilities upon their settlements on the Oronoco. They still retain a tradition of an English chief, who many years since landed among them, and encouraged them to persevere in their enmity to the Spaniards. It is said that they preserve an English Jack., which he left them that tiiey might distinguish liis oouncrymen. This was undoubt- edly Sir Walter Raleigh ; who, in 1.595, made a descent on the coast of Guiana, in searcu of the fabulous golden city of Manoa del Dorado^ and conquered fort Joseph on the Oronoco. The Worrow-i ini.abit only the low, wet, marshy places, adjacent to the sea and live c-defly on crabs and fish. The Accutvanos live near the sources of the Essequebo, Dema- rara, and Beibice ; resemble the Worrows in size, but are lighter, and have less disagreeble features. They bring to the colonists slaves, the balsams Cajioiba and Arracoccrra., the roots of hiarra, for fishing, the oil of carraba., various kinds of curious woods, mon- keys, parrots, and parroquets ; and receive the same things in re- turn as the Caraibes. The Arrowaiiks live beyond the Worrows, 20 or 30 leagues from the sea. They are of a middle size and stature, straight and well proportioned. Their skin is whiter than that of the other tribes ; tneir features regular and agrv^eablc. Cio-vcrnmcnt. The Dutch possessions formed three distinct provinces. Each had its governor appointed by the motlier coun- try, and its council or court of police. The governor, as execu= tive, was assisted by the council, consisting of a fisca"., appointed by the mother country, and other pers-oii.s, apj^ointcd by the elector- al college, which consisted ol 7 members ciiosen for life by the voters. Every white male, possessing 25 slaves, had a voice in their election. PofiuLalio7i. The district of Demarara is said to contain 3000 whites and 40,000 slaves. Tlie province of Surinam 6000 whites, 4-2 S30 ENGLISH GUIANA. and 75,000 slaves. Almost the whole, both of French and Dutcfe Guiana, is possessed by the Aborigines. Manners and Cuf:to7ns. The English and Dutch constitute th6 •mass of the white population of the colony of Surinam. Ger- mans, PiH'.ssians, Russians, Swedes, Danes, Spaniards, French, and- Americans make up the residue. The morals of all have been awfully relaxed by the climate. Cities ozd Tow7is. Paramakibo is the lar;>fst town in all Gui- ana ; and stands in a pleasant gravelly situation, on the west bank- of the Surinam. 1 5 miles from its mouth. The r-treets are straight, and arc planted '.vith trees, such as oranges, limes, lemons, sha- docs, and tamarinds. The houses are chiefly of wood. The town contains 2 churches, and 2 synagogues. Von Sack estimates the population at 20,000 ; viz. 2000 Europeans, 3000 Jews, 4000 free people of color, and i 1,000 slaves. The town is defended by a fcrt, called J^'evj'Afnsterdamy near the mouth of the river. Cayenne lies in lat. 4 55 N- Ion. 52 15 W. on the north poinfc. of the island of Cayenne ; which lies at the mouth of Cayenne river, and, on each side, is separated only by an arm of that river from the main. The town is seated on the western arm, which is here a league bror.d. The fort which commands it is strong e- nough for any vessels, which can come within gun shot. The town is divided into the Old and New. The New is the largest and best built. The streets in it are straight and broad. The houses are chiefly of ^vood, some of them elegant. The palace of; ihe government, and the ancient mansion of the Jesuits, aie the only edifices worthy of notice. They both front the place of pa- rade. This is bordered Avilh tv/o rows of orange trees of the larg- est size, which exhale an exquisite fragrance. The number of. whites is about 1200, exclusive of the garrison ; that of free blacks, and slaves in proportion. Stahrook the chief town of Demarara, stands on the east bank, of Demarara river, near its mouth ; and is built on the fiat strand, amid various canals. The houses are of wood, two stories high, and stand on a low brick foundation. The rooms project in all directions to catcli the luxury of fresh air, so that the ground plot is usually in the shape of a ci'oss. All the public buildings are of wood. The population is stated by Bolingbroke. at 1500 whites, 2000 free people of color, and 5000 slaves. There is but one chinch, in which an English and Dutch clergyman officiate alter- nately. Fort William Frederic, at the mouth of the river, defends the town. About CO miles above Paramaribo, on the Surinam, there is a considerable colony of Jews, descended from Portuguese Jews,.i who were irivited to settle h.ere by the Dutch government. Their principal town is very populous, and is called the Jeiv's Savannah. Amsterdam, a town lately founded, is the capital of Berbice, and stands on the river of that name. Oyapoc is a small town on the west bank of Oyapoc river, de- fended by fort Louis. Kourou is a settlement on the coast, 10 leagues northwest of ENGLISH GUIANA. S^^i Cayenne, which was undertaken by the comniand of the duke de Choiseul, in 1763. He sent a colony of about 12,000 persons un- provided with necessaries, and in tlie most rainy season of the year. The great body of ihem perished in a sliort period. Sinamari is a small fort 5 ieaguts N. W. of Kourou. Climate. The cliniate is unhealthy ; thous^li, with proper care, less so than has been supposed, and really less so than formerly. The year is divided into two wet and two dry seasons. December ^nd January constiiaie the short rainy season. February antl March the short diy one. The long rain occupies the four foiiowing months : the heaviest rains arc in June. The four remaining months constitute the long dry season- Changes in the tempera- ture are gradual. The greatest heat experienced in two years, ^rroni May, 1805, to June, 1897, was 91°; ihe least 75^ The sea breeze furnishes a constant effusion of delightful air, from 10 in the nvorning, to 5 in the evening. Face of the Country. The surface is almost every where flat, to 2l great distance in the interior. A narrow strip along the coast in the Dutch colony is generally cleared, and plantations are found on the bujiks of all the rivers. l"be rest of t!ic country is still forested. Much of the coast of Cayenne is marshy, and subject to inunda- tions from the rivers. Few settlements are made in the interior. Near the sources of the large rivers the country in both colonies is mountainous. Soil and Agriculture. All travellers s-greein the surprising fer- >lility of tJie soil, both of Surinam and Cayenne, It is generally a rich, fat, clayey earth. Sugar and coffee are the capital articles of agriculture, and after them cotton and cacao Indi;j;o, maize, cas- sia, and vanilla are also cultivated ; and Cayenne pepper forms a considerable article of exponation from the French colony. Ac- cording to Sledman there were, in 1774, bfitween 600 and 800 plan- tations of augaj', coffee, cacao, and cotton in the province of Suri- nam, which yielded an annual produce of the value of more than a niillion sterlin?*. Rivers. The Esscquebo rises in the mountains of Parima, a lit- tle S. of the Portuguese line, and pursues a course W. of N. about 500 miles lo the ocean ; emptying by a mouth 3 leagues wide. It is deep and navigable. About 60 iuiles from the sea it receives the Guyani, a large river from Spanish Guiana. Fort Esscquebo stands at th'.-. confiuence. The cataracts in this river arc about 200 miles from its mouth. The Maioni is supposed to rise in the same mountains. The old Dutch line ascended it to lat. 3 15 N. above v/liich we believe the river has not been explored, h is a large navigable stream, but less than the Esscquebo, emptying in lat. 6° N. The Surinam, or ZeahuKh'ia, rises in a lower chain of the same ^mounrains, and runs abont 400 milet. It is navigable for ships of any size to Parimaribo, v. here it is a mile wide, and for sloops, 80 smiles further, to tise falls. The Demarara runs nearlypa vdlel with the Esscquebo, about 200 \^% PERU. ;Y)iles, and empties a little E. of it, by a mouth 2 miles wide. Over a bar at the mouth, in the highest tides there are 4 fathoms water, The Berbice pursues a northeasterly course, as is said, of more than 500 miles, of which it is navigable 200. A bar at its mouth has 16 feet water, at high tides. The Conya, a narrow, but deep stream, falls into it a nnile from its mouth. The Corentyn and the Suramaca are large rivers between the Berbice and the Surinam. The Comewine runs N. about 160 miles, and empties halfway between Surina.ai and Maroni. A few miles from its mouth it receives the Cottica from the E. Cayenne river is a large stream, which runs in a N. E. direction, and empties by a mouth a league broad. The Oyapoc rises in the mountains of Parima, and is a larger river than the preceding. It empties just W. of cape Orange. The Arowary, or Aracuari, is the southern boundary on the coast. Mountains. The principal chain of the mountains of Parima in the eastern part of Spanish Guiana passes N. and E. of lake Pa- rima, between it and the Essequebo. A spur from the principal chain crosses the Essequebo at the cataracts, and, tending E. N. E^ is broken by the Surinam not more than 100 miles from its mouth. Eastward of that river it approaches within 20 miles of the se?,j terminating not far frorn the Maroni. VICEROY ALTY OF PERU. Extent. PERU extends, on the coast, from the Tumbez, in iat. o 25 S. to port dc Loa, in Iat. 21 30 S. In the iuteiioi its treaty limif is the celebrated line of demarcation, although the Spaniards have no settlements, except missionA-, beyond the eastern cordillcra of the Andes. Us lepgth, from N- to S. is 1260 miles. The east- ern Cordillera is from 240 to 300 miles from the western coast. In the interior the Amazon may be considered as its nortbt rn limit ; while, in the S. the di^tjictof Lampa, the most northern in the vice" royalty of Buenos Ayres, lies N. of lake Titicaca, and commences only 30 geographical leagues S. of Cusco. Boundaries. On the M. lies the viceroyalty of New-Granada ; on the E. Brazil ; on the S. E. and S. tiie viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. which reaches westward to the Pacific ; and on the W. the Pacific. Divintovs. Peru was formerly divided into 5 dioceses, or cir-. cults, which vvere subdivided into numerous jurisdictions. Since, the whole country has been divided into the loUowing 8 intend-* 'jncies. Truxillo Guamanga Tarma Guantajaya Lima Cusco ^,uanca Velica Areqviipa PERU. S33 Iliatortj. Little is known of the history of Peru before tlie dynas- ty oilh'^- Incas. In this the naiive historians enumerated l^ reigns, previous lo the foi, quest of Pizarro. Pjzano, in 1532, louiiclcd a eoionyat St. Michael, near the nicuth of Lhv Paira At Caxamaica l»e ir- acheiously seized the person of Aiahua. ;,>.», whom he suffered to ransom iiimscH, by -an imn)enso qunntiiy ofsjoki, and tiieu [>ui iiv.n U) cleath, m 1533. He tookCus- co the same year. Peru was created a viceioyaity, and a royal au- dience was established at Lr.v.a, in March, 1543. A\ tirsi the vice- roy had ihc superiiu.' ndeiice ot Ncw-Grauada, including Quito, of Cl.iii, and of Bueims Ayres. We have itu authejitic documents to enable us to bring down the history of Peru to the present time. Rfligion. Peru constituies a single archbishopric. It is divid- ed into 5 dioceses ; that of Lima under the archbishop ; and those of Truxillo, Guamangua, Cusco, and Arequipa under tiieir respec- tive bishops. These dioceses are coextensive with the same name. Beside the chapters of these dioceses there are 557" curacies in the royal gift. Government. The governnient is vested in a viceroy and a roy- al audience. The viceroy is appointed for three years ; but the king may prolong his tenure of office. He enjoys all the privi- leges of royalty, and is absolute in all aifairs, civil, criminal, fiscal, political, and military. He has a body guard of 160 horse and 50 halberdiers, and a guard within the palace of 100. The audience consists of the viceroy, who is president, a regent, 8 oidors (audi' torn) or judges, 4 alcalds of the court, and 3 fiscals. The audience is always held in the viceroy's palace, in the three saloons appro- priated to it. In one it holds deliberations, and the viceroy pre- sides. In a second it sits as a court, and hears civil C2.u?,&sfiri-vate- ly ; and in a third, jmblidy ; the senior oidor presiding in both. A criminal court sits in a fourth saloon, consisting of the four al- calds, and a criminal fiscal. Next to the audience is the cham- ber of accounts, consisting of a commissioner, 5 chief accountants, 2 receivers, and 2 dii"cctors, who regulate the distribution of the revenue. The junta of ti)e treasury consists of the viceroy, the re- gent of the audience, a treasurer, and otiier officers. Population. From a census recently taken, Peru contains 1,079,1 22 persons of all sexes, conditions, and denominations. The number of towns and villages is computed at 1460.* Manners and Customs. The inhabitants here, as in the other Spanish colonics, consist of whites, Indians, and negroes ; and the various casts arising from the intermixture of these three. Less distinction is observed here in the dress of the different classes, than in New-Granada. Commerce is the common employment of the most wealthy families. Many of the whites also engage in the mechanic arts. The inhabitants are generally hospitable to stran- gers. They are naturally gay and lively in their tempers, clear, und discriminating in their understanding. Many of them, even of • Estella XX. 250. o34 PEHU. the females, are well informed. The love of gain and magnifi- cence, appears to be the predominating passions. These, howev- er, do not prevent a great licentiousness, which pervades all ranks and classes. This is followed by a very general prevalence of syphilis ; a disease hereditary in most families, and so common as not to be attentled, in either sex, wit!i the least disgrace. Multi- tudes have it during the whole of their lives. Cities and Tonvns. Lima was founded by Pizarro in 1535. It is situated in the centre of th.e spacious and delightful valley of i?i- ?«ac, an Indian word, out of which the Spaniards have made Lima. The river Rimac flov/s on the N. side of the city, separating it from the suburb of St. Lazarus. This river is fordable, except in the rainy season, when it becomes a torrent. A noble stone bridge is thrown over it, having a beautiful gate at the S. end, opening through the wall of the city. The form of the city is nearly trian- gular, the base extending along the river. Its length, from E. to W. is 4100 yards, and the greatest breadth 2307. The wall is of brick, and is flanked with 84 bastions, without platform or embra- sures. It has 7 gates and 3 posterns, and was designed chiefly as a defence against the Indians. The town is divided into 5 parishes, and contains 23 monasteries, 14 nunneries, 16 hospitals, 4 colleges, and numerous public schools. In the centre of the great square is a spacious and superb fountain of exquisite architecture. Ac- cording to the Peruvirn Mercury, Lima contained, in 1600, 14,262 inhabitants ; hi 1614, 25,455 ; in 1700, 37,259 ; and in 1790, 52,627. Of this last number 47>796 were secular persons of all descviptions-j viz. 17,215 whites; 3912 Indians; 4531 mestizos; 8960 negroes ; 5972 mulattoes ; 2383 quarterons ; 219 quinterons ; 3584 sambos ; and 1 120 chir.os. Tlie number of religious persons was 4831 ; of whom 2555 were males, and 2276 females. The market of Lima is admirably supplied. Its commerce is very extensive. Callao, its port, 2^ leagues W. from Lima, was formerly a town of some size, but at present is merely a road, with a few warehouses. Cusco, the ancient seat of the monarchy, contains 9 churches, and numerous convents. The cathedral is of stone, and admirably built. The population is estimated at 26.000. The Guatanay, a small river, runs oy the tov/n. The site of the city is nearly as large as that of Lima. AREquiPA was founded by Pizarro, iu 1539. It stands in the valley of Quilca, in the southern part of Peru, about 20 leagues from the sea ; ar,d in point of population, is the second city of Pe- ru. The houses are well built of stone, and vaulted, generally lof- ty, commodious, finely decorated without, and i.eatly furnished within. The streets are kept very clean, by means of canals which commur.icate with (the Chile) a river in the neighborhood. The population, in 1785, was estimated at 30,000. Aranta is its sea- port. TnuxiLLo i'j in lat. 8 6 3 S. It was built by Pizarro, in 1535, in the valley of Chimo, and is half a league from the sea. The houses are generally of brick, and of a decent appearance, but only PERU. 3ji ®f one story. Tlie population is about 9000, Guanchaco, 2 leagues N. is its port. GuAMANGA was founded by Pizarro, in 1339, and lies between Xiima and Cusco. The liouses are chiefly of stone, and the city, including- the suburbs, is extensive. Caxamarca is nearly in the latitude of Truxiilo, and on tlic eastern Cordillera. The population is about 12,000 ; many of theu^ are Indians, who are very ingenious in the manufacture of cottons, particularly tapestry. The elevation of the town above the sea is 9370 feet. LAMBAYEquE Ues on a small river of the same name, N. of Truxillo, and about 2 leagues from the sea. It contains about 1 500 houses, chiefly of cane plastered over, and 8000 inhabitants. IcA stands on the lea, not far from the sea, and contains about 6000 inhabitants. It exports glass, wine, and brandy. Revenue. The chief source of revenue is the coinage at Lima. Estella supposes that tlie royal treasury receives more than 4,500,000 dollars annually. Commerce. There were belonging to the port of Lima, in 1789, tons. 8 galleons of from 1800 to 750 tons in all 8,350 1 1 merchant frigates 650 to 300 in all 5,000 14 nacket boats 400 to 125 in all 3/)25 State of the Peruvian commerce, in 1789 : Provincial exports. Imports. Buenos Ayres 2,034,980 864,790 Chili 458,318 629,800 New-Granada 178,295 284,460 Guatemala 28,350 124,500 Island of Chiloe 2,649,942 30,000 1,903,550 51,200 16,375 Balance. + 1,170,190 — 17 1, 483' — 156,165 — 96,150 + 746,392 --21,200 2,679,942 1,954,750 +725,192 The commerce with Spain was carried on through the poits of the gulf Mexico, till October, 1778. At tliat time a free trade was permitted between Cadiz and Callao. The following is the state of the commerce between those two ports for 5 years : 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 Gold and silver. 7,144,325-2| 8,285, 659-7| 4,5 18,246-3-^ 5,463,973-1-1 2,449,495-6| Rxjiorts Other prod. 733,587-4 882,807-1 906,022 579,160-2 523,080 Total 27,86 15700-4|. 24,3,6656-7 31,486,357-3 Price at Lima. 7,877,9 I 2-6|- 9,168,467-(;| 5.424,268-r4 6,0+3, 1 33— ')-|- 2,972,575-61 Price at C?.diz- 8,823,1 1.5-64' 10,369,502-3-1, 6,503,961-2-^. 6,798,374-0| 3,484,386-2|. 35,979, 399-6.' S56 PERU. 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 Invoiced prices. Add 22 per cent. Spanish prod. l,932,04u-(4 5,1 13,389-5-^ 3,225, lt)7-5| l,29S,250-7.i 3,007,663-7^ I 2,576,5 10-0| 2,727,064-1 15,303,574-U Imports. Foreign prod. 3,106,056-21 6.358,901-6 i,426.58i-5| 995,055-6^ i,2l6,855-3| 14,103,450-74 2,990,428-5 Price at Cartiz.iPrice at Lima. 5,038,096-5|- 6,965. 231-3| 1 .472,22 1 -2| 14,734,< '84-4^ 5.651,749-2 j 7,257.74 l-6f 2,293,3'.'6-5|-' 2,940,992-7|. 2,224,5 !7-2|. 2,856,y65-0|. .'6,679,960-77 -34.755,0 15-7' 5,717,492-6 | 7,344,297-7 17,093, 879-4^(32, 397,453-5| 42,099,313 6-J The 22 per cent, is added on account of the superior value of silver at Cadiz. Hence it appears that the trade of Peru, in the year 1789, at the invoiced prices, was as follows : Exports. Imports. With Spain 2,972,575-6| 2,224,5 17-2f Witii the colonies 2,649,942 1,954,750 5,622,517,-62 4,179,267-2| The excess of imports and exports, in the year 1785 and 1786, was owin!.^ to the trac'e havin^; been shut up by the previous war. Mer- chandize to tlie amount of more tlian 21 millions of dollars, accord- ing to ilic L4iJi'i- pi ices, was shipped in those ivjg years at Cadiz for Lima, and 7 millions the y^ar after. This was much irsore than the annual consumption of the country, and occasioned the great deficii in tlie two following years. Probably the most fair estimate that we can make would be to add the average amount of tiie ex- ports and imports to and from Spain, for 5 years, to the exports and imports to and from tlie colonies in 1789, This gives us the fol- lov/ing results : Exvorts. Imports. With Spain, average of 5 years g7,195,880 88,419,862 With the colonies in 1789 2,649,942 1,954,750 9,845,822 10,374,612 Climate and Seasons. The climate of the various places in Pe- ru depends njuch on their situation. The highest Andes are per- petually covered with snow ; and experience an uninterrupted win- ter between the tropics. The lower mountains liave usually the same covering in the cold season ; while the hills enjoy a never failing spring. The elevated plain between the two Cordilleras, called by Humboldt tlie high table land of Peru, has scarcely any variation of temperature throughout the year ; the mercury of Fah- renheit always standing at about 65 or 66°. The country is here perpetually vcrdaiu, and the grains, the vegetables, and the fine fruits of Europe fmd here a genial climate, amidst those of the tor- rid zone. The only distinction of seasons arises from the rains PERU. ssr which prevail from November to May. In the country of Valles, or the plain between the western covdillera and the Pacific, the cli- mate is materially different. The chief division of seasons is iiere into winter and summer. The winter begins with July and lasts till the end of November. It is seriously colder than the rest ot the year. The month preceding it is commonly called autumn, and the month following spring. The only winds prevailing here are the S, S. S. E. and S. E. The S. S. E. is the most common, par- ticularly in winter. Face of the Country. A hint has been given of this in the pre- ceding article. The country of Valles is a narrow plain of from 35 to 70 miles in width ; extendisig from the coast to the western Cordillera. Immediately E ot" this, is the lower or western chain of the Andes, reaching the whole length of Peru ; not in one unbrok- en elevation, like the Cordillera of Mexico, but composed of suc- cessive summits of immense height, between which tlie eastern in* habitants find a laborious passage to the country of Valles. East of the western coidiliera lies a high valley, or elevated table land, generally from 8000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the ocean. The width of this valley varies materially in different places ; Ul- loa says, however, that is often from 105 to 175 miles. The east- ern Cordillera consists also of separate summits, but less broken than the western, and has an average height of 15,000 feet. Rivers. Three of the sources of the Amazon are in Peru, the Tunguragua, the Guallaga, and the Apurimac. The Guallaga issues from lake Guanuco, in lat. 10 57 S. At first it flows precipitately to the N. as far as lat. 10 3 S. ; where it turns eastward, and, passing a little to the S. of Leon de Guanucoj, preserves the same direction to the town of Muna, at the entrance of the mountainous country in lat. 9 55 S. Here it bends impetu- ously to the N. between two high and rugged mountains, flows over several dreadful precipices, and in hit. 9 22 S. receives from the W. the Monzon The River of the Moon joins it from the E. in lat. 8 40 S. whence continuing its northern course, it takes a new bend, at the town of V^alle, in lat. 7 50 ; below which it forms two difficult passes, named Sabaloyaco and Cachalnianuca. The Huayabamba flcrws into it from the W. in lat. 7 33 S. half a mile broad ; below which it takes the name of Guallaga, and in lat. 7 10 S. receives on the same side, the Moyobamba of equal size. Some distance below, it leaves the mountainous country, receives the Chipurana, from the E. and thence flows, with a gentler current) through the plains of Los Mayuas. Just before its junction with the Tunguragua, in lat. 5 4 S. it divides into two branches. Its width here is 180 fathoms, and its depth 28 fathoms. The united stream is for some distance half a league broad, and, for about a league, its course is a diagonal of the directions of both, till at length, that of the Tunguragua predominates. Mineralogif. The following enumeration of the mines of Peru is given by Skinner, as extracted from the Peruvian Mercury ©f 5 791 : 43 i3S AMAZONIA. Intendency. Wi rou^ht. Abandoned:- 1 _-A.' ^ , ^ "! Gold. Silver, . Mercury. Copper. . Lead. Gold. Sil Iver. Truxillo 2 134 1 161 Lima 4 .131 1 4 70 Tarma 22r 2 21 Guanca Velica I 1 80 2 10 2 215 Guamanga 60 102- 1 5 63 Guantajaya 1 20 19 30 Casco 19 Arequipa 1 71 4 28 69 784 4 4 12 29 598 The number of unserviceable silver mines is owing to the fact that many of them, after being opened, have been completely choked by the vt'atcr, which flows in from the neighboring highlands. Daring rv space of 10 years, from January, 1780, to December, 1789, the above mines yielded 55,359 marks of gold,* 22 carats ; and 3,739,763 marks of silver. In 1790 the silver muies yielded 412,117 marks of silver ; being an excess of 38,147 marks over the average produce for the preceding 10 years. The product of the Mexican mines appears to be much greater than that of the Peruvian ; for., in 1790, that of the gold mines amounted to 5024 marks of gold, and that of the silver to 2,179,455 marks of silver, coined in the I'oyall mint at Mexico -o total value of both SI 8,063,640. AMAZONIA, THIS name has been given to a great and indefinite extent of country possessed by numerous independent tribes in the heart of South-America. The line of dem.arcation, between the Portu- guese and Spanish possessions, passes through the heart of the ter- ritory, and divides the whole of it between those two nations ; Por- tugal claiming all t'.iat lies E. of that line, and Spain all that lies W. of it. According to the treaty of St. Ildefonso, therei"ore, there is no iiulependent territory. But a great number of powerful and warlike tribes of Indians were, at the time, of a different opinion : and, as they were not consulted at the formation of the treaty, there is no immediate prospect that they will recognize its validity. Extent. It is impossible to assign any exact limits to this terri- tory. On the S. it may, however, be considered as extending to the confines of Paraguay, in about lat. 14° S. ; on the W. to the river Ucayale ; on the N. to the Amazon ; and on the E. to the To- •The mark of gold being estimated at 125 dollars, and the mark of silver a: 8,the total amount of the produce of the mines in the above 10 ^i^ears will h'= 34,437,979 dollars. BRAZIL. 339 cantin. Tins country is estimated, vaguely however, at 1400 miles !ong, by 900 broad. Population. The Portuguese have some small settlements on .-the coast between cape Nortli, and tlie mouth of the Amazon ; these .excepted, ihe natives have the sole possession of the country. The natives are of good stature, with agreeable features, long black hair, and copper colored complexion, have a taste for sculpture and painting, and excel in the mechanic arts. They weave and spin cotton cloth. Their houses arc of wood and clay, thatched witii jeeds. Cimatc. Though under. the torrid zone, the air is temperate, ewing. partly to the great rains, which occasion the overflowing of the rivers, and the inundation of the country for half the year, and partly to the cloudiness of the weather. Soil and Productions. The soil is fertile, and produces corn . and grain, and all kinds of tropical fruits. Rivers. These are the Vilcomayo which waters with a copious stream, the valley of Urubamba, and flows into the Apurimac in lat. 12 15. The Jauja, Jauxa, or IVIantaro, issues from lake Chinchay- cocha, lat. II 3 S. Running S. a great distance, it crosses the valley of Jauxa, and winding to the E. is increased by a large stream from the heights of Guanca-Velica. The cordillera for a -while turns it to the N. and it thus forms the long peninsula nam- ed Tallacaxa. It then resumes its eastei*n direction, and con- -tinues it to the Apurimac. The Perene, a si>*aller stream, originates within two leagues of Tarma, and dividing that city, is afterwards greatly enlarged be- fore it is lost in the Apurimac. The Paucartambo issues from the cordillera of Viicanota, in the same parallel with the Apurimac ; into the eastern side of which it flows in lat. 10 45 S. It is said to contain a greater quantity of water, by one half, than the Apurimac. The Pachitca originates in lat. 10 45 S. near fort Quiparacra, ard falls into the Gran Paro, in lat. 8 26 S. The rivers Mamore and Magdalena form the Madeira, in lat. 11 S. The course of the Madeira, after the confluence, is N. E. The Topayos and the Zingu are both large tributaries of the v4mazon on the same side, below the Madeira. BRAZIL. INXLUDING PORTUGUESE GUIANA. Extent. THE Portuguese possessions in South- America extejid irom the mouth of the Arowary, or Aracuari, in lat. 1 30 N. along the eastern coast, as far as lat. 33 5 S. about 60 miles beyond the mouth of Rio Grande ; the tract of land between this parallel and the mouth of the little river Chuy being neutral territory, claimed 340 BRAZIL. neither by Spain nor Portugal. The western mouth of the Ynpwra is the boundary of the Portuguese possessions, on the N. side of the Amazon ; while on the south side of that river they extend nearly two thirds across the continent. The western limit on the south side of the Amazon is as far as the mouth of the Tefi, which fallii into the Amazon on the south from lake Roga^ado, in Ion. 64° W. ; for the Portuguese have a town, called Tefi, at this place. This is their most western settlement, but it does not hence follow that it is on the frontier of their territory. The most eastern limit of Brazil is in Ion. 34 30 W. The length of these possessions, from the nnouth oi the Arowary to the southern limit, is 2450 miles. The breadth, in Portuguese Guiana, exceeds 1000 miles. The greatest breadth, from the mouth of the Tefi to cape St. Roque, is more than 2000. That from the coast to the Paraguay, N. of the Mibotety, is about 1200 ; from the coast to the Parana, N. of the Iguaza, it is 450 ; and farther S. it terminates nearly in a point. The treaty limits of Brazil thus include more than one third of South-America. Almost all the country, however, W. the oi To- cantin is still independent. Boundaries. The territory N. of the Amazon is called Portu- guese Guiana. Including that in our account, the boundaries are as follows ; on the N. Spanish Guiana, now a part ot Venezuela, English Guiana, and the Atlantic ; on the E. and S. E. the Atlan- tic ; oi> the S. W. and W. Buenos Ayres, Peru, and New-Gra- jEiada. Divisions. A good deal of uncertainty remains with respect tp this article. The following we believe is coirect : I. Northern Provinces. 12. Porto Seguro 1. Para 13. Espiritu Santo 2. Maranhao HI- Southern Provinces. 3. Siara Paiagus 14. Rio Janeiro 4. Sanla Cathcrina 15. St. Vincent 5. Rio Grande 16. Del Rey 6. Paraiba IV. hit trior Provinces. 7. Temaraca 17. Minas Goyaves or Gojas 8. Peinambuco 18. Minas Geraes II. Middle Provinces. 19. Santo Paulo 9. Scregippe 20. Cuyaba JO. Bahia 21. Mattogrosso 11. llheos jVame. This country was called, by its discoverer, S(, Croix, It derived its preeent name from the celebrated diewood foun^ abundantly in its foiests, called the brazil wood Historxj. Brazil was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese, in 1500, on a voyage from Lisbon to the East-Indies. In 1548 the inquisition, after piundeiing the Jews of their prop- erty, banished them to Brazil. Tiiomas de Sousa, the first Portu- guese governor, was sent over the next year. He inimediately built St. Salvador, on the bay of All Saints. This was tl^e first set- tlement. As the province soon began to flourish, it was attacked Isy the French, and afterwards by the Spaniards, with little success. BRAZIL. 341 The Dutch, however, in 1624, reduced St. Salvador. A Spanish squadron of 5 6 sail, M'ith 12,000 stamen and marines, sailed the next year for St. Salvador, and took, it after a short resistance. B azil at tnis time was divided into 14 provinces. The Dutch took Pernanibuco in 1630, and the provinces of Temaraca, Parai- ba, ana Rio Grande, in tlie 5 followu)g years. Siara, Seregippc, and the greater part of Bahia, fell into their hands soon after, in spite of the vigorous opposition of the Spaniards. Portugal as- serting her independence, in 1640, tlic 7 provincescf Brazil, which were not subdued by the Dutch, joined the mother country in shak- ing off the Spanish yoke. The Dutch and Portuguese immediate- ly agreed to divide the country, each retaining 7 provinces. This division gave rise to the nanxe of The Brazils^ instead of Brazil. As the Dutch government soon began to oppress the Portuguese colonists, they took up arms, and in a short time cleared Brazil of the Hollanders. Since that period Portugal has remained in un- disturbed possession. The government of Portugal, in consequence of the invasion of that country, by the French, in 1807, sailed for Brazil, and arrived there the latter part of that year. Religion. The Catholic religion is established. Since the late removal of the government, all others have been tolerated. St. Salvador is the see of the archbishop of Brazil. Bishoprics are established at Rio Janeiro, Pernambuco, and various other places. Government. Brazil is now a monarchy. The crown is abso- lute, as it had long been in Portugal previous to its removal. Population. Sir George Staunton informs us, that the number of whites in Brazil, in 1792, was estimated at 200,000, and that of Africans, or their descendants, at 600,000. A census is said to be now taking. We should not be surprised if its result should ex- ceed 1,500,000 whites and 1,000,000 blacks. Beside these the number of Indians is very great. They live, generaly, in consid- erable clans, and have discovered an invincible attachment to free- dom. Mannt'fs and Customs. When walking abroad, men of the low- er classes generally wear cloaks ; those of the middle and higher ranks never appear without their swords. Although 20,000 blacks are annually imponed, the number of genuine necroes is very- small, compared with the immense numbers of the various mixed grades. In their houses and persons the inhabitants arc remarka- bly negligent of cleanliness. The beds, linen, clothes, and cook- ery are often disgustingly filthy. The disease so common in the West-Indiis and Spanish South-America, is here no disgrace. The inhabitants are generally indolent. They are not less super- stitious than the proper Portuguese. They are accused, also, by Staunton, of low cunning and a want of probity. Literature. Great numbers of the Creoles and some of the mes- tizoes, Indians, and mulattoes, have heretofore been educated in the imiversities of Portugal. The Brazilian Creoles are said gen- erally to. have been superior to the Portuguese youths in the ra- : li BRAZIL. piditj' and extent of tlicir attainments. There is a university at ^^St. Salvador. ^ Cities and Totims. Rio Janeiro, or St. Sebastian, stands in lat. 22 54 S. and in Ion. 42 44 \N. Its harbor is scarcely to be ex- celled for its capaciousness, security, and convenience. About 4 iiuIeD outside of the harbor's mouth, there is 17 or 18 fathoms wa- ter. This gradually decreases for 2 miles to 7 or 8 on the bar, and ihence it increases to 17 or 18 at the entrance. On the E. at the entrance, is the fort of Santa Cruz, supported by a huge mass of granite, with a perpendicular shore. On the W. is a great inclin- ing sugar-loaf, 700 feet in height. The island of St. Lucia, oa which AS fort St. Lucia, lies directly in the harbor's mouth. The cl'.annel lies between the two forts, is less than a mile wide, and is well protected. Beyond these forts the harbor immediately ex- pands to a width of three or four miles, with a depth of from 6 to 1 8 fathoms ; and penetrates, in several branches, a considerable dis- tance into the country. Beyond the town it grows much wider, and resembles a large lake, with many islands upon its surface. The town stands upon the west side of the harbor, 4 miles from the entrance, on a projecting tongue of land ; beyond which, all the ground is broken into hills, and rocks, with woods, houses, con- sents, and churches on their tops. The good houses are built chiefly of hewn stone, and are handsome. The churches and con- vents are numerous, and nobly built ; and the religious parade, on holidays, is not surpassed even by that of Lisbon. The present population is estimated by intelligent travellers at 150,000. The proportion of whites to the other classes is greater here than elsewhere, on account of the numerous recent immigrations from Portugal. The commerce of the town is in a most flourishing -state. St. Salvador, Bahia Todos los Santos, (Bay of All Saints) or, as it is most commonly called, Bahia., is in lat. 12 45 S. and Ion. ,39 31 W. The bay of All Saints puts up from S. to N. about 40 miles, and is 8 miles broad at the mouth. The town is built on ihe eastern shore of the bay, commencing about one mile from the point at the entrance. It extends upwards of three miles along' the coast ; and near the centre, more than a mile into the interior, gradually narrowing, however, towards each extremity. There is good anchorage close to the shore, and vessels may lie there safe from every wind. A single street runs along the shore the whole iength of the town. Immediately back of this the country rises suddenly to the height of 400 feet. A few of the houses are on the side hill, the rest are on the top. The houses are almost univer- sally of stone, strongly built, and handsome. The churches and convents are numerous, and many of them elegant. The popula- tion is estimated, at 110 or 120,000, of whom, about 40,000 are whites, the rest mestizoes, Indians, mulattoes, and negroes. The commerce of the town is very extensive, and is daily becoming more so. PjERNi\MBuco is 450 miles N. E. of San Salvador, and has v. BRAZIL. rAr,> stnall inconvenient harbor. Its commerce, however, is extensive, and the population is said to be about 40,000. PARA'lies on the east bank of the Tocanlin, in lat- 1 30 S. more than 900 miles W. N. W. of cape St. Roque. It stands on a com- Tnandinsj; situation, and is well fortified. It is a rich and handsome town, containing several churches and a college, and has a flourish" ing commerce. Co7nnierce. The trade of Brazil is now opened to all friendly na- tions. A frank and liberal system of regulations has lately been- substituted in the room of the former narrow and impolitic restric- tions. The capital exports are sug-ar, cotton, cattle, hides, rum, coflee, rice, tobacco, indiijo, and Brazil-wood. The amount of ex- ports is rapidly increasins^ every year. The cotton of Brazil and Englisli Guiana will proljably soon supersede the demand for that. of the Southern United States, in the English market. Climate. In the tropical regions of Bi'azil the only seasons arc the rainy and dry. The rainy season begins in April and ends in August. The mercury is rarely as liit!:h as 90°. At St. Salvado;-, in lat. 12 45 S. the annual temperature is about 75°, and the heat is not very often oppressive. Regular breezes from the sea occur daily, and are very refrcshuig. The climate of Brazil is describ- ed as generally healthy. Soil and ./Agriculture. The soil is spoken of as remarkably fer- tile. All the larger rivers, like the Nile, overflow their banks, and enrich the circumjacent country. Maize, wheat, rice, maniac, the sugar cane, coffee, cacao, indigo, pepper, tobacco, and the cactus,. on which is bred the insect yielding the cochineal, are among tha objects of agriculture. Rivers. The Amazon, from the mouth of the Tcfi, the Madei- ra, below the mouth of the Ytenas, and the Topayos and Zingu,. through their whole extent, are in Brazil. The Parana, a i)ranch of the La Plata, runs probably more than half its course in Brazil, and is also for some distance a boundary between it and Buenos Ayres. The Paraguay is a Brazilian stream, above lake Xarayes. Between that lake and the mountains S. of the Mibotety, it is the western frontier. The Cuyaba, and several other large tributaries of the Paraguay, run wholly in Brazil. The Uraguay also rises here, and runs several hundred miles before it enters Buenos Ayres. The San Francisco is the largest river of the eastern coast of Brazil, and the Tocantin of tlie northern. Both rise in the prov- ince of Minas Geraes. The former cannot run less than 1000 miles, nor the latter less than 1 500. Mineralogy. The gold and diamond mines were opened in 1 68! . The most important are about 75 leagues from Rio Janeiro. One of the largest diamonds ever known v/as found here. It weighed 1-680 carats, or 12-^ ounces, and was valued at 56,737,500/. sterling. All the diamond mines belong exclusively to the crown. The golds and silver mines are said to hive yiehlcd abov-e 5 milUon.'j,stcrliiU':r annuallv. 544 BUENOS AYRES. VICEROYALTY OF BUENOS AYRES, Extent. THIS is the largest of the Spanish colonies in Souths America. It extends from the Atlantic, Ion. 53 W. to the Pacific in Ion. 70 W. and from iat 33° 40' to 38'' S.» Boundaries. On the N. lies Peru, Amazonia and Brazil ; on the E. Brazil and the Atlantic ; on the S. Patagonia ; on the W. Chili, the Pacific ocean, and P>.'ru. Divisions. This country was formerly divided into 6 dioceses, La Pas, Santa Cruz dc la Sierra, Charcas, Tucuman, Paraguay, and La Plata. These are subdivided into 33 jurisdictions or pro- vinces. When the viccroyalty was constituted, in 1788, it was divided in- to 9 intendcncies, La Pas, Paucar-Colla, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, La Plata, Potosi, Cochabamba, Tucuman or Salta, Paraguay, and Buenos Ayres. To tliese was added, as a tenth intendency, the province of Cuyo, taken from Chili, still however subject, in spirit- ualities, to the bishop of that captaingeneralship. jVuTnes. Wliile attached to Peru, this whole country was called Charcas ; afterward Paraguay. At present its most common name is Buenos Ayres, so called on account of its salubrious cli* mate. Historij. Juan de Solis discovered the great river in 1516, and called it by his own name. Cabot, in 1526, sailed 30 leagues up the Paraguay, and built a fort. His establishment was soon brok- en up by the Indians. Buenos Ayres was settled in 1535, and e- vacuated in 1539. Its inhabitants removed to Assumption. The province of Charcas was subdued by Gonzales Pizairo, from Peru, in 1 538, and the city of La Plata founded the next year. The gov- ernment of Tucuman Avas established by the viceroy of Peru, in 1542, and the province subdued in 1549, Santa Cruz de la Sierra was founded in 1558. About 1560, Tucuman wad claimed as a part of Chili, by the governor of that country, and actually occupi- ed. He founded the towns Esteco, Salta, and Jujuri. In 1563, it was reannesed to Peru, and subjected to the jurisdiction of the au- dience of Las Charcas, which had been created in 1559. Buenos Ayres was resettled in 1580. In 1586, the Jesuits first made their appearance, and commenced their missions among tlie Indians. The audience of Buenos Ayres was established in 1 663, extinguish- ed soon after, anrl reestablished in 1783. The whole country was erected into a viceroyalty in 1787. Religion. The Gare of the church in this viceroyalty is entrust- ed to the archbishop of La Plata and 5 bishops. His peculiar dio- * The extensive province, or, as it is sometimes called, desert, of Atacama, lies between Chili and Peru, and bounds westward on the Pacific ocean. Ulloa, the later Spanish writers, and Wllcocke, assert that it belongs to this viccroyalty. According to the map of Wilcocke, Port de Loa is its northern limit, on the coast, and Port Juncal the southern, leaving an interval of about 280 miles be- tween them. BUENOS AYRES, Un cefee, however, includes only the province of Charcas. tt was erected into a bisliopric in 155 1, and into an arclibishopric in 1608. The bishopric of Assumplion was founded in 1547, and includes the whole province of Paraguay. Tliat of Cordova was founded in 1570, and comprises the province of Tucuman ; that of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in 1605, and extends tl)rouij[h the province of the same name J that of L.i Pas, in 16 /S, and embraces the province of La Pas; and that of Buenos Ayres, in 1620, extending through that province. The inferior clergy are divided into parish priests, in the Spanish settlements; priests settled among the subjugated In- dians ; and missionaries, ainoug the wild Indians. Government. The viceroy resides at Buenos Ayres, which is considered as the capitah His powers are similar to those of the viceroy of Peru. He is nominated for :> years and has a salary of 40,000 dollars. There are two audiences in the viceroyalty. That of Charcas, at La Plata, and that of Buenos Ayres, We know not how far the jurisdiction of each extends. Each intendency is now subjected to a governor or intendent, with a salary of &Q00 dollars, except the governor of Potos!, whose salary amounts to 10,000. Each governor is assisted by an assessor, wiio ranks as lieutenant- general, and has a salary of 1500 dollars. These constitute a court, from which appeals lie to the audiences. In the 3 intendcncies, particularly exposed to attacks from the wild Indians, Santa Cruz, Tucuman, and Paraguay, the governor is vested with the command of tlie troops. Pofiulation. At the period of the first discovery of this counlryj Wilcocke estimates its population at 1,000,000 or 1,200,000 souls. Estella computes the population of this extensive viceroyalty at 1,000,000 Spaniards or Creoles, and an inconsiderable number of Indians. Army. On a serious invasion of the country, probably a force of from 10,000 to 15,000 men might be brought into the field. Revenue. The revenue of the crown is divided into 4 branches. The first is claimed by the king as supreme lord ; the second com- prises the duties on commerce ; the third the spiritual revenues ; the fourth arose from monopolies. It is stated, by Wilcocke, as follows : Dollars. 1st 1,320,000 2d 1,367,000 3d 262,000 4th ' 1,450,000 4,399,000 ? fanners. The chapetones, here, ar. in the otlier colonies, nre entitled to peculiar privileges, civil and political, and hence are led to look down with disdain on every other class. They possess the common Spanish characteristics. The pride and licentious- ness of the mother country are enhanced in the colony. The Cre- oles can hold no civil or military office of rank. In the churcli tiiey are excluded only from the epi.scopate. These exclusions !0n?c<4 44 346 BUENOS AYRES. to the enervating influence of the climate, have broken the energy of their minds, and discouraged them from vigorous exertions. In their leligious tenets tlie inhabitanls are far less bigoted, than the Spaniards. The ladies are thought the handsomest in South= America. Their usual dress is the same with that of the ladies of Peru. On extraordinary occasions they also display equal mag- nificence and profusion. The national dance, the fandango., is a great favoiite ; and the still more indecent calenda., which was in- troduced by the Guinea negroes, has become no less the pastime of the whites. In their assemblies the etiquette of rank is nearly abolished, and all, not openly contaminated by Indian or negro blood, are admitted. The tcreeron mestizoes and the quinteron mulattoes are looked upon as genuine Creoles, except where the influence of imagination has retarded the blanching. Cities and Tcwns. Buenos Ayres is built on the S. W. bank of the La Plata, in lat. 34 37 S. and Ion. 58 13 W. The river here is 30 miles across, and is merely an open road. The cathedral, on the N. W. side of the parade, is spacious, and elegant. There are three other churches, and several monasteries, and nunneries. The town hall is large and handsome. All tiiese edifices are built of a beautiful whiie stone, found in a plain not far distant. The streets are broad, and paved with side walks, but not in the middle. The houses ai'e of brick, and about 6000 in number. Sir Home Pop- ham, in 1306, estimated the population at 70,000. About half are wdiites ; the rest are Indians, negroes, arid mixed. The town is well supplied with provisions. Monte Video stands on the N. shore of the La Plata, in lat. 34 55 S. and Ion. 56 4 W. on the only good port in the river. The harbor has a narrow entrance, is of a circular shape, about 4 miles across, has a soft, clayey bottom, and is deep enough for ships of the first rate. The fort is strong, has 4 bastions, and is mounted with brass cannon in the centre ; the barracks are bomb proof. The garrison generally consists of 400 or 500 men. The houses are all of stone or brick, and most of them one story. The roofs flat, and the floors of brick, though some have only earth. Few have glass windows or chimnies. The streets are straight, and cross each other at right angles ; but are very rough and incom- modious. On the W. is a large church. The population is about 30,000. Among these are a collection of strollers, called gauderi- os. Their mode of life resembles that of the gypsies, except, that they lire not arldicted to thieving. Their dress consists of a coarse shirt, and coarser frock. They get their living by playing to the country people on a species of guitar, and singing songs of their own composition. PoTosi owed its origin to the v/ell known silver mines, and was oundtd soon alter their discovery, in 1545. It stands in lat. 20 26 S. and in Ion. 66 16 W. about 60 miles from La Plata, on the S. side of a mountain of the same name, and is about 8 miles in cir- cuit. The churches are remarkal)iy magnificent, and profusely decorated with uttaisils and ornaments of gold and silver. The houses in general are well built, and are most sumptuously fur^ BUENOS AYRES. 547 r.ished. The town, according to Helms, contains 70,000 inhabit- ants, exclusive of slaves and others, to the number of 30,000, employed in the adjacent mines : making its whole population 100,000. Of the iidiabitants about 10,000 are Spaniards, many of them noble and very wealthy, and magniiicent in their mode of living. La Plata was founded, in 153S, on the site of the large Indian town Chiquisica. The houses in the great square are two stories, but the others are but one. The inhabitants amount to about 1 4,000. The cathedral is large, and of good architecture, much • ornamented with gilding and painting. Tiiere is another church, -5 monasteries, 2 nunneries, and a hospital. There is also a univer- sity dedicated to St. Francis Xavier. La Pas, at the foot of one of the high ridges of the cordillera, contains 5 churches, a cathedral, 5 monasteries, 3 nunneries, a col- lege, about 4000 houses, and 20,000 inhabitants. Assumption' stands on the E. bank of the Paraguay, a little above the mouth of the Pilcomayo, and 977 miles from the sea. A fort was built here in 1538, which, from the conveniency of its situationj soon grev/ into a city. It contains about 500 Spanish families, and several thousands of mestizos and Indians. Santa Cruz de la Sierra stands at the foot of a chain of mountains, which bounds the country of the Chiquitas Indians to the N. and thence runs N.E. towards lake Xarayes. The site of the town is a circular peninsula, formed by the river Guapay. It Js large and populous, but ill built. The houses are of stone, thatched with palm leaves. n Atacama, in lat. 23 30 S. is only 100 miles from the Pacific ocean, on which it has a little port, called Cobija. The province of Atacama, of which it is the capital, is an extensive desert, be- tween Chili and Peru. Salta is pleasantly situated on the Arias, in a valley surround- ed by mountains, in lat. 24 15 S. It is regularly divided by 4 broad sti'cets. The market place is an extensive square, on one side of which stands a large anri beautiful town house, and opposite to it the principal church. There arc 7 churches, 600 Spanish families, and about 9000 inhabitants. The trade is extensive with Potosi, Peru, and Chili. Cordova is in lat. 31 30 S. and in Ion. 63 30 W. in a marshy soil, on a small river, called the Primero, which is lost in the salt lakes to the S. E. It carries on a considerable trade with Peru. The streets are paved. The cathedral is a handsome edifice ; and the public square spacious, and adorned with buildings of consid- erable magnitude. It contains about 1500 whites, 4000 negroes, and a nunaber of Indians. The climate is healthy and temperate, and the adjacent territory liighly productive. St. Sacrament, nearly opposite Buenos Ayres, was founded by tlie Portuguese in 1679, and, afier occasioning many disputes, was ceded to Spain in 1 788. It has a tolerable port, formed by the islands of St. Gabriel. The fortress on one of these is a strong |4» BUENOS AYRES. Maldonado is an open harbor near the N. entrance of the L^ Plata. It is fortified. % Roads. The usual route from Monte Video to Buenos Ayres is, by water, 55 leagues. The shortest passages are 24 hours ; the longest 14 days. In the dry season the b;;st rout is by land, to San Carlos, 120 miles, and thence, in a lerry boat, 10 leagues to Buenos Ayres. A most important overland commerce has long been carried on between the viceroyaities of Peiu and Buenos Ayres. The route is entirely by land, and crosses the ridges of the Andes. The whole distance on thi-j route, from Buenos Ayres to Lima, is 2822 geo^ graphical miles. Manufactures and Coimnvrce. The exports from this territory, between 1748 and 1753, amounted to an annual average of gold, in mgols, S282,352 ; silver, coined and uncoined, §700,000 ; vicuna wool, 300 quintals, §38,400 ; and 150,000 hidts, g600,000 ; ii. all 81,620,752. The amount of gold and silver received by Spain from Jan. 1, 1754, to Jan. 1, 1765, 1 1 years, was gold g2,142,626, silver 810,326,090, in all 812,468,716. 'XhQ following is a summary of the exports and imports in 1789 : Exports, money. goods. total. Imports. Spain g3,982,005 Sl>076,87r g5,058,882 g2,853,944 Havanna 24,060 136,050 160,110 123,562 Africa 159,820 24,703 184,523 337,500 Lima & Guayaquil 67,150 67,150 60,154- Peru, by land, > i 170,190 864,790 2,034,980 2,034,980 m 1789 5 Large droves of cattle are annually sent to Peru by land, and not less than 60,000 mules. They are driven by easy journeys to Sal- ta, where they winter, and are in the spring delivered at Potosi. The mules cost from 3 to 4 dollars, and nett at Potosi 8 or 10, and ihe cattle 3 or 4. About 40 vessels, of 200 or 250 tons, are constantly engaged in a contraband trade between this country and Brazil. Salt, sugar, earthen ware, and British and German goods, are received from San Pedro, and other ports in Brazil, at Maldonado, and Monte Video for silver. The commerce with the United States is valuable. The articles introduced arc, openly, slaves, and various kinds of goods under cover. The trade is circuitous, to escape the penalties ol the laws of the United States. The vessel originally takes a cargo for Eu- rope, and there purchases the proper articles for the African coast^ as well as others for the market of Buenos Ayres. After the slaveMp are procured, they are carried to the two ports on the La Plata; and, while an cpen trade is carried on for the slaves, a clandestine one is engaged in for the goods. The vessel, loaded with hides, and tallow, and having a large quantity of silver on board, returns ^o Europe, The hides and tallow are there disposed of for Eti- yopean goods, and these with the silver are carri'.d to America. BUENOS AYRES. S4& Climate. The country, on the La Plata and around il:e capha', enjoys a clhnate equally salubiious and pleasant, and ot" ncaily a uniform temperature. In winter, however, thunder and lighmin'^ arc not uncommon, and the rains are sometimes ot" long continu- ance. Every variety of temperature occurs in the interior in the neighborhood of the mountains. Face of the Country. At the southeastern limit of the viceroy- alty there is a ridjj;e of movmtains, beginning about 6 leagues from the coast, and running W. 40 leagues. At no great distance W. of Butnos Ayres, commence the pampas, an innnense sea of wav- ing grass, nearly a perfect level, and scaice elevated above the sur- face of the ocean. Hence they extend westward to the Andes, about 700 miles. Their southern limit is between the rivers Negro and the Hueuque Leuvu, whence they extend northward, on the La Plata, as far as the Saladillo. The eastern and greater half of the bishopric of Tucuman, and the province of Chaco, are also plains of considerable extent and elevation. The diocese of Char- cas is chiefly rough and mountainous ; while the greater part of the province of Paraguay is a wide and level plain. On the whole this may be denominated a level country. Soil and Agriculture. Near the Spanish settlements, where tl)e pampas have been tilled, they yield excellent corn and various oth- er productions. Elsewhere they are covered with a native grass, which feeds unnumbered millions of wild cattle and horses. Scarcely any islands of wood are found in the whole extent. The province of Tuyu, except the narrow border near the coast already mentioned, has a soil of clay, and is productive. The grass is high and flourishing. In the province of Buenos Ayres, along the La Plata, the soil is a rich, sandy loam, yielding maize and wheat, with- out manure. This is true of the country around Monte Video. Al- most all the interior country is also fertile, and susceptible of high cultivation, except the deserts among the mountains. These are chiefly found in the diocese of Charcas. Agriculture has there been greatly neglected ; the mines having long been the chief ob- ject of attention. Rivers. The La Plata opens into the ocean, between cape St. Anthony on the S and cape Santa Maria on the N. These capes are 150 miles apart. Its average breadth for about 70 miles, is 120 miles. A little below Monte Video it narrows suddenly, be- tween point Carretas on the N. and point Piedras on the S. ; and at that city is only 80 miles broad. Thence to Buenos Ayres, 180 miles from its mouth, it gradually narrows, and is theie only 30 miles across. It retains this width about 20 miles further to the mouth of the Uruguay. The Paraguay, the main stream of the La Plata, has heretofore been described. The Cuyaba, its princi- pal tributary from the E. rises in the Brazilian cordillera. The Pilcomayo, or River of S/iarroivs, is th.e largest western branch of the Para{i;uay. It rises in the western cordillera, and re- ceiving from the N. W. the Araguay, which passes between Po- tosi and La Plata, runs N. of E. through the mountainous country, ^nd into the plains of Chaco, about 600 miles. Here bending south- TioO BUENOS AYRES. ward, it runs S. E. upwards of 450, falling into the Paraguay, by g nioutiis, more than 50 miles apart. The Verniejo, or Red river, rises in Tarija, a mountainous dis- trict, to the S. of Potosi. In length and size it is not greatly it\fe- lior to the Pilcomayo. Its current is very gentle, and the ascent, by the aid of regular southern breezes, is as easy as its descent. Few rivers are equally navigable. The Parana descends from the mountains of Brazil. Its main stream, the Rio Grande, heads in the mountainous region of Mi- ■neea Gtraes, and running N. of W. a great distance, is enriched by the waters of the Paraniaba, a large stream from the same moun- tains. Here the Parana turns to the S. W. and soon after to the S. by W. a course, which it continues as far as Trinidad. Its di- rection is thence W. upwards of 200 miles, to Corrientes. Its length and size are little inferior to those of the Paraguay. The Iguazu, a short but rapid stream, from the E. falls into the Parana in lat. 25 30. The Salado, or Salt river, is the largest tributary of the La Plata, from the W. It rises in the mountains of Tucuman, and runs a southeasterly course of 850 or 900 miles, emptying its waters at nSanta Fe, in lat- 3i 40. The Uruguay rises in the eastern part of Brazil. Its course is S. W. and S. and its length not less than 1200 miles. The quick accumulation of the waters from the mountain torrents renders it extremely rapid ; and when it leaves the hilly country, it attains so great a breadth, 690 miles from its mouth, that a ten oared boat requires half an hour to cross it, though it runs there with a mod- erate current. On the whole it is a rocky and turbulent stream of difficult navigation. It abounds in fish, and the country through which it passes, is romantic, beautiful, and fertile. The Mamor, or Rio Grande, and the Magdalena, both rise on the N. side of the mountains of Chiquitos. in the extensive province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and running N. W. a long distance through the valley of the Amazon, at length unite and form the Madeira, the great southern arm of the Amazon, and the largest tributary stream on the globe. Lakcd. Lake Titicaca lies between the two cordilleras of the Andes, in the N. W. part of the viceroyalty. Its figure is irregu- lar, but inclining to oval, and its longest diameter is from S. E. to N. W. It is about 240 miles in circuit, and in some places from 70 to SO fathoms deep. It is navigated by ships, but is subject to storms and tremendous gusts of wind, descending from the ^nountains. The Desaguadero, or Drain of Titicaca, runs out of the lake, and tenninates in the lake of Paria. Over the drain still remains the bridge of rushes, from 80 to 100 yards long, which Capac Yu- panqui, the fifth inca, constructed for the transportation of liis ar- my, in order to subdue the provinces of Coilasuyo. The lake of Paria is of considerable size, and has no visible oitH let ; it abounds with eddies, and whirlpools. CHILI. SM The lake of Tberi, or Caracavas, lies between 28° and 30° S. lat. E. of the La Plata, and S. of the Parana. It is of an irregular fig- ure, upwards of 100 miles in length, and 40 in bteadth. Mountains. The Andes skirt the viceroyalty on the W. and have heretofore been described. In the province of Charcas, nu- merous smaller ridges lie E. of the principal chain, forming suc- cessive stops to the plains below. The chain of mountains, called by Humbolt, the c/iain of Chi' guitos, parts from the Andes about the latitude of 19° S. ; and pur- sues, for a great distance, an eastward course, a little N. ol Potosi, and La Plata. Mineralogy. The following table of the mines of every descrip- tion, in actual operation in this viceroyalty, is taken from Wilcockc, •who obtained it from Helms : Mines of Gold. Silver. Copper. Tin. Lead. Total. 30 2r 7 2 7 73 These are scattered through 24 mining districts. The mines of Porco were those from Wsich the Pciuviaiis drew most of the silver, which embellished their palaces and temples. That of Potosi, the richest that ever was known, ex- are not a distinct race, as others in the same family do not exceed six-feet. J60 AMERICAN ISLANDS. AMERICAN ISLANDS. IN the progress of our work we have had occasion to give an account of the islands connected with the Western Continent, ex- cept the Bermudas, the Falkland islands, Terra del Fuego, and Southern Georgia. BERMUDAS, OR SOMERS' ISLANDS. These are a cluster of small and rocky islands forming the figure of a shepherd's crook, about 400 in number. They lie in the At- lantic, in lat. 32 20 N. and Ion. 64 30 W. about 200 leagues E. of Carolina. The great body of them are mere islets and rocks, of too little consequence to have received a name. The group derived its first name from John Bermudas, a Span- iard, who discovered it in 1527 ; ancl their second from sir George Somers, who was shipwrecked on the rocks in his passage to Vir- ginia, in 1609, and lived there 9 months. By a mistake in the sound of this latter name they have often been called Summer isl- ands. By the third charter of Virginia, granted in 1612, all islands v;ithin 300 leagues of the coast were annexed to that province. The Virginia company sold them lo 120 of its own members, who sent out, the same year, a colony of 60 persons, and another of 540, in 1613. The religion is that of the church of England. There are 9 Episcopal churches, under the care of 3 clergymen, and I Presby- terian church. Tlie government is vested in a governor, and a council, appointed by the crown ; and in a house of assembly, chos- on by the people. The number of whites, in 1624, was about 3000. Edwards states the population at 5462 whites and 4919 blacks, to- tal 10,381. St. George's, the capital, in the island of the same name, con- tains about 500 houses. The islands contain from 12,000 to 15,000 acres of very poor land, of which 9 parts in 10 are either uncultivated or reserved in woods for a supply of timber towards building small ships, sloops, and shallops for sale, this being one principal occupation of the in- habitants. The vessels which they furnish, being built of cedar, arc light, buoyant, and unexpensive. Maize and vegetables were alone cultivated, till 1785, when cotton was introduced. About 200 acres are now devoted to its culture. TERRA DEL FUEGO. Ttrra del Fuego, or the land of, /ire, is a name given to a large island, discovered in 1520, which is separated from the southern extremity of the American continent by the straits of Magellan. These straits are about 350 miles in length, and in some places sev- eral leagues over, and in others not half a league. In these straits AMERICAN ISLANDS. S6! there ate many safe harbors and hirge bays, with narrow entrances, encompassed with high mountains, sheltering them from every wind. The face of the country in the island is rcpi'esented as dreary and inhospitable. The inhabitants are said to be naturally as fair aS Europeans. They are of a middle stature, have broad, flat faces, high cheek bones, and fiat noses. Tliose on the S. side are said to be uncivilized, treacherous, and barbarous ; those on the N. are simple, affable, and harmless. They cover their bodies in winter with the skins of wild animals. Their tents are made of poles, disposed in a conical form, and covered wUh skins or the bark of trees. An island lying E. of Terra del Fuego, and called Staten- lancl, 12 leagues in length and 5 in breadth, bgirr en and desolate, has on it a small setilement of English. FALKLAND ISLANDS. These consist of two large islands, with a great number of small ones surrounding them, and lie between lat. 31 6 and 52 3u S. and between Ion. 56 30 and 62 16 W. They were discovered by Da- vis, in 1592. In 1764, commodore Byron v.-as despatched by the British government to take possession of them and plant a colony at a place called Fort Egmoiit. They consist chiefly of mountains and bogs, have an inhospitable climate, and can never be of any value unless as a watering place for ships bound to the Pacific ocean. SOUTHERN GEORGIA» This island lies in lat. 54 30 S. and Ion. 37'^ W. and is about 100 miles long and from 3 to 15 broad. It is a dismal region, abound- ing in bays and harbors, and, a great part of the year covered with ice. This island, or rather cluster of islands, was discovered by a Frenchman, and afterwards surveyed by capt. Cook, who found here abundance of sea elephants and sea bears or fur seals. For some years after, the English visited these islands for the purpose of tak- ing these elephants for their oil, from 3000 to 4000 tons of which, they have annually procured, and at some seasons sold for 40/. ster- ling a ton. At the same time they caugiit from 100,000 to 200,000 seals, whose skins sold from 1 to 2 dollars each. The Americans^ chiefly from New-England, about tiie year 1800, perhaps a little earlier, visited these islands with 9 vessels, and the first year caught not less than 151,000 seals. This cluster of islands consists of high peaks, rising above the clouds, in the form of sugar loaves. It is barren of all vegetable productions.* GALLAPAGOS. These lie in the Pacific ocean, between lat. 3° N. and 4° S. and between Ion. 83 40 and 89 30 W. They are very numerous. Only 9 are of any considerable size. Some of these are 7 or 8 leagues long and 3 or 4 broad. They are well wooded and abound in fine turtles. • Drigg's MS. 46 3-6;! EASTERN CONTINENT, THE EASTERN CONTINENT. EMBRACING EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFRICA, WITH THEIR ADJAl- CENT ISLANDS. Rxtent. THE length of the Eastern Continent, from Nortb Gape, in lat. 71 10 N. to Cape L'Aguillas,* 106° of latitude, ou 7335 English miles. Its breadth, from East Cape to the western ooast of Norway, is 173° of longitude ; which in the parallel 67°, is 4696 miles. In lat. 38 N. from the Rock of Lisbon, in Ion 9 35 W. to the eastern coast of Corea, is 1 38° 35', or 7557 miles. Cape Verd, the western extremity of Africa, is in Ion. 17 31 W. ; and I-'.ast Cape, the remotest limit of Asia, is in 190° E. Cape Taim- our, on the northern coast of Asia, is in lat. 77° N. ; and Cape L'Aguillas, the southernmost point of Africa, is in lat. 34 50 S. The number of square miles on this continent is usually calculat- ed at 22,600,000. If the islands belonging to it be added, together with those of Australasia and Polynesia, it may probably amount to 28,000,000. Boundaries. The Frozen Ocean bounds this continent on the N. ; the Pacific and Indian on the E. ; the Indian and Southern on the S. ; and the Atlantic on the W. Pofudation. From the best data in our possession, we are led to estimate the population of the Eastern Continent, including Aus- tralasia and Polynesia, at 730,000,000, or about 2.6 to a square mile,, viz. Asia 500,000,000 Africa 50,000,000 Europe 180,000,000 Total 730,000,000 iSVas. The TvIeditkhraxean, the largest sea in the world, lies between Spain on the VV. ; France, Italy, Turkey, and Asia Minor on the N. ; Syria on the E. ; and Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco on the S. Its length, from E. to W. is 2000 miles ; its breadth averages about 400, covering a surface of about 800,000 square miles. The Straits of Constantinople, the Thracian Dos- fihorus, unite it with the Euxine or Black Sea. The Euxine is bounded by Turkey and Russia W. ; by Russia N. ; by Mingrelia and Georgia E. ; and by Asia Minor S. Its length from E. to W. is 800 miles, and its breadth 400. The large rivers, which fall into the Euxine, are the Danube, Neister, 13og, * Cape L'Aguillas is the most southern point of Africa, being 21' farther south than Gape of Good Hope. (BarrQvi.) 1 EASTERN CONTINENT. 362 and Neiper. The straits of Caffa, the Cimmerian Bosfihorus^ con- nect it on the N. with the Sea of Azof, the Palus Mceotis of an- tiquity. This sea, is 210 miles long, from N. E. to S. W. ; and 130 broad. It is every where shallow, and within 30 years has been fast and unaccountably filling up with sand. The Baltic lies wholly in Europe. It opens the into German Sea by a gulf, pointing N. E. called the Skager Rack ; and after- wards passes S. through what is called the Cattegat^ and farther on through the Sound of Elsineur, the Great Belt, and the Little Belt, straits formed by the Danish Islands ; as far as 53 50 the latitude of Wismar. From the coasts of Jutland and Holstein its direction is eastward, as far as the western coast of Courland. From the northern shores of Prussia it is N. by E. to its northern extremity, in lat. 65 50. Its length from Tornea to Wismar, southward, is about 900 miles, and from Wismar northwestward to the Ocean the breadth is about 450.* Its breadth between Swe- den and Germany, is 75 miles ; between, Sweden and Russia, in many places, more than J50. North of lat. 60, it is called the Gulf of Bothnia. The length of this part is about 420 miles.* Immediately below this latitude the Gulf of Finland opens from the east ; the length of which is about 300 miles, and its breadth 80. t These two gulfs are frozen over for three months every winter. Between Courland and Livonia, also, the Gulf of Riga opens from the S. E. and is about 60 miles long.:}: The greatest depth of this sea is said not to exceed 50 fathoms ; and, according' to repeated observations made in Sv»'cden, is steadily decreasing at the of rate 45 inches in a century .f The Red Sea, is the natural boundary between Asia and Afri- ca ; having Arabia on the E. and Egypt and Abyssinia on the W. Its length, from N. N. W. to S. S. E. is about 1 470 miles, and its common breadth 120. The Straits of Babclmandcl connect it with a bay of the Arabian Sea. The Persian Gulf, or Sea of Ormus, lies between Persia oil the N. E. and Arabia on the S. W. It is 700 miles long, and from 70 to 180 broad. It receives, from the N. W. the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris, which unite at Gormo, about 1 00 miles from the sea, and are discharged by a common channel. This se* opens, through the Straits cf Oi'mus, into a bay which sets up from the Arabian Sea. The White Sea is in the north of European Russia. It opens from the S. W. into the Frozen Ocean. It extends from lat. 63 to 69 N.t and is about 500 miles long. Its shores are generally bold and rocky. The Bwina, from the S. E. falls into it at Arch- angel. Bay&t The Bay of Bengal is on the E. side of Hindostan, having Ava and Malaya on the E. The Bay of Okotsk opens into the Pacific Ocean, between Cape Lepatka and the Island of Jesso ; and into the Sea of JapaU; through the Straits of Saghalien. The waters of the Amoor arfi * Arrowjmith's Map. f Tookei \ Malhim. 3S4 EASTERI^ CONTINEIST. ■poured into it from the S. E. The large Russian island of Sagha- lien, or I'clioka, separates it from the Sea of Japan. The Yellow Sea, is merely a bay, setting up between Corca and China, about 400 miles long, and from 100 to 250 broad.* The Hoang-lio lalls into il from the W. The Bay of Biscay is a large arm of the Atlantic, setting up in- to Europe between Spain and France. From the E. it receives the Garonne and the Loii'c. The Gulf of Tonquin lies between China and Cochin-China. Its Icngtl is about 450 miles, and its breadth 250. The Gulf of Oby receives the river of the same name in lat. 67° N. and discharges it into the Frozen Ocean, in lat. 73 SO.f Its direction is from N. N. E. to S. S. W. and its length about 500 miles. Its width no where very great. Sounds. The great mass of water lying between Kamtchatka and Tchulskoi W. America E. and Alaska and the Alcatian isles S. is usually called the Sea of Kamtchatka. China Sea is also an immense sound, lying N. E. and S. W. between Sumatra, Malaya. Cochin-China, Tonquin, and China, on the W. and Borneo, the Philippine Isles, and Formosa on the E. The Sea of Japan, or the C/iaJi7itl of Tartary.) reaches in a No N. E. direction, from 35 to 52 N. The Channtl of Mozambique lies between Madagascar and Af- rica, extending the whole length of the island, 840 miles. In its narrowest part it is about 270 miles across."^ The Geuman Ocean, or North sea, is an extensive sound ; liaving Great Britain, the Orkney and Shetland isles, on the W« and Denmark, Holland, the Netherlands, and France, on the E. It reaches from lat. 51 to 60 17 N. and its length, of course, is 645. miles. The English Channel is a smaller sound, between the S. of England and the N. W. oi France. Its length is 350 miles. The Straits of Dover connect it with the German Ocean. St. George's Channel, between Ireland and Great Britain, is. larger than the preceding. Straits. The Strati 3 of Gif>raltar extend from W. to E. 40 miles, and are the opening from the Mediterranean Sea, into the Atlaritic, between Spain and Morocco. In one place they are only 15 miles wide. The Dakdanelles, the ancient Hellespont., is a long narrow strait, between Asia Minoi' and the shore of Turkey. It is 33 miles, long, and from half a mile to a mile and a half broad. f The Straits of Babelmandel are between the- Red sea and a, bay of the Arabian sea. The Straits of Malacca separate Sumatra from the peninsu- la of Malaya. They may be considered as extending about 150 •miles in length, from N. W. to S. E. The Str aits of Dover, between Dover and Calais, connect the English channel with the German ocean. In the narrowest pan ;hey are 21 miles wide. "* Crutwsl^ f Encyclopjedi:'.* EASTERN CONTINENT. 365 Lakes. The Caspian Sea, between lat. 46 15, r.nd 36 50 is 650 miles long. Its greatest northern breadth is 265 ; while its greatest southern breadth is but 235. Its circumference is 2820 miles, and its area upwards of 56,000. Aral lies about 100 miles east of the Caspian. It is about 200 miles long from N. to S. and about 70 broad. Baikal in Siberia extends from lat. 51 to above 55. It is up- wards of 400 miles long, from N. E. to S. W. and from 20 to 50 P:iiies broad ; and is surrounded almost entirely v.ith high and generally bald mountains. The Ladoga, in European Russia, flows through the Neva into the gulf of Finland. It is tlie largest lake of Europe, being 140 miles long and 80 broad. Onega Lake, between the Ladoga and the White sea, is about 150 miles long, and from 40 to 60 broad. It has several islands, consisting of marble. Rivers. The Hoang-ho.^ or Yellow river, in China, rises in Tar^ tary and is lost in the Yellow sea. Its exact length is not knov/n. According to Arrowsmith it cannot be less than 3600 miles. The KiAN-KU rises near the source of the Hoang-ho. Ai'tci' washing the walls of Nankin, it enters the sea about 100 miles S. of the Hoang-ho. It is a singular fact that these immense rivers rising in the same mountains, and passing almost close to each other in a particular spot, should afterwards separate to the dis- tance of 15 deg. or 1050 miles, and finally discharge themselves into the same sea, within the small distance of 100 miles. The Lena takes its course, though very winding, generally E. N. E. to Yakutsk, and nearly nortii thence to its discharge into the Frozen Ocean, in lat. 71 30 N. 127 E. The whole length of this river is about 3450 miles. The Yenisea is formed by the union of the Sisklt and the Tun- guska. Its course is nearly N. to lat. 70, where it forn,s a lon^ narrow bay, the bay of Yenisea, through whose mouth, in lat. 73 so N. it enters the Frozen Ocean. Its width, at Yenscisk, is nearly a mile. The length of this river docs not probably fall much short of that of the Lena. The Oby, in lat. 67 N. and Ion. G9 E. empties into the o-,i]f of Oby, which unites it with tlie Frozen Ocean in lat. 73 .)0 N. and Ion. 73 E. Its lei,igth to the head of the gulf, is about 2400 miles and thence to the ocean, 500. It is the largest river in the Russian empire. The Nile has two principal sources. The eastern rises in Geesh in Abyssinia, in lat. 10 59 25 N. and Ion. 36 55 30 E. In about lat 15 45 it receives the great western branch. This branch according to Rennel, rises in about lat. 7 N. and Ion. 25 E. among the Mountains of the Moon. This is said by Bruce to be three times as large as the eastern branch, and is now, with great reason, believed to be the same with the Niger. If so, the stream, which rises in lat. 7 N. and Ion. 25 E. somewhere in the desert, flows into the Niger, and is merely one of its tributaries. The Nile, thus enlarged, runs N. E. and in about lat. 17 50 receiver the Athara a r,65 EASTERN CONTINENT. large lilbiitray, from ihc E. rising near the lake Dembea. Thencej after running 140 miles due N. it makes its great western bend, and at Moscho, in lat. 21, flows in Ion. 3u 40 E. In lat. 22 15 it meets with a chain of mountains and throws itself down the cata- ract of Janadil ; soon after it tunis to the N. E. and at Syene in lat. 24 45 N. runs in Ion. 33 30. Hence its course is N. W. and N- to tlie Delta in lat. 30, where it divides into two great arms. The western meets the sea 4 miles below Rosetta in lat. 31 28 N. Ion, 30 45 E. ; the eastern in lat. 31 30 N. Ion. 31 53 E. The length of the river from Geesh to the Mediterranean is prob- ably not less than 2500 miles ; but the quantity of water which it empties into the sea is small compared witli that of many shorter rivers ; the greater part of it being probably absorbed in the sands of Nubia. The Niger flows from the foot of the western branch of the Jibbel Kunira, or Mountains of the Moon, where it forms a lake or SAvamp ; and on the west side of the same mountain is another swamp, which is the source of the Senegal, a river flowing west- ward into the Atlantic. The Niger pursues an easterly direction, and, in its whole course through Soudan, has towns and villages scattered at little intervals along its banks. About 15 days jour- ney E. of Timbuctoo, it enters the lake or sea of Soudan, a very large lake, though its extent is not precisely known. After leav- ing this lake it pursues its original course, and either is lost in the sands, or in a lake still farther east, or it is, as both the Arabs and negroes afiivm, the great western branch of the Nile of Egypt. There is but one opinion on this point in Morocco and at Timbuc- too, and the Nile el Abeede and the Nile Massar are constantly spoken of as branches of the same stream. In 1780, Mr. Jackson was informed by a very intelligent man, who had an establishment at Timbuctoo, that an expedition proceeded from a place called Jinnie, lying above that city on the Niger, to Cairo, a voyage of 14 months. They reported that there were 1200 cities and towns, with mosques, or towers in them, between Timbuctoo and Cairo, built on or near the banks of the river. They returned Avith the west- ern caravan to Morocco ; and there joining the southern, reached Jinnie after an absence of 3 years and 2 months. Parke first came upon the Niger in 5 30 "VV. where it was as large as the Thames at Westminister. It may therefore be considered as rising in Ion. 6 30 W. The v.estern branch of the Nile, the Bahar el Abiad, tmites with the eastern in Ion. 32 45 E. of Greenwich, or 39 51 of Ion. from the source of the Niger, which in lat. 12 is in a straight line 2650 miles, and, allowing for windings and difference of lati- tude, at least 3000. Ifthe Nile and Niger are, according to the Arabian account, one river, its whole length is not probably less than 4700 miles. The WoLGA, or Volga, is the great river of Europe, formed of several streams, which unite in lat. 56 40 N. Ion. 33 34 E. Its course is S. E. to Zobtzov, then N. E. to Mologa, then S. E. to Kazan, ^nd then somewhat W. of S. to Tzaritzin, whence it pur- fiiies a S. E. course, to the Caspian, which it enters by 70 mouths. EASTERN CONTINENT. 3-67 Its length, is 3200 miles. It begins to be navigable at Tver in lat. 56 50 N. Ion. 36 16 E. ; and is every -where free from cat- aracts. The Amoor rises among the Kentaihem mountains, in about lat. 49° N. and 110° E. in about lat. 52, it receives the Neiza. Ic empties into the sea of Ochotsk, in about 52 30 N. opposite the island of Saghalien. It is well stocked with fish ; and the forests on its banks consist of oak, walnut, birch, and different sorts ot" pines. The soil is very rich, and the climate mild and healthful. The length of the Amoor is probably over 2000 miles.* The Ganges is formed by two branches from mountains in Thibet, which, at the great ridge of mount Himmaleh, unite their waters. The united stream, after coasting this rids^e of mountains about 100 miles, forces its way through it, in lat. 33°, by a vast cav- ern worn in the rock, called the Cow's motith^ and falls into an im- mense rocky bason below. At Hurdwar it leaves tlie mountain- ous tract, after having wandered in it 800 miles, and enters Hin- dostan. In this country its course is S. and S. E. ; till, after pass- ing Benares and Patna, and receiving many large tributaries, it divides at Moorshedabad into two branches. The largest, the Meg- na, continues the direction of the main river ; and at Luckpoor, join- ing the Burrampooter, forms with it a common estuary at the head of the bay of Bengal. The western branch, called the Hoogley^ passes by Calcutta, and runs S. W. to the same bay. Both branches divide into many smaller ones, and almost the whole Delta of the Ganges is a mere marsh, capable of being inhabited only by tigers and alligators. The Hoogley is far the m^ost important branch to the interests of navigation. The length of the Ganges is about 2000 railcs, and the quantity of its waters much greater than its length would indicate. In the mouths of this river, the Bore^ or sudden influx of the tide, rises in both branches to the height of from 5 to 12 feetf in 2 or 3 minutes. Its approach may be heard many miles off, and it sounds like the roaring of the ocean on a surfy beach. It oversets the largest boats, and annually destroys multitudes of lives. The BuKRAMPooTER issues from the opposite side of the samc- ridge of mountains with the Ganges. It separates from it east- ward more than 1200 niijes ; and, after running S. W. throuo-ls Assam, enters the British territory, and runs S. 400 miles to Luck- poor. The Burrampooter, in its length, is thought to equal or surpass the Ganges, and is its noblest tributary. The Danube rises in Swaliia, in about lat. 42 40 N. and lon. 8 30 E. It passes through Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria, Walachia and Moldavia, and enters the Black sea bv various mouths, between lat. 44 55 and 45 30 N. ; 25 miles below Kmail. Its length is about 1500 miles. It receives in its course more than 60 rivers, and begins to be navigable a little above Ulra, a long distance from its mouth. In Hungary, it is so broad, that in tlie wars between the Turks and Christians, ships of war were • Sauer. f Remiell,258/ SS8 EASTERN CONTINENT. engaged upon it ; and its conveniency for carriage to all the dourta tries through which it passes is inestimable. Its streams is rapid, and is broken, by many cataracts and whirlpools. Mountains. The mountains of this continent do not equal those of the western in thcii' height or the length of their ranges. Most of the high mountains also are separate summits. Those of Eu- rope far surpass in height any that are known in the ranges of Asia. Altai. The Altaian chain, in length, is undoubtedly the second on the globe ; reaching from about 70° E. Ion. to the extreme boun- daries of Asia, or about 5000 miles. Ural. These mountains form a natural boundary between Eu- rope and Asia. The range commences between the Caspian and the Aral ; attains its greatest height about the sources of the Ural, the Emba, and the Tobol ; thence stretches farther north and turns the waters of the Isetz and the Sosva eastward, and those of the Petshora northwestward ; and lastly forms two lofty promontories about the Karian sea. The length of this range, from its southern extremity to the straits of Weygat, is between 1800 and 2000 miles. The whole range is very rich in minerals. Atlas. The range of Mount Atlas, commences near the At- lantic, in the southwestern part of Morocco, and at first pursues a N. E. course separating that kingdom from Bled el Jerrcde. In lat. 33 N. it bends more to the east, and passes between the Iat-» ter country on the south, and Algiers and Tunis on the north.' Here it is said to terminate. Mountains of the Moon. The range commences in the western part of Airica. Its coast is eastward, dividing the exten->- sive country of Soudan (the southern boundary of Sahara or the Great Desert) from Guinea ; and, pursuing its way through many unknown regions, crosses Africa, and is found again in lat. 7 N. at the sources of the Nile, in the southern part of Abyssinia. Its length is supposed about 2750 miles. Deserts. Sahara. This immense ocean of sand reaches from the Atlantic to the confines of Egypt, Sennaar, and Abyssinia, a space of about 3400 miles, by a breadth of 830 miles. It is a pro- digious expanse of red-sand and sand-stone rock, defying every exertion of human power and industry ; but it is interspersed with various islands, or cultivated and inhabited spots of different sizes, called Oa&es, of which Fczzan, lying south of Tripoli, is the large- est that has been explored. These Oases serve as resting and watering places for the jikabaahs (accumulated caravans) in their journeys over the desert. At each of them they commonly faalt about seven days. In the intermediate stages the shame or hot ■winds of the desert are often so violent, as to exhale the water car- ried in skins on the backs of camels. Tliese shu?ne blow across the v/hole desert, and often reach many miles over the Atlantic. They are accompanied by a cloud of dust ; and drift the loose sand along the plains, which attaches to every fixed object in its course, and soon buries it. The intense heat of the sun, aided by the tehement and parching wind, thus driving the sand before it, gives EUROPE. 369 the desert the appearance of a sea, the drifting sands resembling exactly the waves of the ocean, and hence aptly denominated by the Arabs a sea without water. The Asiatic plains are less desert than those of Africa. Those in the north of Asia are called Ste/ifis. Gobi. Destitute of plants and water it is dangerous for horses ; but is safely passed with camels. According to Danville, it reaches from about 80 to 110 E. lou. being 30 deg. which, in lat. 40, is about 1600 miles. Stepp of Siberia. This immense plain, extends from the Ko- lyma on tlie E. to the Oby on the W. and from the Frozen Ocean on the N. to the Tshulim, the Tunguska and the eastward course of the Lena, on the S. Arrangement. After this general sketch of the prominent fea- tures of the Eastern Continent, we shall proceed to a particular account of Europe, Asia, and Africa under their respective civil divisions. Europe, the smallest in extent, and the second in population ; but t!ie first in civilization, arts, and arms, is entitled to the earliest consideration. Its divisions will be arranged in geographical order. Asia, twice the cradle of mankind, and containing more than twice the population of the rest of the world ; but sunk in igno- rance, idolatry, and supineness, and more than half its territory sub- jugated by Europe ; is still the seat of several powerful empires, of extensive manufactures, and of a valuable passive commerce. In relative importance it undoubtedly claims the second place. In connection with Asia and its islands, we shall describe the large islands generally included under the name of Austral-Asia, and lying S. E. of the Indian ocean ; and the numerous clusters of islands scattered over the Pacific, which have obtained the name of Polynesia. Africa, enriched by robbery and piracy in the north, and long sunk to the lowt- st grade of ignorance and barbarism in the interi- or and the south, is now rishig in the scale of civilization and im- provement, in consequence of the Hoble, pious, and benevolent ex- ertions made for the purpose by the liritish nation. The heat of its climate, its immense deserts, and its want of inland seas, and navigable rivers, subject it to peculiar disadvantages in respect to civilization and commerce. The little which is known respecting this part of the globe will close our undertaking. EUROPE, Extejit. FROM the Rock of Lisbon, in loo. 9 35 30, W. to the Uralian mountains in the east, the length is about 3300 nsiles ; and the breadth from the North Cape in Danish Lapland, in lat. 71 10 N. to cape Matapar, the southern extremity of Greece, in 47 EUI^OPE. 369 the desert the appearance of a sea, the drifting sands resembling exactly the waves of the ocean, and hence aptly denominated by the Arabs a sea without water. The Asiatic plains are less desert than those of Africa. Those in the north of Asia are called Ste/tfis. CoBi. Destitute of plants and water it is dang^erous for horses ; but is safely passed with camtls. According to Danville, it reaches from about 80 to 110 E. lou. being 30 deg. which, in lat. 40, is about 1600 miles. Stepp of Siberia. This immense plain, extends from the Ko- lyma on tlie E. to the Oby on the W. and from the Frozen Ocean on the N. to the Tshulim, the Tunguska and the eastward course of the Lena, oj» the S. Arrangement. After this general sketch of the prominent fea- tures of the Eastern Continent, we shall proceed to a particular account of Europe, Asia, and Africa under their respective civil divisions. Europe, the smallest in extent, and the second In population ; but t!ie first in civilization, arts, and arms, is entitled to the earliest consideration. Its divisions will be arranged in geographical order. Asia, twice the cradle of mankind, and containing more than twice the population of the rest of the world ; but sunk in igno- rance, idolatry, and supineness, and more than half its territory sub- jugated by Europe ; is still the seat of several powerful empiresj of extensive manufactures, and of a valuable passive commerce. In relative importance it undoubtedly claims the second place. In connection with Asia and its islands, we shall describe the lai'ge islands generally included under the name of Austral-Asia, and lying S. E. of the Indian ocean ; and the numerous clusters of islands scattered over the Pacific, which have obtained the name of Polynesia. Africa, enriched by robbery and piracy in the north, and long sunk to the lowest grade of ignorance and barbarism in the interi- or and the south, is now rising in the scale of civilization and im- provement, in consequence of the Hoble, pious, and benevolent ex- ertions made for the purpose by the British nation. The heat of* its climate, its immense deserts, and its want of inland seas, and navigable rivers, subject it to peculiar disadvantages in respect to civilization and commerce. The little which is known respecting this part of the globe will close our undertaking. EUROPE, Extent. FROM the Rock of Lisbon, in loo. 9 r^s GO, W. to the Uralian mountains in the east, the length is about 3300 nsiles ; and the breadth from the North Cape in Danish Lapland, in lat. 71 10 N. to cape Matapar, the southern extremity of Greece, in 47 270 BRITISH EMPIRE. 36 33, is about 2350. The contents in square miles have been* calculated at about 2,600,000.* Boundaries. On tlie north, the boundary is the Arctic ocean. It has Asia on the east, the Mediterranean south, and the Atlantic ocean west. Rdigion. The Christian religion prevails throughout Europe, except in Turkey, where however at least two thirds of the inhab- itants are attached to the Greek church. Wherever the Christian faith has penetrated, knowledge, ijiclustry, and civilization have fol- lowed. The three great divisions are Catholics, Protestants, and the Greek church. Hassel states the whole population of Europe at 180,000,000. Of these the Catholics compose, accordnu^- to the best of our information, about 9O,00C),00O. They are found princi- pally in Southern Europe ; in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Southern Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. There are also about 3,000,000 in Ireland. The number of Protestants is about 49,000,000. They inhabit Great-Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Prus- sia, Northern Germany, and Holland ; and are found in considera- ble numbers in Ireland, Switzerland, and the Austrian empire. The Christians of the Greek church, in Europe, are about 38,000,000 in number. They compose the population of Russia, and two thirds of that of Turkey. The remaining 3,000,000 are Mahome- tan Turks. Climate. Europe is chiefly situated in the temperate zone. Freedom from the excessive heats of Asia and Africa has contrib- uted to the vigor of the frame, and the energy of the mind. Governments. The kingdoms and states of Europe may be con- sidered, 1. As despotic monarchies, as those of Russia, Turkey, and France : 2. Absolute monarchies, as Austria, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, &c. : or, 3. Limited monarchies, as the kingdom of Great- Britain. Since the fall of Venice, and the subversion of Switzer- land and Holland, scarcely an example occurs of permanent and fixed aristocracy, or the hereditary government of nobles. And not a republic is novt^ to be found throughout Europe. BRITISH EMPIRE, 1. In Europe. England Scilly Isles Wales Guernsey Scotland Jersey Ireland Alderney Shetland Isles Sark Oikney Isles Heligoland Hebrides Gibraltar Isle of Man Malta Angle sea * Hassel says S,S87,019. ENGLAND. .371 2. In ^Presidency of Calcutta ■Presidency of Madras Presidency ot Bombay Northern Hindostan Jiritisli Ceylon Cape of Good Hope Jsic of Helena James's Island Annabon 3. In Africa, British Sumatra Amboyua British New-Holland Norfolk Island Java Island Sierra Leona Madfiias Isle of Bourbon Isle of France 4, In North-America. Labrador Nova- Scotia Nevv-North-Wales Cape Breton Island New-South-Wales St. Jolin's Island Newfoundland Island Anlicusti Island Lower-Canada Bermuda islands Upper-Canada Nootka Sound New-Biunswick Bahamas Jamaica St. Thomas Tortola Anegada St. Martinis Santa Cruz Saba St. Eustatia St. Christopher's Anguilla Barbuda Antigua Nevis 5. In the JVeat-Indies. Montserrat Deseada M'U'igalante Dominico Marlinico St Lucia St. Vincent Barbadoes Grenada The Grenadines Tobago Trinidad Bonair Cura^oa British Guiana 6. In South'America. Cayenne ENGLAND. JVames. The name of Anglia or England originated from the Angles, a nation who settled in the northern parts in the Hfth cen- tury. Extent. The island of Great-Britain extends from 50° to 58'' N. lat. 588 miles in length. Its greatest breadth, from the Land'. End to the North -Foreland in Kent, is 37U miles. Its extent in square miles is 77,243. 372 ENGLAND. England is bounded E. by the German Ocean ; S. by the English Channel ; W. by St. George's Channel ; N. by Scotland. The ex-? tent of England and Wales in square miles is computed at 49,450^ and the population being estimated at 8,400,000, the number of in- habitants to a square mile will of course be 169. Divisions. England is divided into 40 counties, and the princi- pality~ of Wales into 12 ; total in South Britain 52 ; of which the following is a list, together with their respective number of inhab- itants, and chief towns. Nuniber of Inhabitants acco i-dine to the la te Chief Towns. enumeration. (1801.) 'Northumberland 157,101 Newcastle Cumberland 117,230 Carlisle Six northern counties Durham 160,361 Durham Yorkshire 563,953 York I Westmoreland 41,617 Appleby [^Lancashire 672,731 Lancaster 'Cheshire Shropshire 191,751 Chester Four bordering 167,639 Shrewsbury on Wales '\ Herefordshire 89,191 Hereford ^Monmouthshire 45,582 Monmouth ■ 'Nottinghamshire 140,353 Nottingham Derbyshire 161,142 Derby Staffordshire 239,158 Stafford Leicestershire 130,081 Leicester Rutlandshire 16,356 Okeham Twelve Midland < Northamptonshire Warwickshire 131,757 208. ISO Northampton W^arwick Worcestershire 139,333 Worcester Gloucestershire 250,809 Gloucester Oxfordshire 109,620 Oxford Buckinghamshire 107,444 Aylesbury Bedfordshire 63,393 Bedford ^Lincolnshire 208,557 Lincoln Huntingdonshire 37,568 Huntingdon Cambridgeshire 89,346 Cambridge Norfolk 273,371 Norwich l^ight eastern <; Suffolk 210.431 Ipsvv'ich Essex 226,437 Chelmsford Hertfordshire 97,577 Hei tford ^Middlesex 535,329* London ■yhree south- " Surry Kent 269,043 307.624 Guilford Maidstone eastci-n ^ Sussex 159,311 Lewes 'Berkshire 109,215 Reading fonx southern < Wiltshire 185,107 Salisbury Hampshire 219,656 W^inchestei ^Dorsetshire 115,319 Dorchestei * Ezdusive of the capitaK ENGLAND. 373 Number of Inliabitant» accordiiiS' to the late Chief Towns, enumeration. (1801.) Three south- (-Somersetshire 273,750 Taunton < Devonshire western J ., ,, (^ Cornwall Flintshire 343,001 Exeter 188,269 Launceston 39,622 Flint 60,332 Denbigh 41,521 Caernarvon 33,806 Beauniiiris 29,506 Bala 47,978 Monts^omery 19,050 Presteign 42,956 Cuidigan 56,i80 Peuibioke 67,317 Caerniarthen o3,633 Brecknock 71,525 Caerdiff Denbighshire •:■• XT .1. XTT 1 J Caernarvonshire bix, North Wales <; j^^^^^^,^ I Merionethshire i^Montgomeryshire f Radnorshire I Cardigansliire o- c ,1 fXT 1 J Pembrokeshire bix, South Wales < ,, ,, , • ' 1 Caermarthenshu'e j Brecknockshire (_G lamorganshire Historical epochs. 1. The population of England by the Celts. 2. The Bclgic colonies, who introduced agriculttne. 3. Tlie Roman conquest. Britain was only seen by Julius CcE- sar. The Roman conquest began in the reign of Claudius, and in that of Domitian the Roman eagle had been displayed as far as the Grampian mountanis. 4. The arrival of the Saxons and Angles in the fifth century. 5. The Danish conquest A. D. 1016. The Danish monarchsof England v/ere Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute ; but the sceptre returned to the Saxon line A. D. 1042. 6. The Norman conquest, A D. i066. 7. The great charter granted by Jolin at Runnymede. 8. Not to mention the conquest of Wales and the temporary sub- jugation ef Scotland, the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster may be regarded as the next memorable epoch. 9. The reformation introduced by Edward VI. and Eliaabeth. 10. The civil wars under Charles I. 11. The Revolution. 12. The war with the American colonics forms not only an epoch of singular novelty, but of the most important consequences. Religion. The king is siiprcvie head of the national church. Next in dignity and power are the archbisliops of Canterbury and York • the first being styled Primate of all lingland ; and the second Pri- mate of England. Next to these are tlie bishops ; of whom all, ex- cept the bishop of Sodor and Man, are members of the house of lords. The bishop of London, as presiding over the capital, has the precedence of all the others. The bishop of Durham is second, and the bishop of Winchester the third in dignity. These tliree bish- ops precede all the rest, who take place according to the seniority of consecration. To every cathedral in England belong several prebendaries as canons, and a dean. The dean and chapter of prebendaries assist the bishop in ecclesiastic affairs. The next order is that of the archdeacons^ amounting in all to 374 ENGLAND. about sixty ; their office is to inspect the moveables of the church- es, to reform slight abuses, and to induct into benefices. Of the Clergy in general, the lowest order is that of deacons, whose office is restricted to baptism, to reading in the church, and assisting the priest at the communion by handing the cup only. The curate is a clergyman appointed to officiate for another, and is so named from his having the ciwe oj' souls. The church-ivardens superintend the repairs and decorations of the church, and the re- quisites for divine service, and collect the alms of the parishioners. Those who differ in tenets or forms from the established church may, in general, be styled Dissenters, though the term be more strictly applied to the Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Inde- pendents. The other principal classes of the dissidents are the Papists, Methodists, Quakers, the Anabaptists, the Swedenborgians, and the Unitarians j the last class, denying the Trinity, is now in- termingled with the twQ first, and in considerable numbers with the established church. The Methodists are numerous and respectable. Their numbers in Great-Britain and Ireland, in July, 1809, amounted to 157,921. In the other British dominions they amounted to 1,121. These added to the Methodists of the United States, 159,500 in number, makes a total of 331,082 Methodists then on the globe. Government. The English constitution is a limited monarchy, counterpoised by two senates, one of hereditary peers, the other of representatives chosen by the people. The king of England at his coronation solemnly swears to gov- ern his people accoiding to parliamentary statutes, and the law of thecou'.jtiy; to maintain the Protestant religion ; and to preserve the legal rights and privileges of the bishops, clergy, and church. His acknowledged prerogatives are chiefly to declare war and to make peace, a power upon which the whole of public prosperi- ty may be said to depend ; to form alliances and treaties ; to grant commission for levying men and ariTis ; and even for pressing mariners. His prerogative likewise extends to the assembling, adjournment, prorogation, and dissolution of parliament, and to its removal to any place. He also enjoys the nomination of all officers on sea or land ; of all niagistrates, counsellors, and officers of state ; of all bishops and other great ecclesiastical dignitaries ; and is not only the foimiain of honor but of justice, as he may pardon j.ny offence, or mitigate the penalty. As the head of the church he may call a national or provincial synod, and with its consent enact canons either relating to faith or practice. He cannot enact new laws or impose new taxes without the consent of both houses of parliament. The grand national council claims the next consideration. The House of Lords consists of the sjiirilual and temjioral peers. The former are the bi-^h' ps. The latter are hereditary senators in their several degrees of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron. The House oy Commons consists of knights, citizens, and bur- gesses, chosen by couriUts, cities, and burghs, in consequence oi voval writs directed to the sheriff. ENGLAND. The Privy Council is chiefly employed in deliberation on affairs of sudden emergence, on peace and war, and special provinces of the royal prerogative. The members are chosen by the king. Judicature. The judicature of England is w^ortliy of the high- est applause with regard to precision and purity. The trial by ju- ry is another admirable feature of English jurisprudence, handed down from the Saxon times, and is justly respected as the very safeguard of the lives, liberties, and properties of the nation. Among the courts of law the next in dignity to the House of Lords is the Court of King's Bench so called, because the sove- reign was understood to judge in person ; and its jurisdiction of course extends to the whole kingdom, the presiding judge being denominated Lord Chief Justice of England. The Court of Chan- cery judges causes in equity to moderate the rigor of the law, and. defend the helpless from oppression, and especially to extend re- lief in three cases, accident, fraud, and breach of trust. The Court of Common Pleas determines, as the name imports, the common suits between subject and subject, and tries all civil causes, real, personal, or mingled, according to the precise precepts of the law. The Court of Exchequer decides all causes relating to the royal treasury or revenue. The judges perform their circuits in the spring and autumn. Pofiulation. According to a census taken in 1801, there were In England, Males 3,987,935 Females 4,343,409 In Wales, Males Females 257,178 284,368 8,331,344 The Army Navy Seamen Convicts 198,351 126,279 144,558 1,410 541,546 4,715,045 4,627,443 ' 470,598 Total Males Total Females 9,343,488 In Cities 2,356,793 In the Country 6,5i6,l97 Army, Navy, See. 470,598 Fanners 1,713,289 Mechanics and> ^ q.c^ r.^. Manufacturers i 1:84^.^51 9,343,488 9,343,488 3/6 ENGLAND. Houses in England. 1,467,870 inhabited. 53,965 uninhabited. Total 1,521,835 Families 1,778,420 - in Wales. 108,053 inhabited houses. ^ 3,511 uninhabited do. 111,564 Families 118,503 Total houses inhabited 1,575,923 Total houses uninhabited 57,476 1,635,399 Total families 1,886,923 The population of Ireland is estimated at about 4,000,000 That of Scotland; at 1,607,760 The population of England and Wales 9,343,488 Total inhabitants in Great-Britain 1 4,95 1 ,248 The following is a comparative statement of the population of Great-Britain in the year 1801 and 1811 ; shewing the difference between the two returns. 1801 males. female. s total. En£>:land 3,987,935 4,343,499 8,331,434 Wales 257,178 284.368 541,546 Scotland 734,581 864,487 1,599,068 Army, Navy, &c. 470,598 470,598 Total 5,450,292 5,492,354 10,942,646 1811 males. females. total. England 4,555,257 4,944,143 9,499,400 Wales 289,414 317,965 607,380 Scotland 825,377 979,487 1,804,864 Army, Navy, &c. 640,500 640,500 Total 6,310,548 6,241,596 12,552,144 Difference in the returns : England 1,167,966 Wales 65,834 Scotland 208, i 80 Army, Navy, Sec. 16y,902 Total 1,611,882 The English language is probably diffused to the extent of 30,000,000 of people. ENGLAND. m j*rmy. The British army, in 1808, consisted, 1. O^ regular troofis, as follows, viz. Infantry 101,003") Swiss do. 19,5 51 I 128,422 German do. 7,858 J Cavalry 22,653") Swiss do. 72 [.25,714 German do. 2,989 J Guards 8,090 Garrisons 6,757 Veterans 5,624 Armee Depots 3,899 Artillery 24,781 Total 203,287 2. 0[ Militia. In Great-Britain 54,686 Ireland 21,473 Total Militia ■ 76,159 Total Regulars 203,287 Whole No. 279,446 The British forces in the East-Indies, in 1809, 242,000 Total 521,446 JVavy, The great rampart, defence, and glory of Great-Britaiu consist in her navy, in size, strength, and number of ships, far ex° ceeding any examples on record, as may be judged from the fol- lowing catalogue formed in February, 181 !. NAVY LIST, February, 1811. Statement of the British naval force, exclusive of the hired armed vessels, which are chief ij employed in protecting the coasting trade of Great-Briiain. At sea - - 89 9 125 100 140 32 53 5 553 In port and fitting 31 6 37 47 33 7 22 183 Guard, hospital, and ? „ prison ships ^ In ordinary and re-? pairing 5 Building - - 35 6 11 2 6 98 14 5 44 3 17 1 4 53 8 246 54 Total 254 34 280 199 190 40 79 13 108? This number has since been increased to upwards of 1300. 48 srs ENGLAND. For this immense fleet the number of seamen amounts from IjOG to 120,000, a number which no other country ancient or modern could have supplied. Re-venue. The excise forms one of the most productive branch- es of the revenue. Next stand the cvstoins, and after them the starnfis. The land-tax has recently been rendered perpetual and sold to proprietors of estates and other individuals. But, instead of the land-tax, now appear those on sugar, tobacco, and malt, amount- ing to near 3,000,000. The other supplies arise from the East- India Company, lotteries, Sec. The amount of the revenue for the year ending January, 1810, was 76,805,450. The amount of expenditure for the same year, was /^82,027,288. Of tlus sum /;20,956,052 was for interest on the national debt; jriO,904;450, interest on debt redeemed and sinking fund, applied to the reduction of national debt. For the navy £9,791,408. Foi the army £ 1 8,465,094. The unredeemed funded debt of Great-Britain was C sterling On the 1st of February, 1810^ 541,957,854 On the 1st of February, 1811, 545,662,698 Increase 3,704,844 To alleviate this growing burthen, a sinking fund was instituted in 1786, by which upv/ards of 12 millions sterling are annually re- deemed. The national debt began in the reign of William, and grew into what are called the funds or stocks, only synonymous terms for the public debt. The civil list, from which are defrayed the salaries of officers of state, judges, ambassadors, &c. together with the expcnccs of the . royal familv, amounts to 1,000,000 annually. Character. The cold restraint, which some foreigners have ascribed to the English, has been candidly-judged by a recent trav- eller, to exist only in appearance. A more genuine attribute of the English is integrity, which has -carried their credit and com- merce to an extentbefore unknown in the history of nations. Their liberality and exertions in the establishment, and support of good institutions, and particularly in the diffusion of Christian knowledge, surpasses those of any other nation on the earth. Lmiguage. ISIost European languages are derived from the Gothicorthe Latin. To tb.e Latin origin belong the Italian, French, and Spanish ; to the Gothic, the German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish^. Swedish, and Norwegian. From the situation of the country, and other causes, the English participates of both those grand sources ; and utiites in some degree the force of the Gothic with the melody of the Latin dialects. Literature. English literature is a vast and inviting field ; but a few fugitive remarks must here suffice. Of the traditionary verses of the druids, a few relics still exist ; but the Roman con- quest does not appear to have inculcated letters vv'ith much difFu- sion, for no author of those periods claims a British origin. The ENGLAND. 379 -'T^ountiy was seized by the Saxons, before Biiiish Hteralure faintly- dawned in Gildas, A. D. 560. Irish literature commenced about the same period, and continued for some centuries to supply nu- merous writers in the Latin language ; while England remained almost destitute. But Bcda in the eighth century redeemed this ■ defect, in himself a host, and, like Chaucer, the wonder of his time. The Danish invasions were ruinous to literature, both in Great- Britain and Ireland, and the great Alfred was obliged to exert his utmost endeavors in order to restore some degree of learning even among the clergy. That admirable prince himself translated some •^vorks of merit and utility, as the histories of Orosiusand Beda, in- to the Anglo-Saxon. Ot the interval between the age of Beda and the year 1 100, the Saxon chronicle is a noble but neglected monu- ■ment, being the only civil history of England, for a space of 400 years. About the year 1 100, English literature commenced a firm and steady pace ; a numerous train of historians, poets, and other writers, fills the pages of biography. In the fourteenth century, Roger Bacon aspires even to the praise of eminent genius. In the following century, the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster were destructive of liteiature and the arts ; nor will it be easy to name an illustrious author of that period, though the intro- duction of printing in the reign of Edward the Fourth torms a mem- orable epoch- The writers of the sixteenth and following centu- ries are numerous and well known. The grand feature of English literature is original genius, transmitted even from Roger Bacon to Shakespeare, Lord Bacon, Milton, Newton, Locke, and Berkeley ; not to dwell here on claims more minute, but equally firm. In sci- entific department, England does not yield even to France. In the various branches of mathematical knowledge, she has surpassed ajl -nations. The English clergy have always cultivated classical lit- erature with distinguished zeal and predilection. liducation. Tiie education of the lower classes in England had become extremely neglected, before the benevolent institution of the Sunday schools. Schools on the Lancastrian plan have lately been instituted in almost every village. Probably the next genera- tion will be almost universally acquainted with reading, writing, end arithmetic. The middle and higher ranks of English spare no expcnce in the education of their sons, by private tutors at home, or at what are called day schools and boarding schools. The most eminent public schools are those of St. Paul's, Westminster, Eton, and Winchester ; and from them have arisen some of the most dis- tinguished ornaments of their country. The scholars in due time proceed to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge ; foundations, of an extent and grandeur that impress veneration ; the former embraces no less than seventeen colleges, the latter sixteen. Cities and Toivna, London, t!ie metropolis of England, is situ- ated in an extensive plain watered by the Thames, and only con- fined on the north by a few small elevations ; being a place of great antiquity and first mentioned by Tacitus. It now includes Souih- wark, a borough on the other side of the Thames, and Westmin- r.ter, another city on the west. The noble river Tliames is 380 ENGLAND. Iiere about 440 yards in breadth, crowned with three bridges, crowded with a forest of masts, and conveying into London the •wealth of the globe, forming an excellent port, without the danger of exposure to maritime enmity. It is, however a great defect,, that instead of open quays and streets on the banks of the stream, the view is obstructed on both sides by irregular masses of building, which do not even admit of a path. London presents almost every variety which diversifies human existence. Upon the east it is a sea-port, replete with mariners and with the trades connected, with that profession. In the centre, it is the seat of numerous manufactures and prodigious commerce ; while the western or fashionable extremity presents royal and noble splendor, amidst scenes of the high.est luxury and most ruinous dissipation. Lon- don requires in one year 1,752,100 quarters of grain, 101,075 beeves, 707,456 sheep, with calves and pigs in proportion : the vegetables and fruits annually consumed are valued at 1,000,000 sterling. The population of London has by some been exaggerated to a million of souls; but by the enumeration, in 1801, there were males 393,369, females 471,476; total 864,845. If to these be added the regiments of guards, the miliiiain London, and the seaman on the Tluunes, the population would exceed 900,000. The number of houses was 126,414. Its length from Hyde-park corner on the west, to Poplar on the east, is about six miles ; the breadth unequal, from three yniles to one and less ; the circumfer- ence may be about sixteen miles. The houses are almost univer- sally of brick, and disposed with insipid similarity ; but in recom- pence most of the streets are excellently paved, and have convenient paths for foot passengers. Few of the public edifices in London can pretend to much magnificence. The cathedral of St. Paul's forms Que of the chief exceptions ; the exterior architecture of this princi- pal cathedral of the Protestant faith being majestic to a degree of sublimity, but the interior is defective in decoration. Tlie churches and chapels exceed 200 in number, and a few arc of beautiful artichecture. Some arc the productions of Inigo Jones ; as is also the noble banqueting-house at Whitehall, with a masterly ceiling, painted by Rubens, representing the apotheosis of James I. York. Next to the capital in dignity, though not in extent' ror opulence, is York ; which is not only the chief of a large and fertile province, but inay be regarded as the metropolis of the North of Enirlar.d. This venerable city is divided by the river Ouse ; and thi Gothic cathedral is of celebrated beauty, the western front be- ing peculiarly rich, the chief tower very lofty, and the windows of the finest painted glabs. York divides with Edinburgh the winter visits of the northern gentry. Its inhabitants, accoiding to the enumeration in 1801, amounted to 16,145, and its houses to 2,000. LivEKPOoL Liverpool, in Lancashire, at the beginning of the last century, was merely a village. By the enumeration in 1801, the number of inhabitants was 77,653. The number of houses 9,925. BRiSiToi., a large and flourishing city, is pleasantly situated at the ENGLAND. 381 confluence of the Frome with the Avon. The Lot wells in the neighborhood appear, to have been known in 1480; but the water Avas chiefly used externally, till about the year 1670 ; when a baker, dreaming that his diabetes was relieved by drinking the water, he tried the experiment and recovered. The trade of Bristol is chief- ly with Ireland, the West Indies, or North America, Hamburg^ and the Baltic. By the navigation of the two rivers Severn and Wye, Bristol also engrosses much of the trade of Wales. In 1 787, Bristol employed about 1600 coasting vessels, and4i6 ships en- gaged in foreign commerce. Inhabitants in 180!, 63,645. Hoiises 10,896. Bath is esteemed the most elegant town in England The liot baths, from which it derives its name, were known in the Ro- man tinies. Situated in a vale, Bath is very hot in summer. Tlie houses are constructed of white stone, which abounds iii the vicini- ty. Its inhabitants in 180i, amounted to 32,200, and its houses to 4,463. Manchester, in Lancashire. In 1802 the number of inhabit- ants was 84,020. The numl)er of houses 12,823. The cotton nianutactures of Manchester are known over Eurupc and America. Birmingham, in Warwickshire, is a celebrated manufacturing town. Between the years 1741 and 1790, it had received an aug- mentation of seventy two streets, 4172 houses, and 23,320 inhabit- ants : the population in 1802 amounted to 73,670 ; and the houses to 16,403. Sheffield, in the most southern part of Yorkshire, had been distinguished for a kind of knives called whittles, and other articles of cutlery, as early as the thirteenth century ; yet till within the last half century, the manufactures of Shcfficid were conveyed weekly to the metropolis, on pack horses. In 175 1, the river l)vn was rendered navigable to within 2 miles of the town ; whicii facilitated the export. The plated goods commer.ccd about 1758. In the year 1615, the population only amounted to 2152 ; in 1755, to 12,983 ; in 1789, about 30,000. In 1802, is was 31,314. Exeter, in the county of Devon, is the seat of an extensive com- merce in coarse woollen goods, manufactured in a part of Somer- setshire and in Devon and Cornwall. They are exported to Italy, and other parts of the continent, to the annual value, as is snpposcci, of 600,0001. and the East India eompany purchase yearly to a con- siderable amount. Inliabitants, 17,398. Por-tsmouth is the grand naval aisenal of England. TLc iiai- bor is noble and capacious ; narrow at the entraitce, but s])reat.'i:;:; out into an inland bay 3 or 6 miles in length, and from 2 to 4 'u^ breadth. The advantages deiivcd from nature have been improv- ed by the art and industry of successive gcneiaiions ; and to a patriot, Portsmouth presents one of the most intcrestiny,- scenes :u be found in the British dominions. The regular foriihcauon-> lo wards the land, in themselves happily a novelty to the Biitish eye, llie magnitude and variety of the maiitime objects and m.anul'ac- tures, and the prospect of Spithead, the grand fucus of naval arm- ament, conspire, with a thousand relative ideas concerning t^e 382 ENGLAND. ;po\ver of England, supreme in every sea, to excite a^lonisli- meni and cMiltaiion. Inhabitants, exclusive oi Gosport, 32,166. Worcester is situated on the noble river Severn, over which there is a l^eauiiful bridge. The manufactures are cliiefiy gloves and wooiien stufi's ; and the porcelain maintains a high reputation. Inhabitants, 1 1,353. The next memorable town is Noravich, the capital of Norfolk ; from its size and consequence, justly styled a city. The damasks, camlets, crapes, stuffs. Sec. here wrought, have been computed at the yearly value of 700,0001. Inhabitants, 36,850 ; houses, 7500. Yarmouth is a noted sea-port, with a beautiful quay. Inhabit- ,ants, 14,845. On the Humber, the wide receptacle of many rivers, stands the great sea-port of Hull, which was founded by Edward I. The liavbor is artificial, and is supposed to present the largest dock in the kingdom. The trade is important with America and the south of Europe, but chiefly with the Baltic ; and several ships are em- ployed in the noithern ,*vha!e fishery. The coasting traffic is ex- tensive in coals, corn, v/ool, and manufactures : and. Hull supplies the commerce of many northern counties ; having not only com- i-nunication with the Trent, tiud other branches of the Humber, but 'vvith the rivers and canals oi Yorkshire.* Its inhabitants amounted in 1801, to 29,516. / Leeds is the principal port for broad-cloths, or what foreigners term fine English cloth. It is situated on the river Aire, in an ex- tensive vale. The population of the parish amounts to 53,162, and the houses to 669 1 c the cloths are woven in the neighboring vil- lages ; but are died, prepared, and sold, at Leeds. The cloth-hall appropriated to the sale, is a vast edifice ; and the whole business is transacted within the space of an hour on the market days. On the river Tyne, stands Newcastle, so termed from a for- tress erected by Edward L This large and populous town, con- taining 28,366 inhabitants,! is placed in the centie of the grand coal-mines in the counties ol Durham and Northumberland, which }iave for centuries supplied London and most of the east and south ■of England wiih that fuel ; which has, perhaps, contributed more 'to the manufactures and commerce, and consequent wealth and power of this kingdom, than any other material or circumstance. The coal fleets sometimes amount to five huncircd sail ; their sta- tion is at Sl/ield?. Even as a nurseiy of seamen, the trade is inval- uable. In all parts of the neighborhood are seen large carts laden with coals, and proceeding towards the port, on inclined planes, without the helpofhorsts or men, to the great surprise of the stranger. Caermarthen is the pi incipal town in South Wales : it stands iipon the river Towy. Inhabitants, 5548. Caernarvon is the chief town of North Wales, for the beauty of the situation, regularity of the streets, and above all for the gran- deur of the castle, one of the most magnificent in Europe, founded * Aiken, .ling, delin. 5C. f Hassel savs 36,9CS, in ISOl. ENGLAND. SSS by Edward I. in 1282. The town has a considerable trade with- London, Bristol, Liverpool, and Ireland, and has a beautiful quay along the side of the Menai, a struii^ht between North Wales and An^ilesea. Inland J\'avigation. The Duke of Biida;ewater is justly vene- rated as the grand founder of inland navigation : his spirit and opu- lence vi'cre liappily seconded by Brindlcy, who possessed an un- common natural genius in mechanics. It wasin the year 1758 that. the first act was obtained for these great designs. The first canal extends from Worsley mill, about seven computed miles from Manchester, and reaches that town by a course of nine miles. lu this short space almost every difllculty occurred that can arise in similar schemes ; but mountaii>s and rivers yielded to the genius of Brindley. There are subterraneous passages to the coal in the mountain, of near a mile in length, sometimes cut through the sol- id rock, and occasionally arched over with brick ; with air-funnels to the top of the hill, some of them thirty-seven yards perpendicu- lar. This beautiful canal is brought over the river Irwell, by aa arch of thirty nine feet in height, and under which barges pass- •without lowering their masts. Tlie Duke of Biidgewater soon af- terwards extended a canal of twenty-nine miles in length, fioni Longford-bridge, in Lancashire, to Hempstones, in Clieshire. The Lancaster canal extends from Kendal, by Lancaster, to West Houghton, a space of about 74 miles. The canal f'om Leeds to Liverpool, directed in a northerly course'by Skipton, winds through an extent of 117 miles ; and from this canal a branch also extends to Manchester. From Halifax to Manchester is another considerable canal, com- monly called that of Rochdale ; length 31^ miles, begun in 1794. Another canal extends from Manchester towards Wakefield -. and another, called the Peak Forest canal, stretches from the foi - mer, southeast, about 15 miles. Another joins the river Dun, several miles above Doncaster, to the river Calder, near V/akefield. The Chesterfield canal extends from Chesterfield to the Trenu and another from Horncastle to Sleaford. Grantham canal reaches from that town to the river Trent, a course of 30 miles. The grand design of Brindley was to join, by inland navigation, the four great ports of the kingdom, Bristol, London, Liverpool, and Hull. Liverpool is accordingly connected with Hull by a canal from that long navigable river the Trent, and proceeding N, to the Mersey. The canal which joins these two rivers is styled the Grand Trunk ; and was begun in 1766, under the direction of. that great engineer ; but v/as not completed till 1777 : the length is 99 miles. It was attended with great difficulties, particularly- in passsing the river Dove, in Derbyshire, where there is an aqueduct of twentv-three arches ; the tunnel, through the hill of Hare-castle in Staffordshire, is in length 2880 yards, and more than 70 yards below the surface of the ground, and was executed ■with great labor and expense. But the utility corresponds with the grandeur of the design : salt from Cheshire, coals and potterj- 3S4 ENGLAND. iVotn Stanbrshirc, and manufactures from various places, aic transported on this canal. From the Grand Trunk 5 or 6 branches extend in various direc- tions : anions^ which must not be omitted that to the river Severn, near Bowdlevi which connects the port of Bristol v/ith those of Liverpool and Hull ; the length is 45 miles ; completed in 1772, TJie other canals are too numerous to mention. Manufactures and Coimnerce. The earliest staple commodity of Eni.;land was tin, a metal rarely found in other countries. Wool liad been rc-^arded as a i^rand staple of England, but was chiefly exported in a crude slate, till Edward LIL encouraged set- tlements of Flemisli manufacturers. Wool soon became the prime article of commerce. The exportation of raw wool was at length prohibited The Avoollen manufactures preserve great importance, though they no longer attract such particular regard, amidst the exuijcrance of English manufactures. In recent times the manufactures of iron and copper, native minerals, have become great sources of national wealth ; nor must tlie new and extensive exportation of elegant earthen ware be for- gotten. The cotton manufacture is diffused far and wide, forming a grand source of industry and prosperity. That of linen, except of sail-cloth, is not much cultivated in England. The manufac- tures of glass and fine steel, clocks, watches, S:c. are deservedly eminent and extensive. As the nation is indebted to Wedgewood for converting clay into gold, so to Boydell for another elegant branch of exportation, that of beautiful prints. Besides manufactured articles, England exports a number of native products too numerous to be here mentioned. The English manufactures have been recently estimated at the annual value of 63,600,0001. and supposed to employ 1,585,000 per- sons. Of these the woollen manufacture is supposed to yield m round sums, 15,000,000/. the leatiicr 10,000,000/. the iron, tin, and lead 10,000,000/. the cotton 9,000,000/. The other chief manu- factures, which yield from 1 to 4,000,000/. may be thus arranged, according to their consequence ; steel, plating, &c. copper and brass, silk, potteries, liricn and flax, hemp, glass, paper. The commerce of England is, at the present period, enormous, anrl may be said to extend to every region of the globe. The trade with the West Indies is one of the most important, and that with tlie East Indies alone, would have astonished any of the cele- brated trading cities of antiquity. The following table exhibits the amount of the imports, exports, and tonnage of Great Britain every year of the present century. Year. Imports. Exports. Tonnagre. 1800 ;C3o!,)70,60.'; ^43,152,019 1,924,042 1801 .■32,795,557 42,301,701 1,958,37.'5 5 802 31,442,318 41,4! 1.966 1,895,1 16 1803 27,992,464. 31.578.495 1,788,768 3 804 29,201,490 » 34,45 1.357 s 1,802,063 ;-3'»5 ;;05?44,628 34,954j845 1,857,652 ENGLANI>. '§85 \*ear; Imports. Exports. Tonnage, 1806 31,094,089 36,528,132 1,897,603 1807 28,854,658 34.566,570 1,791,072 1808 27,186,025 34,554,267 . 1,425,592 1809 30,4j6,560 50,301,763 l,99:i,lS8 The extent of the commercial shipping of the British empire- was, September 30, 1805, as follows : Ships. Tons. Men and Boys; England 14,790 1,799,210 117,668 Jersey Isles 185 16,528 2,011 Man 404 9,650 <) ""i *^ *: Scotland 2,58 I 210,295 15,150 Ireland 1,067 56,806 5,'i70 The Plantations a,024 22,051 190,953 15,467 Total 2,283,442 157,712 The annual income of Great-Britain was estimated in 1799, by Mr. Pitt, at 102,000,000 ; and including the money, of which the estim:ite is far from certain, the wiiole capital of Great-Britain may perhaps be calculated at more than one thousand two hun- dred \nil lions. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Great-Britain is perhaps more variable than that of any other country on the globe. Scot- land is of a clearer and drier temperature than that of liugland» The humidity of the climate clothes the meadows with verdure ; but is injurious to the health of tlie inhabitants. The year might properly be divided into eight months of winter, and four of summer. June, July, August, and vSeptember, are usu- ally warm summer months ; but a night of frost is not univiiowny even in August. Tlie winter may be said to commence witn the beginning of October, at which time domestic fires become neces- sary ; but there is seldom any severe frosi till Christmas, and Janu- ary is the most stern moiith of the year March is generally the most unsettled month of the year, interspersed with diy frosts, cold rains, and strong winds, with storms of liail and 5le< t. I^ace of the Country. From t!ie mouth of the Tweed to Barn- borough, extends a sandy shore. Thence to FlamborougJr-head, are mostly low cliffs, of lime-stonf. and other materials. Scar- borough stands on a vast rock, projecting into tiie waves ; but Flamborough-head is a faiiniore magnificcni olject, being formed of lime-stone, of a snowy whiteness, and stupendous height, visible far off at sea. Hence to the Humber are commonly clay clilTs. The extensive coast of Lincolnshire is "flat, and, piobably gained from the sea. The county of Lincoln, \in>'! part of six others, are the low countries of Britain; ai.d the coast is distinguislrahie by churches, not br hills. The shores of Norfolk and Suffolk present sometimes loamy or clayey precipices, sf-meti iks hiiio' ks of sand, and some- times low and flat spaces. Hunstanton cliff rises to the heiiiiit •€ 49 385 ENGLAND. about eighty feet, composed of chalk and friable stone, resting o«i_' a base of what is called iron-colored puddint>:-slone, projecting^ in- to the sea. The coast of Essex is s:«nerally low ; but to the soutiv of the Thames, arise continued cliffs of chalk, with layers of flint,.- resembling masonry. The north Foreland is a lofty chalky pro- montory ; and the cliffs of Dover are known to every reader of Shakespeare. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is greatly diversified, but in gen^- rral fertile ; and in no country is agriculture more thoroughly un- dertood, or pursued in a grander style, except, perhaps, in Flan- ders and Lombardy. The cultivated acres in England and Wales are compirted at upwards of 39,000,000, while those unrultivat^.vj are 7,888,777. Of these it is supposed that not above half a miliion is wholly unim- provable, and perhaps a milliun is only fit for plantations, while of the remainder one quarter is fit for tillage, and three fourths for meadow and upland pasture. The grain of every kind annually consumed in Englandrforthree years ending in 1809, was 20,600,800 quarters ; ajid in Scotland, 3,988,400 ; total 24,589,200. Of this y^ part is imported, and Jg- part from Ireland. So that only be- - tween ^\ and ^\ part comes from foreign countries. Horticulture, or the art of gardening, is also pursued in England ■with great assiduity and success. The large supply of the capital' in vegeta!)les and fruits, and the high prices given for early pro- duce, occasion such a spirit of cultivation, tliut each acre thus em= ployed, is supposed to yield about 120/. annually, the yearly con- sumption in the metropolis being computed at more than 1 ,000,000/.. Of ornamental gardens, laid out with a just attention to the beau- ties of nature, and free from the uncouth affectations of art, Eng- land is deservedly regarded as the parent country. Rivers. England is intersected by four important rivers, tha: Severn, the Thames, the Humber, and the Mersey. Tlie Severn passes by Shrewsbury and Gloucester, into the Bris- tol Channel, a progress of about 150 miles, navigable as far as Welch-pool. Its chief tributary streams are the Northern and Southern Avons, the Teme and the Wye. The Thames maintains a south-easterly direction, to its egress into the German ocean. Its course is computed at 140 milesj navigable to Cricklade. The Humber is a name almost confined to a large estuary, whicii receives many considerable rivers, that fertilize the central parts of England. Mountains. Bennevis, the highest Taountain in Scotland, is not much above one quarter of the height of Mont Blanc, the sove- reign of the Alps, and the English and Welch summits aspire to heights still less considerable ; Snowdon being only 3568 English feet above the sea, while Bennevis is 4387. Wharn, in Ybrkshirej was estimated at 4050 ; and Ingleborough at 5280 feet. The mountains of Cheviot may be said to forni a regular ridge> running from the south-west, where they join those of Galloway.; to the nort!>ea«t, ENGLAND. 38,7 Wales is a country abundant in mountains, especially the north- r>rn provinces. Mineralogy. The tin mines in Cornwall arc, it is supposed, the richest of the kind in the world. That kind of silver, termed by mineralogists horn ore, is also found in that district; but the pro- found secrecy observed in working; it, forbids any inveslij^ation of the amount. The Huel rock boasts ef what is called beil-melal ore ; and of wolfram. Cornwall also produces copper at Redruth, Alstonc, and the Land's End. The same metal is -found in Yorkshire and Stafford- shire J but no where in such abundance as in thcParrys mountain, in the northwest of Anglesea.* Lead is found in the Mendip-hili, Somersetshire ; which also produces calamLne and manganese. The lead-mines in Derbyshire are well known, not only for that metal, but for the beautiful veins -of fiuor, which accomany it, and which is manufactured into sev- €ral ornamental articles. In general the northern central ridge of mountains abounds with lead-ore. The lead mines of Alston, on the eastern verge of Cumberland, employ. about 1 100 men. The most remarkable mines of iron, are those of Colcbrookdale, Shropshire, Dean-forest in Gloucestershire, with some in the north of England, particularly near Ulverston, in Lancashire. Zinc is found in Derbyshire,. Denbighshire, Cornwall, and other regions. Nickel and arsenic sometimes appear in Cornwall ; and recently, what is called menaclianite. But one of the most impor- •tant of this kind is plumbago, or black lead, which is found in the • ridge of Borrodale, near Keswic, in Cumberland : the mine is onl}'' •opened at certain intervals of time. The mines of coal are found in the central, northern, and west- ern parts, but particularly the northein around Newcastle. Turf ■®i' peat is common, in Hampshire, and other southern counties. The mines of rock salt, in Cheshire, must not be omitted. The innuense mines on the south side of Norihwich, were discovered about the beginning of the last century. The quarries witli their pillars and crystal roof, extending over many acres, present a beau- tiful spectacle ; the stratum of salt, lies imder a bed of whitish clay, at the depth of about forty yards. The first stratum is about -twenty yards thick, so solid as to be blasted with gunpowder; this salt resembles brown sugar candy. Next is a bed of hard stone, under which is a second stratum of salt, about six yards thick, in some pans brown, in others as clear as crystal. The Witton pit is circular, 108 yards in diameter, the roof supported by twenty- five pillars, each containing 294 solid yards of rock salt ; the whole covering near two acres of land. The annual produce of rock salt at Northwicii, has been estimated at 65,000 tonii ; of which about two thirds used to be exported to Flanders and the Baltic. Marbles, and free-stone, or calcareous sand-stone of various col- ors and textures, also occur. Fine alabaster appears in Derby- vshire ; fullers-earth in Berkshire, and some other counties. •Aiken's Wales, 133. m SCOTLAND, • ENGLISH ISLES. In the Southern, or Enp,lish channel, first appears the Isle of Wight, of an oval form, 20 miles long, and 12 broad. This isle is fertile and beautiful, and decorated with mai.y picturesque villas ;, the principal haven is that of Newport. The population of the island in 1801, was 24000. At the distance of about TO miles from Wight, to the S. W. arises the little ibland of Alderney ; which is afterwards followed by the more important isles ot Guernsey and Jersey. Guernsey, the largest of these islc3, is twelve miles long, nine broad. It is a verdant isle, though hilly, and barrtn of wood. The only town is that of Port St. Pierre.* Tiie population of the island in 1 SO i , was 2 1,500. Jersey is about twelve miles in length, and six in breadth, a well watered and fertile island, producing excellent butter and honey. The winters are milder than in England. The northern side of the island is high, but the southern subsides into pleasant vales covered with ovchaKls. The remarkable places are the two tOM^ns of St. Helier and St. Aubin, both standing on a bay, opening to the south ; and the castle of Mont Orgueil. Tl.e inhabuants of Jersey are computed at 20,000, of whom 3000 are capable of bear- ing arms. Alderney is a small isle, with a town, and about 1000 inhabitants in all. Sark has about 300 inhabhaius t About thirty miles to the west of the Lanc'b End, appear the isles of SciLLY. This cluster is said to consist of 145 isles, cover- ed with grass or moss, besides innumerable dreary rocks. The largest isle is that of St. Mary, which is about five miles in circuit, and has a castle and garrison : Inhabitants about 600. Tr.at of St. Agnes is rather fertile ; inhabitants aby actual enumeration in 1301 to amount to 82,560. The arrivals and clearances at Leith Harbor, exceed the num^ ber of 1700 vessels of various dcscripdons. The commerce has been stated at half a million annually. The houses in the olJ town are sometimes of remarkable height, not less than thirteen or fourteen floors, a singularity as- cribed to the wish of the ancient inhabitants, of being under the protection of the castle. The new town is deservedly celebrated for regularity and elegance, the houses being all of free -stone, and some of thcin ornamented v;ith pillars and pilasters. The second city in Scotland is Glasgow. The population in 1755, was computed at 23,546, including the suburbs ; the niimber in 1791, was 61,945 ; and in 1801, 77,385. The ancient city was rather venerable than beautiful, but recent improvements have ren- dered it one of the neatest cities in Scotland, Its v/est'ern situation exposes it to frequent rains, a disadvantage recompensed by its favorable position for commerce with America and the West-In- dies. Its commerce hus arisen to great content since the year 1718, when the first ship that belonged to Glasgow crossed the Atlantic. Perth is an ancient town, pleasantly situated on the v/estcrn bank, of the Tay ; and has been known in commerce since the thirteenth century. Linen forms tlie staple manufacture, to the annual amount of about 160,000/. Tbci^e are also manufactures of leather and paper. Perth displays few public edifices v/orth notice. In^ habitants, about 23,000. About 18 miles nearer the mouth of tiie Tay, stands Dundee, in the county of Angus, a neat modern town. The friih of Tay is here between two and three miles broad ; and there is a good road for shipping to the east of the tov,m, as far as Broughty-castle!. The population is 26,084 ; the public edifices arc neat and com- modious. In 1792, the vessels belonging to the port, amounted to 1 16. The staple manufacture is linen, to the annual value of about 80,000/. canvass, &c. about 40,000/. Colored thread also forms a considerable article, computed at 33,000/. and tanned leather at 14,000/. Aberdeen first rises to notice in the eleventh century. The pop-^ ulation in 1795 was computed at 24.493, and in 180J at 2.7,50.'i|. 50 394 SCOTLAND. Though the harbor be not remarkably commodious, it has a con* siderable trade, the chief exports being salmon and woollen goods. Greenock and Port-Glasgow, are considerable towns, which have arisen to celebrity, by sharing in the trade of Glasgow. Greenock contains 17,458 inhabitants ; Port-Glasgow about 3,865. Paisley, in the same county, is celebrated by its manufacture of muslins, lawns, and gauzes, to the annual amount, it is said, of 660,000/. The population amounts to 31,179. Dumbarton, on the opposite shore of the Clyde, contains about 2,541 souls, and is also subservient in the manufactures of Glasgow. Inland Nuuigation. The most remarkable inland navigation in Scotland, is the excellent and exti^nsive canal from the Forth to tlie Clyde, commenced in 1768, from a survey by Smeaton foui; years before. Its depth is seven feet ; its breadth at the surface iifty-six feet ; the locks are seventy-five feet long, and their gates twenty feet wide. It is raised from the Carron by twenty locks, in a tiact of ten miles, to the amazing height of 155 feet above the medium full sea mark. At the tuenlieth lock begins the canal of partition on the summit, between the east and west seas ; whicli canal of panition continues eighteen miles on a level, terminating at Hanulton-iiill, a mile N. AV. of the Clyde, at Glasgow. In some places the canal is carried through mossy ground, and in others throui^h solid rock. In the fourth mile of the canal there are ten locks, and a fine aqueduct bridge, which crosses the great road leading from Edinburgh to Glasgow. At Kirkintuilock, the cantil is carried over the water of Logic, on an aqueduct bridge, the arch of which is ninety feet broad. There are in the whole eighteen draw bridges, and fifteen acqueduct bridges, of considerable size^ besides small ones and tunnels. The supplying the canal with water was of itself a very greet wcwk* One reservoir is above twenty-four feet deep, and covers a surface of fifty acres, near Kilsyth. Anotlier, about seven miles north of Glasgow, consists of seventy acres, and is banked up at the sluice, twenty-two feet. The distance between the Friths of Clyde, and Forth, by t)ie nearest passage by sea, that of the Penlland Frith, is 600 miles, by this canal scarcely 100. On the 28th of July, 1790, the canal was completely open from sea to sea, when a hogshead of tiie water of Forth was poured into the Clyde, as a symbol of their junctioiv The length of tl.e canal is precisely thirty-five miles, and no work of the kind can be more ably finislK-d. Manufactures and Coinmerce. The general commerce of Scot?- land, though on a smaller scale, and with smaller capitals, is in most respects similar to that of England, and shares in the nation- al prosperity. That of the capital, through Leith its port, has been estimated, at half a million yearly. The chief exports are linen, grain, iron, glass, lead, wooilcn stuffs, soap, &c. &c. The imports are wines, brandy ; and from the West-Indies and America, runi, sugar, rice, indigo. Glasgow exports cottons of all kinds, muslinb, lawns, gauzes, Sec. glass, stockings, earthen ware, cordage, &:c. candles, soap, iron, leather, &c. 8cc. The chief imports are tobac/- SCOTLAND. 5^5 . .: gallons. 1784 j 258,503 j ° 1791 J 1,69 6,000 J The iron manufactures, particularly that at Caron, deserve als» to be enumer-ated among tue chief national advantages. In 1763, there were 396 four»wheeled carriages, and 462 two-wheeled, en- titled to pay du'y. In 1790, there were 1427 of the first kind, and 643 of the last. •Ciim-ate and Seasons. In the eastern parts, there is not so much ■humidity as in England, as the mountains on the west arrest the vapors from the Atlantic. On the other hand, the western •counties are deluged with rain, an insuperable obstacle to the progress of agriculture. Even the winter is more distinguishable 'by the abundance of snow, than by tlie intensity of the trost; but in summer the heat of the sun is reflected with great power in tiie 'iiarrow vales between the mountains. T"hi.se obscivations chiefly apply to the north and west, in the east and south, the climate -differs but little from that of the north of England. /'ace of the Country. The face of the country is in general mountainous, to the extent, perhaps, of two thirds; whence the ^population is of necessity thin, in eoniparison \a ith the extent of territory. The eastern parts have liiile of uniform flatness, but are agreeably diversified with hill and dale. The rivers in gener- al are remarkably pure and transparent, and thcii course rapid. The rich roughness of an English prospect, diversified with an =£bundance of wood, even in the hedge rov/s, is in Scotland rare, •whence the nudity of the country makes a strong impression on the stranger. But the laudable exertions ol many of the nobility and gentry, who plant trees by millions, wiii soon remove this re- '^proach. Rivers. The three chief rivers of Scotland, are the Forth, the 'Clyde, and the Tay. Next in consequence and in fame, is the Tweed, a beautiful and -pastoral stream, whick, receiving the Teviot from the south, near ^Kelso,. falls into the sea at 13 er wick. ;<*§«. SCOTLAND, Lakes. Among the lakes of Scotland, the chief in extent and beauty is that of Lomond, studded with romantic islands, and adorned with shoi'cs of the greatest diversity. Its suiface con- tains upwards of 20,000 acres of water. It has about thirty islands scattered over it, eleven of considerable size. These and the country bordering on the lake are distinguished for their beauty- and fertility. The Endric falls into it on the south east, and its Avaters are discharged through the Leven into the Frith of Clyde. It abounds with delicious salmon and trout. The country from Moray-Frith to the sound of Mull is a contin- ued valley running in a direction from N. E. to S. W. and is al- ■most filled with extensive lakes. A chain of lakes and rivers pass- ing tbrough it almost insulate the northern division of Scotland. Lock Linne is a deep narrow arm of the sea. Loch Awe in Argyleshire is thirty miles long and from one to two bioad. It contains many islands. At the N. E. extremity xiscs Ben Cruachar to ;he hcigl^t of 3390 feet above its surface, from the top of which descends the river tliat forms the lake. The scenery of this lake and its shores is remarkably picturesque. Mou7itains. The chief elevation of the S. W. of Scotland is the ridge, called the Lead Hills. The chief summit of this ridge is Hanfell, which is 3300 feet above the level of the sea ; others say 2582. To the east we find the uniform ridge of Lamermoor, ter- minating in St. Abb's head. On passing the Forth appears the range of Ochill-hills, more re- markable for their singular agates and chalcedonies, than for their height. On the northeast of Abcrdeenshiie is Mormond, a re- iTiarkable solitary summit ; whence no mountains of note occur till Inverness, on the west, opens the path to the Highlands. The Grampian hills may be considered as a grand frontier chain, extending from Loch Lomond to Stonehaven, and forming the soul hern boundary of the Highlands. Their highest summits^ are from 3 to 4000 feet high. Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Great-Britain, being esti- mated at 4350 feet above the level of the sea. It lies in the parish of Kihnalie, in Inverness-shire. On the N. E. side it presents a precipice, nearly perpendicular, and of prodigious height, by some accounts 1500 feet. To the N. W. of Ben Nevis is the long mountain of Corriarok, near Fort Augustus, over vhich a military road has beee directed, in a zig-zag direction. About thirty niilts to the east rises the mountain Cairngorm (4060 feet.) or the blue mountain, clothed. %yith almost perpeiual snoAV. The western shore is crowded with hills, from the island of Skey to Cape Wraih, while a biaiich, spreading east\\ard towards Ord- head (1250 feel) forms what are teinud by seamen the Paps cf Caithness (1929 itet) The chief niountains on the west of Ross- shire, r.rc I3cn Chasker, on the south of Loch Broom ; and Ben \ye vis (3720 feet.) Gcntial Roy mentions two vemaikchle features of the High- landsj fust the Moor of Rannock, a high desevt of twenty nule'S SCOTLAND. S9f square, of the S. E. of Ben Nevis, a flat uninhabited morass. The second part of the N. W. coast, extending from Loch iiichard, twenty four miles to the south, breadth about ten miits, wiiich prcr sents a most singular appearance, as if niouniains had been brok- en into fraj^ments, interbpersed with puois of water. Mineralogy. The chief minerals ol Scoiidiid are lead, iron, and coal. The lead mines in the south of Laiiarksuire have long been known. Iron is found in various parts of Scotland ; the Carron ore is the most known, it is an argillaceous iron-stone, and is found in slaty masses, and in nodules, in an adjacent coal-mine, of which it sometimes forms the roof. At the Carron-works this ore is often smelted with the red j^reasy iron ore from Ulversion, in Lanca- shire, which imparts easier fusion, and superhu- value. Calamine, or zinc, is also found at Wanlock-head ; and it is said, that plum- bago and antimony may be traced in Scotland. But the chief mineral is coal, which has been worked for a suc- cession of ages. In passing to the less iinpcrtant minerals of Scotland, the new earth originally found at Sironuan, and called after the name of the place, deserves the first notice. Fine statuary marble is found in Assynt, and the marble of Tiree ranks among the most beauti- ful varieties. Aijnong the precious stones of Scotland are the sapphire, of diA ferent shades, from a deep red, to a transparent white, and of equal hardness with the oriental ; the topaz, of various huts, generally in hexahedral crystals ; the ruby and hyacinth, near Ely in Fife- shire, usually small and of inferior lustre ; the emerald and ame- thyst, frequently to be met with, the latter often very large and beautiful ; garnets in many places of the Higlilands, large, and frequent ; agates and cornelians, abundant, and unrivalled in their variety and beauty ; jaspers in almost every district, some of great beauty trnd value ; the chalcedony, in Fileshirc, equal in hardness to the oriental granite ; that of Vtcix Nevis equal m beauty to the Egyptian, and that of Portsoy of the kind caikd Motcs's Jadles, resembling Hebrew characters on a while ground. SCOTTISH ISLES. The islands that belong to Scotland are numerous and irr.por- tant, and fall naturally into three grand divisions; the Hebudts,* or Western Islands ; the Orkneys ; and the Shetland Isles. Staffa, one of the Hcbudes, near Mull, has in it the celebrated Grotto, called Fingal's Cave. It is on the W. side Jt is an im- mense excavation in the side of e tnourtain of soliti rock, the loof of which is arched, and is supported by nuniberltss basaltic pillars of various sizes and heights of 3, 4- 5, 6, and 7 sides, the ])entaronal and hexagonal being most numerous 1 hcse colunais are nujstly above fifty feet high. The bottom of thj cave is filled with the sea, reaching to the very extremity. In calm weather a boat may sail in safely ; but if the waves are r.giiatt d in a slight degree, itir, * This name was corrupted by Rector Boyce, into Hebr ideft 'j.9h SCOTLAND. :inevitably dashed to pieces. Sir Joseph Banks, who visited it in 3 772, gives the following as its dimensions : breadth of the mouth 53 feet ; height of the arch, 1 17 feet ; length 250 feet. Leuis is the principal island of the western chain. It is about .60 miles in length, and 20 in breadth. The face of the country consists of a heathy elevated ridge full of morasses from the S. W. to N. E. but near the shores are several verdant vales capable of cultivation. Stornaway is a considerable and flourishing town, ■with an excellent harbor, and contains 2974 inhabitants. Besides collages, there are about seventy houses covered with slate. The seasons in Leuis are oppressed with rain, as usual in the western Highlands and isles ; but there is a considerable fishery. The \:rops are oats, bigg, and potatoes; no trees will thrive except ai- der and mountain ash ; and hardly a shrub appears : but there are many black cattle and sheep, nor is there any want of small horses. Population of the whole island 12,164. The other large islands of the group, commencing at the S. are Arran, Bute, Ila, lura. Mull, and Skey. The whole population of the Hebudes, in 1801, was 80,880. The Orkneys form a numerous group around the Main Land, or what, by some new and fabulous term, is called Pomona. The Main Land is about thirty miles in length E. to W. by about thir- teen in breadth N. to S. Kirkwall, the chief town of the Orkneys, contains 2,62 1 inhabitants, and has a stately cathedral dedicated to St. Magnas. Opposite stands the bishop's palace, now called a. -castle. The chief exports of Kirkwall are beef, pork, butter tal- iow, hides, calf skins, rabbit skins, salted fish, oil, feathers, linen yarn, and coarse linen cloth, kelp, and in fruitful years corn. The chief imports are wood, fiax, coal, sugar, spirits, wines, to- "bacco and snuff, flour, and biscuit, soap, leather, hardwares, broad- cloth, printed linens and cottons. In 1790 the exports were val- ued at 26,598/. ; and the imports at 20,803/. The harbor is excel- lent. The manufactures are linen yarn, and coarse linens, and kelp. This last was introduced about sixty years ago, and has been since diffused over the Highlands and isles. In most parts •of the main land the soil is good, though shallow. The horses are email but spirited ; and the cows, though also small, yield excel- lent milk. The sheep are computed at 50,000, Swine also abound, of a dirty white color, und diminutive size. The sea-fowl are numerous. The Norse language has yielded to the English, and the manners of the people are singularly civilized for so re- mote a region. Their number is 13,176. The other islands are Hoy, North and South Ronaldshay, Sha- pinsha, Rousa, Stronsa, Eda, Westray, and Sanda. The total population of the Orkneys, in 1801, was 24,478. The number of the islands is 30, of which 26 are inhabited. The islands of Shetland present another group similar to those of Orkney ; with a Main Land in its centre. This is much inter- sected by the sea ; and is about 60 miles in length, by 12 of me- dial breadth. Inhabitant? 15,593. They are hardy, docile, and ingenious ; and manufacture coarse linen and woollen cloths for IRELAND. Z9-9 their own use, and very fine worsted stockings for exportation. Their great occupalion is fishing. Yell, or Zell, further north, is about twenty miles long, and twelve broad. Its coast is bold, rocky, and indented, surface level, and soil tolerable. Inhabitants 2,965. Unst, the most northern, is in 61 15 N. It is twelve miles longj and four broad, and generally level. It is very rich in minerals, and in cattle. Eighty tons of cured fish are annually exported. Inhabitants 2,259. These islands are 86 in number, of which 26 are inhabited. Their whole population in 1801, was 22,379. IRELAND. Situation and Extent. THE large and fertile island of Ireland is situated to the west of Great-Britain. It is about 300 miles in length and about 160 at tlie greatest breadth, containing 27,457 square miles, and the population being about four millions, there will be about 146 inhabitants to each square mile. Historical E/iochs. Tiie first historical epoch of Ireland is its original population by the Celtic Gauls, and the subsequent colo- nization by the Belgae. 2. The maritime excursions of the Scoti against the Roman provinces in Britain. 3. The conversion of Ireland to Christianity in the fifth centU" ry, which was followed by a singular effect ; for while the mass of the people retained all the ferocity of savage manners, the mon- asteries produced many men of such piety and learning, that Sco- tia or Ireland became celebrated all over Christendom. 4. Ireland began to produce some manufactures about the four- teenth century. 5. Richard II. king of England, attempted in person the con- quest of Ireland, but being imprudent and ill served, nothing of moment was effected. 6. In the reign of James I. Ireland became entirely subjugated ^ and colonies of English and Scots were established in the north. 7. The chief mean of the assimilation of the countries having been completely neglected, namely, the universal inslilution of parochial schools, for the education of children in the protestant religion and English language, the Irish continued a distinct peo- ple ; and, being instigated by their fanatic priests, executed their dreadful massacre of the English settlers in 1641. This insur- vection was not totally crushed till Cromwell led his veterans into Ireland. 8. The appearance of James II. in Ireland to reclaim his crown^, may also deserve a place. 9. The amazing progress of Ireland in manufactures and com • merce, within these twenty years, may be classed as the most i!^ liieuiotis of its historical fepochs. 400 IRELAND. 10. The deplorable events, which have recently happened in Ireland, have led the way to its union with Great-Britain, a meas- ure which has been productive of great reciprocal advantages. Religion. The established religion of Ireland is that of the clmrch of England ; but it is computed that three fourths of the people are Catholics ; and of the remaining fourth, the Presbyte- rians are supposed to constitute one half- Government. Ireland being united to England, the form of gov- ernment is of course identically the same. There are some mi- nute variations between the statute and common laws of Ireland and those of England. Cixijl DiviAons. Ireland is primarily divided into four provinces;* viz. Ulster to the North, Connaught to the West, Lcinster to the East, and Munster to the South. The subdivisions are counties^ of which the foUowin? is a list : • ("Donegal Londonderry Antrim Tyrone In Ulster most impassable with carriages. Commerce. The trade is principally passive, and is carried on In Danish ships. Tiie exports are fish, tmiber, lumber, furs, horses, horned cattle, fish-oii, tallow, buUer, copper, hides, mar- ble, millstones, iron, silver, lar, aiur.i, salt, pot-ash, and Prussian- blue. Corn and all kinds of manufactures are imported. The^ Norwegians are the best seanien in the Danish fleet. Climate mid Sta/ion.t. Tlie greatest quantity of snow falls be- fore the middle of January ; and of rain, in April, August, and October. March, JuiiC, and July, are usually clear. The most violent winds occur in April, May, and October. The sea is al- ways open at Borghen. The south winds prevail on the westeriv coast. In 1719, 7500 Sweden v/ere frozen to death in theirmarcli over the mountaijis to the attack of Drontheim. jFace of the Country. This is probably the most mountainous' country in Europe. In the north, all is mountains ; but, in the south, there are tracts of great fertility, and, though often rocky, the soil is rich. Soil and j1[^Ticulture. There is little arable land, and most of the corn is imported from Denmark. The pasture is excellent and sbundant ; and great numbers of cattle and horses are annual- ly raised. The agriculture is improving. Ri-vers. The Glomme, the largest river of Norway, runs near- ly south, abfiut 300 miles, to Sarp, near Frederickstadt. About 80 miles from the sea it receives the Worm, which runs througlr Lake Mioss, and is almost as long as the Glomme. It is wholly unnavigable, and full of shoals and cataracts ; yet about 50,000 trees arc annually floated upon it to Frederickstadt. The Drammc flows into the west side of Christiania bay after its confluence, •with the Beina. The Louven and the Torrisdal in the S.- arc smaller. The western rivers are all short and rapid. The Tana and the Alten ai'e the largest streams in Northern Norway. Lakes. These are numerous. Lake AIloss is 60 miles long, and near the middle from 12 to 18 miles wide, but generally nar- row. It contains an island 10 miles in circumference ; fertile in corn, pasture, and wood. Lake Rands is 50 miles long and 2.. broad. Lake Fobmmd is 35 miles long and 8 broad, and surround-* ed by mountains of great height. Lake Tyri is a beautiful piec^. MORWAY. 411 "of water, about 15 miles in length and breadth, diversified with aiany bayb and crocks. MtjU)iiai?is. The mountains of Norway, though constituting- a united chain, under the name of the jVorivegiun range^ receive dif- ferent names in the dift'crcnt provinces. Its length is not less than IIGO Uiiks. The iwo highest summits in Norway are said to be Doffrthali, * Coxe, iv. 57, r, 187, 416 DANISH EMPIRE. inhabitants, and is one of the most commercial places in Holsteitt. The canal connecting the Eyder with the bay of Kiel has greatly increased its commerce. Schclswick is the capital of the province or dutchy of the same name, and is situated at the bottom of a very deen, nirrow gulf, called the Gulf of Sley. It is an irregjular town of great length, containing 1280 houses, and 5629 inhabitants. The houses are of brick, and resemble, in their neatness and forms, those of Holland ; the inhabitants speak Dutch. Germ?.n, and D:vnish. Odensce is the capital of the island of Fu\:cn, and stands on a small river, one mile from its entvanoe into the Biy orSte;^?:estrand. Inhabitants 5353 ; houses 930. Its exports are grain and leather. Aalborg stands ahout iO miles from the Scager-Rack ; on the S. side of the extensive Guif of Lymfort. The harbor is safe and deep, and the chief exports herrings and grain. It has extensive manufactures of muskets, pistols, saddles, and gloves. Inhabitants 5200 ; houses 831. Lat, 57 2 32 N". ; Long. 10 2 11 E. Aarhuns stands between the Baltic and a small lake, from which a river runs through the town. It has 6 gates, 2 churches, 2 markets, a college, a free school, and a hospital. Inhabitants 4900, houses 690. Lat. 56 9 35 ; Ion. 10 19 35. Gluckstadt, about 20 miles from the mouth of the Elbe, con- tains 800 houses, and 4500 inhabitants. Lat. 53 47 42 N. Long, 9 32 32 E. Tonningen, on the Eyder, is a town of considerable commercial importance. Inhabitants 2000. Inland Xaxngation. The chief inland navigation of Denmark is the canal of Kiel. This canal 20 miles in length, unites the Bay of Kiel, an arm of the Baltic, with the Eyder, which flows into the German sea. Vessels of about 120 tor>* pass it. It was begvm in July, 1777, and finished in 1785. iS'Ianufactures and Commerce. Leather is manufactured for exportation in great quantities, particularly at Altona. The earth- en ware of Aarhuus and Ripen supplies Denmark, and many parts cf Germany. The manufactures of calicoes and cottons, at Co- penhagen, prevent the necessity of importation ; as do those of worsted stockings in Jutland, Ferro, and Iceland. The army is fully supplied with muskets, bayonets and sabres, by a manufac- tory near Elsineur ; 3500 muskets are made there annually. There is a very extensive one of cannon, caimon-balls, salt-petre, and gunpowder, at Frederickswark, near Isefiord Bay. Ribbands and silk stockings are made in great quantities at Copenhagen and Altona. Two thirds of the coarse linen and most of the sail cloth and paper is made in the country, and a considerable part of the woollen cloth ; but almost all the fine linen is imported. The thread lace manufacture of Tondern gives employment to 10,000 hands. The manufactures of Denmark have been nobly patronized by the government. The number of merchant vessels belonging to Denmark in 1799 was 2173, which are employed in trade with Iceland, iDENMARK. 41^ Greenland, the West Indies, the Mediterranean, Great Britain, and other parts of the world. The exports of Denmark consist of corn, horses, oxen, live hog^s, and bacon ; and salt-beef, butter, and cheese, in considerable quan- tities, besides the various ynanufajctures already mentioned. The- great tradin;^ places are Copsnhagen, Altona, Elsineur, Aalborg, Flensbor^, Gluckstadt, and Colding. Climate and Seasons. Denmark proper, may be considered as possessing a humid and rather a temperate climate. Yet the win- ter is sometimes of extreme severity, and the sea is impeded with ice. The Sound hasj at times, been crossed by heavy loaded car* riages. Face of the Counthj. The isle of Zealand, exclusive of the windings and indentations of the coast, is a fertile and pleasant country, with fields separated by mud walls, cottages either of brick or white-washed, woods of beech and oak, vales, and gentle hills. The same description will apply to Funen, which Mr. Marshall says is as well cultivated as most of the counties in England. Holstein and Sleswic are also level countries ; Jutland has fertiJe pastures and oitensive forests. The western coast of Sleswic is exposed to the inroads of the German ocean, and is therefore kept imbanked at a very great expense. The country generally is a- greeably diversified with \Voods and lakes. Soil and Agriculture. In Funen, Holstein, and the south of Jutland, the agriculture may be compared with that of England. Ry^t barley and oats arc found every where. But wheat is the great staple of Denmark, great quantities of which are exported; In 1780, the country contained 847,000 sheep. Rivers and Days. The Eyder is navigable for vessels of 120 tons 7 miles aliove Rendsburg, which is 60 miles from its mouth. It falls into the German ocean through the bay of Tonningen. The Elbe bounds Holstein on the S. DANISH ISLANDS. The prime seat of the Danish monarchy having ever been in the isles of Zealand, and Funen, they have been considered in the gen- eral description of the monarchy. The other principal islands in that group are Moen, Falster, Laaland, Langeland, Femeren, AI- sen, and Bornholm, and the Ferro islands. The Fcrro, Faro or Faroes islands are 22 in number, lying be-* tween lat. 6115 and 62 21 N. and extending 67 miles IVom N. to S. and 45 from E. to W. They consist of a group of steep rocks or hills lying so close to each other, that their bases are merely- separated by a brook. Toward the sea they generally terminate; in perpendicular rocks from 1200 to 1800 feet in height. Those declining more gradually have two or three sloping terraces, form- ed by projecting rocks, and covered with grass. Those parts which are arable have no where more than 4 feet depth of soil, ly- ing upon a rocky bottom, often not more than 8 inches ; and often the side£^ are so steep that no earth can remain on thcru. Sevens 53. 41&. SWEDEN teen of these islands are inhabited. They were first peopled- is the 9th century by some Norwegian pirates, who were reduced t®. obedience by Magnus the Good. The population in 1801 was 5265, and tlie revenue in 1790, 639/. 8s. sterling. The inhabitants Ciijoy peculiar freedom. They live principally by fishing. The islands compose 7 parishes, divided into 59 congregations with each its church. There is a clergyman in each parish. The largest income is 251. sterling. At one island it is necessary to hoist the clergyman by a rope from his boat, there being no other landing. There is no schoolmaster in the islands ; parents in- struct their own children. All can read. They are remarkably well instructed in the Christian religion, and often thoroughly ac» quainted with the Bible. The men dress plainly ; the women are fond of ornaments. They are remarkably kind and upright in rases of shipwreck. ^ SWEDEN, Extent. THE kingdom of Sweden, from lat. 55 20 N. to lat. iSg so N. is 1000 miles in length. The average breadth at present is about 220. The number of square miles in Sweden, including Finland, according to Hassel, is* 288,160 ; from which deducting those of Finland, there will remain for Sweden 188,433 square miles. Boundaries. Sweden is bounded N. by Norway; E. partly by Russia, principally by the Baltic ; S. by the Baltic ; W. by the Cattegat, Norway, and, for a small distance, by the Atlantic. Divisions. Sweden is divided into four great districts, or gov- ernments, viy- 1. Gothland. 3. Norland. 2. Sweden Proper. 4. Lapland. Sweden possesses the island of St. Bartholomew in the West-- Indies. Finland, which was formerly a part of Sweden, now belongs to Hussia, Swedish Pomerania, also, a small territory on the coast of Upper Saxony, containing U40 square miles, and 103,345 in- habitants, belongs to this government. ^ Historical Efiochs. The following seem to constitute the chief ^ historical epochs of Sweden ; 1. The early population by the Fins and Laplanders. 2. The conquest by the Goths. 3. The conquest of Denmark by Olaf IL about the year 900. 4. The partial conversion of Sweden to Christianity in the reign ofOlaf Ill.A. D. 1000. 5. The Swedes, discontented with their king, Albert of Meck- lenburg, in 1388 elect as their sovereign Margaret, heiress of Denmark and Norway. Thus ended the Folkungian race : and by the celebrated treaty of Colmar, A. D. 1397, the three king- doms of the north were supposed to be united for ever. But after SWEDEN. -41.9 rthe death of Margaret in 1412, the Swedes began to struggle for ^heir liberty; and in 1449 Karl or Charles VIII. was elected king of Sweden. 6. The struggles between Denmark and Sweden, till the crueJ and tyrannic reign of Christiern II. king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. 7. Tyrants are the fathers of freedom. Gustaf Wase, whom we style Gustavus Vasa, delivers his country from the Danish yoke, after a contest which forms one of the most interesting por- tions of modern history. The revolt may be considered as having ooramenccd when Gustaf appeared at Mora in Dalecarlia, A. D. 1520, and completed three year« afterwards, when he entered Stockholm in triumph. Dissatisfied with the power of the clergy, which had repeattdly subjugated the kingdom to Denmark, this great prince, 1527, introduced the reformed religion, and died in his seventieth year, September, 1560, after a glorious reign of 37 years. 8. The reign of Gustaf Adolph, or Gustavus Adolphus, A. D. 1611 — 1631. Austria, Spain, aiid ilie otlicr Catholic kingdoms, having conspired to extirpate the Protestant religion in Germany, this king was invited to assist the reformed, and carried his victo- rious arms to the Riiine and the Danube. 9. The reign of Charles XI. 16dO — 1697, when the arts and sciences began to floii.rish, and the power of the kingdom was car- ried to its utmost height. Thib reign of solid beneficence was fol- lowed by the calamitous sway of that madman Charles XII. 10. After the weak reign of Charles XII. Sweden sunk into po- litical humiliation ; and is now regarded as little better than a province of France, to which disgrace the Swedish aristocracy as naturally tends as that of Poland. 11. On the lOth of May, 1809, Gustavus IV. the reigning mon- arch, was dethroned, by the intrigues of France. His uncle, the Duke of Sudermania,was appointed to succeed him. Bernadotte, a marshal of France, was soon after elected Crown Prince. Religion. The established religion is the Lutheran. There are 14 dioceses. The revenues of Upsala and Woesteras are a- bout /"lOOO sterling per ann. Those of tiie lowest bishoprics about jCSOO. The subordinate clergy are deans, archdeacons, rectors, and perpetual curates. The parishes are estimated at 2537 ; the curates at 1378; with 134 rectors, 192 inspectors. Some of the parishes are very extensive. Government. The government of Sweden is a limited, heredi- tary monarchy. The supreme power is in the diet, which is com- posed of the king and the states. The king has the command of the army and navy, fills up all commissions, nominates to all civil offices, and appoints the judges of the various courts He alone convenes and dissolves the states, has the disposal of the public money, declares war and inakes peace. The power of making laws and of laying taxes, is ves ed in the diet, and the king can- not do either without the consent of the states. The states are composed of four houses: 1. The House of Nobhi. 2. T/ie Nense 4S0 SWEDEN. of the Clergy. 3. The House of CUizent. 4. The House of FeaS' ants. Pojiulation. The number of inhabitants in Sweden, including Rnland, was, in 1752, 2,215,639 1785, 2,821,669 1760, 2,383,113 1790, 2,864,512 1775, 2,640,177 1795, 3,045,617 1776, 2,671,949 1800, 3,182,139 1780, 2,769,623 The number of males in 1776 was 1,284,989, and of females, ^,386,962. Of the population in 1800, 12,068 were of the order of the nobility ; 16,434 of the clergy ; 7126 students; 1275 of the wholesale merchants ; 17,233 retailers ; 2605 of the manufactur- ers ; 87,434 mechanics ; 19,653 of the seafaring men ; 188,734 of the army and navy ; and 556,581 of other descriptions. The population of the various provinces in 1300 was as follows. Sduare E-iiles. Inhabitants. jpo. on a sqtiare milco Gothland, 41,931 1;454,462 34-7 Sweden Proper, 40,577 653,767 16-1 Norland ik Lapland, 105,925 239,072 2-16 ^'inland, 99,627 834,838 8-38 Sweden, 238,160 3,182,139 II As Finland now belongs to Russia, the population of Sweden j. exclusive of that province, is 2,347,30 1, or about 1 2-5 to the square mile. Army. The Swedish army consists of national and regulas^ troops to the number of 53,025, viz. Cavalry, ... - 12,000 Infantry, - - - - - 34,171 Artillery, - . - . 3,230 Engineers, - - > - 800 Gailey-soldiers, . - - 2,706 Life Guards, - - - - 128 Of these 18,424 are regular troops. A'avy. The fleet in 1308 consisted of 58 sail, viz. Ships of the line, - - - 20 Frigates, - - - - - 16 Brigs, , . - - - 7 Smaller vessels, - - - - 15 These were under the direction of 1 Hijh Admiral, I Admi^Kilv 6 Vice- Admirals, and 1 1 Rear- Admirals. The whole fleet v.as manned by 1500 marines and 7200 sea- Jlicn, with a reserve of 8000 for a time of v.ar ; and carried 2760 cannon. Besides these, the galley fleet consisted of 200 sail in 5 squad- rons, defended by 2706 soldiers. This is called the fleet of the army, and is used in transporting them across the Baltic. Revenue. The revenue in 1 809 is stated by Hassel at 6,000,000. Swedish rix-dollars, which at 5^. sterling, each, is >C 1,500,000 Sterling. This anses chiefly from duties^ royal demesnes, poll' SWEDEN. 421 tax, stamps, taxes on the mines, and the lottery. The expense commonly exceeds the nvenue. The debt in 1807 was 13,233,632 rix-doUars, of which 9,742,642 -was foreign debt, and 3,490,990 domestic. Maimers and Customs, The manners and customs of the supe- rior classea in Sweden are so much tinged with those of the French, that no striking peculiarity can be observed, and even the peasant- ry lave so much vivacity and address, that they have been styled the French of the north. As their alliance with the French has ceased, their raannei s will probably be changed. Language. Tiie language of Sweden is a dialect of the Gothic, being a sister of the Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic. L,iterature. In the last century the name of Linnaeus alone might distinguish the national literature ; and it is joined in natural al history with those of Tilas, Wallerius, Quist, Cronstadt, Berg- man, anci others. In history, Dalin and Lagerbring have distin- guished themselves by a precision and force, which tlie Danes seem to sacrifice to antiquarian discussions. Sweden also boasts of native poets and orators ; and the progress of the sciences is supported by the institution of numerous academics. Jiducation. The Swedes, like the New-Englanders,the Scotch, and the inhabitants of Iceland, Ferro, and Geneva, are universally acquainted with reading and writing. A school is established in every parish for these purposes, and all the inhabitants send their children. A public school is maintained also in each large town, at the expense of the crown, in which boys commonly continue till the 11th or 12th year, when they are sent to the Gymnasia. Of these there are 12, and the boys are here taught Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, the doctrines of the Lutheran Church, and the rudiments of the scicBces. The great body of the Swedish youths pass, through these inbtitulions. At the age of 16 they are usually sent to one of the universities. Of these, there are 3 in Sweden ; that of Lund, in Gothland, that of Upsala, in Sweden Proper, and that of j(^bo, in Finland. That of Lund has 15 professors and 300 stu- dents, and a library of 20,000 volumes. The university of Upsala had upwards of 2000 students in irSO; but in 1800 only 500, There were 21 professors, 6 in theology, 2 in law, 3 in medicine, and 10 in philosophy, besides 7 instructers in the elegant arts. The library is large and valuable. The university of Abo has 16 professors, 300 students, and a library coiitaining 10,000 volumes. Cities and To'-ums. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, stands between a creek, or inlet, of the Baltic sea, and the lake Msler. It occupies seven nnall rocky islandij, and the scenery is truly singular ^nd romantic. Most of the houses are of stone or brick, covered with white stucco ; e:ccept in the suburbs, where several are of wood painted red, as is usual in Sweden. The entrance to the harbor is through a narrow slrait, of somewhat dilTscult access, especially as there are no tides ; and for four months in the year is frozen. It is however, deep, and capable of receiving a great iaumber of vessels. The population of Stockholm in 1800 wau 422 SWEDEN. 75,517, and the houses 4137.* It is in lat. 59 20 31 N. • Son !8 9 50 E. * Upsala stands in the middle of an open fertile plain, and is di> vided into two almost equal parts by the rivulet Sala. The streets are diawn at right angles ; the houses are generally constructed 'ute teeth, small eyes, a low forehead, the nose commonly small, and turned upwards, beard very bushy, hair generally reddish. f The expression of the countenance is gravity, with good nature, or sagacity ; the gait and gestures lively and impassioned. The Russian is patient of hunger and thirst ; and his cure for all dis- eases is the warm bath, or rather vapor bath, in which the heat is above 100° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. l^anguage. The Slavonian is one of the primitive languages of Europe ; and, in its various dialects, more extensively spokeij ithan any of the others. The Russian dialect of the Slavonian is rich sand harmonious. The Roman letters have been adopted by the Slavonian Catholics. '-* Eustaphiev*. | Tooke, ii. 253. 42S RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Literature. The first introduction of literature rriust be ascribea. to Vladimir the Great ; who on his conversion to Christianity in 988, instituted schools, and passed a decree regulating the educa- tion of youth. The Greek language is taught in a few schools. Latin is more common. Many of the cla&sics have been translated, and several of the most approved, published in the original at Petersburg aad Moscow. JLducadon and U/iivcrsides. Russia has six principal universi- ties in the towns of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Charcow, Bazan^ Vilensk and Dcrpt : all which, wilh the exception of the last, are maintained by government, at the annual expense of 625,000 roubles. There are besides, public seminaries, gymnasiums, academies, and schools about 1022 in number, the expense of which is 961,480 roubles a year, so that the education of youth costs the govern- ment altogether 1,586,480 roubles a year, and the number of both sexes receiving instruction is 46,582. The ecclesiastical colleges are not included here, and are 52 in number, containing 382 teachers, 26,781 students, and supported at the rate of 352,555 roubles a year. To these ought to be added the imperial academy of sciences, imperial Russian academy, medical academy, land cadets, artillery cadets, marine cadets, two navigation schools, and 1 for naval architecture, commercial school, school for the orphan children of officers and soldiers, school for pages, for mineralogy, jurisprudence, and the imperial academy of arts ; the annual -expense of which, as well as the number of students are very considerable. Besides these institutions there are many private schools in every province, which are of course omitted. Cities and Torons. Moscow* stands upon the Moskva, a branch of the Occa, a tributary of the Volga, in lat. 55 45 45 N. and lon. 37 38 30 E. It is 26 miles in circumference, and, in 1808, con- tained 600,000 inhabitants, composed of many different nations. It contains also, exclusive of chapels, 484 public churches, with •numerous bells, some immensely large ; one of 128,000 lbs. weight ; another of 288,000 ; and another still larger ef 432,000. Moscow has a university, a monastery, and a foundling hospital. St. Petersburg, the capital of this vast empire, in lat. 59 56 2,1 N. and Ion. 30 25 15 E. stands upon the Neva, the outlet of the Ladoga, close to the guif of Finland. The population in 1808,, 250,000. t The houses are generally of wood. Those of brick are white-washed. Cronstadt is the port of Petersburg, as the Neva is not navigable for large vessels. Peter the Great began the building of Petersburg in 1703. The exports, in 1797, a- mounted to 32,450,911 roubles; and the imports to 19,366,059. 1053 ships arrived in 1798. Riga stands on the Dwina, in lat. 56 56 32 N. Ion. 24 8 E. and is, except Petersburg, the most commercial town in the empire. * We describe this city as it existed before its destruction JD 1813. ^ JJvstapbievs. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 429 Population 30,000. The Dwina is navigable foi' large vessels, and is here 2500 feet wide. The exports in 1805 v/ere 6,392,422 roubles; the imports 1,422,717. Astrachan, and Rasan, are next in population, each containing 30,000 inhabitants. Wilna, on the Wilia, a branch of the Niemen ; in lat. 44 41 2 N. Ion. 25 22 E. ; was formerly the chief town in the grand dutcby of Lithuania. It contains a universiiy, and 20,900 inliabit- ants.* Inland JVavigation. The celebrated canal of Vishnei Voloshok forms a communication between Astrachan and Petersburg. The navigation is performed according to the season of the year, in from a fortnight to a month, and it is supposed tliat near 4000 ves- sels pass annually-t The canal of Ladoga extends from the river Volkhof to the Neva, a space of 85 miles, and communicates with the formtr canal. By these two important canals constant intercourse is maintained between the northern and southern extrenuties of the tniipue. Another canal leads from Moscow to the river Doii, Icrmnig a communication with the Euxine ; and the canal of Cronsiadt forms a fourth. Manufactures atid Commerce. Salt in vast abundance is pro- cured from salt-mines, salt-lakes, and salt-springs. 'Ihe vegeta- ble oils are manufactured extensively. Train-oil is procured in great quantities on the Frozen ocean, and on the Caspian. Ising- glass, a preparation from the air-bladder of the sturgeon, the be- luga, and the sterlet, is made on all the larger rivers, and especial- ly on the Caspian. The Wolga is the chief seat of the manufac- ture oi Xaviar, consisting of the salted roes of large fish. Soap, raw-tallow, and candles, are exported in great quantities. B andy is distilled from corns to the amount of 25 millions of i>,allons. Potash and salt-petre are extensively exported. T.-ie maniifaciure of ntiedicines is extensive, there being about 60 estal>lismc:nts for this purpose. Carpet manufactories are numerous, and those of hats much more so. Russia leather, morocco, sl.ayret;rj, in As- trachan, leather vessels and all the common kinus of leather, are nianufactured in abundance. Powder-mills are numerous. Iron founderies and iron works are found evei-y where, and the articles manufactured are hammers, cannon, anchcHs, nuils, wire, needles, coarse cutlery, lire-asms, and domestic utensils. Copper and brass works, and brass cannon founderies are establishtu in vari- ous places. Gold and silversmiths, jewellers and ciockmakers are numerous in the large towns. The commerce of the Baltic is more considerable, than that of all the rest of the empire. Petersl)urg alone exports to tlie a- mount of 23,757,954 roubles, aiid Riga to tlie amount of 8,985^329. The commerce of the Euxine is now fast increasing. The ex-* ports from all the ports in 1793, amounted to 1,198,695 roubles, and the imports to about 1,500,000. The whole exports on t^e * Hassd. t PhUlips, C2, 29. 4oO RUSSIA IN EUROPE. White, Baltic and Euxine seas amounted in 1793, to 37,328,1'9S roubles. The annual products of the national industry were estimated by Tooke, in 1788, at 300,000,000 roubles. The quantity of money in circulation at that time, was estimated ^t 230,000,000 roubles. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Russia in Europe, pre- sents almost every variety from that of Lapland, to that of Italy. I-'ace of the Country. In so wide an empire the face of the country must also be extremely various ; but the chief feature of European Russia consists in plains of a prodigious extent, rivalling in that respect the vast deserts of Asia and Africa. In the south are some extensive stepjiesyoi- dry and elevated plains, such as that above the sea of Azof, in length about 400 English miles. The numerous and majestic rivers also constitute a distinguish- ing feature of this empire. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is also extremely diverse, from the chilling marshes which border the White and Frozen seas, to the rich and fertile plains on the Volga. The most fertile is that between the Don and the Volga. Pasturage is so abundant that the meadows are little regarded, and the artificial production of grasses is scarcely known. Some of the meadows are watered, and produce large crops of hay, the dry pastures yield a short, but nutricious produce, and in a few of the steppes the grass will at- tain the height of a man, and is seldom mown. Agriculture is hardly known in the northern parts of the govern- ments of Olonetz, and Archangel; but in the central parts of the empire has been pursued from time immemorial. In the north rye is most generally cultivated ; but in the middle and the south- ern regions, wheat ; barley is a general produce, a swell as oats and millet. Rice succeeds well in the vicinity of Kislear. Hemp and 'flax form great objects of agriculture, also tobacco. Bees are not known in Siberia, but form an object of great attention in the Uralian forests. Kiv^s. The Wolga has already been described. The Nieper or Dnieper, the largest river that runs wholly in European Russia, has a course of about 1200 miles, and is the scene of an extensive commerce. The Don, which enters the Sea of Azof, has a very gentle cur- rent ; a water water whitish and turbid, but not unwholesome ; a bed Ibrmed of sand, marl, and lime ; and here and there broad sand- tjanks and islands. The Bog empties at Oczakow, and its length is about 400 miles. The Niester pursues a S. E. course, of about 600 miles, and falls into the Euxine at Akerman. The Dvvina, or Duna, runs S. W. and N. W. about 500 miles to the Gulf of Riga. It is evefy where navigable. The Neva eu^plies into the head of the gulf of Finland. Its length ia about 450 miles. The commerce on tliis river is of im- .menie value to Petersburg. POLAND. 43 i Lakes. These are Ladoga, Onega, and Enara which have al- ready been described. Mountains. The chain of Olonetz runs in a direction almost due N. for the space of 15°, or about 900 German miles. The Uralian chain has already been described. Mineralogy. Peter the Great was the founder of the Russian mineralocjy, by the institution of the College of Mines in 1719. The control of this college extends over the empire. The gold mine of Beresof, near Ekatcrinenburg, on the Ural, employs 2000 workmen ; and at present, yields annually from 7 to 8 nood of pure gold, valued at from 70 to 80,000 roubles. The wiiole produce from 1754 to 1788, was 120 pood, valued at 1,200,000 roubles. The Silver mine of the Schlangenburg is one of the richest ever known. The produce of these mines from 1745 to 1787 was valued at 30,000,000 roubles. The whole expense only 7,000,000- roubles. The silver and lead mines of Nerlschinsk in Dauria near the Amour, from 1704 to 1787 produced silver and gold, both, valued at 10,000,000 roubles. The co/ifier mines in the Ura- lian chain, had, in 1779, 60 founderies, containing 229 furnaces,, and yielded, in 1782, 190,752 pood of copper. A copper mine in the Altai yielded in 1782, 18,793 pood. The value of both was about 2,000,000 roubles. The iron mines in the Ural chain yield- ed, in 178'^., 3,940,000 pood of iron ; wiiich, added to the product of the mines of Siberia and Olonetz, made a total of about 4,500,000 roubles. In 1793 the manufactured and unmanufactured iron ex- ported amounted to 3,033,249 pood, valued at 5,204,125 roubles. Lead is found in all the mines, particularly in those of Nert- achinsk, and the Altai. The product of the former is about 30,000 pood. .Arsenic is found in all the mineral mountains. ./Ijiiimony is abundant in the Nertschinsk mines, and zinc ore in those of the Altaian. Quicksilver has been found in Nertschinsk and near Ochotsk. RUSSIAN ISLES. Nova Zembla, whose northern point is in lat. 77 N. is separat- ed from the northern shoi'e of Europe,.by the sliaights of Weygat,. It is said to consist of 5 islands. The number of square miles, a& given by Hassel, is 125,264. The island nearest the shore is. call- ed Weygatz, on the maps. Nova Zembla is uniniiabitcd. Kalgueva, or Colguef, is a much smaller island, lying at no great distance east of the mouth of the White sea. POLAND. BEFORE its dismemberment, Poland was in size the second country in Europe ,-^its length being about 700 miles and its breadth 680. It lay between 15° and 34° E. and between 46° SO' and 432 PRUSSIA. 57° 35' K. The Dwina and tlie Nieper separated it from Russia, the Niester from Turkey, and the Carpathian mountains from Hunp;ary. Lithuania, the northeastern part of Poland, was formerly an inde- pendent state with the tiile of a Grand Dutchy. In 1569, it was made an integ^ra.1 part of Poland, and the king of Poland was con- stituted ex-officio the i^rand duke of Lithuania. Ahout 1329 Gedimin, i^rand duke of Lithuania, conquered from Rubsb, Smolensk, Polotsk, Tver, Witepsk, and Kiow, with the Slobodian Ukraine east of the Nieper. Several of these were re- conquered in 1477. About 1600 Russia lost to Poland Smolensk, Mohiiew and Tschernigow. Kiow and the Ukraine were I'eclaim- ed by Russia in 1655 ; at the first disjmemberment in 1773, Smo- lensk, Witepsk, Mohiiew and Polish Livonia. In 1793 the second divi-iion of this country took place between Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; and in 1795 the kins^dom was annihilated. By the fi^st partition in 1773, Russia gained about 1,500,000 in- habitants, Austria 2,500,000, and Prussia 860,000. By the final partition, Russia plained 4,592,544, Aijstria 2,075,686, and Prus- sia 1,037,742. The whole gain of Russia was therefore about 6,100,000 ; that of Austria 4,600,000; and that of Prussia 1,900,000; making a total of about 12,500,000 inhabitants. The territory ac- quired by Russia was far the most extensive ; that of Prussia the most commercial. The Poles were divided into four classes, nobles, clergy, citi- zens, and peasants. All who possessed freehold estates, and all who were descended from such were nobles. The clergy were numerous and amenable to the civil power. The burghers were the inhabitants of towns ; they had no right to vote for the nuntios. The peasants were slaves, transferable like cattle from one master to another. The Poles are said to be the handsomest nation in Europe, Their law of divorce and various other causes had however before the final dismemberment greatly corrupted their morals. PRUSSIA. THIS kinpdoni, whi?4i only commenced with the eighteenth century, by 5;)adual accessions became so extensive, as deserved- ly to rank till lately among the first powers of Europe. Tl>e do- minions of Prussia were srnall and scattered, till the acquisition of Silesia, and afterwards of a third part of Poland, gave a wide basis to the monarchy. But in 1807 it was reduced to the level of a petty German jjrincipality. Extent. The teriitories of Prussia, before the acquisitions in Poland, were estimated at 56,414 square miles, with a population of 5,621,400. Prussia now reaches from the Elbe, near Magdeburg, to the Niemen. Its seacoast on the Baltic is entire except the district of PRUSSIA. iH t)aniiic. The acquisitions from Poland are all lost. Its present breadth from the Baltic to the boundaries ot" Russian and Saxon Poland is from 90 to 100 miles. lis possessions from the southern limit of Silesia to the mouth of the Oder are still uninterrupted ; as are those from the Elbe across the Vistula to Polangen. On the Vistula it reaches S. to Sch-.vetz and the mouth of the river Bro. But Culm ancj Thorn are in Saxony. The present extent in square miles is 62,612. The losses amounted to 58,705. Di-uisions. These with the population are stated by Hassel in 1809 as follows : Provincii. Sqimre Miles.. Poi)xdation (itj cemus, Estimntcd dl>, i-i 1808. ~ 1. Prussia Pkoper. 1 East Prussia 8,964 555,14; 2 Lithuania 6,466 397,889^.1802 3 West Prussia 9,074 52-1,; :} 24,504 1,477,605 1,478,000 2. DuTCHY OF Silesia. 1 Lower Silesia 9,008 2 Upper Silesia 5,458 601,128^1802 3 Glatz 636 OlLhiSlA. 1,202,061 1 601,128 y 101,919 J 15,102 2,021,059 in 1805 52,050,000 5. DuTCHY OF POMERANIA. 1 Farther Pomerania 1,783 ^ iftn=? 'joj. -il ' ta'; nnn 2 Hither Pomerania 7,907 5 ^^°^' ^^"^'"^^ ^^^'°°^ 9,690 4, March of Bhadsnburg. 1 Middlemark with Bees- ? ^ , , „ , , ^^,"1 1 1 c. 1 ?• 5,512 5 4.927 ko^y and Storkow 3 ' ^ . < ! .^^rf 2 Pregnitz 1,321 82,540 ^^^3 3 Uckermark 1,255 88,160j 1 Kurmark 8,083 685,627 686,000 2 Newmark 4,159 284,310(1803) 285,000 3 East Magdeburg 1,079 '' 58,000 13,316 1,029,000 Totalj 62,612 5,030,000 Religion.^ The religir.n of Prussia is the protestant, under its two chief divisions of Lutheran and Calvinistic. The universal toleration wisely embraced by the Prussian monarchs, has had its usual effect of abating theological enmity, and the different sects seem to live in perfect concord. Government, cotton, and silk.* But tlie most piecious branch of commerce consisted in spices and drugs, brought from the settlements in the East Indies ; and the Dutch East India company was, for a con- siderable time, the greatest mercantile firm in Europe. The fishery in the northern seas, and even on their own and the En- glish coasts, was also an object of great commercial importance. Latterly perhaps the chief advantage was derived from Holland being the grand deposite of commerce between Great Britain and the continent, particularly Germany and France. Tlie inland trade with Germany, by the canals and the Rhine, is almost the on- ly branch which has escaped the ravages of war. Of this the most remarkable feature consists in the vast floats of timber, which arrive at Dort from Andernach, and other places on the RliinCj whose copious stream received the trees of the German forests. Climate and Seasons. The air of Holland is always moist and cold. Strangers complain of it as unhealthy ; but the natives en- joy more than commonly firm and vigorous constitutions. The phlegm of the Dutch character is thought to be in a great measure attributable to their climate. Face qf the Country. The coast is every where flat and sandy ; and so low, that the inhabitants have been obliged to build dykes. or mounds along a great part of it to prevent inundations from the ocean. They are usually 25 feet in height and 25 ells in thick- ness. The coast of the small province of Zealand alone, is dyked to the extent of 40 miles, at an original expense of y^340,000 ster- ling. Holland, Friesiand, Groningen, and East Fricslaiid are similarly defended. The general face of the interior is that of a large marsh that has been drained. Much of the surface is below the level of the sea. Soil and Jgricultiire. The agriculture of such provinces can- not be expected to be consideral)le, tiie land being mostly under pasturage, except a few crops of madder, and tobacco, which are cultivated with great predilection.! The pasturat;es in the north of Holland, especially those of Bernster, and in Friesiand, supply- such quantities of excellent buaer, as to become a staple article of commerce. Bays. The Zuyder Zee is a great bay of the German ocean setting up from the N. into the United Provinces. It is of a wind- •* Marshall.vol.i. 225— 255. t Marshall, i. 264, 55 442 NETHERLANDS. ing irregular figure, and has a circuitous length of about 1213 miliea?' It abounds in shoals and flats. The northern branch of the Rhine; called the Issel, falls into the S. E. part of this sea, near Campen. The convmon estuary of the Scheldt, the Meuse, and the two southern branches of the Rhine, is a broad bay, setting up from the W- between Holland and Dutch Flanders. Rivers. The Rhine borders Switzerland for the space of 250 miles. From Basil it runs N. E. to Spire, and thence N. W. to the ocean. From its northern bend to its entrance into Holland it is the present boundary between Germany and France. Its principal tributaries are the Aar from Switzerland, the Neckar, the Mayn, the Lahn, and the Lippe from Germany, and the Moselle- from France. As it enters Holland it divides at Schenkan Schans. The southern branch, the Wahal, pursues a southwesterly course, mingles with the Meuse at the small island of Voorn, separates from it, and joins it again at Warcum. The united stream flows into the ocean, after passing the islands of Holland and Zealand^ The northern branch, retaining the name of the Rhine, runs N. about 10 miles, and again divides near Arnheim. The right branch, called the Issel, flows N. and falls into the Zuyder Zee at Campen. The left branch, still called the Rhine, runs west- ward to Wyck, where it divides a third time. The larger branch, called the Lech, runs S. of W. and joins the Wahal and Meuse at Crimpe. The other called the Old Rhine, and anciently the chief arm of the river, runs N. W. by Utrecht, Woerden and Leyden, and loses itself in the sand a few miles from this latter city, and at a small distance from the German ocean. The whole length of the Rhine is about 800 miles. The Meuse rises in France near the sources of the Seine, the. Saone, and the Moselle. Its course is principally northerly, in- ' France and the Netherlands ; and W. in Holland. The mouths of the Scheldt are in Holla';d. The Ems also is now in part a Dutch river. NETHERLANDS. Extent. THE length of the Netherlands, from Dunkirk to the' frontiers of Treves, is about 200 miles, and the breadth about 120o They contain 17,500 square miles. Boundaries. Bounded N. by Holland ; E. by Germany ; S. and S. W. by France ; W- by the German ocean. Divisions. This territory, before the French revolution, com- prised 10 provinces ; and belonged to Austria, the French, and the Dutch. The Netherlands now constitute numerous departments of the French empire. Religion. The established religion was the Catholic, but Prc-^ testants were unmolested. There was one archbishopric at Ma- lines, and 9 or 10 bishoprics. NETHERLANDS. U3 ■Fofiulation. According to the Imperial Almanac of 1 SOS, the ■-ijopulaiion of the Netherlands amounts to 4,140,235. Muiiners and Customs. The Flenungs on the frontiers of Holland dress like the Dutch boors, and are scarcely distinguish- able from them in character or appearance. The inhabitants of French Flanders on the contrary, have much of the French vivac- ity, and dress like thtii- southern neiglibors. U7iivcrsities. Thcbc were at Louvani, Tournay, Douay, and St. Omer. yJrts. The Flemish painters and sculptors have great merit, and form a school by themselves. The works of Rubens and Vandyke will not be iorgotten. The Flemings formerly engross- ed tapestry weaving tu themselves. They liave invented various valu.iblc iiianufactures. Citits and Towns. Brussels, in Austrian Brabant, stands partly on a lull, and partly in a valley, on the banks of tl>e Senne, a branch ©t the Scheldt, ano is said to be seven nules in circumterence. Its camlet and tapestry were formerly in high estimation, and its lace and its carpets are known all over the world. It contained, in 1802, 66,2y7 hiliabitants. Before the revolution,. Brussels was the capital ot the Austrian Netlieriands. Aiiiwerp is built m a large plain, on the east bank of the Scheldt, lis population, in 18u3, was 56,318 souls. About two centuries and a half ago Antwerp was the most commercial city in the world. In 1543, it contamed accordhig to Guicciardini, 100,000 inhabitants. When the Dutch revolted from Spain, they destroyed the commerce of this city, by sinking obstructions in the channel of the river. Ghent, in Austrian Flanders, is built at the conflux of the Scheldt, the Lys, and the Lieve ; and was in the time of Charles V. a large, strong, and splendid city. It has cloth, linen, and silk manufac- tures, and its trade is greatly facilitated by several excellent ca- nals. It contained, in 1802, 55,161 inhabitants. Lisle, m French Flanders, stands in a rich marshy plain on the Dtule, and was fortified by Vauban. Its citadel is thought the strongest in Europe, except that of Turin. The inhabitants carry on a variety of manufactures, and in 1802, amounted to 54,756. Bruges, in Austrian Flanders, is built at a small distance from the German ocean. In 1808, it contained 33,632 inhabitants. Tournay, in Austrian Flanders, the most ancient town of the Netherlands, said to have been built 600 years betore our Saviour, stands upon tbe Scheldt, neur the frontier of these provinces. It contauied,in 1802, 3800 houses, and 21,349 inhabitants. Dunkirk, in French Flanders, er the church on the donvns, is a large maritime tov-n with one of the best harbors on the coast. The strength of its fortifications, and the fact that it is the key of the Netherlands, have rendered it the object of perpetual conten- tion among the varioijs powers of Europe. Few towns have had so many masters, or suffered so often or so much from sieges and 444 NETHERLANDS. bombardnieuts. It contained, in 1802, 1800 houses, and 21,158 inhabitants. Manufactures and Commerce. The manufactures and com- merce ot" the Netherlands, for a long period superior to any in the west of Europe, have suffered a radical and total decline. Yet of the manufactures a few fragments remain : Cambray, is still re- nowned for the cambrics which thence derived their name. But the chief manufactures are of fine linen, and laces, at Mechlin, Brus- sels, Ghent, Antwerp, and Louvain, which still enrich the cou\ury around, and induce the farmers to cultivate flax, even on the poor- (fst soils.* Climate. The climate is equally moist, but less cold than that of Holland. It considerably resembles that of the south of Eng- land, though the seasons are more regular. The vine is cultivat- ed with success at Luxemburg. Face of the Country. Flanders is one uniform level, in which the rivers and the canals are scarcely distinguishable. Farther cast the country is pleasantly diversified with hills and valleys, 2jieadows, fields, and forests^ Soil and Agriculture. The soil is in general a rich sandy loam, sometimes interspersed with fields of clay, but oftcner with large tracts of sand. The agriculture of the Netherlands lias been cel- ebrated for 600 years, ever since their commerce and ^nanuhic- lures were extensive. They were long considered the g;jiden of Europe ; a praise which they still share with England and Loni- bardy. Flax is a great source of riches to the country. The but"- ter and cheese equal those of Holland. R'mers. The Scheldt rises in France, and runs N E. to Ant- werp, and thence, N. W. to the German ocean. About 15 naJes below Antwerp, it divides into numerous branches, which tnconi- pass tte islands of Zealand. The length of this river is about 150. miles. The Lys rises in France, near Lysburg, and runs N. E, to the Scheldt, which it joins at Ghent. The Dender falls into the same river at Dendermonde. The Dyle unites with the Scheldt at Niel, after receiving the Derme, the Senne, and the Nette. The Meuse has been described. The Sambre runs N. E. to Namur, where it falls into the Meuse. The Moselle runs through Luxemburg, into the Rhine at Cob*. lentz. ♦ Marshall, ii. ^% FRANCE. Ui FRENCH EMPIRE. THIS newly acquired, powerful, and, as is now believed, short- livco empire, is at present divided as follows : Square Miles. Populatiou. 1. North East France 70,790 13,910,727 2. North West France 73,740 9,833,090 3. South Wesi France 61,135 7,279,891 4. South East France 38,705 5,327,279 244,270 36,550,987 The kingdom of Holland 1 2,662 2,00 1 ,4 1 6 256,932 38,352,403 The particulars under these grand divisions, may be seen ir. the American Universal Geography, vol. ii. p. 249. edit. 1812. FRANCE. Boundaries. WHAT was France before the revolution was bounded W. by the bay of Biscay; N- W. by the Enj^iish chan- nel ; N. E. by the Netherlands ; E. by Germany, Switzerland and Italy ; S. E. by the Mediterranean ; and S. W. by Spain. The subsequent annexation of Holland and the Netherlands makes the bay of Biscay, the English channel, and the German ocean, the western boundary ; and the German ocean the northern. The ad- ditions in the S. E. have still left Italy a part of the tabiern boundary. Exteiit. The length of France, in 1790, from Calais to the Pyrenees, was 620 miles ; and its greatest breadth from Cape St ]VIahe to the Rhine, 560. It extended from 42 10 to 51 N; and from 4 40 W. to 7 30 E. Its contents were, according to Hassel, exclusive of the islands Corsica and Elba, 187,385 square miles, or- 119,926,400 acres; while Neckar made them 205,816 square miles, or 131,722,295 acres. The extent of France in 1809, when the Netherlands, all of Germany west of the Rhine, the little terrif tory of Geneva, and the western part of Italy had been added, is stated at 244,270 square miles. If to this sum we add the square miles in Holland, we shall have a grand total of 256,932. The present length of France, from the Pyrenees to the north coast of Holland, is 796 miles. Historical EfiQchs. 1. The possession of the country by the Celtae, the Belgae, and the Aquitani. 2. The conquest by CJassar, in the year 54 B. C. and the subse- quent dopijnion of the Romans. >446 FRANCE. S. The establishment of the Merovingian line of kings in 4:4&v and the complete ovti throw of the Roman power by Clovis, grand- son of Mcrovaeus, m 487. Nine years afterwards the Francs, with Clovis, were converted to Christianity. 4. The elevation of Pepin, the head of the Carlovingian race, in 75 i ; followed 20 years afterwards, by the celebrated reign of Charicmai^ne ; who subdued that part of Spain which lies north of the Ebro, Italy north of Calabria, the whole of Germany, and a part of Hungary. He was the founder of the German empire, and was crowned in the year £00. 5. The accession of the house of Capet, in 987, which, till then, had born the title of Counts of Paris. 6. The Crusades, in which the French acted a conspicuous part, in the iSth century. 7. The wars of the English in France, and the temporary con- quest of the country by Henry V. in 1421. These wars continued from 1357 to 1450. 8. The accession of the house of Valois, a collateral branch of the house of Capet, in 1328. 9. The reign of Louis XI. beginning 1461. He rendered the monarchy absolute. 10. The civil wars with the protestants, and the massacre of St» Barthelemy, in 1571. 1 1. The accession of the house of Bourbon, a second collateral branch of the liouse of Capet, in the person of Henry IV. justly styled the Great, in 1588. 12. The reign of Louis XIV. often styled the Augustan age of France. 13. The French revolution, which ccmmenced 1789. 14. The erection of France into an empire, and the accession of the family of Bonaparte, Dec. 2d, 1804. Reiigton. In 1800, during the consulate of Bonaparte, the cath- olic religion was reestablished ; but the various sects of protest- ants were tolerated. France M'as divided into 10 archbishoprics ; that of Paris, containing 8 bishoprics ; that of Malines, containing 7 ; Eesanron, 5 ; Lyons, 4 ; Aix, 4 ; Toulouse, 5 ; Bordeaux, 3 ; Bourp-es, 3 ; Tours, 7 ; and Rouen, 4. The church was rendered entirely independent of the pope. The salary for the archbishops ■was fixed at 15,000 livres ; that of the bishops at 10,000 ; both are appointed by the government. The bishops aj^point the Cures. The Calvinistic churches, at the same time, were placed unde." the direction of consistories and synods. A consistory was established for every 6000 souls of this denomination, and 5 consistories form- ed the district of a synod. There is a seminary at Geneva for the education of the Calvinistic clergy. The Lutheran churches were committed to local consistories, having a jurisdiction equally ex- tensive with those of the Calvinistic churches ; inspections, hav- ing jurisdiction over 5 consistories ; and 3 general consistories : one at Strasburg, for Augsburg and the departments of Upper and I^ower Rhine ; a second at Mentz, for those of Sarre and Mont TTonucrc ; a third at Cologne, for those of the Rhine; Moselle, and FRANCE. , 44/ jSbar. A seminary is established in the east of France for tlie ed- ucation of the Lutheran clergy. These various bodies can assem- ble only with permission of the government. As to the present state of the Catholic cinirch, few of the cures are supplied ; and, where cures arc found, tiiey are, in most in- stances, ignorant and profligate. The existing public sciioots fur- nish so few of the means of education for the priesthood, the an- nual stipend of the inferior clergy is so little, and so much of liiat little is withheld, and the morals of the French community are so generally corrupt, that few can be found with the disposition, the courage, or the capacity, to discharge the clerical office. Government. From the time of I.ouis XI. to the death of' Louis XVL the French government had been an absolute mon- archy, administered sometimes with mildness, often with cruelty. During the 14 years of the revolution, the government passed through almost every conceivable form, and at lengt'.i settled into an iron despotism, under Napoleon Bonaparte. This despotism is military in its character, and while it lasts, must depend on the army for its support. The imperial dignity is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, to the exclusion of females and t'leir de- scent. The members of the emperor's family are princes. France is now subdivided irito 1 10 departments, in each of which is a prefect, and several sub-prefects. Their business is mechan- ically to execute the various orders of the government, particular- ly with regard to taxes and the conscription ; and to act as spies- upon the inhabitants. The departments are divided into com- munes. The influence of the emperor is absolute aiid pervades and controls his whole empire. The greiit means adopted by the government, to perpetuate this, system, has been to corrupt, hopelessly, the morals of all the ofli- cers, civil and military ; and then to appeal forcibly to their ava- rice and tlieir love of power. Population. The Imperial Almanac of 1808 states the popu- lation of the whole empire, according to the census of IS07, at 36,350,987. Of these, 26,775,397 belong to old France ; and of the remaining 9,575,600, 4,J40,255 belong to the Net!ierlands ; 5,291,291 to Italy, including that of Geneva; and 2,144,054 to Ciermany. If to these be added the population of IIoll;u:d, that ot the whole F'rcnch empire, as it was in 1811, Mill amount to 38, 352,403. Cy the official returns of the population of the French empire in ]S12, it appears that there were in the ancient provinces of France, 28,785,91 1 souls ; in and the countries annexed to France since the revolution, 13,951,465, making a total of 42,738,377. In old France the number to a square mile is 194-5, and in the united- countries 228-5. Old France contains 147,973 square miles, and- the new departments 61,050.* Colonics. At the commencement of the revolution France haci) ^eiy Talua1)le colonies in the West Indies, in South America, ini •Edlaburgli Christian Instructer, 448 FRAKCE. Africa, and in Asia. At present, all, except St. Domingo, are in the hands of the English. That island forms an independent kingdom. Army. The following is an abstract of the account of the French army, at the close of the year 1807, as given in the Impe- al Almanac of 1 808. Officer^ Privates. Total. General Staff 2,049 2,049 Imperial Guards 847 14,498 15,345 Imperial Gens d'armes 693 16,752 17,445 Infantry 11,439 380,290 391,729 Cavalry 5,234 69,086 72,320 Artillery 2,357 49,937 52,304 Engineers 602 4,186 4,788 Veterans 770 13,180 13,950 Total 22,001 547,929 569,930* The officers of the first column are all commissioned. The second column includes both non-commissioned officers and pri- vates. The army, since 1798, has been raised by what is called the ConHcrijition. This takes effect every year., and includes all the male population from the age of 20 to 25. All of this description are liable to be called into service whenever the goverament di- rects. Those of 20 are drawn out first. The others remain lia- ble, till the end of the 25th year, whenever the quota required is deficient. If these are found insufficient, the conscription age is changed, and youths from 16 to 20, and men of any age, over 25, are demanded. JVavy. Hassel states it, in 1809, at 40 ships of the line, and 30 frigates. It has since been increased. By the annexation of Hol- land CO France she gained 13 ships of the line, and 10,000 seamen. Revenue. Hassel slates the revenue of four years as follows. Francs. Francs. 1803 664,500,000 1805 710,000,000 1804 , 700,000,000 1807 720,000,0001 To the present revenue should now be added that of Holland, amounting to ;C4, 375,000 sterling. The expenditure of tliat year, as estimated by the same authcis equalled the revenue, viz. Interest of national debt 75,159,000 Civil list 28,000,000 Service of the state 616,841,000 720,000,000 * According^ to Herbin, the army of 1802 contained 600,949 men ; the Po- litical Miscellany states that of 1805 at 414,125 ; and Borch says, that that of 1805 amounted to (510,975 effective men. In June, 1811, France had 800,000 «ien under arms— [£.r/>oi£ ofths Minister of the Interien f 30,900,000/, sterling.- FRANCE. 4m The cun-ent money of France used to be computed at ^^90,000,000 sterling, when that of Great Britaui was estimated at ;C40,000,000. Manners and Customs. The French are distinguished for taste and elegance in their houses, furniture, equipage, and dress ; for ease and graccfuhiess of manners ; for quickness of apprehension ; for vivacity and gaiety of temper ; and for a perpetual fondness for amusement and pleasure. This is tlie bright side of the medalo The reverse, painful and distressing before the revolution, is now loathsome and awful. During the revolutionary period of anarchy, the morals of the nation, distmguished for tlieir corruption before, were rendered immensely more corrupt by profligate rulers and profligate literati. The French, as a nation, are at present, by the confession even of sober and discreet Frenchmen, false and faith- less ; revengeful and sanguinar)-. The law of divorces has reu'^ dered marriage the mere cover for prostitution ; and France pre- sents at this moment the picture cf one great common brothel, in which every variety of lewdness is indulged without shame and without restraint. The only liberal education is tiiat for the army ; and the young men of promise and of rank have only this advantage over their inferiors, that they are earlier fitted for scenes of bar- barity and bloodshed. This sanguinary education explams the havoc and the ruin, which every where mark the progress of French arms ; and which have rendered Frenchmen the objects of terror and abhorrence wherever they are known. Language, The French is a corruption of the Latin, with many Gothic and some Celtic v/ords intermixed. It was always a com- manding object with the government to extend tiie French lan- guage and French fashions ; and at this time the language is moro universally diffused than any other in Europe. Its purity has, however, been very much corrupted by the introduction of new and barbarous words and phrases suice the revolution. Literature. The French were long distinguislicd for their at* fenlion to elegant literature : and their researches in mathematical and physical science have been highly respectable. At the pres- ent time science is encouraged, only as it has a tendency tf» pro- mote the views of the government. The attention of the F^ ench savans, therefore is chiefly directed to the mathematics and the va- rious branches of natural history. Hardly a man of learning, in the appropriate sense of the word, is to be found in the nation. The study of the Greek and the oriental languages has been ban- ished from the public schools, and the writers of antiquity are seen only in a French costume. Education. By the imperial decree of April, 1808, tlie various schools, academies, and cf)lleges of France are connected together, and form the Imficrial University. This is composed of as many Provincial Academies., as there are courts of appeal u» the empire. The schools belonging to each academy are arranged in the follow- ing order. I. The Faculties., for the more profound sciences, and for the conferring of degrees. 2. Tlie Lyceums., or Lycess, for the classics, hisioiy, logic, mathematics, and physics. ." Th« 57 450 '. FRANCE".- . . f Colleges, for the elements of the classics, of history, and oF the ■ sciences. 4. Schools kefit by private 7nasters, in which the in- struction approaches that of the colleges. 5. Boarding schools^ where it is less severe. 6. Primary schools, where reading, writ- ing, and arithmetic are taught. The members of the faculties are men of mere science, and those who are soon to be the professors of the inferior institutions. Of the Lyceums there are 45 in the empire. Each has a board of 8 professors, and a library of 1500 volumes, both selected by the government. No books can be in- troduced without the permission of the minister of the interior. Beside the professors, there is an officer, entitled Z' O^cier zw- structeur, who is charged with the military instruction of the pu- pils. They are divided into companies of 25 with each a sm'geant major, a sergeant, and 4 corporals. They assemble at given hours of the day, and go through with all the military evolutions. The students are composed of tl^e children of the wealthy families of France, and of those who are educated at the public expense. The students educated at the public expense, are said to exceed in number those educated by tlieir parents at the Lyceums. The professors are generally persons of slender abilities, and are very miserably supported by their salaries. The buildings appropri- ated to these institutions are in a neglected and mouldering state. The military academies contain about 1 500 young men, all sup- ported by the state. They are selected from the alumni of the Lyceums. The term of instruction is two years. They are sup- plied with the ablest professors, and are in every respect admira- bly organized. They send forth annually a host of accomplished officers, engineers and mechanicians. Citir:s and Towns. The number of large and populous towns- in France is so great, that only a small part of them can be par- ticularly described. Exclusive of those in Holland and the Neth- erlands, there are considerably more than 100 towns iti the empire ■whose population exceeds 10,000. Paris, the capital of the kingdom, is built en an extensive plain on hoth sides of liie Seine, and on three islands in that I'iver, in a healthy and pleasant situation, with delightful environs ; and is said to be 1 1 miles in circumference. It covers a very large free= stone quarry, which has furnished materials for most of the houses, and has been so extensively excavated, that an earthquake migh« easily bury the ciiv. The number of houses is 32,000, from four* to seven stories high, generally iiandsome, and with uniform fronts. The population in 1807, was 547,75 6. There are 12 bridges over the Seine, and 26 fine quays along its banks. There were, before, the revoluiion, 88 churches, 40 chapels, 10 abbeys, 28 priories, and 103 convents, besides numerous hospitals and seminaries. Marseilles is sealed at the foot of a rocky mountain near the sea, and is divided into the old and new town. The liarbor, a par- alielof^iam, with buildings on both sides and one "of the ends, is well defended, capacious, and one of the best in the Mediterrane- an ; but the entrance has not depth of water enough for men of: ■war. Here is a large arsenal, and one of the finest armories in- the kingdom. The population, in 1807, was 96,413. FRANCE. 451 ' Bordeaux is built on the W. bank of the Garonne, about 40 miles • From its mouth. The tide flows quite up to the city ; its port is ample, commodious, and strongly fortified ; and ships of consider- able burden may unload at the quays, which are giand and exten- sive. It is the first commercial town in- France, and formerly it v/as not unusual to see 400 or 500 vessels in the harbor at once. The chief exports were brandy and claret. The population, in 1808, was 90,992. Lyons, at the confiux of the Rhone and the Saone, was the second city in France before the revolution, and is said to have contained 150,000 souls. It was the centre of the inland com- merce in this part of the kingdom, and the scat of t!ie most ex- tensive manufactures. Irreparable injury was done to the city by the jacobin party, in consequence of the fidelity of the inhab- ' itants to the king. In 1802 it had 11,000 houses, and 88,919 in- habitants. Rouen, on the Seine, is a large commercial andmanufaciuiing town. In 1802 it had 84,222 inhabitants. Nantes, en the Loire, is one of the largest trading cities in France. It had; in 1807, 77,162 inhabitants. Toulouse, on the Garonne. It had 50,171 inhabitants in 1S02. Strasburg is the thorou^^hfare between France and Germany, situated at the conflux of the lie and the Ri usch, about a mile from their entrance into the Rhine. Inhabitants, in J 802, 49,056. Cologne, built in the form of a crescent, on t!ie Rhine, is fortifi- ed in the ancient manner. Inhabitants, in 1807, 42,706. Orleans, on the Loire, is one of the most agreeable cities in France. Inhabitants in 1802,41,937. Montpellier stands upon a rising ground fronting the Mediter- ranean, which is about nine miles to the south. Inhabitants, in 1807, 32,723. Metz stands at the conflux of the Seille and' Moselle. In 1 807 it had 32,099 inhabitants. Rheims is situated on the Vesle. Formerly the archbisliop of Rheims was the first peer of France, and always crowned the king. In 18U2, it had 30,225 inhabitants. Toulon, on the Mediterranean, a little east of Marseilles, has an outer harbor, which is large, circular, and surrounded by hilis. The entrance on both sides is defended by a fort with strong bat- teries. Toulon is the only harbor for the navy on the southern coast. Inhabitants, 29,780. Brest is the chief resort of the navy on the western coast. It has two parish churches, a marine seminary, a court of admiralty, and 25,865 inhabitants. The harbor, if we except Toulon, is the largest and safest in the kingdom, and capable of containing 500 ships of war, in 8, 10, and 15 fathoms at lov/ water. Boulogne lies on the English channel, on the declivity, and at the foot of the chalk mountain. It has 10,685 inhabitants. The harbor, formed by the river Liane, is defended at the nxouth by a small fort. The entrance is diflicult. Hei'e lay the flotilla, in 1804 and 1805, prepared for the invasion of Great Britain. 452 FRANCE. Bayonne, st the corner of the bay of Biscay, is a leag-we froiru the sea, on the Nive, which forms a good harbor, with a narrovr and dangerous entrance. The commerce with Spain is valuable. Inhabitants, 13,190. Havre, or Havre de Grace, lies a little north of the mouth of the Seine. The harbor has depth for large vessels, and the water does not ebb, till three hours after full tide, being as it were dam-= sued up by the current of the Seine, which crosses its nttouth. It has 20,620 inhabitants. Inland M:viga(ion, The chief worl:, noticeable under this head^ is the celebrated canal of Languedoc, commenced and completed m the reign of Louis XIV. by Ri([uet, the engineer, under the Siuspices of that able minister Colbert. Fifteen years of labor were employed, from 1666 to 1681. This noble canal begins in the bay of Languedoc ; and at St. Perriol is a reservoir of 595 a- cres of water : it enters the Garonne about a quarter of a mile be- low the city of Toulouse. The breadth, including the towing paths^ is !44 feet ; the depth 6 feet ; the length about 180 inilcs. The expense was more than half a million sterling. Manufactures. For a century extending frora 1650 to 1750,1 Mr.* Young supposes France to have possessed the most flourish- ing manufactures in Europe ; and French writers affect to speak of the English manufactures as being of recent fame. Not to men- tion many others, the silk manufactures of Lynns were estimated ^o employ 60,000 people, the looms being computed at 12,000. €o7nmerce. By the account for 17*4, which did not include the provinces of Lorrain a.nd Alsace, nor the West-Indiaa trade, the statement was Total exports, 307,151,700 livres. — —imports, 271,565,000 Balance, 35,786,700 or ;Cl»565,668 sterling. At present France has no commerce on the ocean. Climate and Seasons, Mr. Young divides the country Uito four climates. A line passing from Heibignac, a town a little north of the mouth of the Loire, nearly straight through Beaujnorit, Cler- mont, and Couci, to the Rhine, will leave a tract to the N. W. caiJ- ed the northern climate, in which tlie vine v^i'll not grow. It is, considerably warmer than England, but equally moist ; and pro- duces a great variety of fine fruits. The itine climate is a sj)ace in- cluded between this and a line passing nearly parallel with the oth- er, from the mouth of the Garonne, through Ruffec and Luneviile. This is the pleasantest. The air is light, pure, and elastic ; and ihe sky is generally clear. The summers are not fervid, and the winters are mild. The raaize climate is broader. Its southern, boundary is a line passing Irom the Pyrenees through Carcassonne and Grenoble to the Alps. The vine also grows here luxuriantly. The tract S. E. of this line is called the oiive climate. It is much ^h© sjnaUest, and in the summer season is crowded with myriads of * Young's Francci i, SS,&. ERANCE^. 453 flies. Both vines and maize grow here abundantly. This division of France, which, with here aiKl there a set-off, is strictly accurate, points out the eastern side of the kint^dom, as 2^ degrees ot lati- tude hotter than the western, or at least more favorable to vcgetitv lion. Face of the Countrij. France, north of the mountains of h\\-^ vergne, and west of the range of the Vosges, may be called au uneven country ; but is no Avhere mountainous. The surface is every where sufficiently varied to render the prospects interesting. Between the Pyrenees and the mountains of Auvergne, lies aii ex-? tensive tract of the same description, reaching from llie ocean tq the Rhone. Limosin surpasses every province of France in beauty. Hill, dale, wood, inclosure, streams, lakes, and scattered farms are minglfd into a thousand delightful landscapes. The bankb of the Seine for 200 miles from its mouth, and of the Loire as high as Angers, are also eminently beautiful. The course of the Soane is marked by a noble tract of meadows. The country east of the Rhone presents many pleasing scenes, and the course of the Lere is a scene of perpetual beauty. The Pyrenees are the most strik- ing of the mountains, and their verdui-e, their woods, their rocks, and their torrents have all the characters of the sublime and beau- tiful. Soil and Agriculture. The north part of France is a rich calca- reous plain, having a loam of considerable depth, and of an ad- mirable texture. Farther W. the land is pour and stony. The S. W. part of the kingdom from Auch to Bayonne is indifferent ; but the plain of the Garonne and its branches has a dee]), mellow, friable, sandy loam, with sufficient moisture for any culture : much of it is calcareous. The east provinces are calcareous, but less uniformly rich than the northern. Lower Poitou ai d Alsace are eminently fertile. The tract between the Mediterranean and the Cayennes mountains is of the same description. The agriculture of France is greatly behind that of England, About one third of the country is divided into little farms, too small to support their proprietors. Ri-vers. The Rhine, till J.ately a boundary of France, but since the annexation of Holland, running for a considerable extent through it, has already been described. Of the otiier rivers there are four of considerable size ; the Seine, the Loire, the GaroniiC and the Rhone. The Loire passes Orleam;, and thence S. of W. to the ocean. Its whole length is upwards of 500 miles. The Rhone, a noble and rapid stream, rises in Mount Furca^ about 5400 feet above the sea. It winds about 90 miles westward, through the vale, called the Vallais, and enters the Geneva lake near its eastern extremity. From the western end its course is S. W. to Lyons, Its direction is S. from Lyons to the gulf of Lyon.s, ■which it enters by several mouths. Its length exceeds 400 miles.. The Garonne rises in the Pyrenees, and runs N. W. to the bay of Biscay. About 12 miles below Eourdeaux it is joined by the l^ordogne, from the N. E. and for the remainder of its course. N.,M. FRANCE. vibout 28 miles, it is called the Gironde. Its length is 30O miles. The canal of Langiiedoc connects it with the Aude. The Seine is of about equal leng;th with the Garonne. Rising near Saint Seine, it runs in a N. W. direction to the English chan- nel, and is the most beautiful stream in France. The Somme runs by Amiens and Abbeville to the English chan- nel. Tiie Adour empties below Bayonne. The Var falls into the Mediterranean about 4 miles west of Nice. Mountains. Mont Jura, a vanguard of the Alps, forms a boun- dary between France and Swisserland. Ihe grand chain of the Cevennes run from N. to S. and sends out branches towards the E. and W. The MontsD'Or form the cen- tre, and are the highest mountains in France. The chief elevation is that of the Puy de Sansi, which rises about 6300 feet above the jevel of the sea. The Pyrenees remain t»D be described. Mont Perdu is consid- ered as the highest elevation of the Pyrenees, ascending above the sea about 1 1,000 feet. Other noted heights are Marbore, the Pic de Midi, the Niege Veiile, See. The Pyrenean chain appears at a -distance like a shaggy ridge, presenting the segment of a circle fronting France, and descending at each extremity till it disappear in the ocean and Mediterranean. Mineralos^ij. There are silver mines in Alsace, and in the de- partment of the Upper Rhine. The same district and others also contain mines of copper. The dutchy of Deux Fonts, on the west ^ of whom they are obliged to furnish 1 16,750 men as a contingent to the French emperor, the head of the confederacy, whenever its principles are infringed upon by oti.er nations. W^hat proportion * In the year 1792, " at the Easter fair, (there is another not so productive at Michaelmas) weie published 2227 new books, inclusive of 468 continuations, 194 new editions, and 154 translations, most of them in the Belle Lettres, Geog- raphy, History, and Physic." Trofetsir EMirg's letter to the auth»r. 58 458^ GERMANY. of the Austrian, Prussian, and Danish troops is derived from Ger- many, we are unable to state. Revenues. The whole Kcvenue of the confederation of the Hhine is stated by Hassel, at 94,193,000 guilders. The Austrian revenues derived from Germany are not less than 50,000,000 ; the Prussian 20,500,000, and those of Holstein about 1,300,000; mak- ing a total of 165,793,000 guilders annually yielded by Germany. Face of the Country. To the N. of the Mayn, Germany chiefly presents wide sandy plains, which seem as if they had been, in the first ages of the world, overwhelmed by the sea. A few hills be- gin to appear in the neighborhood of Minden ; and in the south of the Hanoverian dominions arise the most northern mountains of Germany, those of Blocksberg, and others in the Hartz. To the S. W. are the mountains of Hessia, and others, extending towards the Rhine : while on the east the rich and variegated country of Saxony, one of the most beautiful and fertile in the empii-e, extends to the southern limits of the mountains of Erzgeberg, abundant in mines and singular fossils. The regions to the south of the Mayn may be regarded as rath- er mountainous. Rivers. Both portions are v/atercd by numerous and important rivers. In the north the Elbe is the most distinguished stream, rising in the Sudetic mountains of Silesia; and, after running S. for about 50 miles, it suddenly assumes its destination of N. W. receives the Bohemian Muldo and Eger, the Mulda and Sala of Saxony, and the large river Havel from the east, and enters the sea near Cuxhaven, after a comparative course of more than 500 miles. The chief citit s on the banks of the Elbe are Dresden, Meissen, Wittenberg, Magdeburg, from which it runs almost a solitary stream to Hamburg. The tide is perceived to the height of 22 miles ; and, when raised by the north wind, middle sized vessels may arrive at Hamburg, but they are in general obliged to anchor a mile below the city.* Not far to the W. is the mouth of the Weser, which first re- ceives that name when its two sources, the Werra and the Fulda, join near Munden in the principality of Calenburg, about 16 miles S. W. of Gotthigen. The principal towns on this river are Be- vern, Minden, and Bremen. The inundations of the Weser are terrible, the adjacent towns and villages seeming to form islands in the sea : hence the shores are esteemed unhealthy. The Danube has already been described. The Necker is a tributary stream of the Rhine, rising in the Black Forest, not far from, the Danube, and running a picturesque- course of about 150 miles through a country variegated with vine- yards. Lakes. In the dutchyof Mecklenburg, the lake of Plau extends under various names about 25 miles in length, by 6 in breadth. The lake of Constance is the most distinguished expanse of water, described under Svvisserland. Next is the sea of Bavaria, 14^ miles by 5 in size. * Buschbg vi. 16. GERMAN STATES. 45^ Mountains. The most northern mountains in Germany are those of the Hartz. These rise in the form of an amphitheatre, the highest being what is called the great Biocksberg. But the most celebrated mountains, in that part of Germany which lies to the N. of the Mayn, are the Erzgeberg, or Metallic mountains, running between Bohemia and Saxony, but supplying both countries with silver, tin, and other metals. Among the German mountains to the S. of the Mayn, may be named the Bergstrass, passing from near Manheim to the vicinity of Frankfort, the mountains of Wurtemburg, and those of the Black Forest, whence the source of the Danube. The southeast of this portion of Germany is bounded by the high mountains of Bavaria and Salzia or Salzburg ; being branches of the Swiss Alps. -GERMANIC STATES. THE constitution of the Germanic body, the only semblance of union between its various sovereignties, has lately been dissolved ; but its numei'ous divisions still remain ; and the same disunion will probably prevail, until its various states are imited under a common government. Of these Austria and Prussia claim sepa- rate heads. The others will be described under the two following divisions. •GERMAN STATES NORTH OF THE MAYN. 1. THE kingdom of Saxony is the most powerful state in this ilivision of Germany. It is one of the modern kingdoms, having been merely an electorate, till the peace of Tilsit, when it received a large addition from Prussian Poland, called the dutchy of War- saw. It now comprises 56,970 square miles, with a population of 4,363,000. Saxony Proper, lies N. W. and N. of Bohemia and reaches from the head of the Weser, to that of the Oder. It is about 220 milcK from E. to W. and 130 from N. to S. The kint^dom comprises the following territories. 1. Old Saxony, containing 11,485 square miles, and 1,612,000 inhabitants, and divided into 1 1 counties. 2: Margrave of I.ausitz, or Lusatia, containing 4915 square miles, and 474,000 inhabitants ; and divided into Upper Lusatia, and Lower Lusatia, with Korbus. 3. Dutchy of Wai'saw, containing 40,570 square miles, 2,277,000 inhabitants ; and divided into 6 departments. Posen Warsaw Kalwary New Silesia Plock Bromburg This dutchy is in the western part of Poland, and constitutes the great part of the acquisitions of Prussia, in the division of that kingdom. The possessions of Prussia entirely separate this dutchw 4m GEPvMAN STATES, from Lusatia. The distance across, however, in the narrpnvest place, is not more tl.an 40 miles. And in the treaty of Tilsit, a comniunicaiion was stipulated for by means of a militaiy road. The religion of the electorate is the protestant, which was here introduced by Luther ; and there are two bishoprics, Merseberg and Naumburg. That of the dulchy is the catholic. The govern- ment is nearly absolute, but conducted with moderation through different councils. The army is 65,000, of whom 30,000 are rais- ed in the the dutchy of Warsaw. The contingent of Saxony, as a member of the confederation of the Rhine, is 20,000 men. The revenue is stated by Hassel at 17,500,000 guilders, the expenditure at 16,750,000, and the debt at 35,000,000. The credit of Saxony lias always been high. The language and literature of Saxony are the most distin- guished in all Germany, most of the writers who have refined the language having been born, or having resided in this country. Leipsig is a celebrated mart of German literature. There are many- schools, colleges, and academies ; among the latter, the mhier- alogic academy of Freyberg, instituted in 1765, is esteemed the leading school of that science. Dresden, the capital, is built on the Elbe where the Weissesitz falls into it. It is one of the hand- somest towns in Europe. It contains 61 streets, 40 public ochoolsj and 18 churches. In 1S03 the population amounted to 49,094i> and the dwelling-houses to 2644. Warsaw, the former capital of Poland, is built upon the Vistula^ partly on a plain and partly on a gentle ascent rising from the river. The town is very extensive, and wears a melancholy ap- pearance. The palaces are numerous and splendid, but the great body of the houses are mean wooden hovels. Population in 1803^ 64,421 ; lat. 52 14 2,3 N. Leipsig stands on the Plisse, in a pleasant fertile plain. Its university, founded in 1409, has been one ot the most celebrated in Europe. There are 8 Lutheran churches, I Calvinistic, and I Catholic. Three annual fairs are held here, and the commerce is very extensive. Inhabitants, in 1801,30,796; lat. 5 1 20 15 N. II. The next kingdom in size is that of Westphalia. It con- tains 15,120 square miles. Its situation is nearly central in this part of Germany. The Saale, and the Elbe, on the E- separate it from Saxony and Prussia. On the West it reaches to the Ems. It is formed out of the southern part of the circle of Lower Sax- ony, and the eastern part of the circle of Westphalia. It is di? vided into 8 departments, which are subdivided into 27 districts, I. Elb«, !II. Harze, 1. Magdeburg Heiligcnstadt 2. Newhalden Drudcnstadt 3. Stendal Nordhauseii 4. Salzwedel Osterode II. Fulda, IV. Leine, ■ 1. Cassel Gottingen 2. Hoxter Einbeck Paderbon^ GERMAN STATES. 46V V. Oker, VII. Werra, Brunswick Marburg Helmstadt Hersfield Hiidcsheim Eschwegc Goslar VIII. Wescr, VI Saaic, Osnaburg Halberstadt Minden Blankenburg Bieicficld Hable Bint,cln The dcpartmcnis are named from the rivers on which they lie. The kinguoni: in 18ur, contained 1,941,561 inhabitants, 202 cities,, 81 market towns, 426 i villages and hamlets, and 322,000 houses. The revenue is 14,430,502 guilders ; the expenditure the same ; and the debt 40,000,000 guilders. The army consists of 55,000 men. Its contingent is 25,000 men. Westpiialia was formed into a kingdom immediately after the Treaty of Tilsit, in 1807. All the territories of Piussia, weht of the Elbe, were allotted to it, together with various small princi- palities. Jerome Bonaparte was made king ; but for reasons of state, resigned his kingdom in 181 1. Magdeburg, the capital lies on the Elbe ; and is a large, beau- tiful, wealthy and strongly fortified city. Its trade is extensive, and its manufactures numerous, particularly of woollens, silks, cottons, linen, stockings, hats, gloves, tobacco and snuff. In 1802 it con- tained 32,013 inhabitants. Cassel, in 51 19 20 N. is equally divided by the Fulda, It was the capital of the Landgrave ofHesse-Cassel before he w^as driven from his dominions. In 1800 it contained 18,450 inhabitants. Brunswick, on the Ocker, contained in 1804, 31,714 inhabitants. It Avas one of the Hanse Towns. Hildesheim, also one of the Hanse Towns, contained in 1802, 11,108 inhabitants. Gottingen is in a spacious, fertile valley, on a branch of the Leine, and its university has been much celebrated, and was found- ed by George II. in 1734. It had, in 1807, 8914 inhabitants. III. The Hanoverian States bound the kingdom of Westphalia, on the N. W. Since their subjugation by France, they have not been formed into a distinct government, but are merely colonics ©f that country. They consist of the following territories. 1. Principality of Calenburg 5. Dutchy of Bremen 2. Principality of Luenburg 6. Principality of Verden 3. Principality of Lauenburg 7. County of Hoya 4. District of Hadeln 8. County of Diepholz. They extend in length from E. to W. about 180 miles, and from N. to S. 100. Their whole contents is 10,132 square miles, and their population 629,000. The religion is the Lutheran. The goverament was conducted by a council of regency. The revenue is now 3,600,000 guilders, which is paid into the treasury of France. The literature of this country has deserved considerable applause, since the institution ©f the university of Gottingen by George II. It is now in the king- 4.6^ GERMAN STATES. dom of Westphalia. The chief city is Hanover, in the northern part of the principality of Calcnburg, situated on the river Leine, •amidst numerous gardens and villas. Tliis city is slightly fortifi- ed, containing 21,360 inhabitants. IV. The House Mecklenburg. The territories of this fam- ily lie between Hanover on the S. W. and Swedish Pomerania on ihe N. E. The kingdonr* of Westphaiia borders on the S. The country is divided in two dutchies, that of Meckleuburg-Schwerin, and that of Mecklenburg-Strclitz. The former contains 7000 square miles, 290,000 inhabitants, furnishes a revenue of l,'800jOOO guilders, and an army of 1800 men ; the latter contains 800 square miles, 66,000 inhabitants, and yields a revenue of 525,000 guilders. The contingent furnished by both is 1900 men. The whole coun- try is full of lakes, heaths, and marshes, and the soil being sandy, produces little, except rye and oats. The states, consisting of nobility and burgesses, are assembled yearly to regulate the taxa- tion. The religion is the Lutheran, with six superintendents, and an university at Rostock. Rostock, the chief town, is built on a harbor formed by the mouth of the Warne. The town contained in 1803, 13,736 inhabitants. Its commerce is valuable. Schweria is built on a beautiful lake, called Schwerin-Sea, through which runs the Eklc. Inhabitants 9801. Wis mar, at the mouth of the Elde, is well fortified ; contains 6 churches, and 6254 inhabitants. V. The grand dutchy of Berg reaches from the Lahn to Hol- land, and from the Rhine to the kingdom of Westphalia. It is composed of 1. The dutchy of Ecrg 5. The county of Lingen 2. The dutchy of Clcves 6. The county of Tecklenburg 3. The dutchy of Munster 7. The county of Dortmund, 4. The county of Mark beside several lordships. It contains 6900 square miles, and 922,649 inhabitants, with a revenue of 3,994,000 guilders, an army of 8000, and a contingent of 5000. VI. The grand dutchy of Hesse consists of 1, The principality of Starkenburg, which lies S. of the Mayn on the Rhine. 2, The principality of Upper Hesse, and 3, The dutchy of Westphalia. It has the grand dutcliy of Wirzburg on the S. that of Berg on the W. the kingdom of Westphalia on the N. and that of Saxony on the E. It covers an extent of 4380 square miles, has a popula- tion of 539,000, a revenue of 3,500,000 guilders, an army of 8000, and a contingent of 5000. The country is generally mountainous ; but there are many pleasant vales, fertile in corn and pasturage. The religion is the Lutheran. Darmstadt, in Starkenburg, is the capita!, and contained, in 1805, 1 1,350 inhabitants. The Hessians have been much employed as mercenary soldiers, and were hired by the British in the American War. Vn. The house of Saxe. The territories of this family com- pose five dutchies : Saxe-Weimar Saxe-Hildburghausen Saxe-Gotha Saxe-Coburg. Saxe-iVIeinungen GERMAN STATES. 46S '^hey lie between the grand dutchy of Wurtzburg, on the S. and the house of Schwarzburg, on the N. and cover an extent of 3045 square miles. The population is 438,000 ; revenues 3,226,000 guilders ; army 3400 ; contingent 2800 men. Gotha, the chief town, contained, in 1805, 12,400 inhabitants; Altcnburg, 9484 in- habitants ; Weimar, in 1808, 8500 inhabitants ; and Coburg 7096 inhabitants. VIII. The dutchy of Oldenburg is divided into the districts of Oldenburg Wuhrden Vechta Delmenhorst Warcl Kloppenbuvg and Wildcshausen, and contains 2165 square miles, and 140,000 inhabitants. It lies W. of the Weser. The soil is fertile in pasturage. The revenue is 720,000 guilders, and the army 1000 men. Oldenburg, the cap- ital, contained, in 1800, 4500 inhabitants. IX. The house of Nassau comprises the dutchy of Usingen and the principality of Weilburg, beside several petty lordships. It is situated near the mouth of the Mayn, and contains 2270 square miles, and 272,000 inhabitants. The revenue is 1,757,000 guild- ers ; the army 3000 n^en, and the contingent 1680. The country is mountainous, yet not without fine arable and meadov/ lands. Wisbader contains only 3500 inhabitants. X. House of Anhalt. The territories of this family, one of the most illustrious in Germany, are the dutchies of Dessau, Bemburg, and Cothen, containing 1052 square miles, and 124,000 inhab- itants. The revenue is 1,190,000 gailders, and the contingent 800 men. The religion is Calvinism. The soil is good and fer- tile in grain. Dessau, on the Muklau, near its ijiouth, contained in 1802, 9220 inhabitants. Lat. 51 49. XI. The dutchy of Aremberg lies round the lower part of the river Ems, comprising the counties of Recklinghausen and Mep- pen, and the lordship of Dulmen. It contains 1 107 square miles, and 59,000 inhabitants ; and yields a revenue of 300,000 guilders, and a contingent of 379 men^ The town of Meppen, on the Ems, contains 3000 inhabitants. XII. The territories of the house of Schwarzburg are the principalities of Sondershausen, and Rudolstadt. The extent is 986 square miles ; the population 1 14,000 ; the revenue 450,000 - the contingent 650 men ; Sondershausen on the Unstrutt, contains 4000 inhabitants. XIII. The territories of the house of Lippe lie N. of Paderborn» amd S. of the Weser, composing the principality of Detmold, and the county of Schauenburg, and containing 942 square miles, and 95,000 inhabitants. The revenue is 35,000 guilders ; the contin- gent 650 men. XIV. The New Hanseatic League. 1 Hamburp; J ^32 square miles ; 119,000 inhabitants; reve-- ^ ^ nue 1,500,000 guilders ; contingent 1800 men. 3 Lubec I 197 square miles; 45,000 inhabitants 3 revenue 1 400,000 guilders. 4iS4 GERMAN STATES. „ -p 5 ^8 square miles ; 50,000 inhabitants ; revehii^ -Dremen j 400,000 guilders ; contingent 500 men. Dantzic in C *^^ square miles ; 84,000 inhabitants ; revenue Poland ^ 700,000 guilders. These territories were called by the French government, the New Hanseatic League, for want of a better name. Each district includes the city, and a part of the adjoining country. Hamburg is the third city in Germany, and contained, in 1807, 102,000 inhabitants. It was fortified by Charlemagne A. D. 808. The Elbe is here including the islands, near a mile broad. It lies in 53 34 32 N. lat, Lubec stands on the Trave. It contains 32,000 inhabitants. Bremen, on ihe Wcser, contains 42,000 inhabitants. Dantzic, on the Vistula, 4 miles from the Bailie, in 1804 contain- ed 42,273 inhabitants. XV. The house of Salm, north of the Lippe, on the frontiers of Holland. Extent 680 square miles ; population 56,000 ; revenue 230,000 guilders ; contingent 323 men. XVI. The territories of the house of keussen in the southern part of Upper Saxony. Extent 560 square miles ; inhabitants 82,000 ; revenue 4SiO,000 guilders ; contingent 450 men. Graitz on the Elsler, with 4500 inhabitants, is the capital. XVII. The principality of Waldec, west of Hesse, containing 475 square miles, and 48,000 inhabitants. Its revenue is 375,000 guilders, and its contingent 400 men. XVIII. The principality of Isenberg N. E. of Frankfort on the ^layn, containing 251 square miles and 43,000 inhabitants. Reve-^ nues 260,000 guilders ; contingent 291 men. Beside Hanover, already described, there are five other district* north of the Mayn, which are provinces of France. 1. Swedish Pomerania, including the island of Rugen, with Mecklenburg on the S. W. and Saxony on the S. It contains 1446 square miles, and 116,000 inhabitants. The contribution is 400,000 guilders. 2. The principality of Fulda, N. of Wurzburg, 712 square miles ; 91,000 inhabitants; revenue, 600,000 guilders. 3. County of Hanau, E. of Frankfort on the Mayn, 482 square miles ; 66,000 inhabitants ; revenue 820,000 guilders. 4. Principality of Erfurt ■vvith Blackenheyn, in Thuringia ; square miles 350 ; population 51,000 ; revenue 300,000 guilders. 5. County of Catzenelnebogen on the Rhine and the Mayn; square miles 137; inhabitants 13,000 ; revenue 80,000 guilders. GERMANY SOUTH OF THE MAYN. THERE are two kingdoms also in this part of Germany, both of recent origin ; but the smaller states are much less numerous than in the other. I. The kingdom of Bavaria includes, the old electorate of Bava- ria, the principp.1 part of Franconia, one third of Swabia, and the whole of the Tyrol. Its length, is 300 miles. It is bounded E. bv Bohemia and A\istria : S. by Venice ; W. by Swisserland, GERMAN STATES. 465 ^r.den, and Wurtcmburg ; N. by the Mayn, and Bayreuth. It contains 35,370 square miles, and is divided into 15 circles, which arc named from the rivers on which they lie. The population of Bavaria, in 1807, was 3,231,570 ; and the rev- enue 17,373,080 i^uilders. Tlie debt, in 1808, was 80,000,000 guild- ers. The army 35,8 J4. The contint^ent 3o,000 men. Relii^ion, the Roman catholic, with some Lutherans. The eastern part of Bavaria is plain and fertile; the western mountainous and forested, and inter- spersed with large and small lakes. The Tyrol is ahnost made up of ranges of mountains, called the Tyrolese Alps. Their direction is N E. and S. W. The chief rivers of this kingdom are the Danube, the Inn, tlie Iser, the Lech, the fsab, and, in the Tyrol, the Adige. The lake of Constance forms part of the west- ern boundary. Munich, the capital, stands upon the Iser, in lat. 48 8 20 N". It is one of the handsomest cities ia Germany, and lately contained 48,740 inhabitants. Nurcmburg contains 30,000 inhabitants. It stands on the Peg- nitz, and is environed witli double walls. Augsburg, between the Lech, and the Wertach, in lat. 43 21 41 N. is in a fertile and deligntful country, and is surrounded with ramparts, walls, and ditches. It contained, in 1807, 28,534 in- babitants. II. The kingdom of Wurtemburg, in the central part of Swa- bia, reaches from the Taxt, a branch of the Neckar, to within 20 miles of the lake of Constance, about 120 miles in length, and contains 7220 square miles. Bavaria lies on the E. ; the same and Baden lies on the S. and W. ; and the Taxt and the Neckar on the N. The population of the kingdom, in 1807, was 1,181,372 ; the revenue 8,000,000 guilders, and the debt 25,000,000. The army was 20,000 men, and the contingent 12,000. The soil is very fertile. The religion is the Lutheran, with some Calvinists, and some colonies of the Vaudois. The church is ruled by four ab- bots and 38 deans. Education and ecclesiastical studies are favor- ed by laudable inslituiioiis, particularly the seminaries of Tubin- gen and Stutgard. This last is the chief town, and contained, in 1808, 22,680 inhabuants. III. The grand dutchy of Baden, has the kingdoms of Wurtem- berg and Bavaria on the E. ; the lake of Constance and the Rliine, •which divide it from Swisserland, on the S. the Rhine on the W, and on the N. by Hesse, and the Mayn. The number of square miles is 6030. The relit'ion is the Lucheran. The population in 1807 was 922,649. In 1808, the revenue was 2,953,936 guilders, the expenditure 3,472,765 ; and the debt 18,000,000. The army contains 12,000 troops, and the contingent 8000. Manheim, the chief town, in 1800 had 18.818 inhabitants. It is on the Neckar near its mouth, and was formerly the capital of the Elector Pala. tine. It is strongly fortified. Friburg contains 7916 inhabitants and is the scat of a university. IV. The grand dutchy of Wurtzlmrg lies on both sides of the Mayn, contains 2126 square miles, and SlljQOO inhabitants. The 59 466- AUSTRIA. revenue, is/2,800,000 guilders. The debt, in 1802, was 3,954,750: The armi/ is 2500 men, and the contingent 2000. Wurtzburg, the capi/al, is on the Mayn, well fortified, containing 21,380 in- habitants. V. The United Principalities coimpose a state similar to the New Hanse-Towns, and consist of the Principalities of Ratisbon, on the Danube, in the heart of Bavaria, containing- 90 square miles, 52,200 inliabitants, and Aschaffenburg on the Mayn, containing 460 square miles, and in 1802, 67,? 1 1 inhabitants ; of the county of Wezlar on the Lahn, containing 1 1 square miles, and 4988 in- habitants ; and of the district of Frankfot l on the Mayn, contain- ing 88 square miles, and 52,000 inhabitants : besides three hered- itary lordships on the north bank of the Mayn, contahiing 203 square miles, and 18,137 inhabitants. The whole revenue is 1,800,000 gniiders ; the army 1500 men. The city of Ratisbon, on the Danube, an ancient commercial town, was till lately the seat of the diet cf the empire. It contains 22,000 inhabitants. Frankfort-on-thc-Mayn, so called to distinguish it from Frank- fort-on-the-Odcr, is strongly foriined, contains 37,000 inhabitants. Two fairs are held here annually, and the trade is considerable. VI. The little principalities of Lcyen and Liechtenstein, on the Rhine, contain, together, 108 square miles, and 9600 inhab- itants. Here ought also to be mentioned the principality of Bayreuth, north of Bavaria, between Wurtzburg and Bohemia, containing 1225 square miles, and 223,000 inhabitants ;' and yielding a tribute of 900,000 guilders. Btiyreuth, the capital, contains 10,000 in- habitants. AUSTRIA. TKE head of the house, of Austria, was styled, till 1809, em- pei'or of Germany, and king of Bohemia and Hungary. After the termination of the unfortunate campaign of that year, the con- stitution of the Germanic body was dissolved, and Francis II. not- only lost a part of his own 'acrtdiiary dominions ; but also resign- ed the iTuperial crown of Germany. His remaining territories, however, were at that time furmed into an empire, called the Em- PIRF. OF AvsTuiA ; and, as its h;;rcditary sovereign, he still pos- sesses sufficient power to claim the third place among the sove- reigns of tlic conlineni. Exte?u. The iengtl« of Austria, from the eastern limits of Transylvania, to the western of Carinthia, is 620 miles ; the breadth, from the Bug, which separates Gallicla from the grand dutchy of Warsaw, to the Save, the frontier of Turkey, is 520. The area is given in the table. Boundaries. Bounded W. by Bavaria and Saxony ; N. by Prus sla jvnd Saxony ; E. by Russia ; S. by Turkey, the Adriatic, Istj'ic AUSTRIA. 4&r «nd Bavaria. Austria touches on the Adriatic in two places. The ^territory of Trieste has a little line of seacoast ; and Carniola, east of Istcra, has a greater extent. _ . Divisions. Thepiincipai divisions of the Austrian dominions arc. O o b- o b. «0 to 'e o CO T? -. (N CO — T) kO CO '^ •^7, ^ ^ i/j lo — ■* o — VO iC i^ C< CO — < Cl' >n 00 (J. CN CO cn" CO C3^ IT) c c-i b^ 57,684 86,871 280,189 00 to r" — ^ w; ■* ro Oi — — ' CM — ■^ >n ^ ~. h- J CO •^■' "^ o e* o O) lO 03 CO CO o c o CO Cl ■>5< lO M C7i CO o» CO — CO CN »o CO CO > c; ■^ '"' ^" a ^ ^ _^ h- c^ oc >.o CO — r-) _ _ ^ _ CO 3< 0> CM " 1-- C7i o 0-. CN — * ^ (Ji CO CO ■*^ CN c>< l- U3 n s en ■<}< h- CO O — Ci C^3 _, _, 00 >n 1 t> ■«s< -«3< »o >.-. CO — a 00 03 io lO CM — " >o Cl fN ■»:r< o 1— I ^^ O ^ c^ Q^ •™' ■" A< v-ocoCT.»oc^'ncNco ^ «3 co^t^«3— *-; '^^2^;' co>o — a> — uitoio t- c^ cNioc^oo-*(N ^"J£?<^J OOt^OCO — — CC f^ CO O — G>b-0<3< C^O'l o a> o> ■<• *o — • i =~< w. «^ w. ^. >.• -. — v^ ^ • 'r, oj 7» CO j^ i^ ^ ^ ;* VO — . '-« C< — ■ irt CO — C'* Jv -' 1;^ u ii n^ 3 •— < OH 46S AUSTRIA. Aus'aia also possessed, before the campaign of 1805, Square Miles. Population 1. The Tyrol, lu,l54 620,8^4 2. Part of Bavaria > t7o-7i E. of the Inn, 5 ^^'^^^ 3. Part of Svvabia, 2^)3,433 4. Dalmatia, 7,230 296,415 5. Venetian territories, 9,349 1,630,179 The three first are now litlaehed to Bavaria. Dalmatia and th:, territories of Venice, under the name of East Lombardy, form t\i c great divisions of the kingdom of Italy. At the commencement oC the French revolution Austria also possessed Lombardy, or the dutchies of Milan and Mantua; and the Austiian Netherlands, These last are now an integral part of France. Milan and Man- tua belong to the itingdom of Italy. Historical Epochs. 1. By the death of the emperor Charles VL on the 20th October, 1740, without male i^sue, the house of Aus-. tria became extinct. The elector of Bavaria seized the kingdom of Bohemia, and was elected emperor in 1742, but died in 1745. 2. Francis of Lorrain, son of Leopold duke oi Lorrain, having married Maria Theresa, daughter of the emperor Charles VI. succeeded to the Austrian dominions, which continue to be held by his descendants. In 1745 he was elected emptror, and his suc- <;essors have enjoyed the imperial crown, as if hereditary. 3. The reign of the emperor Joseph II. a beneficent but im- petuous prince, whose grand designs of reformation were frus- " trated by his ignorance of the inveteracy of habits and prejudices, ■which must ever be considered in a due estimate of hurnan af- fairs. 4. The formation of the Austrian States into an empire on the dissolution of the Germanic body in 1809. Religion. The established religion of the monarchy is the Ro- man Catholic. Formerly no others were tolerated. The later emperors have wisely encouraged the settlement ot Protestants. Various sects are extensively spread over Bohemia and Moravia ;^ and Lutherans are found even in Vienna. In Hungary the Pro- testants and Greeks are thought to constitute a majority of the in- habitants ; though the Catholic religion is also there establishedo In Transylvania Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, Ari- ans, Greeks, Mahometans, enjoy their several religions The Mahometans are principally in the eastern parts. The Slavoni- ans are zealous Catholics, though Greeks and Jews are tolerated. This is equally true of the Croatiaris. Government. In 1 S09 Austria was formed into an hereditary empire, with a power nearly absolute, vested in the sovereign. It is divided into 12 circles, in each of which are tv.o head men, ap- pointed annUially for the administration of government. Bohemia and Hungary are hereditary kingdoms. Transylvania lias its states. Croatia and Slavonia constitute a viceroyalty- The Transylvanians, Slavonians, and Croats, have alv/ays been charac- terized by a love of freedom, and an impatience of control j and, AUSTRIA. 469 The emperor luis found his interest in letting- them live in their own manner. Pufiulation. Hassel estinaates the population of the Austrian dominions in 1809 at 23,570,000. Jrmy. The Austrian army in 1809, is stated by Hassel at 345,79 I men. This ctiny was under the command of 9 field marshals, 21 mas- ters of ordnance, 11 gent-ials of cavalry, \-2b field marshal lieu- tenaiiis, and :^72 major generals. JVuvy. Austria lias a few armed vessels in the harbor of Trieste, and a fleet of flat bottomed vessels on the Danube. Jicvfuuc^^ ExJtendHure, and jYatiortal Debt. The amount of the ordhia-y revenue, in 1809, was 104,000,000 guilckts ; of wliich 19,000,bci0 were raised fi'om the royal donjuins, 48,Oi0,(J00 from the impost, and o7.0(jO,000 fiom the land, poll, and circulation taxes. The royai domains, in 1803, were estimated at 35';,000,000 j, and the ecclesiasiical domains at 80,000,000. This revenue, exclusive of that iroiu the royal domains, was proportioned nearly as ioiiows ; from the Hereditary Slates 43,000,000 Gallicia 18,000,000 Hungarian States 24,000,000 85,000,000 The extraordinary revenue is from 1 2 to i 6,000,000. The expenditure is from 105 to I 10,000,000. The national debt is estimated at from 1,200 to 1,600,000,000, in- cluding from 800 to 1,000,000,000 guilders hi paper nioney, capa- ble of being redeemed at half its nominal value. The circuialing specie amounts to from 100 to 12 .1,000,000 guilders. Manners and Cusfo?ns. The Austrian manneis are cold, but civil ; the women elegant, but devoid of mental accomplibhnients. The youth of rank are commonly ignorant, and of couise haughty, being entire strangers to the cultivation of mind, and condescen- sion of manners, to be found among the superior ranks of some other countries. An Austrian nobleman or gentlemen is rarely seen to read, and hence polite literature is almost unknown and uncultivated. The lower orders arc little addicted lo crimes or vices, and punishments are rare : robberies are seldom couitniued, and murder little known. The Hungarians remain a spirited people, and affect to despise their masters. Tlieir dress consists of a tight vest, mamle, and furred cap, and is graceful ; and the whiskers add a military ferocity to their appearance. 'I'he Transylvanians are a medley (;f several different nations, and characterized by nothing but their savage manners, and their impatience of restraint. The Slavon- ians and Croatians are equally lawless. Langauge. The languages spoken in these aggregated domin- ions are numerous and discrepant. Among people of rank at Vienna, the French is prevalent. Literature. The causes which have retarded the progress of .,70 AUSTRIA. letters and philosophy in the Austrian dominions are the coarsenesc of the German dialect, and the absence of the Slavonic and Hun- garian from tlie learned languages of Europe ; the military edu- ciuioii of the nobility, and that metaphysical bigotry, which per- verts tlicir rational powers, and blights every bud of genius and •solid knowledge. Education. The empress Theresa instituted schools for th» education of children, but none for the education of teachers. Hence the children are taught metaphysics before they know Latin ; and a blind veneration for the monks forms one of the first exertions of the yoxmg mind. Universities. The. universities, like those in other catholic countiies, little promote the progress of solid knowledge. The sciences taught with the greatest care are those which are of the smallest utility. The university of Vienna has, since the ytar 1752, been somewhat improved. It was founded in 1237, and that of Prague in 1347; that of Inspruck only dates from 1677, and Gratz from 1585. Hungary chiclly boasts of Buda. A late trav- eller informs us that its laiiversiiy possesses an income of about, twenty thousand pounds sterling, only four thousand of which are applied to pay the salaries of the profc-ssors. Cities and Totvns. Vienna, the chief city of the Austrian domin- ions, lies on the S. or rather W. side of the Danube, in a fertile plain, wate) tc! by a branch of that river, (beyond which stands the suburb of Leopoldstadt,) and by the little river Wien. The Danube is here very wide, and contains several woody isles : the country towards the N. and E. is level, but on tlie S. and ^V. hilly, and va- riegated with trees. The number of inhabitants in 1801 was 232,049, and of houses, 6649. The suburbs are far iBore exten- sive than the city, standing at a considerable distance from the walls. The houses are generally of brick, covered with durable stucco. Prague is the second city in the Austrian dominions, its popula- tion being 80,317. This metropolis of Bohemia stands on both bides of the river Mulda, over which is a noble bridge of stone. This city has had the fataiuy of being exposed to frequent sieges, commonly fortunate to the aggressors. About a sixth part of the popiilation consists of Jews. The third city is Lcmberg, or Leopold, in Gallicia, on the banks of tht Pelicw, just above its entrance into the Bug, being surround- ed with hills and mountains, which command the town. The in- habitants in 1808,50,000. Next is Gratz, the capital of Stiria, containing 40,000 souls, on the west side of the Muehr. PrcsLurg, the capital of Hungary, containing 32,600 inhabi- tants, is beautifully situated on the Danube, towards the western fxircmily of Hungary, 35 miles east of Vienna. Tne Danube is here very rapid, and about 250 yards in breadth. Jews also aboi'.nd in this city. Buria, by the Germans called OiTcn, the ancient metropolis of Hungary, contained, in 1787, 24jS72 inhabitants. In 1784. the seat AUSTRIA. 4-2 of the provincial government was transferred from ?resburg to this place. Brunn, the capital of Moravia, is at the conflux of the Schwar- saw and the Surtawa, tributaries of the Danube. Trieste lies on the N. E. part of the Adriatic, called the gulf of Trieste. The harbor is well fortified, and the trade considerable. It contained, in 1801, 23,633 inhabitants. Schemnitz, the lar{j;cst of the mine-towns in Hungary, lies be- tween hills, in a long valley. The inhabitants are 22,24 1 in number. I\fa?iufac lures and Commerce. Vienna, perhaps, e(]iials any other of the cities in manufactures, which are chiefly of silk, gold and silver lace, cloths, stuffs, stockings, linen, mirrors, porcelain ; with silver plate, and several articles in brass.* Eolicmia is cele- brated for beautiful glass and paper. The linen manufactures of Bohemia amount, annually, according to Hoeck, to 16,000,000 florins, beside some in wool and in cotton. The woollen manu- facture at Lintz employs 30,000 persons ; and in the whole arch- dutchy there are 7 great manufactures of cotton cloth, which em- ploy 140,000 persons. But the commerce of the Austrian domin- ions chiefly depends upon their native opulence ; Austria proper and the southern provinces producing abundance of horses and cattle, corn^, flax, saffron, and various wines, with several metals, particularly quicksilver from the mines of Idria. Bohemia and Moravia are also rich in oxen and sheep, corn, flax, and hemp ; irs ■which they are rivalled by the dismembered provinces of Poland. The wide and marshy plains of Hungary often present excellent pasturage for numerous herds of cattle ; and the more favored parts of that country produce corn, rice, the rich wines of 'I'okay, and tobacco of an exquisite flavor, with great and celebrated mines of various metals and minerals. The Austrian territories in gen- eral are so abundant in the various necessaries and luxuries of life, to be found either in the north or south of Europe, that the im- ports seem to be few and inconsiderable. The chief exports are from the port of Trieste, consisting of quicksilver and other met- als, with v/ines and various native products. Dr. Townson gives a table of the exports of Hungary for one year, from which it ap- pears that they consisted chiefly of cattle, bogs, sheep, fluur, wheat, rye, wool, and v/ine, curried to other Austrian provinces ; and only about one seventh part sent to foreign countries. Climaie and Scaso7is. The climate of Austria proper is com- monly mild and salubrious, thoi2gli sometimes exposed to violent ■winds, and the southern provinces in general enjoy delightful tem- perature, if the mountainous parts be excepted, jF'ace of the Country. The appearance of the various regions tsubject to Austria is rather mountainous than level, presenting s. striking contrast in this respect to those of Russia and Prussia. The general face of the Austrian dominions may be pronounced to be highly variegated and interesting ; and the vegetable products, of both the north and south of Europe unite to please the eye of th^ traveller. • Buschino:, V!. 543. See Hoeck* 472 AUSTRIA. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is upon the whole fertile and productive, in spitt; of the neglect of industry, which has permitted many parts of Hungary, and of the Polish provinces, to pass into wide forests and marshes. The latter country, particular-iy iu ma- ny places, exhibits few symptoms of an inhabited and stih less of a civilized region. Were skill and labor to assume the axe and spade, those very pans might display the greatest exuberance of fertility. The state of agriculture in Moravia is superior to the rest, being improved by Flemish farmers. Rivers. After the Danube, which has already been described, the river next in cot)sequence is tlie Teis, which falls into the Danube W. of Belgrade, after a course of about 420 miles. At Belgrade the Danube receives the Save, which forms a boundary between Austria and Turkey. That of the Drave joins the Danube below Esseg. The Inn joins the Danube at Passau with a weight of water nearly equal to that stream, after a course of about 250 miles. It is v\o\v only a frontier of Austria, and that but for a small distance. The Mulda joins the Elbe near Melnick, after passing through Pragp.e. The Morau, passing by Olmutz, joins the Danube W. of Presburg. Lake.i. The lakes in the Austrian dominions ai"e numerous, and some of them of considerable size. Mountains. The provinces of Carinthia, Carniola and Upper Austria present many considerable chains of mountains. The Caipathian mountains, that grand and extensive chain, •which bounds Hungary on the N. and E. have been celebrated from all antiquity. This enormous ridge extends in its whole cir- cuit about 500 miles. The highest summits of these mountains, according to Dr. Townson, do not exceed 8 or 9000 feet, and they are for the most part composed of granite and primitive limestone. Mineralogy. There is scarcely a province of this extensive ter- ritory, from the frontiers of Bavaria to those of Turkey, which can- not boast of advantages in the mineral kingdom ; and as it were by a destiny attached to the house of Austria, even the acquisitions in Poland contain one of the most remarkable mines in Europe, the saline excavations of Wielilska. The mines of Bohemia have been celebrated from ancient times.* Silver, copper, iron, quicksilver, lead, and garnets are found in different parts of the Austrian do- minions. But the principal mines in the Austrian dominions are situated in the eastern provinces of Hungary and Transylvania. About 40 miles to the S. of the Carpathian hills are the gold mines of Crem- nitz ; and 20 English miles further to the S. the silver mines of Shemnitz : cities which have arisen solely from these labors, and thence called mining towns. Shemnitz is esteemed the principal. The academy here instituted for the study of m.ineralogy*is highly respectable, and only rivalled by that of Freyberg in Saxony. Hun- gary contains mines of copper at Schmelnitz and Herrengrund, of • Buscbing, vol. vl. 126. French edit. 8vo, SWIxiEllLANB. 4fi very J-ich antimony at Rosenau ; and in diffcreh't parts, of coal, salt, and alum. Saltpetre is also produced in considtrable quantities: and natron or soda is fouiul iir a lake near Kistnarja, towards the frontier of Transylvaiuu.* But a mineral pcouiiar to Hungary, and as yet discovered in no other region of the i^iobe, is tne opal, a f;em prei'erred to all others by the ori^.-ntal nations. The opal mines are situated at Czcrweniza. The hiii, in which they are found, consists of decomposed porphyry ; and they only occur at the distance of a few fathonis Iioin the surface, of various qualities} from the opake while, or semi-opal, which is also discovered in Cornwall, to that utmost eft'uigence of iridescent colors whicji dis= tinguishes tliis noble gem. The mines of Transylvania and the Bannal are also numerous and valuable. The salt mines acquired from Poland alone remain to be de- scribed. They are situated, as already mentioned, at Wielitska, B miles to the S. of Cracow, being excavated at the norihern extrem- ity of a branch of the Carpathian mountains. The descent is by pits of great depths ; and the galleries and chambers are of im- mense size, commonly supported by timber, or by vast pillars of salt, out of which material even subterraneous chapt;ls are formed ; but travellers have idly exaggerated the splendor and extent of the saline apartments. t Tiie salt is of an iron grey color, sometimes intermingled with white cubes ; and sometimes large blocks of salt appear imbedded in marii Tiie purest sort is found at the bottom of the mine, and is sparry. The length of tlie mine is 6697 feet, the breadth 1115, and tiie depth 7'43. It has been worked above 600 years, and is apparently inexhaustible. Before the par- tition it yielded annually ;^J7,222 sterling. But it has beon less productive since. SWITZERLAND. ExtenL THE length of Svvilzcndand from E. to W. is about 200 miles; its breadth from N. to S. ai)out 13U. The cuiitents, hi square miles, arc, according to Hassel, 15,755. Boundaricn. Bounded N. W. !^ France ; N. by the Riiine and the lake of Couslai\ce, which sep^-ate it IVoui t!ie grand mitchy of Cleves, and the khigdom of Bavaria, botli in Gjrnia.iy ; E by the Tyrol, which is a purt of Bayaria, by the kingdom of Italy, and by Piedmont ; S. VV. by Savoy. Divmons. Switzerland formerly consisted of 1 3 cantons, with their allies and subjects. Several of the allied and subjected slates have been annexed to France and Italy. Tiie remainder have been formed imo new cantons. The old 13 cantons retain their former names and extent, and arc the first in the foliowint^ table, taken from Hassel, and exhibiting the state of the country, in 1809. * Journ.des Min. No. 2. f Coxe's Pol. i. 200. | Towas»n, 388. 60 m aWITZERLANiy. rgau" The population is mate. Cantons. 1. 5 Bern 2. 7 Aarg 3. Basil 4. Schaffhausen 5. Zurich 6. Appenzel 7.. Glurus 8. Friburg 9. Lucern 10. Soleure partly from a census, and partly from his cs6* Inhabitants. Cantons. Inhabitants. 232,508 11. Zug 14735 134,444 12. Switz 31,400 42,193 13. Uri 17,500 27,590 14. Underwald 2 1 ,200 182,123 15. Orison's Country 74,000 55,000 16. St. Gall 1 62 000 19,280 17. Tcbsinof 161,000 89,610 18. Thui'gaul 74,000 110,000 19. Pays de Vaud^ 145,215. 43,610 The following countries lately l>elonged, or were allied, to Swit- zerland ; Geneva, now a part of Fiance ; Neulchatel, taken from Prussia by the French, now a dependency ot Fiance; the Valte- line, annexed to the kingdom of Italy ; and liie Valais, top" ranee. The situation of these various districts can best be learned from the map- Historical Efiochs. The chief historical epochs may be ar- ranged in the following order : 1. The wars with the Romans ; the subjugation of the Helvetii and Rhaeti, and the subsequent events till the decline of the Romaic empire in the west. 2. The conversion of the country to Christianity by the Irish, monks, Columbanus, Galius, and others, in the beginning of the 7th century. 3. The commencement of the Swiss emancipation, A. D. 1307 ;_ and the subsequent struggles with the house of Austria. 4. The history of the reformation in Switzerland. 5. The insurrection of the peasants of Bern, in the middle of the 17th century. 6. The dissolution of the confederacy by the French invasion, A. D. 1798. Religion. The inhabitants compose but two sects, Calvinists and Catholics. The former are the most numerous. The pro- portion is more than 9 to 7. The Calvinistic clergy were all on a level. The Catholics were subjected to one archbishop, and six bishops. Government. A new constitution was established for them by the First Consul, in 1802. The government consists of two land- ammans, a senate, and a diet. The diet, composed of representa- tives from the cantons, meets annually ; and, at the proposition of the senate, declares war and makes peace, ratifies treaties, and adopts, or rejects such laws, as less than two thirds of the cantons have approved. The senate consists of 2 landammans, 2 stad= tholders, and 26. councillors. It names all public functionaries. * Aargau is a part of the old canton of Berne, f Te.ssino, formerly the Italian Bailliages. \ Thurgau or Turgoria. •5 Pays de Vaud, or Waadt. SWITZERLAND. 475 -1^ deputation of the senate administers the government during a ' recesb of that body. This government was forced upon the inhabitants at the pointof the bayonet. Fofiulation. Ilassel's general estimate is 1 ,638,000. Arr.iy. The military force, in 1809, was 15,023 men. There ■were then from 20 to 30,000 Swiss soldiers in foreign countries. France alone had 15,000 ; the rest were in England, Spain, and Holland. Revenue. The revenue, in 1809, was stated by Hassel at 1,000,000 German guiidevs, or 555, 5(;0 dollars. Formerly it was computed at more than a million sterling. Bern is still the richest of the cantons, and is said to have large sums in foreign funds. Manners and Customs. The houses of the Swiss are of wood, constructed in the most simple form, with staircases on the out- side. The dross of the inhabitants, inmost of the cantons, 'was regulated by sumptuary laws. In the rest, the changes of fashions were little regarded. The cleanliness of the houses, and of the ■people, was striking. Even the cottages conveyed a lively idea of neatness and simplicity, and impressed a pleasing conviction of the peasant's happiness. Each had its little territory distributed into a garden, a field, a meadow, and a pasture, frequently skirted with trees, and well supplied with water. The diversions of the inhab- itants were chiefly of the active and warlike kind, such as running, wrestling, and shooting with the bow and musquet. The magis- trates were exemplary in the punishment and prevention of petty offences, than which no surer method can be taken to preserve the morals of the community. The Swiss were intensely attached to their native country. The slightest circumstances reminded the absent soldier of the scenes of his infancy, and drew him back by • an irresistible attraction to the streams and the val'ej's, the moun- tains and the forests, among which he had passed the happiest sea- ison of life. Such were the happy Swiss, before the i'rench subju- gated their country. What changes this sad event has produced are unknown to tiie writer. Language. The French is spoken in the Pays de Vaud. The ■language called the Vaudois eppears to have been confined to the valleys of Piedmont. Literature. Switzerland boasts of many eminent names, as the reformer Ulric Zvvingli, or Zuinglius ; Conrad Gesner, born at Zurich in 1516, who published an universal library. Among the wi'iters of the last century may be named Bernoulli, the rnathema- tician, a native of Basil ; Scheuchzer, the natural historian ; Hal- ier ; John Gesner, the natural philosopher ; Solomon Gesner, the poet ; Bonnet, Hirzel, and Zimmerman, physicians ; Rousseau, and Necker, natives of Geneva ; Lavater, the physiognomist ; Euler, the mathematician ; and many others. Education. Switzerland resembled Connecticut in the general diffusion of knowledge. The education of the common school was >ianiversally shared by the inhabitants. Religious instruction was •45ammunicated successfully every sabbath, and the inhabitants gen- 476- SWITZERLANEK erally had an important acquaintance with the doctrines and ihs duties of Chrisiiaiiiiy. There was an university of soidc reputa- tion at Basil, loundcd in 1469, and colleges at Berne, Zuriecb, and Lucerne. Ciiies and Towns. Basil, or Basle, is oa both sides cf the Rhine. A biidi;;e connects the two parts. Its extent is capable of containing 100,000 inhabitants, and it is said to have 220 streets and 6 market places. The environs consist oi fine level fields and sneadows. Here were extensive manufectures of ribbands and. cottons, and the trade of the place was considerable. The number of inhabitants is 1 3,060. Berne stands on a peninsula formed by the Aar, the neck of which is fortified. The streets are wide, and the houses mostly o£ stone. The great church is a most beautiful piece of architecture. The city is of singular neatness, and beauty, and the environs are rich and fertile, presentins^ a prospect 'if hills, lawns, wood, and ■water, bounded at a distance by the long chain of the superior Alps, Inhabitants ) 3,339. Zurich, is at the mouth of the Lake of Zurich, where its waters, are discharged northwards, through the Lammat towards the Khine. Inhabitants, in 1807, 10,353. Climate. Many of the mountains are covered with perennial snows, and the frosts of winter are often very severe. But the summer has sufficient heat to mature the grape, though the vine harvest is rendered precarious by the occasional cold winds from the Alps. Even the corn harvest is so often injured by rains and tempests, that public granaries have been el-ected to supply the failure of crops. The vaiieys are generally warm, and such is the diversity of seasons in diffeient parts, that the inhabitants are often reaping on one side of the mountains, when they are sowing on the other. Face cf the Country. Switzerland is generally mountainouSy, but less so in tlie north, than in the south. Soil and Ag7-lcullure,. The valleys and plains, though generally Stony, are ferule. The sides of tlie hills, also, with a vigorous cul= tivation, repay the labor of the husbandman, and perhaps in no country, except Holland, does the eye meet with more numerous proofs of persevering industry. Sufficient grain is commonly rais- ed for home consumption. Barley is cultivated on the mountain, tops ; oats, rye, and spelt, require successively a warmer situation. Flax and hemp are cultivated to a considerable extent ; and tobac- co lias lately been introduced. Tlic vine is cultivated with most success in Btrne, Schaff'hauscn, and the Pays de Vaud. The at- tention of the Swiss farmer is, however, chiefly devoted to liis cat- tle, and most of the fertile land is used for meadow and pasture. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, and nuts, are found every where in abund&iice ; and, in the warmer districts, peaches, almonds, figs, and pomegranates. Rivtrs. Ti)e Rlsine and the Rhone, already described, pass through Swhzerland. The Aar pursues a winding course towards the N. W- througlv SWITZERLAND. 4^ the lake of Tlnin, to Aaiburg ; then turninr^ lo the N. E. and re- ceiving the waters of tiie lake of Nciifchaiel, and bcii).<< joint rl by the Reuss and theLimmat, falls into the Rhine, opposite Waldshut, after a course of 150 miles. Ihc Rcuss issues from Mount St, Gothard, and passing through the lake of Lucern, runs N. to ihc Aar, a course of 80 miles. The Limmat, running 20 miles, enters the Icike of Zurich ; from which it runs about the same distance, and joins the Aar, a little below tiie Reuss. Tiie Thur runs westward, and joins the Rhine below SchaffV hausen. The Tessino falls into t!ie lake of Maggiorc. JL,akes. The lakes of Switzerland are numerous and interest- ing. The most considerable are those of Constance on liic N. E. and Geneva on the S. W. The former is about 45 miles in length, and in some places 15 in breadth. It is a beautiful ex- panse of water. The lake of Geneva extends in the form of a crescent, about 40 miles in length, and 9 at its greatest breadth. The beauties of this lake have been celebrated by Rousseau ; but would be con- siilerably increased if it were sprinkled witii islands. Mountains. The Alps, the most celebrated of the mountains of antiquity, pass between Piedmont, on the E. and France and Sa- voy on the W. through Switzerland, and between Italy on the S. W. and Germany on the N. E. till they terminate at the gulf of Carnero, on the E. of Istria. Tlie whole length of the cliain is about 550 miles. Different parts of it have received dift'crent names, but the common name of Alps has been extended to the •whole. The highest eminence of this chain 13 Mont Blanc, separ-f ating the N. W. corner of Piedmont from Savcy. Its summit and sides, to the depth of 4000 fett perpendicular, are covered with perpetual ice and snow. The first, who explored its summit, was Mr. De Saussure, of Geneva, in 1787. Sh' George Shuckburgh measured its height with great accuracy, and found it to be 15,662 feet above the ocean, a greater elevation than that of any measur- ed mountain in the old world. The Helvetic Alps are a ridge north of the R'lone, and running nearly parallel with the principal cl.ain. The chief eminences be- tvi'een the Rhone and Mount St. Gothard, are Gernmi, Jungfrau, Sehreckhorn, and Fhisteraar, 13,218 feet high. Mineralogy. The mountains contain iron, sulphurj and crys- tal. The last is found in pieces weif^hing from 7 to 800 weight. Rock salt is found in the canton of Berne. Granite, porphyiy, as- bestos, jaspers, and agates are abundant in tlie Alps. Tremoiite has its name from mount Tremola, mar St. Gothard. GENEVA. GENEVA is situated at the southern extremity of the lakQ of - this name, where, contracting, it forms the Rhone. The inhabitant? became christians in the 3d century. In 1533, t!ie doctrines of the reformation were established, and the celebrated Calvin here found a safe retreat from the persecution of the Catliolics. 'ihe territory belonging lo the republic coniprised about 00 sqtiare 478 SPAIN. miles ; and the population was 30,000. The city of Geneva itseli> contained, in 1802, 23,309 inhabitants. The Rhone divides it into two unequal parts. The town and territory are now an integral part of France, SPANISH EMPIRE. THE Spanish, like the British Empire, embraces portions ^ territory in all the four quarters of the globe. 1. In Europe. Spain. Majorca,! Minorca, V Islands in the Mediterranean. Ivica, J 2. In Africa. African Presidencies, Ceuta, Melilla, and a few other cities. Canary Islands, '^ Isle of Fernando Po, ! • ,i, a ..i *- Prince's Island, >> m the AtlanUc. Annabon Island, J S. In Asia. Philippine Islands. Calamianes. X,adrones, or Marian Islands. Oarolinas. Part of Magindanao. Sashee Islands (south of Formosa.) 4. In America. 3?'loridas. Mexico. Cuba, I. Porto Rico, I. New Grenada, or Western Terra Firma- Venezuela, or Eastern Terra Firma. Peru. Chili. Buenos Ayres, or Paraguay. Falkland Islands. SPAIN. Extent. SPAIN lies between Ion. 9 17 30 W. and 3 45 E. and iietwecn lat. 36 6 30, and 43 46 30 N. Its greatest length, is 620 miles ; and its greatest breadth 530. The number of square miles, .according to Hassel, is 195,510. SPAIN. 4r.8e> boundaries. Spain is bounded N. by the bay of Biscay and: France ; E. by the Mediterranean ; S. by the same and the Atlan- tic ; W. by Portugal and the Atlantic. Divisions. The following we believe to be an accurate account of the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the extent and the population of each in 1787; together with the number of cities, boroughs, villages, and parishes. Kingdoms. Provinces. Extent. Population. CIt. Bor. Villa. Par. Gallicia, 14,030 1,343,803 I 120 187 306 Asturia, < Oviedo, ) 1 Santillana, 5 5260 347,776 3 290 4757 1284 ["Biscay, 1430 116,092 124 Biscay, Alava, 1100 71,349 432. [Oiiipuscoa, 800 120,716 76 Navarre, 3950 227,382 Arragon, 15,550 623,308 11 Catalonia, 12,710 814,412 Valencia, "Mallorca, "1 10,740 932,150 Mallorca, -< 1 Minorca, v _Ivica, J 1890 179,066 Murcia, 5480 337,686 7 230 1 33 365 = Granada, \ Granada, > • Antequera, 3 12,710 661,661 19,638 7 81 3203 3658" 6r 'Seville, 9250 754,293 1 59 185 249-' Andalusia, Cordova, 6490 236,016 2 134 502 765 _ Jaen, 5260 177,136 2 179 554 499 Estremadura, 14,950 416,922 1 83 229 329 'Leon, 250,134 15 160 26 219 Palencia, 112,514 4 55 63^. Leon, < Toro, . Zamora, f* Salamanca, ( 17,640 92,404 74,669 210,389 5 17 1 58 182 11 172 74 397' ^Valladolid, J 196,839 5 6(' 1 10&^ 'Burgos, ^ 465;410 6 588 1191 1828 OldCastille, < Segovia, f Soria, ^ 16,220 174,289 1 100 3(12 410 170,565 4 132 482 639^ ^Avila, 115,172 1 9( 207 286 ' ^ladrid, ~] Toledo, 1 216,226 7:; 17 92 337,078 2 22' 100 327 New-Castille,<^ Guadalaxara J>37,94( | 114,37i.' 2 187 110 319 Cuenza, 266,! 8^i 2 23; 186 431 Mancha, 214,078 2 9o 93 114 Historical Efiochs. The following are the chief epochs in Span- ish history. 1. The original settlement by the Celts, and then by the Mauri. 2. The Carthagenian conquest of Spain about the lime of the first Punic War. 3. The Roman dominion, which lasted from B. C. 195 to A. Di 411. ' - ' 465 SPAIN. 4. The domination of the northern barbarians. 5. The (lominaiion oftlie Saracens. 6. The union ot the crowns of Castille and Arragon by the may" t'iage of Isiiijella and Ferdinand, in 1474. 7. The reig;n of the emperor Charles V. which besjan in 1517. Tlie power ot Spain was now at its zenith. 8. I'he conquest of Portugal by Philip II. of Spain, and I. of Portuj^al, in 1580, soon afttr the defeat of ihe Portuguese, in Afri- ca, by Mulcy Moloch, 'i'bc Spaniards found their conquest an unquiet possessiun during the 60 years of its subjugation. In 1640, John, duke of Bia;j:aiiza, put liimsclf at the head of the Por- ui^uejc, who unanimously shook off the Spanish yoke, and brave- ly uciueved their independence. 9. The termination of the Austrian dynasty by the death of Charles II. Novem!)er 1, 1700 : and the accession of the house of Bourbon, in the person of Philip, grandson of Louis XiV". 10. The kidnapping of the Spanish royal family at Bayonne, in the spring of 1808, by the French emperor, and the subsequent attempt to impose his brother Joseph on the Spaniards, in the room of Ferdinand VII. the lawful monarch. 11. The liberation of Spain from the usurped dominion of France, 1813. Bciig-io?i. The Catholic is almost the only religion known or tolerated in Spain, and is here exercised in all its ceremonial or- thodoxy. The court of inquisition, instituted in 1478, by Ferdi- nand the catholic, was long invested with exorbitant power, a pow- er exercised with a degree of intolerance and cruelty known in no other country but Portugal. The high court was at Madrid, and 8 subordinate courts were scattered over the kingdom. This bale- ful and detestable court was abolished by the government in 1813. There arc in Spain 8 archbishoprics, 48 bishoprics, 1 17 cathedrals, 18,537 parishes, 2146 monasteries, and 1023 nunneries. The revenues of the archbishoprics are very great. That of Toledo is about £90,000 sterling. The whole number of clergy, in 1787, was 188,625, of whom 22,460 were parish priests, and their assist- ants ; 69,617 monks ; 32,500 nuns ; and 2,705 inquisitors. Government. The government was a despotic monarchy, bal- anced however by the power of the church, and tempered by many councils, who were responsible for the success of their own measures. Population. The cepsus of 1787 gave a population of 10,268,150. Hassel estimated it in 1809, at 10,396,000. Since tliat time it must have been seriously diminished by the indiscriminate carnage occasioned by the armies of France. The government of Spain, during her struggle for independence, has undergone several changes, and is still in a revolutionary and unsettled state. The census of 1787 exceeded that of 1768-9, by 960,346 souls. Army. In 1806, the army amounted to 153,810 men, under the command of a generalissimo, 5 captain-generals, 92 lieutenant- generals, 136 major-generals, and 225 brigadiers. Since the rev- telation almost every man has become a soldier, and the Spanish recruits have m many instances exhibited the valor and intrepidity «f veteran troops. Mivij. In 1 808, the navy amounted to 2 1 8 sail ; whereof 42 Tyere of the lino, 30 frigates, 20 corvettes, 4 zebecs, 40 brit^an- tines, 15 bonib-vessels, and 67 smaller vessels. Tiisse were man- ned by 2379 marines, 3320 artillery, and 36,000 sailors. Revetiue. Llerena states tlie Spanish revenue at 616,295,675 rials de vellon, or about 32,575,000 dollars. Otlicvs state it at 40 millions of dollars. The first nearly agrees with tiie estimate of Kassel, and is probably correct. Of this revenue America fur- nishes about 2,100,000 dollars. The expenditure usually some- what exceeded the revenue. The national debt, in 1809, was es- timated by Kassel at about 3 1 1,000,000 dollars. About 40,000,000 dollars are annually brout;;ht hither, of which about 32,000,000 come from America. The whole amount imported in the register- ed ships alone, from the discovery of the mines to t!io year 1725, was 5 !85 millions in gold and silver. But it merely passes through Spain, to the residences of industry and enierprize. Manners and Custor.-.s. The Spaniards are generally shortj thin, and well proportioned. Their complexion is olive. Their manners are grave and slow, but grac«;ful. They are distinguish- ed for their national and personal pride. These prevent tliem from stooping to the more grovelling vices. They are credulous, superstitious, and bigoted ; but at present not intolerant. Thej'^ are revengeful ; but assiisslnations arc less frequent than formerly, and are not common except in And:ilusia and Granada. Juaiousy was formerly a common characteristic of the nation, but it has been succeeded by a more criminal indiff'.;rence. One of the most striking of the present national muuncrs and customs, is the com- mon practice of adultery, under tiie mask of religion. The cicif, Spain, and Portugal. In France they were uyineca^fiary. \\\ iialy they are usually gentle- men. In Spain ihey are often monks and ecclesiastics. They are called cortrjos, and often discover a singular degree of fideiiiy and constancy in their criminal attachment. In general the Spaniards are patient, cautious, distinguished for their sobriety and temperance, charitable, friendly, faithful, and strictly honest in their deafmgs. They are obedient to the lawsj and willing to undergo any sacrifice for the honor of their country. Language. The Spanish is chitlly derived from the Latin, and resembles it more than the French or Italian. Many of the words are of Arabic and some of Gothic origin. The dialect of Castile is by far the purest. The Biscayans speak an entirely dif- ferent language from the Castiiian. It is of Gothic derivation. The Asturian dialect is said to resemble it, and, in a Siiiaiiei- de- gree, the Gallician. There are serious varieties in those of the other provinces. Literature. During the long Ruman domination Spain re- ceived so many colonists from Italy, that she became at lengfh 61 48.2 SPAIN'. scarcely inferior to it in civilization and learning. Some of the-" j best Latin writers were natives of Spain. Under the caliphs o^i Cordova flourished many celebrated writers. The Spaniards*- have been distinguished for their success in compositions of gal- lantry, in fables, and ingenious fictions. For narrative invention they are not rivalled by any European nation. The plots of their fables, their comedies, farces, novels, and romances, are original ;- and have been borrowed by the Italians, French, English, and Germans. Cervantes will always be the first model of satirical and humorous narrative. The best English and French v/orks on morality, history, and philosophy are translated into Spanish. In philosophy the native authors have not excelled. For some time past the nation has not' been distinguished by its progress in learning or science. Universities. The Spanish universities are 22 in number. Six of these were devoted to the education of young men of family. The university of Salamanca has a library of more than 20,000 volumes, and in 1785 contained 1909 students. The logic of'^ Aristotle, and the theolop:y of Thomas Aquinas are still taughf in all the universities. There are academies for the laws of Spain, for the canon law, and for medicine at Madrid; for the" belles lettres and for medicine at Seville ; an academy of the arts at Valencia and Saragossa ; one of geography at Valladolid ; one ' of mathematics and drawing at Granada ; and one of belles lettres ' at Barcelona. Cities. According to Hassel there are in Spain 145 cities, 4364"* bbrough towns, and 9293 villages. Madrid, the capital of Spain, is built on a small stream, which empties into the Xarama, a tributary of the Tagus, in lat. 40 25 N. and Ion. 3 12 W. It continued an obscure town in Castile, till Charles V. made it the royal residence It has no fortifications nor ditches^' being only surrounded by a bad wall with 15 gales. The streets' are not at right angles but they are almost all straight, wide, clean,, and well paved. Madrid contains 18 parishes, 35 convents of* monks, 31 of nuns, 39 colleges and hospitals, 14,100 houses, and 156,672 inhabitants. The houses are chiefly of brick, and several' are large and handsome. The r>Ianzanares, which runs W. of the town, a small distance from its walls, in winter is a torrent, but dry in summer. Barcelona^ a sea-port of Catalonia, stands on a plain open to the S. E. but protected by hills on the N. and W. It is surround- ed bv a double brick wall with 14 bastions, hornworks, ramparts- and ditches. The tov/n contains 8 parishes, 111,410 inhabitants. The inhalntants are industrious and hospitable. The women are are distinguished for their beauty, their vivacity, and their free- dom from restraint. The harbor is spacious, deep and secure. Valencia stands on the Guadalaviar, about half a league from itt, mouth. The streets are narrow but every where clean, and the appearance of the town is pleasing. Here are a military school,- a public library, and 45 convents. The environs of the city are every where crowded with villages and orchards in the midst oP-' a'fertile and beautiful country, and the top of a very lofty towep. ^ in the city gives one of the most beautiful prospects in Europe. Population, 105,000. Seville stands in the midst of a large circular plain on the south side of a Guadalquiver, 54 miles from its mouth. It is surround- ed with walls, flanked with towers. It is the most extensive city ia Spain, and contains 30 churches, 90 convents, a univcrsiij/, several hospitals, and free schools, an exchange, and a mint, and 80,568 in- habitants. When Ferdinand look Seville from the Moors, it is said to have liad a population of 400,000 souls. Ferdinand IV. in 1757) established in this town a royal tobacco manufactory, at an ex- pense of- 3 0,000,000 rials. The chief building is a square of 750 feet, two stories high, constructed of a white stone. From i5u0 to 2000 persons are here daily employed, and 80 mills are worked by 100 horses or mules. All the tobacco of Spain is prepared here. The Guadalquiver is navigable by ships of burthen to this place ; but thence to Cordova only by small craft. It was the scat of the American commerce, till 1717, when it passed to Cadiz. Cadiz is built on the N. W. extremity of a long sandy peninsula, which is connected by a very narrow isthmus with the isle of Leon. This island is 10 miles in length, and is separated from the con- tinent by a winding, narrow strait, whiclv at its N. E. end opens in- to the harbor of Cadiz. The harbor stretches from E. to W. and opens northwards between Forts Matagordo and Lorenzo, or the Funialcs^'imo the bay of Cadiz, EoUi the bay und harbor are secure and spacious. The population in 1802 v/as only 57,S87. Thirty years before, it was estimated at 80,000, and in 1787 it was 67,987. Many of the inhabitants are foreigners. Its commerce employs about 1000 vessels, of which nearly one tenth are Spanish. The exports to America, in 1784, amounted to £3,621,443 ster- ling; the imports in money and. jewels, to ;C8j2y7,l 64 ; and in merchandize, to £2,990,757. G re ?2 a r/cr stands at the foot of the snov/ -topped Sierra Nevada. The streets are narrovr, irregular, and badly paved. Few of the houses are splendid. They are about 12,000 in number, and the population in 1787, was 523845. There are here 24 churches, 4 -convents, 13 hospitals, and a university. Among .V.l their losses in Spain the Moors are said to lament nothing but Granada, and in their evening prayers they supplicate Heaven to restore it to thcii- possession. Miircia stands on the N. side of the riverSegura, about 20 miles from the Mediterranean, in a delightful valley, 25 leagues long from E to W. and a league and a half broad. The town contains 6 parish churches, a cathedral, t& convents, and a large library, but not a single inn. The population is 44,000. The river is decorated with a fine stone bridge, and a magnificent quay. Sai-agossa stands in a fertile plain, on the southern bank of the EbVo, which by its windings renders the neighborhood extremely rich and delightful. The streets are long and broad, but dirty and •?il-paved. Here are two cathedrals, 15 parish churches and 10 4t4 SPAIN. conA'ents ; also some distilleries, and tnanufactones of silks, coj-^ tons, and hats. Population 42,000. Malaga, m the W. part of Granada, has a safe and cominodious: harbor, protected by an expensive mound running 1200 feet into the sea. The to\vn stands at the foot of a high mountain, and is small, but handsome. It contained in 1808, 41,932 iiihabitants.* Fermi is a strong fortress, and seaport on the bay of Corunna, •with one of the best and safest harbors in Europe, it is one of the stations of the navy, has a large sea-arsenal, the most important dockyards and sail-cloth manufactories in the kingdom, and a large marine hospital, capable of receiving 5000 patients. It had in J 793, 30,000 inhabitants, and a', late as 1752, was merely a collec- tion of fishermen's huts. Carthagena is in Murcia. The environs for some distance are crowded with villages, farms, and country seats. High mountains and barren rocks protect the town on the S. and W. On the No and E. it is open. The harbor is among the best in Spain, deep, well sheltered and well defended ; and affords a fine fishery. The streets are wide and the houses commodious. They have flat roofs, affording an agreeable retreat after sunset. In the naddle of the city is a high hill, with a fort. The trade is in silks and barilla. Esparto ropes and cables are manufactured here. Pop= ulation 29,000. This is a station of the royal navy. Toledo, in New Castile, 42 miles from Madrid, is built on a rock of granite that is almost surrounded by the Tagus. The lOM^n is large, and was formerly the capital, and contained 200,000 inhab- itants. It has now but 25,000. The Toledo rapiers were once celebrated for their temper, and the secret of hardening them is said to have been lately recovered. Valladolid, in Leon, is an ancient handsome town on the Pisu- crga, containing 15 cliurches, 16 convents, and 24,000 inhabitants. An annual fair is held here, and the streets are lively and full of business. ^licant, in Valencia, is built between a mountain and the sea and is well defended by strong bastions ; it has a good harbor, and an extensive commerce. Population 17,435. Eiche, a few miles southj contains 17,403 inhabitants. Of the most noted smaller towns Bilboa has 13,000, Burgos 10,000, Badajos 10,000, Lerida 1 6,818, Pampcluna 14,054, Sala- manca 15,000, and St. Sebastian 12.000. Manvfactiirea and Commerce. There are respectable woollen manufactures at Segovia, Seville, Guadalaxai a, arid several other places. Cotton manufactures arc also fc und, especially in Cata- lonia. The silk manufactures are the most importJr.t and flourish most in Catalonia and Valencia. At Carthagena, Fenol, and oth- er places are considerable linen and sail cloth manufactories ; but the greater part of these articles is supplied fiom abroad. Manu- factures of kaiiicr are found in evciy considerable town, and most of the small ones. There are about 200 paper mills in Spainj • Hassel, / SPAIN. 485 the most and best in Valencia ; where china is also manufactured, which rivals tiiat of Saxony. The salt-petre works, powder-nulls, and tar ovens, yield nearly a sufficient supply. Soi'.p manufacto- ries are found every where. The tobacco manufactory of Seviilo is the largest in the world. The best dockyards are at Seville, Malaga, Alicant, Barcelot>a, and St. Sebastian ; and siiip-building is reviving Salt is made in immense (luanliiies in Valencia, ancl Andalusia. Manufactures in metals are almost wholly neglected. All sorts of hardware, and most of the furniture and tools iliat arc used, are imported from France and England. The foreign trade is mostly carried on by other nations. Spanish ships sail to the ports of the Mediterranean, and to ttie colonies of Spain. The chief imports are hardware, corn, butter, cheese, fish, (upwards of ^C ' i000,o0O sterling annually.) fiu'niture, quicksilver, guns and other arms, tmiber, linen, sail-cloih, cordage, ilax, liemp, wax, paper, millinery, sugar, and spices. The chief exports are wool, (nearly £!,00(),00{) sterling annually,) raw and manufactured silks, wine, raisms, brandy, figs, lemons, salt, iron, saffVon. horses, tobacco, cork, soda, barilla, (i 50,000 quintals,) rice, (;^25O,00O sterling,) saltpetre, and various American goods. The balance of trade is greatly in favor of Spain. In 1784 the imports from A- merica amounted, in money and jewels, to ;/^9, 29 1,237, in mer- chandize, to ,^3, :H3,936, the exports to ^^4,348,078. In 1796 the exports to Great Britain, were ;^809,88l ; the imports 4^546,(26. Climate. Many of the highest mountains are covered with pe- rennial snow. The winter is very mild in the low and southern districts, where it seldom freezes ; but in the higher tracts, the winter is often as severe as in England or Germany. Oii the Mcdf iterranean the sea-breeze blows every day Irom 9 till 5 o'clock ; and pleasantly tempers tl^e warmth of summer. The south wind from Africa is oppressive and unwholesome ; but the JN". W. wind from the mountains of Gallicia is cool and refreshing. In many parts the trees rctean their verdure all the year, and where the Ic?af falls it buds again in January. Face of the Counlrxj. Spain, next to Norway, is probably tl>e most mountainous country in Europe. The western part of Nevv- Castile is open and plain. The centre of Arragon is level and sandy. Valencia and the northern half of Murcia consist chiefly of extensive plains and valleys, every where fertile and well culti- vated. The rest of the country is rough and broken. The high- est mountains are chiefly destitute of vegetation, and their tops are ?ilways while with snow. The lower eminences are, still, almost universally forested, and in this respect reseinble the mountains of New-England. The rivers and streams are i^umerous, and, with the exception of New-Castile, the country is well watered. Hoil and Jlgriculture. Tlie soil is generally light and rests on beds of plaster of Paris, which is itself an exeellent manure. Near the shore, and along the banks of the rivers, it is generally more fertile than in the central districts. The two Castiles, Biscay, Na-r varre, Arragon, and especially Gallicia and Leon, have an indif- ferent soil ; yet susceptible of high fertility under skilful and yig- .^6 SPAIN. orous husbandry. Asturia, Esiremadura, and the Mediterranean ■provinces, especially Andalusia and Valencia, have natively an ex- uberant feriility, and, with moderate cultivation, yield many of the luxuries of life. In the vale of Valencia wheat yields from 20 to 40 for one ; barley from 18 to 24 ; oats from 20 to 20 ; maize 100 ; And rice 40. The provinces on the Mediterranean, exctpt Anda- lusia, especially Valencia and Granada, are under high cultivation, as are also Gallicia, Asturia, Biscay, and Navarre. The agricul- ture of the other provinces is much neglected. Leon is merely a sheep-pasture. Large uncultivated tracts are spread over New- Castile, and the other provinces. The vine, the olive, maize, wheat, rye, barley, hemp, flax, and saflVon, are cultivated in every province. The best wine districts are New Castile, La Mancha, in particular ; Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, Valencia,. Arragon, and Navarre. Of the three sorts of Malaga wine, Malaga, Mountain., and Teni, about 30,000 ankers are yearly exported; and of the Xercs or S.hemj wine, about 20,0t'0 pipes. This is made at Xeres de la Frontera, 10 miles N. E. of Cadiz. A great part of the wine made in Spain is distilled into brandy ; of a quality, however, much inferior to the French. The best raisins are made of the grapes of Malaga, Alicant, Valencia, and Granada. Biscay and Asturia a- bound in orchards, and make the best of cyder in great quantities. The northern provinces raise great quantities of cattle. The sheep are of two kinds, the tra-uelling or Merinos, estimated at 5,000,000 in number, and the stationary at 8,000,000. Rivers. The only large river that falls into the Mediterranean in Spain, is the Ebro, the ancient Iberus. Its length is about 440 miles. It begins to be navigable at Tudela ; and its water is re- markable for its salubrity. The Guadalquivir runs S. W. through Granada and Andalusia, to the Atlantic, about 20 miles N. W. of Cadiz. Its length is about 340 miles. The Gaudiana runs S. W. through New-Castile and Estrema- dura, to Badajos, where it enters the province of Alentejo in Por- tugal. Thence its course is S. W- and then S. E. till at length it becomes a boundary of the two kingdoms, separating Algarve from Andalusia, and falling into the Atlantic, after a course nearly equal to that of the Ebro It is navigable to Mertola, about 45 miles. The Tagus runs W. S. W. through New-Castile and Estrema- dura, to Alcantara, and entering, flows through Estremadura to the Atlantic by a mouth 4 n\iles broad, forming the harbor of Lisbon. Its course is rapid and the upper part impeded by cataracts. Its length is about 520 iniles, and it is much the largest river of Spain. The tide flows up to Santarem, and the river is navigable for :flat vessels about 120 miles. Tlic Douro runs westward through Old Castile and Leon, to Miranda. Thence S. W. between the two kingdoms, about &0 miles, separating Leon from Tras-os-Montes. Here it enters Por- tugal, and runs westward to the Atlantic, into which it falls, a little '♦.'^elow Oporto. Its whole course is about 400 miles. SPAII'T. 4«r The Minbo runs S. W. 180 miles to the Atlantic, into which it falls 15 miles below Tuy. For about 40 miles it constitutes the northern boundary of Portugal. Its waters abound with excellent; salmon and sturgeon. Its current is gentle, and it is navigable a- bout 25 miles. A bar at the mouth prevents the entrance of large vessels. The Tinto is a little river falling into the Atlantic about 25 miles N. W. of the Guadalquivir. Its water is said to be of a deep yel. low color, and to have very singular petrifying powers. It withers all verdure on its banks, and no kind of fish live in its stream. Mountains. The Pyrenees are between Trance and Spain and have already been described. The Cantabtian chain is but a continuation of the Pyrcnean chain. The *Sierra de Molina is a range brasiching from the Cantabrian in Old Castile, and running J^. E. through that province, and be» tween New Castile and Arragon, and advances towards the Medi- terranean in the N. of Valencia. The mountains of Guadarama break from the last mentioned chain in a W- S. W. direction, separate the two Casliles, and crossing the northern part of Estremadura, enter Portugal, across which they run in a S. W. direction nearly to cape Roca. In Por- tugal the chain is called *Serra d' Estrella. The mountains of Toledo, farther south, run nearly parallel with these betvveen the Tagus and Guadiana, across Estremadura atid New Castile, and unite also with the range of Molina. The Sierra Morena, a third parallel range between the waters o? the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir, separates New Castile and Estremadura from Andalusia, and, after being pierced by the Gua» diana, enters Portugal, and serves as the northern boundary of the province of Algarve. The chain in Portugal runs from E. to \V. the- whole width of the kingdom, and is called Serra de Monchique. The Sierra Nivada, or Snowy Mountains, run between the Gua- dalquivir and the Mediterranean, nearly parallel with the laiterj- through Andalusia and Granada ; and, at length turn north ward,i bounding Murcia on the W. Montscrrat, or the Sawed Mountain, so called on account of its jagged pyramidal summits, lies about 50 miles N. W. of Barcelona. It is a detached solilai-y ruck more than 1 1,000 feet high, and about lOl miles in circumference, from the top of which INIajorca and Minorca are distinctly visible, at the distance of 50 leagues. It is- composed of limestone and grave! united by a calcareous cement^^ A large convent of Benedictines has been built upon it, to which a miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, discovered by some shep=- herds in 380, attracts an immense number of pilgrims. Minerals. Spain was anciently celebrated for its mines of gold and silver, which were long wrought by the Cartliaginians, and proved the sinews of their wars. But since the discovery of simi- lar mines in America, those of Spain have not been worth working;,. * Sierra in Spanish, and Serra in Portuguese, are general denominations of chains of mountains, the successive peaks of which present the resemblance cf. stsaw. 488 SPAIN. and now lie neglected. The iron, copper, tin, lead, and quicksilver mines, on the contrary, are worked with great advantage, though mostly by English, French, and German miners. SPANISH ISLES. MA.TORCA, Minorca, and Ivica, the ancient Baleares, are the chief Spunibh isles in Europe. IMajorca, the iaryjesi, lies 'octween the other two, 23 miles S. W. of Minorca, 46 N. E. of Ivica, 92 from Barcelona, and 120 from Valencia. It is 35 miles long, and 46 broad, containing about 1200 square miles, with a population of 135,900. TheN.W. part is hiily, but has many rich and fertile tracts. The S and E. parts are laid out in arable lands, pastures, vineyards, and orchards. The chief productions are corn, wine, oil, honey, fruits, capers, almonds, figs, saffron, fish, and game. The capital, Ma- jorca, not long since called Palma, is a large and elegant town, on a handsome bav, on the S. W coast. It has a good harbor, defend- ed by three citadels. The streets are broad, and the squares spacious, and the houses are well built of stone. It contains a uni- versity, a magnificent cathedral, and 22 other churches, 6 hospit- als, an exchange, a palace, several silk and woollen manufactories, and 29,259 inhabitants. The governor, the audience, and the bisiujp of the province reside here. The other towns are Alcudia, 32 miles N. W. of Palma, with 7000 inhabitants, and Porto Pedro on the S. E naving a safe and spacious harbor, defended by a fort. The climate ot the island is warm, but healthy. There are no rivers, !)ut excellent and numerous wells and springs. Minorca is 37 miles by 14, and has about 30,000 inhabitants. The south shore is smooth, the north is rugged, with deep and swampy vales, and many creeks and inlets. Mount Toro, in the centre, can be seen 18 miles out at sea. The inhabitants depend on tlieir cisterns for their fresh water. The soil is moderately fertile. Tiie annual value of the growth of the vine is estimated at 30,000/. sterling. The fishery on the coasts is valuable, and the oysters are delicious. T!ie minerals are iron, copper, lead, and marble, and great quantities of salt collected in the cavities. Tlie exports are wine, oil, wood, salt, and cheese, and are nearly balanced by the imports. The inhabitants live mostly on vegeta- bles, have a turn for poetry, and are still celebrated as slingers. Port-Malion, tlie capital, stands at the foot of a mountain on an ex- cellent harbor on the S. E. side. Civitadella on the N. W. was formerly the capital. Tlie English owned Minorca with one short iriterruption from 1708 to 1781, since Spain has possessed it. Ivica is 15 miles long ajid 12 wide. The soil is fertile and pro- duces corn, grapes, figs, and other fruits, the wild olive and the pine. The inhabhanls are occupied in making salt, highly es- teemed for its whiteness, of which great quantities are exported. Ivica, the capital, is on the S. E. side. It is little more than a garrison. PORTUGUESE EMPIRE. 4«9 THE FORTRESS OF GIBRALTER. This fortress, thou t;h a part of Spain, has so long been in pos- session of England, that a separate account of it seems to be prop- er. It lies at the southern extremity of Spain in lat. 35 6 30 N. It is an immense rock, rising perpendicularly about 440 yards, jTieasurinu; 2 miles from N. to S. and 1 from E. to W. On the E. oi the rock is the Mediterranean ; on the W. Gibralter bay, a beau- tiful sheet of water, 9 miles lont^ and 5 broad, receiving several small rivers, more than 100 fathoms deep in the middle, and well defended av^ainst every wind. This 'oay makes a small harbor on the N. W side of the rock, commodious for small vessels. The southern extremity of the rock is called Europa point. The town lies along the bay on a declivity of the rock, and contains about 500 houses, chiefly of stone and brick, and in 1806, 8500 inhabitants. They are supplied with fruits, vegetables, and fresh provisions from the coast of Barbary. At the extremity of a rock, wliich ad- vances into the sea, is a large fort covering a mole, made to facili- tate the anchoring of vessels. The garrison consists of about 5000 men, with upwards of 300 pieces of cannon. This important fortress first attracted attention as a place of consequence, in 712, when it was taken possession of by the Moors-, v/ho kept it till 1462. In July, ir04, the English under Sir George Rooke took it from the Spaniards, and have retained it ever since. In July, 1779, commenced the celebrated siege by the combined forces of Spain and France. The reduction of the fortress was a darling object with the former power, and every scheme which in- genuity could devise, which rashness could hazard, or force exe- cute, was tried by the besiegers to no purpose. The siege lasted till February, 1783, and general Elliot and his brave companions received the applauses of Europe* PORTUGUESE EMPIRE. I. In Eur.ope. Portugal. 2. In Asia. Goa and some other settlements in Western Hindostan, Timor Island. Macao Island. 3. In Africa. The Madeiras. The Azores. The Cape Verd Islands. Territories in Congo. Territories on the S. E. coast. 4. In America. Brazil, now become the seat of the empire. • For a more full account of this celebrated fortress, see ih- GaziHeer ofth Eastern Continent, article Gibralter. 6^ 490 PORTUGAL. PORTUGAL. Extent. PORTUGAL lies between lat. 36 56 34 and 42 7 S& N. and between Ion. 9 35 30 and 6 W. Its length from N. to Si is 360 miles ; its greatest breadth in the N. is 150 miles ; its least,- in Algarve, 90. Tiie area, according to Ebeling, is 35,998 square miles. Boundaries. Gallicia and a part ox'" Leon in Spain lie on the N. Leon and Estreinadura in the same kingdom on the E, the gulf of Cadiz on the S. and the Atlantic on the \Y. Historical E/iochs. Portugal was a part of Spain, and shared the same fate under the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Vandalsj- the Visigoths, and the Moors. lu the 1 1th century it began to be a separate state. Since that period its chief historical epochs are the following : 1. The grant of Portugal to Henry, a grandson of Robert I. duke, of Burgundy, by Alphonso VL of Castile, near the close of the 1 1th century. 2. The erection of the country into a kingdom by Alphonso I; son of Henry, after the battle of Ourique, in 1 139. 3. The conquest of Algarve, and the final expulsion of the Moors by Alphonso III. in 1254. 4. The discovery of the passage to the East-Indies by Vasco de Gama, in 1498, in the reign of Emmanuel. This at once diverted the trade of Asia from its old channel across the isthmus of Suez, and down the Red Sea, and, at a stroke, destroyed the commercial preeminence of Venice, By the M'ise and resolute measures of their magnanimous sovereign, the Portuguese in 24- years erected a commercial empire in the east, which, for its extent, its opulence, - and its splendor, had had no rival in the history of nations. In the same reign Brazil was discovered, and taken possession of by the- Portuguese. 5. The introduction of the inquisition into the kingdom with the consent of Johri III.- A. D. 1526 ; after which event the monarchy rapidly declined in wealth, in power, and commercial enlerprize. 6. The idle expedition of Sebastian, tlie son of ' John III. into Africa, in 1577, where he and his army v/ere destroyed by Muley Moloch, emperor of Morocco. This event so weakened the king- dom, that, two years after, Philip 11. of Spain found little difficulty in maintaining !iis right to the throne, and thusthe country, in I58O5 again became a part of Spain. 7. The revolution of 1640, in which John, duke of Braganza, •was declared king by the title of John IV. 8. The invasion of the country by the French, in November, 1807, and the consequent removal of the Portuguese government, and a great multitude of the nationvto Brazil, on the 20th of that month. Since tliat event, the English, who, from the marriage of Charles II. with the princess Catherine, had been the steady allies of Portugal, have driven the invaders out of the kingdom ; and the^ Portuguese, under the auspices of Wellington, have recovered the PORTUGAL. 491 bravery and the skill, with which their fathers fought against the Spaniards and the Moors. Divisions. Portugal is divided into the six following provinces, .which are geogrriphically arranged from N. to S. with the extent and population of each, as given by Ebeling, in his geography of Portugal. Extent. Population. I 1780 2,389 817,167 3,002; 308,984 10,082' 1,1 23,245 7,803 876,289 10,520 339,555 2,192 93,47--. Jurisd. Cit. Bor. isi,59r. >7 3 77,054 224,649 175,337 76,246 25,523 4 11 11 8 3 2 7 2 4 4 760,40: 44 22 24 1,327 59 711 230 1,292 115 492 105 369 114 71 647 4,262 Names. Entre Doucro ^ e Minho, 5 Tras-os-Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alentejo, Algarve, Total Religion. The national religion is the Catholic, and the Portu- .guese have been characterized for ihtir suict observance of its ceremonial duties. Government. By the fundamental laws of llie kingdom the mon- archy is hereditary, and in case of tlie king's demise wilhout male issue, his next brother succeeds ; but his sons have no rigb.t to the throne till confirmed by the states. By these statutes llie mon- archy is not arbitrary, for the consent of the states is necessary to the imposition of new taxes, to the settlement of the succession, and other important concerns. Since the removal of the roy^l fam- ily, the government has been administered by a regency. Pofiulation. The population has been stated in the table at 3,558,712. It must now be considerably diminished by the late removal of great numbers to Brazil, and by the battles and massa- cres of the French armies. Army. In 1803, the army amounted to 86,027. A much larger army, has been assembled and organized since the late invasion, and the troops have evinced the most generous valor, and the most ardent love of country. Navy. The ships of war consisted, in 1804, of 13 ships of the -line, of from 60 to 80 guns, 15 frigates of from 24 to 48 guns, and about 30 smaller vessels, of various sizes, manned by 12,000 ma- rines. The greater part of these vessels are now in Brazil, and a part are still in Portugal. Revenue. The income of the state from Portugal and the colo- nies is estimated at 16,000,000 dollars, and the debt is stated to be 20,000,000. Jllminers and Cust07ns. The national character of the Portu- guese nearly resembles that of the Spaniarils. In stature the Por- tuguese are inferior to the Spaniards. Their complexion is swarthy^ approaching to an olive. They have generally graceful forms^ regular features, and dark, brilliant, expressive eyes. The ladies are very beautiful when young. They still imitate the industry of 492 , PORTLGx\L. their ancestors in spinning flax from the distaff. The inhabiianta of the nonhevn provinces are more industrious, intelligent, sincere,^ and hospitable ; those of the southern more polished, shrewd, and indolent. Langauge. The Portuguese language strongly resembles the Spanish ; both are derived chiefly from the Latin ; but the lattei" is more remote from it and harsher to the ear tiian the former. Literature. The earliest fashion of the Spanish poetry was de- rived from Gallicia and Portugal. The present fashion of both countries is of Italian origin. Boscan effected the change in Spainjw and Sa de Miranda in Portugal, both early in the 16th century. The Lusiad of Camoens settled the language of Portugal. He is their first poet, and though miserably poor vy^hile living, he is now felt by the nation to be its boast and its pride. The translation by Mickle surpasses the original in richness of description, but not in vigor. Amadis de Gaul is without a rival among prose romances. The Palmerin of Francisco de Moraes is a sinular work of great merit.. In the Portuguese sermons, the finest oratory is spoiled by the most fantastic conceits. The lives of t!ie saints are mere romances. There are no modern travels in the language. Their old litera- ture is rich in this branch of knowledge. Fernam Lopez is the best chronicler of any age or nation. Gomes de Azurcra is sur- passed only by Lopez. These have been icUowed by a regular succession of historians of great meiit. The Decadas de Asia by Joam de Barros, for a history, display an uncoiumon extent of learning. In mathematics Pedro Nunnez distinguished liimself at the beginning of the 16th century. Of late years natural history begins to be a little studied ; but books of devotion and petty poems constitute the bulk of the yearly productions of the Portuguese press. Universities. The university of Goimbra is the most, ancient. It lately contained 800 students, and had a good observatory, a fine botanical garden, a chemical laboratory, anatomical theatre, and a, cabinet of natural curiosities. The university of Evora was found- ed in 1553, and the college of Mafra, in 1772. Tliis last hasa phi- losophical apparatus, and a library of 40,000 volumes. Education, Iiowever, is generally neglected, and no provision is made for the instruction of the common people. Cities. LISEo^', the capital, was lately the second city of Eu- rope in commercial importance. It st;inds on seven hills, on the northern side of the Tagus, not far from its entrance into the sea, and is sheltered on the N. W. by a ridge of hills. The harbor isi one of the best in the world, uniting in a very unusual degree, the four qualities of size, depth, security, and convenience. The Ta-, gus is here about four miles broad, and has two outlets separated by a sandbank, and the rock of Cachopos, and defended by forts. Fort St. Julian, 1 I miles from Lisbon on a rock in the sea, detcnds, the northern. Opposite to it is the -Cz^^'/o, which is built on piles on a sandbank. The fort of Belem is 4 miles from. Lisbon on the Qorth side, and entirely commands the entrance to the city. Og. PORTUGAL. 49S ilie south, directly opposite, is Foit Sebastian on the angle of a mountain, all along which the passage is cktended by a chain of 12 forts. An old Moorish wall, with 77 towers and 35 gates, incloses the eastern part of the city. The western has been built since. The breadth of the town is inconsiderable ; but it is very long from. E. to W. The valleys of the hills form streets of above 5 miles in length, most of them narrow, ill-paved, and diriy, and many of thcni steep and troublesome. The number of houses is 44,037, and the number of inhabitants, according to Ruders, 350,000. The com- merce of the city is chiefly in the hands of foreigners. The chief exports are corks, drugs, dying stuffs, fruit, oil, pot- ash, law-silk, brandy, vinegar, he. Manufactured goods and all sorts of provisions are imported. Opoh ro, the capital of Entre Minho e Douere, and the second city in the kingdom, is built on the north side of the Douro, about 5 miles from its mouth. The harbor, formed by the river, is diffi- cult to enter, but spacious and secure. A single castle is a suffic- ient defence. The town plot is uneven, but the streets arc well paved, neat, and handsome. The number ol inliabitants 70,505. It contains 10 churches, 12 convents, and 9 hospitals. Here are con's- siderable manufiictures of silks, hais, pottery, and several rope- walks, ai:d dockyards The trade of the city is extensive. Morp than 500 ships annually enter. The imports, in \ 790, amounted to ^600,000 sterling, and the exports to £800,000, of which about 80,000 pipes of wine constituted the chiei article. Elvas, the capital of Alentejo, is a fortified city, 14 miles W. by N.of J3adujos. It has a castle on an eminence, and is commanded by Fort La Lippe. The city coiitains 12,500 inhabitants. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the houses badly built. Here is a re- markable aqueduct, supported by 3 arches, one over the other, 4 miles in length, which conducts the water into a very large reser- voir. At some distance from the town the country is bleak and barren. Braga, in Entre Minho e Douero, is seated in a pleasant plain, cultivated and shaded by trees, near tlie Cavado. Several of the streets are wide and open, but the houses are generally small. It contains 12,362 inhabitants. Here is an extensive hat manufacto^ ry, which supplies the greater part of the kingdom ; also manu- factories of linen and knives. St. Ubes is situated on a fine bay, into which the river Sadaom discharges itself. It contains 12,000 jnhabitants. About 500 sea vessels, and as many coasters, enter here annually. Evora, in Alentejo, stands in a large plain surrounded on all sides by mountains. It contains 14,200 inhabitants. Coimbra, in Beira, contains 11,871 inhabitants. A strong stone bridge over the Mondego, connects the two parts of the town. Manufactures. The hat manufactory at Braga is the most im- portant establishment in Portugal. The same aiticle is manufac- tured at Oporto and Lisbon. Silk is extensively fabricated at Oporto, and 200 looms arc employed in weaving the velvets of Praganza. Woollens are made at Elvas, and hi great quantities 49* PORTUGAL. at Covilhao, for the army and the court. At Azeitao is a large establishment for fine cottons. At Coimbra and Estremos, earth- en ware is extensively manufactured, and less so at Oporto. Linen also is made at Braga, and Coimbra, thread at Braganza, glass of an excellent quality at Marinha, salt in abundance at St. Ubes, and great quantities of a peculiarly white salt at Alcazar-do-Sol. At Braga there is also a manufactory of knives. Commerce. The trade of Portugal is principally carried on with England and Brazil. The exports to England, in 1799, were i; 1,047,054 sterling ; the imports ^1,073 411. In 1806, 468 ves- sels cleared out for England, and 332 entered from that country. England transmits woollens, hardwares, cottons, fine linens, salted fish, to the amount of ^200,000 sterling ; and receives in return, bullion, coin, precious stones, wines, brandy, and fruits. Portugal sends to Brazil woollens, linens, stuffs, gold and silver lace, glass, ilried fish, hams and sausages. The goods returned, are gold, silver, pearls, precious stones, cotton, dies, indigo, rice, coffee, maize, wheat, ginger, sugar, molasses, ornamental wood, and drugs. The other exports from Portugal, are salt, cork, sumach, sugar, oil and vinegar, and the various articles rectived from Bra- zil. The imports from the United States, in 1806, amounted to about 1,925,000 dollars. The exports to France, in 1801, were about 1,937,000 dollars ; the imports about 734,000. Of port wine about 48,000 pipes are annually exported, valued at g4,20O,000 ; of Lisbon 10,000 pipes, valued at 500,000 ; of wool 1,000,000 pounds ; of oil 1200 pipes ; of salt 2,400,000 bushels : and of fruits 95 cargoes. Climate. The breezes from the ocean temper the cold of win- ter and the heat of summer so nnueh as to render those seasons far more similar here, than in the other countries of Europe. The climate of the whole country is unusually salubrious. The num- ber of clear days annually in Lisbon, is about 200, and of settled rain about 80. The medial heat is about 60 of Fahrenheit. Face of the Coimtrij. Portugal is a far more level country than Spain. None of the provinces, except Tras-os-Montes, can pro- perly be called mountainous, Alentejo is generally level. The Cithers are generally diversified by hill and dale. Soil and .,4griculture. The soil, like that of Spain, is generally Jiglu and shallow, but capable of producing abundantly every thing requisite for the sustenance and comioit of man. The agriculture •of Poi'tngal, generally is much neglected. The northwestern province, however, is in a high slate of cultivation, as are the val- leys of the northeastern. The chief productions are corn, maize, wine, oil, honey, flax, wool, silk, and fruits. Jiiver^, The Minho, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadia- na, already described, are the principal rivers of Portugal. Mountains. The Serra Monchique, the northern boundary of Algurve, is separated by the Guadiana from the Sierra Moxxna. it is merely a continuation of the mountains of Toledo. The Serra d'Estrella is the longest chain in Portugal. It may ITALY. 49» he considered as commencing at the Rock of Lisbon, and runs> N. E. through Estremadura and Beira. Mineralogij. The mineralogy of Portugal has been much neg- lected. Gold, in small quantities, silver, lead, copper, iron, coal, emery, fullers earth, antimony, manganese, bismuth, arsenic, and several kinds of precious stones have been found in different parts ©f Portugal. ITALY, IN GENERAL. Bou7idaries. THE Alps divide Italy from France, Switzer- land, and Germany on the North ; the Adriaiic sea bounds it on the Northeast ; on the South and West it is washed by the Medi- terranean. Extent. Italy lies between 37 and 46 30, N, lat. and 6 10 and 18 35, E. Ion. Its greatest length is 740 miles, and its greatest breadth is 400. The contents in squai'e miles, exclusive of the islands, is 95,585. Divisions. The whole of the Italian dominions, comprehending Corsica, Sardinia, the Venetian and other islands, before the late revolutions, were divided in the manner exhibited in the following, TABLE. Countries Names. Chief Cities. fPiccimont Turin ( Savoy Chambery To the king J Monserrat Cassel of Sardinia, j Aiessandrine Alexandria I Oneglia Oneglia (^Sardinia Island Cagliari To the king ^ Naples Naples of Naples. ^ Sicily Island Palermo T. ,, -P f Milan Milan fo the Em- J ,, tvt . J ^^"'^"^ Mantua 1 ■ I MJi-anHoio Mirandola [^ Mirandola Pope's dominions Rome ^ N. lat. \ E. Ion. 41 54 12 45' To their re- f Tuscany Massa spective princes. < Parma Modena Piombino [_Monaco r Lucca Republics. X St. Marino (_ Genoa To England Corsica Island rr ,, fVenice To the re- j^^^j^ VenicV '^^'"'^"^P- i_Isles of Dahnatia Florence Massa Parma Modena Piombino INIonaco Lucca St. Marino Genoa Bastia Venice Capo d'lstri* Zara l" 496 ITALt. Countries Names. Chief Citle*, ' fCtpliaionia Cepl.alonisi Islands in j Coifu, or Covcyria Corfu the Vene- J Zant, or Zacynthus Zant lian do- ) -St. Maura St. Maura Little Cephalonia, Itliacaolim The present divisions of Italy will be seen in the sequel. Hiatorical Epochs. 1. The settlement of the Etruscans, a colony" from Lydia, in the middle of Italy, probably before the Trojan war. 2. The building of Rome by Romulus, about 750 years before Ciirist, and the establishment of the monarchy, which lasted 243 years. 3. The burning of the city by the Gauls, B. C. 384. 4. The commencement of the first Punic war, in the year B. C. 263, which lasted 24 years, and was the first which the Romans ever waged out of Italy. 5. The second Punic war, begun in 2!8 B.C. during which Hannibal inarched into Italy over the Alps, subdued every thing except the city ; but was at length defeated, and obliged to leave Italy in order to defend Carthage. There he was vanquished, and Carthage reduced. 6. The termination of the republic, and the assumption of the imperial dignity by Julius Caesar, in the year 44 B. C. 7. The various invasions of Italy by the Goths, in the beginning of the 5lh century ; of the Hunns under Attila in 452, and that of the African Vandals Under Genseric, in 455. 8. Pepin, king of France, A. D. 756, invested the Pope with the exarchate of Ravenna, and various other territories, which had been seized by the king of the Lombards, and thus rendered him a temporal prince^ who governed the exarchate by an archbishop. 9. Charlemagne, in 770, reduced the kingdom of the Lom- bards. 10. The distracted state of Italy, after the termination of the Carlovingian dynasty. The country became the scene of number- less civil wars, was repeatedly and terribly invaded by the Hun- garians and Saracens, and at length, in 961 fell to the possession ofOtho I. emperor of Germany. The imperial government con- tinued Aviih various oppositions and interruptions, but on the whole unshaken, till the time of Frederic II. who died in 1250. 11. Alter the loss of Italy to Germany, various unsuccessful attempts were made by the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain to reduce it under their dominion. For more than two cen- turies also it continued the scene of numberless and obstinate wars between the various petty states. At length, in 1809, the French came into possession of the whole country. All the petty states are now abolished. One third of the country is annexed to France, and the northeast formed into the kingdom of Italy, of wiiich the French emperor is sovereign. Religion. In all parts of Italy the Roman Catholic religion is established, and in many parts no other is permitted. ITALY. 4^r Governine?its. Before the late changes in Europe, Italy con- tained almost every sptxies of government. Its present govern- inents are not easily described. Language. The Italian is spoken tluoughout t!ie whole of Italy. Pofiulation. The whole population of Italy, coraprishig all the territories described undei- this head, according- to Ilassel's eati" mate, whicii is deemed the most correct, is 16,i 17,000, Climate. The climate of the north of Iialy is temperate and healthy ; and near the foot of the Alps the v/inters are oticn se- verely coid. That of the peninsula is very warm. The central parts, are rendered very mdieaithy by tiie nunjber of stagnant marshes. The heat of Naples would often be intolerable, if it were not for the regular recurrence of sca-breez s. Face of the Country. Italy presents every variety of surface. In the peninsula, on both sides of the mauntains, the country is sometimes a succession of iiiils and dales, and at others tlie valleys widen into plains of singular richness and beauty. The warmth of the climate, the richness of the soil, the frequency of the rains, and the number of brooks and rivers, give a beauty to the Italian landscape, which is not known in the rest of Europe. Soil aT.d Agriadture. Every pait of this country possesses a fertile soil, capable, with moderate cultivation, of bearing in abun- dance all kinds of grain, vegetables, and fruits. Lombardy has been styled for many centuries the gardim qf Euro fie. Rivers. The Po is the largest river of Italy. Its whole length is about 350 miles, Notwiilistanding the Po flows chi( fly through plains, yet its course is generally rapid, and, wlien swelled by the mountain snows, it beconies a torrent, inundating the neigliboiing^ country. The Tiber falls into that part of the Mediterranean, which is call- ed the Tuscan sea, below Osiia. Its length is about 180 miles. The Adige fails into the Adriatic, about 12 miles N. of tlie Po, and 9-4: S. of Venice, after a course of 210 miles. The Arno falls into the sea I 2 miles N. of Lfghorn, and belowr Pisa, to which it is navigable in small vessels, lis length is about 100 miles. The famous Rubicon, is a small stream, wiucli forms the southern boundary between Italy and the ancient Cisalpme Gaul. Lakes. IMaggiore is about 27 miles in lengtb, Ijy 3 in l>readth. This lake contains the Boromean isles, celol -riled by msnv travel- lers. Como is about 32 miles in length, Gaida, is an expanse of about 30 miles in length by 8 in breaiith. Mountains. The Alps liave already been described. The Appennines branch from the Maritime Alps near Ormea.and run N. E. at no great distance from the coast, and para del with it, to the meridian of Gi.n'^a. Thence tlieir course is E. for about 50 miles, and thence S. E. through the whole peninsula. These moun- tains are every where covereii with wood. They do not torm one uninterrupted level, but consist of distinct hills, the micidie regions of which meet each other, while you have an open prospect of the horizon between their summits. 63 49^8C- ITALY. Mount Vesuvius, a solitary, mountain 6 miles E. from Napksi has 2 peaks. The north peak resembles an inverted cone, striking, the eye with the view of an accumulated mass of stones, sand, and cinders, and is propei-ly the volcano. It is 3600 feet above ihe sea. The south peak, called the Somma, does n',t exceed 3300.. The circumference of Vesuvius is SO miles. The circumference of the crater is half a mile. Arrangement. We propose to consider Italy accordini^ to its- present divisions. The western part, which is annexed to France, claims our first attention ; then the kingdom of Italy, in the east, . then that of Naples, in the south, with dependant islands, and last- ly the surrounding islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, and the Ionian Republic. TERRITORY OF FRANCE IN ITALY. Situation. THE possessions of France in Italy have the Alps on the west. North of the Po they reach to the former east fron- tier of Piedmont, and south of that river to the east frontier ot Parma. The line runs thence nearly south to the territory of Massa, and thence nearly E. to the Adriatic, passing a little south of St. Marino.' Their southern boundary is the kingdom of Na- ples, which has the same limits as before the French revolution. Extents The length of this- territory, is 400 miles. The breadth is 170. Pofiulation. In the departments made out of Savoy and Pied- mont, in 1808 the population was 2,857,916 ; in the dutchies of - Parma aid Piacenza, about 240,000 ; in Lucca and Piombino, 172,000; in the kingdom of Etruria, 1,100,000; Ecclesiastical State, 668,000, or about 5,040,000 in the whole. Cities. Rome, once the m-istress of the world, and the mother of so many kings and heroes, is now the chief town of a French department. It stands on a bend of the Tiber, 15 miles from its mouth. Over the river are 6 bridges. Almost the whole of the. city is on the east side of the river ; a single ward is on the other side. The city is 1 3 miles in circumference, surrounded by a wall. The walls have 20 gates. The number of parishes is 96, of churches 300, of towers as many, of palaces 2200, of monasteries 64, of nunneries 40, and of hospitals 30. By a census taken in 1709, the population was 138,568. By that of 1797, the number- of houses was 35,900, and of inhabitants 163,034. Genoa stands at the head of the gulf of Genoa, and is about 10 miles in circuit. A double wall defends it on the land side, and several bastions are erected along the i>hore, on rocks, which rise above the water. About 500 cannon are mounted on all the works. The number of inhabitants in 1789, was 80,156. The harbor is large, but not safe. The light-house is on a high rock, at the west side, and is one of the loftiest known. Florence, in Tuscany, stands at the foot of the Appenines, on both sides ofthe Arno. Four stone bridges connect the two jjarls of the city. The walls are 6 miles in circuit. This city is ITALY. -^499 decorated with 150 churches, 89 convents, 18 halls for merth\nts, '72 courts of justice, 22 hospitals, 6 obelisks, 2 pyramids, 7 luuu- - Jains, 17 squares 160 public statues, and 80,000 inhabitants. Turin, in Piedmont, stands on a plain at the confluence of the . Po and the Doria. The houses are handsome, and are cnicfly of brick, stuccoed. There are 130 churches and chapels in the town, and 17 in the suburbs. The population in 18^)2 was 73,716. Leghorn, in Tuscany, comparatively a mouciu city, stands on the Tuscan sea, 12 miles S. of the Arno. The number ot inhabit- ants is 58,000. The trade consists in silks, coffee, cotton, aniseed, alum, essences, wine, oil, fiue wax, and straw hats. The coffee- houses are the finest in Europe. Parma is unequally divided by the river Parma, which falls into the Po, ! 2 miles below the city. It is 4 miles in circuit, and de- fended by a citadel and regular fortifications. The streets are broad and straight, the houses are well built and regular. Here are 35 churches. Inhabitants 35,000. Alessandria is on tlie Tenaro. Inhabitants, 52,225. Lucca is delightfully situated in a beautiful plain, adorned with villas, villages, and vineyards. It is regularly fortified, is 3 miles in circuit. The houses are handsome. Inhabitants 22,000. Pisa, in Tuscany, stands on both sides of the Arno, 4 miles from its mouth. Inhabitants 22,000. KINGDOM OT ITALY. Situation. IT has the Alps W. ; Naples S. ; N. it has Bavaria ; : E. the lUyrian Provinces, from which it is separated by the Isonzo river, from its mouth to its source. Comfionent Parts. This kingdom is composed of the dutchies of Milan, Mantua, Mirandola, and Modena, the possessions of Venice, the republic of St. Marino, the Ferrarcse, Eolognese, and Romag- na, lately a part of the ecclesiastical state, .ind the peiiinsula of Istria, and territory of Dalmatia, as far south as lat. 42, on the coast of Turkey. Dix'isioiis. I. West Lombardy, 10,275 square miles, 2,519,194 inhabitants, 9 departments. IL South Lombardy, 11,485 square miles, 1,922,554 inhabitants, 2 departments. IlL East Lombardy, 9,350 square miles, 1,630,179 inhabitants, 7 departments. IV. Dalmatia, 7,228 square miles, 296,415 inhabitants, 5 dis- tricts. V. Territory of St. Marino, 30 square miles, and 7000 inhabit- ants, Govermne72t. The French emperor has been king of this mon- archy, since its formation hi 1805. Population. The population of Lombardy contained in the ta- ble is the result of the census in ISoS ; that of D.i!inatia, of an enumeration in 1804. That of St. Marino is merely calculated. 500, ^. ITALY, The amount of the respective numbers is 6,375,342. Hassel esti- mated the population, in 1809, to be 6,389,000. Army and JVavy. The army consists of 8 regiments of infantry, 10 of cavalry, 3 of artillery, 1 of invalids, and 4 battalions of jjuardsj amounting to 40,000 men. The navy consists of 3 ships of the line, S frigates, aiid 16 smaller vessels. lievenuex The revenue of 1807 amounted to 1 19,000,000 livres, or 14,690,000 dollars. The debt, in 1809, exceeded 20,000,000. dollars. Cities. Venice is built on a multitude of islands, in a marshy bay of the Adriatic. The town stancis 5 miles from the continent. The buy is too siiallow for large vcsstis to pass between. This marsh is srparaied from the Adi iatic by some islands, a few miles from the tovvrj, winch break the force of the high winds, and ren- der the bay safe and quiet. The town is 6 miles in circuit. The streets are narrow, and the freestone pavements ate slippery in wet weather. It contains 70 parish churches, 40 cl.apels. 1 8 oratories, 54 monasteries, 26 convents, 17 hospitals, 53 squares, 188 public statues, and 150 palaces. The houses, 15,000 in number, are built with littk- taste, and generally make a mean appearance. The population is 137,240. Numerous natural and artihcial canals in- tersect the city. Over these there are about 500 bridges, the largest of which is the Rialio, over the middle of the great canaL Scarlet cloths, silks, looking-glasses, and gold and silver stuffs arc extensively manufactured. Milan stands in a fruitful and pleasant plain, near the Adda. It is ten tniles in circumference. There are here 230 churches, 40, monasteries, 50 nunneries, numerous hospitals and religicus iraler- nities, and, in 1805, 128,862 inhabitants. Bologna is situated in a beautiful plain, at the foot of the Appen- nines. The population in 1805, was 65,420. The Bologna hams, sausages, and dried tongues, are celebrated. This is one of the most agreeable cities in Italy. Verona lies in. a plain on both sides of the Adige, over which there are 4 stone bridges. The population, in 1806, was 55,887. Padua is on a tributary of the Brenia. Population 34,000. Brescia stands on a beautiful plain, on the Garza. The nunibci" of inhabitants, in 1805, was 41,972. Modenu is built betw^een the Secchio and Panaro, and surround- ed by fortifications, in 1805, the population was 26,884. Tasso and Corregio were born at Modena. / Ferrara stands on a branch of the Po, and is 4 miles in circum- ference. Ti,e number of churciies is 100, and of convents 38. In 1805, the population v.'as 24,444. Ariosto lies buried here, and Tasso here wrote his '>■ JerusaU m Delivered." Pavia stands in a beauiitul plain, on the Tesino. It contains 23,2:7 inhabitants, 19 churches, and 38 convents. Mantua, the birth-place of Virgil, stands on a lake, formed by the Mincio, which is 10 miles long and 2 broad. There are 39 churches, 1 1 oratories, and 40 conveJits, witiin the walls; arid 5 churches and 7 convents in the suburbs. The population is 30,243. ITALY. 5Qi KINGDOM OF NAPLES. Extent. THIS kin^^dom lies in the soiilhern extremity of Ita- ly. On the Adriatic it reaches to lat. 42 50 N. on ihe Mcditena- iiean, to4l 15. The greatest lens^th is about 320 miles; the breadth varies from 100 to 50. The number of square miles is 31,505. Di-oidon.^. Naples is divided into 12 provinces, Avhich, with their population in 1789, as given by Gaianli, are as follows : Adriatic Provinces. Mediterraneaa Provinces. Farther Abruzzo 2.>8,000 Furi;:c r CaiuDiia 408,000 Hither Abruzzo 227,000 Hither Calabria 345,000 Moiise 159,000 Basilicata 477,0(jO Capitanata 364,000 Terra di Salerno 481,000 Terra di Bari 289,000 Terra di Lavora 1,245,000 Terra d'OtrantO 293,000 Central Province. Piincipatu Ultra 335,000 History. In the beginning of the 16th century, king Frederic resigned this kingdom to Louis XII. on being created count of Anjou ; but the French, in 1 504, were compelled by ihe Spaniards to evacuate the country. From that time till 1707, tliey retained it, when the emperor took it, and kept it till 1734. Then the Spaniards recovered it, and kept it till the year 18()6, when the king withdrew to Sicily, which he still retains, an 0,000 men, country militia 8000, and a body of British auxilia- ries. The navy at that time consisted of 1 ship of the line, 2 frig- .ates, and 5 Smaller vessels. .Revenue. The revenue amounts to about 2,670;000 dollars, of ITALY. 5f5B! Wiiich about 1,080,000 arise from the royal domains, and the land- tax. Hassel also gives an estimate of the whole value of moveable and immoveable property in the island, amounting to 1 1 1,612,400 dollars. Manners and Customs. The Sicilians arc described as bigoted Catholics. They have always discovered an ardent love of liberty. They are animated in conversation, and in the art of gesticulation excel even the French. Their women have remarkably beautiful hair, they marry very young, and early lose their beauty. Both sexes have very dark complexions. Both sexes are amorous, and there is perhaps less chastity here than in Italy. iJttrattire. There is a university at Catania, the only one in the island. It has professors of languages, mathematics, philoso- phy, law, physic, natural history, botany, horsemanship, fencings, and dancing. There is also a college in the same town for the ed- ucation of nobles. Cities. Palermo, in the Val di Mazzara, is the capital of the island, and is situated at the bottom of the gulf of Palermo, on the north coast. The harbor is large, and dangerously open to the swell of the sea, and its entrance is defended by two strong cita- dels. The population, in 1792, was 120,000. Its commerce is extensive, and it has important manufactures of silk and woollen. Messina stands on the east side of the island, a little south of the straits, and 6 miles from the opposite coast. It has a spacious harbor, in the form of a crescent, esteemed one of the best in the Mediterranean, being 5 miles in circumference, and very deep, and the quay belonging to it extends a mile in length. The popula- tion, according to Siolberg, is 36,000. Provisions are very pientv., ■ and I'ents are almost gratuitous. The chief manufacture is that of silks. The commerce is extensive. Catania is 50 miles S. of Messina, near Mount Etna. It is built, walled, and paved with lava, by which tlie city has been repeatedly overwhelmed. The principal streets are long, broad, and straight. It contains about 40,000 inhabitants. Modica, near the S. E. cape, contains 23,500 inhabitants. Syracuse is on the east side of the island, about 35 miles S. S. E* of Catania. It has a noble harbor, which is strongly fonifted. The number of inhabitants is 17,044. The cathcchal is an ancient tem- ple of Minerva. Syracuse was the scene of the exertions of Ar- chimedes. Manufactures and Cominerce. Silk is the most iraportan'„ manufacture. Palermo employs 900 looms, Messina 1200, and. Catania still more. Vvmes are made in every part of the country. The salt-pans of Trapani are the most productive. Corn is the staple of the island, and immense quantities are exported. Silk is the second source of riches. The annual value sevit out of the isl- and is about ;^200,000 sterling. Girgenti exports the most al- monds. Two thousand chests of oranges are annually sent from Messina, and 8,000 of pickled lemons, and as naany more from the rest of the island. Two hundred and eighty barrels of lemon juice, and 27 cwt. of bergamot juice, are exported. Pistachio \0i ITALY nuts and carob beans are also an article of trade. The ^iciliah Commerce has always been shackled by a ciuiy on exports. Cirmate. The weather is bO warm, even in January, that the shade is lound refreshing. No chilling v/inds are felt, except a few days in March. The summit of jEtna presents the only ap- pearance of winter. The air however is wholesome, and the sea breezes of summer are highly refreshing. The Sirocco or warm wind from Africa, is very contmon in tlie early part of the day. Though attended with a slight current of air, yet, when it pre- vails, the Avaves of the sea f(;am and roar unceasingly. It brings humidity : the clothes adhere to the body, the limbs lose their strength, and the mind its energy. Soil and Agriculture. In fertility of soil probably Sicily is not surpassed by any country on the globe. It produces wheat and other grain spontaneously. Its plains, at present, without inclo- sures, without manure, and almost without culture, rival in their fertility the rich fields of the Netherlands and of Lombardy. Rivers. These must of course be small, and are few in num- ber. The Salso, in tiie north part of the island, flows S. about 70 miles to the African sea, as it is called, near Alicata. Its waters are rendered salt by the salt springs of Castro Giovanni. The Giarcita rises on the N. side of ^tna, and passing the west skirts of the mountain, fails into the sea, S. of Catania. Mountains. A series of elevated land, passes from the west- ern extremity of the island to the promontory of Peiorus, called the Felortin chain. Mount ^tna is in the eastern part of the island, called Vai di Demone, from a notion that the numerous caverns of ^tna are inhabited by demons, and other wicked and miserable beings. The figure of the mountain is that of an obtuse truncated cone, extended at the basCj and terminating in two eminences, at a con- siderable distance from each other. The circumference of the mountain is 180 miles; its height, according to Sir George Shuckburgh, 10,954 feet, and the circumference of the visible hoi'izon on tiie top of ^Elna, 1093 miles. Over its sides are scat- tered 77 cities, towns, and villages. From Catania, which stands at the foot, to the summit, is ZO miles, and the traveller passes through three distinct climates, or zones, tlie cultivated., the vjuodij, and the desert. The lowest or cultivated zone, extends through an interval nf ascent of 16 miles. Its cii-cumference is estimated at 180 miles, and its area at 220 square leagues. The feitility of this region is wonderful, and its fruits are the finest in the island. Its lava flows from numerous small mountains, dispersed over the immense declivity of iElna, of a conical form, about 2 or 3 miles in circuit, and 300 or 400 feet higli. The woody region forms a zone of the brighest green all round the mountain. It reaches about 8 miles up the mountain, is 80 in circumference, and com- prehends a surface of 45 square leagues. The trees are unusu- ally verdant and stately, and consist of various fruit trees, the haw^th.orn, chesnut, oak, beech, and pine. The desert region is marked by a circle of snovir and ice, and extends 6 miles from its ITALY, S5* border to the summit. It is generally flat and even. The sum- mit itself is a plain covered with scorise ashes and sand, and ■with snow and ice. The cold here is benumbing, and the wind often tempestuous. The upper edges of the crater of the south- ern summit, when vi&iied by Spallanzani, were broken and in- dented, and formed an oval a mile and a half in circuit, the longest diameter of which was from E to W. Its internal sides formed an irregular funnel, and abounded with concretions of muriate of ammonia The bottom of the crater was nearly an horizontal plain, about two thirds of a mile in circuit, in which there was an aperture about 5 rods in diameter. Within this was a liquid ig- nited matter undulating and boilii^g, and through it a column of dense white smoke ascended perpendicularly about 20 feet in di- ameter. The northern eminence is a quarter of a mile higher, and has a crater about half as large as the other. SICILIAN ISLES. Lifiari Islands. THESE islands produce alum, sulphur, cinna- bar, and nitre, corn, almonds, currants, figs, and raisins, wines, and contain 13,000 inhabitants. Lipari, the largest, is uf an irregular shape, about 18 miles in circumference. It is healthy and fertile, and exports corn, wine, almonds, figs, raisins, sulphur, alum, and bitumen. Here are some noted hot-springs. Lipari, the capital, is a bishop's see, and strongly fortified by nature and art. ■ Mgatian Islands, These lie at the western end of Sicily, near Trapani. They are three in number, Lavenzo, Maretavno, and Favignana. They are all lofty. They produce corn, cheese, good wine, and figs, and pomegranates, and breed rabbits and th© chamois. Population 12,000. Fantalaria, is half way between Sicily and Cape Bon, and about 60 miles from each. It is 25 miles in circuit, abounds in hills, woods, corn fields, wines, oil, fruits, vegetables, and particularly in cotton. The inhabitants, 3000 in number, breed m.iny cattle and goats. They are industrious, and are excellent seamen. KINGDOM OF SARDLMIA. This island is 1 60 miles long, and 70 broad, and contains 9420 square miles. It is divided into four provinces, which with their population in 1780, follow. Names. Situation. Population. Towns. Cagliari S. E. 115,541 Cagliari Arborea S. W. 130,974 Oristano Gallura N. E. 71,428 Terra Nuova Logodori N. W. 133,544 Bassars. 64 30® ■ ITALY: The king, in 1792, lost his continental dominions, and removed-- to Sardinia. The nearness of Corsica renders him little more than a tributary of France. The religion is the Roman Catholic. There are 3 archbishop- • rics and 4 bishoprics, and the clergy enjoy great immunities and emoluments. The i^overnment is an absolute monarchy. The number of in- habitants in 1788, was 456,990. Many of the nobiiity and others removed with the government from the continent ; and Hassel estimates the population in 1809 at 520,000. The number of reg- ular troops was then 4000, besides a considerable number of coun- try militia. The revenue also was then 644,750 dollars. The Sardinians are represented as proud, ignorant, and indolent. The nobility are exempt from taxes, and for all offences, except trea- son, are tried by seven of their peers. While they riot in wealth and luxury, the lower classes are plunged in indigence and slave- ly. The language is the Spanish. Cagliari is the capital. It stands in the S. at the head of the hay of Cagliari. The population is about 50,000, and the commerce is considerable. The harbor is large, deep, and safe sheltered by an island, and defended by a castle and battery. Sassari is in the N. W. oti the river Tarres, 7 miles from the sea. It contains several churches, 16 convents, and 30,000 inhab- itants. In the neighborhood are mines of gold and silver. MALTA. Malta, is an island in the Mediterranean, 30 miles S. -from the coast of Sicily. The island is a rock of fine free stone, of an ova! figure, 20 miles by 12, and 60 in compass, and contains 134 square miles. ' The religion is the Catholic. The island is now a colony o£^ England. The population, as given by Hassel, is 74,705 ; of Goz- so, a neighboring island, 12.464; and of Comino, 603. Total 87,772. The three islands contain 8 cities, 6 towns, 33 villages, . and 10,966 houses. There are on these islands numerous coun- try seats. Valette, the capitxil, is surrounded with a strong wall. It stands upon a very large, safe, and commodious harbor, having several bays, and defended by Fort Ricasoli, and the celebrated castle ot St. E'mo. This last stands ou ilie point of a peninsula, separating the harbor of Valette from another on the right, and commands them both. It contains several churches and convents, a large hospital, and, in 1798, 23,680 inhabitants. The palace and St. John's church would ornament any city in Europe. Civita Vecchia, the only other town of any size, stands on a hill in the middle of the island, and is strongly fortified. It is a bish- op's see, contains several churches and convents, and 5000 in- habitants. Every village has an elegant church, adorned with > ITALY. ■507 -statues, tapestry, and plate. The soil is only about 8 or 10 inQhes deep, and lies on the rock. One side of the island is of a great height, and perpendicular. The fortifications of the other sides are a most stupendous work. The ditches, of a vast size, are all cut out of the solid rock, and extend many miles in length. Gozza lies to the N. W. of Malta, contains 40 square miles, several good harbors, and strong forts, and is fiHiitful. Comingo , lies between them, has a fort, and covers 3 square miles. IONIAN REPUBLIC. THIS cluster of islands received this name from the French . government, It is sometimes called the Refiublic of the Seven Islands, and sometimes the Ionian Islands. They were captured dn 1811, by the British, having till then enjoyed a nominal inde- pendence, under the protection of France^ to wluch they were ceded by Russia in 1807. Russia took them from France in 1799, and France from Venice in 1 797. Venice had then had possession of them from the year 1224, except that the Turks took them in 1479, and kept them 20 years. These islands lie in the Ionian sea, S. E. of the straits of Otranto, and near the coast of Turkey. Their number is very great, but seven more particularly deserve our no- tice. Tiicse are arranged in the tollowing table, geographically, beginning with that farthest north. Names. Ancient Names. Sq. Miles. Population. Corfu Paxo Sta. Maura Cephalonia Theaki Zante Cerigo* Corcyra Paxos Leucadia Cephalonia Ithaca • Zacynthus Cythera 219 34 110 350 66 88 98 65,000 6,000 16,000 55,000 7,000 30,000 8,000 Towns. Corfu Amaxichi Argostoli Theaki Zante Cerigo. 965 187,000 The climate is warm, but healthy ; the land generally fertile and ; productive. • Corfu, the largest town in these islands, is fortified and defended -by two forts, contains 12,000 inhabitants, has a good harbor, and ■ carries on a considerable trade. Zante on the east coast of the ► island contains 12,000 inhabitants. Cerigo lies directly S, of the Morea, at a small distance from its coast. TURKISH EMPIRE. TURKISH EMPIRE. THE Turkish Empire is ceniial to the Eastern Continent,* embracing a portion of Europe and Asia ;* and having been the acene of most of the transactions recorded in the Bible, is doubt- less the most interesting portion of the world. Its divisions, ac^ cording to Hassel, follow. Square Miles. Inhabitants. I. ly Europe, 217,758 9j882,VJ00 I, Moldavia 19,178 420,500 2, Bessarabis, or Bud- "> ziac Tartary y 8,92a 200,000 ■ 3, Wallachia 24,658 950,000 4, Servia 20,165 960,(/0a 5, Bosnia 1 6,000 850,00» 1, Bosnia Proper 9,863 3, Herzegovina, or > Dalmatia y 4,383 3, Bielogrod 1,751 ($, Bulgaria 38,23r 1,800,000 7, Rumelia, or Romania 53,990 2,200,000 8, Albania 48,526 1,920,000 1, Macedonia 15,780 700,000 2, Albania Proper 15,210 207,000 3, Janna, or Thcssaly 3,618 300,000 4, Livadia 6,('28 249,000 5, Morea 7,890 464,000 % Province of the Cap-> tain Pacha 3 1,863 240,000 1, Province of Gailipoli 833 100,000 3, Negropont 482 40,000 3, Tino 66 24 8nO |40,000 to 45,000. Langden. 4, Santorina I2,"0() [30,000. Langdon.. 5, Andros 12,1)00 6, Naxia 8,000 7, Lemnos 8,000 8, Thermia 6,000 {3000. Langdqn, 9, Siphnos 5,000 10, Nio, or Dios 3,700 10, Candia, or Crete 4,318 281.000 H. In Asia, 53l,775t 11,090,000 I, Anatolia, or Asia Minor 279,213 6,000,000 2, Scham, or Syria 50,105 1,500,000 • According to Hassel, Egypt in Africa, is included in the Turkish Empire. "J- The correctness of the number of square miles ia the Turkish Dominioni £a A»i» ^ad Africa is doabtedi TURKEY IN EUROPE. 50» Squai-e Miles. Inhabitants. 3) Algeziia, or the upper ? part ot" Mesopoiuinia ^ 37,808 800,000 *, Saiabago, or Caucasus 28,100 300,000 5, Irak Arabi, or the" lower part of Mes- opotamia, aiicl the )> 69,040 1,040,000 country around the Persian Gulf 6, Curclistan 32,572 500,000 r, Armenia 54,937 950,000 TURKEY IN EUROPE. Extent. THE length of Turkey, from Cape Matapan to the northern limit of Moldavia, is about 870 miles. Tho greatest breadth, from the western boundary of Bosnia, to the Black sea, is about 600. The exitnt of coniinentai Tuikey is stated by Han- sel, at 212,410 square miles; while the European Turkisii islands are estimated at 5348. Boundaries. Bounded N. by Austria and iiussia; E. by Rus- sia, the Black sea, the straits of Constantinople, the sea ot Mar- mora, the Dardanelles, and the Archipelago; S. by the Mediie- ranean ; W. by tne same, the Adriatic, Venetian Dahnatia, and a part of Austrian Croatia. Religion, The Mahometan is the established religion of Tur- key ; but at least two thirds of the inhabitants are Greek Christians. The Mufti ov S/ieik-Islam, is the head of the Mahometan rclig» ion. He is appointed and may be deposed by the Sultan, and is the second subject in the empire. He resides at Constantinople, and is the head of the Ulemoy a body highly respected and powerful, the guardians of the religion and interpreters of the laws. These possess the most lucrative employments, are secure from the ex- tortions of office, and cannot be put to death witiiout the consent oi the Mufti ; while tlunr property, at their decease, passes as a right to their heirs. In the larger mosques there are preachers ; rea- ders, who recite the prayers ; persons who summtm the people together, and sextons. In small parishes, the imam performs all these dudes, and is sometimes the village schoolmaster. The dervises are an entirely distinct order from tlie imams, or priests. There are two classes of them. The patriarch of Constantinople is the head of the Greek church, enjoys an ample revenue, and claims precedency of the patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. He is chosen by the arcii- bishops. The oflice is uniformly set to sale, and bestowed on the highest bidder. The inferior clergy are bishops, archimandrites, abbots, arch-priests, priests, and deacons. The Greeks have few BVJnneries, but numerous convents. Qovernmcnt, Mahomet himself, like Moses and Joshua, sus« StO TURKEY IN EUROPE. tained the double character of a military chief and an inspired le- gislator. His orders and regulations were professedly the dictates of inspiration. His successors, the Saracen califs, claimed a high sanctity of character, as descendants of the Pi ophet, and as guar- dians and expositors of the law. The Ottoman emperors, at the suppression of the talifat, separated the temporal and spiritual au- thorities. The empire is governed by a code of laws, called multekuy found- ed on the precepts of the Koran, the oral law, usages and ©pinions e capital of Servia, stands on a side hill, at the con- flux of the Save with the Danube. Population, 30,000. The for- tifications of Belgrade formerly very strong, were demolished in 1739. Athens.^ or Athinia, or Setines, is the see of a Greek archbishop, with a revenue of £i000, sterling, and is inhabited almost exclu- sively by Greeks. It stands on the N. E. coast of the gulf of En- gia, with a safe and large harbor, narrow at the entrance, and com- manded by the citadel. Silk, wax, wool, and oil, are the chief ex- ports. The Athenians are still distinguished by the subtlety and acuteness of their understandings, and are more polished in their manners and conversation than their neighbors. The population is 12,000 souls. The monuments of ancient art remaining in this city, are probably unrivalled in their magnificence. AFanufactiire.s and Commerce. The Turkey carpets have long been distinguished for their beauty ; as have the printed muslins of Constantinople, and the crapes and gauzes of Salonica. The brass cannon of the Turks are admired, and their musket and pig- tURKEY IN EtJROPE. 5l$ tol barrels, and sworcl-blades, are held in great estimation by for- eigners. Morocco leather is manufactured in large quantitie«, and of the best quality, in Gallipoli and the Dardanelles. The ■commerce of Turkey is very far from being in a flourishing state. The oppression of public officers, the venality of tribunals, and the general want of common honesty, inspire an universal distrust, and render commercial risks extremely precarious. The effect of this state of taints is to raise the interest of money, and the price of '^oods, to an exorbitant hcit^ht. Commonly money cannot be borrowed, nor goods pvirchased on credit, without a pledge above their value. The interest of money lent to Europeans is from 8 to 10 per cent. ; to Jews, Armenians, and Greeks, from 15 to 20 ; to private Turks, from 25 to 30 ; and to Turks who belong to the government, from 40 to 50. Climate^ Face of Che Coiintri/, and Soil. The climate of Turkey is generally mild, the air pure, and the seasons regular. Indian corn and the vine flourish even in Moldavia and VVallachia ; and rice and the olive together with these, in the more southern re- gions. The country is rather mountainous. Rumelia, however, is chiefly a plain country, and many plains and vail 'ys are found in the other provinces. The soil is almost universaily f* rtile, yield- ing vast quantities of excellent grain, particularly wheat, barley, Indian corn, and rice. The characteristical indolence of the Turks suffers extensive tracts of fine land to lie in an uncultivated state. Rivers. The Danube, already mentioned, is in part a Turkish stream. The Save separates Slavonia from Bosnia. The most considerable tributary of the Danube from Turkey is the Morava^ \vhich falls into it a little below Semendria, after a course of 200 miles. The Esker runs 120 miles, and falls into it above Nicopoli. The Alaritz, running S. E. and afterwards S. W. falls into the Archipelago, after a course of about 300 miles. The Vardari pursues a southeasterly course of more than 200 miles, to the gulf of Salonica. The Drill pursues a winding course of about 120 miles, and empties into tiie gulf of Drin, in the Adriatic. Gulfs. The gulf of Lepanto sets up eastward, about 120 miles from the Ionian sea, separating the Morea from Livadia. The gulf of Engia, on the opposite side of the isthmus of Cor- inth, extends from S. E. to N. W. about 20 miles, and is 25 miles wide at the mouth. The gulf of Salonica is the N. W. lerinination of the Archipela- go. It is about 120 miles long and 30 wide. Isthmus. The isthmus of Corinth separates the gulfs of Le- panto and Engia, and connects the Morea with Livadia. Tiiis was the scene of the celebrated Isthmian games, which began B. C. 1326. Mountai7is. The chains of moiuUains are numerous and ex- tensive. A southern branch of a grand ciiain, tending S. W. for more than 2oo miles, forms the N. and VV. boundary of VVallacliia, On the S. of tlie Danube appears tlie grand ra,nge of the Ha*- 65 514 TURKEY IN EUROPE. mus. This mountainous tract extends more than 400 miles, an# is now known under various names. TURKISH ISLANDS. Candia, anciently Crete, lies at the bottom of the ArchipelagOj- and is one of the laigest islands in the Mediterranean. It extends from E. to W. about 180 miles in length, between Ion. 23 30 and 26 30 E. and about 40 from N. to S. containing, according to Hassel, 4318 square miles. Candia is divided into 3 pachalics that of Retimo, in the west, Canea, in the middle and Candia, in the cast. The population of the island is estimated by Olivier, at 240,000. One half of these are Greeks. The mountains are in^ hubiied by the Sfiachiots^ distinguished from the other Greeks b^ their tall stature, their courage, and their love of liberty. The exports are horses, oil, soap, was, honey, cheese, raisins, almonds, walnuts, chesnuts, linseed, and liquorice root. There is scarcely a safe anchorage on the southern coast, but many fine harbors and roadsteads on the northern. The climate has from remote antiquity been celebrated for its salubrity. Winter is merely a rainy season on the plains, though the high mountains are covered with snow. The refreshing sea- breeze constantlytempers the heat of summer. The rivers are little more than torrents, swelled by the rains of winter. The town of Candia is the capital of the island. It is a sea-port on the northern shoj-e, about the middle of the island. The har- bor is small, but well fortified. The streets are straight, and at right angles. The town contains from 10 to 12,000 Turks, frona 2 to 3000 Greeks, and about 60 Jews. Here are 23 soap houses. The environs present a few fertile plains and rising grounds Canea^ near the western extremity, is surrounded by a strong wall and deep ditch. Here are 20 soap houses. The town is es- timated to contain 4000 Turks, 2 or 3000 Greeks, 150 Jews, 4 French and some Italian houses. Canea is the most commercial town in the island. Retirno, about half way between Candia and Canea, is also a sea-- poil, on the northern shore. Its harbor is small and shallow. The environs are delicj,htful. It contains about 6000 inhabitants ; half Greeks and half Turks. JSTegrojiont stretches from S. E. tO N. W. along the coast of Grcscia Projirm, and is 96 miles long, and from 8 to 16 broad; containing, according to Hassel, 482 square miles. The whole number of inhabitants is stated in the table at 40,000, which is far less than the ancient population. Ncgropont, the capital, stands on the western side of tl^e island. The harbor is large and deep, and seldom without a fleet of galleys. The town is the residence of the admiral of Turkey, who is the governor of Euboea, the smaller islands, and of the district of Gallipcli. Population 16,000. Lcinnos, in the northern part of tlie Archipelago, is 15 miles long and 1 1 broad. The eastern part of the island is dry and bar- TURKEY IN EUROPE. 515 ^ren ; the western is fertile and abounding in springs, Stalimcne, as the see of a Greek bishop. The other town is Cochino. The whole population is 8000, others say 10,000. Andros, a small distance S. E. from Negropont, is 90 miles in circumference. It is generally hi'jli and mountainous. The popu= lation is 15,000 souls, disuibuted into 12 villages. Tino, one mile S. E. of Andros, is 60 miles in circumference, contains about 70 square miles, and is almost every where moun- rtainous. The inhabitants are the bravest in the Archipelago, and though often attacked, did not submit to the I'urks, till 17 11, when ' they were probably betrayed by the governor. Here are reckoned ■60 towns or villages, inhabited by 40,000 to 45,000 souls.* Myco?ii^ 12 miles S. E. of Tino, is far from fertile, and almost all mountainous. The inhabitants, 6000 in number, all reside in one town on the coast. They are all farmers or mariners. A little barley and wine are annually exported. J\''axiai is chiefly covered with high mountains, the highest of which, called Jupiter, affords an extensive prospect of the Archipe- 4ago. The town Naxos, containing 2000 souls, is on the western -side. The other inhabitants, exceeding SOOO, are scattered through .41 villages. Paros, 6 miles west of Naxia, contains 6000 inhabitants. It has 4 excellent harbors. The celebrated Parian marble is obtained ■ from this island. Anti/iaroa^ 7 miles S. W. and 16 in cirGumference? is chiefly celebrated for its grotto. AOo, anciently los^ 40 miles in circuit, is lofty and mountainousj and far from !)cing fertile. It contains 3700 inhabitants, all Greeks. Homer is said to have been buried here. jV/jYo, formerly Melon, the southwesternmost of the Cyclades, is ^0 miles in circumference, and has a very large harbor, one of the vfinest in these seas. The population does not exceed 1500. Sansorini, is 40 miles in circumference, and in shape like a horse- shoe. The coast rises abruptly from the sea, often to the height of 600 feet. The road is 7 miles long, and 6 deep. The water in it has a deptli of from 250 to 300 fathoms, so that ships can find no anchoring ground. The population exceeds 12,000 ; about one sixth of which are Roman Catholics. Here are two bishops, one Latin, the other Greek, and two nunneries. The inhabitants are distinguished for industry, temperance, probity, and good morals. The other considerable islands will more properly fall under the ftlescription of Turkey in Asia. * According to Ha»sel, 24,800, &\6. ASIA.. ASIA. AS Asia exceeds Europe and Africa in the extent of its territ&=i ries, it is also superior to them in the serenity of its air, the fertili- ty of its soil, the deliciousness of its fruits, the fragrance and bal- samic qualities of its plants, spices, and gums ; the salubrity of its drugs; the quantity, variety, beauty, and value of its gems; the richness of its metals, and the fineness of its silks and cottons. It was in. Asia, according to the sacred records, that the all-wise Crea- tor planted the garden oi Eden, in which he formed the first man and first woman, from whom the race of mankind has descended. Asia became again the pursery of the world after the deluge, ■whence the descendants of Noah dispersed their various colonies into all the other parts of the globe. It was in Asia that God placed his chosen people, the Hebrews, to whom, by the prophets,, and other holy men, he gave the Oracles of Truth. It was here that the great and merciful work of our redemption was accora" plished by the Son of God ; and it was from hence that the light oi his glorious gospel was carried with amazing rapidity into all the linown nations, by his disciples and followers. Here the first Christian churches were founded, and the Christian faith miracu- lously propagated, and cherished, by the preaching of the gospel; and the blood ot innumerable martyrs. It was in Asia that the iirst edifices were reared, and the first empires founded, while the other parts of the globe were inhabited only by wild animals. On these accounts, this quarter claims a superiority over the lest : but a great change has happened, especially in that part of it called Turkey, which has lost its ancient splendor, and from the most populous and best cultivated spot in Asia, is become almost a wild and uncultivated desert. Extent, This division of the earth extends from the Helles- pont, the most westeily point, Ion. 26 E. to East Cape, in about 190 degrees E. Ion. from London, being 738.> miles in length. In breadth it is 5250 miles. Asia is limited, on the east, by a strait which divides it from A- merica, and which, in honor of the discoverer, is called Behring's strait. The northern and soulhern boundaries are the Arctic and. Indian oceans, in which last, many large islands, particularly that of New-H \ 'V H l,^ *1'^ ^•v .Can».ov^ ASIA. 51 r e o ^£ o o s| o^ o S£ o" o gt^ 00 CN o o o o i $2 C «i o c 2 O 3 s §1 o 0-3 » -o o o o o -2-S o o o o o o c o o o q^ q^ O . (3 'C *y5 J o o o" cT cd" cT -<* »n 0» CO CO b- ro yD II g"^ •^ 00 — CO '^ »o »o ts. o O C O »r> q^ q^ 00^ q CO ^•m ^0 0^ q. q^ 0^ c^ to q >n fS 00 O CO G<« — > 00 u^ -" oo" — t^ ^ 00 CN CO t-T CO — CO CO 00 in •* c" o n C o O) 00 «3 ■* »^ q^ »n CO ^ ^'i^ 6^ O (N Oi O 00 ^ »n CO — "T -m^ ■* »-5 J^.i2 H g s= >, 5 c rt cs r C fi. Q Uh W c/3 U5 Q 55 2^ 5 5 wo:? cd W — c> ^0 "* »n vo »v . — > CO CO Tf V) — ' ^» i5 ►-4 t— < 'V ASIA. sir ago o i£ o 2 CO o o o o o o ir> o 00 o o o o o^ o CJ^ •2 III o er> CO n cT »*4 ■^ to cC CO CO O 0> In. CO o Oi >* >n Ch CO CO b- ^ lO to "* 00 CO -1 V5 •rt i^ to r- eo ^ »v. " V5 ■* t^ co r) ^» ^ o o VC lO ^ o o o o c »^ o o 1 «r> o c O in o^ o 00 o CO %o o q_ o_ o^ c^ o o_ >r> £ 00 o CO c^ — oT c 00 >o CO CO »v *^ CO c^ 00 >o ■noocoOOOOOOOO cOi! O-^OOO O CCOOOOCOCOCNOCOOOOOO «g^ "^"l^^O O OinCO«NOOvOi;iocoOO'*0 ^S OCNOicToT Tf in (X — in -^ ^ o"co"cr-^cfoocN"to" J2 »n0O0Ob.CO "i^ tOcNiO>0 -< CTiCO'^OOCOO — l«- "J,l^— 'CO r-Hr-. — ^OtO ■^C?.-^ OCCO — ■^ — cT r^ c ^ o :z; t) ."vA-n ^ CO .5 S c CO 5m-^«C C/JW H .'"^-o-'^^aS^ts^c-^.a tapes c!5or 9 £-^-=.-e.= .£.S.= H-HS-^ sr?i S g IS I § ^ a § ^ ei W-ntotv . — CNCO'i'vjvOiv^ — rico'*.- — cj ih • ■ t— I I— I p*- 318 ASIA. 1^ o o o < CO 00 O OJ -* CO 05 CO o -*« 1— 1 f^ ^^ F*^ Ci CO Cl Ci CO o CO O -|!M CO o 00 02 CO GO O CO -i.-H si CO --I CO CO •"* CO -^ 1— H r^ I— 1 CN -1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c o c:: o o c o o o o o o o o o c o o o o o O CO o o O TjT o" o o d" o o" o CO •3 o r^ o Q o o r- o o o o cr. o o. O 0^ CO CN CO CO CN of 00 22,0 19,0 3,0 11,0 10,0 1 o CO CO o o o o CD CO CO of o o CD O O o CO O! o o o o o o o o o ^ 00 -1^ r-l en "5" o o o o o o O O O O O o O M3 O »0 O O of O CD of of r^" 00 O O) ** CO Oi CO CO '^ «5 O^ o o o 00* —JV CO -f ancient Persia, around the celebrat;;d capital, B.Tgdad. The ; mcient Mesopotamia, between the Tigris ind the Euphra- tes, nc >w partly corresponds with the province oi yligezira ; and the classic -.a! name of Syria, or Sori?., is suil allotted to the celebrated countries along the eastern extremities of the Mc Hicrranean. Some of these provinces arc of comparatively recent acquisition ; Bagda .d having belonged to Persia till 1638 ; while on the contra- ry. El ivan, reconquered by the Persians, in 163.=;^ has reruaiucdfreft from tJie Turkish domination. S,2& TURKEY IN ASIA. These provinces are subdivided into governments, arbitrarily' administered by pachas. Hist'jry. Ti.e present limits of Turkey were fixed by the treaty betwccii the Porte and Persia, 1736, since which period the Turks have been chiefly occupied in their own defence against the Rus- sius. Population. The Turkish empire in Asia is estimated by Pin- kertoii al 470,400 square miles ; and the population at ten mill- ions ; which, allowing eight for the European part, will render the total 18,000,000.* In the Caucasian mountain, not far from the Black Sea, is a peo- ple called Sonnas, from their country of this name, amounting to about 200,000 souls, inhabiting 60 villages, some of which are towns of 900 houses. These people acknowledge Jesus Christ to' be their only King and Saviour. They pray that God would bless them for Christ's sake, observe the sabbath, have priests who bap- tize their children, and administer the sacrament of the supper. They have many church books, but know not the meaning of tiiem. They believe in a future judgeinent. They are said, some of them, to labor under deep convictions of sin, and to pray night and day. They consider their preservation and the preservation of Christian- ity among tiiem as a miracle. They inoculate their children for the small pox ; have gardens enclosed with stone walls, and abun- dance of fruit, and live in harmony and comfort. f Cities avd Towns. Aleppo, on the Mediterranean, the capital of Syria, is supposed to contain about 250.000 inhabitants. The build- ings and population seem to have been on the increase, but the ad- jacent villa,«;es are deserted. The chief languages are the Turkish and Arabic. The manufactures of silk and cotton are in a flourish- ing condition, and large caravans frequently arrive from Bagdad and Bassura, charged with the products of Persia and India ; con- suls from various European powers reside here, to attend the inter^ csts of the respective nations. Damascus is supposed to contain about 180,000 souls. It was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of sabres. The manufac- tures now consist of silk and cotton, and excellent soap. From the Mediterranean are imported metals and broadcloths : and the cara- vans of Bagdad bring Persian and Indian articles. Smyrna may be regarded as the third city in Asiatic Turkey, containing about 140,009 souls. This flourishing seat of European commerce, and cliief mart of the Levant trade, is said to have been founded by Alexander the Great, eminently distinguished from all other conquerors by the foundation, and not the destruction of cities. The excellence of the haven renders Smyrna the centre of all the traffic of Asia Minor; but the frequent visits of the pesti- lence trreatly impede its prosperity.^ It has been observed that the sands in the bay of Smyrna gradually increase, and may probably • Hassel estimates the square miles at 533,000, and the population alt 11,090,000, and Montelle and Make, at 13,600,000. But both these geogra- phers inclode Egypt in tlieir calculations, which accounts for the differeoce,- t Brunton's Letter, Feb. 1806. \ Chandler, 65. TURKEY IN ASIA. 521 ih time impede the commerce. Earthquakes are here terriblco The city of Smyrna is poorly built. Tiic houses in general arc snere mud huts, and the streets loathsome and filthy in the extreme. The street of the Franks is the prhicipal commercial street. It contains many well built houses. The warehouses are all fire- proof.* Prusa is a beautiful city, in a romantic situation, at the northern bottom of mount Olympus. By Tourncfort's computation of fami- lies the inhabitants may be about 60,000. It was formerly the chosen residence of the sultans, and contains many of their tombs. Angora contains about 80,000 inhabitants. The trade is chiefly in yarn, of which the English shalloons are made ; and in their own manufacture of Angora stuffs, made chiefly of the fine hair of a par- ticular breed of goats, which, like that of the cats, occurs in no other country. Tokat is also a flourishing place. The inhabitants are computed at 60,000. Silk and leather are manufactures of Tokat ; but the chief is that of copper utensils, which are sent to Constantinopla, and even to Egypt. Basra or Bassora, on the estuary of the Euphrates and Tigris, is a city of 50,000 inhabitants, and great commercial consequence, be- ing frequented by numerous vessels from Europe and Asia, and ?he seat of an English consul. The great and I'omantic Bagdad, the seat of the califs, and the scene of many eastern fictions, has now dwindled into a town of about 20,000 inhabitants. Near this city was ancient Babylon, whose present state furnishes conclusive evidence of the fulfilment of prophecy. The ancient and celebrated city of Jerusalem is reduced to a mean town, chiefly existing by the piety of pilgrims. This city will ever be interesting to the heart of sensibility. Christ declared that the place " should be trodden down of the Gentiles." To this day Gentiles possess the city. It is inhabited by Turks, Arabs, and a few Christians. The Jews do not choose to dwell here ; they say it must undergo a conflagration and inundation, when the Messiah comes to purity it from the defilements of Christians and Mahome-^ tans. Erzeron, the capital of Armenia, contains about 25,000 inhabit? M-sis. Tyre was once a famous city of Phenicia, and anciently a place of more extensive commerce thaii any spot in the world. In the time of the prophet Isaiah, " Her merchants were princes." In the time of Alexander, it was encircled by a wall 150 feet high. This city arrested the progress of his conquering army for seven months. But for their wickedness God threatened by the voice of prophecy, that this mart of nations should ijecome desolate. " I will cause the noise of thy songs to cease ; I will make thee like the top of a 3'ock. Thou shalt be a place to fs/iread 7iets ujion. Thou slialt be built no more." This prophecy has been literally fulfilled. Th'^ • Lartgdon's MSi 66 522^ TURKEY INT ASIA. place is now buried in its own ruins. There is nothing here nm^ to give the least idea of its former glory and magnificence. There- is, indeed, on the N. side, one old Turkish castle, beside which, nothing is to be seen, but fallen, broken pillars. Not a single habi° tation for human beings is there on this once celebrated spot. It is totally abandoned, excepting by a few fishermen, who sometimes-^ visit it to fish in the surrounding waters, and on its rocks dry their 7iets, sheltering themselves under the ruins of its ancient grandeur. Lon. 35 48 E. lat. 33 23 N. Climaie and Seasono: Asia Minor has a fine climate. There is a peculiar softness and serenity in the air, not perceivable on the European side of the Archipelago. The heat of the summer is con- siderably tempered by the numerous chains of high mountains, some of which are said to be covered with perpetual snow. Face of the Country. The general appearance of Asiatic Tur- key is mountainous ; but intermingled with large and beautiful plains, which, instead of being covered with rich crops of grain, are pastured by the nimierous flocks and herds of the Turcomans. The soil of Asia Minor is chiefly a deep clay ; and wheat, barleyjr and durra, form the chief products of agriculture.* Excellent grapes and olives abound ; and the southern provinces are fertile in dates. In Syria the agriculture is in the most deplorable condi- tion. The peasants though not sold with the soil, like those of Po- land, are, if possible, yet more oppressed ; barley bread, onions, and water, form their constant fare.f Rivers. The principal river of Asiatic Turkey is the Euphrates, which rises from the mountains of Armenia, a few miles to the No E. of Erzeron ;| and chiefly pursues a S. W. direction to Semisat, where it would fall into the Mediterranean, if not prevented by a high ridge of mountains. In this part of its course the Euphrates is joined by the Morad from the east, a stream almost double in length to that of Euphrates. At Semisat, the ancient Samosata, this noble river assumes a southerly direction ; then runs an extensive course to the S. E. and after receiving the Tigris, falls by two or three mouths into the gulf of Persia, 50 miles S. E. of Bassora* The length of the Euphrates is about 1400 miles. Its water is re- markably pleasant. It is muddy when first taken up, but soon be- comes clear ; and i« by same preferred to wine or spirits. The tide raises its water more than 30 leagues above its mouth, Ion. ()& 55 E, lat. 29 50 N. Next in importance is the Tigris, which rises about 150 miles south from the sources of the Euphrates, and pursues nearly a reg- ular direction S. E. till it joins the Euplirates, below Korua, about 60 miles north of Bassura ; after a course of about 800 miles. The Euphrates and the Tigris are both navigable for a considerable dis- tance from the sea. The third river in Asiatic Turkey is Kizil Irmak, the celebrated Halys of antiquity, which rising in mount Taurus, crosses nearly the- whole of Asia Minor, and joins the Euxine sea, on the west of the .gulf of Sansoun. » Browne,4l8* f Volney, ii. 413, | Tournefort, ii. 198. TURKEY IN ASIA. 523 Jordan is a river of Palestine, rising from lake Phiala, in Anii- •iibanus. It runs under ground 15 miles, then bieaks out at Pe- neum ; passes through Samachomite lake, anciently called Meron, 6 miles long, 4 broad. Two miles after its leaving the lake, is a stone bridge, of 3 arches, called " Jacob's Bridge," supposed to have been built before the days of Jacob. After separating Galilee from Tracontis, it passes through the lake Tiberias ; thence, after a course of 65 miles, part of the way through a vast and most hor- rid desert, receiving the Carith, (on the bank ol which Elijah was fed by ravens) and many other tributary streams, it empties into the Dead Sea. It is a very rapid river, generally about 4 or 5 rods ■wide, and 9 feet deep, and, except in freshets, runs 2 yards below the brink of its channel. The waters are turbid, but very whole- some. Lakes. Asiatic Turkey contains numerous lakes. TliatofVan, in the north of Kurdistan, is the most remarkable, being about 80 miles in length, and about 40 in breadth. in Syria is Asfihalritcs lake., known also by the names of the Salt .Sea, Dead Sea, and Sea of Sodom^ S. of Jordan, and on the S. E. border of the ancient Canaan. According to Joscphus, it is 72 miles long, and about 19 broad. Modern travellers, liowevcr, make it • only 24 miles long, and 6 or 7 broad. The rivers Jordan, Arnon, Kidron, and otiier streams, empty into tlvis lake. It has no visible communication with the sea. The great quantities of bitumen, .slime or mineral pitch, in this lake, render its waters unfit to drink. No fish can live in it. The sulphurous stream affects even the fruit on the shore in some parts. This lake is supposed to occupy the ancient site of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim, and the • valley of Siddim. The lake of Rackama, to the south of Hilla, and the ancient Babylon, is about 30 miles in length, and flows into the Euphrates. Towards the centre of Asia iMinor, there is a remarkable saline lake, about 70 miles in length, and a mile or two in breadth, being the Tatta, or Palus Salsa of D'Anvillc's ancient geography. Mountains. The first rank is due to the Taurian chain of anti- quiiv, which was considered as extending from tiie neighborjiood of toe Archipelago to the sources of the Ganges. The Caucasian mountains form a range from the mouth of the river Cuban, in t!ie N. W. to where the river Ker enters the Caspian, in the S. E. A chaiii extt ndb from Caucasus S. W. to near tlie bay of Scanderoon. Towards the east of Armenia, is Ararat, a detached mountain, with two summits ; the highest being covered with eternal snov/. In one of the flanks is an abyss, or precipice, of prodigious depth, the sides being perpendicular, and of a rough black appearance, as if tinged with smoke. This mountain belongs to Persia, but is here mentioned on account of connexion. In Syria the most celebrated mountain is that of Lebanon, or Li- banus, running in the southerly and northerly direction of the Med- iterranean shore, and generally at the distance of about 30 or 49 miles. It is about 100 leagues in circumference. Its cedars have -beti; remarkable from the days of Solomon. But 16 a^cd ones re- 5i'« RUSSIAN EIVIPIRL IN ASIA. main. One of them is 36 feet 6 inches in circumference, and the-, spread of its branches proportionably extensive. The eastern side of the Archipelago presents many mountains oE great height and classical fame, chiefly in ranges extending frona N. to S. Of these Olympus is one oi the most celebrated, a vast range covered with perpetual snow. About 140 miles W. of Olym- pus rises mount Ida, of great though not equal height. ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASIATIC TURKEY. The chief islands in the Archipelago, considered as belonging to Asia, are Mytilene, Scio, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes. Mytilene, the ancient Lesbos, is the most northerly and largest of these isles, being about 40 miles in length, by 24 at its greatest breadth. Its population is upwards of 100,000. The climate is ex- quisite ; and it was anciently noted for wines, and the beauty of thd women. Scio, the ancient Chios, is about 56 miles in length, by about 13 in medial breadth. The Chian wine is celebrated by Horace, and retains its ancient fame. The inhabitants are supposed to be about 60,000. Samos is about 30 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. This isle is also crossed by a chain of hills, and the most agreeable part is the plain of Cora. Tourncfort computes the inhabitants at 1 2,000» Cos, or Coos, is about 24 miles in length, by 3 or 4 in breadth ;, but has been little visited by modern travellers. Rhodes is about 36 miles in length, by 15 in breadth, an island celebrated in ancient and modern times. It is fertile in wheat.^ though the soil be of a sandy nature. The population is computed at about 40,000. The city of the samje name, in which no Christian is now permitted to dwell, stands in the noith end of the isle ; and, was anciently noted for a colossus in bronze, about 130 feet high. This isle was for two centuries possessed by the knights of St John, of Jerusalem, thence styled of Rhodes, till 1 323, when it was takea, by the Turks ; and the emperor Charles V. assigned to the knights the island of Malta. Cijtnus is about 160 miles in length, and about 70 at its greatest^ breadth. The soil is fertile, yet agriculture is in a neglected state. The chief products are silk, cotton, wines, turpentine, and timber. The Cypriots are a tall and elegant race ; but the chief beauty of^ the women consists in tlieir sparkling eyes. To the disgrace of the Turkish government, the population of this extensive island ia computed at 50,000 souls ! RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. Extent. ASIATIC RUSSIA extends between the 57th and the }'90th degrees of east longitude from London, computed at 4570 miles in iength. Its greatest breadth, from the Altaian chain of RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 52s .mountains, on the south, to the cape of Faimura on the noMh, 26 degrees of latitude, is 1960 miles. Boundaries. East by a part of Asia, and the seas of Kamchatka and Ochotsk ; north by the Arctic ocean ; west the frontiers cor- respond with those between Asia and Europe. The southern limit.s require more explanation. The river Cuban, part of the Caucasian chain, and an ideal line, divide the Russian territory from Turkey .and Persia. The boundary then ascends along the nortii of the Cas- pian, through the stefi/i', or desert of Issim, and the eastern sliore of the river Ob, to where it issues from the Altaian mountains, when it meets the vast empire of China ; and proceeds along tliat chain to the sources of the Onon, where it includes a considerable region, called Daouria, extending about 200 miles in breadth, to the south of the mountains called Yablonny ; the limit between Russia and .Chinese Tartary being partly an ideal line ; and partly the river Argoon, which joined with the Onon, constitutes the great river Amur. Thence the boundary returns to the mountainous chain, and follows a branch of it to a promontory on the north of the mouth of the Amur, or Amoor. Divisions. See Russian Empire in Europe. Religion. The Grecian system of the christian faith, which is embraced by the Russians, has made inconsiderable progress in their Asiatic possessions. Many of the Tartar tribes in the S. W. are Mahometans ; and others follow the superstition of Dalai Lama, of which an account will be given in ihe description of ,the Chinese empire. But the more eastern Tartars are generally of the Shaman religion, a system chiefly founded on the self-exist- ence of matter, a spiritual world, and the general restitution of all things.* The archiepiscopal see of Tobolsk is the metropolitan of Rus- sian Asia in the north, and that of Astrachan in the south. There is also the see of Irkutsk and Nershinsk, and perhaps a few others of recent foundation At Karras, 530 miles S W. of Astrachan, and 260 N. of Trifflis, is a missionary station, supported by a missionary society at Ed- inburgh. The Mahommedan religion prevails in this region, to a great extent. The missionaries have been patronized by the Russian government, and their labors have been successful. Mr. ^runton, one of the missionaries on this station, lately deceased, has translated the Scriptures into the Turkish language, which is understood by all the Partars, who can read, from the banks of the Wolga, to shores of the Euxine, and is also spoken over many extensive and populous regions in the east. Types and pa- per have been sent to the amount of £600 sterling to this station, by the British and Foreign Bible Society, in aid of the benevolent object, and the New Testament has been already published, and js read with interest by some of the most learned Mahommedans. This station is not far distant from the Sonnasy in the Caucasian jpptintains, already noticed, and who in connection with this mis- • Tooke's Russia, 1783, iv. 42. 526 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. slon, may be cf essential service in spreading the knowledge of the Gospel through the neighboring countries. Goiiei-nment. Siberia is divided into two great governments, that of Tobolsk in the west, and Irkutsk in the east. The smaller provinces are Kolivan, Nershinsk, Yakutsk, and Ochotsk. In the 8. W. is the government of Caucasus, with one or two other di- visions, intermingling Europe and Asia. At a distance from the capital the government becomes proportionably lax, and tribute is the chief mark of subjecticJn. Population. See Table. The population of Siberia, according to Tooke, cannot be computed at above three millions and a half. Small Russian colonics have been established in several of the distant provinces and isles. Mannera and Custovis. The manners and customs of Asiatic Russia vary with the tribes by whom that extensive region is peopled. The Tartars, properly so called, are the most numerous, not only remaining in their ancient kingdom of Siberia, but con- stituting many other tribes in the west. Next in importance are the Monguls, of whom one tribe, the Kalmuks, are found to the west of the Caspian ; while the others, called Burats, Tonguts, -&C. are chiefly around the sea of Baikal. Yet farther to the ea^t arc the Mandshurs, or Funguses. The manners of the Tartars, who are the same people with the Huns of antiquity, are minutely- described by those authors who have delineated the fall of the •Roman empire. The Monguls are rather short in stature, with a flat visage, small oblique eyes, thick lips, and a short chin, with a scanty beard ; the hair black, and the complexion of a reddish or yellow- ish brown ; but that of the women is clear, and of a healthy white and red. They have surprising quickness of sight and appre- hension, and arc docile, hospitable, beneficent, active, and volup. tuous. Such, with some slight shades of difference, are also the manners of the Tartars and Mandshurs. The three distinct barbaric nations of Tartars, Monguls, and Tunguses, or Mandshurs, are by far the most interesting in these middle regions of Asia, as their ancestors have overturned the greatest empires, and repeatedly influenced the destiny of half the globe. Of these the Monguls are the chief people, and the ac- count already given of tlieir manners will suffice to impart an idea •of the ethical condition of Asiatic JRussia. Language. The languages of all these original nations are radically different ; and among the Tunguses, Monguls, and Tar- tars, there are some slight traces of literature ; and not a few manuscripts in their several languages. The history of the Tar- tars, by Abulgasi, is a favorable specimen of Tartaric composi- tion. Tlie late emperor of China ordered many of the best Chi- nese v/oiks to oe translated into the Mandshur language, which, having an alphabet, may be more easily acquired than the origi- nal. h\ the Morigul language there are also many books, written in the various countries to which their wide conquests extended. Superior, even amid their barbarism, to the chief original nations RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. s2t of Africa and America, the central races of Asia deserve an at- tention, which has been lavished upon inferior oljjects. Cities and Tonvns. In Asiatic Russia, the principal city is As- trachan, at the mouth of the Volga, which is supposed to contain 70,000 inhabitants. This city was founded by the Mona;uls of Kipschak. In 1554 the Monguls were expelled, Astrachan is built on several small hills, that rise amid the meadows of the Volga. There are 25 Russian churches, and 2 convents. The Armenians, Lutherans, and Papists, have also their jjlaces of wor- ship ; and even the Hindoos have beep permitted to erect a. temple. Azof, on the Asiatic side of the Don, is of small importance, ex- cept as a fortified post. On passing the Uralian chain, fa-st occurs the city of Tobolsk^ which contains only about 15,000 souls ; but is esteemed the cap- ital of Siberia. Tobolsk is more distinguished as the residence of the governor and archbishop, than for the importance of its commerce. The upper town stands on a hill, on the east side of the Irtish, and contains a stone fortress of some strength. Intlian goods are brought here by Kalmuck and Bucharian merchants, and provisions are cheap and plentiful. Kolyvan is a town of some consequence, on the river Ob. In the neighborhood there are silver mines of considerable produce. To the north of Kolyvan is Tomsk, said to contain about 8000 souls. On the river Angara, which issues from the sea of Baikal, stands Irkutsk, supposed to contain 12,000 inhabitants. It is the chief mart of the commerce between Russia and China, the see of an archbishop, and the seat of supreme jurisdiction over eastern Si- beria.* The numerous officers and magistrates have introduced the custonas and fashions of Petersburg, and European equipages are not uncommon in this distant region. On the wide and frozen Leaia, stands Yakutsk, with some stone churches ; but the houses are mostly of wood, and inhabited chief-' ly by Russians. The Lena is here about two leagues in width,- (though about 700 miles from its mouth) but is greaily impeded ■with ice ; and there are only a few small barks, chicfiy employed in supplying the town with provisions. Ochoisk, on the sea of the same name, may be rather regarded as a station than a town. Manufactures!. There are some manuf.ictures, particularly ia leather, at Astrachan ; and salt is prepared there, and in several other places in Asiatic Russia. Isinglass is ciiiefly manufactured on the shores of the Caspian, from the sounds or air bladder of the sturgeon, and the beluga. Kuviar is the salted roe of large fish. There is a considerable manufacture of nitre, about 40 miles north of Astrachan. The Tartars and Bashkirs make felts of a large size, some ot which are exported. The Russian leatiier is chiefly fabricated in the European provinces, being tanned with willow- bark, and afterwards stained. Shagreen is prepared from the * Lcsscps, ii. 344, ii^s RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. Jiides of horses or asses, but only a particular part of the back is' fit for this purpose ; and the grain is given with the hard seeds of the greater orach, pressed into the leather while moist.* Pitch is made by the boors from the pines of Siberia. Near the Uralian mountains are several manufactures in iron and copper. Co?nmerce. The chief commerce of this part of the Russian empire consists in sables, and other valuable furs, which are ea- gerly bou.^^ht by the Chinese, who return tea, silk, and porcelain ; that with the Kirguses is carri-ed on by exchanging Russian wool- len cloths, iron, and household articles, for horses, cattle, sheep, and beautiful sheep-skins. On the Black sea there is some com- merce with Turkey, the exports being furs, kaviar, iron, linen, &c. and the imports wine, fruit, coffee, silks, rice. In the trade on tiie Caspian, the exports are the same, but the return chiefly silk. The principal Russian harbors are Astrachan, Gurief, and Kisliur, near the mouth of the Terek, but the best Ivaven is Baku, belonging to the Persians. The Tartars, on the east of the Caspi- an, bring the products of then* country, and of Bucharia, as cotton yarn, furs, stuff's, hides, rhubarb ; but the chief article is raw silk from Shirvan and Ghilan) on the west of the Caspian. Climate and Seasons. In Asiatic Russia the climate extends from the vine at the bottom of Caucasus, to the solitary lichen, on the rocks of the Arctic ocean. Through the greater part of Sibe- ria, the most southern frontier being about 50°, while the northern ascends to 78° ; the general climate may more justly be regarded as frigid than temperate ; being, in three quarters of the country, on a level with that of Norway and Lapland, unsoftened by the gales of the Atlantic. To the south of the sea of Baikal, the cli- itiate parallels that of Berlin and the north of Germany, so that the fiiiest and most fertile regions in middle Asia belong to the Chinese. Face of the Country. In a general view of Asiatic Russia, the northern and eastern parts present vast marshy plains, covered with almost perpetual snow, and pervaded by enormous rivers, which, under masses of ice, pursue their dreary way to the Arctic ocean. Even the central parts of Siberia seem destitute of trees, vegetation being checked by the severe cold of so wide a continent. Towards the soirth there are vast forests. The sublime scenes around the sea of Baikal are agreeably contrasted with the marks of human in- dustry, the cultivated field and the garden. f Soil and .Agriculture. Many parts of Siberia are totally incapa- ble of agriculture ; but ii» the southern and western districts the soil is of remarkable fertility- Toward the north of Koly van barley generally yields more than twelve fold, and oats commonly twenty told. Exclusive of winter wheat, most of the usual European grains prosper in southern Siberia. The best rhubarb abounds on the banks of the Ural, or Jaik, in the southern districts watered by the Yencsei, and in the mountains of Daouria. But in no part of the Russian empire has agriculture made much progress, nor indeed is it possible, while the peasantry are slaves, and sold with the soil. * Tooke's View, iii, 531. f See Bell's animated description of this regton; CHINESE EMPmE. 52% Rivers. Some of the largest rivers of Asia belong to the Rus- sian empire, nearly equalling in the lengtl\ of their course any oth- ■crs on the globe. Of these the principal are the Oby, the Yenesei, jhe Lena, the Amur, and the Wolga, which have been already de- scribed. Mountain.^. The Uralian and Altaian mountains pass through this region, and have been already described. Ste/i/is. On the eastern side of the \,Volga begins an extensive; litepp, formerly called that of the Kalmulcs, from tribes who used to roam there, till they withdrew from the Russian dominions in lt7\. To the S. it is bounded by the Caspian Sea, and the lake Aral ; while to the N. it may be regarded as connected with the stepp of Issim ; and on the E. may be considered as extending to the river Sarusa ; the greater part not belonging to the Russiaii dominions, but being abandoned to the wandering Kirguses. This vast desert extends about 700 miles from E. to W. and including Issim, nearly as far from N- to S. but on the N. of the Caspian the breadth does not exceed 220. A ridge of satidy hills stretches from near the termination of the Uralian chain towards the Cas- jpian ; the rest is a prodigious sandy level, with sea shells, and salt pools. The stepp of Barabin, N. W. of Omsk, is about 400 miles in length, and 300 in breadth, containing a few salt lakes, but in gen- eral of a good black soil, interspersed with forests of birch. That of Issim aspires but rarely to the same quality : and in both are found many tombs, inclosing the remains of pastoral chiefs, Tartar or Mongul. ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASIATIC RUSSIA. The Kurilian isles extend from the southern promontory of ■Kamchatka towards the land of Jesso and Japan, being supposed to be about 20 in number, of which the largest are Poro Muschir, and Mokanturu. Several of these islands arc volcanic ; and some contain forests of birch, alder, and pine. Most of them swarm, ivith foxes of various colors. Even after the discoveries of La Pe- rouse, it is difficult to distinguish what pariicvslar isles in the south of this chain are implied by the Russian apjjellations, and it would even appear that the Russian navigators had, with their usual con- fusion, described the same islands under difTtrent names. The inhabitants of the Kurilian isles seem to be of similar origin with the Kamchadals ; and in the interior of some is a people called haii-y Kurilians, from what circumstance is not explained. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. THE Chinese empire, embracing the extensive conquests of the western countries, made the last century, may now be considered ■as extending from those parts of the Pacifir, ocean railed the Ghi- P7 530. CHINESE EMPIRE. nese and Japanese seas, to the rivers Sarasou and Sihon in the W. a space of 8 1°, which, takintjj the medial latitude of 30°, will amount to nearly 4900 miles. Frotn N. to S. this vast empire may be computed from the Uraliun mountains, lat. 50°, to the southern part of Cliina, about lat. 21°, being 20° of latitude, nearly 2030 miles. This empire, therefore, consists of three principal divisions ;, that of China Proper; Chinese Tartary, or the territory of the Mandshurs, Monguls, and Cashj^ar, on the N.and W. ; and lastly, Tributary Dominions, embracing, among; other countries, tlie sin- gular and interesting^ region of Pibet. These countries, which are arranged in the following table, from Hassel, are not only so wide and important, but are so radically diffuient in the form of govern- ment, in the manners, and other circumstances, that it will be prop- er to describe each apart. ^ ■" u .2 8 SO O rj*' •O 05 -< o CO »o e* -H oe rf 00 t~ to '— 00 -H CO — < C< o 00 QC5 00 C>» -N CN r-i o> e* e* t- -^ oc f»:^— »~ to to ts< (N e< ■p o o rf en O Oi t- (N O CO 00 »o -« t- — C51 0» o o 0> rJH © to to rfi lO t- — • "«*' d 05 Tl< 00 *- o o fN O* to O) CO O C* O 00 o> » t- CO <>* o o 0» (N O ,"•* oc o to »o "^ »o 00 tO' to iO o> rtl c* «o CO ei CO 3 00 to >~i rj4 •« — • ».«■ >^ (N »■*< (2 is a. M to o O o o o a o a o o o o o o o o o 00 o o o o o to o o o O 00 o O O O C) o TJH O o CO o to »~ CO (N o o to o CO o o o ^ •— c^ — r t.r oT eO tl co" 00 O) 05 «0 o 00 oj t- 00 oc to >)0 oc o» C3J to to ot o> 00 00 t-- o «N O O •* 00 »c «?- »-' c« fe/D to O n^A^> r-' ^ r =; "J ^ c H 5 ^ 'J g 8 = s - . >~H l-H C^ CO ° ■ '^ s E ^ ':^ ':^ ^ :^ ;j o'?- 14 COCTiC — C^CO"*"^"^*"^ CHINESE EMPIRE. 5.3 i a #2 1 ^i-- < < « CO ^^ (2.2 es •II £2 iaO c o O O (N ■o o o o o o ■"H o O O lO o o o o o ,o o ^ O O O 00 o o o o o o *.*»•% ' «% o O O OD o o o o •o o Js o o o CO o o o o o o o o t^ to eo *0 »0 O o o ** a o eo *^ p^ — -H c>< o 00 s CO — « v-^ Oi s fi o o <0 05 CO t~ 00 »^ to 00 00 »o »— 1 ,-< t- C^ t- CO f-H *-^ 3~ e< fm^ c*3 K) S tn ;-• J3 tc na c OS O '^ S ^■' -' M t. u 2 •-« ca S ■< "i c ^-^ ^ t:! c < S ^ CJ - - >■ t_, fcO"S tj w o rt ~ G '-' c ;-< ^ <; ^ (D =; Oh H -^ - ::: j= ^o _ rt ,« ^ r-" U a maU cuiiaiijs. I he sacred K-m of Moses (the Pentateuch") was shut up in .ach of these tabernacles, twelve of which represented the twelve tribeb of Israel; tiie thiru.enth, Moses. I'lje lK)oks were •written in a neat, distinct hand, on lun.^ pieces of paicho.^.nt, aiid folded on rollers. In the middle of the synaj^ogue stands tlie chair of Mosi s, in which every Saturuay, and on days of great solemnity, they piiv-;e ilie Pentateuch, and read some portions of it.* The Iloly Scriptures are now in a course of translation, by sev- eral hands, into the Chinese language. Christian missionaries arc sent to sonic parts of these vast and populous dominions, and hope is entertained that these people, who have so Ion? sal in daikness, •will receive and enjoy the light and blessings of the Gospel. An edict was issued in 1812, by the emperor of China, against Chris- tianity, making it death tor any person to embrace or propagate it. Governmenc. The government of China is well known to bo patriarchal. The emperor is indeed absolute ; but the examples ot tyranny are rare, as he is taught to legard his people as his cl.ildren, and not as his slaves. All tlie officers of government pass ihrougn a regular education, and a progress of raisk, which are held iijdispensablc. Gf these officers who have been called mandarins, or commanders, by the Portuguese, tliere are nine classes, from the judge of the village to the prime minister. The governors of the provinces have great and absoiuic power, yet rebellions are not unfrequent. Bribery is also an universal vice ; and the Chinese government, like most others, is more cor- rect in the theory, than in practice, Poftulation. See table. As the Chinese laws permit no native to leave his country, there can be no colonies properly so called. f Army. The army has been computed by Barrow, at l,000,00f) infantry, and 800,000 cavalry. Hasscl, however, from Desgiiigncs, estimates them only at 600,000 infantry, and 210,000 cavalry. Bevetme. SirGeorge Staunton estimates the revenue>C6o,000,000 sterling. This is also the estimate of Barrow ; who adds, ti.at when the expenses are deducted, only 12,000,000 slerlinjr are Icli for the treasury of the empire, out of which the expenses of the em- pire being paid, the surplus goes into the crown treasury. Des- guignes fixes the highest amount of the revenue, at more than a third less than the estimates of Staunton and Barrow. Manners and Customs, The Chinese, in their persons are mid- dle sized, their faces broad, their eyes black and small, their noses rather short. The Chmese have particular ideas of beauty. Tlicy • Abbe Grosier, vol. ii. chap. 7, p. 259. f Yet the number of Chinese at Batavia, and other situations ia the Orienta. Archipelago, many of whom pass as traders to and from their country, sheiv^ «feat these laws are little regarded. '534 CHINA PROPER. pluck up the hairs of the lower part of their fa^s by the roots with tweezers, leaving a few straggling ones by way of beard. Their Tartar princes compel them to cut off" the hair of their heads, and like Mahometans, to wear only a lock on the crown. Their com- plexion towards the north is fair, towards tlie south, swarthy, and the fatter a man is, they think him tl^e handsomer. Men of qual- ity and learning, who are not much exposed to the sun have deli- cate complexions, and they who are bred to letters let the nails of their fingers grow to an enormous length, to shew that they are BOt employed in manual labor. The women have little eyes, plump rosy lips, black hair, regu- lar features, and a delicate though florid complexion. The small- ness of their feet is reckoned a principal part of their beauty, and no swatliing is omitted, when they are young, to give them that accomplishment, so that when they grow up, they may be said to totter rather than to walk. LaJiguage. The language of the Chinese is of a regular and sys- tematic formation. Their alphabet is composed of 214 elementary characters, or /cr/^r^. By the various combinations of these ele- ments, all the other characters or tvords in the language are formed. All the v.'ords of the Chinese language are monosyllables. They have selected 36 characters for initial, and 14 for final sounds. The initial sounds are all consonants, the final all vowels, liquids or nasals. Ly coudiining these are formed 432 monosyllables, and by variously niodifying the sounds of the finals, together with the application of accent and quantity, the whole nuniber of monosylla- bles has been extended to 2178. The whole number of characters or words in the language is 35,000. Dividing this by 2178, the number of monosyllables, it will be readily seen, that the same pronunciation is used for sixteen different words. This is an in- convenience peculiar to the Chinese language, and in colloquial eliscourse must sonietimes prove a serious embarrassment, Educaiion. The schools of education are numerous, but the .•children of the poor are chiefly taught to follow the business of ^heir fathers. Cities and Tcwuf:. The chief cities of China are Pekin and Nankin, or the northern and southern courts. Pekin occupies a large space of ground ; but the streets are wide, and the houses seldom exceed one story. The length of what is called the Tar- tar city according to Staunton, is about four miles, and the suburbs •aie considerable. The population was computed at 3,000,000. The houses indeed are neither large nor numerous ; but it is com- nrinn to find three generations with all the wives and children un- der one roof, as they eat in common, and one room contains many beds. The neatness of the houses and various furniture and goods of the shops delight the eye of the visitor. Nankin, which was the residence of the court till the fifteenth century, is a yet more extensive city than Pekin, and is reputed the largest in the empire. The walls are said to be about 17 miles in circumference. The chief edifices arc the gates with a few temples ; and a celebrated tower covered with porcelain, about 200 CHINA PROPEI^. 555 £eet in height. Such towers were styled pagodas by the Portu- guese, who supposed them to be temples ; but they seem to have been chiefly erected as memorials, or as ornaments, like the Gre- cian and Roman columns. To the European reader one of the most interesting cliies is Canton, which is said lo contain a million and a half of inhabitants, numerous families residing in barks on the river. The European factories, with their national flags, are no small oruameuls to this city. The chief export is that of tea, of which it is said that about 13,000,000 of pounds are consumed by Great Bi-ituin and her de- pendencies, and about 5,000,000 by the rest of Europe, beside the immense quantily biought to America. The imports from Eng- land, chiefly woollens, with lead, tin, furs, and other articles, are supposed to exceed a million ; and the exports a million and a half, besides the trade between China and the English possessions in Hindostan. Other nations carry to Canton the value of about 200,0001. and re»jrn with articles to the value of about 600,000!. So that the balance in favor of China may bo computed at a million sterling. The other large cities of China are almost innumerable ; and many of the villages are of a surprising size. Of the cities, Sln- gan IS by some esteemed equal to Pckin. In general the plan and fortifications are similar ; and a Mandshur garrison is carefully maintained. Inland jVaxiigafiov.. The canals of China have long excited the wonder of other nations. As the two grand rivers Hoanho and Kianku bend their course from west to cast, the chief object was to intersect the empire from north to south ; which was in a great measure accomplished by the imperial canal. This wonder- ful work, which in utility and labor exceeds the enormous wall, is said to have been begun in the tenth century of the Christian era, 30,000 men having been employed for 43 years in its comple- tion. This great work differs much from the canals of Europe, which are generally protracted in straight lines, vvithi:^ narrow bounds, and v.nthout a current, whereas th.at of China is wiiidinr^ otten m its course, of unequal and sometimes consi.lci-abic width, and its waters are seldom stagnant. It begins at Lin-sin-choo, where it joins the river Eu-ho, and ex- tends to Han-choo-foo, in an irregular line of about 500 miles, where it joins the Hoan-ho, or Yellow river, and is al)out three quarters of a mile in breadth. I'he cominodiousncss and length of the Chinese canals are incredible. The chief of them are lined with hewn-stone on t!ie si!)lack. Their printuig is done by cutting their characters on blocks of wood. The porcelain of China has been celebrated from remote ages, and is chiefly prepared from a pure white clay. The internal commerce of China is immense, but the external trade is comparatively small, considering the vastness of the em- pire ; a scanty intercourse exists with Russia and Japan : but the chief export is that of tea, which is sent to England and America, between one and two millions yearly. The principal port for for- eign trade is Canton. Climate and Seasons. The European and American intercourse with China being chiefly confined to the southern part of the em- pire, the climate is generally considered as hot, whereas the north- ern part of this extensive country is liable to all the rigors of the European or North American winter.* J^'acc of the Country. The face of the country is greatly diver- sified ; and though in a general view it be flat and fertile, and in- tersected with numerous large rivers and canals, yet there are chains of granitic mountains and other districts of a wild and sav- age nature. Cultivation has however considerably reduced the number and extent of such features. In general the appearance of tlic country is rendered singularly picturesque by the peculiar style of the buildings, and uncommon form of the trees and plants. The soil is various, and agriculture by the account of all travel- lers is can ied to tlie utmost degree of perfection. The emperor himself sets an annual example of the veneration due to agricul- ture, the first and most important province of human industry. The great object of Chinese agriculture, the production of grain, is generally obtained with little manure, and without letting the land lie fallow. Irrigation is practised to a very great extent. The husbandry is singularly neat, and not a weed is to be seen. Fivers. In describing the rivers of this great empire two are ^vel! known to deserve particular attention, namely, the Hoan-ho and t!ie Kian-ku. These have been described. At about ?0 miles Viom tlie sea, where the former is crossed by the imperial canal^ * Sir G. Staunton, CHINESE TARTARY. Sl^ the breadth is little more than a mile, and the depth only about nine or ten feet ; but the velocity equals seven or eight miles in the hour.* To these grand rivers many important streams are tributary. The Amour and Argun form the boundary between Russian and Chinese Tartary. The Kiam and the Tay arc also considerable yivers. Common water in China is very indifFerent, and is in some places boiled to make it fit for use. Lakes. Chhia is not destitute of noble and extensive hikes. One more than SO leagues in citcumferencc, auotner about 30 Mountains. Two grand rani^es, running E and W. iniersect the centre of the empire, seemingly coniinualions of the enormous chains of Tibet. In the southern part of China the principal ridges appear to run from N. to S. Mineralogy. A.mong the metals lead and tin seem to he the rarest. China possesses mines of gold, silver, iron, white copper, common copper, and mercury, togetrier with lapis lazuii, jasper, rock crystal, load stone, granhs, porpdyry, and various marbles. In snany of the northern provinces coal is found in abundance. CHINESE ISLANDS. Numerous isles are scattered along the southeni and eastern coast of China, the largest being those of Foi mosa and Hainan. Formosa is a recent acquisition of the Chinese in the latter end of the seventeenth century ; the natives being by the Chinese accounts little better than Savages. It is divided from north to south by mountains, and the chief Chinese possessions are in the western part. It is attached to the province of Fokien, in the vicinity of which it lies, E. of Canton. It contains, according to Hassel, about 22,000 square miles. Its length is from N. to S. between lat. 22° and 25° N. The southern part of Hainan is mountainous, but the northern more level and productive of rice. In the centre there are mines of gold ; and on the shores are found small blue fishes, which the Chinese esteem more than those, which we call gold and silver fish ; but they only survive for a few days, when confined to a small quantity of water. This island is attached to the piovince of Quangtong, and lies S. VV. of Canton, between lat. lii° and ^0° N. SECOJVD DIVISIOjY. CHINESE TARTARY. UNDER this division of the Chinese Empire, Hassel include?; tt;e country of the Mandshurs, Montchoos, or Ttmguses, and iJhe * Stauntoo, 538^ CHINESE TARTARY. provin'te of Leatong^, which lie N. of China Proper, bordering or* the Great Wall ; the country of the Monguls on the N. W. tlie province of Sifan on the W. between China P!(;per and Tibet, and Cashgar, or Little Bucharia, N W. of Tibet ; covering, together,- 2,190,000 square miles, and peopled by 3,000.000 of souls. The inhabitants of each of these divisions, according to Hasscl, have their own hereditary princ; i, who are subject to the emperor of China. Except the Maliomctan Buchires, these people are chief- ly the followers of the Lama. Tiiey contribute to the strength of the empire nothing ^but troops, who themselves must be kept in subjection by a military force. In tSie tun her description of this division of the Chinese Empire ',vc shall ftiiiow Pinkcrion, whose account of it, though imperfects ~ and somewhat pt;rpiexed, is pi obably the bett that can be obtained of this unexplored and obscure region. Extent. This wide an«^ interesting portion of Asia, which has repeatedly sent forth its swarms to deluge the arts and civilization of Europe, extends frcn. ion. 72° E- from Greenwich, to 145° a space of not less than 75° of longitude, which at the medial latitude of 4*;°, will yield aboin. 3 100 miles. The breadth from the northern frontier of Tibet, to the Russian confiries, is about 18 degrees, or 1080 miles. The northern boundary .is R«ssia. The eastern boundary is the sea ; while the southern extends along the great Chinese wall, and the nortliern limits of Tibet. The western boun-- dary is the celebrated mountains of Belur Tag, or the Cloudy Mountains, which divide the Chinese empire from Balk, and the Greater Bucharia ; while the range on the west of the lake Palka- ti s.eparates the Kalmucs, subject to China, from the Kirguses-ef ' Independent Tartary. Original Pojiulation. Part of the west of this country was held by the Scythae of antiquity, a Gothic race, who were subdued or expelled by the Tartars, or Huns, from the east, pressed on the other side by the Monguls. Beyond the latter were the Mand-- shurs, v.ho, though inferior to the Monguls in power, yet retained their ancient possessions, and in the 17ih century conquered China. At present the chief inhabitants are the Mandshurs of the eastern provinces ; with the tribes denominated Kalkas, Eluts, and Kal- mucs, who are Monguls. The information concerning central Asia is indeed very lame and defective ; and though the late Russian travellers afford a few hints, yet the jealousy of the Chinese, and other causes, have contributed to prolong our ignorance concerning-^ this interesting region. Jieligion. The religion most universally diffused in this part of Asia, is what has been called' Shamanism, or the belief in a su- preme author of nature, who governs the universe by the agency of numerous inferior spirits of great power. The Kalkas were ac- customed to acknowledge a living Lama, or great spirit embodied ; a form of superstition which will be better illustrated in the account of Tibet. Government. The govemment was formerly monarchical, with- a strong mixture of aristocracy ,"and even of democracy. At pre- CHINESE TART ARY. 52^ •"Sent it is conducted by princes, who pay homage to the emperor of -. China, and receive Clvinesc titles of honor ; but many of the an- - cient forms are retained. Though writing be not unknown among the Mon^^uls, yet the laws appear to be chitifly traditional. Pofiulation. Hassti estimates it at 3,000,uUO. JMuinions. The country of the MaudsLurs is by the Chinese -divided into three great governments. I. That of Chinyaiig, com- •prising Leaodouij, surrounded in part by a sciong barrier of wood. The ciiiiif town is Chinyang, also called Mugucn, by the Mand- 'slmrs, still a considerable place, with a niausokum of Knnchi, re- garued as the conqueror of China, and the fourider of the reigning family.*' 2. The ii;overnment Kircn-Oula, v»hich extends far to the 'N. E. where there are many forests and deserts on both sides of the great river Sagalien. Kiitm, the capital, stands on the river Songari, which falls into the Sagalien, or Amoor, aiid was the resi- dence of t'^e Mandshur general, who acted as viceroy-t 3. The gov< rnment ol Tsitchicar, so called, fi*om a town recently founded Oil the Nonni Ouia, where a Chuiese garrison is stationed. The Riisbians call this province Daouria, from the tribe Tagouri, who poasess a great part of this territory. The western boundary is the river Argooii, the frontier between Russia and China. These provinces having been the seat of the Mandshur monarchy before tJic conquest of China, have since that, event remained subject to . their ancient sovereigns. To the west are various iribesof Monguls, as the Kalkas, Eluts, -<8> Kdlniucb. The Eiuts have been greatly reduced by two de- structive M'ars agai^.st the Chinese, in i72o and 1757; and the -^reat chan has disappeared. Their country may be considered Tunder three divisions. 1. That part called Gete, towards the lakes cf Palkati and Zaizan. 2. Little Bucharia, the people of which are an industrious race of a -distinct origin. 3. The countries of Turfan, north of lake Lok Nor. The Mandshurs are the most populous race ; tlie Monguls can hardly boast the name of a na- tion. The Kirguses, or Tartars proper 01 the west, are confined to a .small and uncertain district ; and may more properly be con- sidered as belonging to Independent 'i'ariary. To these Hassel adds the Cashgars, whose number he estimates at 200,000, spread- ing over a territory of loO,000 square miles. Manners and Customs. See Asiatic Russia. The Mandshurs, who here deserve particular notice, are little distinguishable in their manners from the iN'ionguls. By the ac- count of the Jesuits, they have no temples, nor idols, but worship a supreme being, whom thay style emperor of heaven. But proba- bly their real creed is Shamanism, or a kind of rational polytheism. Lant^uage. The tluee languages of the Mandshurs, Monguls, and Tartars, radically differ from each other ; the former of which appears to be the most learned and perfect of the Tartaric idioms. Cities and Towns. In Little Bucharia appear the cities of Cash- gar, Yarkvind, Kotun, and Karia. *La Croix ii. 221, f Du Halde iv. 7. 5# CHINESE TARTABY. The country of the Mandshurs contains many villages and cittesp. as Hotun Sagalian Oula, so called from its position on that river, iUi the country of the Tahouria, modernized Daouria ; likewise TsiV chikar, v\ith Mert;uen, Petcuua, Kirin Oiiia, and Ningouta. 2'rade. The principal trade of the INIamishur country consists m- ^instnt?, and pearib, found in many rivers, which fall into the Amoor. Excellent horses may also be classed arccng the exports. Cashgar was formerly celebrated for i\)Usk and gold. Their towns are rather stations for merchants tiian seats of commerce. Climate. Though the parallel of central AAa coimv spend with that of France, and part of Spain, yet the height and snows of the mountainous ridges occasion a degree and continiiance of cold little to be expected from othrr circumstances. In climate and p>odac=. tions it is, however, far superior to Siberia. Face of the Country. The appearance of this extensive regiout is diversified with all the grand features of nature, extensive chains of mountains, large rivers, and lakes. Agriculture. Among the southern Mandshurs, and the people of Little Bucharia, agriculture is not wholly neglected, nor is wheat an unknown harvest. Rivers, The most important river is that called by the Rus" sians the Amur, or Amoor, by the Mandshurs, Sagalian Oula. This river has already been described. The Russian waters of Selinga and Irtish pervade a part of central Asia. The river of Yarkand has a considerable course before it enters the lake of Lop, The Hi, which falls into the lake of Balkash, is noted in Tartaric history. Lakes. Some of the lakes are of great extent, as those of Bal- kash or Tengis, and Zaizan, each about 150 miles in length. Mountains. The vast ranges of mountains which intersect cen» tral Asia have already been described. ISLAND OF SAGALIAN, OR TCHORA. Till this large island was explored by the unfortunate navigator- La Pcrouse, it was supposed to be only a small isle at the mouth of the Amoor, the southern extremity being placed by D'Anville about 4°, or 240 geographical miles, north of Jessn. By the ac= count and maps of La Perouse it is only divided from Jesso by a narrow strait of about 20 miles in breadth, since called the strait o£ Perouse. The discovery and account of this large island, which extends from the 46th° of latitude to the 54lh°, or not less than 480. geographical miles in length, by about 80 of medial breadth, is the most important portion of that navigator's voyage. The nativea seem to approach to the Tartaric form ; and the upper lip is coni° monly tatoocd blue. The dress is a loose robe of skins, or quilted Jiankecn, with a girdle. Their huts, or cabins, are of timber, thatched with grass, with a fireplace in the centre. In the south are found Japanese articles. A little trade seems also known with Jlhe Mandshurs and the Russians. The centre is mountainous, and TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA. 54i ,well wooded with pine, willow, oak, and birch ; but the shores are Jevel, and singularly adapted to a^iiculturc. The people are high- ly praised by La Perouse, as a mild and intelligent race ; quite un? JiKe tlie Mandshurs or Chinese. THIRD niVISJGM TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS. THIS division of the Chinese Empire, according to Hassel, covr ers 776,000 square miles, and has 31,500,000 inhabitants. It em- braces the following kingdoms : Kingdoms. Square miles. Population. Corea 88,000 1,500,000 Tibet or Tangut 370,000 12,000,000 Annan 165,000 10,000,000 Tunquin 154,000 8,000,000 J^eoo Keoo Isle? 1. K^INGDOM OF COREA. This kingdom is on a large peninsula, N. E. of China, from ?irhich it is separated on the S. W. by the Yellow sea. Corea has for many centuries been tributary to China. It has its own king ; its chief city is Kinkatao, of which we know only the name. Its productions are, gold, silver, iron, beauiiful yellow var- nish, white paper, ginseng, with small horses about S feet high, furs, and lossil salt. This country boasts a population according to Hassel of 1,500,000. All commerce with this little kingciom i^ prohibited, of course little is known of its former or present state. 2. TIBET, OR TANGUT. This extensive kingdom lies W. of China, and N. of Hindos- tan, and borders on both. It covers, according to Hassel, 370,000 square miles, and has a population of 12,000,000. It embraces the empire of the Dela Lama, the empire of the Teshoo Lama, the rajahship of Bootan, the rajahship of Nepaul, or Nipal, and the kingdom of Setchuen. Such are Hassel's divisions ; who obscrvesj that the principal parts of Tibet are governed by priests of the Budhistic order ; Dalai Lama governs at Lassa ; Teshoo Lama, at Tishulamba ; Rajah Daeb, who is a Lama, at Bootan. Since the grear 1792, Nepaul and Segwin have been under the protection of China. Extent. According to the most recent maps, Tibet extends 0om about the 75th to the 10 1st degree of longitude, which in the 542 TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA." ■latitude of 30° may be about 1350 geographical miles. The breadtfcj extending from the 27th to the 35th degree of latitude, is about 480 geographical miles. Fro-vinces. Tibet is divided into three parts, Upper, Middle, and Lower. Upper Tibet chiefly comprises the province of Na- gari, full of horrible rocks, and mountains covered with perpetual -anow. Middle Tibet contains the provinces of Shang, Ou, and Iviang: while the provinces of Lower Tibet arc Takbo, Congbo, and Kahang. Our Bootan is by the natives styled Decpo, or Takbo : all the countries to the west of which, as Moringa, or Morung, Mocam- •;pour, Nepaul, Gorca, and Ktmaoon, are not considered as parts of Tibet. History. The Lan»a of Tibet was probably the Prester John of the middle ages ; and this strange appellation was as strangely- transferred by Portuguese ignorance, to the emperor of Abyssin- ia. Polo intbrmsus that Tibet had been ravaged by the MongtilS) so that in his time it was almost desolate. The quiet succession of the lamas afford few materials for history. Religion. The religion of Tibet seems to be the schismatical offspring of that of the Hindoos.* It bears a very close affinity with the religion of Brahma in many important particulars, but differs materialiy in its ritual, or ceremonial worship. Tibetians assemble in chapels, and unite together in prodigious numbers to perform their religious service, which they chant in alternate re^ citative and chorus, accompanied by an extensive band of loud and powerful instruments ; so that these congregations forcibly recal to the recollection both the solemnity and sound of the Roman Catholic mass. There are also numerous monasteries, containing crowds of .monks, with a few nuns. Government. The ruling government is the spiritual, though the lama was accustomed to appoint a secular regent, a right •which has probably passed to the Chinese emperor. The laws, like the religion, bear some affinity to that of tlie Hindoos. PQp.ulatio7i. See Table. Revenues. The revenues of the lama, and of the secular prin= . ces, are trifling ; nor can Tibet ever aspire to any political im- portance. Character, 'd'c. Mr. Turner represents the character of the Tibetians as gentle and amiable. The men are generally stout, with something of the Tartaric features, and the women of a rud- dy brown complexion, heightened, like the. fruits, by the proximity of the sun, while tnc mountain breezes bestow health and vigor. The Tibeiians appear to have made a considerable progress in civilization ; but the sciences continue in a state of imperfection, the year for instance being lunar, and the month consisting of 29 Allays. JMeratiire. The literature is chiefly of the religious kind, the * Turner^ p. 306. TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA, 54S'^ books being sometimes printed with blocks of wood, on narrov/ slips ot thin paper, fabricated from the fibrous root of a smal! shrub. In this practice they resemble the Chinese ; while the Hindoos engrave their works with a steel stylus upon the recent leaves of the palmyra tree, affording a fibrous substance, which seems indestructii^le by vermin.* The writing runs from the left to the right, as in the Janguages of Europe. The monks, pass through' a regular education. Citie,-) and Towns. Lassa, the capital of Tibet, is situated in s. spacious plain, being a small city, the houses are of stone, and are spacious and lofty. t The noted mountain of Putala, on which stands the palace of the Lama, is about seven miles to the east of the city. As La means a hill in the native tongue, this name may imply the hill of Pouia or Boodh. To the north of Lassa appt ars another vast range of mountains, covered with snow. Lassa is in the province of Ou, and almost the centre of Tibet. |: Manufactures. The chief manufactures of Tibet are shawls,, and some woollen cloths ; but there is a general want of industry -^ and the fine undermost hair of the goats, from which shawls are .■manufactured, is chiefly sent to Cashmir. The principal exports. are to China, consisting of gold dust, diamonds, p'-arls, lamb skins» some musk, and woollen cloths. Many of the Chinese imports are manufactured articles. To Nepaul, Tibet sends rock salt, tin- ea), or crude borax, and gold dust ; receiving in return base sil- ver coin, copper, rice, and coarse cotton cloths. Through Nepaul is also carried on the chief trade witli BtMigai, in gold oust, lineal, and musk. The returns are broadcloths, spices, tiinkets, emeralds, •sapphires, lazulitc, jet, amber. Sec. Tirade. The trade with China, which is the principal, is chief- ly conducted at the garrison town of Sining, in the western ex- tremity of the province of Shensi, where tea is eagerly bought by the Tibetians. There is no mint in Tibet, as such an instiuuion is prevented by religious prejudices ; but the base silver of Ne- paul is current throughout the country. Cihnate. The spring is marked, from March to May, by a/ variable atmosphere ; heat, thunder storms, and occasionally with refreshing showers. From June to September is the season of humidity, when heavy and continued rains fill the livers to their brim, which run off from hence with rapidity, to assist in inundat- ing Bengal. From October to March, a clear and uniform sky succeeds, seldom obscured either by fogs or clouds. For three months of this season a degree of cold is felt, far greater than is known to prevail in Europe. Its extreme severity is more partic- ularly confined to the southern boundary of Tibet, near that eleva- ted range of mountain,s, which divides it from Asam, Bootan, and Nepaul.§ Thus the distinguishing characteristic of the climate is that extreme dry and parching cold, which, under the latitude of 26,- "near the torrid zone, rivals that of the Alps, in latitude 46. f Tal-nef, 323; f Rennell, 306. \ Bernoulli, iii. 227. § Turner, soa- 544 TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA. Face of the Country. Tibet proper exhibits only low rock/ nills, without any visible vegetation, or extensive arid plains of ari aspect equally stern ; while the bleak and cold climate constrains the ioliabitants to seek refuse in sheltered vales and hollows, or amidst i!ie warmest aspects of the rocks Soil. The nature of the soil here prohibits the progress of ag- ricuhure. The vales are comnionly laid under water on the ap- proach of winter ; in the spring they are plowed and sown, while Ircquent showers, and a powerful sun, contribute speedily to ma- ture tlie crops.* The autumn being clear and tranquil, the har- vest is long left to dry on the ground, and when sufficiently hard- ened, is trod out by cattle. Wheat, peas, and barley are the prin- cipal productions. Rivers. The chief river of Tibet is Berhampooter, which rising- in the mountains tliat give source to the Ganges, proceeds in an E. and S. E. direction for about 1000 miles, to the confines of Tibet and Asam, where it bends S. W. and flows into the estuary of t!ie Ganges, after a farther course of about 400 miles. The Hoan Ho, a.-ul Kian Ku of the Chinese, also rise in the east- ern boundaries of i'ibet. Lakes. The lake Trrkiri is about 80 miles in length, and 25 broad. A lake S. ol Lassa, which our maps call Jamdro or Palte, is represented as a wide trench, of about two leagues broad, sur- rounding an island of about twelve leagues in diameter; if true it is a singular feature of nature. Mineralogy. 1 ibet proper abounds with rich minerals. Gold is found in great quantities, sometimes in the form of dust, in the beds of rivers, sometimes in large masses, and irregular veins. There is^ a lead mine, two days journey from Teshoo Lumboo. Cinnabar, rich in quicksilver, is also found. Rock salt is another product of Tibet. But in general the metals cannot be worked, as there is a complete deficiency of fuel ; and coal would be far more precious than gold. The most peculiar pro<;luct of Tibet is tincal, or crude borax. The lake, from wlience it is collected, is about fifteen days journey from Teshoo Lumboo, and on the northward of it. The lineal is deposited or formed in the bed of the lake ; and those who go" to collect it dig it up in large masses, which they afterwards break into small pieces for the convenience of carriage, exposing it to the air to dry. Although tincal has been collected from this lake for a great length of time, the quantity is not perceptibly diminish- ed. The lake is at least 20 miles in circumference ; and, stand- ing in a very bleak situation, is frozen for a gi'eat part of the year.t 3. BOOT AN. This country may be regarded as a southern proviuce of Tibet, and occupies, according to Mr. Rennell, at least a degree of lati- • Turner, 354. f Turner, 406. TRIBUTARY DOMINTONS OF CHINA. 545 luds betweea B ;n:^il aal Tibet. lis c.ipitul, Tassaseudon, is m N. lat. 27 43. Tiiis province is bouacled E. by Asam ; S. by Bon/ai ; W. hy Nt;piul. It is a mountainous country. The southernmost rid^^e of lis mou.itains riies n^di- I J mile perpendic- ular above tiie plains of li.'Uijxi, in a horizontal distance of 15 niiios ; and from the 3um;nii, lUo plains below appear like a vast ocean, to the eye of the benokler. T iroUj^h this ridjje, there aro but few passes, and all foriifi ;d. Between Tasbascudon and Pa- ridroni^, in lat. 23' is a chain of still his/her mountains, visible from the plains of Bengal, at the distance of 150 miles, covered with snow. These are ilie Himalaleh mountains, which lie N. of Ne- paul, and M. Rennell supposes them to be, in point of elevation, e- qual to any mountains of the old hemisphere. With all its moun- tains, however, Boocan is covered with constant verdure, and a= bounds ill forests of lofty trees. The oak of Europe is wanting. The sides of the mountains are cultivated by the hand of industry, and crowned with orchards, Helds, and villages. Among its few wild animals, are monkeys and pheasants. Mr. Turner visited this country in 1783, and says it contains no metal, except iron and copper. Com.pared with Tibet Proper, its climate is mild, though its winters are severe. Tiie inhabitants resemble the ChinesCj and are a species of the Tartaric race. The government of Bootan is vested in a prince called Daeb. whose autiiority is neither stable nor extensive. 4. THE RAJAHSHIP OF NEPAUL, OR NIPAL. Boundaries. NEPAUL is bounded on the N. by the Himma- leh mountains, which separate it from Tibet, E by the province of Bootan, S. by the provinces of Bahar and Oude in Hindoostan, and W. by Kemaoon. Extent. The valley of Nepaul is a plain of an oval figure, about 200 miles in circuit, lying between lat 27° and 28 6 N. Pofiulation. There are several populous cities within the valleys and a great number of villages. The whole population is stated) vaguely, at half a million. Character. Two distinct races of men with different langiiages and religion inhabit Nepaul. The first and most numerous race consists chiefly of the two superior classes of Hindoos, the Brah- mins and the Cshatriyas ; the other is distinguished by the name of Newars. The former compose the army and engross all places of power and trust. In their character they do not differ materially from their brethren in Hindoostan. The Newars are represented as robust and healthy, though in some of the valleys they are sub- ject to swellings in the throat, similar to those of the inhabitants of Switzerland. Their character bears so striking a resemblance to that of the Chinese, as to leave little doubt of their origin. Religion. The popular religion of Nepaul does not differ mate- rially from the Hindooism established in Bengal. It prohibits the use of all animal food, except that of the buffalo, on which they 69 545 TillBUtARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA. are allowed to feed by special indulgence, Nepaul abounds ia'^ temples and idols. There are almost as many temples as houses, • and as many idols as inhabitants. Sixteen remarkable festivals are annually celebrated, some of which occupy so much time, that ■ scarce a day passes without the public performance of a religious^ ceremony. They have besides a grand occasional festival, which lasts 4 months. It consists in visiting the shrines of all the gods in Nepaul, which are said to be 2738, History. In 1792, the Rajah of Nepaul acknowledged himself a tributary to the emperor of China, reserving to himself, however, the right to exercise sovereign power within his own dominions. Government. The government of this province is vested in a Rajah, or sovereign, and a body of chieftains, known by the name of Thurgurs. The sovereign is deemed to be originally the abso- lute proprietor of all lands ; and in him, and a council composed " of the principal ministers of government, is vested not only the power of disposing of these lands at pleasure, but of punishing and rewarding public officers according to their merits, and of bestow- ing government and military commands. This council meet annu- ally, and exercise the despotic power "wilh which they are entrust- ed, in the most arbitrary manner. Ancient Literature. There is probably no place in India where- a search after ancient and valuable manuscripts would be more successful than in Nepaul, In this secluded valley the revolutions' and contentions, which have affected the other parts of India, have had no influence. Cities. The three principal cities are Catmandu, Lelit PSttan. and Bhat?:ung. The first containing 180,000, the second 240,000, and the third r20,000 inhabitants. The houses are generally built of brick, and 3 or 4 stories high. The streets ai'e paved with brick or stone. At Catmandu, the residence of the rajah and the courts is the royal palace. The temples are said to vie in splendor with those of the most populous and flourishing cities in Christendomo Climate. The climate may be compared with that of the soutl* of Europe ; sometimes a: sprinkling of snow, and now and then a hoar frost covets the ground. The rains set in about the middle of April, and break up in October, during which time the valley is occasionally inundated. Productions. The peach, the raspberry, the walnut, and mul» berry, grow spontaneously. Their oranges are superior to those of Silket, and are probably not surpassed by any in the world- Their pine apples are excellent. Rice is much cultivated. They have turnips, cabbages, and peas, but all of them indifferent ; oth- er vegetables good. Rivers. Several tributary branches of the Ganges take their rise here, all of which unite at the S, E. part of the valley, and rush through a breach in the mountains upon the plains of Hin- doos';":!. The Hindoo records represent the valley of Nepaul as having been originally a great lake. This account is rendered highly probable by the fact, that Nepaul is every where surround- ed by mountains) excepting a narrow spot at the S. E. corner. I§ TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA. 547 *tiiis were once stopped, we can easily conceive that the valley must speedily assume the appearance of a magnificent lake. Mountains. The valley of Nepaul is surrounded by mountains, whose common height is 8000 feet above the level of the sea. On the N. are the mountains of Himmaleh, supposed to equal in height any of the old hemisphere. Their snowy tops are visible from the plains of Bengal, at the distance of 150 miles. An inferior range forms the southern boundary. In this there are few remarkable eminences. Mineralogy. Nepaul was once supposed to abound in rich gold mines. This, however, is not the case. They have mines of cop- per, from which India was once supplied. Their iron is not sur- passed in goodness. They have plenty of marble, and other stone for building, also good limestone und slate. 5. KINGDOM OF ANNAN. THIS kingdom lies between the gulfs of Siam and Tunquin, on the S. W. and N. E. ; on the S. E. is the China sea ; on the N. W. and N. are Siam and Laos. According to Hassel, this kingdom covers 165,000 square miles, and has 10,000,000 inhabitants. It includes the countries of Cambodia, Ciampa, and Cochin China. Though the king of this country is a vassal of the Chinese em- peror, he is nearly independent. Modern accounts say, that Ton- quin has become subject to the king of Annan. His finances are very considerable. He maintains 1 13,000 land troops, 30,000 of whom are disciplined according to European tactics ; and 26,800 seamen.* CAMBODIA . Is the northern province in this kingdom, and is about 400 rfiiles long by 150 broad. Parts of it border on the gulf of Siam and the Indian ocean. Like Siam it is enclosed by mountains on the E. and W. and is fertilized by a large river, variously called May- kaung, Caniboge, and Japanese, which begins to inundate the country in June. The air is so hot, that the inhabitants are obliged to reside on the banks of the rivers and lakes, where they are tor- mented by musquctoes. The country, though fertile, is very thinly peopled ; the khig is hardly alile to assemble 30,000 men : and its trade is inconsidera- ble. The inhabitants are Japanese, Chinese, and Malays, together wi;h some Portuguese, who live without priests, and have inter- married with tlie natives. The men are generally well made, of a dark yellow complexion, with long black hair ; their dress is a long loose robe, the dress of the women is shorter and closer. They manufacture very fine cloth, and the needle work of tlic females is .much admired. Their religion is idolatry. * Hassel. ^^I TRIBUTARY DOMINIONS OF CHINA. CIAMPA.* Ciampa, another province of this kingdom, lies south of the de- sert of Cochin China, apd east of CanibocUa, bordering south on the China or Indian sea. The inhabitants are said to be large, muscular, and well made, have reddish complexions, flat noses, and black hair, their dress very slight. Feneri is their capital, where their chief resides, who is tributary to Cochin China. The country produces cotton, indijjo, and silk. Their junks, or boatSj are well built, and employed in fishing. SOCKIN CHINA. This is the largest and most important division of the kingdom of Annan. It is long avid narrow, extending from lot. 8 40, to about 20 N. and Irom 20 to 60 niihs broad. On the N it is sepa- rated from Tunquin by the river Siii.gt r ; on the \V. a range of snountains sepaiaies it from the kin;^dom of Laos and Cambodia. On the E. and S. it borders on tbc China sea. It is divided into 12 provinces, wluch succeed each other ftom N. to S. all bordering E. on the Cl>iria sea. The whole country is intersected by rivers, ■which facilitate- inlanci commerce. The climate is heaiti y, its heat being tempered by sea breezes. The rainy seasons are S( pumber, Oriobec, and November, when the low co\mtry is oveiflowed by toi rents from the mountains, fer- tilizing the soil, which yields three cr< ps of grain in tiie year. All the fruits of India are found here in the greatest perfection, with many of those of China f This courvtry has been torn for years past by divisions. From the year 1790 to 1800.| its rightful sovereign, Caun-nhutig. en- joyed only two years peace. These, however, were tniployed, un- der the auspices of the excellent bishop Adran, in making im- provements in liis country. He established manufactories of salt- petre, pitch, tar, resin, and fire arms ; opened roads of communica- tion between principal towns, and lined the roads with trees, for shade and ornament. He encouraged the culture of the areca nut, betel pepper, silk, and sugar cane; opesjed a mine of iron ore, and erected iron works ; organized his military forces, and established military schools on the European plan ; constructed 300 large gun-boats, 5 luggers, and a frigate, on the French plan, and taught his naval officers the use of signals. In 1800, an En- glish geniltman saw a fleet of 1200 sail, under the comiJiand of the prince of this country, in fine order, and under excellent discipline. In shoit, this excellent piiiice, by his own indefatigable applica- tion to the arts and manufactures, roused, by his example, the cnergie Peguese, in 1750 and 1751, gained several victories over the Birmans ; and in 1752 Ava was besieged and taken ; the last of a long line of Birman kings being rediiced to captivity ; but two of his sons escaped to Siam. When Binga Delia, king of Pegu, had completed the conquest ofAva, he returned to his own country, leaving hio brother Appo- raza to govern the late capital of the Birman king. All wore the aspect of tranquil submission, when there suddenly arose one of those men, who are destined, by means almost invisible, to break the strongest rod of power, and to change the fate of empires. Alompra, a Birman of lov/ extraction, was the chief of a small vil- lage, and was continued in this petty office by the victors. With one hundred devoted followers he attacked a band of fifty Peguese, whom he put to the sword ; and afterwards defeated a small force sent against him ; and about the autumn of 1753, took possession of Ava, wliile the Peguese government seems to have been lost by mere infatuation. After repeated defeats Binga Delia himself ad- vanced against Alompra, and the war was conducted by fleets on ' •Symes's account of the embassy to Ava, i. 6, 8vo. edit. 4S« BIRMAH EMPIRE. the great river In-awady, as well as by land, that of the Pegucii* being utterly defeated in close combat by that of the "Birman». Alompra proceeding in his conquests founded the town now well known by the name of Rangoon, wliich sigr.ifies "victory achiev- ed ;" and soon after chastised tlie people of Cassay, who had re» volted from the Birman authority. In 1756 he blockaded Sirian, which yielded to his aims ; and after having deprived tiie capital of any foreign aid by water, he advanced agair:st the city of Pegu, situated on an extensive plain, and tiien surrounded with no mean fortifications, while tlie stupendous pagoda of Shoniadoo served as a citadel. This capital was invested in January, 1757, and in about 3 months became a prey to the Birnians. Aiompra then proceeded to subdue the countiies to the eastward, as far as the three pago- das, the ancient boundary betwem Pegu and Siam. Tavoy has been since added to the Birman possessions in this quarter. Aloropra next determined to ch.astise the Siamese, for the cti- CQuragemcnt they had given to his rebellious subjects, and ordered a fleet to sail to Merghi, a sea-port belonging to the Siamese, which was easily taken, and was followed by the conquest of Tan- aserim, a largfi and populous city The victor next advanced against the, capital of Siam ; but two days after the siege had commenced, Aiompra was seized with a deadly disease, which saved the Siamese from destruction. He died within two days march of Martaban, about the 15th of May, 1760, regretted by his people, who at once venerated him as their deliverer, and as a great and victorious monarch. This founder of the Birman empire had not completed his fiftieth year ; his person strong and well proportioned, exceeded the middle size ; and though his features were coarse, his complexion dark, and his countenance saturnine, there was a dignity in his deportment that became his high station. He was succeeded by his son Namdogee, who suppressed sev- eral insurrections, and died in 1764. Shembuan, second .son of the great Aiompra, tlien assumed the regency and afterwards the dia- dem. The Chinese, apprehensive of the progress of these conquests, advanced an army from the pi ovir.ce ot. Yunan, but were com.plete- ly defeated by the Bivmans. Poliey spaied the captives, who were invited to many Birman wives, the Hindoo prejudices being here unknown. Sliembuan rebuilt Ava Haung, or anci( nt Ava, the me- tropolis cf tiie empire, which had fallen to ruin during the late commotioiiS. The Siamese, though vanquished, reniained unsub- dued ; and there is an inveterate enmity betwixt the nations, which Xj'iW prevent either servitude or alliance.* A Siamese prince as- suineti the monarchy, and, in 177!, defeated the Biniiaiis. Shem- buan afieiwards turned his arms to the west, and iorced the raja of Cachar to pay hcrnage to his power. He died at Ava, in 1776, and was succeeded by his son Chenguza, whose tyrannical conduct oc- rasioncd a conspiracy, at the head of which was Shembuan Miiide- BIRMAN EMPIRE. 55^ ragce, the present mona^n-h, younger brother of the deceased Shembuan. Chent^iiza was slain in 1782. The southern coiiqutsls of the Birmans had ah'eady extended as far as Merghi, and the northern piovhiees formerly bi lunging to Siam, had been reduced to subjection and tiibuie. Mindcrai^ee determined to pass the mountains of Anoupec, and suodue Arra- can, the raja or prince bcini^ ot a supine character, and his sub- jects unvvarlike, ihoujjh ihcy had ncvtr been reciuced to pay hom- age to any foreign power. This conquest was commenced in 1783, and was speedily effected. After tliis conquest the Birman arms were again turned against Siam, and in 1785 a Iket was sent to subdue the ihic of Junkseylon, ■which carries on a consideralije trade in ivory and tin, and is ihe only remaining mart of Siamese trade on this coast. Meeting with a repulse, the Birman monarch left his ciipital at the head ot 30,000 men, with a train of 2o field pieces ; but was defeated by the king of Siam, who in his turn failed in an invasion of the viceroyalty of Maitaban, which comjirehcnds Tavoy, Merghi, and ail the Birman possessions to the south. In 1793 a treaty was ratified between the Birmans and Siamese, by which the latier ceiled the western mariume towns as fdr S. as Merghi inclusive. But with this ex- ception, and that of some northern provinces, the Siamese monar- chy retains a considerable portion of its ancient fame. Hence it appears that the Birman empire can scarcely be computed to ex- tend beyond the I02d degree of longitude, and that only in the part to the north of Siam. Religion. The Birmans follow the worship of Hindostan, not as votaries ol' Brahma, but as disciples of Buodh, which latter is ad- mitted by HindoiiS of all descriptions to be the ninth Avater, or descent of the deity in his capacity of preserver.* The Birman.s believe in the transmigration of souls ; after which the radically bad will be condemned to lasting punishment, while the good shall enjoy eternal happiness in llie mmint Meru. They esteem mtrcy to be the chief aitiibute of the divinity. Of the religious buildings appropriated to the Birman worship, are temples near Rangoon, at Pegu, and Syriam. Government. Though the form of government be despotic, yet the king consults a council of ancient nobles. There are no he- reditary digintics nor employments ; but all honors and offices, on the demise of the possessor, revert to the crown. Pofnilaiion. The nuuiber of cities, towns, and villages in th.is empire,' according to Col. Symes, is 8000. He states its popula- tion at 17,000,000, confessedly, however, the result of a very vague estimate. Of these 14,000,000 arc in Ava and Pegu, and 3,000,000 in Arracan.f Army and Navy. Every snan in the empire is liable to military service, but the regular army is very inconsiderable. Durino- war the viceroys raise one recruit irom every two, three, or four hous- es, whicli otherwise pay a fine of about jC40f sterling. The in- * Syme*, ii. SIS, f Hassel \ Symes, it. 352, 55S BIRMAN EMPIRE. fantry are not regularly clothed, but are armed with muskets aifd sabres ; while the cavalry carry spears, about seven or eight feet in length. The royal magazines ai'e said to contain about 20,000 indifferent firelocks. But the war boats form the chief military es- tablishment, consisting of about 500, formed out of the solid trunk of the teak tree, the length being from 80 to 100 feet, but the breadth seldom exceeding eight. They carry from 50 to 60 row- ers, the prow being solid, with a flat surface, on which a piece of ordnance is mounted. Each rower is provided with a sword and lai'.ce, and there are 30 soldiers armed with muskets. The attack is impetuous, and chiefly conducted by grappling. Re-uenues. The revenue arises from one tenth of all produce, and of foreign goods imported ; but the amount is uncertain. Yet as grants are commonly made in land or offices, and no money leaves the royal treasury except in cases of great emergency, it is supposed that tl e monarch possesses immense treasures. Manners and Customs. The -Birmans are a lively, inquisitive race, active, irascible, and impatient ; the unworthy passion of jealousy, which prompts most nations of the east to immure their •women vithin the walls of an haram, and surround them with guards, seems scarcely to have any influence over the minds of this extraordinary and more liberal people. Birman wives and daughters are not concealed from the sight of men, and are suf- fered to have as free intercourse with each other, as the rules of European society advnit ; but in other respects women have just reason to complain of their treatment. They are considered as not belonging to the same scale of the nation as men, and even the law stamps a degrading distinction between the sexes ; the evi- dence of a woman being not received as of equal weight with that of a man. Language and Literature. The alphabet represents S5 ^mple sounds, and is written from left to right like the European. The Birman books are more neatly executed than those of the Hindoosy and in every kiouL or monastery, there is a library or repository of books. Colonel Symes was surprised at the number contained in the royal library, in which the large chests amounted to about 100.* The books were regularly classed, and the contents of each chest were written in gold letters on the lid. The study of the laws and national religion must of course con- stitute a considerable branch of education among the great ; that of the poor seems to be utterly neglected. Cities. Ava, the ancient capital, has been permitted to sink into ruin since the recent foundation of Ummei'apoora, on the eastern side of a great river which flows into the Irrawady. The extent and population of this city have not been accurately statedy but are probably inconsiderable, Pegu, formerly the capital of a kingdom, is also in ruins, having been razed by Alompra, in 1757, the temples being spared; and ,of these the vast pyramid of Shomadoo has alone been reverenced^ « Symes, iii. Pr?. BIRMAN EMPIRE. 559 and kept in repair. It is seated on a double terrace, one side of the lower being 1391 feet, of the upper 684. The building is. composed of brick and morlar, octagonal at the base, and spiral at the top, without any cavity or aperture. At the summit is a Tee, or sacred umbrella, of open iron work, gilt, 56 feet in circum-" ference ; the height of the whole being 351 feet, and above th-^ inner terrace, 331 feet. Tradition bears that it was founded about 500 years before Christ. One of the chief ports of the Birman empire is Rangoon, which, tliough like the capital, of recent foundation, is supposed to con- tain 30,000 souls. Tovyards the mouth of the river Pegu, stands- Si-rian, formerly one of the chief ports of that kingdom, and of considerable commerce, when in possession of the Portuguese. Martaban was another sea port of considerable eminence^ till tho harbor was impeded by order of the Birman emperor. Manufactures. The Birmans excel in gilding, and several other ornamental manufactures. The edifices and barges are constructed with singular oriental taste and elegance ; and at Chagain is a manufacture of marble divinities, the material being remarkably fine and almost transparent. Commerce. A considerable trade i& cai'ried on between the- capital and Ynnan, the nearest province of China, consisting chief- ly in cotton, with amber, iv&ry, precious stones, and betel nut i the returns being rav;^ and wrought silks, velvets, gold leaf, pre- serves, paper, and some utensils of hard ware. Several thousand boats are annually employed in transporting rice from the lower provinces^ to supply Ummerapoora, and the northern districts. Salt and gnapee, a kind of fish sauce, used with rice, are also ar- ticles of internal commerce. European broad cloth and hard ward, coarse Bengal muslins, China ware, and glass, are imported - by foreigners. The Birmans, like the Chinese, have no coin ; but silver in bullion, and lead, are cunent. Cianate and Seasons. The vigorous health of the natives attests the salubrity of the climate, the seasons being regular, and the extremes of heat and cold little known. i'cce o/" the Country, Soil, kifc. The face of the country afford;; almost every variety, from the swampy delta of the Irrawady to pleasant hills and dales, and considerable ranges of mountains. The soil of the southern provinces of the Birman empire is re- markably fertile, and produces as luxuriant crops of rice as are to- be found in the finest parts of Bengal. Farther northward the country becomes irregular and mountainous ; but the plains and valleys, particularly near the river, arc exceedingly fruitful; they yield good wheat, and the various kinds of small grain, which grow in Hindostan ; as likewise legumes, and most of the esculent vegetables of India. Sugar canes, tobacco of a superior quality, indigo, cotton, and the different tropical fruits in perfection, are all indigenous products of this favorite land.* Agriculture seems to be pursued with considerable avidity, but the mode has not been particularly illustrated. • Symes, ii. 372, 55© MALAYA, OR MALACCA. Rivers. The chief river of t!ie Birman empire is the Irrawa- dy, which, probably passes by iMoi^uaug to Bamoo, and thence by Uinmerapoora, and Prome, towards the sea, which it joins by ma- ny mouths aiter a course of near 1200 miles. Sitang is t!ic next on tiie east, after passing the small river of Pegu, a branch of the Inawady. Tiie Thaluan enters the sea near Martaban ; the lenj^th of its course exceeds that of the Irvawady, though not equal in size. The Siam or Mays^ue, also pervades a part of the Birman territory. MountaviH. The highest rauj^e of mountains is on the frontiers of Tibet. The other ranges are delineated as passing N. and S. A small range running E. and W. supplies the sources of the I'egu. Mineralof^y. The mineralogy of this region, the golden Cher- sonese of tlie ancients, is rich, and some products rather singular. In many regions gold is found iiucrmingled with silver : and six days journey from Bamoo (prol^ably towards the north) there are mines of gold and silver at Badonem, near tl.e frontiers of China. By a singular conjunction, there are mines of gold, silver, rubies, and sapphires, at present open on a mountain called Wooboloo- taun, near the river Keen Duem. There is also abundance of inferior minerals, as tin, iron, lead, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur ; and amber, a rare and singular production, is not only dug up in large quantities near the river Ir- rawady, but is uncommonly pure and pellucid. The most singular product of Pegu is the ruby, a stone next to the diamond in value, and which is found in a mountain between Sirian and Pegu, this substance being almost as peculiar as the;' diamond is to Hmdostan- Rubies and sapphires are also found in the northwestern part of the empire ; but the most valuable mines are about 50 miles north of the capital. MALAYA, OR MALACCA. THE peninsula appended to the Birman territories on the south is styled Maiaya or IMahrcca. Extent. l"he nortlicrn limits are not strictly defined ; but Ma- lacca is about 8°^, or near 560 miles in length, by about 150 miles of medial breadth, a territory sufliciently ample for a powerful mon- archy, had its native productions corresjjonded with its extent. Language. The Malayan language has been called the Italian of the east, from the melody of frequent vowels and liquids. The Arabic character is made use of; and aV) influx of words of that language has followed the adoption of the Mahometan relig- ion. Divmona. Malacca is represented as divided into the kingdom of Patani in the north, and that of Yohor or Jor occupying the southern extremity of tiie peninsula, the chief towns being Batusa= Ver the capital, Linga, Bintarn, and Carimon. Malaya, or Malacca. shi tlity. The city of Malacca in the last century was supposed to •contain 12,000 inhabitants, of which however only 3000 dwelt with* in the walls. Not above 300 were native Portuguese, the others beinij a mixed race of Mahometan Malays, accotuued among the chief merchants ot the east. The Portuguese settlement did not extend above 5 leagues around ; yet became higidy important from its advantageous position for Indian and Chinese commerce.* In general the Malays aie a wi 11 jnade peopje, though rather hclow the middle stature. Their complexiqn is tawney, and their hair is very long, black, and shining. They are restless, fond of navigation, war, plunder, emigrations, colonies, di'sperate eiitcrpiizcs, adventines, aiid gallantry. They are universally considered by those with whom they have inter- course, as the most treacl.erous, ferocious people on the globe. It is nothing uncommon for a handful of these savages suddenly to embark, attack a vesaei by surprize, poinard in hand, massacre the people, and make themselves masters of her. Malay barksj with 25 or 30 men, have been known to board European ships of 30 or 40 guns, in order to take possession of them, and murder with their poinards a great part of the crew. The Malay history is full of such enterprizts, which mark the desperate ferocity of tiiese barbarians. Opposite to the coast of Malacca, tliou^'a at a considerable dis- tance, are the islands of Andaman and of Nicobar. The great An= daman is about l4o miles in length, and 20 in the greatest breadth, indented by tleep bays, affording excclienl harbors, and intersected by vast iidets and creeks, one of wliich, navigable for small vessels, passes quite through tlie islc.f The soil is chiefly black niouldj the cliffs of a white arenaceous stone. The extensive forests af- ford some precious trees, as ei)ony, and the Nicobar bread fruit. The only quadrupeds seem to be wild hogs, monkeys, and rats. The sea supplies iiumerous fish, and excellent oysters. The peo- ple of the Andamans are as little civiiiz'.c! as any in tlie world, and are probably cannibals. They have woolly heads, and perfectly re- semble negroes. Their character is tiuly brutal, insiclious, and fe- rocious, and their canoes of the rudest kind. On Barren isle , about 15 leagues east of the Andamans, is a violent volcano, which emits showers of red hot stones ; and the uhole island has a singular and volcanic appearance. A British settlement has been recently form- •cd on the Greater Andaman, and some convicts sent thither from Bengal. The natives, about 20('0, have already profited by the ex- ample of English industry. The Nirobars are three ; the largest being about five leagues in 'ircumfcrence^ Tliey pioduce cocoa and areca tries, with yams and sweet potatoes ; and the eatai)le birci's nesis, so highly esteem- ed in China, abound here as well as in tiie Andanians. The people are of a copper color, with small oblique eyes and other Tartar fea- tures. In their dress a small stripe of cloth hangs down behind f, and hence the ignorant tales of seamen, which led even Linnseus tc^ ' Mandelslo, i. Col, 337- f As. Res. 'w. fJ85. f A$. Res, iii. 14^. 553 SI AM. infer, that some kind of men had tails. The only quadrupeds arc swine and dogs. The traffic is in cocoa nuts, of which one hun- dred are triven for a vard of blue cloth. SIAMo TILL the recent CKtension of the Birman empire, the rich anri ilouiishing monarchy of Siam was to be regarded as the chief state of exterior India, This kingdom, wiili Malacca, contains, accord- ing to Hassel, about 143,000 square miles. Extent and Boundaries. Tiic extent of the Siamese dominions has been recently restricted by the encroachments of the Birmans, nor can some of the limits he accurately defined. On the west, a chain of mounta.ins divides Siam from Pegu. To the south and east the ocean, and a chain of mcnntains, divide Siam from Laos and Cambodia. Thus the anc;cnt idea may !>e retained, that this king- dom is a large vale between two ridg'^s of mountains. The lengtli of the kingdom is near 700 miles : but of this about one half is not above 70 miles in medial breadth. Historical Efiochs. By Loubere's account their first king began to reign about 75 G years after the Christian era. In 1680, Phalcon, a Grf'ek adventurer, being highly favored by the king of Siam, opened an intercourse with France, in the view of supporting his ambitious designs; but they were punished by his decapitation, in 1689, and the French connexion ceased in consequence. The lat- ter events of Siamese history may partly be traced in that of the Birman empire. In 1775, Siam regained its freedom, having lost: much of its former grandeur.* Religion. The religion of the Siamese, like that of the Eirmans., - resembles that of the Hindoos ; and the transmigration of so-uls forms an essentia! part of ihcir doctrine ; but they imitate the Chi- nesp in their festival of the dead, and in some other rites of thatsin- gvdar nation. Govermncnt. The government of Siam is despotic ; and tlic sovereien, as among the Birmans, revered with honors almost di- vine. The succession to the crown is hereditary in the male line. Laws. 'I'he laws are represented by all writers on this countr}'' as extremely severe, death or mutilation being punishments even of iinimportnnt offences. Pojuilctiirya. Concerning the population of Siam there are no- accurai.e- documents. The Siamese dominions are thought by some to be peopled by about 8,000,000. Yet Loubere assures us, that from actual enumeration, there were only found of men, women, and childicn, 1,900)000. f This last estimate corresponds with that of Bruns. Arvnj. Loubere says that, in his time, there was no army ex- cept a few royal guards ; but Mandclslo estimated the army, which * Kas?eL f Mandelslo, t. 30. 3IAM. o6o may be occasionally raised, at 60,000, with not less than 3000 or 4000 elephants. jVavi/. The navy is composed of a number of vessels of various iizes, some of which arc richly decorated. PIcncc, as in the Bir- iKian history, naval engagements are not uncommon ; and the large rivers of exterior India arc often reddened wiili human gore. Both the Birnian and Siamese vesiicls frequently ditiplay a singular, fan- tastic elegance. Revenues. There is a royal treasury, as in most other eastern states, but voyagers have not attempted to define its probable amount. Alamiers and Customs. There is a considerable similitude in tiic manners and cuitoms of all the sutes between the vast countries of China and Hindostan ; with shades of difference, as they ap- proximate to either of these /ori of civilization. Siam, though cen- trical, has embraced a branch of Hindoo faith, and the manners arc rather Hindostanic than Chinese. The v/omen are under few restraints, and are married at an ear- ly age. The Siamese funerals resemble those of the Chinese * The common nourishment of the Siamese consists in rice and nsh, both which t.riicles are abundant. They also eat lizards, rats, and several kinds of insecfj. The houses are small, and constructed of bamboos, upon pillars, to guard against inundations. In person the Siamese are rather small, but well madcf " The figure of the countenance, both of men and women, has less of the oval than of the lozenge form, being broad, and raised at the top of the cheeks : and the forehead suddenly contracts, and is almost as pointed as the chin. Besides, their eyes rising somewhat towards the temples, are small, and dull : and the ivhUe is commonly com- pletely yellow. Their cheeks are hollow, because the upper part is too high; the mouth is very large, with thick pale lips, and teeth blackened by art. The complexion is coarse, being brown, mixed with red, to which the climate greatly coniribules.":}: Hence it would appear that the Siamese are much inferior iu personal appearance to the Birmans ; and rather approach to ttie Tartaric or Chinese features. The dress is very slight, the warmtii of the climate rendering clothes almost unnecessary. L,u)!ifuaife. There are 37 letters, all consonants ; the vowels and diphtliongs constituting a distinct alphabet. Tisc R appears, which is not known to the Chinese, and the V/. There is a consid- erable chant in the enunciation, as in other ancient languages. There are no infiexions of verbs or nouns ; and tiic idiomii being very remote from those of Europe, any translation becomes very difficult. The v/oids seem mostly monosyllabic, like the Chinese. * Loubere, i. 371. f Loub. i. 81. t Ksempfer, i. 29, calls tliem negroes, so dark did their complexion appear t'j ,.lum ; and he compares their persons to aT)€s. $«?4 SIAM. The Bali of the Siamese resembles that of the Birmans, an«3 ha,? 33 letters. Littratiire. In literature the Sianiese are far from being defi- cient, anci Lovibere lias \vv\\ explained their niodes of education.* At the age of 7 or 8 years the ciiiiihtn are oficn placed in the con- vents of the TalapoJns, where ihty are msuucted in reading, writ- ing, and accompts ; for the mercantile proiession is very geneiaL They are also taught precejits of morality : liiit it is to be regretted that B(}odh is nut only the god of wisdom, lait of cvuiijing, whicli is esteemed, if not a pobiiive viiiue, yet a proof of supeiior abilities. Books of hisiory are not ilviknoAvn, and there is an excellent code of laws. Poetry, tales, and mytbologit fables, seem to constitute the other departments of Siamese liteiatnre. Cities and Towns. The capital city of tlie kingdom has been called Siam, by the vague ignorance of the Portuguese navigators. In the native language, the name approaches to the European enun- ciation of Yuthia. Ii is situated in an isle formed by the river Mei- nam. The walls, in Loubere*s time, were CMtensive; but not above a sixth part was inhabited. Its condition, since it an as delivered from the Birman conquest, in 1766, has not been described. The other chief towns in the Siamese dominions, are Bankok, a£ the mouth of the Mcinam ; with Ogmo and others on tiie eastern eoast of the gulf of Siam. In general these towns were only col- lections of hovels, sometimes surrounded with a wooden stocKade, and rarely with a brick wall. Manufactures. Though the Siamese are an indolent, yet they are an ingenious people, and some of their manufactures deserve praise. They ate little skilled in the fabrication of iron or steel; but excel in that of gold, and in n'iniature painting. The common people are mostly occupied in procuiing fish for their daily food, ■while the superior classes are engaged in a trifling traffic. Commerce. The conimercial relations, are chiefly with Hindos- tan, China, Japan, and the Dutch. The productions of the country are grain in great quantities* cotton, btnj.imin ; sandal, agualio, and sapan woods ; ar.tin)ony, tin, lead, ison, load-stone, gold, and silver j sapphires, emeralds, agates, crystal, marble, and tombac.f Cli7nate and Seasons The tVvO first months of the Siamese year, which correspond with our December and Januaiy, foim the wh.ole winter of th.is country : the thiid, fourth, and fifth, be- long to what is called their little summer ; the seven others to their great summer 4 Being on the north ot the line, their win- ter of course corresponds with ours ; but is almost as warm as a French summer. The little sumn.er is their sjning ; but autumn is absolutely unknown in their calendar. The winter is dry ; the summer moist ; the former is distirguished by the course of the ■wind, wlich blows almost constantly fi< m the north, refreshed with cold Irom the snowy nioi^niains of Tibet, and the bleak wastes of Mongolia. * i, ISO. fDalrymple'e Oriental Repertory, p. IIS. fLoulere, i. f^ SIAM. 5'0 Face of {he Country. This country, as already mentioned, is a wide vale between two high ridges of mountains, thus somewhat resemblini^ Eirypt, on a wider scale. Compared with the Birman empire, the cukivated level is not above half the extent either in breadth or length. iioil. Tlie soil towards the mountains is parched and barren, but ihe shores of the river consist, like that of Egypt, of a very rich and pure mould, in wliich it is even difficult to find a pebble. It is in fact a muddy deposite, accumulating from early ages, and manured, as it were, by regular inundations, so as to produce abundance of rice. Agriculture. The chief product is rice of excellent quality ; but wheat is not unknown, in lands at a distance from the inundations. Peas, and other vegetables, also abound. Maize is confined to their gardens. Rivers. The grand river Meinam, a name which signifies the mother of water., is the largest among the Siamese streams. It is very detp and rapid, always full, and, according to Kaenipfer, larg- er than the Elbe.* The inundations are in September, after the snows have melted in the northern mountains, and the rainy season lias commenced. In December the waters decline, and sink by degrees tn their former level. The water though muddy, is (lleas- ant and salutary. The banks ot the Meinam are generally low and marshy, but thickly peopled from Yuthia to Bankok, below which are wild des- erts. Monkeys, fire-flies, and musketoes, swarm on the fertile shores. Mountains. Extensive ranges of mountains, enclose this king- dom on the east and west. In the north Siam terminates in plains j nor docs it, even by conquest seem ever to have reached the mountains on the Chinese frontier. Mineralogy. There are some mines of gold, and others of copper, mixed with a variable proportion of gold ; but the mines chiefly wrought by the Siamese arc of tin and lead. The tin, called calim, by the Portugese, was sold throughout the Indies but was soft and ill refined; all of it, except that of Junkseylon, was a royal tJerquisite.f Near Louvo was a mountain of load-stone : fine agates abounded in the mountains, nor were sapphires unknown. Iblcs. Among the numerous and minute isles, which owe a doubtful subjection to Siam, Junkseylon alorie deserves mention. By Captain Forrest's account who visited this isle in 1784, it annu- ally exports about 500 tons of tin, and contains 12,000 inhabitants. * Loubere, i, 67, Fr. edit. ^ Loubere, i. 287. HINHOSTAX. LAOS. LAOS, a country of Asia, bounded N. by the Chinese prov- ince of Yun-r.an, E. by Tunquin, S. by Canibodia, W. by Siam and Ava. It is a flat country, surrounded by mountains, covered with forests, which serve as barriers against the potent kingdoms in its Bcigl.borhood, and difficult of access by water. From these moun- tains descend many streams, which form the large river Maykaung. The climate is temperate and healthful ; the soil generally very ■v;ood, rendered fruitful by a number of canals cm from the great viver Maykaung. The principal drugs are benjamin and lac. The soil is fertile in rice. It furnishes Cambodia with the best ben- zoin and lacca ; also with musk. The forests are of great extent j on the plains are many flowers, which yield abundance of honey and wax. Kere are mines of iron, lead, tin, gold, silver, rubies, and the fresh water mya, which yields pearls. The inhabitants arc well-shaped and robust and of an olive color. They are good. :iatured, affable, courteous, upright, faithful and obliging. When Lhcy see what pleases their fancy, they seldom cease importuning the owner till they obtain it. In case of a refusal, they never use iorce. The country is very populous, containing 3,000,000,* and che inhabitants live to a great age. The Laos are not of a warlike disposition, nor expert in the use of fire-arms. If enemies make an inroad uj)on them, they poison their rivers. It was thus that the king of Tunquin Avas obliged to retreat, after having lost a great part of his army, with which about the year 1650, he pro- posed to annex this monarchy to his own. The language of the Laos is like that of the Siamese ; who, they say, have had the art of writing, and their sacred language, from them : but they cannot pronounce the letters L and R. They write on the leaves of treps, like the Peguese and Malabars ; but matters relating to civil affairs, are inscribed on a sort of coarse paper, with earthcrn pins. The religion of the Laos, resembles that which prevails in all '.he countries comprised in the farther peninsula of the Indies. The king of Laos is an absolute independent prince, and acknowl- edges no sv.pcrior, either in temporal or spiritual affairs. The properly cf lands lies wholly in him, who disposes, at pleasure, of the ciTects belonging to his subjecty ; nor can any family in the kingdom ir.herit or possess any thing left them by willf HINDOSTAN. THE description of this interesting portion of Asia is not a Hi:- lie diflicuU, from its vast and irregular extent, from the want of [^-i.-and subdivisions, from the diversity of nations and powers, frc- * Kassel. f Gaz. ®f Eastern Continect. HINDOSTAN. 55/ ytient chanp;cs, large foreign settlements, and other causes. Majoi? RenneH, to whom we are indebted for an excellent map and memoir^ Avhich have thrown great light on Indian geography, first considers the sea coast and islands ; as, in the construction of a map, the outline of the coast is the earliest object. lie then describes Hin- dostan in four other sections : 1. That part occupied by the Ganges njid its p'-ii)cipal branches : 2. T!iat occupied by the course of the Sindc, Sind-ih, or river Indus : 3. The tract situated between the river Kistna and the two foriner divisions : 4. The countries to the Pouth of the Kistna, or what is perhaps improperly called the southern pciiiiisuia, as no part of Hindnstan can be styled a penin- sula, in the modern acceptation of being nearly surrounded Uy th'i sea. 1. The Gangetic part of Hindostan, includes the space from th^ confines of Tibet to the sources of the Chumbul and Sippra, and from the mountains near Agimere and Abugur hills, to tnc most eastern boundary of Hindostan. 2. That portion watered by the Sinde or Indus, and its subsi- diary streams, may in like manner be termed Sindetic Hindostan ;. and as a supplement to this division may be considered the country of Sirhind, and other tracts to the west of Gangetic Hindostan. x 3. The southern part is encompassed by the sea, except on the north, where the river Kistna and its subsidiary streams form the boundary. In ancient times this portion was styled Deccan, a na- tive term implying the south. 4-. That portion on the south of the Kistna, reaching to Gangetic Hindostan on the north and east, and the Sindetic with its supple- mentary provinces on the north and west, may be styled interior ov central Hindostan. In this arrangement the Gangetic part will include Bengal, Bahar, Allahabad, Oude, Ayra, and a part of Delhi and Agimere. The Sindetic contains Kuttore, Cashmir, Cabul, Candahar, Lahore^ Moultan, and Sinde. The central division represents Guzerat in the west, with Can- deish, Derar, Orissa, the Sircars, the chief part of Golconda, Vi- siapour, Dowlatabad, and Concan. The southern division includes a small portion of Golconda, Mysore, the extensive region called in modern times the Carnatic, Avith Madura, and other smaller districts, the western coast being called that of Malabar, and t!ie eastern that of Coromandel. In this part is naturally included the island of Ceylon. Political Divi.vons. Hindostan, is divided among various pow- ers. Of these the English is at present preponderant, not only froni European tactics, but from an actual extent of territory super- ior to that of any native power. ^ We do not possess such informa- tion of the late changes which liave happened in this vast and pop- ulous country, as to state with precision the portions which belong; to the respective powers. The British possessions prior to the fall of Tippoo, 1799, were supposed to contain 197,495 square British miles, being about 50,000 morethan are comprised in the united kingdoms of Grea: €^ HINDOSTAN. Britain and Ireland : the number of inhabitants was computed ate ten millions. The acquisition in 1799 probably added 15,000 square miles, and the population subject to Great Britain was then supposed be i2 or 14,000,000. The net revenue exceeded three jTiiliions before the cessions of Tippoo in 1792, computed at 400,0001. ; while those in 1799 do not appear much to exceed half that sum. This j^reat power and revenue of so distant a country, maintained in the midst of a highly civiliz; d foreign nation, is per- haps unexampled in ancient or modern times. Since this period large additions have been made to the British dominions. JSfames. The ori\;inal name of this celebrated cour.try is said to be in the ancient Sanscrit language Bharata.* That ot Hindos" tan seems to have been imposed by the Persians. It was long known by the name of the Einfiire of the Great MonguU because it was then subject to Mongul emperors, successors ot" Timur. Extent. This portion of A^ia extends from cape Comorin, in the south, to the mou\uains which form the northern boundary of Cashuiir; that is, according to the most recent maps, from about the 8th to about the 33th degree of northern latitude, being 27 de- grees, or 1620 geographical miles, equal to 1868 British. The northern boundary may be yet farther extended to the Hindoo Koh, and mountains running E. and W. on the north of the province of Kuttore. From the river Araba, on the west of the province of Sinde, to the mountains which divide Bengal from Cassay and the Birman dominions, that is from about the 66th to the 92d degree of east longitude from Greenwich, there are 25°, which, in the latitude of 25°, constitute a breadth of 1630 miles. Boundaries. On the N. the mountains of Hindoo Koh separate it from Independent Tartary, and the Thibetian Alps from Nepaul and Bootan, tributaries of Thibet : on the E. and S. E. are the Bir- man empire, and the bay of Bengal : on the S. W. the Arabian sea : and on the W. the river Araba, and farther N. an extensive desert, divide it from Persia. Historical Epochs. I. The invasion by Alexander the Greats who found western India divided among numerous potentates, though he advanced little farther than Lahore. If even the north- ern half of Hindostan had been subject to one sovereign, as fabled in the native tales, the circumstance would have been clear and apparent. 2. At a long interval appears the conquest of the north-westeru part by Mahmoud of Ghizni, A. D. 1000. 3. The dynasty ot the Putan, or Afghan emperors begins with Cuttub, A. D. 1205, and ends with Mahmoud 111. 1395. ^ 4. The great Moguls or Mongul emperors begin with Babar, 1525; and continued, with a short hiterruption, by the Patans to Shah Aulum, to 1760. The invasion by Timur, and, at a distant interval, that by Nadir, also form remarkable epochs in the history of this passive country, • Rennell, xx. from Wilkins : but the proper native terra seems to be Msdhv- ama, and Bhacat was the first king. As. Res. k 41&. H>ND6STAN. c6^ i'he latter may be said to have virtually dissolved tlie Mogul em= pire. The Poftuguese settlements were followed by those of the Dutch. The French power began to predoniinaie in 1749, but speedily closed in 1761, with the loss of ihcir piiiicipal settlement^ Pondicherry. As inercliants the English had long held small set- tlements in Hindostan ; bul ihe expedition into Tanjore, 1749, was the first enterprise against a native prince. Other contests follow- ed concerning Arcot, in tlie kingdoni of Carnada, or what we call the Cai'natic. In 1756, t!ie fort of Calcutta, the chief seilkment of the English in Bengal, was taken by the nabob, and many of their brave countrymen perished in a shocking manner, from being con- fined in a small chamber. Tiie battle of Plassey, fought in June, 1 757, laid the foundation of the subsequent power of Britain. Lord Clive, governor of Bengal, 1765, obtained a grant from the nominal Mogul, of Bengal, Bahar, and part ol Orissa, on condition of an an- nual tribute. Soon after the English were engaged in a contest with Ilyder Alii, a soldier of fortune, who had dethroned the lineal sovereign of Mysore, and extended his conquests to the adjacent territories. Some conflicts followed on the confines of Carnada and Mysore ; but the event was little advantageous to cither party. Hydei', dying in 1783, was succeeded by his son Tippoo, who seems to have been a prince of inferior abilities, and expiated his ill arranged plans by his death, and the partition of his territories, in 1799.' The Bengal provinces have been in possession of the British since 1765 ; and Benares was added in 1775. This portion might constitute a considerable kingdom, and is siifficiently compact and secure !)y natural advantages, independontiy of a formidable force. The sircars, or detached provinces, partly belong to Golconda, and partly to Orissa, forming a long narrow slip of country from 20 to 75 miles wide, but about 350 in length. The word sircar is almost synonymous with an English county, implying a division of a sou- faa, or great province ; and these detached sircars, or counties, hie- ing to the north of Madras, on Avhich they are t!ep«;ndent, are com- monly styled liie northern sircars.* la 1754, they were acquired by the French ; and conquered by the English, under Col. ClivCj in 1759. The English settled at Madras about tlie year 1640 ; and their territory here extends about 108 miles along the shore, and 47 in breadth, in the centre of the ancient kiagdom of Carnada. The recent and extensive acquisitions in the south have been already mentioned . Nor among the modern historical epochs of Hindostan must the celebrated battle of Panniput, not far to the N. W. of Delhi, be omitted, w'nich was fought in 17G1, between the Mahometans, un^ der Abdalha, king of Candahar, and the Marattas, in which the lat- ter were defeated: the Mahometans were computed at i50,0CQ- and the Marattas at 200,000. * Rennellj cxtxW. -.70 HINDOSTAM; Religion. The religion of the Hindoos is artfully interw&'v'fiii:* •with the common offices of life ; and the different casts arc sup- posed to originate from Brahma, the immediate agent of creation, under the supreme power, in the following manner : The Brahmin from the mouth (wisdom) : To pray, to read, to instruct. The Chchieree, from the arms (strength) : To dra\7 the bow, to light, to govern. The Brice, from the belly or thiglis (nourishment) : To provide the necessaries of life by agricuhute and traffic. The Sooder, from the feet (subjection) : To labour, to serve.* Government. Hindostan is now divided into many governments, the form of which must be considered in describing the several states. PopMlation. The population of this extensive part of Asia, is- supposed to amount to 60,000,000, of which the Biitish possessions may now perhaps contain a quarter, especially as frequent recent conflicts have tliinned the pypuiaiion in many other parts of Hin- dostan. Gerieral Revenues. The general revenues of Kindostan were computed in the time of Aurunzcb, by a precise calculation of those of the several provinces, at 32,000,000 sterling ; equal, perhaps, considering the comparative price of products, to 160,000,000 ster- ling in modern England. ■ Manners and Customs. The manners and customs of the Hin-- doos are intimately blended with their rclicrion, and are universally similar, with a few exceptions in mountamous and other peculiar districts. One of the most singular is, that of giving the living widov/ to the same flames with her husband's corpse. The ancients represent the Bramins as accustomed to terminate their own lives on funeral piles lighted by themselves. Polygamy is practised, butone wife is acknowledged as su- preme. It is well known that the Hindoos are extremely abste- tnious, and wholly abstain from animal food and intoxicating li- quors ; yet if we judge from the fanatic penances, suicides, and other superstitious frenzies, no where on earth is the mind so much disordered. The houses are built of earth or bricks, covered with mortar, and sorneiimes with excellent cement, with no windows, or only small apertures. Tivere is generally cnlj" a ground floor, in- closing a court, with a small gallery, supported by slight wooden pillars. The amusements consist of religious processions ; bu! though dancing girls abound, yet theatrical exhibitions do not seem so common, as in the countries farther to tliC east. Languages. The general ancient language of Hindostan is be- lieved to have been the Sanscrit, an original and refined speech, - compared by Sir William Jones with the Greek and Latin. The more common dialects are chiefly the following. 1. That of Kandi, in the interior of Ceylon, which is said nearlp to resemble the Sanscrit. ♦ Robertson's Disquisition, p. 338; IIINDOSTAN. Bfl 2. The Tamul, used in the Deccan, or southern part, in Ma'- i^dura, Mysore, and some parts of the Malabar coast. S. The Malabar language, extending frun) cape Comorin to the 'mountain llli, which divides Malabar from Canara. 4. That of Canara, whicli extends as far as Goa. 5. The Marashda language. It is prevalent throughout the •whole country of the Manas/tdi, who are very impropely called 'Alaratfas, 6. The Talinga, an harmonious, nervous, masculine, copious, and learned language, whicli, like the Sanscrit, has fit'ty-two -characters; and these are sufficient to write the latter. It is spoken on the coast of Orixa, in Golconda, on the river Kishna, and as far as the mountains of Balangat. All these languages have their own alphabets : so that in every province you must •make yourself acquainted with a distinct kind of characters, if you wish to express your thoughts in the dialect common in each. 7. Tne common Bengal language : a wrc;tched dialect, cor- Tupied in the utmost degree. It is spoken at Calcutta, and in Ben- gal, on the banks of the Ganges. 8. The Devangaric, or Hindostan language, called by some Nagru, Nagari, and also Devanagari. It is spoken at Benares, or Verrarcs, and consists of fifiy-tv/o characters, with which the Sans- crit may be written. 9. The Guzaratic, v/hich has been introduced not only into the kingdom of Guzarat, but also at Barsche, Surat, Tatta, and the neighborhood of the Balangat mountains. Its characters are little different from those of the Devanagaric. 10. The Nepallic, which is spoken in the kingdom of Nepaul, and has a great similarity to the DevuJiagark. Literature. The literature of Hindostan contains several valu- able and curious monuments ; but their epochs are extremely uncertain. The most important books are the Vedas ; there are also some epic poems, which pretend to coiitain fragments of gen- uine history. The most ancientv called Ramayna,* was written by Valmeeki, and next in celebrity, is the Mahabarat of Vyasa, who is said to have been tlie author of some Puranas, and of course could not have flourished above seven hundred years ago ; and it is probable that the more ancient poem cannot aspire to a much higher date. Though some translations of their best works have already appeared, they have not acquired the smallest degree of Europt^an n-putaiion ; and have very iittic interested a few curious inquirers though eager to be pleased. The Hindoos are ignorant of the Chinese art of printing, nor have we any rules for determining the antiquity of their manu- scripts. To an exact inquirer this would have been the first topic of investigation : but It has, on the contrary, been completely neg" lecied. We have merely the bold assertions of Bramins, eagerly * This work has been translated by Rev. Drs. Carey, and Marsliman, and .printed at Serampore, in 1806. A copy of this translation is in the Theologica: iilLibrary iu Andover, Mass. 0^ HINDOSTAN^: imbibed ! y European credulity, instead of successive argurneais and proofs. Universities. The chief university in the north, is that of Be- nares, a celebrated ancient school, now included in the English possessions. In the Deccan, the academy of Triciur, on the Mal- abar coast, is also in great repute. At Ccmgiduram, in Carnate^ there is still a celebrated Brahman school, which, according to the testimony of Ptolemy, existed in the first century of the Chris- ian era ; and its members are certainly equal in celebrity to the Brahmans of Fenares^ or Benares.* It is to be hoped that tl^e re- cent acquisition in the south will lead to the discovery of new litera- ry treasures in that quarter, where it is to be expected that native knowledge is more perfect, than in the north, where it was so long trampled under foot by the Mahometan conquerors. , Manufactures. The manufactures of Hindostan have been celebrated from early antiquity, particularly the muslins and other fabrics from cotton. Piece goods are mentioned by ancient writers, who praise the manufacture and its beautiful colors. The Hindoos, in the time of Strabo, were also noted for eLee ant works in metals and ivory. Nor is Hindostan celebrated at this day for any manufacture, except those of muslins and calicoes, the other exports consisting of diamonds, raw silks, with a few wrought siiksj spices, drugs, &c. The shawls of Cashmir are also deservedly esteemed ; being there woven from a material chiefly supplied from Tibet. Mative Products. It is the abundance of native procTucts, which has in all ages rendered Hindostan the centre of a great trade. Diamonds, and some other precious stones, are products alniosj; peculiar ; as well as many spices, aromatics, and drugs. Climate ajid Seasons. The climate and seasons are diversified by difference of latitude, and local situation. Yet in general;, though the northern Alps of Tibet are covered with perpetual snow, there is some similarity of climate ihrough the wide regions of Hindostan. \\\ Bengal tlie h.ot or dry season begins with Marclij and continues to the end of May, the thermometer sometimes rising to 110^; this intense heat is occasionally interrupted by violent thunder storms from the northwest. The rainy season con- tinues from June to September : the three last months of the year are generally pleasant ; but excessivx^ fogs often prevail in January and February. The periodical rains are also felt in Sindetic Hin- dostan, except in Cashmir, where they seem to be excluded by the surrounding mountains. In the rest of Hindostan they al- rnost deluge the country, descending like cataracts from the clouds, and the Ganges and other rivers spread to a wide extent,, the in- undation ceasing in September. By the latter end of June the Ganges has ristn fifteen feet and a half, out of thirty-two, which is the total of its overflow.! In the mountairts the rainy season bep-ins early in April ; but rarely in the plains till the latter end f.C June. By the latter end of July all the lower parts of Bengal, * Wesdin, OS.".. -J- Reanell,24?. HINDOSTAN. 573 contiguous to the Ganges and Burampooter, are overflowed, and form an inundation of more than a hundred miles in width ; noth- ing appearing but villages and trees, excepting very rarely the lop of an elevated spot (the artificial mound of some deaeried vil- lage) appearing like an island. In the southern division the chains of the Gauts, or mountains of Malabar and Coromandel, supporting the high tabic land in the centre, intercept the great mass of clouds ; and the alternate S. W. and N. E. winds, called the Monsoons, occasion a rainy seasor^ on one side of the mountains only, that is, on the windward side. Yet it appears that during the first part of the rainy monsoon, in May and June, on the coast of Malabar, a considerable quantity of rain falls in the upper region, or table land, of Mysore. Tiie mon- soon is from the N. E. from October to April ; and from May to September in the opposite direction. The rainy season on the coast of Coromandel is with the N. E. monsoon ; and on that of Malabar with the S. W. : in general, March, April, May, and June, are the dry months. Hence, while in Tibet the winter nearly corresponds with thai of Switzerland and the rest of Europe, in the whole extent of llin- dostan, except in Cashmir, there can liardly be said to be a vest- ige of winter, except the thick fogs of an English November : and excessive rains, or excessive heats, form the chief varieties of the year. General Face of the Country. The aspect of this wide coun- try is greatly diversified ; but in general there are no mountains pf any considerable height, the highest Gauts in the south not be- ing estimated at above three thousand feet. The frontier moun- tains of Tibet are of small elevation, compared with those of the interior of that country ; and the wonderful extent of Hindostat> consists chiefly of extensive plains, fertilized by numerous river."? and streams, and interspersed with a few ranges of hills. The periodical rains and intense heals produce luxuriance of vegeta- tion, almost unknown to any other country on the globe ; and the variety and richness of the vegetable creation delight the eye of every spectator. « Soil and Productions. The soil in some places consists of black vegetable mould, to the depth of six feet. Rice is the chief grain ; and on the dry sandy lands of the coast of Coromandel, great in- dustry is displayed in watering it.* Maize and the sugar-cane are also favorite products. Great attention to manure seems far from being so general as in China, or Japan ; nor perhaps is it necessary. The cultivation of cotton is also widely diffused ; and this plant particularly thrives on the dry coast of Coromandel. Rivers. The Ganges and Burramnooter have already been de- scribed. The most important tributary streams which swell the Gan^-cs, are the Gagra, the Jumna, or Yumena, and the Soan. * Sonnerat, i. 106. :^-^ HINDOSTAN. The Indus, and its confluent streams, form the next object. This celebrated river is by the natives called Seude, or Sindeh ; it has a course of about 1000 miU s, when it forms a delta in the provuice of Sinde, entering by many mouths into the Indian sea. The tributary rivers of the Sinde chiefly join it in the northern 4ialf of its cotirse, where they form the Panjab, or country of five rivers. From the west run into the Indus the Kameh, and the Comul ; from the east the Behut, the Chunab, the Rauvee, and the 6etlcge. The Punjab country is on the east of the Sinde. The whole of this part of Hindostan is little known to the moderns. 'i he Subanreeka, or Subunrcka, joins the sea about thirty miles to the west of that mouth of the Ganges called the Hoogley. The Godaveri rises from several sources, about 70 miles N. E. of Bombay.* About 90 miles from its egress into the sea, the ■Godaveri receives a large river, the Bain Gonga, which pervades immense teak forests in a singular wild country, inhabited by- savages, in the centre of Hindostan, and as yet little known or ex- plored. The Bain Gonga was first discovered to Europeans by the late Colonel Camac, its course being about 400 miles, while that of the Godaveri may be 700. It also receives the Burda from the north ;, and from the south a circuitous large riverjthe Mun- Eora, which passes by Beder. The next in consequence, in the central division oF Hindostan, is the Nerbudda, which may be called a solitary stream, as it receives few contributions. Its course is almost due west, and about equal to that of the Godaveri. The Taptee, which passes by Surat, is also a considerable river about 400 miles in length. To the south of this river the superior elevation of the Sukhiem mountains, or western Gauts, diffuses all the rivers towads the east. The Kistna, a sacied river, rises not far to the south of Prona, and forms a delta near Masuiipatam, after a comparative course of about 500 miles. This river rivals any Indian stream in the fertili- ty diffused by its inundations ; and the riciiest diamond mines in the world are in the neighboring hills to the north. The chief tributary streams in tiiat quarter are the Beema ; passing near the diamond mines of Visiapour, and the Musi, or Moussi, by those of •Goiconda. But the most considerable river joins the Kistna from vthe south, being the Toombuddra of Rennell's last map, the Tunge- ■^adra of D'Anville ; on the banks of which have been recently dis- covcred ma! y populous provinces and flourishing towns. To the south of the Kistna appear the Pennar, the Paliar, and above all the Caveri, another large and sacred stream, which pass- es by Seringapaiam, the capital of Mysore, and forms a wider delta •tlia)) any other southern river, wiien it enters the sea after a course of about 3C0 miles. Lakct. Rcnnell mentions that of Colair lake, during the inunda- tions 40 or 50 miles in extent, and a considerable piece of water in :sil seasons, lying about midway between the Godaveri and Kistna * As. Res. V. 1. ^. HINDOSTAN. 575 A* considerable expanse of water in the northern part oi' Cashmii- is- called the lake of Ouller or Tal, being; about 53 miles in circuit. Mountains. The mountains chiefly celebrated l)y the Hindoos may be said to be only visible from their country, being the north- ern chain of the Tibetian Alps, covered with perpetual snow. Hence they arc called Himmala, from a word denoting snow. The ridge of Kuttore is properly on the north of Cashmir, run- ning east and Avest : and is followed by tlie Hindoo Kch of oriental geographers. The Gouts are ranges, which run along the western and eastern coasts of the Deccan. The former is by the natives called the mountains of Sukkien.* The chains of mountains rise abruptly on each '3ide, but particu- larly the west, forming as it were enormous walls, supporting a high terrace or table land in the middle. This elevated tract, pass- ing through a great part of the Maratta territories to the north of Mysore, is termed in general the Balla Gaut, through its whole ex- tent, while low passes are called Paycn Gaut.f Opposite to Pania- ny, on the western coast, there is a break of the mountains, about 16 miles in breadth, chiefly occupied by a forest ; exclusive of this gap the mountains of Sukkien extend from cape Comorin to Sural, at the distance of from 40 to 70 miles from the shore. The sandy desert (jn the east of the Indus must not be orriitted, extending in length between 400 ar»d 500 miles, and in breadth from 60 to 1.50. Of this great desert the accounts are imporfect; but it is styled that of Agimerc, and seems to have been known to Herodotus. Such wide expanses of barren sand form features pe- culiar to Asia and Africa. Mineralogy. Hindostan has been celebrated in all ages of the world for its diamonds. The most celebrated diamond mines are those near Visiapour and Golconda, both near streams that flow into the Kistna in the southern division of Hindostan, Golconda being in the territory of the Nizam, while Visiapour belongs to the Marattas.:j: ^aolconda^ a famous diamond mine in the territory of Visiapour, 40 miles N. \V. from the junction of the Beema and Kistna, seems to be the most noted of those in that quaner.§ A district on the river Mahanada, S. of Sumboulpour, is also celebrnted for this rich product; as is Gandicotta, on the southern bank of the river Per- nar.|| Next in value to the diamond arc the sapphire and the ruby, ■\vhich are chiefly found in the Birman territories; but the ruby is found also in Ceylon, which likewise produces an inferior kind o*: sapphire, the topaz, and other precious stones. Among the metals gold is found in the rivers, which flow from Tibet into the Ganges and Indus ; but no gold mines have been known in Hindostan. Tibet, a mountainous country, abounds ii* * As. Res. vol. i. 5. f Rennell, cxxvii. \ Colore, another diamond mine, is on the southern bank of the Kistna, noi far from Condavir. Rennell, 290. § Renndl, -25^. j| Rennell, -240, 576 GANGETIC HINDOSTAN. tl.is precious metal. Silver is rare throughout the oriental regions- and there is no indication of this mineral throughout ail India. Thimberg mentions iron ore and plumbago among the minerals of Ceylon ; but says nothhig of copper. GANGETIC HINDOSTAN, OR THE COUNTRIES ON THE GANGES. Kxte7it and Divisions. This grand division of Hindostan, before the late changes, extended from the eastern boundaries of Bengal, lo the country of Sirhind, a length of about 1000 miles. The greatest breadth, from the sources of the Chumbul to the moun- tains of Sewalik, is about 450; and the least, on the west of the province of Bengal, about 230 miles. It comprised the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, Allahabad, Oudc, Agra, with part of Delhi and Aginiere, and of Mahva in the south ; most of them equal in celeb- rity to any in Hindostan, and the chosen seats of the power of the Monguls, as well as of mighty kingdoms, even in classical times. Bi-uish Possessions. Bengal, Bahar, with Benares, and some other districts lo the west, formed, ten years since, the chief basis and centre of English power in this country. The British settle- ments at this period extended about 550 miles in length, by 300 in breadth, in themselves a powerful kingdom. The native popula- tion was computed at 10,000,000 or 11,000,000 of black subjects^ exclusive of the English, whose number was not ascertained. Revenue. The revenue, oi these British provinces was comput- ed at 4,210,000/. sterling ; the expense of collection, military and fivil charges, he. 2,540,000/. ; so that the clear revenue is 1,670,000/.'* Government. The government of Bengal and its wide depen- dencies, was first vested in a governor general and a supreme council, consisting of a pret-ident and 11 counsellors: but in 1773 these were restricted to 4, with Warren Hastings the governor general, who were to direct all affairs, civil and military, in the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa ; and lo control the inferior governments of Madras on the E. and Bombay on the \Y. with Bencoolen in the island of Sumatra.! C(jli^ffe. The college of Fort William, at Calcutta, in Bengal, was founded, May, 1800. During the 7 first years of its establish- ment it produced nearly 100 volumes in oriental literature. This college, after encountering several difficulties, is now in afiourish- ing condiuon, and has received the sanction and patronage of the East-India Company. The benefit of this institution consists prin- cipally in diffusing a knowledge of the Scriptures over the East. Tlicre is a department for the translation of the Bible into the ori- ental languages, and a commencement had been made, in 1805, in 5 languages! Army. IMie military establishment in Bengal is always respec- table, but varies according to the situation of affairs. A force of * Pennant, ii. 327. f Rennell, cxiv. \ Buchannan'* Researchea. GANGETIC HINDOSTAN. srt '20,000 British soldiers might probably encounter and vanquish 500,000 blacks or Hindoos. Cities and Towns. The cliief city of Bengal, and of all the Brit- ish possessions in Hindostan, is Calcutta. Lat. 22 33 N. Ion. 88 28 E. from Greenwich. " Generally speakin;^, the description of one Indian city is a de- scription of ail ; they being all built on one plan, with very narrowj, confined, and crooked streets ; an incredible number of reservoirs and ponds, and a great many gardens, interspersed. A fcv/ oFthe streets are paved with brick. The houses arc variously buiit, some of brick, others with mud, and a still greater proportion with bam- boos and mats : and these different kinds of fabrics, standing inter- mixed with each other, form a motley appearance : tl;oseofthe latter kind are invariably of one story, and covered with thatch. Those of brick seldom exceed tv/o floors, and have flat terraced roofs. " Calcutta is, in part, an exception to this rule of building ; for there the quarter inliabited by the English is composed entirely of brick buildings, many of which have more the appearance of pala- ces, than of private houses ; but the remainder oi tlie city, and by much the greatest part, is built as above described. Calcutta is the emporium of Bengal, and the seat of the governor general of India. It is a very extensive and populous ciiy, suppo.->ed to con- lain at least 500,000 inhabitants. Calcutta is situated on the west- ern arm of the Ganges, about 100 miles from the sea ; and the riv- er is navigable up to the town for the largest ships that visit India. It is a modern city, liaving risen on the site of the village of Go- vindpour, about 100 years ago. The citadel is superior in every point, as to strength and correctness of design, to any fortress in In- dia ; but on too extensive a scale to answer the useful purpose in- tended, that of holding a post in case of extremity."* In this grand capital of British Asia, the mixture of people and manners presents a picturcsfpie and interesting scene. Tlie commerce of Calcutta is veiy great in suit, sugar, opiumj silks, and muslins, Sec. Dacca, beyond the principal stream of the Ganges, defended on the east by the Burrampoot, is celebrated for manufactures of the most delicate muslins, made from the cotton of the district. It was once the capital of Bengal, and was succeeded by Moorshed» abad, a modern city. Hoogley, or Ugli, is a small but ancient city, 26 miles above Calcutta, on the grand western btanch of the Gan- ges, which thence receives its name. Patna is tlie capital of the province of Bahar, 400 miles N. W. from Calcutta, being tolerably fortified, and a place of considerable trade, particularly in saltpetre. Benares, near the western frontier of the British possessions, is a rich, populous, and compact city, on the northern bank of the Gan- ges, about 460 miles from Calcutta. Benares, anciently called Ka- si, was the liiost early seat of Braminical knowledge in the north. * Renneli, 5S, 59. 73 SU SINDETIC HINDOSrAN. On leaving the British possessions, and proceeding towards the: west, we come first to Allahabad, in t e province so called, at the^ confluence of the Jumna and the Ganges, a city belonging to the ■nabob of Oude, but of little consequence. Not far to the S. VV. of* Allahabad, are the diamond mines of Penna, in the s.Tiall detached^ province of Butidelcund. Lucknovv is the present capital of Oude. At a considerable distance to the N; W. is Borilli, a small, but noted town, near the northern frontier. Agra was the capita] of the Mogul empire, about A. D. 1566 It was then a small foitified town, it suddenjy became an extensive and magnificent city, but has as vapidly declined. To the N. W'. of Agra, near the confines of Sindetic Hindostany stands the celebrated city of Delhi, the Mahometan capital of In- dia. Bcrnier computed the extent of Delhi, in 1663, at 3 leagues, exclusive of the fortifications ; and represents Agra as of wider circuit. This city is now in ruins, exhibiting many noble and splendid remahis of palaces, with baths of marble.* Nadir Shah is said to have massacred 100,000 people in this city. Oujein, the farthest city in the south of Gangetic Hindostan, is about 6 miles in circumference, surrounded by a strong wall, with round rowers. The houocs, partly brick, partly wood, covered with lime, tarass, or tiles : the baaar, or market, is spacious, and pavefi with stone : there are 4 mosques, and several Hindoo tem- ples, with a new palace built by Sindia. On the south runs the riv- er Sippara. The noted fort of Gwalior must not be omitted, being a striking object in Hindoo topography. The insulated rock on which i: stands, is about 4 miles in length, but narrow : the sides are almost perpendicular, from 200 to 300 feet above the surrounding plain. t^ On the top there is a town, with wells and reservoii'S, and some cultivated land. This celebrated fortress, which is about HO mile^' to the south of Agra, was taken bj^-surpiise bj?- a few English, un- der Major Popham, in 1779. SINDETIC HINDOSTAN, OR THE COUNTRIES ON THE RIVER SINDEH, OR INDUS. Extent, This part extends frOm tlie northern mountains of Cashmir, and the Hindoo Koh, in the north of Cabul, to the mouth of the Indus, a length of about 900 miles, and about 350 in medial breadth. Besides part of the provinces of Delhi and Agimer, it' contains the extensive province of Moultan, with Lahore, Caslimir, Cabul, the frontier region of Candahar, and that of Sindi, at the mouth of the Indus. These provinces are the most rtmote from the seatof Britisli power, and, the greater part of modern travellers having visited Hindostan by sea, they are less accurately known than any other quaiter. Chief Cities and Towns. Lahore, now the capital of the Seiks, was the residence of the first Mahometan conquerors before they' • As. Res. iv. 417. ■}• Hodges, 139. SINDETIC HINDOSTAN. 579 advanced to the more central parts ; and, including the suburbs, irras supposed to be 3 leagues in length. From Lahore lo Agra, near 500 English miles, there was an avenue ol shady trees * Nearly north from Lahore, at the supposed distance ot about 200 •miles, stands Cashmir, the capital of the delightful province, so called. It extends about 3 miles on each side ot the river Jalum, over which are 4 or 5 wooden bridges, and occupies in some part of its breadth, which is irregular, about 2 miles. '1 he houbts, many of them 2 and 3 stories, arc slightly built of brick and moriar, with a large intermixture (yf timber. On a standing roof of wood is laid a covering of fine earth, which shelters the building from the great quantity of snow that falls in the winter season. This fence com- municatco an equal warmth in winter as a refreshing coolness in the summer season, when the tops of the houses^ which are plant- ed with a variety of flowers, exhibit at a distance the spacious viev/ of a beautifully checkered parterre. The streets are narrow, and choaked with t!ie fiith o! the inhabitants, who are proverbially un- clean. No buildings are seen in this city v/orthy of remark. The country of Cashmir is a delicioufs vale, extending in an oval form, about 90 miles from S E. to N. W. The celebrated shawls arc only manufattuitd here ; the material being from Tibet, especial- ly those districts which lie at a month's journey to the north-east. The city of Cahul is ihe capital of tlie dominions of the Persiau Shah, usually styled, king of Candahar, whose dominions ezztend ■westward' beyond the sea of Durrah, including a great part of Co- rasan, v/ith the large Persian province of Segistan, being about 800 miles in length by about hulf that bread tli. Cabul is a considerable city, in a romantic and healthy situation. Ghizni, or Gasna, is remarkable as the scat of the first Mahom- etan conquerors of Hindostan, whose empire almost corresponds •with the modern kingdom of CandJihar, wliose capital of the same name is a noted pass from Persia into Hindostan. Moultan, the capital of the province of this name is on the large river Chunab, not far from its junction v/ith the Indus, along which there is an uninterrupted navigation for vessels of 200 tons, not on- ly to this city, but as far as l.,ahore.t Moultan is a small city, and ef little consequence, except for its antiquity and cotton manufac- ture. The last remarkable city on the Indus is Tatta, the capital of the province of Sindi, and situated within the Delta. The heals are so violent, and the winds from the sandy deserts on the E. and N. W. so pernicious, that many precautions are used. The man- ufactures of this city in silk, wool from Kerman, and cotton, have greatly declined. * Rennel), 82. fRennell, 178; yet, page 9?, he mentions the river Oi Moultan as beJnj :hcaked up about 1665. §$0 CENTRAL HINDOSTANo CENTRAL HINDOSTAN,OR THE MIDDLE PROVINCES. Boundaries. This division is chiefly boumled by Gangetic Hin- doslan on the north, and ox\ the west by the sandy desert and the ocean. The southern limit is the river Kistiia, with its tributary stream the Beema, while the E. is washed by the bay of Bengal. The length from E. to W. is about 1200 miles ; the medial breadth about 400. In it are comprehended the province of Orissa, with part of Golccnda, Berar, Dov/latabad, Candcish, and Guzerat, and other districts of inferior name ; and on the eastern shore are the "British provinces of the sircars. Chief Cilies- The city of Amedabad, capital of the province of Guzaret, is considerable, and welUurtified, taken by the English under general Goddard in 17C0, restored to the Marattas in 1783, Cambay, al the distance of more than 50 miles, may be called the sea port of this capital ; itself a handsome city, formerly of great trade in spice, ivory, silk, and cotton cloths ; but the harbor was. impeded with sand and mud, and is now little frequented, the trade being chiefly transferred to Surat. Surat was formerly more celebrated as the port whence the Ma- >iometans of India embarked on their pilgrimage to Mecca, than for any other circumstance, though reported to have been an im- portant city in ancient times. It was among the first places in this country frequented by the English. The inliabitants are said to be 500,000, a considerable part of whom are Moors^ that is, Arabs, Persians. Monguls, Turks, professing Mahometanism, but retain- ing some Pagan rites. Bombay, a considerable distance south, is a well known English settlement, on a small island about seven miles in leagth, contain=' ing a very strong, capacious fortress, a large city, a dock yard, and a marine arsenal.* It was ceded to the English in 1662 by the Portuguese, as part of the dower of the queen of Charles II. Juggernaut, in the province of Orissa, is noted for being the seat of a famous idol of the Hindoos. Al the celebration of the annual festival the multitude collected at this spot is immense. The natives when speaking of the number say, that 100,000 would not be missed. Tlie pilgrims are from all parts of India, of all characters and all ages. Multitudes perish on their jour- ney, and for tiie distance of 50 miles from Juggernaut the ground is strewed vvith human bones and skulls. The fatigue of long journies in the hottest season of the year, together with extreme ta.iiine, but above all the immense number of voluntary human sacrifices, has occasioned so large a collection of dead bodies^ tlr>t the vultures, dogs and jackalls, seem to live on human prey. The vicinity of Juggernaut to the sea probably prevents the con- tagion, which otherwise would be produced by the putrefaction*; of the place. t * Rennel, 31. ; the name in Portuguese, Bucn lahiy. a good bay, •|- Eueh^nnan. DECCAN, OR SOUTHERN HINDOSTAN. 581 On leaving the shore and proceeding towards the east of central Hindostan, first is the city of Burhampour, of small note. Ellich- pour is of considerable importance, being the chief city of Berar. Nagpour is the capital of the eastern division of the Maratta em- pire, as Poona is of the western, being a modern city of small size. Nagpour may be called the central city of Hindostan. Not far to the east of this city begins that extensive and unex- plored wilderness, which is pervaded by the great river Bain or Baun Gonga, and terminates in the mountains bounding the En- glish sircars.* Aurungabad, is a modern city, deriving its name from Anrung- zeb, in whose time it was the capital of the Deccan, or parts lo the S. of Hindostan proper. It was afterwards the metropolis of the Nizam's territory, till the preference was given to Hydiabad. Near this city is Dowlatabad, which gives name to the province, with a singular fortress on a peaked rock.f This country formerly was the seat of great power, and an ex- tensive commerce which has declined, being now chiefly trans- ferred to the Ganges. The Roman and Arabian fame of the west- ern shores has vanished ; and silence prevails in the streets of Barygaza or Baroach, the port of the great inland city Tagara, •whence the products of India, gems, ivory, myrrh, pepper, ginger, and cotton cloths, plain or ornamented with flowers, were, in the time of Arrain, exported to the western world. In later times the southern part of this coast was remarkable as the chosen residence of daring pirates. They resembled on a small scale t'le piratical slates of Barbary, till 1756, wben the En-? glish seized Gheriah, the principal fortress. DECCAN, OR SOUTHERN HINDOSTAN. Boundaries. This pari, which may also be called the Deccan or South, in the most proper acceptation of the term, is bounded, by the river Kisna, and its most northern subsidiary streams flowing into the Beema. Hence it Avill extend from the latitude of Bombay, to the southern point of Cape Comorin, about 830 miles in length, and about 350 of medial breadth. It contains nearly the whole of the province of Visiapour, and the most important part of that of Gol- conda, with the central kingdom of Mysore, the long eastern pro- vince of Carnada, or the Carnatic, the principalities of Tanjorr, Travancore, and the Samorins of Calicut, the pepper coast cl' Canaia, and other districts. In this division of Hindostan may also be included the island of ^jCeylon, the coasts of which are now pos- • See Mr. Blum's journey, for minute details concerning this formerly ob- scure region. Asiat. Reg. ii. 128 — 200. This important journey appears to have been undertaken solely with geographical views ; and it is said that the East India Company entertain the highly laudable intention of publishing an entire- ly new map of Hindostan. f See the prints Bernoulli, i. 4S0, S82 DECCAN, OR SOUTHERN HINDOSTAN. sessed by the English, who have supplanted the Dutch ; while the native princes retain the extensive inland parts. ■British Possessions. In addition to the district around Mad- r4\s, the British power was, in 1792 and 1799, extended over wide provinces in the south and west of Mysore ; and Seringapatam, the capital, is also in their possession, so that their territories in this portion of Hindostan only yield in extent and consequence to those on the Ganges. Chief Cities. Seringapatam may be regarded as the inost im- portant city in this portion of Hindostan. It is situated in an isle, surrounded by the river Caveri, which is even here about five feet deep and runs over a rocky cliannel. The length of this isle is about four miles, and the breadth about a mile and a half; the ■western side being allotted to the fortress, distinguished by regu- lar out-".vorks, magnificent palaces, and lofty mosques ; for Tip- poo and liis father were Mahometans. The environs were dec- orated with noble gardens ; and among the means of defence was what is called the bound hedge., consisting of every thorny tree or caustic plant of the climate, planted to the breadth of from thirty to fifty feet. In this central territory the British also possess several consider- able towns, Salem and Attore in the E. ; Dindigul, Coimbetore, Palicaud, on the south ; and on the western coast, Paniany, Fero- kabad, Calicut, now nearly deserted, Tellicherri, Mangalore, and the northern British possession of Carwar is within forty miles of the Portuguese settlement of Goa ; while on the S. they approach within a like distance of Cochin. Of these places, Calicut is me- morable as the first Indian port visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama, and as the seat of the Zamorins, who at that pe- riod appear to have possessed the whole Malabar coast from Goa to Cochin. Not far from the western frontier of the British settlement at Madras stands Arcot, ,the capital of the Carnatic. The Nabob* often resides at Madras. In his dominions there are several celebrated temples, visited by numerous pilgrims ; and in general the southern parts of Hindostan display more numerous edifices, and other marks of civilization, than the northern. Tranquebar is a noted Danish settlement in the kingdom of Tanjore, which embraces the wide Delta of the Caveri. This settlement was formed about 1617, and has been chiefly remarka- ble on account of the Lutheran missionaries, who resorted hither to convert the Hindoos, and have sometimes contributed to illus- trate natural history. Pondicherri was the principal settlement of the French, founded in 1674, and before the war of 1756, was a large and beauuful city. On the coast, of Malabar, stands Cochin, on the northern point of a long tract of land, forming a kind of island, surrounded on the eaht by a creek of the sea, which receives several streams. But ihe harbo!' is obstructed by a dangerous bar. * This word, also written Navah^ implies lieutenant-^ovfirnor, or viceroy; but the ritli; bpcame hereditary. DECCAN, Oft SOUTHERN HINDOSTAN'. a^s^ About a mile from the city of Cochin, is a town called Jcws'- Town. It is almost wholly inhabited by Jews, who have two re- spectable syna!ro;^ues. There are Jewb here from remote parts of Asia, so that this is the fountain of intelligence concerning; ihac people in the East. The resident Jews are divided into two class- es, called the Jerusalem, or white Jews, and the ancient or blach Jews. The white Jev/s reside at Jews'-Town. The black Jews have a synagogue there, but the great l)ody of that tribe inhabit towns u\ the interior of the province. Tlio black Jews have been settled here n\ucli the longest.* To the north of the British territories first occurs Goa, for- merly a capital settlement of the Portuguese. This city, once magnificent, stands on a small isle in the midst of a beautiful bay, which receives a rivulet called the Gonga, and two or three others from the Bulagauts, or highest mountains of Suckhien, which form a grand distant prospect, while the intervening scene is variegated with hills woods, convents, and villas. The harbor is ranked a- mong the first in India. There is an Old and New Goa on the W. coast of Ilindostaiir. Tiie old city is about 8 miles up the river Mandova. The viceroy and chief Portuguese inhabitants reside at New Goa, which is at the mouth of the river, witliin the forts of the harbor. The old city is now almost entirely deserted by the secular Portuguese, and is inhabited by the priests alone. The unhealthiness of the of the place, and the ascendency of the priests, are the causes as- signed for abandoning the ancient city. The churches of Old Goa, are remarked for their magnificence. Old Goa is properly a city of churches ; and tbe wealth of provinces appear to have- been expended in their execution. The chapel of the palace Is built after the plan of St. Peter's at Rome. The cathedral of Goa is worthy of one of the principal cities of Europe. In this place was the noted inquisition so remarkable for its secret and excessive- cruelty towards the enemies of the Romish church. Tiiis inquisi- tion was suppressed by royal edict in the year 1775, established again in 1779, and again suj)pressed in 1812. There are upwards of three thousand priests belonging to Goa, who are resident at the place, or reside with their cures cit a distance. f Porna is the capital of the western empire of the Marattas, and a mean, defenceless city ; the archives of the government, and in all appearance the chief seat of poorer, is at Poorunder, a fortress about 18 miles to the south-east. Visiapour, in the Maratta territory, also called IJojapour, is a considerable city, and was once the capital of a large kingdom oi" the same name. In the vicinity are celebrated diamond mines. Hydrabad is the metropolis of the Nizam's territory, and partic- ularly of the celebrated kingdom or province of Golconda, but seems otherwise little remarkable. Betwixt these two last-namtcl cities stands Calberga, formerly t!io' cypital of a powerful kingdom^ that of the Deccan. * Buchftncaa. f Dr. SuchanoAti. 3b 4 CEYLON, In the interior of Travancore and Malabar, on the S. point of Hindostan, near Ceylon, are the Syrian Christians ; a people who Lave been settled here, though long unknown to Europeans, froni the first ages of Christianity. The Portuguese, in their discove- ries of the sixteenth century, make the first mention of them. Since that time little notice has been taken of their accounts, and in modern times their existence began to be questioned. Dr. Bu- channan, however, in the year 1806, travelled into their couniry, and confirms the Portuguese accounts. He says, that their church- es bear some resemblance to the old parish churches in England. In the articles of their faith, and in their church government, they agree in every material point with the church of England. Their archbishops, bishops, deacons, and other inferior officers, are the same. They have a Liturgy, from which they read prayers in pub- lic : and their manner of performing divine service agrees with that of the Episcopal church. Their churches are 55 in number. Among these Christians have been pieserved in manuscript the ancient copies of the Bible, which will probably be of essential ser- vice in throwing light upon many disputed passages. ISLAND OF CEYLON. Extent. THOUGH this island be not above a fifth part of the size ascribed to it by the strange exaggeration of the ancients, it still approaches to that of Iri-land, being generally supposed to be about 260 miles in length by about 150 in breadth. This island is only important in a commercial view, from its cel- ebrated products of cinnamon and gems. The harbor of Trinco- niali on the E. is to the British of great consequence, because there is none on the eastern coast of Hindostan. Religion. The religion of Ceylon is the ancient worship of Boodhj •and it is supposed to have originated in Ceylon ; and thence to have spreatl to ancient Hindostan, to exterior India, Tibet, and even to China and Japan. The population of this island which is subject to the British gov- ernment amounts, according to the best authorities, to upwards of a million and a half, aiid one third is supposed to profess Christian- ity. This population was divided by the Dutch, while they possess- ed the island, into 240 churckships, and three native schoolmasters were appointed to each churchship. The Dutch appointed none 10 oftice but Christians.* These Christians are in great want of the Scriptures in their own language, and of religious teachers. Manners and Customs. The natives of Ceylon, called Cinga- lese and Ceylonesc, are not so black as those of Malabar, and have manners and customs somewhat distinct from other Hindoos. It is said that several brothers may have one wife in common, as in Tibet, but the polygamy of males is also allowed.f In general^ * Buchanuan's Researches. fWesdin, 435. CEYLON. m' thastity is little esteemed in the oriental countries ; and the moral- ity of many nations is so lax in this respect, tiiat the intercourse of the sexes is considered as far more indifferent than the use of cer- tain foods. They speak the Tamul and Ccyloncse languages, into the former of Aviiich the Scriptures have been translated. Towns. The native town Kandi, in the centre of the isle, is of small size and consequence, and probably only distinguished by a palisade and a few temples. It was taken by the Portuguese ia 1590 ; but no recetit traveller appears to have visited it. The chief town of the English possessions is Colombo, on the W. side of the island, a handsome place, and well fortified ; the residence of the governor is elegant, consisting ol one floor, with a balcony to receive the cool air.* The northern parts of Ceylon are chiefly left to the natives. The town of Jafnapatam, or Jafna, was a Dutch settlement in a detach- ed isle. The harbor of Trincomali opens at the mouth ofJtheMowil Ganga. Matura v/as a Dutch factory near the most southern promontory called Dondra, where excellent kinds of cinnamon were collected^ and varieties of precious stones abound in the vicinity,! Not far to the W. of Matura is Gale, or Galle, near a point so called, a handsome town, strongly fortified, on the projecting angle of a rock4 Manufactures. There is little mention of any manufactures con- ducted in this island ; but the natives are not unskilled in the com* mon works in gold and iron. Climate. The climate and seasons correspond in some degree with the adjacent continent; yet the exposure on all sides to the sea renders the air more cool and salubrious. The general aspect of the country somewhat resembles that of soutiiern Hindostan ; a high table land, in the centre, being surrounded with low shores^ about 6 or 8 leagues in breadth. High mountains, prodigious for- ests, full of aromatic trees and plants, and many pleasant rivers and streams diversify this country, which by the Hindoos is esteemed a seco'.id paradise. The vales are of a rich fat soil ; and, when cleared, amazingly fertile in rice, and other useful vegetables. Proaiictionii. Ceylon is chicfiy distinguished for its spices. The groves of cinnamon are sometimes a mile in length. The soil is very sandy, and in this respect favorable to the growth of the cin- namon trees. Rivcm. There are 5 considerable rivers described by Ptolemy ; of which the chief is the Morvil Ganga, on which stood Maagra- mvim, the capital in his time, and modern KanJi stands on the same stream, one of the royal palaces being on an isle in that river, where the monarch keeps a treasure of i>ems ; and his officers, like those of exterior India, are decorated with slight chains of gold. Mounrains. The chain or chains of mountains run N. and $. What the Mahometans have termed Jdaui's Peak is esteemed the highest ; Boodh is fabled to have ascended from it to heaven. • Thunberg, iv. 175. f Thunbsrg, ir. 1 95, 23 1 . ^Tlmaberg', i?. 194. 74 585- PERSIA: Mineralogy. Ceylon, rich in every department of natural histo-- ry, presents many minerals of uncommon beauty. Not to mention iron, i^oid, plumbago, 8iC. Thunberg iias given a list of the pi ecious stones, among which are the genuine ruby, sapphire, and top^z. The finest rock crystals, both the colorless, and those of a violet color, calkd amethysts, are found here in abundance, and are gen- eially dark brown or yellowish ; vf bile those of other colors come from Brazil and Tyrol. It is also asserted that this island produces the genuine emerald. The cat's eye seems the charatterisuc min- eral of Ceylon, as the noble or genuine opal is of Huiigary. Pearls. The pearl fisliery commonly begins on the N- W shore about the middle of February, and continues till about the middle of April, when the S. W. monsoon commenc s.* Othtr Isles. The INIaldives form an oblong inclosure of small low regular isles, around a clear space of sea with very shallovr water between each. They are governed by a chief called ^toll, and the trade is in cowrie shells, with cocoa nuts and fish. .The Lucadive islands form a more extended group, though only 30 in- number. They also trade in cocoa nuts and fish ; and ambergris is often found floating in the vicinity. Goa is a small fertile island, 8 leatjucs in circumference, N. of the Lacadlvfcs, on the W. coast of Hindostan, lat. 15 30 N. PERSIA.t Divisions. THIS empire seems to have settled into 2 division^*-- the eastern and the western ; while the provinces near the Caspian^ secured by mountains and fastnesses, have asserted a kind of inde- pendence. Extent. Persia^ lies between 25" and 44° N. lat. and between 44° and ro"* E. Ion. Its length from E. to W. is 1350 miles. Its con.mon breadth from N. to S. about 900. Bcundaries. On the N. W. by Russian Asia and the Caspian : on the iN. E. by Independent Tartary : on the E. b;^ Hindostan : on the S. by the Arabian sea: on the S. W. by the Persian gulf,^ fjid for a small e;:tent by Arabia ; and on the V/. by Turkey in Asia. Persia has, on almost every side of it, a space of 3 or 4 days' journey uninhabited, though the soil be, in many places, the best in the world, particularly on the sides of the east and the west.^ Provinces. 1. Georgia, or more properly Guigustan, in which may be included Daghistan and Shirvan. 2. Erivan, a large por- tion of ancient Armenia. 3. Aderbijan. 4. Ghilan, on the Cas- pian sea. 5. Ivlazendran, encircled on the south by a lofty branch of the Caucasian chain. 6. Irac Ajcmi, chiefly corresponding with the ancient Ecbatana. In the south of this province is Ispahan, the ♦ As. Res. V. 394. f From Pinkerton's Abridgement, with improvements.-^ ^ HarcserV Observ. vcsl.iv. p. 276. PERSIA. 58r ETYodem capital of'Persia. 7. Chosistan, extending to the river Ti- gris ; the capital. Bussora, or Basea, subject to tiie Turks. Tt.is piovince corresponds with the ancient Susiana. 8 Persis, or Pt.r- isia proper, surrounded with mouniains on the N. the W. ihe S. and i>ii the E. separated by a desert from Kerman. Pars contains the beuutilui city of Shiiaz, and the ruins of Persepolis. 9. Ker- ynun. 10. Laristan, a small province on tliC Persian f;ulf, 11. Mekran, extending to the Indian deserts. 12. Segistan, another wid& frontier province towardsTndia. 13. The grand and tcrniinating division of modem Persia in the N. E. is Corasan, boiHided by the Gihon, or Oxns, on the N. E. Besides these provinces, and exclusive of Asiatic Turkey on t!ie 'W. the ancient Persian empire comprised Bactriana or Balk ; and on the other side of the Oxus, Sot;diana, or the country on liie riv- er Sogod, vk'hich passes by moderi. Samarcand. Historical Efiochs. 1. The venerable historical records contain- ed in the scriptui'es attest the eaily civilization and ancient polity of the Egyptians. The first seal of the Persian monarci y was probably in the N. E. on the river O.xus; while the Assyrians pos- sessed the Euphrates and tlie Tigris, and the S. W. of Persia. The history of the Assyrian empire begins with Ninus, about 2160 years before Christ, who is said to have formed an alliance with the king of Arabia, and, in conjunction with him, to have sub- dued all Asia, except India and Bactriana ; that is, accoiding to the ancient knov/ledge, he subdued Asia Minor and tlie west of Persia. 2. Zoroaster, king of Bactriana, is said to have been contempo- rary with Ninus, and to have hiventid magic ; that is, he was a ■wise man, who could produce uncommon effects by common causes. But the history of thisP'erjiian lavi/ giver is lost in remote antiquity. 3. Cyrus founds what is called the Persian empire, 557 years before the Christian era, and soon after takes Babylon. This great event may be said only to have disclosed the Persians to the civil- ized nations of the westvfor the native Persian histories ascend to Kayumarras, great grandson of Noah. 4. The overthrow of the fiist Persian empire by Alexander, B. C. 328, followed by the Greek monarchs of Syria, and the Grecian kingdom of Bactriana, of whlcii last an interesiing history has been compiled by the learned Bayer. It commenced about 248 years iaefore Christ, and contained several satrapies, among v/hich was Sogdiana. 5. The Parthian empire, which likewise began about 248 yeavs B. C. This was a mere revival of tne Ptisian empire, under anew name. 6. The conquest of Persia, by the Mahometans, A. D. &ifi The native kingdom was revived in Corasan, A. D. 820 ; and after sev» eral revolutions resumed its former situation. 7. The brief conquest by the Afgans, 1722 ; and consequent ex- ;tinction of the house of Scti, and elevation o: Nadir, surna-ned .Thamas KouU Khan, A. D. 1736. This ferocious chief was bom 58S PERSIA. an Corasan ; and after a reign of 1 1 years was slain, 20th June, 1747, near the city of Mt;3liid, in the same country. Nadir Sliah was succeeded by his nephew, Adil, who, after a transitory reign, was followed by his brother Ibrahim. Mean while Timur Shah reip,ned in Cabul, Candahar, aud the Persian provinces adjacent to Hindostan ; and availing himseli' of the confusion in Persia, he besieged Meschid, which he took after a blockade of S months. The farthest extent of this monarchy on the east comprizes Cashmir, which was probably subdued about 175-1.* in the west, according to the opinion of Rennell,t it CMtends to the vicinity of the city of Tershiz, or Turshiz, in longitude 57' E. a length of about 900 miles. The province of Sindi, at the mouth of the In- dus, is also subject to Zemaun, \mh the western part of Moultan ; but the remainder on the east bank of that river, and the wide and fertile province of Lahore, are possessed by the Seiks, a warlike nation. The other provinces are Kuttore, Cabul, Candahar, and within the Persian boundary Segistan, and probably Mckran, with the eastern part of Corasan, and the province ot Gaur, the media! breadth being probably about 500 miles. The remainder of BaiH and Great Bucharia belong to Independent Tartary, The chief subjects of Zemaun are the Afgans, or people of the mountains between Persia and Hindostan, who may be considered as the founders of the eiTipire ; the others are Hindoos, Persians, and ^ few Tartars. Heligion. The Persians arc Mahometans of the sect of All ; for which reason the Turks who follow the succession of Omar and Abu Bekr, call them heretics. Their religion is, if possible, in some things iTiore fantastical and sensual than that of the Turks ; but in many points it is mingled with some Bramin su- perstitions. The Persian guedres, or gaurs pretend to be the disciples and successors of the ancient magi, the followers of Zoroaster. A com- bustible ground, about 10 miles distant from Baku, a city in the north of Persia, is the scene of the guebres devotion. It must be admitted, that this ground is impregnated with very surprisiuf.;- in- flammatory qualities, and contains several old little temples ; ix\ one of which the giiebres pretend to preserve the sacred Game of the universal fiie which rises from the end, and a large hollow cane stuck imtlie ground, resenjbling a lamp, burning with very pure spirits. If any tube be inserted in the ground, and the top ot the ground touched with a coal, a flame bursts forth. They have no. floors ; this is the mode of their iighling their rooms, of cooking their victuals, and by these tubes, piling the stones over them, they burn their linne. Their springs, pa; tlculariy on the isle of Wetoy, furnish a black naphtha in great quantities. When scat- tered on the sea it burns ; the Hame is often wafted to a great dis- tance. The lyiahometans are the declared enemies of the i'-awr^, wha * Forster, ii. 14. f Page 152. PERSIA. 589 were banished out of Persia by Shah Abbas. Their sect is said to be numerous, though tolerated in very few places. The long wars between the Persians and the Romans, seem early to have driven the ancient christians into Pc;rsia and the neighboring countries. Even to this day, many sects are found that evidently have Christianity for the ground- work of their re- ligion. Some of them, called souifecs, who are a kind of quict- ists, sacrifice their passions to God, and profess the moral duties. The Sabean christians have, in their religion, a mixture of Juda- ism and Mahometanism ; and are numerous towards the Persian gulf. We have already mentioned the Armenian and Georgian christians, who are very numerous in Persia. The present race of Persians are said to be very cool in the doctrines of Mahomet, ©wing chiefly to their late wars with the Turks. Government- The government of Persia, is despotic ; but its administration in Eastern Persia, or the kingdom of Candahar, is represented as mild. Population. The present state of the population of Persia is reckoned by Hassel at 22,000,000, of which 3,000,000 are in W. Persia, and 19,000,000* in E. Persia. Pinkcrton strangely re- duces the number in both to only 10,000,000. Pallas states that Aga Mamct raised an army in W. Persia of 70,000 men. The Afgans who are a brave people, arc supposed by Hassel, able to raise an army of 300,000 men ; and Westeru Persia, in the opinion of the same author, can raise 100,000 men. Revenues. The actual revenues of Persia it is impossible to estimate. The monarch of Candahar may draw from his various and extensive provinces about three millions sterling ; wliile west- ern Persia scarcely supplies two millions. Manners arid Customs. The Persians are polite and hospitable ; not however without the expectation of presents in return. They seem to consider themselves as more wise and sagacious than other nations, and the recent commotions have imparted a taint of cruelty to the national character. f Of a sanguine temperament, both rich and poor are generally gay ; and immoderate mirth will succeed the most violent quarrels. They are extremely attached to the fair sex, and to wine. The general complexion is fair, somewhat tinged with olive ; but those in the south about Shiraz, of Candahar, and the provinces towards India, arc of a dark brown. They are commonly fat, with black hair, high forehead, aquiline nose, full cheeks, and a large chin, the form of the countenance being frequently ov^l. The men are generally strong and robust, and inclined to martial exercises, but they are particularly subject to disorders of the eyes. Language. The language of Persia is perhaps the niost cele- brated of all the oriental tongues, for strength, beauty, and melo- dy. In general, tne Persian literature approaches nearer to the European, in solid good sense, and clearness of thought and cx- |5ression, than that of any other Asiatic nation ; as tbe language ii= » Olivier. f Decouv. Russ. ii, 276. 6&0 PERSIA. self has been long; known to bear a strong affinity to the German, though softened by the long usag^e of a polished people. One of "nhe oldest remains of Persian literature is the famous Sha Nama, or history of kings, a long heroic poem of Ferdusi. Sadi, an ex- cellent and entertaining moralist, writes in prose, mingled with ^erse, like several of the Icelandic Sagas. Hafiz is the Anacreon of the east, and his tomb is venerated in the vicinity of Shiraz. The sciences in general are little cultivat- ed by the Persians. The Persian language is spoken at all the Mussulman courts in India, and is the usual language of judicial proceedings under the British govennnent in Hindostan. It is next in importance to the Arabic and Chinese, in regard to the extent of territory through ■which it is spoken, being generally understood from Calcutta to ■Damascus.* •Mducation. The education of the modem Persians is chiefly jmilitary. Cities. The capital city of modern Persia is Ispahan. In- cluding the suburbs, its circuit is computed by Chardinf at about 124 miles, and the inhabitants at 600,000. It stands on the small river Zenderud, M'hich rises in the mountains, of Yaibat, three days journey towards the north ; but Abas the great, at a prodigious expense, pierced some mountains, about 30 leagues, from Ispahan, and introtluced another stream, so that the Zenderud was as large during the spring, as the Seine at Paris in the winter ; for in that season the melting of the snows, in the high range of mountains, greatly swelled the river. The walls are of earth, and ill repair- ed, with eight gates, and the streets narrow, devious, and badly paved. But the royal square, and its grand market, the palace of theSefi,and thoseof the grandees, the mosques, the public baths, and other edifices, are for the most part splendid. The suburb of lul- fa, or Yulfa, is very large, and possessed by the Armenians. The environs of Ispahan are pleasant, and, like most other Persian towns j;nd cities, diversified by the neighborhood of mountains. This capital, aftev the visit of Chardin, was greatly reduced, so that ai Persian merchant asserted to Mr. Hanway, that not above 5000 houses were inhabited, having been taken and plundered by the Afgans, in 1722. The second city, at least in fame, is Shiraz, which has been re- cently visited and described. This capital of Farsistan, or Persia, is situated in a fertile valley, about 26 miles in length, and 12 in breadth, bounded on all sides by lofty mountainsf;^ the circuit of the city is about 4 miles, surrounded with a wall 2'ii' feet high, and 10 thick, with round towers at the distance of 80 paces. The citadel is built of brick ; and before it is a great square, with a park of miserable artillery. The mosque of the late Kerim is splendid but unfinislied. The tomb of Hafiz is on the N. E. side, about 2 miles distant from the v/alls, and at the foot of the mountains, in the same direction, is the tomb of Sadi, with a remarkable channel for water ..followed in the rock. * Buchantian's Researches. | Chardin, torn. iiJ. PETISIA. 39t TefiTiz, the capital of Georgia, is a large and populous town, bet meanly built, rising from the river Kur along the side of a hill.* There are fine springs of hot water, a favorite resort of the inhab- itants. The chief trade is in furs, sent to Turkey and the souib of Persia. The present circuit is about 2 miles, and it is supposed to contain 20,000 inhabitants, more than half being Armenians-t Dur- ing the late confusion in Persia, Grorgia has eflfccted at least a temporary independence, supported by Russia. Derbent was formerly a place of noted strength on the Caspian sea, but was taken by Peter the Great of Russia, and afterwaixis by Catharine II. in 1780. Ginelin visited this ciiy a few years be- fore, and describes it as situated on the side of a mountain, extend- ing almost to the sea. Westward on the Turkish frontier, stands the city of Erivan,of considerable extent, and the capital of Persian Armenia, but the houses are meanly built, like most of tiiose in Persia,! Provision* are plentiful, and good wine is produced in the neiglil^orhood. Af- ter repeated contests with the Turks, the Persians have remained masters of Erivan since 1635. Not far to the S. W. is the celebrat- ed Armenian monastery of the 3 churches : and the noted inount Ararat, on which Noak's ark rested, which may be regarded as a kind of frontier between the Turkish and Persian dominions, rises about 30 miles to the south of Erivan. The summit is inaccessilbleo The province of Aderbijan contains few places of note, except Tebriz, or Tauriz, a considerable city, which was however greaiij injured by an earthquake the beginning of the last century. The Caspian provinces of Ghilan and Mazendran present ttlieir capitals, Rnsht and Sari. The former, though the residence of aa independent Khan, has neither walls nor gates, but is tlae &eat of considerable commerce, and the number of houses may amount Jo 2000. Sari, the residence of the Khans of Mazendran, is of saaail account, when compared with Aschi^aff, a favorite residence of Alsas the Great ; its splendid palaces and gardens have become destsiate since the commotions that follov/ed the death of Nadir. On returning towards the S. W. appears Bistan, a small city ©a the north of the great salt desert, rarely visited by travellers; and W. Chover or Khaver, with a pass of the same name, through a branch of the Caucasian mountains of Mazendran, which is prefer- red to the passage through the desert. Kom, or Khums, v/as visit- ed by Chardin, who in travelling from Sava p-assed a wide plaiuj with a hill in the nnddle, called the mountain of the Talifman. lie represents Kom as a considerable city, at the foot of high moun- tains, and near a river, which is lost in the great salt desert. The houses were computed at 1 5,000 ; and the chief manufactures wtj-e white earthen ware, soap, and sword blades. Here are the supi;'!^ tombs of Sefi I. and Abas II. On the coast between Ormus and Kishmish, or Kishma, isGoru- broon. The trade, once considerable, is now greatly declined i and even the Dutch left it, and settled in the isle of Karek or G..- • Tournefort, ii. ^S5: f Ellis, Memoir, )p. 49. i Tourncf»rt, ii. 2J.". 592 PERSIA. rak. The French Indian commerce has failed ; and the English staple is Biissora. In passing to the eastern division, or kingdom of Candahar, Ca- bul, the metropolis, is situated within the limits of Hindostan ; but Candahar is by D'Anville and others ascribed to Persia, being how- ever a city of small size, and chiefly memorable as the grand pas- sag'j between these extensive empires. The dominion of Zeinaun SImh comprises a considerable portion of Corasan. The city of Herat stands on a spacious plain, uiter- secied with many rivulets, which, with the bridges, villages, and plantations, delight the traveller, fatigued in passing the eastern deserts of Afganistan, or the country of the Afgans. Maiivfaclures a>Td Commerce. The manufactures and commerce of this great country may be said to be annihilated, though a few carpets still reach Europe at extravagant prices. Even the trade •with the Russians on the Caspian is of small account, consisting of salt and naphtha from Baku, and some silk from Shirvan, called by the Russians Sliainakia, but chiefly from Ghilan, where there is a Russian consul at Enseli or Sinsili. The Persian merchants also bring goods to Balfrush, the largest town in Mazendran, where they trade with those of Russia. Climate. The northern provinces on the Caspian, are compara- tively cold and moist ; the exhalations from that sea being arrest- ed bv the mountains to the south of Mazendran. In the centre of the kingdom Chardin observes that the winter begins in Novem- ber, and continues till March, commonly severe, with ice and snow. From March to May high winds are frequent ; but thence to Sep- tember the air is serene, refreshed by breezes in the night. From September to November the winds again prevail. In the centre and south the air is generally dry, thunder or lightning are uncom- mon, but hail is often destructive in the spring. Near the Persian gulf the hot wind called Samiel sometimes suffocates the unwary traveller. Face of the Country. Persia may be called a country of moun- tains ; and wliere great plauis occur they are generally desert. The most remarkable feature of the country is the want of rivers ; in which respect it yields to all the Asiatic regions, save Arabia. Soil and yJg-riculture. The soil is not fertile, and even the valleys are sometimes sandy and stony, or of a hard dry clay ; both unpro- ductive, if not well watered. Hence the chief industry of the Per- sian farmer is employed in watering his lands. These remarks however must be restricted to the central and southern provinces ; for those in the north are sufficiently rich and fertile. The most common grain of Persia is wheat, which is excellent ; but rice is a more universal aliment, and regarded by the Persians as the most delicious of food* It is generally produced in the northern or best watered provinces. Barley and millet are also sown. The plough is small, and the ground merely scratched. After which the spade is also used, to form the ground into squares, * Chardin, iv. 222. PERSIA. 5.9J Ajolth ledges or little banks to retain the water. The clung is chiefly Juiman and that of pigeons mingled with earth, and preserved for 2 years to abate its heat. Rivers. The noble streams of the Euphrates and the Tigris caa scarcely at any period be considered as stricily Persian, though Ctesiplion, the capital of the Parthian monarchy, and Seleucia, stood on the latter river. The river of Ahwaz rises in the moun- tains of Elvvend, and pursues a southern course till one branch en- ters the Tigris above its junction with the Euphrates, while the main stream flows into the estuary of these conjunct rivers. The course of this stream, one of the most considerable in Persia, little exceeds 400 miles. In the N. E. is the large river of Gihon, better styled Amu. To the W. the river of Tedjcn or Tedyen, the ancient Ochus, flows into the Caspian. Farther to the N. the large river Aras, the ancient Araxes, fall* into the Kur or Cyrus, both rising in the Caucasian mountains, and pursuing a very rapid course, Tne Kur abounds with sturgeon and other large fish. The central rivers of Persia, most of which are soon lost in sandy deserts, are the Zenderud, which passes by Ispahan, beyond which capital its course is soun lost in the sand. But the most important river in this qu.irter is that which passes betvveen Shiraz and Ista- kar, or the celebrated ruins of Pcrsepolis, called the Bundamir, and supposed to be an ancient Araxes. This celebrated river flows into a salt lake called Baktegan. The largest and most remarkable inland river is the Hinmend, of the province of Segistan, which pursues a westerly course, and, according to the account of Otter,* divides into many branches, which are lost in the central deserts of Persia. Our geographers, on the contrary, suppose that the Hin- mend passes by Zarang into the sea of Zereh. Lakes. Among the lakes of Persia, the most considerable be- yond all comparison is the Aria Palus of antiquity, in the western part of the province of Segistan, called in the French maps the lake of Zere, in the English, the- sea of Durra ; the length is thirty leagues by a day's journey in breadth ; and the water is fresh and full of fish. The salt lake of Baktegan, about 50 miles east of Shiraz, receives the rivers of Kuren and Bundamir. It is represented in the maps as about 40 miles in length, and the breadth about 10. Far to the N. Vv'. appears the large lake of Urmia, so called from a town near its southern extremity. This lake is represented as about .50 miles in length, by about half the breadth, and is said to be considerably impregnated with salt, and the neighboring mountains were remarkable as the seats of the assassins. Tiie lake of Erivan, about 120 miles to the N. is about 25 leagues iu circumference, with a small isle in the middle : it abounds in carp and trout ; and is the Lychniles of Ptolemy f * Voyage en Turkic et en Perse. Paris, 1748, 2 Tols. 12wio. tome i, 217. ^Chardin.ii. 222. Tournef. a. 256. 75 594 PERSIA. Mountains. The Caucasian ridsje extends to the west of Ghi- lan and south of Muzendran, till it expires in Corasan, on the S. E. of the Caspian sea. The southernmost chain of great height is described by Mr, Franklin as running parallel with the Persian gulph N. W. and S* E. at about the distance of 50 miles. A third range of mountains, of very great height, seems to con- ' lihue in the same directioii with tnis last, to the S. of the lake of Urmia, where it is connected with the Caucasian vidge. This is the grandest range of mouniains in Persia. Mount Ararat is rt presented as standing solitary in the midst of a wide plain, and from pn^ximiiy may be classed witli the range ot" Caucasus. Deserts. On the east of Tii!;ris, lat. 53°, a considerable desert commences, whicii is pervadtd t>y the river ot Ashwaz, and ex- tends to the N. of Skuster. Ttus ot sert may be about 140 miles in length, from E. to W. and the breadth about 80. It is now chiefly possessed by the wandering' tribe of Ai'abs, called Beni Kiab, a people, who, like the desert, are not a little obscm-e.* The Great Saline Desert extends from the neighborhood of Kom, to that of the sea of Zurra, in a line from E. to W. of about 400 miles : the breadth from N. to S. may be 250; but in the lat- ter quarter it may be said to join with the great desert of Kerman, by the Is'auben Dejian, which extends about 350 miles. These two exten&ive deseris may thus be considered as stretching N. W- and S. E. for a space of about 700 miles, by a medial breadth of about 200 (even not including in the length other 200 miles of the desert of Mekran) ; thus intersecting this wide empu-e into two nearly equal portions, as before explained This vast extent is im-' pregnated with nitre and other salts, which taint the neighboring lakes and rivers ; but its natural history has not been investigated with the precision of modern knowledge. In the S. of Mekran, and towards the Indus, are other deserts of great extent. A third great desert, that of Kai akum, or the Black Sand, form&" the northern boundary of Corasan and modern Persia ; but the de- sciiption more properly belongs to Tartary. Minei'alogy. Persia produces lead, iion, which is harsh and- brittle, copper, of an inferior kind, and turkoise, a precious stone Pearls abound in the Persian gulf, especially near tlie isles of Bali- rin on the Arabian side. Some will weigh 50 grains ; but those are esteemed large, which weigh fiom 10 to 12 grains. Chardhi adds that sulphur and nitie are found in the mountain of Demavend. Sometimes whole deserts are covered with sulphur, and others with salt, which near Cashan is remarkably pure. Kock- salt is found n ar Ispahan ; and in the dry tlimaie oi Kerraan it i& even employed in building. J\''atural Curiosities. Among the chief natural curiosities must be named the fountains of naphtha, or pure rock oil, m the neigh- • See Nicbuhr ; but this tribe seems rather to the S, of the desert. INDEPENDENT TARTARY. S95 feorhood of Baku, on the western coast of the Caspian, particularly in the acjjoiuiiijj prornoiiluiy of Aslibtion. (See article Religiun.^ Isles. 1 tic ttw Persian ibics in the southern gulf, among which the most reniui'liabie are Orniuz, once famous, now abandoned ; Kishma ; and, towards the otncr extremity, Karck. from which the Dutch w>.:re expelled in 1766, do not m*. rit a particulai description in a work ol tnis nature ; and far less ino&e in the Caspian S9a, thes ciiief ot which are on the coast of the Uzbeks. INDEPENDENT TARTARY. THE descriptions already given in this volume of Asiatic Russia •and the Chinese empire, comprise the far greater part of what gto^raphers denomnrated Tarlary, by a vague term applied to a country excetdiiig all Europe in extent, and possessed by various and dibiiuct nations and races of men. By rt.ptatcd victories over the Eluts and Kalmuks of Mongolia, the Cliiuese dominion has been extended to the mountains of Be- lur, thus inciuuint» Little Bucharia ; while in the E. Mandshnria remained suDJect to its sovereigns, who had become emperors of China. hxtent. The extent of territory possessed by these tribes may be measured from the Caspian sea to the mountains of Belur, a space ol not less than 870 miles. From the mountains of Gaur, in the south, to the Russian boundaries, on the north of the desert of Issim, may be near 1 500 miles ; but of this length a great part is desert. Divisions. The chief divisions are the wide stepps or barren plains in the N. held by 3 hordes of Kirguses, the Great, Middle, and Lesser ; with some small Partanc tribes near the sea of Aral. Toiarm. The chief towns are Cashgar and Yarcand, followed ■towards the N; E. by Axu or Aksu ;. Chialish, also called Yulduz, and by tlie Turks Karashar or the black city ; and Turfan. Hami «r Camil, with its surrounding villages, i^ rather considered as a detached province, for some ages under the protection of China. Religion. The prevailing religion is the Mahometan. Pofiulaiion, isfc. The population is not known, but cannot be -extensive, and is supposed chiefly to consist of original Bucharians, ■who are described as of a swarthy conaplexion, though some be ■very fair, and of elegant forms. They are said to be polite and benevolent, and their language is the Turkish, that having sup- planted their native tongue. The houses are generally of stone, 300 camels, 3. or 4000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and more than 2000 goats : while in the Lesser horde, were proprietors of 5000 horses, and a proportional number of the other animials. Their dromeda- ries furnished a considerable quantity of woolly hair, which was sold to the Russians and Bucharian,s, being annually clipped like that of sheep. Their chief food is mutton, of the large tailed sort ; and so exquisite is the lamb, that it is sent from Orenburg to Pe= tersburg, for the tables of the palace. The lamb skins are the most celebrated after those of Bucharia, being damasked, as it were by clothing the little animal in coarse linen. But the wool of the sheep Is coarse, and only used in domestic consumption for felts and thick cloths. The stepps supply them with objects of the chace, wolves, foxes,, badgers, antelopes, ermines, weasels, marmots, &c» In the southern and eastern mountains are found wild sheep, the ox of Tibet, which seems to delight in snowy alps ; with chamoisy chacals, tigers, and wild asses.* Trade. The Xirgusians carry on some trade with Russia. The chief traffic, which is wholly by exchange, is at Orenburg, but the iVIiddle horde proceed to Omsk. Sheep, to the amount of 150,000, are annually brought to Orenburg ; with horses, cattle, lamb skinsj camel's wool, and camlets ; sometimes they offer slaves, PersianSj, or Turcomans. In return they take manufactured articles, chiefly clothes and furniture. Kharism. The country of this name extends from the Gihon, or Amu. to the Caspian sea, bounded on th-e N. and S. by wide de- serts, the chitf town being now Khiva, but anciently Urghenz. This country is about 350 miles in length and breadth. Tlic khan is absQiiiie, and entirely independent of any other power, except the MuUa Bashi, or high priest, by whom he is con- trolled. The mhabilaiits differ very little from the Kirguscs ; but surpass them in cunnuig and treachery. Hanway informs us that the town of Khiva stands on a rising ground, wilh 3 gates and a strong wall of earth, very thick, and much higher than the houses ; there are turrets at small distances, and a broad deep ditch, full of ■water. It occupies a considerable space, and commands a pleasant prospprt of the adjacent plains, which the industry of the inhabit- ants has rendered very fertile ; but the houses are low, most); built With mud, the roofs flat, and covered with earth, * Dec, Rass. Mi. 396 INDEPENDENT TARTARY. s9f Khiva is said to stand at the distance of 460 miles. from the Cas- pian sea, and from Orenburij nearly twice that distance. In 1739 the khan of Khiva assembled an army of 20,000, to oppose Nadir ; but the city surrendered at discretion. Great Bucharia. By far the most important part of Independent Tartary is comprised under the name ot Great Bucharia. Extent and Boundaries. Great Bucharia extends more than 700 miles in length, from N. to S. by a medial breadth of about 350, much iiiferior to the country caiicd Little Buciiaria. The northern boundary appears to be the niou.itains of Argun. On the western side a desert, the river Amu, and other deserts, divide Bucharia from Kluu'ism, and Corasan : while on the S. and E. the mountains of Gaur, the Hindoo Koh, and the chain of Bclur, are perpetual barriers. Religion, Pofiulaliun, isfc. The religion of the Uzbeks and Bu- chariaiib is tht Maiiomctan, of the Sunni sect, and the government (of the khans is despotic. There is no precise evidence of the slate pf the population, which consists of the Tartars and of the Bucha- nans. It is probable, that upon an emergency, an army might be mustered of 1 00,000. Manners and Customs. The manners and customs of the Uz- beks are similar to those of the other Tartars : but they are sup- posed to be the most spirited and industrious of these barbarians. The language of the Bucharians has never been investigated, though it be probably Persian, like their physiognomy, but inter- mingled with Turkish, Mongolian, and even Hindoo terms. The literature of Great Bucharia would furnish an ample theme, Sa- marcand having been a celebrated school of oriental science, culti- vated even by monarchs, as Uiug Beg, and others : it was still, in the beginning of last century, the most celebrated of Mahometan universities.* Cities. The chief cily of Great Bucharia is Samarcand, on the southern bank of the river Sogd. Of this celebrated capital there is no recent account, but it seems greatly to have declined since the lime of Timur. About the beginning of the last century, Bentink says that Samarcand was fortified with ramparts of turf, tlie househ being mostly of hardened clay, though some were of stone, from quarries in the neighborhood. The rich vale of Sogd produced such abundance of exquisite grapes, melons, pears, and apples, that they were sent to Persia, and even to Pliridosian. Bokhara, on the same river, has repeatedly contested the metro- politan dignity with Samarcand. When visited by the Eni^iish agents, in 1741,itv/asa large and populous city, bui)ject to its khan ; standing on a rising ground, with a slender wall ol earth ; the houses of clay, but the numerous mosques of brick.f The ( iii- zens manufactured soap and calico ; and the chief products wtrc cotton, rice, and cattle. From the Kalmuks they received rhubarb and musk ; and from Badakshan, the capital of a country so called, ihey used to receive lapis lazuli, and other precious stones j that * Bentink on Abulgazi, p. 279. f Haaway, i. 242. 5^8 INDEPENDENT TARTARY. f iiy beinc; computed at 16 days' journey from Bokbara. There was goiJ and cupper coin : and alter Nadir took this city, the Per- sian and Indian silver became common. In the tenth century it was dislins::;uis!icd by the manufacture of fine linen. Balk is a distinguished city on the river Dehash, which flows in- to the Amu. Climute. The climate in general appears to be excellent, the heat even of the southern provinces being tempered by the high mountains capped with perpetual snow ; and though situated in the p'Arailel of Spam, Greece, and Asiatic Turkey, the proximity of the Sibf rian dcst rts, atid the lofty Alps, render the summer more tem- perate. Near the rivers the soil is very productive, so that the grsss sometimes exceeds the height of a man ; and in some parts considerable industry is shewn in the cultivation of rice and other grain. In any other hands but those of the 'Tartars, this country might rival any European region. Rivers. Tlie chief rivers of Independent Tartaiy are the Amu and the Sirr, or Shash. Lakes. The most considerable is what is called the sea of Aral, . or of eagles, already mentioned in the general view of Asia. Mou7itains. The principal range of mountains is that of Belur, which, according to ail accounts, is a great alpine chain, covered with perpetual snow. 3fineralogy. The alpine heights in the S. E. contain gold, sil- ver, and a peculiar production, the balay, or pale rose-colored ru- Isy, lapis lazuli, sal ammoniac, vitriol, iites. + Niebuhr,93. 76 6C2 ARABIA. gy, phxloscphy, and medicine are taught : but the Arabians, for the want ol" books and good masters, make little progress : and their attainments arc very partial and imperfect. In the domin- ions of Imam, there have been for a long time two famous acade- mies ; one at Zcbid, the other at Damar. The chief employment of men of letters among the Arabians, are the interpretation of the Koran, and the study of the ancient history of the Mahometans. Some seeds of the sciences seem to have sprung up in Arabia, before they were known to other nations. They were the first who studied the laws of the heavenly bodies. Their knowledge of astronomy, however, was neither very accurate nor very exten- sive. In Arabia we lind the cradle of poetry and eloquence, which had. scarcely appeared before they arrived at sudden maturity. Among the ancient Arabs, eloquence was in high repute. Cities and Tovjns. Mecca was known to the Greeks under the name of Macoraba, and has not, in the most flourishing period, exceeded the size and populousness of Marseilles. The founders erected their habitations of mud or stone, in a plain about 2 miles long and 1 broad, at the foot of three barren mountains : the soil is a rock ; the water even of the holy well of Zemzem is bitter or brackisii. By the sea-port of oTedda, at the distance only of forty- miles, they maintained an eai^y correspondence with Abyssinia. Mecca is placed almost at an equal distance, a month's journej^, between Yemen on the right and Syria on the left hand. The former was the winter, the latter the summer staLix)n of her cara™ vans. Medina stands about 200 miks N. of Mecca, being, as well as the latter, about a days journey from the shores of the Red Sea. It is, according to Niebuhr, a small town, surrounded with a paltry wall, little remarkable except for the tomb of Mahomet. Sana, or Saana, in Yemen, is reputed at present the chief city of Arabia. It is situated at the bottom of a mountain called Nik- kum, near v/hith is a spacious garden. The city is not very ex- tensive, as one may walk round it in the space of an hour, so that, the circuit cannot exceed four miles ; and even of this small space a part is occupied by gardens.* The walls are of brick, v/ith seven gates. Mocha is well built, the houses very lofty, and are with the walls and forts covered with a chinam or stucco, that gives a dazzling •whiteness to them. The harbor is semicircular, the circuit of the •wall is two miles, and there are several handsome if.osqucs in the city. Suez, the Arsinoe of the ancients, is surrounded by the desert, and but a desolate place. It stands at the extremity of the Red Sea, having the sea to the E. the harbor to the S. which is formed by an island 'E. Jedda is the place of the greatest trade in the Red Sea, and ia the sea port of Arabia, for there the commerce between Arabia and Europe meets and is interchanged, the former sending her * Nieb.Desc. 201. ARABIA. 603 gums, drugs, coffee, Sec. and from Europe come cloths, iron, furs, and other articles by the way of Cairo. Kesem or Keschin belongs to the country called Mahrah : to the sheik of this town the noted isle of Socotra belongs, which is celebrated for aloes.* The province of Omon is divided aniong^ jnany sheiks, but Rostak is estetmed the capital. Maskai is however the most considerable town, and tl)c best known to Eu- ropeans, having an excellent harbor, and being from early times a staple of trade between Arabia, Persia, and ti>e Indies. Lahsa, the capital of the province so called, is a large and well built lov/n, standing on a torrent which falls into a considerable bay opposite to the isle of Bahrin, celebrated for the pearl fishery. t Cojivncrce. The commerce of Arabia, since the Portuguese opened a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, has very- much declined. Niebuhr regards aloes and frankincense, (the latter chiefly from Hadramaut,) as the only native articles of com- merce, before coffee came into use.| The principal trading ports are Jedda, Loheia, and Beit el Fakih, carrying on a consider- able trade in coffee ; Hodcida, Mocha, Aden, Mascat, Sur or Seger, Faitach, and Dafar, on the Arabian ocean ; Bahrin and El Katif in the gulf of Bassora. Besides the maritime commerce, a considerable traffic is car- ried on by land by means of the caravans of Aleppo and Suez, which bring hither velvets, sattins, armoisins, and all sorts of rich stuff's ; saff"ron, mercury, vermilion. Sec. and take in return partly the natural products of the country, partly manufactures, and partly foreign merchandiEC brought from the Indies, from Aleppo, and from Europe. Climate and Seasons. In the mountains of Yemen there is a regular rainy season, from the middle of June to the end of Sep- tember ; but even then the sky is rarely covered with clouds for twenty-four hours at a time ; and during the. remainder of the year a cloud is scarcely to be seen. At Maskat, and in the east- ern mountains, the rahiy season extends from the middle of No- vember to the middle of February ; and in Omon there is rain from the middle of February to the middle of April. In the ])lains ot Yemen rain is sometimes unknown for a whole year : and in July and August the thermometer will be 98°, while at Sana in the mountains it is 85°. In general the wind fiom the sea is moist, and lliat from the interior deserts is dry, in the northern parts of which are chiefly perceived the disastrous efi'ects of the burning wind called Samiei. Face of the Country. The general aspect of Arabia presents a central desert of great extent, with a few fertile oases or isles, as in Africa ; while the flourishing provinces are those situated on the shores of the sea, which supplies rain sufficient to maintain ike vegetation. In Yemen there are mountains of considerable heie-hr, but chiefly barren and unAVOoded. » Niebuhr, 24S. f Jb, 29-1, • p. 245, 6Q4 ARABIA. Soil and Jgrkulturc. The nature oi' ihe soil has not been in' dicated. The grain in general yields little more than ten for one, but the durra soinelimes greatly exceeds this ratio, yielding in the high lands 140, and in the Tehama, or plain, from 200 to 400, By Iheir mode of sowing and watering this grain the inhabitants of Tehama reap three successive crops from the same field in the same year. The plough is simple : and the pick is used instead of the spade. The chief exertion of agricultural industry is to water the lands from the rivulets and wells, or by conducting the rains. Among the chief vegetable products of Arabia, Isiebuhr reck- ons aloes, myrrh, frankincense of an inferior kind, and coffee \ and also cocoa trees, pomegranates, dales, apricots, peaches, al- monds, filberts, pears, figs, and tamarinds. But the best frankin- cense, with spikenards, cinnanion, cussia, cardamums, and pep-, per, are imported from llindostan. The orange trees are brought from Portugal, and the lemon from Italy ; the mangosteen and cocoa, with several others, are imported from Hindostan. Motaitains and Deserts. The chief range of mountains pro- ceeds in the direction of the Red Sea ; towards the N. not more than 30 miles distant, but sometimes in the S. about 150, a cir- cumstance which imparts extent and fertility to Yemen. What is called the Desert of Sinai, is a beautiful plain nearly nine miles long, and above three in breadth, open to the north-east, but to the southward closed by some of the lower eminences oi Mount Sinai. Sinai is a lofty, steep mountain, ascended by 14,000 stone steps. On the summit is a Christian churchy and a Turkish mosque. In a vale not far remote stands the solitary rock, now called by the Arabs, the stone of Moses ; by the Greeks, the stone of the foun- tains, which Moses struck and the water flowed. It is 12 feet high,, S or 10 broad. It is a granite marble, of brick color. There re- main on it to this day, the lively impressions of the miracle. Still we see the place whence the water gushed. Twelve different openings, as so many mouths, proclaim the genuineness of scrip- ture history. Exod. xvii. 1. In the wilderness of Paran is also the rock mentioned, Xumb. xx. 2, which Moses struck twice, before the water flowed, 38 years dis- tant from the other transaction. This is a large rock, and like the other shows various openings from top to bottom, whence the water burst when smitten by the rod of Moses.* The sandy deserts of Arabia arc more striking objects than the mountains. From Omon to Mecca the greater part of Ncged is one prodigious desert, interrupted by some fertile spots and towns, indicated by Niebuhr. The N. W. part of Neged presents almost a continued desert, a prolongation of the other. Isles. Besides several isles of little consequence in the Arabian gulf, there are two islands which deserve particular notice, Soco- tra, about 240 miles from the soutliei-n coast of Arabia, appears in all ages to have belonged to that country, and to have been celc-. * w^ournal to Sina'. ASIATIC ISLANDS. 60S brated for the production of aloes, still esteemed superior to any other. The inhabitants are clearly of Arabian extract. There are two bays, uiid some secure harbors ; and the isle is also said to piociucc frankincense, while aniljerg-ris and coral are found in the jiciti!i!)oiliooa. There is in it a fortified town ; and in the whole group of these isles, there may be 40 or 50 mean villages. ASIATIC ISLANDS. PRESIDENT Des Brosses, nearly half a century ago, proposed 4hat the cuuniries to the ^iouth of Asia, namely New-IIolland, New- Guinea, and New-Zealand, &cc. should be slylcd Australasia, and the numerous isles in the Pacific, Folynenia, from a Gieek term implyini; many islands * A description of the large island, or rather continent of New-Holiand, with its appendages, naturally follows that of Asia, and the Asiatic islands in the Indian ocean ; and will be properly succeeded by that of Polynesia, or the islands in the Pacific. New-Holland may be considered as the fixed division between the Indian and Pacific, thus claiming with justice the authority of a continent, washed by the Indian ocean on the west, and the Pacific on the east ; while a line drawn from the most prominent central capes, in the north and south, may be regarded as a boundary of these two oceans. The southern extension of this imaginary line is of little moment ; but jn the north it must be considered as a di- vision of great importance to precise discussion, as the isles on the west must be considered as strictly Asiatic, and intimately con- nected with the description of Asia ; while those on the right be- long to Australasia and Polynesia. Polynesia extends from 50° S. lat. to about 35° N. lat. that is S5-, or 5100 geographical miles : while the breadth taken from Ion. 170° E. from Greenwich, to 130° \V. upon the equator itself, yields 60 degrees, or 3600 geographical miles. The length of Australasia may be computed from 95 of the same longitude to 185°, that is 40° in lat. 30°, or nearly 5000 geographi- cal miles ; while the breadth, lat. 3° N. to lat 50° S. will be 3180 geographical miles. The smallest division, that of the Asiatic isles, called also the Oriental Archipelago, extends from 13° S. latitude, to 22° N. lar that is 35°, or 2100 geographical miles ; while the length from 95^ E. Ion. to 132°, yields 37 degrees not far from the equator, nearly corresponding with the breadth. 'Histoirc des ^Tavigations aux Terrcs Ausirales. Paris, ]T.56', 2 vols, 4tc. 606 ASIATIC ISLES. ASIATIC ISLES. FIVE divisions are not only indicated by the hand ol' nature, but hctui sufficient lor a dc&criplion of this vast archipelago. I. THE ISLES OF SUNDA, OR THE SUMATRAN CHAIN. This division comprises Sumatra^ Java., Balli, Lombok^ Sianba- T^fl, Florez, and I'imor ; v/ith several isles of less note in the vicini- ty of these. Sumatra is not less than 950 miles in length, by about 200 in breadth, containing 177,000 square miles.* The English settlement of Bencoolen, in the S. E. part of this island, has occasioned par- ticular attention to its nature and productions, especially since Mr. Marsden published an ample and intelligent account of this inter- esting island, from which this brief description shall be abstract- ed.!. A chain of mountahis runs through the whole isle. Mount Ophir, immediately under the equinoctial line, is 13,842 feet above the sea, only yielding about 2000 feet to mount Blanc. Between the ridges of mountains are elevated plains vi^ith lakes and water- falls. The soil is generally a stiff reddish clay, covered with a layer of black mould, the source of perpetual verdure ; but three quarters of the isle, especially towards the south, present an im- pervious forest. On the Avest, between the inuuniains and the sea, there are large swamps ; but even here the face of the country is remarkably broken and uneven. There seem to be many mines of •g'old, though mostly neglected; and the copper is mingled with that metal. There are excellent ores of iron and steel : and that Tare mineial, tin, is one of the chief exports, being principally found near PalimLang on the eastern shore, a continuation proba- bly of the rich beds of Banca. Gold is found near Bcncoolen, and in other places, but of infeiior quality. The little island of Pcolo j-'isaug, close lb the foot of mount Poogon, is mostly a bed of rocky crystal. There are several volcanic mountains in Sumatra, as in most of the other islands of the oriental archipelago, but eruptions ixvQ unlVeciuent. The number of inhabitants in this island is esti- mated l)y Hassel at 4,500,000 ; by Bruns, only at 2,250,000. The sea coast is chiefly occupied by the Malays, who seem to be recent settlers. By the account of Mr. Marsden there are inland races, of whom the Googoo are covered with long hair, and little superior lo tiic Ourang Outangs of Borneo. The chief native sovereignty js that of Menang Cabou, but the Rejangs seem to retain the pur- est race ai>d manners. The villages are commonly on hills, and surrounded with fruit trees ; the balli, or common hall, being in the centre. The house? are of wood arid bamboos, covered with leaves of palm, standing on pillars, and scaled by a riide ladder. The most abundant article is * Hassd. f Histon' of .Smnatraj 1784, 4to. Cd edit. ASIATIC ISLES. 60r fjepper, the object of the British settlement ; beinj;; produced by a climbing plant resemblinc^ a vine. The white pepper is procured by stripping tlie outer husk from the ripe t^rains. Camphor is another remarkable ve.i^elablc product, and cassia, a coarse kind oE cinnamon, is found in the central puts of the country. Rattans are exported to Europe for walking canes. The commerce is chiefly with Hindoslan and China. The Ma- lays excel in gold and silver fiUagree, and in weaving silk and cot- ton ; but the manufactures are imperfect, and the sciences little cultivated. Besides the Malay, several languages are spoken, which seem however to have a manifest alliiiiiy amongst them- selves, and with that widely diffused speech which may be called the Polynesian, as it is diffused through innumerable islands in the Pacific. Even the rudest trilies of Sumatra and t!ie other Asiatic isles, as far as the utmost bounds of Polynesia, display a certain de- gree of civilization. The panjeran or prince presides over many magistrates ; but his governruent is limited, his power being cor.° finedby his poverty. Lawsare unknown, the chiefs rendering judge- ment according to customs. Most crimes are compensated by money, murder itself not excepted. The difficulties attending mat- riage, form an exception to the general customs of uncivilized countries, and the general chastity seems remarkable. The Chris- tian religion is unknown in Sumati'a, the missionaries having unac- countably neglected this large island. The kingdom of Acheen in the N. W. extremity of the island, carries on a considerable trade, with the coast of Coromandel. The natives are more stout and tall, and of a darker complexion than the other Sumatrans. Several small isles encompass Sumatra. Baiica is particularly celebrated for its tin.* Of Billeton little is known ; nor of the isits that lie between Sumatra and Malacca, called Piiti, and other names, with the common addition oiPulo, which in these seas ap- pears to imply an island, being a Malay term. The Nassau or Po^gy isles, lie off the W. coast of Sumatra, distant 20 or 30 leagues. They rise into rough hills and moun- tains, exhibiting strong marks of some powerful convulsion. The islanders, in their language, their manners, and character, are verr different from their neighbors on Sumatra. The two principal islands have about MOO people, divided into small tribes, each oc- cupying a stream of water. Their houses are of bamboos, raised on posts: the under part is inhabited by hogs and poultry. Their clothing is a piece of coarse cloth made of bark, worn round the waist. Java is a!)out 650 miles in length, by al>out 100 of medial breadth; it is remarkable for the city of Batavia, \vhic!i was the celebrated capital of the Dutch possessions. This island, like t!it- former, abounds with forests, and presents an enchanting verdure. It is also intersected by a ridge of mountains, like a spine pervading •The industrious translator of Stavorlnus, vol i. p. 357, says that these mines were only discovered in 1710 or 1711, and though the Dutch receive about three millions of pouttds weight, the vein seems inexhaustible. 60S ASIATIC ISLES. its length.* Batavia is strongly forlified with walls, and a citadel towards the sea.. There are many canals about 4 feet in depth, and the town is large, and well built of stone. This metropolis of the oriental archipelago presents many nations and languages ; and tlie Chinese constitute the greater part of the inhabitants, being conicnled for the s:ike of gain to forget the tombs of their ances- tors, and the laws of their country against emigration. The Malay language, the French of the east, is here universally understood. The streets are planted with large trees, which practice, with the Dutch canals, probably contributes to the unhealthiness of this spot. The heat is not so intense, considered in itself, being between 30° and 86°, as from the low situation of the town, and the murky exiialations from the bogs, canals, and a muddy sea, whence from 9 o'clock till 4 it is impossible to walk out. The sun being nearly vertical, rises and sets about 6 throughout the year; but the noc- tiu'nal repose is infested by moskitos. The rainy season begins ■with December, and lasts till Marc«. Crocodiles abound in the rivers, as in most of the oriental isles. Java is divided into 3 or 4 principalities, the chief being the emperor of Surikarta. This isl- and was captured by the British, August, 1811. The small isle of Madura., on the N. of Java, had its independ- ent prince, whose sufferings under the tyranny of the Dutch have been related by Mr. Pennant. t The isle of Balli seems only re- markable for furnishing slaves, cotton, yarn, and pickled pork.| It has 600,000 inhabitants, who are pagans, black and addicted to war. Timor is nearly 200 miles in length, by 60 in breadth ; and the inhabitants are esteemed the bravest in the Oriental Archipelago. It was captured by the British in 1811. II. BORNEO, The largest island in the world, is about 900 miles in length, by 600 lii its greatest breadth, containing about 313,500 square miles. ^ The interior parts of the great island of Borneo are little known, though a considerable river flows Irom the centre of the country almost due south, forming the harbor of Bender Massin ; and the names of several villages on the banks are laid down by D'Anville. The far greater part of Borneo, next to the sea, esjjecially the northern side, consists of swamps, covered with forest;; of ti'ees of many s])ecies and great sizes. This island has five, sr>me say six, millions inhabitants. || Tlic coasts are held by Malays, Moors, Ma- cassars from Celel)tz, and Japanese. The natives in the interior are black, with long hair, of a middle stature, feeble f ind inactive ; but their features are superior to those of negroes. 7:luropean set- tlements have been unsuccessful, the adventurers having been *Thunherg, ii. 213. For a tolerable map of Java see the T oyage of Stavori- nus, 1798, V. i. p. 313, where there is also a long and minute description of the island. '|- Outlines, iv. 31. See. ib. 28, the massacre of 12,000 Chio ese in 1740. i See Forres 170. ^ Hassel || Hassel and Brurs. ASIATIC ISLES. 609 ti\assacrcd. Pepper abounds in the interior, with the ^um called ihe dragon's blood, camphor, and sandal wood. Edible birds' nests are abundant. Gold is found in the interior country ; where there are also said to be diamonds, bat inferior to those of Golconda. The Ourang Outang; abounds. The natives are called Biajos, but their language has not been explained. The town, called Borneo, on the N. W. consists of about SOOO houses, built on posts fixed in rafts, which are moored to the sliore, and moved from place to place at pleasure.* The Chinese arc the chief traders to Borneo. This large island is surrounded with many small isles, v^hich, from their relation to this comparative continent, may be termed IJornean islands. III. THE MANILLAS, OR PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. This large group was discovered by Magalhaens in 1521, who ■called them the archipelago of St. Lazarus ; but they were after- wards styled the Philippines, in honor of that infamous tyrant Philip II. of Spain. They contain 3,800,000 inhabitants.! Luzon is the largest and most important of these isles, being* near 500 miles in length, by about 100 of medial breadth. The ua*- tives, who are of a mild character, are called Tagals, like ail those of the Philippines, and seem of Malay origin4 They are tall and well made, v/earing only a kind of shirts with loose drawers, but the dress of the women is chiefly a large mantle, and their black a'vid beautiful hair sometimes reaches the ground, the complexion being a deep tawney. The houses arc of bamboo covered with palm leaves, raised on pillars to the height of 3 or 10 feet. The chief food is rice and salted fish. The city of Manilla is well biiiit and fortified, but a third part is occupied by convents : the number of Chiislian inhabitants is computed at 12,000. Between this ciiy and Acapulco, nearly in the same parallel on the W. of Mexico, was conducted a celebrated commerce througii a space of about 140 degrees, or about 8400 geographical miles, more than one third of the circumference of tJie globe. Next in size is 3Iindanao, a beautiful and fertile island, the chief Spanish settlement being at Sambuang in the S. W. This island is in general mountainous ; but the vales consist of a rich black mould, watered with the purest rivulets. The other chief Philippines arc Pu/axvain, Mindoro^ Pani Bug-< ias or inle ofjVcgroes, Zebu, I.eyt, or Leita., and Samar. On the E. of Zebu is the small isle of Mactan, where ilie celebrated naviga- tor Magalhaens was slain. These isles present wild boars, deer, and usefal animals of various kinds ; and among vegetables the bread fruit uiust not be forgotten, which first appears on the east- ern coasts of Sumatra, and thence extends its benefits through in- numerable islands in tlie Indian and Pacific oceans. .•Peiiaaiit's Outliaci, iv. 52. f tlTSiel. i Sbnaerat, ii. 108. 77 51^ ASIATIC ISLESi IV. THE CELEBEZIAN ISLES. Celebsz is inore than 600 miles long, but not above 60 mile? •• broad, containing about 92,000 square miles, and 3,000,000 inhab-- itants,* Inn. from 116° to 124'' E. lat. 1 30 to 5 30 N. This island is lofty and mountainous, especially towards the centre, and there arc several active volcanoes. Tlie natives, commonly called Ma- cassars, often degrade their courage in the quality of freebootei's, attacking vessels with surprising desperation, and often with lances^ or arrows poisoned with the juice of the notorious tree called upas. Their houses are raised on pillars, as usual, on account of the rainy? season, or \V. monsoon, from November till March. Around Celebez are m.any small isles, mostly inhabited, and governed by chiefs* V. THE- SPICE ISLANDS, INCLUDING THE MOLUCCAS. The chief Spice Islands are Gilolo, Ceram^ and Bouro^ with Mor^- taif, Oubi, Alysol, that of jimboyna^ and the group of Barida, with, such small isles as approximate nearer to these than to the Celebc- zian group, or Sumatran chain. Gilolo is about 230 miles in length; the breadth seldom above' 40. The shores are low : the interior rises to high peaks. The sultans of Ternat and Tidore now share this large isle between them.t One ot the chief towns is Tatany, on a point or small pro- ■montory of the eastern limb. The bread fruit is frequent in Gilolo, with the sago tree. The natives are industrious, particularly in • weaving. Ccram i5 about 190 m:!es in length by 40 in breadth; low to- wards the shore, but v/ith inland mountains; producing clove trees, and large forests of the sago tree. Bouro is about 90 miles in length, by 50 in breadth. It rises suddenly from a deep sea, being encompassed as with a wall. The-' interior mountains are lofty. Oi Mortay^ MysoU and Oubi^ little is known. The proper Moluccas are Ternat^ Tidore^ Afotir, Makia7i, and JBatchia?i. The largest is Batc/iiaTi, being governed by a sultan, who is like- wise sovereign of Oubi and Ceram, with Goram, a little isle S. E. of Ceram, reputed the most eastern boundary of the Mahometan fait'.i. This monarch had a pension from the Dutch, either for the destruction or sr.pply cf nutmegs, but is otherwise little subservi- ent. Bulchian rises into woody lulls ; and on the shores, as in most isles of this archipelago, there are prodigioua rocks of coral, of great variety and beauly. Makian is a small isle to the N. of' Batchian, and rises like a high conic mountain from the sea. This was regarded as the chief Dutch settlement betore Amboyiia be- came the metropolis of the Moluccas. Next is Motir, formerly •Hassel, f Pennant, iv. 19S. ASIATIC ISLES. 6U said to be the seat of V'enus and voliiptuousr.ess. In TUtore there are 25 mosques ; and the sultan, as ah'cady mentioned, possesses also the south of Gilolo, and claims tribute from Mysol. Ternat is the most northern and important of the Moluccas, though it scarcely exceed 24 miles in circuinltircncc. The sultan , controls Makian aiul Motir, with the north of Gilolo, Mortay, and even some Cclebczian isles, and pan of Papua, whericc he receives a tribute of gold, amber, and birds of Paradise. Ternat consists chiefly of hi^^h land, abounding uith streams from tiic mountains. Jmboyna is about 60 miles in length from N. to S. and on the west side tliere is a large bay, which divides it into two lirabs or peninsulas. On the easiern side is anotlicr bay, with a bad harbor, where the Portuguese erected their cliicf fortress, Victoria. The town of Amboyna, the capital of the isle, slands near the S. W. ex- tremity and is neatly built ; the houses, on account of the frequent earthquaUes, seldom exceed one floor. The face of tliis island is beautiful, woody mountains and verdant vaks being interspersed with hamlets, and enriciied by cultivaiion.* The clove tree grows ■ to the height of about 40 or 50 feet, with spreading branches and" long pointed leaves. In deep sivellered vales some trees will pro- duce 30 pounds weight annually, the chief crop being from No- vember 10 February. The soil is mostly a reddish clay, but in the vales blackish and sandy. When Amboyna was recently seized by the English,! it was found, with its dtpendcncics, to contain 45,252 souls, of which 17,813 were Protestants, the i-est Mahometans, ex- cept a fevi' Chinese and savages. The Dutch are tolerably polish- ed, this being the next settlement to Baiavia in wealth and conse- quence. The natives cannot be praised, they differ little from other Malays ; and when intoxicated with opium will commit any crime. Banda^ or Lantor, is tb.e chief isle of a group, wiiich comprises 6 or 7 others ; it does not exceed 8 miles in length, fiom W. to E. and the greatest breadth at its eastern extremity may be 5 miles. The nutmeg tree is the principal object of cultivation in these isles ; and flourishes not only in the rich black mould, but even amidst the lavas of Gonong, which is the highest isle, the summit being 1940 feet above the sea. When the English seized these isles in 1796, tiie annual produce was about 163,000 pounds of nutmep-s and 46,000 pounds of maccf The nutmeg true g:ov.s to the size of a pear tree, the leaves resembling those of tiie laurel, and bears fruit iVoin the age of lO to 100 years. The inhabitants of tiie Banda isles were found lu be 5763. The English were expelled from Lantor, and Rohn, or Pulo Rohn, * An account of the Spice Islands, since diey have been in the possession of Great Britain. Asiatic Register, ISOO, p. 200. 'J'liere was a most violent earthquake in 1755. f The islands of Amboyna and Eanda were taken v/ithout resistance in Feb- ruary and ]\Tarch, 179(5, by the Ei>gH,h admiral Rainier. \ The hurricane and earthquake, i TVS, almoit annihilated the nutmeg trees I'a Bznda, so that the Dutch have become the dupes of thtir own avarice. From 1796 to 1798 the English East India Company imported 817,311? lb. cloves, 93,732 lb. nutm«gs, 46,730 lb. mace, besides priv.'.te trade, amounting to rbout a third part of the above, Stavorinus, ii. 4 IS; 612^ AUSTRALASIA. prior to the i-nassacre of Aniboyna ; but seized the whole Spjca- Islands in 1796, and restored them to tljtir Batavian masters by th& treaty vith France, 1801. In 1810, tl.cy were again taken by ths British, in whose possession they now icuiain. . AUSTRALASIA. AUSTRALASIA, as already bounded, contains the fbllowing; countries : 1. The central and cliief land of New-Holland, with any islet, which may be discovered in the adjacent Indian ocean, 20 degrees to the W. and between 20 and 30 degrees to the E. including par- ticularly all the large islands that follow : 2. Papi«^« or New-Guinea. 3. l\e\v -Britain and New-Ireland, with the Solornon Isles. 4. Nevv-Caledonia, and the New-Hebudes. 5. New-Zealand. 6. The large island called Van Diemen's Land, recently discov- ered to be separated from Now-Hoiiand by a strait, or rather chan- nel, called Bass's strait. I. NEW-HOLLAND. Some suppose that this extensive region, when moie thoroughly investigated, will be found to consist of two, three, or more vast islands, intersected by narrow seas. However this be, the most I'e- cent and authentic charts still indicate New-Holland as a countiy fully entitled to the appellation of a continent. The length from E. to W. is about 2730 miles. The breadth 1960 miles. Europe,, the smallest of the ancient continents, is supposed to be about 330O Hiiles in its utmost length, and its greatest breadth 2350. New- Jlolland, appears, therefore, to be a quarter less than Europe. The Dutch are regarded by Des Brosses, as the chief discover- ers of Australasia, between the year 1616 and 1644.* The eastern coast having been carefully examined by Cook, was formally taken possession of in the name of the king of Great Biitain, 1770. On the close of the American war, it being diflicuii to select a proper place of transportation for criminals sentenced to that pr.i.ishmtnt by the laws of their country, this new territory- was ar kngth preferred, in 1786, and the first ship sailed fion. Spithead on i^n GOih. Jariuary, 1787, and arrived on the 20ih of the same ntonth in t!ie foiicwing year. Botany Bay being found to b(,- a staiJoi; of intciior advantages to what were e:a)ected, ar^d no spot appearing proper for tlic colony, it was immeniately resolved by govcrnoi" Phillip to transfer it to another excellent inlet, about 1;? Qiilea farther to the r.orth, called Port Jackson, en the south side --. * Dcs Erosses, i. 42C. AUSTRALASIA. 6ir> which, at a spot called Sidney Cove, this settlement is now fixed. Port Jackson is one of the noblest harbors in the world, cxtcndinp; about 14 miles in length, with numerous creeks or coves. Divifiion. The name of Cumberland county is given by the. government to the settlement at SidncL/ Cove. It is about 50 miles m lenj^th, and 30 in breadth. The chief place of settlement, is at Sidney Cove, near the centre, where a town has lieen regularly laid out, and built. The principal streets are 200 feet wide. The cli- mate is said to be equal to the finest in Europe. Inhabitants. The inhabitants on the E. coast are merely divided into families, the senior beiuLa^ styled Bu-ana, or father. Each fam- ily or tribe has a piuiicular place of residence, and is distinguibhed by adding g'al to the name of the place ; thus the soutiicrn shore of Botany Bay is called Gwea, and the tribe there Gwea-gal. No religion whatever is known, thougii they have a faint idea of a fu- ture existence, and think their people return to the clouds, whence they originally fell. They are of a low stature, and ilFniade. Some. are nearly as black as African negroes, while others exb.iint a cop- per or Malay color, but the haii' is long, not woolly like the Afri- can. Their noses are flat, nostrils wide, sunk eyes, thick brows and lips, with a mouth of prodigious width, but the teeth white and even. The huts are most rudely constructed of the bark of trees, in thu form of an oven, the fire being at the entrance. Climate and Seasons. From its situation, on the southern side of the equator, the seasons are like those of the southern part of Afri- ca and America, the reverse of those in Europe ; the sunmier cor- responding with our winter, and the spring with autumn. Mi-. Collins found the weather in December very hot, but the climaio ■was allowed to be fine and salubrious. The rains were heavy, ap- pearing to fall chiefly about the full and change of uie moon ; and at intervals there were storms of thunder and lightning. J^ace of the Count?-!/. It would be idle to attempt any delinea- tion of the general aspect of this country. The small portion known seems hilly, but not mountamous. The soil around Botany- Bay is black and fat, and fertile of plants, whence the name atose. Rivers and Mountains. Concerning the rivers, lakes, and moun-, tains of New-Holland there is little information. Nepean river in New-South-Wales, is 34 miles S. W. of Port Hunter, and 46 from the town of Paramatta. The Paramatta river passes tlse town of this name, which is the residence of the missionary, and is a flour- ishing place. A chain of mountains is said to run N. and S. be- tween 30 and 60 miles inland, but not easily accessible on account of numerous deep ravines. Islands. J\'orfolk Island lies in S. lat. 29 4, E. lon.*6S 12 ; at the distance of iCOO miles N. E. of Port Jackson, containing I 1,000 acres of an excellent soil ; it is 7 leagues iu circumference, dis- covered by Capt. Cook, in 1774. The island is very hiily. The highest peak, named Mount Pitt, is 1200 feet high. The ciiiTs round the coast are 240 feet perpendicular. In February, 178S, $6 persons from the Ncw-Iiolland cclQ.ny took pciscssion of ihiij «M AUSTRALASIA. kland, wliich was inhabited, with a view to cultivate maize, wheat, iind particiihiily the flax plant. SW'fiean Inland is opposite Port Hunter, on th-e S. coast of Nor- folk. Island. It is a mass of sand, surrounded by a border of hard i-oclvs. Tlie surface is covered with coarse grass, and upwards of 200 line pines arc growing on it. II. PAPUA, OR NEW-GUINEA. This country is still far from being completely investigated, but is conceived to be a vast island, extending more than 1200 miles in length by a medial breadth of perhaps 300, and thus far superior in bize'to Borneo, formerly reputed the largest of islands. The inhabitants of the northern parts are called Papous, whence the name of the country. They are black, and even said to have the woolly hair of negroes ; but this last circumstance will proba- bly be discovered, as in New-Holland, to proceed from art, and in some parts it would seem that the inliabitants have the true Malay complexion and features. In the interior is a race called Harafor- as, who live in trees, which they ascend by a notclicd pole, draw- ing it after them to prevent surprise. The religious tenets of the Papuans have been little examined, They make tombs of the rude coral rock, sometimes with sculp- tures. The chief commerce is with the Ch.inese, from whom they purchase their instruments and utensils. Their returns are am- bergris, tortoise-shell, small pearls, birds of paradise, and other birds which the Papuans dry with great skill. Some slaves are also exported, probably captives taken in intestine wars. The coasts of Papua aie generally lofty, and, inland, mountain rises above mountain, richly clothed with woods. Captain Forrest, to wh.om we are indebted for an interesting voyage in these seas, only visited the harbor of Dory in the north- ern part of Papua, so that oin* knowledge of this large islarid re- mains extremely imperfect. He observed at a considerable dis- tance, the mountains of Arlac of a remarkable height. Near the harbor of Dory he found in some little isles abundance of nutmeg :rees, and there is room to infer that the land of Papua is not des- titute of the same productions, and may perhaps also boast ^i -cloves. Some rf the small adjacent islands are better known than the main land of P.ipu:\ M'uijoo, or IVadjoG^ is an isle of considerable size, and is said ;o contain i.yo,00;.j inhabitants. The land :s high with lofty moun- tains and on tiie nosth side are two excellent haibors, Piapis and Otfak.* iiQLtvatti is also a populous island, governed by a raja. The 2)Cople cf tlchc tv.o large islands rescn^.ble those of the main land bfPapiu;. * Sf e Torrest's voyaj? and the chart. AUSTRALASIA. 61 n Timorlaut is another Papaun island of considerable size, but of •ithich there is no particular account. The Arroo islands appear, in Arrowsmith's chart divided into five by intervcniiii^ straits. On the N. of the main land of Fapua are the isles of Myaonj and Jobi, with several others of smaller consequence. III. NEW-BRITAIN, AND NEW-IRELAND, WITH THE SOLOMON AND NAVIGATORS' ISLES. New-Britain was first explored and named by Dampier, that navit^ator havini^ passed a stiait, to which his name is given, be- tween this country and Papua. In 1767 Captain Carteret passed throut^h a channel between New-Britain and New-Ireland, wliich last is a longj slip of land stretching from N. W. to S. E. ; and it is also probable that New-Britain may be found to be divided into two or more islands In these parts the nutmeg tree is found' abundant, being perhaps the most remote region towards the easty of that valuable plant. Inhabitants. Captain Carteret found the natives of New-Ire- land very hostile, having lances headed with flint. Their faces were streaked with white, and their hair dabbed with powder of the same color. They are black and said to be woolly headed» but without the thick lips or flat nose of the negro. Some of the canoes of New-Ireland were ninety feet in length formed out of a single tree. Bougainville also visited this country, and observ- ed here the pepper plant, while, among the numerous birds, wai the great crowned pigeon. Tlie Solomon islands, as laid down in Mr. Arrowsmith's chart. of the Pacific, mav be considered as a large grouj), extendinq- fi'om lord Anson's isle, or the Bouka of Bougainville, in the N. W. to the isle called Egmont by Carteret in the S. E. Some ot the islands, towards the centre, seem of considerable size. " JVavigators' Inlands., are a cluster of islands in the S. Pacifie. Ocean. Lon. 189 W. lat. 14 19 S.* IV. NEW-CALEDONIA, AND THE NEW-HEBUDES. New-Caledonia is a large islaiul, the southern part of which in particular has been little explored. The natives are said to be a muscular race, of a deep brown complexion, resembling those ot New-Zealand. The north western part of this large island was explored by Cap- tain Cook, who says that this district was called LJalade. Among the Nt w-Hebudcs Captain Cook has given the mosi: particular account ol Mallicollo in the north, and Tanna in the SJouth. * PcTTOBse.- Ql$ AUSTRALASIA. V. NEW-ZEALAND. This country .was first discovered by Tasman in 1 642. Cook explored them in 1770, and discovered a straight which divides the country into two large islands. The first is not less than 600 miles in length, by about 150 in medial breadth ; and the second is little inferior in size. The natives were observed tq be ol" a brown comjjlexion, little deeper than the iipanish, and some are even fair. So far as present discoveries extend the natives of N^iv- Hoiland and Papau seem to display an AlVican origin ; while most of the other islands in the Pacific appear to have been peopled from Asia. JManners and Customs. The New-Zealanders inter their dead. Suicide is very common. The flax of New-Zealand has excited particular attention, being of a beautiful silky appearance, and the plant remarkably tall. T))o general dress is an oblong garment made by knotting the silky flax ; and the ears are ornamented with bits of jad or bads, the face being often besmeared with a red paint, seemingly iron ochre mingled with grease. The habitations are far superior to those in New-Holland : and the boats are well built of plvMiks, raised upon each other, and fastened with strong withes. Some are fifty feet long, and so broad as to be able to sail without an out- rigger, but the smaller sort commonly have one, and they often fasten two together by rafters. The large canoes will carry thirty men or more j and have often a head ingeniously carved. Mount Edgecumbe is a prodigious high peak, on the W. side of the er.irance of Cook's strait in New-Zealand. VI. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This is the last great division yet discovered of the wide ex- panse of Australasia. The name was imposed by that eminent Dutch navigator FusmCin, as already mentioned, in honor of the Dutch governor-general in the East Indies.* It has bten recently discovered to be an island, in the form of an oblonij square, about 160 miles in length by half that breadth, being divided from New- Holland by a strait, or rather channel, more than thii ty leagues v.-ide, which in recent maps is called Bass's strait, and contains a chain of small islands running N. an.! S. During his last voyage, Captain Cook, in January 1777, visiied Diemen's land for supplies of v.ood and water, and grass far the aiiimals on board. They were met by some of the natives, who were entirely naked ; of a * There is another Van Diemen's Land, a nor'hern cape of New-Holland. Such duplicate names are injurious to tiie study of geography, and ought to be formally abrogated, if a Board of Nomenclature, so much wanted, were in- stituted. The southern Van Diemen's Land, on one of the isles of New-Zea- land, should be called 'I'asniania, in honor of the discoverer. POLYNESIA. 617 ti-smmcn statute, but rather slender, the skin being black, and the iiair as woolly as that of any native of Guinea, but their lineaments were more pleasing than those of African negroes. The hair and beards, and of some the faces, were smeared with red ointment. POLYNESIA, THE boundaries of this extensive division of the globe have al- "ready been mentioned. The following appear to be the chief sub- divisions. 1. The Pelew Isles. 2. The Ladrones, a chain extending in a northerly direction, the small islands in tb.e Pacific seeming to be mostly the summits of ranges or groups of mountains. 3. The Carolines, a long range from E. lo W. so as perhaps, ia strictness, to include the Pclev/s. 4. The Sandwich Isles. 5. The Marquesas. 6. The Society Isles, so named in honor of the Royal Society. 7. The Friendly Isles. There are, besides, many isles scattered in different directions? which it would be difficult to connect witli any group, and indeed none of them, yet discovered, appears to be of any consequence. I. THE PELEW ISLES. This group lying between Ion. 130 and 136 E. and lat. 5 and 9 N. recently attracted considerable attention, from an ingenious and pieasing account of them, drawn up by Mr. Keate, from the papers of captain Wils«n, who suffered shipwreck on these islands in 1783. The Pelewans are a stout well made people, rather above the middle stature. Their complexions are not quite black, and their hair long and flowing.* The men are eniiicly naked, while the women only wear two little apronB, or rather fringes, made of the husks of the cocoa nut. Both sexes are tatooed, and the leclh are died black. Polygamy is allowed, and the dead are interred. There seems no appearance of religion of any kind though tlicy have an idea that the soul survives the body. Mild, affable, and industrious, this little tribe, like the inhabitants of Otaheite, form an exception to the general rule of savage existence. The language is probably a dialect of the Malay, so v.idcly diffused through these seas. The government is in the haii Js of a king, under whom there are ru/iaks, or chiefs, who also cpns-'dtute a kind of nobles. Our do- mestic poultry are here wild in the woods, and were neglected by ?he natives till tauj;ht by the English that they Were proper f«V • Kestt, 318. 7« 618 POLYNESIA. food. Their chief nourishment appears to be fish ; but they hiak^ a kind of sweemeat from the sugar cane, which seems indigenous^- The chief drink is the milk of the cocoa nut. These isles had scarcely been visited by any European till capt.' Wilson landed at Oloolong. They are in general of a moderate height, wen covered with wood ; and are circled on the west side by a reef of coral, from 2 to 6 leagues from the shore, and of great length. The ebony tree is found in the forests, and the bread fruit and cocoa tree abound, with sugar-canes and bamboos. No kind of grain was seen, nor any quadrupeds, except some rats in the woods, and 3 or 4 cats in the houses, probably drifted ashore fron% some wreck. Of birds, pigeons seem the most numerous : and the. wild poultry have been already mentioned. II. THE LADRONES. This appellation implies the Isles of Robbers, and was given by that distinguished navigator Magalhaens, who first discovered these islands in 1521. According to the Jesuit Gobien, who has published a particular history of the Ladrones, or Marian Islands,* the inhabitants, till the arrival of the Spaniards, regarded themselves as the only men in the world. When they were visited by the Spaniards and Dulch^ they infei'red that these strangers were brethren, who had lost the primitive Guamese language. In color, speech, manners, and gov- ernment, they considerably resemble the people of the Philippines. These isles were then very populous, Guam, iii 40 leagues of cir- cuit, having S0,000 inhabitants. The Ladrones are 12 or 14 in number ; but not above 3 or 4 arc inhabited. Their vessels, called flying proas, have been esteemed singular specimens of naval architecture. To the N. of the Ladrones are many small islands, extending to Todos Los Santos, lat. 30, those farther to the N. belonging to Japan. Liquor is an island in the western ocean, so named by the com- panions of Benyowski, wbo landed here in 1771, in a most perish- ing condition, without water or provisions. They found excellent water, fowls, fish, and hogs ; also cocoa, orange, and banana trees. It is a pleasant island. Benyowski set up a cross here, with an in- scription, lat. 34 47 N.f IlL THE CAROLINES. This is the largest group, or rather the most extensive range oi islands in the Pacific ocean. Theyare about 30 in niimber, and very populous, except 3 which were uninhabited. The natives re- semble those of the Philippines, and chiefly live upon fish and co- * Paris, 1700, 12mo. f Benyowski. POLYNESIA. «1» -coa nuts : and it is probable that their langua^ only differs in a few shades. According to the letters of the Jesuits, each isle was subject to its chief, but all respected a monarch, vrho resided at La- murec. The people of Ulea are reported to' be more civilized than the rest, and appear much to resemble those of the Pelews. The most considerable of the Carolines is Hogolen^ about 9a miles in length by 40 in breadth. Next is Fa/;, in the western ex- tremity of this chain, but not above a third part of that size. IV. THE SANDWICH ISLES. 'These islands appear to have been first discovered by Cook, and the island Owhyhee, the largest in the group, being about 280 ■miles in circumference, is unfortunately disiinguished as the place where this able commander was slain by the natives in February, 1779. These islands were so named by Cook in gratitude to the earl of Sandwich, a mimster who had warmly promoted his laboi's. The natives are rather of a -darker complexion than those of Otaheite, but the featijres are pleasing j and the death of Cook v/as not ow- ing to ferocity, but a sudden impulse of undeserved resentment. The hair is sometimes long, sometimes curled, as among Europe- ans. The climate appears to be more temperate than that of the West-Indies ; and in Owhyhee the mountains arrest the clouds, and produce rain inland, while there is sunshine on the shore. The ■winds seem generally easterly, and there is a regular land and sea breeze. Owhyhee is the largest island yet found in the wid« extent of 'Polynesia, V. THE MARQUESAS. These islands were discovered by Mendana. One of the bes<. known to Europeans is the isle of Ohittahoo, to the S. of the larger isle Ohevahoa. In 1774 the Marquesas were visited by capt. Cook, and in 1789 by the French circumnavigator Marchand. The best recent ac- sount of them is that given in the Missionary Voyage, capt. Wil- son having visited the Marquesas in 1797. The natives ai*e said to surpass ail other nations in symmetry of shape, and regularity of features ; and were it not for the pi'actice of tatoeing, which blackens the body by numerous punctures, the ■• complexion would be only tawney, while the hair is of many colors, but none red. Some of the women are nearly as fair as Europe- ans, and among them tatooing is not so universal.* * Mi9stoD2ry Voyage, L«adon, 1799, 4to. p. 14*. «25 POLYNESIA. The largest isle of (he Marquesas, Noabeva, is not above hali die size of Otaheiie : and in general the multitude of small islands in these seas presents a wonderful variety in the works of rtatiire. VI. THE SOCIETY ISLES. All the islands from longitude 160 west from Greenwieh, to the eastern extremity of Polynesia, may be included under the general name of Society Islands, a ranj^e which will thus even exceed the Carolines in number, amounting to 60 or 70. Of these, Otaheite is «tiU by far the most considerable in size, being about 120 miles in circumference. The natural color of the inhabitants is olive, inclining; to copper. Men exposed to the sun become very dark ; but the women arc enly a shade or two deeper than an European brunette. They have fine black eyes, with white even teeth, soft skin, and elegant: limbs ; while their hair is of a jetty black, perfumed and ornament- ed with flowers. Their voice and speech are soft and harmonious ; and their dia° lect is tlie Italian of the Pacific ocean. Their rude manufactures are truly wonderful, and evince the greatest ingenuity. Their dwellings are about IS feet in length, with a few articles of furni- ture, such as trays, baskets, mats, and a large chest. Their deities are numerous ; each family having its Tee, or guardian spirit, whom they worship at tlie Moral ; but they have a great god, or gods of a superior order, styled Fvi^hanow Po, or the progeny of night. The chief harbor of Otaheite is Matavai, on the north side of the island ; but there is another of similar note in the S. E. called Lan- garas. The next island in size is Uiitea : and the others of this group> are of far inferior dimensions to Otaheite. As an appendage to this article, some account may be added of Easter Island, a detached and remote region, which, however, so iar as the discoveries yet extend, seems rather to belong to Polyne- sia than to South-America. This isle appears to have been first seen by Davis in 1686; and was afterwards visited by Cook and. La Perouse. It is of a triangula* form, the longest side being about 2 J miles in length, and at one extremity there appears to have been a volcano. The natives are very industrious, and plaivt paper- mulberries, and bananas, with regular fields of potatoes and yams, Tliey. have the same language and features with the other natives- . A 500,000 Shedma, A 550,000 Haha, S 708,000 District of Morocco, A and S" 1,250,000 Large towns in Morocco 295,000 4,269,0^-.; Province of Draha, S 350,000 Suse, including Lower Suse, S 2,417,000 Large towns in Terodant, S 26,300 -■ 2,79 3.30?,- •The provinces marked A, are peopled wholly, or chiefly; wirfa Aral»s< rhose marked S, with Shetluhs, rU KINGDOM OF MOrScCO. Tafilclt, A 650,ooa Tribes oi" Bercbbers of North Atlas 3,000,000 I4,88fc>j600 This population is divided by Jackson into four classes, Moors, Arabs, Berebbers, and Shclluhs. Army. The army amounts to 36,000 men. Of these, about 6000 tonsutute the emperor's body guard, 3500 are artillery, and the rest arc light dragoons. The greater part of t!ie troops are negroes and mulattoes. Their arms arc a sabre, a long musket, a small red ieatlier box in front for balls, and a powder-horn slung over their shoulders. Xa-uy. The na\y consists of 10 frigates, of from 16 to 30 guns, ?.nd 14 galliots, of from 2 to 10 guns, manned by 6000 sailors. Tlicse vessels are kept for piracy, and seldom unite in a fleet. An admiral, however, has the command of them. R^enue. The revenue amounts to more than a million of dol- lars, ?ind the expenses to a little over 300,000 ; of which 180,000 are expended on the army and navy. Manners and Customs. The houses of the Moors have flat roofs*" covered with terrace, a composition of lime and small stones. The Arabs live in tents. They are restless and turbulent, and their clans, are frequently at war with each other. The Berebbers also live in tents. They are a hardy, industrious race, and are occupied chiefly in husbandry, and the rearing of bees. The Shelluhs live in towns, are occupied in husbandry, live chiefly on barley, and are a small meagre people. All shades of complexions are ibup.d here. Lm2guages. The language of the Moors is a corrupt Arabic, intermixed with Spanish. That of the Arabs is the language of the Koran, sprrifewhat corrupted. That of the Berebbers is prob- ably tlie language of the ancient Mauri, which was a kindred dia- lect to that of Nuniidia, and strongly resembled the Phoenician. The language of the Shelluhs is different from all the others. AH classes are extremely ignorant. Cities. Morocco stands in a fruitful plain, nearly in the centre of the countiy, about 120 miles from the sea, and at a small dis- tance from a Spur of Mount Atlas. The houses are all behind high walls, of the rudest construction, and are not visible from the street. Son\e of them are built with elegance and taste. The jbalaoe is of hewn sIqj|)c, ornamented with marble. The town has numerous mosques, sanctuaries, and tem.ples. The population of the city is,' according to Jackson, 270,000. About 2000 families of Jews reside in tlie eastern part of it. Great numbers of these people have emigrated to the neighboring mountains, to escape oppression. The city is supplied with water from numerous springs and wells in the suburbs. The days of summer are in- tensely hot ; the nights are cool. In winter the cold is^ sensibly ielt. The neig'aborinjj Atlas keeps off the S/mmc, or hot wind, oJ' the desert. -■"-^^^ '^ ^^A^?^^^^^ ^ ^!^'^ " "! ! ^ ' . " l Tff Tb^fw^^ 'y" ■*»»^i»»"*»»«» M^' » ^C M ^r -1 iCINGDOM OF MOROCCO. ae^ r AS, or Fez, as it is commonly written, is divided into Old and Vcw. The centre of Old Fas is low, and in the winter dirty. The "^'cst of the town is built on gentle acclivities. The houses are lofly and spacious. They all have flat roofs, on which carpets are spread in the summer evenings. The number of mosques is very- great, and about 50 of them are very sumptuous edifices, ornament- ed with a most beautiful kind of marble, unknown in Europe, and procured from Mount Atlas. The population of both parts of the •town is stated by Jackson at 380,000. Mequinas stands near the river Seboo, and at a small distance from Fas, in the midst of a beautiful valley, surrounded by gentle "^jminences. The streets are not paved, and in winter are almost impassable. The population is 1 10,000. The inhabitants ar0 guilders. The settled inhal)iiants iTsemble those of the other states of Barbaryi;-. their manners, customs, classes, and character. Cities. Tripoli, the capital, stands on tlic Mediterranean, eii ?., sandy plain of consiojcrable extent, and is surrounded by high wall.-;. * Hassel. SS2 EGYPT. and stout ramparts, and is flanked with pyramidical towers. The harbor is a very fine one, and the western side of it is defended by a strong castie, and by fortifications in the modern style. The streets are narrow, dirty, and irregular ; and the houses low and mean. The inhabitants procure their fresh water from cisterns. Lat. 32 35 N. Ion. 13 12 E. 275 miles S. E. of Tunis. Derxe is the chief town of Barca, and stands about half a mile from the Mediterranean, in Ion. 22 55 E. The soil around it is i'ertiie and productive. Dcrne, in 1805, was the scene of the ex- ploits of the gallant gen. Eaton, and his handful of intrepid Arabs. Soil, life. The soil of this country is generally barren, and most of the settled inhabitants live in the towns on the coast. The great body of the population is composed of the Bedouin Arabs, who wander in search of prey over the pathless wilds of the desert. Barca itself is merely a northern arm of the great Sahara. EGYPT, Extent. THE length of Egypt, from lat. SS'^, to lat. 31 3 N". is 560 miles. Its greatest breadth, on the Mediterranean, is about 280 miles. The average width of the country, from Suez S. is about 170 miles. Boundaries. On the N. is the Mediterranean ; on the E. Arabia Petr^a, tlie gulf of Suez and the Red sea; on the S. Nubia ; and on the W. Barca and Sahara. Diviiiio7is. Tins country is usually divided into Upper and Lov/- cr Egypt. Lower Egypt includes the country N. of Cairo and Suez. Upper Egypt the remainder. Antiquvies. The pyraiiiids of Egypt are the most wonderful monuments of ancient architecture. Three large ones are nearly opposite Cairo on tlve W. side, about 1 1 miles from the river's Ijank. TIjc length of one side o^f the base of the largest is about 700 French feet ; its height upwartls of 600. It is composed of layers of flat, calcareous stones, 212 in number, and from 2 to 4 feet in hciglit, whicii overleap each other, and thus form steps from the boliom to tlie top. The interior contains various rooms, one a large parallelogram, the roof of which is composed of 7 enormous stones ot granite, which reach from one wall to the other. At one end of it is a narcophagus made of a single block of marble. To liiese rooms tlie lit^ht of the sun never penetrated, and for a long period they have been tenanted by immense nuinbers of bats, who lemain here undisturbed, from century to century, except when the unwelcome lamp of the traveller faintly illuiTies their dark re- treat. iV £?//§•/';« and Gox'criunejit. The great body of the present inhab- itants are Mahometans, The Copts are Monophysite Christians, Mho hold that the divine and human nature in Jesus Christ, were so blended as to triakc but one nature. This is also the doctrine o-V i\\t Syrian, .'\rmenian, and Abyssinian churches. EGYPT. 63S Fofitdation. Hassel estimates the number of inhabitants at S,500,000. Volncy calculated it at 2,300,000. This population is divided inlo I. The Copts, who arc descended from that mixture of Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks, who, under the Ptolemies and Constantincs, were so loni^ in possession of Egypt. The great body of them inhabit Upper Ei^-ypt, where, in some places, they occupy whole villages. 2. The Arabs. 3. The Turks, who are settled chiefly about Cairo. 4. Tiic Mamelukes, who are chiefly Georg- ians, Circassians, and Mingrelians. 5. The Jews, who devote themselves to commerce and manufactures. 6. Tlie Bevebbers, ',vho inhabit the upper part of the Said, and Nubia. Army. The regular military force of Egypt is estimated at 20,000 infantry, and i2,or,o cavalry. Re-oenue. The regular sources of the Egyptian revenues are the customs, a land tRx, and a capitation tax on Jews, and Christ= ians. The whole regular revenue may be calctjlatcd at 2,000,000 sterling. The tincenain revenue is obtained by extortions, and is very great, but merely enriches the individual plunderer. Manners and Customs. The Copts are despised by the Turks and hated by the common people. The Saracenic Arabs have a complexion nearly black, and are taller and more robust than the present inhabitants of Arabia. The Bedouins arc divided into tribes, each cf which has a distinct poriion of land. They live in tents, and sleep on the grouiul. Their great business is robbery and plunder. The Berrebbers have neither flesh nor fat, but sim- ply bo<^«s, nerves, muscles, and tendons. They are faithful and strongly attached to their masters. Languages. The Arabic is spoken by all the Arabs, by the Copts, the Jews, and the Greek and Syrian Christians. Cities. Cairo, or Grand Cairo, stands on the E, side of the Nile, nearly a mile from its bank, and about 10 fi-om the angle of the Delta. To the N. a fertile plain reaches to the Delta. Im- mediately uPidcr the mountain E. is the castle, nearly a mile ia circumference, which commands the town, a place of great strength before tl.c use of cannon. \Viihin the castle is a well, called the well of Joseph, 280 feet deep, and 42 in circumference. The walls of the city are 9 miles in circuniferericc. Its lencnli fiom N. to S, is nearly 3 miles, and its breadth 2. The streets are narrow, crooked, and unpaved, intersected here and there v/ith large va- cancies, which become lak.cs during the increase of the Nik, and arc gardens tlic rest of the year. They are greatly infested with dogs. The houses of the city are chiefly of earth and bricks, badly burnt ; the rest are of a soft stone, from the neighboring mountains. They have two or three stories, over which is a flat terrace of stone or tiles. They look like prisons, have no windo-vs towards the btrcct, and the doors are extremely lov/. The win- dows have no glass, but only an open lattice work. Mr. Browns estimates tiie population at 300,000. The Saracenic Arabs form the body of tiic people. The Copts are numerous. Tite Mame- lukes are about 12,000 in number. The Syrian Chi-istians have upwards of 5'^'0 families. There arc some Greeks and Armenians 80 634 EGYPT. The Mograbians have a disiinct quarter assigned them, and ai*© frugal and industrious. Few of the Turks are steady residents. The Jews are numerous. The mean annual heat is 73°. Within the walls are more than 300 mosques, most of which have several minarets, or high steeples, surrounded with galleries. They l.ave no bells. Cairo had once an extensive commerce, and it is now the metropolis of the trade of eastern Africa. Caravans leave it for Syria, Arabia, Abyssinia, Ssnnaar, Darfur, Fezcan, Tripoli, Tunis, and Morocco. N. E. of the lov/n are extensive gardens, and elegant country houses. The ground under the mountains, to the E. is filled Willi tombs. Between Cairo and the liver lies Boulac, which is the port of Lower Egypt. It extends nearly 2 miles along the river, but is- narrow. Here all the merchandize is landed from the Mediter- x'anean. Lon. 31 27 E. lat. 30 2 N. Alf.;candria for 18Q0 years was the grand emporium of east-' ern commerce. Diodorus Siculus says it was 11 miles in circuit, and contained 600,000 inhabitants. The modern city is built near the brink of the sea, on a kind of peninsula, on each side of which is a harbor. The streets are narrov/, irregular and unpaved. The commerce of the town is now of considerable importance. The- reservoirs, built 2000 years ago, vaulted with much art, and ex- tending under the whole town, are still entire. They furnish the whole supply of fresh water to the city. The lake ot Mareotis is now filled up i>y the sands of the desert, and the island of Pharos has become a part of the continent. The canal of the Nil--^^ com- municates with the eastern harbor. It is 40 miles long, and was cleared out, by the order of Bonaparte, in l/QS. Damiett A stands on the eastern bank of the eastern branch of the Nile, about 2 miles from its mouth. The bazars are well built, and filled with merchants. The commerce of the town is carried on almost wholly by Christians, from Damascus and Aleppo. Sev- eral large mosques, with lofty minarets, are scattered over the ciiy, and the public baths are lined with marble, and well attended. The harbor is indifferent, but constantly crowded with vessels. The population is about 80,000. The environs are singularly fer- tile, and throughout the year present flowers, fruits, and harvests. Tlie climate is always temperate and healthy. In the neighbor- hood of the town ore many pleasant and flourishing villages. RosETTA is built on the west bank of the west branch of the Nile, and is now about 6 miles from its mouth, although it stood- upon the shore when it was founded in the 8ih century. It ex- tends on the river 3 miles, and is 1 mile wide. The streets are nearly straight, and are wider than is usual in Egypt. The hous- es are handsome. Several of the mosques arc magnificent. Ex- tensive gardens lie north of the city, in which citron, orange, date, and sycamore trees are promiscuously planted. The commerce of the town is extensive. Suez is built on a peninsula, at the head of the gulf of Suez, in the midst of a desert. Water is brought from Naba, 6 miles off, on the other side of the gulf The population is small. The com- merce, by caravans, with Cairo, and by sea, with Jidda, is extensive. EGYPT. "635 CossEiR lies on the west shore nt" the Red Sea, in lat 26 8 N. and Ion. 35 4, E. about 230 miles S. E. ot Suez. It stands among hillocks of floating sand. The houses are of clay. The inhabit- ants Arabs, from the opposite shore. The harbor is formed by a rock, which runs 400 vards into the sea. The number of settled inhabitants is small, but great numbers of strans^ers are constantly passing and repassing. The commerce is considerable, particu- larly in coffee. SiuT, or AssiuT, 2 miles from the west bank of the Nile, and about 200 S. of Cairo, is a large, populous, and well built town, and the see of a Coptic bishop. GiRGEH, the chief town of the Said, on the west bank of the Nile, is 8'J miles from Siut, and is 3 miles in circumference. Syene on tlie east side of the Nile, on the confines of Egypt, is abouc 200 miles S. of Girgeh. The population is numerous, and its commerce, in senna and dates, is extensive. The island of Elephantina is opposite the town. The ruins of the ancient Syene are on a hill a little south. The ancients supposed that it lay di- rectly under the tropic. Eratosthenes here made the first at- -tempt to m.easure the circumference of the earth. Commerce. The commerce of Egypt is on the Mediterranean, on the Red Sea, and over land by caravans. The chief harbors on the Mediterranean ».\& Alexandria, Rosstta, and Damietta. From these ar& esported the various productions of the country j and here are received the imports from Europe. According to Niebuhr, about 1600 baies of broadcloth, 400 of piepper, 200 bar- rels of cochineal, and 60 of pewter, are sent yearly from Europe to Egypt. Egypt procures from the Red Sea the coffee, odors, gems, and drugs of Yemen, the perfumes of Arabia, the spices of Ceylon, the pearls of the Baharean isles, the muslins and linens of Bengal, and the shawls of Cashmir. The coffee alone is an an- nual object of 1 1 millions of livres. Every year a caravan leaves Morocco for Mecca, in Arabia. It passes along the Mediterrane- an shores collecting pilgrims and merchants as it moves, and usually arrives at Cairo in May, bringing the gums of Morocco, and elepliants' teeth, tamarinds, parrots, ostrich feathers, gold dust, and black slaves, from the other side of the Sahara. About 50,000 persons usually come in the caravan to Cairo, and the number of camels is still greater. They stay here upwards of a month. The city all this time presents the appearance of a fair, and the resort of strangers to it is immense. Here it is joined by the pilgrims, and merchants of Egypt, and usually doubles iis numbers. It proceeds to Suez, where it is greatly increased by additions from Syria and Persia, and in its rout, on the eastern side of the Red Sea, from Hindostan. At Mecca it is found usually to contain 200,000 persons. The western part of it returns to Cairo in 100 days from the time it left there, kjadcd with the merchandise of Arabia and the east, collected at Mecca and at Suez. A part of this is left in Egypt ; and the remainder, with cloths and clothing of every description, glass-ware, broad-swords, false pearls, coraJ, and amber, purchased at Cairo, are carried westward for the Bar- bary States, and for Timbuctoo. 93§ EGYPT. Climate. Tiie clintate of Egypt is cxiremely hot. The hsat (pf the day, in July and August is usuailv 86° or 88° of Fahrenheit, in the shade, and in the Said it is still higher. From March to November inclusive, the heat is hardly supportable to an Europe- an. The heat of -winter never exceeds 52° or 50° ; of course snow and hail are unknown. The climate is generally healthy. The inhabitants arc robust, and live many of them to old age. The dryness of the air prevents meat from putrifying-, even in summer. Almost all the inhabitants drink of the Nile. Its vv atcrs, though turbid, are considered as highly salubrious, and as render- ing the Egyptian women rema.rkab!y proline. • Face of the Country^ The habitable pari of Upper Egypt is a long narrow valley, commencing at Sycne, and terminating a little south of Cairo. Two chains of mountains, taking their rise from the lower cataracts of the Nile, bound this valley on the east and west. The width of the valley is from 12 to 50 miles. At Cairo the chains separate to the right and left. The western, consisting of sandy hillocks over a bed of calcareous stone, winds to the N. W. and terminates in the sand banks near Alexandria. The other, Mouj)t Mokattam, composed of high and steep recks, turns to the E. and runs to the Red Sea. Between these insur- mountable barriers the Nile winds upwards of 6 degrees of lati- tude, with varied current, sometimes smooth and tranquil, at others impetuous, and overflowing the valley, which it fertilizes^ with its waters. Beyond the eastern range is the desert of the Red Sea, of which the Egyptian part is 480 miles long, 200 wide in the smith and 70 in the north ; a barren expanse, intersected by various ranges of hills, which abownd in marble and porpliyry, but are destitute of water and of vegetation, and are chie9y cover- ed with sand. Below Cairo the valley o£ the Nile widens and embraces not only the Delta, but all the country watered by the canals, connected with the eastern, or Pelusian branch of the Nile. The country N.E. ofSuez, to the Mediterranean, is also chiefly a barren, sandy plain. The coast of Egypt, on the Medi- terranean, is so low that it can be seen but a very short distance off at sea. The coast on the Red Sea is rocky, and often elevated. Soil and Agriculture. Tlic basis of Egypt from Syene to the Mediterranean, is a continued bed of calcareous stone. The soil upon this bed in the valley of the Nile, and in and near the Deltas is a black fat loam, of a clayey cementing quality, and eminently provkictive. The most fertile districts are the Delta, and the pro- vince of Fayoum. The Delta and the neighboring country are watered by the overflowing of the Nile. INlost of the water i» Upper Egypt is conveyed to the lands by machinery. Rivers. The Nile has already been described. The water be- gins to lise about the 19th of June, and subsides in October. Be- fore the 20th of August it usually has risen at least 16 cubits, the increase necessary to insure a favorable crop. This rise in the Nile is owing to the rains of Abyssinia. Mineralogy. Innnense quarries of marble are found near Cos- scir, and in the road from that place to Keneh, and for 25 leagues^, NUBIA. 6sr from Monflut to Sawadi, also in the mountains N. E. of Syene. A yant^e of porphyry mountains commences on the coast of the Red sea," in lat. 24° N. at Hamra, and reaches to 22 30 in Nuhia. Cop- per is tlie only metal found lierc by the anciuUs. Quarries of red granite reach from the cataracts below Syene. N. Vv'. of that lOAvn is a quarry of serpentine, of Nvhich the inhabitants make vesseb which stand the fire. Mineral Waters. The Natron lakes are two in number, 3 or 4 leagues long, and about a mile broad, with a solid slony bottom. For 9 months they are without water. In the winter there oozes put of the earth a reddish violet colored water, which fills the lakes to the height of 5 or 6 feet. This is evaporated by the heat of the. sprini^-, and there remains a bed of salt 2 feet thick, which is broken %vith iron bars. Thirty thousand quintals are produced annually. NUBIA. THIS is a country of indefinite extent, lying between Egypt and Abyssinia. On the Nile it may be considered as commencing a Jittle above Syene, immediately under the tropic ; and in the same latitude on the Red sea. Its proper southern limit, on the Red sea, is the northern boundary of Abyssinia, in lat. 1 6°. On the E. bank of the Nile, it reaches a little, abovfc the inouth of the Rahad, or Dender ; and on the W. bank, as far S. as the cataracts in that river. It extends westward beyond the Bahar El Abiad, as far as the frontiers of Dar Fur. The northern part of this country is an extensive desert, called the Great Desert of Mxbia. Bruce crossed this desert on his re- turn from Abyssinia. The country is here an immense expanse of $and. The only interesting objects remarked by Bruce, were the moving fiUlars of sand, and the simoom. The pillars of sand at times proceed with great celerity, and at times they stalk with ma- jestic slowness. He saw 11 of them about 3 miles distant. They followed the course of the wind, and often with such rapidity, that the swiftest horse would in vain have attempted to escape them. The greatest diameter of the largest appeared to be about 10 feet. Their tops often seemed to reach to the clouds, and were frequent- ly separated from the bodies. In tliis case they were immediately dispersed in the air. Sometimes they were suddenly broken near the middle, as if struck with a large cannon shot. Sometimes they pass between the traveller and the sun, and then assume the ap- pearance of pillars of fire. The iipioom, or poisonous blast fiom the desert, at a distance, has the appearance of a haze, in color, like the purple part of the rainbow, but less compressed and thick. The one, which Bruce dcfccribes, was not more than 20 yards i:^ breadth and about 12 feet from the groimd. It was a kind of blush upon the air, and moved very rapidly. The only resouice of the traveller is to fall flat upon the ground with his face to the earth. An inhalation of the fatal atmosphere, which it brings, is soon sue- •6^ -NUBIA. cecdtfcl by death. Afier the purple meteor has vanished a light air still blows, of a heat to threaten suffocation. DoNGoi.A is a town on tlic E. bank of the Nile, in lat. 19 30 N. and ion. 32° E. It is the capital of the kingdom of Dongola ; which lies on both sides of the Nile, and is considerably extensive. OFSennaar, the southern kingdom of Nubia, Bruce has given an interesting description. It may be considered as comprising the country between tlic Red sea and the Nile, as far S. as the N. W. limits of Abyssinia ; as comprehending all the country between the Nile and the Bahar el Abiad, as far S. as the cataracts of the Nile ; and also as including tlie provinces of Shillook and Kordofan on tiic W. of the latter river. The kingdom of Darfur is its S. W. bonndnry. Th.e Shiilooks, a black nation, who conquered this country in 1504, were pagans. Soon after they were converted to Mahom- medism ; when thty took the name of Funge, or, conquerors. It is a fundamental law of the monarchy, that the king may lawfully be put to death, when a council of the great officers decrees, that it is not for the advantage of the state that he should reign any longer. The king ascends the throne under an admission of the force of this law ; and there is always one officer of his own family, the sid I'! coon, or master of the household, to whom the death of the king is on such occasions, by laiv, entrusted. This officer has no vote in deposing him. The only weapon he may lawfully use for this purpose is a sword. The eldest son of the king succeeds by right, and, imnicdiateiy afterwards, puts to death as many of his brothers as he can apprehend. A female cannot succeed to the throne. The crown, since 1504, has always been in the family of Amrou. The king is stvltd the Mek of Sennaar. The forces at Sennaar, around the capital, consist of about 14,000 J\''l^l)a,^^ho fight naked, having no armor but a short javelin, and a round shield ; and about 1800 cavalry, «11 blacks, mounted on black horses, armed with coats of 3nail, and broad Slavonian swords. These last are remarkably brave and well disciplined. The revenue derived from the province of Kordofan consists rhitlly of slaves procured from Dyrc and Tegia. That of Fezcu- cJo is in gold ; as is that from Atbara and the country E.-of the river of that name. The Welled Ageeb collects all the revenue from the Arabs. It amounts to a very large sum in gold, exceed- hitc that of all the other provinces. He pays it to the Mek. His ^own revenues from the Arabs are said to be six times as large. The di'oss of Sennaar is very simple. It consists of a long shirt of blue Surat cloth, called Marowty, which covers them from the lower part cf tJie neck to the feet. That of the women covers the neck also. The men have sometimes a sash about the middle. ijioth sexes go barefoot in the house. Their floors are covered with Persian carpets. In fair weather they wear sandals without, and sometimes a kind of wooden patten, ornamented with shells. Both scxe-s anoint themselves at least once a day with camel's grease, mixed wiih civet, and sleep in shirts similarly treated. Their feeds are merely tanned bull's hides much softened by this constant Nubia. (^sm g-rtasmg. Tlie principal diet of tlie poorer sort i» iiiiilet, made . into flour and bread. Tl>e rich make a puddiii'^ of millet, and al- so eat beef parti)' roasted and partly raw. Their horned calUc are remarkably fine ; but the coni:non meat sold in the market is cam- el's llesh. The town ot Sennaar is in lat. 13 34 30, N. and in Ion. 33 50 30^ E. It is built on the west side of the Nile, close to its bank, on ground just high enough to save it from inundations. The site of the town is extensive. The kinc^'s palace covers a great deal of ground. It is all of one story, buill of clay, and the floors of earth. El-Aice, or AUeis, is the capital of the Shillook country. It is on the Bahar el Abiad, in about lat. 13 30, N. The river dividini^ forms a great number of islands. On these and the rjcigliborint?-, banks the town is situated. The inhabitants arc chiefly fishermen, and sail in their canoes with incredible rapidity. Herbagi stands on the W. bank of the Nile, in lat. U 39, N. It- is a large and pleasant village, but thinly inhabited, on a diy, grav- elly soil. The AVelled Ageebjthe hereditary prince of the Arabs,* resides here, and is subject to the king of Sennaar and his lieuten- ant, aceording to treaty. Hs collects a tribute fiom all the Arabs^ not only of Atbara, but even to the Red sea. Tiie tribes living cast of the Nile and of the Atbara, subject to him, are numerous, richy and powerful. Suakem is a port on the Red sea. It is the place of rcndcz^vous for the caravans, which cross the desert on their way to Jidda. Formerly Indian goods were brought in large quantiiics from Jidda to Sennaar ; and the articles returned were gold, civet, rhi- noceros's horns, ivory, ostrich feathers, slaves, and glass. A cara- van also once carae from Timbuctoo. At present a small caravan goes yearly from Goos to Suakem, and the Daveina A^rabs earry the ivory to Abyssinia. The climate of this country is neither pleasant nor hcailhy. At Sennaar, from 70° to 78° of Fahrenheit, is cool ; from 79? to 92** temperate. The mercury often rises to 120°. The soil and climate of the capital are very unfavorable to longevity, both in man and beast. " No horse, mule, ass, or any beast of burden, will breed, or even live at Sennaar, or many miles around it. i*ouluy does not; live there. Neither dog nor cat, sheep nor bullock, can be pre- served a season. Neither rose nor any species of jess;imine grov.-" there ; no tree but the lemon flowers near the city."* To the W. of Shaddly and Aboud, the country is full of trtxs, which make it a favorite station for camels. The Arabs have im- mense numbers of these animals. The tribe of RiCaa, in 1770, had about 200,000. The tribute of that tribe to the IMek was 250,OOy pounds sterling, in gold. Thei-e were then 10 such tribes, Vi'hii.h owed this species of subjection. •Dnice. 640 ABYSSINIA. ABYSSINIA. Extent. ABYSSINIA extends from lat. 7' to 1S» N. and from Ion. 35° to 44'' E. Its length from E. to W. is about 580 miles,; and its greatest breadth about 560. It reaches, on the Red sea, from Masuah to the straits of liabelrnandel, 420 miles. Boundaries. The Red sea lies on the N. E. ; the kingdom of Adel, on the E. and S. E. ; Gingiso and Alaba on the S. ; the Nile •on the W. ; Sennaar on the N. W. ; and the country of the Jaha- loen, or wild Arabs, and of the Shankala, or descendants of the an- cient Ethiopians on the N. The Gallas, a wild and marauding nation, have encroached on the limits of Abyssinia, and now occupy various provinces on the S. W. S. and S. E. DiviNions. This country, according to Mr. Bruce, is divided in- to the following provinces, viz. 1. Masuah 5. Amhara. 9. Maisha 2. Tigre 6. Walaka 10. Dembea 3. Samrn 7. Gojam 11. Kuara 4. Eegemder 8. Damot 12, Nara jVames. Bruce tells us, that the Chronicle of Axum., the most ancient Abysshiian history, declares that the Sheba, or Saba of the scriptures, whose queen visited Solomon, was Abyssinia. Beliffion. The Jewish religion is said, by Bruce, to have been prevalent in Abyssinia, till near the middle of the 4th century. Frumenlius, a disciple of St. Athanasius, at Alexandria, and the iirst Christian bishop of Abyssinia, was ordained about A. D. 333, Tliis was about the time of their conversion ; and the primitive faith of the Abyssinians having been received through this channel, must have accorded with the peculiar tenets of the Greek church. The first attempt to spread the Romish faith was made about the year 1450, in the reign of Zara Jacob. In 1632 their hierarchy was abolished. They were allowed however to remain in the country, till 1714, when their clergy were executed. Since that time there have been few or no Catholics in the country. The patriarch of the Abyssinian church, is styled the Jbuna. By an ancient canon, l^e must not be a native of the country, and is aUvays s^;nt frojn E-^ypt. The priests have their maintenance as- signed to them in kind, and do not labor. The direction and dis- li'ibution of the church revenues, is wholly in the hands of officers, appointed by the king. All the clergy are deplorably ignorant, heretical in tiieir tenets, and licentious in their lives. There is no' coiunry in the world, in which thtre are so many churches as in Abyssinia. It is seldom that less than 5 or 6 are in sight, in any part of the country ; and, on a commanding ground, one may see 5 limrs as many. They are usually planted near running water, for 5hc purposes of pm-ifications and ablutions, in which they strictly obBcVve the Levitical law. They are all round, with thatched loofs ; and tfeeir summits are perfect cones. The inside is cover- ABYSSINIA. 6it «d with wretciicd daiibings of their various saints. Among these, are St. Pontius Pilate, and his wife ; St. Balaam, and his ass. Governmejit. The g^overnment is an absolute monarcliy. The crown is hereditary in one particular family, supposed by the Abyssinians to be that of Solomon, by the queen of Sheba. The royal council is composed of the great officers of state. When Bruce left the country, tl'.e power of the iiing was insignificant; the Rasi or governor of Tigre, having almost the whole direction of the government. The different capital punishments are cruci- iixion, flaying alive, lapidatioii, and plucking out the eyes. Fofiiilation. We have no data on which to form a correct judge- ment of the population of this country. It has been cstim.ated at 3,000,000. Hassel reckons only 1,800,000. Army. Bruce says, that the largest armies ever collected in the country, were at the battle of Serbraxos. The rebels had them 60,000 men, and the king 40,000. Tiie usual amount of the army docs not exceed 2o,0()0. Hassel, hov/ever, reckons the number at 40,000. The cavalry is good. The king's hcuscr.old troops con- sist of 8000 infantry. They are armed with matchlocks. Most of the other troops have only lances and shields. Revenue. I'he royal revenue is paid partly in ounces of gold ; and partly in honey, cattle, horses, cloths, and various other arti- cles. Manners and Customs. The principal part of the dress of the natives is a large cotton cloth, 24 cubits long, and ]| broad, with a blue and yellow stripe round the bottom. They ai'e very beautiful :ind light. When they ride they hold tlie stirrup between the great and second toes. Even the king rides bare-footed. Almost all the houses arc Ijuilt of clay, witli thatched conical roofs. The chief ar- licles of food arc cakes of unleavened bread, and raw flesh, which us far as possible they cut from the animal while living, that it maf be the more tender. The ordinary marriage is contracted by mu- tual consent without tny ceremony, and is dissolved by the dissent of either purty. As -ooon as this takes place, both parties marry- again. 'I'licy also divide the children, the eldest son falling to th© moilicr and the eldest cbughter to the father. The country has foi* mariy vears been the scene &f civil wars, which have called into exercise all l!ie ferocious passior.s, arid exhibited a constant suc- cession of treachery, murder, and assassination. CiUcfs. GoNDAK., the capital, is in lat. 12 34 30 N. and in Ion. S7 53 E, It is situated on a hill of coiisiderabie height, surrounded by a deep valley. The river Kaha flows N. of the town, and the Angrab skirts the hill on the S. They together almost encircle the town, and unite a quarter of a mile from it, at the foot of the hill. The top of the hill is a plain of very considerable extent. The length of tl>c town is 3 luiles from E. N. E. to W. S. W. and its breaulh i mile. It contains about 10,000 houses, and about 50,000 inhabilants. Immediately on the bank, opposite Gondar, is a large Mahometan village, of about 1000 houses. The royal palace is at the W. end of the town, in the middle of a square court, which is a mile in circumference. A substantial double stone wall surrounds 648 ABYSSINIA. the square. It is 30 feet high. There are battlements on the outer wall, and a pa.rapet roof between the outer and inner. The town contains numerous churches. AxuM, the ancient capital, is in lat. 14 6 56 N. and Ion. 38 40 E. It stands in a plain, 140 miles N- E. from Gondar, and 120 from the Red s&a. It is now a heap of ruins. The present town^ at a little distance from the ruins, contains about 600 houses. Masuah is on a small island, three quarters of a mile long, and of half that width. Not more than a tlurd of its surface is covered with houses. Tiie island is in the Urs^e bay of Masuah, in lat. 15 35 '5 N. and' Ion. 39 56 30 E. About 20 of the houses are of stone, 6 or 8 of which are of two stories. The other houses are composed of poles and bent grass. Arkeeko is on the bay of Masuah. There is water enough for large vessels close to the town ; but the bay being open to the N. E. makes it uneasy riding in blowing weather. The town contains about 400 houses, built principally of coarse grass, like reeds. Commerce. Before the discovery of the Ca^je of Good Hope, th©. commerce of this country was valuable. It was carried on chiefly with Arabia and India, and Masuah was a harbor of great resort- Gold, ivory, eleohants, and buffaloes' hides, were the chief exports ; and they are now exported to some extent. Slaves also are export- ed to India and Arabia. The imports from Arabia are blue cotton, Surat cloths, cotton in bales, Venetian beads, drinking and looking- glasses, and crude ?.ntJmony. A small caravan goes yearly to Cairo, laden with gold dust. Climate. The rainy season commences in April, and ends about the 8th of Septcmbe!-. An unpleasant sickly season follows, till about the 20th of October, when the rains recommence. Bruce kept a register of t!ic weather at Gondar upwards of 15 months. The greatest elevation of the mercury was 91°, in April, the least, 54"^ in July. The liills are generally healthy, and great numbers of the towns and villages arc built on them. Face q/ the Country. The surface in the middle and S. is gen- erally rugged and mountainous, and abounds with forests and mo- rasses. It is also interspersed with many fertile valleys and plains. In the N. it is chiefly a flat country. Soil and Jgrknlture. The soil, though thin is rendered very p'."cductive by the rains, and tlie overflowing of the rivers. Wherc = ever it can be tiikd and v.ell watered, it yields abundant crops. At a medium a harvest is only about 20 for I. All their harvests are not equal to one in Egypt. Rivers. The eastern branch of the Nile rises in Abyssinia, and is for some distance its eastern boundary. It has been described. Tb.c Ati:)t>ra pursues a N. W. course of about 800 miles, and joins the Nile, in lat. 17 50 N. The Rahad, or Dender, is a considerable river that joins the Nile fi'orri the E. 40 nuies below Sennaar. Lake. The lake of Tzana, or Dembea, lies 24 mile* S. S. W. of Gondar. It is 49 miles in length, and 35 in breadth. It contains !0 or 12 islands, some of considerable size. EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA. e43 'Mountains. A chain of mountains runs along the whole coast of 'the Red sea, from Suez to Babelmanclel. In lat. 1 3", a chain leaves •it to the S. W. and W. which crosses the Nile at its cataracts, and unites with the mountains of Tugula. Still farther S, a chain seems to separate from it in the same direction, and passing S. of the Nile, to join the mountains of the Moon. EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA. THE coast, from Cape Gardefan, to the equator, is called JJa?i^ and includes the kingdoms of Jdel and Magados:o. Adel. Adel lies S. E. of Abyssinia, has the country of the Gal- las oD the W. and Magadoxo on the S. It commences, on the N. W. at the straits of Babelmandel. The country is popuIojjSi and has proved too powerful for its enemy. Several of the provinces of Abyssinia are now subject to Add. Tlic inhabitants are tawney, and have long, straight hair. Zeila, its principal sea port, is about 50 miles S. of the straits of Babelmandel, at the head of the gulf of Zeila. Adel, the royal residence, is in lat. 8 5 N. Ion. 44 20 E. on the Hawash. Assem is a sea-port on the eastern coast, and Meta on the northern. The country, theugh it seldom has any rain, is so well watered by rivers and canals, that it is very fertile and productive. It yields abundance of wheat, barley, and millet. The chief exports are gold dust, frankincense, ivory, and slaves. The Arabs come to Zeila to trade with the Adelites. Magadoxo. This kingdom is bounded N. on Ad^l, and S. ou Melinda, between the equator, and 5° N. lat. Its limits in the in- terior are not ascertained. The inhabitants are stout and warlike, and speak Arabic. The king and his court are Mahometans, and most of the inhabitants are of the same religion. A few in ilie in- terior are Abyssinian Christians. Magadoxo, the capital, in about lat. 2 30 N. is a place of great commerce with the Arabs, and the people of Adel. Gold, ivory, wax, and slaves, are exported for cotton, siik, spices, and drugs. Tlie city stands at the mouth of a large river, called by the Arabs, The Nile of Magadoxo. The coast south of the equator, as far as about lat. 24°, is called The Coast of Zanguebar. It comprehends a number of kingdoms. Melinda. This kingdom bounds N. on Magadoxo, reaching to the equator. The inhabitants are chiefly Mahometans, but some are idolaters. The king is absolute, and is held in great venera- tion by his subjects. Melinda, the capital, is in lat. 2 50 S. It is in a beautiful plain, on the coast, surrounded by fine gardens and orchards. The houses are built of square stone. They are for the most part handsome, and some are even magnificent. It is the habitation of many wealthy merchants, Arabs, and Portuguese. The exports are gold, copper, ivory, wax, and drugs. The harbor is difficult of access. The Portuguese have a fortress here, and several churches. The territory is generally rich and fertile. The necessaries of life are abundant, and the fine tropical fruits ar» found in high perfection. 644 EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA. MoMDAZA. This is the next country S. of Melinda. The Por- tuguese early subjugated it, and, we believe, have now the hoh-. government. The people are move civilized than any others on ihe coast. The aboriginal blacks are partly idoiaters, and partly Mahometans. The Arabs are Mahometans, and are numerous. The Portuguese are also numerous, and are Christians. Momba- zo, the capital, is in lat. 3 45 S. It has a deep and commodious harbor, and is well defended. The streets are straight and narrow. The houses arc built of stone, with terraced roofs. Its commerce is extenaive. The climate, is said to be healthy, and the soil is highly productive. Millet and rice are principally cultivated. QuiLOA. Quiloa is S. o'" Mombazo, and extends abou-t 60 leagues from N. to S. P^ost of the inhabitants arc Mahometans. The king is absolute over his ovm subjects, but tributary to the Portuguese. The Arabic is universally spoken- The inhabitants arc chiefly ne- groes, but some are Arabs. The city of Quiica is in lat. 8 50 S. it stands on an island, near the mcuth of the Coaro, and is said t{) be large, rich, and well built. The climate is healthy, and on the €oast, temperate. The soil is generally fertile, and produces mil- let, rice, fruits, and good pasture. MosAMBiquE is S. of Quiloa. It reaches from about lat. 10° to 15° S. Arabic is extensively spoken. The Portuguese have long been the real masters of the kingdom. The capital is situated ori the small island of Mosamhique, 2 miles from the main, in about lat. 14° S. It is handsomely built, has a number of elegant churches and convents, and is protected and kept in subjection by a very strong fort, at a little dittance. There are several consider- able ports on the main. Ivory, ebony, slaves, and cattle, are ex- ported. The soil of the country is rich, and produces millet, rice, and various fruits and vegetables. Vaot numbers of cattle are here raised. The forests abound with elephants, wild boars, and stags. MoNOMOTAPA. This is also an extensive country, reaching fron^ about lat. 15" to 20*^ S. and stretching 420 iniles along the coast. The emperor is pov/erful. The influence of the Portuguese i& considerable. The natives arc ail black, are well shaped, robust,, active, and fond of war. Polygamy, lo any extent, is allowed. The emperors in this particular often rival Solomon. Tiie metropolis is called Benemctapa, and is a large spacious city, several dajV journey from the coast. The houses are neat, and are generally •whitewashed. The Portuguese are settled on the coast, and are the merchants of the country. Gold »m\ ivory are extensively ex- ported. Tlie climate is described as healthy, and temperate, and; the surface as chiefly upland. 'I'here is a chain of high mountains in the hitcrior, from which most of the gold is procured. The Zambczc, or Cuama, is a long river in t'le southern part of Mono- motapa Propei-. SoFALA. This country, bounding Monomotapa on the S. is de- scribed as reaching about t4U miles along the coast, and 3bO into, the interior. A considerable number of the inhabitants are Ma- hometans. The capital, Sofala, is at the mouth of a large river o^ the same name, in about lat. 2 PS. Bruce supposes that it waSt COLONY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. G-iS the Ophir of Solomon. The PortiJgnese have here a strong fort- Large quantities of gold are procured from the mountains. Sabia, a small country S. of Sofula, is ricli, fertile, ai)''! poi^.ulous.. Inhambane, S. of Sabia, terminates the Z^mgncbar coast. Natal is tlie name given to the \\iiole coast S. of tiic toast of Zanguebar, as far as the colony of the Cape. The Caffevf! are a numerous race, inhabiting on the borders of the Cape colony. COLONY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Extent. ACCORDING to Barrow, its eastern limit is in Ion. 28 20 E. Its northern, on the Atlantic, in lat. 29 55 S. Cape L'Aguiilas, the southern extremity of the continent, is in lat. 34 50 S. The length on the S. coast is 580 miles; on the N. 320. The breadth in the W. is 315; in the middle 1(50; in the E. 225. These measures give a parallelogram, whose mean length is 550 miles, and mean breadth 253 ; comprehending an area of 128,150 square miles. Boundaries. On the N. lie several extensive arid plains, and several large tracts of country inhabited by the Bosjesmen ; on the E. the land of the Caffres ; on the S. the Southern ocean ; and on the W. the Atlantic. The Namaquas, on the N. W. arc chiefly within t^ie colony ; as are some of the Caffres, and many of the Bosjesmen. Divisions. The colony is divided into four distiicts ; 1, Cape district in the S. W. 2. Stellenborch district in the W. 3. Zwel- lendam district, which no where extends far into the interior. 4, Graaft Reynet district, which comprizes all the country E. of Ly- on's river, and N. E. of Zwcllendam. Religion. Calvinism was the establislied religion of the colo- ny while in the hands of the Dutch. Other sects weie tolerated. The Lutherans and Methodists had each, a church at Cape Town. The Malay Mahometans, having been refused a church, per- formed their public service in the stone quarries at the head of the town. The funds of the Calvinislic church at that place, in 1798, amounted to 22,168/. 8*. 8:/. ; and their annual grants to the poor, to 1,1 12/. \7s. The funds of the Lutherans were 14,829/. 13s. 2d. ; and their grants to the poor, 194/. 9s. 2d. 'I'he Church of England is probably now established. Missions. The Moravians many years ago establiahed, and have to this time successfully maintained a mission at Bavian's Kloof, within the limits of this colony. About the beginning of the present century, immediately after the Cape of Good Hope ajid its depen- dencies came into the possession of the British nation, a number of missionaries, with the venerable Dr. Vanderkemp at their head, were sent to this southern part of Africa, by the London Missiona- ry Society, whose labors among the colonists, but especially among the natives, have been attended with various degrees of success, %nd are still continued. fe'i6 COLONY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. (Tovernvu7it. The government is entrusted to a governor aivd licutunant governor, appointed by the crown ; who also are consti- tuted the l/iL^h court of appeals. Fopvlation. Biirtov/ estimated the population of the whole col- ony, m 1797, whites, slaves, and Hottentots, at 60,000, of whom 22,000 W'cre Ciiristians. Its population must have since greatly in- creased. Re-oc7iue. Tiie revenue in 1801 amounted to 90,142/. \3s. Ad. sterling ; and, during the whole government of Lord Macartney, was more than adequate to the expenditure. Manners and Cuatoms. The free inhabitants of the colony con- sist of 4 classes: the inhabitaTits of the capital, wine-growers, corn-iarmers, and graziers. Chief Tonvns. Cape Town, the capital, is situated on the S. E. angle of Table Bay. Simon's bay, a cove or indent on the west- ern shore of False bay, affords a safe harbor. During 8 months, when toe S. E. winds are predominant, Table bay affords a most secure shelter. The town is built on a sloping plain, that rises Avith an easy ascent to the feet of Devil's hill, on the E. of Table ■mountain on tb.e S. and of Lion's Head on the N. W. The citadel •or castle is a pentagonal fort, which commands the town and th« anchorage ; but is itself commanded by the commencing acclivity on the E. This acclivity is now occupied by various redoubts, batteries, and block houses, comnnanding each other. The streets are straight, and cross each other at right angles. Many of them arc well paved, open, and airy : with canals of water running; through them, walled in, and planted on each side with rows of oaks. Three or four public squares give an openness to the town. In one is held the public market; anotker is the resort of the peasantry with their waggons ; and another, near the shore of the bay, and between the town and the castle, is a place of parade for the troops. This is an open, airy, and extensive plain, perfect- ly level, composed of a bed of firm clay, covered with small hard gravel. It is surrounded by canals or ditches, which receive the "Waters of the town, and convey them into the bay. Two of its sides arc completely built up with large and handsome houses ; and a tiiird ia occupied by the barracks, a large, well-designed reg- ular buiidiiig, with two wings. The upper part of this building is large though to contain 4000 men. The castle contains bar- nacks for 1000, lodgings for the officers of one regiment, magazines for artillery, stores, and ammunition, and most of the public offices cf government. The other public buildings are a Calvinist, Luther- an, Episcopal, and Methodist church, a guard house, in which the Burgher Senate meet, a large building for the government slaves, and a court house. The houses, 1145 in number in 1797, are built with great regularity and order. They are generally white- washed, with the doors and windows painted green, two stories higii, with -flat rools, and a kind of pediment in the centre of the iront. The population at that time consisted of about 5,500 whites, and 12,000 blacks. -Reads, tfc. The roads near the cape are good. But in the COLONY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. G^r jjreat body of the colony, theii' character depends on the nature of the surface and of the soil ; as they arc wholly neg;lectcd by the boors. ConimcTcc. Wine and l^randy are tlie staple commodities of the Cape. Ten or twelve different kiiuls of wine are manufactured. The other exports are <^rain and puise, wool, hides and skins, %vl)ale oil and bone, diied fruits, salt provisions, soap and candles^ aloes, ivory, ostrich feathers, and tohiicco. The annual valttc of wine and brandy exported, is about S30,()00 ; aloes 6jOO ; skins 6000; dried fruit oOOO ; ivory 1600: ostrich feathers luOO. The total value of exports for 4 years, (1799 — 1302) was B300, y.'^5» The imports for the same period, amounted to ;Cl)195;50r Zs. 6d, currency. The imports from Eni!;land were^ woollens, cottons, hardware, cutlery, haberdashery, millineiy; boots, shoes, stationary, furniture, paints and oils, earthen ware, nayai stores, smolieci meats, cheese, and pickles ; from the E. Sui'at piece-p;oods, tea, coffee, sugar, pepper, spices, and rice ; from America, lumber, salt-fish, pitch and turpentine ; from the N. of Europe, iron, plank, French wines, beer, gm, Seiizer \yater, coffee, and pi-escrvcs ; and slaves from the coast of Guinea. Climate. Theyearisdividedintofourseasons,the reverse of l!;os& in northern latitudes. The spii.ig, from the fjrstof Septembor la the first of December, isthemostagreeable. The sum .ner from De- cember to March, is the hottest ; the autumn, from March to June, is variable, but generally fine and })leasant weather. The v-finter, from June to September, though the greater part of the time pleas- ant, is frequently stormy, rainy and cold. T!ie two most jwwer- ful winds, are the N. W. and S. E. The first commences toivards' the end of May, and blov/a occasionally to the end of August, and sometimes to the end of September ; usually about 4 months in each year. The S. E. predominates the rest of the year ; andjr- when the cloud shows itself on the niountain, blows with great violence. " In the midst of one of these storms of wind," says the Abbe De la Caille, " the stars look larger, and seem to dance ; the moon has an undulating tremor ; and the planets have a sort of beard, like comets." Face of the Coiaiirii. Tlie Cape Peninsula is a lil;4a mour.- tainous tract, betv/een Table and False Bays, 36 miles from N. to S. and 8 from E. to W. connected with the main by a low ilat istii- mus, from 20 to 30 feet above high water mirk, 'i'iiis isthmus, has few irregularities of surface, except such as arc made by ridges of sand, adventitiously brought tiiither !)y the stro])g S. E. winds from the shores of FaNe iiay. Tlie Table Mountiin, ilank- cd by the Devil's Hill on the E. and the Llt-n's He;ul on the W, forms the northern extremity of the peninsula. The whole tract of country to the N. of the Cape, is much more sandy, barren, and thinly inhabited, than to the E. in v/hieh direction it increases in beauty and fertility with the distance. Ai^ricidture. Barrow calculates that at least half of the land in the colony may be considered iis an u;iprofiu\l)le waste, unfit tot any sort of culture, or even to be employed as pasture for cattle. 248 COLONY, OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The lands are held by the colonists by different tenures. Those in fee nim/ile are chiefly in and near the Cape District, and are ihc clioicest patches of land, consisting of 120 acres each. Beside these ate the quic rents^ the gratuity laiids and the loan landsy Avhich are farms granted to the first settlers, and are each a square of o miles on a side, (9 square miles, or 5760 acres) paying a rent of 24 dollars per fai'ni. In 1798 the nuniber of these farms was 1832, containing 16,488 square miles, or 10,552,330 acres, renting at '13.978 lix-doUars. Vv'iiic is chicily cultivated in an extensive valley on Berg River, called Drakenstcin Valley., commencing about 60 miles E. of the Cape. Tiiis valley is a remarkably fertile tract of land, and is owned wholly in fee simple. The variety of wines is very great. About 6000 pipes, of 154 gallons each arc made annually in this valley. Great quantities of choice fruits are also raised here ; and every month in the year, at Cape Town, liie table'may be supplied, at a very low rate, with 10 or 12 different sorts of fruit, all excel- lent. The celebrated Constantia ivinc is raised on two farms, close under the mountains, about midway between False and Table Bays. One of the farms produces the wA/Ve, and the other the rerf Con- stantia. From 150 to 200 leaguers or pipes are annually made of both. The coffee and sugar cane may both be profitably cultivated. Two species of indigo grow wild. Flax yields two crops a year. Hemji IS raised in lieu of tobacco. The cactus, on which the cochineal insect feeds, grows wild. All the distant farms are de- voted to grazing, and immense numbers of cattle are annually raised for exportation, and driven from 100 to 600 miles to Cape Town. Rivers. Great Fish River is very deep, and from 300 to 400 yards broad. It rises in the N. E. part of tne colony, and runs in a S and S. S. E. course about 300 miles, into the sea 580 miles E. of the Cape. Sunday River is at least 250 miles long ; and, running S. and S. S. E. falls into Zwartkofi's Bay. Great River \ViVi% irito Cantoos Bay. Gauritz River empties a little W. of Muscle Bay. It may propciiy be called the Sink of the Colony. All the waters that originai'e within 150 miles to the E. or W. upon the Great Kar- roo, and along the Nieuwveldt, meet in one imniense chasm of the chain cf mountains r.earest tlie sea, and are discharged through the chanr.el of the Gauritz. In tho dry season, it is easily ford- ed ; in the rainy seasons, it has been known io rise to the height ofncariy ICO feet, leaving ruin and desolation behirid it. Bays'. Saldanha bay, as a spacious, secure, and commodious sheet of inland sea-water, for the reception of shipping, can scarce- iv perhaps be equalled. It extends in lcn;r.tli about I 5 miles, in the direction of the c»ast, which is here about N. by E. and S. by W. The entrance is near the N. end, through a ridge cf granite hills, inoderately high. Tabic bav has bec-n described. WESTERN COAST AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. 6*9 False bay is a large body of water in the shape of a parallelo- gram, E. of the Cape Peninsula, opeijing into the Southern Ocean, between the Cape of Good Hope on the W. and Hanglip Point oa the K. Muscle bay, like all those on the southern coast, is open to the S. E. but has a safe and ^ood anchorage in most winds. A mag- azine for the reception of grain is erected near the landing place. It is a strong stone building, 159 feet long, and will conveniently hold 10,000 bushels. Plctteiiberg's bay is 320 miles from the cape. The west point, is in lat. 34 6 S. and Ion. 23 48 E. Algoa bay, is open to all winds from N. E. to S. E. It has % good bottom, and five fathoms depth, at the distance ©f a mile. The landing place is in lat. 33 56 S. and Ion. 26 53 E. 500 miles from the cape. The mouth is 20 miles broad. Fresh water is abundant. Mountains. The north front of the Table Mountain directly- facing the town, has a horizontal ridge two miles in length. The height of the ridge is 3582 feet. Devil's Hill is merely a wing of the Table Mountain, on the E. 3315 feet high ; Lion's Head is another on the W. 2160 feet high. The height of the Niewwveldiy according to Barrow is at least 10,000 feet. Its summits are usual- ly covered with snow six months in the year. WESTERN COAST AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. SCARCELY any thing is known of the coast between the mouth of the Kousnie, in Lat. 16 55 S. the northern limit of the colony of the Cape ; and Cape Negro in lat. 16 15. Very few of the Na- tnaquas are found N. of the Koussie. Barrow says, that the whole coast between the Koussie and the Orange, in lat. 28 S. is a mere desert, perhaps a continuation of the Great Karroo. Orange river rises in the country of the Bosjesmen, in the N. E. corner of the Cape colony, in about lat. 31 S. and Ion. 27 E. and empties in lat. 28 S. and Ion. !6 E. The distance of these two points, in a direct line, is about 650 miles. Its whole length is at least 1000. Bar- row saw it 70 or ao miles from its source. It was from 300 to 500 yards broad, and the volume of water was immense. Like the Nile, it has its inundations and its cataracts. The whole ctjast, from Cape Negro in lat. 16 15 S. to the head of the Gulf of Guinea, is called the Coast of Congo. Bemgukla. This kingdom reaches from Cape Negro to the mouth of the Coauza, in itii. 9 54 S. about 150 leagues. It was formerly powerful. Old Jic-ngucla is a town on a high mountain, near the coast, in lat. 1 1 5 S. carrying on a considerable trade in provisions and ivory ; for v. hicli it receives muskets and other fire arms. The country is iTiountaiiious, and swai ms with wild beasts, and is unwholesome nc^r the coast. 82 650 WESTERN COAST Angola reaches only to the mouth of the river Dando, in lat. 8* ' S. The PortUG^uese have several forts on the coast. Congo is divided from Loan?j;o, by Congo river, in lat. 6 30 S. It reaches very far into the iaierior, and has Funsjono on the N. E. and Matumba on the S.-E. Wiien the Portuguese fii-st discovered this country, in 1484, it was covered with large towns and villajjss, and the capital contained 50,000 inhabitants. The army of the king was numerous and powerful. He is despotic, is elected by the no- bles out of ihe seed royal, and is the proprietor of all the lands in his dominions. The king was early converted by the Portuguese to the Catiiolic faith, and a profession of that faith is said now to be an indispensable requisite for the succession to the thcoae. Num- bers of the Congoese aiso are Catholics ; but a great majority are pagans, wlio worship various aniraais. Banza, or St. Salvador, tiicir capital, is situated 40 leagues up the Zair, on a rocky emi- nence, and is said to contain a number of churches, and about 40,000 inhabitants, of whom about 4000 are Portuguese, who reside in a quarter by themselves. The inhabitants receive the products of Brazil, and the manufactures of Europe, in return for slaves, of »whom about 16,000 are annually procured for the Portuguese. The soil is generally excellent, and the surface uneven. Millet, maize, the sugar-cane, and various excellent fruits are cultivated. The Zair is a very long and large river, probably not inferior in size to Orange river. Copper and iron are procured from the mines. LoANGo. We know not how far this country reaches to the N, Biafra is between it and Benin. The king is powerful. The coun- try is populous. The inhabitants are pagans, but use circumcision. Polygamy is common. They are licentious to an extreme. Loan- go, the capital, is in lat. 4 40 S. on a considerable river, about 2 leagues from the sea. The town is large and populous. The ex- ports arc principally slaves and copper. The climate is remarka- bly hot. The soil fertile, but the agriculture miserable. Biafra is said to be a powerful and populous kingdom, bounded N. W. on Benin. It has a capital of the sam.e name. The natives are idolaters, Guinea. The whole coast, from the mouth of the Del Rey, in Ion. 8 30 E. to that of the Mesurada, in 1 1° W. about 500 leagues, is called the Coast of Guinea ; and the country of Guinea, is con- sidered as extending northward to the mountains of the Moon. On the coast it is divided into Benin, on the E. reaching to the river Volta, 220 leagues ; Guinea Proper, reaching thence to cape Pal- mas 180; aiid iNIalaqueta, or the Grain Coast, between cape Pal- iiias and the Mesurada. Brkjx. The country so named, is divided into Benin Proper,, in the E. Whidah in the middle, and Ardra in the W. Each of these has its own monarch. The king of Benin proper has a large revenue, and can bring 100,000 men into tiie field. The iniiabit- anis acknowledge a Supreme Being ; but worship an evil spirit, wlio is considered as the author of all their calamities. Polygamy IS common. Benin, the capital, is in lat. 6 38 N. and Ion. 4 47 E. on the river Benin, or Formosa, 69 miles from Agatten, at its AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. €5^ rnnouth. It is said to be 4 miles in circumference, and to contain, SO long, broad, and straight streets, of low Louses. The streets are adorned with a variety of shops, filled with European wares. The palace is very extensive. None but tiatives are permitted to live here. The entrance to the city is through a wooden gaie, wi,eie a guard is stationed to collect the customs on merchantlize. ,jTl;is country has been one of the principal marts for slaves. ,,j Whidah is a much smaller kingdom than the preceding; but is remarkably fertile and populous. The inhabitants know many of the arts of civilized life. They are enterprising' and industrious. The commerce of the country is extensive, and the manufactures are important. Slaves arc the chief exports. Ardra lies between Whidah and the Volta, and extends far in- to the interior. Its government is despotic, and the crown heredi- tary. The soil is fenile. The m.anners of the people resemble those of Whidah. The country is populous, Guinea Proper. This country is divided into theGold Coast, on the E. and the Ivory Coast, on the W. Both are divided into numerous petty principalities, independent of each other, and en- gaged in almost constant wars. Tlds renders them intrepid and ferocious. The prisoners are always sold as slaves. The climate is healthy to the natives, but prejudicial to Europeans. Slaves, ivory, and gold are exported to a great extent. All the slaves from Ihis coast are, in the West-Indies, called Koromantyns. They are distinguished from all the other negroes by firmness, both of body and mind, by activity, courage, and an elevation of soul, which prompts them to enterprises of difficulty and danger, and enables them to meet tortures and death with fortitude or indifference. Most of the insurrections in the islands are owing to them. Ed- wards* gives an account of a formidable insurrection in Jamaica, in 1760, occasioned by 100 newly imported Koromantyns, all on one plantation. In their own country when a great man dies, several of his wives, and great numbers of his slaves, are sacrificed at his funeral. They believe in a God of the Heavens, the Crcatoi- of ail things, called Accomfiong^ to whom they offer only praise and thanksgiv- ing. Aiisarci is the god of the earth ; to him they offer the lirst fruits, and pour out libations. I/iboa is the god of the sea : if the arrival of ships trading on the coast is delayed, they sacrifice a hog lo deprecate his wrath. Obbonnj is the author of ail evil ; to him they sacrifice prisoners, or slaves. Besides these every family has a tutelar saint, who is some ancestor : on the anniversary of whose burial all his descendants assem.ble round bis grave, and sacrifice a cock or a goat. Grain Coast, or MA^AGUETA. This country, is 100 leagues in extent, from cape Palmas to the Mesurada. It is said to be subject to a single monarch, whose power is despotic, and who assumes great pomp and magnificence. The people are pagans, worship- ping the moon, and believing in sorcery. Great numbers of ihen^ ♦ n. 268—272. 054 WESTERN COAST are nnilattoes. But few slaves are procured l.ere. The Englis)s cng!;pss the whole commerce. Guinea pepper is the chief expoit. The remainder of the coast, between the Mcsurada and cape Bojador, the S. W. extremity of Morocco, may be considered un- der two grand divisions, Soudax on the S. and Sahara on the N. Soudan, as we are informed by Jackson, is the name given by the Moors to the immense tract lying between the Jibbel Kumra, or mountains of the Mocn; on the S. and the Desert on the N. Soudan. Park explored the western part of this extensive tract, descending the Niger, as far as Sillas, a village of Bambarra, in about lat. 15° N. and Ion. I 30 W. He found it throughout fer- tile, well watered, thickly peopled, and divided into numerous king- doms. Jackson, from information obtained of the Moorish traders to Tombuctoo, tells us that the Niger runs eastward to the Nile, and that the country through which it flows, continues of the same description. Horneman communicates the same information. The Senegal, the Gambia, the Grande, and the Mesurada, are the great rivers of the western coast ; and the Niger of the interi- or. The Senegal is formed by two branches, and empties into the ocean about lat. 16° N. Its whole length must exceed 1000 miles. The Gambia runs N. W. and W. about 700 miles, emptying m about lat. 13 30 N. Cape Verd is about equidistant between the two rivers. Of the inhabitants of this tract we may remark generally, that they are of two great classes, A'cgroes and Moors. The negroe* are the most numerous. Their kingdoms occupy the whole of the coast, and the southern division of the interior. They are all of a much lighter color than the negroes of Guinea. Park suppos- es that at least two thirds of the population of the negro di- ision are slaves. Great numbers of the negroes are Mahometans ; the rest are pagans. The Moorish kingdoms occupy the northern di- rision, but great numbers of the Moors are scattered over the ne- gro kingdoms. The Moors are all zealous Mahometans. Southern Foulahs. These occupy a great extent of country between the Mcsurada, the Rio Grande, and the mountains of the Moon. Their capital is Teembo. It is said they can bring 16,00& cavalry into the field. Many of them are Mahometans. Sierra Leone, where the English have a colony, and an im- portant mission, under the direction of the African institution, is near the middle of the country of the Southern Foulahs. The Sierra Leone river, which gives name to this country, empties in Ion. 12 30 \V. lat. 8 15 N. by a mouth 9 miles wide. In 1791 an act of parliament was obtained, incorporating a compa- ny, called the Sierra Leone Company, for the purpose of cultivat- ing West-India and other tropical productions, on the banks of this river. The first settlers amounted to 460. The second, cm.- barkation in 1792, consisted of 1200 free blacks from Nova-Scotia. Missionaries are settled, wfeo labor to spread the gospel among the AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. 653 neighljoring tribes. Schools are establishet]. 1 he country is healthy, and the colony thriving. , Sherero is another English color.y, 100 rules S. E. oi' Sierra Leone. Fkloops. The Feloops are a v ild, fierce, but grateful race, near the coast S. of the Gambia. They speak a peculiar language. Governor Ludlam gives the following account of the baneful ef- fects of the slave trade, witnessed by himself, in tr.e coiiniry on the banks of the river Sherbro, 100 miles S. of Sierra Leone : "Thus has this fertile country been rendered a desert, ai.d its trade, once cxlensire, been almost annihilated. Some tbcusiinds of square miles are now without an inhabitant. In this extent is included the richest land on the Windward coast. No place etjuallcd Boom in fertil'ty. Finer sugar-cane is not found in the West-Indies, tlian grows wild in Bagroo. And as for the interior country behind the Sherbro, it must also be rich from the quantity of rice, arid cotton cloth brought thence."* Mandingoes. These are now far the most numerous nation in the W. of Soudan. They commence on the coast at the mouth of the Gambia, bordering S. on tl-o Feloops, Ban a, Yani, and Woolli, three kingdoms on both sides of the Gambia from its mouth cast- ward The Miiudingoes also constitute the chief population of western Bambarra. The men are well shaped, abrve the middle size, strong and ca-? pable of enduring labor. The women are good natured, sprightly, and agreeable. Poiygamy is universal, and each wife has hei- own hut. All the huts of one family are enclosed by a hedge fence. Agriculture and pasturage arc the favorite employments of the Mandingoes. These oci upy them through the rainy season. In the dry season they catch fish in wicker baskets, or sniall cotton nets, ?nd hunt birds and beasts. The women, at the same time, manufacture cotton cloth, coarse, but durable. One woman will make 8 or 9 garments a year. Tliey die it a rich and permanent blue color. Tanners and blacksmiths are the oi.iy mechanics by profession. Park describes the Mandingoes as gentle, cheerful inquisitive, credulous, simple and lond of flattery. 'I'hey arc prone to steal from strangers ; but are at the same time hospitable and kind. A lively natural afTcciion subsists between the mothers and their children. The practice of truth is strongly inculcated in child- hood. Circumcision is universal, and takes place at the ape of puberty. The value of two slaves is the common pi ice of a wife. The Pagan negroes always oficr a short prayer to God, at the ap- pearance of the new moon, and this is their only worship. The *beliefof one God, and of a future state of rcwai-ds and punish- ments, is universal. They rarely survive 55 or 60, arid are grey and wrinkled at 40. Barka is the kingdom at the mouth of the Gambia on both sides, reaching up about 180 miles. The necessaries of life are abund- ant. Jillifrey, is a town on the N. bank of the river. • Report 2d ©f the Committee of the African Institution, p. 1 S. f6S4 WESTERN COAST Yani lies E. of Barrn, reaching about 100 miles up, on bofk sides of ihe Gambia, Pisaoia is a well known English fort in this iingdom, on the N. bank. WooLi, E. of Yani, reaching about as far along the Gambia, has Fuota Torra N. and Bondou N. E. Medina, the capital, con- tains about 1000 houses. Kaarta is a kingdom of considerable extent ; having Bambarra •on the E. FooTA Jallo. This is an extensive kingdom of the southern Foulahs, lying W. of JaDonkadoo, reaches S. to the Mountains of the Moon, and is divided into several petty kingdoms. Their ianp'uage has sorne afiinity to the Mandingo. Kong is probably the most extensive and powerful kingdom of ■western Soudan. It has Bambarra on t!ie N. ; and reaches east- ward a great distance Along the Mountains of the Moon. Bambarra, in the S. W. commences on the Niger, at Bamma- koo, and reaches down that river, on both banks about 400 miles. It is from 200 to 250 miles wide. Sego, the capital of the kingdom, is on Park's map, in lat 14 15 N. and in Ion. 2 30 W. ; on both sides of the Niger. ]t con- sists, properly speaking, of 4 towns : all surrounded with high mud Avails ; the streets are sufficiently broad ; the houses are -built of clay, of a square form, with flat roofs ; some of them have two stories, and many are whitewashed. Moorish mosques are seen in every quarter. The town contains about 30,000 inhabit- ants. The surrounding country is in a high state of cultivation. • Jenne belongs to the king of Bambarra. It stands on an island in the Niger, half way from Manzon to lake Debbe. It is larger than Sego. Jinbala occupies the large island in the Niger, below lake ■Debbe. On Park's map, it is 100 miles long, and 50 broad. Tom- buctoo lies N. and N. E. ; Gotto S. and S. E. The soil is remarkably .fertile ; and the whole country so full of creeks and swamps, that the Moors have been baffled in every attempt to subdue it. The inhabitants are negroes and live in considerable affluence. GoTTo. This is a powerful negro kingdom, bo.unding N. on Jinbala and Tombuctoo, from both of which, it is separated by the Niger. Bloossedoo is the capital. Baedoo, lies S. VV. of Gotto. Mamana, lies S. W. of Bacdoo, and bounds on Bambarra. The inhabitants are cruel and ferocious, and are said to be cannibals. Foulahs. This is, next to the Mandingoes, the most extensive negro race in the W. of Soudan. Their complexion is tawncy, and they have small pleasing features, and soft silky hair. The great body of them are Mahometans, and the Koran is both thcii'* statue book and Bible. They are reserved and not distinguished for their hospitality, but not intolerant. Schools are kept by the iSIahometan priests in all their villages. The children are taught to read the Koran, and discover great docility and submission. !Blost of the Foulahs speak Arabic ; but they have a language of ,t;lieir own, abounding in liquids, though unpleasant in its enuncia" AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. 655 Uon. Most of them are engaged in agriculture and pasturage. They are coRimcndably industrious, and discover great skill in tlie mai'iagenient of their cattle. Tliey possess soibc excellent horses. BoNDOU lies W. of Bambouk, and haa Wooli on i!ie S. Wo The soi! is not surpassed in fertility. The inhabitants are wealthy and industrious. They sell larjje quantilics of salt to the inhabit- ants of the interior, and tlie great body of the slaves from the E. patis through Bondou. Fatteconda, the capital, is a considerable town about 15 miles E. of the Falenic. The king's troops arc well supplied Avith fire arms and ammunition. Jaloffs. The Jaloffs are au active, powciful, and warlike race, inliabiting an extensive tract of country, between the Fou- lahs of tiie Senegal N. Foota Torra E. the Iviandingo slates on the the Gambia S. and the coast W. They arc of a jet black. They are divided into several independent kingdoms. In tneir govern- ment, superstitions, and nianners, they resemble the Manclingoes ; but excel them in the manufacture of cotton cloili, spinning the wool to a fiacr thread, weaving it in a broader loom, and dying it of a better color. Serawoolies. These occupy only one independent kingdom^ that of Kajaaga ; but many of tiiem are dispersed as merchants^ brokers, and slave-drivers, over the wlioie country, panicularly near the coast. They are habitually a trading people, but always look upon Kajaaga, as their country. They trade with the British factori(.'s on the Gambia, are tolerably fair and honest, indefatiga- ble in the pursuit of wealth, and derive considerable profit from the sale of salt and cottons in distant countries. Kajaaga has Bonduu on the S. W. and Bambouk on the S. E, The king is absolute and powerful. The climate is peculiarly healthy, and the soil fertile. Maana is the capital. Joag is a front^'ii' town of 2000 inhabitants, on the Senegal. MooHS. The Moors possess- a number of kingdoms between the desert on the N. and the negro kingdoms on the S. The Sen- egal divides them from the negroes, as far up as about opposite to Joag. Thence eastward, they bound S. on Kasson, Kaarta, Bambarra, Ma?'na, and Jinbala. They are divided into numerous tribes, or kingdoms. There k reason to believe, says Park, that their dominion suetches from W. to E. across the contuicnt, in a narrow belt, from the inouih of the Senegal to Abyssinia. Their coinplcxion resembles that of the mulattoes of the V/est Indies ; but their features bespeak low cunning and cruelly, and their eyes have a staring wildness. Their houses are biiiii of elay and stone. Many of them live in tents, and roam irom place to place. The ciuef wealth of these consists of camels, cattle^ and goats, and their chief business is pasturage. They aie all ex- tremely indolent, but rigid taskuusters to their slaves. Thcii- country being nearer the Desert, is Hir hotter and less fertile thau that of the negroes. They are rigid Mahometans, bigoted, and superstitious, and ia- lolerant. Ail the males vcad and wiue. Their langua'^e is Ar»> 656 WESTERN COAST bic. Tlicir v/oniin are taught nothing except voluptuousness and submission. Coipulency in their fc nales is the first charac- icrisiic of beauty. They aie exiremely unkind to their slaves and to strangers. Puik describes taeiii as universally proud, ferocious, lulse, and ireacherous. To-.nhucloo, the capital of the kingdom of this name, is situated on a plain, 130 n»iies E. of Beroo, and 12 miles N. of the Niger ; in about Ion. I 30 E. and 90 miles fiom the confines of the desert. It ii. a very large town ; the Ivloors lold Jackson, about 12 rniles in circumicrence. The houses arc spacioui, and of a square form ; of one siory, with a holtotv open square in the centre. The gov- ernnient oi' tlic town is in the hands of a divan of 12 Alemma, mea learned in the Koriin, appointed for 3 years. Its police is excel- lent. Kobra is its port on the Niger. The commerce of Tom- bucioo is very imporiant. The articles brought by the Akkabaahs from alarocco to the capital, are sent from Kabra, both up and down t!ie Niger. A cariivan goes also to Fezzan, and another to Egypt. The soil is generally fertile. Rice, millet, and maize, are cxicnslvcly cuiiivatcd ; wheat and barley also in the plains. CoiToe and indigo grow wild. The cotton manufactures are su- l)eri(>r. Great quantities of lioney are annually collected. HoussA lies E. of Tombuctoo, on both sides of the Niger. An extensive desert on the S. is said to separate it from Gotto. Houssa, the city, lies aiioui 60 miles from the N. bank of the river, and is, Ticcording to Park, 11 days journey, or 330 miles below Kabra. It is said to be even larger than Tomlnictoo, and is likewise a great coinrncrcial emporium. Horncman was Informed, that the kingdom of fioussa reached eastward to the limits of Bournou, b'-yond Ion. 15 E. and that it compreliended several large pro- vinces, of which Kashna, and Gana, or Kano, where the most east- ern. Kashna, the capital of the first is said to be far the largest town in the country, and in the interior of Africa. Bournou, is a very extensive country, E. of Houssa. TuARiCK. Horneman tells us, that, that part of the Desert, ly- ing N. of Houssa, and N. W. of Bournou, is occupied by the Tua- rick, a very extensive nation, that roams over tlie whole desert, even to Morocco. They arc divided in U) many different tribes, who all speak the same language. Thr.y discover strong natural powers of mind. Tiieir character is much esteenied. They are chiefly Mahometans, but the Tagama Tuarick, on the borders of Tombuctoo, are whites, and are Pagans. They carry on a com- merce between Soudan, E>::zzan, anci (iadamis, near Tripoli. Most of the Tuarick lead a wandering life. Some live in the small oases in the Desert. TiBBoos, are an extensive ;iation, living E. of the Tuarick in ihc Desert. Fezzan. This country limits the Tuarick on the N. E. Hornc- man says that it is of an oval shape, about 300 miles from N. to S. and 200 from E. to W. Rjnncl lays it down between Ion. 14 and 17 E. and about l50™ilesS. from the shore of ti;e Greater Syriis. The religion is the Mahoavjtan. It is governed by a sul- AND INTERIOR OF AFRICA. 657 tan, a descendant from the family of the Sherreefe. The tradition is, that the ancestors of the reignini;; prince, coming from western Africa, invaded and conquered Fezzan, about 500 years since. The sultan is absolute ; but holds his dominions of the bashaw of Trip- oli, to whom he pays 4000 dollars as a yearly tribute. Horneman estimates the population at 75,000. The revenue arises from taxes on gardens and cultivated lands ; from arbitrary fines and requisitions ; from duties on foreign trade, paid by the several caravans ; and from predatory excursions. The expenditure consists chiefly in the maintenance of the sultan, his court, and palace. The cadi and each one of the royal family has a district assigned for his support. Mourzouk, the capital, is In lat. 27 23 N. and in Ion. 15 40 E. 420 miles in a direct line S. S. E. of Tripoli. Zeula lies about 70 miles E. by N. of Mourzouk. The commerce of Fezzan is con- siderable. From October to February Mourzouk is the great em- porium for the caravans from Cairo, Tripoli, Gadamis, Bengasi, a town on the N. coast, Soudan and various others. The inhabitants of Augila carry on the trade from Cairo ; those of Sockna, that of Tripoli ; and the Kolluvian Tuaric, that of Soudan. Slaves, ostrich feathers, ribette, tiger skins, and gold come from Soudan ; copper from Bornou ; siks, melayes, (striped blue and v/hite cali- coes.) woollens, glass, mock coral, beads, and East-India goods from Cairo ; tobacco, snufP, and sundry Turkish wares from Ben- gasi ; paper, mock coral, fire arms, sabres, knives, and red worst- ed caps are brought from Tripoli, and Gadamis ; butter, oil, fat, and corn by the smaller Tuaric and Arab caravans from the W,. and senna, ostrich feathers, and camels, by those from the S. The climate is at no season temperate or agreeable. Gadamis is an oasis, near the S. W. corner of Tripoli. Augila is a small, but celebrated territory, nearly midway be- tween Egypt and Fezzan. It is about 165 miles from the coast, in lat. 29 .10 N. and Ion. 23° E. ; and is 450 miles, in a direct line E. N. E. of Mourzouk. It is i.n oasis, flat, well watered, fertile, and surrounded by arid deserts, either sandy or rocky. Its dates are celebrated. These and its gardens constitute the chief culture. There are three towns, Augila, Mojabra, and Meledila. Augila, well known in the time of Herodotus, covers a space of one mile in circumference. It is badly built. The streets are narrow and dir- ty. The houses are of one story, of limestone, with an open hollow square in the centre. Augila is governed i>y a vicegerent for th© bashaw of Tripoli. SiiwAH lies 210 miles a little S. of i^- of Augila. It is 150 miles from the Mediterranean, and 260 'vV. S. W. of Cairo. Siwah is a small independent state. The territory is of consider- able extent ; its principal and most fruitful district is a well water- ed valley, 50 miles in ctVcuit, hemmed in by steep and barren rocks. It is supposed^ with great probability, to have been the an- cient Oasis of Am^on ; and a pile of ruins on the W. of the capi- tal are said to be the remains of the celebrated temple of Jupiter Ammon. Thoy are all Majiometans. Siwah, the capital, is nearly 83 65S AFRICAN ISLANDS. in the centre of the valley. It is built upon a round mass of rock. The houses might be taken for caves. The streets are so naviowj that the houses almost touch eacli other. Many stand on the de^ clivity of the rock. It resembles a bee hive in its shape, and in the buzz of its streets. At the foot of the rock are erected stables for the camels, horses, and asses, which cannot ascend to the tovva above. The Siwahans are great thieves. Many of then^ are rich. Each individual has one or more i^ardens, and these it is his whole business to water and cultivate. The soil is a sandy loam, yielding corn, oil, and veii;etables, but the chief produce is daies. These are all kept in a public storehouse. N. W. of the capital there i& a stratum of salt, extending a full mile, and near it salt is found ott %he surface, lying in clods, or small lumpSi AFRICAN ISLANDS. MADAGASCAR. THIS noble island, one of the largest in the world, e::cept New^- Holland and Borneo, lies between lat. 11 22 and 25 42 S. Ion. 4t 14 to 48 14 E. Its length is about 980 miles, ^nd its mean breadth is about 250. It lies in the Indian ocean ; and the channel of Mo- zambique, 90 leagues across, bounds it on the W. and separates it from the continent of Africa. It is divided into 23- provinces. Qn the 18th of February, IS 11, this island surrendered to the British. Its population is reckoned, by Rochon, at 4,000,000 souls^ The language of all these islanders is nearly the same. The inhabitants believe in a Supreme Being, whom they call Zanhare, that is, Creator of all things. They have no temples, no idols, no priests ; but make sacrifices of sheep and oxen. They believe the soul immortal, but suppose the wicked and good re- warded in this life. Thty are a friendly, intelligent, excellent peo» pie, posse^ssing a quick sense of honor and gratitude, far less mind- ful of injuries done themselves, than of those offered their family. They are portly in their persons, and rise above the middle stature. "Writing is not unknown. Tney have some historical^books in their own languages ; but their men of learning, use only the Ara- bic character. That lanj^uage has made some progress in the N. of the island. Their hospltaii^y is worthy of notice and imitation. The traveilei^, though a stranger, enters the cottage, sits down with the family, and partakes of their repast. This custom is general. The oaths, v/hich these islanders s^e not knovifi to violate, are taken in a solemn, impressive manner. They have physicians to visit them when sick. These amiable people were formerly torn from their country? their families, their parents, their children, their lovers, and sold in thousands, in the Fiench colonies, and more cruelly treated than bea:Jevv-Hampshire 34,851 36,086 70,937 70,160 630 I5« Vermont 22328 22,435 44,763 40,505 255 16 Rhode Island 15,799 16,019 31,818 32,652 3,407 948 Connecticut 54,403 60,523 114,926 117,448 2,808 2,764 Kew-York 78,122 83,700 161,822 152,320 4,654 21,324 New-Jersey 41,416 45,251 86,667 83,287 2,762 11,423 Pennsylvania 106,948 110,788 217,736 206,363 6,537 3,737 Delaware 12,143 478,047 11,783 23,926 22,384 3,899 30,953 8,887 Northern States* 506,422 984,469 962,571 49,257 1 Maryland 51,339 55,915 107,254 101,395 8,043 103,036 Virginia 116,135 1 ] 0,936 227,071 215,046 12,866 292,627 North-Carolina 77,506 69,988 147,494 140,710 4,975 100,572 South-Carolina 37,722 35,576 73,298 66,880 1,801 107,094 Georgia 14,044 ;s 296,746 13,103 27,147 25,739 398 28,083 114 29,264 Atlantic Slave StaU 285,518 582,264 32,211 549,770 632,593 Kentucky 17,057 15,154 28,922 12,430 Teunesseff 10,277 6,271 16,548 15,365 361 475 28,558 59,511 3,417 Western Slave Stat 2S 27,334 21,425 48,759 44,287 15,847 Total Slave States 324,080 802,127 306,943 631,023 594,057 1,556,628 648,440 Grand Total 813,365 1,615,492 j 697,697 * There were no inhabitants in the North- Western Territory in 1790. f Tennessee at this time was not a stste; but was called the South- Westcra Territory. INTERESTING TABLES. 663 o> «o ta-! — . rf I^ CO ^o ^ (N ot- 1-1 ^ lo op_ "*! -;, c^ O, -^ 'o oi irj ^ "-" i t-T v^ ><^ o -v -^ 00* 60 o Ci 00 r- O C O ;/> rt O oi Oi O CM CO I- >0 lO "5 "5, to ^5 00__ ■^-Tio-^'i^cTo'Tco ''{"■^ -^ i>.-'ooCit>r>(N<»(3icoc^ C CO --''oooo«-i(ooo't<« ti,cooo>oO'ato— ■— 'r-t" to £« 00 t- CO «0 a -v <*» K) '2c5'*<'c''C5totocos-ir-05r- ,cot-!— otoci — t^cMoor- I <^ to <^ •-;, o■^_ CJ, >';, 00 co_ r-^ 0^_ O '-^O.c-f'a'"— "loo'oi'^cf^ to orj c" « t- ^" ~ -H tj. I lO -< l-H ^ 2 o ^ «n o « X a> "S cc'o" C-) to _: 6l'»r5 rt CI CO 00 — 5 01 00 c3 00 r- I ITS O W5 WOO Jl 0^' »~ » « CO 05— OlTfttOCON^OO. — i-t^e-icor^tNci<>»' 0000_0'l_lOt-^'^tO_tOtO^ t-^oTx'orioioc'rori^. 00 CJ 01 C^ Oi CO C7> t^oooooocOTficr^ «"" tfjiorMifiOiOiC^tDCO <35CMOOCOi-^C>,t^^O -T— » 00 <7J O CM CN f- 01 Vi t^«fltO>-W'C05«fl« 00-ir~00t~"OCN00— ■ tor^O ooc35oa^toiooj_ 'c^>-^co^co-^c^f<»of |« •-< ri CO « eo |t^05Ttil."5 0»I<'OC^O' ^ocTjfoOooch'ocO'^ 'O*0lCt~- — >OC5C0_C>, liot-^coi^eO'-'Oi (jr>o [lO rt .iH 01 «0 « 10 «-'OCsc»C5eo«5-'iN-^ 0«~'*'oooor^OtoO' oocoiNoo ^''i^^'^ otocoio'-'oito* "o U5 ,-, .-H Ol ■<}<-< »0 ft>«5t^o^-"?oe-i«5ne5 — t^ ■-00 —OO'^loOt^-VltOCO I CO u-j^ 00^ 00 O M •*, 5). OO CD ■* — «00^1f5 tCtO-^ Cj5t35CC50q_'?i — ' CT 05 05 r~ O' ^■5" CO i^ C5 00 CN « O CO O 2 O CO fc 05 CO "O l^ rrj p i^w E o g H gi ■<*< »0 r^ cr; '1 CO to CO r-- ID CO W5 CO I o o 05 o , CM vo O ■ uo t- «5 «1 ■^ V (^ !t< t^ -f -^ s> n -i" <^ CO t~ C5 '-^-^ I od" 2 - iS o "i^ J; 0) -C o S 564 INTERESTING TABLES. •0-; CO « O « — rt< 01 01 w o ^ o

O O CI TO lO o •o f— t tr. ^^ lO W I^ -^ lO ^o -^ '}<' O cc -n oT o 31 «3_ 00 O" '^ oo' 00 00^ CH Tf -. ro t- M- tc o M CI 0-r ^T >0 rf ^D to — . •*■ CO CO ■^ Cl CO > 00 ^ OI o» ri CI "»" rH >o •g W -< «'-<>-< I- « M oi I- « •* « 10 0-. ,_4 — Ol 0) OJ 00 OD C'l Tt" 00 — ' 'J" ■*" O CO cc vfj r- — O — O t^ t^ M — CO r- .-1 OI >c "^ w O O o CO so ^; M to « <-i ^ Ol CJ t^ IfJ If; r- 01 o W r^ -;^ -^ 0^ Ol^ lo ^" oT Co" ■i? CO O >c CO cs ■* o CO ■:« CO ■* »^ "*■ •a o CO "o — 00 a» C Ol ■<*■ ^ lO -^ 00 ,^ -T 1-" r-^ oT CO 2 O 00 O wj CO *0 ^ I^ CM — CO CO CO I— O00CO3^C0_ <5 J, _r ™" t-T o' t>r oo" ^ CN CN •* CO -H E '■^'coO»0000Tf<'y« I 'n. ^ '^r. ''I "^ '^"l. CO oT " o oi" oo' oT — . o — I '^ ^ '^ ""i "^^ ^ O CO otT «o "^ ^-' il -^ CO C^ " 2co O «2, h- CO tC co_ TJ< r)" |-~ : 1-1 i> CO O "^ o ^" oo" 'f" vrs 00 -^ CO 00 01 O 0 t^ V) 'O O 'J" '-' ■* (N CO CO Ol CN Ol Ol ^ ■<*< CO ^ •*■ •* (M M ■n CO lO lO CO •o OS •"• CO CM CO CO ■^ f^ Cl O « -1 VO lO O) ^ Ol CO o r~ lO 00 O c:i C7> CO 1^ 04 o: f CO »o o CO (N (31 (N — « W 01 •* Ol !N O Ol no 00 CO CO^l^ "-■O C» CM O 00 CO •O 00 "0 rH CO •* 01 >o WHS - . f- " "U ir u o -^ o 2 1 52 £ C Wot , - ^ ^■i; 2 o S , INTERESTING TABLES. 665 2 o 10 O lO O WJ _! (N Oi (N -. Tl< C5 o n\ W S o •r •*! to Ol « ■^ ■*■ ^O oi r- TT CI 00 V) CH r- o 1> "f X Ol o o "o O CO M ■o ..M co CM O "^ f- ^O — Ol LO O CN CJi * OH •^ o OH (.^ IM 1^ O - '-< 1^ CO lO Tf — , t^ «> (M (-4 fO M o f— « •— « U'J 01 r^ >o CO lO c>^ 0-1 « CD CO CN CO OH •V CO Or^,COOOO«C^COOHCO CO00Ot~-^O'O(^^<3^00 ojt,lr-^Oit>cq_'T;_noo_' 0> -H W CT) 00 CO -H o» bo c > 60 —• fe O a CD en o en ta ^ d. W ■§ O 2 c o _:i-"ioocoTt<,-.cooo-Hoouo mc-JCOiooOOr^-O'-'— 'COUO 'J, "5. '~;,"^'^'^*J.'^''i'^''l Lj c>rKo r^i>"r^r^o!r'!*<"'-">o'r^ ~— ICO 'fOOOOOH'V — MO» jji-HOioOf-ir-. rtTji^eo OO«O C "5,oq_'r_OHTi»cocot-^-Hr-oo nl OroToTlOi-TcoCH'cOW^lOCN' >Oi-lM:lCr-li-l CMT><"-<^ Ti5«*ia>cooc?»>-'oco>ooscot- 'S'CDCMOi^OCOOOuOO^CH 1 '=llOi,Kocj_r^coo^i_oq_oooo_io « to -rgf(D-^ot^co«o — o«r JiJJtM'tt^ojCM c^^oo(^^^> COOICr0OC0MH0"*'0OCO-H0O'*>t- CDOI^COCOO^OOt^ffioO -^I-^t-^lO000t)l>""or CO CO —I 00 •-O CO CO £ u; (- r?^ O. S °1 <« s •^ .- - T tM (35 00 - .£3 lO -< — rj< !GH 01 00 O lOO •-< t» CN -^ Tj* O 1^ 0> CO CO —' t> CO -< t^ O CD O ^ -H CO CO O) ^ m 3 00 CO * — Ol — coco— '— 'COCO uooo>n"*'t-oG>r5Coo C-l,C75_c:5r-^COO^CO>CO, ■^fOOOOOHl^-HOCN CO rt 1-1 M Tj< ^ Tf f-CMCOOi^'O'i'OcO COCOl-OCOOOOOOOt^ GH_^0 ■* ^<^O'~l°0, otr'^co"«r<5"oo"co'ofc>r ■g* i-i « OH 10 ■-> >0 CO-H-Ot~l^CDOOCO'-^00 c-^d'cTcoco't'-^'*"'^ CO CM OH 01 C) O00OO— 'CJOO IHCOt~-L0 00J^C0O"^ ^00 COO'OOt^OHCH^'-^ >o o(rc~7r-co'>o-<'"i^'o CO i-i M CH CO 0< t^ »oco'^|t^Or--^ooc^'*icoO «COCO 0Htj.,jiIoCT)O— OS A ocT'j^iOO t-rcoio'<5'coocrt>f'* 2 •-' CO ("O — 1 Pi OH I- —■ CO i 00 CO 00 o OH 10 CO 05 jOH O CO C35 CO -M CH Oi CO CJ5 CO CO 00 1> 50 00 'lO » O 0-1 iiO — ^ CT) lo q^co — •^of ■* O CO -a — OM'^ei'ocNco^'^SJ CO CODOOCO — CO—COCO C5 - J, -^^ O r^ CO "^. 00 ■^ ^ oc" o" -^ oo' ci" r^ 'o" t~^ ocT c^ to — 'OOCO—iCIOCOCOCO V tr) >^c 9.4 ' « 1 ^ -S .5 - s? >- 0. i"^ g § H te K g "B § ^ . = „ I'- ?^ > Q^ u :zi K^ 3^ fi r^ n<.A.*«^ § S2 5 2 0 'J' CO — >o CO ey> CO en CO -- — • CO CO ^ CO CO t^ f^ ofi-T of ■^ 'f CO <3^ CO t^ CO 00 of -^ o" Ol 'O -< Oi OH "»> «; •-■ O) O 00 — ' eo CO o M CNI CO O OH o c-j^ or) CO rjT Ch" CD CD I IC *^ 1-4 (u -C 0?, o S 51-SS^oifS olo 663 INTERESTING TABLES. I— I O o M CO o» o ^o « (?) t- r- "-H cc *) 10 _l 00 t3 _; CM ^ oi o — « c ^ O "^ 'a lo »-_ ^_ 00 CO CO (M — lO lO ■* 01 00 Ol CO 00 t-- 10 10 CO X ai 0^ "1 r •; ti C-) 00 r- vf^ - >0 00 - 0' — CD CO >o ■*" oT r- CO CO t^ 'T CM X CO i-O U-5 Ci X f i© 50 CM co~df lO '- 00 -^ ■o r^ •* (^ 05 Q — o o CO X CO CO .5 lO -^ o" Qo" to lO 05 Qi 10 -* o~0 f- 05 " lO Oj_ «5 00 ■o 10 w CO t- 10 04 CO ■^ "^ £ cT CO o" c5" "T —' "^ CO CO -■ 00 -c .-1 J> Ft ■o CO c» '^ O) X ,^ ffii t^ !£) 00 Oi o « X f 1 C r~ -^ CM co 10 ■g OJ^ 05. ■^^ 1> «>, lO CO. CD ^_ 1. T, '•~1 ~ °°^ "5. C rj. _j f- 'I' Ci '^ -> r~ cc O ^ CO •^ 05 ■*■ 10 10 ,C of o> CO >o rj- 10 lO.i-l -c 01 ■■*< t^ C rt 01 — -< t- F^ p^ CN q. 00, 0) Fl oT O (N ■* 1 (M 00 00 CM 10 ,00 w c^ r^ CO C35 J- c oe — lo •*, 05 Oi q, -^ 00 1 -"T f TJ- CO 10 r^^ t-. CO^ « ^^ cm" O cf CO VO ■* •1 CO CJI t~ 00 CO l^ m J, f-' »r " 00 00 C'r ^ S W -JO 00 -, - .-« t- I^ ") CO -1 FH CJl 0" <«• ^ .-< 04 ■ Oi CO X to ^ CO 00 X o uo ■^^ •"■ F1 WJ ■* (31 'O ^ ^ ,J. J- ^ f- „ « o 10 !'D f r~ X CO CO t~ CO ■^.s ii5_ CO . 00. <0 oc — . TJ^ x^ *J. CO J, -T co' •^' f>^ o CO _ (N UO 00 CM -< c>r 00"-- Oi 0> of &< i-i CI «> CO "5 CM CO r- CO o «^ ^ CO 00 01 CO 00 •* 10 cri •* '7 CD CO O »0 CM CO »o — — . 0^ f 00 Tf CO CO 04 01 1 —^ oc^ 'y o CD c-i_ t-4 CM — CO i- lO 10 C-1 •a* CD CO o ~ 1-- or d CO ~ „ — ■* CO —1 -- CO t^ 01 CO lO CM >-■ 1-1 t- CD X '-^ M CM ■<3< CO •* '-I —• ■'*' 2 CO r~ lo — j^ CO .-< CO rr CO •* 10 00 X CO t, CO 00 — 1 Ol O! CO c^ — 05 1— r^ X — — a: X 0-J o to — I> "^ 'T C>l_ u? 'H 0-r CO o' lO t-^ to oc' Tj<. co^ . w, 1-^ CO q, w r-T *" j — >o 't" CO «r CO •* :? ■ _; o O 00 CM 1^ 'O t> !<■ ^ ^ n tr. —^ "^ f_ oo' O" C' oo" c^r in ~ CM 00 X O t- O" CD M<" 1 — CO OC) oi OT FM Tt" X 00 •r CO r- CO -' r-l 05 X C .^ CM — — r- — , 1-1 00 (3> o ta «^ CM 00 0-1, C7> CO CO to "5, — d » t^ o! irj ICl" ^ r-T t^ r-H •* 10 0" r^ OS rt" oT "*« r|5' W5 F^ 00 CM --1 CTJ f-H t— 1 CO Ol CO ■* '■' CO TjJ r» »o t~ CO 00 N "^ cyi X •^ '=^ 9 !5 CJi ^ t^ Tj< Q <0 CO "O OC t^ j _ c^l^ lo 'i^ ■*„ CO Tt< CO — 10 >0 t*^ CO ^ CO w^ •* CM lO 'I". «c — >- q. X F-t CO <« . ' oT "-o oi '^ cT "^ C» t^ of 05" oT >c CO «N cjT oT of , CO CI C>1 t t:J4 r-, C], cc *o ^ "J. "I ,1 r-T c-" -T •» O ^ VO ocT — 05 en «•' oi — ^" F— t^ 2 CM t-j 00 C^ -- ■^ t^ -. OJ ■<*< CM W5 lO 05 Cl Ol ^^ CO •— ' ^ 00 CM ■* -- r- C5 v; ^ _ CO r^ 5; ^_ CO 1- q, CO. c T3 of 00 t~r OcT O X U5_ CO - . "t. ~ "i ''^ ■*- x" CD • 'T 10 10 -^00 00 01 OJ^ to a CO oi CO CO C'l 5-1 — CM -V CO C?) CO CO q. es and itories. bia Di and ia •Cnroli Caroli ia •5 ° s f. Ill V ™ ._ « Western T States of C the South 3 ZcgO 5 3w ;: 2 ^ CO ^ il ?d 3 -tZ ,i -S £ c ■= !* '5 y q -^ c; --I t< ^ l< 1-i c M INTERESTING TABLES. 667 « ^. o O CO c^ H S b: t>. CM CN (N Cft C^ SO C-J C* O C (O 00 <0 CN t-- C-) tv »n n t^ GO O ^ b- CO — to 'O CT^ 00 — b, N. CO to CM CO ^ — CTi O •*^ 00 O^ CO — i^ CO -^ CM *0 2 l^ 00 O -T CM P-< 40 CM '^ — ■* CTiO>')'»i'O^CT>00-* — coOi-*— b-'3%tOClO O^-— CM — VDOOMCO^ CO CO t— CO 'n 00 tc to *n Oi— . — J>.-r> ■c^OO'O to CM CM CM O^ CM b- ■^00«nCMCMiOCT>«^cO tOintOCMOC-*'-Db- -*"cO~'*C^--"'-C''^CM •q^ b-OO'OtOlOOO — o ^ lO ™ ^ C« »0 CM lO CO — — O — . C- to Cft XI "^ 00 K> r- -n lo >o in — <0 b- »0 CM CO CO in -^ O O '^ — ' 'O o> o b! CO Tj. b. 00 J2 <£ CM 03 t^ -5< — • 00 -^ O — • f) 03 00 00 CM t- C< »0 tO C~« O^ CO c^ ■* co" to" cT to to •<< CO — — '- I a> I ^ _Z. c;^ CO !S cT vfT ^ — -* CTiOiQCOCM — CMCTiiO i-^CMco>n'*»o'^^cn tOOO^tO-^'OClODti in — • '- c* to —< "^ 03 -* CO 00 fO •o C-* CM lO CN o r) vs o Tj< h_ »o CT. i-O to O CT> CO to c^oocoo>'*cMcot->.cri CO 00 ir200(7>— " — coo vn-^ioc0h-O-*-*cn h, Ti< CO to CO •* CO CO to ■* — c^ CO — ^ I ^ 't^ d -^ S — •00— UlCMOO'l'^'-C CCOl-'Ob-t^OOb-OO to -"^i in in rj< o CM CM — — — I i I ^ -^ w CM ^ to ^ -Q z> w c "^ 'Ob^OOO'^CM -tCftO CMC^tob-f^-'^'o;?! — CO O C-> "* "^"^ •^" '^ ^ "^l cT — in -^ ci^ '^ o^ T* "O tc-teo'C^-"*'^^"* Tj< — > CM CO '-' •* r3 P a , a O OT < H ;zi > c; O ^ Z Pu Q o — .o 5 2 -2 o ^ ao ^-" c* C/3 !- O 66S liNiTERESTING TABLES. . O CO iM O "2 CO -3 'i' CN C-i O — CO fi Ti O "i) "^ — • -^ ^2 C -^ -^ »n m cf ri CO c^ t^ »o — 40 CO CTi lO ^ (N — « b- G^ to iri ^ CsJ 40 10 ■<*■ m t^ CO »o CO VO -T o~ VO cT O O -"j* tv CM CO - O) -"j" 00 o o> a> 00 ci '" tv. CO o> o t>. — zi "^ cN t^ o c W — ^ '- c^ — ,• !>. 01 •* O vO Tj" 52 — b- CO — CD — is -^ O »n -* -^ ^ *_G m <0 — ^ ■^ "n f^ CO — W1 b- — ■* {^ C« lO CO (N ^ •^ «N 90 »0 00 b- in c< -^^ — CN 00 CO (N 10 (N wi t>r c~r CO 00 "* — -cjt b- >rt -* — . h^ CO t^ (N — CN OJ^ 00 O CO c^ T}> in CO -^ b- «r» — - »o h- >f> o> t^ CO CJJ rM ^ 0\ '3' oo CO t^ CO e* CO b- in (Ti Ti* C^ VD ■<# 10 00 «3 V5 in CO 0> O O C * »n 00 b- CO . 00 CO C CO — T? CTi m CM O) b- to ifi r;; ■^ cj> CTi S "3: ^ ^ •" ^ OD .—• in in c CM CO CM 0)_ <5 00^ '^ to C3^ ,0 -^ '^ 00 in t-t ■* "* CO b- ■* CM CM in co^ in b- o' «3 CM CM CO in CO 00 TT' CO CM CO in CM 60 ,i a i^ Ch <0 f^ q &•» n f^ CO CO u '^ 9, ^"X '^ '"i CO »^ ■ b- 'S' ■— » s< ■* (N^ o_ 00 in v_l CO co" 00 eo" t— « -^ zr (M ic T}- •* eq _ CO — — VO ^ -* 10 c 00 O) 0^ ,^ (O ■<* in _j ^ _ 9} Cf> c^ _ to ?: CN tc CO >o in to b- i>. ■n ,-_« Zj CO (M b^ CN (M °X CO ii b^ b- CO ^ to ^ b- <0 CN •S oT —4 in ttT CO 'F t> — — < — CO <7> {> CM V5 CO -^ b^ b. OV b- m CO CM to CO "^ ^ T?" CO 00 to t>. CO 0^ CM »— • 0^ ^ CO to to '" 10 b^ -* CO o — C b- 00 — cri _ 00 cf 00 o CM Tt 00 Tji m t}* c< ^ .5 .S T3 P3 CO C3 c 3 .2 O u .2 « TO 73 ^ u > ^, £^ a 3 ° ■I* O CO CO CO CO — ^ 00 c CO >o Oi CM (N ^ — ' 3 o so c >> s, y en .-, rt c3 ^ C C en 3 3 ^ CO o _ CO a ^, CO o :i ^ -a o a INTERESTING TABLES. 669 I I, J ^ "* 0><0O'*e0CD<^^O ^ vb — • — Tf CO lb ■* CO 0^ ^^ ^ ^ y^^co — (N CO to CTi cri 00 CN o o o o -^ ■* t^ t^ CO — ■^ Tjf in 00 — < » t^ "^ "^ "^ 3 o •a as 3^ •' -00 O t^ — "7H -o — ' 1 a T^ 00 CO '-O »rv T -C ^ CO <£. l^ C^ CN 03 1> — CO — Oivjcoc^oj^dDcb c« o — — -'— »o^ co<0»0'OCOt<-^C- b- o »^ •* C> €•» C< b- <0 CO — t^ ir> CO *^ 5 "Ot^cot^O— 'cocnco c^ cNn -T b- t^ t~ 00 — CO a> CO (M 10 -a S « ^^ o o h-2 > Tj. CO "jo '^ s . c ti 03 — • -J T- (o rt C/3 '^ K 2 to CS h- <0 If) — CNOO^C-^COtC- . — 00 C7> OOOCOO^-^-C^O 'i- — • to a> ■^j' ^^ vr> 2cr> - — •O-«*00CT>-^-^i--Tj< cn CM O CO to CO O* tj .H ^ Ol tOOCOt-OGS-^l-OO ^« •^ (M i/^ Crt ^.^ Ci K S '^ "* CN CO to — »^ CO O VD '- 00 -< (N CO =0 I t — • CO CM CO "^ C< o ■S, 'S.jin o uo CN l^. to CO (N CO cri CTi _ ■ -* to CO CO o b- O case ase. Seco White 76,83 — * -* CTi CO l^ lo 00 ^ c o >n 00 c:^ CO — o t^ ^ C^ t^ ■<# o in h- '-0 irs o c» 00 CO »r> 00 »o C (.O t^ O CO CN C lO cr> '^ .— CO Ol 00 00 o <* (N CO to — VO CO o CO •— i 00 ^ •<- t — CO o "0 « to t^ O Ot Oi — 1— < >o CN CO 00 o " < o IC Tj< ,^m '^ 1 ^ 3> t* to — '* C^ to CN — '^ VI 00 — O00t^'^-" -^ to »-< ^ CN to ir; ■* »o o Cl — to ^ ^ «^ Si o OQ Hp<;>piu;^,??;c-o <^ ,G oi o C/2 0) s (D •».• p 5 in C3 c b/D tf> a A CO .2 5 5 o i s C ►^ ;^ 670 INTERESTING TABLES. • ■* o h- ?< -- — 1 — 6 C i CD >n 1 '— t~ -^ -^ C< «1 I — . c;^ M o ifl — I vb b- *0 b- Ti< 1^ — o> — c^ CO 1-, — I 0> 60 O C» O O 6 6 CM O CO t^ — CN CO 8 = i O b- C^ -^ -* b-— 0>(N — CM ■"i" -Jl O >0 -^ 00 CO T}< — CO "a h M a 00 lb «3 ? 00 o CO O o vb n 1 H ^■* c^ 00 o> (T* C31 o CO CO 6> .— ^ CN o f* 1 CO T? o o b- »n b- I "^ I T" 1 '*' 1 OB « CN cS CO h- CO \>~ h- h. a> •h cJ 1 (N 1 1 o JS o CO o O 1 o C £ CO CO (>> cr. CN •^ ! CTi CTi ■* CO *0 b- . 00 o> ^ CO C7> CJ> O) 'O .eo *> S -^^ t^ 00 _> CO VO o» o CT> b- vn 00 a 1 H o ^« . 00 ^— <£> 00 .— -^ CO r< CO » >^ c^ Vj CO *o ^ — rf CO — "t =5 -= "2 . — < c^ ■* tc — CO 00 O UD m — ' »^ V-) CO t^ o?;c?»— >o-*Ti< n — « ,— — ' 00 T}< lO s — rt O 'O O CN 00 o CO ■* tJ 2 00 O >n CO lo — in f» cn CO ^ in b- "^ d r -^ -^ c-r ^ n «r o c^ — CO 00 O^ CO c^ •<*< ".O c^ «r> t^ ■^ -^ o «D CO T » CO >^ b. r* ,- .» ^ o >n ..^ i-^ '^ (N C9 m •<* ft 00 00 »^ b- ^bT o OJ C7^ o '^ .a I-' 3 o *o 1 d a Disti arolin a aroliua H g S .5 U u ,2 o eit i Maryl Colum Virgir North- South- Georg a < Kentu Missis Louisi Louisi lO b- CJ ^- CO CD cw O ■* CO ^^ -^ CO b- n^,ng books to C,rculat,or DEC 1 1 .-^ ^0 ^^^so General Library , University of California Berkeley U\\ ®s iUFORI LD 21A-40m-ll,'63 (El602slO)476B General Library University of California Berkeley ;^v^ /C '■<£^^ ^:vVv^ J THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFO Ik 'a «ELEyLIBBAB/ES^ ^ oo i\ "- THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI -(yMuu4' ^^X>^3^