PROPERTY OF 
 J. W. DONAHUE 
 
 MAS*. 
 
FOUNDATIONS 
 
 AND 
 
 FOUNDATION WALLS, 
 
 FOR ALL CLASSES OF BUILDINGS, 
 
 PILE DRIVING, BUILDING STONES & BRICKS, 
 
 ?IER AND WALL CONSTRUCTION, MORTARS, LIMES, CEMENTS, CON^ 
 CRETES, STUCCOS, ETC. 
 
 64 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PRACTICAL EXPLANATIONS OP THE VARIOUS METHODS OP BUILDING FOUNDATION 
 WALLS FOB ALL KINDS OP BUILDINGS. TABLES OP THE WEIGHT OF HATE- 
 RIALS, ETC. THE KIND OF MATERIALS USED, THE LOADS SUS- 
 TAINED, AND THE SIZES OF WALL PIEB8, ETC. USE OF 
 PILES IN FOUNDATIONS, WITH TERMS, ETC. 
 PLASTERING, MORTARS, LIMES & CEM- 
 ENTS. EXTRACTS FROM NEW 
 YORK BUILDING LAWS, 
 WITH NOTES. 
 
 By GEORGE T. POWELL, 
 
 A rchitect and Civil Engineer, hew York. 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED A TREATISE ON FOUNDATIONS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS 
 OF THB METHOD OF ISOLATED PIERS, AS FOLLOWED IN CHICAGO, 
 
 BY FREDERICK BAUMAN, ARCHITECT. 
 
 Revised and Enlarged by the Addition of much new matter, by 
 G-. T. Powell. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK, PUBLISHER, 
 
 No. 23 WARREN STREET. 
 
 1889. 
 
WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK. 
 
PROPERTY OF 
 01 J. W. DONAHUE, 
 
 SPfXNQfiPLD, MAM. 
 
 
 PUBLISHER'S PREFACE. 
 
 The subject of Foundations although treated of in various works on 
 construction has not heretofore, with the exception of one or two small 
 manuals, been made the subject of a special book. The importance 
 of the subject and the liberal patronage afforded the first edition of 
 this work had led the publisher to believe a second edition thoroughly 
 revised and brought down to the present date would prove valuable 
 to those engaged in designing and constructing large and important 
 structures. After consultation with the author it was decided to re- 
 cast the whole thing and make it practically a new work. With this in 
 view it has been almost entirely rewritten and all new information bear- 
 ing on the subject gathered into it. 
 
 We regret to say that the author after completion of his manuscript 
 was stricken with paralysis and in consequence unable to give his at- 
 tention to the revision of proofs. This matter, however, has been very 
 carefully attended to, and we think will be found free from such inac- 
 C'uracies, ambiguities and misprints as had crept into the first edition. 
 Since the first edition was brought out there have been many import- 
 ant structures in process of construction where the subject of securing 
 foundations was a serious study, among which might be named, the 
 Brooklyn Bridge. The tests made for these structures and other knowl- 
 dge gained regarding use of cements etc., have been carefully garner- 
 ed and will be found under their proper headings in the following 
 pages. 
 
 On the preservation of timber the author is largely indebted to the 
 researches of Maj. Gen. Cram of the U. S. A., and has quoted largely 
 from his lecture before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. 
 
 In order to cover the subject more fully than has been done hereto- 
 fore the author has found it necessary to increase the number of illus- 
 trations and very much increase the amount of letter press. 
 
 The practical experience of the author and his careful collection of 
 the materials of information on this subject leads us to feel that this 
 book will prove to be a valuable aid to Architects, Builders and Engi- 
 neers in solving the many difficult problems arising where important 
 structures have to be erected on treacherous soils. Trusting that the 
 same generous patronage will be accorded to it as heretofore we now 
 offer it to the building and engineering fraternities. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Foundation walls on soil or stratum not liable to be affected by 
 
 weather, air or water. Clay 9 13 
 
 CHAPTEK H. 
 
 Foundations in soft ground of considerable depth. Boring to test 
 bottom. Timber pile foundations. Foundations in quick- 
 sand. Foundations in shifting sand. Structures built on 
 slopes. Pile driving. Terms used in pile driving. Size and 
 kind of wood for piles. To find safe load for pile to carry. 
 Height of ram to fall. Set of pile at last blow. Weight of 
 rams. Experiments in Brooklyn Navy Yard. Protection of 
 piles. Decay and preservation of timber. Worms in wood on 
 land and in open air. Worms in wood under sea-water 1332 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 Excavations. Rule to be complied with. Footings and footing 
 
 courses. Chimneys. Trenches for footings. Springs in cellars. 3341 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Stone foundations. Walls. Brick for footings. Use of stone for 
 building purposes. Strength of building stone. Footing stones. 
 Inverted arches. Table of weight of timbers. Weight of 
 building stones 42 68 
 
 CHAFfER V. 
 
 Arches in walls. Construction of arches. Chimney walls and build- 
 ing the same. Proportion of brick chimneys. Masons' and 
 stone-cutters' tools. Stone-cutting. Rubble footings. Bond 
 rubble. Random coursed stone work. Regular faced and 
 squared stone work. Trimmed and coursed Ashlar facing. 
 List of stones for the exterior of buildings. Dry area of brick 
 
71 CONTENTS. 
 
 or rubble. Prevention of dampness in cellar walls. Sylvester's 
 process of repelling moisture from external walls. Damp. 
 Hollow brick walls. Floors in damp locations. Air and water- 
 tight cements for casks and cisterns. Cement for external use. 
 Cement to resist red heat and boiling water. Cement to join 
 sections of cast-iron wheels. Soft cement for steam boilers. 
 Gas-fitters' cement. Plumbers' cement. Coppersmiths' cem- 
 ent. Composition to fill holes in castings. Cast-iron cement. 
 Cement for Aquaria > 59 76 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Front vaults. Retaining walls. Slopes. Table of strength of stone 
 for vaults, galleries, etc. Table of experiments on brick. 
 Table for calculating weight of materials in building. Law in 
 reference to load on floors. Mensuration of superfices. Hollow 
 walls for buildings. Building Laws passed Apr., 1871. Preser- 
 vation of stone. Incrustations on brick walls. Sulphuret of 
 lime. Sand 7797 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 Preparation of common mortar. Gravel sidewalks. To color bricks 
 black. Staining bricks red or black. Venetian cement. Coal- 
 ash mortar. Puzzolana mortar. Dutch Terras mortar. Plas- 
 tering or stucco. Inside plastering. Two-coat work and fin- 
 ish. Stone mortar. Stucco. Scratch coat. Slipped coat. 
 Cement for external use. Asphalt composition. Asphalt mas- 
 tic. Asphalt for walks. Cement for fronts of houses. Cement 
 for tile roofs. Cement for outside brick walls. Mexican meth- 
 od for making hard lime floors. Selenitic mortar or cement. 
 Selenitic clay. Mixing selenitic mortar and concrete. Propor- 
 tion of sand to lime. Concrete construction. Ancient cem- 
 ents. Rapidity of set. Color.-r-Packiiig the cement. Water 
 for mixing. Sand-gravel etc., for mixing with Portland cement. 
 Proportion of cement in mortar and concrete. Mixing and 
 laying Portland cement concrete. Fineness. Expanding or 
 contracting in setting. Strength. Tests of cement. Hydraulic 
 limes and cements. Salt-water mortars. Mortars exposed to 
 air. Betons and concrete. Portland cement. French beton 
 agglomere. Vicat cement. Lafarge cement. Table of Amer- 
 ican and Foreign cements. Keene's cement. Polished work 
 of walls. Stucco on brick-work. Rosendale cement concrete. 
 Portland cement concrete. Selenitic lime or cement. Cem- 
 ent mortar for brick laying. Mortar of cement. Cement mor- 
 tar for stone masonry. Cement mortar for brick masonry. 
 Ordinary concrete. Brick-dust and cement concrete. Lime and 
 cement concrete. Table of tests of hydraulic and other cements 
 
CONTENTS. VII 
 
 at Centennial Exhibition. Collingwood on cements. Roman 
 cement. Vicat's hydraulic cement. Stone cement. Glue. 
 Cement mortar. Concrete. Test of Portland cement. Street 
 pavements. Macadamized roadways. Artificial stone pave- 
 ments for sidewalks. Belgian pavement. Guidet pavement. 
 Sidewalks. Method of calculating load on floors 98-146 
 
 ART OF PREPARING FOUNDATIONS 
 
 BY 
 FREDERICK BAUMAN, (ARCHITECT.) 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 <Lc of treating the ground. Solid grounds. Compressible grounds. 
 Building-ground of Chicago. Method of isolated piers. 
 Concrete. Semi-fluid grounds 146-163 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 The Base. Dimension stone. Rubble stone. Concrete. Mortar. 
 
 of chimneys 163-16C 
 
THE PROPERTY OF 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, BASS, 
 
 FOUNDATIONS AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Foundations. 
 
 The term Foundation is used to signify the bed or bottom 
 of earth, gravel or rock which must be prepared to receive the 
 base consisting of footings and foundation walls. The object 
 to be attained in the construction of all foundation walls is to 
 form solid footings of proper proportion to the superstructure. 
 
 Foundations may be divided into two great classes. 
 
 First. Foundations in situations where the natural soil is 
 sufficiently firm to bear the weight of the intended structure. 
 
 Second. Foundations in situations where artificial supports 
 must be provided in consequence of the softness or looseness 
 of the soil. Each of these classes may be subdivided into many 
 kinds under the heading of Engineering works but it is the in- 
 tention to confine this book more particularly to the founda- 
 tions of buildings. 
 
 Foundation Walls on Soil or Stratum not liable to be affected 
 by Weather, Air or Water. In building on a natural bottom of 
 this kind, it is necessary to level the surface or footing space, 
 so that the walls or piers may start from a horizontal bed. If 
 irregularities occur in the firm ground, it will be best to fill them 
 up with concrete, rather than to use stone or brickwork. Where 
 some portions of the foundations start below the level of the 
 others, care must be taken to keep the mortar or cement joints 
 as close as possible, or to execute the lower portion of the work 
 in cement or hard-setting lime mortar. 
 
 Strong gravel may be considered as one of the best soils to 
 build upon, as it is not affected by exposure to the atmosphere, 
 and is almost incompressible and easily leveled. 
 
10 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 While sand resists compression and makes a firm foundation, 
 it must be kept from shifting, or being acted upon by water. 
 
 In many cases it is necessary to drive sheath or board piles 
 and use cement. 
 
 Rock or partly solid rock bottom requires good judgment 
 and careful handling; for it commonly happens, in the 
 area of a large building, that some portions will rest on 
 rock and others upon clay or loose gravel, and these differences 
 in the character of the soil, are liable to produce irregularities 
 in settlement, and are often difficult to make firm enough to 
 carry the load of masonry uniformly. A common rule, when 
 possible, is to reduce the rock to a certain level, sufficiently 
 deep for the footings, and then remove the soft soil, and make 
 a bed of say three feet of concrete, bringing the concrete to the 
 level of the stone ; all of which is explained by the following 
 practical illustrations. 
 
 To prepare the surface of stone bottoms of irregular or in- 
 clined strata, it is necessary to reduce the stone or brick to 
 level surfaces, thus (ill. i and 2.) 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS i AND 2. 
 
 or quarry, excavate, and carry the whole to a common level. 
 
 Beds of Rock with clay are not very safe without artificial 
 treatment, especially if there are partings or strata of clay, and 
 if they lay in inclined positions. In ill. 3, for instance, when 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 ir 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 3. 
 
 turning arches, the springing line or base of arch on one side 
 might be secure, while the opposite side would be liable to- 
 move from the pressure of the load on the arch ; this may be 
 made secure by drilling, and driving iron bars into holes pass- 
 ing through the strata. 
 
 Clay. The most deceptive kind of ground to build upon is 
 clay. Its inseatrity results from the position of its strata, as 
 well as its elasticity, from being mixed with marl, etc., and its 
 tendency to absorb moisture. In dry seasons it is very firm, 
 while in wet seasons it is elastic and unreliable. It is known 
 that whole buildings have been injured by the moving of clay 
 strata. Of course this insecurity is not likely to occur on level 
 strata or firm clay. 
 
 But when the layers of clay are inclined, too much care can- 
 not be observed, especially where the distribution of the load is 
 quite uneven, as for instance in structures where piers, towers, 
 or chimneys occur along with solid walls. It is always well to 
 disconnect towers. 
 
 When dry clay rammed around foundation walls becomes wet, 
 it has a tendency to bulge them. 
 
 All buildings settle a little, if from no other cause than the 
 weight of the walls and floors. 
 
 Shifting clay bottoms that are very insecure have been built 
 upon by laying round timbers, one foot apart, on concrete ; the 
 
12 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 space between the timbers being laid with concrete, and filled 
 to the top of the logs, to receive stone-slab footings. This 
 method will do on structures of about thirty feet in height, and 
 inexpensive buildings. 
 
 The best soils for foundation walls are : gravel and close 
 pressed, hard, sandy earth that will resist the pick or rock bot 
 torn where a horizontal base may be made. 
 
 If there is reason to believe that the earth below is yielding 
 it is best in ordinary cases to dig rough wells and fill them with 
 stone to the footings in the cellar bottom ; dig say 6 feet be- 
 low cellar bottom. These wells may be arranged to support 
 walls of 40 to 145 feet in height. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. IJ 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 To Secure Solid Foundations in Soft Ground of considerable 
 depth. 
 
 In cases of this kind where the expense of building from a 
 great depth to the surface is too great, a number of supports or 
 columns can be brought up through the soft ground, on which 
 to set wall plates of wood, stone or iron for footing courses. 
 There are a variety of ways in which this may be done. 
 
 First : By excavating holes through the soft ground, and fill- 
 ing with sand ; this is done by boring, or driving down a wooden 
 pile, then withdrawing it and filling the hole with sand. This 
 method is not often used in this country, although if an ample 
 number of holes are filled with sand well packed, a secure 
 foundation may be obtained. 
 
 Second. By driving piles of wood either by hand or with 
 the ordinary steam engine ; the piles to be driven until they 
 are firm and secure in the solid earth, and kept from any side 
 movement by bracing with horizontal timber. 
 
 Third. By screwing piles into the soft ground for a bearing. 
 The screw fixtures attached to piles are expensive and are not 
 generally used on city buildings. 
 
 The cast or wrought cylinder screw piles are usually from 
 3 to 8 in. diameter and have at the foot a cast screw with a 
 blade from 18 in. to 5 ft. diameter; they are generally used on 
 docks and railroad work and are screwed into clay, marl or sand by 
 using capstan bars. On engineering works where many of 
 these piles are sunk a special machine is used for the purpose, 
 generally worked by steam. This system of piling is too ex- 
 pensive for buildings and is seldom used except on dock work. 
 
 Certain kinds of soft soil have a tendency to stir into a mud 
 batter upon driving piles into them. In this case drive with 
 hand power a few guide piles and then build square or parallel 
 cribs of timber and fill the space with stone closely packed, also 
 
1 6 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 work of horizontal timber. In timber piling the load is trans- 
 mitted only in the direction of its length. There are also many 
 cases where stone footings are used and laid directly on the top 
 of the piles ; but too much care cannot be taken in a case like 
 this to obtain security. 
 
 Illustration 4 shows an elevation of framing on top of piles. 
 'This is the plan adopted in the construction of a factory built 
 'on the marshes near Hoboken, New Jersey. The building is 
 50 by 100 feet, and about 20 feet in height. The piles, of yel- 
 low pine, were thirty feet in length, and from nine to twelve 
 inches diameter. After being driven, they were cut to a level 
 of two feet below water-line, and spaced for the outside walls 
 four feet to centers. On top of these were placed sills. 12x12 
 inches; on top of the sills were framed uprights, 12x12, four 
 feet long, braced from all sides ; on top of uprights was placed 
 a second sill, that received a twelve-inch wall. The piles for 
 wooden pillars through center are eight feet to centers. The 
 piles for the chimney and engine-room are about twenty inches 
 apart, with timbers crossing each other, forming a foundation for 
 stone slabs, on top of which is built the brickwork. The foun- 
 dation of timber is cross-braced from center to outside ; and 
 notwithstanding the motion of the machinery, no unequal set- 
 tling has occurred, although it may have settled one inch be- 
 fore becoming fixed and solid. 
 
 Foundations in Quicksand. 
 
 It is not uncommon to find quicksand in New York City. 
 In many localities large masses of sand surcharged with water 
 until it becomes quick are found at a depth of from 5 to 20 ft. 
 In nearly all cases there is a mixture of leaden colored silt or 
 soapstone slime. This is a kind of marl nearly white when it 
 is dry, but when mixed with the sand holds a large amount of 
 water. It is often the case in excavating through quick-sand 
 that strata of this blue marl occurs ; it is tough and hard to 
 move but it is utterly unfit for Foundations of any kind. An- 
 other difficulty often occurs when layers of cemented clay and 
 gravel are found. It is slow to dig with shovels or picks, and 
 can only be taken out in small quantities, adding greatly to the 
 expense. In nearly all cases where quicksand is found it will 
 be necessary to provide hand or steam pumps with leaders or 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. \"J 
 
 gutters, to remove the water. It is useless to attempt the re- 
 moval of the sand and ooze until the water is drawn off and 
 where any natural drainage can be obtained, channels should be 
 made in every direction possible. It is often necessary in this 
 kind of soil to provide temporary platforms and roadways, 
 while making the excavation, as the disturbance of the soil con- 
 sequent upon prosecution of the work is liable to make a slough. 
 Where there are large masses of quicksand which are imprac- 
 ticable to remove, owing to locality or surroundings, drive piles, 
 not disturbing the soil more than is necessary, and secure them 
 to horizontal timbers, forming cribs, then brace the whole and 
 fill the interstices with concrete made of broken stone, sand 
 and lime. 
 
 One way to proceed to secure footing in this soil is to drive 
 sheath piles on the outside and inside line, leaving the space 
 between to be excavated. Brace the sheath piles adding sec- 
 tion after section, as the excavation proceeds. Have prepared 
 concrete enough to fill in each section, proceeding in this way 
 until the work is completed. 
 
 Where the soil offers no resistance to sheath pile or brace, 
 construct long wooden cases with sides and bottoms (Caissons) 
 made of 2 or 3 in. boards securely bolted and framed together. 
 Set these in sections and in the position where they are to be 
 lowered ; they are then to be loaded to the top with rough con- 
 crete and sunk with their own weight to the depth required. 
 Tests may be made by loading these cases with iron to the 
 average weight, per sq. ft., expected to be borne. The combi- 
 nation of quick sand, marl, hard-pan, etc., found in excavations 
 is often carelessly passed by and ordinary broad footing stones 
 used, resulting in many cases in unequal settling and the ruin 
 of fine buildings. Broad footings of stone are allowable where 
 the soil is not too soft, but two or three courses should be laid 
 with a batter of half their thickness. 
 \ 
 
 To build Foundations on shifting sand. 
 
 In speaking of this subject it will be well to state, that the 
 place, condition of sand and the opportunity to secure the bot- 
 tom of the structure will vary so much that these directions 
 will hardly apply to every case. Excavate an open space in the 
 
16 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 work of horizontal timber. In timber piling the load is trans- 
 mitted only in the direction of its length. There are also many 
 cases where stone footings are used and laid directly on the top 
 of the piles ; but too much care cannot be taken in a case like 
 this to obtain security. 
 
 Illustration 4 shows an elevation of framing on top of piles. 
 '.This is the plan adopted in the construction of a factory built 
 on the marshes near Hoboken, New Jersey. The building is 
 50 by 100 feet, and about 20 feet in height. The piles, of yel- 
 low pine, were thirty feet in length, and from nine to twelve 
 inches diameter. After being driven, they were cut to a level 
 of two feet below water-line, and spaced for the outside walls 
 four feet to centers. On top of these were placed sills. 12x12 
 inches; on top of the sills were framed uprights, 12x12, four 
 feet long, braced from all sides ; on top of uprights was placed 
 a second sill, that received a twelve-inch wall. The piles for 
 wooden pillars through center are eight feet to centers. The 
 piles for the chimney and engine-room are about twenty inches 
 apart, with timbers crossing each other, forming a foundation for 
 stone slabs, on top of which is built the brickwork. The foun- 
 dation of timber is cross-braced from center to outside ; and 
 notwithstanding the motion of the machinery, no unequal set- 
 tling has occurred, although it may have settled one inch be- 
 fore becoming fixed and solid. 
 
 Foundations in Quicksand. 
 
 It is not uncommon to find quicksand in New York City. 
 In many localities large masses of sand surcharged with water 
 until it becomes quick are found at a depth of from 5 to 20 ft. 
 In nearly all cases there is a mixture of leaden colored silt or 
 soapstone slime. This is a kind of marl nearly white when it 
 is dry, but when mixed with the sand holds a large amount of 
 water. It is often the case in excavating through quick-sand 
 that strata of this blue marl occurs ; it is tough and hard to 
 move but it is utterly unfit for Foundations of any kind. An- 
 other difficulty often occurs when layers of cemented clay and 
 gravel are found. It is slow to dig with shovels or picks, and 
 can only be taken out in small quantities, adding greatly to the 
 expense. In nearly all cases where quicksand is found it will 
 be necessary to provide hand or steam pumps with leaders or 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. If 
 
 gutters, to remove the water. It is useless to attempt the re- 
 moval of the sand and ooze until the water is drawn off and 
 where any natural drainage can be obtained, channels should be 
 made in every direction possible. It is often necessary in this 
 kind of soil to provide temporary platforms and roadways, 
 while making the excavation, as the disturbance of the soil con- 
 sequent upon prosecution of the work is liable to make a slough. 
 Where there are large masses of quicksand which are imprac- 
 ticable to remove, owing to locality or surroundings, drive piles, 
 not disturbing the soil more than is necessary, and secure them 
 to horizontal timbers, forming cribs, then brace the whole and 
 fill the interstices with concrete made of broken stone, sand 
 and lime. 
 
 One way to proceed to secure footing in this soil is to drive 
 sheath piles on the outside and inside line, leaving the space 
 between to be excavated. Brace the sheath piles adding sec- 
 tion after section, as the excavation proceeds. Have prepared 
 concrete enough to fill in each section, proceeding in this way 
 until the work is completed. 
 
 Where the soil offers no resistance to sheath pile or brace, 
 construct long wooden cases with sides and bottoms (Caissons) 
 made of 2 or 3 in. boards securely bolted and framed together. 
 Set these in sections and in the position where they are to be 
 lowered ; they are then to be loaded to the top with rough con- 
 crete and sunk with their own weight to the depth required. 
 Tests may be made by loading these cases with iron to the 
 average weight, per sq. ft., expected to be borne. The combi- 
 nation of quick sand, marl, hard-pan, etc., found in excavations 
 is often carelessly passed by and ordinary broad footing stones 
 used, resulting in many cases in unequal settling and the ruin 
 of fine buildings. Broad footings of stone are allowable where 
 the soil is not too soft, but two or three courses should be laid 
 with a batter of half their thickness. 
 * 
 
 To build Foundations on shifting sand. 
 
 In speaking of this subject it will be well to state, that the 
 place, condition of sand and the opportunity to secure the bot- 
 tom of the structure will vary so much that these directions 
 will hardly apply to every case. Excavate an open space in the 
 
i8 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 sand larger than the base of the structure, lay timber footings, 
 parallel with the line of the walls, cross them with timbers un- 
 til a solid platform is prepared and pin them together with oak 
 or metal pins. Then make a diagonal cover of say i 3-4 in. 
 rough boarding, either nailed or pinned ; on this platform or 
 deck run sill plates to the siz.e of the frame required and se- 
 cure them to the timber footings, and on these sill-plates set the 
 corner posts and put in braces ; then erect the frame construc- 
 tion as may be necessary for the purpose. This platform or 
 deck will require inclosing sides, thus making a large box to re- 
 ceive the sand. The load of sand will balance and hold in po- 
 sition the whole structure. It is estimated that each cubic ft. 
 of space in a frame structure will average 1 5 Ibs. and each cubic 
 ft. of sand 105 Ibs. or seven times heavier than the frame ; now 
 if the frame is 35. feet high the box must be loaded with sand 
 5 feet deep. As an additional security long horizontal timbers 
 with timber anchors may be extended from the bottom of the 
 box. It is important to load the bottom of the structure and 
 place it below the wash of the water. The weight of the sand 
 alone need not equal the weight of the structure provided it is 
 heavy enough to secure the foundations from shifting. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 5. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. IQ 
 
 Illustration 5 represents the foundations of a factory building 
 erected near the edge of the water line in the marshes of Long 
 Island. The soil is a stiff black muck. Trenches were cut 
 through this four feet wide, and averaged six feet deep to a par- 
 tial quicksand bed. The building is 50 by 80 feet ; two stories, 
 1 6 feet each; with four feet of brickwork, above ground, to 
 level of first floor. The walls above are sixteen inches thick. 
 After the trenches were dug, a bedding of ten inches in thick- 
 ness of concrete was laid. On top of this two inches spruce 
 plank are laid crosswise,. followed with 8x8-inch timber, laid 
 parallel with the trenches, and the spaces filled in with con- 
 crete. On this are laid the base stones, on top of which is 
 built a twenty-inch brick-wall. The trenches on each side of 
 wall were filled up with sand. 
 
 This factory has an engine, boiler, machinery and shafting, 
 with an hundred operatives. No settling has occurred. 
 
 Structures built on slopes are always liable to slide. In prac- 
 tice this is avoided by cutting horizontal steps in the slope, but 
 great care should be used in erecting the walls to thoroughly 
 bond the stone at all stepping places. Such work should pro- 
 ceed slowly so as to avoid unequal settling as the greater quan- 
 tity of mortar in the wall on the lower portions of the slope 
 will cause much greater settling there than in the walls on the 
 upper part of the slope and a consequent breaking of joints at 
 the stepping places. The foundations should be leveled in as 
 long sections as possible and the footings carefully laid, especial- 
 ly at the stepping places. 
 
 Pile Driving The usual method of driving piles is by a suc- 
 cession of blows given by a heavy block of wood or iron, called 
 a ram, monkey or hammer, which is raised by a rope or chain, 
 passed over a pulley fixed at the top of an upright frame, and al- 
 lowed to fall freely on the head of the pile to be driven. The 
 construction of a pile-driving machine is very simple. The guide 
 frame is about the same in all of them : the important parts are 
 the two upright timbers, which guide the ram in its descent. 
 The base of the framing is generally planked over and loaded 
 with stone, iron, or ballast of some kind, to balance the weight 
 of the ram. The ram is usually of cast-iron, with projecting 
 
2O 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 tongue to fit in the grooves of frame. Contractors have all sizes 
 of frames, and of different construction, to use with hand or 
 steam power, from ten feet to sixty feet in height. The height 
 most in use is one of twenty feet, with about twelve hundred 
 pound ram. In some places the old hand-power method has to 
 be used to avoid the danger of producing settling in adjoining 
 buildings from jarring. 
 
 Piles should be driven to sink not more than one inch to the 
 last blow of the hammer. The hammer used should be equal 
 in weight to the pile. The common size of piles is ten to four- 
 teen inches in diameter, and they are driven with hammers or 
 rams weighing twelve hundred to two thousand pounds each. 
 The diameter of the pile should be about one-twentieth of the 
 length. 
 
 The present way of driving piles with steam power is very ob- 
 jectionable where permanent structures are to be built, as the 
 severe and frequent jarring is liable to work the soil into a soft 
 mass. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 6. Piles, &c., showing Water Line. 
 
 Terms used ill Pile Driving. A Pneumatic Pile is a metal 
 cylinder and is driven by atmospheric pressure, the air being 
 exhausted from within. 
 
 A Hollow Pile is a cylinder which is sunk by excavation pro- 
 ceeding inside. 
 
 A Screw Pile has an augur at the lower end, and is sunk by 
 rotation, aided by pressure. 
 
 A Close Pile is one of whole timber, set close to the others. 
 
 A False Pile is an additional length added to a pile after 
 driving. 
 
AXD FOUNDATION WALLS. 2! 
 
 A Filling Pile is to fill the space between gauge piles. 
 
 A Foundation Pile is one for supporting a structure. 
 
 A Gauge Pile is a preliminary pile to mark the desired course. 
 
 A Guide Pile limits the field of operation. 
 
 A Sheet Pile is of half timbers in contact, filling the gaps be- 
 tween gauge piles. 
 
 A Wale is a horizontal string-piece to bind the piles. 
 
 Pile Hoop, a band around the top to prevent splitting. 
 
 Pile Shoe, the metallic point. 
 
 Test Pile, the first pile driven to test the bottom and should 
 be not less than six inches in diameter. 
 
 Size and Kind of Wood for Piles. Piles are generally round, 
 and from nine to eighteen inches at top, and should be straight 
 and clear of bark and projecting limbs, etc. But where piles 
 are exposed to the rising and falling of tides, for wharves, tres- 
 tle-work, etc., they are considered to be the best if driven with 
 the bark on. Trees are sometimes selected for this purpose ; 
 and when the foliage is full, just on the change, the tree is gir- 
 dled that is, the bark near the bottom is separated by cutting 
 it off sufficient to kill the tree, and two or three months later 
 the trees are felled. This method shrinks the bark close to the 
 wood. 
 
 White pine, spruce, or even hemlock answer very well in soft 
 soils. Florida yellow pine makes the best for general use but oak, 
 elm and beech for the more compact soils. Piles are generally 
 spaced from two to four feet to centres. Squared piles and ta- 
 pering ones will not bear equal loads. All should be as near 
 uniform in size as possible. 
 
 All timber, driven into the earth, having the common name 
 of piles, may be divided by calling those that stand on solid foun- 
 dations Posts, and those that depend on the friction of the earth 
 and its constituents Piles, these last require to be considered 
 very carefully for their sustaining power. Although piles may 
 resist the hammer it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the 
 resistance is from having reached a firm strata or is only caused 
 by friction. In such cases always allow a large proportion for 
 safety, and bind the piles together, or brace them. In nearly 
 all calculations that are made for pile driving, the calculations 
 
22 POWELLS FOUNDATIONS 
 
 are based on the soil being homogeneous, that is, assuming the 
 soil to be the same kind all the way down. Now this seldom 
 occurs, as there may be alluvium, clay, gravel, marl, shale or 
 pebbles, and some variety occurs in nearly all localities. As it 
 is difficult to find a locality to suit the formula, it is best to ac- 
 cept the judgment of experienced builders, who are experts in 
 this specialty. 
 
 The force in pounds with which a pile hammer makes its blows 
 upon the head of the pile is very indefinite, as all the rules differ 
 very much. Correct data may be gathered from actual tests, as 
 follows : In the fine stone London Bridge crossing the Thames 
 each pile sustains eighty tons. They are driven only twenty 
 feet in the stiff blue London clay, and are four feet to centres,, 
 and are twelve inches diameter in the middle. This proved too 
 much of a load. At about three feet on centres they would have 
 had only forty-five tons to sustain. Traxitwine states that at the 
 Chestnut Street bridge, Philadelphia, the greatest weight on any 
 pile is eighteen tons. Mr. Kneas had the piles driven until they 
 sank three-quarters (.75) of an inch, under each blow, from a 
 i2oo-pound hammer, falling twenty feet. Here we have the fall 
 in inches: 20 x 12 = 240 inches, divided by. 75 = 320 x 1200 
 Ibs. = 384.000 Ibs., divided by 8, = 48.000 Ibs., or 21 1-4 tons 
 safe load ; but it is best in practice to use only one-half of the 
 estimated safe load. 
 
 The refusal of a pile intended to support a weight of thirteen 
 and a half tons, can be safely taken at ten blows of a ram of 1350 
 pounds, falling twelve feet, and depressing the pile eight-tenths 
 of an inch at each stroke. 
 
 Some engineers consider a pile safe for a load of twenty-five 
 tons when it is driven to the refusal of 1350 pounds, falling four 
 feet, not to sink more than four-tenths of one foot under thirty 
 blows. On mud and marsh bottoms it is best not to load the 
 piles more than one-quarter of the above amount. 
 
 The following are a number of rules for calculations in refer- 
 ence to the strength and bearing capacity of piles. 
 
 To find the Safe Load which the Pile is to Carry. Given : 
 
 The weight of ram, the height the ram falls in inches, and the 
 set of pile at last blow, in inches. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 2J 
 
 Rtde Multiply the weight of ram by the height it falls, and 
 divide the product by eight times the set of pile at last blow. 
 
 To find the Height for the Ram to Fall in Inches. Given : 
 
 The set of pile at last blow in inches, the safe load which the 
 pile is to carry in cwts. (of 112 pounds), and the weight of ram. 
 Rule Multiply the safe load which the pile is to carry by 
 eight times the set of pile at last blow, and divide the result by 
 the weight of ram. 
 
 To find the Set of Pile at last Blow. Given : Weight of ram, 
 height the ram has to fall in feet and the safe load the pile is re- 
 quired to hold in cwts. (of 112 pounds.) 
 
 R^lle Multiply the weight of the ram by the height it falls, 
 and divide the product by eight times the safe load which the 
 pile is to carry. 
 
 To find the Weight of Kams in cwts. (of 112 pounds.) 
 
 Given : The set of pile at last blow in inches, the height the 
 ram is to fall in inches, and the safe load the pile is to carry in 
 cwts. (of 1 12 pounds.) 
 
 Rule Multiply the safe load the pile is to carry by eight 
 times the set at last blow, and divide the product by the height 
 the ram falls. 
 
 Pile drivers who are experts know when their piles strike rocks, 
 and sometimes band the tops to prevent them from swaying. 
 
 The following are the results of experiments on piles at Fort 
 Montgomery : The piles were twelve to sixteen inches in diame- 
 ter, and nine to fourteen inches at the smallest end, and were 
 from twenty-nine to thirty-three feet long after cutting ; They 
 were of spruce, and weighed about forty pounds per cubic foot, 
 and were driven with a ram or hammer of 1630 pounds, at a 
 height of thirty-five feet. The last blows made them sink from 
 two and a half to six inches. Compressibility of soil about 
 one-eighth of its entire bulk. 
 
 Experiments at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The piles were 
 twelve to eighteen inches at top, and seven inches at foot ; 
 length of piles after cutting averaged thirty-two feet ; weight of 
 ram, 2240 pounds, and height of fall twenty-five feet. Average 
 number of blows, seventy-three. They were driven into fine 
 sand, uniform in quality. 
 
24 POWELLS FOUNDATIONS 
 
 In starting all work of pile driving, a test pile, of six or 
 eight inches diameter, should be driven to test the bottom, and 
 of about the same length that it is the intention to drive the 
 Foundation Pile. 
 
 A number of piles driven for piers, and a cast-iron cylinder 
 sunk around them, and secured at the top, the earth removed 
 from the inside, and the cylinder filled with concrete, makes an 
 excellent foundation. 
 
 Where timber foundations have to be constructed, and the 
 posts or piles of wood are exposed to the rising and falling of 
 tides and sea-water, they are liable to the attacks of wood-boring 
 worms that will destroy ordinary timber in three to five years. 
 One of these is the Limnoria Terebrans, and is about three 
 sixteenths of an inch long. These little creatures, assisted by 
 the action of the sea, will soon cut a pile through, as the sur- 
 face rots rapidly after being perforated by them. The other is 
 the Teredo Navalis, and is also known as the ship-worm. It 
 will penetrate the wood from fifteen to twenty-five feet below 
 mean low tide. It is found in most countries. It grows to 
 about three inches long, and one-quarter inch diameter, and has 
 a head like an auger, with the point gone. They leave very 
 small holes where they have entered, which would not attract 
 attention, while inside the wood is completely honey-combed. 
 Their attacks are generally confined to timber above low water 
 mark. Mr. C. G. Smith, C. E., mentions the ship-worm, and 
 gives some particulars about the kind of wood that will remain 
 sound longest in sea-water. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Beach (with Payne's patent process) .... 10 years, 7 months, first decay. 
 
 Teak Wood (East India) 5 years, 6 months, first decay. 
 
 English Oak (Kyanized) .... 5 years, good ; 10 years, months, unsound. 
 
 British Ash 3 years, good ; 5 years, months, unsound. 
 
 American Oak 3 years, good ; 5 years, months, unsound. 
 
 Pitch Pine 3 years, good ; 5 years, months, unsound. 
 
 Yellow Pine 3 years, good; 4 years, slightly unsound. 
 
 It appears that they do not so frequently attack bark, as it 
 kills them before they penetrate. If the outside could be shrunk 
 with heat, slightly charred, and coated with carbolic paint, mixed 
 with Trinidad asphalt, it is thought this would give great pro- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 tection. Copper lining has sometimes been resorted to, but 
 this is too expensive for general use. There is an English Sili- 
 cate Paint used, not readily affected by water ; and when there 
 is a covering on the silicate of asphalt of tar and oil, it tends to 
 repel their attacks. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 7. Wrought or Cast-iron Shoes to Piles. 
 
 Another method : All that portion of the pile exposed to the 
 action of sea or fresh water, should have a coat of crude carbol- 
 ic paint. When this has dried, put on a coat of asphalt hot, and 
 wrap coarse canvas or bagging fabrics spirally around the pile, 
 saturated with hot asphalt ; and when this has set, finish with 
 another coat of asphalt hot. After this it is ready to drive. 
 Piles treated this way are not attacked. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, I will state that "it is important 
 that every foundation, for either large or small structures, should 
 be prepared to sustain the load of the walls, the materials of the 
 building, and the load to be sustained on each floor." The re- 
 sult of these, added together, gives the load to be sustained 
 (with an average of thirty pounds per square foot on roof for 
 snow). And the foundations should be made so firm that no doubt 
 will arise about their being insecure. 
 
 In connection with Driving Piles. It is often found neces- 
 sary to protect the work above ; and paint the iron fastenings. 
 Several kinds of paint are used, lead paint is generally too expen- 
 sive, and hence the use of Bituminous Paints. A paint made 
 from bitumen, dissolved in parrafine and linseed oil when very 
 hot, has special qualities of durability, and will resist alkalies 
 and acids. A tar varnish composed as follows is very good : 30 
 
26 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 gallons fresh coal tar, 6 Ibs. tallow, i 1-2 Ibs. rosin, 3 Ibs. lamp 
 black, and 30 Ibs. freshly slacked lime ; mix and apply hot : When 
 dry, this varnish will receive on its surface any color of oil paint. 
 
 Decay and Preservation of Timber, from a Lecture delivered 
 at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Penn., by Maj. Gen'L 
 Cram, U. S. 
 
 Decay and Preservation of Timber I have known oak and 
 pine beams, encased in solid brick masonry where hardly any 
 air or moisture could reach, perfectly rotten after eleven years 
 of such imprisonment. 
 
 Nor can it be maintained that all kinds of untreated wood ex- 
 posed to soil, air and water will very speedily decay. The 
 speediness of decay of timber thus exposed will depend 
 upon the kind of wood, the particular acids or salts in 
 the soil, the climate where the timber is to be used, and the 
 thickness of the sticks. To illustrate this, it is only necessary 
 to adduce a few facts which have come under my own observa- 
 tion, also some well authenticated circumstances coming under 
 the observation of other engineers of constructions. 
 
 In houses of the old dilapidated town of Chagres, lignumvitae 
 mudsills were found, after lying seventy-two years upon the 
 ground, perfectly sound. This induced the engineers of the 
 Panama R. R. Co., to replace their first ties, which were of the 
 very best Georgia pine, and which lasted not to exceed three- 
 years, with lignumvitae brought from Darien, at a cost (in 1855) 
 of $ i.oo per tie. The same Georgia pine taken to a northern 
 climate would have lasted as railroad ties seven years, at least, 
 before requiring renewal. 
 
 Red cedar heart in its natural state as fence posts and mud- 
 sills has lasted fifty years in the clay and gravelly loam in nor- 
 thern climates without appreciable decay, but in strong lime soil 
 it yields in less time ; while white or yellow cedar will last only 
 from fifteen to twenty years before it will become decayed in a 
 similar exposure and soil. 
 
 In the rich bottom lands of Wisconsin, I saw the original 
 massive white oak trunks exhumed as it were from beneath the 
 mucky ground, where they had been upturned by an ancient 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 2f 
 
 tornado, and timber made from them in 1842 ; the wood was then 
 perfectly sound after an age of centuries, and the timber made 
 from them, used in a construction under cover, is at the present 
 time as sound as ever. 
 
 The untreated "redwood" of California, in contact with soil 
 from volcanic debris, I found, on testing its durability, quite as 
 lasting as our red cedar, though it is by no means the same kind 
 of wood. It is weak and brittle ; neither is it the same kind of 
 wood as the "mammoth trees" of that State. 
 
 I have found our northern red cedar, treated with the old Ky- 
 an process, an infusion of corrosive sublimate, after twenty-two' 
 years' exposure lying on a slope of strong limy soil, to have gone 
 to decay, especially the lower ends of the sticks, and kyanized 
 white oak of Michigan, resting upon the same kind of dirt, dozed 
 and rotted twenty years after the treatment. 
 
 Chestnut railroad ties grown upon the barrens of Maryland, 
 kyanized and laid upon a limy soil some miles north of Baltimore 
 in 1838, I saw tested eleven years afterwards and then perfectly 
 sound, and more solid than when laid ; while those of the same 
 kind of wood, untreated, but laid at the same time in the same 
 kind of soil and exposure with the treated ones, lasted only sev- 
 en years before they required renewal. 
 
 This experiment of kyanizing timber was the first, I believe, 
 ever practiced in our country. Ties enough were treated for 
 one mile of track, costing twelve and a half cents per cubic foot 
 of timber. The process, however, was so unhealthy, salivating 
 all the men, it had to be abandoned. It would be worth while 
 to ascertain if those kyanized ties are yet sound. At that time 
 the untreated ties cost only fourteen to sixteen cents. 
 
 The original growth of white soft pine of New England, in 
 fence boards untreated and not touching the ground, has been 
 known, after an exposure of more than fifty years, to be free from 
 all signs of decay, while heavy sticks of timber of the same wood 
 and similar exposure were found much decayed in a shorter 
 period. White spruce and red hemlock of that part of our coun- 
 try I found, on examination, untreated, would only last, the for- 
 mer eleven years, and the latter nineyears^ while white hemlock 
 is more durable than either. 
 
 Untreated white oak and white elm piles, which must have 
 
28 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 been driven at least forty years, I have found perfectly sound 
 all below and for one or two feet above water, their tops being 
 injured only by abrasion. In these waters there is no need 
 of treating by any antiseptic the timbers to be placed under 
 water. 
 
 But for all the horizontal-side, end and tie timbers above the. 
 first foot above water, the experience is quite different. As a 
 general rule, I have found these timbers to show decay in seven 
 years after being laid without treatment ; and yet many have 
 lain from twelve to fifteen years ; but then they have become so 
 rotten as to be blown away by the winds or torn off by the waves. 
 Without treatment, therefore, by some antiseptic we cannot re- 
 ly upon the timber in these superstructures lasting more than 
 seven years without need of renewal. 
 
 In the pier superstructures, we have used chiefly white and 
 hard or red pine and white oak. The vast amount of beautifully 
 shaped timber for the sizes we need, but deemed as too inferior 
 in quality for these superstructures, growing, however, in 
 the vicinity of the lake shores, such as hemlock, white cedar, 
 bass, fir, white and black ash, hickory, white elm, beech, syca- 
 more, etc., etc., are utterly ignored. An antiseptic that would 
 materially, say double or triple the period of decay in these 
 would enable us to bring them into use, at a cost for the un- 
 treated timber considerably below that of pine and oak. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians must have known of antiseptics for 
 preserving wood. Their old wooden coffins, after 2,000 years, 
 have been brought to light ; and a gentleman of much experience 
 in the causes of decay and means of "preservation of wood," has 
 informed me, he "has seen several of these split to pieces, and 
 that the wood (sycamore) was perfectly sound and strong ; the 
 wood seemed to have been impregnated with a bituminous sub- 
 stance. The coffins were 'dug outs' from solid blocks of the 
 wood, leaving a hole in the top to insert the corpse, and having 
 a lid carved and ingeniously fitted to enclose the aperture." 
 Now sycamore, as we know it, untreated, is not a very lasting 
 wood. Whether the lost art is to be recovered by the use of 
 modern antiseptics remains to be seen by future generations. 
 
 Worms in Wood on Land and in the Open Air, There is a 
 destructive attack by these upon wood of the trees which have 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 2 
 
 been cut into logs, out of which timber and lumber are to be 
 manufactured at the mill. 
 
 The trees are generally felled, and immediately cut into lengths 
 suitable for these logs, in the winter, and either hauled to the 
 mill during the same winter or rafted to it early in the spring 
 and sawed during the same spring and succeeding summer. In 
 this way the eating by the worm is in a great measure avoided. 
 But if the logs of almost any kind of wood are allowed to lie over 
 the summer on the ground, they almost invariably become eaten 
 unless they are "drossed," which means, to hew off their bark. 
 Peeling the bark of the hemlock in June for tanneries, will pre- 
 vent the worm in this kind of wood. 
 
 If the season, however, is very wet and cold, logs with their 
 bark on are less liable to attack where they lie over ; and if they 
 are "boomed," or put into a "log bay" of fresh water, they are 
 preserved from this kind of worm, unless the eggs of the larva 
 are laid in the logs before they can be put into the water, in 
 which case the larva are known to develop into the living worm 
 in six months after sawing and sticking up the stuff, which, though 
 apparently free from the worm when piled, soon becomes great- 
 ly injured, as many a pile of supposed valuable timber has shown. 
 
 When a thrifty tree, however, is overturned by the roots and, 
 after dying, cut into saw-logs or hewn, no worms will be found 
 in the wood. 
 
 Some of the very best lumber comes from wind-falls after the 
 trees have been dead for years, taking care, however, not to 
 sever the rooty mass from the trunks while green. These facts 
 led to the explanation of the manner in which these worms are 
 produced in saw-logs and green timber recently felled by the axe. 
 A small insect easily penetrates by the ends of the green log 
 along through its whole length in the palatable juices between 
 the dark and sap wood and deposits her eggs, which very rapidly 
 develop into eating worms. No doubt there are various kinds 
 and sizes of these preying upon wood, and among which may be 
 classed the ants, which are so destructive to wood in tropical 
 climates. 
 
 A wind-fall, with its up-turned roots having earth attached, 
 affords no access to the insect ; and when the green logs are 
 "drossed," there is no bark shelter for the insect which dreads 
 
3O POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 the water so much that it will not enter the logs after an immer- 
 sion in fresh water. 
 
 It seems to me that if the lumber manufacturer has the ill 
 luck of being compelled to allow the green logs to lie over on 
 the ground, the besmearing of the ends with some cheap bad 
 smelling paint might prevent the access of the insect. 
 
 Worms in Wood tinder Sea-water. These, I have observed, 
 on our sea-coasts, seldom work upon piles and dock-facing tim- 
 bers, except in those parts standing between half ebb and half 
 flood tides ; in the space between these two planes, however, 
 their operations are indeed wonderful and dreadfully destructive. 
 On some of the European coasts, I think they range in their at- 
 tacks from extreme low to nearly high tide. 
 
 It is not very many years since it was believed these worms 
 could only exist in the tropical climates, and that they were only 
 known in cold climates by being brought in vessel bottoms. But 
 this was an illusion which experience has since dispelled. 
 
 As far east as Castine Harbor, Me., they began destroying 
 piles and other dock timbers of the best white oak, and so ef- 
 fectually did their work that renewals had to be made. It is 
 believed they were introduced there from old worm-eaten ves- 
 sels coming home and lying to the docks until the vessels no 
 longer afforded substance for boring, then the worms forsook, 
 and resorted to the piles and dock timbers. No oak has for years 
 been used there for the renewals. Yellow pine is used, and as 
 long as the resin remains in the wood, it is comparatively free 
 from the worm ; but after a few years, the resin becomes washed 
 out, then the worms commence the havoc in good earnest. 
 
 In various places on our Atlantic coast from Maine to Mexico, 
 and on our own Pacific coast, this annoying and costly evil ex- 
 ists. There, I have observed, no vessel or wood structure, ex- 
 cept as high up as about where the fresh water and the tide 
 water meet, is safe from this evil. The remedy of covering the 
 exposed parts with the sheet copper is only effectual until the 
 sheathing becomes punctured, torn, or abraded off, then the 
 worms immediately enter. 
 
 In the bay of San Francisco, the worms are very active and 
 produce great havoc. They bore deep into the piles and dock 
 timbers, leaving hardly any part within their range unperfor- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 3! 
 
 ated, but the tubular track of one never pierces across the tube 
 bored by another worm. Their instinct teaches them scrupu- 
 lous respect for each other's way. In a period of less than four 
 years they will destroy the piles. And there are worms that 
 wield their mandibles with such extraordinary power as even to 
 bore into solid rock. 
 
 In the lower part of the Sacramento river, just above where 
 it enters Suisune Bay, the banks at low tide expose all along for 
 one or two miles innumerable hard, compact sand-boulder rocks. 
 In carrying a military survey along these banks, I observed in 
 hundreds of the rocks deep tublar holes of from one-half to 
 three-eighths inch in diameter, running straight in, some to the 
 depth of eighteen inches. Every hole was lined with a perfect 
 coating of beautiful white enamel as hard as glass. At the bot- 
 tom of each hole there was invariably a worm found, who had 
 bored for himself a habitation into the rock. These extraordi- 
 nary mandibular worms, if not the same kind, are about the 
 same size, I judged, as the smaller kind of salt water borers 
 called limnoria. 
 
 The piles used in the San Francisco waters, are chiefly Ore- 
 gon spruce and Oregon pine. An antiseptic that will preserve 
 wood there will not fail to be favorably received. 
 
 New processes for preserving timber are being constantly in- 
 troduced. Prof. Chas. A. Seely and W. T. Pelton are the 
 patentees of some processes. 
 
 The method of application patented by Professor Charles A. 
 Seely, of New York, in 1867, is a modification of, and an un- 
 doubted improvement upon Bethel's process, in being applicable 
 to green, water-logged wood, and with far more efficiency even 
 to seasoned wood, differing materially, however, in the mode of 
 application of the dead oil, This new process consists of im- 
 mersing the wood in a closed iron tank of the oil, raising the 
 whole to a temperature between 212 and 3OOF. This action 
 is allowed to go on until the moisture or water contained in the 
 wood is expelled, or has escaped in the shape of steam. The 
 water being supposed thus expelled, and the pores containing 
 little or no steam, the hot oil is suddenly replaced by a bath of 
 cold oil, condensing all the remaining steam, and thereby leav- 
 ing a total or partial vacuum in the wood cells, into which the 
 
32 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 oil immediately rushes, impelled by the hydrostatic pressure of 
 the oil, and the pressure of the atmosphere, favored also by 
 capillary attraction. 
 
 Those who favor this process claim for it the following re- 
 sults: 
 
 ist. The effect of the hot bath is to sufficiently season the 
 wood, and destroy or coagulate all the albumen and expel the 
 water and other fluids from the pores. 
 
 2d. The effect of the cold bath is to impregnate the wood 
 cells with the antiseptic (carbolic acid), and at the same time 
 stuff, as it were, the pores that will for a long time after expos- 
 ing the timber to the air, variations of atmospheric tempera- 
 ture, soil, rain, salt or fresh water, resist absorption of destruct- 
 ive agents from all these sources, the borers in salt water, 
 worms on land, and white ants in tropical climates inclusive ; 
 and also prevent the rusting of iron bolts, spikes, nails, etc.,, 
 that may be driven in the treated wood. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Excavations. 
 
 Under this heading it is thought best to give abstracts of a 
 revised ordinance of New York City, relative to the Construc- 
 tion of Vaults (similar laws in reference to vaults and areas 
 should exist in other cities) with the rates to be paid on per- 
 mits, i. e. : 
 
 "A permit must be taken out before excavation, or legal pro- 
 ceedings will be instituted against the owner or builder." 
 
 "SEC. i. Empowers the Department of Public Works to 
 grant permits for the construction of vaults in the streets, pro- 
 vided, in their opinion, no injury will come to the public there- 
 by. 
 
 "SEC. 2. Forbids the construction of vaults in any street in 
 the City of New York without permission in writing from said 
 board, under the penalty of one hundred dollars. 
 
 "SEC. 3. Applicants for permits must state the name of the 
 owner of the premises in front of which the vault is to be built ; 
 the purposes for which the building is or is intended to be used ; 
 the number of square feet to be occupied by the vault, includ- 
 ing its walls ; and the proposed length and width of the same. 
 
 "Rule required to be complied with: When applications for 
 vaults are made, such applications shall in all cases be accom- 
 panied by a plan drawn upon a scale of one-fourth of one inch 
 to one foot, showing the whole area to be built, including walls, 
 and designating the open area, if any, and also the space to be 
 exclusively used for stairways (see Sec. 1 5) ; and in case there 
 shall be any fire hydrant in front of premises where the vault is 
 to be excavated, the position of such hydrant shall be shown on 
 such plan, and there shall be a space of two feet left around the 
 hydrant. 
 
34 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 . "SEC. 4. Requires that payment for each square foot of 
 ground to be occupied by the vault shall be made on obtaining 
 the permit, under the penalty of one hundred dollars. 
 
 "SEC. 5. Prohibits the construction of vaults beyond the 
 line of sidewalks or curbstone, under the penalty of two hun- 
 dred and fifty dollars. // is to be distinctly understood that the 
 permit gives no authority, and it is strictly forbidden, to disturb, 
 by excavation or otherwise, any water hydrant, or stop-cock, or 
 stop-cock chamber, or water pipe ; or do anything to prevent 
 the proper use of any hydrant or stop-cock, or expose them to 
 freezing. 
 
 "SEC. 6. Makes it the duty of the person obtaining a per- 
 mit to deliver to this board a certified measurement by one of 
 the city surveyors of the ground occupied by the vault before 
 the same is covered, under the penalty of one hundred dol- 
 lars. 
 
 "SEC. 7. If it appears by such certificate that the vault oc- 
 cupies a greater number of square feet than shall have been 
 paid for, the owner of such vault, and the master builder under 
 whose direction the same shall be constructed, shall, in addition 
 to the penalty imposed in and by section 4, severally and re- 
 spectively forfeit and pay twice the sum previously paid, for 
 each square foot of ground in excess of the number of square 
 feet previously paid for. 
 
 "SEC. 10. During the time of constructing vaults a lamp or 
 lantern shall be kept burning the whole of every night, which 
 shall be placed so as to cast its light upon the opening, under 
 the penalty of ten dollars. 
 
 "SEC. ii. All vaults must be completed and the ground 
 closed over them within three weeks after they are commenced, 
 under the penalty of five dollars for each day they may remain 
 uninclosed after that period. 
 
 "SEC. 12. No area in the front of any building in the City of 
 New York shall extend more than one-fifteenth part of the 
 width of any street, nor in any case more than five feet, 
 measuring from the inner wall of such area to the building ; nor 
 shall the railing of such area be placed more than six inches 
 from the inside of the coping on the wall of such area, under 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 35 
 
 the penalty of two hundred and fifty dollars, to be recovered from 
 the owner and builder thereof severally and respectively. 
 
 "SEC. 14. Every description of opening below the surface of 
 the street in front of any shop, store, house or other building, 
 if covered, shall be considered and held to be a vault within the 
 meaning of this chapter, and the master builder, or owner, or 
 person for whom the same shall be made or built, shall be liable 
 to the provisions, payments and penalties of this chapter sever- 
 ally and respectively. 
 
 "SEC. 15. The last preceding section of this chapter shall 
 not be constructed to refer to those openings which are used 
 exclusively as places for descending to the cellar floor or any 
 building or buildings by means of steps. 
 
 "Payments for vault permits must be made on taking out the 
 permit, as follows, viz. : 
 
 "For permission to construct a vault in front of any building, 
 seventy-five cents per square foot. 
 
 "Where it is proposed to increase the superficial area of any 
 vault, the increased area is only to be paid for at the above 
 rates. In such case the surveyor certifying to the dimensions 
 of the new vault must also certify to the dimensions of the old 
 vault. 
 
 "It will be seen by section 14 that excavations commonly 
 known as areas or parts of areas, if covered, are to be paid 
 for as vaults, excepting such space only as may be occupied by 
 steps for descending to the basement or cellar floor." 
 
 The preceding laws in reference to vaults and areas are very 
 effective in New York, and similar laws should exist in all cities 
 to protect the owners of property, pedestrians, vehicles, and 
 business generally during the construction of buildings. 
 
 A further permit is required before excavation and the com- 
 mencement of work in the foundations. This permit has to be 
 obtained from a Board known as the Department of Buildings 
 in the City of New York. Some other large cities in the United 
 States have Department of Buildings or some laws that strictly 
 pertain to buildings. The requisite information in regard to 
 the New York laws on this subject will be given under the 
 heading of Walls, etc. 
 
36 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Excavations. Twenty-four cubic feet of sand ; or, seven- 
 teen cubic feet of clay ; or, eighteen cubic feet of earth ; or, 
 thirteen cubic feet of chalk, equal one ton. One cubic yard of 
 earth before digging will occupy about one and one-half cubic 
 yards when dug, and contains twenty-one struck bushels, and is 
 considered a single load ; or, double this a double load. 
 
 Footings and Footing Conrses. In commencing the erection 
 of any building it is usual to spread the bottom courses of the 
 masonry beyond the inner and outer face of the walls ; the 
 spread courses are termed footings, and distribute the weight of 
 the structure over a larger area of bearing surface ; the liability 
 to vertical settlement from the compression of the ground is 
 greatly diminished. 
 
 In the case of isolated buildings standing on a small base, 
 they give a great protection and resist the force of high winds, 
 storms, etc. 
 
 For instance, take the case of a chimney shaft one hundred 
 feet hi^h, standing on a base ten feet square, and exposed to 
 heavy gales. The compression of the ground from the force of 
 the wind that would cause a depression of one-quarter of one 
 inch, would cause the chimney to be out of centre five inches. 
 If the base is increased to twenty feet square, we not only in- 
 crease the leverage to resist the force of the wind, but the sus- 
 taining surfao,e is quadrupled ; so that the resistance is eight 
 times greater than in the first instance. Footings, to be effect- 
 ive, must be bonded into the body of the work, and of suffi- 
 cient strength to resist the cross-strains to which they are ex- 
 posed. It is a common practice among mason builders, whether 
 the materials be of brick or stone, to simply comply with the 
 requirements of the plans, lay the footings down, pay no regard 
 to bonding, and leave the unequal settlement of the walls to 
 chance. This, of course, does not occur with men skilled in 
 their trades. 
 
 In Building large Chimneys for Manufactories, the size of the 
 chimneys and the height should be determined by proper experts, 
 and with the opinion of the Engineers. 
 
 Rules for Chimneys : The area of the chimney should be 
 three-quarters that of the opening over the bridge ; viz : one and 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 37 
 
 one-half inch per pound of coal consumed ; or, nineteen and one- 
 half inches for each foot of fire surface burning thirteen pounds 
 per hour. The whole diminution of flue should be gradual, and 
 not by any offsets. A common rule for size of chimneys is, that 
 the minimum area of chimneys twenty-four to thirty yards high 
 is four hundred square inches for each twenty horse power. 
 
 Chimneys of any considerable height should be tied, clamped, 
 or anchored with wrought iron straps, etc., at not less than every 
 twenty-five feet in height. 
 
 The highest chimney stack in England is at Bolton ; it is 367 
 feet taken from the surface of the earth, octagonal in plan, 14 
 feet on each side, and 112 feet girth at bottom. Thickness of 
 brickwork at bottom, 8 feet ; thickness of brickwork at top, I 
 foot 6 inches ; 5 feet 6 inches on each side at top, or 44 feet 
 girth. The top is finished with stone. 
 
 The chimney of the Edinburgh Gas Works is 341 feet 6 inches 
 high. It is 329 feet from the surface of the earth. Stone foun- 
 dations 40 feet 6 inches, by 6 feet 6 inches deep ; 30 feet square 
 at ground line, 27 feet 9 inches square at top of stone pedestal ; 
 on top of this the brick shaft is 264 feet high ; 26 feet at the 
 bottom diameter, and 1 5 at the top. 
 
 In the construction of large chimneys, and particularly isola- 
 ted ones, they should be built with great care, the mortar be- 
 ing prepared every day, of one of lime to two parts of 
 sharp sand ; or, of cement and sand. The masons should 
 change positions and level and true the work often, to equalize 
 the difference in the work done by different men ; select com- 
 petent men for the work. 
 
 The Foundations and Trenches for Footings should be cleared 
 of all rock, rubbish or soil, and leave the site of the intended 
 building clear and unincumbered ; and make perfectly level and 
 hard the bed of all trenches, and consolidate the earth about 
 the same. 
 
 Foundations in cities are usually excavated according to the 
 survey furnished by one of the City Surveyors. Outside of the 
 city, for suburban or country buildings, the excavations are gen- 
 erally made direct from the plans. After the earth is removed, 
 either in city or country, it is necessary to lay out the base-walls 
 
38 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 of the structure with lines, secured to stakes driven in the ground. 
 The common method is to establish one line, call it a base line, 
 running parallel with the street line curb or fence line, as the 
 case may be. From this, where no side-walls control the lines 
 of the building, it may be necessary to produce a line square, 
 and at right-angles to the base line, which is usually done thus : 
 * Draw the line tight, and as near a right angle to the base line 
 
 C, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 8. 
 
 as possible ; then true it by using a rod laid off in feet. After 
 you have commenced, and have a long line to square, it may be 
 necessary to increase the triangle in laying out to twelve feet, 
 sixteen feet and twenty feet. After this the square may be 
 tested on the lines by using a rod thus : 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 9. 
 
 Take any angle, A, B and C, on one side with three measure- 
 ments, and try the same on the other side. This has to be 
 tested very carefully. Some masons have large wooden squares 
 
 A Leveling Instrument is now manufactured especially for this purpose. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 39 
 
 for the purpose, the use of which is better than deciding by 
 sight, or even measuring on the line. 
 
 Another method of getting a right-angle : To erect a perpen- 
 dicular line at any point on the base line A B, set one point of 
 compass or rod to sweep a radius at B, and describe the arc of a 
 circle ; use the same radius, and put one point at I, and inter- 
 sect the line at 2, then produce a line from I to 2. Use 2 as a 
 centre of same radius, and draw a curve, then produce and con- 
 
 \ 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 10. 
 
 tinue the line I to 2 to 3. Then draw the line from B to 3, and 
 this gives the desired angle. After this is done once or twice, 
 it is very simple. Circles, polygons or ellipses are best when 
 laid out on a wooden template. 
 
 It is best in laying out lines for excavations to set the stakes 
 at some distance from where the earth or debris is being re- 
 moved, and to test the exact angles, by diagonal measurement : 
 This must be done accurately even if a little more time is re- 
 quired ; as soon as this is done it is important to establish the 
 grade line. 
 
 To make a right angle or perpendicular line : Divide the given 
 line A, B, into two equal parts, and draw a perpendicular line 
 as shown on the illustration No. 1 1. From the points A and B 
 as centres and with any radius greater than one-half A B de- 
 scribe the two arcs C and D, then draw a line through E to F. 
 The line E F will be at right angles to A B. This may be used 
 where it is necessary to lay out a large square or lines for centres. 
 
POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ILLUSTRATION n. 
 
 To draw an Octagon in a given square. From each corner 
 of a square, and with a radius equal to half its diameter A to B, 
 describe the four arcs ; and join the points at which they cut the 
 corners of the square. Illustration 12. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 12. 
 
 Springs in Cellars, etc. After excavations are made for a 
 building, either in city or country, there is often found a small 
 water-course or spring. In the country it is best to tap the 
 spring or line of water-course outside of the building, and take 
 it away from the building, and follow a course that will prevent 
 its returning and undermining the walls. In cases where this 
 cannot be done in the city or country, sink and build with rough 
 stone such size cistern as may be required for a flow of water 
 for three or four days, and carefully build a drain from cistern, 
 following the line of water-course to outside wall, if possible. 
 
 If there is an overflow liable to occur from freshets, tides, 
 rain, etc., and the cellar bottom is below the line of sewer, it 
 may be considered the best to build cemented cisterns that will 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 4! 
 
 fill to a certain height and have an indicator to prevent overflow 
 or rise of water. These may be emptied by using a small force- 
 pump. 
 
 If a cellar bottom is located in low ground, or below adjoining 
 cellars, and a supply of water seems to permeate the soil, and 
 accumulate, it is not safe to use any steam-pump, as it may draw 
 water from the surroundings, and weaken the foundation walls, 
 unless due precaution has been taken in building. Ordinary 
 cisterns and hand-force pumps seem to act the best in such 
 cases, by pumping water into a waste-pipe to be carried into 
 sewer. If there is no waste-pipe, then it has to be pumped to 
 such height that it may be emptied. Where a large spring or 
 water-course is found on the cellar line of large structures, it is 
 necessary to collect by drains all the water into a cemented cis- 
 tern, and attach to the engine used in building a small pump 
 of sufficient capacity to keep the water below a fixed line forty- 
 eight hours, to prevent an overflow. 
 
 As a rule the surface of cellar bottoms should be covered 
 with concrete, ranging from four to twelve inches in thickness, 
 to form a smooth floor surface. Those that are wet or damp 
 (and nearly all are more or less so) should have a layer of as- 
 phaltum over the surface, and extended up the sides to a point 
 above where the dampness arises (see illustrations 36 and 38). 
 The asphaltum, when used, should be protected by laying on it 
 a course of bricks, bedded in cement, or an additional layer of 
 cement. If a smooth, handsome surface is desired, Portland 
 cement should be used for the finish. Rosendale and many 
 American cements of the best quality may be used, and bricks 
 coated with asphaltum are often used. 
 
 PROPERTY OF 
 DONAHUE, 
 
POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FOOTINGS STONE AND BRICK. STRENGTH OF STONES AND 
 METHODS OF OBTAINING SECURE FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Stone Foundations, Walls. The bottom stones of course 
 sustain the load or weight of the building, and hence the 
 greater the risk arising from any irregularities in the bedding 
 of the stone. To avoid this, the stone should be dressed true, 
 no spalls used, and properly bedded. In New York City the 
 foundation or base stones nearly all of which come from quar- 
 ries on the island are of Gneiss, a kind of granite, which crops 
 out above the surface in irregular strata. The others are com- 
 mon building stone, and a blue kind of limestone. 
 
 No back joints should be allowed beyond the face of the up- 
 per work, except where the footings are in double courses, and 
 every stone should bond into the body of the work several 
 inches at least. Unless this is attended to, the footings will 
 not receive the weight of the superstructure and will be useless. 
 See 111. 13. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 13. 
 
 In fixing the spread of the footings or foundation courses of 
 the masonry or brick-work of ordinary walls the usual rule is to 
 make the breadth of the base one and one-half the thickness of 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 45 
 
 the body of the wall on compact gravel, and twice that thick- 
 ness on sand or stiff clay. 
 
 The following principles should in all cases be observed in the 
 building of all kind of stone masonry : To build the masonry as 
 far as possible in a series of courses perpendicular to the direc- 
 tion of the pressure they have to sustain ; avoid all continuous 
 joints and break-joints ; use the largest stones for the foundation 
 courses ; lay all stones with layers or beds so that the pressure 
 will act directly perpendicular to the direction of the layers ; *. 
 e. y by laying the stone on its natural bed. This is of primary im- 
 portance to strength and durability. 
 
 Moisten the surface of dry and porous stone before bedding 
 it, which prevents the mortar from drying too fast, and being 
 reduced to powder by the stone absorbing its moisture. Fill all 
 the joints and all spaces between the stones with mortar ; have 
 such spaces as small as possible. 
 
 Stone-work is estimated by the perch of twenty-five cubic feet, 
 01 by the cubic foot. 
 
 Brick for Foundation Footings, etc. The following are the 
 principles to be observed in building with brick : 
 
 First. Reject all bad shaped and unsound bricks. Good bricks 
 are regular in shape, with plane surfaces and sharp, true angles. 
 They give a clear ringing sound when struck. When broken, 
 they show a compact, uniform structure. Should not absorb 
 more than one-fifteenth their weight in water. 
 
 Second. Place the beds of the courses perpendicular to the 
 pressure which they sustain. Make the bricks in each course 
 break-joint with those of the courses above and below, by over- 
 lapping from one-quarter to one-half of the brick. Cleanse the 
 bricks, wet them thoroughly before laying to avoid absorbing 
 the moisture in the mortar too rapidly. Fill all the joints with 
 mortar, taking care that the mortar shall not exceed one-quarter 
 of one inch in thickness ; lay four courses to ten inches, or four 
 courses to twelve inches, accordingly as you use different thick 
 nesses of brick, and then only allow one-quarter inch for each 
 joint. Use no bats or pieces of bricks. 
 
 The volume of mortar required for good brick-work is about 
 one-fifth of the volume of the bricks. 
 
44 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 English bond (Illus. 14) in brick-work is considered the strong- 
 est It consists in laying entire courses of headers and stretch- 
 
 i ~~ , i . 
 
 i i i ii ii ii ii i 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 14. 
 
 ers periodically; the proportion here shown is one course of 
 headers to two of stretchers. 
 
 In ordinary walls it is usual to lay one course of headers to 
 four of stretchers. Flemish bond in brick-work is a header and 
 stretcher laid in each course ; thus: (Illus. 15.) 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 15. 
 
 This presents a very neat appearance, but it is not considered 
 as strong, where a question of strength arises, as the English 
 bond. 
 
 In building a factory chimney the longitudinal tenacity is more 
 important than the transverse ; and it is best, in cases of this 
 kind, to have four stretchers to one of headers. 
 
 Brick-work is estimated by the thousand, and also by the cu- 
 bic foot. Walls vary slightly in thickness, owing to the sizes 
 of the brick ; but the superficial quantity is the same. 
 
 TABLE OF BRICK-WORK. 
 
 8 or 9 inch wall, 1 brick thick, 14 bricks to the superficial foot. 
 
 12 or 13 " " 11-2 " " 21 " " " " 
 
 16 or 18 " " 2 " 28 " " " " 
 
 20 or 22 " " 21-2 " " 35 " " " " 
 
 The best Philadelphia and Baltimore bricks are eight and one- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 45. 
 
 half inches long by four and one-quarter inches wide, by two 
 and one-half inches thick. 
 
 The Baltimore front and wall brick is the same size as the 
 Philadelphia. The average size New York brick is eight inches 
 in length, four inches wide, and two and one-quarter inches thick, 
 and is mostly made up the North River. Inferior grades of 
 brick are made eight inches long, three and one-half wide, 
 and two and one-half thick, and some of them sold in the New 
 York market are unfit for sound walls. The Croton North River' 
 brick measures eight inches by three and three-quarters wide, 
 by two and one-quarter inches thick ; average when laid, four 
 courses, including mortar, to ten inches. The very handsome 
 white brick for ornamental purposes, from Perth Amboy, is 
 eight and one-quarter inches long, four and one-eighth inches 
 wide, and two and one-quarter inches thick. The Trenton, 
 New Jersey brick is eight and three-eighths inches long, four 
 inches wide, and two and three-eighths inches thick. The En- 
 ameled-faced bricks made in New Jersey are buff, brown, black 
 cream, and blue in color, and are eight inches long, four inches 
 wide, and two and one-half thick. Hollow burned brick, used 
 for hollow brick walls and inside firring of various sizes, are : 
 
 Single, 8 inches long, 3 5-8 inches wide, by 2 1-4 inches thick ; 
 Double, 8 " " 71-2 " " " 41-2 " " 
 Treble, 8 " " 7 1-4 " " " 7 1-4 " " 
 
 Hollow arch bricks are about 71-4x7 1-4, beveled for arches, 
 and of various sizes. 
 
 Use of Stone for Building Purposes. "M. Viollet-le-Duc has 
 told us how the mediaeval constructors made it a rule to place 
 stone upon their beds ; how in buttresses, arches, and vaulting 
 of different kinds the stones were so laid as to receive the thrust 
 obliquely or laterally upon their beds ; and how they employed 
 only certain stones capable of great powers of endurance which 
 are less easily delaminated i. e. liable to scale off in layers when 
 so fixed. About thirty years ago the late Mr. C. H. Smith, who 
 had thoroughly studied the subject of lithology, said that the 
 importance of laying stones in buildings upon their beds was 
 generally over-rated, and that it signified little which way a stone 
 was laid unless it presented a decidedly laminated structure. 
 
46 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 We unhesitatingly maintain that soft, calcareous or limestone 
 should be laid in the walls of a building upon its natural bed, 
 and that the beds should not be exposed to inclement weathei 
 after they have been dressed. 
 
 It is by no means certain that porous stones are inferior be- 
 cause of their porousness. 
 
 If stone easily soaks up water it also easily ejects it. Damp- 
 ness attacking a stone wall from the outside is infinitely less de- 
 structive than that which attacks it from the inside. Provided 
 the action be free from the outside to the inside and not from 
 the inside to the outside of a stone the moisture does not serious- 
 ly injure it. Soft stones for years impregnated with dampness 
 have not decomposed even though laid in the basement walls of 
 a building. Certain stones which decompose after exposure to 
 the air remain intact in water or damp earth. Stone is much 
 more likely to decay in damp and sheltered situations than when 
 it is exposed to the full action of atmospheric influences ; but 
 this should be "read between the lines" because in damp situa- 
 tions stone is not always subject to decay. If the exposed face 
 of the stone dries and leaves the heart of the stone unnaturally 
 wet the internal moisture will ultimately crystallize upon the 
 surface, and during this process a certain amount of decomposi- 
 tion will take place in the stone itself. 
 
 But if the stone be so placed as to permit the moisture it has 
 received from the outside to be drawn away from it in a fluid 
 state its component parts will not suffer vital deterioration. 
 
 Limestones suffer quick deterioration when placed next to 
 certain sandstones. Various kinds of lime and cement eat in- 
 to soft calcareous stone, which, besides, contains within itself 
 the elements of its own destruction ; and dampness insidiously 
 admitted will set in motion these elements of change which in 
 a latent state are harmless. 
 
 Rondelet totally ignoring the fact that in architecture peo- 
 ple prefer to spend as little money as possible except on exter- 
 nal show advises, under similar circumstances, the use of scin- 
 tillant or ignescent stones, i. e. those which emit sparks of fire 
 when struck with steel, because they effervesce on the applica- 
 tion of the principle acids ; some kinds however will resist the 
 action of fire. Calcareous stone is that which is the most abun- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 47 
 
 dantly found upon the surface of the globe. It is homogeneous, 
 easily quarried and wrought and it adheres to mortar. It is 
 perfectly well known that under certain acids, even vegetable 
 acids, these calcareous stones effervesce and disintegrate ; and 
 that under the action of fire they are converted into quick lime 
 and carbonic acid. It has also been observed that a species of 
 spider, microscopic in size, is a fertile agent of destruction. 
 These insects spin their webs in the almost imperceptible cavi- 
 ties which abound in limestones ; dust rests upon them and moist- 
 ure of all kinds is thus attracted, and this, with the incessant 
 labours of the insects themselves, is one of the causes of deterio- 
 ration. (This does not often occur in this country.) We have still 
 to allude to an important fact connected with stone of nearly all 
 kinds. A natural action takes place in the majority of lime- 
 stones immediately upon their extraction from the quarry and 
 exposure to the air. This action, which in most cases is vital 
 in its effects and certain in its results if properly encouraged, 
 should not be ignored by architects and builders. The half hard 
 and soft stones harden after their extraction. 
 
 All calcareous stones originally contain a certain quantity of 
 water which is known as quarry water. Some kinds are only 
 a step removed from soft stone, and form upon their surface 
 a crest or covering almost impossible to penetrate with the chis- 
 el ; while at the depth of half an inch the stone may be scratch- 
 ed with the thumb nail. This crust is the result of the evapora- 
 tion of the quarry water. This water coming to the surface of 
 the stone brings with it a certain quantity of dissolved carbonate 
 of lime which crystallizes and forms the crust above referred 
 to. It is twice as easy to work stone with quarry water in it as 
 it is when the water has evaporated ; but this is only possible in 
 certain climates and seasons. 
 
 Water freezing within the pores of a stone must exercise a 
 disintegrating action ; and this action often completely destroys 
 the stone for building purposes when quarried in the winter 
 and exposed to the influence of frost. 
 
 In the Use of Stone for Building Purposes and Walls generally, 
 
 it is important that the architect and builder should have a fair 
 knowledge of rocks and the quarries from whence the stones 
 
48 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 are obtained ; hence, there is herewith given some concise defi- 
 nitions of oxides, and the formation of various Rocks found and 
 in use for Building purposes generally. 
 Lime is oxide of calcium. 
 Soda is oxide of sodium. 
 Silica or Quartz is oxide of silicum. 
 Alumina is oxide of aluminum. 
 
 Rocks :^-Feldspar is a double silicate of alumina and an alkali ; 
 there are many varieties, and it is nearly as hard as quartz. 
 
 Hornblende is a double silicate of iron and alumina : it is slaty 
 in structure, but generally a mass of prismatic crystals, some- 
 times fibrous, but not elastic. Among the varieties is asbestos ; 
 which is pulverized and iised as fire-proof paint, and woven into 
 felt for roofing, etc. 
 
 Syenite is hornblendic granite ; it has the same feldspar and 
 quartz as granite, but has hornblende instead of mica ; it re- 
 sembles the mica granites very closely, but does not split well. 
 
 Granite consists of feldspar, quartz and mica : it is the most 
 granular of all rocks. The quartz is usually white and glassy. 
 Feldspar is light red or yellowish white, and the mica is in little 
 packages or sheets of any color to black. Immense quarries of 
 all shades of granite are found throughout Maryland, also in 
 Virginia, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and in most of the 
 United States. The Equitable Building, Broadway, New York, 
 is built of Concord Granite ; it is an excellent stone building. 
 The Staats Zeitung Building opposite the City Hall, N. Y., is 
 built of two kinds of Granite ; the first story is Quincy Granite ; 
 the other stories are of Concord. The Western Union Build- 
 ing, N. Y., is built of a light grey granite from the vicinity of 
 Richmond, Va. (the bricks on the fronts are from Baltimore). 
 
 Gneiss is a form of stratified granite, obscure and irregular in 
 strata ; it is somewhat crystaline ; it is a metamorphic rock, not 
 valuable generally for building purposes. 
 
 Schists are rocks composed of finer materials than the gneiss. 
 Schists are stratified ; the strata generally lays flat. This is al- 
 so a metamorphic rock. 
 
 Slates are the finer grained schists. The clay slate is the 
 finest grained of the slate ; the talcose slate is the most metallif- 
 erous, the mica next, and the clay slate next 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 49 
 
 Marble is the purest form of carbonate of lime (except stalac- 
 tites), and is an earlier formation of limestone, with a pressure 
 which retained the carbonic acid. The Marble residence erect- 
 ed for A. T. Stewart, in New York, is built of selected White 
 Marble from the Westchester County quarries of N. Y. The 
 Mutual Life Insurance Company Building, of Boston, Mass., is 
 built of Marble from the quarries of Westchester County, N. Y. 
 The Drexel Building is built of Connecticut Marble. 
 
 Calcite, or Carbonate of Lime consists of transparent crystals 
 when pure, but changes color with impurities, becoming white 
 marble, or blue, yellow or grey limestones. 
 
 Gypsum or Sulphate of Lime, i. e., the result of the action of 
 the oxide of sulphur on oxide of calcium, is known as Plaster 
 of Paris. 
 
 Oxide of Iron is a rock-building mineral, and is diffused 
 through nearly all rocks ; makes great rock masses by itself ; 
 oxide of iron in limestone or sandstone injures it for dressed 
 stone surfaces. 
 
 Talc is a silicate of magnesia with some potash and iron, 
 greasy of touch ; allied species are soapstone and serpentine. 
 
 Serpentine is a greenish melted rock ; it is almost entirely 
 made of talc. Some varieties are used for fine masonry. 
 
 Green Stone is composed of feldspar and hornblende ; it is 
 granular and very tough and hard ; it is the metamorphic form 
 of the igneous rock, diorite. 
 
 Diorite is hornblende and feldspar ; is grayish white some- 
 times with speckles of dark green spots. 
 
 Basalt consists of feldspar, augite and chrysolite, and often 
 with iron in small proportions ; it is dark grey or green to black. 
 A basalt stone of dark color is extensively quarried in New 
 Jersey for rough walls and foundations. 
 
 Dolerite is basalt with chrysolite left out, and is not so often, 
 green like basalt. 
 
 White Trap is a pure feldspar ; white trap is used extensively 
 in New York for paving stones. 
 
 Sandstone. A Rock composed of sand agglutinated. Com- 
 pact sandstones are used, for fronts of buildings ; for instance,. 
 Bellville, N. J., brown stone, or Connecticut brown stone, etc.; 
 Friable Sandstone is not suitable for constructive purposes ; 
 
5O POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Ferruginous sandstone ; this becomes discolored in spots ; 
 Concretionary sandstone ; Micaceous sandstone, is sandstone 
 with scales of mica: Argillaceous sandstone contains much 
 clay with sand ; also called Shaly stone when thin and laminated. 
 Marley sandstone contains carbonate of lime, so as to effervesce 
 when treated with weak acid. 
 
 Veins are the crevices and fissures of the rocks, filled with 
 other substances than the rocks. 
 
 Hydraulic Lime is any combination of lime with very silicious 
 clay. 
 
 Marl is simply limestone ; has been so recently formed that 
 it has not yet become compacted into solid rock. 
 
 Pozzoulana Tufa is an earthy rock, not very hard, made from 
 volcanic cinder, more or less decomposed, usually of a yellowish 
 brown color ; it is used for hydraulic cement. 
 
 Sand is comminutive or pulverized rock of any kind ; but 
 common sand is mainly quartz, or quartz and feldspar. 
 
 Pink and Red Granites The color occurs in feldspar. When 
 used in buildings they produce a fine effect, and can be highly 
 polished. Also, when it is the intention to use a stone without 
 cutting the surfaces, and only squared with a tooled face, and 
 where the edges are axed, it is very fine in effect. Dark-red 
 granite, equal to the Scotch, is now quarried in Nova Scotia. 
 
 The foregoing list* gives the average kind of rocks and sand- 
 stones of the earth used in construction, etc. There are many 
 varieties, not necessary to name here, with names peculiar to 
 the location of quarries, and varieties with traces of metal, etc. 
 
 Strength of Building Stone. The strength of the building 
 stone used in some parts of this country have been investigated 
 by crushing tests at the Columbia School of Mines, at the Navy 
 Yard in Washington, and in other places. 
 
 The result of these tests show, that the strongest of our build- 
 ing stones are the trap rocks of New Jersey and Staten Island, 
 which bear a pressure of 24,000 Ibs., per cubic inch. They are 
 not used, however, owing to the cost of working them, except 
 where the blocks may be fitted together roughly. 
 
 * We are indebted to the book of Mr. F. H. Smith, for the definition of 
 some of these terms. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 51 
 
 The strongest granites come from Westerly, R. I., Richmond, 
 Va., and Port Deposit, Md. The largest variety of granites 
 come from this State and are of all shades of grey, green and 
 salmon colors. These will stand a pressure of 17,750, 21,250 and 
 1 9,750 pounds respectively to the cubic inch. Granite is the most 
 durable of all stone in every day use. The fine red polished 
 granites, so much used of late, come from Peterhead, near Aber- 
 deen, Scotland, and the bay of Fundy, and to all intents and 
 purposes will last forever. 
 
 The strongest marbles come from Lee, Mass., and bear 13,440 
 pounds to the cubic inch, and Tuckahoe, N. Y. 12,650 pounds. 
 These are stronger than the bay of Fundy granite, which stands 
 a pressure of only 1 1,812 pounds to the cubic inch. Italian mar- 
 ble will bear 11,250 pounds, and the statuary marble Carrara 
 only 9,723 pounds pressure to the cubic inch. 
 
 Good rough marbles are found in Westchester County. The 
 strongest limestone comes from Kingston, N. Y. It will resist 
 1 3,900 pounds to the cubic inch, and has the greatest variety of 
 colors of all building stone. 
 
 That from Glens Falls takes a high polish and is jet black, that 
 from Lockport is gray, and the delicate cream and dove tints are 
 found in the Athens and Caen stones. Lighter shades are 
 found in the Bermuda and Florida rocks. 
 
 The gray Lockport stone when dressed by the hammer resem- 
 bles a light granite, and is frequently used for trimming brick 
 houses. The cream-colored limestone of Paris basin is very 
 soft at first, and would be esteemed by a green hand unfit for 
 any purpose, but it hardens when dressed, and can be used for 
 the most delicate work : the exposure that would chip the work 
 in other stones improving it. The Topeka stone from Kansas 
 possesses the same valuable property. When fresh from the 
 quarry it can be sawed like wood in any shape. The lime-stones 
 that are most valued, however, in this country, come from Dayton, 
 Ohio ; they are greatly used by Cincinnati builders. In Chicago 
 the favorite limestone is the Athens, before mentioned from 
 northern Illinois. The lighter stone comes from the Ohio, and 
 belongs to the lower carboniferous. A medium between the two, 
 in color, comes from Amherst. Both are excellent for resisting 
 
52 POWELL S- FOUNDATIONS 
 
 fire. Many of the finest buildings in Cincinnati are built of the 
 Waverly sandstone of a light dove color. 
 
 Another rich stone is the St. Genevieve from Missouri, it is 
 straw colored and finely grained. All these stones will stand a 
 greater pressure than is ever demanded of them, 50,000 pounds to 
 the sq. ft., being, perhaps the maximum. The pillars of All Saints 
 Church at Angiers sustain a pressure of 86,000 pounds to the 
 square foot, and the columns of the Pantheon 60,000 Ibs. Build- 
 ing stones in stores, warehouses and office buildings are often 
 used where they carry an actual load of from 60,000 to 75,000 Ibs., 
 per sq. foot. Where the load is excessive it is always best to en- 
 large the piers, or add brickwork to distribute the load. 
 
 Footing Stones. 
 
 Flags or slabs of stone that are thin make poor footings, where, 
 in proportion to the weight of the superstructure, they are car- 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 16. 
 
 ried out to get a greater bearing. When this is done, the stone 
 will often rend, and become displaced, through the whole batter, 
 as may be seen in Illustration 16. 
 
 In building large masses of work, such as the abutments of 
 bridges and the like, the proportionate increase of bearing sur- 
 face obtained by the projections of the footings is very slight, 
 and there is a great risk of the latter being broken off by the 
 settlement of the body of the work. It is therefore usual in 
 these cases to give very little projections to the footing courses, 
 and to bring up the work with a battering face, or with a suc- 
 cession of very slight set offs. See Illustration 17. 
 
 Footings of undressed rubble built in common mortar are not 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 53 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 17. 
 
 sate ; for in case of the compression of the mortar, it is sure to 
 displace the superstructure. 
 
 A safe way of using rubble is to break it up tolerably small, 
 and lay it in the trenches without mortar, as it forms a hard un- 
 yielding bottom so long as it is prevented from spreading later- 
 ally by the pressure of the ground. 
 
 Where the building is of small rubble, the best way to proceed 
 is to lay the foundations with cement mortar, so that the whole 
 will form a solid mass. In this case the size and shape of the 
 stone is not important. 
 
 In building with brick, the great point to be attended to in 
 the footing courses is to keep the back joints as far as possible 
 from the face of the work ; and in ordinary cases the best plan 
 is to lay the footings in single courses the outside of the work 
 being laid, all headers and no course projecting more than one- 
 quarter of the length of the brick above it, except in eight or 
 nine inch walls. Where more bond is required in the work, the 
 courses must be doubled, the heading course above and the 
 stretching course below. See Illustration 18. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 18. 
 
54 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Bricks used in trenches and for footings should be the hardest 
 and firmest It is desirable that the bottom course should in all 
 cases be a double one. 
 
 Proper care and judgment should be exercised upon laying the 
 footing courses of any building, as upon them depends much of 
 the stability of the work. 
 
 If any rents or interstices are left in the beds of the masonry 
 or if the materials themselves are unsound or badly put togeth- 
 er, such carelessness will show sooner or later, and then there 
 is no remedy ; or if one, it will be attended with great expense. 
 
 InTerted Arches used in the footings and foundation walls of 
 superstructures, should have properly considered abutments for 
 them on both sides. If used at the extreme angles of a building 
 (see illustration 19), the effect of any settlement will move the 
 corner pier from a plumb or vertical position to the dotted line 
 shown on figure. The execution of these inverted arches should 
 be very perfect, as any settlement in them has a bad effect on the 
 piers, and consequently gives opportunity for that fracture which 
 their presence was intended to obviate. 
 
 Inverted arches may be constructed with facility by moulding 
 their backs in the ground to be occupied by them ; and this may 
 be very exactly done by pressing down an inverted centering, 
 removing it, and smoothing down the cement or concrete. The 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 19. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 5$ 
 
 setting of the brick or stone then becomes an easy matter. Be- 
 sides foundations for buildings, inverted arches are constantly 
 used in constructing sewers. 
 
 The parabolic form is the best for such arches ; it is the surest 
 for resisting thrust, and besides this has the advantage of not 
 having to be sunk in the ground so deep. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 20. 
 
 Illustration 20 represents the method of getting the lines for 
 centering for a curve approaching the parabolic or elliptic, and 
 is generally used where half circles cannot be used. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 21. 
 
POWELLS FOUNDATIONS 
 
 It is sometimes required to span spaces where there is a soft 
 bottom, when inverted arches are used. In cases of this kind 
 a form of construction, as shown in illustration 21, may be used. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 22. 
 For large spaces use the Elliptic Arch, 
 
 In cases where the ground is soft the expense of spreading 
 out solid work to the requisite extent, renders it necessary to 
 use some cheaper method for the footings. Three methods may 
 be mentioned. 
 
 First. To put in a wide footing course of timber, using tim- 
 ber that will sustain heavy shearing strains ; it is best to char 
 the timber. 
 
 Second. To put down a layer of concrete, using one of the 
 various hydraulic limes in its composition. The concrete should 
 be spread over the footings to a breadth equal to the bearing 
 surface of the stratum below the footings. 
 
 Third. To build upon a layer of sand or gravelly deposit, 
 with trenches dug to receive it, which pressing against the sides 
 as well as the bottom, distribute the weight of the structure over 
 a large resisting surface 
 
 Where it is the intention to erect buildings on soft ground, 
 and a large bearing surface can be obtained, timber may be used 
 with great advantage, provided the timber can be prevented 
 from decaying. Some char the timber, and others give it a coat 
 of asphaltum. If the ground is wet, and the timber is good, 
 there is little to fear ; but when it is alternately wet and dry you 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 57 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 23. 
 
 cannot depend on unprepared timber. The kyanizingand creo- 
 soting process was used some fifteen years ago, but is seldom 
 used now, as most localities have some method of their own, 
 such as hereinbefore mentioned. 
 
 The best method of using planks under walls is to cut them 
 in short lengths, which should be placed across the foundations 
 and tied by longitudinal plank, laid to the width of the bottom 
 course of the walls, and spiked to the bottom planking. See Il- 
 lustration 23. 
 
 A common method of planking foundations is shown in Illus- 
 tration 24. The space under the planking should be rammed. 
 After this, bed the sleepers of timber in concrete, and fill the 
 spaces between them flush with concrete to the top, so that the 
 planking may rest on a solid level surface. 
 
 This same method is used under basement or cellar floors, to 
 prevent rats and mice from getting in and making nests. 
 
 Before proceeding further with footings and foundations, it is 
 important for the architect and builder to have some knowledge 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 24. 
 
 of the weight and material used in the superstructure or building 
 to be supported on these foundation walls, and for this purpose 
 we present the following tables : 
 
 NOTE. Mr. Dobson, C. E., who has devoted considerable time and atten- 
 tion to the subject of foundations, has been consulted in some instances on 
 this subject. 
 
58 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 TABLE OF WEIGHT OF TIMBERS, DRY. 
 
 Green timber usually weighs one-third more than dry. 
 
 Maple 49 pounds to a cubic foot. 
 
 WhiteOak 51 " " 
 
 Southern Yellow Pine .....45 " " 
 
 Northern Yellow Pine 35 " " 
 
 WhitePine 30 " " 
 
 Spruce 25 " " 
 
 Hemlock 25 " " 
 
 Chestnut 41 " " 
 
 Cherry 42 " " 
 
 Ash 38 " " 
 
 WEIGHT OF BUILDING STONES, ETC., PER CUBIC FOOT. 
 
 Granite or Limestone, dressed 165 Ibs. to 1 cubic foot. 
 
 Masonry of Granite, well scabbled, mortar rubble, 
 
 one-fifth of mass Mortar 154 " " " 
 
 Brickwork, mortar included, 115 " " " 
 
 Marble 168 u " " 
 
 Hardened Mortar (1 to 4 and 1 to 9) Sand weighs . .103 " " " 
 
 Serpentine Stone 162 " " " 
 
 Sand (Sand is retentive of moisture and varies greatly 
 
 in weight) 90 to 120 " *' 
 
 Water 62 " * 
 
 Clay(dry) 119 " *' 
 
 Hydraulic Rosendale Cement, American 56 " " 
 
 Teil Hydraulic Lime 45 " " " 
 
 Common Loam Earth, slightly moist 75 " " " 
 
 Common Loam Earth, slightly moist, and firm sand, 
 
 moderately packed 90tol02 " " 
 
 Gneiss 166 Ibs. cubic foot, loose in piles 98 
 
 Hornblendic Gneiss 175 " " 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Arches in Walls. At the springing line of arch to walls it is 
 well to provide stone skewbacks or corbelling, represented by 
 Illustration 25. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 25. 
 
 By this method the construction of the arch does not encroach, 
 upon the piers. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 26. 
 
6o POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Construction of Arches. In constructing brick arches it is 
 always best to specify arch brick, as they form better vous- 
 soirs than the parallel brick, and do not have to depend so much 
 on the cement or mortar. Arches over piers or thick walls, 
 which support a superstructure or several stories, should be 
 constructed as shown in illustration 26, so as to bond the arch 
 trick. 
 
 Chimney Walls and Building the same. A broad, deep ane* 
 substantial foundation is necessary below the action of frost, 
 so that it may not settle. If the chimney becomes a part of 
 the walls, the footings should be made proportionately broad to 
 sustain the weight above. 
 
 The Chimney should be straight and smooth, having no 
 angles or jogs if possible. No woodwork should be built into 
 the chimney, but a space around it should be left clear. 
 
 The walls of chimneys when built six inches thick, having 
 the bricks set on edge inside, and bonded with brick laid every 
 four or five courses, is nearly as safe as an eight-inch thick wall. 
 Where four-inch walls are used around flues to chimneys, it is 
 always best to carry the smoke-pipe into a vitriolized clay pipe, 
 this pipe to run ten to twelve feet above the smoke hole. An 
 opening at the bottom of all flues should be provided. It is 
 usual to have light iron frames and sheet iron doors, so that the 
 soot may be removed at any time. 
 
 Chimneys should be smoothly plastered with mortar mixed 
 with lime, with a small proportion of plaster of paris or cement. 
 Some architects require all joints in flues to be pointed. 
 
 Proportion for Brick Chimneys for manufactories using 
 from twenty to thirty horse-power engines. 
 
 The diameter at base should be not less than one-tenth of 
 the height. 
 
 The footings from one and one-half to twice the thickness of 
 base of chimney wall. 
 
 Batter of chimney, three-sixteenths ; three-eighths ; or, one- 
 half inch to one foot in height. 
 
 Thickness of brick wall at top, twelve inches. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 6* 
 
 From twenty-five to fifty feet below top of chimney, sixteen 
 to twenty inches. 
 
 From fifty to seventy-five feet below top, twenty-four inches 
 to two feet out four inches thick. 
 
 Such a chimney would average from six feet to six feet, eight 
 inches square at base, with twenty inches to two feet square 
 flue. 
 
 The batter of chimneys should reduce this size at the top to- 
 from one-quarter to one-third of the bottom diameter or side of 
 square. 
 
 From one-sixth to one-eighth of the heighth of chimney the 
 walls should be perpendicular, and when desired at starting line 
 of batter, use a belt course of stone or brick. 
 
 The top of chimney should always be capped with stone or 
 iron cap. 
 
 All brick laid on inside or outside of flue should batter evenly ; 
 they should be regular in size, sound and hard-burned, and laid 
 with even joints. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to remove dampness in chimney 
 flues by building a fire in the base, with light fuel, before build- 
 ing the engine fires. 
 
 A chimney for any ordinary boiler should be twenty to 
 twenty-five feet high. The location of a chimney governs the 
 height ; i. e., in the vicinity of houses it should not be less than 
 five feet above their roofs ; in low-lands it is necessary to carry 
 the top above the downward currents. 
 
 Masons' and Stone-Cutters' Tools. The names given tools for 
 this purpose vary according to locality, but the following names 
 are common over the United States : 
 
 The Face Hammer. The head has one flat end, and one 
 wedge shaped edge for roughly shaping stones from the quarry ^ 
 the head is 8 inches to 10 inches long. 
 
 The Double Face Hammer weighs from twenty to thirty 
 pounds, and is used the same as the other, but for the roughest 
 work. 
 
 The Pick Hammer is used for rough dressing on sandstone 
 or limestone ; it is wedge shaped on both edges, with handle 
 in the centre. 
 
2 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The Axe Hammer has also two wedge edges for cutting ; it 
 is ten inches long and four inches wide on each edge. It is 
 used in reducing faces and joints to a level, and for axing a 
 uraft around the edges of stone. 
 
 The Patent Hammer is a double-headed tool, and holds a set 
 of wide, thin chisels. The chisels are held in position with 
 bolts on ends of head, etc. There is also a variety of tools that 
 require only the use of one hand : The hand hammer, which 
 weighs from two to five pounds, is used in pointing, drilling 
 holes, and work on hard rock with chisels ; the mallet is used 
 where sandstone or limestone is to be cut ; the chisels used are 
 known as tooth chisels, splitting chisels, plug chisels for split- 
 ting rocks, etc. Stone carvers have a variety of tools, for which 
 there are no names in particular, and which are varied according 
 to their work. 
 
 In specifying masonry, whether patent hammered, axed, bush 
 hammered, etc., it is best to have each estimator supply a 
 sample cube of four to six inches of -stone, all from the same 
 stone, and of the style of work proposed to be done. 
 
 Stone-Cutting. All stones used in buildings are as follows : 
 Rough stones that are used as they come from the quarry. 
 Stones roughly squared and dressed. 
 Stones accurately squared and finely dressed. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 27. 
 Drafted or Axed Edge and Pointed Quarry-faced Ashlar. 
 
 Quarry-faced Stones are those whose faces are left the same 
 as they come from the quarry, similar to illustrations. 
 
 Drafted Stones are those on which the face is surrounded 
 with a chisel draft, the inner space left rough. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 63 
 
 Squared Stones ; all stones that are roughly squared and 
 dressed on beds and joints, and where the thickness of joint is 
 from one-half to one inch thick, as the case may be. 
 
 Cut Stones. This is for all stones dressed true and square, with 
 dressed bed and joints ; the edges may be drafted and the face 
 left rough ; bush or patent hammered work on some sandstones 
 seems to loosen the stone, and in course of time it will shell off. 
 
 Ashlar or broken ashlar masonry may have its faces cut with 
 any of the various tools, /. e. y bush hammered, patent hammered, 
 fine pointed, etc., or rubbed work ; it is always known as cut 
 work unless particularly described. (See illustration 27.) 
 
 Hubble Footings for ordinary walls are usually built as shown 
 in figure 28, of rough stone, bedded in mortar composed of one- 
 third well-burnt stone lime, and two-thirds clean sharp sand ; A 
 representing the footing. 
 
 IZ 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 28. Rubble Footings. 
 
 Bond Rubble. Provide a sufficient quantity of stones ioi 
 bonding in greater lengths than the size of the rubble stone, 
 which are used or bedded as found in the quarry. All interstices 
 should be filled with small stone and mortar ; and at the height 
 of eighteen to twenty-four inches the work should be routed 
 with new made (mortar) grouting and used at once. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 29. Bond Rubble. 
 
6 4 
 
 POWELLS FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Random Coursed Stone Work. Figure 30 represents neat 
 faced and pointed random coursed work ; the stones to be ham- 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 30. Random Course. 
 
 mer dressed to a fair surface, or tool pointed ; with neat joints 
 well pointed with mortar. 
 
 Regular Faced and Squared Stone "Work. This is usually 
 built above ground, for basement or exterior walls, and in areas, 
 and is finished in neat and regular coursed work, no course more 
 than sixteen inches or less than eight inches, as the case may 
 be ; it is hammered and dressed to a fair surface, and the joints 
 are close and true. 
 
 ~ 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 31. Quarry Faced. 
 
 Trimmed and Coursed Ashlar Facing. The faces of exterior 
 walls of buildings are usually trimmed with ashlar facing of stone ; 
 the joints may be all square and close, or have moulded or cham- 
 fered edges with horizontal beveled joints. 
 
 T 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 32. Trimmed and Coursed ashlar facing* 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 65 
 
 The following list gives some of the stones used for the exte- 
 rior of buildings for facings or ashlar work, in New York city and 
 surroundings. 
 
 Dorchester, New Brunswick, Green Stone. Iron sometimes 
 appears on the surface if not selected. 
 
 Berea Stone. Blue cast, grey ; very good ; produces fine effect 
 in combination with brick. 
 
 Wyoming Yalley Blue Stone, Penn. Of a close texture ; used 
 in front ashlar, trimmings, etc.; not good for flags. 
 
 Marble. The most of the marble used in New York comes 
 from the quarries of Westch ester County. The marble for the 
 R. C. Cathedral was quarried at Pleasant ville, New York. 
 
 Canaan Marble, of Conn., is used some, and also 
 
 The White Marble of Vermont. The fine grained marbles 
 are quarried principally in Rutland, Pittsford and Dorset Coun- 
 ties. 
 
 Connecticut Free or Brown Stone is not in use now as much 
 as formerly. 
 
 Blue Grey Stone, from Cincinnati, well spoken of. 
 
 Blue Stone Flags come from Hastings, on the North River. 
 
 Granite. The greater part formerly came from Concord, New 
 Hampshire, but now granites from Massachusetts, Maine, Mary- 
 land and Virginia are coming into use. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 33. 
 
 Figure 33 represents the faces of stone before being dressed; 
 A, the natural face ; B. bed of stone. 
 
66 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 One of the most beautiful building stones for residences, 
 churches, etc., is the serpentine stone found in Chester County, 
 Penn. It is known to preserve its freshness of color, which is a 
 pale green, varied, in some specimens, by darker shades of the 
 same color. It is valuable as a building material, and affords a 
 pleasing variation from the monotonous effect of rows of brick 
 or brown stone buildings. 
 
 Openings in Heayy Walls. It sometimes occurs in building 
 walls that an opening is required of a certain height, where a 
 semi-circular arch cannot be used, and yet the wall has to sus- 
 tain an immense load. In a case of that kind it is best, where 
 brick has to be used, to make the construction as shown by Il- 
 lustration 34. A represents the opening below segment arch ; 
 B the tier of beams to be supported ; and C the semi-circular 
 arch above (filled in) to sustain the total load. 
 
 T 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 34. 
 
 Dry Area of Brick or Bubble. Dry areas around buildings 
 are sometimes made in the following manner, and covered with 
 flat stone, or arched with brick or rubble stone (see illus. 35). 
 
 The bottom to have a descent to the drain, and paved with 
 brick laid with hot pitch, or as the case may require. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 35. 
 
 Preyention of Dampness in Cellar Walls. A dry cellar is one 
 of the requisites to a healthy house. A moist or damp cellar 
 acts as a constant reservoir of damp, chilly and impure air, 
 and the constant movement of the air in the warmer rooms 
 above causes currents of this air to rise and desseminate them- 
 selves through the inhabited rooms and become a constant 
 source of danger to the health of all occupants. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 36. 
 
68 
 
 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 People living over such cellars cannot but be seriously affected. 
 Many fatal cases of sickness can be traced to this cause, and, 
 doubtless, if our cellars were looked after more carefully, there 
 would be less complaint of malaria and kindred ailments. 
 
 It is the purpose in this chapter to give several methods of 
 building cellar walls and laying cellar bottoms so as to prevent 
 the penetration of dampness. 
 
 Architects often specify that the outside of the walls be ce- 
 mented from the footings to the base board of a frame house, 
 or the base line of stone sill course of a brick or stone house. 
 When it is not required to make a cement finish above the 
 line of ground, then the cement is stopped off four to six inches 
 below the ground. 
 
 In illustration 36, the earth is excavated on the exterior of 
 walls to a width of two feet from wall, and a depth of eighteen 
 to twenty inches, and at an angle of ten degrees descent. 
 When this is firmly packed, lay in cement one or two courses 
 of brick laid flat and well bedded and slushed with cement. 
 Allow it to thoroughly dry before covering with earth. 
 
 Where this method interferes with flowers and grasses up to 
 line of wall, that given in illustration 37 will be a more satisfac- 
 
 ' * b 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 37. 
 
 tory method. This illustration represents a wall coated with 
 cement on the outside or without any cement. To clearly ex- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 69 
 
 plain the method, after the walls have been built and cemented 
 on the outside (Rosendale cement is good for the purpose), ex- 
 cavate the earth on the outside to the line of bottom of foot- 
 ings, fill with firm earth to top of footings, pack in carefully, 
 and grade surface to a proper descent, of not less than half an 
 inch to the foot. It would be better to give it an inclination of 
 two or three inches to the foot. Then on this trench or surface 
 lay brick as shown, slushed with cement, and on the brick put a 
 coat of cement not less than I 1-2 inches thick, as shown by 
 black lines, and wait for it to dry. Then set drain tiles of the 
 form shown, they are of various forms (some having holes in the 
 sides). On top of this put loosely broken stone, say three or 
 four inches in size, and then cover the whole surface with earth, 
 fill up and pack firmly. After a week or two fill up level with 
 ground line and pave or sod. Where there is a clay bottom 
 and much moisture this will not always prevent the penetration 
 of dampness. 
 
 To overcome this difficulty, prepare the interior of the cellar 
 as shown in illustration 39 and the outside of cellar walls as 
 shown in 38, which will be found to operate quite successfully. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 38. 
 
 There are clay soils sufficiently solid to support the walls of 
 dwelling houses in which the clay in wet seasons retains moist- 
 
7<3 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ure that is not carried away into the earth, but rises and works 
 through the cellar bottom, keeping it almost constantly damp. 
 This is a serious difficulty to overcome, but I have known the 
 method shown in illustration No. 38 to be carried out with suc- 
 cess. 
 
 In this case prepare the cellar bottom and lay, say three or 
 four inches of sand, which is to be rolled down firm and even. 
 Following the cellar walls all around make shallow gutters in 
 the sand. On top of this lay a coat of cement I 1-2 to 2 inches 
 in thickness, covering the whole surface of the cellar, taking 
 care that sufficient descent is given to carry the water to the 
 drain leading to sewer. 
 
 After the cement is fully dry give it a complete coat of as- 
 phalt over the whole surface and up to the inside line of brick 
 walls, carrying the asphalt through the walls, as shown in 
 illustration 38, up on the outside either to the earth line or 
 above it. 
 
 Illustration 39 gives another method of securing a dry cellar 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 39. 
 
 Prepare and do all work of levelling the cellar bottom that 
 may be required; spread over this sand to the depth of three 
 to five inches, beat down with rammer or make it firm and hard 
 with a heavy roller. On top of this, cover the whole surface 
 I 1-2 inches thick with American or English cement ; carry it 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 71 
 
 well against the walls. Coat the outside walls with cement I 
 inch thick in the same manner, continuing it up to ground 
 line. When this is dry, cover the cellar bottom and inside 
 and outside walls with asphaltum as shown. Apply while hot. 
 Then take hard-burned, good, even brick, dip them in asphalt, 
 and lay a floor or pavement over the entire cellar. This when 
 properly done, makes a superior floor and a dry cellar bottom. 
 
 A good cellar floor. When the cellar bottom is not very damp 
 and there is no moisture after rains, a bottom may be prepared 
 thus : Cover the surface of cellar with half lime and cement 
 mortar, and on this level, sleepers or beams for flooring ; fill in 
 the spaces between beams with concrete up to the top of beams, 
 and on this lay the flooring. 
 
 A very durable composition for a cellar bottom may be made 
 of cement and asphalt. Mix them in a large pan or boiler over 
 a fire, and when thoroughly mixed and tough, spread it over the 
 surface. 
 
 A good mixture for bedding with is 65 parts asphalt, 10 parts 
 coal tar, and 25 parts sand. It must be used while hot. 
 
 It may be well to add that there are various ways of ascer- 
 taining the amount of dampness in cellars. 
 
 The Hygrometer Gauge is used for this purpose. The ordi- 
 nary form of this instrument consists of two thermometers 
 placed side by side, one of the bulbs being covered with muslin 
 or similar material, and the muslin wetted with water when an 
 observation is to be made. 
 
 When the cellar is quite dry the evaporation will be quite 
 rapid, so that the thermometer, whose bulb is covered with the 
 wet muslin, will mark a much lower temperature than the one 
 with the dry bulb, but, where the cellar is damp, there will be 
 but little evaporation, and consequently little difference in the 
 markings of the two thermometers so that the difference in the 
 readings of the thermometers forms a very good index of the 
 degree of dampness. 
 
 Another instrument acting on the same principle, but more 
 finely adjusted, is called the Psycrometer. 
 
 Sylvester's Process for Repelling Moisture from External 
 Walls. The proportions are first : Mix three-quarters of a pound 
 
72 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 castile soap with one gallon water ; second, mix one-half pound 
 alum with four gallons water. These substances to be perfectly 
 dissolved. The walls should be clean and dry, and the temper- 
 ature not less than 50 Fah. when the composition is applied. 
 
 Put the soap wash on when boiling hot with a flat brush, and 
 do not work to a froth. Let it dry twenty-four hours, or be per- 
 fectly dry. Then put on the alum wash at about 65 Fah. for 
 the mixture, it should dry perfectly before putting on the soap 
 wash ; this is to be repeated alternately until the wall is imper- 
 vious to water. The alum and soap forms an insoluble com- 
 ipound. 
 
 Damp. After reading an article with the heading "Damp" 
 in a foreign journal I was induced to make the following memo- 
 randa, to suit the subject in this country : i. e.: 
 
 The causes of dampness in buildings are: The presence of water 
 in the atmosphere and soil : and the porosity of building mate- 
 rials which absorb it. 
 
 Its effects are well known and may be classed as Disintegra- 
 tion of masonry with injury to any interior finish ; paper or kal- 
 somining. 
 
 Decay of timber and injury to wooden furniture. 
 
 Developement of Saltpetre on walls, and mouldy surfaces. 
 
 Injury to the health of the inhabitants. 
 
 "The decay of timber used in building often causes structures 
 to become unsafe as the ends of all the timbers may be laid in a 
 damp place or built in, and completely covered with cement or 
 lime ; this causes dry rot to set in very soon and the timber be- 
 comes useless. 
 
 Where chestnut or poplar beams are used, they decay so rap- 
 idly if used in damp places that after one or two years, there is 
 only a shell left, that may give away, when subject to any load. 
 
 The prevention and cure of dampness may be accomplished 
 by the employment and use of material suitable for cellars and 
 other parts of buildings below or on the level of the soil. In 
 some cases provide drains to carry away from the outside soil 
 adjoining the cellar walls all moisture, and again cement the out- 
 side walls from the trenches to level of the earth, and if it is a 
 clay soil and there is much moisture put a thick coat of hot as- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 73 
 
 phaltum on the cement. If this cannot be done outside coat the 
 walls with cement and asphaltum inside ; the same may be ap- 
 plied to the cellar bottom. 
 
 Where dampness is absorbed and rises in the walls from be- 
 low at the cellar bottom it is best to provide damp courses, of 
 asphaltum coated brick, grooved heavy enamelled brick ; sheet 
 lead, slate, copper or glass brick and a course of asphaltum 
 through the whole thickness of walls. 
 
 To protect the outside faces of walls from dampness, where 
 the walls are below ground : build a four inch brick lining ; set 
 off 2 inches on the inside of the walls. If not, build the 4-inch 
 damp course on the outside with the two-inch air space, a small 
 space at the top must be left open to allow the moisture to evap- 
 orate. Wooden strips may be painted with bituminous paint 
 and used to lath on, and a coat of plastering put on the whole 
 surface. A coating of cement and asphaltum may be used on 
 the walls for the same purpose. Sufficient protection may be 
 gained in some cases by using drain tile on the outside, starting 
 the tile from the wall line and carrying six to eight feet from the 
 walls with a descent of say 4 inches to the foot. 
 
 Hollow Brick Walls and also hollow bricks are used extensive- 
 ly now ; these have to be laid in such a manner that the headers 
 do not abutt against any inner bricks, and the stretchers are 
 laid similar to the flemish bond method of laying bricks see 
 this subject under the heading of hollow brick walls. 
 
 The most thoroughly sanitary foundation for a building is con- 
 crete : cover the whole area that is to be covered by the building, 
 with a four-inch layer of concrete composed of two-thirds brok- 
 en stone and one-third mortar ; the mortar to be made of sand 
 and lime. 
 
 Well puddled clay is said to make a good bottom for founda- 
 tions and cellar floors ; but this can only occur in extraordinary 
 cases and localities. 
 
 Puddle clay and mix it in heaps with ordinary slacked lime, 
 and burn as is done in the making of cement, after this it may 
 be mixed with a sufficient quantity of lime and water to work it ; 
 lay this all over the whole space of building and a space of 18 
 inches outside of the building lines. 
 
74 POWELL S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Gas refuse has been used to cover the interior surface of damp 
 walls and filling all the space on surfaces of stone, brick and mor- 
 tar ; but the offensive odor from this method is its most objec- 
 tionable feature. 
 
 Good results have been reported from the use of a solution 
 made of soap and alum, the result of the chemical reaction which 
 follows is to fill the pores of the brick or stone with a fatty sub- 
 stance -which opposes passage of water. 
 
 Dampness often penetrates or water finds its way into cellars 
 under window sills : to avoid this turn up one course of brick 
 inside against the sill. 
 
 Floors in Damp Locations. A German newspaper of 1882, 
 gives a lengthy report by Herr W. Lang on various methods 
 used to gain a strong and durable flooring on the earth, or cellar 
 bottom in a manufactory, that would be dry and stand the wear 
 of loaded trucks rolled over its surface. At first a layer of cem- 
 ent on a concrete floor was used ; but the necessity of washing 
 the floor, together with the wheels cutting the top surface, soon 
 completed their destruction. Two other methods were tried. 
 "After laying a fresh bed of concrete, a layer consisting of sand 
 and cement in equal parts about i 1-4 inches thick was laid, it 
 was well rammed down and then smoothed with a hand iron. 
 
 This method made a separate shell on top, the same as tried at 
 first. The second method consisted of mixing a concrete of one 
 part of cement, two parts of sand, and four parts of gravel, laying 
 it evenly and ramming it until a layer of from 3-4 of an inch to i 
 1-4 inches appeared on the surface without any gravel ; this layer 
 was then levelled and smoothed down. This floor proved to be 
 very good ; in all cases the thickness of concrete depends upon 
 the solidity of the bottom that it is put upon, if left to thoroughly 
 harden it will resist for a very long time any ordinary pressure." 
 
 In this article is a long account of some secret method 
 of preparing a concrete that would effectually prevent the action 
 of acids. In cases of this kind it is best to use stone slabs, pack- 
 ing the joints with lead or sulphur cement, run in in such a man- 
 ner as to be able to key underneath, as the action of acids 
 on cements and asphalts very soon destroys them. One of 
 the strongest and best road surfaces or floor surfaces that can 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 7 
 
 be put down readily is by a method used in Pine Street, New 
 York, as follows : The space to receive the floor is excavated 
 and cleared of all refuse and rolled to the level surface required 
 for the whole material. On this broken stone sufficiently large 
 for concrete (say stone that will pass through a ring 2 to 3 
 inches in diameter), is laid to a depth of 6, 8, or 12 inches, and the 
 whole surface slushed with cement, and this is rolled and before 
 it is dry, a coating of sand is laid to raise and make an even 
 surface. When this is sufficiently dry there is put on 
 the top a composition composed of powdered lime stone or 
 marble dust as coarse as sand, and mixed with an equal quanti- 
 ty of coarse, sharp sand, this is heated in large wrought iron 
 pans, and asphaltum is mixed in with it to make a stiff pliable- 
 cement. When this is thoroughly mixed and before using, the 
 concrete is covered in a rough, scratched manner with hot as- 
 phalt, and then on this the composition is spread from buck- 
 ets with shovel, etc.; as soon as it is in position it is rolled 
 evenly. A sufficient quantity is made to cover an area of say 
 25 feet square each time, the joints are cut very smooth and 
 true and when connected a smooth hot trowel like iron is used 
 to weld the joints. The whole surface is then covered with 
 sand ; the smoothing iron is used on all gutters to make the de- 
 scent of water perfect. The day after some of this was finished,. 
 I saw a two-horse wagon loaded with brick run on it. The 
 horses backed, turned, and the brick was unloaded without any 
 injury to the surface or any part of the work. 
 
 As it is important in the construction of foundations of all 
 structures to be prepared for various emergencies, the following 
 receipts will be useful in nearly every case. 
 
 Air and Water Tight Cement for Casks and Cisterns. 
 
 Melted glue, 8 parts, linseed oil, 4 parts ; boiled into a varnish 
 with litharge ; hardens in 48 hours. 
 
 Cement for External use. Ashes 2 parts, clay 3 parts, sand 
 I part ; mix with a little oil, very durable. 
 
 Cement to resist Red Heat and Boiling Water To 4 or 5 
 
 parts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 parts of 
 fine iron filings free from oxide, i part of peroxide of manga- 
 nese, i part of common salt, and 1-2 part of borax. Mingle 
 
yg POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 thoroughly, render as fine as possible, then reduce to thick 
 paste with necessary quantity of water, mixing well ; use imme- 
 diately, and apply heat, gradually increasing almost to a white 
 heat. 
 
 Cement to Join Sections cf Cast-iron Wheels, &c. Make a 
 paste of pure oxide of lead, lithage and concentrated glycerine. 
 This cement is unrivalled for fastening stone to stone or iron to 
 iron. 
 
 Soft Cement for Steam boilers, Steam pipers, etc. Red or 
 white lead, in oil 4 parts ; iron borings 2 to 3 parts. 
 
 Gas-fitter's Cement. Mix together resin 4 1-4 parts, wax i 
 part, and Venetian red 3 parts. 
 
 Plumber's Cement. Black resin i part, brick dust 2 parts; 
 well incorporated by melting heat. 
 
 Coppersmith's Cement. Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed 
 together into a putty, is often used by coppersmiths and engi- 
 neers to secure joints, the leather or cloth washers are smeared 
 with this mixture in a pasty state. 
 
 Composition to fill the Holes in Castings. Mix, one part borax 
 in solution with four parts dry clay. Another : Pulverized 
 binoxide of manganese, mixed with a strong solution of sili- 
 cate of soda (water-clay) to form a thick paste. 
 
 Cast-Iron Cement. Clean borings, or turnings of cast iron, 
 1 6 parts ; sal ammoniac, 2 parts ; flour of sulphur, i part ; mix 
 them well together in a mortar, and keep them dry. When 
 required for use, take of the mixture I part ; clean borings 20 
 parts, mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient quantity of water. 
 A little grind-stone dust added, improves the cement. 
 
 Best Cement for Aquaria. i part, by measure, say a gill of 
 lithage ; i gill of plaster of paris : i gill of dry white sand ; 
 1-3 a gill of finely powdered resin. Sift and keep corked tight 
 until required for use, when it is to be made into a putty by 
 mixing in boiled oil (linseed) with a little patent drier added. 
 Never use it after it has been mixed with the oil over 1 5 hours. 
 This cement can be used for marine as well as fresh water 
 aquaria, as it resists the action of salt water. The tank can be 
 used immediately, but it is best to give it 3 or 4 hours to dry. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 7T 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Front Vaults. An important part of the construction of 
 store buildings in our large cities is the excavation and building 
 of vaults under the streets, or under the sidewalk and area. 
 See abstract of Laws in reference to vaults, chapter iii. 
 
 These vaults are usually lighted by setting thick glass in iron 
 frames over the area known as area patent lights and the side- 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 40. 
 walk is covered with arched brick-work, and on top of this stone 
 flags, or with large flags of stone, resting on a girder or bear 
 supported by columns where necessary. The best stone 11 
 here is the North River blue-stone and is generally used t 
 
POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 41. 
 
 inches thick. Where granite has been used for the purpose it has 
 worn so smooth as to become objectionable. The joints of the 
 stone are caulked with oakum, and filled with pitch and cement. 
 See illustration 40. 
 
 The top of walls are usually coated with asphalt cement. The 
 outside retaining wall is usually two feet six inches to three 
 feet thick, with a hollow space of two or three inches, and an in- 
 side eight-inch wall. 
 
 Illustration 41 represents the construction of an area where 
 the walls and vault are extended out under the street beyond 
 the curb. For this arrangement there is generally required a 
 special permit. 
 
 Vaults under sidewalks are sometimes carried to the depth of 
 twenty-five feet below line of curb, and make two stories extend- 
 ing under sidewalk ; the outside retaining wall is usually of stone. 
 
 Retaining Walls. The nature of retaining walls when used 
 in connection with buildings can be more readily decided upon 
 than of revertment and abutment walls used in engineering prac- 
 tice. One of the great obstacles to overcome in retaining walls 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 79 
 
 usect for area walls around structures, is to prevent the water 
 that penetrates through the soil and reaches the wall from freez- 
 ing, and forcing the wall outward. To avoid this : when the 
 wall is built finish the top with a flat course under the coping or 
 capstone, and cover this with a coat of melted asphaltum, and 
 carry this asphaltum down to the bottom of the footing courses 
 on the outside. 
 
 The following table of slopes is given as a guide in providing 
 retaining walls at the base, and to form a correct idea of the 
 force of the soil or earth thrusting against the retaining wall. 
 
 Slopes. (A slope is an inclined bank of earth on the sides of 
 any kind of cutting or embankment. 
 
 The various Angles are according to the nature of the soil 
 and the height of the slope. 
 
 The allowance is about as follows : 
 
 TABLE OF SLOPES. 
 
 Gravel, sand, or common earth cuts or banks of less 
 
 than 4 feet, 1 Base to (1) Vertical. 
 
 lay cuts or banks of less than 4 feet, 2 Base to (1) " 
 Earth of mixed sand or clay or banks of 4 to 15 feet, 1 1-2 Base (1) " 
 
 Pure gravel or sand or banks of 4 to 15 feet, 2 Base (1) " 
 
 Clay in banks of 4 to 15 feet, 2 " (1) 
 
 Statified clay and sand cuttings 4 to 15 feet, 3 Base to (1) " 
 
 Broken rocks in banks over 15 feet high, 1 1-2 " " (1) " 
 
 Earth of mixed sand and clay or banks over 15 
 
 feet high, 2 "(1) 
 
 Pure gravel or sand cuts over 15 feet high, " (1) 
 
 lay cuts or banks over 15 feet high, 3 " (1) 
 
 Statified clay in cuttings over 15 feet high, 3 to 4 " (1) 
 
 The natural strongest, and ultimate form of a slope is a curve, 
 and the flattest part is at the bottom. When the. slopes remain 
 without retaining walls, cultivation, sodding and drainage are 
 preservatives. 
 
 The average angle to revertment or retaining walls is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1-4 Horizontal to 1 perpendicular. 
 1-2 
 3-4 
 1 
 
 11-2 
 13-4 
 2 
 
go POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The average thickness of Area or Retaining walls as given in 
 Mr. Trautwine's work. 
 
 "For walls of cut stone or first-class large range rubble laid 
 in mortar, is 35 per cent, of height for width of base. 
 
 For walls of good common scabbled mortar rubble or brick, 
 40 pr. ct. of height for width of base. 
 
 For walls of well scabbled dry rubble, 50 pr. ct. of height for 
 width of base. 
 
 When the walls are not sufficiently thick to sustain the shear- 
 ing force they will bulge, and very soon the rain and frost 
 acting on them will seriously damage them, and will cost more 
 to repair than the original expense of walls of sufficient thick- 
 ness properly bonded. 
 
 When retaining walls have been built, and where it is possible ; 
 horizontal layers of soil should be packed in behind the walls ; 
 this will relieve the force of material from pressing against the 
 walls. 
 
 In cases of this kind and where good stones are used and laid 
 in cement, 1-8 of the height of wall may be used for thickness at 
 the base, and if hard burned full size bricks are laid in cement, 
 i-io of the height of walls may be used for thickness at the base, 
 to this may be added a 2-inch air space to carry off dampness, 
 with tent holes at the top and an inner 8-inch wall secured with 
 iron straps. Where walls of this kind are built longer than 
 25 feet, counterforts or buttresses bracing the retaining wall 
 .can be used. Then inside counterforts or buttresses should be 
 built at regular intervals. 
 
 Slate is now used very extensively in our large cities for plat- 
 forms and steps where stone had been formerly in use ; instead 
 of stone it is often used for Sidewalk flagging, Bond stones, Cop- 
 ing stones, Sills, Lintels, and floors of Lavatories, Urinal Rooms 
 and Kitchens. As it is sawed and planed it can be laid with 
 great regularity, and various quarries now furnish it in even 
 colored slabs, so that when used in broad surfaces it makes a 
 complete finish. 
 
 When tested with blue stone it is found sufficiently strong for 
 most of building purposes, flagging particularly. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 81 
 
 Blue Stone, 
 
 It U 
 
 Slate, 
 
 Length. 
 
 15.90 
 15.80 
 15.80 
 15.80 
 
 TEST. 
 
 Breadth. Dtpth. 
 
 11".75 1.98 
 11.90 3.85 
 11.75 1.97 
 3".80 
 
 11 3-4 In. 
 11 3-4 
 11 4 
 113-4 
 
 8,300 Ibs. 
 29.0501bs. 
 
 . 
 17.000 
 
 hi this case the load was placed in the centre. 
 
 The ultimate strength of Blue stone and Slate is (compression 
 test) about 25,000 Ibs. per sq. inch. They break into fragments 
 with the same load. 
 
 Slabs of 6 feet by 12 feet by 3 inches thick are readily made 
 square and true. 
 
 TABLE OF STRENGTH OF STONE FOR VAULTS, PLATFORMS, GAL- 
 LERIES, BAY-WINDOWS AND OTHER PURPOSES. 
 
 Transverse Strength of Flagging.- W, width of stone in inches ; 
 T, thickness of stone in inches ; D, distance between bearing in 
 inches. 
 
 The Breaking Load in Tons of 2000 Ibs. for a Load on 
 the Centre of Surface. 
 
 Quincy Granite C22 
 
 Black Granite 430 
 
 WxT 3 Blue Stone Flagging 744 
 
 * J Belleville, New Jersey, Freestone 312 
 
 Dorchester Free Stone 264 
 
 Caen 144 
 
 Ambigny 216 
 
 Thus a blue stone flag, 100 inches wide, 6 inches thick, rest- 
 ing on a bearing, or on beams, 72 inches to centres, would be 
 broken by a load resting midway between the beams or support 
 
 100 x 6 2 
 
 x .744=37.20 tons, breaking load. 
 
 TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS ON BRICK. 
 
 BRICKS. 
 
 Fractured 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Crushed 
 in I'..*. 
 
 Fractured 
 sq. in. 
 
 Crushed 
 sq. in. 
 
 
 20,000 
 12,000 
 20,000 
 15,000 
 20,000 
 50.000 
 40,000 
 
 46,000 
 30,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 54,000 
 not crushed 
 60,000 
 20,000 
 15,000 
 55,000 
 60,000 
 
 625 
 375 
 625 
 468 
 625 
 1562 
 1250 
 
 *406 
 2375 
 
 !.-> 
 835 
 
 1875 
 3375 
 
 1875 
 625 
 468 
 3437 
 
 u tt 
 
 Dry Pressed Staten Island 
 
 Philadelphia (whole) 
 
 Oialf^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,000 
 38,000 
 
 Best Hard North River Pavers (half) 
 NorthRiver wholeBrick not injured at 
 
 Adamantine Press Cis-brick, crushed at 90,000 Ibs, being at the rate of 2,800 
 Ibs. on the square inch. 
 
g 2 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 It is best in using these tables not to exceed a working load 
 of one-quarter to one-sixth the breaking load. Over vaults to 
 warehouses allow a load of 600 pounds per square foot, and 500 
 pounds per square foot for stores. 
 
 RULES OR TABLE FOR CALCULATING THE WEIGHT OF MATE- 
 
 RIALS IN BUILDINGS. 
 
 Calculate the weight of wall per superficial foot of surface, and deduct 
 only one-half of window openings. 
 
 8-inch brick wall, weight per foot .................... 77 pounds. 
 
 19 U U 4? 44 44 ...... ............. 115 " 
 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 Brown Stone, 4 inches thick ........................... 67 
 
 u 44 g 44 " ........................... 114 " 
 
 u 44 12 " " ........................... 170 " 
 
 Granite, per foot ...................................... 1 66 " 
 
 White Marble ................................ ........ 168 
 
 NEW YORK LAW IN REFERENCE TO LOAD ON FLOORS. 
 Hardware Store, weight on square foot floor surface ......... 350 to 600 Ibs. 
 
 .350 
 
 " 310 
 
 " 180 
 
 " 100 
 
 " 90 
 
 Flour Store, 
 Dry Goods Store, 
 Public Assemblies, 
 Tenement House, 
 Roofs, 
 
 After making calculations of loads in ten dry goods stores, 
 they were found not to be loaded to exceed 180 pounds per 
 square foot on the basement or first and second stories, and much 
 less above. 
 
 Mensuration of Superfices. Simple rules for calculating super- 
 ficial surfaces of different shapes : 
 
 Triangle Multiply base by perpendicular and divide by 2. 
 
 Equilateral Triangle Square of any side by .433. 
 
 Trapezoid Multiply the sum of the parallel sides by perpen- 
 dicular distance between them ; divide by 2. 
 
 Parallelogram Multiply base by perpendicular. 
 
 Trapezium Multiply diagonal by one-half sum of perpendic- 
 ular circle. 
 
 Circle Multiply diameter 2 by .7854. 
 
 Circle Multiply circumference by radius, divided by 2. 
 
 Ellipse Multiply transverse axis by conjugate axis by .7854. 
 
 Cylinder Multiply length by diameter by 3 1-7. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. g* 
 
 Hollow Walls for Buildings. 
 
 There has not been so great a demand for hollow walls in 
 building during the past eight years in cities as formerly, owing 
 to the introduction and manufacture of various kinds of hollow, 
 cellular and grooved ; fire-proof and furring material : most of 
 these are made of cinders, ashes and clay, mixed with some 
 form of Carbonate of lime or cement ; and some of which are 
 worthless. 
 
 For walls that have been exposed on the exterior to weather 
 and where there is a tendency for moisture to drive through, 
 fire-proofing blocks of 2 inches in thickness are set against the 
 inside of walls, these blocks are grooved on the side next to the 
 walls, and leave an air space : where they are not used wooden 
 strips are often used and the strips lathed. One reason why 
 hollow walls are not built is, the Building Laws require as many 
 brick to a hollow wall per foot in height as if it were solid, 
 and as it is more expensive, there is not much gained in city 
 buildings by using them. 
 
 Where stone walls are built to have an air space, it is usually 
 done by leaving a space of 2 inches on the inside of wall of 
 building, and building a 4 or 8-inch brick wall which is held in 
 position with wedge anchors. If convenient, fireproof furring 
 may be used. This furring of walls adds greatly to the warmth 
 of a building. It may be. useful to give the relative conducting 
 power of different building materials, /. e.; as follows : 
 Stone 14 to 1 6, 
 Brick 5, 
 Plaster 4, 
 Wood i, 
 
 Wood therefore is the best material named : particularly when 
 double furring or woolen felting is used. 
 
 We herewith give illustrations 42 and 43 showing several 
 methods of building Hollow Walls where no extra furring will be 
 required inside to prevent the penetration of dampness. 
 
 One of the greatest protections to walls above ground where 
 hollow walls have not been used is to give the whole surface 2 
 heavy coats of boiled linseed oil : there are also other methods 
 such as silicate of soda paint and cement paints while hollow 
 
8 4 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 brick walls make a dry and damp-proof structure : the work is 
 required to be done by skilled workmen and the joints laid clean, 
 to leave the air spaces free. 
 
 e *- 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 42. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 
 -> 
 
 ir 
 
 . y 
 
 ir 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 -I 
 
 ! 
 
 
 \ 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^v 
 
 3 
 
 v. 
 
 ~^, 
 
 
 !! 
 
 i 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 48. 
 
 A Stono House properly built is undoubtedly the most ex- 
 pensive structure that can be erected. It produces a fine, sub- 
 
86 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 stantial and showy external appearance ; and creeping vines 
 may be grown at inner angles to produce that picturesque and 
 home-like appearance' that is seldom seen in other structures. 
 But such a house is not any warmer in winter, or cooler in sum- 
 mer, than a brick one. 
 
 The proper construction for the walls of a stone dwelling, 
 is to have the beds and joints of squared or drafted stone. 
 This is termed squared random work. This enables the mason 
 to more fully fill the joints with mortar. 
 
 The walls of a stone house should not be constructed of 
 rough rubble-work, as it is impossible to fill completely all the 
 joints with mortar ; and hence in a driving storm rain will be 
 forced through the crevices, and produce dampness ; quarry-faced 
 stone at the least should be used. 
 
 A stone house can be constructed either with hollow or solid 
 walls, or the inside lined with hollow brick. 
 
 When hollow walls are built, the outside wall should be not 
 less than sixteen inches thick of stone, with a three-inch 
 space inside, and backed up with four inches of brickwork. 
 Bonding the inside and outside walls with iron ties or clamp 
 anchors. Where binders or headers of brick are used damp- 
 ness will usually penetrate. Hollow walls to be effectual, must 
 have outside and inside work separate from each other. 
 
 When solid walls are used they should be furred and lathed, 
 instead of applying the plaster on the walls. 
 
 BUILDING LAWS PASSED APRIL, 1871. 
 
 Abstract from the Building Laws of the City of New York 
 in reference to Walls, Foundations, etc., now in force. 
 
 "SEC. 3. Depth of Foundation Walls. All foundation walls 
 shall be laid not less than four feet below the surface of the 
 earth on a good solid bottom, and in case the nature of the 
 earth should require it, a bottom of driven piles or laid timbers, 
 of sufficient size and thickness, shall be laid to prevent the 
 walls from settling, the top of such pile or timber bottom to be 
 driven or laid below the water line ; and all piers, columns, 
 posts or pillars resting on the earth, shall be set upon a bottom 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 8/ 
 
 in the same manner as the foundation walls. Rock bottom. 
 Whenever in any case the foundation walls or walls of any 
 building that may hereafter be erected, shall be placed on a rock 
 bottom, the said rock shall be graded off level to receive the 
 same. All excavations upon the front or side of any lot ad- 
 joining a street shall be properly guarded and protected by the 
 person or persons having charge of the same, so as to prevent 
 the same from being or becoming dangerous to life or limb. 
 Excavations. Whenever there shall be any excavation, either 
 of earth or rock, hereafter commenced upon any lot or piece of 
 land in the city of New York, and there shall be any party or 
 other wall wholly or partly on adjoining land, and standing up- 
 on or near the boundary line of said lot, if the person or per- 
 sons, whose duty it shall be under existing laws to preserve and 
 protect said wall from injury, shall neglect or fail so to do, after 
 having had a notice of twenty-four hours from the Department 
 of Buildings so to do, the Superintendent of Buildings may 
 enter upon the premises, and employ such labor and take such 
 steps as in his judgment may be necessary to make the same 
 safe and secure, or to prevent the same from becoming unsafe 
 or dangerous, at the expense of the person or persons owning 
 said wall or building of which it may be a part, and any person 
 or persons doing the said work, or any part thereof, under and 
 by direction of the said Superintendent, may bring and main- 
 tain an action against the owner or owners, or any one of them, 
 of the said wall or building of which it may be a part, for any 
 work done or materials furnished in and about the said premises, 
 in the same manner as if he had been employed to do the said 
 work by the said owner or owners of the said premises. 
 
 "SEC. 4. Base course of foundation walls, piers, columns, etc. 
 
 The footing, or base course, under all foundation walls, and 
 under all piers, columns, posts, or pillars resting on the earth, 
 shall be of stone or concrete ; and if under a foundation wall, 
 shall be at least twelve inches wider than the bottom width of 
 the said wall ; and if under piers, columns, posts, or pillars, shall 
 be at least twelve inches wider on all sides than the bot- 
 tom width of the said piers, columns, posts, or pillars, and not less 
 than eighteen inches in thickness ; and if built of stone, the 
 
38 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 stones thereof shall not be less than two by three feet and at 
 least eight inches in thickness ; and all base stones shall be 
 well bedded and laid edge to edge ; and if the walls be built of 
 isolated piers, then there must be inverted arches, at least 
 twelve inches thick, turned under and between the piers, or two 
 footing courses of large stone, at least ten inches thick in each 
 course. Construction of foundation walls. All foundation 
 walls shall be built of stone or brick, and shall be laid in cement 
 mortar, and if constructed of stone, shall be at least eight 
 inches thicker than the wall next above them, to a depth of six- 
 teen feet below the curb level, and shall be increased four inches 
 in thickness for every additional five feet in depth below the said 
 sixteen feet ; and if built of brick, shall be at least four inches 
 thicker than the wall next above them to a depth of sixteen feet 
 below the curb level, and shall be increased four inches in thick- 
 ness for every additional five feet in depth below the said six- 
 teen feet. 
 
 "SEC. 5. Height, Thickness and materials of walls of dwell- 
 ings. In all dwelling-houses that may hereafter be erected, 
 not more than fifty-five feet in height, the outside walls shall 
 not be less than twelve inches thick ; and if above fifty-five feet 
 in height, and not more than eighty feet in height, the outside 
 walls shall not be less than sixteen inches thick to the top of 
 the second-story beams, provided the same is twenty feet above 
 the curb level, and if not, then to the under side of the third- 
 story beams ; and also provided that that portion of the walls 
 twelve inches thick shall not exceed forty feet in height above 
 the said sixteen-inch wall. No party wall in any dwelling-house 
 that may hereafter be erected shall be less than sixteen inches 
 in thickness ; and in every dwelling-house hereafter erected 
 more than eighty feet in height, four inches shall be added to 
 the thickness of the walls for every fifteen feet, or part thereof, 
 that is added to the height of the building. 
 
 "SEC. 6. Height, thickness and materials of walls of build- 
 ings other than dwellings. In all buildings, other than dwelling- 
 houses, hereafter to be erected, not more than forty-five feet in 
 height, and not more than twenty-five feet in width, the outside 
 walls shall not be less than twelve inches thick, and the party 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 8 9 
 
 walls not less than sixteen inches thick ; if above forty-five feet, 
 and not more than fifty-five feet in height, the outside and party 
 walls shall not be less than sixteen inches thick ; if above fifty- 
 five feet, and not more than seventy feet in height, the outside 
 and party walls shall not be less than twenty inches thick to the 
 height of the second-story beams, and not less than sixteen 
 inches thick from thence to the top ; and if above seventy feet, 
 and not more than eighty-five feet in height, the outside and 
 party walls shall not be less than twenty inches thick to the 
 height of the third -story beams, and not less than sixteen inches 
 from thence to the top ; and if above eighty-five feet in height, 
 the outside and party walls shall be increased four inches in 
 thickness for every ten feet or part thereof that shall be added 
 to the height of the said wall or walls. Buildings over 25 feet 
 in width to have partition walls or girders and columns. In all 
 buildings over twenty-five feet in width, and not having either 
 brick partition walls or girders, supported by columns running 
 from front to rear, the walls shall be increased an additional 
 four inches in thickness, to the same relative thickness in height 
 as required under this section, for every additional ten feet in 
 width of said building, or any portion thereof. It is understood 
 that the amount of materials specified may be used either in 
 piers or buttresses, provided the outside walls between the same 
 shall in no case be less than twelve inches in thickness to the 
 height of forty feet, and if over that height, then sixteen inches 
 thick ; but in no case shall a party wall between the piers or 
 buttresses of a building be less than sixteen inches in thickness. 
 Corner buildings, thickness of walls. In all buildings hereafter 
 erected, situated on the street corner, the bearing wall thereof 
 (that is, the wall on the street upon which the beams rest) shall be 
 four inches thicker in all cases than is otherwise provided for by 
 this act. 
 
 "SEC. 7. Partition walls of buildings over 30 feet in width. 
 
 Every building hereafter erected, more than thirty feet in width, 
 except churches, theatres, or other public buildings, shall have 
 one or more brick, stone, or fire-proof partition walls, running 
 from front to rear, which may be four inches less in thickness 
 than is called for by the clauses and provisions above set forth 
 
9O POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 with regard to foundations, thickness, and height, provided they 
 are not more than fifty feet in height ; these walls shall be so 
 located that the space between any two of the bearing walls of 
 the building shall not be over twenty-five feet. Iron or wooden 
 girders, and bearing weight of same. In case iron or wooden 
 girders, supported upon iron or wooden columns, are substituted 
 in place of partition walls, the building may be fifty feet in width 
 but not more ; and if there should be substituted iron or wooden 
 girders, supported upon iron or wooden columns, in place of the 
 partition walls, they shall be made of sufficient strength to bear 
 safely the weight of two hundred and fifty pounds for every 
 square foot of floor or floors that rest upon them, exclusive of 
 the weight of material employed in their construction, and shall 
 have a footing course and foundation wall not less than sixteen 
 inches in thickness, with inverted arches under and between 
 the columns, or two footing courses of large well-shaped stone, 
 laid crosswise, edge to edge, and at least ten inches thick in 
 each course, the lower footing course to be not less than two 
 feet greater in area than the size of the column ; and under every 
 column, as above set forth, a cap of cut granite, at least twelve 
 inches thick, and of a diameter twelve inches greater each way 
 than that of the column, must be laid solid and level to receive 
 the column. Walls to be braced during construction. Any 
 building that may hereafter be erected in an isolated position, 
 and more than one hundred feet in depth, and which shall not 
 be provided with crosswalls, shall be securely braced, both inside 
 and out, during the whole time of its erection, if it can be done ; 
 but in case the same cannot be so braced from the outside, then 
 it shall be properly braced from the inside, and the braces shall 
 be continued from the foundation upward to at least one-third 
 the height of the building from the curb level. 
 
 "SEC. 8. Cutting of wall. No wall or any building now 
 erected, or hereafter to be built or erected, shall be cut off alto- 
 gether below, without permission so to do having been obtained 
 from the Superintendent of Buildings. Temporary supports, 
 Every temporary support placed under any structure, wall, gird- 
 er, or beam, during the erection, finishing, alteration, or repair- 
 ing of any building, or part thereof, shall be equal in strength 
 to the permanent support required for such structure, wall, gird- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 9! 
 
 er, or beam. Braces. And the walls of every building shall 
 be strongly braced from the beams of each story until the build- 
 ing is topped out, and the roof tier of beams shall be strongly 
 braced to the beams of the story below until all the floors in the 
 said building are laid. 
 
 "SEC. 9. Headers. All stone walls less than twenty-four 
 inches thick, shall have at least one header extending through 
 the walls in every three feet in height from the bottom of the 
 wall, and in every four feet in length ; and if over twenty-four 
 inches in thickness, shall have one header for every six superfi- 
 cial feet on both sides of the wall, and running into the wall at 
 least two feet ; all headers shall be at least eighteen inches in 
 width and eight inches in thickness, and shall consist of a good 
 flat stone dressed on all sides. Heading courses. In every 
 brick wall every sixth course of brick shall be a heading course, 
 except where walls are faced with brick, in which case every 
 fifth course shall be bonded into the backing by cutting the- 
 course of the faced brick, and putting in diagonal headers be- 
 hind the same, or by splitting face brick in half, and backing 
 the same by a continuous row of headers. Stone ashlar. In 
 all walls which are faced with thin ashlar, anchored to the back- 
 ing, or in which the ashlar has not either alternate headers and 
 stretchers in each course, or alternate heading and stretching 
 courses, the backing of brick shall not be less than twelve inches 
 thick, and all twelve-inch backing shall be laid up in cement 
 mortar, and shall not be built to a greater height than prescrib- 
 ed for twelve-inch walls. All leading courses shall be good, hard, 
 perfect brick. Brick backing. The backing in all walls, of 
 whatever material it may be composed, shall be of such thick- 
 ness as to make the walls, independent of the facing, conform 
 as to thickness with the requirements of sections five and six of 
 this act. 
 
 "Szc. 10. Isolated piers, how constructed. Every isolated 
 pier less than ten superficial feet at the base, and all piers sup- 
 porting a wall built of rubble stone or brick, or under any iron 
 beam or arch girder, or arch on which a wall rests, or lintel 
 supporting a wall, shall at intervals of not less than thirty inches 
 in height, have built into it a bond stone not less than four 
 inches thick, of a diameter each way equal to the diameter of the- 
 
-2 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 pier, except that in piers on the street front, above the curb the 
 bond stone may be four inches less than the pier in diameter ; 
 and all piers shall be built of good, hard, well-burnt brick and 
 laid in cement mortar, and all bricks used in piers shall be of the 
 hardest quality, and be well wet when laid. Walls and piers 
 under girders and columns. And the walls and piers under all 
 compound, cast-iron, or wooden girders, iron or other columns, 
 shall have a bond stone at least four inches in thickness, and if 
 in a wall at least two feet in length, running through the wall, 
 -and if in a pier, the full size of the thickness thereof, every thir- 
 ty inches in height from bottom, whether said pier is in the wall 
 or not, and shall have a cap stone of cut granite at least twelve 
 inches in thickness, by the whole size of the pier, if in a pier ; 
 .and if in a wall, it shall be at least two feet in length, by the 
 thickness of the wall, and at least twelve inches in thickness. 
 Base stone. In any case where any iron or other column rests 
 on any wall or pier built entirely of stone or brick, the said col- 
 umn shall be set on a base stone of cut granite, not less than 
 eight inches in thickness by the full size of the bearing of the 
 pier, if on a pier, and if on a wall the full thickness of the wall. 
 Hollow walls. In all buildings where the walls are built hollow, 
 the same amount of stone or brick shall be used in their construc- 
 tion as if they were solid, as above set forth ; and no hollow 
 walls shall be built unless the two walls forming the same shall 
 be connected by continuous vertical ties of the same materials 
 as the walls, and not over twenty-four inches apart. Height of 
 walls, how computed. The height of all walls shall be compu- 
 ted from the curb level. Swelled or refuse brick, use of, prohib- 
 ited. No swelled or refuse brick shall be allowed in any wall or 
 pier ; and all brick used in the construction, alteration, or repair 
 of any building, or part thereof, shall be good, hard, well-burnt 
 brick. Bricks to be wet. And if used during the months from 
 April to November, inclusive, shall be well wet at the time they 
 are laid. 
 
 "SEC. ii. Mortar, of what materials, and how used. The 
 mortar used in the construction, alteration, or repair of any build- 
 ing shall be composed of lime or cement, mixed with sand, in 
 the proportion of three of sand to one of lime, and two of sand 
 to one of cement and no lime and sand mortar shall be used 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. QJ 
 
 within twenty-four hours after being mixed ; and all walls or parts 
 thereof, below the curb level, shall be laid in cement mortar, to 
 be composed of cement and mortar, in the proportion of one 
 of cement to two of mortar. No inferior lime or cement shall 
 be used. Sand. And all sand shall be clean/sharp grit, free 
 from loam ; and all joints and all walls shall be well filled with 
 mortar. 
 
 "SEC. 12. Walls, how carried up and anchored In no case, 
 
 shall the side, end, or party wall of any building be carried up 
 more than two stories in advance of the front and rear walls. 
 The front, rear, side, end, and party walls of any building here- 
 after to be erected shall be anchored to each other every six feet 
 in their height by tie anchors, made of one and a quarter inch 
 by three-eighths of an inch of wrought iron. The said anchor 
 shall be built into the side or party walls not less than sixteen 
 inches, and into the front and rear walls at least one half the 
 thickness of the front and rear walls, so as to secure the front and 
 rear walls to the side, end, or party walls ; and all stone used 
 for the facing of any building, except where built with alternate 
 headers and stretchers, as hereinbefore set forth, shall be strongly 
 anchored with iron anchors in each stone, and all such anchors 
 shall be let into the stone at least one inch. The side, end, or 
 party walls shall be anchored at each tier of beams, at intervals 
 of not more than eight feet apart, with good, strong, wrought- 
 iron anchors, one-half inch by one inch, well built into the side 
 Walls and well fastened to the side of the beams by two nails,, 
 made of wrought iron, at least one fourth of an inch in diame- 
 ter ; and where the beams are supported by girders, the ends of 
 the beams resting on the girder shall be butted together end to- 
 end, and strapped by wrought-iron straps of the same size, and 
 at the same distance apart, and, in the same beam as the wall 
 anchors, and shall be well fastened." 
 
 Preservation of Stone. In the preservation of stone we now 
 lay down, from the highest practical authorities, the condition 
 upon which only a successful issue can be obtained : 
 
 First. The materials must be irremovable and imperishable. 
 
 Second. They must be easily absorbed by, and thoroughly 
 incorporated with the stone. 
 
94 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Third. The materials must be free from color, but admit of 
 imperishable coloration. 
 
 Mr. Frederick Ransome's process seems to best fill all the 
 above conditions, meeting most thoroughly every possible re- 
 quirement. The materials used are as follows : Dissolve flint 
 or silicate of soda and chloride of calcium. Flint or silex is 
 soluble by heat under pressure in a solution of caustic soda. In 
 this form it is soluble silicate of soda. In this form it is to be 
 thoroughly brushed into the stone. On top of this is brushed 
 into the stone a solution of chlorine, which unites with the soda, 
 forming an insoluble silicate of lime. The silicate of lime being 
 white, there is an opportunity of using metallic tinting solutions. 
 
 Another process for the preservation of stone or brick is to 
 dissolve resin with turpentine, and when heated, to add linseed 
 oil to form a paint. 
 
 Another mixture is made from unslacked lime, to which is 
 added while slacking oil of tallow. When the slacking is com- 
 plete, it is placed in a vessel with alum water and proto-sulphate 
 of iron. After settling, it is drawn off and used. 
 
 Another process is the repeated application with a brush of a 
 solution of beeswax in coal tar naphtha ; when the color of the 
 stone is to be preserved, white wax, dissolved in refined distilled 
 camphene. 
 
 None of these, except the first, seem to answer any practical 
 purpose, and only offer a temporary protection. 
 
 Here is a mixture, given by M. Kuhlman, that seems to have 
 been used with success for thirty years. It is the silicate of 
 potash. Before application the surface requires to be washed 
 with a diluted solution of caustic potash with a hard brush. 
 Three applications of the silicate are required during three days. 
 
 There is an English preparation extensively used for the pur- 
 pose of repelling moisture, and for the preservation of stone, 
 brick, plaster and cement. It is a liquid or solution of silica. 
 It is also used in kitchens, cellars and basements to form a hard 
 surface on the walls, impenetrable to water. It is a kind of 
 enamel, and is put up in barrels and by the gallon, and is red, 
 white, blue, green and chocolate. It is applied with a brush, 
 and is very inexpensive. It presents a surface like glazed tile, 
 and is not affected by water or atmospheric changes. It is a 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. gj 
 
 silicate enameling paint. There are several agencies in the 
 United States. 
 
 Incrustations on Brick Walls A greyish white substance 
 often appears on the surface of bricks, before and after being 
 laid in walls ; it proceeds from several causes : and since the dis- 
 coloration is very unsightly, and if removed, may return, many 
 builders and owners of buildings have tried various ways to get 
 rid of this precipitate. It occurs generally on Philadelphia and 
 New Jersey bricks for front facings. It is not seen often on 
 the Baltimore or North River bricks. Limes that are burned 
 of magnesian limestone produce a lime with a mixture of magne- 
 sia, and when made into mortar, and used in brickwork, absorb 
 sufficient vapor from the atmosphere to form a sulphate of mag- 
 nesium or epsom salts. It finds its way through every crevice 
 and pore out to the surface. This sulphate of magnesia is found 
 in a crude form known as silicate of magnesia, in native forms 
 as asbestos, soapstone, talc and French chalk. When common 
 salt is used in solution on brick, it leaves a white precipitate 
 when dry. Portland cement contains but a small proportion of 
 magnesia, and walls built with it show but little, if any, deface- 
 ment. Some of the grades of Rosendale cement that contain 
 magnesia and soda disfigure the surface of the walls when used 
 in cement mortar. The best remedy is to remove the incrusta- 
 tion and wash the fronts, and when dry, paint the surface. If 
 the surface is painted over the incrustations, it shows different 
 shades of color when the paint is dry. This discoloration of 
 brick walls is most noticeable in dry weather on parts of walls 
 subject to dampness, and on entire walls after heavy rains. 
 North and East walls are usually the heaviest coated. This 
 white precipitate comes from both bricks and mortars. 
 
 To avoid this white defacement, builders should use limes 
 free from magnesia, and cements free from magnesia and soda. 
 
 Avoid using bricks that are burned with coal, and also when 
 the dry surface of the brick is whiter than the true color. When 
 clays are to be used for making pressed brick for fronts or orna- 
 mental purposes, it is best to avoid all clays containing epsora 
 salts or sulphate of magnesia. 
 
 The following may be a guide to finding the magnesia in clays: 
 
og POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Take some clay ; dry the clay by heat ; reduce it to a fine 
 powder, and saturate with sulphuric acid. Then dry and calcine 
 the mass at a red heat, in order to convert any sulphate of iron 
 (copperas) that may be present to a red oxide ; it is then dis- 
 solved in water and sulphuret of lime is added, to separate any 
 remaining portion of iron ; then pour off the liquid and evapo- 
 rate it, and the crystals that form, if any, are the sulphate of 
 magnesia. This should be done by a chemist. 
 
 Sulphuret of Lime is made of one part flower sulphur, two 
 parts lime, ten parts water. This is the mixture used in testing 
 the clay. 
 
 Of course, if the sulphate of magnesia is found, the clay is not 
 fit for front or ornamental brick. 
 
 Yet it is possible to wash some clays and carry off the mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 Another method of analyzing clay is as follows : 
 
 Grind the clay to a powder, and add diluted muriatic acid un- 
 til it ceases to effervesce ; heat it until the liquid evaporates, 
 the residue being a thin paste ; then add water and shake it ; 
 then filter the mixture and dry what is on the filtering paper 
 by heating this gives the insoluble matter ; if magnesia is con- 
 tained add clean water so long as any precipitate is formed ; 
 quickly gather the precipitate, and wash with pure water. The 
 residue from washing is the magnesia. 
 
 Sand. Whatever variety of sand is used in making mortars 
 or cements, it should be granular, hard and gritty, sharp and 
 angular, with a polished surface, and nearly uniform in size. 
 
 Sand, when perfectly fit to be used in mortar, will bear the 
 test of being rubbed between the hands without soiling them. 
 
 Sand is not increased in volume by moisture, nor contracted 
 by heat. 
 
 The finest sand screened should pass through a wire mesh 
 one-thirty-second of an inch square : the medium size, one-six- 
 teenth of an inch mesh. 
 
 The quality of mortar or cement depends chiefly upon the 
 quality of the sand. The common practice of using unclean 
 sands, or road drifts, argillaceous loams, and even alluvium or 
 common soil cannot be too speedily abolished. Masons are apt. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 97 
 
 to compound the mortar with the soil used from the foundations 
 regardless of quality, suitability or the natural consequences of 
 its employment. 
 
 Clean, sharp bank sand, free from loam and screened, is gen- 
 erally used in mortars for buildings. 
 
 As calcium or lime is used more extensively for mortars than 
 anything else, it may be very desirable to give the various com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Calcium Oxide, Quick Lime, 
 
 Hydrated Calcium Oxide, Slacked Lime, 
 
 Carbonate Lime, Limestone, 
 
 Crystallized Lime, Marble, 
 
 Fossil Lime, Chalk, 
 
 Sulphate Lime, Gypsum or Plaster of Pari% 
 
 Mineral Phosphate Lime, Apatite. 
 
 ppQPERTY OF 
 
 j. w DONAHUE, 
 
 SPRIG; iei> MA. 
 
98 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 On the preparation of Common Mortar. 
 
 The lime, when perfectly burnt in the kiln, should be packed 
 in casks or air-tight vessels, and kept free from all moisture, 
 and should be opened only as required. 
 
 Unslacked dry lime fresh from the kiln is termed caustic or 
 quick-lime. After water is added to it, it is called slacked lime. 
 The exact quantity of water for slacking is in proportion to the 
 quality of lime; the fat or rich will absorb more than the 
 poor or lean. No definite rule can be given for all localities 
 for the use of water. The average is twice the weight of water 
 to the lime, but this is only an approximation. It is important 
 that the mortar should be used fresh. 
 
 The best or richest limes are made from pure carbonates of 
 lime, which usually increase to twice their volume when slacked 
 but do not harden well in damp places. Poor limes do not ex- 
 pand much in volume ; neither do poor limes harden well in 
 damp places. 
 
 Limes that have been ground are usually of inferior quality, 
 often mixed with refuse lumps and air-slacked lime. 
 
 Mortar, stuccoes or cements prepared from ill-burnt lime con- 
 tinue soft and dusty for a long time after being made whereas 
 well-burnt and slacked limes soon become thoroughly indurated. 
 
 Rich limes hiss, bubble and throw off great heat during the 
 process of slacking. 
 
 The purest limes require the largest proportion of sand and 
 water, and harden in less time than the common limes. 
 
 Various substances are sometimes added to mortar to increase 
 the tenacity, and they impart thereto the principles of hydraulic 
 cement to a greater or less degree. 
 
 They chiefly consist of burnt clay, ashes, scoriae, iron scales 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. gg 
 
 and filings, broken pottery, bricks, tiles, etc. They are useful 
 in mixing with lime or mortar to increase their hardness, but 
 they must be pure and reduced to a fine powder. 
 
 Some of the mason builders in New York and vicinity who 
 are large contractors, make building mortar for brick walls of 
 the following proportions : 
 One barrel of lime, 
 Six barrels of sand sharp bank sand, 
 which is calculated to lay one thousand bricks. 
 
 The average number of bricks laid in buildings around New 
 York, Brooklyn, etc., for each man is one thousand per day. 
 
 For mortars for this purpose many kinds of limes are used 
 
 Thomaston, of Maine ; Briggs, North River ; Snowflake lime, 
 of Pleasantville, N. Y., etc., etc. 
 
 The proportion of one measure of quick-lime, either in lumps 
 or ground (when lumps exceed three inches each way they re- 
 quire to be broken), and five measures of sand, is about the 
 average used for common mortar by many masons. However, 
 architects generally specify one part of lime to three of sand. 
 
 Mortar generally increases in volume one-eighth more than 
 the bulk of loose sand. 
 
 In walls that are exposed to dampness, no lime should be 
 used, as it will never harden properly. Cement should be used, 
 or use burnt clay or fine brick-dust, and mix it with the lime, 
 as this forms a kind of hydraulic cement. 
 
 Shell lime is about the same as that from the purest lime-stone. 
 
 The average weight of common hardened mortar is from 105 
 to 1 1 5 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Common grout is merely common mortar made so thin as to 
 flow like cream. It is used to fill the interstices left in the mor- 
 tar joints of masonry or brickwork, and is perhaps best when a 
 little cement is added. 
 
 Mortar should be applied wetter in hot than cold weather, 
 especially in brick-work, otherwise the water is too much absorb- 
 ed by the brick. To prevent this, dip each brick for an instant 
 in water in some kind of vessel, especially if dusty, as the latter 
 impairs the adhesion. 
 
 Where there is a heavy working strain brought on piers, or 
 parts of walls, it would be best to use some proportion of cement, 
 
1OO POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 as the tenacity or cohesion in some mortars is not to be relied 
 upon until four to six months after being used. This is only 
 important where structures are heavily loaded or of considerable 
 
 height. 
 
 The tenacity of good mortar is usually fifteen and one-halt 
 pounds per square inch, or one ton per square foot. 
 
 The crushing load may be taken at fifty tons per square foot 
 
 Laying bricks or building walls when the mortar freezes al- 
 ways produces weak walls, and brings expense afterwards. 
 
 Common mortar of ashes is prepared by mixing two parts of 
 fresh slacked lime with three parts of wood ashes and when 
 cold to be well beaten, in which state it is usually kept for some 
 time ; and will resist alternate moisture and dryness. By some 
 it is considered equal to some of the water cements. 
 
 A kind of cement plaster used around exterior foundation 
 walls is made of one part Portland cement, three parts lime, 
 and two parts sand, with water sufficient to make a mortar. But 
 with Rosendale cement a small proportion of lime, if any, and 
 one part sand to one of cement is the best ; and even with this 
 where it is exposed to dampness, it is best to coat the cement 
 with a coat of asphaltum. 
 
 To Color Mortars.* This may be done by the use of various 
 colored sands. There are yellow, silver and gray sands to be 
 had in many localities. Colored mica, put on the surface of 
 stucco work with a thin mixture of lime-water and lime, first 
 wetting the surface, leaves a durable and sparkling finish. Pul- 
 verized bricks, yellow or red, may be used. Pulverized dust 
 from colored marble, also basalt dust, are all durable. Ochres 
 stand exposure to the weather, as well as any of the pigments. 
 
 Where black has been used for pointing the joints of brick- 
 work, the mortar requires so much black to make the color that 
 the mortar becomes poor and washes off. 
 
 Spanish brown is a species of earth of a reddish-brown color, 
 which depends upon the sesqui-oxide of iron. 
 
 The best quality of lamp-black made into putty and used for 
 pointing will retain its color. 
 
 * There are now pigments manufactured expressly for use in mortars that 
 are said to hold their colors excellently. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. IOI 
 
 A dry powder, known as Spanish brown, added to cement or 
 mortar is considered a permanent color. 
 
 Gravel Sidewalks are usually laid by mixing the gravel with 
 the sand and lime ; i. e., Ten bushels of gravel. One to two 
 bushels of sand. Half bushel of lime. Of course it is required 
 to dig trenches, and lay down common concrete or broken 
 stone, to bed the walks on. 
 
 To Color Bricks Black. Heat asphaltum to a fluid state, and 
 moderately heat the surface bricks and dip them in it. 
 
 Another method is to make a hot mixture of linseed oil and 
 asphalt ; heat the bricks and dip them. Tar and asphalt are al- 
 so used for the same purpose. It is important that the bricks 
 be sufficiently hot and held in the mixture long enough to ab- 
 sorb the color, to the depth of one-sixteenth of an inch. 
 
 Also, for Staining Bricks Red or Black. A process similar to 
 staining bricks red will answer for staining them black, by sub- 
 stituting lampblack for the red employed. For the red, melt one 
 ounce of glue in one gallon of water. Add a piece of alum the 
 size of an egg, then one-half pound Venetian red, and one pound 
 Spanish brown. Try the color on the bricks before using, and 
 change light or dark with the red or brown: For staining black 
 use the same, and instead of the alum use bi-chromate of potash. 
 Use as soon as made, and in dry weather. 
 
 Venetian Cement. Used for covering floors, terraces and 
 roofs of houses, it is composed of plaster of paris, sulphur, rosin, 
 pitch and spirits of turpentine or wax, and applied when hot. 
 
 Coal Ash Mortar Lime, two and a half measures ; sand, two and 
 a half; coal ashes, two and a half; and puzzolana, one and a half. 
 
 Puzzolana Mortar For lining cisterns, consists of slacked 
 lime, sixteen parts or measures ; puzzolana, eight ; sand, five 
 and a quarter ; beaten glass, four ; and smith's cinders, four. 
 This was, with the other three, used at Gibraltar in 1790. 
 
 Dutch Terras Mortar. (Terras is a basaltic mineral found in 
 the low counties of Holland.) This is formed of equal parts of 
 lime and terras by measure. 
 
 Very fat lime is incapable of hardening in water. 
 
IO2 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Lime, a little hydraulic 
 " quite '' 
 
 1 Slakes like lime when 
 properly calcined, and 
 hardens under water. 
 
 Lime 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 
 60 per cent. 
 60 " 
 40 " 
 
 40 per cent. 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 Plastic or hydraulic cement 
 
 ti U U 
 
 u n " 
 
 Does not slake under 
 any circumstances, and 
 hardens under water 
 with rapidity. 
 
 30 " 
 20 " 
 10 " 
 
 70 * 
 80 l 
 90 
 
 Calcareous brick puzzolana 
 
 it u tt 
 
 U (i " 
 
 Does not slake or hard- 
 en under water, unless 
 mixed with fat or hy- 
 draulic lime. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 One Bushel Mortar 130 pounds. 
 
 One " Sand 110tol20 " 
 
 One " Lime 80 " 
 
 One " Hair 8 " 
 
 Cattle hair is collected from tanneries. It is best of medium 
 length, fresh and clean. Vegetable fibre of hair has been used 
 some, but not extensively. 
 
 Plastering or Stucco When buildings are plastered on the 
 exterior, or parts exposed to the weather, it is usually called 
 stucco-work (the same word stucco is in use for inside work). 
 But this kind of finishing rough walls is not much in use in this 
 country. 
 
 There are two kinds of stucco ; those made of lime, and those 
 of cement. Cement stucco is disagreeable in color, and only 
 used where protection to the walls or a very hard surface is want- 
 ed. The cement color may be covered with paint, and when used 
 it is often painted. In working the first coat it may be well to 
 work it with cement plaster, and for the second coat use equal 
 parts of quick-lime and cement with silver or light grey colored 
 sand. Colors mixed with the stucco, such as umbers or ochres 
 get dingy and very unsightly in time. Mineral color that is not 
 liable to atmospheric change is the best. 
 
 To make a light brown shade, use silver or as white sand as 
 possible, and in this mix pulverized brown stone or brown sand- 
 stone. The pulverized stone dust from colored marble may be 
 used, also basalt dust. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. JQ* 
 
 Pulverized bricks, yellow or red, may be used where the color 
 is known to be permanent. The same process as mentioned 
 above is the best for exterior pointing, as most coloring substan- 
 ces wash off. 
 
 An external stucco, when made with hydraulic lime of Tiel, 
 is composed thus : Lime of Tiel, one part ; two of chalk, and two 
 of sand. 
 
 Exterior walls have to be prepared for plastering by wetting 
 them, and leaving the joints open and rough, and during the 
 work care should be taken to have the green material protected 
 from the weather, particularly drying winds or heat of the sun. 
 This is done by using muslin or canvass on the scaffolding. 
 
 Exterior plastering or stucco is usually done in two coat- 
 work. Both coats done about the same time that is, the first 
 coat is done sufficiently long for it to have set in the joints, and 
 to sustain the second coat. 
 
 The plasterer examines his work to find any places where it 
 has not adhered say three or four days after the work is first 
 done. 
 
 Lime and cement, equal parts, (thoroughly mix the lime be- 
 fore compounding with the cement, sand and water), mixed 
 with sand and water makes a good stucco. 
 
 An artificial stone stucco which seems very good, is made of 
 one part lime or cement and four parts sand, to which after 
 slacking add four ounces potash or soda, dissolved in one gallon 
 boiling water, and add one pound shellac. When this is dis- 
 solved mix with the plaster, and use at once. 
 
 There are quite a number of cements that do not stand well 
 for stucco-work. 
 
 Inside Plastering Is done in a variety of ways, from one to 
 three coats of mortar plastering on walls, ceilings, etc. 
 
 When one-coat work is required, the plasterers have to be 
 careful in laying or nailing the laths regular. One-coat work is 
 known as the scratch coat, and generally finished with light 
 hand-floating to give an even finish, to receive a white or color 
 wash finish if desired. If it is the intention to kalsomine on 
 one-coat work, a very good finish may be made by using some 
 hard-finish on the hawk (a flat board to hold plaster on, held in 
 
104 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 the hand), and hand-float the surface with water in the brush. 
 Back buildings and the second stories and attics of farm-houses 
 are often finished this way. It is very important in putting on 
 the first coat, to press the mortar firmly between the laths so 
 .as to fill up the spaces between, and clinch over the edge of the 
 laths. When the first coat is ready to receive the second or 
 browning coat, the surface, before being perfectly dry, is 
 scratched or pricked up on the surface with a hand rake made 
 of laths ; the lines are generally crossed like lattice-work, but 
 rough. 
 
 The proportion for the scratch coat is as follows : One part 
 quick-lime, four parts sand, and one-quarter to one-third measure 
 of cattle or goat's hair. It is usually put on from three-eighths 
 to one-half inch in thickness. 
 
 For Two-coat Work and Finish. The scratch coat is general- 
 ly done as in one-coat work, and worked on the surface roughly, 
 but level with hand-floating. It is required to keep the work 
 plumb and true, and scratched to receive the second coat, 
 which is known by the name of browning. Where, as in this 
 case, the plastering is finished with two coats, the second coat 
 is usually one-quarter or three-eighths inch thick, and will make 
 a very handsome finish if done with three parts clear grey or silver 
 sand ; mixed with one part gauge stuff or plaster of paris putty, 
 one part fine stuff or lump lime slacked into a paste, and suffi- 
 cient clean hair to hold in position the coat when set. This 
 coat is thoroughly floated and troweled. 
 
 Another way is to use the same mortar, known as coarse stuff, 
 for the second coat, but with less hair, and before it is dry to 
 float it thoroughly with hand-float, brush, trowel and water, with 
 some gauge stuff and a little sand, forming a skim finish. This 
 is done in several ways, but with slight variation, the same 
 material being used. 
 
 Three-coat Work and Finish. Prepare wood furring by cov- 
 ering it with wood or metal laths. Wood laths should break 
 joint every eighteen to twenty inches, and be laid about three- 
 eighths to one-half inch apart. On this work the first or scratch 
 coat is to be placed on the wall, and after it is thoroughly dry, 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. IO5 
 
 followed by the second or browning coat ; and the third is gauge 
 stuff for hard-finish. This is worked on the second coat with 
 a trowel for one hand, and sometimes for two hands ; and by 
 using a wet brush ; skilled mechanics often make very fine sur- 
 faces in this manner. This coat is usually one-eighth inch thick, 
 and is composed of fine stuff lime, slacked to a paste, three 
 parts ; plaster of paris, or gauge stuff, one part. No more is 
 made than can be worked, up in say half an hour. 
 
 Gauge stuff is used chiefly for mouldings and cornices the 
 moulds beings made of zinc or sheet iron, and secured to a 
 wooden template with handles to run the template with mould- 
 ings. For this purpose it is common to mix gradually one-third 
 plaster of paris with two-thirds fine stuff. When the work can 
 be done rapidly, equal parts may be used. 
 
 Gauge stuff is used for securing ornaments to the walls or 
 ceilings and plaster decorations. Plasterers cast sections of 
 ornamental cornices in lengths of about three feet, and bring 
 them fresh to the structure, and set them in position. By this 
 means rooms are decorated in New York and vicinity at about 
 the same price as plain, heavy moulded cornice work can be done. 
 The moulds that are used for this purpose are made of wax, 
 rosin and oil, and are usually kept for use by ornamental plas- 
 terers. 
 
 Stucco finish is usually made of fine stuff with white sand- 
 four parts sand, and one. part fine stuff. There are other 
 rules for stucco finish. 
 
 Less cattle hair is required in the plaster on brick walls than 
 on laths, and usually stone and brick walls have but one strong 
 wall coat, and on this it is finished with lime and plaster of par- 
 is, as in the last coat of three-coat work. The walls should be 
 rough, clean and dampened. 
 
 One hundred yards of plastering will require 1,400 laths, in 
 calculating as there is much waste, and four and a half bushels 
 of lime, eighteen bushels of sand, nine pounds of hair, and five 
 pounds of nails for two-coat work. 
 
 One hundred yards of plastering for three-coat work requires 
 seven bushels of lime, one load of sand, nine pounds of hair, five 
 pounds of nails, and 1,400 laths. 
 
 Several plasterers in New York and vicinity give the follow- 
 
10 6 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ing data : 1,000 laths will cover 666 sq. ft. One barrel of lime, 
 one cart-load of sand, and three bushels of goat hair will scratch 
 coat and brown coat a surface of twenty-five square yards. 
 
 Oyster-shell lime is only used for scratch coats, owing to the 
 salt in the lime. Wood-burned lime is always the best. A 
 great quantity of Pennsylvania lime is burned with coal, and has 
 to be sifted, leaving often too large a proportion of core, which 
 has to be thrown away. Nearly all plasterers use the lime that 
 will work the easiest with least labor, and use materials that pay 
 the best with labor. Thomaston or Rockland lime is used by 
 plasterers generally in vicinity of New York. Glenn's Falls. 
 lime is very pure, and is used only in the ornamental arts. 
 
 PLASTERING. 
 
 1 INCH. | 3-4 INCH. 1 1-2 INCH. 
 
 One bushel Cement, or 1.28 cubic ft. 
 
 1 1-8 sup. yd.il 1-2 sq. yd. 
 21-4 " 3. 
 31-4 " 141-2 " 
 
 2 1-2 sq. yds 
 41-2 
 63-4 " 
 
 One " " and one of sand 
 One " " " two " 
 
 One cubic yard of lime, two cubic yards of sand and three 
 bushels of hair will cover seventy-five superficial feet of rough 
 or scratch coat on wall, or seventy yards on lath. 
 
 One bundle of laths and 500 nails will cover about four and a 
 half yards. 
 
 Mortar, Plaster, &c. 
 
 Stone Mortar. Cement, 8 parts ; lime, 3 parts ; sand, 3 parts. 
 Mortar. Lime I part ; sharp, clean sand, 2 1-2 parts. An excess 
 of water in slaking the lime swells the mortar which remains 
 light and porous, or shrinks in drying ; an excess of sand destroys 
 the cohesive properties of the mass. Brown Mortar. Lime, I 
 part ; sand 2 parts, and a small quantity of hair. Brick Mortar. 
 Cement, 3 parts ; lime, 3 parts ; sand, 27 parts. Lime and 
 sand, and cement and sand, lessen about 1-3 in volume when 
 mixed together. Turkish Mortar. Powdered brick and tiles, 
 i part ; fine sifted lime, 2, parts; mix with water to a proper con- 
 sistency. Very useful on massive or very solid buildings. 
 Interior Plastering. Coarse Stuff. Common lime mortar as 
 made for brick masonry, with a small quantity of hair ; or by 
 volumes, lime paste (30 Ibs. lime), i part ; sand, 2 to 2 1-2 parts ; 
 hair, 1-6 part. When full time for hardening cannot be allowed 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 ID/ 
 
 substitute for from 15 to 20 per cent, of the lime an equal por- 
 tion of hydraulic cement. For the second or brown coat the 
 proportion of hair may be slightly diminished. Fine Stuff. 
 (Lime putty) ; Lump lime slaked to a paste with a moderate 
 volume of water, and afterwards diluted to the consistency of 
 cream, and then evaporate to the required consistency for work- 
 ing. This is used as a slipped coat, and when mixed with sand 
 or plaster of paris, it is used for the finishing coat. Gauge Stuff 
 or Hard Finish is composed of 3 or 4 volumes of fine stuff and 
 one volume of plaster of paris, in proportions regulated by the de- 
 gree of rapidity required in hardening for cornices, etc., the pro- 
 portions are an equal volume of each, viz., fine stuff and plaster. 
 
 Stucco is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes of white sand to I 
 volume of fine stuff or lime putty. 
 
 Scratch Coat. The first of 3 coats when laid upon laths, and 
 is from 1-4 to 3-8 of an inch in thickness. One-Coat Work. 
 
 Plastering in I coat without finish that is rendered or laid eith- 
 er on masonry or laths. Two-Coat Work. Plastering in 2 coats 
 is done either in a laying coat and set, or in a screed coat and 
 set. The Screed Coat is also termed a Floated Coat. Laying 
 the first coat in two-coat work is resorted to in common work 
 instead of screeding when the finished surface is not required 
 to be exact to a straight-edge. It is laid in a coat of about 1-2 
 inch in thickness. The laying coat, except for very common 
 work should be hand-floated, as the tenacity and firmness of the 
 work is much increased thereby. Screeds are strips of mortar 
 twenty-six to twenty-eight inches in width and of the required 
 thickness of the first coat applied to the angles of a room or 
 edge of a wall and also in parallel strips at intervals of three to 
 five feet over the surface to be covered. 
 
 When these have become sufficiently hard to withstand the 
 pressure of a straight-edge, the interspaces between the screeds 
 should be filled out flush with them, so as to produce a continu- 
 ous and straight, even surface. 
 
 Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
 quantity of lime putty, mixed with 3 per cent, of white sand so- 
 as to make a comparatively even surface. This finish answers 
 when the surface is to be finished in distemper or paper. 
 
,108 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Hard Finish.- -Fine stuff applied with a trowel to the depth 
 of about one-third of an inch. 
 
 Cement for External Use. Ashes 2 parts ; clay 3 parts ; sand 
 i part ; mix with a little oil. Very durable. 
 
 Asphalt Composition. Mineral pitch one part ; bitumen elev- 
 en parts ; powdered stone or wood ashes seven parts. 
 
 Asphalt Mastic is composed of nearly pure carbonate of lime 
 and about nine or ten per cent, of bitumen. When in a state of 
 powder it is mixed with seven peT cent, of bitumen or mineral 
 pitch. The powdered asphalt is mixed with the bitumen in a 
 melted state along with clean gravel, making it of a consistency 
 that will pour into moulds. The asphalt is ductile, and has elas- 
 ticity to enable it with the small stones sifted upon it to resist 
 ordinary wear. Sun and rain do not affect it, wear and tear do 
 not seem to injure it. The pedestrian in many cities in the 
 United States and Canada can readily detect its presence on the 
 sidewalk by its peculiar yielding to the foot as he steps over it. 
 It is also a most excellent roofing material when rightly applied. 
 
 Asphalt for Walks. Take two parts very dry lime rubbish, 
 and one part coal ashes, also very dry, sift all fine, mix in a dry 
 place on a dry day, leaving a hole in the middle of the heap as 
 bricklayers do when making mortar. Into this pour boiling hot 
 coal-tar ; mix, and when as stiff as mortar, put on the walk 
 three inches thick : (the ground should be dry and beaten 
 smooth) ; sprinkle over it coarse sand. When cold, pass a light 
 roller over it : in a few days the walk will be solid and water 
 proof. 
 
 Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses. Fifty 
 parts by measure of clean, dry sand ; fifty of limestone (not 
 burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and ten 
 parts of red-lead mixed with as much boiled linseed oil as will 
 make it slightly moist. The bricks to receive it should be cov- 
 ered with three coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush and suf- 
 iered to dry before the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a 
 trowel like plaster, but is not so moist. It becomes hard as 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. ICX v 
 
 stone in a few months. Care must be exercised not to use too 
 much oil. 
 
 Cement for Tile Roofs. Equal parts of whiting and dry sand, 
 and twenty-five per cent, of litharge, made to the consistency of 
 putty with linseed-oil. It is not liable to crack when cold nor 
 melt like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the sun. 
 
 Cement for the Outside of Brick Walls. Cement for the 
 outside of brick walls to imitate stone, is made of clean sand 
 ninety parts ; litharge five parts ; plaster of paris five parts ; 
 moistened with boiled linseed oil. The bricks should receive 
 two or three coats of oil before the cement is applied. 
 
 Mexican Method of Making Hard Lime Floors. This method 
 is used extensively in some parts of Northern Mexico, where 
 they become very hard. 
 
 "The limestone used is a hard, compact blue material in some 
 places sufficiently hard to strike fire on the drills used in quar- 
 rying it. It often contains iron pyrites in small proportions ; this is 
 calcined in kilns cut out of soft limestone. After calcination 
 the lime is removed from the kilns and slacked as soon as cool. 
 Part of a lot made this way was used within a day or two and 
 part remained a month or more in barrels. All the work made 
 with it seemed to be equally good. In making the floors a layer 
 of broken limestone, three or four inches thick was first laid 
 evenly over the surface of the ground. The stone being about 
 the usual size for macadamizing roads, over this a mortar of 
 about two parts of sand to one of lime was carefully spread to- 
 the thickness of one and one-half to two inches, this was 
 allowed to remain for twenty-four hours ; or until the surface 
 had become quite dry. It would probably take longer in this 
 climate, where there is more moisture in the air. The floor was then 
 thoroughly pounded with a block of wood one foot square hav- 
 ing a handle so that a man could stand while using it. The 
 whole surface was beaten over with this ram until it was again 
 as soft and moist as when first laid. This operation of ramming 
 brought the water in the mortar to the surface, so as to form a layer 
 of semi-fluid substance on the top. The floor was again allowed 
 to dry : and again beaten over each day for a week when the 
 
flo POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 operation brought only slight amount of moisture to the surface. 
 Immediately after the last pounding the whole surface was 
 powdered with a thin layer of red ochre evenly sifted on and 
 then polished as follows : 
 
 A smooth, nearly flat water-worn stone, a little larger than 
 the ram was selected from the bed of a stream, and with this 
 the whole floor was laboriously gone over ; rubbing down and 
 leaving the surface of the lime as smooth as a piece of polished 
 stone ; the red of the ochre making it of a rich brown color. 
 
 In less than a week the floors made in this way were suffi- 
 ciently hard to bear the weight of a horse without indentation. 
 
 Roofs are made in the same manner ; these roofs are perfect- 
 ly water-tight. In the city of Monterey sidewalks of the princi- 
 pal streets are made in the same manner : some of them have 
 lasted for years, wearing through like a stone. The great dura- 
 bility and strength of these floors and roofs is entirely owing to 
 the pounding operation as herein described, as the same ma- 
 terials were tried in the ordinary way without success." 
 
 This method does not seem to have been used in this section 
 of country. 
 
 Selenitic Mortar or Cement. By the Selenitic process of 
 mortar making, ordinary limes can be made into mortar that, 
 instead of slacking with heat and considerable expansion, will 
 have the action of cement imparted to them ; with the further 
 advantage that they will bear a larger proportion of sand than 
 can be mixed with cements without the strength of the cement 
 being materially affected. But as simple as the process is, it re- 
 quires to be thoroughly understood or failure will be the result. 
 This process Captain Hyde Scott, Royal Engineer of England, 
 seems to have brought into use some twenty years ago. 
 
 In the selenitic process, ordinary stone limes, containing not 
 less than twenty per cent, of clay such as the lias limes of Eng- 
 land and those which come from the lower chalk beds ; for in- 
 stance Dorking, Burham and Mailing limes are made to slack 
 without heat and without expansion ; to carry twice as much 
 sand, and in a short time to attain a considerably greater degree 
 of strength than can be got from the same limes used in the ordinary 
 way. This is all brought about by merely adding a small propor- 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. Ilr 
 
 tion of sulphate of lime in the shape of plaster of paris. The 
 sulphate of lime must be brought in contact with the ordinary 
 lime while it is in an anhydrous condition, or in other words, be- 
 fore the lime has been slacked. The proportion of plaster of 
 paris required to be used is very small, about one-twentieth the 
 bulk of the lime, if the lime contains twenty per cent, of clav 
 There is only one way of mixing them, and that is by mixing 
 the requisite amount of plaster of paris, or a certain proportion 
 of it, before the water is added to the quick-lime. Of course it 
 is understood that the lime used must be ground. 
 
 Selenitic Clay. Limes such as those obtained from the upper 
 chalk formations, which contain less than twenty percent, of clay 
 mixed with them, require the addition of too large a proportion 
 of plaster of paris to effectually prevent heating and expansion in 
 the process of slacking. Consequently this deficiency has to be 
 made good by the addition of what is called "selenitic clay," which 
 consists of a marly clay or shale, well burned and ground to 
 powder ; as much as two bushels of this selenitic clay may be 
 mixed with one bushel of lime. 
 
 Mixing Selenitic Mortar and Concrete. The best method of 
 mixing is to stir up one pint of plaster of paris in a two-gallon pail of 
 water and empty into the pan of a mortar mill (a five-foot mill 
 is a good size), or use an ordinary plaster tub, then add four gal- 
 lons of water only ; let the pan take three or four turns, and 
 then add one bushel of prepared lime ; and when reduced to a 
 creamy paste put in the sand or other material used, and con- 
 tinue mixing for ten minutes. If unprepared lime is used the 
 only difference would be that about three pints of plaster would 
 be added to the water in place of one. 
 
 Proportion of Sand to Lime. In ordinary mortar making, 
 only two or three parts of sand can be advantageously mixed 
 with one of lime ; and the larger proportion of sand only with 
 the purer limes : whilst with the selenitic process, we find from 
 four to six parts of sand to one of lime gives the best and 
 strongest results, but the lime for this process should be ground 
 as it can be worked better : if it is not convenient to have it 
 ground then make as before mentioned. 
 
IJ2 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Thrusting] Tensile I Pulling two 
 stress. stress, \bricks apart* 
 917 Ibs. "TTGlbsTl 134 Ibs. 
 
 '1657 Ibs. 
 
 f 360 Ibs. J3291h 
 
 Common Mortar : 1 Lime, 2 Sand, . . 
 Selenitic Mortar : 1 Lime, 6 Sand, . . . 
 
 * Base area 7.84 square inches. 
 
 t Section area 5 square inches. 
 
 J Area of point of contact equal 18.5 square inches. 
 
 EXPERIMENT MADE WITH LEE'S DURHAM (ENGLISH) LIME. 
 
 Concrete Construction. On the Chester sewage works^ 
 England, in reference to the construction of Tanks, the Engi 
 neer states : "Cement concrete has been resorted to as a sub- 
 stitute for brickwork; and as a substitute it may succeed 
 well enough provided the persons engaged in the performance 
 of the work have had experience in the use of the materials and 
 take a personal interest in their work." 
 
 First, as to the Cement Concrete. The concrete was said to 
 have been composed of the following measured proportions : 
 gravel six parts, sand one part, cement one part. If the cement 
 was reliable these proportions ought to result in first-class con- 
 crete. I prefer the Lias cement if properly manufactured it 
 is made of the Lias limestone of Warwickshire. 
 
 Second, as to the Lime Concrete. This was understood to have 
 been made in the following measured proportions : gravel 
 five parts, sand uncertain and variable but in small quantities, 
 Rugby or Holywell ground lime one part. These proportions 
 formed a rich concrete which may have been improved in its 
 final hardening properties by a larger proportion of sharp sand. 
 I prefer also that the lime and sand shall be made into a well 
 mixed mortar before being added to the gravel. The strength 
 of all concrete depends on the intimate blending of angular sand 
 with the cementitious matter, for without that a proper crystal- 
 lization is not obtained. 
 
 Third, as to the Mortar. This was stated to consist of : lime 
 two parts and sand two parts, cinders one part. This was not 
 a good material. The sand was in fact crushed sandstone, and 
 the cinders were really slags of steam boilers. These' were 
 ground with the lime under edgestones until the whole was re- 
 duced to an impalpable mixture, rather like limey mud. The 
 sand should have been sharp and angular, the cinders should 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. Hj 
 
 have been smith's ashes, containing the usual proportion of iron 
 oxides. Hand made or well pegged mortar is to be preferred for 
 engineering purposes to finely crushed mortar. 
 
 ANCIENT CEMENTS. 
 Abstract of Article by Arthur Beckwith, C. E. 
 
 "* The monuments of Egypt present one of the oldest exam- 
 ples of the use of lime for constructions. The mortar which 
 joins the stone of the Pyramid of Cheops is precisely similar "to 
 modern mortars made of sand and lime. In limiting the u^e of 
 mortar to filling narrow joints which separate immense blocks, 
 and thereby reducing almost to insignificance the part which it has 
 to play, the Egyptians seemed to forestall the influence of a dry 
 and burning climate. Time has justified their prudence in this 
 respect, for the works erected on the banks of the Nile by the 
 Romans, made of small materials and presenting many joints, 
 have left but faint traces, whilst some Egyptian temples still 
 present themselves intact to our admiration. 
 
 Unqualified praise has often been given to the excellence of 
 Roman mortar, and the belief is sometimes expressed that all 
 we can hope to do is to regain the secret of making mortar once 
 possessed by the Romans. It is a common remark that "Roman 
 mortar has lasted for eighteen centuries, whilst a number of 
 modern buildings are in a deplorable state of preservation." 
 
 To make a fair comparison, we should, however, only cite sim- 
 ilar constructions, and then we are comforted by these words 
 of Pliny: "The cause which makes so many houses fall in 
 Rome, resides in the bad quality of the cement." 
 
 The knowledge of the properties of lime descended from 
 Egypt to Greece, where the exigences of the climate and the in- 
 genuity of the people brought forth many of its uses, unknown 
 to Egypt. 
 
 Subsequently Greek colonies imported and popularized their 
 processes in Italy ; and Roman architects, like Vitruvius, cite 
 the names of Greek authors on the art of construction. Their 
 names alone have come down to us, but Vitruvius had full access 
 to them, and in our inquiry after the knowledge of mortar pos- 
 
 - From the proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 
 
H4 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 sessed by the Romans, it is to him that we must refer for infor- 
 mation. Indeed, he has left us a detailed table of precepts used 
 by the builders of Greece and Rome, which do not justify our 
 unreserved admiration ; everything relating to lime, sand and 
 pozzolana is clearly treated therein. 
 
 We may safely affirm, with Vitruvius, that the Romans made 
 use of the lime, sand and materials of the countries where they 
 built ; that they considered the best lime to be produced from 
 hard and pure marble, /. e., the fattest lime known ; that in Italy 
 they mixed it with pozzolana when used for hydraulic purposes, 
 and that out of Italy they replaced the pozzolana from Vesuvius, 
 by powdered brick or tile. 
 
 Roman mortars, when examined today are found to bear a 
 distinct resemblance to each other ; they may be recognized by 
 the presence of coarse sand mixed with gravel ; lumps of lime 
 are so often to be met with, that incomplete slaking will alone 
 account for them. Mortars laid in damp spots for cisterns and 
 pavements were composed of bricks in small fragments mixed 
 with fat lime ; this concrete required to be compacted by pound- 
 ing and left to dry the surface was then scraped, polished and 
 painted evidently to prevent the dissolution of lime by water. 
 
 It will be seen by this that what we. term hydraulic lime, and 
 also the modern product of cement, were unknown to the Rom- 
 ans. 
 
 It is important to refute the belief that methods may have been 
 known to them of which we have lost the secret. When the de- 
 cay of arts followed upon the downfall of the Roman Empire, 
 houses nevertheless continued to be built, and the familiar pro- 
 cesses under the eye of the workman must have been transmit- 
 ted from father to son. So true is this, that today Italian ma- 
 sons, who certainly have not read Vitruvius, make coatings for 
 cisterns and concrete floors in the very same manner as may 
 still be seen in the ancient ruins of Rome. 
 
 Neither is it true that Roman mortar is uniformly good. Its 
 strength of cohesion varies in different examples from 35 to 85 
 Ibs. per square inch to 100 and 160 Ibs., or as much as 500 per 
 cent. 
 
 In the middle ages a volcanic conglomerate from the banks 
 of the Rhine, named traass, was substituted for the pozzolana 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. II5 
 
 of Italy, and mortar was made of fat lime, mixed with traass, 
 to render it hydraulic. 
 
 Many castles erected during that period stand well today ; 
 the well-known castle of the Bastile, erected in 1369-83, which 
 after withstanding a siege required the use of powder for its de- 
 struction in 1789, was found to be extremely solid even in the 
 interior walls. 
 
 It would seem, then, that the secret of the Romans was 
 known also in those times, and could have been lost only at the 
 Renaissance, when least of all such a supposition is probable. 
 
 At what period were first used certain limestones, having the 
 property of producing a lime which will harden under water ; 
 it is not precisely known ; the first use of cement stone is equally 
 obscure. 
 
 In 1796 Messrs. Parker and Wyatts began to manufacture 
 from egg-shaped limestones found near London, a product known 
 later as Roman Cement, and which was soon received with great 
 favor throughout Europe ; but neither the producers nor the 
 consumers offered any explanation of its merits. 
 
 Not until 1818 and the following years was the true explana- 
 tion given to the hydraulic properties of limes and cements 
 when Vicat published his discoveries. 
 
 Before that, in 1756, when Smeaton was preparing the ardu- 
 ous and bold construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse, this 
 celebrated engineer examined with scrupulous attention the nat- 
 ural hydraulic lime of Aberthaw. Treated by acids it left a 
 residue "which appeared to be a bluish clay, weighing about one- 
 eighth of the total weight of the stone." 
 
 In 1786, Saussure attributed the hydraulic properties of some 
 limes of Savoy to the combined influence of manganese, quartz, 
 and even clay ; but he left his opinions in the mere state of con- 
 jectures. 
 
 Finally, Descostils, in 1813, having discovered a considerable 
 proportion of finely divided silica in the lime of Senonches, at- 
 tributed the well known hydraulicity of that lime to the silica it 
 contained. 
 
 But the conjectures of Smeaton, of Saussure and of Descostils 
 were vague ; they rested upon no proofs, and found no applica- 
 tions in practice. 
 
u6 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The discoveries of Vicat attained their immediate object, for 
 in a short time artificial hydraulic lime of excellent quality was 
 manufactured on a large scale under his direction, and a few 
 years later he indicated as many as 400 quarries in France where 
 hydraulic limestones were to be found. 
 
 The following valuable selection is from an English journal : 
 
 Rapidity of Set. Very rapid setting and great strength are 
 not met with in the same cement ; but in many cases the quick- 
 er setting and lighter cements are most useful. It is believed 
 that before long light Portland cements will be manufactured, 
 capable of competing with the Roman cements, in quickness of 
 setting, and surpassing them in uniformity of quality. 
 
 The following table contains the result of a series of experi- 
 ments made by Mr. J. GRANT, C. E., London, England, with 
 Portland cement, weighing 123 Ibs. per bushel : 
 
 Average Breaking Test of Ten Specimens. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Neat Cement. 
 
 1 Cement, 1 Sand. 
 
 7 da 
 Imc 
 3 
 6 
 9 
 12 
 
 r 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 817-1 
 935-8 
 1055-9 
 1176-6 
 1219-5 
 1229-7 
 1324-9 
 1314-4 
 1312-6 
 1306-8 
 1308-0 
 1327-3 
 
 Ibs. 
 353-2 
 452-5 
 547-5 
 640-3 
 692-4 
 716-6 
 790-3 
 784-7 
 81S-1 
 821-0 
 819-5 
 803-6 
 
 Ultll % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The whole of the specimens were kept in water from the time 
 of their being made up to the time of testing, and the breaking 
 weight applies to a sectional area of i 1-2 inches square, or 2.25 
 inches super. It appears from these experiments that neat ce- 
 ment of 123 Ibs. per bushel took two years to attain its full 
 strength, whilst the admixture of sand, in addition to weakening 
 the specimens, also delayed their attaining their maximum pow- 
 ers of resistance. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 1 17 
 
 Color. A dull earthy color denotes an excess of clay ; whilst 
 tool ight a color is the result of either under-burning or an ex- 
 cess of lime, or of both these faults combined. 
 
 Packing the Cement. Since Portland, unlike Roman cement, 
 improves within certain limits by exposure to the air, it need 
 not be packed in air-tight casks (except for exportation), but 
 kept dry. The casks in which it is packed generally contain 
 four cwt., and the bags two cwt. 
 
 Water for Mixing. Salt water does no injury to the strength 
 of the cement, but must be avoided where efflorescence or damp 
 on the surface would be objectionable. 
 
 Both cement, mortar and concrete should be made with as 
 little water as will suffice to make the whole cling together. 
 When too much is used, the finer particles of the cement get 
 separated from the rest and float away, or on the surface in the 
 form of a slime. In mixing concrete, if the ballast is porous and 
 dry, more water will be required than if damp or non-absorbent. 
 
 Sand, Grayel, and other Materials for Mixing with Portland 
 Cement. Experience has shown that porous materials, by allow- 
 ing the cement to enter the pores, and so retain a firm hold on 
 them, are the best for mixing with cement: thus, well-burnt 
 broken bricks, clay ballast, furnace slag or breeze, will form a 
 stronger concrete than if made with the harder but smoother 
 and less porous stones in gravel or shingle ; but it must be 
 borne in mind that in such cases a slightly larger proportion of 
 cement is advisable to compensate for what is absorbed by the 
 pores of the material. No importance need be attached to the 
 shape of the particles of sand or other materials used such as 
 whether angular or water-worn though a certain roughness of 
 surface gives a better hold to the cement than if too smooth. 
 The presence of dirt, such as loam, clay and vegetable matter 
 liable to decay, has a prejudicial effect upon cement, and sensi- 
 bly weakens either mortar or concrete. 
 
 The gravel, broken stone, or other material used in making 
 concrete, should have sufficient small stuff and sand mixed with 
 it to fill up the interstices between the larger pieces. When 
 this is not already the case, the amount of small stuff and sand 
 
U 8 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 which ought to be added may be ascertained by filling up any 
 suitable measure, of uniform section from top to bottom, with 
 the gravel, &c., striking it level with the top, and then adding 
 as much water as the measure will contain. The water may 
 then be run off through a hole in the bottom of the measure, 
 the gravel, &c., removed from it, and the water replaced in it ; 
 the amount of water expressed in terms of the internal height 
 of the measure will be the proportion of small stuff which should 
 be added to the ballast. 
 
 Proportion of Cement in Mortar and Concrete. As cement is 
 not used, on account of the cost, unless special strength is re- 
 quired, the proportions in general use are i cement to either I 
 or 2 sand ; below this the advantage gained by its use diminish- 
 es rapidly. In general terms neat cement is one-third stronger 
 than if mixed with I sand, and twice as strong as when mixed 
 with 2 sand. 
 
 For concrete, I cement to 10 or even 12 gravel, or other ma- 
 terial, is sufficient for masses in foundations, dock walls, &c.; 
 i to 8 or 6, for ordinary walls, according to their thickness ; and 
 i to 4 for floors, and other places where great transverse strength 
 is necessary. 
 
 Mixing and Laying Portland Cement Concrete. The best 
 method of mixing concrete in large quantities is, taking a meas- 
 ure of convenient capacity for one mixing, to half fill the meas- 
 ure with the broken .ballast, or other material, and then add the 
 cement ; finally filling up the measure with the ballast. The 
 measure should then be lifted off, when the whole will fall into 
 a heap, the cement partially mixing with the ballast in so doing, 
 and not being so liable to get wasted by being blown about by 
 the wind, as when emptied over the top of the ballast heap. The 
 whole should be turned over twice dry, and then shovelled to a 
 third heap, sufficient water only being added in so doing by 
 sprinkling from the rose of a watering-pot to make the ingre- 
 dient cling together in a pasty mass. The floor upon which it 
 is mixed should be hard and clean. 
 
 The concrete may either be wheeled off and deposited in po- 
 sition, or, if more convenient, may be thrown down, but in both 
 cases, more especially in the former, it is advisable to beat it 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. II 
 
 doun lightly with wooden beaters until the moisture comes to 
 the surface. 
 
 On no account should it be sent down a shoot, or the finer 
 and coarser ingredients will get separated in the descent, the 
 former clinging more to the sides of the shoot, whilst the latter 
 will reach the bottom first, and get shot out into a heap by them- 
 selves. 
 
 Not to be disturbed whilst Setting. When cement-work has 
 once been laid, it must not be touched until quite hard, for its 
 strength will be materially affected if the particles are disturbed 
 after the process of setting has commenced. 
 
 Bricks, Stones, &c., to be Wetted. All absorbent surfaces or 
 materials, with which cement is to come in contact, should be 
 well wetted, or they will rob the cement of the moisture neces- 
 sary to enable it to set hard ; but the water should not be oozing 
 out of them, or the cement, being unable to enter their pores, 
 will fail to adhere properly to them. For this reason broken 
 brick ballast, &c., if quite dry, will require more water in con- 
 crete making, than if already damp, and old dry walls will re- 
 quire more wetting than new or external damp walls. 
 
 Cement to be kept Damp while Setting. Cement-work must 
 be kept damp until set quite hard, or it will become rotten from 
 the evaporation of the water of mixing, which is essential to the 
 proper setting of the cement : hence the most suitable time for 
 executing cement-work is in damp weather. When the work 
 has to be done in dry weather, special care is necessary to keep 
 it damp, and to protect it from the sun's rays. Flat surfaces, 
 such as floors, paving, &c., should, if practicable, be kept flood- 
 ed with water or covered with a layer of sawdust or sand 3 or 4 
 inches thick, which should be kept quite damp for at least sev- 
 en days, or until the cement has become quite hard. In sur- 
 faces exposed to traffic this is most important, as the cement, if 
 at all perished, will soon wear away. 
 
 Avoid imbedding Iron in Cement. Cement mixed with sand 
 and other materials is porous, admitting both moisture and air ; 
 iron, therefore imbedded in cement-work, is liable to rust, and 
 
!2o POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 the expansive force accompanying this process will split up cem- 
 ent, stone, or any similar unyielding material ; if the iron is gal- 
 vanized it is not affected by the cement. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT. 
 Characteristics of good Portland Cement. 
 
 The following explanations about the uses of Portland cement 
 will apply to a great extent to all other cements. 
 
 1. Fineness. It should, when passed through a copper wire 
 sieve of 2,500 meshes per square inch, not leave more than 20 
 per cent, of grit behind. The cement sifted should not be less 
 than 25 Ibs., taken from- different bags, or from different parts 
 of the heap if stored in bulk. After a little experience, a well- 
 ground cement may readily be recognized by the absence of 
 grit when rubbed between the fingers. 
 
 2. Expanding or Contracting in Setting. When made up 
 without sand or excess of water, and filled up level with the top 
 of a glass or similar vessel, it should set hard without cracking 
 the vessel, rising or sinking, or getting loose in it, or showing 
 any signs of cracks in the cement itself. 
 
 3. Strength When made up without sand, with as little 
 water as possible, and filled into moulds, it should, after seven 
 consecutive days in water, give an ultimate strength, under a 
 tensile stress slowly applied, of 250 Ibs. per square inch of frac- 
 tured section, the immersion in water to commence as soon as 
 the cement blocks will bear removing from the moulds, which 
 should not exceed twenty-four hours after the moulds have been 
 filled. 
 
 When time will not admit of this test being applied, a very 
 fair idea of the strength of the cement can be arrived at from 
 its weight, which should not be less than 108 Ibs. per imperial 
 striked bushel, filled up as lightly as possible, by pouring the 
 cement down an inclined board, or through a wooden hopper, 
 about i foot square at top, i inch square at bottom, and i foot deep. 
 The hopper should be suspended with the point of discharge 6 
 inches above the top of the bushel measure, which should stand 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 121 
 
 on a firm base and not on any vibrating floor, and should not be 
 touched until the cement in it has been finally struck level with 
 the top with a straight-edge. The cement weighed should be 
 taken from different bags, or from different parts of the heap if 
 stored in bulk. 
 
 Rapidity of Set. When made up into cakes about half an 
 inch thick, without any sand or excess of water, the cement 
 should set hard within 24 hours, either in or out of water, with- 
 out showing any signs of cracks. 
 
 Color. The color of good Portland cement is a bluish-grey ; 
 if dark and earthy, or of too light a color, it is not to be trusted. 
 When made up without sand and set hard, it should show the 
 same bluish-grey color without any brown specks or stains. 
 
 Explanatory Remarks. 
 
 Fineness. A high degree of fineness is necessary to the com- 
 plete and simultaneous setting of all the particles throughout 
 the mass. When insufficiently ground, the fine particles set 
 first, then the coarser grit, and lastly the little hard lumps ; and 
 it is this process going on, after the surrounding particles have 
 already set hard, which often shows itself all over the surface 
 by the "blowing" or bursting out of numberless pustules, or 
 the cracking of the entire body of the cement. 
 
 Some foreign cements allow of 85 per cent, passing through 
 a No. 60 gauge, or 3,600 meshes per superficial inch ; but cements 
 of such extreme fineness are under-burnt, and therefore weigh 
 light, and are deficient in strength, though often rapid in setting. 
 The wear and tear to the machinery in grinding well-burnt cem- 
 ents to such extreme fineness would render them too costly to 
 be marketable. 
 
 Expanding or Contracting in Setting. The test for expansion 
 or contraction in setting is very simple, and one which should 
 on no account be omitted, for these are about the most serious 
 defects to which Portland cements are liable, though for the 
 most part no steps are taken to guard against them. 
 
 Expansion in setting is due to the presence of free lime in the 
 cement owing either to more lime having been used in its man- 
 
, 22 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ufacture than can chemically combine with the clay to imper- 
 fect mixing of the lime with the clay, or to the burning not hav- 
 ing been carried to a sufficient extent to enable the lime and clay 
 to combine together. 
 
 Contraction in setting, which is not nearly so often met with, 
 is due to an excess of clay, and, as there is no remedy for this 
 evil, the cement must be rejected. 
 
 The tendency to expand in setting is a very common fault in 
 fresh-ground cements, especially those of the heaviest and strong- 
 est descriptions, owing to the large proportion of lime used in 
 their manufacture, which, if in excess, as already explained or 
 even locally in excess, owing to imperfect mixing is present in 
 the cement in the form of free lime, which heats and expands 
 considerably in the process of slaking. However, if the cement 
 is otherwise good, this evil can be remedied by spreading it out 
 on a dry floor, under cover, and turning it over occasionally, to 
 allow of its air slaking or "cooling." 
 
 "When delivered on the works for use, Portland cement should 
 always be shot from the bags on to a wooden floor to a depth 
 not exceeding 4 feet and be permitted to remain at least three 
 weeks before it is allowed to be used for any purpose. While 
 so kept, fresh Portland cement increases considerably in bulk 
 probably 10 per cent. without any diminution of its strength \ 
 so that it should be to the advantage of a contractor to store his 
 cement before using it, even if he were not required to do so by 
 the engineer. I can hardly impress too strongly upon you the 
 importance of avoiding the use of fresh cement for any purpose 
 whatever." 
 
 Many a good, strong cement which, when first delivered, would 
 heat in mixing and expand in setting, would, after exposure to 
 the air for a time, stand the test for expansio-n perfectly. 
 
 Tests of Cements F. O. Norton, Civil Engineer, who has 
 made a large number of experiments on American cements, has 
 obtained a class of comparative results, which gives a clear 
 knowledge of the magnesian limestone. The principal deposit 
 of the magnesian limestone producing a cement possessing hy- 
 draulic energy, occurs in the town of Rosendale, Ulster Co., 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 12$ 
 
 New York. The following tests were made at the works at 
 Binne water, during the season of 1878, commencing in April 
 and continued for eight months. 
 
 Several times each day a number of briquettes were made of 
 the cement manufactured that day. The briquettes were mixed in 
 two ways in one the cement was mixed with water to form an 
 ordinary stiff mortar, which was pressed in the moulds and 
 smoothed off: for the other a very dry mixture was made. 
 Both mixtures were left in the moulds a few minutes, and were 
 then pressed out with a wooden plunger, and left in the air 
 thirty minutes. They were then put in water and left in water 
 until broken. 5824 briquettes were made and broken during 
 the eight months. 
 
 RESULT OF TESTS. 
 Tensile strength per square inch, represented in pounds on 5824 Briquettes. 
 
 
 15 1 1 1 2 1 3 
 days\ mo. I mo. 'TOO. 
 
 1 4 
 \ mo. 
 
 ~395~ 
 380 
 500 
 
 3 
 
 mo. 
 
 Vif 
 
 40.-) 
 5-20 
 
 i. 
 
 -fioT 
 410 
 530 
 
 7 1 8 
 mo.\ mo. 
 
 <J 
 
 mo. 
 
 To 
 
 mo. 
 
 11 
 
 mo. 
 
 465 
 409 
 
 12 
 mo. 
 
 IcT 
 
 405 
 
 1878. Stiff Mortar, 
 " Dry Mixture, 
 1879. Stiff Mortar, 
 
 65 
 150 
 125 
 
 17ii 
 2:50 
 1250 
 
 265 1 385 
 
 300 350 
 
 380 \ 460 
 
 454 
 
 415 
 
 475 
 415 
 
 4f;;> 
 
 415 
 
 470 
 
 4D.-, 
 
 The briquettes were shaped like a dumb-bell the breaking area 
 being one inch square. 
 
 Rosendale cements of the best qualities develope great hy- 
 draulic strength in twenty-four hours, being at that time equal to 
 Portland cement. The Portland cement gains rapidly up to 
 seven days, at the end of a month the Rosendale approaches 
 the Portland and the difference between the two is changed after 
 that time. 
 
 For practical purposes all cements are generally used with a 
 mixture of sands. This reduction of strength in round num- 
 bers is as follows : 
 
 1 part of sand gives mortar 1-2 as strong as pure cement. 
 
 2 1-2 " " " 
 
 3 u (t u (i 1.4 " " 
 
 4 1-5 " " 
 
 5 u 1-6 " " " 
 
 The following Tests of Cements were made in the months 
 of Jan., Feb. and March of 1882. 
 
124 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 THESE TESTS WERE MADE IX NEW YORK. 
 
 
 
 
 .Tensile etral 
 
 ' 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Ibs. per 
 
 Brand. 
 
 sL,. 
 
 * 
 
 | 
 
 Time. 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 Time. 
 
 % 
 
 "S 
 
 Time. 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 square inch. 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Swedish, 
 Gillingham, 
 
 " 24 h. 
 24 h. 
 
 80 72 
 7S 92 
 50 6->, 
 
 7 days 
 
 194|190 
 (29240 
 
 ;j-< 886 
 
 14 d'y s 257 160 
 
 30S448 
 230,200 
 
 21days 
 
 304306 
 390 4'24 
 
 278 292 
 
 Imported is 
 very good. 
 
 Dyckerhoff, 
 Delafleld, 
 
 Laureuceville, 
 Kock Lock, 
 Connelly &Scheffer, 
 
 ;';' 
 
 
 7080 
 5648 
 5036 
 8032 
 4024 
 
 
 I2S Ilf 
 
 72 56 
 233 47 
 80| 70 
 
 230240 
 214-205 
 138 130 
 206 f'il 
 98 101 
 
 
 217 
 280 
 
 85 
 210 
 95 
 
 235 
 200 
 60 
 
 78 
 40 
 
 The longer 
 It stands the 
 better It la. 
 
 All these cements are in use in the city of New York. Small 
 moulded pieces of cement of the form of a dumb-bell were cast 
 with the middle part I inch square. Each one of these forms 
 were tested separately on scales made for testing building ma- 
 terials. 
 
 Hydraulic Limes and Cements. If limes harden under 
 water in from fifteen to twenty days after immersion, they are 
 slightly hydraulic; if from six to eight days, simply hydraulic, 
 and from one to four days, eminently hydraulic. Hydraulic 
 limes if not properly slacked, will sometimes burst. It should 
 -all be hydrated before placing, which will require more time than 
 ordinary lime. The different kinds act differently. There is 
 but little heat developed in these limes while slacking. 
 
 The hydraulic lime of Tiel, manufactured in France, and im- 
 ported to this country in barrels of from 450 to 600 pounds, is 
 extensively used, and considered a very strong cement. It will 
 set firmly in eighteen to twenty-four hours under water, and in- 
 creases in tensile strength from 40 to 160 pounds per square 
 inch, and the crushing weight from 200 to 600 pounds per square 
 inch. It weighs from 40 to 45 pounds per cubic foot. The 
 slacking of 100 pounds of Tiel lime requires 28 pounds of water. 
 
 For Salt- Water Mortars, Concrete nnder water. One part 
 of Tiel lime to two parts of sand. 
 
 For Mortars Exposed to Air. One part lime, three parts 
 sand. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 125 
 
 To form Betons and Concrete from the Mortars before men- 
 tioned. Salt- Water Concretes. Two measures of mortar, thor- 
 oughly mixed with three of broken stone. 
 
 Fresh-Water Concretes. One measure of mortar to two of 
 broken stone. 
 
 Artificial Blocks. One measure of mortar to two of pebbles. 
 
 Portland Cement is made of argillaceous limestones selected 
 for the purpose, or argillaceous chalk or calcerous clays, or 
 mixtures of artificial carbonate of lime or clay, and artificial 
 mixtures of caustic limes and clay. 
 
 It is burned in kilns with a heat of sufficient duration and in- 
 tensity to produce the beginning of vitrifaction. After this the 
 product is ground to powder. There should be from seventy to 
 eighty per cent, carbonate of lime, and twenty to twenty-five per 
 cent, of clay, and not less than ninety to ninety-five per cent, of 
 the lime and clay required for a first quality cement. Hard car- 
 bonates of lime are expensive to reduce to powder, yet hard 
 limestones may be used. Suitable clay is of more rare occur- 
 rence than suitable limestone, for the reason the former must 
 contain alumina and silica, not only in certain proportions but 
 in a certain state of pulverization. 
 
 For foundation walls on damp and yielding soils, also for sub- 
 marine masonry, Portland cement concrete is superior to brick- 
 work in strength, durability and economy. It is also well suited 
 for sewers, piers, abutments, pavements, etc. A barrel weighs- 
 about 400 pounds, and has a tensile strength of 250 pounds per 
 square inch, and safely sustains, after seven days set, 470 pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 Concrete or Beton is a mixture of lime, sand and gravel or 
 broken stone, or hard-burned broken brick. When cement is 
 used instead of lime, it is known as a cement concrete. 
 
 The object to be attained in making hydraulic concrete is to 
 give such a sufficiency of mortar as will produce the aggre- 
 gation of the whole mass of rough rubble materials. 
 
 When Portland cement is used, one part of cement may be 
 used to three parts of sand, and this may be mixed with six 
 parts of gravel, stone, spalls or broken bricks. 
 
I 2 6 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 For Tiel lime, lime three parts, sand five parts, two parts 
 broken stone. This is at it was used at the mole in Marseilles 
 
 The French Beton Agglomere. Cement in blocks consists of 
 1 80 parts of sand, 44 parts of lime slacked, 33 parts of Portland 
 cement, and 20 parts of water. This is most thoroughly incor- 
 porated. 
 
 Vicat Cement. This artificial cement 'sets strongly in from 
 eight to fifteen hours, and is able to stand great cold. Vicat 
 mortar, of one part of cement to three parts of sand, when four- 
 teen days old, sustained safely a pressure of 300 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 Lafarge Cement Weighs sixty-six pounds per cubic foot. 
 Begins setting after three to three and a half hours ; completes 
 its setting in twelve to eighteen hours. 
 
 Made into Mortar. One part cement to two parts sand. Af- 
 ter eight days setting, its tensile strength was found to be 142 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Made into Mortar. One part cement, three parts sand. After 
 three days setting, did not crush until loaded with 81 pounds 
 per square inch. The same mixture, 
 
 After 13 days .540 pounds square inch, crushing load. 
 
 " 33 " 942 " " 
 
 " 43 1049 u u u it u 
 
 In practice it would be safe to use a working load to the above 
 of one-quarter of the crushing load. 
 
 The resistance to rupture after twenty days exposed to the 
 air, is about 54 pounds per square inch ; with equal proportions 
 of sand and cement it falls to 27 pounds. 
 
 American and Foreign Cements. 
 
 American Rosendale from 60 to 70 pounds cubic foot. 
 
 English Portland " 95 to 102 " " " 
 
 And hi barrels " 400to430 to barrel. 
 
 French Portland 95 to 105 " cubic foot. 
 
 Lafarge 66 to 70 " " " 
 
 Tiel Lime " 52 to 58 " " " 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. \2J 
 
 The 'following cements were made into small blocks, four 
 inches square by one inch thick, and they set as follows : 
 
 Statine, French Cement 15 minutes. 
 
 Pomeranium, German 13 " 
 
 K and S Portland, imported 11 " 
 
 White's " " 71-2" 
 
 Bosendale, U. S 30 to 45 " 
 
 They were tested by tapping them with a piece of wood, the 
 size of a common clothes-line pin; when no impression was 
 made, they were said to have set. 
 
 Keene's Cement. An imported cement, is used extensively 
 for interior decorations, artificial marble cornices and center- 
 pieces. The superfine is of a delicate white, takes a high pol- 
 ish, and makes beautiful scagiola-work. There is a medium 
 quality used for the same purpose, and used in artificial marbles. 
 The coarse is used for stucco, and has great durability ; also for 
 floors to halls, areas, passages, vestibules, churches, etc. It is 
 less expensive than Portland cement. One cask contains four 
 bushels, which, mixed in the proportion of one part cement, 
 and two parts sand, will cover about fifteen superficial yards 
 one-half inch thick. 
 
 For Polished Work of Walls. Use the floating coat of equal 
 parts Keene's coarse cement and sand ; the setting coat to be of 
 superfine one-quarter inch thick. 
 
 For Stucco on Brickwork. For floating coat, one part cem- 
 ent, and two parts sand. The setting coat should be three- 
 sixteenths inch thick. 
 
 Where it is required to lay a coat of cement over a floor sur- 
 face, one barrel of Portland cement, weighing about 400 pounds, 
 if used neat, will cover five square yards of surface one inch 
 thick ; and when mixing, if there is added two parts of sand, it 
 will cover fifteen square yards of surface one inch thick. 
 
 Rosendale Cement Concrete. One barrel Rosendale cement, 
 {300 pounds weight, 75 pounds per bushel;) three barrels of 
 sharp, gritty and damp sand; five barrels of broken stone; will 
 sustain a load of 40 pounds square inch when set. 
 
 Portland Cement Concrete. One barrel of Portland cement, 
 (400 pounds, say five cubic feet ;) one barrel of Thomaston lime, 
 eight barrels of sand, twelve barrels of broken stone; will sus- 
 tain a load of 50 pounds per square inch when set. 
 
I2 g POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Rosendale cement weighs about 75 pounds per bushel ; Port- 
 land cement will average 116 pounds per bushel, when 90 per 
 cent. fine. Dark cement appears to be the strongest. Fine 
 quality cements are now manufactured in many parts of the 
 United States. The best are from Rosendale cements of New 
 York and New Jersey ; Cumberland, Maryland ; Round Top, Han- 
 cock, in Maryland ; Sandusky, Ohio ; and Shepherdstown, Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 Nearly all hydraulic limes and cements, after being packed in 
 barrels, will lose their energy by exposure or age. 
 
 The imported Boulogne Portland cement, after getting a 
 permanent set, will sustain a load of 1000 pounds per square 
 inch. Its tensile strength is 340 pounds per square inch. It is 
 most desirable for strong masonry, wharves, piers, founda- 
 tions, sewers, etc., and concrete sidewalks. It takes several 
 hours to set. 
 
 For Mortar of Great Strength One part Boulogne cement, 
 five parts coarse sand. 
 
 Selenitic Lime or Cement Is prepared by mixing and grind- 
 ing together unslacked high-degree hydraulic lime and calcined 
 plaster of paris, in the proportion of ninety per cent, lime and 
 ten per cent, plaster of paris. When made into mortar with 
 sand it sets quickly and firmly, and can be used for concrete of 
 mason's work ; is durable and very firm and strong. The only 
 selenitic process cement used in this country is the Howe's Cave 
 cement, New York. 
 
 For certain purposes the natural light cements, and those 
 manufactured in the United States, possess sufficient strength 
 for the purposes to which they are applied: For massive con- 
 crete foundations and walls, for the backing of thick walls faced 
 with ashlar, and for giving hydraulic energy to mortar for stone 
 and brick masonry, there are several high grades of Portland, New 
 York and Pennsylvania, equal to those imported from Europe. 
 
 Cement Mortar for Brick-laying. One part cement, two 
 parts sand. For Stone-work, ordinary One part cement, three 
 parts sand. 
 
 Mortar of Cement. One barrel of cement, say 300 pounds, 
 two barrels of sand, one-half barrel of water, will make say eight 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. I2Q 
 
 cubic feet of mortar, and will lay 500 bricks, or one cubic yard 
 of rubble stone-work. Three or four more parts of sand may be 
 added, according to quality of work. 
 
 Cement Mortar for Stone Masonry/, e., Cut or Squared Ma- 
 son Work. One cask of cement, say 300 pounds, ninety per 
 cent, fine; one-half cask lime, Thomaston; fifteen cubic feet of 
 sand. 
 
 The mixing of lime with cement makes the cement set slower, 
 and is also cheaper. 
 
 Cement Mortar for Brick Masonry. One cask of cement, one- 
 half cask of lime, four cubic feet paste, and ten cubic feet of 
 sand. 
 
 Where cements are used on masonry of railroad work, the 
 proportion of mortar is one-third of cement to two-thirds of 
 sand, and sometimes lime is added. 
 
 Ordinary Concrete.One part cement, one part lime, two 
 parts sand, and four parts granite spalls or shingle. 
 
 Brickdnst Cement Concrete. One measure or part of new 
 lime, one and one-quarter measures of part brick or tile dust, 
 one and one-quarter measures of parts of sand, five measures or 
 parts of broken stone, and water. 
 
 Lime and Cement Concrete. One-half bushel cement, three- 
 eighths bushel lime, two bushels sand, four bushels broken stone, 
 and three-eighths bushel water. 
 
 Lime should always be slacked a day or two before mixing 
 the concrete. 
 
 TABULAR STATEMENT OF TESTS MADE ON HYDRAULIC 
 
 AND OTHER CEMENTS AT THE CENTENNIAL 
 
 EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 All these cements were tested by mixing them dry, in every 
 case with equal quantity of clean sand, tempering it to the con- 
 sistency of stiff mason's mortar. Then they were moulded into 
 
130 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 small bricks, equal to two and one-quarter square inches of sur- 
 face, allowed one day to set in the air, and placed in water for 
 six days. After a number of trials on each, the result was divided 
 by two and one-quarter to get the load on each square inch. 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 Crushing 
 strength per 
 square inch. 
 
 Tensile 
 strength pei 
 square inch. 
 
 Stettin, German, Portland Cement 
 
 1,436 
 1,300 
 1,150 
 1,073 
 968 
 931 
 926 
 907 
 882 
 826 
 764 
 693 
 606 
 580 
 
 292 
 276 
 276 
 234 
 230 
 200 
 184 
 201 
 184 
 180 
 126 
 122 
 
 206 
 212 
 200 
 184 
 168 
 158 
 192 
 163 
 141 
 132 
 108 
 134 
 112 
 154 
 
 38 
 47 
 43 
 47 
 44 
 42 
 29 
 42 
 42 
 27 
 24 
 25 
 
 
 Wouldhan's " " fr'si 
 
 Portland Wampum, New Castle, Penn., U. S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ROMAN AND.OTHEK CEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cumberland Hydraulic Cement Co., Maryi'd, U. S. 
 
 Anchor Cement, Allentown, Penn., U. S 
 
 
 
 
 There would naturally occur many reasons for the above tests 
 being variable, owing to the selection of cement for the test, 
 and exposure to the heat of the sun, etc. Most of the above 
 data was obtained from nine to twelve tests on each kind of cem- 
 ent. Thirty-three per cent, of the test would give a fair work- 
 ing load for foreign cements, and forty per cent, for the United 
 States, as every year great improvement is being made in the 
 manufactures of all grades of cement in this country ; and the 
 tests are open to such criticism, owing to competition and use 
 here, that they may be relied upon. 
 
 When Portland cements are made into blocks without sand 
 and filled in moulds, and turned out after twenty-four hours, 
 they may then be immersed in water, and at the expiration of 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. ijj 
 
 eight days they will give a tensile strain, slowly applied, of 250 
 Ibs. to the square inch. 
 
 On Cements. Mr. F. Collingwood, Civil Engineer, has made 
 a number of exhaustive experiments at the East River Bridge, 
 N. Y., on cements. He states, that in mixing water with 
 cement, the quantity of water used was limited to produce the 
 best result. This varied with every lot of cement, even from 
 the same maker. That which in one case would make a clean, 
 hard briquette, would in another not give any coherence when 
 rammed. The percentage of water is given in the annexed 
 table, this was sufficient to make the mass slightly moist ; after 
 this it was rammed in the moulds. About one-half more water 
 would, in each case, give a mortar of the right consistency for 
 use. The sieve used had 2500 meshes per square inch. There 
 were forty individual tests : ten tests for twenty-four hours, ten 
 for seven days, ten for fourteen days, and ten at twenty-one 
 days' setting ; the briquettes being made at the same time and 
 from the same barrel. The briquettes were 2x11-2 in the break- 
 ing section, with ends enlarged to fit the clamps in the testing 
 machine. In compression a portion of the same specimen was 
 crushed, the size was 2x2x1 I.-2. The twenty-four hour tests 
 are no criterion as to the ultimate strength of cements. Further 
 tests were made to compare brick for tensile and compressive 
 strains, but it is stated they were not very satisfactory ; yet 
 here is the result. 
 
 Haverstraw brick were used, not the hardest 
 
 Of whole bricks, 10 tests, set on end, compression averaged 2,065 Ibs. per square Inch. 
 
 10 half bricks on side, " " 4,612 " " 
 
 10 " " flat, " " 3,371 " " " 
 
 These tests seem to compare favorably with a table of tests 
 also made in New York, see page 81. Twelve bricks were 
 carefully cut to fit the cement-testing machine. The tensile 
 strength averaged ninety pounds per square inch. All of these 
 experiments when they are properly done, give the preference to 
 well and carefully laid full size, hard-burned brick over cement 
 
132 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 COLLINGSWOOD ON CEMENTS. 
 CEMENT TESTS; EAST KIVEE BRIDGE NEW YORK. 
 
 
 Air Tension. 
 
 Air 
 Compression. 
 
 Water 
 Tension. 
 
 Water 
 Compression. 
 
 Fineness. 
 Water, pr. ct. 
 
 Baylor's Portland, 
 " Excelsior, 
 Coolidge Portland, 
 Newark Lime & 
 Cement Co., 
 Lawrenceville, 
 Ramsey, 
 N. Y. & Rosendale, 
 F. O. Norton, 
 Round Top, 
 
 Time. 
 Days. 
 
 Time. 
 Days. 
 
 Time. 
 Days. 
 T~T~UH 
 
 80 174 191 250 
 19 94142161 
 
 77 192 197 227 
 22 76 71 78 
 65 65 79108 
 29 39 37 25 
 48 53 58 82 
 58 75104121 
 74 72 S3 94 
 
 Time. 
 Days. 
 
 96 18to2 
 98 25 
 
 90 25 to 30 
 9825 
 90 25 to 30 
 
 89 28 
 81 23 
 97 25 
 87 22 
 
 17 14 21 
 
 17 14 21 
 
 17 14 21 
 
 115 205 216 218 
 111 110 156 187 
 
 67 80 97 97 
 91 119 137 '.'OS 
 
 57 99109153 
 65 148 151 180 
 79 123 102 159 
 
 1168180317001747 
 1405 1770 
 
 1151042 7901448 
 770 80018082326 
 
 180 532 656 902 
 397 900 0931330 
 592 1902 1875 1887 
 606 755 1094 24i)5 
 
 1146 1698 1621 2025 
 210 95012551275 
 
 840 2365 2448 3377 
 400 882 6401014 
 555 475 9571767 
 135 455 358 286 
 305 374 3321275 
 71H 1487 127--) 15C2 
 6-20 480 889 2115 
 
 Roman Cement. Slacked lime one bushel, green copperas 
 three and one-half pounds, fine gravel sand one-half bushel. 
 Dissolve the copperas in hot water, and mix all together to 
 the proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mixed and 
 keep stirring it with a stick while in use. 
 
 Yicat's Hydraulic Cement Is prepared by stirring into water 
 a mixture of four parts chalk and one part clay ; mix with a ver- 
 tical wheel in a circular trough, letting it run out in a large re- 
 ceiver. A deposit soon takes place which is formed into small 
 bricks, which after being dried in the sun are moderately cal- 
 cined. It enlarges about two-thirds when mixed with water. 
 
 Hydraulic Cement. Powdered clay three pounds, oxide of 
 iron one pound ; and boiled oil to form a stiff paste. 
 
 Stone Cement. River sand twenty parts, litharge two parts, 
 quick-lime one part ; mixed with linseed-oil. 
 
 Glue. Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. 
 A glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 
 one Ib. of glue in two quarts of skimmed milk. 
 
 Cement Mortar If one measure (slightly compacted by shak- 
 ing.) of ground cement be mixed with about one-third of a 
 measure of water, it forms about two-thirds of a measure of 
 paste fit for mortar. Perfectly fresh cements require a little 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 133 
 
 more water than old, and cements differ among themselves as 
 to the proper quantity of water. If sand is to be added, more 
 water will of course be needed, but this should be added in very 
 small quantities as the mixing or tempering goes on, inasmuch 
 as a much less quantity is required than would at first sight be 
 supposed. So also on the addition of lime, as before remarked, 
 the pure cement is stronger without any addition whatever of 
 either lime or sand ; still it will be quite strong enough for most or- 
 dinary purposes, especially when not exposed to water, even with 
 a considerable addition of both. But if it is to be exposed to ab- 
 solute contact with water, lime should be added but sparingly, if 
 at all in the outer joints. When the sand is in the proportion 
 of one or more measures to one of cement, the bulk of mixed 
 mortar will be about equal to, or a trifle less than that of the 
 dry sand alone. 
 
 The cement mortar of the Croton Aqueduct of New York, 
 was as follows : for the brick inside lining of the aqueduct, one 
 measure cement powder, two measures sand; for the stone 
 backing, one measure cement powder, three measures sand. 
 
 When mortar is to be exposed to dampness only, we may use 
 cement, one ; quick-lime, one ; sand, four to six parts. The lime 
 should be thoroughly slacked before it is added. 
 
 Quantity Required. A barrel of cement, 300 pounds and 2 
 barrels of sand (6 bushels or 7 1-2 cubic feet), mixed with about 
 1-2 a barrel of water, will make about eight cubic feet of mor- 
 tar sufficient for : 
 
 192 square feet of mortar joints 1-2 inch thick. 
 288 " " " " 3-8 " 
 
 384 " " " " i-4 " 
 
 768 " " " " 1-8 " 
 
 Or, to lay I cubic yard, or 522 bricks of 8 1-4 by 4 by 2 inches, 
 with joints 3-8 inch thick ; or a cubic yard of roughly scabbled 
 rubble stone work. The quantity of sand may be increased 
 however, to 3 or 4 measures for ordinary work. 
 
 Concrete is merely a coarse mortar of lime, sand and gravel 
 or broken stone. Engineers generally apply to it the French 
 name of Beton when cement is used, instead of common lime. 
 When first mixed and deposited, the concrete occupies consider- 
 
124 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 .ably less bulk than that of its dry materials ; but in setting it 
 swells permanently about 1-30 part of its thickness. This last 
 property has been supposed to render it peculiarly valuable for 
 underpinning; but as it also renders the concrete porous and 
 friable, the argument has but little force. 
 
 A common proportion among English engineers is I measure 
 of ground quick-lime, I 1-2 of water, and 6 to 8 of gravel. Brok- 
 en stone is often added, and still better, fragments of brick. 
 Every 11-4 cubic yards of gravel makes about I cubic yard of 
 concrete. In using concrete, the entire width of the foundation 
 trench should be filled with it and it should be well rammed in 
 layers about a foot thick, as it is deposited. 
 
 Gen. Totten, in his work on mortars, gives the following 
 formula for cement concrete, which he used with perfect success 
 where "springs of water flowed over the work continually, and 
 were allowed to cover each days work. The next morning the 
 concrete was always found hard and perfectly set." It was ram- 
 med as it was deposited. When not to be rammed he would 
 somewhat increase the proportions of all the ingredients except 
 the stone fragments, to insure the filling of all the voids between 
 these last. 
 
 1 1-3 measures of good Rosendale cement powder, 
 
 2 measures of sand, 
 
 4 " " granite fragments of nearly uniform size and 
 
 about 5 ounces weights, 
 1-2 measure of water nearly. 
 
 These gave a little more than 4 measures of concrete, or 
 about the same as the granite fragment alone ; and each barrel 
 of cement (300 Ibs., or 3 packed bushels) made 16 7-10 cub. ft., 
 or nearly .62 cub. yards of concrete : or a cub. yd. of the con- 
 crete required 1.61 barrels of cement. The General adds that 
 if one-half of the cement had been omitted, and its place sup- 
 plied by quick-lime in about the following proportion, the work 
 would still have been very hydraulic, and very strong : 
 .6 measures of cement, 
 .4 " " quick-lime, 
 
 2.0 " " sand, 
 
 4-O " " granite fragments, 
 
 5 " " water nearly. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 135 
 
 The 4 measures of quick-lime to be thoroughly slacked, be- 
 fore being mixed. He also gives the following, as forming a 
 very hard concrete, when rammed : 
 
 i measure good Rosedale cement powder, 
 i 1-4 " sand, 
 
 3 " clean gravel, 
 
 33 per cent, water. 
 
 Another rammed concrete "became very hard, but was rather 
 too incohesive while fresh, to make the best factitious stone." 
 
 1 meas. good Rosendale, Norton's and Baylors' cement powder, 
 
 2 measures sand, 
 
 3 " clean gravel, 
 3-8 " (about,) water. 
 
 The concrete used on the Croton Aqueduct, New York, con- 
 sists of 
 
 i meas. good New York cement powder, 
 
 3 " clean sand, 
 
 3 " hard stone, broken to pass through a ring 
 
 I 1-2 ins. diam. 
 A very good concrete is composed of 
 
 i measure cement powder, 
 
 1 1-2 " clean sand, 
 
 2 3-4 " gravel, 
 0.35 (about,) water. 
 
 These 5 1-2 measures give about 4 1-2 of concrete. 
 
 The following brick-dust hydraulic concrete has been used 
 with success in some important French works : 
 
 I measure quick-lime slightly hydraulic, 
 i 1-4 " brick, or tile dust, 
 i 1-4 " sand, 
 
 5 " (nearly), broken stone. 
 
 These 8 1-2 measures gave about 5 1-2 of concrete. This 
 concrete was impervious to water. 
 
 Coignet's beton. The artificial stone which bears this engi- 
 neer's name has for several years been used in France with per- 
 fect success not only for dwellings, depots, large city sewers, 
 
{^6 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 etc., but for piers, and arches. It is composed of 5 measures 
 of sand, 7 measures of finely ground quick-lime, from 1-4 to 1-2 
 measures of ground Portland cement, (or 6 parts of sand may 
 be used.) These are first well mixed together dry ; and then 
 placed in a grinding mill, at the same time sprinkling them with 
 a very small quantity of water so as to moisten them without 
 wetting them. They are then thoroughly incorporated by 
 grinding until they form a tough or stiff mass. It is then put 
 in moulds and compacted with a i6-lb. hammer : slow settling 
 cement is the best ; the blocks or slabs will set in from a few 
 hours to a day or more, this depends on the size of blocks that 
 are made. It may be used for foundation walls, piers and arches 
 and where extra strong construction is required and it is not 
 convenient, or is too expensive to use stone ; where there is 
 considerable of this to be done it will not cost more than one- 
 half as much as stone. 
 
 TEST TO SHOW THE PURITY OF PORTLAND CEMENT. 
 
 In order to discover whether cement has been adulterated, 
 with blast-furnace slag : Take 80 grains (Troy weight) of the 
 suspected cement and put into a glass vessel or graduate con- 
 taining 775 grains of dilute muriatic acid (containing one part 
 of pure acid to four parts of water) ; the mixture should be well 
 stirred with a glass rod. 
 
 Pure cement is not rendered turbid or thick by this treat- 
 ment. If on the contrary the liquid turns milky, from the pres- 
 ence of sulphur in suspension, while at the same time the yel- 
 lowish tinge disappears and a strong smell of sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen becomes perceptible this is an indication that cinders 
 have been added. The presence of ground limestone, or chalk 
 may be detected in a similar manner by the occurrence of ebul- 
 lition at the time when the liquid acid is added to the cement. 
 The quantity of adulterated materials, may be approximately 
 found by the amount of ebullition or air bubbles. 
 
 Pure Portland cement does not effervesce upon the addition 
 of acid ; because it does not contain the carbonate of lime, but 
 is composed chiefly of Lime, Silica, Alumnia, Oxide of Iron, 
 Sulphuric Acid and water. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 137 
 
 The proportion of these ingredients vary in samples from dif- 
 ferent localities ; but lime is always about 60 per cent, of the 
 whole, the remainder is composed of the above named ingredi- 
 ents ; sulphate of lime should not exceed one per cent. The 
 greatest value is attached in Germany to the presence of mag 
 nesia: English and French cements seldom contain one per 
 cent, of this substance, but the proportion rises to 3 per cent 
 in some German cements. 
 
 The most essential points in the manufacture of cements, 
 apart from the tests ; are uniformity of mixing, and burning, 
 and fine grindings ; without this the material is valueless. 
 
 If there is too much sulphate of magnesia in the preparation 
 it will precipitate on the surface of walls, and leave that discol- 
 oration so objectionable where it is the intention to retain the 
 color of the brick. 
 
 Street Pavements. In England about 1842 many wooden 
 pavements were laid in every style. The roadways were pre- 
 pared with sand surfaces, boards laid flat on the surface, and 
 lumber or timber, cut at all angles, with cross-pieces set in. 
 Then again tarred boards were set on edge, and round chest- 
 nut and other varieties of woods set on edge, and turned and 
 squared. Planked roads of every variety were made in certain 
 localities. Ten years after most of these had worn out, and 
 been renewed, or they had disappeared. But now the wood is 
 prepared with salts of lime, iron, copper, etc., and coated with 
 asphaltum, and in some localities in London they seem to have 
 come into use again. 
 
 Wooden pavements, that were laid of the various patents in 
 New York City have nearly all disappeared. The best appeared 
 to be those coated with asphalt, and set on edge on a wooden 
 board surface, leaving spaces that were filled with gravel. The 
 heavy traffic and wear from the large trucks in New York soon 
 destroys the surface, and keeps the streets in an almost impas- 
 sable condition in winter. They have not been renewed in 
 New York. In Elizabeth, N. J., and many other parts of New 
 Jersey, where wooden pavements have been laid, they have 
 lasted only from five to seven years. When they are partially 
 
!38 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 worn out the accumulation of water under them, with exposure 
 to air, and sun, soon rots the the whole surface. 
 
 A properly laid Macadamized pavement is decidedly superior, 
 when properly done, to any wooden pavement. All round-wood 
 pavements become uneven after the expiration of one or two 
 years, and are as bad as an uneven cobble-stone roadway. 
 
 Some wooden pavements laid in Boston, Mass., seem to have 
 met with better success than in the States of New York and 
 ^ew Jersey. There the wooden blocks were set on edge on a 
 ?and bottom six inches deep. Wooden pavements laid of pine 
 3r spruce cost on an average $ 2.25 per square yard. 
 
 The next kind of pavements that has been used extensively 
 in suburban cities, and some in New York and Boston, are 
 known as asphaltum or bituminous concrete pavements and 
 sidewalks ; but the severity of the climate here is such that the 
 frost in winter breaks and injures them to such an extent that 
 they are not considered a reliable pavement as far north as this,, 
 although the appearance and surface for walking is so desirable. 
 They cost from $2.00 to $3.00 per square yard. 
 
 Flag-stone sidewalks 4 feet in width are the best for village 
 walks. They average from three to four inches thick. Of 
 course if the width is greater it adds to the expense. 
 
 Stone flagging 5 feet wide will average 65 cents per running 
 foot of that width. 
 
 Sidewalks with stone curbing, and laid with hard bricks in the 
 various styles, may be laid successfully, where there is a tenden- 
 cy for the frost to raise the surface, by providing a sand bottom 
 of twelve inches in depth; and slushing the surface with a. 
 grouting of cement and lime. Roll the surface before it sets, 
 and lay the brick in a grouting of cement. This can be done 
 very fast by ordinary labor, and it has made most excellent 
 work. Have a firm bottom. 
 
 Macadamized Roadways Are usually built by laying down 
 eighteen inches of large stone, blended with fine sand or gravel 
 and somewhat smaller stone six inches in depth. Then on this 
 six inches of ordinary broken stone and gravel, each layer when 
 placed being subjected to a heavy roller, water being freely used. 
 On country roads water is dispensed with. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 139 
 
 Artificial Stone Pavements or Sidewalks. There are several 
 varieties of these in the United States, but they do not seem to 
 stand well when laid as far north as New York City or Boston. 
 They are mostly made of Portland cement, and large sharp sand, 
 in blocks from three to six inches in thickness, and from two to 
 six feet square. The proper method is to lay them on a con- 
 crete foundation. Porous material is the best for making con- 
 crete, as it allows the cement to enter the pores ; all stone and 
 gravel should be wet before adding the cement. One of the 
 best pavements of this kind is the Schillinger artificial stone 
 pavement, and costs an average of 20 cents per square foot. 
 He also makes an asphaltum paving block, laid on .concrete. 
 The blocks are about four by twelve inches, and are not affected 
 by the action of frost as ordinary asphaltum pavements are. 
 
 New York City, Brooklyn, Jersey City and Newark use the 
 following street pavements : 
 
 Belgian Pavement. This consists of stones, 5x6x6 inches, 
 laid on a bed of sand six inches deep. These vary in size to 
 4x8x10, set on edge. Cost about $ 3.50 per square yard. They 
 are using on Vesey street, N. Y., a fine paving stone, a kind of 
 moderately soft granite, from the vicinity of Richmond, Virgin- 
 ia. Large quantities of paving stone come from New Jersey, 
 known as Trap and Basalt stones. 
 
 Guidet Pavement. This consists of granite blocks, averaging 
 12x5x8 inches, laid on six inches of concrete and six inches of 
 sand. It is laid on Broadway, New York, and costs about $5.00 
 per square yard. 
 
 Sidewalks. The sidewalks in New York City and Brooklyn 
 are laid with blue-stone flagging of various thicknesses, and is 
 brought from quarries convenient for transportation down the 
 North River. Granite flags are sometimes used, averaging ten 
 inches in thickness, and sometimes measure 8 feet by 15 feet 
 These require no curbing. The blue-stone costs about $3.00 
 per square yard. 
 
 In Baltimore, Boston and Philadelphia brick is chiefly used, 
 cost varying to suit localities, say $ 1.20 per square yard. 
 
 Concrete sidewalks are made of a mixture of tar and gravel ; 
 
j 4 o POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 .and a concrete of asphaltum cement and gravel is also used, but 
 they do not seem satisfactory for much travel, owing to the ac- 
 tion of frost and ice in winter. 
 
 Street pavements in Boston are usually of granite blocks, 4X 
 7x8 inches, laid in from 8 to 12 inches of gravel or sand, and 
 cost about $3.25 per square yard. 
 
 In Buffalo and Rochester, Medina stone is used ; the blocks 
 vary from 2 to 4x8x8 inches, and are laid on 16 inches of sand, 
 gravel or broken stone. They cost about $ 3.00 per square yard, 
 and are very satisfactory. 
 
 Method of Calculating Loads on Floors, etc. Illustrations 44 
 .and 45 show a plan and elevation, representing piers and walls 
 of a structure adjoining another building, or independent. Also 
 show diagrams of loads supported on floors. The base stones 
 are of ordinary size, and generally such sized base stones are 
 used where the load is not important. In buildings that carry an 
 actual load on each floor of say 160 pounds per square foot of floor 
 surface it is best, where the bottom is firm, to lay two bases or 
 footing stones, the first stone to average five feet square, and 
 the second four feet six inches square, with a brick pier built on 
 them, say three feet four inches square, bonded with four-inch 
 flat stone (blue-stone) every two feet, and capped with a 
 granite block, ten to twelve inches thick. 
 
 It is important that all piers to support inside columns 
 (whether of iron or wood) should have brick and mason-work done 
 in the best manner, with equal joints, and allowed to dry in 
 toward the center of pier before placing the weight of several 
 stories on it, when the load comes direct on the piers. In ref- 
 erence to the load of goods, materials, etc., in stores, after 
 making a calculation of ten or twelve stores, the load in the 
 stores on the first, second and third stories did not exceed 170 
 pounds per square foot of surface, and above that the load would 
 average from 90 to 100 pounds per square foot of surface. Al- 
 low for load on roof for snow, etc., 90 pounds per square foot. 
 In warehouses, such as for hardware, cottons, groceries, etc., 
 the load averaged 260 pounds per square foot of surface. As a 
 guide and a safe rule, the Building Department has, for this pur- 
 pose, tables of the load on floors, which you will find on page 82 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 ~ 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 5 SQ 
 
 ! 
 
 r. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 44- 
 
!42 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The average sized piers used for store construction run as fol- 
 lows : For four and five story buildings, where the business 
 done is ordinary, piers average from three to three feet eight 
 inches square, with base stones five feet to five feet eight inches 
 square. Some double stores (fifty-feet front), lately built in 
 New York, have a line of piers in the center, supporting iron 
 columns. These piers are 2 ft. x 2 ft. 8 in. x 10 ft. high, with the 
 first footing stone, 5 ft. 6 in. x 5 ft. x 16 in. thick ; the second 
 footing 4ft. x 4 ft. 6 in. square, by 12 in. thick ; these buildings 
 are seven stories or 98 feet high. 
 
 The footings and base stones to Stewart's store, Tenth street, 
 New York, did not average above six feet six inches square. 
 This structure is about 130 feet high above the footings. The 
 footings and base stones to the Western Union Telegraph 
 Building, New York, average eight feet square and twelve inches 
 thick, and some parts have inverted arches. This building is 
 144 feet high from footing stone to top of main cornice, and 
 above this is an iron roof three stories in height. The footings 
 for the Morse Building, Nassau street, New York, are eight 
 feet square, and the piers are five feet square. The walls aver- 
 age three feet four inches thick to second floor. This building 
 is 160 feet high. The Coal and Iron Exchange, Courtlandt 
 street, is constructed on piers and inverted arches on the fronts 
 facing the streets. 
 
 In illustration 44, showing piers and walls, the method of 
 calculating the load on floors by the square foot is shown by the 
 diagram. The space from the wall to the center of the pier is 
 figured 22 feet, and from one pier to the other, 1 5 feet. To ascer- 
 tain the load sustained on the columns, and on each pier, multi- 
 ply 15 by 22=330 square feet. This multiplied by a load of 250 
 pounds per square foot will give a load on each floor, supported 
 by column on pier, of 330 square feet, multiplied by 250 pounds 
 per square foot, equals 82,500 pounds. This load is independent 
 of the weight of materials required in the construction. 
 Of course every floor has to be calculated, which sometimes 
 shows an immense load resting on the piers. Where wooden 
 girders are used, the piers are placed from ten to twelve feet 
 from centers. When iron girders are used, the piers are usually 
 from twelve to sixteen, eighteen or twenty feet on centers. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 143 
 
 82500 LBS. LOAD 
 
 
 LBS. LOAD 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 ILLUSTRATION 45. 
 
144 
 
 POWELL'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The load on base stone should not exceed five and one-half tons 
 per square foot of bearing surface on base stones of five feet 
 square, which gives twenty-five square feet. All base stones in 
 and about New York City for good construction have from six 
 to eight inches of concrete for a bed. 
 
 It is not unusual with a good foundation to load base stone 
 to piers with from seven to eight tons per square foot of surface. 
 
 Thickness of Walls for any Number of feet in Height. 
 
 See following table. 
 
 When it is the intention to use stone-walls instead of brick, 
 (broken-range work, or quarry-faced range,) add from four to 
 eight inches to the thickness given for brick-walls in these 
 tables. 
 
 TABLE OF THE THICKNESS OF BBICK-WALLS 
 
 FOR STORES, WAREHOUSES AND BUILDINGS THAT 
 
 REQUIRE EXTRA STRENGTH. 
 
 Total height 
 of wall in ft. 
 to be erected. 
 
 Total length 
 of wall in ft. 
 to be built. 
 
 Thickness in 
 feet and 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 Ft., in. 
 
 100 
 
 ISO 
 
 3 
 
 IOO 
 
 70 
 
 2 8 
 
 90 
 
 150 
 
 3 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 2 6 
 
 80 
 
 ISO 
 
 2 6 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 2 6 
 
 70 
 
 150 
 
 2 4 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 . 2 4 
 
 60 
 
 175 
 
 2 4 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 1 60 
 
 2 
 
 So 
 
 45 
 
 2O 
 
 40 
 
 150 
 
 20 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 4 
 
 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 
 45 
 
 2O 
 
 
 35 
 
 20 
 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 One-twelfth or one-fourteenth of the height of each story is 
 an average for the thickness of a wall. 
 
AND FOUNDATION WALLS. 
 
 TABLE OF TLE THICKNESS REQUIRED FOR BRICK-WALLS FOR STORES, 
 RESIDENCES, ETC. 
 
 Total height 
 of wall in ft. 
 to be erected. 
 
 Total length 
 of wall in ft. 
 to be built. 
 
 B'sement 
 itory in 
 inches. 
 
 First 1 
 story in 
 inches. \ 
 
 8 Second 
 toru in 
 inches. 
 
 ~TMrd~ 
 
 tz? 
 
 Fourth 
 
 t3 
 
 Fifth 
 ttory in 
 inches. 
 
 V 
 
 iMfcK 
 
 100 
 
 100 to 125 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 
 100 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 ** 
 
 90 
 
 100 to 125 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 90 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 80 
 
 100 to 125 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 is 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 n 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 In using the above tables for thickness of walls in Baltimore, 
 Philadelphia, Washington, etc., the walls average more in pro- 
 portion, owing to the brick being larger than in other parts of 
 the United States. Use for eight-inch walls 8 3-4 inches ; for 
 twelve-inch walls, 13 inches; for sixteen-inch walls, 171-2 
 inches ; for twenty-inch walls, 21 1-2 inches ; for two-feet walls, 
 26 inches, etc. 
 
 Footings are twice the thickness of basement walls. 
 
 All divisions on party walls between dwellings should be at 
 least twelve inches. When the walls are eight inches the wood 
 beams of floors for each side, cut through them. 
 
THE ART OF PREPARING FOUNDATIONS, 
 
 WITH PARTICULAB ILLUSTRATION OF THE 
 
 "METHOD OF ISOLATED PIERS," 
 
 AS FOLLOWED IN CHICAGO. 
 
 BY FREDERICK BATJMANN, ARCHITECT. 
 Eevised by G. T. POWELL, A. and C. E. 
 
 WITH NINETEEN WOODCUTS. 
 
 The art of constructing foundations comprises two distinct 
 but interdependent parts : FIRST, the art of treating the ground ; 
 and SECOND, the art of building the base. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 The Art of Treating the Ground. All ground from the nature 
 of things, is compressible will yield under pressure. This is 
 owing to three different natural causes ; FIRST, general compres- 
 sibility of matter y which is so slight that in practice it causes no 
 concern ; SECOND, imperfect packing of the constituent parts and 
 incipient fluidity, which induces to study and care, though posi- 
 tive artificial treatment be not needed ; THIRD, semi-fluidity, 
 which in most cases calls for positive artificial treatment. Ac- 
 cordingly, I shall consider the different building-grounds under 
 the head of three distinct classes : solid grounds, compressible 
 grounds, semi-fluid grounds. 
 
 Class I. Solid Grounds. This class comprises rock, gravel, 
 dry sand, in their natural beds, and of sufficient thickness of 
 strata. The treatment is very simple, and in most cases alike. 
 Excavations must be made to remove loose deposits and expose 
 
ISOLATED PIERS. 147 
 
 the natural bed. Surfaces must be made level, because bases 
 should not be started upon inclined planes. In this manner the 
 most common engineering routine will ever attain good results 
 as to foundations. .The ground being, for all ordinary practical 
 purposes, next to incompressible, differences in the weights of 
 the various parts of the superstructure produce no manifest de- 
 fects. Neither is there any considerable manifestation of piers 
 or corners deviating from the line of the perpendicular, though, 
 perchance, such piers or corners were not centrally supported. 
 Concrete or no concrete, inverted arches or no inverted arches, 
 random work or work rightly considered, the result is practically 
 ever the same ; the slight deviations from the true lines, which 
 may occur, pass unnoticed ; the builder has nought to think on 
 the subject ; his common every-day routine suffices him in all 
 his cases, and he remains in ignorance as to the proper princi- 
 ples by which the true art of preparing foundations is governed. 
 Their practice was upon ground of the first class, which prevails 
 in most of the large cities of the country, and taught them noth- 
 ing to the point ; nor could they avail themselves of the experi- 
 ence of others, inasmuch as, beyond this present treatise, there 
 is (as far as at present known) nothing in print even pretending 
 to give information. The evolution of the "method of isolated 
 piers" is but the result of modern wants as to the construction 
 of mercantile buildings. 
 
 Class II. Compressible Grounds. This class comprises 
 clay and watery sand, and mixtures of the two, a whole scale of 
 grounds, from the border of the first class downward to semi-flu- 
 idity. The successful erection of any ordinarily heavy structure 
 upon such ground involves the consistent application of two 
 well known (and often, though loosely mentioned) principles : 
 FIRST, the areas of base must be in proportion to the superincum- 
 bent loads ; SECOND, the centers of these areas of base must coincide 
 with the axis of their loads. 
 
 These principles are self-evident, well known, and often loose- 
 ly mentioned, yet so seldom observed. It is indeed, needless 
 prove that ten square feet of bearing surface, cateris panbus, 
 will bear more weight than will two square feet, or four, or nm< 
 It is superfluous to specially make clear the fallacy of placn 
 
I4 8 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 che axis of any load upon or near the edge of a base, or in any 
 measure away from its very center. The natural result of such 
 foolish proceedings would be that, as the ground yields, the 
 base assumes an inclined position, and the axis, which must re- 
 tain its original angle with the base, is thrust out of its perpen- 
 dicular line, as represented by Fig. I. It is not then these 
 
 simple principles that will occupy me ; it is rather their varied 
 and manifold application in the practice of this difficult "art of 
 building," in which economy, rightly understood, is a principal 
 factor, nay, in fact, the factor, which really renders it a science, 
 which can only be attained by one who has acquired a manifold 
 experience, and who previously has had such a discipline of 
 mind as to enable him to systematically collect, and assimilate 
 with himself, the mental fruits of his labors. 
 
 First Rule. Resolve the building, upon its ground plan of the 
 lower story, into isolated parts, and independently apportion to each 
 its proper share of foundation. The first part of this is of old 
 standing, and often applied in exceptional cases for instance, 
 a church with a massive tower. But the mere keeping the tow- 
 er separated from the other parts is of no avail, unless the lat- 
 ter part of the rule is observed, by special intent or by chance 
 of circumstances, as the case may be. It is this matter of re- 
 solving a complex building into isolated parts, a task requiring 
 experience and sagacity. Scarcely are there any two buildings 
 alike in this respect, and the question ever arises, where shall I 
 stop ? With some buildings it may be simple, so that the old 
 every-day routine may suffice. 
 
 Second Rule. Estimate the weights of all those (really and 
 ideally) isolated parts, in order to apportion to each its due share 
 of foundation. To this end it is required to know the bearing capacity 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 
 
 149 
 
 of the particular ground, and also whether or not, and in what ratio, 
 the load may be increased in proportion to the area of base. If 
 it were found, for instance, that the medium bearing capacity 
 (reduced to a convenient unit) is, say two tons per square foot 
 meaning that under such proportionate load the ground will be 
 compressed in a limited known ratio and if it were further 
 known (approximately so at least) that this ratio holds good for 
 any amount of load, the task is at once simple. A pier weigh- 
 ing 1 20 tons must receive a base pressing upon an area of 60 
 square feet ; a pier weighing 20 tons must press upon an area of 
 only 10 square feet, and so on in this proportion. It will be found, 
 however, that the proportion varies with the nature of the 
 ground. Ground least fluid and most solid (dry clay) will thus 
 give too much support to the lesser loads ; ground approaching 
 semi-fluidity will give them too little. In each case, therefore, 
 where the properties of the ground are not fully known in ad- 
 vance, tests must be instituted for their ascertainment, and the 
 apportionment made accordingly. 
 
 Third Rule. Determine, upon the ground section, centers (and 
 center lines) of all (isolated) parts, 'which in upright section will be 
 the axis (and axial planes) of these parts, and place the (masonry) 
 bases so that the centers of their areas of contact will coincide with 
 the first centers. It means that foundations must be made to 
 support their loads centrally. The observation of this rule is of 
 the utmost importance, for upon it will depend the perpendic- 
 ularity of all the walls and the corners of the structure. Let all 
 parts have central foundations, and no inherent tendency will 
 exist to disturb this perpendicularity. There will in such case 
 be no particular need of any anchors, except for temporary use, 
 while in the contrary case the strongest and best applied anchors 
 will not suffice to preserve the exact normal position of the walls 
 and corners. Have the bottom right, and all else will come right 
 without many further precautions. 
 
 I comprise the above three important rules under the head c 
 "Method of Isolated Piers," which I advance as a scientific 
 method in opposition to the old random method of continuous 
 feundations. 
 
 I am aware that Isolated foundation-piers are < 
 
,c O BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Such isolation of piers has been, however, the exception, not the 
 rule. Its origin is from chance and circumstance, not from 
 logic. I, on the other hand, advance a principle which makes 
 isolated piers the rule in all cases, and continuous foundations the 
 exception, where, for instance, piers of uniform -weights are so 
 close to each other that the bases will interconnect. 
 
 Objection might be raised to this new method, on the ground 
 that any building-ground may not be everywhere of the same 
 uniform density. This circumstance will but seldom occur, 
 and if and wheresoever it does so, the greater difficulty should 
 be a spur to greater care and perseverance. It would in such 
 case be requisite to make the most careful survey of the ground, 
 to determine the degrees of variations in density, and map the 
 same, in order to obtain a correct basis for estimation and ap- 
 portionment. 
 
 The Building-ground of Chicago. The subsoil throughout 
 is of blue clay, covered by sand and loam, which, below the 
 level of ground-water, become "quicksand" and "blue muck." 
 (n the central part of the city the clay is found at a depth of 
 'bout five feet from the original surface, which now is about 
 right feet below the established grade of streets. This clay-bed 
 is more or less permeated by water, which enters through a net- 
 work of fine gravelly veins, and through the river channel ; it 
 is, therefore, varying in its bearing capacity in proportion to its 
 state of humidity, the driest clay of course being the hardest, 
 and therefore the best for purposes of foundation. In the 
 central part of the city the clay-bed has a distinct surface, cov- 
 ered with a scattered stratum of boulder-gravel, and is termed 
 "hardpan." It approaches the surface to within five feet. 
 Throughout the West Division the clay is equally near to day- 
 light, though it has no distinct surface, the loam gradually 
 changing into clay. 
 
 From State Street eastward, the dip of the clay -bed is so steep 
 that already within one block it becomes ordinarily impracticable 
 to reach it. Nor is this necessary, for the overlying soil 
 answers all purposes. This soil is here an intimate mixture of 
 clay and fine sand, in common parlance termed "blue muck" on 
 account of its shifty nature ; but its quality as building-ground 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 15 f 
 
 is better than first appearances would warrant. Toward the 
 North and South the clay is covered by a bed of fine sand, 
 which grows in thickness with the distance from the center of 
 the city ; it becomes what is termed quicksand from the level of 
 ground-water downward, which level is mostly within a few feet 
 from the surface. A massive stone clmrck tower erected upon this 
 quicksand gradually sank, within about eight months after its 
 completion, some twenty inches, carrying with it the surrounding 
 ground on a radius of over forty feet. There being apparently no 
 limit to this "settling" the tower was taken down. Its weight 
 upon the base was probably not over thirty-six pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 The convenient bearing capacity of all this soil is twenty pounds 
 to the square inch. With this the bases in all ordinary cases be- 
 come not so widespread as to necessitate for their solid con. 
 struction any cutting into the hardpan. Such proportionate 
 load will compress the hardpan to the extent of about one inch 
 during construction of the building, and about one-half of an 
 inch during the next six months following, after which time 
 the load appears to be poised upon the clay ; the season, as oft- 
 en the popular belief is, having no share in this "settling." The 
 compression will be greater, as a matter of course, upon the soft- 
 er portions of the clay, as well as upon the loam, dry or wet ; it 
 is least upon the dry surface-sand, where this can be made avail- 
 able. All that is necessary is the strict application of the 
 "method of isolated piers," so that all parts of the ground will 
 be compressed in the same degree, causing a perfectly equable 
 "settling." But in practice it will ever be found advisable to 
 base calculations upon the smallest possible amount of ultimate 
 compression, and to be guided in this matter (as we ought to be 
 in all others) by prudent economy ; hence I term the bearing 
 capacity stated a convenient one. This matter of dividing a build- 
 ing into isolated parts, and estimating the weight is by no means 
 as simple as at first it would appear, and may even in some cases 
 offer material difficulties. Take, for instance, a building six or 
 seven stories high, fire-proof, with fire-proof vaults in the lower 
 stories. The outer and some of the inner walls are of full height ; 
 other inner walls are one, two or five stories less in height ; some 
 of the vaults extend through four stories, others stop in the base- 
 
152 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 ment ; the loads become shifted by the location of the openings : 
 there are columns bearing floors ; the internal walls and columns 
 do not become loaded as the building progresses, for floors, 
 ceilings and plastering are not applied before the building is 
 roofed. Now if the ultimate "settling" is kept within the limit 
 of one and a half inches, as it ought to be, the problem of attain- 
 ing a sound and perfect structure is solvable through an ordinary 
 amount of sagacity and carefulness applied upon the "method of 
 isolated piers ;" probable differences falling within the limits of 
 one-quarter to one-half of an inch, and causing no palpable de- 
 fects. 
 
 Examples and Instances Being an Illustration of the "Method 
 of Isolated Piers. Fig. 2 shows upright section of a pier of an 
 outer wall, and elevation of an abutting dwarf-wall. If, as the 
 old method would suggest, in order to furnish "all the bearing 
 possible," the dwarf-wall is connected with the pier at its line 
 
 of intersection, ef, the pier will be thrust outward, and the 
 dwarf-wall crack as indicated. The cause may readily be found. 
 Construct the axis, da, of the pier, and see whether it coincides 
 with the center of area occupied by the base of the pier. Were 
 the dwarf-wall not connected tf. ^/and a bac;\. e., were the 
 construction made in accordance with the "method of isolated 
 piers," there would be no thrust against the pier But the 
 usual old random mode of "all the bearing possible" extends 
 ie area of base inward to c' ', and thereby shifts the axis of the 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 
 
 153 
 
 pier off the center toward the outer edge of the supporting base, 
 b c' y which causes the ground to be pressed into an inclined sur- 
 face and, consequently, the pier to be thrust outward. Were 
 the base of the dwarf-wall made so narrow as to cause a settling 
 of the dwarf-wall equal to that of the pier, it would at first sight 
 appear as though then the wall might be connected. Yet this 
 is, nevertheless, forbidden by the circumstance that the base of 
 the dwarf-wall would receive all its load before the pier would ; 
 say, one-fifth part of it. Besides, it is extremely difficult to pro- 
 portion so slight a load with sufficient accuracy ; and the laws 
 of nature are very severe ; but a slight deviation of the axis, d a 
 from the center of area of base will have its marked effect. 
 Two rules may be abstracted from this instance. 
 
 FIRST Let the axis of the . load always strike a little way 
 
 inward 'from the center of the area of the base, in order to make 
 sure that it will not be toward the outside. Any inward incli- 
 nation of the pier is rendered impossible by the floor beams, 
 while an outward inclination must be counteracted by artificial 
 means, such as anchors, which, in all cases, are but reliable to 
 a certain degree. Anchoring is thus reduced to safeguards ; 
 although anchors are placed on every sixth or eighth beam of 
 each tier on stores. 
 
 SECOND Never connect an abutting dwarf-wall with an oittet 
 pier or wall. Build it independently, with a distinct, clean, 
 
154 
 
 BAUMANX S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 straight joint. In some cases it might be advisable to leave four 
 inches of clear space, to be walled up afterward. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows what, in a measure, occurs to an old-fashioned 
 four-story building erected upon continuous foundations. The 
 middle column, having no load to sustain, retains its original 
 position while the others are pressed downward, with results as 
 represented. 
 
 The corner piers, if not prevented from doing so by the re- 
 sistance of buildings at the right and left, are thrust outward 
 
 Because their axes are not centrally supported, as can be readily 
 seen without further explanation. The foundation, in fact, re- 
 solves itself into piers, but in a manner contrary to sound engi- 
 neering, giving to the lightest pier the largest support. Before 
 the great fire, scores of similar fronts were seen in Chicago, nor 
 has the lesson been thoroughly understood after this great 
 event. 
 
 _ Years after the "method of isolated piers" had slowly taken 
 
 ts course, some new comer of an architect took it upon him- 
 
 f to show his colleagues that he could overcome the difficulty 
 
 by means of inverted arches. The result was a building on the 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. j^- 
 
 corner of Washington and Dearborn Streets, as here represented 
 by Fig. 4. The extent of the front was forty feet ; the lintel 
 was one piece of timber, connecting the piers and columns of 
 the front, causing all to incline, parallel with the corner pier to 
 the extent of nearly three inches out of their perpendicular 
 lines. It is not difficult to conceive that good inverted arches 
 have a greater effect upon shifting the axis of load off the cen- 
 ter of base than has a mere continuous foundation (or a contin- 
 uous bed of concrete) ; likewise, that the thrust of the arch it- 
 self, if any such occurs, would have the tendency to counteract 
 rather than enhance the difficulty arising from oblique settling 
 of the base. 
 
 n n n 
 
 JFIV 
 
 The case grows serious with Fig. 5, which represents part of 
 a front, consisting of alternate heavy and light piers. Contin- 
 uous foundations, or beds of concrete, or inverted arches, would 
 have a tendency to thrust the corner pier outward, and to break 
 the horizontal connections over the little piers, as has been 
 demonstrated by the former examples. But even the smallest 
 admissible bases might prove troublesome in regard to the little 
 piers. In such cases, resort may be had to an entire omission 
 of bases for such little piers, and to the introduction of some 
 bearing connection from large to large pier for their support, as 
 shown in Fig. 5. A case has occurred very lately in Chicago, 
 where the bases of such heavy piers were made too small, and 
 
I S 6 
 
 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 those of the lighter piers too large (isolated piers were here 
 employed without method). The effect was that the sinking 
 heavy piers hung themselves, with part of their weight, by 
 means of very stiff horizontal connections, on the little piers, 
 and literally crushed them. Had these crushed piers been 
 stronger than the horizontal connections, the latter would be- 
 come seriously damaged. As it was, the building underwent 
 jack-screw operation and insertion of new piers. In cases 
 where there are mere mullions in the larger lower windows, as 
 represented in Fig. 6, if the mullions are supported on iron 
 
 construction from large piers on each side, piers under will not 
 be required ; otherwise, direct foundations under these mullions 
 will be necessary, and the piers to be proportioned to sustain 
 the load above. 
 
 A prominent building lately erected with such mullion piers 
 upon direct foundations was merely saved by the fact that, 
 firstly, it was placed upon old, well settled foundations, and, sec- 
 ondly, that the three upper stories of the design were omitted, 
 leaving the building, as it now stands, four stories high. The 
 consequence, thus far, is the mere fracture of one of the power- 
 ful stone lintels covering the basement openings (as indicated 
 by dotted line). 
 
 The case assumes a different aspect under Fig. 7, yet it is 
 readily shown to belong to the same class. In 1852, 1 construct- 
 ed the front of a blacksmith's shop in the manner shown by 
 Fig. 7, with this result, that the keystone of the doorway arch 
 dropped downward. The inverted arch owed its existence to 
 the universal random idea of "get all the bearing you can." 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 
 
 But when the piers e /and g h are considered by themselves, it 
 is not difficult to observe that, through the very introduction of 
 this inverted arch (or continuous rubble wall or concrete), the 
 axes of these piers become shifted off the centers of their bases, 
 att*l, consequently, thrust outward; hence the dropping of the 
 
 keystone. The fact is, that a front thus constructed compresses, 
 the ground under its base to a convex plane, while on the other 
 hand, by the principle demonstrated in the discussion of Fig. 2, 
 it should be so constructed as to compress the ground to a plane 
 slightly concave, which may be readily effected by omitting the 
 foundation under the opening. 
 
158 
 
 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 The reader will now fully understand the reason why the arch- 
 es over almost all large openings (in churches etc.) have more 
 or less parted. He will understand from Fig. 8 why the arches 
 over the center of the ill-fated Court House wings were rent. 
 The law acts with unerring certainty, no matter what the ex- 
 tent of the front, no matter how slight the cause. But to fur- 
 nish a most striking example of the minuteness with which this 
 law operates, I produce Fig. 9, which is intended to represent 
 a view of the east gable of the (destroyed) celebrated Crosby 
 Opera House. The foundation wall, twelve feet high, was 
 built of rubble stone in cement mortar, and had ample time to set, 
 since the brick wall was not started thereon until about two 
 months afterward. The base was five feet wide upon the hard- 
 pan, the brick wall twenty inches thick for twenty feet high, 
 
 and sixteen inches for the following sixty feet. The load upon 
 the base was consequently about twenty-six pounds to the 
 square inch. The whole weight of wall and base was 850 tons, 
 less twenty tons omitted by the two openings. The ultimate 
 settling of the wall could not have been over two and a half 
 inches, yet the slight reduction of the load by only twenty tons, 
 at its center, from the total load of 850 tons, caused the base to 
 assume a slightly convex plane, so that both corners were 
 somewhat thrust over, as indicated by the parting of the arches 
 over the openings, which parting was so decided that the cracks 
 were plainly seen at 160 feet distance, from the opposite side of 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 
 
 159 
 
 State Street,* and caused a whisper among the unsophisticated 
 passers by to the effect that the house was unsafe. And all 
 this from so little a cause ! The most remarkable feature of 
 this case, however, is that the base, tfiirty-ttvo feet thick, as it 
 were, from the hardpan to the sill of the lower opening, did ac- 
 commodate itself readily to the assumed curvature of the ground ; 
 that, in fact, all this mass of solid brick and stone work acted as 
 though it were possessed, in a measure, by a minute degree of 
 
 quassi-fluidity. This ought to show to satisfaction, if not a 
 proper consideration of the case by itself did, that compressible 
 ground cannot be spread over at random by concrete, or any 
 kind of masonry, and thereby made exempt from the operations 
 of the "law of convex deflection." All such masonry, of what- 
 soeverkind, will, from its nature, yield and accommodate itself to 
 such curvatures of the ground as the different loads at different 
 places will naturally produce, f 
 
 To give one of the most flagrant instances of what happens 
 from non-observation of the biddings of the "law of convex de- 
 flection," I introduce (Fig. 10) a section of the old water-rese 
 voir structure on Adams Street, erected 1854. Theconseque 
 
 -This gable was a mere court wall, receding ninety-three feet from ^the 
 line of State Street, upon which, immediately afterward, a tine building 
 was erected by the owner of the Opera House. 
 
 t Omitting some of the base at the center, by means of an arch as indicated, 
 .vculd have preserved the exact perpendicular state of the corners, so M to 
 leave the arches intact. 
 
i6o 
 
 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 was the immediate discomfiture of the structure on the first day 
 when the water was let on. Even if other causes had not en- 
 hanced this result, the "law of convex deflection" alone would 
 have been sufficient for its production. To render the concern 
 serviceable, all openings were walled up and an intermediate 
 inner wall was built, as indicated by dotted lines. Nothing 
 could have happened had the foundation been prepared in ac- 
 cordance with the "method of isolated piers." 
 
 Cross section through an outer wall. Fig. 1 1. It will 
 
 readily be perceived that, by dint of this continuous bed of con- 
 crete, the axis d a is shifted off the center of its base ; the clay 
 beneath will consequently be compressed to a convex plane, with 
 a tendency to thrust the wall out of its perpendicular line. This 
 tendency need, however, not become realty, because of the very 
 probable rupture of the bed of concrete, as indicated in Fig. 1 1, 
 or else because the cross anchoring will be so effective as to 
 prevent such occurrence to an extent that will be noticed by a 
 non-expert. Had this wall an independent central base, as dic- 
 tated by the "method of isolated piers," no possible contingency 
 could ever arise. 
 
 2. Considering the large inequality of the weights of the 
 piers of the outside walls, the heavier piers will sink down, in 
 some measure, proportionate to the weight of pier and size of 
 base upon the clay, such as it may assume for itself, while the 
 little piers will almost wholly retain their original levels. The 
 difference may possibly not be very considerable, and escape 
 the eye of the non-expert, but occur it must, by dint of inexora- 
 ble law. 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. jfo 
 
 3. Taking a view of a corner with adjoining pier, Fig. 12, 
 the case represents itself similar to what it does in Fig. 1 1, with 
 this difference, however, that in Fig. n, the concrete is bare and 
 
 H >r ~ - 
 
 H j : 
 
 may be readily ruptured, while here the concrete is strengthened 
 by a mass of the most excellent masonry, and may not break so 
 as to save the corner from being thrust outward. Besides, the 
 anchors, as usually applied, get no hold at the corners. To hold 
 
 them would require a longitudinal and cross anchoring within 
 the thickness of the walls, from corner to corner, a troublesome 
 and expensive proceeding. Under the "method of isolated 
 piers," with observance of ,the biddings of the "law of convex 
 deflection," the corners would take care of themselves without 
 anchors. 
 
 4. Taking a section through one of the intended internal 
 piers, Fig. 13, the case assumes a very serious aspect. The load 
 per column is said to be upward of 380 tons; the column is to- 
 stand upon an iron stool, with bottom plate six feet square, 
 bedded on the bare concrete. To arrive at any accurate, or even 
 approximate, estimate of the efficacy of this bed of concrete, un- 
 der existing circumstances, is simply a matter of impossibility. 
 A mechanical estimate to this effect requires a knowledge of its 
 
J&2 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 exact absolute and crushing strength, as well as ot the exact de 
 gree of the elasticity and incipient fluidity (yielding property) of 
 this concrete. Even if these properties were ascertained from 
 samples, it would by no means follow that the bed, just at such 
 particular place, is altogether precisely according to the samples. 
 Trials have been made by loading plates one foot square with as 
 much as thirty and more tons upon each. To conclude from 
 this trial upon the nature of the cas.e is, I believe, a fallacy. 
 Even if one square foot would bear, without damage to the in- 
 tegrity of this bed of concrete, say 100 tons during a week, the 
 conclusion is by no means warranted that it will carry for all 
 
 n^L. 
 
 5= 
 g/ 
 
 /ft 
 
 | 
 
 i*l s| 
 
 l I i 
 
 ] 1 | si 
 
 w 1 l 
 
 r i i =i 
 
 [ 1 51 
 
 time to come 380 tons upon a spot six feet square, with absolute 
 and infallible certainty. (Actual practical judgment, with an 
 allowance of one-quarter of the load that produces any move- 
 ment of depression on the earth, will be safe.) The load, as the 
 case is, must be trusted on cJtance, instead of on mathematical 
 certainty, and is, therefore, in a technical meaning insufficiently 
 supported, which involves by no means a prediction that in reali- 
 ty the support will, or must, fail. It simply means that it may 
 fail. Any construction in building that is not secure by dint of 
 mathematical certainty, is technically insecure, and therefore 
 condemnable. How differently does this case present itself un- 
 der the light of the "method of isolated piers," as is illustrated 
 by Fig. 14. Here the hardpan is loaded to a ratio of about 
 twenty pounds to the square inch. With a pier well bedded, 
 and securely constructed out of the most beautiful material so 
 readily at hand in Chicago, it is mathematically certain that the 
 ultimate "settling" will be (about) one and a half inches. Be- 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 163 
 
 sides, this construction would have the point of economy in its 
 favor. 
 
 Concrete. Good concrete is always made up with cement- 
 mortar. This artificial conglomerate rock is spread upon the 
 building-ground at large, or upon the bottom of foundation 
 trenches, in a thickness varying, as the case may be, from one 
 to five feet for the purpose of an "equalizer." Concrete work 
 at best is random work, that may and may not do good service. 
 Upon hard and practically incompressible ground, it is super- 
 fluous, as a matter of course, except what may be required for 
 the bedding of footing courses. Upon compressible ground it 
 will, under some circumstances, accommodate itself to the deflec- 
 tions of the ground caused by superincumbent loads, and thus 
 may, if circumstances concur, be of very serious damage to the 
 structure, under the "law of convex deflection," as before de- 
 monstrated. I reject random work as being contrary to the 
 spirit of the present age, and recommend in its place the 
 "method of isolated piers" for foundations. 
 
 Concrete is applicable in foundations as a base in place of 
 other masonry. Its application is there justified in all cases, 
 where it chances to be the cheapest material. It is in this sense 
 one of the means at the hands of the engineer for the attain- 
 ment of his ends. 
 
 Class III. Semi-Fluid Grounds. This class comprises '//, 
 marsh, peat, and the like. When gravel or rock can be found 
 within practicable distance, piers of some kind may be sunk 
 upon it ; but ordinarily resort is had to artificially condensing 
 the ground by means of piling. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 The Base is alike a means of support as it is a means of 
 spreading out in order to convey the pressure exacted by the 
 load upon such area of the ground as has been determined under 
 the "method of isolated piers." The base therefore must be 
 in every respect solid; the pressure to which it is subjected 
 
i6 4 
 
 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 must in no way move its constituent parts. The Chicago 
 material for bases is : Dimension stone, hard lime-rock, of most 
 any dimensions, from eight to twenty inches thick, and with 
 even beds. There can be no better material in the whole world 
 than this dimension stone. There is also rubble stone of the 
 same rock, hard, flat bedded, handy as to size. Concrete, being 
 inferior to rubble work, and besides being more costly, is out of 
 the question, at least under a reasonable view of employing 
 means to an end. For dimension stone I have adopted the rule 
 
 6'. t 
 
 of making the offsets somewhat less than the thickness of stone, 
 though I know of no instance of an evil result from offsets 
 being even more than equal to the thickness of stone. For 
 rubble I have adopted four inches of an offset to each foot of 
 height. For concrete I should reduce the offset to three inches. 
 Figs. 15, 1 6, 17 represent bases accordingly, all under the sup- 
 position that the weight of the wall requires a width of base of 
 six feet eight inches. 
 
 For Dimension stone $6.90 per foot lin. 
 
 " Rubble stone 6.90 " " " 
 
 " Concrete 14.28 " " " 
 
 making evident the absurdity of employing concrete in Chicago 
 foundations. 
 
 The money point grows more in favor of rubble stone as the 
 base is narrower, and more in favor of dimension stone as it is 
 wider, as can be readily estimated. 
 
 Pier bases ought in all cases to be wholly constructed of 
 dimension stone. 
 
AND ISOLATED PIERS. 165 
 
 The bedding of the base on the ground offers but little diffi- 
 culty. Upon sand and loam, dry or wet, it beds itself without 
 trouble. Clay is best covered first with a thin layer of gravel 
 or broken stone, rammed into the surface, and grouted with liq- 
 uid cement-mortar. A layer of concrete, from two and a half to 
 four inches thick, and rammed partly into the surface, answers 
 the same purpose. Upon the surface thus prepared mortar is 
 spread, and the stone bedded. 
 
 The mortar ought always to be good cement-mortar, with sand 
 of very coarse, gravelly nature as its component. For joints of 
 two or more inches in thickness, between dimension stones 
 which happen to have uneven beds, a mortar, made of two parts 
 of roofing gravel and one of fresh cement, has answered excel- 
 lent purpose. By this the expense of dressing the stone is 
 saved, and yet the end attained with all the certainty required 
 in ordinary cases. 
 
 I conclude the subject with Figs. 18 and 19, representing 
 bases of two of the tallest chimneys in Chicago. 
 
 Fig. 18 is the base of the chimney erected in 1859 f r ^ e 
 Chicago Refining Company, 151 feet high, 12 feet square at 
 foot. The base, merely two courses of heavy dimension stone, 
 as shown, is bedded upon the surface gravel near the mouth of 
 the river, there recently deposited by the lake. The mortar 
 employed in the joint between the stone is roofing gravel and 
 cement. The area of base is 256 square feet, the weight of 
 chimney, inclusive of base, 625 tons, giving a pressure of thirty- 
 four pounds to the square inch. This foundation proved to 1 
 very perfect. 
 
 Fig. 19 is the base of the chimney erected in 1872 I 
 McCormick Reaper Works, which is 160 feet high, 14 feet 
 
i66 
 
 BAUMANN'S FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Z5 ' 
 
 square at the foot, with round flue of 6' 8" diameter. The 
 base covers 625 square feet: the weight of the chimney and 
 base is approximately 1,100 tons ; the pressure upon the ground 
 (dry, hard clay) is therefore, 24 1-3 pounds to the square inch. 
 This foundation too proved to be most perfect in every respect. 
 24 1-3 pounds per square inch is a moderate load for piers. 
 
 PROPERTY OF 
 J. W. DONAWE, 
 
 IPLD, MAM. 
 
PROPERTY OF 
 J. W. DONAHUE, 
 


 
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