REVIEW 
 
 HISTORY OF MEDICINE, 
 
 THOMAS A. WISE, M.D., 
 
 FELLOW OP THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, EDINBURGH ; MEMBER OP THB 
 
 ROYAL COLLEGES OF SURGEONS OP LONDON AND EDINBURGH, AND OP THE 
 
 ROYAL MEDICAL AND CHtRURGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON AND 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 
 LATE BENGAL MEDICAL SERVICE J 
 
 SECRETARY TO THE COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, BENGAL ; 
 
 PRINCIPAL OP THE HOOGHLY AND DACCA COLLEGES, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 VOL I. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY J. CHURCHHILL. 
 
 EDINBURGH : ADA^I BLACK & Co. 
 
 BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA: WM. THACKER & Co 
 
 MDCCCLXVII. 
 
 (The right of Translation is reserved.)
 
 CORK : 
 PRINTED BY GUY BROTHEES, 
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 70 
 
 TO 
 
 Sir JAMES Y. SIMPSON, Babt., M.D., D.C.L., 
 
 OHE OP HEtt majesty's PHYSICIANS FOR SCOTLAND, AND PEOFESSOE OF 
 MEDICINE AND MIDWIFEEY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 
 
 THE DISCOVERER OF THE MARVELLOUS 
 
 ANiESTETIC VIRTUE OF CHLOROFORM, 
 
 AND THE IMPROVER OF 
 
 MEDICINE, SURGERY, AND MIDWIFERY; 
 
 THESE TWO VOLUMES 
 ( 
 
 ON 
 
 THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 ARE DEDICATED, 
 
 •WITH SESIIMENTS OF ESTEE5I AND RESPECT, 
 
 BY HIS FRIEND, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 

 
 ipeci 
 
 r 
 
 ERRATA, 
 
 Introduction, page viii., line 24, for Indus read Hyphasis. 
 
 " " XV., — 8, for their read its. 
 
 " " xliv., — 25, for retained read maintained. 
 
 " " " — 27, for habit read haUts. 
 
 " " xlv., — 1, for was monoganic read vier* 
 
 [inonogamic. 
 
 •' " liv., — 2G, for indicate us to read indicates 
 
 Ito us. 
 
 " Ixxxvii. — 18, for extreme length.^ fig. 2nd, 5 in., 
 
 [read^gf. 2nd, 6.7.
 
 COISTTEISTTS 
 
 FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 Advertisement, 
 
 Introduction — Importance and object of the History of Medicine — 
 its arrangement according to the antiquity of races and nations — 
 the eastern and western branches of the Aryan race — peculiarities 
 of the eastorn or Hindu branch ; their situation, early mental 
 and scientific culture — claims of China and Egypt to priority of 
 civilisation, and their early and intimate connection with India 
 — Hindu connection with Tibet and China, and their systems 
 of medicine — the western or Greek branch of the Aryan race — 
 tlie proofs of assistance derived from India — Hippocrates, his 
 originality in preparing his system of medicine — the assistance 
 which the Arabians of Bagdad received from the East and con- 
 veyed to the "West — general arrangement of the Review of the 
 History of Mcdicin-^, ..... 
 
 PABT I. 
 
 PRIMITIVE PERIOD AMONG THE ASIATIC NATIONS. 
 
 ROOK I. 
 
 Anxient state of Medicine among Tiir, Hindus,
 
 6 
 
 Chapter I. — The profession in Ancient Hindostan, - - 10 
 
 Section 1. — Ancient History of Hindu M edicine , 11 
 
 " 2. — Rank and Character of Sages, - - 24 
 
 " 3.— Education, .... 29 
 
 " 4. — Authors and their Works, - - - 36 
 
 " 5. — Duties of Teachers, - - - 56 
 
 " 6. — Character and Duties of Pupils, - - 59 
 
 " 7. — Duties of the Physician and Attendants, - 68 
 
 " 8 — Hecompense of the Physician, • ~ 87 
 
 Chapter II. — Physiology and peculiarities of Organic Bodies, - 89 
 
 Section 1. — Hindu Cosmogony, - - - 90 
 
 " 2. — lUicrocosm or Structure of the Body, - 96 
 
 " 3. — Generation and Development of the Foetus, 105 
 
 " 4. — Growth and Functions of the Body, - 111 
 
 " 5.— Ages, - - - " - 127 
 
 Chaptkr III. — Structure of the Corporeal parts of the Body, - 129 
 
 Section 1. — Description of the Body, - - - 131 
 
 " 2. -Humours of the Body, - - - 136 
 
 " 3, — Essential Parts, - - - - 151 
 
 " 4. — Excretions, - - - - 161 
 
 " 5.— Joints, - - - - -165 
 
 " 6. — Ligaments, &c., . - - - 166 
 
 " 7.— Muscles, - - - - - 167 
 
 " 8.— Vessels, - - ■■ - - 168 
 
 " 9. — Cellular Tissue, Fat, and Organs, - - 178 
 
 " 10. — Organs or Receptacles, - - - 180 
 
 " 11.— Orifices of the Body, - - - 181 
 " 12.— Skin, .,...-'« 
 
 " 13.— Supplementary Parts, - - - 182 
 
 Chaptur IV.— Vital Parts of the Body, - - - - 183 
 
 " V. — Dispositions and Temperaments of the Body, - 192 
 
 " VI.— Death, - - - - •• .107
 
 Chapter VII. — Materia Medica, . - . .. 203 
 
 Section 1. — Simple Medicines, Vegetable Kingdom, - 204 
 
 " 2. " Animal " - 208 
 
 " 3. " Mineral " - 209 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Pharmacy, - . . - . 225 
 
 Section 1. — Weights and Measures, - - - " 
 
 " 2. — Preparations of Medicines, - - - 228 
 
 " 3.— Form of Medicines, - - - 229 
 
 " 4. — Administration of Medicines, - - 235 
 
 " 5. — Classification and uses of Drugs, - - 244 
 
 Chapter IX. — Poisons and their Antidotes, ... 272 
 
 " X— Hygiene, - . - - - 291 
 
 Section 1. — Relative Duties ; Seasons, and Climates, - 292 
 
 " 2,— Personal Duties, ..... 298 
 
 Chapter XI.— Surgery, - - - - 322 
 
 Section 1.— Structure of the Body, - - - 325 
 
 " 2. — Nature of Surgical Diseases, - - " 
 
 " 3.— Local Application of Eemedies, - - 345 
 
 " 4. — Sui-gical Instruments and Bandages, - 354 
 
 " 5. " Operations, - - - 359 
 
 " 6. " Accidents, . - - 389
 
 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 The importance of medicine can be measured only 
 by the value of life and health, and both being of 
 paramount consequence, it is deserving of the most 
 careful study. The subject is large and difficult, 
 embracing the influence of climate and race, the 
 peculiarities and means of assisting the operations 
 of nature, so as to counteract irregularities in her 
 working, without undue interference in her results; 
 and its aim is to argue from phenomena, and 
 asqertain causes from effects. While engaged in 
 such studies, it must be not only interesting, but 
 useful, to turn back to the history of past ages, to 
 consider those superior minds, which laboured 
 with marked success in the same fields of inves- 
 tigation, under the prompting of the same motives. 
 This investigation will enable the student in me- 
 dicine the better to appreciate the value of his 
 science, to attach due weight to the discoveries 
 and opinions of able men of different nations, and 
 fairly to estimate their influence in the general 
 advance of medical knowledge throughout the 
 world.
 
 11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 As we trace, in this manner, the progress of 
 science in different ages and countries, and among 
 distant peoples, we detect the means by which new 
 facts are accumulated, and the beautiful structure 
 of nature unfolded ; and we observe how much 
 civilisation has gained and lost, owing to personal 
 circumstances, and the character of different 
 nations. It is only in modern times that such a 
 knowledge has been obtained of ancient empires 
 and nations, and of their contributions to the in- 
 tellectual development of mankind, as will enable 
 us to estimate and classify their scientific acquire- 
 ments. 
 
 Neither in science nor in civilisation have the 
 several races and nations started from the same 
 point, or advanced by the same steps ; and we must 
 assign their differences not to the accidents of 
 their condition alone, but to the peculiarities of 
 their original mental capacity. While the former 
 have afforded opportunities, the latter have sup- 
 plied general efficiency, and individual energy or 
 genius, which have suggested subjects, scientific 
 conceptions, and practical devices, perpetuated in 
 families, tribes, and nations. Amongst these, the 
 means of alleviating suffering and curing diseases 
 were early examined ; and as there were periods in 
 the history of favoured nations, in which such
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ill 
 
 knowledge was extensive and correct, so were 
 there succeeding times, when the original systems 
 and works of men of genius were attributed, by 
 their puny descendants, to the influence of super- 
 natural beings. As their practical precepts were 
 first addressed to rude races, without a written 
 language, they were reduced to proverbs and 
 poetic stanzas, as the most useful form, and best 
 adapted to remain engraven upon the memory of 
 a nomadic people. 
 
 The grouping and arrangement of such precepts 
 into a regular form, during the progress of civi- 
 lisation, united with rude investigations into the 
 anatomy and physiology of the human body, and 
 the study of the agents which preserve or modify 
 health, early occupied attention. Such a connected 
 body of truths constitutes the science of medicine. 
 This was gradually modified by the varied expe- 
 rience of individuals in different races and countries, 
 which introduced a critical scepticism into all 
 branches of knowledge ; so that the principles of 
 medicine were only established as the result of re- 
 peated and correct experiments and observations. 
 
 In the following Review of the History of 
 Medicine, the nations will be arranged according 
 to the extent and priority of their intelligence in 
 medicine, as exhibited in the works which have
 
 IV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 come down to us. Hitherto facts regarding the 
 ancient history of medicine have been sought for 
 only in the classical authors of Greece and L'ome ; 
 and have been arranged to suit a traditional theory, 
 which repudiated all systems that did not proceed 
 from a Grecian source. We are familiar from our 
 youth with classical history, and love to recal 
 events, illustrated by the torch of genius, and de- 
 picted on our memories; and it requires a thorough 
 examination of a subject, a careful weighing of new 
 evidence, and a degree of ingenuousness not always 
 to be found, to alter early impressions. Still, 
 candour and truth require us to examine the value 
 of new facts in history as they are discovered, so 
 as to arrive at just conclusions During the last 
 twenty years great progress has been made in our 
 knowledge of the ancient Asiatic empires, and of 
 their systems of philosophy, including medicine, by 
 the partial unfolding of the learning of the Egyp- 
 tians, by the exhumation of the Assyrian and 
 Eabylouian monuments, and still more by the 
 light thrown upon remote Asiatic antiquity, 
 through the sacred books of India, which have 
 brought out a new and most important body of 
 facts, that may necessitate a new arrangement, 
 and the rejection of former beliefs for new con- 
 victions.
 
 INTRODUCTION. V 
 
 With such advantages as the means of study 
 and facility of intercourse in Europe afford for the 
 accumulation of learning, it is disappointing to 
 observe the result as shewn in her knowledge of 
 history. When the European student has exa- 
 mined the imperfect records of Greece and Rome, 
 he is held to have acquired a knowledge of 
 ancient history : and yet, long before the former 
 had become famous in arts and arms, and Rome 
 had entered upon her career of conquest, Assyria, 
 Nineveh, Persia, China, and Hindostan were large 
 and populous empires, where the science of govern- 
 ment was practised on the largest scale, and 
 where the arts that diversify and embellish life, 
 as well as those that provide for the wants of 
 mankind, were cultivated, and carried to a high 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 During the frequent wars of the Asiatic with 
 the Egyptian and Grecian states, and by the 
 frequent intercourse of travellers and merchants, 
 the Europeans acquired a knowledge of the 
 resources of the East, from whence so many of their 
 luxuries aud medicines were derived. This 
 explains the invitation which Artaxerxes is said 
 to have sent to the great Hippocrates to visit his 
 court, on the occasion of the ravages of the plague ; 
 and the conscientious refusal of the physician,
 
 Yl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 "whose services were required by his own country, 
 then suffering from the same fatal disease. Thirty 
 years afterwards (b.c. 405) Ctesias, of the family 
 of Asclepiades, was taken prisoner, and on healing 
 the wound of the King Artaxerxes Mnemon, was 
 retained as his physician. For seventeen years he 
 held this distinguished position, was on several 
 occasions employed as ambassador to the Greeks, 
 and wrote several historical works. One of them on 
 India, which Professor "Wilson has translated, con- 
 tains notices of some of the natural productions of 
 the country, often extravagant and absurd, yet 
 founded on truth.* The valuable commodities of 
 Asia induced the European merchants to keep up a 
 close connection with it, from an early period ; and 
 the riches and power of the great mysterious 
 country of the East attracted the attention of 
 Alexander the Great, when little was supposed 
 to have been directly known in Europe, of the 
 condition of the Hindu nation. The historian of the 
 Macedonian Emperor relates, that after his victory 
 over Porus, Alexander, in his harangue to his 
 troops, assured them ''that they were now going 
 to enter those famous countries so abundant in 
 riches, that even what they had found and seen in 
 Persia, would appear as nothing in comparison to 
 
 * Dr. Roylo's fjocluros, p. 71. Sec also Clinton's Fasti Ilellcnici, 
 vol. ii., p. .308.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Vll 
 
 them."* Herodotus, Diodorus, and Arrian describe 
 the strength of the Hindu armies, the number of 
 their war-chariots, the excellence of their arms and 
 appointments, and the strength of their fortresses, 
 shewing them to have made great progress in arts 
 and arms. Strabo and Plutarch agree with them 
 in asserting the high state of civilisation to 
 which India had then attained. It was full of large 
 and rich cities, had roads and mile-stones, and 
 inns for the accommodation of travellers, with 
 numerous institutions for the acquisition and 
 diffusion of learning.f Such a people must have 
 required a long period before it could have reached 
 a civilisation so complete in all its parts, and so 
 permanent in its influence. 
 
 From recent investigations, it is found that an 
 empire existed in Gangetic Hindostan, under 
 different dynasties, from the year B.C. 600, to 
 about AD. 500. During this period, a succession 
 of most enlightened Hindu mcnarchs reigned in 
 India, who encouraged trade, and facilitated 
 transport by roads which intersected the country, 
 with caravanseries to protect travellers. They 
 promoted, with success, the study of the Sanscrit 
 language, and all useful learning ; particularly 
 
 * Quintus Curtius lib. x ch. 1. 
 
 t Avriaii Exped: Alex. lib. vii. ch. 1. Plutarch's life of Alexander 
 
 p. 700.
 
 Vlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the diffusion of the medical science. They were 
 often distracted and weakened by intestine dis- 
 sensions, and became a prey to unscrupulous 
 neighbours, who, at last, subverted their social 
 influence and political power. This ancient and 
 remarkable race pretended to have a direct con- 
 nexion with the deity. They noted in their records 
 the invasion and occupation of their country by 
 Darius Hystaspes, (about b.c. 630,) and such 
 was its richness, that it was the most valuable 
 of his twenty satrapies.* Two centuries after- 
 wards, the great Persian empire was dissolved by 
 the victories of Alexander; and on his approaching 
 India, Taxiles conciliated the Greek envoy by 
 presents, saying : " I shall send to the great 
 Conqueror, your master, my beautiful daughter ; a 
 goblet made of a ruby, that miraculously re- 
 plenishes itself with liquid; a philosopher of great 
 knowledge of the sciences, and a physician who 
 has such skill that he can restore the dead." f 
 Such a message indicates the possession of great 
 riches, and of Asiatic refinement and learning. 
 Alexander carried his conquests as far as the banks 
 of the Indus, and that he held intercourse with the 
 Indian sages, is evident from the explanation given 
 
 * Herod: book iii. 
 t Ycemut ul Twarikh — Malcolm's History of Persia, vol. i., p. 7. 
 1 Kings, ch, iv., v. 30.
 
 INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 by the Greek historians of their philosophical 
 opinions. Form (Puru) ruled the country east of 
 the river Hydaspes ; and defended it against the 
 invader. When vanquished, he yielded to necessity, 
 and became a faithful follower of the great con- 
 queror ; and the subjugated nations exhibited such 
 prowess and magnanimity as elicited marks of 
 admiration. Still, such was the imperfection of 
 their records, that Alexander's name is not men- 
 tioned in any of the writings of the Hindus, while 
 he is esteemed a great hero by the Mahomedans. 
 Even those who conquered the distant islands of 
 Java and Sumatra still sing the exploits of the 
 mighty Iskander I 
 
 Nearchus [apud Arrian) states that '' the Gre- 
 cian physicians found no remedy against the bite 
 of snakes ; but the Indians cured those who 
 happened to incur that misfortune " — on which 
 account an edict was published, directing that all 
 persons bitten by a serpent, must be brought 
 to the king's tent, where Hindu physicians would 
 cure them ; and likewise of whatever disease they 
 might be afflicted with. Many of the views ex- 
 pressed by Strabo resemble those of the Indian 
 shastres, particularly those having reference to 
 generation, the ethereal element, and mental philo- 
 sophy, are now allowed to have been derived
 
 X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 from the East. He mentions a sect of philoso- 
 phers in India, named Gamanees, or sacred mendi- 
 cants, who lived in retirement ; and physicians 
 who resided in towns, in a very modest position, 
 and treated the sick. These practitioners relied 
 on a strict regimen, more than on the action of 
 medicines ; and on ointments and poultices rather 
 than on internal remedies. A third class were 
 the religious mendicants, who were magicians 
 and sorcerers.* Such a division proves that the 
 ancient Hindus had applied themselves to the art 
 of healing ; and from these statements it ap- 
 pears, that the skill of the Hindu physicians was 
 generally and widely appreciated, and that the 
 medical profession had attained a degree of 
 excellence and usefulness to which due credit has 
 not usually been awarded. Seleucus Nicator, 
 one of the most able successors of Alexander 
 the Great, having obtained the province of 
 Babylon, with the eastern boundary in India, 
 penetrated as far as the Ganges, (b.c. 307), and was 
 thus enabled to judge of the progress of civilisation 
 among the Hindus. On being threatened by 
 Antigonus, he entered into an alliance with the 
 Indian sovereign Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), 
 gave him his daughter in marriage, and sent Gre- 
 
 * Lcttrcs Edifcantcs, torn, xvi , p. 403.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 cian auxiliaries to his assistance. Megastlienes 
 resided as his minister at the court of Chandra- 
 gupta's, and gave much authentic information to 
 the Greeks regarding India. The importance of 
 the information thus obtained, will be rendered 
 still more evident when we consider the race to 
 which the ancient Hindus belonged, and the state 
 of their literature and science at a very early 
 u-e. 
 
 The most ancient traditions and records of 
 the nations of the West refer to " the learning and 
 wisdom of the East," without any distinct indi- 
 cation of the race or nation ; and modern inves- 
 tigations prove that the original seat of the Indo- 
 Germanic, or Aryan family of man, was the high 
 table-land contiguous to the lofty range of moun- 
 tains extending eastward from the Caspian Sea. 
 From this country the great Aryan branch pro- 
 ceeded ; and their advancement in civilisation was 
 the more readily accomplished, as both sacred and 
 profane history render it probable that mankind, 
 when they emerged from their primitive home, 
 possessed a high quality of energy and organic 
 activity, accompanied with a corresponding degree 
 of intellectual force. This raised them quickly in 
 power and riches, and enabled them to devote, at 
 an early period, a particular class of the community
 
 Xll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to the acquisition of knowledge; and being dis- 
 tinguished by their remarkable powers of accurate 
 observation and sound reasoning, they soon entered 
 the vast and interesting field opened to the exercise 
 of their mental faculties, in the region of abstract 
 speculation. Their progress was aided by their 
 possessing the advantage of a regular and peaceable 
 government, and by being followers of a religion 
 abounding in moral precepts. 
 
 This Aryan race were of a fair complexion, and of 
 an enterprising, active, and domineering character. 
 They knew the use of iron, the crafts of the black- 
 smith, coppersmith, carpenter, and other arts, 
 during the early Yedic age, which, according to Max 
 Miiller, extended at least to e.g. 800. They had 
 rims of iron to surround the wheels of their carts 
 and chariots ; they fabricated coats of mail, clubs, 
 bows, arrows, javelins, swords, and discs or quoits. 
 They used chariots of war, and conveyances drawn 
 by horses and bullocks, rode on horses, and had the 
 elephant in a state of subjection. They fashioned 
 the precious metals into ornaments — earrings, 
 necklaces, golden bowls, &c. They made cups, 
 pitchers, and long and short ladles for domestic 
 use, and for the worship of their gods. They 
 had professional barbers to cut their hair and trim 
 their nails. They were acquainted with the
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIU 
 
 virtues of many plants, and prepared a liquor from, 
 the Somalatii, or moonplant, the acid Asclepias 
 (Saccostema viminalis), which they considered 
 an acceptable beverage both to god and man, even 
 for purposes of intoxication, as well as exhilara- 
 tion. In this age, they knew the spirit produced 
 by fermented barley; and vendors of the spirit 
 were tolerated. They made much use of clarified 
 butter (ghrita) ; had halls of justice, of sacrifice, 
 and of oblation ; but no mention is made of idol- 
 shrines, and most probably they worshipped sub 
 ccelo. They brought with them to Hindostan the 
 custom of horse -sacrifice (Ashwamedha) — indi- 
 cating a race accustomed to the northern steppes 
 — thus seeking to propitiate the Deity, by the 
 sacrifice of that which they held most valuable ; 
 and their princes, priests, and even their gods, had 
 names and titles derived from their connection 
 with the equine race.* 
 
 This remarkable race worshipped the sun, fire, 
 and air, as the symbols of an invisible, omniscient, 
 and omnipresent God ; of whom no intelligence 
 could measure the greatness, and no language 
 express the wisdom and goodness. For such a 
 being no temples were required, and no ceremonial 
 necessary. Prayers and sacred hymns were ofi'ered 
 
 * See lecture on India 3,000 years ago, by Dr. J. Wilson, Bombay.
 
 XIV INTEODUCTION. 
 
 up with humility in acknowledgment of the great- 
 ness and benevolence and justice of God, and of 
 man's own sinful and insignificant nature ; and 
 these strengthened the intellect and purified the 
 mind with inward piety and benevolence. From 
 such an intellectual elevation they contemplated 
 that Being, " Who illuminates all, delights all, who 
 alone can irradiate our organs and souls, and to 
 whom all must return." Thus they felt the con- 
 sciousness of a divine principle, or soul within 
 themselves ; which, after death, assumed its proper 
 superiority and immortality, and entered into a 
 state of reward or punishment.* 
 
 The Aryan Brahmins, proud of their learning 
 and moral influence among the Turanian mass of 
 the people of Hindostan, were satisfied with their 
 
 * "The devout Aryau sage looked upon the uatui-al birth from his 
 parents as the first birth, the partial regeneration during his lifetime as the 
 second, and death as the new birth of the individual. To ensure the 
 purifying and severing of the mortal from the immortal part of the dead 
 body, cremation was employed to set free the spiritual essence, and to 
 complete the third or heavenly birth. The Aryan requiem alone looked 
 forward to this future state, and it is thus expressed in the ancient hymns of 
 the Rig-veda. ' Ilis friends stood around the pyre as around a natal bed, 
 and commanded his eyes to go to the sun, his breath to the wind, his limbs 
 to the earth, the water to the planets from whence they had been derived.' 
 But, ' as for his unborn part, do thou, Lord, quicken it with thy heat, let 
 thy flame and thy brightness kindle it, and convey it to the world of the 
 righteous,' ' Wash the feet of him who is stained with siu, let him go up 
 with cleansed feet; ciossing the gloom, gazing wiih wonder in many 
 directions, let him go up to heaven,' [Eig-vcda, x. 16, and Veda, ix. 5.] 
 ' Depart thou, by the ancient paths, to the place whither our fathers have 
 departed, to meet with our parents, our wives, and children ; obtain thy 
 desires in heaven. Throwing off those imperfections, clothe thyself in a 
 shining form ; may sweet breezes blow upon thee, may thy soul go to its 
 own, and hasten to thy fathers.' See Dr. Muir, Royal A. S. of Great 
 Britain and Ireland for 1865. "
 
 INTRODUCTION. XV 
 
 riches, their fine climate, and fruitful soil. In- 
 sulated in their positioD. they appear to have been 
 satisfied with the knowledge and power which 
 they had acquired at a very early period; and 
 affectionately attached to their own country, they 
 retained for ages their opinions and practices. 
 
 The remarkable Aryan race early separated, and 
 sought their fortunes in different countries. An 
 eastern, or Hindu, and a western, or Grecian, 
 branch early distinguished themselves, and formed 
 great nations, having characteristic peculiarities. 
 Each raised its country to the highest rank among 
 nations in the arts and sciences, and promoted, in 
 a particular manner, the progress of the science 
 of medicine. Both distinguished themselves by 
 their intellectual endowments, which, at an early 
 period, shone forth in the greatest vigour, and pro- 
 duced the richest and most abundant fruits in 
 philosophy and science, in ethics and poetry, in 
 literature, in civilisation, and government, and 
 in all that dignifies and ennobles the species : the 
 western possessed a more careful, practical, esthe- 
 tic form of mind ; while the eastern, or Hindu na- 
 tion, displayed more art and perseverance, and their 
 course, if less brilliant, was earlier and more abid- 
 ing. This was in part from the western knowledge 
 being fostered by commerce, and by the ac- 
 
 b
 
 XVI INTROLUCTION. 
 
 cumulation of riches introducing the materials of 
 luxury, which, for a time, expanded and polished 
 the intellect, but subsequently corrupted and ener- 
 vated both mind and body, so that they became the 
 prey of more warlike races. Through the free inter- 
 course of the west, the philosopher of Europe had 
 at all times profited by the discoveries of his neigh- 
 bours, and the historian was enabled to trace the 
 progress of science among the various nations, 
 from the Indus to the Atlantic ocean, and of 
 medicine, from the time when it emerged from the 
 obscurity of ancient fable in Europe, to the present 
 age ; so as to ascertain the national and individual 
 contributions of each to the general fund. 
 
 At a period anterior to history, the eastern 
 branch settled in a country called Aryavarta, (land 
 of the Aryans), or Hindostan, (country of the 
 Hindus) ; * and in this fruitful country they 
 rapidly increased in riches and power, and appear 
 to have extended slowly southward. At the 
 time of Ma7iUj who compiled his code of laws about 
 the sixth century before Christ, they had not spread 
 further south than the Vindhyan range of moun- 
 
 * The word Uindu is not Sanscrit. It designates that branch of the 
 Aryan race which passed eastward of the river Sindha, the western boundary 
 of India ; and as the letters S and H are convertible in the Zend, or 
 ancient Persian language, the name of the river explains the appellation 
 given to those who passed it. The term Hindu was first used by Herodotus 
 and the Greeks, and wns adopted by the more modern inhabitants of Hin- 
 dostan,
 
 INTRODUCTION. XVU 
 
 tains. By the time of the Christian era, they had 
 conquered Maharashtra, which Ptolemy calls 
 AriakL From thence they extended themselves 
 to the extreme south of Ceylon, and part of the 
 Indian archipelago. 
 
 This Hindu nation left no history, as they con- 
 sidered life a transitory state of trial and suffering, 
 and of too little importance to occupy the attention 
 of rational beings. For many ages the genius of 
 the ancient Hindu nation spread a halo of learning 
 and intellectual vigour around many eastern lands, 
 when the rest of the human family were in a state 
 of rudeness. Sacred as well as traditional history 
 informs us that a civilised people inhabited the 
 east of Asia, and this remarkable nation, which 
 distinguished itself so early by its skill and learn- 
 ing, was the Hindu people. In Europe, those of 
 the east were regarded proverbially as possessed of 
 the " wisdom of the East ;"* which may in some 
 measure, explain the first mention made of a social 
 community " as journeying from the East ; " "j* and 
 the productions of their country were in early 
 request among distant nations. J From the same 
 quarter, and from his great progenitor Shem, 
 Abraham probably obtained his learning ; as we 
 are told thatTerah his father " dwelt on the other 
 
 * 1 Kings, ch. iv. v. 30, f Genesis, ch. xi. v. 2. 
 X Ibid, ch. ixxvii. v. 25,
 
 XVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 side of the flood (the river Euphrates), and they 
 served other gods,"* i.e. their worship was mixed up 
 with what were considered idolatrous ceremonies. 
 " India," writes Mr. Orme, " has been in- 
 habited, from the earliest antiquity, by a people 
 who have no resemblance, either in their figure 
 or manner, with any of the nations contiguous 
 to them ; " and Sir William Jones observes, 
 "however degenerate the Hindus may now ap- 
 pear, at some early day they were splendid in 
 arts and arms, happy in government, wise in 
 legislation, and eminent in knowledge." " In 
 medicine," writes the distinguished Professor 
 Wilson, "as in astronomy and metaphysics, the 
 Hindus once kept pace with the most enlightened 
 nations of the world ; and that they attained as 
 thorough a proficiency in medicine and surgery as 
 any people whose requirements are recorded, and 
 as, indeed, was practicable, before anatomy was 
 made known to us by the discoveries of modern 
 enquirers." f This more intimate knowledge of 
 the Hindu nation proves, that at a very early 
 age, their sages distinguished themselves by 
 their knowledge, which embraced the most 
 remarkable truths and fundamental principles 
 of natural science. Their understandings thus 
 
 * Genesis, cli. xi. v. 2 and 14 f Works, vol, iii., p. 269.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 invigorated by mental culture, enabled them to 
 appreciate the beautiful structure and uses of the 
 objects of nature. They based their civilisation 
 on their sacred books, supposed to have been 
 received directly from the Deity to assuage the 
 sufferings and misery of mankind; whose mys- 
 teries were considered inscrutable, but which the 
 faithful were bound to believe. This unfortunately 
 deadened the activity of the human intellect, and 
 reduced it into a state of apathy and torpor, so as 
 to make the future ages a mere reproduction of 
 the past. 
 
 At the early and enlightened period, Hindostan 
 was divided into different principalities, often 
 separated from each other by forests, rivers, and 
 mountains ; and governed by princes jealous of, and 
 at frequent war with each other, but over whom 
 the Aryan Brahmins gained an ascendancy, as 
 the dispensers of religion; laws were admin- 
 istered, as promulgated by Manu, and other 
 ancient sages, and the arts and sciences were cul- 
 tivated with success. At that time the priests 
 were learned, the princes prudent, liberal, and 
 skilful in political transactions, and their Turanian 
 subjects were industrious and frugal.* They im- 
 
 * The remains of the magnificent Temples in the south and west of 
 Hindostan belonged to the developed Turanian, rather than to the Ayran 
 race, who supposed no temples were worthy of the great Deity, and only
 
 XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 proved the arts by their natural genius, and the 
 delicacy of their touch ; and the hereditary castes 
 handed down to their children the improvements 
 made in their trades, for which they became 
 celebrated. But they had no personal attachment 
 to their sovereign, no patriotism or rights to defend, 
 and without interest in their country's welfare, 
 became an easy prey to their warlike neighbours. 
 When the rajah or chief had once been defeated 
 in battle, the enemy met with no opposition, and 
 the country was subdued. 
 
 The Aryan races possessed an alphabet and 
 grammar, were fond of logic and philosophical 
 speculations, and were remarkable for their prac- 
 tical good sense. Their poetry was more didactic 
 than lyrical, and they were the first who composed 
 epics and drama. They were satisfied in archi- 
 tecture with what was convenient, modified by 
 fashion and the usages of the neighbouring nations. 
 They encouraged the useful arts, and devotedthem- 
 selves to commerce, agriculture and manufactures; 
 
 accepted the prayers and humiliation of man, unadorned with gold, silver, 
 or the lustre of precious stones. An interesting example of the know- 
 ledge of, most probably, those eastern missionarios, is seen in the mys- 
 terious Pillar Towers of Ireland, some of them, most probably, built about 
 the beginning of our era. One of them is in the author's neighbourhood. The 
 stones forming the entrance had been selected with such sagacity,and prepared 
 with such admirable skill, that their edges are as sharp as the day on which 
 the masons placed them, and will remain so ior centuries to come ; while 
 the Parliament House, built a few years ago with stones selected by able 
 Commissioners, from opened quarries, prepared with the best tools, laid in 
 the best mortar, are already crumbling into dust, Thus, the advanced 
 science of the present day, in this respect, is far behind that of the ancients.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXI 
 
 accumulated wealth, and increased material pro- 
 perty. The beauty they admired was scientific 
 truth; and the harmony, that of the laws of nature. 
 They carefully studied mathematical science, and 
 its practical results, especially astronomy ; and 
 medicine, for its interest and usefulness. 
 
 The many ages that intervened before oral 
 tradition was recorded in written characters, and 
 the advancement which such a step indicates, 
 account for the pride which marked these first 
 efforts of genius. The Sanscrit language ap- 
 proaches nearest the primitive type by its origin- 
 ality, its purity, and the abundance of its forms 
 (M. Miiller). It was introduced into Hindostan 
 by the Brahminical race, and modern philology 
 enables us to restore the pedigree of the human 
 family, by detecting and explaining the organic 
 and permanent structure of the several languages, 
 according to their respective kindred, proving 
 a useful guide to the historian. The Sanscrit 
 language is found to be the link connecting the 
 Zend (the ancient Persian language), the Arme- 
 nian, Greek, and Latin, and is of the same family 
 of language with the German, the Sclavonian, and 
 the Celtic. ''The Sanscrit language," writes 
 Sir William Jones, " whatever be its antiquity, is 
 of wonderful structure ; more perfect than the
 
 XXll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more 
 exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to 
 both of them the strongest affinity, in roots 
 and verbs, and in the forms of grammar. This 
 resemblance is so strong, that no philosopher 
 could examine all the three without belieying 
 them to be sprung from one common source, 
 which perhaps no longer exists."* Frederick 
 Yon Schlegel, some twenty years later, in his 
 *' Languages and Philosophy of the Indians," had 
 no doubt that the Sanscrit was not only related to 
 Greek, Latin, and German ; but was the very an- 
 cestor from which their descent was to be traced : 
 or, as MaxMiiller puts it, "the first derivative from 
 the primitive Aryan speech." The grammatical 
 works of Panim, and his Hindu successors^ are the 
 most complete that ever were employed in arrang- 
 ing the elements of human speech, j* This majestic 
 and richly inflected Sanscrit is still viewed by the 
 Hindus as their national language, written in the 
 deva nagri character, or divine alphabet, from its 
 supposed origin from the gods ; and in this the 
 oldest works in Indian literature are composed. 
 It contains memorials of an ancient theology, em- 
 bracing poetry, science, and philosophy, which has 
 exerted an influence over the most distinguished 
 
 * Asiatic Eescarches, vol i., p. 422 
 t Elphinstonc's History of India, vol. i., p. 276.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXlll 
 
 nations of antiquity, and to which Europe is 
 indebted for the rudiments of her learning. This 
 will accouct for the reference made in these ancient 
 records of the west " to the wise men of the 
 East ;" expressions which prove that these Asiatics 
 had established a high character for knowledge 
 and wisdom ; their claim to which is rendered 
 evident by their remains. 
 
 It was near the river Ganges that these eastern 
 sages dwelt, and there are laid the scenes of many 
 of their most ancient poems. Trained by experi- 
 ence to contemplate the magnificent products of 
 nature, rather than possessing a minute and ex- 
 tended knowledge of the arts and sciences, they 
 were contented with the phenomena which sur- 
 rounded them ; while the self-relying vigour of 
 their mental faculties sufficiently accounts for 
 the varied character of their literary productions 
 for the extent, beauty, and peculiar character of 
 their opic poems, their copious domestic literature, 
 and their unexampled treasure of morals, fables, 
 and romances. The natural want of enterprise in 
 the race prevented their visiting other lands, 
 considering it sinful to look beyond their own rich 
 country, favoured by the special protection of 
 their deities, they came to despise the productions 
 and learning of strangers ; while the distance and
 
 XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the difficulties that existed in acquiring infor- 
 mation, account for the eastern learning being 
 unknown in Europe, and their philosophers holding 
 no rank or position in history among the western 
 nations. This circumstance has induced me to 
 attempt, by a few observations, to illustrate the 
 comparative condition of the sciences in the east 
 and west, respectively, in remote ages. 
 
 Sir William Jones declares that the Hindu 
 geometry, arithmetic, and astronomy, " surpassed 
 that of Ptolemy ; their music, that of Archimedes ; 
 their theology, that of Plato ; and their logic, that 
 of Aristotle." " S'il est une contree sur la terre qui 
 puisse reclamer a juste titre 1' honneur d'avoir ete 
 le berceau de I'espece humaine, ou au moins le 
 theatre d' une civilisation primitive, dont les de- 
 veloppemens successifs auraient porte dans tout 
 I'ancien monde, et peut-etre au dela, le bienfait 
 des lumieres, cette seconde vie de 1' humanity — 
 cette contree assurement c'est 1' Tnde."* " It 
 might be easier to compare them (the Hindus) 
 with the Greeks," states the Honourable Mount- 
 stuart Elphinstone, '' as painted by Homer, who 
 was nearly contemporary with the compilation 
 of the code of Manu; and however inferior in 
 spirit and energy, as well as in elegance, to that 
 
 • Creuzer Eeligions de 1' Antiquite, Tom. i, p. 133.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXV 
 
 heroic race; yet, on contrasting their law and forms 
 of administration, the state of the arts of life, and 
 the general spirit of order and obedience to the 
 laws, the eastern nation seems clearly to have 
 been in the more advanced stage of society. Their 
 internal institutions were less rude ; their conduct 
 to their enemies more humane ; their general 
 learning was much more considerable ; and in the 
 knowledge of the being and nature of God, the 
 Hindus were already in possession of a light 
 which was but faintly perceived, even by the 
 loftiest intellects, in the best days of Athens.* 
 The Brahmins, as the dispensers of religion, of 
 the laws, and of medicine, have exhibited a supe- 
 riority of intelligence, which, with the exception 
 of the Greeks, is in vain looked for in other ancient 
 nations. Under the native government, the Hindu 
 literature was carefully cherished by the princes 
 and opulent individuals, who thus increased 
 their temporal power and religious influence. 
 Such encouragement operated powerfully as an 
 incentive to study and literary exertion. It was 
 the endeavour of the influential class, and one of 
 their proudest objects, to cherish these learned 
 Brahmins, many of whom devoted their whole lives 
 to intellectual cultivation; more particularly to 
 
 • History of India, vol. i, p. 94.
 
 XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 education and poetry, to medicine and religion ; 
 the former preparing the intellect of the rising 
 generation, and immortalising inverse the grandeur 
 of their patrons ; the latter explaining the treat- 
 ment of the body in health and disease, and the 
 means of ensuring happiness to the individual after 
 death. 
 
 The study of the heavens was considered by the 
 Hindu sages to be the noblest, whether viewing 
 the order, the economy, and regularity of their 
 movements, or contemplating the sun " as a giant 
 running his course," and travelling unseen through 
 the realms of night, till he returns at the end of 
 the year, to the point from which he set out. The 
 distribution of the stars into groups or constella- 
 tions in the compass of the visible heavens, 
 extending in each side of the ecliptic, appears to 
 have been made in the earliest ages of the world. 
 It is highly probable that the zodiacs of all 
 nations were derived from a common source ; and 
 Sir William Jones supposed the Indian division of 
 the zodiac was not borrowed from the Greeks or 
 Arabs, having been known in India from time 
 immemorial.* A remarkable example of the 
 attention the Hindu Brahmins paid to accurate 
 observation in science is seen in their recording 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 289.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXVIl 
 
 astronomical facts from which they drew conclu- 
 sions, without forming theories; They do not 
 even give a description of celestial phenomena, 
 being satisfied with the calculations of the changes 
 in the heavens. The diurnal revolution of the 
 earth on its axis, the names of the days of the 
 week, and the division of the ecliptic into twenty- 
 seven mansions or constellations, (e.g. 1442,*) are 
 likewise derived from the same source, as well as 
 their more accurate notions regarding the pro- 
 cession of the equinoxes. An intimate knowledge 
 of astronomy is proved from the remarkable Yedic 
 calendar (Jyotisham) of the Hindus, which gives 
 the position of the solstitial points; carrying 
 us back to the year B.C. 1181, according to the 
 able Archdeacon Pratt; and to 1168 according to 
 the Eev. R. Main's calculations, f It is however 
 possible that the Hindus may have improved 
 their more imperfect astronomy from the Greeks 
 of Alexandria, as suggested by the able and 
 accurate Colebrooke. ^ 
 
 The remarks of the ancient Hindus in the 
 Aitareya Brahmanan Sattras prove that many 
 correct astronomical observations were recorded 
 
 • Bentley's History of Astronomy. 
 fJour: Asiatic Society of Bengal, p. 49-60 for 1862; see also Max. 
 Miiller, pref. Reg. Vide p. Lxxxv, v. 4. 
 
 X Asiatic Besearcbes, vol. ix,
 
 XXVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SO early as the twelfth century B.C. ; which led 
 Professor Hang to assign the composition of the 
 bulk of the Brahmanas to the year 1400-1200 B.C.* 
 
 The second period of the Aryan races in the east 
 reaches a more exalted point of civilisation ; the 
 power of abstract thinking and metaphysical 
 speculation was rapidly developed. Man became 
 more refined, especially in imagination, and a sense 
 of the music of language, as employed in heroic 
 poetry. As he noticed the antagonisms of nature 
 he betrayed a deep consciousness of discord in 
 himself, a keener moral sense, and a more 
 anxious desire of deliverance from the impuri- 
 ties of the flesh. Men aimed at a piety they did 
 not allow to the gods, and which their frail nature 
 was not capable of attaining. 
 
 The Hindus excelled in arithmetic, and from 
 time immemorial employed decimal notation, 
 the simplest and most perfect of all inventions, 
 by which they performed the various operations in 
 arithmetic, with the greatest facility and correct- 
 ness. The Arabians introduced this mode of 
 notation into Europe, where the Grecian and 
 Koman method had been followed of employing 
 the more tedious and imperfect method of reckon- 
 ing by letters of the alphabet. In the ancient 
 
 ♦ Artareya Brahmanan of the Rig- Veda, vol. i. Int. p. 47.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXIX 
 
 Asiatic works, the rules are given in verse, and 
 the language, even when technical, is often highly 
 figurative.* 
 
 They excelled also in geometry, and as " the 
 birth-place, and even the country of Euclid" is 
 unknown, j* it is probable that the book known by 
 his name, the most remarkable work of human 
 genius, was the gradual compilation of many able 
 men, particularly among the Eindus, rather than, 
 according to the fanciful idea of Ilerodotus, that it 
 was created to restore the landmarks defaced by 
 the inundation of the Nile J Their geometrical 
 skill is shown by their having discovered the square 
 of the hypcthenuse of a right angled triangle to 
 be equal to the squares of the sides containing 
 the angle, and their having demonstrated various 
 properties of triangles, particularly those of the 
 three sides, which were unknown in Europe till 
 published by Clavius in the sixteenth century.§ 
 The proportion of the radius to the circumference 
 of a circle, which they express in a peculiar man- 
 ner, was not known out of India until modern 
 
 * According to Alscphcadi, a learned Arabian doctor, the people of India 
 bonsted of liaving composed the ' Golaila Wadamna," or Pilpay's Fables, 
 of having invented the game of chess, and the numeral characters. Indeed 
 Maximus Planudes, a <7reek author of llie fourteenth century, expressly 
 styles arithmetic as Aoy<?<xj] Iv^Kn or ^-n^pec-^a kxt Iv^as, »'•« , Indian 
 computation, or calculation after the ludiaus. 
 
 t Euclid's Elements, by Potts, Trin. Col , Cambridge. Int. vii., 1846. 
 + Bookii . 109. 
 § Ed. Review, Vol. xxis, p. 158.
 
 XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 times.* The Brahmins excelled in algebra, and 
 Arya Bhattu, who flourished in the fifth century 
 of the Christian era, treats the science with more 
 carefulness than Diophantes, the first Greek com- 
 piler, and nearly his contemporary, particularly 
 in such points as the resolutions of equations 
 containing several unknown quantities, resolving 
 indeterminate equations of at least the first degree, 
 and showing a knowledge which it required the 
 lapse of ages, and many repeated efforts of inven- 
 tors to produce. •]* It seems very improbable, 
 therefore, that the Indian arithmetic, geometry, 
 &c., could have been borrowed from the Greeks. 
 With the early and successful cultivation of 
 literature and the sciences, the eastern as well as 
 the western Aryans studied with much care the 
 means of succouring the wounded and maimed, of 
 alleviating pain, and curing diseases. While they 
 accumulated observations to induce mankind to 
 place more reliance on them, they pretended to 
 derive assistance from deities, which increased 
 the authority of the priests in there inte^ourse 
 with the world. Mankind was supposed to have 
 been assailed by wickedness, sorrow, and disease, 
 
 _ * Elphinstone, vol. i., p. 245. The Hindus, in their Surya Sidhanta, 
 give a very rational view of Trigonometry. 
 
 t Ibid: p, 216.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXI 
 
 until relieved by the assistance of compassionate 
 deities, wlio revealed the means of relief to favoured 
 individuals. These deities were Siva and Dhan- 
 wantaree among the Hindus, and Apollo and 
 Esculapius among the Greeks ; and such was the 
 respect the Hindus had for the profession, that one 
 of the fourteen precious objects (ratnas), which 
 their gods are believed to have produced by 
 churning the ocean, was a learned physician. This 
 accords with the notions which the ancient 
 Hindus had of medicine. Having a certain acquaint- 
 ance with anatomy, they classified diseases according 
 to a systematic order, and treated them upon an 
 uniform plan, agreeably to their philosophical 
 theory. This agrees with their known advancement 
 in civilisation and pretensions to originality ; and 
 our earliest records of the west, refer to the extent 
 of eastern knowledge, and the advanced state of 
 civilisation and medicine. "When indisposed," 
 we are told, "they (the Greeks) applied to their 
 sophists (Brahmins), who, by wonderful, and even 
 more than human means, cured whatever would 
 admit of cure." * This knowledge of the healing 
 art was acquired by the sagacity of the race, their 
 accurate observation, and care in applying the 
 
 *Supravevo major vis ingruat, sophistas consulere, eosque non sine divin3, 
 quadam virtute, quicquid medicable est curare. Arrian llev : Ind, liber, ii, 
 vol. 1., p. 539. 
 c
 
 XXXil INTRODUCTION. 
 
 means of preventing and curing disease ; and was 
 exercised for promoting healthy assuaging pain, 
 and prolonging life. 
 
 The peculiar and most ancient system of Bindu 
 medicine, the Ayur-veda^ appears to have been 
 prepared not long after the Aryan race had de- 
 scended into the fruitful plains of Hindostan, and 
 it evinces the extensive knowledge and power of 
 generalisation, for which the race was so remark- 
 able. Being soon separated into small states, their 
 medical observations were collected into different 
 works founded on the original system, without 
 following exactly the same course, nor adopting the 
 same method of healing. This was so extensive, that 
 one branch was more attended to, in these works, 
 than another, according to the circumstances of 
 each state, and the genius of the writer. A variety 
 of opinion was to be expected in each of these 
 systematic works, prepared by different individuals, 
 and with little communication with each other. 
 These scientific stores, of the experience of the 
 Asiatic nations have only lately been examined, 
 and the ancient ''learning of the east" is found 
 to be extensive and accurate : their sciences being 
 combined with their philosophy, and interwoven 
 with their religious systems, and are found to 
 have enlightened the other Asiatic states as well 
 as the European nations.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXllI 
 
 The repugnance the ancient Hindus had to 
 mingle with other nations, and their pride of 
 race made them disdain to borrow from other 
 countries, or add to what they believe had been 
 specially revealed to them by God, We thus 
 explain why the knowledge displayed by the 
 Hindu systems never reached an excellence beyond 
 the means they possessed of gaining it at home ; 
 and why their descriptions, their similes, and 
 their medicines, are all derived from their own 
 country. They had no peculiarities in their phi- 
 losophical opinions, and particularly in their systems 
 of medicine, to prove that they had borrowed either 
 from any other people. 
 
 In the following work, a description will first be 
 given of the ancient Hindu system of general and 
 special education. The first was protracted by 
 acquiring the rules of grammar by rote, without 
 sufficiently exercising the reflective faculties; while 
 the special education was peculiarly practical, com- 
 bining experiment with observation and inductive 
 reasoning, according to the interrogative method. 
 Leading a pure life, and accustomed to observe, to 
 think, and to reason, the Brahmins avoided idle- 
 ness, and despised riches. The student proposed 
 questions on important and difficult subjects, which 
 were answered in an aphorismatic manner by the
 
 XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 teacher. The art of writing may not have existed 
 in the vedic age, or the Hindus may have used 
 symbols, or hieroglyphics, as a rude assistance to 
 their memories. When they had the advantage of 
 a written language, their grammar, ethics, and 
 medical precepts were written in rhyme, which 
 they stored up in their memory; and to give 
 authority to these ancient maxims, a divine 
 origin was assigned by the ancient Hindus to the 
 Ayur-veda^ or original system of medicine, which, 
 they stated, was abridged by inferior deities, and 
 conveyed to weak and sinful man by holy sages, 
 who established schools for the instruction of 
 youth in the study of particular branches of science, 
 to which they were directing their attention. 
 This admirable system of practical education among 
 the ancient Hindus, appears to have been nearly 
 identical with that of ancient Greece. The eastern 
 sage delivered his instructions under the shade of 
 a spreading sacred tree, and the ancient Greek, on 
 account of the climate, in a gymnasium or academy; 
 the sage answering the questions on difficult sub- 
 jects proposed by his distinguished students. Thus 
 they discussed the nature of man, of the soul, the 
 precepts of health, and the nature and treatment of 
 disease. The western sage (Plato) discussed with 
 his pupils, what is temperance, or self-restraint, or
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXV 
 
 moderation, method or sobriety ? or rather, what 
 is the natural object of the sentiment ? What is law, 
 virtue, knowledge, &c. ? All these dialogues are 
 designed to investigate and determine definitions. 
 If we consider the method, the subjects discussed, 
 and the dialectic teaching of Charaka, the resem- 
 blance is most striking ; * both discoursed on the 
 immortality of the soul, the one with Agnabesa, the 
 other with Echecrates and Phoedon. Socrates is 
 considered the first who distinctly taught in Europe 
 that men have souls ; the inward invisible cosmos, 
 that lies deeper than sense, and the heavenly guide 
 or daemon, were admirably described by the ancient 
 Hindus- Both eastern and western philosophers 
 insisted on the importance of self-knowledge or 
 wisdom, and both works afford a remarkable fund 
 of useful and most important, as well as difficult 
 knowledge, embracing discoveries which are sup- 
 posed to have been made two thousand years after- 
 wards, and opposing doctrines still supposed to be 
 new. It is unfortunate that the age in which these 
 ancient philosophers flourished and their works 
 were prepared, is not exactly known. 
 
 The progress made in the knowledge of the 
 Sanscrit language, by the aid of the other Indo- 
 Germanic tongues, discovers many new and im- 
 
 * See specimen from Charaka, vol. i. p. 44, et sequ.
 
 XXXVl INTBODUCTION. 
 
 portant facts regarding the import of the literary 
 and scientific words of the Hindus, as developed by 
 the labours of Sir William Jones, Lassen, Professor 
 Wilson, Max Miiller, and many others. The bound- 
 less field thus opened up attracts and stimulates, 
 while affording to the intelligent archeeologist in- 
 creasing facilities of study, and the means of dis- 
 covering the age in which their ancient works 
 were written 
 
 Europe is indebted to the Greek writers for 
 much fragmentary knowledge of ancient India ' 
 but it wants fulness and precision, and we must 
 look to modern authors for solid instruction^ 
 Sir William Jones is regarded as the illustrious 
 pioneer of oriental studies, and it was an important 
 discovery of his that Sandracottus of the Greeks 
 was the Chandra-gupta of the Hindus, as it gave 
 us a date of much importance, from which we 
 could calculate events about the same period. It 
 is now generally allowed that the sacred hymns, 
 prayers, and precepts, forming the Yedas, were 
 first preserved by oral tradition, and were therefore 
 called srutra (that which is heard); were com- 
 piled by Krishna Durpayuna Yyas, B.C. 1400 ;* and 
 
 * Mr. Colebrooke arrived at this conclusion from a passage from lotysh, 
 one of the Vcdas, where the northern solstitial point is reckoned to be in the 
 middle of Aslesba, and the southern at the beginning of Sravishta or 
 Dha'iishtha ; and then declares, what he had elsewhere shown, that " such 
 was the situation of those cardinal points" in the fourteenth century b.c. 
 ^-Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. p. 487.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXVU 
 
 were followed by brahmana, or speculations on 
 their meaning, while the Upa-vedas, or treatises 
 in general literature, are not traced higher than 
 B.o 900, when the laws of IMann, and the Ayur- 
 veda^ or ancient system of medicine of the Hindus, 
 were arranged. Hessler supposes the work to have 
 been prepared at an earlier period.* Fragments 
 only of this work are now procurable (see p. 36) ; 
 and it is to the commentaries prepared by Charaka 
 and Susruta on the Ayur-Yeda, or compilations 
 from other sources, that we owe the two great 
 systems of the ancient Hindu medicine, which 
 have come down to us. 
 
 Both these systematic writers are distinguished 
 by their knowledge of the profession, and great 
 judgment in the treatment of disease. At that 
 early period of civilisation there does not appear 
 to have existed a permanent Hindu school. Each 
 of the small states, of which Hindostan was made 
 up, had its own independent laws and usages, 
 which accounts for the author of the one system 
 not referring to the other ; and their literary and 
 scientific works proved a like independent con- 
 dition. 
 
 As the result of the above remarks, it appears 
 
 * Ex omnibus hujusque allatis valJe fit probabile Susrutse Ayurvedara 
 mille annos ante nostram aeram jam exstitisse. Comment et aunot ; in 
 Susr: Ayur-vida. a. F. Hessler, 1852, p, 4.
 
 XXXVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that, at a very early age, the Hindus had made a 
 much greater progress in civilisation, and the arts 
 and sciences, than any other ancient people ; and 
 that while the nations of the west have been 
 slowly advancing in civilisation during the last two 
 thousand years, the Hindus, by the depressing in- 
 fluence of foreign subjugation, are at present in a 
 much lower social condition than they were in three 
 or four centuries before the Christian era. It was 
 most probably at this early period that they had 
 studied the healing art with a success which 
 enabled them to record systematic works on medi- 
 cine, based on that practical knowledge which 
 the prejudice of mankind is so much opposed to. 
 Susruta informs us that a learned physician must 
 combine, a knowledge of books, or theoretical know- 
 ledge, with the dissection of the human body, 
 and practice. This explains why the ancient 
 system of Hindu medicine was so complete in 
 all its parts, and so permanent in its influence, 
 and warrants the inference that several centuries 
 were required to form it.* 
 
 The Charaka and Susruta must be considered 
 the most ancient existing records of the medical 
 science and art of the ancient Hindus. The latter 
 ranks first in merit, and follows a more systematic 
 
 * See Professor Wilson's note on Mill's History of India, vol. ii., page 232.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XXXIX 
 
 course. The author having derived assistance from 
 the Aynr-veda and the Charaka, in which there are 
 more practical remarks, and a better arrangement 
 of disease; while the more modern works on 
 medicine, follow an imperfect plan in proportion 
 as they are more modern.* Professor Wilson 
 supposed, -f " that from the Charaka and Susruta 
 being mentioned in the Paranas, the ninth or tenth 
 century is the most modern limit of our conjecture; 
 while the style of the authors, as well as their 
 having been the heroes of fable, indicate a long 
 anterior date." The Charaka and Susruta must 
 have been prepared in a very early age, probably 
 from the third to the ninth or tenth century before 
 the Christian era. This conclusion is arrived at 
 from the following considerations : 
 
 1, They were written in the most ancient form of 
 construction of the Sanscrit language. 2 . They were 
 considered to be the production of divine beings, 
 and mentioned by ancient authors. 3. These medical 
 works must have been written at a time when there 
 was no prejudice of caste ; and when looking at the 
 sun, or stroking a cow was considered sufficient to 
 purify a person who had touched a human bone. 
 4. In Charaka, the names of the Munis J are men- 
 
 * See Sir W. Jones' preface ; and Mountstuart Elpbinstone's History of 
 India, vol. i, page 427, ct seq. 
 
 t See Wilson, b.c, p. 26. 
 X See p. 21 : also Note on Mill's History of India, vol. ii, page 232.
 
 Xl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tioned, who flourished before mythology was intro- 
 duced into the Hindu system of religion. They had 
 no connexion with the names of their gods, who 
 were afterwards most probably introduced by de- 
 grees, as the various objects and operations of nature 
 were deified, and named by their votaries. 5. The 
 authors or compilers of these two systematic works 
 on medicine, appear to have flourished in the heroic 
 age, or previous to that in which the Mahabharata, 
 the great epic poem, was written, as they are men- 
 tioned in several places of that work ; * which, 
 according to Wilson, was composed about the 
 second century before the Christian era.j* 
 
 Others give these great works a much earlier 
 origin. From the evidence which they aff'ord of a 
 vast amount of experience, the accumulation of 
 ages, they must be deemed to be compilations from 
 previous works, of which the Ayur-veda may be 
 considered the prototype ; and as neither the 
 names, nor traces of the worship of Siva, nor the 
 discipline of the Brahmins, or Jains, are found in 
 them, they may be numbered among the most ancient 
 Hindu works. They are written with clearness, 
 conciseness, and simplicity of arrangement, without 
 interpolation, or modification in detail, and may be 
 
 * Nala, an cpiiodo of tbe poem, lib. vi. slok 9 ; Indalok, lib. iv. slot 9; 
 and tbe Arjiinfe, lib. 2, slok : Cited by Dr. Ilessler, 1. c. p. 22. 
 t Works by H. H. Wilson, vol. ii. p. 336.
 
 INTRODUCTION. xli 
 
 regarded as compendiuins of the knowledge of 
 medicine possessed at the time. Each work is 
 most probably the compilation of one man, following 
 the same method, and simple style throughout ; and 
 in consequence, they are uniform in doctrine. Both 
 mention the names of various ancient physicians, 
 but neither give those that are enumerated by the 
 other, which proves the little intercourse that must 
 have subsisted among the different states at that 
 early period. Both must have been compiled 
 from medical works then existing, and both authors 
 may have lived about the same time, but in different 
 states, supported by different sects, who traced their 
 history to different sources, and arrogated each to 
 itself a superiority not admitted by the other. 
 
 The Humoral Pathology, although explained in 
 the earliest and best Hindu writings, is not so parti- 
 cularly dwelt upon, as in the works of a more recent 
 period. The ancient Hindu works contain much 
 information on chemistry, which has been incor- 
 rectly supposed to have been derived from the 
 Arabians.* The seventh division of the Ayur-veda, 
 the earliest record of medicine, treats of chemistry 
 ( Rosayana) ; and the ancient Hindus, in their 
 commentaries on that sacred work, describe many 
 useful chemical preparations for the restoration of 
 
 * Kimiya, chimy, chemistry.
 
 Xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 healthj and for the purification of metals. This 
 knowledge was supposed to have been obtained by 
 divine teaching, and its ultimate object was to 
 prepare an elixir that was to render health per- 
 manent, and life perpetual. This explains their 
 numerous receipts, composed of every variety of 
 drug, and their processes for the transmutation 
 of metals from their supposed crude state, to a more 
 pure and perfect form. The neighbouring Asiatic 
 nations profited by these early researches of the 
 Hindus; and the Arabs, who first made them 
 known in Europe, were believed to be the original 
 discoverers ; although Geber, being the earliest 
 alchymist known in Europe, is considered as the 
 first writer on chemistry, *expressly states that he 
 derived his knowledge from the works of ancient 
 sages, t 
 
 Chemistry signifies the knowledge of the com- 
 position of bodies, and the changes of constitution 
 produced in them by their mutual action on each 
 other. From the peculiarity of many of these 
 operations, which man is obliged to perform for his 
 own subsistence, comfort, and defence, and from 
 a multitude of changes of the same nature, which 
 are constantly occurring on the surface of the earth, 
 
 * Thomson's History of Chemistry. Preface, p. 3. 
 t Totam nostrara metallorum transmutandorum soientiam, quam ox libris 
 antiquorum philosophorum abbreviamus, compilatione diversa in nostris 
 voluminibus, hie in unam »uramam redigimus : Geber Alch. cap. 1.
 
 INTRODUCTION. xliil 
 
 it is evident that the most ancient nations cannot 
 have been ignorant of chemical phenomena ; and 
 considering the sagacious character of the ancient 
 Hindus before the Christian era, it may be inferred 
 that the most important science of chemistry did 
 not " spring from delusion and superstition, nor 
 was fostered by deception and credulity," but was 
 the result of careful observation and reasoning. 
 At an early period the Hindu sages knew the pro- 
 perties of a long list of medical plants, and natural 
 salts, were acquainted with the preparation of the 
 alkalies, and the sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic 
 acids, and by bringing them into contact, observed 
 the complete alterations produced in their physical 
 properties and chemical actions. This led them 
 to the belief that all forms of matter were mutually 
 convertible into each other, and that among the 
 metals, iron, lead, tin, and copper were the same, in 
 different stages of purity, and could all be trans- 
 muted into gold. The number of metals which the 
 Hindus were familiar with, and their acquaintance 
 with the various processes of solution, evaporation, 
 calcination, sublimation, and distillation, prove the 
 extent of their knowledge of chemistry, and the 
 high antiquity of some of the chemical arts, such 
 as bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, tanning, soap 
 and glass making, &c. Their intelligence and
 
 xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 delicacy of touch enabled them to weave cotton 
 and muslins of unrivalled beauty, and proving the 
 advanced state of textorial art in Hindostan. These 
 arts were communicated to the Arabs, who were 
 arrested by the result of some chemical experiments, 
 and tried to discover the great elixir, or philoso- 
 pher's stone, by which they might lengthen life to 
 an indefinite period, and change the baser metals 
 to gold. Their knowledge, however, was obtained 
 from the more scientific works of the ancient 
 Hindus, and as the originals were unknown in 
 Europe, the Arabians got the credit of being the 
 discoverers. It is hoped that the following review 
 will restore to the Hindus the credit which his- 
 torical evidence so plainly declares to be their 
 due. 
 
 In the sixth century before the Christian era, 
 the ancient and distinguished Hindu philosophers 
 were, for a time, supplanted by sectarian Bhud- 
 dhists, who adhered with zeal to the new principles 
 of their belief. They rejected all worldly con- 
 cerns, avoided politics, depended on open-handed 
 charity for their living, and were always ready to 
 enlighten the ignorant and succour the needy. 
 They retained an intellectual character, inculcat- 
 ing piety to God, and charity to each other, with 
 a love of union and self-government. Their habit
 
 INTRODUCTION. xlv 
 
 was monoganic, the female having an equal share 
 of the property and duties of the household. The 
 offspring were reared under the care of an intelli- 
 gent mother, and became an independent, truth- 
 ful, reasoning being, with self-respect and mode- 
 ration that placed a curb on the passions. This 
 remarkable sect cultivated medicine with great 
 success ; and their philosophical Emperor Asoka, 
 applied many of the ancient Hindu medical pre- 
 cepts to practical purposes ; and Buddhist priests 
 translated the medical works into other Asiatic 
 languages. The contest between the Brahmins 
 and Buddhists began in the third, or before the 
 eighth century ; and the utter extermination of the 
 latter in India took place between the twelfth and 
 fifteenth centuries. 
 
 It is probable, during the unsettled state of 
 Uindostan, the great celebrity of its sages, led 
 to a frequent and intimate connexion with their 
 neighbours in Tibet and China, during which 
 Sanscrit medical literature was introduced during 
 the eight first centuries of our era * It has been 
 stated that five hundred Buddhist missionaries 
 proceeded from Kashmere to China about the 
 Christian era, and by their zeal and enthusiasm, 
 so modestly and judiciously did they act, that 
 
 * Calcutta Asiatic Journal, vol. viii. p. 685.
 
 Xlvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 they rapidly converted a large proportion of the 
 Chinese nation to the fascinating Fo, or Buddhist 
 religion. 
 
 In the Tamul language, the Hindu works on 
 medicine were translated at a very early age, by 
 Maha Bishi Aghastier, as he is named in the 
 Eamaryana. It is the oldest medical work most 
 probably in their language, as Charaka and Susrata 
 are of the Hindus (H. H. Wilson.) Like other 
 Asiatic works, the commentator begins with an 
 account of the climate, situation, soil, &c. He 
 is particular in his descriptions and directions 
 regarding the proper time of the year for collecting 
 plants, the mode of gathering and preparing them, 
 their doses, and method of prescribing them. 
 He has great faith in dietj and is careful in his 
 directions regarding different individuals and 
 diseases. 
 
 Egypt appears first to have profited by eastern 
 learning, which they imparted to the western 
 branch of the Aryan family of man, inhabiting the 
 shores of the Hellespont and the JEgean Sea ; and 
 in union with the Pelagic, Turanian, and Celtic 
 races, distinguished themselves as the Hellenic 
 nation, by producing the most advanced branches 
 of the arts, science, and philosophy. This western 
 Aryan race carried with them from the east a Ian- 
 
 !
 
 INTRODUCTION. xlvii 
 
 guage already formed, and perfect in all its parts 
 (Max Miiller); and when such was the case 
 with so artificial a matter as language, it must be 
 believed that they also brought with them much 
 more than the rudiments of knowledge; an ac- 
 quaintance, for instance, with forms of disease, 
 and the remedies suitable for their removal, 
 almost as indispensable in man's necessitous 
 state, as the means of procuring his daily 
 food, and satisfying his other wants. Besides, 
 the number of Sanscrit words in the Greek authors 
 affords incontestable proof of the early connexion 
 between the two countries. So marked was 
 the resemblance in other respects, that it led 
 the able Niebuhr to conclude that the Greeks had 
 derived much of their architectural and philoso- 
 phical speculations from the oriental mind ; and 
 many medicines produced in Persia and India 
 were employed by the early Greeks, and could 
 only have been procured from the East. Greece 
 must, consequently, be considered not the parent, 
 but rather the nurse of the arts. Her travellers 
 visited Asia and Egypt in quest of knowledge, 
 and as they had few opportunities of translating 
 records, contented themselves with accumulating 
 oral information, which, on their return home, 
 they imparted to their countrymen. The eastern 
 
 d
 
 Xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 science, which was in part received through Egypt, 
 must have been obscured by the distinctive reli- 
 gious and philosophical ideas of that country ; 
 while the intelligence of the Egyptians, their mys- 
 teries, their stupendous monuments, and their 
 advancement in civilisation, led the Greeks to 
 consider them as the first instructors of mankind, 
 without any reference to the eastern source from 
 which so many of their ideas were originally 
 obtained. Plato informs us, with just pride, that 
 " whatever we Greeks receive from the barbarians, 
 we improve and perfect;" and with their exquisite 
 feeling for beauty and proportion, majestic simpli- 
 city of form, truth and purity of expression, the 
 ancient Greeks formed systems of philosophy and 
 medicine. It was her higher constructive and 
 aesthetic qualities, as much as her scientific know- 
 ledge, which placed Greece above all other western 
 nations ; and this advance made by the Greeks 
 was considered as original by the rest of Europe : 
 their first mental efforts being regarded as divine 
 revelations. Certain it is, that the philosophers of 
 Greece greatly advanced many sciences, which had 
 originated elsewhere, by creating for them a lan- 
 guage now in universal use. 
 
 We know the people, and are familiar with the 
 distinguished individuals, who have added to our
 
 INTRODUCTION. xlix 
 
 medical knowledge in Europe, and can prove that 
 their different systems have a common source, 
 being originally derived from the family of Hip- 
 pocrates. One of these great benefactors of man- 
 kind, combined, and reduced to a systematic form 
 the accumulated experience regarding the nature 
 and treatment of disease, which has ever since 
 been of such great advantage to suffering hu- 
 manity, and is still held in high esteem. This 
 great physician is still called by Europeans the 
 father of medicine, and by the Egyptian Sara- 
 cens, the king of health, and our admiration of 
 him has led the moderns to suppose that, with 
 some hints from the Egyptians, the Grecians were 
 the originators of both the medical science and art 
 of Europe. A more extended knowledge of history 
 proves that this is not correct, their own most 
 ancient records proving that they obtained much 
 of their knowledge from a mysterious nation of 
 the east, which we have proved was the Hindu, 
 among whom the arts and sciences were success- 
 fully cultivated, and whose great progress in medi- 
 cine attracted attention, and was communicated 
 through the Egyptian priesthood, to the philoso- 
 phers of Greece. 
 
 With this assistance, the Greeks arrived at 
 the most celebrated period of their history. It
 
 1 INTEOrfUCTION. 
 
 was the age when Pericles, the famous politician, 
 lived ; when ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 Aristophanes, and Pindar, among the poets ; when 
 Socrates, and his distinguished disciples Plato and 
 Xenophon, among philosophers ; when Herodotus, 
 and his young rival Thucydides, among historians ; 
 and when the unrivalled statuary Phidias, with 
 his illustrious pupils, flourished in Greece. It 
 was only a few years before the dawn of Grecian 
 celebrity, that the great Confucius and Zoroaster 
 formed eras in oriental history. 
 
 During this remarkable age of Greece, Hip- 
 pocrates distinguished himself, and like the great 
 mythical heroes of antiquity, he is said to have been 
 descended from gods and princes, and his mental 
 faculties to Iiave been developed under the direct 
 influence of the Deity ; by which supposition, the 
 extent of his improvements, and the accuracy of 
 his supposed productions were explained by the 
 vulgar. 
 
 Without entering into such mythological fables, 
 it is sufficient for us to know, that medicine, in that 
 enlightened age, was appreciated as a science of 
 the greatest importance to man. It was advanced at 
 first there, as elsewhere, by a succession of men of 
 genius, working in a proper direction, in the wide 
 field of nature ; each step in improvement being
 
 INTRODUCTION. ll 
 
 the result of its predecessor, and excellence depend- 
 ing npon successive innovations, which were often 
 separately slight in themselves, but produced a total 
 revolution in the end, so that the features of the 
 parent could scarcely be recognised in the offspring. 
 Facts were thus accumulated in medicine by the 
 thoughtful priest, the observant physician, the skil- 
 ful surgeon, the sagacious layman, and the expe- 
 rienced matron, who had left to their successors 
 their legacy of thought and skill. These were the 
 source of the knowledge which immortalised Hip- 
 pocrates in the west, and the Hindu systematic 
 writers of the east, and has afforded assist- 
 ance to mankind in retaining health and curing 
 disease. The historian traces a system from 
 one country to another, and notes the individual 
 who imparts to it that stamp of genius, by which 
 the borrower becomes the originator. Such was 
 the great Hippocrates. Medicine was first cul- 
 tivated in Greece by a succession of able men, 
 placed in favourable circumstances for accu- 
 mulating knowledge, and assisted by the labours 
 of physicians of other nations. Such an accu- 
 mulation of facts enabled them to arrive at prin- 
 ciples, which were systematised by Hippocrates, 
 and formed a text book of medicine for the western 
 world.
 
 Hi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 We hold this to be the true and rational explana- 
 tion of the sources from which the works ascribed 
 to Hippocrates were compiled. Many of them are 
 now allowed to be spurious, and the remainder 
 contain such a body of facts, as no individual could 
 collect, with the greatest industry, and the most 
 gigantic capacity, under the circumstance in which 
 he was placed in Greece. Such a system could only 
 have been formed by the long continued efforts of 
 many inquirers. As Hippocrates has not made 
 any acknowledgment of such assistance, it may be 
 interesting to consider what he could have derived 
 from the labours of his predecessors and from other 
 sources. 
 
 1. The assistance from records left by the sick 
 in the temples must have been but scanty and 
 imperfect. Those who resorted to these temples 
 were ignorant of disease, and of the remedies 
 employed. I have known such temples in Asia, 
 under much the same circumstances as those of 
 Greece ; and I found patients resorting to them 
 for tedious, painful, and loathsome diseases, of 
 the nature of which the priests were ignorant, 
 being satisfied with following certain forms and 
 ceremonies, and prescribing rules and simple 
 remedies. In such temples the priests kept no 
 records.
 
 INTRODUCTION. liii 
 
 2. Hippocrates raust have derived great as- 
 sistance from the experience of practical and 
 sagacious predecessors. Their habits of observing 
 the numerous sick who resorted to the temples, 
 and of travelling for the acquisition of information, 
 would enable them to examine and describe the 
 course and peculiarities of disease in different 
 countries and climates ; by which means they 
 obtained much medical information, such as the 
 resources of the small island of Cos could not impart. 
 
 3. To their recorded experience, he added a long 
 life of study in his own and other countries, where 
 he is stated to have obtained much information 
 from the experience of distinguished living phy- 
 sicians, during the twelve years he is said to have 
 devoted to travel. In this time he visited several 
 Grecian states, copied such medical tables and 
 records as the priests had accumulated in the 
 temples dedicated to Esculapius, of Diana at 
 Ephesus, and other establishments. It was in 
 Greece he is supposed to have collected most of the 
 information regarding epidemic diseases; and by 
 condensing experience, generalising facts to suit the 
 people and the country, attained the great merit 
 of an original author Galen mentions that Hip- 
 pocrates was often at Smyrna in Asia Minor ; and 
 Mercurial believes that he travelled in Lybia in
 
 liv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Africa, and Scythia in Asia. What could have 
 induced Hippocrates to visit this distant and 
 inhospitable northern country, unless it was 
 the fame of the enlightened and skilful people of 
 the Indo-Scythian country, whom Alexander the 
 Great knew as being so expert in the cure of 
 disease ? In the northern parts of Hindostan he 
 might have consulted the Hindu sages, and learned 
 their medical records, either in a direct or indirect 
 manner. This is a reasonable supposition. The 
 learning he was in search of was known to be 
 there ; and the examination of his works prove an 
 acquaintance with their learning and knowledge. 
 
 a. That systematic works on medicine existed 
 at a very early period in Hindostan must be 
 allowed ; and we have seen that the most learned 
 orientalists suppose these were compiled from the 
 third to the ninth or tenth century before Christ. 
 Indeed much medical knowledge existed in India 
 long before the time of Hippocrates, as the ancient 
 Sanscrit authorities refer to an original Ayur-veda^ 
 from which the other two classical works were 
 compiled. 
 
 h. The fact that medicinal plants have their 
 peculiar properties developed in particular soils 
 and climates, indicate us to the nations in which 
 they must have been first used for medicinal pur-
 
 INTRODUCTION. Iv 
 
 poses, and will explain the antiquity of the culti- 
 vation of medicine by certain races, and even the 
 countries from which particular races came. The 
 sacred soma plant is found only in the high moun- 
 tainous countries in the north-west of Hindostan ; 
 and as the sacred wine required for sacrifice was 
 prepared from the recent plants, which do not bear 
 transportation, it must have been employed by the 
 Aryan Brahmins in worship before they descended 
 into the fruitful plains of Hindostan. The names 
 and kinds of medicine recommended in medical 
 works indicate the schools of medicine from which 
 they were borrowed. It may thus be shewn 
 Hippocrates derived assistance from the Hindus, 
 from the number of Indian plants imported from 
 that country into Greece, mentioned in his Materia 
 Medica, and used for their well-known properties 
 by the Greeks : such as Sesamum Indicum : Lin ; 
 hyperanthera morunga; cardamomus, amomon, 
 laurus cinnamomum; Valeria Jatamansi; Bos- 
 wellia thurifera, &c. There are also black and long 
 pepper, ginger, cassia, spikenard, calamus aro- 
 maticus, which are all products of India, or the 
 neighbouring countries. 
 
 c. The internal evidence of the work's ascribed 
 to Hippocrates seems to prove them to have been 
 compilations, derived in part from other nations
 
 Ivi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 further advanced in the knowledge of the 
 healing art than the Greeks. The Hindu sur- 
 geon performed the most difficult operations, such 
 as the Caesarian section, embryotomy, lithotomy, 
 &c. The first description of the last operation in 
 the works of the western authors is by Celsus,* 
 who mentions the names of two Egyptian 
 lithotomists, and may have derived his information 
 from that country. This is more probable than 
 that it was from the Persians and Arabians, who 
 attended little to surgery, and who even, during 
 the most enlightened period of Arabian history, 
 were so prejudiced against the operation of litho- 
 tomy, that Avenzoar^ their most able surgical writer, 
 considered it one which a respectable physician 
 would not witness, far less perform. f Opinions 
 such as these, must have been founded on the 
 fancies and luxurious prejudices of the Arabians, 
 who, through obtaining much knowledge of the 
 medical profession from the Hindus, adopted only 
 what was suited to their own wants and prejudices, 
 and rejected what was opposed to these, and beyond 
 their knowledge of anatomy. 
 
 The duty of the physician to his patients, is to 
 alleviate suffering, under all circumstances of habit 
 
 ♦ Do Re Mcdicu : lib. v., ch. 26. 
 fTaisir, Lib. ii. tr. vi., ch. 1. f. 30.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ivil 
 
 and custom. But this was not recognised by Hip- 
 pocrates ; for the oath* which was taken by the 
 student on entering the profession, interdicted the 
 novice from the performance of the operation of 
 lithotomy, which was left ''to men who were 
 special practitioners of this operation, "f Surely 
 there is here a proof that the author's knowledge 
 of anatomy and surgery had been derived from a 
 more enlightened and skilful nation, and was im- 
 perfect compared with that of his teachers. This 
 accords with the scanty knowledge of Hippocrates 
 in anatomy ; and his crude and imperfect ideas of 
 physiology and surgery ; while his extent of prac- 
 tical knowledge of medicine, collected from able 
 practitioners, accounts for an analogy of sentiment 
 and opinion in the Eastern and Greek systems; 
 while the former is simpler in its first principles, 
 and truer in its reasoning, than the more fragmen- 
 tary occidental system. Many of the practices of 
 the west were manifestly derived from the east, 
 and in Hindostan we still find the customs, and 
 witness the ceremonies, which characterised the 
 pagan times of Europe. 
 
 * Le Sennent est, par la beaute de la forme et par 1' elevation des id^es, 
 un des plus precieux monuments dc la litterature Grecque ; c'est la piece la 
 plus ancienne et la plus venerable, des archives de la faniille des Asclcpiades. 
 Les autorites les plus imposantcs, les preuves les plus irrecusables s' elevent 
 en faveur de son authenticite — Darenberg (Euvres d' Sippocrate : Intr. p. 1 , 
 
 t Works of Hippocrates, by Dr. Adams, yol. ii., p. 777 ; Daremberg's 
 (Euvres d' Hipp. 184,71.
 
 Iviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Considering these various circumstances and 
 points of resemblance, it is impossible to divest 
 oneself of the conviction that there were once com- 
 munities in Hindostan, possessing eminent scholars, 
 who cultivated literature and science, by which 
 the Egyptian and Grecian philosophers profited. 
 Such an early state of civilisation in India reached 
 back at least a thousand years before Christ, and 
 the study of medicine was pursued with suc- 
 cess centuries before it could have been so 
 advanced in character, and so permanent in its 
 influence, as Alexander the Great found it in the 
 fourth century, B.C. It is to the Hindus we owe 
 the first system of medicine. 
 
 It has been supposed that the Chinese and 
 Egyptians may claim a priority in their know- 
 ledge of the arts and sciences, from the remark- 
 able and enduring character of their civilisation ; 
 but the recorded history of China does not 
 reach, perhaps, further back than the reign of 
 Chi-Hoang'te-Schiboany, who flourished 240 years 
 before Christ ; as the early history of China by 
 Koongfu-tse cannot be depended on. * From a 
 more extended acquaintance with the Chinese re- 
 cords, it is now known that there was an intimate 
 
 * See Sir J, Pavia's admirable Memoir concerning the Cliinese. Trans. 
 Eoyal As. Society, vol. i , p. 1.
 
 INTRODUCTION. lix 
 
 intercourse between China and India before the 
 Christian era, by means of travellers and ambassa- 
 dors; and at that early period, enthusiastic and 
 intelligent Buddhist priests visited China, taking 
 with them the classical Indian manuscripts, parti- 
 cularly those on medicine. * It is believed that 
 the science of medicine was regularly introduced 
 into China by Chung-ke, only about a.d. 229 ; for 
 the works before that, extending from b.c, 189 to 
 B.C. 1105 years, treated only of the theory of medi- 
 cine without prescriptions.*!" 
 
 The Egyptians were better known to Europeans 
 than the Chinese by their geographical position, 
 history, and splendid monuments. These, in 
 their chief architectural features, clearly indi- 
 cate a Hindu origin. X The Egyptians most 
 probably derived the rudiments of their learning 
 from the East. There Herodotus and Diogenes, 
 Laertius and Plutarch learned what they taught 
 in Greece ; where it was studied, perfected, 
 extended, and promulgated in the West. The 
 chronicles found in the temples of Abydos and 
 Sais, and transmitted to us by Josephus, Julius 
 
 * M. Klaproth's tables of Buddhist clironology, translated from the 
 Chinese and Japanese authorities, prove the intimate connexion that ex- 
 isted between India, Tibet, and China, for the liiot eight centuries of our 
 era. Journal of a.s. Calcutta, by James Priusep, vol. v., p. 685. i«fovember, 
 1836, 
 
 t Royle's Lectures, p. 07. 
 X Forbes's Oriental Memoirs, vol. i,, p. 282.
 
 IX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Africanus, and Eusebius, testify that the religious 
 systems of the Egyptians proceeded from India, 
 This is how the temples of upper Egypt are of 
 greater antiquity than those of lower. Their 
 religion, too, descended from Ethiopia and Meroe; 
 to which country it appears to have been brought 
 from India, as stated by Herodotus, Plato, Solon, 
 Pythagorus, and Philostratus. This is likewise 
 supported by the fact that both religions proceeded 
 from monotheistic principles, and degenerated 
 into a polytheistic heathenism, of a symbolic 
 character. Both the Hindu and the Egyptians 
 had the conception of a trinity, combined with that 
 of the unity of the Godhead. They had the same 
 mythological names, and alike believed in the pre- 
 existence of the soul, its emanation from the 
 divine essence, its transmigrations into other 
 bodies (metempsychosis,) and its ultimate return 
 to its divine source. The similarity is seen also in 
 the division of the people into four castes, the form 
 and structure of temples, and many of the symbols 
 and titles of deities, which are the same in Egypt 
 and in India. The incarnation of Mahabad, like 
 that of Manu, and the dread of polluting the sacred 
 river, are points of resemblance; the wanderings of 
 Eama and Krishna resemble those of Hercules and 
 Bacchus, and the journeys of these latter to India
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixl 
 
 are significant : again, the sphinx, the Yermiis 
 Larus, resemble the avatars of Yishnu in the form 
 of a boar, &o. These resemblances can only be 
 explained by an intimate intercourse between the 
 two nations, at a very remote period. The Hindu 
 Purans assert that a mission was sent to Ethiopia 
 and Egypt, which conveyed their sacred vedas and 
 yackshei letters.* The mission settled in the 
 fertile district of Meroe,"]* which accounts for the 
 identity of the Nagre and the Ethiopic alphabets ; 
 both being founded on the syllabic system, and 
 both being written from left to right.^ The 
 conquests of Sesostris in India, (circa b.c. 1500), 
 and his devastations there, may explain his deifi- 
 cation as the woollij -headed Buddha, and the 
 similarity in structure of many Hindu and 
 Egyptian temples. The Brahmins assert that 
 Pythagoras and Zerdusht were their disciples. || 
 This connexion is more easily understood from 
 the early intercourse which subsisted between 
 Iran and India, which explains the resemblance 
 between the religion of the ancient Persians 
 and Hindus, both being derived from the same 
 source. Sir Y. illiam Jones has remarked, in the 
 
 * Jones's works, vol. vi. p. 445. _ 
 fWilford's Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. 
 J Jones's works, vol i. p. 115. 
 II Howell's historical events relating to Bengal, vol. ii. p. 25,
 
 Ixii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Shah Nama, that Ferdusi states Kykasos, one of 
 the kings, was a Brahmin, and explains the 
 resemblance between the Zend and the Sanscrit 
 languages, and between their respective manners 
 and customs ; while the Zend people had no trace 
 of science, art, or civilisation, at an early period. 
 
 Other testimony might be adduced. Thus 
 Sheikh Abu Soliman, the logician, informs us that 
 Ibn Ady, his teacher, a distinguished physician and 
 philosopher,* assured him that the Indians pos- 
 sessed sublime ideas regarding philosophy ; and 
 believed that the sciences were transmitted by 
 them to the Greeks."]" 
 
 We know from Scripture, as well as from other 
 sources, the extent of the commerce of Egypt and 
 the west, with the shores of the Indian Ocean, 
 whence they obtained gold and silver, precious 
 stones, ivory, muslins, spices, and various medi- 
 cines ; with live animals, such as apes, peacoclss, 
 lions and tigers, and even elephants. It is pro- 
 bable that the connexion may have been at first 
 by chance from small coasting vessels getting 
 beyond the land and sea breeze, and being caught 
 by the monsoon, and wafted to the opposite conti- 
 nent. Dr. Miller has related two such instances : 
 
 * Died at Bagdad, a.d. 974. 
 
 t See Ibn Ady Ossacbeah's History of Med., translated by M. Sanguinet; 
 
 Journal Asiatique, pour mars avril, 1854, p. 230 et 264.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixiil 
 
 while Annis Plocamiis, farmer of the revenue of 
 the Eed Sea to the Emperor Claudius, was coast- 
 ing along the Arabian gulf, where it joins the 
 ocean, and venturing too far from the shore, the 
 ship was taken up by the monsoon, and transport- 
 ed, without stopping, to the island of Ceylon.* 
 In like manner, P. Luigi Maria de Gesu, a Carme- 
 lite, afterwards Bishop of Usula, and apostolic 
 vicar of the coast of Malabar, coming round Cape 
 Comorin, in a native ship, was carried over to the 
 Maldives, and thence to the shores of Africa.f 
 From these facts we can understand that a coasting 
 trade existed between India, Egypt, China, and 
 Japan at an early age, and conveyed the riches 
 of the East to Alexandria, whence they were dis- 
 tributed through the Roman empire; and towards 
 the beginning of the sixth century, the Persians 
 were the medium of an active silk trade. This 
 intercourse explains many points of similarity 
 among these eastern nations. 
 
 The able Chevalier Bunsen considered himself 
 justified in concluding, from his profound study of 
 the Egyptian language, that it presents indications 
 of a strictly historical connexion with the Semitic 
 and Japetic groups, and that it consequently must 
 have been of Asiatic origin, its divergence hav- 
 
 * Vincent's Commerce and Navig., vol. i. p, 45, ss, Pliny, lib. vi. 22. 
 t Paolin p. 83.
 
 Ixiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ing taken place at a period when as yet those 
 two groups had not become isolated from each 
 other. 
 
 The Hindus have a similar opinion. '' The 
 Eajah of Kishnagur," writes Mr. Hailed, '' who is 
 by much the most learned antiquary that Bengal 
 has produced within a century, has very lately 
 affirmed that he has in his possession Sanscrit 
 works, which give an account of a communication 
 formerly subsisting between India and Egypt, 
 wherein the Egyptians are constantly described as 
 disciples, not instructors, and as seeking that 
 liberal education and instruction in the sciences 
 of Hindostan, which none of their own country- 
 men had sufficient knowledge to impart."* 
 
 The records of Asiatic history are indeed scanty, 
 being chiefly modern, and are confined to the re- 
 lation of the crimes and misfortunes of our fellow- 
 creatures, or the panegyrics of great families, with 
 exaggerated accounts of supernatural and often 
 revolting feats of heroes, the devastation of 
 wars, and the conquest of great empires ; while 
 literary genius and scientific discoveries are alike 
 neglected, and the progress of social improvement, 
 
 * Grammar of tlie Bengal language. Hooghly, 1778. Pref. p. 6. 
 In 1835, I had an opportunity of enquiring of one of the unworthy repre- 
 sentatives of the rajah regarding these interesting MSS., but he could give 
 me no intelligence on the subject. A search was made among the few 
 MSS. which were in his library, but no such works could be found. 
 
 1
 
 INTRODUCTION. IxV 
 
 and the mental creations of distinguished men, are 
 considered beneath the province of the historian. 
 
 In tracing the progress of philosophy among 
 such a people, it is necessary to observe, that 
 human nature exhibits a general resemblance 
 among all nations ; while the absence of absolute 
 identity is accounted for by the influence of race, 
 climate, habits, customs, and political state. Hence 
 there exists a certain similarity in the general 
 speculations of different nations, which, however 
 erroneous and different in many respects, must be 
 acknowledged to have the same foundation, as 
 regards the facts upon which they are based. 
 This will be pointed out in the following work, 
 and will be of use as leading to a more exact 
 definition of particular opinions. Doubtful points 
 in medicine may thus be illustrated and estab- 
 lished, and distant analogies between tenets 
 detected, which will corroborate the testimony of 
 history, and lead us to compare those first principles 
 upon which systems are founded. 
 
 The Aryans thus reduced medicine to a system 
 of rules in Asia and Europe, which, from their 
 originality, truth, and excellence, have formed the 
 most ancient and useful groundwork of medical 
 practice in the civilised world. These deserve our 
 
 * Ed. Review, vol. xix. p. 143. f Elphinstone, vol. i. p. 250.
 
 Ixvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 first consideration, as the prototypes of so many- 
 others ; and as the primitive system in Asia has 
 fallen into neglect, and has not generally been 
 recognised by western authors, I have described 
 it at greater length than I should otherwise have 
 considered it necessary to have done. 
 
 It was in Malwah, in central India, that the 
 first Eajah Vikramaditya flourished. This great 
 conqueror resided in his capital Ujein fifty-six 
 years before Christ; some suppose at a much 
 earlier period.* He ruled a civilised and pros- 
 perous country, encouraged learned Brahmins, 
 and was the most distinguished patron of letters 
 among the Hindu kings, after the expulsion of 
 the Buddhists from India. In the metaphorical 
 phraseology of the Hindus, then flourished the 
 ^' nine gems " or nine learned men, of the court 
 of Yikramaditya, who formed the golden age 
 of Hindu learning and the arts ; because of 
 the original works, in all the sciences, which 
 they produced. They were Dhanwantaree, Ksha- 
 panaka, Amara Sinha, Sanku, Vital abhutta, 
 Ghatakarpara, Kelidasa, Yarahamihira, and Vara- 
 ruchi. These celebrated men indeed produced 
 able works in the various departments of know- 
 
 * Asiatic Researches, No, 111 : p, 242. Wilson's Sanscrit Dictionary, 
 Preface. Works, vol. v., p. 107- See Sir John Malcolm's Central India,
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixvil 
 
 ledge ; but some of them appear to have lived 
 at distant periods, and not properly to belong to 
 this era. Some of their writings are still preserved. 
 The first, Dhamvantaree, was a great physician, 
 although not the author of Susruta.* Amara Sinha 
 was author of a metrical lexicon, which still enjoys 
 a high reputation; Yarahamihira is supposed to 
 be the author of the Surya Seddhanta, or famous 
 versified treatise on astronomy and geography ; 
 Yitalabhutta was the reputed author of Pancha- 
 vingshata, a well-known work full of popular 
 legends ; and Kalidasa was the great poet- 
 
 In the beginning of the first century, the inter- 
 course was more intimate with the East during 
 the Koman wars, and was increased when the 
 Emperor Valerian was taken prisoner by Sapor I. (in 
 A.D. 262). The marriage of Sapor II. with the 
 daughter of the Emperor Aurelian, and the encour- 
 agement he held out to learned men in the east, 
 induced many to establish themselves in the city 
 Kisabur (Jondisabour) which he had made his 
 capital. Thither the learned Greek philosophers 
 and physicians resorted, and it became celebrated 
 as the medical school where Ehazes, Haly Abbas, 
 
 * In Asia, " the celebrity of any particular denomination is the cause of 
 its being assumed by many besides the original possessor." — Prof. Wilson's 
 "Works, vol. V , p. 174. Ward's Hist, of the Lit. of Hindus, p 49, vol. i. — 
 London.
 
 Ixviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and others, Tvere educated. The banishment of 
 the able Nestorians of the west by the orthodox 
 Christians, tended to the spread of knowledge ; and 
 the dispersion of the school of Edessa, and the 
 expulsion of the Athenian Platonists, by the 
 Emperor Justinian, led many to seek an asylum 
 in the great Persian court, where much encourage- 
 ment was held out to them, In the reign of 
 Chosroes, as Friend* informs us, Damascius the 
 Syrian, Simplicius of Cilicia, Diogenes of Phoenicia, 
 and Isidorus of Gazi, &c., retired into Persia; and 
 in the time of Mohammed, Dr. Moore states 
 that Hareph-ebn-Kaldaht, a pupil of the school 
 of Jondisabour, came to Mecca, where he settled, 
 and was commended by the prophet for his medical 
 skill. He was afterwards appointed physician to 
 his successor, Abu Becker ; rose high in his per- 
 sonal favour, and was poisoned along with him.-}' 
 
 From these historical facts a continued intercom- 
 munication appears to have existed between the 
 Greeks, Persians, and Hindus, from the time of 
 Ctesias, in the fourth century before, to the sixth 
 century after our Saviour, which explains the 
 similarity of their scientific principles. 
 
 During the reigns of the Seleucidae and their 
 
 * History of Medicine, vol i. p. 133. 
 
 t Moore'p Ancient History, p. 202. Abulfeda; Annal : Moslem. 
 
 vol. i. p. 220.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixix 
 
 successors, the Persian kings kept up an intercourse 
 with both Europe and India, as is indicated by the 
 coinage of their states. At first the coins were purely 
 Greek, and were succeeded by others having a Greek 
 inscription on one side, and a Pehlevion the reverse. 
 Native designations in Greek characters were then 
 substituted for the Greek titles ; and the Greek 
 characters continued in use till the fourth century 
 in the provinces of Gabul and Punjaub.* 
 
 One commentary, on the text of Susruta, made 
 by IJbhatta, a Cashmerian, is probably as old as the 
 twelfth or thirteenth century ; and this commen- 
 tary, it is known, was preceded by others.f Dr. 
 Koyle, in his "Essay on the Antiquity of Indian 
 Medical Science," has cited passages from the 
 Latin translation of Ehazes and Serapion, in which 
 the Charaka is mentioned. He found that the 
 chapter on leeches, by Avicenna, acknowledged 
 his obligations to Indian authority, by stating 
 " Indi dixerunt ; " and that the description was 
 word for word, that of Susruta on the same 
 subject. Gildmester, of Bonn, commenced a work 
 in 1838, entitled, " Scriptorum Arabum de rebus 
 Indicis loci et opuscula inedita," from the bio- 
 
 * Asiatic Journal, vols. 3, 4, & 5. 
 t Professor Dictz states that the Greek physicians were acquainted with 
 the medical works of the Hindus. The Aratjians were familiar with, and 
 extolled the healing art as practised by the Indians, (ad. 773.)
 
 IXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 graphical work of Ibn Osaibiah, who lived at the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century, and died a.d. 
 1269. This book was translated by the Eev. W. 
 Cureton, and is accompanied with some remarks 
 on the names which occur in the preceding note 
 by Professor H. H. Wilson. He is of opinion 
 that the Arabians of the eighth century studied 
 the Hindu works on physic, and preferred 
 their medicines, before those of the Greeks; and 
 that the Charaka, the Susruta, &c., were trans- 
 lated and studied by the Arabians, in the days 
 of Harun-el-Rashid and Mansur (a.d. 773), 
 either from the originals, or more probably from 
 translations made at a still earlier period, into the 
 language of Persia.* The same author shows that 
 the Arabians extolled the healing art, as practised 
 by the Indians, quite as much as that in use among 
 the Greeks, j* 
 
 Baron de Sacy, in his account of the Sanscrit 
 origin of the Fables of Pilpay, states that they 
 were first translated from the Sanscrit, in the sixth 
 century, by the physician Barzouyeh, who had made 
 two journies to India, for the purpose of learning 
 the Sanscrit language, and procuring Indian books 
 
 • See the remarks, by Professor Wilson, on the Indian physicians at the 
 court of basidad ; and by the Eev. W. Cureton ; Journal of the R. A. Society, 
 vol. vi., page 105 
 
 t Sec Professor Dictz Analecta Medica : Leipsic, 1833 ; Journal of 
 Education, vol, viii., page 176.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxl 
 
 as well as medicaments and herbs. He was sent 
 there by the Persian king Nuserwan, who reigned 
 in the middle of the sixth century, encouraged 
 learning, and is said to have been the first who 
 introduced the Grecian philosophy into his court.* 
 At this period there appears to have been a con- 
 stant intercourse between India and Persia, and 
 between Persia and the Greeks, and the latter 
 Greek authors must have become acquainted with 
 many Indian products. Paulus ^gineta, who 
 lived at the end of the sixth and beginning of the 
 seventh century, has several compounds named 
 Indian. Aetius, who flourished at the end of the 
 fifth century, mentions nuces indicse, cocoa nuts, 
 zador, gedoary, and galanga, santalum, sandal- 
 wood, the fruit of the Semecarpus anacardium, and 
 an antidote of two kinds of pepper, which indicates 
 much knowledge of, and employment of Indian 
 products. 
 
 "It is clear," writes Professor Wilson, "that the 
 Charaka and Susruta, the treatises called Nedan, 
 and other medical poiirans^ treating of diseases of 
 women and therapeutics, were translated from the 
 Sanscrit, and studied by the Arabs in the days of 
 Harun and Mansur, either from originals, or 
 probably from translations made at a still earlier 
 
 *Dr. Eoyle's Lectures, p. 73.
 
 Ixxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 period into the language of Persia ; " and that able 
 and cautious writer concludes "that the astro- 
 nomy and medicine of the Hindus was cultivated by 
 the Arabs of the eighth century, previous to their 
 studying the works of the Greeks." 
 
 The celebrated Arabian physicians, Rhazes and 
 Avicenna, mention from sixty to seventy Indian 
 medicines, which they recommend in their works.* 
 The trade in these drugs formed a portion of the 
 commerce which was carried on between these 
 countries, and among them assafoetida, and per- 
 haps some of the other foetid gum-resins, formed a 
 part of the return which Persia made for the 
 spices and aromatics of India. 
 
 These medicines are frequently mentioned in 
 Europe by their Indian names, and may have been 
 obtained at an early period by commerce up the 
 Persian Gulf to Bagdad, and by the Bed Sea to 
 Alexandria. At a later period, when the 
 enthusiasm of the conquering Mahommedans 
 subsided in Asia into peaceful inactivity, medicine 
 and philosophy attracted the attention of the 
 Caliphs of Bagdad, and they encouraged the 
 study of the eciences, and the means of preventing 
 and curing disease. They discovered that many 
 might be relieved from pain, and made wiser by 
 
 * See British Medical Eeviewfor 1847, p. 628.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxiii 
 
 the labours of a few ; and they required the know- 
 ledge thus acquired to be imparted in their own 
 language. Harun-el-Kaschid, and Al Mansur, 
 the great patrons of the school of Bagdad, 
 encouraged the connexion and importation of 
 drugs from the East. There are no medicines 
 mentioned either in Charaka or Susruta, which 
 grow in Greece, or Europe, and not in India ; 
 nor could I find, after a careful enquiry, any 
 ancient scientific work translated into the Sanscrit 
 language ; while numerous works might be cited, 
 translated from it, into difi'erent neighbouring 
 languages.* 
 
 The local governments which ruled the different 
 states of modern Hindostan had each their re- 
 pective philosophers and physicians, who prepared 
 works of more or less ability, according to their 
 character and attainments, and the peculiarities of 
 their countries. Some of these are original, while 
 others are more modern and in various dialects. 
 The successors of the ancient Hindu physicians, 
 from neglect and changes of government, lost 
 much of their superiority. The medical works 
 of the Hindus of Bengal and the northern pro- 
 
 * The Arabic translation of Susruta is entitled Kelale Shawshoor-al 
 Hinde; see the 9th vol, of the Trans. Med. and Ph. Society, Calcutta, On 
 Arabian Medicines, translated by Springer. Ainslie's Materia Medica, vol. ii. 
 Kerr's Review of the rise and progress of the Med. College, in Bengal ; 
 Indian Annals of Medicine, sec. 2, ix.
 
 Ixxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vinces of Hindostaiij are either in the Sanscrit, 
 Hindu, or Bengalee languages ; and those in the 
 peninsula of India, are in the Tamul, and other 
 Dravidian languages; while the Mahommedan 
 population have their medical works in the Arabic, 
 Persian, or Urdu. 
 
 The bigoted prejudices of the ignorant and 
 despotic Mahommedans in India, in favor of their 
 own system, prevented them availing themselves 
 of the Hindu writings, which were supposed to be 
 filled with prayers (muntres) and charms. They 
 considered them sinful (haram), and not worthy 
 of being preserved. Science was forgotten, the 
 schools decayed, works were lost, and theories 
 usurped the place of observation and reasoning. 
 During this age of anarchy and neglect, the Hindu 
 learning was ignored by the Mahommedan rulers, 
 while very inferior Persian compilations were thrust 
 into the position they had occupied. These were 
 filled with frivolous and barren details, and super- 
 stitious fancies ; and the original Hindu system 
 remained unknown. The descendants of the learned 
 Brahmins were obliged to follow more remunera- 
 tive occupations, and were reluctant to impart the 
 contents of their sacred shastres to the despised 
 and inquisitive stranger. 
 
 This explains the neglect into which these ancient
 
 INTRODUCTION. IxXV 
 
 medical records had fallen, and tHe contempt with 
 which the European conquerors of Hindostan re- 
 garded its scientific medical knowledge. The dif- 
 fusion of European notions of medicine operated 
 as a discouragement to the study of the Sanscrit 
 works, where the treasures of the Hindu learning 
 were contained, and to the preparation of valu- 
 able but expensive medicines. This led to the 
 introduction of inferior substitutes, which dimi- 
 nished the confidence of the Hindus themselves 
 in the prescriptions of their own physicians, and 
 increased the prejudice against the ancient science. 
 A system of superstitious quackery (Bhutaredga) 
 succeeded, which included certain prayers, and 
 the use of incantations, as well as the worshipping 
 of village gods, for the cure of the diseased. This 
 delusion spread farther in proportion as it became 
 more difficult to obtain proper medical assistance 
 to meet the pressing wants of the people. All 
 this explains the present lamentable condition of 
 the native practice of medicine over the greater 
 part of Hindostan. 
 
 These fancies had been increased by changes in 
 religion of the Aryan-Sanscrit-speaking race, from 
 simple montheism, to the Siva and Yishnu doc- 
 trines, which are distinct and almost antagonistic; 
 and in modern times are both overloaded with a
 
 Ixxvi INTRODUCTION, 
 
 mass of monstrous and degrading superstitions, and 
 their ancient MSS. neglected and lost,* As the four 
 castes have branched out into numerous others, so 
 the ancient works form a remarkable contrast to the 
 ignorance and superstition of the modern compila- 
 tions. 
 
 As some Brahmins, however, still pursue their 
 spiritual exercises among the people, and a few 
 yugees, or sacred mendicants, lead the same life 
 of privation which their fathers led, and super- 
 intend certain religious ceremonies; so some physi- 
 cians may still be found in cities, and in the service 
 of great families, versed in the ancient medical 
 learning, and pursuing their benevolent efforts to 
 relieve the sick. In a few families the ancient 
 medical works are studied, and the prized 
 manuscripts are transmitted from generation to 
 
 * Dr. Springer being appointed to catalogue one of the most extensive 
 collections of oriental works, thus describes the state in ■which he found 
 these valuable, often unique, manuscripts :— "The books are kept in forty 
 dilapidated boxes, which are at the same time tenanted by prolific families 
 of rats ; and any admirer of oriental lore, who may have an opportunity to 
 visit this collection, will do well to poke with a stick into the boxes before 
 he puts his hand into them, unless he be a zoologist as well as an oriental- 
 ist. At the end of the hall there are bags full of books completely destroyed 
 by white ants. Even new books have not been spared by these destructive 
 insects ; nearly the whole edition of the Tajalloghat has been destroyed ; 
 and most of the remaining copies of the Half Qulzum have had the same 
 fate. The number of volumes in this collection is very great, and among 
 them are some Pashtd works, written with great care, for the brave and 
 learned Rohilla chief. It is unfortunately the habit of the king's people 
 merely to count the number of volumes, and to make the librarian respon- 
 sible for the numbers not diminishing. The consequence is, that many 
 good books have been abstracted, and bad ones put in their place." — Catai. 
 of Manuscripts in the Library of the King of Oudh, vol. 1. _p. 4 4, 5. Calcutta, 
 1864.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxvil 
 
 generation. I have had the pleasure of know- 
 ing several such families, and hereditary phy- 
 sicians, rich, independent, and much respected.* 
 Among such individuals, the ancient manuscripts 
 were so highly valued, that the influence of sta- 
 tion, rank, and money were sometimes ineffec- 
 tually exerted to purchase them. In some cases 
 it was difficult to induce the proprietors to give 
 permission to copy them, from their supposed 
 value, and the dread of their receiving injury or 
 being lost. This difficulty was increased by the 
 superstitious belief of many, that all the benefits to 
 be derived from the possession had been bestowed 
 by God upon the individual and his family who 
 possessed them, as a special mark of favour, and 
 would vanish on the manuscripts being sold, or 
 even the precepts communicated to unauthorised 
 persons. 
 
 Such peculiarities of the country and profession 
 will explain the contrast between the ancient state 
 of the science, and its degraded condition among the 
 moderns. In general, the European physician who 
 came into more friendly converse with the intelli- 
 gent Hindu, had little leisure for or was repelled 
 from its study, by the prominence of superstitious 
 
 * After some enquiry, I found (circa 1842) there were not more than 
 four or five persons in Bengal who were acquainted with the ancient Hindu 
 Med. Shastres. I believe the number has since been increased.
 
 Ixxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fancies, and other defects in the modern Hindu 
 practice of medicine. The students of Sancrit found 
 important information on other subjects in the 
 ancient records of the Ilindus, but very rarely ex- 
 tended their examination to the medical shastres, as 
 the subject was not of general interest, and required 
 a professional knowledge with which the modern 
 Brahmins were rarely conversant. When they 
 did study them, it was in a cursory manner, more 
 as a subject of curiosity than utility. They were 
 also more satisfied with recent and imperfect com- 
 pilations, from often finding it difficult to procure 
 the older and more instructive manuscripts. 
 
 It is very unfortunate that those who have ex- 
 pressed an opinion of the learning of the Hindu 
 nation, were not generally aware of the existence 
 of the Hindu system of Medicine, and took so little 
 pains to find out the extent of their knowledge of 
 medical facts, or to test the value of that knowledge, 
 as verified bj European experience and modern 
 observation. 
 
 This ignorance of the ancient Asiatic science of 
 Medicine explains the opinion expressed of it by 
 learned Europeans. Ccelius Bhodiginus, the in- 
 structor of the learned Scaliger, states as the general 
 opinion of his time, '*that letters are quite un- 
 known to the Indians," and Sir William Jones's
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxix 
 
 assertion, " that there is no evidence that in 
 any language of Asia there exists one original 
 treatise on Medicine, considered as a science ;" 
 and that '' Medicine appears in these regions 
 to have been from time immemorial, as we see 
 it practised at this day by the Hindus and 
 Mussulmans ; a mere empirical history of disease 
 and remedies" (Dissertations, Asiatic Researches); 
 thus incorrectly taking the modern practitioner 
 as the type of the ancient physician. Ward 
 alleges, *' it cannot be said that their (Hindu) 
 system is destitute of science ; but still, the 
 rays shine so feebly, that the student must 
 have been left greatly in the dark, both as 
 it respects the nature of disease and the pro- 
 per remedies."* " The Indians, " writes M. 
 Sonnerat, in his Voyage to the East Indies, 
 " are mostly all pretenders to some knowledge of 
 medicine ; that there is not one physician amongst 
 them more learned than another ; that they are 
 generally individuals who have been washermen, 
 weavers, or blacksmiths, but a few months before ; 
 and, to crown all, that they administer few reme- 
 dies internally, and make little use of ointments, 
 and cataplasms."! "Even medicine and sur- 
 
 * Ward's view of the Hindus, vol. ii. p. 337. 
 t vol ii, p. 136, English Translation. 
 /
 
 IXXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 gery," writes Mill the historian, '*to the cultiva- 
 tion of which so obvious and powerful an interest 
 invites, have scarcely, beyond the degree of most 
 uncultivated tribes, attracted the rich understand- 
 ing of the Hindus." " The literature of such 
 (nations of India) as affect to be scholars, would 
 appear trifling when compared with the erudition 
 of the generality of boys learning in an academy, 
 for excepting some very small treatises on astrono- 
 my, a science of which a few Hindus, residing at 
 Benares, have a superficial knowledge, the whole 
 mass of Indian learning might be committed to 
 the flames, with at least as much propriety as 
 Don Quixote's celebrated collection, and without 
 extracting one deep groan from Parson Adams."* 
 Even in our own time, our ablest politician, and 
 most distinguished scholar. Sir George Cornewall 
 Lewis, whose premature death his nation still 
 mourns, had such a contempt for oriental learning 
 as to state "they have never produced any 
 scientific or literary work worthy of mention, ex- 
 cept the *' Arabian Nights :"f How contrary is the 
 reality ! The ancient Hindu race formed small in- 
 dependent states at an early period, and wf re in a 
 condition of freedom and independence. But their 
 
 * Williamson's Oriental Field Sports, 2nd Ed., p. 118. 
 t Seo liis Dialogue on the best form of Government, London, 1863, p. 29.
 
 INTRODUCTION. IxxXl 
 
 too exclusive devotion to learning and peaceful 
 arts unfitted them for opposing the inroads of 
 ambitious neighbours, who were attracted by their 
 rich country. The Mahommedans repeatedly over- 
 ran the rich and defenceless plains of Hindostan, 
 ruining the schools, and ignoring the professions, 
 plundering temples, destroying idols, proclaiming 
 a new creed, and requiring submission to their 
 mandate, " you must embrace the Mahommedan 
 faith, leave the country, or become slaves." While 
 bands of plunderers were thus pouring from their 
 outposts in AjQPghanistan into the heart of Hindo- 
 stan, mailed hosts of European crusaders were 
 pressing on to Palestine, to rescue the Holy 
 Sepulchre from the hands of the Infidels. This 
 stayed, for a time, the hand of conquest in India ; 
 and as the country was restored to order, a 
 great Mahommedan empire was formed, a mutual 
 toleration was practised, and a religious harmony 
 introduced, honourable to both parties : but the 
 privileged Hindu class, no longer held in re- 
 spect, and did not exercise the medical profession, 
 which quickly sank into a state of empirical weak- 
 ness. The independent and enlightened Hindu 
 period ceased, and was succeeded by an ignorant 
 and superstitious age of servitude. 
 
 Thus neglected by their Asiatic and European
 
 Ixxxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 conquerors, the Hindu science of medicine was 
 still preserved in the sacred shastres. It was 
 studied by a small privileged class of Brahmins, 
 who sometimes taught its precepts to a few select 
 youths,* and pretended that the laws of dis- 
 ease were to be discovered only by their superior 
 knowledge. Ignorance engendered vanity, and led 
 these practitioners to neglect that constant atten- 
 tion to the progress, nature, and treatment of dis- 
 ease, which is so apparent in the writings of the 
 ancient authors, and so necessary for practice. 
 They found it easier to invent than to describe, 
 and a bold familiarity with a disease and its symp- 
 toms, was mistaken for a knowledge of its nature. 
 This explains the general ignorance of the art of 
 healing among modern Asiatics. The sick are so 
 constantly imposed on by greedy and plausible 
 quacks, that they generally reject the assistance of 
 a physician, until the disease had advanced so far 
 that little could be done by medicine. It is this 
 want of confidence in their own practitioners which 
 explains why European physicians, and even 
 travellers in Asia, are assailed with prayers for 
 medicines to prevent and to cure disease; as they 
 are all supposed to be learned in the sciences, and 
 
 *" The only niouopoly insisted upon by tlio Trahmius, was that of tuition, 
 They allowed no other castes to teach." Wilson's Sanscrit language. Works, 
 vol. V. p. 255.
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxxili 
 
 to possess infallible means of acquiring wealth and 
 curing diseases. 
 
 As Hindostan becomes settled under the 
 British rule, and a richer and a more intelligent 
 middle-class is forming, more attention will be paid 
 to Hindu philosophy, and a more intimate know- 
 ledge of the ancient Hindu medical works will 
 prove that they contain much that is interesting 
 and instructive, and have been of extensive use to 
 the medical practitioners of Asia, Africa, and Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 The education and the nature of the employ- 
 ment of the medical practitioner has a great influ- 
 ence in forming his character. Among the Hindus 
 they have more learning and far less pride than 
 any of the Brahmins, which proves the correctness 
 of Sir William Jones' remarks that "the Yoidyas 
 are usually poets, grammarians, rhetoricians, and 
 moralists ; and may, in fact, be deemed the most 
 virtuous and amiable of the Hindus." The physi- 
 cians in Europe have been likewise commended for 
 their talents and virtues, which may be accounted 
 for by their liberal education, and peculiar duties. 
 Pope said, " they are in general the most amiable 
 companions, and the best friends, as well as the 
 most learned men I know." "I believe," remarks 
 Dr. S. Johnson, " every man has found in physi-
 
 IxXXiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cians great liberality and dignity of sentiment, 
 very prompt effusion of benevolence, and willing- 
 ness to exert a lucrative art where there is no hope 
 of lucre.'' And the Eev. Dr. Parr observes, " I 
 have been long in the habit of reading on medical 
 subjects, and the great advantage I have derived 
 from this circumstance is, that I have found 
 opportunities for conversation and friendship with 
 a class of men whom, after a long and attentive 
 survey of literary characters, I hold to be the most 
 enlightened professional persons in the whole circle 
 of human arts and sciences." 
 
 The cultivation of the mind improves the 
 character of a people, and the difference is marked 
 between the ancient and modern Hindu family 
 of Aryan physicians, educated during many gene- 
 rations, and between them and the barber- surgeon 
 of the Turanian race, without any education. 
 A s the subject is important, I selected an educated 
 Yoidya physician and a barber-surgeon, quite un- 
 educated, from among my assistants, when in India, 
 in order to examine the difference. The former, who 
 was named Keen Chaund Doss Gupto, belonged to 
 one of the four Yoidya classes, which Bullal-Sen, 
 the great Yoidya king, had instituted. His family 
 had been for many generations the chief physicians 
 of the province he inhabited; and, in his authen-
 
 INTRODUCTION. IxXXV 
 
 ticated family history, it is stated, they have been 
 from " time immemorial " distinguished as phy- 
 sicians. For fourteen generations particulars of 
 each succeeding individual is given, which, allow- 
 ing only twenty-three years for the length of each 
 life, would carry back the history of the family to 
 a period of more than three hundred years, or about 
 the time of Telenga Mukund Deb, the last able and 
 independent king of Orissa. After a brave resist- 
 ance that monarch was conquered by the Mussul- 
 mans, and the distinguished men he had employed 
 in his court were dispersed. It was at this time 
 that Narayan Doss Gupto, (the physician or slave 
 of Narayan, the Supreme Being), the first of this 
 family of physicians, distinguished himself by his 
 learning, and by writing a treatise on the manner 
 of preserving health, the effects of the seasons, of 
 climate, and of medicines derived from the vege- 
 table, mineral, and animal kingdoms, in the cure of 
 disease. His son was celebrated for his knowledge 
 of medicine, and especially of the Ayur-veda. He, 
 and seven of his successors, supported a gratuitous 
 Sanscrit school, in which the medical shaslres 
 were taught. The third of these physicians, after 
 distinguishing himself by his knowledge of the 
 Yedas, left his home, and became a religious 
 mendicant, as recommended by the shastres.
 
 IxXXVi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 His son distinguished himself by the excellent 
 medical school he conducted, and by the produc- 
 tion of an able dramatic poem. The seventh was 
 a poet laureate, and received a title of honour from 
 the Eajah ; as did his grandson, the eighth in 
 descent. The tenth on the list wrote a treatise on 
 the medicines required for the cure of different 
 diseases. The thirteenth was physician to Eajah 
 Eoybullah, for more than thirty-five years ; and in 
 his old age he returned to his own house, in the 
 Jessore district, on a pension, which he enjoyed 
 for twelve years ; dying in his seventieth year. His 
 son, Neem Chaund Doss, was my friend, the four- 
 teenth of this honourable list. From early youth, 
 he had been intended for the medical profession, 
 and was taught everything that was supposed 
 necessary for succeeding in it. He studied the 
 Sanscrit grammar, rhetoric, and poetry, before he 
 commenced the study of the medical shastres ; 
 which engaged his attention for eleven years. In 
 his thirtieth year he went to Dacca, the capital 
 of eastern Bengal, in quest of employment, and 
 in order to study the English system of medicine, 
 of which he had heard so much. With this object 
 he attended regularly the Dacca Dispensary and 
 Hospital, and there he attracted my notice by his 
 diligence and attention, and by his great intelli-
 
 INTRODUCTION. IxXXvii 
 
 gence and industry. I procured a situation under 
 Government for him, where he could witness 
 European practice. His salary was small, but it 
 was sufficient for his humble wants, and modest 
 and retiring habits. He had an accurate and 
 extensive knowledge of the medical shastres, a 
 great part of which he knew by heart, and quickly 
 distinguished himself in practice, by his activity 
 and correctness, and by the judgment he displayed 
 in the treatment of disease, and in the applica- 
 tion of the Hindu medical precepts. 
 
 To mark the effect of the pursuit of learning, 
 during so many generations, and the want of edu- 
 cation upon the physical organisation of the Asiatic, 
 induced me to sketch the profiles of the two medical 
 men, with the dimensions of their heads. Fig. 1 , 
 
 Fio 1. Fifj 2. 
 
 Extreme length, Fig 1, 7 in., breadth 5-^ in. 
 „ „ 2, 5 in., „ 5-1% in. 
 
 is the profile of Neem Chaund, and forms a striking 
 contrast to fig. 2, the profile of a barber-surgeon,
 
 IxXXViii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 who was born of low-caste parents, that had for gene- 
 rations received no education, and got their living 
 by shaving, cleaning the ears, trimming the nails, 
 inoculating for the small-pox, performing phle- 
 botomy, extracting teeth, and assisting at certain 
 pagan ceremonies, as that of fixing the hooks in 
 the flesh of those who swung round on a pole at 
 the Eatgatra. I had frequent opportunities of 
 observing the character of this individual. He was 
 ignorant and superstitious, but kind, affectionate, 
 and methodical, with a good deal of cunning. Such 
 a low branch of the healing art is not connected 
 with any caste, rank, or religion. Still there are 
 individuals among them who acquire much expert- 
 ness in such a calling ; and often make themselves 
 very useful in their humble occupations. They seem 
 to transmit a degree of manual expertness to their 
 descendants, who sometimes distinguish them- 
 selves as lithotomists, oculists, &c. 
 
 If there be such a difference in the ranks of the 
 medical profession, and in the organisation of the 
 Hindu physician and barber-surgeon in the present 
 adverse circumstances of the former, what must 
 have been the inequality between the ancient and 
 modern Voidya ; as the former, the noble Aryan, 
 descended from his primitive home into Hindostan, 
 with his original conformation and mental energy,
 
 INTRODUCTION. Ixxxix 
 
 and the advantages which a fine climate, leisure 
 and independence afforded, for developing his 
 active intellectual powers, of which we have 
 so many worthy remains in the perfection to 
 which he brought the Sanscrit language, the 
 richness of his literature, his advanced knowledge 
 of the sciences, particularly that of medicine ; while 
 the feeble Turanian yielded to his more intel- 
 lectual master, and is still content with his modest 
 lot, and humble calling. 
 
 The following history of the medical profession 
 will include the social standing of practitioners, 
 the progress of medical science, the biography of 
 distinguished physicians in different ages and 
 countries, the history of disease, and the origin and 
 changes of medical institutions. The materials for 
 this Review of the History of Medicine have been 
 slowly collected as an amusement during the course 
 of my studies, and during a long residence in Asia, 
 where my occupation, inclination, and curiosity 
 brought me into frequent contact with the native 
 practitioners. When Secretary to the Committee 
 of Public Instruction in Calcutta, I availed myself 
 of the assistance of the most able pundits and 
 mouluvies of the Bengal Presidency, in elucidating 
 the ancient works of oriental medicine. I ex- 
 amined and translated what I considered the most
 
 XC INTRODUCTION. 
 
 valuable part of numerous MS8., rejecting, in 
 some instances, unimportant observations, and 
 have retained others, though not quite correct, to 
 explain peculiarities of thinking or acting ; and in 
 other cases the individual opinion of authors : my 
 object being to convey a faithful delineation of the 
 particular opinions and systems, and the exact 
 condition of knowledge. To satisfy myself in 
 particular points, I circulated queries to quali- 
 fied individuals and friends, stationed in different 
 countries; and my own opportunities, when 
 in extensive native practice in the city of Dacca, 
 enabled me to obtain information, and to arrive at 
 conclusions as to its condition, towards the middle 
 of the present century. The result may be more 
 curious than important, but the detail of a truthful 
 conclusion must always be of some interest and 
 value. 
 
 My materials having accumulated so as to 
 have become too voluminous for my original 
 design. In 1845, I published a commentary on 
 the ancient Hindu system of medicine.* Before 
 that work appeared, an accomplished scholar had 
 given an interesting account of Hindu opinions 
 regarding certain diseases ;t a persevering traveller 
 
 * Calcutta, 1846. 
 t Professor 11. H. Wilson, Med. and Ph. Societies Transactions vol. i, ; 
 and Oriental Maj^azine for iMarch, 1823.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XCl 
 
 had afforded a sketch of certain opinions contained 
 in the Hindu medical shastres, as translated into 
 the Tibetian language ; * an antiquarian and a 
 distinguished physician had published some of 
 the peculiar opinions found in the medical works 
 of the south of India ; f and an able lecturer had 
 combined all the information derived from these 
 sources with important additions of his own ; X but 
 a comprehensive view of the Hindu system of 
 medicine seems still to be required. In the 
 present Ee view that system is compared with those 
 of other nations, which have had an important 
 influence in instructing and benefitting mankind ; 
 and separating the ancient from the modern and 
 often more imperfect systems of medicine in 
 Hindostan, and other countries. 
 
 The history of the medical sciences extends 
 through so many ages, and is preserved in so many 
 languages, that indulgence should be accorded to 
 a writer on such an extensive and difficult sub- 
 ject. He must explain the most obscure opinions 
 and systems, and must be prompt to detect, in 
 the midst of error, the excellencies which be- 
 long to individuals and schools. Each of these 
 
 * Csoma de Kiiros Jour. As. So., Calcutta, No. ^7, January, 1835. 
 fDr. ileyne's Tracts in India; and Aiuslic's Mat. Med. of India. London. 
 X Dt. Royle on the Antiquity of Ilindu Med., 1838 ; Asiatic Eesearches, 
 vol. iv., p. 159.
 
 XCU INTRODUCTION. 
 
 takes a different hue according to the character of 
 the people among whom the profession is exercised, 
 and the spirit of the age, so that historical as well 
 as medical research is requisite, that he may give 
 a just value to the influence which civilisation, 
 and the doctrines of schools, have had upon the 
 progress of the science. 
 
 The following Eeview of the History of Medi- 
 cine will be considered under five periods, with 
 reference to the sequence and resemblance of the 
 different systems, rather than following a strictly 
 chronological order. 
 
 1 . The primitive oriental period was that in which 
 the Aryan race, a sober reasoning people, em- 
 ployed their intellectual vigour and natural 
 sagacity in the investigation of useful truths, 
 developing their powers under a happy combination 
 of circumstances. At that early period, the Hindu 
 Brahmins arranged laws, regulated the calen- 
 dar, promulgated distinguished scientific and 
 literary efforts, and practised the healing art in 
 all its branches. The mysteries of theology were 
 combined with medicine and astrology, by this 
 remarkable people, which was modified by sec- 
 tarian Buddhists. 
 
 2. The second or western branch of the Aryan 
 race form the ancient period^ and will include the
 
 INTRODUCTION. XCIII 
 
 Grecian and Komau systems of medicine, from the 
 time of Thales and Pythagoras to the time of Sextus 
 Empiricus, towards the end of the second century. 
 During this period, there were stores of information 
 accumulated by great men, which, combined, 
 adorned and reflected by Grecian men of genius, 
 conferred such glory on their country, and im- 
 perishable renown upon themselves: Lycurgus, 
 Solon, Pythagoras, Plato, Herodotus, and Hip- 
 pocrates derived the first principles of their inves- 
 tigations of mental and practical philosophy from 
 an eastern origin. The duties of legislator, natural 
 philosopher, religious teacher, and physician were 
 combined in the same individual, or class of 
 individuals, at this early age, and knowledge 
 was strangely confounded and entangled. Greece 
 became the seat of philosophy, and carried the 
 sciences, including medicine, to a state of very 
 considerable perfection. The Romans, so illus- 
 trious in arms and wisdom, were formed from 
 the Etrurian, or Turanian, and Celtic races, which 
 created the Eoman civilisation and that of the 
 south of Europe. The mixture of races, the cli- 
 mate, &c., modified the character of the in- 
 habitants and the productions of the country. 
 The Eomans succeeded the Greeks, though they 
 did not attain their intellectual greatness. Thev
 
 XCIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 were their scholars : they learned their language, 
 and imitating the works of some of their sages, they 
 formed a civilisation of their own. The study of 
 ancient literature in Europe was interrupted, by the 
 invasion of rude and hardy races from the north ; 
 who subverted the Eoman empire, and destroyed 
 what was most noble with relentless barbarism, 
 preserving only what harmonised with their rude 
 manners, or administered to their sensual plea- 
 sures. Persecuted by these ignorant masters, the 
 learning of the West sought refuge in Egypt and 
 the East, and Europe remained for ages in a state 
 of lethargy. 
 
 3. The transition period wiW contain a sketch of 
 the Egyptian and Jewish systems, and of the 
 decay of learning in Europe. In this period, under 
 the patronage of the Caliphs of Bagdad, medicine 
 was cultivated with diligence, and with a certain 
 measure of success both in Asia and Europe. This 
 temporary greatness of the Mahommedan Arabs 
 was not lasting, and their literary zeal, though 
 energetic, was short lived. The translations and 
 compilations which they prepared from eastern and 
 western works of science, were for a time studied 
 in the east as well as the west, but amidst the 
 political revolutions and changes in Asia, they 
 fell into a state of neglect.
 
 INTRODUCTION. XCV 
 
 4, In the restorative^ or copying period, when 
 learning began again to flourish in the congenial 
 soil of Europe, medicine slowly revived. Security 
 for life and possessions being obtained, convenience 
 and enjoyment were the next objects of attention, 
 and learning was found to constitute the highest 
 gratification of the mind. The arts and sciences 
 were first studied in the gloom of monasteries, 
 but the Mahommedan schools in Spain, and other 
 parts of Europe, were generally resorted to for 
 studying the Arabian translations of the ancient 
 classical authors, which would otherwise have 
 been lost. Individuals and nations vied with each 
 other in honouring the pursuit of learning, and 
 the study of medicine exercised the genius of 
 many great men, with much advantage to suffering 
 humanity. 
 
 6. The fifth, ov philosophical period, extends from 
 the revival of literature and medicine in Europe in 
 the fifteenth, to the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century. In this more mature period of the history 
 of medicine, the science was constructed on 
 anatomy, observation, and reasoning, which led to 
 a more correct classification and treatment of dis- 
 ease. Medical science being thus settled on its 
 true basis, anatomy and physiology, advanced 
 rapidly. New facts being a foundation for those
 
 XCvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 which are to follow, and not being confined to one 
 state, or existing among one race, the advancement 
 of the science resulted from the labours of able 
 men in many lands. Though impeded at times by- 
 ignorance and prejudice, as learning advanced, 
 the stream of knowledge flowed clearer, purer, 
 and broader ; the wisdom of to-day was eclipsed 
 by the science of to-morrow. The more know- 
 ledge men acquire, the greater were the number 
 of aspirants, and the more ardent their thirst for 
 advancement in every branch of intellectual under- 
 taking. 
 
 I have been more particular in my description 
 of the ancient Hindu system of medicine, from its 
 being, as we have seen, so little known in Europe, 
 and as the prototype of so many other systems. 
 During the progress of this part of the work, I had 
 the assistance of several able pundits and moulivies ; 
 particularly the learned Abhaycharan Turkapan- 
 chanan, Superintendent of the Sanscrit and Ben- 
 galee department of the College of Muhammad 
 Mohsem, Hooghly, who instructed me in the noble 
 Sanscrit language, and with great perseverance 
 and intelligence, assisted me in translating and 
 comparing various medical M8S. I afterwards 
 examined some of these translations with Mad- 
 husadan Gupta, Lecturer of anatomy to the medical
 
 INTRODUCTION. XCvii 
 
 college, Calcutta, who possessed an accurate know- 
 ledge of the Susruta, which he had edited for the 
 Asiatic Society of Calcutta. However, I found 
 that his combined acquirements unfitted him for 
 my purpose ; as he, probably inadvertently, filled 
 up the deficiencies of the eastern from the western 
 systems of medicine, which I was so desirous of 
 avoiding. 
 
 My friend. Dr. Beddoe, the distinguished phy- 
 sician of Clifton, Bristol, has been so kind as to 
 correct a proof of the present work as it went 
 through the press; and Professor Blyth, of Queen's 
 College, Cork, kindly assisted me in determining 
 the chemical components of the Hindu pharma- 
 ceutical preparations described in the Charaka and 
 Susruta. 
 
 It has been my desire to record what I conceived 
 to be important and curious in the most ancient 
 records of medicine, pointing out the fabulous 
 assertions, and giving the history of their physical 
 and medical doctrines, so far as these appeared 
 interesting. I trust that the publication may be 
 of use in removing those errors which an im- 
 perfect knowledge of the medical records is so 
 liable to engender among physicians, and which 
 have operated most perniciously in retarding 
 the advancement of medical science, while, at
 
 XCViii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the same time, it may assist in giving the proper 
 degree of credit to the ancient Hindu philosophers 
 
 The orthography and pronunciation of proper 
 names will be sufficiently correct, if attention be 
 paid to the following rules : — 1. The consonants 
 to be pronounced as in English. 2. The vowels 
 generally as in the Italian language. The long 
 vowels will be distinguished by the following 
 marks : 
 
 a is to be sounded like a in tar 
 a ... ... ay in say 
 
 e ... ... ee in see 
 
 ... ... in so 
 
 u ... ... u in too 
 
 When prolonged and general usage has given 
 a particular pronunciation to a proper name, I 
 have adopted it, unless there be strong reasons to 
 offer for a change. 
 
 I
 
 PART I.
 
 REVIEW 
 
 OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
 
 PRIMITIVE PERIOD OF MEDICINE 
 
 AMONG 
 
 ASIATIC NATIONS. 
 
 The student of history and the friend of humanity 
 must feel a deep interest in the prospects of Asia, 
 the first peopled, and the largest division of the 
 Globe. This great continent contains 164,000,000 
 of the highest, or Caucasian, type of our race, the 
 ruling caste of mankind, to whom Heaven revealed 
 its mysteries ; the first depositaries of its laws ; the 
 founders of social order; the apostles of all nations; 
 the teachers of all generations ; and from whom 
 emanated all the civilising influences of the West. 
 From Asia we derived the principles, the ideas, 
 and the truths which are embodied in our creeds,
 
 6 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 preached from our pulpits, and which pervade our 
 laws and civilisation; and from her sprang the 
 dynasties of the nations. The most distinguished 
 of the ancient Asiatics, for their knowledge of the 
 sciences and the arts, were the Hindu, Buddhist, 
 and Chinese nations. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 BEVIEW OF THE ANCIENT STATE OF MEDICINE 
 AMONG THE HINDUS. 
 
 In examining the fountains of the East, from 
 which Europe derived so much of its learning, no 
 nation deserves a more careful consideration than 
 the Hindus. Isolated in their position, and 
 residing in a rich and fruitful country, they appear 
 to have been satisfied with the knowledge and 
 power which they had acquired at a very early 
 period; and affectionately attached to their country, 
 they retained for ages their own opinions and 
 practices. Their systems of philosophy and medi- 
 oine, like their religion, must be examined un- 
 fettered by Western prejudices. We must enter
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 7 
 
 into its consideration with an oriental largeness, 
 as if we ourselves were children of the East. By 
 so drawing near to them, we at once perceive, that 
 above all other systems of medicine it is peculiarly 
 the growth of their soil, their medicines the 
 products of the Asiatic mart, and their speculations 
 the product of Asiatic imagination, intellect, and 
 prejudices. Asia can munificently give, but it 
 does not need to borrow ; its ideas and phantasies 
 arc as exuberant as its vegetation. There was an 
 intellectual interchange among the different ancient 
 nations of Asia, but the traces of this among the 
 Hindus are very small, and the influence appeared 
 to have been transient. This may be explained 
 by Hindostan being surrounded by warlike No- 
 mades, who extended their dominion, committing 
 great devastations, and depriving the more peace- 
 able inhabitants of their liberty, and obliging 
 many of them to seek protection among the neigh- 
 bouring rocks and barren mountains. 
 
 Their fertile country was thus repeatedly over- 
 run by the Mahommedans, who persecuted and 
 destroyed them with the most relentless cruelty, 
 without making any impression on their religious 
 belief, or diminishing the respect or veneration 
 which they bore to their ancient modes of faith, 
 and rules of action. Freed, for a time, from their
 
 8 niSTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 persecutors, their luxuriant country quickly re- 
 sumed its former fruitfulness ; and the intelligent 
 and industrious inhabitants, under peaceful and 
 sagacious princes, who promoted the happiness of 
 their subjects rather than increased their own 
 power by conquest, were soon restored to their 
 former prosperity. 
 
 The permanence of the social and religious 
 institutions of India, and its patriarchal customs, 
 form, indeed, at the present time, a striking pecu- 
 liarity. A maxim seemed to have ruled the whole 
 conduct of the Hindu sages, which was to reserve 
 speculative doctrines for conversation among 
 themselves, while they taught the people such 
 knowledge only as regarded the right use of life. 
 Conquerors have repeatedly broken through the 
 mighty barriers of Hindostan — superiority of 
 civilisation have gradually accomplished the phy- 
 sical coercion of the Hindus by powerful nations 
 of the West, who, in the prouder period of Indian 
 history were rude and unlettered savages; and 
 from the graphic delineations of ancient authors 
 in the time of Alexander the Great, and the 
 annals of the most inquisitive travellers, we 
 arrive at an almost perfect knowledge of the 
 customs, mythology, and peculiarities of thought 
 which distinguished this primitive race : their
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 9 
 
 remarkable distinction of ranks, and separation of 
 professions involved in the rules of caste; their 
 festivals and solemnities ; the rite of Suttee ; the 
 penance of the Fukeer ; the charitable provision 
 for Choudries and of public tanks; the peculiar 
 tenure of land, and the modes of administering 
 justice still exist, and have withstood the example 
 of the alien, the persecutions of the Mahommedans, 
 and the peaceful efforts of the Christian. 
 
 Still each caste exhibits its peculiar features, 
 and every tribe has its distinctive stamp. Nur- 
 tured in a clime whose atmosphere imparts an 
 energy to the soil which it denies to the inhabi- 
 tants, where the earth spontaneously bestows that 
 sustenance which elsewhere is the reward of indus- 
 try and toil, where fuel and clothing are superflu- 
 ous, and a hut, as grateful as a palace, is raised in 
 a few hours. The natives of the plains are peaceful 
 and effeminate, subtile, and ingenious ; whilst the 
 Hindus of the hilly tracts, invigorated by their 
 mountain breeze, protected by their arid heights, 
 are hardy and brave ; and despising their feeble 
 neighbours, and proud of their liberty, place their 
 happiness in the battle and the chase. We thus 
 explain the different phases, or local peculiarities 
 of national character, manifested in different 
 nations, and by the same rule, in different localities.
 
 10 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The national tendency of the mind is to run into 
 grooves fashioned for it by customs and habits, 
 until broten in upon and overthrown by great 
 moral revolutions ; sweeping away what is stag- 
 nant and decayed, or more frequently disfiguring 
 what is great and good. This will be abundantly 
 proved in examining the ancient, more perfect, 
 and less known system of Hindu medicine ; and 
 the modern, and often more defective opinions of 
 the profession. In considering the former, it will 
 be necessary to give an account of the state of 
 the profession ; the origin, rank, and station of 
 the physician; and his knowledge of anatomy, 
 physiology, and therapeutics. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 STATE OF THE PROFESSION IN ANCIENT HINDOSTAN. 
 
 This division will contain an account of the 
 history and medical works of the Hindus; the 
 rank and duties of teachers; the character and 
 duties of pupils, of the physician, attendants, and 
 patients, and the recompense of the physician.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 11 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ANCIENT HI8T0KT OF THE HINDU MEDICINE. 
 
 The ancient history of the Hindus is divided 
 into three epochs : — an age of freedom, of 
 conquest, and of servitude. The first is the 
 ancient Yedic, or independent period, which 
 Max M tiller divides into three periods. The first 
 embraces the period when the Aryan race had 
 recently settled in India, and extended from b. c. 
 1,200 and 1,000. The second, the Mantra period, 
 from B.C. 1,000 and 800, when the Yedic hymns 
 were stored up in the memory. The third, or 
 Brahmanam period, extended from B.C. 800 and 
 600, when there was a gradual advancement of the 
 priestly class, and the separation was made of the 
 sacerdotal from the other classes. It was during 
 this period that the four sacred Yedas are supposed 
 to have been collected, viz. : — the Eik, Yajus, 
 Saman, and Athervan. The Eig-veda is considered 
 the most ancient, and consists of hymns, prayers, 
 and mysteries in verse, which were repeated during 
 the performance of religious ceremonies, when 
 frequent libations of iSoma wine were used, as 
 required in the Brahmanam, or directions and 
 explanations of the priests. These religious forms
 
 12 niSTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 consisted in theological utterances regarding the 
 nature of God, of creation, existence, and frag- 
 ments of history. 
 
 It was the second or Puranic age of the Hindus, 
 or that of conquerors, when they were independent, 
 that they distinguished themselves greatly by their 
 manners, and their religion ; and particularly by 
 their great intellectual progress, when their scientific 
 works were prepared, which does them so much 
 honour. It was during this early period that the 
 Hindus made such progress in the arts and sciences 
 compared with that of other nations. 
 
 They possessed a fine climate, and rich soil, 
 under a mild and just government, tempered with 
 monarchial institutions, and regulated by enlight- 
 ened sages.* Such philosophers distinguished 
 themselves at an early period, in India, Persia, 
 Chaldea, and Egypt, and afterwards as monks in 
 Europe, where they exercised great influence in 
 encouraging learning and virtue. These enlight- 
 ened men in Asia checked that tendency to tyranny 
 and oppression in their rich and powerful chiefs, 
 and occupied their leisure in cultivating the arts 
 and sciences, which they raised to a stage of per- 
 fection, that has rarely been surpassed. This 
 explains the pride the Hindus claim for the first 
 
 i, or the Wise Men of the East.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 13 
 
 efforts of tlieir genius, and their sages being em- 
 ployed in the service of the divinity, to whom they 
 were allied in friend fjhip, and from whom they 
 were supposed to have derived their accurate 
 knowledge. 
 
 They declared the universe will exist until the 
 four ages (yugas) of the world expire. The first, 
 the krita or Satyar-yuga, lasted 1,728,000 years, 
 during which man was supposed to have re- 
 mained prosperous, virtuous, and happy, and free 
 from disease. It was during it, the four sacred vedas 
 were prepared, containing all the knowledge sup- 
 posed to be required by mankind. The second, or 
 Dwaparra-yuga, lasted for 1,296,000 years, during 
 which the third of mankind were reprobate, and 
 disease appeared, life was curtailed, and memory 
 impaired. The third, or Trita-yuga, lasted 864,000 
 years, during which the half of mankind were 
 depraved; and in the foarth, or present age, the 
 Kali-yuQa, which has lasted 432,000 years, the 
 corruption of mankind has been such as to cause 
 a still further curtailment of life, and embitter it 
 with numerous diseases. Brahma took compassion 
 on man's weak, degenerate, and suffering state, 
 and produced the Upa-veda, or commentary 
 on the sacred vedas. This second class of 
 scriptural works of authority, consist of four trea-
 
 14 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 tises. ( 1 .) The Dahrma-shastra^ the science of law, 
 or the code of Manu : (2.) Dhaur-veda, the science 
 of the bow, or military science : (3.) Gandharba- 
 veda, the science of music, so named from the 
 heavenly musicians of Gandharba : and (4 ) 
 the Ayur-veda,* the science of life or medicine. 
 This is intended to teach the proper manner of 
 living in the world, by preventing and curing 
 diseases in the present state of existeuce; and 
 while the individual thus enjoyed health, he 
 might perform the various purposes of this world, 
 and thereby ensure his happiness and prosperity 
 in another state. This sacred medical record of 
 the Hindus resembles, in form and style of writ- 
 ing, the Athar-veda, or fourth sacred veda ; and 
 is supposed to describe the means of retaining 
 health, the causes of disease, and the method of 
 curing them. It also explains the qualities and 
 effects of such articles as are useful to mankind. 
 This remarkable work proves that medicine, at an 
 early age in Asia, was connected with theology ; 
 and that the science of healing was supposed to be 
 derived from the same source as their divine reli- 
 gion. This belief led them to consider it as part 
 of their theology, and the same qualities were 
 required in curing diseases as for other divine 
 
 * Arjur, period of living, and ved, to know.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 15 
 
 purposes. It was exercised by physicians selected 
 from among the Brahmins, the monopolists of the 
 temporal and spiritual affairs of the ancient 
 Hindus, who possessed the power of treating 
 disease, and alleviating pain and suffering. 
 
 Among the ancient Hindus, so great was the 
 importance of the knowledge of medicine that, 
 besides being revealed by Brahma, the spirit of 
 God, or creative spirit, it was exercised by Siva, 
 the destroyer, or destroying spirit ; Indra, the 
 king of Heaven ; Surya, the God of the sun ; 
 Dhanwantari, the prince of Kasi, or Benares, the 
 great physician ; the two Ashwins, or sons of 
 Surya the sun, the physicians of the gods; and 
 Dacsha, the prajapati, were all distinguished 
 by their knowledge of medicine. No goddess 
 is represented as interested in medicine, till a 
 later period, when the dreaded Small-pox made 
 its appearance, and committed great ravages in 
 Hindostan ; when a new form was given to 
 Kalee, named Seetullah, wife of Siva, and named 
 the goddess of Small-pox. 
 
 The systematic Hindu works on medicine, 
 appear to have been compiled and arranged before 
 the corruption of the mythological system. In 
 some of the Shastris (such as in Charaka and 
 Susruta) it is recorded, that the sacred Ayur-veda,
 
 16 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the most ancient system of medicine, and of the 
 highest antiquity and authority among the Hindus, 
 it is said consisted of one hundred sections of 
 a thousand stanzas each, or a lack of verses 
 (slokas). God, pitying the weakness and suffer- 
 ing of mankind, and the impossibility of their 
 learning so large a work, abridged it, and divided 
 it into six parts, viz : — 
 
 1. Sutra-st'hana — surgical definitions. 
 
 2. Nedana-st'hana — symptoms or diagnosis. 
 
 3. Sarira-st'hana — anatomy. 
 
 4. Chikita-st'hana — therapia. 
 
 5. Kalpa-st'hana — or doctrine of antidotes. 
 
 6. Uttara-st'hana — or supplementary section on 
 
 local diseases. 
 Fragments only of the Ayur-veda have escaped 
 the destructive ravages of time, and are found in 
 the works of commentators ; and as all their 
 medical information was supposed to have been 
 derived from the full and true account of every 
 branch of the healing art, we are enabled, through 
 their works, to judge of the arrangement of the 
 original. Its general plan is given in Susruta, 
 in which medicine is divided into eight sections. 
 These are: 
 1. Salya^ or Surgery; including the mode of 
 
 removing external substances, accidentally
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 17 
 
 introduced into the body — as grass, wood, 
 stones, iron, earth, bones, hair, and nails, 
 with pus which had not been evacuated. It 
 explained the means of removing the dead 
 child from its mother, of healing wounds 
 inflicted by sharp instruments, as a knife; 
 of applying bandages, using surgical instru- 
 ments in operations, of applying escharotics 
 and fire, and of the treatment of different 
 kinds of inflammation, abscesses, and other 
 surgical diseases. 
 
 2. SalaJcya includes the description and the treat- 
 
 ment of external and organic diseases of the 
 eyes, ears, mouth, nose, and other diseases 
 situated above the clavicles. These two con- 
 stitute the surgery of modern schools. 
 
 3. Kay a Chikitsd, in which are described the 
 
 diseases which affect the whole body — as 
 fevers, consumption, (sosha) mania, (unmada,) 
 epilepsy , (apasnara, ) leprosy,(kusta, ) diabetes, 
 (bamutra,) and other diseases of the same 
 kind. 
 This may be considered as constituting the 
 practice of physic. 
 
 4. Bhuiavidya^ or the means of restoring the 
 
 deranged faculties of the mind, supposed to 
 be produced by demonical possessions ; as by
 
 18 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the anger of the gods, (Devtas,) devils, 
 (Asurs,) or another kind of devils, (Gan- 
 darba,) demigods or devils, (Jaksha^) giants 
 resembling devils, (Eakshas,) spirits of dead 
 men, (Petrigriha,) and other kinds of devils, 
 (Pishacha.) 
 These various demigods, when enraged, were 
 supposed to enter into the person, and produce the 
 various diseases of the mind ; which could only be 
 removed by prayers, medicines, ablutions, and 
 offerings to the offended deity. 
 6. Kaumara-hhritya comprised the treatment of 
 infants, the effects of bad milk and improper 
 diet ; the nature of infant diseases, including 
 those produced by the displeasure of certain 
 demigods, (Graha).* In this division, also, 
 was included the treatment of wet-nurses, 
 when their milk was bad. 
 
 6. Agada. — In this division the administra- 
 
 tion of antidotes for poisons was considered ; 
 as for preventing the effects of, and diseases 
 produced by mineral, vegetable, and animal 
 poisons, such as the bites of dangerous ser- 
 pents, insects, &c. 
 
 7. Rasayana treated of those medicines which 
 
 * Many of tho diseases of children are still supposed to be produced by 
 tbo entrance of devils into the child's body ; which are expelled by particular 
 prayers offered up to Tanchanana, (Siva.)
 
 AMOKG THE ASIATICS. 19 
 
 cure diseases in general, and restore youth, 
 beauty, and happiness. This division 
 embraced chemistry, or more properly al- 
 chemy, as the chief of the chemical 
 combinations described in it are metal- 
 lurgic, and the intention was to discover the 
 universal medicine — the panacea that would 
 render health permanent, and life perpetual. 
 Such a medicine was supposed to preserve 
 the energies of youth, strengthen memory, 
 lengthen life, and prevent as well as cure 
 disease. 
 8. Bajikarana. — This division made known the 
 best means of increasing the human race, 
 by pointing out the mode by which tone was 
 given to the weakened organs of generation, 
 when the sensibility of these parts became 
 diminished or deranged. 
 These remarks upon the divisions of this most 
 ancient work, are the only parts which have come 
 down to us. They afford the most incontestable 
 evidence of the Hindu medical writings having 
 been the result of observation and experience; 
 and the authors assigned a divine origin to 
 them, in order to increase the respect paid to the 
 books, and to themselves. They thus seem to have 
 arranged the diseases according to the frequency
 
 20 HISTORY OF MEDICI^E 
 
 of the assistance required from the art, and in the 
 order in which the knowledge of medicine natu- 
 rally advanced. 
 
 The sacred Ayur-veda thus contained a descrip- 
 tion of the structure of the human body; au 
 account of the causes and diseases to which it 
 is subject, reduced to a systematic form ; the 
 enumeration of many useful remedies; and the 
 precepts for preserving health, and curing diseases. 
 
 In some of the Shastres (Charaka, Susruta), it 
 is stated that Brahma first instructed Dacsha, the 
 Prajapaii^ the father of Durga, in the Ayur-veda^ 
 as he was an ocean of wisdom. He wrote a book 
 named the Chikitsa-Darshana^ and by him it was 
 communicated to the two Ashwins, or offspring of 
 the sun fSurjaJ. Others say that Brahma gave 
 the Ayur-veda to Surja, who, like the Phoebus or 
 Apollo of the Greeks, was supposed to be the 
 fountain of medical knowledge among the Hindus. 
 The Ashwins became the medical attendants of the 
 gods, wrote works on medicine, named Chikitsa- 
 rainatantray and the Bliramaghagya. As the gods 
 enjoyed eternal youth and health, they stood in 
 no need of a physician's care ; but in the wars 
 between the gods and demons, they were useful 
 in curing wounds and other chirurgical accidents, 
 and by their remarkable skill, the Ashwins
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 21 
 
 became very celebrated. When the fifth head of 
 Brahma was cut off by Eudra, it was joined 
 again by them, "so great was their knowledge of 
 surgery." They also cured immediately the wounds 
 in the battle between the' gods fdevtasj and giants 
 fasuraj, Indra had another opportunity of judg- 
 ing of their knowledge of medicine by their 
 curing his paralytic arm, became desirous 
 of examining the Ayur-veda, and was taught 
 by the Ashwins. 
 
 Sometime after this, mankind, in consequence 
 of their wickedness, became divided into sects, 
 ignorant, restless, unhappy, and afflicted with 
 numerous painful, and dangerous diseases ; and as 
 health is the origin of desire, virtue, holiness, 
 riches, and external happiness ; so disease dimi- 
 nishes strength, energy, faith, knowledge, holi- 
 ness, and length of life. It also weakens the 
 senses, and defiles and destroys the soul. 
 
 The sacred sages (Munis) were grieved at a 
 spectacle so melancholy, and, in order to search for 
 a remedy, Bharadwaja and Atreya, with numerous 
 sages, met in the Himalaya mountains. According 
 to Charaka, their names were — Angira, Jama- 
 dagni, Yasishto, Kasyapo, Bhrigu, Atreya, Gau- 
 tama, Sankhya, Pulastya, Narada, Osita; Agasta, 
 Bamadeva, Markandeya, Aswanayan, Parikshita,
 
 22 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Bhikshuratreya, Bharadwaja, Kapinjala, Viswami- 
 tra, Aswaranya, Bhargaba, Chayabana, Obhijit, 
 Gargya, Sandilya, Kaundilya, Abarkshi, Devala, 
 GalavOj Sankritya, Vaijavapaya, Kusika, Yada- 
 rayana, Barisa, Saraloma, Kapya, Katyayana, 
 Kankhayana, Kaikasaey, Dhauma, Marichi, Casy- 
 apo, Sarkarakshyo, Hiranyaksbyo, Lokakshya, 
 PaiDgi, Saunaka, Sakuneya, Mailreyao, Gauta- 
 mayani, and others.* 
 
 These holy sages were distressed at the sight 
 of the weakness and sufferings of mankind, which 
 had increased to such a degree, that they saw 
 ^' with the eyes of their understandings," that the 
 only method of removing such calamities was by the 
 assistance of the deity; and they resolved to send one 
 of their number to the thousand-eyed Indra in 
 heaven, to make known to him the condition of 
 mankind, and to acquire a knowledge of medicine: 
 Bharadwaja was selected. He went, and beheld 
 Indra, resplendent like fire, and, by the following 
 prayer, propitiated his favour : ^' Oh ! King of the 
 Gods ! created for the salvation of mankind, I 
 have been sent by the sages of the Earth to ask 
 your assistance. Take pity on the weakness and 
 infirmities of man, and teach us the Ayur-vedaP 
 
 * I give these names, as their meaning is generally unknown : proving 
 the Cliaraka to have existed before the Hindu Pantheon was instituted; 
 from which afterwards proper names were derived.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 23 
 
 Indra was pleased to grant the prayer of the peti- 
 tioner, and enlightened him in the precepts of the 
 science of medicine ; as from his knowledge, such 
 alone were required to be imparted. These 
 embraced an enumeration of the causes, symptoms, 
 and properties of medicines, for those in health as 
 well as in sickness. 
 
 With the knowledge of the Ayur-veda, the 
 sage returned, and related to the Eishis the pre- 
 cepts which he had thus acquired. These con- 
 sisted of — 
 
 1. General character of everything (Samana). 
 
 2. Classification (Yisesa). 
 
 3. Elements (Drabya). 
 
 4. Qualities (Guna). 
 
 5. Actions (Karma) : and 
 
 6. Combinations (Sanjoga). 
 
 By means of such knowledge, the Eishis 
 remained healthy and happy. Among these, 
 Atreya, who had been instructed by Indra, 
 imparted to his numerous pupils the knowledge 
 which he had thus acquired for the good of 
 mankind.
 
 24 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 RANK AND CHAKACTEE OP HINDU SAGES. 
 
 These pupils of Atreya, or Brahmins, were con- 
 sidered as forming the first in social rank, the emblem 
 of wisdom ; who, according to their mythological 
 fancy, proceeded from Brahma's mouth — the first 
 person, or creative power, of the deity. They 
 filled the most eminent rank, whose duty it was 
 to perform the rites of religion, and to instruct 
 mankind in the path of learning and duty. It 
 was this superiority of intellect that caused 
 the Brahmins to be considered as Diers^ * or 
 magicians, by their more ignorant neighbours. 
 The Brahmins were always jealous of any 
 encroachment on the interests of their order; 
 and their influence was useful in encouraging 
 learning, and improving the morals of their 
 countrymen ; but caste became pernicious, when 
 it became permanent, retarding progress, and an 
 instrument of the passions. 
 
 At an early age, the Brahmin was set apart 
 for the acquisition of learning, and with a know- 
 ledge of the world, and the wants of their 
 
 * The enemies of Persia arc termed Biers, from Bier, which means a 
 Brahmin in the Sanscrit language. — Ifakolm's History of Persia.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 25 
 
 countrymen, they soon distinguished themselves 
 by their acquisition of the useful arts and sciences, 
 which was ascribed by their ignorant countrymen 
 to a supposed friendship with the deity. The 
 appointment, and even the selection, of their king, 
 was at one time entrusted to the Brahmins who 
 ruled the councils of the state. He was chosen from 
 the second, or Ehetrya caste, or class of the profes- 
 sion of arms ; as it was felt of importance to be 
 able to defend themselves from their rapacious and 
 warlike neighbours. The members of this class 
 reigned over the country, and filled the executive 
 ojffices of the state, while they retained an inferior 
 social rank to their spiritual advisers. As the 
 emblem of strength they were supposed to have 
 sprung from the arms of the deity, and were 
 destined to govern, and defend the people. These 
 rulers of the state employed every means to retain 
 the good opinion of their spiritual guides ; which 
 explains the extent and magnificence of their 
 religious establishments in Hindostan. 
 
 The Brahmin was the physician ; but the im- 
 portant manual department of the profession 
 could not be properly exercised by the pure 
 Brahmin ; and to meet this difficulty, at an early 
 period, another caste was formed, from the ofispring 
 of a Brahmin with a daughter of a Yaishya. To
 
 26 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 give the arrangement more importance, it is stated 
 that Amba, a menial of the Muni Galaba, afforded 
 him so much satisfaction, that he blessed her, and 
 informed her that she should have a boy, whose 
 name should be Virahhadra (most fortunate), and 
 that his profession should be that of medicine. 
 The child was called Ambasta, or more commonly 
 Yaidya, as stated in Manu, and his offspring 
 formed the Yaidya caste, who understood the 
 Ayur-veda, or Medical Shastre. This caste claimed 
 a respect only inferior to that afforded the 
 Brahmins of the first order. They had access to 
 all the Shastres, and became learned pundits and 
 skilful physicians. The Brahmin learned the 
 medical Shastres for his own interest and character; 
 the Khetrya, for the benefit of his health ; and 
 the Yaidya, for his subsistence, as he was alone 
 allowed to receive recompense from the sick. 
 
 In a more modern age, other persons, even of 
 the degraded Sudra caste, were allowed to be 
 taught the Ayur-veda; when honest, learned, and 
 of respectable descent. 
 
 In such a state of society, the chiefs and Brahmins 
 were everything, and the people nothing. By the 
 same arrangement, these were divided into the 
 third class, or Vaishya, who was supposed to have 
 been derived from Brahma's navel, to cultivate
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 27 
 
 the land, to traffic, and to provide man -in the 
 social state with the necessaries of life ; while the 
 Sudra, or fourth class, derived from Brahma's 
 feet, as the emblem of subjection, was intended to 
 labour, to serve, and to travel. Those who were 
 content with their condition, were stated to be the 
 persons who most readily obtained perfection. 
 
 The priestly office, like that of the druids and 
 monks of Europe, was the road to distinction, and 
 was guarded by caste in India. Within its sacred 
 precincts learned men began to investigate truth, 
 promote learning, encourage peace, and other 
 social qualities; teaching the nation how much 
 happiness and comfort might be derived from the 
 rich resources of nature. 
 
 In Europe, the first rank in society was the 
 prize of the warrior, for, too often, his success in 
 violence and rapine ; and it was continually chang- 
 ing, and readjusting; whereas, in Hindostan, rank 
 and station were permanent, and were supposed to 
 be reached by the successful cultivation of the mind, 
 and the practice of virtue. This was not the 
 case in practice, and however noble qualities an 
 individual of the inferior caste in Asia possessed, 
 his rank was fixed, and however distinguished, 
 he was still degraded, and his duty that of servi- 
 tude ; whereas, the Brahmin might be ignorant.
 
 28 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 wanting in self-respect, patience, rectitude, wis- 
 dom, and learning, and was still respected: the 
 real character thus forming a contrast to the here- 
 ditary, which brought the system of caste into 
 disrepute ; as a character was assumed, and 
 acknowledged, which was not deserved. This 
 retarded learning and civilisation, which can only 
 be fostered by the love of liberty, and the sove- 
 reignty of pubKc opinion. 
 
 It would thus appear that the institution of caste 
 first accelerated the advancement of knowledge, 
 by accumulating the experience of generations, 
 enabling them to acquire a degree of hereditary 
 aptitude and manual expertness, and develope an 
 extent of ingenuity, that has scarcely been equalled 
 in Europe. The Sanscrit language was taught 
 to the Brahmins; and the Khetryas and the 
 Vaishya were formerly included among the twin- 
 born, and were privileged to study the Sanscrit 
 language, and read the sacred vedas, like the 
 Brahmins. The Sudra was not interdicted from 
 learning the Sanscrit, although not allowed to 
 read certain books of essential importance to the 
 study of the language. The same obstacles still 
 exist in theory, but from the diminished influence 
 of the Brahmins, these obstacles may be considered 
 as in reality removed. Every caste is now allowed
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 29 
 
 to learn the sacred language. They only observe 
 that Brahmins do not submit to learn Sanscrit 
 from the Sudras, or from impure and degraded 
 Brahmins. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 EDUCATION or THE HIXDU PHYSICIANS. 
 
 The education of the upper classes among the 
 ancient Hindus was pursued with care, and was 
 peculiar, to suit the manners of the country. 
 The school was generally held under a spreading 
 sacred tree, at some distance from the town or vil- 
 lage to which they belonged, where the professor, 
 or guru^ delivered his lectures. These consisted 
 chiefly in explanations of the principles of science, 
 which were varied according to the particular 
 branch to which the student was chiefly to direct 
 his attention. One guru was celebrated for theo- 
 logy, another for science, a third medicine, &c. 
 Before admission to such tuition, the youth re- 
 quired to know certain studies, to be of sufficient 
 rank and capacity, and to have aff'orded satisfaction 
 to his instructor. Such a youth was allowed to
 
 30 HISTORY OF MEDICI^E 
 
 enter upon his studies, and was taught in the 
 learning of the sect. 
 
 The lectures consisted chiefly in inculcating 
 orally the principles of natural religion, and de- 
 scribing the perfection of the Supreme Being, 
 the wisdom and goodness of providence, the ad- 
 mirable harmony of the universe, the position of 
 man in the scale of beings, the end of his creation, 
 the dignity of his nature, and the means of exalt- 
 ing it to the highest degree of perfection.* They 
 explained the immortality of the soul, and the 
 duties of man to his neighbour, and to his creator ; 
 and the advantages that arose from attention to 
 morality. The teachers took pains to show that a 
 life of hardship, in which a man was continually 
 exposed to what the world thought the greatest 
 evils, such as abstinence from food and drink, 
 residing in solitude, and bearing the inclemency of 
 the seasons, was preferable to any other course, as 
 it led to the possession of true wisdom, the obtain- 
 ing a perfect command over the passions, and the 
 enjoyment of health, with undisturbed peace of 
 mind. 
 
 It was not alone to precepts of philosophy, that 
 the guru attended, but they guarded the pupil 
 against the commission of dangerous errors and 
 
 * Apuleius in Floridcs, lib. 2. Clem. Alexand. Stromat. lib. 3.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 31 
 
 gross vices ; as they considered themselves to be 
 employed in the service of the deity, who aided 
 them by his friendship in the execution of their 
 great work, and in the investigation of the weakness 
 of nature. The students were obliged to attend 
 several hours a-day, to the instruction of their 
 guru, and to meditate in solitude on the truths of 
 philosophy ; and they amused themselves with ex- 
 periments, and the conversation of their friends.* 
 They had before them the example of rigid 
 virtue in their preceptors, and were exposed to 
 their reproaches if they were not, at any time, 
 equally firm in their principles and practice. 
 They had the pride of sustaining the rank of 
 their Brahminical caste, the first in the state, to 
 which the highest honours were awarded, which 
 encouraged them in the pursuit of studies which 
 were attended with so high a reward. 
 
 When he had completed his novitiate, the 
 student was allowed to devote himself entirely to 
 religion, so as to ensure final beatitude ; f or to 
 marry a woman of his own caste, and then 
 search for the means of support. This may be 
 by lawful gleaning and gathering, and receiving 
 what is given him unasked. Should these means 
 
 * In Strabo, lib. xv. Arrian in Indius Apulcins. 
 t Manu, ch. ii,, verses 243, 244, and 249. Ibid, ch. iii. v. 2, 4.
 
 6 A HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 fail, he may ask for alms, become a soldier, * 
 or resort to tillage, or the care of cattle — the latter 
 being preferred to the former.j* When greatly 
 distressed, he may engage in traffic, but service 
 for hire is pronounced " dog living," and must be 
 avoided. :|: "When the Brahmin has seen the child 
 of his child, he should retire to a forest, and 
 devote himself entirely to holy studies, to con- 
 templation, the practice of sacred rites, and the 
 endurance of severe mortification ; § and a still 
 higher degree of purity is when the Brahmin 
 abandons all sensual affections, and reposes wholly 
 in the supreme spirit. |[ 
 
 The life of the Brahmin was thus pure and 
 simple, and those pleasures which seduce the rest of 
 mankind had no charms for them. Their apostolic 
 equality rendered them independent, and banished 
 envy, jealousy, ambition, and malice. They looked 
 upon each other as brethren, whom nature had 
 made equal, and as children of a supreme God and 
 Father, who sought to share alike the inheritance 
 he had given them. Eeason was the sole guide 
 to the execution of their desires. 
 
 They believed that all countries produced 
 whatever was requisite for making them happy ; 
 
 * Manu, Chap. x. verse 81. f Chap. x. v. 82 and 83. 
 
 X Chap. iv. verse 6. ^^ Chap. vi. verses I to 10. 
 
 II Id , eh. vi. verse 33.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 33 
 
 and that reasonable men ought rather to contract 
 their appetites, and be content with what nature 
 bestows, than augment the inconveniences to 
 which human nature is subject, by desiring the 
 products of other lands. Man ought to be satisfied 
 with the state he was in, and never so much as 
 murmur at the accidents that befel him. On this 
 account they were exempt, in a great degree, 
 from disease, which was known to them by the 
 complaints of others; and that pure joy, which 
 reigned in their breasts, was only disturbed by 
 the miseries of other people. 
 
 They loved all sorts of labour which exercised 
 the body, and procured the necessaries of life; 
 while they punished idleness, held nothing that 
 constituted property, and detested gain — as it 
 created a thousand wants in the heart of man, and 
 rendered him poorer in proportion as his wealth 
 increased. For a like reason, they dreaded plea- 
 sure as the source of weakness. With such 
 opinions, the bird was allowed to fly undisturbed 
 in the air, the beasts fed peaceably in the fields, 
 and the fish were unmolested in the waters. 
 They possessed all they could wish, because they 
 desired no more than they wanted. 
 
 They avoided unnecessary dress, as it had the 
 appearance of softness and luxury, and even the
 
 34 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 women were persuaded that fine and gaudy attire 
 was rather troublesome than ornamental, and that 
 art cannot add to beauty, or supply the want of it. 
 Their independence delivered them from fear and 
 subjection. They warmed themselves in the 
 sunbeams, the dews refreshed them, and they 
 neither dreaded wind, rain, cold, nor heat. They 
 washed themselves in the river, and lived on the 
 roots and herbs the fields produced ; and thus indif- 
 ferent to their food, they knew not what delicacies 
 were. They neither levelled forests nor rocks to 
 build their houses; being content with huts or 
 caves for their habitations during life, which served 
 for their sepulchres after death. The earth served 
 them for a bed, and care never disturbed their 
 sleep. Peace of mind preserved their thoughts 
 free and independent, delivered them from fear, 
 and from subjection of every kind. It was by 
 mildness and reason, not by force, they maintained 
 a good understanding with their neighbours. 
 They knew not how to handle arms, and as they 
 never provoked strangers, the idea of killing a 
 human being filled them with horror, " Fortune 
 alone is our enemy, and generally the blows 
 which she aims, fall beside us; attentive as we 
 are to do nothing that may expose us to mischief, 
 we have few evils of which we can justly complain.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 35 
 
 Death only troubles us when we are taken off 
 suddenly : otherwise the father attended not the 
 funeral of the son ; as he considered it as the lot 
 of nature, which is our constant guide " 
 
 It is impossible to set a limit to the advance- 
 ment in science of those ancient philosophers. 
 Trained from an early age to observe, to think, 
 and to reason : their minds were kept actively 
 engaged, their heads kept clear, and their 
 breasts full cf confidence, the result of innocence. 
 They considered themselves, and were considered 
 by others, as a superior race of mankind. This 
 led them to a correctness of behaviour, and a 
 degree of pride which prevented them visiting 
 any one ; and when visited, they entertained them 
 with moral and philosophical discourse suited to 
 the capacity of their hearers. They meddled 
 little with the common concerns of life ; despising 
 the pleasures which other men sought, and the 
 difficulties of which they complained. It was by 
 the strict discharge of their public and private 
 duties, and by the austerities of their lives, that 
 they maintained their influence over the people, 
 and supported that dignity and precedence which 
 the laws had given them. It was these men who, 
 instead of propitiating Alexander the Great, by 
 persuading their countrymen to submit to him,
 
 36 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 exerted their eloquence, and all their influence in 
 inciting their countrymen to behave with courage 
 and firmness in defence of their liberties, which 
 exposed them to his resentment. " I told him," 
 (Alexander) said a Brahmin, " he ought either to 
 live free, or to die in the endeavour to live so ; 
 and that man should only desire life till death 
 shall become more eligible." * Another Brahmin 
 declared, " If he should put me to death he will 
 only release my soul from this old decrepid body, 
 which will then pass into a freer and purer state, 
 so that I shall suffer nothing by the change." f 
 
 The same enthusiastic votary may still be found 
 among the Brahmins of India of the present day, 
 combining great learning with the most simple 
 and virtuous life ; while a large proportion have no 
 such pretensions, but follow secular pursuits of all 
 kinds, and are by no means scrupulous as to the 
 manner in which they gain their end. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ANCIENT HINDU MEDICAL AUTHORS AND ANALYSIS OF 
 THEIR WORKS. 
 
 There is an absence of dates in the ancient 
 chronicles and history of India; and as science 
 
 * Plutarch in Alexandre : Clem. Alexr. Strom, lib. vi., page 467. 
 t Strabo, lib. xv.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 37 
 
 has proved the fabulous character of their chro- 
 nology, we have little to guide us as to the 
 age of their systems of medicine, while the 
 philosophical and religious speculations of the 
 Hindus are often well defined. The sacred 
 hymns, composing the Vedas, were probably 
 prepared during the vedic period, which com- 
 menced about B.C. 1400, while their TJpa-vedas, 
 or treatises in general literature, are not traced 
 higher than B.C. 900, when the laws of Manu, 
 &c., were compiled. 
 
 The Ayur-veda is allowed to be the most ancient 
 system of medicine, and is of the highest authority; 
 but the age in which it was written is not known, 
 and fragments only of the MS. are now procurable. 
 It is said to have been prepared by Bramha in the 
 Satyar-yuga; or, perhaps more correctly, as we 
 have seen, about the period of the Manu code of 
 laws. From the terseness of the descriptions of 
 disease, there was considerable difficulty in under- 
 standing them, and many commentaries have been 
 written on the subject. 
 
 The nature of medicines and diseases is 
 treated of in some of the Purans, particularly in 
 the Uigni-Purdn. These works are said to have 
 been prepared by Devtas and Riskis, and some of 
 them are still procurable. 
 
 D
 
 38 
 
 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 We find the names of the following authors 
 in the great epic poem, Mahabharata ; * they are 
 said to have flourished under Yudisthira, in the 
 beginning of the Kali-yuga. 
 
 AUTHOR'S NAME. 
 
 Atrya 
 
 Agnibesa . . . 
 
 Charaka 
 
 Bhila 
 
 Jatukarna . . . . 
 
 Parasara 
 
 Harita 
 
 Karpari 
 
 Dhanwantaree 
 Susruta 
 
 NAME OF THE WORK. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Atri Sangita 
 Charaka .... 
 
 Harita Sangita 
 
 Susruta .... 
 
 Supposed to be 
 Irrecoverable. 
 
 Bhila Tantra. 
 Jatukarna Tantra. 
 Parasara Sangita. 
 
 Karpari Tantra. 
 
 These works are supposed to have been compiled 
 by different sages, on the plan of the original 
 
 * Written, according to Bentley, a.d. 600.
 
 AilONG THE ASIATICS. 31) 
 
 Ayur-veda ; and it is an interesting circumstance, 
 that the anatomical parts appear to have been 
 prepared from actual dissection. 
 
 The uncertainty of dates extends to these two 
 ancient commentators; and some difference of 
 opinion exists as to the respective ages of the 
 Charaka and Susruta. A very general belief has 
 prevailed in the East, and among oriental scholars, 
 such as the late able and distinguished physician, 
 Professor H. H. Wilson, that the Charaka is the 
 most ancient existing medical work ; and the 
 itinerant life, and oral instructions delivered, 
 without any previously arranged plan, and recorded 
 by the pupils, indicate a more ancient age than 
 the more systematic work of Susruta. Indeed, in 
 variety and copiousness, the Charaka may be 
 compared to the works of Hippocrates, who, most 
 probably, derived many of his observations from 
 this source. Both of these llindu systematic 
 authors exhibit great knowledge of the profession, 
 and great judgment and discrimination in the 
 treatment of disease. 
 
 To afford a general, and clearer view of the 
 Uindu system of ancient medicine, a short analysis 
 of the two great systematic medical works, and their 
 ideas on cosmogony, will illustrate the principles 
 upon which their theoretical reasoning is based,
 
 40 HISTORY 01^ MEDICINE 
 
 and explain many of the views of the modern 
 Asiatics, which would be otherwise obscure and 
 unintelligible. 
 
 Cliaraka and Susruta are supposed to be com- 
 mentaries on the Ayur- Veda^ being more suited 
 to the understanding of a degenerate and suffering 
 people ; but, the Hindus did not allow the preju- 
 dices that now exist in Asia, against touching the 
 dead body, to interfere with that important and 
 necessary branch of knowledge, which can be ac- 
 quired by dissection alone. Both these medical 
 works, in a more modem mythological sense, were 
 supposed to be derived from God, to avert disease, 
 the result of the sins of mankind ; Charaka, 
 having been prepared by a Munee [Atrya\ who 
 was instructed by Indra ; while the Susruta was 
 believed to have been imparted by the venerable 
 Dhanwantaree to his disciple Susruta. 
 
 The faculties of these sages were said to be 
 developed, to enable them to understand the Ayur- 
 veda^ and to distinguish the peculiarities of disease, 
 and the qualities of medicines. Thus enlightened, 
 they gained much distinction by the cures they 
 performed, and enjoyed vigorous health to a very 
 old age. These sages prepared works called by 
 their own names, which were read before the 
 assembled sages, and gave such satisfaction,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 41 
 
 that, "with a voice which reached to heaven," 
 they proclaimed their admiration of the authors. 
 Agnibesa was declared to have produced the best 
 practical work ; and after it was corrected by 
 Charaka, it received his name,* and he became the 
 instructor of practitioners on earth, as the Prajapate 
 were in heaven. 
 
 Charaka is considered the most ancient, and 
 the most celebrated Hindu medical work extant. 
 It is arranged in the form of dialogues, or lectures, 
 between Atrya the master, and his pupils, in 
 their conferences. They follow the eight divisions 
 of the Ayur-veda ; and, from the manner in which 
 the instruction is conveyed, the conversation is 
 often desultory. The subjects discussed seem 
 naturally to suggest themselves at these confer- 
 ences between the master and his pupils. A 
 systematic work is not attempted ; but rather 
 the most practical and important subjects are 
 discussed for the supposed benefit of mankind. 
 This explains the variety of subjects that are 
 treated in the same book. 
 
 The first book fShloka-s' thanaj explains the 
 origin of medicine, and the duty of the physician ; 
 the arrangement, property, and use of medicine ; 
 
 * Which, in the Sanscrit language, means, one who makes joumies, 
 or excursions.
 
 42 HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the cause, nature, prevention, and cure of disease. 
 These subjects are considered in thirty heads, 
 not always well defined. The following are the 
 twenty chief sections : origin of medicine; materia 
 medica ; use of medicine ; diet ; causes of disease, 
 and means of preventing them ; the duties of the 
 physician to the patient and attendants; hot steam 
 baths ; preparation of medicine ; derangements of 
 the head and belly, and other diseases ; regimen ; 
 nature of the diseases of the blood ; the advantage 
 of treating disease ; the classification of food into 
 solid and liquid ; the enumeration of the ten vital 
 parts ; the necessity of a skilful physician for the 
 cure of disease; the means of retaining good 
 health ; and the knowledge of disease. 
 
 The second book contains a description of dis- 
 eases fNidana-sHJianaJ^ as fever, and its causes ; 
 discharges of blood from the natural orifices; 
 tumours (gulma); diabetes, and gonorrhasa; 
 leprosy ; consumption ; mania and epilepsy. 
 
 The third book fBmana-sHhanaJ considers the 
 causes and nature of epidemics; the nature of 
 food ; the symptoms, diagnosis, and complications 
 of disease; the use and variety of medicines; 
 and the peculiarities of the fluids of the body. 
 
 The fourth book fSharka-sHhanaJ contains 
 remarks on the nature of the soul; conception; the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 43 
 
 varieties of tlie species ; the qualities of the ele- 
 ments and their combinations; a description of 
 the different parts of the body ; and the connection 
 of the soul and body. 
 
 The fifth book flndriya-s'thanaj contains a de- 
 scription of the organs of sense, and their peculi- 
 arities and diseases ; the colour of the body, and 
 the medicines to improve it ; general defects of 
 speech ; diseases of the body, and those symptoms 
 which affect the senses, and other parts of the 
 body ; the causes of the diseases of organs, and 
 of other parts ; sudden loss of strength ; death. 
 
 The sixth book fChekeisa-s' thanaj considers the 
 treatment of disease, and the means of improving 
 the colour of the body, increasing vigour, and 
 enjoying long life. This is accomplished by 
 improving delicate health, increasing strength, 
 avoiding disease, and so reaching old age. By 
 feeding cows you improve the colour of the 
 body, and increase strength by the use of their 
 milk. The treatment cf different classes of 
 diseases, as fever, dropsy, swelling, piles, chronic 
 diarrhoea, jaundice, asthma, cough, dysentery, 
 vomiting, erysipelas, thirst, and the effects of 
 poisons. Remedying the consequences of drinking 
 intoxicating liquors, of local and general inflam- 
 mation, of diseases of the vital parts, of large
 
 44 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 abscesses of the thigh, of rheumatism, and of 
 spasmodic and paralytic diseases. 
 
 The seventh book fKalpa-sHhanaJ treats of 
 emetics and purgatives, and the manner of using 
 antidotes, and medical charms. This book is 
 divided into twelve chapters, in which is given 
 the manner of exhibiting the emetics and pur- 
 gatives used by the ancient Hindus, with directions 
 for employing them : and 
 
 The eighth book f Siddhi-s' thanaj treats of in- 
 jections and evacuating medicines, and describes the 
 vital parts of the body. This book is divided into 
 twelve chapters, of which the chief subjects are, the 
 evacuating medicines used in fever, injections for 
 the urethra, vagina, and rectum ; abscesses, their 
 results and treatment ; the use of clysters for the 
 cure of diseases ; a description of vital parts, &c. 
 
 The following are examples of the questions 
 asked by the pupil, Agnibesa^ and answered by 
 A try a J the teacher, which may be offered as an 
 example of the manner in which a philosophical 
 subject is treated in one of the chapters of 
 Charaka. The pupil asks, " What is the soul ? " 
 ^'How is it produced?" "What is the cause 
 of the formation of the body ? " " Is the soul 
 ignorant or wise?" "Is it eternal or destruc- 
 tible?" "What are the temperaments?" *'What
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 45 
 
 is disease ? " " What are the proofs of the exist- 
 ence of the soul ? " " Why do some philosophers 
 say that the soul is inert, independent, that it 
 represses the passions, is omnipresent and omni- 
 potent?" "Why do they say the soul is an 
 emanation of the deity ?" " Why is it called 
 the "witness of the actions of the body?" ''If 
 inert, "why do we see its actions?" "If in- 
 dependent, "why does it enter the body ? " *' If a 
 represser of the passions, "why is it always desirous 
 of indulging the passions, and grie"nng over our 
 misfortunes ? " " If the soul is omnipresent, why 
 does it not feel the pains of others ; and if omni- 
 scient, why do we not see it in mountains, hills, 
 and other situations ? " " Does the soul exist 
 before or after the formation of the body ? " " If 
 the soul is the conscience or witness, has it any 
 judge ? " " How does it support the pains of dis- 
 ease ? " " Do practitioners employ means to pre- 
 vent disease, and when present, what is the 
 treatment ? " " What is the cause of pain in dis- 
 ease, and where is it situated?" "How many 
 kinds of pain are there ; and how are they re- 
 moved ? " 
 
 The work of Charaka is of the highest rank ; 
 but from the author's want of exact anatomical 
 and pathological knowledge, his manner of treating
 
 46 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the subject, and his arrangement and description 
 of disease, are often obscure, although they may be 
 generally accurate. In this work, simple medicines 
 are employed, often in combination. These in- 
 gredients were increased in number, and became 
 extravagant in the varied combinations em- 
 ployed in the therapeutical department of more 
 modern works. 
 
 To increase the importance of these great medical 
 systems, a fanciful niythological origin is given 
 to them. That of the second, or Susruta, is thus 
 related : when the Yedas were lost in the deluge 
 they were recovered by the great serpent Ananta* 
 upon the thousand heads of which the world rests* 
 At the churning of the ocean by the gods and 
 demons, in searching for the waters of immorta- 
 lity, the ocean was converted into milk, and then 
 into butter, from which precious gifts (ratnas) 
 were derived. Among these was Dhanwantaree, 
 the physician, or holy sage, the possessor of the 
 water of life (Amrita-\) drunk by the immortals. 
 He is represented as a venerable old man, with a 
 book in his hand. X 
 
 Dhanwantaree was instructed in the Ayur-veda 
 
 * A d^vta, also Vishnu; which signifies the end, endless, eternal, 
 boundless. 
 
 t Amrita, that which gives life. 
 
 X This Esculapius of the Hindus has no attendant serpont like his brother 
 in Greece,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 47 
 
 by Indra, and practised medicine with great suc- 
 cess in heaven, and became celebrated there : 
 but, witnessing the ignorance and misery of 
 mankind, and the frequency and fatality of the 
 diseases which afflicted them, he descended upon 
 earth to instruct them in the means of pre- 
 venting, as well as of curing diseases. He 
 flourished in the mythological age, is men- 
 tioned in the most ancient Sanscrit writings that 
 have been preserved, became king of Kas'i^ or 
 Benares, and acquired much celebrity by the 
 cures which he performed. The divine sages, 
 aware of his great knowledge, and witnessing the 
 misery of mankind in consequence of their ignor- 
 ance, resolved to petition Dhanwantaree to assist 
 them. 
 
 With this intention, Oupud/inuha, Baiturana, 
 Aurahhra, Poushkalahataj KaraUrja^ Goupuraa^ 
 RuJceeta, Susnita, were selected to visit Devadasa, 
 or Dhanzva?itarce, formerly the practitioner of 
 heaven. On their arrival at Benares, they 
 found that he had retired to the jungles. They 
 followed him to his retirement, and as they 
 approached him, after mutual salutations, they 
 delivered the following address : — " Deign, 
 Sovereign Euler, to bestow upon us the power 
 of preventing and curing the many diseases
 
 48 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 under which mankind is suffering — affecting their 
 bodies, tormenting their minds; and which, with 
 the numerous accidental and natural diseases, dis- 
 tress them so much that they seem to be without 
 friends. Their destitution grieves us much, and 
 we pray that you will instruct us in the cause, 
 the nature, and the cure of disease ; the means 
 for retaining health, and for promoting the welfare 
 of the soul in another world. Like scholars, we 
 come to receive this information from you." 
 Dhanwantaree answered, " Your wishes shall 
 be granted." The sages then informed their 
 preceptor, that as they were all of the same sect, 
 one of them should ask the questions, and write 
 down the answers required, and the others see that 
 they were correct. 
 
 Susruta, son of Vzswamiira, an ancient Hindu 
 hero, as attested by very old Hindu MSS., parti- 
 cularly the Eig-veda, a contemporary of Eama, 
 was chosen to be the person to be instructed in 
 medicine. Dhanwantaree said that Ayur-veda was 
 for the cure of disease, and for the preservation of 
 health ; but it was too voluminous to be recollected 
 by the present degenerate race of mankind. He 
 recommended Susruta to abridge it, and to arrange 
 it into parts, so as to be easily understood by his 
 pupils, who studied it with attention. This work
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 49 
 
 is still preserved, and after Charaka, is the oldest 
 book in medicine which the Hindus possess, and is 
 of highest authority. The following is the man- 
 ner in which it was supposed to be prepared : — 
 
 Dhanwantaree asked his pupils, on what shall I 
 first lecture? They answered, on Surgery; because 
 formerly there were no diseases among the 
 gods, and wounds inflicted in the battles between 
 the gods and demons were the first injuries which 
 required ti'eatment. Besides, the practice of sur- 
 gery is more respected, as aff'ording immediate 
 relief, and is connected with the practice of 
 medicine ; although the latter has less connexion 
 with surgery. 
 
 The eight divisions of the Ayur-veda, are ar- 
 ranged in the following six books, by Susruta : — 
 
 1st. — Medical doctrine, (Sutras fhana.) This 
 book treats of miscellaneous introductory subjects, 
 such as the principles of medicine ; the origin of 
 medicine ; the selection, management, and inaugu- 
 ration of pupils; their faculties; the first principles 
 and elements of the body ; and various forms of 
 disease and accidents, and their treatment. The 
 rules for teaching ; the duty of practitioners ; the 
 selection and use of instruments, and of medicines ; 
 the influence of the weather on health, and the 
 practice to be followed after surgical operations.
 
 50 HISTOKY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Then follows the description of the diseases of the 
 humours, and of surgical diseases ; the restoration 
 of defective ears and noses ; and the removal of 
 extraneous substances, which have entered the 
 body; the different stages of inflammation with their 
 treatment, the different forms of wounds and ulcers, 
 and the regimen of patients labouring under sur- 
 gical diseases. The description of good and bad 
 diet ; of prognosis ; the kind of messengers to bo 
 employed by the sick ; and of diseases produced 
 by the deranged actions of the senses, and of 
 incurable diseases. Then follow the preparations 
 required for accompanying a rajah in war, the 
 duty of practitioners, the variety of climates, the 
 different classes of medicines according to their 
 sensible qualities, a description of the fluids, 
 of the different preparations, and of articles of 
 food. These subjects are treated of in forty-six 
 chapters. 
 
 2nd. — Pathology, (Nidana-sVhana) the symp- 
 toms and diagnosis of diseases produced by vitiated 
 humours, or derangements of blood, bile, wind, and 
 phlegm. The symptoms and causes of rheumatic 
 diseases, of piles, stone, fistula-in-ano, leprosy, 
 diabetes, gonorrhoea, and ascites ; the symptoms of 
 unnatural presentations in midwifery, large internal 
 abscesses, erysipelas, scrofula, hydrocele, diseases
 
 iMONG THE ASIATICS. 51 
 
 of the organs of generation, and of the mouth. 
 These subjects are considered in sixteen chapters. 
 
 Srd. — Anatomy, (Sanra-sfhana), or structure 
 of the body. The description of the soul, and of 
 the elementary parts of the body ; of puberty ; of 
 conception ; of the growth of the different parts of 
 the body ; of bleeding ; of the treatment of preg- 
 nancy, and of infants. This division has ten 
 chapters. 
 
 4 th, — Therapia [ChiMtsa-sfhana), describes the 
 symptoms and treatment of diseases, wounds, and 
 ulcers ; the history of inflammation ; the treatment 
 of fractures, rheumatic diseases, piles, stone, fistula- 
 in-ano, leprosy, diabetes, and dropsy; the man- 
 ner of extracting the child from the uterus in 
 unusual positions ; the arrangement of diet ; reme- 
 dies for retaining and restoring health and strength, 
 and for prolonging life ; the means of preventiug 
 diseases ; the use of clysters, of crrhines, and of 
 the smoke of different medicinal substances. 
 These are considered in forty chapters. 
 
 5th.— Doctrine of Antidotes {Kalim-sPhana). 
 This explains the means of preparing and pre- 
 serving food and drink, of distinguishing poisoned 
 food ; and descriptions of different mineral, vege- 
 table, and animal poisons, with their antidotes. 
 This division is treated of in eight chapters.
 
 52 HISTORY OP MEDICI^E 
 
 6th. — The supplementary section , ( TJttara- 
 sfhana) includes various local diseases, not 
 mentioned in the previous chapters, without any 
 scientific order ; such as those of the eyes, nose, 
 ears, and head, with their treatment ; the symptoms 
 and treatment of fever, and its varieties; dysentery; 
 consumption; tumours; diseases of the heart, jaun- 
 dice, discharges of blood, and fainting. This is 
 followed by the treatment of intoxication, of cough, 
 hiccough, asthma, hoarseness of voice, worms, ster- 
 torous vomiting, cholera, dyspepsia, and dysuria. 
 It also treats of madness, including the kind 
 produced by demons in possessed persons; epilepsy ; 
 apoplexy; the different tastes of substances, with 
 their effects ; the means of retaining health ; and 
 the different opinions of practitioners regarding the 
 humours. These subjects are treated in sixty-six 
 chapters. 
 
 The Charaka and Susruta are the ground work 
 of the more recent medical systems; in which 
 their authors have adhered to the arrangement 
 and the general details of the originals. But 
 these imitators, being ignorant of anatomy, and of 
 the usual causes of diseases, are still more defective 
 in their descriptions, particularly when they de- 
 viate from the more ancient writers. 
 
 It was by means of the works of Charaka and
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 53 
 
 Susruta that all the sages (Munis) are alleged to 
 have been instructed in medicine ; and the variety 
 of opinions to be found in the treatises they after- 
 wards wrote, was in consequence of the shortness 
 of these compilations, their poetical form, and the 
 great extent and difficulty of the subject. These 
 sages are said to have practised medicine as a 
 means of accomplishing much good to mankind ; 
 and they became famous by the number of lives 
 which they saved. Those who were taught by 
 Charaka became physicians, and the followers of 
 Susruta, surgeons. 
 
 Charaka is superior to Susruta in the accuracy 
 of his descriptions, in the classification of diseases, 
 and in the plan of treatment which he recommends : 
 while Susruta is principally celebrated for his 
 anatomical descriptions, and judicious treatment 
 of surgical diseases. They afford a description 
 of the ancient medical opinions of the Hindus, 
 upon which their more modern theoretical opinions 
 are based; and explain many of the views of 
 the moderns, which would be otherwise obscure 
 or unintelligible from their peculiarity, and the 
 trite manner in which the subjects are discussed. 
 The supposed divine origin of medicine is the 
 reason why the profession is considered as a part 
 of the Hindu religion ; and this mingling of divine 
 
 E
 
 64 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 and human things is another proof of its great 
 antiquity. 
 
 To such authorities the modern Hindu prac- 
 titioners invariably look, to the neglect of that 
 careful and continued examination of the progress 
 of disease, by which alone its true nature and 
 successful treatment are discovered. The works 
 of these commentators embraced the whole system, 
 and the erroneous principles upon which their 
 theoretical speculations were sometimes built are 
 not detected, in consequence of the contracted 
 space occupied in their descriptions, which discard 
 minute observations on disease, or specific details 
 regarding the opinions of others. 
 
 Besides these sacred writings, there are many 
 valuable professional commentaries on different 
 medical subjects, said to have been composed by 
 prophets and holy men, to whom a divine origin 
 is generally ascribed, some written in the pen- 
 insula and the south of India, in Tamul, and some 
 in Bengal and the northern provinces, in Bengalee 
 and Sanscrit. These works are chiefly valuable for 
 the explanations of obscure passages, and even 
 these are not always to be depended on, from the 
 ignorance and carelessness of the transcribers. 
 
 The two following medical works deserve to be 
 mentioned here : Bagvhata compiled a treatise
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 00 
 
 ^called Ostongohrecdoya. This was principally 
 ttakcn from Charaka and Siisruta. The manner of 
 treating the subject, and the arrangements are 
 ranch the same. It is written in a clear style, and 
 the author explains passages which were before 
 (imperfectly understood, in the original works. 
 About three hundred years ago, another compila- 
 ition was made from the most celebrated medical 
 works, and called Bhavdprakasha. The author 
 collected all that was most precious from the works 
 left by other sages, and named the work after 
 himself. By its clearness, and excellent arrange- 
 ment, the obscurities of the more ancient medical 
 shastres, forgotten and corrupted, are in many 
 places explained. This work was compiled for 
 the use of practitioners, and is preferred by them, 
 as it gives an admirable account of all the practical 
 parts of the Hindu medical science. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal medical 
 works which are now found in Hindoostan, and 
 were compiled after the great works of Charaka 
 and Susruta. They are arranged in the probable 
 order in which they were prepared : — Aupad- 
 hanaha, and Auravhra wrote systems of Surgery j 
 and Todrananda, Chakradatta, Pracharar&ntabali, 
 and Sarangadhara, systems of Medicine. Eajanir- 
 ghanta prepared a Materia Medica, to which
 
 56 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Drabyaguna added a commentary. Madhava 
 Nidana, compiled a system of Nosology ; Bangaja 
 Katnavali, a system of Pharmacy ; Easa Eatnakar, 
 a treatise on Metallic Preparations ; and Easen-. 
 drachintamani, Easendrakralpadruma, and Mad- 
 humati, systems of Medicine.* 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 DUTIES OF TEACHERS. 
 
 In tlie ancient works of the Hindus, it is stated 
 that the teachers of medicine were Eishis, or ascetic 
 sageSj who often did not instruct more than three 
 or four pupils at one time; in many cases their 
 'relations. These pupils were maintained at their 
 own houses, and in many cases the teacher sup- 
 ported them, being satisfied with the honour and 
 merit of bestowing knowledge ; which procured for 
 him renown in this world, and the highest benefits 
 in a future state. In some cases an allowance was 
 made to the teacher by their chief, and rich 
 neighbours. 
 
 * See, also, Sir Wbitelaw Ainslie's Materia Indica; vol, ii, page 491 
 
 i
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 57 
 
 The preceptor, during the time he teaches his 
 pupil, is directed to wear two pieces of cloth ; his 
 mind should be calm, and he shoiild be regular 
 in his attendance. 
 
 By the ancient Hindus the profession of teacher 
 was considered of the highest order. It is even 
 stated that "the feet of the teacher is the origin of 
 happiness, and like a light in a dark room, he will 
 illuminate the contracted and dark mind of the 
 pupil ; or, as quicksilver, properly mixed with 
 other metals and exposed to heat, will be changed 
 to gold, so will the words that come out of his 
 mouth be pure and valuable." It is stated in 
 another work that a good teacher should possess 
 the following qualifications: — ''He should have no 
 defect of body ; be clean and neat in his person ; 
 be kind and humble to every one; always be 
 ready to expose the good, rather than the bad 
 qualities of others ; have a perfect knowledge of 
 the shastres, joined to extensive practical know- 
 ledge, and skill ; and possess and exhibit to his 
 pupils all kinds of medicines and instruments. 
 He should always be increasing his knowledge 
 of books, and should neither be angry at the 
 improprieties of his pupils, nor fatigued by their 
 importunities. He should be kind and conside- 
 rate, and be able to explain the most complicated
 
 58 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 statements, in the simplest, and most perspicuous 
 language. Sucli a person as this, who instructs a 
 pupil, when of good parentage, is like the season- 
 able cloud and rain upon the corn field, which 
 quickly matures its valuable produce." 
 
 '^ Such a man is not therefore decrepid, though 
 his hair be gray ; as the gods consider as aged, the 
 person who, though young in years, has read, and 
 understood the vedas As an elephant made of 
 wood, or an antelope made of earth, such is an 
 unlearned Brahmin— who has nothing but the 
 name."* 
 
 Should a teacher give improper instructions to 
 his pupils, or peruse with him bad books, he will 
 bear the weight of the sin of his pupil; and the 
 seeds which he sows will not produce good fruit. 
 
 These vaidya teachers are often more learned, 
 and have less pride than the Brahmins.^j* "They 
 are usually poets, grammarians, rhetoricians, and 
 moralists; and may be esteemed in general the 
 most virtuous and amiable of the Hindus." J 
 
 * Manu. p. 44, and 156, 157. 
 f The reverence with which a Brahmin is hokl is not surpri?;ing, when 
 it is considerGd that they are supposed to he sprung from the mouth of 
 Bramha, tliat they are the guardians of the sacred hooks, that all the offices 
 and heiicfits of religion must proeeed from them, and, as gods, they hold 
 the destinies of man at their disposal. 
 
 I Sir William Jones.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 59 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 CHA.KACTER AND DUTIES OF PUPILS. 
 
 The Hindu physician should teach the sons of 
 Brahmins, of Khetriyas, and of Yaidyas. In all 
 cases, the medical student should be the son of a 
 respectable and ancient family, who is either the 
 son of a physician, or of one who respects the pro- 
 fession. He should possess a mild, amiable, and 
 happy disposition ; be of an active, inquisitive, and 
 observant mind; fond of his duties, and not fatigued 
 with his studies ; of retentive memory and correct 
 judgment, of a generous heart and possessing true 
 philanthropy. The indications of such qualifica- 
 tions are said to be " an agreeable voice, a small 
 tongue and eyes, and a small and straight nose, 
 with th'n lips, short teeth, which do not expose 
 the gums, and thick hair which retains its vigour." 
 AVith such qualifications, even the son of a Sudra 
 may be taught the shastres, with the exception of 
 certain prayers (mantras). The teacher's fiiith in 
 God will thus remain, and be conveyed to such a 
 pupil ; and the teacher will shed glory over the 
 pupil, even should he be a Eajah, and after death, 
 the teacher will go to the heaven of Indra. 
 
 About the age of twelve the aspirant should
 
 60 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 commence his Sanscrit studies at the school of 
 some eminent Brahmin, who generally confers 
 gratuitous instructions on four or six young men 
 of his own caste. In these more modern schools 
 they first learn the grammar, named Mugia- 
 hodha by heart, without attempting to translate 
 it. This occupies the first three years ; and 
 when he has then mastered the Sanscrit Vya- 
 karan, he next studies for two years, Bhatte^ 
 to exemplify the important rules of grammar; 
 and the heroic poems of the BagJiuvansa^ the 
 Kumara Sarnbhava^ the h'aishadha, and the 
 difficult Sisupala Badha^ by Magh. Instead of 
 the vedas, the medical student studies the Ayur- 
 veda, and the Rajaniti, or instruction of princes, 
 and instead of law, the Niti shastra, or general 
 system of ethics. Their Sahitya, or Cavya Sastra, 
 contains innumerable poems, written chiefly by 
 physicians, which supply the place of the Puranas, 
 since they contain all the stories of the Eamayan 
 Bharata, and Bhagavata ; they have access to 
 many treatises of Alankara or rhetoric, with a 
 variety of works in modulated prose; to the Nataka, 
 which answers to the Gandharvaveda, consisting 
 of regular dramatic pieces, in Sanscrit and Pracrit. 
 Besides which, they usually, get by heart some 
 entire vocabulary and grammar.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 61 
 
 These students of medicine enter their names as 
 the pupils of some celebrated Brahmin or Yaidya, 
 who teaches the science of medicine. When the 
 student has learned one branch of the medical art, 
 or that followed by his father, he is not allowed to 
 change it for another branch, although he can 
 change his profession at any time. 
 
 A fortunate day is to be selected for the pupil 
 to commence reading the shastres- On that occa- 
 sion he is to be clean in his person, and the place 
 in which he is to study should be purified. A 
 raised part of the room or place of study, a cubit 
 square, is to be cleaned with cows' dung and 
 strewed with Kusa grass, after which fire is to 
 be placed upon it, with several kinds of sacred 
 wood, upon which ghee is poured, while prayers 
 (mantras) are repeated. The pupil, while being 
 initiated, should stand near the fire, with his face 
 towards the east, if he seeks long life ; if exalted 
 fame, to the south ; if prosperity, to the west ; if 
 truth and its reward, to the north. He must 
 rise first, and go to rest before his tutor. 
 
 The guru and other Brahmins are then to 
 pray over some dried rice, and the former should 
 sprinkle water over the assembly. He is then to 
 place a Brahmin on his right hand, over which he 
 prays as he throws a mixture of curdled milk.
 
 62 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 honey, and ghee, over the sacred fire. The scholar 
 does the same, and his lesson begins. The guru 
 declares that he must henceforth discard lust, 
 anger, covetousness, ignorance, laziness, vanity, 
 pride, envy, revenge, cruelty, lying, and evil 
 actions. He must always be engaged in the search 
 after truth, and in the performance of good actions; 
 he must be clean in his person, wear an humble 
 and peculiar kind of coloured clothes; and his 
 beard and nails should not be cut during the 
 period of his religious study. Before and after 
 meals, as well as on many other occasions, the 
 student must carefully perform his ablutions. 
 After bathing and being purified, he is to offer 
 fresh water to the gods, sages, and munis ; and 
 to convey wood for the oblation to fire. He 
 must always respect his teacher and parents ; 
 put the dust of their feet upon his head, and obey 
 them in everything ; or he will be unfortunate in 
 this world, and will be born in a degraded position 
 in another life. The pupil should thus be addressed 
 by the guru : — 
 
 "When I say you may eat, drink, sleep, or 
 rise from bed, you must immediately obey. If 
 the scholar does not perform all this he sins, his 
 understanding will diminish, and his glory will be 
 quenched. Whatever I say you must believe, and
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. DO 
 
 follow my instructions. You must be careful to 
 act so as to please me, and if I do not acknow- 
 ledge your good actions, I shall sin and my know- 
 ledge will be barren." 
 
 " In the treatment of the diseases of Brahmins, 
 gurus, and the poor and helpless, or persons who 
 come from a distance, you must be as careful as 
 you would be of your own relations, by which you 
 will make more friends, and acquire virtue, wealth, 
 and a good name. You must not be displeased at 
 my treating you as a son, a servant, or a beggar, 
 you must harbour no bad thoughts, you must be 
 moderate in the indulgence of your appetites, and 
 contented with a small recompense. By night 
 and by day your anxious desire should always be 
 to consider how you are to relieve and cure the 
 sick under you care. You will avoid bad company, 
 and neither give medicines to a culprit who has 
 been condemned by a Eajah, to a woman whose 
 husband and guardians are absent, nor receive any- 
 thing but food from a wife, without the consent of 
 her husband. You must avoid entering a house 
 as a medical man, without an invitation; you must 
 walk slowly, without gazing, and observe delibe- 
 rately, but you must only observe the patient, and 
 the symptoms of his disease ; and you must not 
 predict the period of a fatal disease. You must
 
 64 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 not vaunt your own knowledge, for although the 
 learned may be pleased, the ignorant will be angry 
 at the exhibition of learning in such a situation. 
 After visiting the sick, should the disease be com- 
 plicated, you must detail the symptoms, and 
 consult other physicians as to their nature and 
 treatment." 
 
 In teaching, the progress of the student must 
 be at first slow, commencing with the nomencla- 
 ture of the profession, and then acquiring single 
 subjects, and lastly, the whole system. He must 
 first read slowly and distinctly, without much 
 effort, and avoid a monotonous intonation, or ac- 
 quiring a dislike to the subject. On this account 
 the lesson should be given without pain to 
 the instructed ; and a sweet gentle voice must be 
 used by a preceptor who cherishes virtue. When 
 at his lesson, care must be taken not to allow any 
 one to pass between the pupil and teacher, as it 
 will interrupt the supposed passage of good qua- 
 lities from the latter to the former. 
 
 He is next to be taught all the subjects having 
 any relation to medicine ; including the theoretical 
 as well as the practical part. He who knows the 
 former, and is unskilful in the performance of 
 operations, on approaching a patient, is like a 
 timid soldier going to battle ; and the person well 
 
 4
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 65 
 
 versed in surgical operations, who presumptuously 
 neglects the theory, does not deserve the esteem 
 of good men. Each is only half instructed, and 
 are equally incapable of exercising the profession 
 properly, is inefficient, and resembles a bird with 
 one wing. 
 
 " As the shastres contain the precepts of nu- 
 merous prophets and great physicians, with their 
 descriptions of diseases reduced to a proper order, 
 you must study them with care; by which the 
 stupid and illiterate pupil will be instructed in his 
 duties, and the intelligent and industrious in the 
 manner in which his knowledge is to be improved 
 and extended. 
 
 '' The shastres are not to be read at unseason- 
 able times, or on unlucky days, as on the two first 
 days of a new moon ; or when the sun is obscured 
 by clouds; when it thunders; at the morning 
 dawn, or evening twilight. The student must 
 not study on holidays, or the day on which he 
 touches a corpse, until purified, or when the 
 governor of the province is sick, when fighting 
 occurs, or when war approaches." 
 
 The pupils usually remained for five or six years 
 reading the shastres, attending oral instructions, 
 which were delivered in open places, under the 
 shade of a sacred tree ; and assisting at the pre-
 
 6G HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 paration of medicines, and the treatment of the 
 sick. To increase their experience, they often 
 travelled about with their teachers, curing diseases, 
 seeing the manners and customs of other districts, 
 examining new medicines, noting the influence of 
 different climates and forms of disease, and their 
 treatment. 
 
 The successful student should be active in his 
 duties, and not fatigued by his studies, he should 
 possess gravity, a good memory, acute senses, and 
 considerable acquirements. Without such quali- 
 fications and indications, the youth should be 
 rejected. 
 
 Medicine thus occupied a high rank among the 
 ancient Hindus, being exercised by the second 
 caste, and divided into Medicine and Surgery; 
 a natural and necessary distinction : the former was 
 considered of superior rank to the manual art of 
 Surgery ; and as the professional knowledge of 
 medicine was built on the structure of the human 
 body, it was not subject to the religious reprobation 
 produced by the effusion of blood. These were 
 modern ideas; and it is in this degenerate age, 
 that the barber-surgeon, with his few and simple 
 instruments^ of which the razor is the ordinarj'- 
 weapon, has taken the place of the ancient, and 
 more scientific surgeon, with his numerous surgical
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 67 
 
 instruments, with which he performed the most 
 difficult operations. 
 
 Mankind was sensible of the vast importance of 
 the medical profession, and medicine was among the 
 sciences earliest cultivated. The knowledge of an 
 impoitant fact, and of a remedy to assuage pain, 
 or the discovery of a principle in the prevention or 
 cure of a desease, was too important not to be 
 recorded; and it was handed down in their families, 
 and modified, or extended therein, according to 
 their experience. Many of these facts were 
 recorded by Hindu sages, avA often mixed up 
 with their metaphysical or superstitious fancies. 
 These early annals were related in poetry, and the 
 theories of the sciences and arts had a religious 
 character given to them, which checked that pro- 
 gress which would naturally have been made in 
 the course of probably twenty centuries. 
 
 The Brahminswhen they have received the string 
 are called Dwija, or twice-born ; in like manner, 
 the physicians are called Ambashtha, and Yaidya 
 when they have acquired the Ayur-veda^ or medical 
 shastres. Besides his own science, the physician 
 requires to know several others. But if a Yaidya 
 does not know, or does not follow the precepts of the 
 shastres, he will be like a thief; and such a person
 
 68 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 exercising medicine, will commit as great a sin as 
 beating a Brahmin. 
 
 When a student had studied medicine, and had 
 understood, examined, and committed to memory 
 the symptoms of disease, with the actions of medi- 
 cines, and had acted for himself, he received the 
 authority of the Eajah to practice medicine. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE PHYSICIAN AND ATTENDANTS. 
 
 There are four circumstances in the cure of a 
 disease that requires consideration : — a qualified 
 physician ; a disease that is known ; proper medi- 
 cines, messenger, and attendants ; and a reasonable 
 patient. 
 
 The duty of a physician relates to his person, 
 character, acquirements, and observances. Susruta 
 informs us, that he who is intended to practice 
 the medical profession should be of a good family, 
 of healthy body, young, handsome, pure, vigorous, 
 modest, discreet, patient, and intelligent. He 
 should keep his nails and beard short, his body
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. &9 
 
 pure, and his clothes clean ; and moderns direct 
 that he wear shoes, a small turban^ and carry an 
 umbrella and cane in his hand. 
 
 The character of the successful student, after 
 leaving his preceptor, should be active and studious, 
 to find out the proper meaning of the difficult 
 passages of the Shastres he has learned by heart. 
 Should these passages not be understood, or should 
 the student know the Shastres, and not the practical 
 part of the profession, he will be like an ass cany- 
 ing a heavy load of fragrant wood, without discover- 
 ing and enjoying the fragrance of his burthen. 
 
 Should the practitioner not know his duty, the 
 cure of the disease will be tedious and imperfect ; 
 it will be desperate when the pulse cannot be felt 
 at the root of the neck, and when the senses are 
 afi'ected. In such cases the practitioner should 
 always inform the relations and friends of the state 
 in which the sick person is, before prescribing. 
 
 The physician should always be dignified in 
 his deportment, correct in his manners and 
 habits, gentle and kind, amiable, cheerful, and 
 collected. His language should be mild, can- 
 did, and encouraging, rather like that of a friend 
 than an acquaiutance, and he should be always 
 ready to assist the sick. His heart should be pure 
 and charitable, and he should carefully follow the
 
 70 IIISTOr.Y OF MEDICIJ^E 
 
 instructions of his Guru, and of his predecessors. 
 Such a physician should possess a character for 
 strict veracity, be of calm temper, and of the great- 
 est sobriety, and chastity. He should be a man of 
 sense and benevolence, and his constant thought 
 should be how he is to do good. A person may be 
 afraid of his father and mother, friends, and master, 
 but not of his physician ; so the physician should 
 be more kind and considerate to the sick than a 
 father, a mother, a friend, or a master. To these 
 qualities should be added, that of aifection for 
 learned friends, and the constant habit of visiting 
 the sick, and seeing them treated by experienced 
 persons. Without such a combination of qualities, 
 knowledge will retard, rather than advance his 
 progress, He should know the causes and varieties 
 of disease, and the means of preventing and curing 
 them, and have the reputation of accomplishing 
 cures quickly. He should study to remove curable 
 diseases, but avoid treating healthy, or evil disposed 
 persons. A good physician will continue to visit 
 his patient diligently, examine him carefully, and 
 be not fearful, but give medicine always when the 
 patient can live, But if a physician attempts to 
 treat an incurable disease, without proper pre- 
 cautions, it will diminish his reputation, friends, 
 and riches. 
 
 1
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 71 
 
 A good physician should be thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with his profession ; but, so various are 
 the qualifications, that the combination is rarely 
 to be found, even in heaven. To perform his 
 daily duty, the physician must be particularly 
 acquainted : 
 
 1st. — "With the introductory remarks oi Sutrus- 
 thdna^ which consider the relation of customs and 
 habits, and the knowledge of those duties which 
 the Shastres regulate, with reference to disease. 
 
 2nd. — Sarira-s^thana, or structure of the body. 
 
 3rd — Niddn-sHJiana^ which includes the invasion 
 and symptoms of disease. 
 
 4th. — Chikita-s' thana and upasaya^ concerning 
 the regimen, and the medicines which cure dis- 
 ease. 
 
 Cth. — Upadravaj'uiQhxdimg all unusual symptoms 
 which develope themselves in the course of disease; 
 as delirium, thirst, &c. 
 
 6th. — Kalpa-sHhana^ concerning poisons. 
 
 In addition to such acquirements, the physician 
 must have practised his profession, as well as 
 studied the Shastres, which were compassionately 
 revealed by the gods. Without such a knowledge 
 of books he will be confused, like a soldier afraid in 
 the time of battle, will be considered a great sinner, 
 and should be capitally punished by the Eajah. On
 
 72 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the other hand, a want of practical knowledge will 
 impede his advancement, and his senses will be 
 bewildered, when called on to treat acute diseases. 
 Such a physician will not be esteemed by the great, 
 as he cannot practise with success when only 
 instructed in half his duty. Such a person is the 
 murderer of his species, and the medicine prescribed 
 by him may be compared to poison, or lightning 
 — such ignorance prevents all the good effects of 
 remedies. As the two wheels of a chariot, or the 
 two wings of a bird, assist in their progress, so will 
 the knowledge of the Shastres, and of practice, lead 
 the physician to proceed with safety and success 
 in the treatment of the diseased ; but, should the 
 physician want either of these essential qualifi- 
 cations, his progress will be impeded, as one wing 
 or one wheel will impede the progress of the bird, 
 or the chariot. It is the combination of both 
 these qualifications which is required; when medi- 
 cine becomes like the water of immortality. Such 
 a physician, if he is to acquire celebrity, must 
 still daily endeavour to improve his mind, by 
 an attentive perusal of scientific books ; and if he 
 does not gain money, after he has been taught the 
 Shastres, it is his own fault. 
 
 When such a Vaidya is spoken to by a patient 
 in a peevish or hasty manner, he will remain calm,
 
 ^MONG THE ASIATICS. 73 
 
 nnld, and courageous ; and cherish a cheerful hope 
 of being able to save the sufferer's life. The prac- 
 titioner should avoid frivolous or improper lan- 
 guage, particularly with females ; he should not 
 sit down upon the same bed with them, and the 
 only present he should receive from them is food. 
 He should be frank, communicative, impartial, and 
 liberal, yet ever rigid in exacting an adherence to 
 whatever regimen or rules he may think it neces- 
 sary to enjoin. Should death occur under the care 
 of such an earthly saint, it can only be considered 
 as his inevitable fate, and not the consequence of 
 presumptuous ignorance. 
 
 The presence of a physician for the cure of 
 disease is most important; indeed, as indispen- 
 sable as a pilot is to a boat, as a coachman in 
 guiding a chariot, or as a general to an army. If 
 a physician is not consulted when a person is ill, 
 he will soon die, as a lamp exposed to wind is 
 continually liable to be extinguished. 
 
 Some severe diseases are cured immediately by 
 a good physician; and simple diseases are increased 
 much by the want of early treatment. At the 
 commencement, like a young plant, they are readily 
 rooted up, but as they expand and grow in strength, 
 the difficulties are much increased. Even for a 
 slight disease the assistance of a practitioner will
 
 74 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 be of much use ; for as a large man at the bottom 
 of a pit may get out by long continued exertion, 
 his extrication will be much facilitated by the 
 assistance of a friendly hand. As in war, a sword 
 may defend many, so in the hand of an enemy it 
 will destroy many. In like manner the Shastres, 
 when imperfectly understood, may become the 
 cause of destruction, instead of benefit, to man- 
 kind. 
 
 Some practitioners have many instruments and 
 various kinds of medicine which they do not know 
 h(Jw to use : such are calculated to deceive ; and by 
 their arrogant manners, and being without a know- 
 ledge of the Shastres, are enemies to mankind, and 
 are called Chhadmachara. Those who possess the 
 favourable qualities of physicians, without the 
 necessary knowledge, are called Pratirupaka; but 
 those who know the medical shastres, and are well 
 acquainted with the causes, symptoms, and means 
 of curing disease, and their prevention, will be fit 
 to be physicians to a Eajah. Such persons are 
 called Sidhi Sddhaka. The first two are some- 
 times allowed to practise by the neglect of the 
 Eajah, and they may be known by their vanity, 
 and their ill-will towards the good physician. Such 
 persons flatter the patient's friends, are diligent, 
 take reduced fees, are hesitating and doubtful in
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 75 
 
 performing difficult operations, and pretend that 
 their want of success is caused by the bad attend- 
 ants, &c. ; such persons avoid the society of learned 
 persons as they would a jungle. 
 
 Still, some patients will be saved when under 
 the care of such a physician, as a worm, in de- 
 stroying one of the sacred shastres, will sometimes 
 leave in its depredations, the rude representations 
 of some of the sacred letters. A bad physician 
 may cure one patient, by which he endeavours to 
 establish his fame, without considering the thou- 
 sands he has killed ; such a person is like a boat 
 in a storm without a pilot, or a blind man in the 
 performance of any work, and is to be looked upon 
 as the angel of death. If such a fellow has his 
 fancy inflamed, he is like a deadly serpent, and 
 should be avoided. 
 
 The practitioner who knows the value of quick- 
 silver, &c., is like a god ; one who knows the 
 qualities of herbs and roots is like a man; one 
 who knows the use of the knife and of fire 
 resembles a demon (Asur) ; and one who knows 
 the proper prayers to be offered up in the time of 
 sickness is like a prophet. 
 
 A person will never be respected as a physician, 
 when he is born of a bad family, or inhabits 
 a village which has a bad name, visits the sick
 
 76 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 without being called, does not pay respect to the 
 Brahmins, spiritual teachers, or superiors, and 
 speaks on improper subjects. Such a person does 
 not repeat the usual prayers, is ignorant of the 
 Shastres, speaks disrespectfully of the Guru, and 
 neither pays respect to his advice, nor to the pre- 
 dictions of astrologers, to the seasons and times, 
 nor to the influence of the planets, nor acknowledges 
 the power of holy men, yet takes money. The 
 great physician Dlianwantaree himself, with such 
 qualities, would not be liked or esteemed. 
 
 From these observations, it appears that the 
 duties of a physician require the exercise of 
 sound judgment, profound learning, embracing an 
 intimate acquaintance with many Shastres, unim- 
 peachable integrity, and a constant and extensive 
 practice of his profession. To these qualities must 
 be joined unremitting attention, a good heart and 
 disposition, a knowledge of the appearance and 
 varieties of disease, and the manner of preparing, 
 and exhibiting remedies. 
 
 A physician should not visit the enemy of a 
 Eajah ; should always speak the truth, avoid speak- 
 ing disrespectfully of ancestors, and of other good, 
 exalted, and pious persons. He is not to walk 
 with the wicked, foolish, or low-born persons; 
 must avoid riding on wicked horses, elephants, or
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 77 
 
 the like, living in empty houses, or in places 
 where bodies are burnt, or in very retired places, 
 containing wild beasts or reptiles. 
 
 When called upon to attend a patient, the 
 physician is to mark the following circum- 
 stances : — He is to observe the manner, speech, 
 and dress of the messenger; the state of the 
 planets ; the time of the day ; and the good or bad 
 omens. He should note the occurrence of acci- 
 dents, in walking, or in seeing impure, weak, 
 imperfect or divided objects : In such cases the 
 person will die of the disease. This will be 
 rendered inevitable, should neither presents nor 
 respect be shewn to the practitioner. 
 
 Before he visits a patient, he should first 
 remark the position he is in, when the mes- 
 senger arrives to consult with him ; and by the 
 person's countenance and conversation, endeavour 
 to ascertain whether or not the patient will survive. 
 As he proceeds to visit the sick person, he must 
 carefully note any good or bad omens that may 
 occur regarding the messenger, the flight of birds, 
 the relative position of animals, &c. Cows or Brah- 
 mins, seen on the right hand side, are favourable, 
 as also corpses, jackals, vessels of water, &c., 
 when seen on the left side. It is unfavourable 
 when lizards are heard when leaving the house,
 
 78 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 when vultures or bad characters are seen, or when 
 the physician is called by another person, or is hit 
 by anything behind, or when a person sneezes. 
 
 Useful indications are supposed to be derived 
 from the dreams of the physician, as well as from 
 those of the sick person; and a long list of the 
 good and bad subjects of dreams is given. In 
 general, favorable dreams consist in seeing Brah- 
 mins, cows, Eajahs, clean water, splendid houses, 
 &c. ; and the reverse in seeing a person cleaning 
 himself, low caste persons, dead acquaintances, 
 riding on an unclean animal, killing or fighting 
 unclean animals, falling down a precipice, loss of 
 eye-sight, and other impure objects or defects. 
 The good and bad dreams in different diseases are 
 likewise given. 
 
 The physician should first ask questions of the 
 attendant regarding the disease ; what things the 
 patient has eaten, and what he has done to produce, 
 or to influence the disease. The physician should 
 then mark the signs of longevity in his patient. 
 These are, long arms and fingers ; large eyes, fore- 
 head, trunk, teeth, mouth, hands, feet, and shoulders. 
 Persons will live to an old age who have long 
 respirations, and a large space between the ma- 
 millsD, the fore-legs short and fleshy, and the neck 
 short, and who speak and act sensibly. A person
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 70 
 
 with a large body and good voice, deep navel, vessels 
 and joints well formed, much hair on the body, 
 the external ears long, the body strong, more par- 
 ticularly the head, who quickly dries when wet 
 with oil or water from above downwards, and whose 
 senses are good, will live long, and such a person 
 should be treated accordingly by the physician. 
 
 It is necessary to recollect that a good Brahmin, 
 or a Eajah, will be cured of a disease with 
 difficulty, as he will not always take the proper 
 remedies, and the physician is afraid to urge his 
 instructions strongly. The same is the case with 
 women, children, and old people, who do not 
 observe the proper directions. In like manner, 
 those who do not explain their complaints, who 
 are weak in intellect, are poor, and avaricious ; 
 who will not spend their money, or have bad 
 tempers or dispositions, are dissipated, and are 
 without friends, will be cured of their diseases 
 with difficulty, as they will not strictly follow the 
 directions of the physicians. In such cases the 
 disease may be rendered incurable. 
 
 2. The nature of the disease. The physician 
 should next mark the nature of the disease, the 
 seasons of the year, and inquire from what 
 country the patient comes. He is to mark which 
 of the humours are diseased, and how they can be
 
 80 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 cured. He must cure the diseases of wind or air, 
 bile, and phlegm which occur, without causing other 
 diseases. These derangements are the usual cause 
 of disease, and produce the change of disposition, 
 and the peculiar feelings of the sick ; besides, one 
 disease may produce another, which sometimes 
 diminishes the symptoms of the first. 
 
 The physician is to observe the general appear- 
 ance of the sick person, his age, and the condition 
 of his body, his temperament and strength, the 
 state of the mind, and the food which he has been 
 used to. He should examine the symptoms of 
 the disease with his senses ; consider the probable 
 result of the disease by his judgment, and its 
 similarity to other diseases — as there is a good 
 and a bad form of every disease. The symptoms 
 as enumerated in the Shastres, should be observed, 
 more especially the state of the pulse, of the 
 tongue, as to moisture and dryness, the condition 
 of the bowels, urine, and sleep; the general feeling, 
 and more especially the state of the nose, head, 
 hands, feet, and abdomen; the state of the 
 patient's appetite and internal fire ; the part of the 
 body attacked, and the state of the various vessels 
 (sera), and the abdomen (kastha), particularly 
 where tho stomach presses upon the food to digest 
 it ; where the undigested portion is situated ;
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 81 
 
 where digestion takes place ; and where the de- 
 jections are retained next the bladder and pelvis. 
 The seat of the blood, the heart, and the lungs are 
 to be considered ; and the periods when the disease 
 increases, and intermissions occur. The kind of 
 caste, temper, and disposition ; the degree of fear ; 
 the state of the humours and blood, the seven 
 essential parts (dhatu), and the evacuations ; and, 
 in females, the state of the catamenia, &c. If the 
 patient cannot speak, those about him should be 
 asked the usual questions about the patient. 
 
 The disease is next to be examined by the five 
 active senses, and by speech. By the touch is 
 distinguished the feverish heat or coldness of the 
 surface, the dryness or moisture, the softness or 
 hardness, the size of the vessels, and the irregu- 
 larities of the skin. By the hearing, the passage 
 of air in deep seated abscesses, wounds; and in 
 the intestines, by coughing, &c. By the sight, 
 the changes in the colour of the skin, as in 
 leprosy, and various forms of cutaneous diseases ; 
 and the state of the tongue and of the urine. The 
 quantity of this is to be noted, and the quality, 
 which is known by ants being fond of it, by the 
 sight, and by the smell. In like manner, the 
 other secretions and discharges, as from ulcers, 
 &c., are to be examined.
 
 82 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Ey speecli, the practitioner learns the time of 
 invasion and progress of the disease, the sex and 
 habit of the body ; the nature and degree of pain ; 
 and the state of the appetite, the strength, and the 
 evacuations. Unless the disease is well explained, 
 seen, and known, the practitioner will not under- 
 stand it, and will be made foolish by his ignorance ; 
 whereas the knowledge and judgment of the 
 physician, like a lamp which illuminates a room, 
 enables him to understand the nature of the dis- 
 eases of the body. But the care of the physician 
 should not end here. In the time of war, he 
 should point out the most salubrious route for the 
 army to advance ; the most wholesome water, and 
 the food of the army, as well as of the beasts of 
 burthen, which the enemy may endeavour to 
 destroy by poison. The good physician will de- 
 tect this, and will be able to afford most useful 
 information on those points, and may be the 
 means of saving the army. 
 
 Srd. Medicines and Instruments, Medicines and 
 instruments should always be at hand ; and the 
 physician should be allowed to have free in- 
 tercourse with the sick. "When called to a patient, 
 the practitioner is first to remark if there is 
 still life and strength, in the sick person; for 
 as long as life remains in the root of the throatJ
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 83 
 
 unci the senses remain perfect, the physician may- 
 give medicines, as the person, under such circum- 
 stances, may be cured. Even old, inveterate, and 
 incurable diseases may be alleviated by a judicious 
 line of treatment. If, therefore, a practitioner, 
 after the necessary examination, knows the dis- 
 ease, and that it may be cured even with difficulty, 
 his duty is to endeavour to alleviate the suffer- 
 ings of his patient, by administering medicines ; 
 previously stating the danger the patient is in to 
 his relations, lest he bring discredit on himself, 
 and on his profession. 
 
 The medicines proper for the individual case, 
 and the manner in which it will be most proper to 
 administer them, must be carefully observed. Care 
 must also be taken that the drugs be obtained 
 from a good soil and neighbourhood. Those from 
 the Himalaya mountains are the best. The physi- 
 cian should know the names and various qualities 
 of medicines ; should penetrate forests, and climb 
 mountains, to examine them in their natural 
 situations ; and should not despise the information 
 obtained from hunters and shepherds, who may 
 have had opportunities of witnessing their effects. 
 
 The medicines should be collected on a fortunate 
 day, and at a lucky hour, by the physician himself, 
 with suitable prayers. Should a person of another
 
 84 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 caste touch or prepare the medicines, and not the 
 physician who prescribes them, they will be 
 rendered inert, even should a Brahmin have pre- 
 pared them ; but Susruta states that any competent 
 person may administer the medicine to the sick 
 person. When so prepared, prescribed, and ad- 
 ministered at the proper time, the effect will be 
 favorable ; but medicine will be of no use unless 
 administered by a physician, as it will be like the 
 lump of prepared clay, without the aid of the potter 
 to fashion it. A physician should, therefore, be his 
 own apothecary, preparing and prescribing those 
 medicines which are peculiarly appropriate to each 
 particular case. 
 
 The qualities of drugs depend on their color, 
 smell, and kind of juice ; these should be carefully 
 observed, and the medicines given at the proper 
 season and stage of the disease. The physician 
 should also give directions regarding diet and 
 regimen. 
 
 It is of much importance that the disease be 
 treated at an early stage, as it is easily removed, 
 when the patient is of strength to admit of the 
 disease being cured. Active treatment should not 
 be employed in a slight disease, nor a mild treat- 
 ment in an acute disease. Should the treatment 
 employed be doing no good, it should be changed; 
 
 I
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 85 
 
 but when the symptoms are yielding, under a 
 particular plan of treatment, it should be continued. 
 That kind will be successful which diminishes the 
 disease, by equalising all the humours ; and that 
 is bad treatment which increases one as it dimi- 
 nishes another humour. 
 
 Should a physician exhibit medicines the first 
 day he has seen the patient, without properly 
 ascertaining the nature of the disease, he will be 
 like the angel of death. Such medicines as cure 
 vital air, bile, and phlegm when diseased, are not 
 disagreeable to the person, do not produce any bad 
 effects, and, given at the proper time, are the 
 remedies to be employed. They should be 
 administered by a healthy dependent, possessed of 
 an amiable character, so as to prevent the machi- 
 nations of the patient's enemies. 
 
 ith. Messenger and attendants. The person who 
 is sent for the physician should be of the same 
 caste as the sick person, and should be dressed in 
 clean white clothes, have a respectable appearance, 
 mild disposition, and a courteous bearing; he 
 should know the lucky seasons, and be acquainted 
 with the Shastres. 
 
 Such a person avoids presenting himself before 
 the physician at an unlucky or unreasonable hour, or 
 when fatigued ; and he should always be the bearer
 
 86 iiisTortY or medicine 
 
 of a present for the physician. He must not appear 
 fearful of the result of the attack; but, at the 
 same time, must be exact in his description of the 
 cause and progress of the disease, and careful that 
 the patient takes the medicine, and follows the 
 directions of the physician. 
 
 t>th. Duty of the Patient. A person rejecting 
 a Yaidya or physician, will be punished in hell ; 
 whereas when he is employed, the patient will go 
 to heaven, even should he not be able to see the 
 sacred Ganges in his dying moments. 
 
 The diseased person will carefully recollect the 
 directions of the physician, must follow them with 
 exactness, and not be afraid of the effects of the 
 medicines which have been ordered. 
 
 Should the disease commence at an unfavorable 
 time, or during an unlucky hour, or should the 
 person have been born at an unfavourable moment, 
 he will die of the disease. A patient with a good 
 disposition, with his body of the natural color, and 
 with the signs of longevity ; who is patient, has a 
 strong mind and perfect senses, who has no fatal 
 symptoms, and has confidence in his physician, is 
 easily treated, and will have the best chance of 
 being cured. Should the patient be strong, his 
 disease curable, and he have riches to defray the 
 necessary expense, and follow the usual customs
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 87 
 
 and the directions of the physician ; should his 
 mind be favourably influenced by the Shastres, 
 and full of faith in his physician, he will Fecover. 
 The prognosis will be unfavourable when the sick 
 person is impatient, angry, and disobedient; is 
 wanting in courage, ungrateful, and desponding, 
 and has no confidence in the practitioner. Persons 
 at enmity with the physician, and who endeavour 
 to deceive him, are cured with difficulty, and are 
 to be avoided as much as possible. The patient 
 will die who lives in the house of a person who 
 despises the physician. The different appearances 
 observed on the physician's approaching and leav- 
 ing his patient will affect his prognosis. 
 
 The patient is to expect to be visited in the 
 morning, after the customary prayers and ab- 
 lutions, is to prepare the medicine as ordered, and 
 is to sit in a clean part of the house, convenient 
 for both the sick person and the physician. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 BECOMPENSE OF THE PHYSICIAN. 
 
 The Hindu sage states, that as the increase of our 
 love to God, our riches, our good actions, and our 
 happiness chiefly depend upon the state of our
 
 88 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 bodily health, so disease destroys both the beauty 
 of the body and the purity of the soul ; and the phy- 
 sician who prevents or cures disease, is considered 
 of great importance to our soul. Should a patient 
 not pay his physician a price equivalent to the value 
 of^his soul, then all his holy virtues, and good acts, 
 which he has performed during his lifetime, will 
 belong to the physician. That price will vary with 
 the rank and condition of the patient. Money will 
 be the recompense bestowed by the rich; friendship, 
 reputation, increase of virtue, prayers, and grati- 
 tude will be that of the poor. When a Guru, a 
 Brahmin, or a religious mendicant, a relative, an 
 humble and good friend, or one without relations, 
 consults a physician, he must not accept of any 
 pecuniary recompense : His reward, in such cases, 
 will be an increase of knowledge, and the gratifi- 
 cation of his desires in having had an opportunity of 
 performing a good action. Ilis cures will ensure 
 the admiration and the esteem of all men ; he will 
 be honoured and respected as a master, and after 
 death he will go to heaven ; but the physician 
 must avoid administering remedies to hunters or 
 great sinners — such people do not deserve his 
 assistance. His duty is to administer medicines, 
 for an increase of virtue, fame, and happiness as 
 his reward ; even when these fail, he is at least
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 89 
 
 in the way of improving the science, which should 
 always be considered of importance. 
 
 Physicians have often been blamed for not at- 
 tending to their recompense, which embraces love, 
 riches, religion, and happiness, and they lose these 
 benefits by accepting an insignificant sum of money. 
 Hence they say, they exchange a bag of gold for 
 a mass of dross. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHTSIOLOGT, AND PROPESTIES OF ORGANIC BODIES. 
 
 As the Hindu philosophers directed their attention, 
 at an early period, to their own consciousness, 
 they soon detected the distinction between mind 
 and matter ; and many of their notions of the 
 supreme being are just and sublime. This power 
 of abstract speculation is very justly considered as 
 the most striking proof of genius ; and it is not 
 met with in a rude state of society. 
 
 It was unfortunate that the Brahmins fancied 
 that wisdom was something superior to the offices 
 of the world, and was to be sought for in abstrac- 
 tion, and subtile distinctions. Instead of seeking
 
 90 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 to correct the passions and sensual inclinations 
 of mankind, they endeavoured to reduce the con- 
 dition of humanity to its feeblest and most limited 
 state. Thus it was, that the Brahmins neither 
 embellished life, nor purified the mind. 
 
 •This explains the manner in which the anatomy 
 and physiology of the human mind are treated by 
 the Hindu sages, which will consequently require 
 a peculiar arrangement, embracing a few remarks 
 on the order of creation, as unfolding the principles 
 and elements of the universe, in explanation of the 
 microcosm, or little world — the body. This last 
 will embrace the animal functions of the body, 
 its corporeal materials, senses, and perceptions; 
 the generation and development of the foetus ; the 
 dispositions, or temperaments of the body; the 
 different ages ; and death. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 HINDU COSMOGONY. 
 
 The great first cause is the infinite, incompre- 
 hensible, self-existing being, from whom all spiritual 
 and material matter is derived, and from whom 
 proceeds the universe; being immaterial, he is 
 
 I
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 91 
 
 above corniption ; being invisible, he can have no 
 form or quality, but what we behold in his works. 
 As the beautiful luminary, the sun, casts the rays 
 of his light upon millions of pools of water, and 
 represents himself at the same moment on each 
 of them ; our bodies being like the water, and the 
 sun, the emblem of the sovereign being — so are 
 our souls created in the likeness of God : who is 
 without beginning, eternal, unchangeable, occupy- 
 ing all space, knowing all things, and present 
 everywhere; an intellectual inaction in cloudless 
 ether. 
 
 Every bliss is thus derived from the inspiration 
 of the great God, which is one with the universe, the 
 instrument of the great will (I'swarra or Ishur) in 
 the creation of the world. By him space was first 
 developed, in which the elements of the world 
 were confusedly mingled together, which he 
 separated, and assigned to each its proper place for 
 the performance of its special office. 
 
 The first principle of things, from which all 
 others are derived, is (1) matter^ (prakriti) nature, 
 the material or creating power of nature, which 
 is blind and purposeless, without form or parts, 
 is eternal, material, universal, forming for itself 
 the yet undeveloped being, from which proceeds 
 the whole visible world. It possesses the qua-
 
 92 HISTOr^Y OF MEDICINE 
 
 lities of truth, purity, and wisdom (satya-guna) ; 
 of foulness, passion, and error (rajo-guna) ; of 
 darkness, inertness, and ignorance (tamo-guna) ; 
 and becomes enamoured of the spiritual soul. 
 
 2. Intelligence (buddhi), is the second prin- 
 ciple and the first production of nature (prakriti). 
 It is a free, uncreated, and uncreating principle, 
 which exists everywhere ; is eternal, without begin- 
 ning or end, is invisible, immortal, and only known 
 by reflection ; neither wills nor thinks, and pos- 
 sesses no active quality, unless when united with 
 matter, when they are one ; and the soul is always 
 pure, when separated from matter. Intellect 
 partakes of the qualities that belong to nature, 
 (prakriti) and if it be good, its properties are 
 virtue, (dharma) knowledge, calm self-control, 
 and supernatural power, (aiswarya) or absolute 
 subjugation of nature, so that whatever the will 
 purposes it obtains.* The one principle cannot be 
 thought of without the other; they form for them- 
 selves the yet undeveloped being, and from them 
 proceeds the whole visible world. 
 
 3. Egoism, or self-consciousness, (ahankara) 
 the active power of nature, produced by the union 
 of matter and the soul, with their creative and 
 distinctive qualities. Like the ocean which con- 
 
 * Wilson's Sanlihya Karika.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 93 
 
 tains sea-born animals and fishes, so nature 
 has the germ of all created things within itself, 
 vivified by spirit, and its active power. 
 
 Elements. (Dravya.) At an early period, the 
 Findu philosophers reduced the material world to 
 five elementary principles, by the agency of 
 which they explained the appearance, com- 
 position, and condition of the world. By them, 
 the deity is supposed to penetrate and sustain 
 the world, and in all objects, one or other of the 
 elements prevails. They suppose, that at the 
 close of the night of Brahma, intellect, called into 
 action by his will to create worlds, performed again 
 the work of creation; and thence first emerged 
 the subtle (4) ether. We may suppose that in 
 viewing the wonderful operations of nature, the 
 Hindu philosophers were soon arrested by the 
 beautiful and varied adaptation of design to the 
 end, by the order, harmony, and mutual depend- 
 ance which pervades the whole world. This 
 seems to have led them to the conclusion that 
 there is no vacuum in nature ; and observing that 
 air and the other elements were excluded under 
 various circumstances from space, they devised, in 
 order to account for the separation of particles, a 
 subtle element or ether (akasha) by which all 
 interstices, the most minute and inaccessible, were
 
 94 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 pervaded, and to which they ascribed the property of 
 carrying sound (Manu.) This element is invisible, 
 and is only made known through the evidence of 
 the understanding. It is supposed to predominate 
 in the organ of hearing, fills up the porosities of 
 living bodies, and is full of the qualities of good- 
 ness. It is supposed to pervade all natural bodies, 
 keeping the molecules from cohesion, and to be 
 the cause of the attraction and repulsion of matter, 
 the emission, reflection, and refraction of light, 
 calefaction, sensation, and muscular motion. 
 
 5. By its transformation, the Air or atmos- 
 phere, the vehicle of sense, was formed; it is pos- 
 sessed of sonorousness, tangibility, and lightness. 
 Having much of the active principle, it gives the 
 moving powers and qualities of bodies. (6) From it 
 proceeded Pire^ or rather light, making objects vis- 
 ible by the eye, spreading bright rays, with the 
 quality of figure, giving taste and possessing sound, 
 tangibility, and sensibility. The medical proper- 
 ties of fire are its bestowing heat, dryness, diges- 
 tion, colour, light, and beauty to the body. It 
 also produces the bodily strength and valour of 
 the individual ; and from its possessing much of 
 the quality of goodness and passion, it gives 
 lightness and movement to the body. 
 
 7. Water is the fluid element, possessing taste,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 95 
 
 sound, tangibility, and visibility, bestowing the 
 sense of coolness, transparency, ligbt, weight, and 
 smoothness in bodies; and it has much of the quality 
 of happiness and inertness. It forms the different 
 fluids of the body. 
 
 8. Earth is the solid element, and possesses the 
 properties of odour, sound, tangibility, visibility, 
 and taste. It enters largely into the formation of 
 the body, and of all solid and heavy substances. 
 
 These are supposed to constitute the eight 
 elementary principles of creation ; in each of which 
 are contained the three qualities of goodness, 
 badness or perturbation, and darkness. 
 
 The Hindu philosophers maintained that the 
 creation required a material as well as an instru- 
 mental cause. Some supposed the supreme spirit 
 was identical with both ; others, that he worked 
 upon atoms of matter, which were eternal. All 
 agreed that the joint operation of matter and spirit, 
 the active principle with the five elements, 
 distinguished by the five senses, constituted the 
 principles by which the universe was formed : at 
 first as an undeveloped mass, from which proceeded, 
 by a regular gradation, the sensitive and the 
 intellectual faculties of man. 
 
 Thus the world was supposed to have been 
 raised out of chaos, the seven heavens were formed,
 
 96 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 and the other seven worlds were fixed in their 
 places, and order spread over the universe. The 
 creative power first kindled vegetable life, in the 
 humble moss, which rose in its gradual develop- 
 ment to the nobler plants, and was succeeded by 
 animal life in its lowest link, the zoophyte rising 
 to the Crustacea, the fishes, the amphibia^ and fol- 
 lowed by creatures of a higher kind, the mam- 
 malia, and lastly, by man, the noblest work of the 
 Almighty. 
 
 The Hindu sages suppose that time existed 
 from all eternity with God, could only be estimated 
 when some motive had arisen, and was only con- 
 ceived by the inind, by means of its own constant 
 progress. They suppose the world will eventually 
 be destroyed by fire, and again absorbed into 
 God! 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 MICROCOSM, OB STRtJCTUKE OF THE BODY. 
 
 Hindu philosophers, who pretended to receive 
 their inspiration from the deity, found no difficulty 
 in explaining the science of the creation of the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 97 
 
 world ; and their ingenious theory was supposed 
 to be equally applicable to the explanation of 
 the formation of the microcosm, or little world, 
 the body ; and was used for the explanation of 
 the constitution and fabric of the animal sys- 
 tem. They supposed the body was formed of 
 the same elements and qualities as those of the 
 world, and crude, inert matter only known in 
 connection with, and governed by the indepen- 
 dent soul. This union produced the active power of 
 nature, ''egoism" or self- consciousness, (ahankara) 
 or personal conviction, the belief that I am, by 
 which external impressions are conveyed to the 
 soul. This is the active principle of creating, pre- 
 serving, and destroying, by which the operations 
 of nature are performed. United in certain pro- 
 portions with the elementary substances, it forms 
 organic bodies. These are made up of the eleven 
 active or passive organs of sense and perception : 
 sound, distinguished by the ear ; feeling, by the 
 skin ; sight, by the eye ; taste, by the tongue ; 
 smell, by the nose ; presided over by the mind ; 
 which form the intellectual and perceptive senses, 
 by which we acquire a knowledge of the world. 
 Tlie organ of speech, the hands, the male and 
 female organs of generation, the anus, and the 
 feet, are the five instruments of action or sensual
 
 98 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 organs, for discharging or removing; and all these 
 make up the twenty-four elements which commu- 
 nicate with the soul by its messenger, the mind. 
 They supposed all animals were gifted with five 
 senses and perceptive faculties; and man alone 
 possessed the reflective faculties, which raise him 
 above the other animals; of these were created 
 males and females, to propagate their species ; and 
 each herb and organic beings had seed of its 
 kind, and each condition and organisation had food 
 provided for it from the fruits of the earth, or from 
 other organic bodies. 
 
 The mind has the qualities of meditating and 
 searching after divine knowledge; of judging of the 
 individual's past actions and future prospects in this 
 world, and the next ; of distinguishing good from 
 evil, happiness from misery, and real from imagi- 
 nary speculations. Knowledge is conveyed to the 
 ear, containing much of the element of pure ether; 
 feeling, through the skin, &c. ; and the perception 
 of sound is conveyed to the soul by means of the 
 mind. These elements and functions give birth 
 to the power of thought and decision. The five 
 senses and actions are all animated by the 
 intellect, which partakes of the qualities; and 
 if of the good quality, its properties are virtue 
 (dharma), knowledge, self-control, and supernatural ;
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 99 
 
 power (aiswaraja), which enables the person to 
 accomplish his object, however difficult that 
 may be. 
 
 The soul or spiritual essence is supposed to pene- 
 trate and sustain the world, being diffused over 
 creation; it exists everywhere, and in everything, 
 and, like the rays of the sun, is continually darting 
 forth to animate organic bodies, and being again 
 absorbed into the great soul of the world. 
 
 Those elements of the world nourish the body, 
 and are contained in different proportions in every 
 kind of food. Each element, by an inherent pro- 
 perty, joins with that which already forms a part 
 of the organism, in the following manner : the 
 skin, vessels, bone, hair, and flesh, are made up 
 principally of the element of earth ; the alvine 
 evacuations, urine, semen, blood, and phlegm, 
 of water; hunger, thirst, and insensibility by fire; 
 motion, conscience, termination of work, and reten- 
 tion of happiness by air; and desire, revenge, 
 stupidity, fear, shame, are formed by an excess 
 of pure ether. There is likewise an active or 
 warm principle, which is increased and strength- 
 ened by the rays of the sun, and a passive or cold 
 principle, by the influence of the moon. 
 
 The pure, free, and uncreated soul is supposed 
 to exist in all living objects, animating beasts,
 
 100 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 animals, and demigods in certain proportions, 
 according to the individual's conduct in former 
 states of existence. This independent soul, the 
 emanation from the great soul of the world, ani- 
 mates the human body for a certain term, not 
 being from God, but of God ; and after an un- 
 certain period, when purified from the world's 
 defilement by a long course of discipline and con- 
 templation, the individual may exchange the prac- 
 tical for the spiritual worship, until at length 
 absorbed into the divine essence. 
 
 Like a charioteer, the soul directs the senses, 
 regulates the actions of the body, and sustains 
 the living system. By means of the corporal 
 functions and senses, it acquires a knowledge of 
 the external world, and speaks and acts. If the 
 person engage in the performance of good works, 
 after death the soul will reap the benefit in another 
 state. 
 
 According to the more fanciful theory of 
 Yedanta-viasa, the soul, and other parts of the 
 body, are supposed to be enclosed in a series 
 of shells. In the first is memory, with the 
 five senses ; in the second reason ; and in the 
 third life. These constitute the supernatural 
 part of the body, and accompany it in all its 
 transmigrations. The fourth shell is the visible
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 101 
 
 body. When the person is awake, the soul acts 
 in the visible and actual world. In sleep, the 
 soul is enclosed, but not received into the 
 spiritual being; and in dreaming, there is a 
 figurative and imaginary creation. At death, the 
 soul leaves the body, ascends on high, clothes 
 itself in a watery veil, falls as rain on the earth, 
 is imbibed by some plant, passes through it as 
 nourishment, and animates a new being. When 
 it has finished its transmigrations, and is puri- 
 fied by its good actions, it resumes its union with 
 God. 
 
 The observant philosophers of the East, appear 
 thus to have seen, at an early period, that all 
 change from organised bodies was by corruption, 
 and that such bodies dissolved themselves into their 
 original elements — air, earth, water, fire, and ether : 
 and the eternal order of the stars was supposed to 
 influence the flux and reflux going on in animal 
 Ufe. 
 
 In combination with mind, the soul is confined 
 to the body by the illusive actions and conditions 
 of virtue and vice, happiness and misery, con- 
 tinence and lust, of piety, morality, and justice, 
 of anger, folly, arrogance, and avarice; of will 
 and understanding ; of energy, breathing, and 
 dejection, and of the mental faculties of knowledge, 
 
 H
 
 102 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 sensibility, memory, and judgment. The soul is 
 pure; it beholds everything as an indifferent 
 spectator ; united with matter, the latter is acted 
 on as the eye is affected by light, the pot of 
 water by the fire, iron by the magnet, fire by fuel, 
 the shadow by the substance, the arrow by the 
 string of the bow: so does the divine particle act 
 through the material organic world, invigorating 
 the five active members, the five perceptive mem- 
 bers, &c. In this condition, the soul desires 
 knowledge, and through the channels of the mind, 
 acts on vision, and produces the perceptions of 
 visible objects, through the ear the perception of 
 sound, through the skin, touch, &c. 
 
 The effects produced from the soul's communion 
 with the body, and its connection with the mind, 
 are will, for happiness and avoiding pain, quiet- 
 ness, and restlessness ; and volition, that is, desire, 
 malice, love, hatred,knowledge of things and actions, 
 perseverance, industry, reasoning, the discovery of 
 truth by induction, argumentation, and knowledge 
 of sound, touch, &c., which are fixed in the mind 
 by memory. In the form of the active principle, 
 vaya, it acts on the movements of the heart, opens 
 and shuts the eyelids, and gives courage, arising 
 from the powers and abilities of the mind. These 
 are the qualities and powers which the soul
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 103 
 
 acquires and generates, from being united with the 
 body, and connected with the mind. 
 
 The presence of the soul is necessary to animate 
 the body, and it is full of knowledge, happiness, and 
 judgment. It produces waking and sleeping, and 
 is endowed with reason and consciousness of right 
 and wrong. When the individual has followed a 
 wicked life, it is not disengaged from the elements, 
 bat is again clothed with a body of a different rank, 
 according to the deeds in this world. If very 
 wicked, the punishment will be lengthened, and 
 the soul will again reanimate other bodies more or 
 less elevated according to its sins ; and thus will 
 follow transmigrations and purifications, until at 
 last when the soul is disengaged by death, it will 
 be absorbed and participate in the divine nature, 
 where all passion is unknown, and consciousness 
 is lost in bliss. Such a soul will never again 
 reanimate flesh, being absorbed into the great soul 
 of the universe. 
 
 The mind possesses the faculties of judgment 
 and understanding. By the former, it considers 
 the suitableness and unsuitableness of objects, the 
 goodness and badness of actions, the subjects of 
 consciousness, imagination, happiness and misery ; 
 and distinguishes certainty from probability. The 
 understanding takes cognizance of the objects
 
 101 histohy of medicine 
 
 of perception, under different forms and modes of 
 existence, of the ideas that pass in the mind, and 
 of the determination of realities. 
 
 The senses recognise objects, being under the 
 dominion of the mind, which determines the 
 merit and demerit of actions, and the qualities 
 of goodness or badness of objects. The mind thus 
 manifests itself by its actions, through the external 
 organs, upon the determinations already formed, by 
 its internal operations. 
 
 The microcosm, the body, was supposed to 
 possess parts corresponding to those of the globe,, 
 and as the divine will animated the earth, so the.' 
 soul animated the body. From these opinions ai 
 number of fanciful comparisons were made- 
 rivers were the earth's blood, rocks and mountains: 
 its skeleton, with its cold and hot regions; andl 
 as the body contained in itself types of the laws off 
 the universe, so primary ideas explained the sym- 
 pathy of the body with the visible world ; and its- 
 affections by changes in the moon, and the position 
 of the planetary influences, which regulate its 
 condition. The fluids of the body are in like 
 manner influenced by the same planets, which 
 regulate their condition. 
 
 Every human being possesses the soul in union 
 with the senses, and by the subduing of these
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 105 
 
 tlirough the medium of the intellect may attain 
 final deliverance or blessedness. It was afterwards 
 supposed that this was obtained by knowledge 
 through absorption into God {yoga\ and mystical 
 union with him, and a perfect abstraction from 
 everything which can disturb the mind, and awaken 
 the passions. This fanciful theory proves that the 
 ancient Hindus were careful observers, and acute 
 reasoners; and it contains the germs of many 
 theories, which have pervaded, at different times, 
 physiology and medicine. 
 
 The moderate employment of the different 
 faculties retain them in health, and they are 
 deranged by a disturbance in the proportion of the 
 elements, and by too much or too little exercise. 
 But as long as the soul remains in connection with 
 the body, the diseases with which it is afflicted may 
 be removed, and during this time remedies may be 
 administered with good effects. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 GENEEATION AND DETELOPMENT OF THE FCETtTS. 
 
 The deity, seeing the earth so full of bloom, and 
 the vegetative power so strong in the seed, called 
 forth a multitude of living bodies, such as plants,
 
 106 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 birds, fishes, reptiles, and animals, of which man 
 is the chief. These organic bodies were divided 
 into two great classes, one of which is stationary, 
 and the other is moveable. The former is arranged 
 into trees, with fruit but no flowers ; trees with 
 flowers and fruit ; creepers ; and stationary animals. 
 The second, or moveable organic bodies, are ar- 
 ranged into those which burst their habitation, 
 adlhaja ;* those produced from the warmth of the 
 earth, as worms, ants, mosquitoes, &c. ; from eggs, 
 (oviparous), as birds, snakes, &c. ; and viviparous, 
 which are arranged into lower animals and man. 
 
 The human body being the object upon which 
 the science of medicine is founded, the process of 
 generation and growth requires a careful consi- 
 deration ; as the mould receives the seed which 
 is to form the future plant, so the menses of the 
 female receive the semen of the male, and germi- 
 nation takes place therein. The menses are stated 
 by the Hindus to be of a red colour, like the blood 
 of a hare ; and they should neither stain cloth, when 
 they fall upon it, nor have any smell. They are 
 supposed to be derived from the two vessels of the 
 uterus, which discharge their contents, under the 
 influence of the vital air, into the uterus and 
 vagina. The menses make their appearance, in 
 
 * From adbhad, sprouting ; and ja, born from, as certain trees, i-f
 
 A:\rONG THE ASIATICS. 107 
 
 geucral, about the twelfth year, and remain till 
 the fiftieth, when the woman is of a weak con- 
 stitution ; but they continue longer when the 
 individual is strong. At the monthly period the 
 female is moist, plump, and happy, with her hair 
 flying about, her eyes languishing; her sides, 
 eyes, arms, breasts, thighs, and navel are in a 
 state of excitement This period continues for 
 sixteen days, when the female may be impreg- 
 nated. During this time, the mouth of the uterus, 
 like the mouth of the rue-fish, is open as the 
 flower of the water-lily, when exposed to the sun ; 
 and as the rays of light concentrated by a lens 
 produce fire, so is generation produced. After 
 this period the mouth of the uterus closes, like 
 the petals of the lily when the benign influ- 
 ence of the sun is absent. This is a curious 
 though incorrect description of germination; as a 
 more careful examination proves that the ovum, 
 detached from the ovary, is received into the 
 fallopian tube, and conveyed to the uterus, and 
 if in its passage it meets with the fecundating 
 fluid of the male, impregnation is produced. If 
 the ovum meets with no fecundating spermatozoa 
 on its passage, it is carried away in the menstrual 
 fluid, which the able Baudelocque says is nothing 
 but a periodic abortion. The Hindu physiologist
 
 108 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 thus theorised with wonderful sagacity, so far as his 
 observation enabled him to explain the subject. 
 
 During the discharge of the menses, much at- 
 tention is required regarding the conduct of the 
 woman. During the first three days of the dis- 
 charge, the woman should remain pure, sit and 
 sleep in a purified situation, avoid cold and 
 fatigue, and eat temperately. Both parents should 
 be young and healthy. The semen conveyed 
 to the urethra of the male, passes into the vagma, 
 is received into the menses, as a seed is dropped 
 into a good soil, and like it, germinates, thus con- 
 stituting conception, and is nourished, as milk 
 taken into the stomach of the infant nourishes it 
 (Susruta). This theory is very old, and generally 
 received over Asia. In the Wisdom of Solomon,* 
 the germ is stated to be " compacted in blood of 
 the seed of man." When the mixture has taken 
 place, and the resulting body has become solid, by 
 the respective qualities of cold and heat, the soul 
 is added, as the sun shining upon a body imparts 
 heat to it. When the germ has more the qualities 
 of the semen, a male child is formed, and when of 
 the menses, a female child is the result. 
 
 Should conception take place on the first or 
 second day of the menses, the ojOfspring will be 
 
 * Ch. vii., verse 2.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 109 
 
 weak, and often dies soon after birth. Wlien con- 
 ceived on the third day, the child will be weak 
 and deformed, and will die at an early age. It is 
 when the female conceives on the fourth, sixth, 
 eighth, or tenth days, that the offspring will be 
 strong and healthy. 
 
 The signs of conception are interesting, from 
 being so generally correct. During the day on 
 which it has taken place, the woman feels fatigued, 
 languid, and thirsty, with a weakness of the two 
 thighs, a retention of the semen and blood in the 
 uterus, and a throbbing in the vagina. 
 
 The signs of pregnancy are these. The skin round 
 the nipples becomes of a dark colour, and the hair 
 upon the body becomes more distinct and promi- 
 nent. The person feels weak, the eyelids are heavy 
 and closed. Much saliva proceeds from the mouth 
 and nose, and the female has no appetite, feels 
 sick, and vomits. Even pleasant smelling things 
 are disliked, and produce sickness. In this con- 
 dition the wife must not approach her husband ; 
 she must avoid fasting, vomiting, and strong pur- 
 gatives, grief and fear, stretching and severe cough- 
 ing, dragging heavy weights, riding on horseback, 
 sleeping during the day and sitting up at night. 
 She must not be bled, nor strain in passing her 
 dejections.
 
 110 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The Hindu believes that a woman may become 
 pregnant by the influence of dreaming, which is 
 considered very sinful. 
 
 During pregnancy, the woman should wear 
 white clothes and ornaments, should avoid disa- 
 greeable sights and excitement, and live on easily 
 digested food. If she is not gratified with what 
 she wishes to eat, and the wind is deranged, the 
 child will be crooked and crippled, or will be small 
 in size, dumb, or unable to speak distinctly, will be 
 blind, or have his eyes defective, or will be an un- 
 believer in the sacred shastres. In other such 
 cases, these defects are produced by previous 
 acts of wickedness of his own, or of his parents 
 in a former state of existence. "Whatever is 
 wanted by the pregnant woman should, there • 
 fore, be supplied, when a perfect child will 
 be born. If the woman desires to see a Eajah, 
 the child will be great and rich; should the 
 mother wish to adorn herself, the child will be 
 well formed and vain ; should the mother wish to 
 see a holy man, the child will be holy and just ; 
 and if she longs to see ferocious animals, the off- 
 spring will be of that description. In like manner 
 the desire for particular sorts of food indicates the 
 disposition of the infant, and the form of his body. 
 When the mother wishes to eat buffalo's flesh, the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. Ill 
 
 cliild will have bloodshot eyes, and much hair, and 
 he will be warlike ; and when hog's flesh, he will 
 be sluggish and sleepy. 
 
 If any injury be done to the mother, or if she 
 suffer in any way, the child in like manner 
 suffers. The menses, after conception, go in 
 part to form the placenta, and as the blood flows 
 every month, it coagulates to form the embryo, a 
 layer being added every month ; and another por- 
 tion is conveyed to the breasts of the mother, by 
 which the mammo) are increased in size. 
 
 The period of gestation extends from nine to 
 twelve months, ten lunar months being con- 
 sidered the usual period ; and this is the time stated 
 in the Wisdom of Solomon, "In my mother's womb 
 I was fashioned to be flesh in the time of ten 
 months," * When the female is not delivered 
 before the twelfth month, the abdominal swelling 
 is considered as the effect of disease. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 GEOWTH AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY. 
 
 The germ thus formed contains a small propor- 
 tion of the five elements ; each of which assists in 
 
 *Ch. 7, V. 2.
 
 112 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 promoting the development of the other elements, 
 and of the body in general. The soul is last 
 engendered, like fire produced by a burning 
 glass, the mixture of the menses and semen 
 producing heat. When the wind separates the 
 particles of the semen, it produces twins, triplets, 
 &c., and when one of the constituent parts of the 
 embryo is unhealthy the conception will be so ; 
 and, if the menses and semen are impure, as when 
 the parents are affected with leprosy, the offspring 
 will also be afflicted with this disease. 
 
 The germ in the uterus is like a shrub, the 
 vessels of which are connected with its walls, by 
 which the blood of the mother is circulated in it, 
 and it is nourished. The embryo being near the 
 vital fire of the mother at the navel, is inflated by 
 the wind and fire which it contains, so as to expand 
 into its different parts, forming the vessels, which 
 circulate the juices, from which its members are 
 formed; as the potter gives figure to the piece of 
 clay upon his wheel. 
 
 In the first month the mixture of the semen and 
 menses remains liquid, and forms a small mass like 
 a pea ; seven days after conception it has the form 
 of a bubble, or inflated bag. On the tenth it is 
 red, and on the fifteenth it resembles a small round 
 piece of flesh. This shortly enlarges in the same
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 113 
 
 imperceptible way as the moon enlarges in size. 
 At one month it has small fibres proceeding from 
 it, and is animated with life. At the third month 
 the germ becomes of a circular form when a male ; 
 of an oblong form when a female; and of an irregular 
 form when a hermaphrodite. Five eminences 
 begin to appear, which, when developed, become 
 the arms, legs, and head. The other smaller parts 
 of the body are then imperfectly formed. 
 
 In the fourth month the members are more dis- 
 tinctly developed, and the heart of the foetus being 
 perfectly formed, gives the power of sensation ; 
 life receives its active powers, and has a desire for 
 the assistance of sense and activity, when the 
 elements and the mind appear; life then acts as in 
 its former state of existence. In the fifth month, 
 the powers of the mind are increased, and life per- 
 forms its usual functions. The nose, mouth, eyes, 
 throat, and abdomen may now be distinguished. 
 At six months all the members are formed, and 
 the understanding is added. 
 
 At the seventh month, the body is completely 
 formed, and the members can act separately, and 
 possess life, mind, and understanding. The essence 
 of the strength of the system (ozah) is imperfectly 
 formed, even at the eighth month; and on this 
 account, should the infant be born during this
 
 114 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 month, it is incorrectly supposed that it must die. 
 During the eighth month the joints are formed, the 
 parts move on each other, the foetus requires food, 
 and by the heat of the mother strength is added. 
 At nine months the mind and memory are active, 
 it moves about, and it receives nourishment from 
 the mother; according to some, by means of a 
 vessel which passes from the mother's breasts to 
 the mouth of the embryo ; by others it is stated 
 that the turtle-mouths of the vessels of the um- 
 bilical cord have a communication with the 
 vessels of the mother, and convey blood to the 
 fa3tus, by which it is increased in size. 
 
 In the ninth month, the woman is to remove to 
 the small temporary hut prepared for her delivery. 
 At the tenth month the foetus acquires knowledge, 
 and prays to God, and sees the seven heavens, 
 the earth, and the inferior regions. The approach 
 of delivery is known by the descent of the uterus, 
 and the more flaccid state of the abdomen. The 
 breasts become relaxed, and pain commences in 
 the loins, back, and inside of the thighs, followed 
 by pains in the sides and back, with a mucous 
 discharge. The patient's body should be anointed 
 with oil, and batlied in warm water, and weak 
 warm gruel given to drink. She must now rest 
 on soft pillows on her back, with her thighs and 
 
 ^.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 115 
 
 legs bent. Four old experienced women are to 
 be in attendance, with short nails, and well 
 acquainted with their duties. The vagina and 
 parts should be well smeared with oil. During the 
 pains the woman should be directed to strain, so 
 as to expel the child and secondines. By the 
 wind of the pelvis the foetus is expelled, as an 
 arrow is shot from a bow, and falls insensible to 
 the ground. All its former knowledge is imme- 
 diately forgotten, and on losing so many pleasing 
 illusions, it cries. (Jotis.) 
 
 Nine calendar months seem necessary for the 
 perfection of the foetus, that is, thirty-nine 
 weeks, or two hundred and seventy-four days 
 from conception. The Hindu Shastres allow tea 
 calender months, or three hundred days. During 
 the time the foetus is in the uterus it does 
 not discharge its evacuations, because they 
 are in small quantities, and the wind which dis- 
 charges them is not present in the intestines. The 
 foetus does not cry in the uterus, as its mouth is 
 closed by the foetal membranes, the wind-pipe is 
 filled with phlegm, and there is no passage for air. 
 In the uterus the foetus sleeps and breathes, and 
 other functions are performed by the mother. 
 
 The foetus in utero is bent on itself, with its 
 head upwards, and its mouth towards the spine
 
 116 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 of the mother. Its hands and feet are bent, and 
 during parturition, the vital wind or air turns the 
 body, and brings the head downwards. The 
 uterus is a dark and disagreeable place, which 
 the Brahmins allege is a kind of purgatory. If 
 the mother eats proper food, the foetus receives 
 from the umbilical cord the nourishment, by 
 which it grows. 
 
 The sex of the infant is known by the right 
 mamma containing milk first, the right eye 
 being larger than the left, the woman wishing 
 food of the masculine kind, and dreaming of 
 water-lilies of different species, and by her mouth 
 and her lips being of an agreeable colour. The 
 opposite indications are the proof of an infant 
 being of the female sex. The form of the uterus is 
 more oblong with a female than with a male child. 
 Twins are known by a depression along the centre 
 of the abdomen ; and when the two sides of the 
 abdomen are depressed, and the lower end is a 
 little prominent, with a depression in the middle, 
 a hermaphrodite is known to be contained in the 
 uterus. 
 
 It is according to the nature, situation, and 
 form, that the different parts of the body are 
 developed. Thus the hair is formed on one part, 
 and is absent at another part of the body. If
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 117 
 
 tlic quality of happiness be in excess, the child 
 knows the state it held in its former condition, 
 and does good or bad actions accordingly. The 
 hard substances of the fcetus, as hair, bones, 
 nails, teeth, vessels, ligaments, &c., are produced 
 from the semen, and resemble the same parts in 
 the father ; and the soft parts, as flesh, blood, fat, 
 marrow, heart, navel, liver, spleen, intestines, are 
 formed principally from the blood of the mother, 
 and resemble her organs. 
 
 The growth and strength of the body, and 
 its diflferent parts, increase naturally, and no 
 individual intelligence is required to effect the 
 functions of the body ; its growth and distinction 
 depend on the will of God.. But the strength, the 
 different colours, and the duration of life, are pro- 
 duced from the chyle, according to the qualities of 
 the food of different kinds taken by the parents. 
 The senses, knowledge of the arts, happiness, and 
 misery, are produced from the soul, and depend 
 on the parent's good or bad actions in a former 
 state of existence. 
 
 The small vessels in the embryo produce at first 
 its growth, before the members are developed. The 
 semen and blood, or embryo, increases, and life 
 enters it ; the air divides the different members, 
 the fire prepares the elements, the water moistens, 
 
 I
 
 118 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 the earth stiffens, and the sky (akasa) increases the 
 fcetus. 
 
 The embryo is at first an unformed mass, which 
 contains, however, the rudiments of the future 
 man, both corporal and spiritual. In this mass 
 is first formed a point of blood, which extends 
 and terminates in blood-vessels, which proceed to 
 the right, and to the left, and obliquely. From the 
 blood the flesh is produced, from the flesh the 
 cellular-tissue and fat, from the cellular-tissue the 
 bone, from the bone the marrow, and from the 
 marrow the semen. 
 
 When the embryo has hands, feet, mouth, 
 nose, ears, buttocks, &c., it is called the human 
 body. 
 
 Saunaha says that the head of the embryo is 
 first formed, because it is the principal part of all 
 the organs of sense. Kritahirya says that tlie 
 heart is first formed, because it is the seat of the 
 mind and soul. Parasary supposed that the um- 
 bilicus was first formed, because from that centre 
 the other members grow, MarTtandeya says the 
 trunk, and others that the hands and feet are first 
 formed, as they are the root of the active members. 
 Suhhuta and Gautana believed the trunk was first 
 formed, since all the members were connected with 
 it. Ehamvanlaree says that all these opinions are
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 119 
 
 incorrect, and that all the members and organs 
 are formed at the same time, but are extremely 
 vsmall and undeveloped ; as the first sprig of the 
 bamboo contains the leaves, &c., of the future 
 plant; and as a constituent part of the mangoe, is 
 only visible in its state of ripeness, and cannot be 
 detected when the tree is green (Susruta.) 
 
 The head is the first part of the body developed, 
 and hair appears on it, and the parts of it are 
 formed in the following order: The forehead, 
 eyebrows, eyeballs, the black ring round the globe 
 of the eye, the white part of the eye, the eye- 
 lashes, and the lower part of the eye are then deve- 
 loped: followed by the ears, orifices of the ears, 
 and surrounding parts; the nose and lips, with the 
 mouth, palate, cheeks, teeth, upper and lower 
 jnws, chin and beard, which are the inferior mem- 
 bei's of the head. The next member formed is the 
 neck, which supports the head; then the two arms 
 from the shoulder to the fingers ; and the trunk 
 with the mammns. The next part formed is the 
 belly, with the two sides, the back, and the inferior 
 parts under the heart. 
 
 From the fleshy parts of the body the fat and 
 blood of the breast are formed, and the fat in the 
 belly. The navel, pelvis, and groin, are the seats 
 of tlie vessels. The vagina has three spiral turns
 
 i20 niSTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 like a shell; the third being the seat of conception. | 
 The rectum has likewise three spiral turns, with 
 names to each. The anus and lower part of the 
 abdomen form the seventh part developed, and 
 the eighth are the lower extremities. 
 
 With the child is ordained his course of life, 
 whether virtuous or vicious ; and his acquirement 
 of riches, or experience of the senses, and length 
 of life, will be varied according to the actions he 
 performed in his former state of existence. The 
 acuteness of his senses, the extent of his know- 
 ledge, the duration of his life, and his happiness 
 or misery, being produced from the soul ; so the 
 strength, colour, health, and memory, will be 
 derived from the nature of the food used by the 
 parents. 
 
 As long as the elements, principles, humours 
 temperaments, muscles, and spirit, remain in due 
 proportion, the perfect action of the system is 
 sustained, and the body remains in health ; and 
 when any of them are increased or diminished, 
 disease is produced : to such considerations, and 
 to such alone, the physician should attend. 
 
 The internal parts of the fo6tus are formed in the 
 following manner : from the elements the eleven 
 senses are produced, to perform their peculiar 
 offices ; the liver and spleen are formed from the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 121 
 
 blood ; the lungs from its froth ; and the large in- 
 testines from its impurities. Below, on the right 
 side, is the bladder, the seat of thirst, and the root 
 of the urinary vessels. From the blood the gall- 
 bladder is replenished with wind. The essential 
 parts of blood and phlegm are concocted by the fire 
 of the body, into which the wind enters, and forms 
 the intestines, anus, and bladder. The tongue is 
 formed from the essential part of blood, phlegm, and 
 flesh. Wind, with the assistance of a proper degree 
 of heat, separates the soft parts, and forms canals, 
 and passing between the flesh, forms the different 
 muscles. When these canals are filled up with 
 marrow they form nerves. This opinion arises 
 from the Hindu sages supposing that the brain and 
 spinal marrow, are the marrow of the cranial and 
 spinal bones. The wind entering among the soft 
 parts, forms the difi'erent receptacles of the body, 
 as the stomach and kidneys, which are derived 
 from the essential parts of the blood. The testicles 
 and their appendages, are formed from the pure 
 part of flesh, blood, phlegm, and fat ; and are the 
 support of the canals which lead the semen to the 
 penis. The heart is formed by the essential parts 
 of blood and phlegm, and to it all the principal 
 arteries are connected. It resembles a water-lily, 
 with its head turned downwards. When the person
 
 122 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 is awake it is in activity, and when asleep it is 
 sluggish. It is the seat of the understanding ; 
 and if the quality of darkness and ignorance pre- 
 dominate, the person sleeps, but when goodness 
 prevails, the person remains awake. 
 
 Sleep is a kind of death, and the ignorant sleep 
 much ; those who have much goodness sleep 
 about midnight, and those who have much passion 
 sleep occasionally, and without any reasonable 
 cause. When inertness and phlegm predominate 
 in the heart, a kind of sleep (syncope) occurs, 
 from which the individual cannot be awakened. 
 In this it resembles death. Sleep during the 
 day should always be avoided, except during 
 excessive heat, as it is considered a sin, and 
 is unfavourable to health, by deranging the 
 humours and producing disease, such as cough- 
 ing, asthma, catarrh, heaviness and pain of 
 the body, dyspepsia, fever, etc, AYant of sleep at 
 night, produces the diseases of wind and bile. 
 But children and old people, and those who have 
 indulged in any excesses, who have consump- 
 tion, who drink much, or are much fatigued by 
 travelling, or those who are very hungry, or 
 labour under indigestion, may sleep an hour ^ 
 (forty-eight minutes) in the day time. If the 
 person does not sleep during the night, he
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 123 
 
 may take half the quantity of sleep before 
 breakfast. Sleep during the day deranges wind, 
 bile, and phlegm, and many diseases are pro- 
 duced by it ; as coughing, difficult breathing, &c. 
 Night-watching deranges wind and bile, and 
 produces various diseases ; hence, sleep should be 
 taken at night. Sleeping at the proper time 
 will prevent disease, and will retain the heart, 
 as well as the strength, colour, and semen in their 
 proper state. It will also prevent too great lean- 
 ness or fatness, and a person who sleeps thus, 
 with a good constitution, may live a hundred years. 
 
 When phlegm is diminished, and wind and bile 
 increased, by passions ; and when any humour of the 
 body is lessened by these causes, disturbed sleep is 
 the result. 
 
 If a person regulates sleep by his will, it will 
 not be favourable. A certain period of sleep daily 
 is necessary to health. Too much wind, bile, or 
 grief destroys sleep, diminishes the dJidtii^ and 
 injures the health of the body. In such cases, 
 oil, with turmeric and other like things, apjDlied 
 to the head and the body, will promote sleep. 
 Bathing has a like effect, as also shampooing, 
 eating good rice, flour, peas, cakes, sweet-meats, 
 oleaginous food, milk, with the juice of flesh, 
 especially that of animals that burrow in the
 
 124 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 ground, or the flesh of birds, raisins, and sugar 
 eaten at night. The bed being soft and agreeable, 
 will also promote sleep. When sleep is protracted 
 it is to be obviated by an emetic and a purge, by 
 spare food, and blood-letting. When cough, or fat, 
 or poison have produced it, exercise is to be taken 
 at night. When there is thirst, colic, or hiccough, 
 want of digestion, or diarrhoea, sleeping in the day 
 is proper. 
 
 Dreaming. It is the soul which dreams. What- 
 ever was seen or heard when awake, is represented 
 by the mind during sleep, and a dream is the 
 impression of good or bad actions, when there is 
 much passion in the heart. 
 
 Drowsiness is indicated by the senses not re- 
 maining in their state of activity ; the body is 
 heavy, the person yawns, he is tired, is drowsy, 
 and desires to sleep. It is produced by an excess 
 of wind, phlegm, and inertness. 
 
 Pawning. When during a long inspiration the 
 mouth is extended, and there follows a short 
 expiration, with tears flowing from the eyes, it is 
 called yawning. 
 
 Langour is when the person is fatigued without 
 a cause, and the respiration is weak and im- 
 perfect. 
 
 Laziness^ when the person has the capacity,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 125 
 
 without the inclination to act, and wishes enjoy- 
 ment without exertion. 
 
 Nausea is accompanied with an increased flow 
 of saliva and tears, with pain in the breast, and an 
 effort to reject the food ; but it does not reach the 
 mouth. 
 
 Fainting. When bile and inertness are in 
 excess, they produces this effect. 
 
 Swooning is produced by an excess of passion, 
 with bile and air. 
 
 Digestion. Six varieties of the digested part of 
 food or chyle are distinguishable. When the food 
 is astringent, sour, moist, &c., the chyle will 
 become of the same nature. When digestion is 
 accomplished, the respective elements unite with 
 those which had entered into the formation of the 
 body ; the earth unites with the earth, the water 
 with the water, &c., and these, acting on the in- 
 herent qualities of each of the five elements, mix 
 and increase those in the body ; smell, the property 
 of earth, unites with that of the body ; taste with 
 water, touch with air, and sound with ether (akasa.) 
 The juice thus separated from its impurities is 
 called chyle, which nourishes, strengthens, and 
 gives colour to the body. 
 
 The chyle is at first aqueous, and then turns 
 red in the liver and spleen, and becomes blood.
 
 126 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The vital functions of the body, and the humours, 
 are strengthened by it, and health sustained. 
 (Susruta). 
 
 Some pundits suppose that it requires a day and 
 a night to form and distribute the digested mass, 
 to the last deposited part the semen and menses ; 
 others suppose six days are required, and some 
 one monthj before digestion is completed. The 
 first class of pundits suppose the fluids are formed 
 and circulated as by a wheel turning round, and 
 supplying the various essential parts of the body. 
 If an article of food or medicine increases much 
 the semen and fluids, it may require only a day 
 and a night to accomplish this; and such an increase 
 cures some diseases of the body. As the beard 
 does not grow, nor the flower yield its smell, at an 
 early age; so in the child, the semen and the 
 menses remain for a certain time undeveloped^ 
 which is also the case in old age, as in over-ripe 
 fruit. 
 
 The strength or vital principle of the body [Oja 
 or tej) is situated along the centre of the chest, 
 and is produced by a mixture of a pure fluid; 
 in the same manner as a bee sucks the juice from 
 difl'erent flowers, and forms honey, as milk pro- 
 duces butter, and butter ghee, so everything 
 contains more or less tej. This exists as long as
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 127 
 
 tlie person lives, and retains the body in its healthy 
 state. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 AGES. 
 
 The Hindu physician recognises three ages—' 
 childhood, manhood, and decrepitude ; first, child- 
 hood extends to the fifteenth year, and is distin- 
 guished by three stages : — the first, or suckling 
 year; the second, in which milk and rice are the 
 food ; and the third, to the fifteenth year, when 
 the food is rice, and phlegm is in excess. 
 
 Second, manhood extends from the sixteenth to 
 the seventieth year, when bile is in excess ; and is 
 divided into a period of growth, which extends 
 from the sixteenth to the twentieth year; of youth, 
 from the twentieth to the thirtieth year; of matu- 
 rity, from the thirtieth to the fortieth year, when 
 all the humours, senses, strength, are in their full 
 development ; and of weakness, from the fortieth 
 to the seventieth year, when all the powers of the 
 organs are gradually diminishing, and bile is in 
 excess.
 
 128 HISTORY OF MEDICIXE 
 
 Third, decrepitude extends from the seventieth 
 year till the person's death; during this, the 
 humours, senses, strength, and animation diminish 
 daily. The muscles become soft and flaccid, the 
 hair turns grey, and falls off, the body becomes 
 bent, and the person is afflicted with coughing, 
 asthma, and such diseases. He cannot perform 
 any work ; and other signs of decrepitude appear ; 
 he is like an old house in the rainy reason with 
 many props. In this period of life, air is in excess, 
 and nervous diseases prevail. 
 
 After the tenth year, memory, feeling, sight, 
 semen, strength, and the active senses are powerful; 
 the growth of the body after twenty years, and 
 the perfect state of the body after thirty years. 
 The males are supposed to arrive at their 
 perfection in figure and strength at twenty -five, 
 and the females at sixteen years of age. 
 
 The Hindu females become nubile about the 
 twelfth year, when the menstrual charge com- 
 mences, which ends after the fiftieth year. The 
 discharge continues for three days, (Susruta) and 
 returns monthly. Mauu fixes the marriageable 
 age of females at twelve, and of men at thirty 
 years. 
 
 In youth and old age, the application of the 
 actual and potential cauteries, and of blisters, and
 
 iiMONG TUE ASIATICS. 129 
 
 the use of strong purgatives, etc., are to be avoided; 
 or when required, they are to be administered in 
 a weaker form than usual, and by degrees. In 
 fat individuals, the humours are to be diminished ; 
 in the lean, increased ; and in the middle-sized, 
 the humours are to be preserved in the same 
 state. The application of the actual cautery should 
 be avoided in very fat individuals, in weak, dry, 
 and thin persou.^, in individuals subject to fainting 
 fits, and of a consumptive habit, or such as are 
 drunkards, or eaters of opium, or other narcotic 
 drugs. The application of fire should be avoided 
 in persons labouring under amarosis, dropsy, ery- 
 sipelas, or such diseases, as it will have a tendency 
 to injure. 
 
 Some thin persons arc strong, and some fat 
 individuals weak. Among all the principles of 
 our treatment, the strength of the person should 
 first be observed ; as without it, the administration 
 of many medicines, and the performance of opera- 
 tions arc improper. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 STKUCTUKE OF THE COKPOBAL PAETS OF THE BODY. 
 
 The human body is made up of six members, 
 consisting of four extremities, the trunk and the
 
 130 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 head. The regions are either single or double ; 
 the former are the head, front, back, umbilicus, 
 chest, abdomen, chin, and neck ; the double are 
 the ears, eyes, nostrils^ supercilia, temples, cheeks, 
 shoulders, mammee, testes, sides, nates, knees, 
 arms, legs, &c. There are, also, ten fingers, and 
 ten toes, and the organs of sense. The body has 
 nine orifices, like a house with doors. They are 
 the urethra, anus, mouth, nostrils, eyes, and ears : 
 the vagina forms the tenth in the female. This is 
 the general division of the body. The particular 
 parts of the body are seven membranes, seven 
 regions, seven elementary bodies, humours, and 
 secretions ; also the liver, spleen, lungs, kidneys, 
 heart, anus, intestines, prsecordia, organs of sense, 
 large vessels, urinary, and gall-bladder, hair, 
 ligaments, sutures, commissures of bones, cap- 
 sular membranes, bones, joints, tendons, muscles, 
 parts called vital, vessels, nerves, and organs 
 producing unions. 
 
 There are minute parts enumerated, but no 
 correct explanation of a member or region. This 
 is from the defective manner in which practical 
 anatomy was pursued, and parts described.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 131 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 DISSECTION OF THE BODY. 
 
 The Hindu philosophers undoubtedly deserve 
 the credit of having, though opposed by strong 
 prejudice, entertained sound and philosophical 
 views respecting the uses of the dead to the living ; 
 and were the first scientific and successful cultiva- 
 tors of the most important and essential of all 
 the departments of medical knowledge— practical 
 anatomy. 
 
 All the Eishis are said to have recommended 
 the dissection of the human body, as proper and 
 necessary. Manu, the great legislator, and the 
 one most respected by the Hindu sages, says (85) 
 " one who has touched a corpse, is made pure by 
 bathing ;" and again (77) " should a Brahmin 
 touch a fresh human bone he is purified by bathing ; 
 and if there be not water, by stroking a cow, or 
 by lookir;g at the sun, having sprinkled his mouth 
 duly with water." 
 
 CharaJca^ one of the munis and physicians, says, 
 that a practitioner should know all the parts of 
 the body, both external and internal, and their 
 relative positions with regard to each other. 
 AYithout such a knowledge he cannot be a proper 
 practitioner.
 
 132 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Susruta, a Eishi of the highest rank, says that 
 a jogi (a holy man) should dissect, in order that 
 he may know the different parts of the human 
 body ; and a surgeon and physician should not only 
 know the external appearances, but the internal 
 structure of the body ; in order to possess an inti- 
 mate knowledge of the diseases to which it is 
 liable, and to perform surgical operations, so as to 
 avoid the vital parts. As the structure of a tree 
 is known by dividing it, so the structure of the 
 component parts of the body is discovered by its 
 dissection ; and it is by combining a knowledge of 
 books with practical dissection, that the practi- 
 tioner will alone attain an intimate knowledge of 
 the subject of his jDrofession. 
 
 The body Avhich is to be examined by dissection 
 should be that of a person who had neither been 
 destroyed by poison, nor had died of a long 
 disease, as the structure of the body will be 
 altered by the deleterious substance taken, or 
 destroyed by the ravages of disease. In like 
 manner the person should not have been very old, 
 and all the members should be in a perfect state. 
 
 When a proper body for the purpose has been 
 selected, the dejections are to be removed, the 
 body washed, and placed in a frame work of wood, 
 properly secured by means of grass^ hemp, sugar
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 133 
 
 cane reeds, corn straw, pea stalks, or the like. The 
 body is then to be placed in still water, in a moving 
 stream, where it will not be injured by birds, fish, or 
 animals. It is to remain for seven days and nights 
 in the water, when it will have become putrid . It is 
 then to be removed to a convenient situation, and 
 with a brush, made of reeds, hair, or bamboo-bark, 
 the surface of the body is to be removed so as to 
 exhibit the skin, flesh, &c., which are each in 
 their turn to be observed before being removed. 
 In this manner, the different corporeal parts of the 
 body will be exhibited ; but the life of the body 
 is too ethereal to be distinguished by this process, 
 and its properties must therefore be learned with 
 the assistance of the explanations of holy medical 
 practitioners, and prayers offered up to God, by 
 which, conjoined with the exercise of the reasoning 
 and understanding faculties, conviction will be 
 certainly obtained. 
 
 The Hindu sages, at an early period of their 
 investigations, while they marked the importance 
 of anatomy, observed the great influence of the 
 state of the fluids in disease; and, imperfectly 
 acquainted with the intimate structure and uses 
 of the various parts of the system, endeavoured 
 to explain the functions of organs by the actions 
 of fluids upon them. With such imperfect know-
 
 134 HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 ledge, they reduced their medical opinions to an 
 ingenious system, and unfortunately for the cause 
 of suffering humanity, pretended that these works 
 had a divine origin, so that they have remained 
 unchaoged and unchangeable, with a branch of 
 their sacred caste as their interpreters. To question 
 the correctness of their facts or deductions, was con- 
 sidered a mark of great presumption and impiety. 
 This early advancement in the knowledge of the 
 sciences, renders the description of the medical 
 profession among a people so isolated as the 
 Hindus, yet so remarkable for the advanced state 
 of power and learning, peculiarly interesting. It 
 will likewise enable us to trace the extent and 
 modifications of civilisation in a nation unconnected 
 with any other; and prove instructive, as pointing 
 out the means by which such an advancement in 
 the social state was accomplished. Their ignorance 
 of practical anatomy explains their use of so many 
 vague and inapplicable terms. This is peculiarly 
 characteristic of the writings of the East, but the 
 same defect applies to many of the ancient terms em- 
 ployed in Europe. Thus the terms nus, asub, skirrah, 
 are employed by the Hindus to express a nerve, or 
 that which produces sensation. The same word shir- 
 rah is employed, with r^/^, to express both an artery 
 and a vein, from their ignorance of the difference
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 136 
 
 between these vessels; and it consequently expresses 
 blood-vessels, or tubular-vessels. The word, 
 shirrahj also signifies a tendon, or nerve ; but more 
 generally implies a vein, and is then used in contra- 
 distinction to dhumennee^ which signifies an artery, 
 or carrier of air, according to Susruta. Niths and 
 nauree express an artery, without any reference 
 to its functions. The opinion that the arteries 
 carried air, is very old in Europe, as the etymology 
 of the word signifies "air-vessel." 
 
 The scanty knowledge of anatomy is likewise 
 evident from the Hindus employing the word kJiunt 
 to designate the throat, including both the 
 oesophagus and trachea, as the English word 
 throat is still used in common language ; and the 
 term kulee^ with the Hindus, expresses the heart, 
 liver, spleen, and stomach. This vagueness 
 extends to the diseases of these organs, and ex- 
 plains the often imperfect descriptions in Oriental 
 works, which render it difficult always to identify 
 the disease, and prepare us for the manner in 
 which the modern Asiatics employ remedies, and 
 their want of success in the trcatmenti In the 
 ancient MSS., however, the descriptions are more 
 accurate, the terminology more perfect, and the 
 treatment more simple and efficacious than in the 
 modern works.
 
 136 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The nature of the pulse is considered of im- 
 portance for determining the kind and nature of 
 the disease, and the treatment to be pursued ; 
 and is carried to an unnecessary extent, with 
 often pernicious consequences, by the moderns. 
 
 According to the sacred shasters, the body 
 consists of humours and essential parts, with 
 their appendages, excretions, joints, ligaments, 
 muscles, vessels, cellular tissue, and fascia, organs 
 or receptacles, orifices, skin, and supernumerary 
 parts. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 HUMOTJBS OF THE BODY. (^DoSSoh.) 
 
 The food taken into the stomach is composed 
 of a certain proportion of elements, which are 
 mixed by digestion, to form the humours ; these are 
 considered the pillars or supports of the body, and 
 consist of wind, (vayu),* bile, (petta),f and 
 phlegm, (kofa).:|: 
 
 * Vdyu, from va to go ; was first formed. 
 
 t Petta, from tapali, hot ; from which the heat of the body is derived. 
 
 % Kofa, siliso; from siliso, to embrace.
 
 AiI02^G THE ASIATICS. 137 
 
 The wind is supposed to be situated in the 
 pelvis below the heart and navel ; the bile in the 
 space between the heart and navel; and the 
 phlegm above the heart and navel. During the 
 morning and in infancy, man is subject to the 
 diseases of phlegm; at noon and in manhood to 
 bilious diseases; and in the evening, and in old age 
 to the diseases of wind. The humours perform the 
 various actions of the body, and when impure, they 
 are the cause of disease, and death ; and, with the 
 blood, they retain, and eventually destroy the 
 body. Without these three humours and the 
 blood, the individual could not exist. With the 
 essential parts of the body, and the appendages, 
 and impurities, they form the fabric of the body. 
 
 As the moon sheds moisture, and abstracts the 
 sun's rays, which dry up and bestow energy upon 
 the earth, and as the air moves from place to place, 
 so does phlegm bestow moisture, bile withdraws 
 it by its heat, and wind wafts it about in the 
 microcosm, or animal body.* 
 
 I. Yayu, spirit, or wind, flows through all parts 
 of the body, and performs all its actions. It is of 
 the active agent (rajoguna) ; is invisible, is of a 
 
 * This ingenious theory, which has been so frequently renewed, and 
 was for so many ages universally believed, seems to have been derived from 
 the Hindus ; from whom it was adopted by the Egyptian and Grecian priest- 
 hood. It is defective, however, in excluding the blood, which, notwith- 
 standing, has been stated as one of the fundamental parts of the body.
 
 138 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 cooling, and quickly digesting quality, is extremely 
 light, and is always flowing more or less quickly ; 
 it conveys the essential parts about the bod}' ; per- 
 forms respiration, and all the actions at the outlets 
 of the body, and maintains the circulation of the 
 fluids, and the activity of the senses, of the organs, 
 and of the understanding. It dries up the fluids, 
 is soft, but is afi'ected by heat and cold ; and like 
 the sun's rays, it prepares and separates the fluids 
 and dejections ; when mixed with bile it produces 
 a burning sensation ; and with phlegm it cools 
 the body. It produces happiness when healthy, 
 and with heat increases the hot state of the system. 
 It is principally found in the small intestines 
 (pukkashaya), thighs, neck, ears, eyes, and other 
 organs of sense, and all the canals, the testicles, 
 and the anus. It produces the active properties 
 of the body and its organs, and retains the body 
 in its proper state. There are five kinds of air 
 according to the situations they occupy. 
 
 1. Yital air (Prdna Vuyu) which passes through 
 the mouth and nose, and by which deglutition is 
 performed. It is situated in the chest, and is the 
 supporter of prdna, or life. While this remains 
 in health, so does the individual ; it gives move- 
 ment to the blood, and by it the food and drink 
 are conveyed to the stomach, and strength to the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 139 
 
 body ; wlien diseased it produces hiccougli, and 
 difficulty of breathing, &c. 
 
 2. Apana vayu is contained in the rectum, 
 urethra, &c., and is situated under Wlq pakkashaya^ 
 or place of digestion. It separates the dejections, 
 urine, semen, and menses, and expels the foetus. It 
 is also situated in the buttocks. When deranged, 
 it produces diseases of the bladder and anus, 
 diseases of the semen, and constipation. 
 
 3. Shaman vayu is situated in the stomach and 
 small intestines (amassia and puckashaya), per- 
 forms the digestion of the food, and separates the 
 blood and juices from the urine, alvine evacua- 
 tions, &c. When diseased, it produces loss of 
 appetite, goolmoh, diarrhoea, &c. 
 
 4. Udana vayu is situated in the hollow of the 
 neck, above the sternum, and is always directed 
 upwards. In health, it produces speech and 
 singing, and other functions of the voice, above 
 the collar bones. When deranged, it produces 
 various diseases of the upper part of the chest 
 and neck. 
 
 5. Beana vayu is found acting in conveying the 
 fluids over the body. It produces the flow of the 
 blood, sweat, &c. ; and performs walking, jumping, 
 opening of the eyes, conveying, raising, or 
 depressing things, &c. If it be diseased, all the
 
 140 HISTORY OF MEDIOIKE 
 
 body becomes affected. When the wind is 
 diminished, weakness is produced ; the person 
 speaks little, he is melancholy, and his under- 
 standing is diminished, &c. Wind is deranged 
 by excess in venery, study, fasting, or watching, 
 by injuries, as falls and pressure on the body ; 
 by severe exercise, as walking much or very fast, 
 carrying heavy weights, jumping or swimming, 
 by riding upon horsebacA, or on elephants, or 
 in carriages; by using much of sour, pungent, 
 bitter, or dry substances ; or light cooling vege- 
 tables, flesh, or certain kinds of pulse, &c. 
 Wind may be deranged by the quantity and 
 quality of the food which is eaten, by certain 
 actions of the body, and by exposure to the cold 
 and moist air, early in the morning. If all the 
 varieties of vayu are deranged the person dies. 
 
 II. Bile f petto) is a hot, bitter, oily fluid, having 
 a peculiar smell, like that of raw flesh. It is of 
 a blue colour when in a state of digestion, is sour, 
 pungent, bitter, and light in weight when 
 unmixed, and is hot and pungent, like fire 
 or pepper ; and of a yellow colour when properly 
 prepared. It produces animal heat, and it 
 possesses the quality of Satwaguna. It is situated 
 principally in the stomach (amassia)^ and small 
 intestines fpuckashayaj ; but it is also found in the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 141 
 
 liver, spleen, heart, eye, and skin, where it is 
 mixed with the blood and other fluids. Its prin- 
 cipal situation, however, is between the stomach 
 and small intestines, from which it passes to the 
 different parts of the body in which it is found. 
 There are the following five kinds of bile: — 
 
 1. Pacheka is situated between the stomach 
 and small intestines, and is the bodily fire which 
 Charaka supposes the five elements produce. It 
 digests the food, and separates the chyle, urine, 
 and fteces. It strengthens the internal fire of the 
 belly, and when mixed with the seven essential 
 parts of the body {dhaiu)^ makes them soft and 
 powerful. It produces hunger, thirst, tasto, light, 
 humours, wind, and strength. It exists in the 
 spleen, in the heart, in the eyes, and throughout 
 the body and skin. It digests the six kinds of food, 
 which it renders more or less nourishing. Its motion 
 being warm, it never produces disease. As the 
 sun shines in the heavens, absorbing water from 
 the pools, so the fire, situated in the navel, shines 
 and digests the food which is taken ; and as the 
 sun imparts its properties [tej) to the moon, so 
 bile imparts its properties to the phlegm, situated 
 in the stomach. This is therefore like a cooking- 
 pot containing water and food, which is boiled 
 by the heat of the bile underneath it. In this
 
 142 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 way digestion is performed, and the blood is 
 rendered more fluid. 
 
 When digestion is completed, its qualities are 
 like fire, and it dries up the thin part of the food, 
 is called onola or fire, and separates the pure 
 part from its dregs. This fire penetrates and 
 gives strength to the body, and as a candle en- 
 lightens objects around, so bile conveys its pro- 
 perties over all the body. 
 
 2. The ranjaka petta is situated in the liver 
 and spleen; and gives the blood-red colour to 
 the chyle. 
 
 3. In the heart it produces sense, memory, and 
 thought, and is called shadaka. 
 
 4. In the eyes it produces sight, and is called 
 alochcka. 
 
 5. Situated in the skin, it gives it a shining, 
 clear, and healthy colour, absorbs applications to 
 the skin, and is called hrajoka petia. 
 
 When not deranged, bile produces the sense 
 of sight, digestion, and the functions of organs, 
 by its heating and concocting properties. It pro- 
 duces appetite and thirst, and retains the body 
 soft, giving the proper colour to it ; and also 
 produces joy, pride, memory, &c. Bile varies in 
 different seasons ; in July and August it is 
 increased ; in September and October it is liable
 
 AMONG THE ASI/iiTICS. 143 
 
 to bo diseased; and in March and April it is 
 diminished. 
 
 When it is deranged, the internal fire or heat of 
 the body is diminished, as also its colour and 
 digestion. In this case the nourishing chyle (rasa) 
 is not properly separated in the organ called 
 amassia, and produces the undigested dejections 
 called ama^ or white slimy discharges. If the 
 slime be mixed with wind, bile, and phlegm, it 
 deranges the seven dhatu. 
 
 The increase of the five elements, and their five 
 qualities of which the body is composed, will be 
 best understood by following the course and 
 changes of the food when eaten. The food, 
 by means of pran vajju^ reaches the stomach 
 (amassia), where it is softened, mixed with 
 the phlegm, and exposed to heat ; the chyle, 
 or pure part of the digested food, is of a milky 
 colour, and is conveyed to the heart by means of the 
 domonnie vessels ; by the action of the bile it becomes 
 red and sweet in the liver, and is mixed with the 
 blood. Charaka calls these vessels, the chyle 
 carrying vessels (rasyania). By the wind situated in 
 the navel [samana vayu\ the fire is increased, and 
 it digests the food in the stomach, which becomes 
 frothy and sour ; it then passes to the place of bile 
 fgrinnij, which is situated between the stomach
 
 144 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 and small intestines. When well concocted by 
 the bile situated there, the food becomes pungent, 
 being mixed with the chyle. It then passes to 
 the puckashaya^ or place in which digestion is per- 
 fected, and is separated from its impurities. The 
 chief part of the nourishment is liquid, and is 
 conveyed to the blood-vessels; while the liquid 
 impurities are conveyed by shira^ below the navel, 
 forming urine ; while the solid crementitial matter 
 is conveyed by shamana vayii to the lower intes- 
 tines, and is expelled at stated times by the anus. 
 
 Should the fire be too strong it burns the food, 
 and it bBcomes sour, and generates bile. When 
 the fire dries the food, it produces a hard mass, 
 which is bitter. After digestion, the prepared 
 food sometimes become sour, by its mixture with 
 substances of this quality. When digestion is not 
 properly performed, the internal fire and strength 
 are diminished; the person becomes wealiened, 
 and diseases are produced, particularly the disease 
 which is called ama. 
 
 When morbidly increased in a body, bile pro- 
 duces a yellowness of the skin, much heat, a 
 desire for cooling articles of food, and a loss of 
 sleep and strength. The person cannot see perfectly, 
 and his eyes, fseces, and urine become yellower 
 than usual.
 
 AMOKG THE ASIATICS. 145 
 
 The hair of a person with such a temperament 
 becomes quickly grey, he perspires easily, his 
 body is pale, his eyes are easily inflamed, and he is 
 impatient, perverse, opinionative, vain, and conse- 
 quential ; he is amorous, his conversation is 
 unguarded, he is addicted to falsehood, is fond 
 of abstruse studies, &c. Eile is deranged by 
 anger, grief, fear, covetousness, malice, great 
 fatigue, fasting, excessive venery, by eating 
 roasted food, or sour, salt, hot or heavy food, 
 or mustard, oil, or cakes, or certain kinds of 
 pulse; by vegetables, fish, flesh, curdled milk, 
 butter-milk, or spirits ; also, by exposure to heat 
 of any kind. 
 
 III. The phlegm (kofa), is the impurity of the 
 chyle, and is conveyed by the prana va?ju along 
 the domonnie vessels, and mixes with the rest of 
 the phlegm in the body. It is cooling, moist, 
 white, heavy, oleaginous, and glistening, and 
 possesses the quality of tomoghuna in excess. It 
 is sweet, but when imperfectly digested, becomes 
 pungent, being prepared by the internal fire, as if 
 boiled in an earthen pot. If deranged by fire, it 
 becomes saltish and frothy. It is principally 
 found in the stomach, in the breast, in the heart, 
 at the root of the neck, in the head, in the eyes, 
 in the throat, and the tongue ; and is found in the
 
 146 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 joints, in the vessels, and all moist parts. There 
 are five kinds described : — 
 
 1. In the stomach (amassia) phlegm softens 
 the food, retains chyle of its proper consistence, 
 and pervades and strengthens the difi'erent 
 organs. 
 
 2. Abalamvana^ is situated in the heart, shoulder- 
 joint, and arms, and strengthens these parts, and 
 the breast. 
 
 3. In the tongue and throat, it produces the 
 various tastes, such as bitter, salt, and sour, and 
 is called rashana. 
 
 4. In the head, it keeps, by its lubricating 
 qualities, the brain, the eyes, and other organs 
 moist. It retains their respective qualities, and 
 is called strehena. 
 
 5. It keeps the joints moist and ready to 
 perform their actions, and is called shlesona. 
 
 If not deranged, it retains the body in its proper 
 state, produces its glistening appearance, and 
 moist state. It strengthens the joints, produces 
 the heaviness and strength of the body, and enters 
 into the formation of semen. The temperament 
 it produces is indicated by a greenish colour, and 
 the person is fortunate, is of a fine complexion, 
 and is fond of sweet things. He is grateful, 
 patient, and is without covetousness. He is
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 147 
 
 strong, with a white eye, his hair is black, and 
 he dreams of water. 
 
 When morbidly diminished, it produces impuri- 
 ties ; the body dries, the internal heat is increased, 
 digestion is diminished, the joints move with 
 difficulty, the person is incommoded with thirst, 
 weakness, and watching. In this state, it leaves 
 its natural situations, and passes to other parts of 
 the body. It is deranged by sleeping during the 
 day, taking no exercise, using much of sweet, salt, 
 sour, or cooling substances ; by eating oleaginous 
 and heavy articles of food, as milk, the flesh of 
 the buffalo, and those animals which live in water, 
 and living on barley, and various kinds of rice. 
 It is also deranged by eating always the same 
 food, or eating too often, or cooling things of all 
 kinds. This humour is also deranged by the 
 sea-ous ; in November and December it is in- 
 creased, in March and April it is liable to be 
 doraiiged, and in May and June it is diminished. 
 When much increased, it produces indigestion, loss 
 of appetite, langour, lassitude, and vomiting. 
 
 It is supposed that the phlegm is contained in 
 the parts above the navel, bile in the trunk above 
 the pelvis, and wind in and below the pelvis. In the 
 morning, phlegm predominates, when the body feels 
 cool ; in the middle of the day, bile predominates.
 
 148 HISTORY OF MEDICI^E 
 
 when people feel hot ; and in the evening, wind is 
 the strongest : at night the same order is observed. 
 When these divisions meet, phlegm and wind are the 
 strongest. In like manner the age of man is divided 
 into three periods ; to the fifteenth year phlegm 
 is strongest ; to the fiftieth, or manhood, bile is 
 the strongest ; and after that, or in old age, wind 
 predominates. In like manner where these periods 
 meet, phlegm and wind are strongest. 
 
 The same changes are observed in the seasons, 
 and in the period of digestion of food, and physi- 
 cians should be careful of them in the employment 
 of remedies. On this account, hot things should 
 be given in the morning, or to the young ; cooling 
 things in the middle of the day, or to adults ; and 
 tonic and pungent food in the evening, or in old 
 age. 
 
 The seven dliatu and the impurities remain at 
 rest, and are incapable of movement until acted 
 on by wind (vayu), and are wafted by it over all 
 parts of the body, as clouds are wafted about by 
 the wind, and through its influence they perform 
 their respective actions. The wind (vayu) pre- 
 sides over the ten senses, and is, therefore, the 
 natural lord of all the actions of the body; it 
 acts quickly and strongly, often deranges bile 
 and phlegm, and produces many diseases. It
 
 AMONG TKE ASIATICS. 149 
 
 is diffused everywhere over the body, as well 
 as in the world, of which it is the ruler, performing 
 all the actions in it. 
 
 Sometimes the different humours are increased 
 in quantity, either separately, or in combination of 
 two or more together ; but bile and phlegm cannot 
 pass from their own receptacles by themselves, 
 without the assistance of wind, which is the only 
 active humour. As a high wind striking upon 
 water throws it about, so vital wind, acting upon 
 the other humours, increases them in quantity, 
 and throws them about out of their proper 
 receptacles. Sometimes they are diffused over the 
 whole body ; at other times to some organ which 
 is irritated ; and then they cause disease, as the 
 cloud which accumulates over a place, throws 
 down rain there. 
 
 If wind be much deranged, it leaves its own re- 
 ceptacle, and passes to another place, producing 
 noise in an unusual situation. Bile in like manner 
 produces heat, a burning sensation, and dryness ; 
 when phlegm is increased, and is changed in its 
 position, it destroys appetite and digestion, and 
 produces langour and vomiting. In cases where 
 wind, bile, phlegm, and blood are deranged, and 
 accumulated in the abdomen, they diminish 
 appetite and strength, produce swelling, or
 
 150 HISTORY OF MEDICIISE 
 
 abscesses in the abdomen ; at other times costive- 
 ness, cholera, dysentery, &c. 
 
 If deranged, wind may pass to the receptacle of 
 bile, wren medicines for this disease are to be 
 employed for its cure ; and bile, when deranged, 
 may pass to that of phlegm, and be cured by remov- 
 ing diseased bile. If phlegm passes to the locality 
 of wind, it is to be cured in the usual way. 
 
 When these humours accumulate in the bladder 
 they produce diabetes, stone, dysuria, and other 
 diseases of the urine. When they accumulate in 
 the penis they produce strictures, swellings, &c. ; 
 in the anuSj fistula-in-ano, piles, and the like ; and 
 in the scrotum and testicles, they produce different 
 forms of hydrocele. If in the head they produce 
 the various diseases of the head, eyes, &c. ; 
 when collected in the blood and flesh, they 
 produce leprosy, different kinds of cutaneous dis- 
 eases, and inflammation ; in the fat, different kinds 
 of tumours and swellings, particularly of glandular 
 parts ; in the bone they produce inflammation, 
 and in the feet elephantiasis, rheumatism, and 
 other like diseases. When diffused over the 
 whole body, fever and other general diseases, as 
 small pox, &c., are the consequence. 
 
 If such derangements of the humours remain 
 for some time, their effects may appear afterwards,
 
 A.MONG THE ASIATICS. 151 
 
 and slowly produce the peculiar symptoms of 
 disease. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ESSENTIAL PARTS. {Dhdtu.) 
 
 The essential parts, or the supporters of the 
 body, consist of the hard and soft parts, and fluids 
 of the body. These are the chyle (rasa), blood 
 (rakta), flesh (mansa), fat (meda), bone (osthi), 
 marrow (majja), and semen (sakra). These seven 
 essential parts of the body form the foetus, lubricate 
 the food, nourish and sustain life, and retain the 
 system in a healthy state ; they give the soft feel, 
 colour, and strength to the body, and the action of 
 the senses. When diseased or diminished, the body 
 wastes, and the person dies. Thus the length of 
 life varies with the kind of food which is used. 
 Good chyle produces good health, and with it 
 bravery, strength, and a fine colour of the body, 
 acute senses, and retentive memory. 
 
 1 . Chyle is obtained and separated from the four 
 kinds of food which are digested, and is said to be 
 the essence (sara) of the food. It has a glutinous,
 
 152 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 cooling, and liquid quality ; is sweet, and is thin, 
 pure, and of a Avhite colour. It is principally situ- 
 ated in the heart, liver, and spleen ; and by means 
 of the YC!?pels called dhamanee, it is conveyed to the 
 different parts of the body by the samdna vdyu^ and 
 refreshes and nourishes the dhatu. The chyle 
 passes through holes in the large vessels to the 
 heart, liver, and spleen, where it becomes red, 
 mixes with the blood, and assists in the formation 
 of the other dhatu, which it irrigates, as water irri- 
 gates plants. When chyle is much increased it pro- 
 duces nausea, and an increased secretion of saliva. 
 There are two varieties — one, ama (chyme), 
 slightly impure ; and the other, pakwa or chyle in 
 its pure state, which nourishes the body; and 
 mala are the dregs rejected from the body. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion as to the uses 
 of the chyle, some supposing that it nourishes 
 the parts directly, others suppose that by means 
 of vital wind (pran-vayu), it is conveyed to the 
 dhamanee vessels, by which it is sent to the blood, 
 and mixes with it in the spleen and liver, where 
 it becomes red, is purified by the bile, and re- 
 mains for five days and a-half. It then passes to 
 the flesh, and remains there some time, is purified 
 by the bile, or by a kind of internal fire, is con- 
 veyed to the different parts of the body, which it
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 163 
 
 retains at its proper temperature, and nourishes 
 the flesh. In the same way it passes to, and 
 remains in, the fat, bone, &c., which it nourishes, 
 and purifies with one part ; while another impure 
 part (mala) is rejected. Phlegm is supposed to be 
 the impurity of chyle, bile of blood, ear-wax that of 
 flesh. Perspiration is the impurity of the blood in the 
 fat, as the tartar is the impurity of the teeth ; and 
 other secretions have impurities which are in like 
 manner thrown off. The last dhatu to which the 
 chyle passes is the semen, which has no dregs ; 
 so that the chyle, like sugar, requires diff'erent 
 processes to purify it, and at each stage it throws 
 down impurities. 
 
 The chyle retains the person in good spirits, 
 increases the blood, &c., but if not properly pre- 
 pared, from the bile being either too strong or too 
 weak, it becomes pungent, leaves a sour taste in 
 the mouth, and like poison, deranges the dhatu, 
 and produces disease. If diminished, there is pain 
 in the breast, the person shakes, has swimming in 
 the head and moisture in the eyes, with thirst. 
 In one month the chyle changes to blood, flesh, 
 fat, bone, and marrow, from which semen and 
 the menses are produced. 
 
 2. Blo:fd. The blood is derived from the digested 
 part of the food or chyle, which, after being con-
 
 154 HISTORY OF MEDICIXE 
 
 cocted, becomes red, and is called blood; which 
 combines with and nourishes the other essential 
 parts of the body. 
 
 The blood is thin and limpid, like water, has a 
 peculiar smell, is of a red colour, and light. These 
 qualities are derived from the five elements which 
 it contains, and it may be said to be the root of all 
 the elements of the body ; as the smell comes from 
 the earth, the fluidity from the water, redness from 
 the fire, mobility from the wind, and lightness from 
 the ether (akasa). "When blood predominates it 
 produces redness of the eyes and body, and 
 fullness of the vessels. In a healthy state it keeps 
 the body of a good colour, increases strength, and 
 produces and nourishes the flesh or bulk of the 
 body, the cellular tissue, and fat. It preserves 
 and retains vitality, and distributes it over the 
 body, in different quantities ; for vitality resides 
 chiefly in the blood, navel, and semen : when these 
 are weak, so is vitality. Blood is supposed to be 
 chiefly situated in the liver and spleen, from which 
 it is distributed over the body. 
 
 The blood is known to be in a healthy state 
 when the nails, eyelids, palate, tongue, lips, 
 palms of the hands, and soles of the feet are of a 
 reddish colour, and of a shining appearance. It 
 retains the fullness and hardness of the abdomen,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 155 
 
 gives the yellow tinge to the skin, and reduces 
 the heat of the body. There are two varieties of 
 blood, one of which is supposed to pass to all 
 parts of the body, to nourish it, and to form fat, 
 and its impurity, sweat. The second variety forms 
 flesh, and its impurities, ear-wax. 
 
 The blood in the female is changed and produces 
 the menses, which differ from the pure fluid, being 
 formed by the internal fire of the body ; and they 
 flow continually three whole days during every 
 month, from the twelfth to the fiftieth year of age. 
 
 When the blood is diminished in quantify, 
 the skin becomes dry and rough, the vessels 
 feel lax and feeble; and when increased, the 
 internal heat of the body is augmented, producing 
 fevers and other diseases, in which sour and cool- 
 ing food and drink are desired. 
 
 Blood is never deranged by itself, as whatever 
 acts unfavourably on it, produces first its effect 
 upon the wind, phlegm, and bile, and then acts on 
 the blood. The wind corrupts the blood by making 
 it frothy, dark gray, and thin, and the pulse fast 
 or slow ; when corrupted by bile, blood becomes 
 of a brown, yellowish, or greenish colour, and has 
 the disagreeable smell of raw meat; and when 
 corrupted by phlegm, it becomes unctuous, cold, 
 and ductile, (Susruta.) On this account, the
 
 156 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 diseases of the blood are cured, by first curing 
 the derangeirients of the humours. 
 
 3. Flesh (mansa, muscles) is produced by wind 
 (vayu) thickening the blood, which is digested by 
 heat. The wind passes through the body, and 
 being accompanied with the proper degree of 
 heat, divides the flesh into different muscles, in 
 which the fine nerves and vessels are lodged that 
 contain blood. By means of these, it proceeds as 
 the lily rises from the ground, and is nourished 
 by water, &c., in its progress upwards. When 
 the blood is digested in the flesh, by the inter- 
 nal fire, its essential parts nourish the flesh, and 
 its dregs produce the wax of the ears, &c. When 
 diminished and dried up in the abdomen, cheeks, 
 and lips, pelvis, thighs, breasts, armpits, nates, and 
 neck, it produces pain, and the principal vessels 
 are diminished in size ; when it predominates, it 
 increases the size of the buttocks, cheeks, lips, 
 thighs, arms, and calves of the legs, and gives a 
 general heaviness to the body. 
 
 There are five hundred muscles in the body, of 
 which four hundred are in the extremities, and 
 the remainder in the trunk and head. The use 
 of the muscles is to cover, strengthen, and retain 
 in their places the vessels, tendons, bones, and 
 joints, and they are divided into broad and large.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 157 
 
 small, narrow, thick, round, long, and short, hard 
 and soft, and smooth and rough. 
 
 4. Fat is generated by the digestion of the 
 blood by the internal fire. It produces per- 
 spiration ; is oily and heavy ; anoints the tela 
 cellulosa, strengthens and nourishes the bones, 
 keeps the body shining and hard; and is the 
 cause of the growth of the body, its obesity and 
 strength. It is diffused over the body, but its 
 chief seat is in the abdomen, and round the eyes, 
 throat, and breast. Its impurities are sweat, 
 and, as some pundits suppose, the secretions of 
 the arm-pits, mouth, penis, and vagina. 
 
 When the fat is diminished the spleen may be 
 easily felt, the joints seem dried, and moving 
 them gives pain. In such cases, animal food is 
 always desired. When fat predominates, the body 
 appears smooth and glistening, the abdomen and 
 sides are increased in size ; cough and asthma are 
 produced, and the body has a disagreeable 
 smell. 
 
 5. Bones and cartilages (toruna) as new bone, 
 are considered under the same head. It is 
 supposed that the essential parts of the blood 
 and fat produce bone. The fat being digested by 
 the internal fire, is thickened by the wind, and 
 converted into bone ; which give form to the body,
 
 158 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 and to them all tlie soft parts are attached. 
 When the bones are all united together, they 
 form the skeleton (kankala). Bone sustains and 
 nourishes the marrow, including the brain and 
 spinal marrow. When digested, the impurities 
 of bone form the nails, hair, &c. When the 
 elements of bone are diminished in the system, 
 the bones become painful, the teeth and nails 
 crack and become loose, and the body becomes 
 dry. Where bone predominates, another portion 
 grows over the old bone ; and a more than usual 
 number of teeth are formed. 
 
 Some authors say there are 300 (Susruta), others 
 306 (Charaka,) bones in the body. This difference 
 is owing to their counting the cartilages with the 
 bones. The bones are connected together by 
 capsular ligaments, and are correctly enumerated ; 
 which proves that Hindus examined the human 
 body with care. 
 
 There are five varieties of bones : — 
 
 a. Flat honeSj as of the knee, hip, shoulder, 
 cheek, palate, temple, and head. 
 
 b. Teeth. 
 
 c. Cartilages ; as of the nose, ears, neck, and 
 eyelids. 
 
 d. Round hones ; those of the hands, feet, back, 
 sides, and sacrum.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 159 
 
 e. Long hones ; those of the arms, legs, meta- 
 carpal, and metatarsal bones, and the other like 
 bones of the body. Bones are insensible and 
 immoveable, and as the centre of a tree is the 
 hardest, so the bones are the most durable part of 
 the body, and remain after all the other parts 
 have decayed. 
 
 6. Brain and Marrow. The brain and marrow 
 are situated within the bones, and nourish them ; 
 and their impurities are the secretions from the 
 eyes. The marrow gives strength and the shining 
 appearance to the body, and when it is increased, 
 there is a heaviness of the eye and of the whole 
 body. When diseased, it diminishes semen, and 
 produces pain in the long bones. The essential 
 parts of marrow and brain mix with the blood, 
 and produce semen. 
 
 7. Semen is the last essential part formed, and 
 nothing is produced directly from it. It is liquid, 
 cold, white-coloured, has the smell of honey, and 
 is the essence, strength, and support of the 
 body, and the root of pregnancy. There is no 
 peculiar oi-gan for the semen, which is supposed to 
 be diffused over the body ; as butter is in the milk, 
 and sugar in the sugar-cane. There is a duct on 
 the right side of the urinary bladder, where it is 
 collected, and passes through the urethra at the
 
 160 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 time of coition. Like gold purified a thousand 
 times, a drop resembles oil, and may produce 
 pregnancy. Food does not always increase semen; 
 as in old people when wind predominates, which 
 dries up the semen. This retains the body 
 in its proper state of health and strength, is 
 the generative principle, and during its excre- 
 tion it produces pleasure; when diminished, it 
 causes pain in the penis and testicles, and the 
 person becomes impotent. When it predomi- 
 nates, there is an increased flow, and it produces 
 stone. 
 
 Menses. The chyle is supposed, once a month 
 in the female, to b© converted into menses 
 (Susruta). The female has desire for the sex 
 during the flow of the menses, and it acts on her 
 as the semen does on the male. So much is this 
 supposed to be the case, that the union of the 
 semen of two women may produce pregnancy, but 
 the foetus will be born without bone. The menses 
 of the woman disappears after a certain variable 
 period, and likewise when she conceives, when 
 they circulate towards the mammae, where they 
 are collected and produce milk. 
 
 These seven essential parts of the body fdhatuj^ 
 with the exception of semen, are contained in 
 separate organs called lolla^ or receptacles.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. ICl 
 
 The blood nourishes the flesh and tela cellulosa, 
 lanoints it with perspiration, strengthens and 
 mourishes the bones; and these sustain and 
 inourish the marrow ; and the marrow and bones 
 (Containing it stimulate the voluptuary organs, by 
 Itheir power of nourishing the semen. The semen 
 [produces firmness, pleasure, and the germination 
 (of the young, and activity and lascivious feeling 
 iin a strong person. Life exists in all parts of the 
 Ibody, but chiefly in the semen and blood. Some 
 ]pundits believe that life is the blood, and others 
 ssay that life is the satyo rajo^ and tamo gunas^ 
 with the five senses, and the soul. 
 
 The blood, flesh, and fat, have the qualities of 
 < earth in excess ; bone, the qualities of wind and 
 < earth ; marrow and semen, the qualities of water ; 
 mrine, the qualities of fire ; and chyle and milk, 
 tthe qualities of water in excess. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 EXCRETIONS (Mala). 
 
 The excretions are the dregs or impurities of 
 ithe seven essential parts. The dregs of the chyle 
 iis phlegm; of the blood, bile; of the flesh, the
 
 162 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 secretions of tlie ear, nose, &c. ; of the fat, per- 
 spiration ; of the bone, the nails and hair ; of the 
 brain and marrow, the secretions from the eyes, 
 &c. The semen has no dregs, but others say that 
 ozali, an oily transparent fluid, which is spread; 
 over the body, is the essential support of life, 
 is its impurity ; ozah is derived from semen, and 
 the essential parts of the seven dhatu. It is 
 heavy, soft, liquid, sweet, cooling, oily, of ai 
 reddish or slightly yellow colour, and is diffusible 
 and transparent. It is spread over, and nou- 
 risheth the body. If in a healthy state, the body 
 becomes firm, the functions of the organs are 
 performed, a good colour is given to the body, 
 and the external and internal functions, and the 
 organs of sense are retained in a healthy state. 
 When deranged, the person feels languid, with 
 a loss of strength. It is deranged by severe 
 wounds, by the diminution of any of the seven 
 essential parts, by the passions, anxiety, much 
 labour, and hunger. The body then feels heavy, 
 swollen, and drowsy, and its colour changes. 
 If diminished, the person becomes thin, with 
 fainting, delirium, and if destroyed, he dies. 
 
 Some authors state, that "oily exudations, 
 seminal fluids, blood, dandriff, urine, fasces, 
 ear-wax, nail-parings, phlegm from the throat,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 1G3 
 
 &c. ; tears, concretions in the eye, and sweat, 
 are the twelve impurities of the human frame." * 
 Susruta only allows three excretions. 
 
 1. Alvine evacuations are the superfluous parts 
 of the nutritious food, which form the fseces ; when 
 they are diminished by dysentery, purgatives, 
 or the like, pain is felt in the breast and the 
 sides of the abdomen. 
 
 When much increased they produce pain in 
 the belly, with a gurgling noise. When in the 
 proper quantity they keep the body in a sound 
 state, and support the wind and internal fire in 
 a healthy condition. 
 
 2. Urine is contained in the bladder, and keeps 
 the neighbouring parts moist. When diminished, 
 pain is felt in the pelvis, and little uriue is dis- 
 charged. When much increased, there is a fre- 
 quent flow, with pain in the pelvis, and swelling 
 in the part. 
 
 3. Perspiration retains the skin in a soft and 
 moist state. If diminished, the pores of the skin 
 become dry, tough, and deranged in their action. 
 For the removal of this state, warm oil is to be 
 rubbed over the body. When the perspiration is 
 increased there is a bad smell of the body, with 
 itching. 
 
 * Manu, p. 164, ch, v., sec. 135.
 
 164 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 AJilk. When a female conceives, the chyle 
 which produced the menses proceeds towards the 
 mammse, which enlarge, and contain the food of 
 the infant. When the milk is diminished, the 
 mammse become lessened, and little milk is se- 
 creted, and in these cases, medicines which increase 
 phlegm are to be used. When much increased, 
 the mammse are enlarged, and the flow of milk 
 increased. 
 
 The tears, saliva, and menstrual secretion, will 
 be diminished by much purging or vomiting ; 
 and also eating, in considerable, quantities, those 
 substances which diminish wind, bile, &c., will 
 have this effect. One excretion, when constipated, 
 diminishes the others. In like manner, disagreeable 
 food or melancholy, violent exercise, fasting, 
 excess in venery, &c., have the same effect. 
 There is, however, no certain quantity, as they 
 vary in different individuals, according to their 
 size, &c. The increase or diminution of these fluids 
 is therefore stated by comparison. When a man is 
 healthy, all the secretions and essential parts are 
 supposed to be in a sound state; and it is the 
 duty of the physician, when they are deranged, 
 to restore them to their just quantity ; if in- 
 creased, they must be diminished ; and if 
 diminished, increased.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 165 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 JOINTS (Sandhi.) 
 
 According to Susruta there are 107 articula- 
 tions; others state there are 68 joints moveable, 
 and 142 immoveable. 
 
 Of the moveable kind are the joints of the ex- 
 tremities, jaw, and vertebrae. All the others 
 belong to the second or immoveable class. 
 
 There are eight forms of joints: — 
 
 1. Karaj hinge joint, as those of the fingers, 
 toes, wrist, ankles, knees, elbows. 
 
 2. UduTihala, are ball and socket joints, as the 
 shoulder and hip joints. 
 
 3. Samudga. Like the instrument for cutting 
 betelnut; as the shoulder-blade, pubes, and 
 innominata. 
 
 4. Pratarat as the joints of the neck, and of the 
 back. 
 
 5. Tunnasevanee (sown as with thread,) sutures 
 of the skull, joinings of the ilium, ischium, and 
 pubes. 
 
 6. Va7jasaiunda^ the joints of the jaw, which 
 resemble a crow's beak (coronoid process). 
 
 M
 
 166 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 7. Mandala (round) as of the orbits, throat 
 (larynx) and thorax ; in which the eyes, wind-pipe, 
 "bronchi, and heart are situated. 
 
 8. Sunkha harta^ like the spiral of a shell ; as 
 the ears, and os hyoides. 
 
 The flexible parts or joints of the muscles, 
 Tessels, and nerves are numerous, but are not 
 stated. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 LIGAMENTS, &c. {Snaya.) 
 
 Ligaments bind together and strengthen the 
 flesh, fat, joints, and frame-work of the body^ 
 like the strips of ratan which are employed to 
 bind the pieces of a boat together, so as to pre- 
 vent the entrance of water, aad to support heavy 
 weights. Susruta enumerates 900 ligaments; 
 divided into 600 of the extremities, 230 of the 
 trunk, and 70 of the neck and head. 
 
 There are four varieties of ligaments : — 
 
 1. Protanohutee^ long ligaments and tendons, as 
 of the legs, feet, and joints. 
 
 2. Britio, round ligaments and tendons, as of 
 the penis, &c.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 1C7 
 
 3. PrWiK, thick ligaments and tendons, (apon- 
 euroses) as along the sides, breast, back, and head, 
 
 4. Susira^ are hollows, as in amassia, pukassia, 
 and bladder. 
 
 The physician, by knowing exactly the situation 
 of the external and internal ligaments, will be 
 able to remove extraneous bodies, which have 
 penetrated far into their substance. 
 
 The nerves are included among the ligaments, 
 and are supposed to have their origin in the 
 umbilicus. Five are connected with the five 
 elements of nature, and are influenced by them ; 
 and five are subject to the senses. Wounds of 
 ligaments (and nerves) are most painful and dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 MUSCLES fPasheeJ. 
 
 The muscles cover, strengthen, and retain the 
 vessels, tendons, bones, and joints in their places. 
 
 The sizes of the muscles are very different 
 according to their situation and uses. They are 
 distinguished into broad and large, small, narrow 
 thick, round, short, hard, soft, smooth and shining, 
 and rough. Susruta describes five hundred.
 
 168 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 In these positions the muscles vary according 
 to their actions. The muscles of the penis and 
 testicles of the male, are retained internally in the 
 body of the female. Besides which, there are 
 spiral muscles, like those of a shell; the first 
 circle being the vagina, the second the neck of 
 the uterus, and the third its cavity. In the uterus 
 is contained the foetus, the mouth of that organ 
 being turned downwards and shaped like that of 
 a mefish. 
 
 Tendons (kundura). The principal are sixteen ; 
 of which two go to each foot and hand, and 
 four to the neck, and four to the back. 
 
 The nails are supposed to be the extremities of 
 the tendons. They also bind the neck, form the 
 penis before, and the buttocks and scrotum 
 behind. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 From the navel proceed all the vessels, and it 
 is the principal seat of life (pran). The navel is 
 the root of the vessels of all living animals, 
 resembling the root of a water-lily, from which
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 169 
 
 the different vessels arise ;* and proceed, like the 
 spokes of a wheel, to all parts of the body, nourish- 
 ing them, connecting the joints, and conveying 
 the chyle to the blood, as a lake is filled by the 
 rivers which flow into it. Susruta enumerates forty 
 principal vessels, and distinguishes 700 branches ; 
 These are divided into three classes, which differ 
 more in their offices, than in their appearance. 
 They are Shiran dhamanee^ and srota. 
 
 1. The shira vessels are numerous and of all 
 sizes, and convey wind, bile, phlegm, and blood to all 
 parts of the body, upwards, downwards, and across. 
 They convey nourishment throughout the body, as 
 a garden is irrigated by a small brook. These 
 vessels are all connected with the umbiliacus, and, 
 as a river, distribute nourishment in their course, 
 and keep the body flexible, and ready for action. 
 Of the forty principal vessels, ten contain wind, 
 ten bile, ten phlegm, and ten blood. Each trunk 
 is attached to its own receptacle (dosaj. They 
 are of all sizes, and life is contained in different 
 degrees in the different vessels. The middling sized 
 ones contain principally wind. 
 
 The ten trunks of vessels which convey wind, 
 are divided into 175 branches ; and the same 
 
 * This idea ii> derived fiora the appearance of the vessels in their 
 fecial state.
 
 170 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 number convey bile, phlegm, and blood, these 
 latter being attached to the spleen and liver, and 
 completing the 700 vessels in the body. Twenty- 
 five branches convey wind in each extremity, 
 thirty-fonr in the trunk, and forty-one in the neck 
 and head. 
 
 The vessels that convey bile, phlegm, and blood 
 are the same in number as those which convey 
 wind. But, in the eye, bile has ten, wind has 
 two instead of four ; and in the ears two. The 
 phlegm and blood have the same number. All 
 vessels, however, are supposed to contain wind, 
 bile, phlegm, and blood, but in different propor- 
 tions. "When they contain more wind, bile, 
 phlegm, or blood, they are called wind-vessels, 
 bile-vessels, phlegm-vessels, or blood-vessels. 
 
 The colour of wind-vessels is like that of the 
 sun, and wind appears in them ; those of bile are 
 blue and hot ; those of blood are red ; and those of 
 phlegm are cool, of a whitish colour, thick, and 
 their contents seem to remain at rest. 
 
 If wind circulates properly in its own vessels, 
 the person will act properly, and the functions of 
 the body will be performed in such a manner that 
 the individual will enjoy health ; his understand- 
 ing will be good, and he will possess all the other 
 good qualities of mind,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 171 
 
 If hile is in a proper conditioDj the person will 
 have a liealtliy appearance, his appetite will be good, 
 the internal fire will be strong and healthy, and 
 he will possess other good qualities; as memory, 
 knowledge, and strength. But if it be deranged, 
 the diseases of bile will be produced. 
 
 li phlegm acts properly the skin will be smooth, 
 the joints healthy, and the strength good ; and 
 the person will have the other good qualities of 
 phlegm, such as fatness of the body. If deranged, 
 it produces the peculiar class of diseases of 
 phlegm. 
 
 Blood. This fluid produces and nourishes all 
 the other essential parts of the body. If the 
 blood is in a healthy state, the person's colour 
 remains good, the surface of the body is sensitive, 
 and it has the other good qualities of blood, 
 as strength and fatness : and when deranged, it 
 developes the various diseases of blood. 
 
 AVhen the wind-vessels alone are deranged dis- 
 ease is not produced, but when they are deranged 
 concurrently with an increased quantity of bile 
 and phlegm, disease is the consequence. By the 
 state of the ten principal vessels the physician 
 knows whether the patient will die or live. There 
 are two vessels in the hands, two in the feet, two 
 in the throat, two in the temples and two in the
 
 172 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 nose, which are thus to be examined. In the 
 foot the vessel is behind the maleolus internus, 
 and is in length two fingers breadth; in the 
 hand it is three breadths of the fingers, in the 
 neck two breadths of the fingers, and in the nose 
 two : at these places the pulse is to be felt. In 
 these situations are the vessels containing the 
 indications of life, and a sensible physician will 
 examine them all, and if the wind flows naturally it 
 will be favourable. The two vessels of the 
 hand are, however, the principal; and if their 
 contents flow naturally, the person will live and 
 do well. This wind produces the pulse.* When 
 the pulse is to be judged of, three fingers are to 
 be put upon the vessel at the wrist; the first, 
 next the hand, represents or indicates the condi- 
 tion of wind; the second of bile ; and the third of 
 phlegm. 
 
 Should wind be deranged in the vessels, some- 
 times it will be cured by pressing, shampooing, or 
 opening the vessel ; these remedies must always 
 be employed. 
 
 When wind, bile, and phlegm are deranged, and 
 increased in quantity, they do not remain in the 
 same vessels, but pass into difi'erent channels, as 
 into those of one of the other fluid. 
 
 * Tliis explains why the physician feels the pulse at the wrist, ankles, 
 temples ; aud sometimes at the nose or ucck.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. ITS 
 
 The vessels carrying principally blood are very 
 red ; but are neither very hot nor cold. Some of 
 these vessels may be opened, others cannot be 
 opened with impunity. Should they be wounded, 
 the person will die, or the part will be rendered 
 imperfect in its actions. 
 
 There are four large vessels which should not 
 be opened in each extremity, and in the trunk 
 there are one hundred and thirty-six vessels, of 
 which thirty-two should not be opened ; four are 
 in the buttocks ; three in each side of the spinal 
 column; in the belly four; and in the breast 
 fourteen. Above the clavicles fifty are not to be 
 opened ; in the neck sixteen ; in the jaw two on 
 each side ; four below the tongue, four near the 
 nose, one in the soft palate, one on each side of 
 the eyes, and one in each ear, one in each side of 
 the forehead, two in the temples, two above it, 
 one between the eyebrows ; and six in the upper 
 part of the head. 
 
 It is stated in some books that there are innu- 
 merable vessels, consisting of those of a very small 
 size, which are like the veins of leaves from 
 which the interstices have been removed by 
 decay. They are supposed to arise from the 
 navel.
 
 171 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 II. Dhamanee vessels* These include the large 
 vessels and nerves which proceed from the navel, 
 by which the functions of hearing, touch, sight, 
 taste, and smell are performed. 
 
 There are twenty-four of these vessels, accord- 
 ing to Susruta, which proceed from the navel, 
 where the vital parts are collected, to vivify 
 the body. There are ten that proceed upwards, 
 ten downwards, and four obliquely. The upper 
 ten perform the functions of sense, and also 
 of breathing, gaping, sneezing, coughing, laugh- 
 ing, speaking, and crying ; when these vessels 
 approach the heart, the ten are divided into 
 three each, forming thirty branches. Two of 
 these are divided into ten, of which two convey 
 wind, two bile, two phlegm, two blood, and two 
 chyle. Eight others minister to hearing, touching 
 seeing, tasting, smelling ; two being allowed for 
 each function. By two, speech is performed, two 
 make the noise of the viscera, two produce sleep, 
 two cause waking, two convey tears, two the milk 
 of the female, and two in the male convey semen. 
 These constitute the upper vessels. 
 
 2. The oblique vessels are thirty in number, 
 which supply the belly, sides, back, breast, 
 shoulders, neck, and arms, support these parts, 
 and perform their actions. 
 
 * A tubular vessel of the body, as a vciu or ucrve,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 175 
 
 3. The functions of the ten lower vessels, situated 
 under the navel, are to carry the wind of the abdo- 
 men, for acting on the urine, dejections, semen, 
 menses, and the like. They separate all these 
 parts from each other ; and by them the chyle is 
 prepared. These ten vessels become thirty in the 
 stomach (amassia) and intestines (pukassia) ; two 
 of which convey wind, two bile, two phlegm, two 
 blood, two chyle, two the solid, and two the fluid 
 food ; two are for the urinary organs, two for pro- 
 ducing the semen, two for conveying it externally, 
 two for the menses ; and by two the dejections are 
 discharged. 
 
 From these, numerous other branches proceed ; 
 the whole body being enveloped by the branches 
 proceeding from the four lateral trunks. These 
 are innumerable, and terminate in open orifices on 
 the surface, and convey perspiration, retain the 
 body in a healthy state, and by their communica- 
 tions, convey external applications into the sys- 
 tem. By these vessels feeling is produced, and 
 by them the oil or water is drawn into the system, 
 and they cool, refresh, and clean it. 
 
 III. Srotd {or canals). There are many canals 
 in the human frame, which assist the nervous 
 and vital powers. These vessels convey prana, 
 or vital air; food (onna); water (uda); chyle,
 
 176 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 blood, fat of the flesh, urine, fceces, semen, and 
 menses. From each of these numerous other 
 vessels arise. 
 
 Should the two vessels conveying life be 
 wounded at their root, which is in the heart? 
 the person screams, bends forward, becomes de- 
 lirious, shakes, reels, swoons, and often dies. 
 Should the two vessels conveying food, the root of 
 which arises from the stomach, be wounded, the 
 symptoms will be flatulency, pain in the abdomen, 
 loss of appetite, vomiting, thirst, blindness, and 
 death. 
 
 After digestion, the chyle passes to the liver,* 
 becomes of a red colour in the spleen, and is 
 conveyed through the system to the dhamanee 
 vessels. There are two vessels which convey chyUt 
 the roots of which are in the breast. If they are 
 wounded, the body dries up, and the same effects 
 are produced as when the vessels conveying life are 
 wounded : the person generally dies. 
 
 There are two vessels for conveying hlood, the 
 roots of which are in the liver and spleen, and if 
 they, or the roots of the other blood-vessels, are 
 wounded, the person becomes of a pallid or gray 
 colour, with fever; much blood is lost, and the 
 eyes become red. 
 
 * This was the opiuion of Caspar Arselius, who is considered to have 
 been the discoverer of the lacteal vessels in 1615.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 177 
 
 There are two vessels for preparing fle%h^ the 
 roots of which are the shira, and the root of the 
 vessels which convey blood. If wounded, they 
 produce swelling, drying of the flesh, and enlarge- 
 ment of the vessels (shira) conveying blood 
 (aneurism), and the person dies. 
 
 For fat there are two vessels, the roots of which 
 are in the sides and loins; and when they are 
 wounded, perspiration and coolness of the body 
 are produced^ the palate dries, the body swells, 
 and there is thirst. 
 
 There are two vessels for conveying imne, the 
 roots of which are in the bladder and penis ; and 
 if they are wounded, the bladder is distended by 
 the collection of urine, and the penis swells. 
 
 There are two canals for containing dejections^ 
 one of whicb arises from pukassya, and the other 
 forms the rectum. If they are wounded, consti- 
 pation and a bad smell are produced, and the 
 intestines swell or become knotted. 
 
 The semen has two canals, "the roots of which are 
 in the breast ; and two from the testicles. There 
 is a duct on the right side of the bladder, two 
 finsjers in lencjth, which communicate with the 
 urethra. If these are wounded, it produces im- 
 potency, and the semen is discharged very slowly, 
 and is mixed with blood.
 
 178 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The menses have two canals, the roots of which 
 are the uterus, and the dhamanee vessels, which 
 convey the menses. When they are wounded, 
 barrenness is caused, and the menses cease. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 CELLULAR TISSUE, FAT, AND CERTAIN ORGANS OF THE 
 
 BODY, {Jala, nets). 
 
 The cellular tissue connects and surrounds the 
 different parts of the body, and retains the seven 
 essential parts, such as the blood, bile, &c., 
 separate from each other. The humours are con- 
 tained in the organs, in which they are matured 
 by the heat of the body, for its purposes. 
 
 There are seven kinds of Jalas : — 
 
 1. Mangsadhara*\^ situated between the muscles, 
 and in it the slender tendons (nerves), ''and 
 the active and inactive veins rest ; " or it is the 
 cellular tissue which surrounds the vessels, 
 nerves, flesh and bones, and divides into branches, 
 to nourish the neighbouring parts, as the lily rises 
 from the ground, and receives its nourishment 
 from the water and earth. 
 
 * From mangsa, flesli ; and dhara, surrounds.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 179 
 
 2. RahtadJiara* in wMch the blood is con- 
 tained, in the flesh, the spleen, and the liver. 
 They retain the blood, as the juice of trees is 
 retained, and is discharged when cut into. 
 
 3. Medadhara f is the tissue in which all the 
 fat is retained, the chief place of which is in the 
 abdomen (the omentum). In the large bones it 
 is called marrow. 
 
 4. Sleshadhara % forms the bags contain- 
 ing the phlegm, with which the joints are 
 lubricated, and rendered supple ; as oil is applied 
 for the movement of wheels- 
 
 5. Pttadhara^ or digestive organ, which re- 
 ceives from the stomach the four kinds of food, 
 taken by sucking, masticating, drinking, and 
 licking. These kinds of food are digested by the 
 heat of the bile ; and these kala convey the 
 nourishing parts of the food from the stomach 
 to the digestive organs, and the dejections to the 
 sedimental receptacle. 
 
 5. Purkhadliara^ or rectum, in which the de- 
 jections of the abdomen, liver, and lower bowels 
 are retained. 
 
 7. Sukradhara retains the semen, which is 
 dispersed over all the body with other fluids. The 
 
 * Eakta, blood ; and dliara, retains. 
 
 t Meda, fat; and dhara, retains. Maja, brain; saroia, marrow. 
 
 X Slesha, phlegm ; and dhara, retains.
 
 180 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 principal seat of the semen is two fingers breadth 
 on each side the neck of the bladder; and the 
 semen passes along the urinary passages, and is 
 discharged in a state of pleasure. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 ORGANS OR RECEPTACLES, {dsaya.) 
 
 There are seven of these receptacles, with an 
 additional three in the female. They retain the 
 humours of the body in their respective situations; 
 such as wind, bile, and phlegm, blood, chyle, 
 chyme, urine, and faeces. 
 
 The receptacle of the blood is the heart ; under 
 which the organ of phlegm is situated. Still 
 lower down (distid) is situated the stomach 
 (amasaya) between the breast and navel. Under 
 which is the (pukassya), receptacle of bile ; below 
 which is the receptacle of wind (pavanasaya), or 
 place for the excretions ; * and below that is the 
 receptacle of urine (vasti, or bladder). The 
 female has three more receptacles, the uterus, and 
 two mammse, the receptacles for milk. 
 
 * Charalca divides these into large and small intestines, and gives each 
 a name.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 181 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 oBincES OF THE BODY. (^Euudros.) 
 
 There are nine orifices in the body of the male; 
 the mouth, two nostrils, two ears, two eyes, the 
 anus, and the urethra. 
 
 Females have the orifices of the two mammee, 
 and the vagina, in addition to those of the male. 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 SKIN. {Tivak) 
 
 The skin is said to be in a state of health when 
 it is soft, and has much hair ; it consists of 
 seven layers, or membranes ; milk when boiled, 
 forms a coating like that of the skin, which 
 gives the seven different kinds of colour to 
 the body. 
 
 1. Avahhdshini (cutis vera) ; this is the external 
 layer, and contains the vessels. Its thickness is 
 about the eighteenth part of a grain of barley- 
 corn. 
 
 2. Lohita is the sixteenth part of a grain of 
 barley in thickness. 
 
 N
 
 182 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 3. Swetd is a membrane of a white colour, and 
 is the thickness of the twelfth part of a grain of 
 barley. 
 
 4. Tamra is of a copper colour, the thickness 
 of an eighth part of a grain of barley. 
 
 5. Vedani is the sensible part, and is the 
 thickness of the fifth part of a grain of barley. 
 
 6. RcJiini is the thickness of a grain of barley. 
 
 7. 3IangsadJiara, is the cellular tissue which 
 retains the muscles in their places, and is the thick- 
 ness of two barley- corns. 
 
 These membranes are not found in the head or 
 fingers, but are distinguishable where there is much 
 flesh in the part examined, as in the belly, &c. 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTABY PARTS. 
 
 Principal tendons (kandara) are sixteen in num- 
 ber: — There are four in the feet, hands, neck, 
 and two in the front of the body, and back. 
 
 The nails are supposed to be the extremities of 
 the tendons, and one of them forms the penis. 
 
 The tendons of the neck bind the head to the 
 trunk ; and others bind the back and buttocks 
 together, and terminate in the testicles.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 183 
 
 There are sixteen other tendons which are 
 spread out like a net, in which are contained 
 vessels, &c., which strengthen and bind the joints ; 
 and six others which form bundles of parts. 
 There are five suturs in the skull ; one in the 
 frsenum of the tongue, and another in that of the 
 penis. These, we are told, must be carefully 
 avoided in performing operations. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. ^ 
 
 POSITION OF THE VITAI, PARTS OF THE BODY. {Marma.) 
 
 Notwithstanding their inaccurate knowledge of 
 anatomy and physiology, the practical experience 
 of the Hindus led them to observe the dangerous, 
 and even fatal results that followed wounds of cer- 
 tain parts of the body. These parts were supposed to 
 contain so much of the vital principle, that they 
 required to be known by the practitioner, so that 
 he may avoid them. 
 
 In Susruta, these dangerous parts are all named 
 and described ; and the necessity of avoiding them 
 in operations is pointed out. The effects of wounds 
 in the palm of the hand, or sole of the foot ; of 
 the testicle, and of the groin ; and those of frac-
 
 184 HTSTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 tures of the bones of the head and breast, &c., 
 are all stated in this practical work. 
 
 The vital principle animates the whole body ; 
 but it is in larger quantity in five parts : in the 
 flesh, in vessels, nerves (and ligaments), bones, 
 and joints. The flesh has eleven vital parts ; 
 vessels, forty-one ; tendons, nerves, and ligaments, 
 twenty-seven; bones, eight; joints, twenty. 
 
 These parts are divided according to the region. 
 The two legs have eleven in each ; the two arms 
 twenty-two ; the abdomen has three ; the thorax 
 nine ; the back fourteen ; and above the trunk 
 are thirty-seven. 
 
 I. The vital parts of each distal extremity are 
 eleven. One exists in the space between the 
 great toe, and the one next it; and if it be wounded 
 or bruised, the person will die of tetanus. Hence 
 the bite of a serpent is very dangerous in this part. 
 If a wou^nd be inflicted under and behind the 
 fourth and fifth toe, death will be produced with 
 great suffering. If above the heel, and on each 
 side of it, there will be an unsteadiness or shaking 
 of the foot. If under the ankles^ it will produce 
 pain and swelling. 
 
 "When the ankle-joint is wounded, it produces 
 pain, and the joint becomes stiff, and the person lame. 
 "When the anterior and posterior part of the leg is
 
 AilONG THE ASIATICS. 185 
 
 injured, and blood flows largely, the person will die- 
 When the vital part in the knee is hurt, it will 
 produce lameness. A wound three fingers in size 
 above the knee, will be followed by much swell- 
 ing and stiffness of the joint. From a wound in the 
 middle of the thigh, much hemorrhage will follow, 
 with death, or withering of the thigh; and from one 
 a little above the last, and below the groin, from the 
 great hemorrhage, paralysis of that side will occur. 
 If the part between the testicles and groin be 
 wounded, the person will become powerless, with 
 a loss of semen. 
 
 Both upper extremities have the same vital 
 parts as the lower, differing only slightly from 
 each other. 
 
 Wounds in the palm of the hand produce such 
 hemorrhage, as to require amputation of the arm. 
 
 II. Yital parts of the trunk are twelve, of 
 which three are in the abdomen and nine in the 
 thorax. In the former, there is one in the anus, 
 and, if it be hurt, it will soon kill the person ; one 
 in the urinary bladder, if it be wounded, the person 
 will soon die, excepting after the extraction of the 
 stone. If one side be wounded, a fistula will form, 
 but the person will not die if skillfully treated. 
 Should the vital parts in both sides be wounded, 
 the person will die ; if wounded between amassia
 
 186 HISTORY OF 3IEDICINE 
 
 and puckassia, where the vessels originate, the 
 person will die. In the thorax there are nine 
 vital part;s; one is the heart, which is between the 
 two breasts within the thorax ; if it be wounded, 
 the person will soon die. Two parts are situated 
 below the breast, and are two fingers breadth in 
 size ; if wounded, death will be caused by the 
 severe cough and asthma thus produced. Above 
 the breast two fingers breadth, if a wound be given, 
 severe cough and asthma will take place, from 
 the viscera being filled up with blood; between 
 the two vessels which convey air, a wound pro- 
 duces a fatal cough and asthma. When a man is 
 wounded under the axilla, a great discharge of 
 blood will precede death. 
 
 III. The vital parts of the back are fourteen ; 
 should the loins on each side of the back be 
 wounded abovo the sacrum, from the blood 
 lost, the person will become of a yellow or livid 
 colour, and die. When the sides of the spine near 
 the buttocks are wounded, this is followed by a loss 
 of feeling, and the person cannot move the inferior 
 parts of the body, which become paralysed. When 
 the sensible parts of the two buttocks have been 
 wounded, the lower limb shrinks up, and becomes 
 weakened, and the person dies ; when wounded on 
 each side of the trunk and lower part of the abdo-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 187 
 
 men (iliac region), the person will die from the loss 
 of blood. When ^wounded on each side of the 
 spine, near the breast, the person will die from 
 the great hemorrhage. When wounded at the 
 upper part of the spinal column, the person's arm 
 becomes insensible and immoveable, and dries up ; 
 if he be wounded about the shoulder, or if the 
 shoulder-joint be wounded, it disables the arm. 
 These vital parts are double. 
 
 lY. Vital parts above the trunk are thirty- 
 seven, of which two are on each side of the 
 trachea ; there are four vessels called neela (blue), 
 and two (manya) ; if these be wounded or bruised, 
 the person cannot speak, or the voice becomes 
 changed, and he loses his taste. If the two 
 vessels, (Sira) on each side of the neck, be 
 wounded, the person will soon die. Or if the 
 joint between the head and neck be wounded, the 
 head will be always in motion. If wounded under 
 the lobe of the ear, the person becomes deaf. 
 Should the inside of the two nostrils be wounded, 
 he cannot smell. If diseased or wounded below 
 the extremities or above the eyebrows, the person 
 will become blind. If wounded in the temples, the 
 person will soon die ; if above the temples, the 
 individual will live as long as the instrument is in 
 the wound, but if it be removed he will die : it should
 
 188 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 be allowed to remain, and medicine be given to dis- 
 charge the instrument, it may drop out of the 
 wound, and the person may live. Between the 
 eyebrows, the same effects will be produced as in 
 the last case. If either of the five joints of the 
 head be wounded, it will produce fear, insensibi- 
 lity, madness, and death. Should the vessels at 
 the union of the eyes, nose, ears, and tongue, be 
 wounded, the person will soon die. Inside of the 
 upper part of the head, at the passage of the ves- 
 sel along the bone (lateral sinus), wounds will soon 
 destroy the person. 
 
 In operations, vital parts are to be carefully 
 avoided, as the life of the patient will be more or 
 less endangered when they are wounded. When a 
 member is cut off, the parts contract, and less 
 blood will often flow ; but if it be wounded in a 
 vital part it will generally cause death, by the 
 number of vessels that are divided, while the de- 
 ranged wind produces much pain. The person dies 
 in such cases, as a tree will die if the roots be 
 divided. Hence, if the vital parts be wounded, 
 as in the palm of the hand, the arm is to be 
 amputated to save the individual's life. Should a 
 person live after such injuries, the parts will be left 
 in a state of weakness, and his recovery will depend 
 entirely upon^ the skill of his medical attendant.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 189 
 
 If a bone of the head or breast be broken and 
 depressed, it is to be raised or removed by the 
 assistance of instruments. Wounds of the legs 
 or arms will not be fatal, if the vital parts have 
 escaped. In these vital parts, the qualities of the 
 moon, wind, strength, and rajo, satyo, and tamo 
 gunas, and also life are retained in considerable 
 quantities. Hence the fatal effects which usually 
 occur from injuries to these parts. The senses 
 become imperfect or destroyed, the understanding 
 becomes changed, and various kinds of pain are 
 produced in such wounds, followed by death. 
 When the fatal termination of wounds of vital 
 parts is prevented at the time of the injury, death 
 will be produced some days after, with much suf- 
 fering and weakness. In those situations, where 
 injuries do not produce fatal consequences, but an 
 imperfect action of the part, they are cured by the 
 skill and care of the surgeon. When the wound is 
 near a vital part, the experienced surgeon will 
 examine and avoid those parts, while removing 
 the instrument, by which he will diminish pain, 
 and retard, if not prevent, death. With a bad 
 surgeon, the person will become a cripple, or die. 
 
 There are five varieties, or degrees of vital parts, 
 enumerated in the shastres. In one degree, the 
 person when wounded, dies quickly ; of such parts
 
 190 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 there are nineteen ; in another, in a few days, 
 of such there are thirty-three ; in a third, when an 
 external substance enters, and produces a fatal 
 effect as soon as it is withdrawn — there are three 
 such parts ; in another, a wound produces lameness 
 — there are forty-four of this kind ; and in another 
 it produces only pain — of such parts there are eight. 
 
 When any of these parts are injured, it deprives 
 the individual, of the portion of life they contain. 
 Those parts, whose wounds produce death suddenly, 
 have the qualities of fire and wind, which quickly 
 destroy life. When life is destroyed only on the in- 
 strument being withdrawn, which had inflicted 
 the wound, it is in consequence of the part having 
 the qualities of wind (vayu). In this case, the 
 external instrument presses up the wind, &c., and 
 as soon as it is removed it escapes, and the person 
 dies. That part, which, when wounded, produces 
 pain and lameness, has the qualities of the moon ; 
 as it is cool, and steady, and retains life. That 
 which produces pain has the qualities of fire and 
 wind, by increasing which, the pain is produced. 
 Some pundits suppose that pain is produced by the 
 injury of the five elements. 
 
 When the five varieties of sensible parts of the 
 vessels, &c., are wounded, the effect is increased 
 by the number, and the person dies. If only four
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 191 
 
 are wounded, he will live a few days. When three 
 are wounded, and the instrument is removed, 
 the person will die soon after its extraction. If 
 two are injured, an imperfect action of the part 
 will be the consequence ; and if only one be in- 
 jured, there will only be pain. 
 
 These five varieties of vessels are generally 
 contained in sensible parts, and retain the body in 
 a healthy state; but if the sensible parts are 
 wounded the wind is increased ; it passes through 
 the four species of vessels, produces much pain, 
 and causes fainting and death. 
 
 If the vital parts are wounded towards their 
 centre, it will produce death in a few days; 
 and an imperfect action of the part, when 
 they are wounded on one side. Those vital parts 
 which prod ace death on the instrument being dis- 
 charged, when wounded near the edge, will give 
 much pain. The other parts give pain when 
 wounded directly, but will produce little pain if 
 wounded on one side. 
 
 The same symptoms and consequences will take 
 place, should the parts be lacerated, crushed, or 
 burnt, as when wounded by a cutting instru- 
 ment. 
 
 The care with which the sensible parts of the 
 body are enumerated, and the consequences of
 
 192 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 these injuries, prove how carefully the observa- 
 tions were made and accumulated ; and it was only 
 when they reasoned on the symptoms of these 
 injuries, that their theoretical fancies were added. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 DISPOSITIONS AND TEMPEEAMENTS OP THE BODY. 
 
 The opinion of the Ilindus as to the formation 
 and condition of the world, afforded a natural 
 means of explaining the temperaments and qua- 
 lities of the body. The preponderence of one or 
 more of the humours, and the qualities of good- 
 ness, passion, and inertness, arising from crude 
 matter, explained the peculiarities of habit and 
 character ; and as more varieties existed than the 
 simple diminution or excess of these humours 
 would explain, they supposed that the dispo- 
 sitions of the gods, demons, sages, and lower ani- 
 mals, produced the other peculiarities of character. 
 This agrees with the notion of the soul animating 
 different kinds of organic nature, and producing 
 the three varieties of disposition (gunos.) 
 
 1. The happy disposition fSatua-guno^J^ when 
 
 * From Saiwa, good ; and ffim, a quality.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 193 
 
 in excess, affords light, and produces knowledge and 
 happiness. A person thus endowed, avoids bad, and 
 strives to perform good actions. He has patience, 
 is a lover of truth, holiness, faith, knowledge, and 
 understanding ; has no bad desire, possesses a good 
 memory, is charitable, just, firm, and devoid of 
 I anger, and is contented, and without avarice. 
 'i "When wisdom appears at all the gates of the body, 
 I it proves that the Saiua-guno predominates ; and 
 ;i when such a person dies, his soul is conveyed to 
 ii the regions of those immaculate beings, who are 
 !i acquainted with the Most High; he becomes a 
 ^ Deva, 
 
 2. An active disposition [Raja-guno*), imparts 
 desire, the love of gain, industry, and commence- 
 ment of works. It produces unhappiuess when 
 in excess. Such a person is miserable, insincere, 
 wants veracity, is unquiet, unforgiving, and pre- 
 varicating. He has no mercy, is rash^ haughty, 
 proud, lascivious, intemperate, passionate, change- 
 able, and covetous. When such a person dies, his 
 soul reanimates another body, of a different, and 
 of an inferior nature. 
 
 3. An inert, proud, or wicked disposition, ( Tama- 
 guw\) in excess, is indicated by a want of 
 
 * From Eajah, to desire ; and gun, quality, 
 t From Tama, darkness ; and gun, quality.
 
 194 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 energy, or loss of consciousness, and love of retire- 
 ment, secrecy, and distraction of thought. He 
 neither believes in God, nor in another state of 
 existence ; is a great sinner, is without understand- 
 ing or knowledge, so as to be unable to take care 
 of his wealth ; and is sensual, wicked, slothful, 
 procrastinating, and stupid. When such a person 
 dies, his soul is conceived again in the womb of 
 an irrational animal. 
 
 Each of these dispositions qualify the incor- 
 ruptible spirit of the body. The Satua-guno^ 
 being pure, clear, and free from defects ; should 
 be propagated, inspires the soul with sweet and 
 pleasant consequences, th,e fruit of virtue and 
 wisdom. The Raj'a-guno is of an avaricious nature, 
 arising from the effects of wordly desire, and 
 imprisons the soul by means of the feelings pro- 
 duced by action ; and the Tama-guno^ being the 
 offspring of ignorance and vice, is the confounder 
 of all the faculties of the mind. As one or other 
 of these qualities abound, so will the character 
 of the individual vary. A combination of these 
 qualities is called prikertie. 
 
 The following is the Hindu theory of the tem- 
 perafnents : — At the time of the mixture of the 
 semen and female blood, whatever humour, whether 
 wind,bile,and phlegm, is in excess produces that par-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 195 
 
 ticular temperament. Hence there are seven tem- 
 peraments, one being produced by an excess of wind, 
 another of bile, and a third of phlegm ; a fourth, 
 fifth, and sixth, from an excess of two of these 
 humours ; and a seventh temperament is produced 
 by an excess of three humours — wind, bile, and 
 phlegm. 
 
 1. When wind is in excess, the person is not 
 inclined to sleep, or to become warm. His dis- 
 position is bad, and he becomes a thief ; is proud, 
 and has no honor ; is always singing and dancing ; 
 his hands and feet split, his hair and nails are dry, 
 and he is always angry and boisterous. He speaks 
 untruths, he is always grinding his teeth and 
 biting his nails, is impatient, is not a firm 
 friend, is changeable, and forgets good actions. 
 His body is slender and dry, he always walks fast, 
 is always in motion, and his eyes are always rolling. 
 He dreams that he is flying about, his friends 
 are few, and his riches are of little value. Such 
 persons as have an excess of wind have the disposi- 
 tion of the goat, jackall, hare, camel, dog, vulture, 
 crow, and ass. 
 
 2nd. A person with an excess of bile perspires 
 much, and he has a bad smell. His skin is of a 
 yellowish colour, his flesh is soft ; his nails, eyes, 
 palate, tongue, lips, and the palms of his hands.
 
 196 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 and soles of his feet are of a copper colour ; 
 and his hair becomes soon gray, the upper part 
 of his head bald, and his skin wrinkled as if 
 by age. He eats much, and dislikes warm 
 articles of food, is soon angry, and is as soon 
 pacified, is of moderate strength, and does not 
 live long. His memory is good, he is a good man 
 of business, and speaks accurately, and to the 
 purpose. His appearance is fine, and in company 
 he excels in speaking. He dreams of gold, and 
 yellow flowers, fire, lightning and falling meteors; 
 dislikes saluting a person, and is angry at others 
 not doing so, is never content, &c. His disposi- 
 tion resembles that of serpents, owls, cats, monkies, 
 tigers, and bears. 
 
 3. Phlegm in excess produces a light greenish 
 or blue colour of the body. The person's fortune 
 is propitious, he is pleasant to look on and hand- 
 some, likes sweet things, is grateful, constant, just, 
 and forgiving, and is not covetous, is strong and 
 understands with difficulty, and is a placable 
 enemy. His eyes are white, his hair is fine, black, 
 and waving. He is wealthy, and his voice is 
 strong and loud. He dreams of lilies, geese, and 
 large fine tanks. The angles of his eyes are red, 
 his colour is pleasing, and his members are well 
 formed. His regard mild, his disposition is very
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 197 
 
 good (satua-guno), and he is charitable. He is 
 active, honours respectable persons, and is kind to 
 them ; and knows the sciences. He retains his 
 friends, and his health remains constant ; he is care- 
 ful, but gives much. He is of the nature o f Bramha, 
 Indra, Shiva, and Yaruna; of lions, horses, 
 elephants, cows, and bulls, and of the bird upon 
 which Yishnu rides (Garura, something between 
 a man and a bird, like a goose). 
 
 When two or three humours are in excess, they 
 are known by the combination of the two or three 
 classes of symptoms. 
 
 Some suppose that the disposition is derived 
 from the elements of the body. In this case air, 
 fire, and water resemble the temperaments of wind, 
 bile, and phlegm ; and the temperament of earth 
 produces a large and strong body, and the person 
 can suffer much. When there is an excess of pure 
 ether the man is holy, and lives long, and the 
 external openings of the body are large- 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON DEATH. {Mrkyu.) 
 
 According to the Eastern sages, death is the 
 separation of the soul from the body. There are
 
 198 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 one hundred and one ways in which a person may 
 die ; one of which, at the time appointed, is natural 
 death, which takes place about the hundredth 
 year of age : the others are accidental, which occur 
 from numerous causes, as bad living, intemperance, 
 poisons, fire, lightning, drowning, sin, &c. ; which 
 are to be guarded against by care, medicines, and 
 prayers. 
 
 Man is like a coachman driving his own 
 carriage; if this be well made, and if he con- 
 tinue to drive cautiously, it will go a long time ; 
 but, if he drives it upon bad roads, the wheels 
 will get injured, and the carriage will be soon 
 worn out. 
 
 Should he indulge too much in the gratification 
 of the senses, he will die like a deer, which is 
 supposed to be deluded to its destruction by the 
 sweet sounds of the lute, which the hunters use j 
 should he indulge in lust, like the elephant ; in 
 sight, like the butterfly in approaching the lamp ; 
 in smell, like the bee, which is inclosed and crushed 
 in the flower, which has attracted it by its smell ; 
 and in taste, like the fish by the fisherman's hook. 
 So beware of indulging too much in any of the 
 pleasures of sense, else it will lead, in like manner 
 to your destruction. 
 
 The wise and foolish, the great in rank, and the 
 
 1
 
 A:^0NG the ASIATICS. 199 
 
 low in condition, all die in the same way. As a rich 
 man has more foresight than the poor and ignorant, 
 so the former is more anxious about his death, 
 which must happen to all ; but it is the holy man 
 who has least dread of its occurrence, from being 
 more prepared than others for the necessary 
 change. 
 
 At the moment of death the material elements 
 of the body separate, and the soul, which is invi- 
 sible, resembles the form of the body it had 
 inhabited, and retains the organs of sense and of 
 action. On separating from one, it joins itself 
 to another, and according to the actions the per- 
 son had performed in his former state of existence, 
 so will be his future condition. As a seed of an 
 inferior or superior order, so will the plant be ; 
 thus the soul may animate a man who will grow 
 old in a deformed and diseased body ; with a mind 
 wicked and miserable. This union of the liberated 
 soul, and its juncture with the seed of another 
 body, takes place immediately ; as a leech on leav- 
 ing one piece of grass, must immediately attach 
 itself to another. Thus that immutable Power, 
 by acting and reposing alternately, revivifies 
 and destroys, in eternal succession, this whole 
 assemblage of immoveable and locomotive creatures. 
 As the body is continually changing in its
 
 200 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 progress through life, so death is merely one of 
 these changes. The body is frail, but the soul is 
 incorruptible. They say that a person is dead ; that 
 this individual is murdered: but these are foolish 
 expressions ! The body is alone destroyed, not the 
 soul ; as it only changes its position, like a person 
 who casts off his worn-out garments. Cutting 
 instruments may wound him, water may purify 
 him, and air may dry him up, but the soul remains 
 always the same. Those who are born must die, 
 and whoever dies must be born again ; and as the 
 elements were iuYisible and separated before the 
 formation of the body, in like manner they are 
 again separated and dispersed upon its dis- 
 solution. 
 
 Death is always near ; and, since the body, 
 like a mansion infested by age and sorrow, the 
 seat of maladies, harassed with pains, haunted 
 with the qualities of darkness, and incapable of 
 standing long ; such a mansion of the vital soul 
 let its occupier always cheerfully quit. (Manu.) 
 The same idea is thus expressed in another 
 Sanscrit work : " The wise man meditates on the 
 acquisition of knowledge and riches, as if not 
 subject to sickness or death ; and cultivates virtue 
 as if death had already seized him by the hair." 
 (Ilitopadesha.) " When a person leaves his corpse,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 201 
 
 like a log or a lump of clay, on the ground, his kin- 
 dred retire with averted faces; for, in his passage to 
 the next world, neither his father nor his mother, 
 nor his wile, nor his sod, nor his kinsmen, will 
 remain in his company : his sins and virtues alone 
 will adhere to, and accompany his soul. Continu- 
 ally, therefore, let man acquire virtue, for the sake 
 of securing an inseparable companion with which 
 he may traverse a gloom — how hard to be 
 traversed! Single is each man born; single he 
 dies ; single he receives the reward of his good, 
 and single the punishment of his evil deeds." 
 (Manu.) 
 
 Beatitude is to be obtained by the coercion of 
 the members, by abstaiDing from hurting and 
 afflicting, or giving pain to sentient creatures ; and 
 thus the individual becomes fit for immortality. 
 (Manu.) When the vital soul has been purified 
 by the good deeds which have occurred in the 
 body, it is absorbed into that supreme essence, the 
 divine soul of all beings, which withdraws his 
 energy, and placidly slumbers. Manu adds — 
 " Let him not wish for death, let him not wish 
 for life ; let him expect his appointed time, as a 
 hired servant expects his wages." 
 
 All organised substances thus hasten to decay, 
 all things elevated fall, all compound bodies dis-
 
 202 HISTORY OF MEDICIXE 
 
 solve, and all that live must finally die ; as a large 
 and firm edifice, when it becomes old, falls into 
 ruin, so the aged, sink into dissolution. The night 
 once passed, never returns; the waters of Yamoona 
 run to the sea ; days and nights are passing away; 
 the time of life appointed for all living, is con- 
 stantly wasting, as the rays of the sun in the 
 summer dry up the moisture of the earth. Man 
 rejoices when the sun rises and when it sets, 
 but is unconscious of the decay of his own body. 
 He takes pleasure in the spring time, when 
 all things appear to him young and new, but as 
 the drop of dew trembles upon the lotus, so is the 
 happiness of man ever vacillating and ready to 
 disappear ; and, as on the bosom of the great 
 ocean, one floating billow meets another, so do 
 beings on this earth encounter each other for a 
 moment Grieve for thyself ! why shouldest thou 
 grieve for others ? Death always accompanies usj 
 death ends our course ; wrinkles are already on 
 the body; grey hairs cover the head; decre- 
 pitude seizes on man ; as pieces of drift-wood, 
 meeting on the ocean, continue together but a little 
 space ; thus wives, children, relations, and wealth 
 separate; no one living can escape the common 
 lot : He who mourns his departed relatives has no 
 power to cause them to return. The end of lifc>
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 203 
 
 is like a cataract rushing down with irresistible 
 impetuosity, and every mind ought to pursue that 
 which is connected with its own happiness and 
 virtue. * 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 The study of natural history was carefully 
 attended to by the ancient Hindu sages, and 
 their medicines were derived from the vegetable, 
 animal, and mineral kingdoms. From the 
 vegetable kingdom, the properties of 760 medi- 
 cines are described by Susruta. The metals are 
 fewer in number; while those from the animal 
 kingdom are numerous. These observers have 
 recorded many properties and remarks on the 
 choice of medicines, the situation in which they 
 are best procured, and the period of their growth 
 at which they possess their distinctive properties 
 in the highest degree, with the manner of pre- 
 paring and preserving them. 
 
 * Eamayana, the oldest epic poem extant.
 
 204 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 SIMPLE MEDICINES FKOM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
 
 The Asiatic belief of there being a remedy for 
 each disease, led the Brahmins to make a very- 
 careful examination of the vegetable kingdom; 
 and a number of medicines were discovered, some 
 of which were powerful, and many inert and use- 
 less. The success which followed the employment 
 of these remedies in the cure of disease, was 
 supposed to rest a good deal upon individual 
 sanctity, and the divine pleasure that imparted 
 it. This explains the great difficulty of obtain- 
 ing information, as it was believed that if such 
 secrets were revealed to others, the medicine 
 would lose its effects, not only in the hands of the 
 person to whom its qualities had been revealed, but 
 also to the person who had known them before. 
 There are nine such secrets which should not 
 be revealed to any one : — the age of a person ; his 
 health ; family occurrences ; bad actions, and 
 those which reflect shame, or dishonour upon him; 
 his prayers to his tutelar gods ; his charities ; and 
 the virtues of nostrums, the ingredients of which 
 arc known to him. It is from such pretended 
 selfish motives that the properties of many valuable 
 medicines have been lost to science.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 205 
 
 The simple vegetable medicines are procured 
 from the bark, roots, leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds, 
 juices, gums, and wood of plants. These medicines 
 are obtained from trees which contain fruits 
 without flowers ; from those which contain both 
 flowers and fruit ; from creepers which flower in 
 clusters; and from plants which die after the 
 ripening of their fruit, as rice, &c. 
 
 The effects of medicines from the vegetable king- 
 dom will vary with the period at which they 
 are gathered, according as this takes place in 
 windy or calm weather, in sunshine or in the 
 shade, during the day or night, in cold or hot 
 weather, in a dry or rainy season, and according 
 to the interval which elapses from the time of 
 gathering the medicine, till it is used. 
 
 Medicines from this kingdom should not be 
 procured either from a jungly country, or from one 
 covered with water ; neither from a dry and sandy 
 ground, nor from one that is unequal, or has 
 many holes, stones, or broken vessels upon it. 
 Situations in any way broken up by insects, or 
 containing the nests of white ants, which are 
 supposed to remove the strength of the earth ; or 
 where water drops from a thatched roof; where 
 bodies have been burnt or buried ; where persons 
 have died, or places which are regarded as sacred,
 
 206 HISTORY OF MEDICIJvE 
 
 are not proper for raising medicinal plants. Ground 
 in which there is much salt is also unfavorable for 
 the growth of medicines ; and plants that grow at 
 unseasonable times, or are very old, and those 
 which water forms, or insects have injured, are to 
 be thrown away. Medicines should be procured 
 from a fruitful country, where the soil is soft 
 and moist, of a black, yellow, or red colour, of an 
 equable weight, situated near water, where trees 
 grow luxuriantly. In such situations the soil has 
 its proper quality of taste, the place is sweet, 
 and the plants are glistening. The qualities of 
 fire are greatest when the soil has several colours, 
 and where the earth is light, the trees small, 
 and growing at a distance from each other, and 
 where the young leaves of grass, as they burst 
 through the earth, are of a light yellow colour. 
 The qualities of wind predominate in dry places, 
 of a grayish colour, like the ashes of wood. In 
 such situations the earth is light, the trees are 
 few, small, dry, and have holes in them, with 
 little juice. The qualities of ether (akash) are 
 in excess in such situations as are of a greenish 
 colour, are soft in the centre and equal, with many 
 holes. The water in such places is without taste, 
 and the mountains and trees are large. 
 
 The rays of the sun and moon produce the
 
 AMOXG THE ASIATICS. 207 
 
 colour, &c., of plants. Thus the yellow colour 
 of trees is prDcluced by the sun, and these medicines 
 should be gathered during the hot period of the 
 day. Emetics are to be collected at such times, 
 from a soil possessing the qualities of ether and 
 wind. The influence of the moon is supposed to 
 produce cold and white plants, which should be 
 gathered during the cold season, when the qualities 
 of these plants will be most energetic. They will 
 then be sweet, moist like oil, and cold like water. 
 Purgatives are thus to be gathered in a soil pos- 
 sessing the qualities of taste and smell. 
 
 The physician should observe the lucky days 
 and hours, and the most favourable period of the 
 moon's age, in order to ensure the cure of the 
 disease. The stars which are predominant on 
 particular days are to be observed, particularly 
 those which occur on odd days. Medicines which 
 are to be exhibited internally, are to be taken for 
 the first time on Mondays, Thursdays, and Fridays. 
 They are also to observe the most favourable 
 period of the moon's age, and when fortunate stars 
 are in the ascendant.
 
 208 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SIMTLE MEDICINES DERIVED FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 These are so numerous that I shall not attempt 
 to eaumerate them ; they embrace the skin, hair, 
 nails, blood, flesh, bones, fat, marrow, bile, milk, 
 and dejections; which should be obtained from 
 healthy animals, which are neither very old nor 
 very young. The urine and other dejections 
 should be obtained from the female. 
 
 1. Skin^ nails, and hair, are used for fumigations 
 in intermittent fevers, &c. 
 
 2. Blood. When there has been a great loss of 
 blood, it is sometimes exhibited internally. 
 
 3. Flesh is mixed with oily and other medicines, 
 and vegetables; and is given in weakness, phthisis, 
 and in nervous diseases. 
 
 4. Bones. The ashes of bones, mixed with other 
 medicines, are exhibited in nervous diseases and 
 those of children. They are also used to fumigate. 
 
 6. Oils and Fats are used principally externally, 
 as in the form of ointment, &c. 
 
 6. Marrow is used externally in the form of 
 ointment, and internally in cases of weakness. 
 
 7. Bile is considered a stimulant, and is used in 
 fever ; also as an external application to the eyes.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 209 
 
 8. Milk is one of the principal articles of food. 
 It is used in combination with decoctions, and 
 given internally in diseases of children, and for 
 nervous diseases. It is often used with oil as an 
 external application. 
 
 9. Urine is pungent and slightly bitterish and 
 saltish to the taste. It is slightly laxative, and 
 cures diseases of phlegm and wind, and diseases 
 produced by worms or from poison. It is also of 
 use in leprosy, and in dropsical swellings, jaundice, 
 and dyspepsia. Cow's urine is generally preferred. 
 
 10. Dung. The moisture contained in cow's dung 
 is used in inflammation, and in discolourations of 
 the skin. It is also given internally, and prepared 
 with other medicines. 
 
 11. Honey, lac, eggs, cantharides, and leeches, 
 are likewise used in medicine. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SIMPLE MEDICINES DEKIVED FEOM THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 
 
 The Hindus appear to have been the first who 
 employed mineral drugs internally. Their chemical 
 skill was peculiar and remarkable. They knew 
 how to prepare sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids,
 
 210 HISTORY OE MEDICINE 
 
 which proves that the science of chemistry origin- 
 ated with, or was known to the Hindus, previous 
 to its being cultivated by the Arabs. The former 
 pursued its study, in order to prepare medicines ; 
 while the aim of the latter was chiefly directed 
 to the vain search for the means of converting 
 the baser into the nobler metals, and for the 
 discovery of an elixer to cure disease and lengthen 
 life to an indefinite term. Mineral medicines con- 
 sist of salts, precious stones, poisons, and metals. 
 
 1. Salts. There are four kinds of salts used in 
 medicine : saltpetre, natron, black salt, and borax. 
 
 Common sea salt is stomachic, and cures wind 
 and indigestion. It is weaker than black salt. 
 Natron, or impure carbonate of soda, is employed 
 with advantage in dyspepsia, cholic, and enlarge- 
 ment of the spleen. 
 
 These salts promote appetite, and when their use 
 is too long continued, produce diseases of the 
 blood and bile. They cure swellings, piles, dysen- 
 tery, and stone. 
 
 Sal ammoniac is purified by being mixed with 
 lime-water, and exposed to heat in a leathern bag. 
 It then forms a solution of ammonia ; which is 
 employed by itself, and along with other medicines. 
 
 Sulphur is purified by being exposed to heat in 
 an iron vessel; and is used in medicine, mixed
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 211 
 
 with lime, oil, or rice-water, and in combination 
 with other medicines. A particular form is re- 
 duced to powder, saturated with lime-juice, and 
 used as a medicine in chronic diarrheea and dysen- 
 tery, and in combination with other medicines. 
 
 2. Certain precious stones and earthy minerals 
 are supposed to possess superior qualities, as tonics 
 and corroborants. The diamond is the chief of 
 these, of which they distinguish four varieties — 
 the white, yellow, red, and black. They also dis- 
 tinguish the large, soft, round, and bright, without 
 inequalities and cracks, as the best, for use as a 
 medicine. For this purpose, it is covered with a 
 coating of clay and cow-dung, and is exposed for a 
 day and a-half to heat, it is then soaked in the urine 
 of a horse, and is so treated seven times, when it is 
 considered fit for use. It improves the strength and 
 colour of the body, and cures many diseases. 
 Pearls, corals, and other precious stones, are pre- 
 pared by mixing them with lemon-juice for a day, 
 boiling them in the juice of the three varieties of 
 myrobalans, and exposing them to hrat, covered 
 with a coating of clay and cow-dung (see fig. 6), 
 when they are ready for use. They are considered 
 good tonics, and cure many diseases. 
 
 3. A chapter will afterwards be occupied in the 
 description of mineral poisons and their antidotes. 
 
 I
 
 212 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 4, The metals which were employed by the 
 ancient Hindu physicians were mercury, gold, 
 silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc, and antimony, car- 
 bonate of iron and arsenic. (Susruta.) These 
 were usually exhibited in combination with other 
 drugs. 
 
 Mercury [^iximb^ parada) is employed for the cure 
 of disease, either in its metallic state, as found in 
 Nepal, or in the form of Cinnabar, in Tibet. 
 It is used in both forms for the cure of disease. 
 The preparations of quicksilver with zinc, anti- 
 mony, and arsenic, were probably introduced into 
 Hindoostan several hundred years ago. It is also 
 found mixed with black lead, stone, tin, and 
 other impurities. When not purified by means of 
 fire, it is dissipated in vapours by exposure to heat. 
 
 Good quicksilver is of a bright metallic lustre, 
 and of a slightly bluish colour, like water, inter- 
 nally and externally. In all cases, it has a 
 brownish and whitish colour. 
 
 To purify quicksilver from lead, mix it in rice 
 water, and expose it to fire, which will dissipate 
 the bad ingredients. To purify it from tin, mix 
 it with the powder of Yishal (cucumis colocyn- 
 this) and ankotha (alangium hexapetalum) and 
 expose it to fire. To purify quicksilver from 
 other impurities, add the juice of cassia fistula,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 213 
 
 and when in globules, mix it with the juice of 
 datura and lime, and then expose it to heat. To 
 destroy any poisonous substances, the three varie- 
 ties of myrobalans are mixed with it, and exposed 
 to heat. When given internally, it may be mixed 
 with black and long pepper, and dry ginger. 
 
 To purify mercury to render it fit for being 
 used as medicine, take of turmeric, brick-dust, suet, 
 the juice of lemons (or sour rice water, if limes 
 are not procurable), and the wool of sheep, of each 
 one chatak, and mix it with one seer of quick- 
 silver. The mixture is to be well rubbed in a 
 mortar, for one day, and the product carefully 
 washed with water, and acidulated with fermented 
 rice water. 
 
 Another means of purifying mercury is to place 
 it in a bag, which is then to be immersed in rice 
 water, and exposed to heat. This is called a 
 dolajantra, (see fig 1). By this means the quick- 
 silver is completely purified. 
 
 Another way of purifying mercury is by 
 sublimation. The apparatus is called Lrddhwa- 
 pdtanajantra ; and is used is this manner. Take 
 vermilion and the juice of lemons; dry them in the 
 sun, and then sublime. It is then to be rubbed 
 with more of the lime, or the juice of the 
 Paribhadra (the coral tree or Erythrina fulgens)
 
 214 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 and nimba (Melia azadirachta). They are to be 
 mixed for three hours and again sublimed. See 
 fig 2. 
 
 Quicksilver is also purified by evaporation, by 
 means of Yakaj antra, or a retort of this form. See 
 figS. 
 
 Before quicksilver is mixed with sulphur, the 
 following prayer is to be offered up : "0 Yishnu, 
 may you so order that this preparation may be so 
 made as to enable it to cure all diseases." When 
 such a prayer is offered up with faith, by a holy 
 Brahmin, it will be granted. Then mix six parts 
 of sulphur with one of quicksilver, put them in a 
 crucible (fig 4*) with its opening properly luted ; 
 place this in a sand bath, (see fig. 5) and apply 
 heat slowly. When the mixture is completed, take 
 the crucible off the fire and break it ; the contents 
 may then be used for medicine. 
 
 There are four forms in which quicksilver is 
 used in medicine ; the black, white, yellow, and 
 red forms. 
 
 The black kind (Aethiops mineral), is formed 
 by rubbing together equal parts of sulphur and 
 quicksilver over the fire, when the residue will 
 
 ♦ The crucible is made by mixing two parts of the asbes of paddy, one 
 of the nest earth of white ants, one part of iron cinders, one part of chalk 
 and one part of hair; mix with goat's milk, and beat half a day. The 
 crucible is then formed, and dried in the sun or fire, for use.
 
 A.MONG THE ASIATIC3. 215 
 
 assume this colour, which is the common form 
 in which mercury is used externally in fumigation. 
 To form white mercury, take of mercury, borax, 
 honey, lac, and the wool of sheep ; mix, and add 
 the juice of the Bhringaraja (Yerbesena scan- 
 dens) ; then add sulphur, and mix for one day ; 
 after which expose it to the gentle heat of a sand 
 bath until it is reduced to a dry powder. It 
 will be white, like pure camphor. Another kind of 
 white mercury is made by mixing turmerick, brick- 
 dust, suet, amalaki (phyllanthus emblica, or emblica 
 myrobalan), boira (belcric myrobalau), and hari- 
 taki (chebulic myrobalan), with mercury, treacle, 
 congee, and the juice of the ghritakumari, or 
 Indian aloes ; mix for one day, and then add half 
 the weight of prepared sulphur, and sublime. 
 Another process is given for making a kind 
 of calomel, as well as of corrosive sublimate ; by 
 mixing quicksilver with fused sulphur in equal 
 quantities, forming a sulpheret. This is to be 
 put in an earthen vessel, over which a layer of 
 common salt, in a vessel half filled with rough 
 brick-dust, and another vessel is to be luted over 
 it. The mixture is then to be exposed for a day 
 to the action of fire, when the mercury is white 
 and prepared for use. — (Ainslie, Fleming, and 
 Boyle.)
 
 216 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The utility of this white form of mercury is 
 very great. Combined with pepper and aromatics, 
 it cures rheumatism, and the eighty diseases 
 of wind, as well as the diseases of bile and 
 phlegm. Should it affect the gums, a gargle of 
 curdled milk should be employed. This prepara- 
 tion of mercury will also be found useful in 
 colic, in fistula in ano, in diseases of the eye, in 
 diseases of the arms, and in general debility ; as 
 it increases strength, appetite, and the general 
 colour of the body. 
 
 The yellovf" preparations of mercury are made 
 in the following manner. Mix equal parts of 
 sulphur, quicksilver, and the hasti shundi plant, 
 and the three myrobalans. Dry the mixture, 
 put it in a sand-bath, and apply heat for twenty- 
 four hours. When properly prepared it has a 
 yellow colour. This preparation improves the 
 health, cures dropsy, dyspepsia, and intermittent 
 fevers. 
 
 Eed factitious cinnabar, or red sulphuret of mer- 
 cury, when in powder called vermilion, is prepared 
 as follows : mix one pala of quicksilver, three palas 
 of sulphur, and one of black lead with the juice of 
 the ghritakumari tree ; place the mixture in a 
 clean vessel, put a lute, or coating of mud and 
 cloth^ or a mixture of lime and chalk, over it. It
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 217 
 
 is to be exposed in a sand bath for three days, 
 when it will be found of a red colour. This pre- 
 paration is said to cure all diseases, even of the 
 fatal kind. It removes weakness, improves the 
 appetite and memory, diminishes fat, and cures 
 leprosy. It requires to be given in a proper men- 
 struum and mixed with other medicines. The 
 dose is one gunja. 
 
 Another form of mercury is prepared by mixing 
 the black preparation in an iron spoon, with a 
 little ghee, and then exposing it to heat. When 
 melted throw it into a leaf of the plantain, which 
 is to be pressed above and below by cow-dung, 
 made into the form of a bag; it is then called 
 Easaparpati, or cake mercury, and is very useful 
 in dropsy, in chronic dysentery, and as an alterative. 
 
 2, Gold, like other metals intended for medicinal 
 purposes, was first reduced by hammering to small 
 thin plates. These were exposed to a red heat, 
 and in this state cooled first in oil, then in curdled 
 milk, cow's urine, tea-water, and a decoction of 
 kulattka (a kind of pea). Some physicians quench 
 the gold three times, and others seven times in 
 each liquid. It is also recommended that metals 
 intended for medicines should be cooled twelve 
 times in a mixture of the juice of the leaves of the 
 tuttha and akander trees, with brimstone. Other
 
 218 HISTORY OP liEDICINB 
 
 mixtures are recommended by different authors 
 for oxidising metals. 
 
 The preparations of gold are considered as most 
 valuable medicines, curing nearly all diseases, 
 even those in which other medicines have been 
 used without any good result. The general effect 
 of these preparations is to increase memory, and 
 restore the vigour of manhood, improve the 
 natural colour of the body, retain the proper 
 equilibrium of the different internal parts of the 
 body ; and so lengthen vision and prolong life. 
 
 The usual manner of preparing gold for use is 
 to mix sixteen times the quantity of the gold 
 plates to one of lead, and add lemon juice and 
 ghritacumari, or Indian aloes. They are to be 
 rubbed together, exposed to heat, and made into 
 boluses of the usual size. Or take of the mass of 
 gold plates, mix with quicksilver and sulphur, 
 add a little water, or the juice of gJiritacumari, 
 make it into a large mass ; put it in an earthen 
 pot, with a mouth well secured, surround the ves- 
 sel with a mixture of clay and cow-dung, and 
 expose it to the sun to dry. It is thus to be ex- 
 posed to the fire twelve different times, until it is 
 redaced to powder. Some practitioners mix lead, 
 sulphur, and quicksilver together with the gold, 
 and the mixture is then prepared as above.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 219 
 
 The gold thus prepared is often mixed with 
 other metals, and is considered a valuable medi- 
 cine in chronic diseases, in intermittent fevers, in 
 gonorrhoea, and in diseases of the spleen. It is 
 considered an excellent tonic, improving vision, and 
 reducing the bulk of the body, and is good for con- 
 sumption, and for pregnant -women and children. 
 It is useful in diseases of wind, bile, and phlegm. 
 
 3. Silver. This metal is prepared by mixing 
 two parts of it reduced to small thin plates, with 
 one of brimstone, and one of the sulphuret of 
 arsenic (puntal). These are to be well mixed, lemon 
 juice is to be added, and the whole surrounded 
 by a mixture of cow dung and clay, and exposed 
 to a high degree of heat in a furnace, in the samo 
 manner as that in which gold was stated to be pre- 
 pared. This preparation is sweetish, sour, cooling 
 and astringent ; and it cures deranged wind, pro- 
 motes appetite, strength, digestion, and the colour 
 of the skin. It also lengthens life, and is of much 
 use in all chronic diseases, as it purifies the body 
 and the dejections. 
 
 4. Copper. This metal is found in the north of 
 India. It is purified by boiling for three days 
 with a strong heat, the small thin plates in cow's 
 urine. The metal is then to be mixed with two 
 parts of brimstone and one part of rock salt, to
 
 220 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 which the juice of the lemon has been added. 
 The mixture is then to be surrounded with a 
 coating of cow's dung and clay, and exposed to 
 the fire of a furnace, when it is ready for use. To 
 prevent its producing vomiting and purging, put 
 the mixture into a bulbous root called surana^ 
 (arum colocanim), which has been hollowed out : 
 it is then to be covered with a mixture of dung 
 and clay, and exposed to heat. 
 
 The sulphate of copper (Tuthaka) is prepared 
 by mixing two parts of the thin plates with one 
 of sulphur. It is then to be exposed to heat, 
 with free exposure to the air, for two hours. 
 This medicine will neither produce giddiness, 
 vomiting, nor purging. These preparations of 
 copper are found useful in fevers, particularly the 
 intermittent kinds, diarrhoea, and diseases of the 
 liver, spleen, and blood. They are also useful in 
 leprosy, colic, piles, acidity of the stomach, 
 dyspepsia, and rheumatism.* 
 
 5. Lead. This metal is found in many parts of 
 Hindustan, and is used in the form of the carbonate, 
 the red oxide, and litharge, and is prepared for 
 use by mixing it with the juice of the dkanda 
 tree. It should remain immersed for three days ; 
 then wash the metal in water, and mix it with the 
 
 * This last preparation is also used for strengtheuing the teeth, and 
 for cleauing aud improving their colour.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 221 
 
 juice of the leaves of the vasaka tree (Justicia 
 ganderussa) and sulphur. Put it into an earthen 
 vessel, and expose it to a high degree of heat. 
 It is then ready for use, and is recommended in 
 gonorrhoea, in chronic diarrhoea, in worms, in 
 leprosy and in ulcers. 
 
 The red oxide of Lead [Sindura s. Sindar h.) 
 was likewise known, and sometimes used as a 
 medicine. 
 
 6. Tin. The Hindus knew the oxide of Tin. 
 One part was mixed with the same quantity of 
 sulphur, to which the milk of the arka tree 
 (calotropis gigantea), and the dry bark of the 
 banian tree was added. The mixture was rubbed 
 together in a hot mortar for many days. It was 
 then prepared for use, and was bitter and sour 
 to the taste. It diminished fat and the diseases of 
 phlegm, was an Anthelmintic, and cured gonorrhoea 
 and jaundice. It was to be avoided in diseases of 
 wind. 
 
 7. Zinc. The Hindus employed an oxide and sul- 
 phate of Zinc. This and other metals are prepared 
 iu the same way as copper, and their effects 
 upon the system are the same. 
 
 8. SuJphuret of Antimony was generally obtained 
 from Nepaul or Siam ; and was used at a very 
 early period. It is prepared for use by placing it
 
 222 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 in lemon juice, or lime water, and exposing it for 
 several hours to the sun. It is exhibited in dis- 
 eases of the eye, in the form of a coUyrium, mixed 
 with the juice of the ripe pomegranate. It is 
 applied to the edges of the eyelid to increase the 
 brilliancy of the organ ; and is also used as an 
 emetic in the first stage of fever, and in com- 
 bination with other medicines. 
 
 9. Iron (Lauha). Is found in many parts of 
 Hindustan in the form of oxide, in ochres, bog 
 ores, and other friable earthy substances. The two 
 following forms of ores are commonly used by the 
 Hindus as medicines • — 
 
 Sulphate of Iron. This is prepared for use by 
 macerating it in a decoction of the leaves of hemp. 
 It is bitter to the taste; and is useful in epilepsy, in 
 white leprosy, in diseases of the eyes, in diabetes, 
 in amenorrhcea, and in phthisis. It is considered 
 tonic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. An 
 Iron Oxide^ containing chloride of iron, is prepared 
 by mixing two parts of sulphate of iron with one 
 part of rock-salt, and with lemon juice, in an iron 
 vessel. Apply heat, and rub it with an iron pestle, 
 until it becomes of a fine red colour. It is then slight- 
 ly bitter and sweet ; and is of use in gonorrhoea, in 
 diseases of the urine, in worms, and in various 
 diseases of the bile and phlegm. It is usually
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 228 
 
 exhibited in combination with other medicines 
 for improving the strength. 
 
 Hydrated Oxide of Iron (Mandura and Sinhama.) 
 "When iron has been exposed for many years in 
 the earth it is changed to a red colour, easily 
 powdered. It is used for the same diseases as the 
 other preparations of iron. 
 
 There are other varieties of iron. The Kanta 
 (magnetic oxide?) is the best, and is prepared 
 as follows : — The iron must be in thin small 
 plates — expose it to heat, and quench it in the juice 
 of the plantain tree. Eepeat this seven times : make 
 a furnace by digging a hole one cubit in depth, and 
 the same in circumference — fill it with live char- 
 coal, mix the iron with half its weight of (Swind 
 Maaker) the common pyritic iron ore, mix them 
 in the juice of the three myrobalans, add one fourth 
 of red arsenic (Manahshila),rub them together with 
 sour rice water — expose them to heat in the usual 
 manner in a blast furnace, which is to be well 
 covered ; remove the iron when in a red hot state, 
 and quench it in a mixture of the three myrobalans 
 — beat on an anvil to separate the oxidized part. 
 Again expose the iron as before, so as to reduce all 
 the iron to this oxide, which is used by rubbing 
 it up with cow's urine; making it into small boluses, 
 putting them in an earthen vessel, and exposing the
 
 224 HISTORY OF MEDICIISE 
 
 mixture to the heat of a fire of cow's dung. Eepeat 
 this a number of times — from 10 to 1000. — It 
 should never be used unless prepared by exposure 
 to heat more than ten times at least, and it 
 will be so much the better if this be repeated many 
 more times. In this state it does not sink in 
 water, and there is no alterative so good as this. 
 It is an excellent tonic, improves digestion, and 
 removes all diseases and weakness. 
 
 10. Arsenic. — The?/ello2u sulphuret of Arsenic or 
 yellow Orpiment (Haritala) is brought to India from 
 China and the Burman dominions ; is purified by 
 boiling it in the water of a kind of gonaro Kush- 
 manda, in lime water, in oil, and in sour rice 
 water, for two or three hours in each. Both the sul- 
 phuret of arsenic, and arsenious acid, were employ- 
 ed by the Hindus at a very early period.* This 
 medicine is also purified by mixing it with four 
 parts of nitre, and then subliming it. This is done 
 by placing it in an earthen pot with another over it, 
 and api^lying heat for a day and a night. This is 
 a very celebrated medicine in black leprosy, in 
 cutaneous affections, and in fever. It also improves 
 the colour of the body, and cures mania, &c. 
 
 Red Arsenic or red Orpiment (Manahshila) is 
 brought from Japan, and is prepared by macerat- 
 
 * Susruta, pp, 85 and 95.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 225 
 
 ing it in the juice of the boke tree, or in the juice 
 of fresh ginger. It is tonic, and is used for 
 removing diseases of phlegm, for asthma, &c. 
 
 White oxide of Arsenic (Daarmuch) is purified 
 by being macerated in the juice of the lemon, and 
 then boiled in the juice of the plantain tree. It 
 is used in doses of the fourteenth part of a grain, 
 in conjunction with aromatics, to check obstinate 
 intermittent fevers, and in glandular and leprous 
 affections, in the same way as the yellow arsenic. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PHARMACY. 
 
 The preparation of medicine may be explained 
 by describing the weights and measures, the 
 preparations, forms, administration, and uses of 
 medicines. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 •WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 These are often indefinite among the Asiatics, 
 from want of a fixed standard, and from their
 
 226 HISTORY OE MEDICINE 
 
 employing seeds, whicli vary considerably in the 
 weight. They have been reduced to a more exact 
 arrangement by Madopokera> a modern author. 
 
 The smaller weights are rarely used in practice, 
 from medicines not being usually given in a con- 
 centrated form. They were arranged with that 
 aflPectation of minuteness and accuracy peculiar 
 to the Asiatic, as follows: — Eight of the particles 
 of dust seen floating in the sun's rays, as they 
 enter through a lattice, formed one likhya, and were 
 supposed equal to one minute poppy-seed; and 
 three of these were equal to a black mustard-seed ; 
 three of which were equal to one white mustard- 
 seed ; and six of these sershapa were equal to a 
 yava, or middle-sized barley-corn ; three of which 
 again were equal to a rattah, or a seed of the gunja 
 creeper, (the arbutus precatorius). This is con- 
 sidered equal to four grains of rice in the husk, or 
 two large barley-corns, and is the common medium 
 of comparison for other weights. The fictitious 
 rattica in common use, is double the weight of the 
 gunja seed, or something less than I^q grains. 
 This is the lowest denomination in common use.* 
 
 Physicians of Hindustan often use the following 
 weights: — one soorkh, equal to 1 grain; one 
 masha, equal to 8 soorkhs, (or gr. viii); one direm, 
 
 • Colebrooke's Asiatic Researches, vol. v p. 91. 
 
 i
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 227 
 
 equal to 3 mashas, (grs. xxiv.) ; 1 tola, equal to 
 12 J mashas; and 2 tolas = a karsha or aksha.* 
 Susruta allows five rettahs to one masha, in form- 
 ing pills, extracts, and powders. Eight tolas are 
 equal to two shukte, or one powales, or handful 
 (mushti ;) and four powales, equal to one kudavas 
 or half-a-soer. 
 
 The fluid measure consists of a pot made of 
 bamboo, wood, or iron, called Jcudava ; a measure 
 of capacity, the sixth part of a maund, and the 
 fourth of a prastha^ or a vessel four inches in 
 diameter, and as many deep. 
 
 Double the weight of dry medicines should be 
 used, until the weight exceed a kudava, or 32 tolas, 
 when the dose in both should be the same. When 
 vegetable juices are very strong, half the dose of 
 the dry medicine should be given ; but in general 
 I with the list of medicines in MSS., the dose of 
 ] each IS given. 
 
 I The modern Bengalee physician, (cabarage) 
 I consider the tola, or one sicca rupee weight, the 
 : unit of his ponderary system. It weighs 180 
 grains English troy weight : — 
 
 8 tolas = 1 pala; 2 palas = 1 prassitis or 
 i handful ; 5 tolas = 1 chatack ; 4 chatacks = 1 
 
 • A tola in the ancient Sanscrit MSS. is equal to half a tola of the 
 modern medical weights.
 
 228 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 powahs; 4 powahs = 1 seer; and 40 seers =1 
 maund. 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 PREPAKATION OF MEDICINES. 
 
 In the medical works of the Hindus, pharmacy, 
 or the preparation of medicines, is treated of in 
 four books, stated to have been derived from the 
 gods. It was on this account that a prayer 
 was offered up in collecting, in preparing, and in 
 exhibiting remedies. 
 
 The Hindus employed iron or stone mortars, 
 which were used cold, or heated by exposure to a 
 fire made of the dry litter of goats, or the husks 
 of rice. The pestle was either of iron or earthen- 
 ware; of sufficient size to hold by the hand. Care 
 was taken that both were perfectly clean when 
 used. 
 
 Medicines should be prepared in a good house, 
 and in a retired situation. If prepared in open 
 situations, in boats, in bazaars, and by the side of 
 roads, their qualities are likely to be injured by 
 unfavourable influences. Should a bad woman, or 
 one menstruating, touch a medicine, it will lose 
 its qualities. Medicines given in too small doses
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 229 
 
 will be like a little water thrown upon a large 
 fire, wliich rather increav«es than diminishes it. In 
 like manner, too large doses of medicine will 
 increase the disease, or will produce other diseases. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 FORM OF MEDICINES. 
 
 Internal medicines are usually employed by 
 medical practitioners in the form of powders, the 
 juice of plants, pastes, infusions, decoctions, extracts, 
 roasted medicines, tinctures, pills, electuaries, 
 medicines that are sucked, and oils. 
 
 1. Powders. In preparing such medicines, 
 dry them in the sun, or over the fire, powder them 
 in a mortar, and clean the powder by passing 
 it through a sieve. They are used when green 
 herbs cannot be procured. 
 
 The usual dose of such is from one masha to half 
 a tola, and it is administered in water. Powders are 
 usually employed in diarrhoea and dysentery, and 
 as purgatives, emetics, &c. 
 
 2. The fresh juice of plants is a frequent form 
 of exhibiting medicines. The juice is generally 
 got from the leaves, and is prepared by boiling 
 and then straining. 
 
 Q
 
 230 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 3. Pastes are made by grinding the medicine 
 between two stones. 
 
 4. Infusions and Decoctions^ S^c. The former are 
 prepared by mixing one part of green or soft medi- 
 cines, with four parts of boiling water. The herb 
 should alwaysbepressedalittle before being infused. 
 When the medicine is hard, eight parts of water, 
 and when very hard, sixteen times the quantity 
 of water are to be used. The infusion should be 
 continued until reduced to one-fourth. 
 
 Milk, gruel, and whey are boiled with four 
 times the quantity of water, till one-fifth remains. 
 In preparing cow's urine and buttermilk, eight 
 times the quantity of water should be used, and 
 boiled down to one-fifth. 
 
 A weak decoction is frequently administered 
 as a drink to check thirst, and it affords marked 
 relief; such is the following: — ^take of musta, 
 (cyperus rotundus), parpataka, (oldenlandia bi- 
 flora), chandana, (sandal wood), kuskus, (cuscus 
 grass), bala shunthi, (dry ginger), of each an 
 equal quantity. Two tolas of this are to be mixed 
 with two seers of water, and boiled down to one 
 seer ; dose, a chatak occasionally. 
 
 For preparing decoctions, take two tolas of the 
 medicine to half a seer of water, or one part to 
 sixteen parts of water, and boil down to one
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 231 
 
 quarter; strain, and take this quantity twice a- 
 day. Some recommend eight parts of water to 
 one of the medicine, which are to be boiled down 
 to one quarter. These decoctions are made fresh 
 as required, and a little honey is usually added. 
 Weak decoctions are prepared by adding two tolas 
 to two seers of water, which are to be boiled down 
 to one half tbe quantity. These are to be taken 
 several times a-day. Sometimes medicinal powders 
 are added to the decoction; and in other cases,, 
 the medicine is recommended to be prepared for 
 use by maceration for a night in cold water. The 
 water is then strained for use. 
 
 The fresh juice of plants is considered the 
 strongest form of medicine ; the decoction is next, 
 and those obtained by maceration and by infusion 
 are the weakest. 
 
 6. Extracts, Make a decoction of the medi- 
 cine in water, boil for a certain time, strain 
 through linen, and again boil it down to a proper 
 consistence, or until it becomes thick, when a small 
 portion thrown into water does not mix for some 
 time, or swims in the water ; or when a piece of it 
 sticks upon a vertical board, when thrown upon 
 it : the extract is then prepared. Too much 
 boiling should be avoided, as by this means the 
 medicine loses its peculiar qualities. A form named
 
 232 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Bhavana is made by reducing the medicine to 
 powder, mixing it with, a decoction of the ' same 
 drug, and then exposing it, from time to time, to 
 the influence of the sun, for seven days. 
 
 6. Roasted medicines. These medicines are pre- 
 pared by crushing them between two stones, with 
 the addition of water. When in a state of pulp, 
 wrap them in the leaves of the blackberry, or 
 Indian fig-tree, tie them tight with a string, and 
 cover them with a coating of clay and cow-dung 
 one finger breadth thick. They are then to be ex- 
 posed to the fire of cow-dung until the clay is red 
 hot; and are then ready for use, and may be 
 exhibited in the form of powder or pill, 
 
 7. Tinctures or Wines are often recommended 
 by writers on medicine. 
 
 8. Pills arc prepared in different ways ; some 
 are made by rubbing the medicine between stones, 
 others by macerating or grinding them to powder, 
 which is then to be mixed with water or syrup, and 
 placed in an open place at night. Other pills are 
 formed by boiling, and allowing the mixture to 
 stand in the air, or in the sun, and then forming 
 the mass into balls or pills. Each should weigh 
 from one half to one quarter of a tola. There are 
 different names and measures for preparing them, 
 according to the nature of the medicine, and the 
 manner in which they are used.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 233 
 
 9. Electuaries. These preparations are made by 
 boiling down the decoction of the medicine to one 
 quarter, and mixing sugar with it; again boiling for 
 some minutes, and when it has arrived at the con- 
 sistence of congealing quickly, on being removed 
 from the fire, adding the prescribed powders. 
 
 Medicines to be sucked. These medicines are 
 made with syrups, powders, and other drugs. 
 They are very useful in curing dysentery, cough, 
 hocmoptysiSj &c., being more readily absorbed. 
 
 10. Cils. Oils are usually prepared by mixing 
 them with four times the quantity of milk, whey, 
 cow's urine, &c. ; boiling to get rid of the watery 
 part, then adding certain fragrant medicines, and 
 straining through cloth. Sometimes a certain 
 quantity of mustard oil, with the fresh juice of 
 certain herbs, and other spices, previously pounded 
 in a mortar, are to be added, and the whole boiled. 
 These oils are used as external applications. 
 Several such preparations of oils are used, as 
 errhines. Considerable experience is required in 
 boiling the oils ; as if too little or too much boiled, 
 they will not produce the desired quality. 
 
 Ghee is prepared by simmering buffalo's-butter 
 over a gentle fire, for a few minutes, and cooling 
 gradually. Butter is considered crude and un- 
 wholesome compared with ghee, without the
 
 234 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 addition of the odoriferous medicine. It does not 
 produce froth as oil does, and it is known to be 
 ready when the sediment which remains in the 
 vessel is soft like wax, is easily twisted, and does 
 not burn with a noise, when a small piece is thrown 
 upon the fire. 
 
 Oil. gJiee^ and jagry^ should be prepared in one 
 day, as the different ingredients will retain dif- 
 ferent qualities, and not possess the proper uniform 
 quality. Medicines that contain oil, ghee, or 
 jagry, extracts, and pills, become useless after a 
 year. The qualities of boiled ghee are improved 
 by keeping; whereas, raw oil becomes rancid 
 after two months. Fresh drugs, in general, lose 
 their properties after one year; some powders are 
 weakened, or are rendered useless, after being kept 
 for three months ; other medicines, made from 
 coral, pearl, ruby, shells, &c.j do not lose their 
 qualities for many years. 
 
 These were the most ancient forms in which 
 vegetable medicines were employed. In the course 
 of time, other preparations and forms of medicine 
 were added to those obtained from the vegetable, 
 mineral, and animal kingdoms. The latter class 
 were usually applied externally.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 235 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ADMINISTHATION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 It is incorrectly supposed that chemistry was 
 first studied by the Arabs, as the ancient Hindus 
 employed many useful chemical preparations for 
 the restoration of health, and for the purposes of the 
 arts. Even the transmutation of metals, or alche- 
 my, was first studied by the ancient Hindus, and 
 was afterwards pursued with assiduity by the 
 Arabs. 
 
 Medicines are either exhibited externally or 
 internally. The former method will be de- 
 scribed in the chapter on surgery ; and the 
 qualities of the internal medicines are modified by 
 exhibiting them in the pharmaceutical forms of 
 infusions, decoctions, extracts, oils, electuaries, 
 pills and boluses, extracts, tinctures, ointments, 
 plasters, &c. Hindu practitioners combined nu- 
 merous ingredients, which were often administered 
 for the cure of a disease without much reference 
 to the circumstances of the case, their comparative 
 efficacy in particular diseases, or the stages or 
 modifications of disease, in which they were to be 
 employed. Some of the simple medicines were
 
 236 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 powerful, and too little appreciated, and their dose 
 not properly defined. In most cases tlie medicines, 
 whether potent or inert, were directed to be em- 
 ployed in equal proportions. Many of these inter- 
 nal medicines were stimulants, such as the infusion 
 of pepper, &c., and were used with the intention 
 of increasing the bodily strength when in health, 
 as well as of removing disease when present. The 
 peculiar properties of medicine were supposed to 
 be increased by multiplying the ingredients. 
 For this reason the articles of the materia medica 
 were administered in combination, and their re- 
 ceipts were often carefully preserved, and handed 
 down in families as specifics for curing particular 
 diseases. It was this opinion that led practi- 
 tioners, at an early period, to investigate the 
 nature of medicines, and their action on each 
 other ; and they early discovered the stages of 
 the vinous and acetous fermentations. 
 
 All kinds of medicines are said to be best when 
 recent, with the exception of honey, ghee, ginger, 
 long-pepper, and cumin seed. These substances 
 should be kept some time before they are used as 
 medicines. All other fresh medicines should have 
 their peculiar smell, which they slowly lose, and 
 when they are a year old they are to be thrown 
 away. Plants obtained from the Himalaya moun-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 237 
 
 tains are the best, as their juice is usually the 
 strongest. Cow-herds, hunters, &c., may be 
 employed to collect medicinal plants ; but a 
 Brahmin should be preferred, particularly if he 
 is poor, and has performed the necessary ablutions 
 and prayers. 
 
 Medicines from the animal kingdom are to be 
 taken from young and healthy subjects; and 
 secretions, such as milk, urine, &c., are to be taken 
 after the digestion of the food of the animal. The 
 effect of these remedies is either to increase, 
 diminish, or cure deranged wind, bile, and phlegm, 
 or those of the essential parts of the body. 
 
 There is no medicine with one quality; so there 
 is no disease in which there is one humour alone 
 affected ; medicines should therefore be mixed 
 according to the state of the patient, the term, and 
 the yirulence of the disease. If a medicine con- 
 sisting of one or two ingredients is not found 
 useful, other ingredients should be mixed with it ; 
 and in other cases some of the ingredients should 
 be removed from the prescription. 
 
 When no liquid is recommended with medicine, 
 water, honey, sugar, or such substances as speedily 
 act on the body should be the menstruum; when 
 no part of the vegetable is stated, the root is to 
 be used ; and when no time is stated, the medicine
 
 238 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 is intended to be taken in the morning. When 
 wind is deranged, soothing and heating articles are 
 to be mixed with the medicine ; when phlegm is 
 deranged, warm and dry articles ; and for deranged 
 bile, bitter and cooling substances are to be used. 
 
 In diseases of the chest, with difl&cult breathing, 
 and the voice affected with cough, and ulcers 
 of the throat or nose, the medicines must be 
 changed for expectorant drugs, which are to be 
 repeated frequently to keep up their action on the 
 system. The food should be chicken broth and 
 the like. 
 
 In some diseases milk is to be avoided, and in 
 others it alone should be used after medicine. In 
 some cases more rice than usual should be taken, 
 and should be mixed with the medicine, when the 
 pulse is strong and the internal heat active. 
 
 Should one medicine not have the desired effect 
 in a few hours, another must be tried ; but if a 
 medicine has been of benefit in diminishing the 
 disease, and not producing any unfavourable 
 symptom, it should not be changed. When several 
 well-selected medicines have been given in suc- 
 cession without any good effect, there is much fear 
 of the result of the disease. 
 
 Care should always be taken that a second 
 medicine is not given until the one previously
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 239 
 
 exhibited has been properly digested ; and this is 
 known when it acts in the usual manner, while 
 the body feels cold and light, and with appetite, 
 thirst, and occasional belching, and when the per- 
 son is in good spirits and the senses are acute. 
 
 In all cases of disease in which medicines are 
 required, the Hindu physician considers it neces- 
 sary to follow a proper regimen, otherwise the 
 remedies will not have the desired effect. 
 
 Before a medicine is administered to a sick 
 person, the physician should examine the condition 
 of the wind, bile, and phlegm ; the internal heat ; 
 the patient's strength, sex, and age ; the cause 
 producing the disease ; and, lastly, the ingredients 
 of which the prescription is composed. He is next 
 to note if the intestines have been cleared out ; and 
 after these circumstances have been duly considered 
 the treatment is to be commenced. 
 
 The medicine must be varied by the temper, 
 constitution, age, and disease of the person. 
 Immediately after birth, an aperient should be 
 given, as the infant will not be well until its 
 bowels are opened. For children, the medicine 
 may be mixed with honey, brown sugar, or the 
 like, and placed over a small roll of cloth, 
 which is to be sucked by the patient. An infant 
 of a month old is to get one rattah of medicine in
 
 240 HISTORY OE MEDICINE 
 
 a moist state, formed with honey, milk, sugar, ghee, 
 &c. One rattah is to be added for each additional 
 month, until one year old ; up to the sixteenth 
 year, one masha is to be given for a dose, and the 
 medicine may be of a stronger nature, according 
 to the severity of the disease. From the twenty- 
 seventh year of age, strong and specific medicines 
 are to be used ; and an additional one each year, 
 up to the seventieth. After this age, the doses 
 of medicine are to be diminished to those fit for 
 a boy of sixteen. When the patient is not very 
 strong, two-thirds of a dose is to be given ; and 
 when very old or young, or very weak, only one- 
 half of the dose is to be administered ; above five 
 years of age, syringing the nose with medicinal 
 liquid is allowed ; and above seven years, errhines 
 are to be given ; and above twelve years, fumiga- 
 tions may be used. In the months of October, 
 November, January, and February, when the 
 season is cold, medicines should be given at noon; 
 in the four hot and moist months — May, June, 
 July, and August, medicines should be adminis- 
 tered in the evening and morning; and in the 
 rains (September and October), when the climate 
 is temperate and moist, medicines may be adminis- 
 tered at any time. 
 
 They are not to be administered when the per-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 241 
 
 son is much frightenedj or extremely weak after 
 vomiting or purging, after eating or drinking, 
 fatigue, violent exercise, long fasting, or fever, 
 when under the influence of great grief, and when 
 the patient cannot sleep at night, when the food 
 is not digested, when the body is very hot, and 
 when it is affected with much thirst. Tt is also 
 necessary to be careful to administer the proper 
 dose of the medicine, which must be decided on 
 by the tact and experience of the physician. 
 
 In administering medicine, the practitioner 
 should recollect that a weak medicine will not 
 cure a severe disease, as a fire cannot be quenched 
 by a few drops of water. In like manner strong 
 medicine, when given to cure slight diseases, will 
 produce other evils, as the root of the sun-plant 
 will die when heavy showers of rain continually 
 fall upon it. Consequently medicine should be 
 administered according to the severity of the 
 disease, the state of the wind, bile, and phlegm, 
 and the internal heat, the state of the alimentary 
 canal, and the urinary secretions, the strength 
 and age of the patient, the stage and nature of the 
 sickness, and the kind of medicine as specified in 
 the shastras. It is also very necessary in prepar- 
 ing medicine that the exact proportion of the 
 different ingredients be observed ; for if more or
 
 242 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 less of any of the ingredients be used than spe- 
 cified, it will have a tendency to increase rather 
 than cure the disease. If administered in ignorance, 
 medicine resembles poison, the knife, and light- 
 ning, in its destructive effects ; and even poison, 
 if exhibited properly, will often resemble the 
 water of life. 
 
 Should the sick person be strong, and have a 
 severe disease, a full dose of the medicine may be 
 given ; of oil decoctions, and the like, one pala is 
 the dose. To a moderately strong person with a 
 less severe disease, three fourths of a dose are to 
 be given, or three akshas or six tolas. Should the 
 sick person be in a state of weak health, or be old, 
 or an infant, half a dose should be given ; or five 
 rattahs, or one masha, whether it be made of oil, 
 ghee, a decoction, or any other medicine. Of 
 electuaries and syrups one or two karshas may be 
 given, according to circumstances. The dose is 
 afterwards to be increased or diminished accord- 
 ing to the circumstances of the case, such as the 
 frequency and consistence of the dejections, &c 
 
 The body is to be prepared for medicine by 
 rubbing oil on the surface, and giving some 
 oleagnious mixture internally. 
 
 The time for administering medicines requires 
 to be considered ; as one requires to be given
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 243 
 
 before, others during, and a third kind after eatingo 
 The following precepts should be attended to 
 in the administration of medicines : — 
 
 1. In short and acute diseases the medicine is 
 to be taken on an empty stomach, that it may be 
 sooner digested; like a drop of oil upon water, 
 it is rapidly dijffused over the system. 
 
 2. The medicine may be taken with advantage 
 before eating, when the patient is strong and the 
 disease severe. 
 
 3. One half of the medicine should be taken 
 before, and another after food. 
 
 4. By the old and weak the medicine should be 
 taken with the food. 
 
 5. By others after the food, when the disease 
 has occurred suddenly, and when the patient suffers 
 from asthma, cough, thirst, and vomiting. 
 
 6. Another kind should be taken with a covering 
 over it. 
 
 7. When the disease is in the middle of the 
 body, the medicine is to be taken between the 
 two periods of eating. 
 
 8. Another kind of medicine should be taken 
 with each morsel of food. 
 
 9. For asthma, cough, thirst, &c., an emetic 
 should be occasionally administered. 
 
 The Hindu physicians suppose the efficacy of
 
 244 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 medicines to be much increased by mixing a num- 
 ber together, and employing these prescriptions 
 for the cure of particular diseases. The effects of 
 simple drugs are neglected, and the peculiar cir- 
 cumstances of the patient are not always sufficiently 
 attended to in practice. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND USES OF DKUGS. 
 
 Charaka arranges drugs under forty-five heads, 
 according to their action in removing classes of 
 symptoms. The chief classes are those which are 
 supposed to promote longevity, strength, and cor- 
 pulency to the body ; which make the body thin, 
 as sudorifics, laxatives, and purgatives; those 
 which produce and stop vomiting, enemata, 
 errhines, sedatives, and anodynes, which give a 
 relish for food, increase or diminish the internal 
 fire, appetite, &c. Another class soften and im- 
 prove the colour of the body, increase milk, purify 
 and promote the secretion of semen, clear the 
 throat, and quench the thirst ; others cure certain 
 diseases, as piles, swellings, dropsy, leprosy, itchi-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 245 
 
 nesSj hiccough, cough, asthma, and sooth colicky 
 pains. The anthelmintics, astringents, diuretics, 
 febrifuge remedies, and antidotes against poisons, 
 are next considered ; and the last class are 
 medicines which equalise and purify the humours, 
 diminish the burning of the body, shivering, 
 fatigue, temporary swelling and redness. All 
 these drugs are usually exhibited in the form of 
 decoction. The great defect of such a classifica- 
 tion of medicines is from their being intended 
 to remove symptoms, rather than the cause, or the 
 disease itself. 
 
 Susruta divides medicines into two classes, one 
 of which increases strength, by evacuating bad 
 humours from the body, as purgatives and emetics; 
 and the other lowers the exalted action of the 
 humours, and restores them to a healthy state. 
 By another arrangement, medicines are classified 
 according as they are supposed to cure wind, bile, 
 and phlegm; and according to their action on 
 certain organs, for the treatment of certain diseases, 
 or classes of symptoms. Thirty-nine simple drugs 
 are enumerated for curing diseased wind, twenty- 
 three for curing diseased phlegm, and twenty 
 for deranged bile.* 
 
 « See Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine, Calcutta. 
 page 137, &c. 
 
 R
 
 246 HisTOKY or medicine 
 
 Medicines may be usefully arranged, according 
 to their actions, into diaphoretics, emetics, 
 purgatives, pastes, enemata, errhines, diuretics, 
 astringents, tonics, emollients, nutrients, matu- 
 rants, &c. The Hindu physician, before any of 
 these medicines were given, relaxed the body, by 
 rubbing oil upon it externally, and giving some 
 oleaginous mixture internally. 
 
 1. Diaphoretics were the application of heat; 
 by the steam of hot water ; by the application of 
 certain warm poultices, or plasters, made of 
 different medicines; and by fomentations, with 
 various decoctions. For promoting perspiration, 
 the body should be relaxed by the use of ghee> 
 oil, fat, and marrow. Of these, ghee is the best, 
 as it is produced from milk obtained from the 
 cow. This milk first yields curdled milk, then 
 butter, and with the assistance of fire, ghee is 
 produced. Nothing else can be obtained from 
 ghee, so that it may be considered as pure. For 
 diseases of the bile, ghee only is to be given ; of 
 wind, ghee and salt, mixed ; and for diseases of 
 phlegm, ghee, long-pepper, pepper, dry ginger, 
 and nitre, mixed together. A weak person, with a 
 bad memory and digestion, should use ghee to 
 strengthen them. In certain cutaneous diseases, 
 for open boils and for worms, oil is useful, parti-
 
 A.MONG THE ASIA.TICS. 247 
 
 cularly when the phlegm is deranged. To fat 
 people, particularly when the wind is deranged, 
 and when the dejections are not natural, oil 
 should first be given. Lard is most useful for 
 external diseases, those of the joints, bones, and 
 sensible parts. 
 
 Perspiration should not be promoted in the 
 scrotum, throat, or eyes. When wind and phlegm 
 are deranged, diaphoretic medicines that contain 
 the qualities of coldness and heat respectively are 
 t© be used. When wind is deranged, cooling medi- 
 cines alone are to be used; and when phlegm, only 
 hot medicines are to be used. When wind and 
 phlegm are deranged in a part, or when only wind 
 or phlegm is deranged, perspiration is to be pro- 
 moted in such places alone. 
 
 Perspiration is not to be encouraged in very fat, 
 very thin, or debilitated persons, when affected 
 with diseases of the blood or wind; when the 
 diseases are incurable; in dysentery ; or when the 
 person is afflicted with large sores over the body 
 (kotha). 'Not will perspiration be proper after 
 taking poisons, or drinking; or for the blind; when 
 when the abdomen is swelled ; or in erysipelas, or 
 leprosy, or in a bad state of the blood. In such 
 cases milk, ghee, curdled milk, and honey should 
 be given after purgatives. 
 
 It is improper to give diaphoretics when the
 
 248 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 body is burnt ; in diseases of the anus ; in grief, 
 or fear-producing diseases ; in passions, in hunger, 
 in thirst, in weakness, in jaundice, in gonorrhcea, 
 in hemoptysis, in pulmonary consumption, in dysen- 
 tery, during the flow of the menses, or after taking 
 much wine ; in pregnancy, particularly near its 
 termination ; in diseases of wind, or in fatal 
 diseases. When diaphoretics are used under such 
 circumstances, they will do harm, or their peculiar 
 favourable effects will not be produced. 
 
 After oleaginous and perspiring medicines have 
 been exhibited, any of the other five varieties of 
 medicines may be employed with advantage, 
 according to the effect that is required to be 
 produced. 
 
 2. Emetics and purgatives are supposed to be 
 the most powerful medicines when the wind, bile, 
 and phlegm are moderately diminished or deranged, 
 and they restore the humours to their healthy 
 state. In general, emetics are recommended when 
 the stomach is surcharged with phlegm; and 
 purgatives, when the intestines and bile are 
 deranged. 
 
 When the practitioner has decided on the 
 necessity of giving an emetic, the preliminary 
 relaxing medicines, with honey and saindhava 
 (an impure kind of salt), are to be exhibited.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 24*} 
 
 This is usually done in the morning, or the day 
 before the exhibition of the emetic ; more parti- 
 cularly when the strength and internal heat of the 
 person are great, and the humours much deranged. 
 The patient should then drink freely of milk, 
 whey, rice-water, or the like. The emetic should 
 be given, and the warm hand applied frequently 
 to the abdomen, for an hour, to soften it. If it 
 cannot be taken in the usual way, by means of its 
 taste, it maybe sucked through, the stalk of a hollow 
 reed, so that it may pass down the throat. The 
 emetic should be taken in the morning. The 
 person is to place himself upon a stool^ with his 
 thigh parallel to the floor, and his head, back, and 
 sides supported by friends. He will first feel 
 sick, then saliva will flow from his mouth, and 
 tears and mucus from his eyes and nose, followed 
 by vomiting. The vomiting will be promoted by 
 thrusting the finger, or the stalk of a lily, down the 
 throat. The vomiting is to be encouraged until 
 the stomach is completely emptied ; this is known 
 not to be the case by the discharge of the saliva, 
 by the bad breath, and by the body being itchy. 
 
 Among emetics, madana fruit (spermacoce his- 
 pida) is the best, and may be administered in the 
 form of powder or decoction, with honey and rock- 
 salt. An emetic is sometimes prepared by
 
 250 HISTORY OF MEDTCIKE 
 
 bruising'and mixing long-pepper, Indian sesamum 
 (teta), indrogobo, saindhava (impure salt), and the 
 root of the moina tree (madana). The vangueria 
 spinosa, asclepias germinata, azadirachta (the 
 Indian species of mustard); bitter cucurbitacea, 
 fossil-salt, and the sulphate of copper, mixed with 
 several vegetable drugs, were employed mixed 
 with honey, as an emetic, which was recommended 
 to be used when poison has been taken. 
 
 The following emetics are to be used when 
 the phlegm is deranged : white mustard-seed, 
 rock-salt, and long pepper; repeat the dose fre- 
 quently until the desired effect is produced. There 
 are various emetics which are exhibited in the 
 form of powder, or as a mixture, followed by 
 warm water. The dose of the emetic should be 
 varied with the strength of the individual. 
 
 "When an emetic has acted properly it first 
 produces an evacuation of phlegm and bile, 
 without pain; and the breast, neck, and head feel 
 clear after it, and the body light. The vomiting 
 may be stopped by snuffing sweet-smelling mix- 
 tures up the nostrils. One kind of emetic acts as 
 a purgative, another restores irregularities of the 
 humours, (dhatu), and retains the body soft. 
 
 Vomiting should not be excited in cases of 
 sparks being seen, or sudden blindness, or great
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 251 
 
 fatigue, in spleen disease, nor in jaundice, when 
 the abdomen is swelled, for very fat or thin 
 persons, for infants, for pregnant women, nor for 
 very old persons, particularly when afflicted with 
 piles, spleen sores, or diarrhoea, tetanus, hoarse- 
 ness, hemoptysis, or after great losses of blood. 
 When emetics act as purgatives, not as emetics, 
 or when purgatives act as emetics it is unfavour- 
 able. The kind of emetic must be varied accord- 
 ing as the wind, bile, or phlegm is deranged ; and 
 various diseases are supposed to be produced, when 
 the emetic effect does not take place, such as sores 
 in the mouth, foetid breath, &c. In such cases 
 the person is not to eat, and the emetic must not 
 be repeated that day. If the emetic do not act 
 freely, give warm water mixed with long-pepper. 
 Should the vomiting be too severe, it may be 
 repressed by anointing the body with ghee, by 
 cold bathing, and by taking internally a decoction 
 of raisins, with sugar and water, and other 
 agreeable drinks. In the afternoon, a warm 
 bath is to be given, and light and nourishing food, 
 such as ground pulse of different kinds, with the 
 broth of wild animals. An aperient is then to be 
 given to act on the bowels, and food is to be taken 
 in small quantities, to renovate the internal fire, 
 and thus repress the vomiting.
 
 262 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 EmQtics are very useful in diseases of phlegm ; 
 in cases in which poison has been taken ; in dis- 
 eases accompanied with much thirst ; in diseases 
 of the internal heat, particularly when changeable ; 
 in diseases of the mammee; in madness; in epilepsy; 
 in elephantiasis ; in diseases of the humours ; in 
 fevers ; in want of appetite ; in boils ; in diseases 
 of the stomach "(amashay); in dysentery and bloody 
 flux ; in diseases of the chest ; in large secretions 
 of saliva ; in sickness ; in difficulty of breathing ; 
 when the person has lost his sense of smell and 
 taste ; in diseases of the lips and mouth, when pus 
 is discharged ; in diseases of the throat, &c. 
 
 A list of twenty-five emetics is given in 
 the commentary, and these medicines act as 
 emetics, errhines, &e., curing all the bad humours, 
 from the stomach upwards. Sometimes they are 
 used simply, more commonly in combination. 
 
 3. Purgatives. The day before a common 
 purgative is exhibited, the patient is required 
 to eat light food in combination with warm 
 water, so as to remove any derangement of 
 the phlegm. The next morning the body is 
 anointed with oil, and exposed to heat, to promote 
 perspiration, after which the purgative is admi- 
 nistered, and is supposed to clear the body of 
 diseased humours below the stomach. It is stated
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 253 
 
 that should this preparation not be attended to, the 
 persons constitution will be injured. These pur- 
 gatives should be varied according to the state of 
 the bowels, and the purpose for which they are 
 given. 
 
 First, when there is looseness with much bile, 
 the medicine should be cool and in small quantities. 
 
 Secondly, when wind and phlegm are deranged 
 with costiveness, the medicine acts with difficulty, 
 and should be exhibited warm and strong. 
 
 Thirdly. There is a middle condition in which the 
 bile, wind, and phlegm are affected, with the bowels 
 neither constipated nor relaxed, in which case the 
 medicine should be given of a temperate heat, and 
 of moderate quantity and quality. 
 
 The dose of aperient medicine should vary with 
 the age, &c. of the patient, and when a purgative 
 has been administered, in the above form, its action 
 should not be suddenly stopped. The patient 
 should stay in a closed room, and he should not 
 take cold water, nor use force in the evacuation. 
 When the purgative has not produced the desired 
 effect, it will cause derangement in the bile and 
 phlegm. The body is hot, there is no appetite — 
 and there is a heaviness in the belly, uneasiness 
 in the breast, itchiness of the arms, and not a 
 not a free evacuation of the urine.
 
 264 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 When the purgatives act properly, the patient 
 feels easy, happy, and light, and wind, phlegm and 
 bile pass freely. After the action of purgatives, 
 the patient should take thin and light food — as 
 congee, and sometimes broths. If purgatives are 
 taken from time to time in a proper form, they 
 clear the understanding and senses, improve the 
 strength of the organs, and of the body. They 
 also improve the appetite and retain the humours 
 in a healthy state, and retard the approach of age. 
 
 In infancy a mixture of honey, sugar and trivrit 
 (teori or convolvulus turpethum) is to be given, in 
 the form of a powder. 
 
 When purgatives act too powerfully, they 
 produce fainting, frequent mucous stools, prolapsus 
 ani, and pain in the belly. 
 
 When a purgative acts strongly with a dis- 
 charge of blood, pour cold water upon the body, 
 and give an emetic, with congee and honey ; 
 or give oily or mucilaginous liquids. 
 
 Purgatives should not be given during the 
 beginning of fever ; that is, while the patient feels 
 a slight appetite, and his bowels are not very 
 costive. For infants, and old or very fat people, 
 purgatives are to be avoided ; also, when the 
 body is very hot or much fatigued ; in bloody 
 stools, and immediately after labour ; also when
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 255 
 
 the appetite is bad, in derangemeats of the blood, 
 bile and wind, when there are sores on the body, 
 or internally, when there is great thirst, after loss 
 of blood ; and in diseases of the lungs. Should a 
 quack give purgatives at an improper time he will 
 kill the person. 
 
 Purgatives should be used in fevers, in diseases 
 from poisons, in piles, in swelling of the glands, 
 in jaundice, in epilepsy, in diseases of the heart, 
 in fistula-in- ano, in vomiting, in diseases of the 
 vagina, in colicky pains, in costiveness, and in 
 cholera ; in certain diseases of the belly (alasaka), 
 in leprosy, in eruptions, in gonorrhoea, in the 
 enlargement of the spleen, in hydrocele, in 
 ophthalmia, and in general in diseases of the eye, 
 especially in purulent ophthalmia; in diseases of 
 the head, ear and nose, in those of the anus and 
 penis, in worms, in diseases of the bile, involuntary 
 discharges of semen, &c. 
 
 The discharges produced by purgatives are first, 
 urine, foeces, bile, then the medicine, and lastly 
 phlegm. 
 
 Of the purgatives the Trivrit^ or as is it usually 
 called teori (convolvulus turpethum), and Haritaki 
 (chebulic myrobalan) arc considered the best. Of 
 the oily purgatives, the castor oil is the best. In 
 diseases of wind, give teori in powder (6 annas
 
 256 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 weight for a dose) with the juice of the sugar cane, 
 danti (croton polyandrum), ricinus communis, 
 cassia fistula, purgative cucurbitacese, the seed 
 of ipomoea ccerulea, myrobolans, the juice of 
 euphorbia antiquorum ; along with these sugar, 
 fruits, &c., are used as laxatives and combined 
 with warm aromatics, such as pepper, ginger, &c. 
 
 In diseases of the bile, the medicine is adminis- 
 tered with milk ; and in diseases of phlegm, the 
 same medicine is given with the decoction of long 
 and black pepper and dry ginger. 
 
 The covering of the Haritaki, is to be used like 
 the teori, in the same form and dose, and to cure 
 the same diseases. Castor oil is prepared by 
 gathering the seed at the proper season, drjing it 
 for seven days, and taking the kernels and boiling 
 them in water — the oil is to be removed for use 
 — in other cases the oil is got by pressing the seeds 
 between weights. This oil is to be given to children 
 from birth to the tenth year. It is also given to 
 old and weak and delicate persons. 
 
 Purgatives may be prepared and exhibited 
 with ghee, oil, milk, wine, cow's urine, broths, 
 and certain forms of food. The action of pur- 
 gative medicines will be increased by using warm 
 water with some infusion, the warm or vapour 
 bath, and friction with the warm hand. When
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 257 
 
 the laxative effect is not sufficient, it is not to be 
 repeated till the next day ; but when a sufficient 
 effect has been produced the purgatives should not 
 be repeated for ten days. 
 
 The internal fire is diminished by purgatives ; 
 and as soon as the action is produced, light food 
 is to be given, and a little mango bark mixed with 
 congee water is to be used internally, and exter- 
 nally friction, so as to increase the internal fire. 
 The efforts of nature should not be resisted; 
 but when the person is weak, and the bowels 
 loose, the medicine is to be given in small quan- 
 tities and frequently repeated. When the bowels 
 are loose, and the patient either weak or strong, 
 purgatives are to be given, and when in that state 
 the bowels are not freely evacuated, the collec- 
 tion of the bad humours, if retained, will produce 
 other diseases. 
 
 A small dose of the purgative should be first 
 given, and when the individual's constitution is 
 better known, a stronger one may be administered. 
 The following are examples of purgative mix- 
 tures : take of Haritali (yellow myrobalan), salt, 
 and long pepper, in equal proportions, grind them 
 into a paste with water ; dose, three drams. Or, 
 take of Haritaki (yellow myrobalan), araalaki, 
 (emblic myrobalan), vibhitaki (beleric myrobalan)
 
 258 HISTOEY OF MEDICI^E 
 
 in equal parts ; three tolas of this mixture are to 
 be boiled in forty-eight of water, nntil reduced to 
 twelve tolas. To six tolas of this infusion add 
 three of castor oil. Or take three tolas (nine 
 drams) of castor oil, with six of milk. The pur- 
 gative is varied according as the wind, phlegm, 
 and bile, are deranged. 
 
 Another class of medicines, produce both vomit- 
 ing and purging; they are — JiashataM, several 
 sorts of cucurbitaceous plants ; saftala^ (abrus pre- 
 catorius) ; slianJchmi (cissampelos hexandra) ; de- 
 vadani ruhitaJca (fruit and bark); ravilika (mom.OT- 
 dica charantica.) The juices of these plants are 
 used for producing their effects, as the organs of 
 speech for the articulation of vowels and sibilants. 
 
 4. Pas'es composed of different purgative drugs 
 were often used with great benefit. The follow- 
 ing is an example, and was applied to the navel : 
 Take of ras, quicksilver ; gomdak^ sulphur ; mariclc^ 
 black pepper, of each a quarter tola; sohaga, 
 biborate of soda; pippoli^ long pepper; sJiunthiy 
 dry ginger, of each half a tola; dantiliti croton 
 polyandrum, two and a-quarter tolas, mix into a 
 paste with the milky juice of seejor (euphorbium 
 longifolium). Put it into the milk of a cocoa nut, 
 which is to be coated with clay, and expose it to 
 fire for two hours until the clay is red hot, and 
 when cooled the dose of the paste is two tolas.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS, 259 
 
 5. Enemata. This is considered as the best 
 manner of exhibiting purgative medicines in dis- 
 eases of the lower part of the abdomen, and lower 
 extremities. Medicines may thus be mixed 
 so as to cure diseases of wind, bile, and phlegm, 
 as the medicine enters the system like water 
 poured at the root of a tree. These medicines 
 were much used by the ancient practitioners. 
 
 The general effect of enemas is to strengthen 
 the muscles, and to lessen fat. They retain the 
 eyes and surface in a healthy state — and will retain 
 the body healthy till death, or even lengthen the 
 period of existence. 
 
 The bladders of pigs, buffalos, &c., are used for 
 these injections. For this purpose the animal 
 should be healthy, and of full age. Should bladders 
 not be found a leather bag may be substituted. 
 The injecting pipe should be made of gold, silver, 
 copper, iron, hard wood, or ivory. It should be 
 smooth, strong, and tapering like the tail of a cow, 
 with a slightly tuberculated extremity, six finger's 
 breadth in length to the cross piece, for patients 
 from the first to the eighth year of age ; eight or 
 ten from the ninth to the sixteenth year ; and after- 
 wards somewhat longer. During the first years, 
 the tube should be the size of the little finger, 
 afterwards of the ring finger, then of the middle
 
 260 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 finger ; and after the twenty-fifth year, the size of 
 the thumb. In administering enemata, care must 
 be taken not to introduce it in an oblique direction, 
 nor too far nor too short a distance, and not to press 
 it on one side. The size of the injection should 
 also be varied, according to the size of the patient's 
 hands. 
 
 For the very young, two handsful of the liquid 
 are to be used; for a child of eight years, four; and 
 from sixteen upwards, eight handsful. 
 
 There are two varieties of glysters, one without 
 and another with oil. The first form of enemata 
 shoud be prepared with honey and ghee ; animal 
 and vegetable broths should likewise be admi- 
 nistered. The following is offered as an example 
 of a glyster in costiveness, piles, dyspepsia, inter- 
 mittent fever, in diseases of the loins, back, and 
 intestines. It should be prepared as follows : — 
 
 Take of the decoction of suttee; pushkara^ a 
 kind of costus; Jcrishnapaka^ cariss carondas; 
 madana^ datura metal ; duhdaru^ uvaria longifolia, 
 Jcustha^ costus speoiosus; yasti madhu^ liquorice; 
 villa, assafoetida ; add ten parts of milk and four 
 of oil ; mix and administer warm. Various other 
 glysters are prepared in much the same way. 
 
 This form of administering medicine is very 
 useful when not too frequently employed, in fever 
 
 I
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 261 
 
 diarrhoeaj and dysentery ; in diseases of the head 
 and eyes; in tetanus ; in convulsions, and in many 
 nervous, and other diseases. 
 
 Enemata are not proper for the very young, 
 or very old, for the timid, or those labouring under 
 grief, for women before the third or fourth month 
 of pregnancy, in madness, in piles, jaundice, in 
 fainting, in indigestion, in vomiting, leprosy, 
 dropsy, asthma, cough, diseases of the throat, 
 diseases of wind, such as swelling of the extremi- 
 ties, or in nervous diseases. 
 
 Two-thirds of the usual quantity of food should 
 be taken before glysters are administered ; and 
 when given after eating they often produce vomiting. 
 
 Before the injection is administered, the body 
 is to be cleaned and anointed, the patient is to 
 rest in the lap of a large man in a clean situation, 
 where there are no currents of air ; he is to recline 
 on his left side, and in an hour the enema will 
 operate. If it does not operate properly, it will 
 diminish the internal heat, increase the urine, 
 and will not purify the body. It first discharges 
 the dejections, the bile, plilegm, and wind ; and in 
 this manner purifies the body. 
 
 Injections by the urethra. These should be used 
 
 by a tube fourteen fingers' breadth in length, with 
 
 an opening of the size to allow a mustard seed to 
 
 s
 
 262 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 pass. For the female, the tube should be four 
 fingers' breadth in length, and the opening capable 
 of allowing the passage of a small pea. The tube 
 should be covered with oil, and gently introduced, 
 while pressure is made on the bladder, over the 
 pubis, and the marks fixed on the tube prevents 
 its being introduced too far. The injection should 
 be two tolas in quantity ; and is used for diseases 
 of the semen, of the bladder, and the uterus. 
 
 When there is a burning in the bladder, an 
 injection of honey, sugar, or a decoction of liquo- 
 rice and cold water is given. In some cases 
 injections of ghee are used, and in others astrin- 
 gent injections, such as decoctions of the bark of 
 the banian tree, After the introduction of the 
 injection, the patient should take bland drinks, 
 such as barley water, congee, or animal broths. 
 
 The evacuation by purgatives, emetics, enemata, 
 and blood-letting, leaves the patient with the 
 internal fire diminished, and on that account 
 heavy food should be avoided^ and light and 
 nourishing food taken, 
 
 6. Errhines. This is a large class of local 
 irritants, and they are used with the intention of 
 producing sneezing, and exciting a discharge from 
 the nostrils, by which the head is supposed to be 
 cleared from the presence of bad humours.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 263 
 
 There are four varieties of fumes used as 
 errhines : — 
 
 1. The varieties of smoke are taken by the 
 nostrils at three ejfforts. For this purpose different 
 spices are ground into powder, and a tube is used 
 twelve fingers' breadth in length, the size of the 
 little finger at one end, and tapering to the size 
 of the thumb at the other, with an aperture the 
 size of a small pea. For eight fingers' breadth 
 the tube on the inside is to be covered with silk 
 cloth, over which the medicine is rubbed. The 
 tube, thus prej)ared, is to be set fire to, and the 
 fumes are to be drawn into the nostrils. 
 
 2. Oily masses, made with wax, different 
 gums ; such as gum-resin, with ghee, are lighted, 
 and the fumes are received into the nostril. 
 
 3. Those which clear the head, are made with 
 medicines which irritate the nostrils, such as black 
 pepper, long pepper, and aguru^ a kind of fragrant 
 wood. These are to be made into a paste, with 
 which the tube is covered, and then lighted. The 
 fumes produce the effect desired. 
 
 4. Those which cause vomiting, are formed by 
 burning the skin and hair of animals, dry fish and 
 flesh, and substances which produce vomiting. 
 The smoke should be taken in first by the mouth 
 and evacuated through the nostrils, and when
 
 264 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 taken by the nostrils it should be passed through 
 the mouth. 
 
 These are the usual forms in which errhines 
 are given for promoting the secretion of the 
 mucous membrane of the glottis, trachea, and air 
 cells of the lungs. In diseases of the throat and 
 chest, the smoke is to be taken by the mouth ; 
 and by the nose, when the head, nose, and eyes 
 are affected. Some are employed to cure cough. 
 
 These medicaments are prepared with sugar, 
 the juice of the sugar-cane, milk, ghee, and 
 animal broths, which clear the head. They are 
 used for diseases of the heart, as in fainting ; 
 and for weak and delicate persons. Those pre- 
 pared with medicines which clear the head of 
 pent-up humours, accompanied with weight and 
 pain of the head, are usually of an oily nature, 
 and are introduced into the nostrils by means of 
 a tube. This form is likewise used in diseases 
 of the throat, particularly swelling, when worms 
 infest the head and nose ; in jaundice ; in polypus 
 of the nose, when the person can neither dis- 
 tinguish taste nor smell, oily substances are 
 usually employed. It is used in diseases of the 
 mouth, eye, and ear, caused by derangements of 
 the phlegm. 
 
 Errhines prepared to clear the head, are
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 265 
 
 used in the form of powder, and in health, after 
 waking from sleep, after fatigue, both in the 
 morning and evening. These medicines are used 
 in epilepsy, apoplexy, and other diseases produc- 
 ing a loss of sense, and cure diseases above the 
 neck, and retard the marks of old age. 
 
 When phlegm is deranged, the errhines are to 
 be given in the morning ; when bile, at noon ; 
 and when the wind is deranged, in the evening. 
 
 Errhines should not be employed in haemop- 
 tysis, after emetics and purgatives, in swelling 
 of the abdomen (udara), in involuntary discharges 
 of the semen, in sudden blindness, and when the 
 wind is deranged after eating much food, or 
 drinking wine; after poisons, wounds, or injuries 
 of the head ; in jaundice, when the person cannot 
 sleep, or when he is very thirsty. 
 
 Fumigations. Sores are frequently recom- 
 mended to be fumigated. For this purpose a 
 tube is used eight fingers' breadth in length, 
 and the fumes of the medicine are to be conveyed 
 so as to be brought into contact with the surface 
 of the sores. 
 
 7. Gargles. The quantity should be such as can 
 be moved about in the mouth. The patient should 
 stand erect. He should attend to what he is doing, 
 and when the fluid is mixed with the bad
 
 266 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 humours of the mouth, nose, or eyes, it is to he 
 evacuated, and another portion is to be taken 
 into the mouth. Gargles usually consist of 
 astringent decoctions, or the juice of acid 
 fruits, black pepper, long pepper, dry ginger, vacha, 
 mustard, mixed with oil, vinegar, wine, cow's 
 urine, salt or honey, according to the disease, &c. 
 They may be used either hot or cold, and when 
 properly employed they cure diseases of the mouth, 
 clean it, and sooth the part. 
 
 8. Emmenagogues. The remedies for restoring 
 or bringing on the menstrual discharge, are vinegar 
 and acids, cow's urine, curdled milk, and wine. 
 They are not often used, and as the irregularities 
 are often produced by weakness, tonics are 
 frequently given. 
 
 9. Diuretics. This important class of medicines 
 is used in strangury, in pain of the bladder, in 
 scanty urine, and in gravel and stone. They are 
 used either in decoction or in powder. 
 
 10. Parturifacients. Medicines for promoting 
 the expulsion of the foetus from the womb, were 
 not known by the Hindu practitioners. In cases 
 of lingering labour, manipulation used to be 
 employed to advance delivery. 
 
 1 1 . Sialogogues. Medicines for increasing the 
 secretion from the mouth when too dry, were often
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 207 
 
 had recourse to for expelling morbid humours from 
 its neighbourhood. They should never be used 
 before the fifth year of age. The chief medicines 
 belonging to this class, are calomel and corrosive 
 sublimate. The other medicines of this class, are 
 black and long pepper, dry ginger, rock salt, acid 
 fruits, vacJia, and other hot spices. 
 
 12. Stimulants are either local or general, and 
 act by increasing the vital power. Local stimuli 
 either produce a determination of blood to the 
 part, a secretion of semen, or the formation of 
 pustules. These substances are made into a paste 
 and applied over the part. The general stimu- 
 lants include carminatives, which stimulate the 
 stomach and intestinal canal, and lead to the 
 expulsion of flatulence. This numerous class of 
 medicines have already been enumerated, under 
 the head of aliments ; which are used in powder 
 or decoction, with or without other medicines. 
 
 13. Astringents. There is a considerable list of 
 astringents used for curing diarrhsea and dysentery, 
 and of astringent tonics for the cure of ulcers, and 
 for stopping hoemorrhage. 
 
 Among the Anthelmintics^ the hiringa viranga is 
 the Embelia Eibes, and is still used as such in 
 diflferent parts of India. 
 
 14. Alteratives are medicines which increase
 
 263 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 strength by removing diseased functions. It is only 
 to adults and old people that this class of medicines 
 is administered ; and before giving it, an emetic 
 or a purgative should be exhibited, as a cloth 
 should first be cleaned before it is dried. There 
 are four kinds of alteratives. The first promotes 
 pleasure ; the second cures diseases ; the third 
 increases memory and longevity ; and the fourth 
 prevents the usual changes of life, such as age, 
 thirst, hunger, &c. 1. Cold water, milk, honey, 
 and ghee may be taken internally, mixed or 
 separately, to restore a proper degree of strength 
 to the body. 2. Another kind of alteratives in- 
 creases the memory, and lengthens the person's 
 life. Various medicines are recommended for this 
 purpose, and are powdered and mixed with sugar, 
 kept in a vessel for seven days, and then used with 
 cold water. During this treatment the person 
 should reside in a close room, and continue the 
 medicine for six months. He should only use 
 rice, milk, and sugar for food, and bathe in cold 
 water towards evening. His memory will thus 
 be improved, and he may live for a hundred years. 
 This plan of treatment may be adopted in leprosy 
 and dropsy, with the addition of cow's urine 
 instead of water. With this medicine the juice 
 of the manduJcaparm (Hydrocotyle Asiaticaj is
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 269 
 
 exhibited, after which milk should be taken, 
 and barley, rice, and ghee exhibited for three 
 months. 3. Another kind retains the person 
 young, prevents the hair turning gray, and the 
 teeth from falling out. If a man use cold water, 
 milk, honey, or ghee, separately or together, he 
 will not soon have the marks of old age. For the 
 same purpose other medicines are recommended. 
 
 15. TonieSf ^c. The Soma, sacred medicine, is 
 said to produce longevity, and removes the marks 
 of age. There are many fancied varieties of such 
 medicines, unknown to the present sinful race of 
 mankind. Numerous other drugs of this class 
 are used for increasing the pleasure of the society 
 of women ; these are considered nutritious diet, 
 as ghee and animal food, wholesome drink, good 
 news, anointing the body, especially towards the 
 full moon, the presence of young women, love 
 songs, clear nights, beautiful gardens, and a fine 
 prospect ; also the use of betel-nut, wine, flowers, 
 such as garlands round the neck, sweet smells, 
 &c., are thought to have this effect. The powder 
 of Vidara (Flacourtia cataphracta), with ghee and 
 honey, and also the powder of Amalaka (Phyllan- 
 thus Emlica) mixed with sugar, honey, and ghee, 
 the flour of barley, &c., with milk and the seeds 
 of Atmagupta, (carpopogon pruriens) increase the
 
 270 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 person's happiness and his desires. These will be 
 diminished when bitter, hot, salt, or sour articles 
 of food are eaten, which diminish the fluids. In 
 like manner, desire will be removed by its abuse, 
 by certain diseases of the external organs, and by 
 the division of the vessels. 
 
 16. Oleaginous applications , such as oil, ghee, 
 fat, &c., may be given by the mouth as food, as 
 laxatives, as errhines, as enemata, as unguents, 
 or as injections for the ear and urethra. There 
 are two kinds, vegetable and animal oils. Of the 
 latter cow's ghee is the best, and the sesamum 
 seed oil is the best of the vegetable variety. Some 
 of this class of medicines are digested with diffi- 
 culty, others with less difficulty, and a third kind 
 easily. Ghee is good for weak persons who have 
 a bad memory, or who are affected with poison, and 
 diseases of wind and bile. Oil is to be used exter- 
 nally, but it may be given internally in cases of 
 worms, and in costiveness. Warm water should 
 be taken after the oleaginous substances. 
 
 17. Agents acting by depressing the vital 
 powers are Refrigerants^ such as cold infusions 
 both internally and externally. Fire is also used. 
 
 18. Narcotics. Very few narcotics are men- 
 tioned in the ancient works ; ganja or bhang, the 
 resin of hemp, was used, and also datura. They
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 271 
 
 likewise employed bish (aconitum ferox), kakola, 
 (cocculus indicus) ; kaephul, (slryclinos, nux 
 vomica.) 
 
 The Bujjerbhang of the Arabians, and the 
 Dhumrapatra of the Hindus were, perhaps, the 
 nicotiana tabacum of Linneus. According to a pro- 
 clamation of the Emperor Jehangir (mentioned in 
 his memoirs), tobacco was introduced into India, 
 either in his, or the preceding reign. It was 
 discovered in Yucatan, a province in Mexico, in 
 1520 (Humboldt). Were not some of the varieties 
 employed in Europe before this date ? 
 
 18. Chemical Agents. These medicines are, 1st, 
 Escharotics and caustics : which will be con- 
 sidered under the chapter on surgery. 2d, Lith- 
 ontrij^tics, or solvents of urinary stone or gravel, 
 are sometimes employed; for which purpose 
 the usual diuretics are exhibited, particularly 
 Arjuna^ (Pentaptera Arjuna,) and Ashwavedaka 
 (Plectranthus scutellaroides, Eoxb.) 
 
 When administered by an ignorant person, 
 medicine is a poison, and compared to the knife, 
 fire, or lightning; but when administered with 
 the necessary knowledge, it is like the water 
 of immortality. There are said to be two kinds 
 of medicine, one of which gives strength to 
 the body when no disease exists, and the other
 
 272 ' HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 arrests and cures diseases when they are present. 
 In like manner poison may be administered in 
 a proper manner, with great advantage in the 
 cure of disease. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 POISONS ANB THEIR ANTIDOTES, (Kalpas'thanu). 
 
 It is necessary for the practitioner *to have a 
 knowledge of the symptoms of the different poisons 
 and their antidotes, "as the enemies of the Eaja, 
 bad women, and ungrateful servants, sometimes 
 mix poison with food." The cook requires to be 
 of a good family, virtuous, faithful, and not covet- 
 ous, nor subject to anger, pride, or laziness. He 
 should also be cleanly, and skilful in his business. 
 The practitioner should have like qualities, with an 
 intimate knowledge of poisons ; and should 
 examine the food to be eaten by a Raja in the 
 cooking-room. This room should be large, airy, 
 light, and surrounded with faithful servants, and 
 no one should be allowed to enter unless he is first 
 examined. In the MitaJcshara shastra there are 
 
 I
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 273 
 
 copious directions regarding the manner of detect- 
 ing a person who gives poison : he does not answer 
 questions, or his answers are evasive ; he speaks 
 nonsense, rubs the great toe along the ground, 
 and shivers ; his face is discoloured ; he rubs the 
 roots of t]ie hair with his fingers; and he tries by 
 every means to leave the house. The food which 
 is sus23ected should be first given to certain animals, 
 and if they die, it is to be avoided. The 
 authority the Brahmins assumed in detecting 
 crime, and the confidence they inspired, has, no 
 doubt, often had the best effect, in making the 
 wicked shrink from perpetrating deeds, which 
 were sure of detection. The long list of poisons 
 given, seems to prove the frequency with which 
 they were employed for criminal purposes in 
 Asia, at a very early period. 
 
 All poisons have the following qualities : they 
 are drying, heating, and stimulating ; their effects 
 quiclvly extend over all the body ; they destroy 
 quickly, are not digested, and from the rapidity with 
 which they often produce dangerous symptoms it is 
 difficult to use remedies with sufficient quickness. 
 The following stages of the effects of poisons are 
 observed : — 1st. The tongue becomes black and 
 rigid, the person faints, and breathes with diffi- 
 culty. 2nd. Shivering, perspiration, heat, and
 
 274 HISTORY OF MEDICIXE 
 
 pain in the stomach and chest. 3rd. Severe 
 pain in the stomach, swelling and yellowness of 
 the eyes, and when the poison has extended to 
 the intestines, pain of the abdomen, hiccough, 
 sickness and vomiting, and a peculiar noise in 
 the intestines. 4th. Heaviness of the head. 
 6th. Discharge of saliva from the mouth ; change 
 of colour of the skin, and pain in the joints and 
 belly. 6th. Insensibility and purging. 7th. 
 Eigidity and death. 
 
 Vegetable poisons, when dried by the fire, the 
 air, or the sun, and given in solution, or in any 
 way whereby their effects are rendered less 
 powerful, may not produce immediate death, 
 but remain in the system for a long time. 
 In this case the first effects are looseness, heavy 
 smell of the mouth, great thirst, fainting, 
 vomiting, and paralysis of the tongue. These are 
 followed when taken into the stomach by diseases 
 of phlegm and wind, and in the intestines, by 
 diseases of the bile and wind. The person's hair 
 falls off. When the poison is mixed with the 
 humours of the body it produces diseases such as 
 leprosy, langour, weakness of the joints, and pain 
 over the body ; swelling of the legs and face, 
 dropsy : In other cases there is vomiting and 
 diarrhaja, intermittent fever, discoloration of the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 275 
 
 body, madness, impotency, &c., all of which 
 symptoms are aggravated in cloudy and damp 
 weather. 
 
 Such effects may be removed by proper treat- 
 ment, and a year after the person has taken the 
 poison he will either be cured, or get worse. 
 When the patient is weak, and has no appetite, 
 poison will destroy him. 
 
 Poisons are usually arranged into two classes, 
 the first consisting of vegetable and mineral 
 poisons, are named Sihavarah ; and the second, 
 of animal poisons, Jangama. Thoy are not used 
 internally as medicines. 
 
 1. Vegetable and Mineral poisons . The general 
 symptoms produced by vegetable poisons are fever, 
 hiccough, grinding of the teeth, suffocation, 
 foaming at the mouth, vomiting, want of appetite, 
 difficulty of breathing, and fainting. They are 
 divided into nine varieties, which are derived from 
 the roots, leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, milky juice, 
 gum, and pith of plants. A list of each sort is 
 given, with the symptoms they produce and the 
 remedies to be employed in each case. 
 
 The Mineral poisons produce faintness, langour, 
 burning of the body, indigestion, horripilation, 
 swelling and dysentery. The dejections of a 
 person who has taken poison are of a black colour,
 
 276 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 large, and are discharged with wind. The mineral 
 poisons enumerated by Susruta ar€( the white 
 oxide of arsenic, and the yellow sulphurate of 
 a,rsenic. To which other authors have added 
 sulphurate of copper (tuttha), white oxide of 
 arsenic, and the like. These when administered to 
 a person, produce pain in the chest and bod}^ 
 fainting, shivering, followed by a burning and 
 swelling of the body, but particularly of the 
 throat; succeeded by thirst, diarrhoea, langour, 
 coma, and insensibility, when the disease will be 
 fatal. 
 
 Anfidoies for vegetable and mineral poisons. In 
 the first stage of the effects of these poisons, give 
 cold water to drink, with an emetic. In the second 
 stage, give an emetic, with a preparation of vege- 
 table decoctions, which is mixed with honey and 
 ghee, followed by a purgative. In the third stage, 
 errhines and collyrii are to be used, followed by 
 the exhibition of ghee, honey, and a decoction of 
 liquorice. The patient is then to be treated as for 
 dysentery, with astringents and errhines. 
 
 In all the stages the antiphlogistic treatment is 
 to be followed, with the exhibition of ghee and 
 honey. Congee water is also to be given, mixed 
 with a decoction of different medicines from the 
 vegetable kingdom.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 277 
 
 W lieu poisons are introduced into a wound, by 
 a poisoned arrow, the part quickly swells, blood 
 flows, and from time to time pus is evacuated. 
 The wound becomes of a black colour, and dirty 
 round its edges, with a bad smell, and sloughing. 
 The person is very thirsty and faintish, and the 
 body becomes very hot. The same symptoms will 
 be produced when poison is placed over a sore. 
 
 11. Animal poisons. Susruta states that ser- 
 pents which live in holes have their poison lodged 
 in their teeth, and it is of such an acid and hot 
 quality, .that cooling remedies are required to 
 prevent the dangerous effects. 
 
 There are supposed to be eighty varieties of 
 common serpents, which are again divided into 
 five classes, according as their poison affects the 
 fat, the viscera or organs, the bones, the marrow, 
 and the semen, which last is followed by death. 
 
 The treatment of such poisons should consist 
 in immediately applying a tight bandage above 
 the bitten part. This may be done by a piece of 
 cloth, a piece of leather, the flexible bark of a 
 tree, or the like ; so as to prevent the poison 
 entering the system. When a bandage cannot be 
 Eo applied, the bitten part is to be destroyed, either 
 by cutting it out, and washing and cleansing the 
 wouud, or by exhausting the air in a horn placed 
 
 T
 
 273 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 over it, and then burning the part. When the 
 mouth is used, place a piece of bladder over it 
 first, and then suck. Different prayers are to 
 be used as the bandage is applied ; but a scien- 
 tific raan should not rely on these alone, and 
 other means should be used, as antidotes, &c., to 
 prevent the effects of the poison. When the poison 
 has reached the head, the person should be bled ; 
 and cold water, prepared with Chandana (sirium 
 myrtifolium, a fragrant wood), and Usira (audro- 
 pogon muricatum, a cooling root), is to be used for 
 bathing; and internally different antidotes are to be 
 given, mixed with honey. If these antidotes are 
 not at hand, give the black earth of ants-nests, or 
 Sirisa (mimosa siris), and Eurhuddra (black heli- 
 bore); and avoid spirits or wine. Fluids that 
 cause vomiting are of use, as the poison is thus 
 removed from the system. If these means did not 
 succeed, they recommended the bad practice of 
 bleeding, which promotes absorption of the poison ; 
 and gave honey and ghee. The errhines and col- 
 lyria were thought likewise of use, when com- 
 posed of different antidotes. In the fourth stage, 
 emetics, followed by barley-meal for food, were 
 recommended ; in the fifth and sixth stages, an 
 antiphlogistic treatment, and in the seventh, 
 strong errhines, as ammonia, &c.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 279 
 
 The above treatment is applicable to the bites 
 of all serpents; but when the class of Rajila ser- 
 pents have inflicted the bite, bleeding is specially 
 recommended. When the treatment is not suc- 
 cessful, and the person is insensible, a crucial 
 incision is made on the crown of the head, and a 
 piece of recent flesh of an animal is applied to the 
 wound; then errhines are exhibited, and a loud 
 noise is made to rouse the person, and when his 
 senses return, a strong purgative is given. The 
 antidotes should be continued for some time after 
 the symptoms have disappeared, otherwise the 
 violent symptoms will be liable to recur. 
 
 The following varieties of Agada^ or never- 
 failing antidotes, are given in Susruta. For 
 animal poisons, especially for serpents, tate of 
 Trivrit (convolvulus turpethum), Bishala faconi- 
 tum-ferox), Madaka (bassica latifolia), Ilaridra 
 (curcum alonga), Dara haridra (c. xanthorhizon), 
 Eakta (nymphoea odorata), Arjuna (terminalia). 
 
 The five salts, with long pepper, black pepper, 
 and ginger powder, are mixed -with honey, and 
 kept in a close vessel. They are to be given in- 
 ternally in water, and used at the same time as a 
 collyrium and errhine. This is considered the 
 most efficacious antidote known. 
 
 The following is an antidote for animal and
 
 280 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 vegetable poison :— 'Take of Biranga (verbesina 
 prostrata), Pata (sida lanceolaria), Trifola (the 
 varieties of myrobalan), Ajamooda Tapium invola- 
 cratura), Hingu (asafoetida), Chakra (citrus decu- 
 manus), mix with black pepper, long pepper, dry 
 ginger, and the different kinds of salt. Eeduce 
 them to a powder, mix them well with honey, and 
 keep them in the horn of a cow. This is to be 
 shut with a piece of pith, and kept for a month. 
 It may be used as an antidote for animal, vege- 
 table, and mineral poisons. 
 
 Different other varieties of these antidotes are 
 given in Susruta, &c., but these two are considered 
 the most efficacious. 
 
 When animals are affected by animal poisons, 
 their bodies become swollen, they are sluggish, 
 and saliva proceeds from their mouths, and there 
 is pain in the chest. In the third stage there is 
 pain in the head, they cannot raise it, the body 
 shivers, and they become insensible and die. 
 
 Birds, when affected with poison, first become 
 sluggish, then senseless, and die. Certain poisons 
 do not affect cats, or the mongoose. 
 
 The bites of mad dogs. When dogs, jackals, 
 foxes, wolves, bears, or tigers become mad, they 
 foam at the mouth, which remains open, their tails 
 hang down, they do not hear or see well, and
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 281 
 
 saliva flows from their mouths. In such a state 
 they snap at, and bite each other. The part that 
 is bitten becomes senseless, blood flows from the 
 wound, which becomes black, and the other ap- 
 pearances are observed, as after a wound with a 
 poisoned arrow. The person bitten makes the 
 same kind of noise and movements as that of the 
 animal which has bitten him. When such a per- 
 son sees the shape of the animal, which has bitten 
 him, either in water or in a glass, it is an unfavour- 
 able symptom. It is also unfavourable when the 
 person is afraid of water, and dreads either seeing 
 or hearing it. This is called hydrophobia — the 
 fear of water. When the person dreams of the 
 rabid animal, it is unfavourable. Towards the 
 termination of the disease, the person is convulsed, 
 becomes insensible, and powerless, and dies. 
 
 In all such cases the first part of the treatment 
 should be to scarify the part, and squeeze out the 
 blood, after which the part is to be washed and 
 burned by means of hot ghee. Then apply to the 
 wounded part a mixture of certain antidotes, and 
 give old ghee internally. Errhines are also to be 
 given with the milk of the Arka plant (calotropis 
 gigantea.) Apply also the Sita, Punarndba (tri- 
 anthema monogynia), Dliaiura (datura metel), or 
 the flesh of animals ; and TU oil, iagry, milk of
 
 282 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Rupika mixed and applied to the wound. By 
 such means the poison may be destroyed soon 
 after the infliction of the wounds. 
 
 Susruta recommends the following, which is to 
 be used both externally and internally : Take of 
 Shirisha, Kiishtha, Earidra^ Shitay Sharshapa, of 
 each forty ratas, mix in a pint of water, and boil 
 until reduced to one-fourth. During the treat- 
 ment the patient should be kept in a cool situa- 
 tion, without any water. When the symptoms 
 disappear, the. person should then bathe, and on 
 the third and fifth days the above cakes are to be 
 administered in half the dose given at first. He 
 is then to take rice and milk. It is recommended 
 in these cases to act powerfully on the system by 
 strong medicines, before the poison has produced 
 its constitutional efi'ects. After the infliction of 
 the wound, and before it has produced any general 
 effects, the free use of water in bathing is recom- 
 mended, and the bowels are to be afterwards 
 opened by purgatives and emetics, followed by 
 errhines to clear the passages. 
 
 The Poisons of Insects are divided into four 
 classes, one of which deranges the wind, another 
 the bile, a third the phlegm, and a fourth causes 
 a combination of the three former symptoms. 
 
 There are eighteen insects which derange wind,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 283 
 
 as a kind of cricket, the ceutipede^ &c. There 
 are twenty-four of the second class which derange 
 bile, as the wasp fBaratiJ, the bee fBhramaraJ^ 
 kc. This class produce great heat and pain in 
 the part wounded. There are thirteen which 
 derange phlegm, such as the bug fKutuhaJ, and 
 other like insects; and there are twelve varieties 
 of insects, the bites of which are very dangerous, 
 as they affect the three humours, such as Twngindsa^ 
 Bihilaka^ &c. 
 
 The bites of venomous insects thus produce a 
 derangement of the wind, bile, and phlegm, and 
 the wounds are inflamed, brown, red, yellow, 
 or black, according to circumstances. They are 
 sometimes followed by fever, diarrhoea vomiting, 
 thirst, or a burning sensation over the body. 
 Sometimes there is a shivering, the glands swell, 
 and patches of an eruption or erysipelas appear 
 over the body ; the smaller insects, such as flies, 
 gnats, mosquitoes, ants, &c., produce a painful 
 itchiness, and swelling of the part bitten. 
 
 There are three varieties of the bites of scor- 
 pions, according as they are mild, strong, or very 
 strong. Those which are generated in dunghills 
 are not so poisonous as those generated in bricks, 
 and dry places. Those generated in the putrid 
 carcases of serpents and other venomous animals.
 
 284 HISTORY OF MEBICINE 
 
 have the most violent poisons. There are twelve 
 kinds of the first class, three of the second, and 
 fifteen of the third, or dangerous kind. The sym- 
 toms resemble those produced by bites of serpents. 
 The weak kinds produce pain, swelling, followed 
 by shivering and fever, with perspiration, and 
 stiffness of the body. The second class produce 
 swelling of the tongue, so as to prevent swallow- 
 ing, fainting, and severe pain. The third, or most 
 dangerous class, produce delirium, fever, burning 
 of the body, a discharge of black blood from the 
 nose and other parts of the body. In this case the 
 person soon dies. 
 
 In mild cases use frictions of oil, and a decoction 
 of warm water with Biddri^ (gmelina Asiatica,) 
 and other sedative vegetables, and apply to the 
 part a poultice made of the powder of turmeric, 
 salt, long and black pepper, dry ginger, and Sirisa, 
 (mimosa siris.) It is also recommended to apply 
 the juice of the lemon, cow's urine, with the leaves 
 of Sirisa ; or cow-duog after it has been heated. 
 Give internally honey with ghee, or milk with 
 sugar, or cold water with sugar, and different 
 kinds of sherbets- 
 
 The remarks on the poison of spiders, &c., 
 afford a good illustration of the desire of the more 
 modern Hindu sages, to explain things mytholo-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS; 285 
 
 gically : they deduce its origin from the drops of 
 perspiration falling from a demon in anger, upon 
 the grass, and generating these insects. They dis- 
 tinguish sixteen varieties, of which the poisons of 
 eight are cured with difficulty, and the poisons of 
 eight imaginary ones are said to be incurable. 
 The names of the first eight are given, and they 
 produce headache, itchiness, pain, and swelling of 
 the part, followed by hot fever and diarrhoea, with 
 derangement of phlegm and wind. The eight 
 other varieties produce sloughing of the part, 
 discharge of blood, fever, burning, looseness, and 
 diseases of the three humours. The general appear- 
 ance of these eruptions over the body, is in the 
 form of blotches or swellings. Some of them are 
 large, others are soft or red, and others black. 
 They pass from one part of the body to another. 
 The first day after the bite, there is no change of 
 colour in the part, which feels itchy. On the second 
 day the part swells, and on the third the character- 
 istic symptoms of the poison dev elope themselves. 
 The constitution is affected on the fourth day, and 
 on the fifth and sixth all the severe symptoms 
 appear. On the^J3eventh day the person dies, when 
 the poison is strong. If the poison remains in the 
 upper part of the stomach, it produces diseases 
 of phlegm and wind ; and if in the stomach itself,
 
 286 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 diseases of wind and bile ; in which case the hair 
 falls off. Cloudy, windy, and cold weather in- 
 crease the violence of the poison. These poisons 
 produce drowsiness, languor, and pain in different 
 parts of the body, and indigestion. Blotches 
 appear over the body, the person loses flesh, his 
 hands and feet swell ; then follow faiutness, vomit- 
 ing, diarrhoea, sonorous breathing, thirst, fever, 
 spasm, and swelling of the abdomen, with deli- 
 rium. Each variety is treated in a particular 
 manner, according to the symptoms. It is, how- 
 ever, unnecessary to descend to these particulars. 
 In these dangerous cases the part should be cut 
 out, and the actual cautery applied to the wound. 
 The part is then to be rubbed with honey and 
 salt. The person is also to have purgatives and 
 emetics administered to him ; and should there be 
 much swelling, apply leeches. 
 
 The red lizard produces a black tinge and grey 
 colour, or mottled colour over the body. This is 
 accompanied with delirium and diarrhoea. 
 
 Progs, if seized by a serpent and poisoned : 
 should they escape, and bite a person, his hair 
 stands on end, severe pain is felt over the body, ^ 
 and the part becomes insensible ; it swells, and 
 small pimples appear over it, with vomiting, 
 drowsiness, and fever. 
 
 i
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 287 
 
 Fish poison produces great heat, swelling, and 
 severe pain. Leeches, when poisonous, produce an 
 itchiness, and swelling of the part, with pain and 
 fainting. 
 
 When poisons have been removed, it is known 
 by the patient's feeling well, the differeot fluids 
 are healthy, his appetite, urine, and dejections are 
 of the natural colour, the body has the usual 
 appearance, and the senses and mind act properly. 
 After the poison has been taken,- let him drink 
 goat's milk, until he vomits; this is to be repeated 
 until it does not produce this effect, which proves 
 that no more poison is present. Black coloured 
 poison is never to be used as medicine. 
 
 Ill, Cfse of Poisons as Medicines. Poisons such 
 as Dhatura^ (datura metel,) Amrita, (aconitum,) 
 Aiphena^ (opium,) Karahira root, (nirium odorum,) 
 Arha^ (calotropis gigantea,) Languli^ (gloriosa 
 superba,) are powerful medicines when purified by 
 being boiled in hot milk, or in water mixed with 
 cow-dung for half an hour, after which the kernel 
 of the seed is used internally, mixed with other 
 stimulating medicines. Thus Jaypal (croton seeds) 
 when it has been so boiled, is mixed with pepper, 
 vermilion, and other medicines. This mixture is 
 given in small doses in the beginning of fever. 
 Datura is prepared in this same way, mixed with
 
 288 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 other medicines, and used as a narcotic and stim- 
 ulant. Euphorbium, and the root of the abrus 
 precatorius, oleander, hellebore, and the different 
 varieties of aconitum are prepared by reducing the 
 roots to small pieces, soaking them in cow's urine, 
 and three days before using them, removing them 
 from the liquid ; dry them in a strong heat, and 
 administer them at first in doses the size of a 
 mustard seed, increasing it for seven days, and 
 then diminishing the dose, A leprous person may 
 take one gunja^ which is about the weight of one 
 rati^ or one and a half grains. When this poison 
 has been administered in too large doses give 
 goat's milk, which will produce vomiting, and 
 thus remove the poison from the stomach. The 
 dried bile of fish, goats, buffaloes, wild boars, 
 or peacocks is sometimes administered as a 
 stimulating medicine. These five varieties of 
 bile are much employed as stimulants. They are 
 purified by being macerated in the juice of lemon. 
 (These different poisons, with croton seeds, are the 
 chief ingredients in the celebrated modern "Jw 
 harV or poisonous pills.) 
 
 L^ux Vomica is prepared by being steeped for 
 three days in conjee- water. It is then mixed 
 with mustard oil and other drugs, and is used 
 by the moderns as a powerful internal medicine in
 
 i 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 289 
 
 small doses, and as an external application for the 
 cure of leprosy. 
 
 Bitumen, Petroleum (Bhumataila), is got in 
 hills in which gold and silver are found. It has 
 the smell of cow's urine, and is bitter, salt, and 
 cold. It is usually mixed with different other 
 medicines, is supposed to have an alterative effect, 
 and may be advantageously used in the cure of 
 many diseases. The most common manner in 
 which it is employed is as an external application 
 in rheumatic complaints, and in cases of epilepsy, 
 hysteria, and palsy. 
 
 Poisons when employed as medicines, should be 
 taken internally, in the quantity of a mustard seed 
 for the first day, increased for seven days, by 
 adding the same quantity each day. For the next 
 seven days, a quantity equal to a mustard seed, 
 is to be taken from the dose each day. The 
 third week, a quantity equal to a barley-corn in 
 size is to be administered, increasing one each 
 day ; and the fourth week each day one less is to 
 be given. No more is to be used unless in cases 
 of leprosy, when the size of a rati is to be 
 given. 
 
 Such medicines are to be taken with milk ; but 
 they must not be given to very hot-tempered per- 
 sons, or to those with deranged bile, to eunuchs,
 
 290 niSTOKY OF MEDICINE 
 
 or to patients with bloody-sputa. When the 
 person has a good appetite, or is very thirsty, 
 or greatly fatigued, when any of the humours are 
 weakened during pregnancy ; in the house of a 
 Eajah, or when there is a violent quarrel between 
 the patient and another person, poisons must not 
 be used in the treatment of disease. 
 
 The mineral poisons may be used in a diluted 
 form as medicines. Such are the Rasa-carpura^ 
 (corrosive sublimate,) Godanfa, (yellow orpiment,) 
 Tuttha^ (sulphate of copper) &c., which are pre- 
 pared as medicines in the following manner: mix 
 them with half their weight of sulphur, and ex- 
 pose them to heat for two hours. They may then 
 be used in medicine, and will neither produce vo- 
 miting nor giddiness. The other poisons when 
 prepared so as to diminish their power, may be 
 employed with advantage in the cure of many 
 diseases. 
 
 The weak poisons, such as Akunda^ (asclepias 
 gigantea), Shevetdhristra, (euphorbia), Disldnguli, 
 (nama zeylanica), Karabira^ (cleome pentaphylla), 
 Gusinga^ (rondeletia cinerea), Tanspliena, Nolc% 
 (pontedera vaginalis), and other sweet smelling 
 drugs. These are divided according to their 
 colour and form, as like animals, ears, &c. They 
 are mixed with cow's dung, honey, and conjee;
 
 AMONG THE ASIA'IICS. 291 
 
 and are boiled, or made into a powder. They 
 are then washed in pure water, and dried in the 
 sun. 
 
 None of the above poisons should be given to a 
 person under ten, or above eighty years of age. The 
 practitioner should take a dose, so as to remove 
 the fears and doubts of the patient. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 HYGIENE {Pathapathya), or means of preserving 
 
 HEALTH. 
 
 The Hindu legislators appear to have been con- 
 vinced, at a very early period, of the importance of 
 a knowledge of the means of preserving health, as 
 we find various laws were enacted for this purpose; 
 and in order to enforce these precepts among a 
 piimitivc people, incapable of appreciating their 
 importance, and disinclined to obey them, religion 
 was employed to afford her powerful assistance. 
 This explains the numerous precepts of Hygiene 
 which we find in the sacred works of the ancient 
 Asiatic people, which required to be varied with 
 the climate, season, and the character and habits 
 of the people.
 
 292 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The Hindus have a number of works on the 
 means of retaining health. These form the rela- 
 tive and personal duties of the individual. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 KELATIVE DUTIES AUE THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE AND 
 SEASON ON HEALTH. 
 
 In the Hindu medical works, three climates are 
 mentioned, the moist, the hot, and the mixed or 
 temperate. The moist, or agricultural country, 
 is distinguished by its upturned fields, with corn 
 and other crops, interspersed with fruit trees, and 
 intersected by rivers, mountains, and lakes. In 
 such a climate the air is cool and temperate. 
 There the sacred lotus and lilies, and other water 
 flowers flourish; geese, ducks, cranes, and other 
 such birds are common ; and in the woods, buffa- 
 loes, wild hogs, and deer, etc , abound, and fish 
 a,nd serpents are numerous. In such a situation 
 the inhabitants are unhealthy and short-lived, as 
 diseases of wind and phlegm abound, and the 
 inhabitants are fat, indolent, and weak. In such 
 situations the juices of the body require to be 
 dried up by the use of hot, dry, and light food in
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 293 
 
 small quantities, so as to strengthen the internal 
 fire. 
 
 The second, or hot country, is characterised by 
 the heat of the air, and by the prevalence of hot 
 winds ; by large and arid plains, covered with 
 dwarf trees and prickly shrubs, growing at a 
 distance from each other, and little water upon 
 the surface. In such a climate the bamboo, the 
 akanda (calotropis gigantea), the kul (zizyphus 
 jujuba), the yagyadumur (ficus glomerata), the 
 gab and kenduka (diosphyros glutinosa and D. 
 melanoxylon), and the like trees are found. The 
 inhabitants of such climates are remarkable for 
 having little muscle and large bones, and being 
 good workmen. The diseases of blood, wind, and 
 bile, are most frequent; but the climate is 
 healthy, and the inhabitants are long-lived. 
 
 When the heat and cold are more equable, they 
 form the third or temperate climate, in which 
 the derangements of the wind, bile, and phlegm 
 are equalised, and the climate is favourable to 
 longevity. 
 
 The inhabitants of such a fortunate region are 
 stronger, more vigorous, and healthy, than in 
 either of the other two climates. A. person atten- 
 tive to his regimen may live with impunity in any 
 
 of the above climates ; on going to a worse one, 
 
 u
 
 294 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 derangement of the humours increnses, and will 
 destroy the person; but if he visits a better climate, 
 the tendency to disease will be removed. A com- 
 plicated disease will always be cured with difh- 
 culty, and the remedies must be varied according 
 to the climate and season, and the age and con- 
 stitution of the affected person. If this is not 
 observed bad effects will follow, and various 
 disorders will be produced. When one reinedy 
 does not produce the expected good effect, another 
 should be substituted for it ; but if a remedy does 
 some good, it should be continued, in preference 
 to a hundred others which have not been tried. 
 
 Seasons. The progress of the sun in the zodiac 
 produces the six seasons, consisting of two months 
 each. Dewy months are January and February, 
 and are characterised by cold and dryness, which 
 increase the wind and digestive fire. The dis- 
 eases require the same treatment as during the 
 cold season. 
 
 Spring season (March and April) is agreeable 
 and fresh, and phlegm is increased. During this 
 season athletic exercise is to be taken, as walking 
 and riding, bathing, shampooing, and anointing 
 with oil. For food, the boiled flesh of animals, 
 winter rice, and food of a warm and dry nature, 
 such as lessens phlegm, should be used, with con-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS, 295 
 
 diments. Basking in the sun, and drinking river 
 or boiled water, and sweet mixtures, with occa- 
 sional purging and vomiting, should be employed. 
 
 Summer months (May and June) are hot, drying, 
 increase bile, and diminish phlegm. These effects 
 may be tempered by sandal-wood, cool air, and an 
 open elevated house, with the shade of trees. The 
 bed should be cooled with punkas and camphor 
 water, the clothing light, and the person must 
 remain in the shade. For food, boiled winter rice, 
 old barley and wheat, the soups of wild animals, 
 curds mixed with treacle, cardamums, cassia and 
 cummen seed, fruits, honey, sugar cane, tamarinds, 
 with pungent and sour juices, barley water, sugar 
 and water, and clarified butter, are to be used, 
 and quiet sleep enjoined During this season 
 shampooing and pungent saline juices, exposure 
 to the sun's rays, and dry substances as food, 
 which increases the heat, or temperature of tho 
 body, are to be avoided. 
 
 The raimj season is cooling, increases the ten- 
 dency to dyspepsia, to cutaneous eruptions, and 
 to diseases of wind. During this season (July 
 and August), the sky is loaded with clouds, 
 easterly winds, lightning and thunder, and rain 
 prevail ; the banks of rivers are overflown 
 and low countries inundated ; vegetation is
 
 296 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 rapid, with various lilies and many coloured con- 
 volvuli. The air is cooled, the body is soft, the 
 internal fire and the appetite diminished, and the 
 food is heated in the stomach by the increased bile 
 and phlegm. Food should be sparingly given, and 
 generous in nature. Water and saline substances, 
 such as rock-salt, are of use during this season. 
 Persons should avoid fatigue, exposure to the sun's 
 rays, swimming in the cold water of rivers, sleep- 
 ing in the day, using substances of a drying 
 nature, and things sharp to the stomach, and he 
 should live in a high and dry house. 
 
 The autumnal season (September and October), 
 is sultry and clear, and during it bile is augmented, 
 and has a tendency to increase the heat of the 
 constitution. During this time clarified butter, 
 and sweet drying and bitter juices, cooling and 
 light articles, with sugar, &c., milk, the flesh of 
 jungle animals, winter rice, pond and river water, 
 are to be taken. The use of camphor and sandal- 
 wood, and the wearing of clean clothes, with the 
 relaxation of swimming, and purgatives to evacuate 
 the bile, and blood-letling in strong persons, are 
 useful. At the same time curds, much exercise, 
 shampooing, sour, pungent, hot, and acid articles 
 of food, sleeping during the day, and exposure to 
 excessive heat and cold are to be avoided.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 297 
 
 In the winter months (November and December), 
 exposure to the sun, residing in warm houses, 
 warm clothing, especially to the feet, the use of 
 a covering to the head, exercise, and shampooing, 
 are useful. During this season clarified butter, 
 salted fish, the flesh of peacocks, condiments, and 
 drinks prepared with treacle, honey, and rice, are 
 beneficial to health ; while intemperance in eating, 
 pungent and bitter juices, and whatever increases 
 wind are to be avoided. Bilious diseases are 
 diminished, and phlegm diseases are increased. 
 
 The humours are thus affected by the seasons ; 
 the wind increases in summer, predominates in 
 the rainy season, and diminishes in autumn ; bile 
 increases in the rainy season, predominates in the 
 autumn, and diminishes in the dewy and cold 
 months ; phlegm increases in the autumnal, pre- 
 dominates in the dewy, and diminishes in the spring 
 months. These influences are modified by the 
 judicious employment of diet; and when necessary, 
 by medicine. Sleeping after a meal diminishes wind 
 and bile, increases phlegm, and the fat and com- 
 fort of the body. Sleep is likewise recommended 
 for diminishing bile, shampooing for wind, vomiting 
 for phlegm, and fasting for fever.
 
 298 UISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 PERSONAL DUTIES. 
 
 The Hindus have paid great attention to diet 
 and regimen ; and numerous works have been pre- 
 pared for describing the food suitable for health 
 and disease, and favourable for the operation of 
 medicine. 
 
 As a general rule, the use of fresh meat, new 
 boiled rice, milk, and clarified butter, sleeping 
 with a young wife, and bathing in warm water, 
 are conducive to health ; and Manu states that 
 bodies are cleansed by water, the mind is purified 
 by birth, the vital spirit by theology and devo- 
 tion, and the understanding by knowledge.* The 
 personal duties are, rising from bed in the morn- 
 ing, cleaning the mouth and bathing, anointing 
 the body, clothing, housing, sleeping, with use of 
 exercise, food, and drink. It is proper to rise 
 from bed some time before sun -rise, and after 
 morning prayers, to perform the duties of nature, 
 with the face towards the north. The teeth 
 should not be cleaned before the tenth year of the 
 child's age ; after which they are to be cleaned 
 
 * Chap. V. sec. 109.
 
 AMONG TUE ASIATICS. 299 
 
 with a piece of a fresh branch of the neem, 
 catechu, or other trees, made into a soft brush : 
 but this is to be avoided, when it produces vomit- 
 ing, when the food is not properly digested, in 
 diarrha3a, in spasmodic colic, in diseases of the 
 teeth, during the first eight days of fever, in 
 asthma, when the mouth is dry, in cough, in 
 epilepsy, in pain in the chest, in paraljsis, in 
 otitis, in hiccough, in fainting, in headache, and 
 in diseases of the eyes. When a powder is used 
 for cleaning the teeth, it is to be formed of honey, 
 long pepper, dry ginger, &c. The mouth, eyes, 
 and face are washed with water. The nails, beard, 
 and hair of the head, are to be kept clean, and 
 trimmed every fifth day, which promotes strength, 
 longevity, purity, and tranquility of mind. 
 
 Bathing. The following are the most common, 
 kinds of baths: — 1st. The cold bath removes the 
 impurities, inordinate heat and irritation of the 
 surface, and retains the blood pure. The use of 
 Cvvld water strengthens vision, but in winter, de- 
 ranges phlegm and wind, and during the hot 
 season, warm bathing increases bile and blood. 
 Bathing is not proper in diarrhiea, in the begin- 
 ning of fever, in diseases of the ears, or in those 
 of the wind, in swellings of the abdomen, in 
 indigestion, and after eating. The cold bath is used
 
 300 HISTOEY or MEDICINE 
 
 in some inflammatory fevers, and in madness, and 
 locally in some external inflammatory swellings. 
 2nd. The warm water-bath is often prepared with 
 medicinal plants, and is used either locally or 
 generally, for relieving pain in different kinds of 
 fevers, spasmodic affections, &c. 3rd. Vapour 
 baths are much employed for removing pain. They 
 are made by heating a quantity of water in an 
 earthen pot, over which a lid has been placed. 
 The patient is first well rubbed with oil, and then 
 sits on a chair, over a pot of hot water, with a 
 covering of clothes thrown over both. When any 
 particular part of the body is pained, this part is 
 exposed to the steam-bath, and in other cases, 
 medicinal plants are added to increase the good 
 effects of the remedy, as neem leaves, and other 
 such drugs. 4th. Hot cataplasms of medicinal 
 plants are sometimes made into a paste, heated, 
 and applied locally to relieve pain. In other 
 cases, these medicines are applied locally, by 
 means of hot vapour. A tube is used to convey the 
 vapour to the desired part. 5th. Another form 
 is the frequent application of a hot hand, a heated 
 cloth, or a bag filled with, hot sand, or salt, for 
 relieving local pain, and for promoting the warmth 
 of the body, when it becomes cold in any disease. 
 In some cases the earth is heated, and a plantain
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 301 
 
 leaf is extended over it, iijDon which the person 
 lies. After bathing the female applies Surma to 
 the edges of the eyelids ] which improves the 
 sight, clears the itchiness, corrects any unhealthy 
 humours of the eyes, improves the expression of 
 the face, and prevents the bad effects of the glare 
 of the sun, and diseases of the eyes in general. 
 Persons should not use this preparation of anti- 
 mony, who have sat up during the night, who 
 are much fatigued, who have vomited, who have 
 eaten recently, or who are feverish. 
 
 The Hindus, and all Asiatics, usually anoint their 
 bodies daily with oil, more especially their heads, 
 ears, and feet ; which is supposed to be conducive 
 to health. It diminishes the diseases of wind 
 and phlegm, increases the seven dhatu, and im- 
 proves the marrow, and the color of the skin, and 
 the organs of sense. It cures diseases of the 
 feet, prevents painful cramps of the fingers, and, 
 so long as the head is kept moistened with oil, it 
 prevents headache, improves the hair, and pre- 
 vents its becoming grey. In all cases in which 
 bathing is to be avoided, the anointing of the 
 body will be advantageous to the person's health. 
 Using it increases happiness, procreation, and other 
 desirable objects. The body should not be 
 anointed at the beginning of fever, when the
 
 302 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 food is not digested, or after purging, vomiting, 
 and enemas. 
 
 Whenever the Ilinda feels indisposed the body 
 is anointed with oil, on the same principle on 
 which Solomon, in his Proverbs, speaks of admin- 
 istering ointment " which rejoices the heart, 
 which may be a healing medicine to the navel," 
 etc. In this case the oil was a mixture of vege- 
 table oils, to render its effects more permanent. 
 The hot climate and slight Hindu clothing, and 
 exposure to a burning sun, increases the action of 
 the cutaneous vessels, and renders the skin hard 
 and dry; and if perfect cleanliness is not observed, 
 it becomes encrusted with its own discharges, and 
 with foreign matter which irritates and prevents 
 the proper action of this important organ. To 
 prevent such a consequence, oil is ordered by 
 the Hindu shastres to be rubbed over the surface 
 before it has been washed, by which it is rendered 
 soft and pliant ; it also promotes an equable 
 perspiration, and an excessive degree of perspira- 
 tion is avoided, which would weaken the body. 
 Mustard or other oils are used. Several oils are 
 prepared with medicinal plants and used internally; 
 and some are ajDplied externally in different cases 
 of disease, especially in old fevers, spasmodic, 
 paralytic, and rheumatic diseases, ia affections of
 
 AMONG TUE ASIATICS. 303 
 
 the mind, as madness, &c. ; and these oils are 
 supposed by the Hindus to be thus used more 
 advantageously than when given internally. 
 
 Clothing. After bathing the body is to be -well 
 dried and rubbed. Silk and warm red clothes 
 diminish the diseases of wind and phlegm, and 
 should be used in the winter season ; and clothing 
 should be light, cool, and thin, during the hot 
 weather. In rainy and cold weather, warm 
 clothes of a medium thickness are to be used. 
 A piece of cotton cloth tied round their loins is 
 all the clothing some of the poorer classes of 
 natives wear ; and it is when they appear in public 
 that they cover their heads and shoulders. The 
 modern turban defends, the head from heat and 
 cold, and is supposed to prevent the determination 
 of humours to the head. A single piece of coarse 
 cotton cloth, several yards in length, is the usual 
 dress of females. Such clothes, particularly with 
 the addition of ornaments, are supposed to prevent 
 the approach of devils, increase strength, and 
 retain the heart happy and contented. Sandals 
 are worn on the feet to strengthen and protect 
 them. 
 
 The umbrella is a modern mark of rank, and 
 protects the person from rain, wind, dust, and the 
 sun's rays. A walking stick protects the person
 
 304 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 against beasts, prevents fatigue, and adds dignity 
 to the individual. 
 
 Housing. The native houses are well adapted 
 for the climate, being raised from the ground by- 
 prepared earth, with which the walls are likewise 
 formed, and a thick thatch covers them, and ex- 
 tends beyond the walls, so as to form a protection 
 from the heavy rains. They are usually well ven- 
 tilated, by a space left between the walls and the 
 thatch. These houses are divided into apartments 
 to suit the convenience of the family, and the mud- 
 walls and the thatched roof keep them in an equa- 
 ble temperature. In consequence of the unsettled 
 state of many parts of the country, the houses of a 
 Hindu family or tribe are usually built in the 
 form of a square, for the protection of their cattle, 
 &c., or in a series of squares, for the mutual pro- 
 tection of families. The open central space is 
 usually kept covered over in days of festivity, 
 when the prescribed ceremonies to their tutelar 
 gods are performed in a room in the north side 
 of the square. 
 
 Sleep. " Early to bed and early to rise," is one 
 of the old and most approved maxims of the 
 Hindus; which, indeed, is peculiarly applicable 
 in a hot climate, where the night air, in unhealthy 
 situations, is so pernicious, and the mornings so
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 305 
 
 cool and agreeable. The Hindus sleep on a pretty 
 large mat, with a small sized pillow for the head, 
 generally upon the ground, or upon a charpay. 
 The mat should be soft and clean, and not circular ; 
 the head is to be turned towards the east, or rising 
 sun ; or south, whither the person goes after death, 
 and where reside the gods. Care is taken not to 
 turn the feet towards the father or mother or 
 superiors. To have refreshing sleep, the mind of 
 the person should be tranquil and contented. This 
 will also be promoted by music, and rocking ; by 
 anointing the body with oil ; by the use of the 
 bath ; by eating new rice, milk, ghee, and the 
 like ; by sherbets and spirits, and such articles as 
 improve the health; by sleeping upon a large 
 mat, in a comfortable house, and at the accus- 
 tomed time. Sleep keeps the humours in a 
 healthy state, improves the colour of the skin, the 
 health, appetite, and strength, 
 
 "Watching increases wind, dries the body, and 
 diminishes phlegm and fat, and retards the action 
 of poison. Sleeping during the day increases 
 phlegm and fat, and should be avoided by those 
 in whom phlegm is increased, during the spring, 
 the rains, and the winter months, &c. It may be 
 indulged in during the hot season, when the habit 
 has been acquired, and when the wind is deranged.
 
 306 IIISTOIIY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Exercise increases strength, prevents and cures 
 disease, by equalising the humours ; it prevents 
 fatness and laziness, and increases the firmness 
 of the body. Walking is always to be used by 
 those persons who live on rich food. Evening 
 and morning are the best times, especially in the 
 cold and spring months. When the mouth is 
 always dry, with difficulty of breathing ; in dis- 
 eases of the wind and bile ; in boyhood and old 
 age, after eating, and before the food is thoroughly 
 digested ; or when there are sores upon the body, 
 exercise is to be avoided. Should much exercise 
 be taken, it produces phlegm, fever, and vomit- 
 ing ; after exercise, quietude is proper, as it in- 
 creases strength, cures a superabundance of fat, 
 and removes the feeling of fatigue. 
 
 Shampooing cures diseased phlegm, wind, and 
 fat, the members are retained healthy as well as 
 the skin, and it increases internal heat. 
 
 Food gives stre"ngth and colour to the body, it 
 supports the heat of the body, retains the humours 
 in their just proportion, supports health, and pro- 
 motes longevity. When a person does not eat 
 when hungry, the internal fire or digestion is 
 weakened, and there is a consumption of the 
 humours, followed by that of life and strength. 
 
 Charaka divides food into stewed, boiled, and
 
 AMOXG THE ASIATICS. 307 
 
 hard food that requires to be chewed, and liquid 
 food. Susruta arranges food into the varieties of 
 rice and corn, fruits, varieties of flesh, oils, flowers, 
 fruits and herbs, salt and prepared food, and 
 drink, including water and various spirituous 
 liquors. 
 
 Some wholesome substances are like poison to 
 the system, when mixed and prepared in an 
 improper manner, such as pumkins, mushrooms, 
 bamboo-shoots, plums, dried vegetables, unlea- 
 vened bread, goat's or sheep's flesh, pig's flesh, 
 salt food when taken with milk. Ecd rice, 
 which grows in the cold season, wheat, barley, and 
 other grain of the same kind, are good ; whereas 
 rice which has sprouted, fat, honey, milk, jagree, 
 when eaten with the flesh of amphibious animals, 
 or with fish, are so bad as to resemble poison. 
 Alilk, with honey and vegetables, and various other 
 specified articles, should not be used together. 
 Yegetables are most commonly used by the 
 Hindus, and when animal food is used, the 
 bile is to be carefully evacuated, or it will de- 
 range the person's health. Pigeons fried with 
 mustard oil, honey mixed with rain-water and 
 kept in brass pots for ten days, should be 
 avoided. 
 
 2nd. Food may act unfavourably by the
 
 308 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 quantity Tvhieh is taken. Thus, honey and ghee, 
 oil and marrow, or honey and water, oil and ghee, 
 and fat, are bad when eaten in large and equal 
 proportions. 
 
 3rd. The following mixture of articles possess- 
 ing certain tastes are improper, as sweet and sour 
 articles, sweet and salt, sweet and pungent, sweet 
 and bitter substances, or bitter and salt articles, 
 as they form bad chyle, and thus digestion is 
 deranged. Such general remarks on food are not 
 applicable to the health of the young and strong, 
 to those who live in pure air, and take much 
 exercise, and to those accustomed to their use, to 
 whom such care is not necessary. But in ordinary 
 circumstances, when their bad effects are felt, 
 recourse must be had to the use of emetics and 
 purgatives, and such medicines as have a tendency 
 to equalise the humours. The articles of food 
 which are wholesome from mixture and prepara- 
 tion are those which derange wind and diminish 
 bile. The opposite articles of food which moderate 
 wind and derange bile, are unwholesome ; but the 
 kind of food must be varied according to the age, 
 habits, and seasons, as well as to the individual's 
 idiosyncrasy. The action of the vessels in which 
 food or medicine is taken is carefully noted, 
 according as metallic or earthen pots, or leaves,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 309 
 
 are employed. Food and medicines are also 
 divided into six different classes, according to 
 their effects on the senses. 
 
 Sweet articles of food increase the milk and the 
 fat, while they improve the eyesight, and relieve 
 asthma, worms, and affections of the throat. They 
 also increase phlegm, the strength of the tissues 
 and the humours, retain the body in health, and 
 promote longevity. 
 
 Acid articles of food promote appetite, are cool- 
 ing before, and heating after eating. They 
 promote digestion, and restore irregularities and 
 derangements in the wind, bile, and phlegm. 
 When they have been often taken, they produce 
 weakness and emaciation of the body, and some- 
 times they produce blindness (nyctalopia). 
 
 Salt articles of food relax the bowels, promote 
 digestion, and increase appetite. They, also, pro- 
 mote perspiration, remove derangements of the 
 wind, bile, phlegm, and blood, produce a glossiness 
 of the surface of the body, diminish or cure aphro- 
 disia, are cooling, and heal sores. If long con- 
 tinued, they derange the humours, the skin 
 becomes covered with irregularities upon its sur- 
 face, followed by scurvy or leprosy, and by 
 symptoms produced by poisons. 
 
 Bitter food is riot pleasant to the taste, but is
 
 310 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 dry and light to the stomach, increases bile and 
 air, and produces dryness, heat, and diseased milk. 
 It corrects too much bile and phlegm ; but if 
 always eaten it has a bad effect, deranging the 
 humours and producing diseases of wind. 
 
 Pungent articles of food are of a drying nature, 
 increasing the appetite and milk, and diminishing 
 thirst and fever. They cure diseases of phlegm ; 
 but if eaten for some time, and in considerable 
 quantities, they produce thirst, weakness, and 
 derange the spleen. 
 
 Astringent articles of food are cooling, and 
 cure diseases of the bile, and phlegm. They 
 produce costiveness, stop diarrhsea, thicken the 
 dejections, remove diseases of the skin, and heal 
 wounds, and sores. But if taken for some time, 
 they produce costiveness, a swelling of the abdo- 
 men, thirst and weakness, and retard the circula- 
 tion of fluids in the body. Such observances are 
 considered to be most necessary for health. 
 
 The different articles of food, employed to 
 nourish the body, and obtained from the vege- 
 table and animal kingdoms, may next be con- 
 sidered, with a few remarks on condiments. 
 
 Articles of Food derived from the Vegetable 
 kingdom. The parts of vegetables employed for 
 food are the leaves, flowers, fruit, wood, branches,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 311 
 
 roots, and mushrooms. They are more easily 
 digested in the above order, which is followed in 
 the Hindu medical works ; but a more convenient 
 arrangement will be that in which the different 
 articles came into use, as the food of man. 
 
 Fruits. The form and size of fruits would soon fix 
 the attention of mankind, and they, with the cul- 
 meniferous and leguminous vegetables, would form 
 the primordial food of man. In Hindustan there 
 are a great many indigenous specimens of fruits : 
 such as varieties of plantain (banana musa), jack 
 fruit (arto curpus), melon, cocoa, the date, and 
 the sago plant, form so many articles of food. 
 Oranges, lemons, and citrous, which increase bile, 
 improve the appetite, and cure dyspepsia. Drnpes : 
 Of the genus Amygdalus, &c., gourds, apricots, 
 prunes, prunus Armeniaca, and P. Cerasus. The 
 cucuibitaceous fruits, as gourds, have from the 
 earliest times constituted an important part in the 
 diet of the Hindus. 
 
 Vegetables are not easily digested, as they in- 
 crease wind, bile, and phlegm, produce worms, 
 and constipate the bowels. They are rendered 
 more wholesome when boiled and seasoned. If 
 employed alone for food they derange the system, 
 affecting particularly the colour of the skin and 
 eyes. The indigenous esculent roots, and hot and
 
 312 HISTORY or MEDICINE 
 
 salad herbs, are numerous, and the properties of 
 each are given in the Hindu medical works, with 
 their effects on different humours and diseases. 
 
 The graminivorous seeds form a numerous class, 
 which afford the chief article of diet to a large 
 proportion of the inhabitants of Asia. The prin- 
 cipal varieties of corn and pulse were derived 
 from Asia, and they are peculiarly fruitful in 
 Hindustan, and from their hard consistence they 
 may be kept in a good state for a long period. A 
 large population lives almost entirely on rice, of 
 which there are numerous varieties. Each is 
 supposed to produce peculiar effects on the body 
 in its diseased state, when new and old, and 
 when exhibited in different forms. 
 
 Wheat has been used as an article of food from 
 time immemorial in Hindustan ; it is considered 
 nourishing, increases the appetite, flesh, strength, 
 the seven humours, and improves the general 
 health. It cures the diseases of wind and bile, 
 and increases phlegm. 
 
 Barley is considered nourishing. 
 
 The list of leguminous seeas or pulse is very long; 
 they should be eaten after being well boiled, or in 
 the form of porridge or soup. 
 
 Animal food. It is probable that for many ages 
 the use of the flesh of animals was unknown, from
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 313 
 
 the want of weapons, and the strength and acti- 
 vity of the animals. When brought into use, it 
 was considered a great luxury, and the chief of 
 the household acted the part of the butcher and 
 cook. The flesh of animals was agreeable to the 
 taste, increasing the bulk of the body, and the 
 strength, and curing the diseases of wind. The 
 writers of the more ancient shastres lived in cool 
 air, and were accustomed to an active life, which 
 required the use of mote animal food than in the 
 warmer and more southern districts. This better 
 living promoted the superiority of the ancient 
 Brahmins over their more degenerate descendants, 
 who are small in stature, and generally incapable of 
 those mental and corporeal exertions which first 
 raise a people in the rank of a nation. The indi- 
 gestible nature of the flesh of some of the animals 
 of the country, with their unclean habits, rendered 
 them objects of disgust. Pork, even in Europe, 
 is sometimes unwholesome ; in Asia, its efi'ects 
 often resemble those of poison. The flesh of 
 some animals is not so healthy and digestible as 
 in more temperate climates, where it is of a 
 better quality. In hot and moist climates, the 
 want of exercise and food during the greater 
 part of the year, renders the flesh of such 
 animals peculiarly unwholesome ; and the belief
 
 314 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 in the transmigration of souls must have prevented 
 the general use of animal food. The ancient 
 Hindus used for food the flesh of the cow, buflPalo, 
 deer, hare, goat, and sheep. Dried flesh removes 
 fatigue, and is of use in diminishing bile, in 
 curing the diseases of phlegm, and sores in the 
 body. The flesh of wild animals was given to the 
 sick, as it was considered less heating than the 
 flesh of domestic animals. Animal fat and marrow 
 were supposed to cure diseases of wind, and to 
 increase cough, and the diseases of blood and bile. 
 Broths were made of the flesh of these animals, 
 and given to invalids ; they cured old fevers, and 
 increased strength, improved the voice and eye- 
 sight, and cured boils. If given with rice, broths 
 lighten the heart, and cure the diseases of bile. 
 The Hindus are directed, at the same time, to 
 abstain from hard and indigestible food, such as 
 curds, milk, oil, jagree, with various kinds of pulse 
 and leguminous plants. 
 
 Animal secretions. Milk is heavy, cooling, and 
 sweet, gives a shining appearance to the skin, 
 strengthens and fattens, and cures the diseases of 
 wind, bile, and phlegm. Camels and goats' 
 milk are sweet, coolinp, binding, and promote the 
 internal heat; they cure hteraoptysis and diseases of 
 wind, bile, phlegm, and blood ; because they eat
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 315 
 
 many medicinal plants, drink little water, and are 
 very active. The milk of ewes, buffaloes, and 
 mares, are all stated to have peculiar qualities, and 
 general effects. Woman's milk strengthens the 
 soul, and increases flesh, and the consistence of 
 the circulating fluids; it should only be drunk 
 fresh. The effect of milk is much increased by 
 mixing it with the juice of different plants. 
 
 2. Curdled milk is useful in the cure of agues, 
 diarrhoea, dyspepsia, and strangury, and it increases 
 the phlegm and strength. 
 
 3. Butler -milk is good for persons who have 
 taken poison, who are labouring under diarrhasa, 
 dyspepsia, vomiting, strangury, jaundice, piles, 
 spleen, and ague. Fresh butter is sweet and 
 nourishing, and softens parts ; it is cool, agreeable, 
 diminishes bile and wind, and cures consumption, 
 chronic cough, asthma, ulcers, piles, and tetanus. 
 It is useful in madness, epilepsy, and ague. 
 It diminishes wind and bile, improves the appe- 
 tite, the memory, and the beauty of the body. 
 Old ghee is said to cure sudden blindness, morbid 
 discharges from the nose, eyes, and mouth ; 
 difficulty in breathing, fainting, leprosy, and. 
 epilepsy, diseases of the vagina; pains in the ears, 
 eyes, and head ; old fevers, carbuncle, and diseases 
 of wind, bile, and phlegQi.
 
 316 HISTORY OP MEDICINE 
 
 Flesh of birds cures the diseases of wind, bile, 
 and phlegm, improves the colour of the skin, is 
 slightly heavy and sweet, increases the memory 
 and appetite, and gives consistency to the alvine 
 evacuations. The principal of these birds are 
 partridge, jungle-cock, common cock, peacock, 
 pigeons, water-wagtail, taylor-bird, duck, paddy- 
 bird, &c. 
 
 Such birds as live on flowers are thin, and when 
 eaten increase the bulk of the body ; such as live 
 on fish, increase bile; and such as eat rice, remove 
 the diseases of wind. 
 
 The flesh of animals and birds is not good 
 when tainted; and should be eaten the same 
 day it has been killed. The upper part of the 
 male and the lower part of the female are the 
 heaviest, and the flesh of female quadrupeds and 
 that of male birds are the easiest of digestion. 
 The flesh of large animals which work much and 
 eat little, is heavy in the following order : — head, 
 shoulders, spleen, skin, liver, fore-feet and hind- 
 feet, tail, testicles, abdomen, and urinary organs. 
 The humours are heavy in the following order : — 
 blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow, and semen. 
 
 Eish produces a shining appearance of the skin, 
 is slightly heating and sweet, and increases the 
 wind, urine, and alvine secretions. Black and small
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 317 
 
 fish are light, and constipate. They increase the 
 appetite and strength, cure wind, and are of use 
 during convalescence. White fish increase wind, 
 bile, and phlegm, are digested with difficulty, and 
 produce a laxative effect upon the bowels. Fish- 
 roes are pleasant and increase wind, phlegm, and 
 semen, diminish the appetite, and produce a bitter 
 state of the stomach. These properties of fish are 
 increased and modified by mixing them with other 
 articles of food, as with the leaves of certain trees, 
 pumkins, &c., Turtles were used, and were 
 stated to cure diseases of wind, to increase 
 strength and memory, and to improve the eye- 
 sight. 
 
 Sugar ^ made from the sugar-cane,* and prepared 
 by evaporating the juice of palms, and called 
 jaggary, has been known in the East from the 
 earliest antiquity. The fresh juice is sweet and 
 cooling, increases urine and strength, and cures 
 the derangement of wind ; it improves the dejec- 
 tions, and mitigates the diseases of blood and 
 bile ; and it gives a shining appearance to the 
 skin. After the juice has been exposed to the air 
 for some time, it is heavy to the stomach, and heat- 
 ing, cures derangements of the wind and phlegm, 
 and increases the shining appearance of the skin. 
 
 * Sugar cane was known in India and Egypt from a very early period, 
 — Essay on Articles of Hindu Medicine, 2). 83.
 
 318 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Oils. There are numerous plants which furnish 
 a large supply of oil from their seeds, which is 
 extensively employed by the Hindus for the 
 purpose of unction, and as an offering to their 
 gods. Other oils are used in medicine, and possess 
 the same qualities as the seeds from which they 
 are extracted. On this account they are used for 
 the same diseases. Vegetable oils are bitter and 
 sweet, and are good for the skin, and alleviate all 
 diseases. Oil is heating, when taken internally ; 
 it increases the diseases produced by bile, con- 
 stipates the bowels, and lessens urine. 
 
 Water. The Hindus were very careful about 
 their drinking water, and ascribed the appearance 
 of many diseases to bad water. Pure water has 
 no taste, and is considered as cooling, relaxing the 
 body, and improving the senses and the general 
 health. They considered the water of wells, or 
 natural springs in the sandy beds of rivers, as 
 the most wholesome, as it promotes digestion and 
 strength ; the river and fountain water at the 
 bottom of high hills was considered less whole- 
 some; and the most unhealthy was the water from 
 brooks, and the stagnant water of tanks and 
 reservoirs. This water was supposed to produce 
 indigestion, obstructions, and lethargy, with a 
 predisposition to fever.
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ISIATICS. 319 
 
 Rain water ^ when preserved in a clean vessel, 
 was supposed to cure the diseases of wind, bile, 
 and phlegm, and to improve the health. Hail- 
 water was considered peculiarly wholesome. 
 
 Water was supposed to be improved by boiling, 
 and its effects were varied according to the quan- 
 tity dissipated by evaporation. Water which has 
 been boiled and drunk cold, cures wind, bile, and 
 phlegm, also cough, fever, and constipation. It 
 removes great fatness, and increases the internal 
 fire. 
 
 Medicinal drinks. The usual drink for the sick 
 is water, in which a little of the infusion of cinna- 
 mon and cassia has been mixed. By others, the 
 drink is varied with the nature of the disease. 
 When wind is deranged, water, to which the in- 
 fusion of such medicines as cure this class of dis- 
 eases, as long or black pepper, sugar, &c., is 
 added. When hile is deranged, either pure water 
 is given, or its cooling qualities are increased 
 by the addition of the infusion of a fragrant grass, 
 sugar-cane, &c. When phlegm is deranged, the in- 
 fusion of cinnamon, black or long pepper, or cloves, 
 &c., are to be added. In fever produced by de- 
 rangement of wind, bile, and phlegm, the fresh 
 juice of the ^«w-grass is recommended instead of 
 water. In heemoptysis the fresh juice of the pum-
 
 32U HISTORY' OF MEDICINE 
 
 kin and pomegranate are the best additions to 
 drink. In cases of swelling or dropsy, an infusion 
 of dry radish, ginger, &c,, is to be used. In 
 leprosy, the infusion of catechu is to be given, 
 with the infusion of black pepper and sugar candy. 
 
 Condiments. In weak digestion, water mixed 
 with camphor, or with native mint infused in it, 
 is useful. Betelnut, camphor, cloves, long pepper, 
 pepper, dry ginger, and other spices, are mixed 
 with slaked lime, surrounded with the leaves of the 
 fan, and chewed as a condiment. It cleans the 
 throat and voice, promotes digestion, keeps the 
 breath sweet, improves the senses, and gives an 
 agreeable appearance to the person. It also in- 
 creases strength, and should be used after vomiting, 
 bathing, and sleeping. The Hindus also use nut- 
 megs, cloves, cardamum-seeds, cinnamon, tur- 
 merick, mustard, sandal- wood, capsicum, coriander 
 seed, aniseed, assafoetida, &c. 
 
 Wmes. The vine thrives in the northern parts 
 of Hindustan, where the grape is sometimes con- 
 verted into wine. The grape is considered cooling 
 and aperient, by the native practitioners. All 
 wines are divided into sweet and sour ; they in- 
 crease bile, and diminish phlegm and wind They 
 are also tonic, stimulating, increasing the acute- 
 ness of the senses and appetite, and promoting
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 321 
 
 digestion and health when properly used. There 
 were different kinds of wines used by the ancient 
 Hindus, which received different names according 
 to the fruits, flowers, and other substances from 
 which they were prepared. Different spirituous 
 liquors are enumerated in Susruta. In the Yedas 
 the use of wines and spirits is forbidden, 
 
 When digestion has been completed, the state 
 of the stomach will depend on the qualities of 
 the food or medicine which had been taken. 
 When bitter and astringent articles of food or 
 medicine have been eaten, they produce a bitter 
 state of the stomach ; sour food produces a sweet- 
 ness after digestion, and sweet and salt food 
 produce sweet eructations from the stomach. 
 
 The seasons modify the effects of food. During 
 the rains, light and stomachic food, with bitters, 
 should be preferred, while liquids and oils are not 
 to be used too freely ; the drinking water should 
 be boiled, and drunk with a little honey. In 
 cloudy warm days, exercise is not to be taken in 
 the open air ; the bed-room should be airy and 
 dry, and all persons should sleep upon a bedstead. 
 In autumn, bitter and sweet articles of food should 
 be used, and exercise taken in the evening. In 
 winter J animal and oleaginous food should be used, 
 warm baths and frictions, and exercise in the
 
 322 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 morning. In spring^ sour, sweet, and saline 
 articles, with meat, are to be used ; and the warm 
 bath, with pedestrian exercise; and during the Jiot 
 season, cooling fruits and sherbets, with rice, bar- 
 ley, curries, and light vegetables are to be used. 
 The cold bath is then to be preferred, anointing 
 the body with oil, and wearing thin dresses, and 
 sleep may be allowed during the day. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 STTRGERT (^Sutra Stha7ia, Shalya or Salahya).* 
 
 According to the Hindus, surgery considers the 
 cure of external diseases by the hand, by instru- 
 ments, or by topical applications. The accidents 
 which must have frequently occured among a race 
 of people devoted to hunting and agriculture, and 
 the feuds that were so frequent among small 
 states, induced the Hindu sages, at an early period, 
 to attend to surgical diseases. This led them 
 to believe that surgery had been the branch of 
 medicine first cultivated, and explains the impor- 
 tance in which the ancient writers held this branch 
 
 * To remove rapidly ; or the art of removing foreign substances from the 
 body, particularly the arrow.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 323 
 
 of the healing art, the attention which they 
 bestowed upon it, and the ability with which they 
 exercised it. The ancient Hindu practitioners 
 were bold and expert surgeons, accustomed to 
 perform cystotomy, lithotomy, embryotomy, auto- 
 plastic operations, couching for cataract, paracen- 
 tesis' thoracis and abdominis, &c. This energy, 
 practical knowledge, and boldness in executing 
 hazardous operations, forms a remarkable contrast 
 to the ignorance and pusillanimity of the present 
 low-caste surgeons of Bengal; which is the more 
 remarkable as their medical works were supposed 
 to have been prepared by divine sages, who would 
 not compromise their character by recording pre- 
 cepts contrary to the ritual of their law, or at 
 variance with the principles and prejudices of 
 their countrymen. These changes were slowly 
 growing out of the altered state of society; and 
 were unsupported by the remarkable civil and 
 moral, as well as medical institutions. 
 
 The Hindus explain the early age at which 
 surgery was practised by the necessity of curing 
 the wounds inflicted in the battles of the gods. 
 At the great battle of the Asuras and Devatdsy 
 Jagya was severely wounded in the neck, and the 
 Aswini Kumara, or the practitioners of heaveUj 
 soon cured the wound. This pleased the Devatas
 
 324 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 SO much, that they were received among them 
 with much respect, and a share of their honours is 
 still bestowed upon them. Bramha also declared 
 that the art of cutting, healing ulcers, setting 
 bones, and using escharotics, was the first branch 
 of the healing art imparted by the deity to 
 mankind ; and as the operations of surgery are 
 rapidly performed, and afford immediate relief, 
 they impart holiness, riches, and a good name 
 to the performer, and will ensure his passage to 
 heaven after death. 
 
 Surgery forms the first chapter of Susruta, and 
 in the Ayur-veda, it is considered to form the 
 first two of the eight departments of medical 
 science ; and Dhanwantaree was born to teach this, 
 as well as the other departments of healing. He 
 declares that Shalya is "the first and best of the 
 medical sciences ; less liable than any others to the 
 fallacy of conjectural and inferential practice; 
 pure in itself; perpetual in its applicability; the 
 worthy produce of heaven, and certain source of 
 fame." He declares that formerly there were no 
 diseases among the gods, and wounds therefore 
 first required treatment ; but that surgery can 
 only be practised with success when the prac- 
 titioner is familiar with the practice of medicine) 
 of which it is a branch.
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 325 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 STKUCTUnE OF THT, BODY, 
 
 Susruta considered surgery as the branch of 
 medicine most esteemed, and it had reached a high 
 state of perfection at an early period. 
 
 The importance of surgeons possessing a know- 
 ledge of anatomy, with the nature and relative 
 position of parts, to enable tbem to perform ope- 
 rations, was well known to the ancient Hindus. 
 This has already been noticed at page 131 of this 
 history ; to which the reader is referred. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 KATUEE OF SUKGICAL DISEASES. 
 
 Inflammation (Vrana, *stotha or shepa), is con- 
 sidered with boils and tumours. Susruta divides 
 inflammation into two kinds, the one produced by 
 accidents or external injuries, and the other by 
 internal causes. Injuries of the body produce the 
 
 * Vrana differs from stotha, by the latter being accompanied with less 
 acute inflammation, and not suppurating. 
 
 W
 
 326 HISTORY OF medicine' 
 
 first kind of inflammation, while derangement of 
 the windj bile, phlegm, and blood, or their com- 
 binations, produce the second six varieties, the 
 essential result being the formation of pus. 
 In all cases the inflammation commences in one 
 point from which it extends on all sides. 
 
 1. The variety of inflammation produced by 
 derangements in the wind, is characterised by the 
 swelling being irregular and soft, by its red or 
 dark colour, and by its being sometimes large, and 
 at other times small. The pain of this variety is 
 sometimes severe and of various kinds, and it 
 swells and ripens in diflferent ways ; the discharge 
 being limpid. 
 
 2. The second variety of inflammation is pro- 
 duced by bile, and is characterised by the swelling 
 being of a dark-red and yellowish tinge, or the 
 colour of a ripe wild fig. The parts feel hot and 
 painful, as from the application of a hot iron, and it 
 is accompanied with fever. The swelling quickly 
 forms, and ripens into a yellow discharge. 
 
 3. AYhen the inflammation is produced by dis- 
 eased phlegm, the swelling is elevated, with a 
 rounded edge and central depression. It is cold and 
 shining, of a pale yellow colour, with itching pain, 
 The swelling slowly forms and ripens. The dis- 
 charge from this form is white. *
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. , 327 
 
 4, 5. When the three humours are deranged, the 
 swelling is of different colours, and is accompanied 
 with various degrees and kinds of pain, according 
 as the one or other of the humours predominate ; 
 and the discharges are of different colours, but 
 generally resemble bile and blood, being redj 
 black, and yellow, and of various consistencies, 
 and accompanied with dangerous fever. This 
 is attended with heat of body, vomiting, and 
 thirst. The person becomes languid, loses his 
 appetite, and has no digestive power. Such a 
 kind of derangement in a part is generally in- 
 curable, particularly after injuries. The same is 
 often the result when the bile and blood are dis- 
 eased in a part, and when the swelling becomes 
 black. This variety of inflammation is always 
 cured with difficulty, particularly when it forms 
 quickly. Sometimes it becomes prominent as it 
 ripens, at other times it remains flat. 
 
 6. When blood is deranged, producing inflam- 
 mation, the swelling resembles that produced by 
 deranged bile, but it is of a darker red colour. 
 When large, it has a dark yellow colour, and is 
 very hot and painful, with much fever. 
 
 Accidental inflammation, produced by wounds, 
 bruises, &c,, resembles the other varieties in the 
 symptoms, and only varies in the treatment, by
 
 328 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 cold applications being proper in this class, but 
 not in the other. When the blood is deranged in 
 this variety, it resembles bile, but is of a dark 
 red colour. When wind, bile, and phlegm are 
 much disordered, and when the physician does not 
 apply proper medicines, or the patient does not eat 
 or act in the proper manner, the wound will not 
 heal. 
 
 Inflammation is divided into three stages, the 
 invasion, the acute, and the suppurating stage. In 
 the first there is not much heat nor discoloration, 
 or hardness of the part. The pain and swelling 
 is likewise slight. In this stage the inflammation 
 is said to be unripe. In the second stage the pain 
 is lancinating, or like the bites of ants, or as if they 
 were running about. In other cases, the person 
 feels as if the part was burnt, torn, pressed or 
 bound; he becomes restless and uneasy, and 
 the swelling is much increased and discoloured, 
 accompanied with much heat, thirst, loss of appe- 
 tite, and other symptoms of fever. This stage is 
 called the ripening stage. The third stage is dis- 
 tinguished by the part becoming pale, the swelling 
 diminishing, becoming soft and wrinkled, and the 
 skin rough, scaly, and elastic. The pain becomes 
 throbbing, with a feeling of itchiness; and when the 
 abscess opens, the fever diminishes, and the appetite
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 329 
 
 returns. This is the ripe stage, and pus is pro- 
 duced by the wind, bile, and phlegm ; the wind 
 conveying, and the bile preparing the phlegm, 
 derived from the blood, by which pus is formed. 
 In inflammation the wind produces the pain, and 
 the bile ripens the swelling. 
 
 The inflammation varies with the tissue which 
 is involved in the disease, of which there are 
 eight varieties, according as it affects the skin, 
 flesh, vessels, tendons, bones, joints, abdomen, 
 or sensible parts of the body. When confined 
 to the skin, inflammation is cured quickly ; but 
 when it affects the other tissues, it is cured with 
 more -difficulty, and passes through the different 
 stages. The wind, bile, and phlegm, when de- 
 ranged internally, produces an inflammation, which 
 is considered as a tumour when it appears at the pit 
 of the stomach, umbilicus, anus, hypogastrium, or 
 sides of the abdomen, groin, axilla, or in the right and 
 left hy pochondrium. It may lik ewise appear within 
 the intestines. This internal inflammation varies 
 in the same manner as the external does. When 
 the former occurs in the anus, it retains the wind 
 in the pelvis, and when it affects the bladder, 
 strangury is the prominent symptom. When it 
 occurs at the navel, there is hiccough and a 
 gurgling noise in the abdomen ; when the sides
 
 330 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 are so affected, it is from diseased wind, and when 
 the groin is concerned the loins and back feel 
 very painful. When the axilla or groin is dis- 
 eased, there is pain in the spine and loins. When 
 the spleen is diseased, and when the chest is 
 affected, the whole body is uneasy, and feels pain- 
 ful ; and in the latter disease there is a copious 
 secretion of phlegm ; when the liver is affected with 
 inflammation, it produces difficulty in breathing, 
 with hiccough ; and when the pancreas is so dis- 
 eased, the person is continually wanting to drink. 
 When the inflammation occurs in sensible parts, 
 whether the disease be recent or ripe, whether it 
 be large or small, it gives great jDain. When the 
 internal inflammation is above the navel, the pus 
 will be discharged by the mouth, and when under 
 this, the discharge takes place from the lower out- 
 lets, and the person will live, but in the former 
 case he will die. When the breast, navel, or pelvis 
 is diseased, the person will die, when it suppurates 
 internally ; but he may recover when the abscess 
 bursts externally. The first five varieties of in- 
 flammation may be cured, but when produced by 
 wind, bile, and phlegm together, the disease is in- 
 curable. All external tumours may be cured ; but 
 the internal ones are generally fatal. The un- 
 favorable symptoms are retention of urine, and a
 
 AMONG TUE ASIATICS. 331 
 
 more or less painful swelling of the abdomen, with 
 a discharge of pus and blood, vomiting, hiccough, 
 thirst, pain all over the body, and sonorous respira- 
 tion, when a fatal result may be expected. 
 
 It is of much importance that the surgeon 
 should be able to detect the stage of the inflam- 
 mation, as if the opening bo made before the 
 swelling is ripe, or if it is not opened when ripe, 
 bad consequences will follow, in either variety. In 
 such cases the surgeon will be known from the 
 quack. This fellow, by opening the unripe in- 
 flammations, may make a cut into blood-vessels, 
 tendons, &c., accompanied with a great discharge 
 of blood, or followed by a great accession of pain : 
 again, if the inflamed swelling is not opened when 
 ripe, the pus burrows into the neighbouring parts, 
 forming large cavities, or fistulous openings, which 
 are cured with difficulty. In such cases, the pus, 
 like fire, burns the surrounding parts, which like 
 fuel, are consumed. 
 
 In the generalitj' of cases of inflammation the 
 cure will be soon accomplished, but if injudiciously 
 treated, it will be tedious. The inflammation is 
 of an unfavourable kind when the part is not 
 prominent but shrivelled, when hard or very 
 soft, when very prominent or very dark, when 
 very cold or very hot, when of a black, yel-
 
 S32 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 low, redj or white colour, or when it has an 
 unhealthy disagreeable appearance. It is also 
 unfavourable when the pus is in large quantities, 
 when the muscles, vessels, and tendons are 
 numerous in the part ; when the discharge has a 
 foetid smell, and has fibrous substances mixed up 
 with it ; when the swelling is large, or there are 
 numerous small swellings ; when bad blood is 
 evacuated ; and when the patient is very old. 
 
 The general indications to be followed in the 
 cure of common inflammation are — the use of 
 sedatives, local bleeding, poultices, opening the 
 abscess, cleaning it, healing the breach of conti- 
 nuity, and lastly, restoring the natural colour to 
 the part. Susruta describes sixty different mea- 
 sures to be employed in the cure of inflammation 
 and ulceration; such as rubbing and anointing the 
 part with certain medicines that dry it up,* pour- 
 ing water upon the part, fomentations, frictions 
 with ghee, poultices with maturating substances, 
 and the observance of spare diet, with emetics, 
 purgatives, &c. There are eight kinds of incisions 
 which are to be used for the evacuation of the pus 
 and blood ; also means to promote adhesion, as 
 pressure, stopping the bleeding, diminishing the 
 
 * External medicines are supposed to pass internally by tlie roots of the 
 hair, and the perspiring pores.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 333 
 
 heat, the application of thick poultices and astrin- 
 gents, the application of lint, covered with medi- 
 cinal pastes, the use of oil, and the juice of certain 
 plants, the application of certain powders to the 
 ulcers, fumigations, means to depress elevations, 
 and to increase or diminish the hardness of parti- 
 cular parts, and the application of caustic and cau- 
 teries. The last considerations are how to restore 
 the natural colour to the part, to restore or remove 
 hair, the employment of enemas, the application 
 of certain leaves to the ulcers, the means to 
 destroy worms, the use of tonics, of errhines, of 
 gargles, and of fumigations, with regimen. 
 
 For maturing a swelling the best medicines are 
 several oleaginous medicines, bvirks, seeds, and 
 roots : linseed, carrots, the seeds of the morunga 
 tree (surunga), of mustard seed, the flowers of 
 suravijaz, and the sediment or lees of a kind of beer 
 or spirit. These are all to be combined with heat. 
 When the patient objects to the ripe abscess 
 being opened with the lancet, the following mix- 
 ture of medicines may be applied : the flower of 
 the marking nut (bala); the leaves of the castor 
 poleandrum (danti) ; the leaves of the lumbago 
 zeylanica (chitra); or of the nerium odoruni 
 (corbeer). Pigeons or adjutants' dung is also 
 recommended, and various escharotic substances.
 
 334 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Old ghee slightly heated is to be applied to the 
 part. The food should be thin and light, consist- 
 ing of the flesh of wild animals, and light boiled 
 vegetables, mixed with oil and salt. The drink 
 should consist of boiled water. 
 
 The opening of an abscess should be made when 
 the swelling is soft, without pain, is undefined, 
 and of the colour of the skin. A lancet should be 
 used, which is immediately to be withdrawn when 
 the pus is seen. In performing such an operation 
 care should be taken to avoid the vital parts, large 
 vessels, and tendons. When the abscess is large, 
 the opening should be the length of two fingers 
 breadth. When the abscess is prominent, oblong, 
 and large, it will soon be cured ; and in order that 
 the operation be properly performed, the surgeon 
 should possess the following qualities : boldness, 
 steadiness, presence of mind, quickness; and he 
 should possess a good instrument. Should a fistula 
 exist with the inflammation it should be opened ; 
 and the incisions should be oblique, viz., in the eye- 
 brows, cheeks, forehead, temples, eyelids, lips, 
 gums, axilla, and groins. In the soles of the feet 
 and the palms of the hands tho incisions should 
 be circular; and in the arms and penis cruci- 
 form incisions should be made, so as to pre- 
 vent the wounding of nerves and vessels. After
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 335 
 
 the opening has been made, the patient's face is 
 to be bathed with cold water, and he should be 
 encouraged by kind language. The abscess is to 
 be evacuated by pressure, and is to be cleaned 
 with a piece of cloth wet in warm and astringent 
 water. A tent made of a piece of rolled cloth and 
 covered with a paste made of teel seeds, honey, 
 and ghee, is put in the cut ; and a pledget of cloth 
 covered with a simple soothing ointment is to be 
 put over the wounded part, with a poultice and 
 bandage. The prescribed prayers are then to be 
 repeated over the patient, and he is then to be 
 removed to a well-aired sheltered room, and placed 
 in a large bed, surrounded by cheerful friends. 
 Directions are then to be given as to his diet and 
 regimen ; not to use indigestible food, as new rice, 
 heavy pulse, and hot, bitter, salt, or sour articles 
 of food ; and to avoid violent exercise until the 
 cicatrization is complete. Great care is to be taken 
 to keep the patient clean, and the wound is to be 
 dressed on the third day, and care is to be taken 
 not to allow it to close too soon. In dangerous 
 cases the abscess will often require to be dressed 
 twice a-day, as it resembles a house on fire that 
 requires prompt assistance. 
 
 Under the class of accidental inflammations, 
 injuries are considered. By a wound, the wind
 
 8S6 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 of the part is deranged, producing pain ; and the 
 blood is mixed with the bile and becomes dis- 
 ordered. In this manner pain, fever, thirst, and 
 heat of the body occur, followed by the other 
 symptoms of disordered bile. Under this head, 
 swellings of all kinds are considered, as they 
 always commence with a certain degree of 
 inflammation. 
 
 Tumours, boils, and pustules. There are eight 
 varieties of these, produced by wind, bile, and 
 phlegm, either severally or combined; and the 
 eighth by derangement of the blood. The cause of 
 this disease is using too much heating, sour, 
 acid, or heavy, indigestible, and salt food; or 
 eating too freely, and exposing one's self to great 
 heat, or to the vicissitudes of the weather. By 
 such causes the humours are deranged, which act 
 on the blood, flesh, skin, and bones, producing 
 swellings accompanied with fever. Sometimes the 
 boils are confined to one part, and in other cases 
 form all over the body; when the wind is chiefly de- 
 ranged, the disease is accompanied with headache, 
 griping fever, thirst, and pain in the joints, and the 
 swelling becomes dark coloured, with much pain. 
 When diseased bile is the cause, there is much fever, 
 and burning of the body, thirst, and a discharge 
 from the swelling, and it becomes red or yellow.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 337 
 
 When phlegm is deranged, the affection is accom- 
 panied with loss of appetite, vomiting, languor, 
 dyspepsia, and the swelled part is itchy, hard, and 
 white, without pain, and often does not suppurate, 
 and when it does, it continues for a long time. 
 When wind and hile are disordered, the pain is 
 severe ; and when phlegm and bile are affected, 
 there is great itchiness in the part. When the 
 three humours are deranged, and when the pus- 
 tules arc red and depressed in the centre, and hard, 
 with slight purulent discharge, the disease is 
 considered incurable^ In such cases the patient 
 complains of burning in the part, with drowsiness, 
 rigors, fever, thirst, faintness, vomiting, and 
 delirium. When the disease is produced by dis- 
 ordered blood, which probably includes aneurismal 
 swellings ; and where it assumes the appearance of 
 the seed of gunga, that is, is red with a black spot 
 or slough, the disease is considered incurable 
 (Charaka.) The treatment will vary with the 
 symptoms, requiring cooling and soothing remedies ; 
 when the disease is acute, tonics and stimulants. 
 The decoction of the bitter neem and gulancha bark 
 are much used. When the disease has a more 
 atonic type, the bark and leaves of the subanjana 
 and morunga are to be made into a paste, with 
 old rice-water and salt, and applied to the part.
 
 338 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Susruta, also, described fungous and sarcomatous 
 swellings, particularly of the scrotum, testicle, 
 hoemorrhoidal tumours, hernias, &c. 
 
 Ulcers fBruno.J Ulcers are either produced 
 from external or internal causes. There are fif- 
 teen varieties, some say sixteen. Each of the 
 deranged humours produce a variety, or a couple 
 of the humours, and the three humours deranged 
 at the same time, or when combined with deranged 
 blood, produce the varieties in ulcers. There is 
 another healthy ulcer which is characterised by 
 having a smooth and equal surface, being soft, 
 accompanied with little pain, and without any dis- 
 charge. 
 
 When the ulcer is produced by deranged wind, 
 it is characterised by its black or red appearance, 
 is superficial, and discharges a cold, mucilaginous, 
 and scanty matter. The pain is peculiar, being of 
 a crackling stiff kind ; and is often severe when 
 it does not affect the flesh. 
 
 When deranged Ule produces an ulcer, it is of 
 a yellowish blue colour, and is surrounded by a 
 red and yellow eruption, which spreads quickly, 
 and discharges a hot and red matter with a burn- 
 ing pain. 
 
 When phlegm produces an ulcer, there is 
 much itchiness, and it is deep-seated. The
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 339 
 
 vessels and nerves of the part are affected, and it 
 is hard and white, without much pain, and the 
 discharge is white, cold, mucilaginous, and thick. 
 The part feels heavy. 
 
 When produced by blood, the ulcer becomes 
 red, and is surrounded by black vessels. The 
 smell is like that of a horse stable, with much 
 pain,- great heat, and it discharges blood, and is 
 accompanied with symptoms of bile. The ulcers 
 which are produced by the combination of the 
 diseased humours partake of the peculiar symptoms 
 of each. 
 
 Ulcers are likewise divided into large super- 
 ficial, large deep seated, very hard and soft, much 
 elevated or depressed, very cold or hot, very black, 
 red, yellow, or white, or disagreeable looking 
 ulcers; or covered with a slough, with a fa3tid dis- 
 charge, very painful or bloody discharge, or very 
 old : all these are unfavourable forms of ulcer. 
 When the discharge is yellow, thin, and has the 
 smell of raw flesh, it is superficial. When the 
 ulcer is situated in the flesh, the discharge is 
 thick, white, and mucilaginous; and in blood-ves- 
 sels, the discharge is with much blood, and it is 
 also watery, with much purulent matter. When 
 bones are affected, the discharge is mixed with 
 oily matter and blood ; when in the joints they
 
 340 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 cannot be moved, and the discharge is mucilagi- 
 nous, frothy, and bloody. When any of the 
 internal viscera are affected, the discharge may be 
 accompanied with urine, fseces, or a watery 
 fluid. 
 
 The cure of ulcers is easy, when treated by a 
 skilful practitioner, and when the patient follows 
 the proper regimen; but when treated by an ignorant 
 person, or if the patient does not follow the proper 
 regimen, the cure will be much more difficult. 
 The person should live in a large, airy, and clean 
 house, upon a large bed, with his head towards 
 the east ; he should be encouraged by the presence 
 and attention of friends; he should not sleep 
 during the day, as it will produce much swelling, 
 and a copious discharge with itchiness. He should 
 avoid much walking, and the presence of women. 
 He should avoid new wine, different kinds of peas, 
 and fruits, too much salt, and pungent articles, 
 j agree, cakes, dry vegetables, and the flesh of fish 
 and amphibious animals. Cold water is likewise to 
 be avoided, with curdled milk and indigestible food. 
 He should avoid exposure to wind, dust, and smoke, 
 too much eating, and disagreeable sounds or smells ; 
 to watching at night, and eating at unusual hours. 
 He should keep his hair, beard, and nails short, 
 wear clean clothes, perform the usual ceremonies
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 341 
 
 of religion, and his food should be light and 
 nourishing. 
 
 The ulcers are to be dressed with a cloth 
 covered with new ointment, and secured by a 
 bandage of silk or cotton. They are to be cleaned 
 with a watery decoction of cassia fistula, and 
 other astringent vegetable medicines. Ghee should 
 be prepared with the sulphate of iron, black helle- 
 bore, turmerick, and the root of the jatie^ (Jas- 
 minum Grandiflorum). In other cases they add 
 astringent barks or acid juices, as lemons, &c., 
 yellow and red arsenic, powders prepared with 
 rock-salt, sulphate of iron, and lees of urine, 
 turmerick, &c. Fumigations and Pastes are also 
 sometimes applied to ulcerated surfaces. When 
 the ulcer is much elevated, the powders of the 
 following substances are to be used : sulphuret 
 of iron, rock-salt, red arsenic, mixed with egg- 
 shells, and the buds of jalie. These may be 
 combined, or one or two of them may be mixed, 
 and applied to the ulcerated surface. 
 
 Purgatives, emetics, and fasting are to bo 
 occasionally used in ulcers, according to the indi- 
 cations which have been already stated under the 
 head of treatment of inflammation. Should there 
 be much bleeding from the ulcer it is to be stopped 
 by means of styptics; when accompanied with fever
 
 342 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 and much burning in the part, use cold applications; 
 when there is little discharge, the ulcer being 
 superficial, and the surface irregular, apply poul- 
 tices made of seeds containing oil, as linseed, with 
 fomentations. When the appearance is dark and 
 the smell disagreeable, apply astringent decoctions ; 
 when sloughing and dry-looking, apply medicines 
 to clean the part ; when the edges of the ulcer are 
 very hard, local bleeding by scarifications or by 
 leeches is to be used with fomentations. Should 
 the edges of the ulcer be soft and flabby, apply 
 astringents ; when the edges are elevated and of 
 long standing, apply caustics ; when the cicatrix 
 is white it will be made dark, or of the natural 
 colour, by the preparations of the marking nut. 
 For restoring hair to a part apply the ashes of ivory 
 with crude antimony ; and should worms be gene- 
 rated in ulcers, apply the decoctions of ophiorrhiza 
 mungos fsuruhaj^ and Symplocos Alstonia. 
 
 When the worms are produced by application 
 of cow's urine and the like, caustic solutions are 
 to be applied. These are obtained from the ashes 
 of certain trees. A piece of recent flesh may also 
 be applied over the ulcer, so as to attract worms 
 to it. When the ulcer is very old and the person 
 emaciated and weak, give him nourishing food, 
 and medicine of a tonic nature. When produced
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 343 
 
 by poison they are to be treated as poisonous 
 wounds. The intelligent practitioner will thus 
 vary the local and general treatment according to 
 the peculiarity of the case, and the state of the 
 patient's constitution. The fatal symptoms of 
 ulcers are fever, diarrhoea, fainting, hiccough, 
 vomiting, dyspepsia, difficulty of breathing, cough, 
 and great thirst. 
 
 Fistulas f^ulh- Bruna.) A fistula is either pro- 
 duced by derangements of the humours, or by ex- 
 ternal causes. In the latter case the abscess may 
 not have been opened when ripe, the pus burrows 
 itself into the neighbouring parts, and forms a 
 canal. When derangement of wind produces the 
 fistula, the orifice is small, the surface is rough, and 
 it is accompanied by much pain. It discharges 
 largely, especially in the night, and the discharge 
 is accompanied with froth. This form is to be 
 treated with poultices. 
 
 When the fistula is produced by deranged bile, 
 it is accompanied with thirst, fever, and heat ; the 
 discharge is copious, particularly during the day. 
 The part is to be carefully rubbed ; and when ripe, 
 it is to be opened with a knife, cleaned, and a hot 
 iron probe introduced into the canal. Several 
 kinds of medicine are mixed sometimes, and thrust 
 into the wound.
 
 344 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 When produced by diseased phlegm, the dis- 
 charge is thick and white, and the edges are hard 
 and shining. It is itchy and slightly painful at 
 night. A mixture of several medicines is rubbed 
 into the part, so as to soften it. Other medicines 
 are to be employed to wash the fistula with ; a 
 director is then introduced and the fistula laid 
 open, 
 
 When wind, bile, and phlegm are deranged 
 together, producing a fistula, it is accompanied 
 with great heat and fever, sonorous breathing, and 
 coma. The mouth is dry, and the other symptoms 
 are present, peculiar to the diseases produced by 
 the separate humours. In such cases the disease 
 is incurable. 
 
 Fistulous openings are usually found in the 
 mammee of women after abscesses. In such cases 
 the abscess is to be opened, and the fistula is to 
 be healed from the bottom. When the patient is of 
 a weak constitution, is emaciated, is fearful, and has 
 lost her appetite, the cure will be difficult. When 
 the knife is not allowed to be used, a thread is to 
 be passed through the fistula, and may be strongly 
 tied, so as to divide the skin over it ; or a tent 
 made of the following medicines will be found 
 very useful. The bark of the guntafula tree, 
 rock salt, lac stick, and beetle nut, are mixed
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 345 
 
 with the milk of the euphorbium, and intro- 
 duced into the fistulous opening. Fistula-in- 
 ano is a frequent distressing complaint in Asia, 
 for Avhich various excellent local remedies are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 LOCAL APPLICATION OF REMEDIES. 
 
 These are fomentations and baths, unctuous 
 applications, pastes, fumigations, blisters, cauteries, 
 and styptics. 
 
 1. Fomentations and baths. Charaka recom- 
 mends the affusion of cold water for diminishing 
 the heat and pain in parts. For certain eruptions 
 topical-baths, the sprinkling of water, cow's urine, 
 &c., are used. Poultices of herbs are often of use ; 
 and tents, injections, and gargles are also employed 
 by the surgeon. 
 
 2. Unctuous applications and pastes are a numer- 
 ous class of local remedies. Mustard oil, honey, 
 butter, and ghee are often medicated with various 
 emollient, astringent, stimulant, and narcotic
 
 346 HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 substances, and taken internally as well as applied 
 externally, in the form of liniments and pastes, 
 with cow's urine and the juice of different trees 
 and drugs, according to the effect required. The 
 leaves of the neem-tree and marking-nut plant, 
 verenga, myrobalans, &c., are applied with salts, 
 as alkalies from the ashes of burnt vegetables, 
 such as palas (butea frondosa), soot, &c. Some- 
 times metallic and mineral substances are employed, 
 as the oxide of arsenic, lead, tin, or mercury, 
 sulphur, &c. ; and various ointments. 
 
 3. Fumigations by means of different combi- 
 nations of resin, &c., are sometimes applied to heal 
 ulcers, &c., with good effect. 
 
 4. Blisters^ and local irritants, are used as derivi- 
 tives, in certain interna] diseases. 
 
 5. Cauteries. The actual and potential cauteries 
 were often employed by the ancient Hindu prac- 
 titioners. The actual cautery was applied in the 
 form of hot sand, substances in a state of combus- 
 tion, boiling fluids of a gelatinous or mucous 
 substance, heated metallic bars, or plates and 
 probes of iron or bronze, which had often fanciful 
 shapes, like the form of the rose apple, or serrated 
 trident. These cauteries were particularly useful 
 when applied to the temples, or forehead in head- 
 aches, to the eyelids for diseases of the eyes, to
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 347 
 
 indurations of the skin, to the abdomen for mes- 
 enteric enlargements, and to the sides for those of 
 the liver and spleen: for the latter disease the 
 remedy is often very useful, and is much employed 
 by the Arabs and other Asiatics.* 
 
 The Hindus state that cauteries may sometimes 
 be employed where the knife cannot be used, and 
 as among the Greeks, the chief use of the actual 
 cautery was in cases of hoemorrhages ; the bleeding 
 being stopped by searing the wounded vessels. 
 
 The actual cautery is applied in four different 
 ways, according to the nature of the case ; some- 
 times the application is made in spots, in other 
 cases in circles, or in parallel and concentric lines. 
 When the application is properly performed, 
 there is a peculiar noise heard, and smell felt at 
 the moment of the application, and the skin is 
 immediately contracted. When the cautery is 
 applied to the muscles, it changes them to a gray 
 colour ; the swelling of the part diminishes, and it 
 stops the discharge of blood, pus, &c. 
 
 The milder application consists in washing the 
 part with warm water, after which the places to be 
 burnt are marked with so many drops of oil. These 
 are covered with small pieces of young plantain 
 
 * Ferro bifurcato spleiiem adurit. Haly-abbas, 9 pract. ch. 76. Pro splene 
 bidentalis et tridentatis setonibus utetur. Albucas lib. 1 chirc. 31.
 
 348 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 leaves, and a wet cloth is laid over the whole. A 
 piece of lighted stick of the wood of the jujube tree 
 is applied to each spot. Little pain is felt upon the 
 contact of the burning wood, but on removing the 
 cloth and leaf, a mark is left, which ends in an 
 ulcer. The more severe cautery consists in thrust- 
 ing from seven to twenty iron needles heated 
 red-hot, a considerable depth into the side over 
 the spleen, so as to penetrate its substance. The 
 operation is attended with great pain, and acts 
 powerfully in reducing swellings, as of the en- 
 larged spleen. The cautery is also applied in 
 different ways, sometimes by means of heated long 
 pepper, goats' dung, the tooth of a cow, or an arrow 
 point. A long circular or hook shaped iron probe 
 is applied for superficial purposes, and straight 
 probes for muscles, or deep seated parts. There 
 are three varieties of these irons, one being small, 
 another large, and a third of a moderate size. 
 After amputation, &c., the actual cautery or boil- 
 ing fluids, as boiling jagree, oil, honey, &c., are 
 used to stop hoemorrhage. 
 
 Fire is useful in some diseases of the skin, flesh, 
 vessels, ligaments, joints, and bones ; in car- 
 buncle, piles, boils near the anus, in elephan- 
 tiasis, and in small swellings. In bites of ser- 
 pents live charcoal is recommended to be applied.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 349 
 
 to prevent the dangerous effects. It is also 
 useful in penetrating wounds, and in all cases 
 where wounds are accompanied with considerable 
 hoDmorrhage. 
 
 The small sized actual cautery is employed with 
 advantage to the eyebrows, forehead and temples, 
 for headaches and diseases of the head. When 
 applied to the eyelids near the border, the eye is 
 to be defended with wet cloths. This is the treat- 
 ment recommended for Entropium. Fire is also 
 applied to remove induration of parts: to the sides, 
 in cases of diseased spleen and liver ; and to the 
 abdomen, in enlargement of the mesenteric glands. 
 It is also applied to the soles of the feet for the 
 cure of colic, and it is said with the best effects, 
 as it seldom fails to cure the disease. A mixture 
 of ghee and honey should be applied to the part 
 after the cautery. Fire deranges the blood and 
 bile, and produces severe pain and fever. The 
 application of heated disks, or plates of iron, as 
 riibifacients, to diseased parts, are employed with 
 the best effects. 
 
 When the different cauteries have not proved 
 sufficient to stop the hcemorrhage from a wound, 
 the vessel may be opened above the bleeding part 
 in order to diminish the flow of blood from the 
 large wound below, and thus give time for the
 
 350 HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 operation of medicines. When all these means 
 fail to stop the hoemorrhage, the physician is to 
 examine the peculiar circumstances of the case, and 
 act accordingly. 
 
 The actual cautery should not be used in the 
 cold and hot months, as in September and October, 
 or in May and June ; more particularly in the 
 two last months. It should not be used to per- 
 sons of bilious or sanguineous temperaments ; or 
 in whom the blood is diseased ; when diarrhoea is 
 present, and external applications have not removed 
 it ; when the person is weak and timid ; when 
 there are many ulcers on the body ; and when the 
 patient is very young or very old. 
 
 The diet of a patient to whom the cautery is 
 applied should be very thin, and of the same kind 
 as that recommended for a woman with a dead 
 foetus in her abdomen. In the more dangerous 
 forms no food is to be allowed. 
 
 Potential Cauteries. These cauteries consist of 
 potash more or less pure ; it is obtained by 
 burning the bark and branches of the muckaka, 
 kataya, and other trees. These are reduced to 
 ashes, which are mixed in six times their quantity 
 of water or cow's urine, concentrated with heat, 
 and strained separately, until reduced to the con- 
 sistence of a mucilage. It is again dissolved in
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 351 
 
 water, strained, the sediment removed, and the 
 solution evaporated to the same consistence as 
 before ; some shell-lime is then mixed with it, and 
 when neither very dry nor moist, it is taken off 
 the fire, and kept in an iron vessel well closed up. 
 Thus the carbonate of potash is directed to be 
 dissolved in water, and shell-lime mixed with it. 
 This is the process recommended for preparing 
 a solution of potash in modern pharmacopoeias. 
 The potash thus prepared, may be used inter- 
 nally or externally. In the first form it is used 
 in solution, and is good for removing worms, for 
 curing leprosy, and as an antidote for certain 
 poisons ; when long taken it produces impotency. 
 As an external application, it is used in three 
 degrees of strength : the concentrated, the strong, 
 and the weak. 
 
 The concentrated potash is used for opening 
 abscesses, and for producing superficial ulcers, in 
 which cases emollients are to be put upon the part 
 after the application, so as to diminish the pain. 
 The solution acts strongly in healing ulcers and in 
 stopping bleeding, and when concentrated it dis- 
 organises the parts. It is applied externally to 
 different cutaDeous diseases, to bad ulcers, to 
 fistula-in-ano and other fistulas, to piles, to certain 
 diseases of the mouth, to diseased tubercles, &c.
 
 352 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 The weak solution may be taken internally in dys- 
 pepsia, colic, and indigestion ; and for urinary 
 calculi, gravel, worms, and swellings. 
 
 The use of potash is not proper in the sangui- 
 neous temperament, in internal hoemorrhage, in 
 fever, for children or old people, for weak persons, 
 or for persons with diseases of the eyes, &c. 
 Caustics are not to be applied to vital parts, where 
 there are many nerves and blood-vessels (ligatures), 
 to the joints, ligaments, eyes, throat, &c. When used 
 by an ignorant person, caustics are like fire, poison, 
 or thunder to the patient, whom they quickly kill. 
 When caustic is to be applied to a part, the patient 
 is to be taken to a room shut up, and a portion of 
 the caustic is then to be applied to the part by 
 means of a hollow tube. The surgeon is to wait for 
 a space of time that will admit of his counting one 
 hundred. If properly applied, the part becomes 
 black, and the part is to be moistened with the 
 juices of acid fruits. When used by a skilful sur- 
 geon, the potential cautery cures many diseases. 
 
 Sii/plics. If all the bad blood is not removed 
 by bleeding, it will leave a swelling, redness, 
 heat, itchiness, and pain in the part. But if too 
 much blood has been removed it produces head- 
 ache, blindness, inflammation of the eye, convulsions, 
 hemiplegia, great thirst, burning sensation of the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 353 
 
 body, hiccough, difficulty in breathing, jaundice, 
 and death. Avoid abstracting too much blood, 
 particularly when it is healthy, as it is the root 
 which sustains the body ; "for the blood is the 
 life of the body." 
 
 There are four ways of arrestinghoemorrhages: — 
 the use of astringents, ice, caustics, and the 
 actual cautery. 
 
 1. Asiringent aiJ-plications. Diiferent flowers 
 and absorbent earths and resin are mixed together, 
 and this powder is sprinkled by degrees over 
 the part, and should the blood not stop, the finger 
 is to be placed over the bleeding vessel, and 
 retained there for some time. In other cases the 
 barks of different trees, as the banyan tree, catechu, 
 and gum resin, are mixed and used as styptics. 
 The ashes of burnt silk will also be found useful, 
 over which a tight bandage is to be applied. The 
 patient is to be kept in a cool room, and a cold and 
 antiphlogistic diet and regimen is to be enjoined. 
 Afterwards broths, made from the flesh of deer 
 and other wild animals, are to be used, with other 
 light and nourishing food. 
 
 2. Cold^ in the form of ice, by drying the blood, 
 has a strong tendency to stop hoemorrhage, and is 
 often used for this purpose. 
 
 3. When those means are not sufficient to stop
 
 354 HISTORY OF UEDICINE 
 
 the bleediQg, escharotics, and the actual and 
 potential cauteries must be employed. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 DESCEIPXION OF SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND BANDAGES. 
 
 The great variety of surgical instruments 
 proves how carefully the ancient Hindus studied 
 this branch of the healing art. The descriptions 
 of these instruments not being precise, and not 
 being illustrated by drawings, it is difficult always 
 to understand their form. The hand is always re- 
 presented as the first, the best, and the most 
 important of all surgical instruments, as it is with 
 its assistance that all operations are performed. 
 The accompanying drawing represents specimens 
 of the mechanical contrivances employed to assist 
 the performance of operations, each of which has 
 a different name, generally from its resemblance 
 to some well known form of leaves, animals, &c. 
 They should be made of the best iron, reduced to 
 steel, a process early known to the Hindus. They 
 are generally six inches in length, of which the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 355 
 
 blade forms the half or quarter. They should 
 have good handles and firm joints, be well 
 polished, and sufficiently sharp to divide a hair ; 
 they should be quite clean, wrapped in flannel, 
 and kept in a wooden box. There are twenty 
 ancient cutting instruments described by Susruta, 
 of which the following are specimens. No. 1, 
 is a scarifier; and 4, 5, 6, 7, and 14, knives. 
 These cutting instruments are employed to remove 
 diseases, or deformities, to unite what has been 
 separated, or to replace what is wanting in a part. 
 Nos. 3, 9, 10, 16, 17 are varieties of lancets; 
 13 and 15 are trocars, for removing fluids from a 
 part; and 12, cutting-nippers, for dividing bones, 
 &c ; 11, scissors; 2, a saw; and 8, needles for sewing. 
 When the patient is too much afraid to admit of the 
 use of cutting instruments, sharp pieces of bamboo, 
 stone, or glass, the nail of the finger, rough leaves, 
 &c., may be substituted. No. 4 is employed for cut- 
 tingfinger-nails,&c. There are one hundred-and-one 
 blunt instruments described, such as curved or hook- 
 ed instruments (Nos. 1 8 & 19), to remove teeth, and 
 splinters of bones, or foreign bodies (Nos. 20 & 21). 
 They are usually of iron, eighteen finger-breadths 
 long, having heads shaped like those of animals, the 
 beaks of birds, &c. : a smaller kind will remove 
 foreign substances lodged in the ear, nose, &c.
 
 356 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 There are twenty varieties of tubular instruments 
 of different sizes and shapes (No. 22), including 
 catheters, syringes, &c. They are used for re- 
 moving obstructions or substances from deep-seated 
 canals, as the intestines, urethra, etc. ; for exam- 
 ining deep-seated parts; for drawing off fluids, &c. 
 There are twenty-eight kinds of probes, rods, and 
 sounds, varying in size and shape, for examining 
 the size and nature of foreign objects, lodged in 
 parts of difficult access ; and for clearing canals, 
 particularly the urethra. Some of these are 
 rounded like a half-pea or earth-worm, or the point 
 of an arrow; and another has a head like the 
 foot-staff of a cylindrical form, like the malectee 
 flower, and is often used in clearing the urethra. 
 Some of these probes have small cavities at their 
 extremities for applying caustics, &c., to the dis- 
 eased part: very "much the same form as is now 
 used for strictures, and in some diseases of the 
 vagina and uterus. Some rods have extremities 
 like the rose-apple, and are curved ; these are to 
 be applied heated. A variety of forceps with 
 claws, resembling the half of the stone of the 
 plum, are for eradicating polypi, a frequent and 
 troublesome disease in Hindostan ; which is 
 relieved by forcibly extracting the irritating 
 excrescence. Other accessory instruments are
 
 ;* 
 
 J.hcwts UfJi ■>aDame«n.J)ub'trn
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 3&7 
 
 also enumerated, as thread-bandages, leaves, 
 leather, bark, silk cloth, loadstone, pins and tents. 
 The finger-nails, tongue, teeth, &c., were also em- 
 ployed. There are many other instruments, 
 varieties of the above, which must be modified by 
 the surgeon to answer a particular purpose. 
 
 Bandages. The following are fourteen va- 
 rieties of bandages: a hollow-cylinder or sheath 
 for the finger, &c. ; a large bandage to support 
 parts ; a circular bandage to be applied to joints, 
 the forehead, chest, or neck ; a roller ; a broad 
 bandage for the neck, and external organs of 
 generation; a circular bandage for the head; a 
 bandage enclosing a splint to keep the parts firm, 
 as the joints of the fingers, &c. ; a double-tailed 
 bandage, to be applied to ulcers; a four-tailed 
 bandage for the cheeks, temples, lower jaw, &c. ; 
 a bandage for the angles of the eyes; one 
 for the back, abdomen, and chest, to form 
 a firm circular bandage ; a large bandage for the 
 head ; a concave bandage for the chin, eyes, lips, 
 shoulders, scrotum, and pelvis; and a bandage 
 for the clavicle, with four tails. 
 
 The surgeon is to decide on the kind of bandage 
 in each particular case. Its application varies 
 also with the disease. Sometimes the bandage 
 is to be applied above, below, or upon the wound 
 
 Y
 
 358 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 or ulcer, according to the effect required. la 
 general the bandage is to be adapted after t^e 
 application of the necessary ointment spread upon 
 linen^ There are Three degrees of tightness with 
 which the bandage is to be applied, the first being 
 tight, the second loose, and the third moderately 
 tight. When bile and blood are deranged, or 
 when blows and poisons produce the disease, the 
 bandage should be loosely applied ; and when 
 phlegm and wind are deranged the tightness may 
 be increased^ To the chest, buttock, belly, loins, 
 axilla, groins, and head, a tight bandage is to be 
 applied. To the extremities, face, ears, throat, 
 penis, scrotum, back, and to the sides of the belly 
 and chest the pressure of the bandage should be 
 moderate. In diseases of the eye and joints, loose 
 bandages %vq to be used. Should the bandage be 
 applied too tight the medicine will not produce 
 the desired effect, and all the symptoms of the 
 disease will be aggravated. This will also be the 
 case when no bandage is applied, by the formation 
 of insects, and by exposure to the influence of 
 heat and cold, which will aggravate the symptoms 
 and prevent the cure. When there is acute 
 inflammation, and when the part is hot, painful, 
 and sensible, no bandage is to be applied to the 
 part for the cure of the disease, but only to retain 
 
 M
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 359 
 
 the remedies upon the part. Nor are bandages 
 to be applied when the sore has been produced 
 by fire, when it contains pus, when slough- 
 ing, when near the anus, when produced by 
 extravasation of urine or leprosy, &c. If bones 
 are fractured or joints dislocated, or if the bone is 
 thrust through the flesh, bandages will be of 
 much use. This is also the case when the tendons 
 and vessels are divided. In the treatment of 
 ulcers, bandages and all other means that diminish 
 pain will tend towards the cure. 
 
 Ulcers in the flesh, skin, joints, bone, or 
 abdomen, and wounds of vessels and tendons, 
 whether deep or superficial, are cured with proper 
 bandages. The judicious surgeon will in each 
 particular case, decide on the propriety and 
 kind of bandages, which will vary not only with 
 the nature of the disease, but also with the season 
 of the year, &c. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRtTCTIOXS FOE StJEGICAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 After the student had been taught the science 
 of healing by books, he was next instructed in the
 
 360 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 use of instruments, &c. Without practical skill, 
 theoretical knowledge was considered of no use. 
 The different surgical operations were shown to 
 the student upon wax spread out upon a board, on 
 gourds, cucumbers, and other soft fruits ; tapping 
 and puncturing was practised on a leather bag 
 of water, or soft mud; scarifications and bleeding 
 was practised upon the fresh hides of animals 
 from which the hair has been removed, or upon 
 dead bodies ; and puncturing or lancing on the 
 hollow stalks of water lilies, or the vessels of 
 dead animals. Dexterity was thus acquired, 
 before exercising it on the human body : 
 the teacher being required to perfect his pupil 
 by the employment of all expedients which he 
 might think calculated to effect this proficiency. 
 The manner of holding the knife, and using the 
 probe, was practised upon a piece of hollow bamboo 
 or the like ; the removal of substances from cavi- 
 ties, by removing the large seeds of the jack fruit 
 (artocarpus integrifolia), or bel fruit (^gle 
 marmelos). The extraction of teeth was prac- 
 tised upon dead bodies and animals. Sew- 
 ing was practised on leather and cloth. The 
 application of bandages and ligatures was exer- 
 cised upon flexible models of the human body ; 
 the means of making noses, ears, &c., was 
 
 m
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 361 
 
 practised upon dead animals ; and the application 
 of caustics and cauteries on animals. " The use 
 of injections was exercised with a water pot having 
 a tube passing into it. 
 
 There are eight kinds of surgical operations : 
 incision, as in fistula-in-ano ; opening parts, as 
 of large abscesses, or drawing lines, by which 
 the parts are scarified, or inoculated ; puncturing, 
 as in opening veins, in hydrocele, and in dropsy; 
 probing or sounding parts, as in fistula, to 
 ascertain the presence of foreign substances; 
 the operation of extraction, as of the stone, of the 
 teeth, and of the fetus ; removal of fluids, as pus, 
 blood, &c., or of bad humours, as in leprous 
 blotches, in elephantiasis, &c. ; and, sewing parts 
 together with thread or twine, or small ligatures 
 made of the skin of animals, or fibres of vegetable 
 substances, roots, hair, &c., as in wounds, especially 
 near joints. The stitches are to be longer or 
 shorter, according to the nature of the wound. 
 Before sewing, the wound should be carefully 
 cleaned, and all extraneous substances removed. 
 The needles should be from two fingers breadth 
 in length, to three or more. They were three- 
 edged for deep flesh wounds, and a curved kind 
 was used near vital parts, and in wounds of the 
 scrotum and abdomen. For fixing a torn off ear,
 
 362 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the parts were to be brought together and sown. 
 For practising these operations, pieces of leather and 
 cloth were sewn together ; and a mixture of equal 
 parts of the seed of the priangay sulphate of anti- 
 mony, ptaya^ liquorice, and an astringent bark, 
 (lodro) was thickly sprinkled round the wound, 
 which was then covered with a piece of lint or 
 silk cloth, and the whole secured with a bandage. 
 The physician is then to give proper directions for 
 diet, &c. 
 
 Several operations were performed bythe ancient 
 Hindus which are not described here. Hoemorrhage 
 was arrested by the application of astringents, 
 cold, ice, caustics, and the actual cautery; and 
 when an extremity was separated, boiling oil was 
 poured upon the surface, and a cup-formed bandage 
 applied over the face of the wound, followed by 
 applications to heal it. 
 
 Besides the above instruments, the surgeon 
 should provide thread,, leaves, pledgets, heated 
 metallic plates for erubescents, and a variety of 
 astringent and emollient applications, before com- 
 mencing an operation. 
 
 Blood-lettiny. The means of removing blood from 
 the body were venesection, scarifying, cupping, 
 and the use of leeches. 
 
 1. Venesection, Before a patient is bled, he 
 
 ■'*fi
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 363 
 
 should have his body anointed with oil ; take a 
 warm bath ; and eat some prepared barley or 
 rice. 
 
 In performing the operation, the patient is to be 
 placed either sitting or standing before the surgeon, 
 with his face turned towards the east, with an 
 assistant holding him from behind. The surgeon 
 is to rub down the blood in the prominent vein 
 which is to be opened, and apply a bandage of 
 the bark of a tree, of cloth, or of leather, not very 
 tight, above the part to be opened ; the instrument 
 used for opening the vein is the kutJiarika^ or 
 hriJiimuMia ; the body is to be kept in the 
 natural position, while this instrument is to be 
 thrust into the swollen vein, the patient hold- 
 ing his breath ; the wound should be the size 
 of a barleycorn. The blood should flow in a 
 stream. After the required quantity of blood has 
 been obtained, the bandage is to be removed, and 
 the wound is to be cleaned with cold water ; a few 
 drops of oil are to be left fall upon the wound, 
 and if the bleeding is not stopped, a bandage is to 
 be put round the part. Should this not be 
 sufficient to stop the bleeding, caustics, and even 
 the actual cautery, may be used. The quantity of 
 blood which is to be removed, should never be so 
 large as three pints, least it weaken the person.
 
 364 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 When the patient is very strong, and the disease 
 very severe, blood to the extent of one seer (Prastha 
 or 2 lbs) may be removed. If much blood is lost, it 
 will produce headache, loss of sight, with pain in 
 the eyes, thirst, severe pain, insensibility of one 
 side, or of one member, hiccough, cough, difficulty 
 in breathing, jaundice, or diseases of wind ; and 
 the person may even die. After bleeding, the 
 body should be anointed with oil, milk, lymph of 
 animals, or other remedies which quickly stop 
 the flow of blood. If all the bad blood is not 
 discharged by the first bleeding, another is to be 
 performed on the second or third day after the 
 first. Do not endeavour to remove all the bad 
 blood by the first bleeding, as a little may be 
 purified by the use of remedies ; and thus the 
 danger of bleeding too freely will be avoided. 
 When a swelling requires to be opened near the 
 windpipe, care is required to avoid a vein, which 
 might endanger life if wounded. 
 
 Bleeding should not be performed when the 
 person is below sixteen and above seventy years 
 of age, when the female is pregnant nor soon after 
 delivery, nor when the body is dry ; when in a 
 state of drunkenness, nor when there are sores upon 
 the body ; when the humours are diminished ; 
 when there are copious perspirations ; nor when
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 365 
 
 there are diseases of wind present. Patients 
 should not be bled in very cold, hot, stormy, or 
 cloudy days ; when the person is weak, after 
 watching, nor when digestion has not taken place. 
 They should not be bled in general dropsy, in piles, 
 in jaundice, asthma, and severe cough, during free 
 perspiration, after vomiting or purging, in severe 
 fevers, in tetanus, in palsy, &c. When venesection 
 is to be performed, the air should be clear and 
 warm. If possible, it should be avoided during the 
 rains ; and the abstraction is to take place by 
 degrees, at intervals of one or more days, accord- 
 ing to the circumstances of the case. In the 
 cold weather venesection should be performed 
 in the middle of the day. The flow of the blood 
 from the wound in the vessel may be retarded 
 when the person is very fearful, faint, and much 
 fatigued ; when he is very thirsty, when the 
 bandage is not properly applied, and when he has 
 much bad blood. 
 
 When the person is bled for a disease of the spleen, 
 the vein is to be opened at the bend of the left 
 arm ; and between the left ring and little finger 
 in asthma and severe cough : in diseases of 
 the penis, near the middle of that organ. In 
 hepatic diseases open the temporal artery. In 
 madness and epilepsy, and in diseases of the
 
 366 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 tongue or teeth, open the veins under the tongue. 
 In tertian ague, open the veins at the juncture 
 of the sacrum with the spine. In epilepsy, the 
 veins of the neck may be opened. 
 
 There are twenty ways named of improperly 
 performing venesection: — as when the instrument 
 is too small, so that the blood does not flow freely, 
 which is followed by a painful swelling ; when an 
 ignorant person opens a large vessel, or makes the 
 wound in the vein oblique, through which the blood 
 passes among the cellular substances of the part ; 
 when the knife is blunt and tears the parts, which 
 .swell ; when several attempts have been made to 
 open the vein ; when the person is fearful, the 
 weather very cold, and the blood is not dis- 
 charged ; when the knife is large, is sharp, and a 
 large wound is made ; and when the wound is too 
 small, and little blood flows. Should the arm 
 have been improperly bandaged, and the hands 
 shake, and no blood flows ; when there is a great 
 flow of blood from the large wound in the vessel, 
 which cannot be stopped by the usual application ; 
 when the wound is not direct, and the knife is not 
 a proper one, and several attempts are required to 
 open the vein. Should blood-letting not be 
 proper ; the patient's body in an unflt state, and 
 diseases are consequently produced; when the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 367 
 
 part requires to be rubbed much before the vein 
 can be opened, and when the blood only flows at 
 intervals like the milk of cows ; when the knife is 
 too small, and several small wounds are made in 
 the vein ; and when nerves, tendons, and vital 
 parts have been wounded, so as to produce severe 
 pain, restlessness, and sometimes death. Should 
 the operation be thus improperly performed, the 
 wound is to be treated by the application of 
 fomentations, and other remedies, which will be 
 stated in the section treating of wounds. 
 
 An able surgeon is therefore required to bleed; 
 as veins are always changing, and if not properly 
 performed, bleeding produces various troublesome 
 diseases of veins, which are not cured by the usual 
 remedies. It is not, therefore, enough to know the 
 situation of veins ; but he must likewise know the 
 time, and the extent to which the bleeding is to be 
 carried. In some diseases, bleeding is half the treat- 
 ment ; in the same manner as enemas are, in many 
 medical diseases. As cutting, fire, &c., give pain ; 
 rajahs, rich people, children or old people, and fearful 
 and weak people, when they require to lose blood, 
 may have leeches in preference to venesection; 
 more especially in the cases of bad blood produced 
 by diseased wind, bile, and cough. When bad blood 
 has been removed from a vein, the person feels
 
 368 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 happy, and the part light, the pain ceases, and 
 the morbid symptoms diminish. 
 
 After bleeding, avoid anger, violent exercise, too 
 much sitting, walking, exposure to great heat or 
 cold, or improper food, for a month ; especially, 
 very heating and cooling articles. The patient 
 should live on good and light articles of nourishing 
 food, until his strength is restored. If this is not 
 attended to, bad blood will be generated. This pro- 
 duces itchiness, swelling, and pain like that of fire, 
 with a red appearance of the part, which suppurates. 
 When deranged wind has produced bad blood, it does 
 not flow from the wound in the vein like water, it is 
 covered with foam, is dark, thin, and flows slowly. 
 When deranged by bile, the blood has a yellow blue 
 colour, has a bad smell, and it flows slowly. When 
 the blood is deranged by phlegm, the blood is 
 oleaginous and smooth ; it is cold, of a pale yel- 
 lowish colour, is in large quantity, and flows 
 slowly. When bile and blood are deranged in a 
 part, it has a dark colour. When two or three of 
 the humours are deranged in a part, the blood has 
 the peculiarities of the individual, and of deranged 
 blood combined. Should severe pain occur in 
 opening a vein, as if fire had been applied, the 
 part is to bo rubbed with a mixture of warm ghee 
 and gestemodo.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 369 
 
 The blood is in a healthy state when it is of a 
 bright red colour like that of red jelly, or of the 
 rainbow ; when the senses are perfect, with a desire 
 to exercise them, and the person is strong and in 
 high spirits. 
 
 2, 3. Scarifications and Cupping. Longitudinal 
 and transverse lines at equal distance are made 
 neither very deep nor superficial, by means of a thin 
 and sharp knife. They should be applied quickly, 
 avoiding vital parts, joints, and large vessels; and the 
 evacuation of blood should be promoted by the 
 application of cupping horns of animals, which are 
 open at the small, and quite smooth at the large 
 extremity. They are of different sizes, to suit the 
 part upon which they are to be applied, and the 
 quantity of the bad blood to be removed. 
 
 This extremity is applied over the scarified part, 
 the air in the horn is sucked out, and the finger 
 is then dexterously placed over the open upper 
 end. An accumulation of blood in the part 
 included in the horn is discharged from the 
 scarified surface. The horn is repeatedly applied, 
 and the air exhausted in the same manner, 
 until the necessary quantity of blood has been 
 removed. In other cases a leather bottle, or a 
 hollow gourd (alabu) is prepared, with a small 
 smooth hole which is placed on the part ; the
 
 370 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 air is then exhausted by burning something in 
 it, before it is applied over the scarified part. 
 The horn is used when the air of the part is particu- 
 larly affected ; and when the phlegm of the part 
 is much diseased, the gourd is preferred. They 
 are also used for dry cupping. 
 
 4. Leeches fjaloulcaj. Leeches have been em- 
 ployed from time immemorial in Asia, but 
 particularly in Bengal, where they are considered 
 as the best means of removing blood from a part.* 
 They are particularly used for rajahs, for women, 
 and timid persons, and for the very young and 
 very old. 
 
 There are twelve varieties of leeches; six of 
 which are venomous and six useful. 
 
 The venomous species of leeches are: — those 
 having longitudinal lines of various tints along 
 the back ; large ones with black heads, and bodies 
 covered with hairs; large dark leeches, with 
 large heads ; those of a dark yellowish colour, with 
 numerous stripes and spots of various colours upon 
 their bodies ; those that have small heads, and nar- 
 row mouths, with large bodies and bifurcated tails ; 
 and those that are long, like an eel, and alternately 
 contract and dilate in the middle. 
 
 These deleterious leeches, when they are em- 
 
 * Many Asiatics have a strong prejudice against general blood-letting, 
 and never, or very rarely, employ it.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 371 
 
 ployed, produce heat, swelling, pain, and itching 
 of the part ; followed by excessive irritation and 
 fever, with spasms, sickness, and syncope. These 
 effects will be best treated by applying to the bites 
 a mixture of certain medicines, which are con- 
 sidered as antidotes against the poison. Other 
 antidotes are given internally, with errhines ; the 
 bites of the Indrayudha leeches are considered 
 fatal. These kinds of leeches are found near putrid 
 fish or animals, in foul, stagnant, and putrescent 
 water. Such leeches are consequently to be care- 
 fully avoided. 
 
 There are six varieties of good leeches : — 
 
 1. Kapila, or tawny leeches : which have a 
 brownish breast, and greenish back, with smooth 
 glossy sides. 
 
 2. Pingula: which have round bodies, are of a 
 pale red colour, with large sharp mouths, and arc 
 very active. 
 
 3. Sankhamukchi : which have long sharp heads 
 and mouths, are of a liver colour, and bite 
 quickly. 
 
 4. Mushika: which are of a mouse colour, and 
 have a bad smell. 
 
 5. Fundurika-mukhi : which are of a brown hue, 
 have mouths like those of lilies, 
 
 6. Shabarika: which are of a green colour, like
 
 372 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the leaves of a water lotus, and are eighteen 
 fingers-breadth long ; this kind is only proper for 
 removing blood from animals. 
 
 These leeches are found in Persia, ancient Delhi, 
 at Mutra, &c> They are got in small numbers 
 in clear and deep pools of water, which contain 
 water lilies, and are surrounded with sweet smell- 
 ing plants. The middle sized leeches are the best, 
 and when they have not drawn enough of blood, 
 the scarifying horn or leather bottle may be 
 applied, and the air raritied to increase the flow 
 of blood. Should the bleeding from leeches be 
 too copious, it may be checked by the application 
 of black salt (chimnie) and oil to the leech-bites. 
 
 These leeches are to be caught in a piece of 
 leather or cloth, and placed in a new water-pot, 
 in which some clay and pure water have been put ; 
 some mud, grass, or leaves of aquatic plants are 
 to be placed on the pot for them to lie upon, and 
 the roots of water lilies and dry flesh are to be 
 given them for food. The water and food are to be 
 changed every third day, and the water pot every 
 seventh day. 
 
 When the leeches grow very large, and are very 
 vigorous, when they are weak or emaciated, when 
 they do not bite or take little food, or are of the 
 venomous kind, they are not to be used. 
 
 I
 
 I 
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 373 
 
 When the part is not very sensible, it is to be 
 rubbed dry, and covered with cow dung and earth 
 to dry it thoroughly. The leech is then to be 
 taken from the water-pot, and its body is to be 
 anointed with mustard-seed paste or turmerick. 
 It is then to be put into a basin with fresh water 
 for a short time, and removed and surrounded with 
 a piece of cloth, and the mouth is to be applied 
 to the part affected. If it does not fix quickly, 
 apply a drop or two of milk or blood to the part, 
 or make one or two very slight scarifications, which 
 will induce it to fix itself more readily. When 
 the leeches are sucking, sprinkle a few drops 
 of cold water upon their bodies ; when they 
 have removed the necessary quantity of blood, 
 sprinkle a small quantity of salt upon their 
 heads, to make them drop off. Put the gorged 
 leech upon some dry bran, with a little oil and 
 salt upon its mouth, and then strip them. Put 
 them next in fresh water, and if they are lively 
 they will live, and may be used again ; but if they 
 are languid, they will soon die, and they should 
 therefore be at once thrown away. 
 
 The part upon which the leeches had fixed is 
 to be smeared with honey, cold water, and astrin- 
 gent substances. In other cases, when inflamma- 
 tion occurs, poultices may bo applied.
 
 374 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Wotinth are of various shapes ; one kind is 
 simple, and another is complicated with the pre- 
 sence of a foreign body. Wounds vary with the 
 part wounded, and the instruments by which they 
 are inflicted. When the s/cm is wounded, it 
 chacges its colour, swells, and is hard; when the 
 fleshy the swelling is greater, the wound gapes, dis- 
 charges thick matter like ghee, and does not scab. 
 When a vessel is wounded, it is accompanied with 
 much pain, blood flows from the wound, which 
 swells, and when it suppurates pus is discharged. 
 When tendons are wounded, they swell, and the 
 discharge is like ghee, or phlegm from the nose, 
 and is mixed with blood ; when bone is fractured, 
 various degrees of pain are produced, the marrow 
 disappears, and the colour of the bone changes to 
 that of a cockle-shell. Pus and marrow are dis- 
 charged from such wounds, and they are attended 
 with pain not easily relieved. 
 
 The six varieties of wounds are — 1, incised 
 wounds, with a large open surface; and 2, penetrat- 
 ing wounds by pointed instruments, as the horn of 
 a cow, &c. This wound discharges little externally, 
 when it penetrates a cavity it fills it with blood. 
 This is followed by fever, thirst, loss of appetite, 
 difficult breathing, and the stoppage of the secre- 
 tions, as urine and sweating. When the stomach 
 
 I
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 375 
 
 is wounded, it is accompanied with a vomiting of 
 blood, and a swelling of the abdomen, with severe 
 pain. When the small intestines are wounded there 
 is much pain, with heaviness of the part, and cold 
 extremities, &c. 3. Another variety is punctured 
 wounds, when the sharp pointed and narrow in- 
 strument is retained in the wound; and a fourth, 
 contused wounds. These four kinds of wounds 
 are accompanied with a large discharge of blood; 
 and if they are also accompanied with severe pain, 
 poultices made of animal flesh and the like, should 
 be used, with fomentations, followed by cold appli- 
 cations. An oily glyster is to be administered in- 
 ternally, and ghee prepared with medicines which 
 correct or diminish the diseased wind. 6, When 
 the injury has been produced by a heavy body fall- 
 ing on, and fracturing the bones, and injuring the 
 soft parts, so that the wound is filled with marrow 
 and blood ; and the 6th variety of wounds is, when 
 the injury is produced by a part of the body 
 coming with violence against a hard body, by which 
 blood is discharged, and the part becomes hot. 
 Should little blood be lost at the time of these in- 
 juries, severe inflammation, and copious suppura- 
 tion will be the consequence. In such cases, 
 and indeed in the general treatment of wounds, 
 cold applications are to be applied. This, how-
 
 376 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 ever, will be varied with the part of the body- 
 injured. 
 
 When the wound is of the head, with a flap of 
 skin, it is to be kept in its place by sutures and a 
 bandage. If a portion of the ear is cut off, it is to 
 be restored to its position, and, by means of sutures 
 and bandages, it is to be kept there. When the 
 windpipe is wounded, and the air passing through 
 it, the wound is to be sewn up closely, smear it 
 with some ghee of the goat, and put over it a 
 circular bandage. The person must lie on his 
 back for some time, and take only flaid food. 
 
 Should the extremities be severely wounded 
 with fracture of bones, retain the parts in their 
 natural position, apply oil, and a bandage over 
 the part. For wounds of the back, the patient is 
 to remain on his back ; and if the wound be of the 
 breast, the person must remain lying on his breast: 
 in both cases, to prevent purulent secretions 
 collecting within the wound. 
 
 When an operation is decided on, a fortunate 
 moment is selected, and curdled milk, corn, &c., 
 are to be offered up to the gods for the success of 
 the operation, and Brahmins to be propitiated with 
 gifts. A clean and well-lighted room is to be 
 chosen in which the operation is to be performed ; 
 and bandages, the leaves of trees, thread, honey,
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 377 
 
 ghee, the juices of different kinds of trees, milk, 
 oil, cold and hot water, are to be in readiness, 
 and strong and steady assistants to hold the 
 patient, while care is taken not to frighten him. 
 Should the patient be very fearful of the knife, or 
 very young, escharotics, the nail, or a sharp piece 
 of the bark of the bamboo, may be substituted ; 
 and for the mouth or eyelids, a kind of grass, or 
 other rough leaves, may be substituted, by rub- 
 bing them over the part. The patient is to be 
 placed with his face to the east, and the surgeon 
 before him with his face to the west. 
 
 The knife should be wet with water before being 
 used. The season for operating is when the sky is 
 clear in the rains, and during the evenings and 
 mornings in the hot weather. If possible, ope- 
 rations should be performed near the new moon, 
 as this is the most favourable time. If the person 
 is weak, much diseased, or insensible, or if the 
 disease has come on suddenly, the operation 
 should be performed during the evening or 
 morning, when the weather is steady and season- 
 able ; a propitious day and hour is to be found 
 out. 
 
 When a boil is to be opened, or the flesh divided, 
 the part is first to have certain escharotics 
 rubbed over it to diminish the pain. When a
 
 378 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 vessel, joint, or sensible part is to be divided, oil 
 is first to be nibbed over it. 
 
 The surgeon should hold the knife firm in the 
 hand ; if it has been thrust into a boil and no pus 
 follows, it is to be quickly withdrawn. If there 
 be much pus in the part, it may be opened several 
 times if necessary ; boils are not to be considered 
 dangerous if elevated upon a flat surface. Should 
 this not be the case, and the boil does not rise, 
 but extends, the diagnosis is less favourable. 
 The surgeon should be strong, and operate 
 quickly ; his knife should be good, and he 
 should neither perspire, shake, nor make ex- 
 clamations. In performing operations, the sen- 
 sible parts of the body are to be avoided ; as 
 the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, 
 vessels, tendons, joints and bones. When near 
 vital organs the knife should be held so as to cut 
 outwards ; and should any such organ be wounded 
 it produces severe pain, and is cured with diffi- 
 culty. If the vital part in an extremity is 
 wounded, it is to be amputated to save the 
 individual's life. If the bone of the head or breast 
 be broken, it is to be raised by the assistance of 
 instruments. (Susruta.) 
 
 When the foetus is dead in the uterus, in ascites, 
 piles, or in certain excrescences and swellings near
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 379 
 
 the anus, which have existed upwards of a month ; 
 the patient is to take dinner before the operation, 
 and it is to be completed while withdrawing the 
 knife. Cold water is then to be applied to the 
 part, the pus is to be squeezed out, and the 
 part cleaned with tepid water. Lint, smeared 
 with honey or ghee, is then to be put into the 
 wound to prevent its closing. The wound is to 
 be rubbed with honey or ghee, and a bandage is 
 then to be placed round the part. The person's 
 spirits must be kept up. 
 
 These operations are often very imperfectly 
 described. They were bold and must have been 
 hazardous, were performed by a select few, and were 
 reduced in number and importance when the native 
 states were broken up, and the Mahommedan rule 
 established. This explains the detailed relation 
 of operations and instrumental practice contained 
 in the ancient writings of the Hindus, which are 
 considered by the moderns as inspired, and 
 consequently held in the highest respect. 
 
 Means of removing foreign substances from the 
 tody. There are two kinds of such extraneous 
 substances, one of which is firmly fixed in the 
 body, and the other is loose. The first is the 
 only kind requiring remarks, and there are fifteen 
 recognised ways of removing such bodies. This
 
 380 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 is sometimes done by drawing out, or by thrusting 
 through the part. If at the time of wounding 
 the person faints, water is first to be thrown upon 
 his face. After the blood has been discharged 
 from the wound, heat, oil, and ghee, and the like, 
 are to be applied to the part. Then put ghee 
 and honey over the wound, bind it up, and order 
 suitable diet, &c. If a vessel or tendon be wounded, 
 the instrument is to be removed by pincers. If 
 it has disappeared under the swelling it is to be 
 pressed, so as to force out the weapon ; or if there 
 be barbs, enlarge the wound, and so remove it. 
 A loadstone may be used when the iron is 
 straight, and is not tightly embedded in the flesh. 
 If it has penetrated the bone, it is to be removed 
 with force, and if required, a string may be tied 
 to the tooth of an elephant, to the neck of a horse, 
 or to a bent branch of a tree, and thus forcibly 
 removed. If in the throat, the extraneous matter 
 may be removed, by thrusting down a hot iron 
 through a metallic tube to detach it. For remov- 
 ing fish-bones in the throat, drink fluids, exhibit 
 emetics, or a probang may be had recourse to ; or 
 blows upon the back. 
 
 Medicines to promote suppuration are used ; that 
 the foreign body may be discharged with the pus 
 and blood. In other cases they are removed by the
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 381 
 
 natural discharges, as by the tears, or from the nose 
 by errhines; or by blowing, when a substance has 
 been introduced into the larynx, producing great 
 irritation, and strong efforts of coughing, &c. If 
 the extraneous substance have passed to the in- 
 testines, purgatives are to be given. If wind, 
 urine, and dejections are not discharged, and are 
 not removed by the efforts of the person, or if 
 the foetus is retained, they are to be removed by 
 manual means. When wind, water, or poison 
 deranges the blood, or when there is bad milk in the 
 mammce, it is to be removed by sucking or cupping, 
 as the poison of serpents is extracted. When grief 
 is the cause, joy will remove it. When the foreign 
 substances are retained they produce fever, un- 
 easiness, swelling, suppuration, and the person 
 will die. 
 
 Amputations. The dread of haemorrhage did 
 not deter the Hindu surgeon from amputating the 
 limb under desperate circumstance. In these cases 
 boiling oil was applied to the stump, with pres- 
 sure, by means of a cup-formed bandage, to 
 arrest the bleeding. Pitch appears to have 
 been added, to assist in stopping the blood. 
 
 Various vegetable decoctions, &c., were used 
 to advance the healing process in wounds. The 
 unfavourable symptoms in these cases were : col-
 
 382 HISTOEY OF MEDICINE 
 
 lections of blood, high fever, and great heat of 
 the body, with acute pain, shivering, coldness of 
 the extremities, redness of the eyes, giddiness, 
 delirium, convulsions, difficulty of breathing, 
 dulness of the senses, stoppage of the secretions^ 
 or a thin serous discharge from the wound. Other 
 bad symptoms are erysipelas^ tetanus, madness, 
 hectic fever, cough, vomiting, diarrhoea, hic- 
 cough, &c. 
 
 Lithotomy. Gravel and stone are very common 
 in some parts of Hindostan. The calculi, from 
 the more relaxed state and less nervous tempera- 
 ment of the person pass more easily with the urine 
 than in more temperate climates ; and are often 
 found implanted near the extremity of the urethra, 
 and require to be removed by enlarging the 
 orifice; or, when at a distance from the extremity, 
 by cutting down upon the calculus. 
 
 The Hindu writers suppose that a urinary 
 calculus is produced by deranged humours, and 
 the physician is recommended to restore these 
 derangements, and so cure the disease. But 
 when this is not accomplished, it is necessary to 
 have recourse to the knife ; and as the operation 
 is difficult and dangerous, the surgeon should 
 receive the sanction of the rajah for its per- 
 formance.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 383 
 
 When this is decided on, Susruta informs ns, 
 the patient must have aperients and ghee adminis- 
 tered internally, for several days previous to the 
 operation. AVhen robust, the strength of the 
 patient should be reduced in the usual way. 
 Before the operation, the instruments should be 
 arranged so as to be at hand when required, 
 prayers should be offered up, and the patient 
 encouraged to hope, by kind words. He is to be 
 placed on a table, supported by a person behind, 
 who separates his legs, which are to be bent and 
 tied to the two wrists. The abdomen is then to 
 be rubbed downwards, so as to make the stone 
 descend ; while the index and middle fingers of 
 the left hand, well-oiled, are introduced into 
 the rectum, and the stone felt and brought low in 
 the perineum, so as to make a protuberance. 
 Should the patient faint at this stage of the opera- 
 tion, it should not be proceeded with, else the 
 patient will die. An incision is then to be made 
 over the- stone, on the left side of the perineum, 
 a barley-corn in breadth from the raphe, and an 
 inch from the anus, and carried down to the stone. 
 The incision is then to be enlarged in proportion 
 to the size of the stone, and it is removed by an 
 iron scoop. If there bo more than one stone 
 they must all be removed, taking care not to break
 
 384 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 the stone, nor to leave any fragments behind as 
 it will, in such a case, slowly form again. These 
 small fragments maybe removed by a scoop. 
 
 The incision may be made on the right side of 
 the perineum, always taking care during the 
 operation to avoid the raphe with the seminal 
 canals, the vessels of the spermatic cord, and the 
 rectum. If the seminal canals or the spermatic 
 vessels are wounded, the person will become im- 
 potent. Wounds of the rectum and raphe will 
 produce most distressing pain. This is the ope- 
 ration which was in Europe called ** cutting on the 
 gripe," or the "apparatus minor." 
 
 The high operation of lithotomy was sometimes 
 performed, and was considered so dangerous, that 
 in the female it was performed by the husband. 
 
 In the female the bladder being situated near 
 the uterus, care must be taken not to thrust the 
 knife directly forward, as it will wound the uterus. 
 The urine passes through the vagina, forming a 
 fistulous opening. 
 
 After the stone has been removed, place the 
 patient in a hip-bath of warm water to promote per- 
 spiration, and to prevent the accumulation of blood 
 in the bladder. Should this collection of blood 
 take place, it is to be removed by injecting a 
 decoction of the Ficus Indica by means of a
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 386 
 
 syringe. To heal the urinary passages, administer 
 sherbets, and apply honey and ghee to the wound. 
 Barley-water with warm ghee is to be administered 
 twice or thrice a-day, for three days, to keep the 
 urine pure ; and then give sugar, rice, and milk 
 in small quantities for ten days ; and fruits, and 
 broths made of the flesh of game animals for ten 
 days ; and for ten more days, promote perspiration 
 by means of warm fomentations with oil and ghee. 
 The wound is to be cleaned with the decoction of 
 the Ficus Indica tree, and other astringent medi- 
 cines are to be applied to the wound. Oil and 
 turmerick is also used with much benefit. When 
 the urine passes by the natural passages, sweet 
 decoctions are to be administered by glysters ; and 
 should the wound not heal up, and the urine pass 
 by the natural passage, the actual cautery must 
 be applied to the fistulous opening. 
 
 When the calculus is small and produced by 
 semen, and cannot be dislodged from the urethra 
 by pressure, an incision is to be made over it, and 
 the calculus removed, by means of a hook. The 
 careless and dirty habits of the Asiatics render this 
 of very frequent occurrence. 
 
 After the operation of lithotomy, riding on horse- 
 back, or elephants, or carriages, as well as venery, 
 should be avoided for a year. The patient should
 
 386 HISTORY OF medicine 
 
 also avoid swimming in water so as to stretch the 
 wound too much, and eating indigestible food to 
 irritate it. 
 
 Besides this, the earliest description of litho- 
 tomy, Susruta gives a description of the means to 
 be employed in performing gastrotomia^ or cutting 
 open the abdomen ; gastrorapJiy^ or sewing wounds 
 of the belly ; gastro-hysterotomia, or cutting into 
 the womb, or the Ceesarian operation; herniatomia, 
 to release strangulated hernia; the rhinoplasHc, 
 operation for forming a nose from the integuments 
 of the forehead ; for curing fistulo-in-ano, &c. All 
 these operations are supposed to require a know- 
 ledge of anatomy, which they probably possessed. 
 
 Hernia is described in Susruta as the descent 
 of a loop of intestine, produced by carrying 
 heavy weights, jumping, fighting with a strong 
 man, or such like violent exercise, which forces 
 the bowel, by means of the wind, from the 
 abdomen into the groin, and, if not arrested, into 
 the scrotum. The tumour is of an oval form, and 
 if properly pressed upon, ascends with a peculiar 
 gurgling noise. If it cannot be returned, it is 
 to be treated as a wind tumour, with fomentations 
 and oleaginous purgatives. 
 
 For curing hernia the following plaster is re- 
 commended to be applied to the part to prevent
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 387 
 
 the descent of the bowel. Take a quarter of 
 a tola of pinus longifolia, acquilaria agallocha; 
 pulchut root, pinus clevaclaru, and dry ginger. 
 These are mixed and made into a paste, with rice- 
 water and cow's urine. The plaster is applied 
 over the hernial canal twice or thrice a- day, as 
 required. When a complete cure is required, 
 apply a half-warm cautery over the neck of the 
 canal, so as to produce adhesive inflammation and 
 an obliteration of the canal. 
 
 Rhinoplastic operations, or means of improving 
 and forming new ears and noses. A particular 
 ceremony is performed for boring the ears of 
 children, which it is not necessary to describe : 
 as ornaments are hung from the ears, it is of 
 cousequence to remove defects from them. Susruta 
 gives directions for performing fifteen different 
 operations. However, the experienced surgeon 
 will vary the operation according to the circum- 
 stances of the case, and according to the nature of 
 the defect. Sometimes these are produced by 
 accidents, or by internal causes. If the helix or 
 antihelix is defective, the body of the external 
 ear is to be half cut through, so as to bind it in 
 its natural form. If there is a deficiency in 
 these parts, a portion of the skin of the same size 
 and figure is to be raised from the cheek, the blood
 
 388 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 stopped, and a bandage applied, so as to keep the 
 parts together of the natural figure and shape. 
 The patient should not sleep during the day, 
 nor eat much, but remain in a cool situa- 
 tion, and avoid fatigue. When the part is properly- 
 healed, apply an oleaginous ointment, prepared with 
 wax, oil, and fat. When the parts are healed up 
 the lobe may be pierced, according to custom. 
 
 If not properly performed, many bad conse- 
 quences will follow these operations, as indura- 
 tions, swellings, ulcers, &c. 
 
 The nose may be destroyed by disease; but a 
 much more common cause is its excision, as a 
 punishment, in the native courts of law, in many 
 parts of Asia. When such a deformity is to be 
 restored, a fresh leaf is cut of exactly the size of 
 the nose, it is then to be placed upon the cheek, 
 and the necessary quantity of skin and cellular 
 membrane is to be traced. The remains of the 
 nose are then scarified, and after dissecting up the 
 flap, it is to be placed upon the raw part of the 
 nose, to which it will adhere. Sutures and baud- 
 ages are applied to keep the parts together. After 
 the bandage has been applied, a couple of wooden 
 canulse are to be introduced into the nostril to 
 allow breathing, and to support the new nose. A 
 piece of linen cloth previously soaked in oil is to 
 
 i
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 389 
 
 be applied over the bandage. An aperient is then 
 to be given to the patient, and his general health 
 is to be attended to. Should any other deficiency 
 of the nose be present it may be supplied in the 
 same manner. If the nose should be deformed it 
 may be reduced in size by the knife. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 SUHGICAL ACCIDENTS 
 
 Are fractures, dislocations, scalds, and burns ; the 
 effects of lightning and smoke. 
 
 Fractures and their treatment. Fractures are 
 produced either by falls, pressure, blows, or sudden 
 and violent contraction of muscles. 
 
 Twelve varieties of fractures are recorded: — as 
 when a bone is fractured near the middle, with 
 a swelling like the form of a crab; when the bone 
 protrudes, like the ear of a horse ; when the bone 
 is crushed, and the fracture is accompanied with 
 bruises; when the bone is depressed, without swell- 
 ing ; when a small part of the bone is raised from its 
 place ; when a large bone is fractured; when abroken 
 part of a bone is thrust into the fractured bone ; 
 
 when it is separated; when partially fractured; 
 
 2 a
 
 390 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 when only a small part of the bone remains unfrac- 
 tured; when comminuted, without pain; and when 
 the bone is swelled, with small openings. These 
 unnecessary divisions have each a particular name. 
 This class of accidents are distinguished from a 
 simple swelling, by a crepitating noise when moved ; 
 by a looseness and weakness, and by great un- 
 easiness and pain in the part. 
 
 In treating such cases, the fracture is first to be 
 reduced by bringing the broken parts together ; 
 and should the fractured parts ride over each other, 
 they should be drawn out and pressed down, and 
 kept in their proper place. Then apply a decoc- 
 tion made of the bark of the moduka urumbora, 
 ossoka, polassa. In other cases the bark of 
 modista, instamola, and rokto-sundonan mixed and 
 rubbed to a pulp with water, to which a little glue 
 and flour are added. The skin over the fracture is 
 to be gently rubbed with this mixture. The bark 
 of the bot-tree is then put over the member, which 
 is then to be secured with a splint. This consists 
 of small thin slips of bamboo, bound together with 
 strings, of sufiicient lengths to extend beyond the 
 extremities of the broken bone; admitting the pas- 
 sage of air, and thus favouring the functions of 
 the skin. They are sufficiently light and flexible 
 to be moulded to the fractured member (see draw-
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 391 
 
 ing, page 354, No. 23. j I have frequently used 
 this admirable splint, which requires little or no 
 padding, and I consider it superior to those used in 
 Europe; particularly for fractures of the thigh, 
 humerus, and radius and ulna; care being always 
 taken that they are only applied moderately tight.* 
 They are, also, very useful in combination with tri- 
 angular and other splints. If hanked, or too tightly 
 applied, the splint will produce pain, swelling, and 
 inflammation; and when too loose the bandage will 
 not keep the broken bones in sufficient position, 
 to ensure a proper bony union. When the fracture 
 extends to a joint, with much inflammation, blood 
 is first to be removed from the part, before having 
 recourse to other remedies. In this case, a cloth, 
 or the flexible bark of trees is to be applied round 
 it, so as to allow a little movement, by which the 
 joint will not be anchylosed. 
 
 The bandages should be removed every seventh 
 day, in cold weather; in a temperate season every 
 fifth day ; and in hot weather, every third day ; 
 or according to the individual circumstances of the 
 caseu 
 
 * It is a gra'ifying fact, that since the first edition of this work, these 
 splints have been introduced into this country, under the name of " Duncan's 
 Patent Ratan Cane Splint," and adopted by the Director-General, Army 
 Medical Department, fur the use of tlie Hritish Army, and by many surgeons 
 in private practice. Kennan's Ela.-tic Garden Seats, are, also, useful 
 modifications of the same Eastern splints.
 
 392 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 Cold astringent decoctions of the bark of different 
 trees should be applied over the bandages, when 
 the injury is accompanied with pain and inflamma- 
 tion ; such as a decoction of the citrus aurantium 
 (nagrodhor), ficus glomerata (udambar), wild fig, 
 (religlosa aswatha), millingtonia pinnata, (bata) 
 &c. At the same time the part should be kept per- 
 fectly at rest, and every care taken to keep down 
 inflammation, and prevent suppuration. After a 
 few days, warm oil should be applied over the part, 
 prepared with different drugs, to be varied accord- 
 ing as the wind, bile, and phlegm are affected. 
 
 Fractures are easily united in youth, and usually 
 require one month for their cure ; in middle age, 
 two months; and in old age, three months. 
 Fractures do not unite so quickly when the per- 
 sons are old and eat little, are intemperate, or 
 are affected by a severe disease. Such persons 
 should avoid salt, astringent, hot, and acid food, 
 also connection with women, exposure to the sun, 
 and to fatigue. They should also avoid dry food, 
 and live on soft boiled rice, animal broths, milk, 
 ghee, and such like nourishing food. When the 
 fracture is compound, the same plan of treatment 
 is to be followed, as recommended for simple frac- 
 tures; the wound being dressed with ghee, honey, 
 and astringent decoctions.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 393 
 
 Fractures are dangerous when comminuted, or 
 when involving one or more bones of the head, 
 or the thigh bone or pelvis ; when they extend 
 to joints, or are produced from falling from a great 
 height. They are also dangerous when the person 
 is very weak, very old, or affected with ulcers, 
 or leprosy, and when bad symptoms of wind are 
 present. 
 
 2. Dislocations and ilicir treatment. This accident 
 is known by the limb being either lengthened or 
 shortened, and the bone being either turned inward 
 or outward, accompanied with pain, particularly on 
 moving the joint. There are six varieties of this 
 accident : when the dislocated joint is crushed and 
 swollen, both above and below, with much pain, 
 which is increased at night ; 2nd, when the swell- 
 ing and pain are continual, and without any move- 
 ment in the joint; 3rd, when the joint is twisted ; 
 4th, when one part of the joint is turned outward 
 with severe pain; 5th, when one of the bones of 
 the joint is displaced ; and Cth, when one of the 
 bones is forced downwards with much pain. 
 
 The treatment of dislocations is to be commenced 
 by applying fomentations, and warm oleaginous 
 applications, with frictions, so as to soften and 
 relax the parts. The surgeon will then reduce 
 the bone by forcing it out of its new position, and
 
 394 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 pressing it in the opposite direction from that in 
 which it had been displaced, so as to allow it to 
 slip into its natural position. 
 
 When the hip or knee-joint is dislocated, the 
 extension must be made with a kind of a pully 
 called chaTcra. When reduced, the patient should 
 be placed in bed, and the part at rest. When of 
 long standing, fomentations and oleaginous fric- 
 tions are to be diligently applied before the bone 
 is reduced. 
 
 A dislocated rib is to be reduced by pressing 
 with the thumb and second finger, after the soft 
 parts have been well relaxed by being rubbed with 
 ghee. A proper splint and bandage is to be applied 
 to keep the bone in its position. 
 
 The dislocated humerus is to be reduced by pull- 
 ing the bone strongly downwards, or along the 
 side, after a pillow or ball had been put in the 
 axilla, when the bone will slip into its place. The 
 joint is then to be surrounded with a bandage which 
 passes round the axilla and the neck in the form 
 of 8. This bandage is called swastika. 
 
 The dislocated elbow-joint is to be reduced by 
 the extension and flection of the fore-arm, while 
 pressure is made by the thumb and fingers upon 
 the displaced head of the bone. 
 
 The same means are to be employed in order to 
 
 1
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 395 
 
 reduce the dislocation of the wrist and ankle- 
 joint. 
 
 When the bones of the neck are dislocated, it 
 is to be reduced by a person placing his thumbs 
 under the angles of the jaw-bone, and fingers 
 upon the side of the neck, and pressing the head 
 slowly upwards, while another person retains the 
 body at rest. When the dislocation is reduced, 
 the person is to be kept in an erect position for a 
 week. 
 
 The dislocation of the lower jaw is to be reduced 
 by drawing it downwards, when the bone will slip 
 into its place ; the part is then to be rubbed with 
 warm ghee, and a four tailed bandage is to be 
 applied over the chin, so that two of the bands are 
 tied behind, and two on the top of the head. 
 
 When the bones of the nose are depressed, they 
 are to be raised into their natural position by means 
 of an instrument called shalaka ; and a hollow 
 wooden tube is kept in the nostrils, so as to retain 
 the bones in their natural position. Ghee is then 
 rubbed externally over the part. 
 
 After a dislocated bone has been reduced, a 
 plaster is to be applied to the part, consisting of 
 munjista, liquorice, red sandalwood, and rice, 
 which are to be pounded separately, and mixed 
 together. The plaster is then to be formed by
 
 396 HISTORY OF MEDICINE 
 
 mixing the powder with ghee, which has been 
 washed a hundred times in water. This plaster 
 is to be continually applied over the dislocated 
 joint for a considerable time after it had beea 
 reduced. Should there be much pain in the part, 
 a cold infusion of maghadha panchamuli in milk, 
 and chakra oil are to be applied. 
 
 Every morning during the treatment, some pre- 
 pared ghee, mixed with such medicines as will 
 improve the health, and keep the bowels relaxed, 
 is to be taken. 
 
 In sprains and bruises nothing is to be done, 
 except the application of cold lotions and plasters. 
 In some cases circular bandages covered with ghee 
 by itself, or mixed with a decoction of casha (a 
 kind of grass), are to be applied over the part. 
 
 The treatment is said to have been proper when 
 no deformity is left in the part, and it has its 
 natural actions. 
 
 3. Scalds and hums. There are four degrees 
 of burns : — Scalds, in which there is severe pain, 
 with a change of colour in the part; hot remedies 
 are to be applied. 
 
 When the burn is accompanied with blisters 
 and much pain, then sometimes cold, and at other 
 times hot applications should be used, with ghee 
 and fomentations.
 
 AMONG THE ASIATICS. 397 
 
 When the burnt part is of a black colour, 
 with little pain, and does not blister, in such cases 
 a paste of sandalwood, yellow earth, and the 
 bark of the wild banyan tree, are to be mixed 
 with ghee, and applied to the part. The flesh of 
 domestic animals is also recommended to be 
 chopped fine, and applied to the part. 
 
 When the burn has been still more severe, 
 so as to destroy the part, it will be accompanied 
 with fever, thirst, faintness, and will heal slowly. 
 The dead parts are to be removed, and cold ap- 
 plied ; a decoction of the bark of the tinduka tree 
 is to be mixed with ghee, and applied cold to the 
 part. In other cases, an ointment made of wax, 
 liquorice root, ghee and resin may be applied. 
 
 4. Lightning. When a person is struck with 
 lightning and is not killed, anoint the body with 
 oil, and use frictions assiduously. 
 
 5. When a person choked with smoke, and suffers 
 from difficult and sonorous breathing, with cough, 
 and red and burning eyes, followed by difficulty 
 in breathing and smelling, fever, and thirst ; the 
 juice of sweet and acid fruits should be used as an 
 emetic to clear the stomach ; and the juice of the 
 sugar-cane and grapes should be given, mixed 
 with water and sugar for drink. 
 
 END OF VOL I.
 
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