mW W tW<; < »WWt»W WW W< WMMM tW< WW W i {|ili!tfi||l!l(t!lll!Hliittilll»l(ilfiltiHiilt!IHiniH{l»if»ll8l{i«{tlf l;r>!l;|! il ' ' ■lliiiiii ■ iJU'iMi: I ■ 'rnnirOTtHfiiMtiiil mnm mmm > 'ii! i H'H mllliti a I 1>U' I - • •f-ti* tt*<*t il#«b4lk4 (1 )l'«4f' Kill Mil M d Hi 'II!' Hnl iii ill ' HHil^i liiiiiii^iiRir ipiiiiif ^ii ijiiiji ■••■'•■•■i'ii GINN AND lillliliiiiiiiilip MmuutuuuututiMiUiUiitmttuutiuuttuiuw-i This book is DUE on the last date stamped below ^61 8 I Y)nn iR. •y^ SOS JTHERN BRANCH ■^^' "F CALIFORNIA, -•S AJ\ ^^". .•4..-.:.; 1 ^ jffi^ei ^ w — , — - ' .jii, 11 '^v^.^^'iri ul»^>*. ^A^f, »L 10. Shipyards on the Clyde. 11. Building an ocean liner. 12. German shipyards. 13. Shipbuilding in the United States. 14. The growth and future of shipbuilding. II 1. Write the log of a tramp steamer, including stops at six differ- ent ports. Give the cargo taken on at each one and its destination. On an outline map of the world trace the voyage of the steamer. Trace also, with a dotted line, the route followed by the traiup steamer mentioned in the text. 2. Write a list of the different kinds of vessels of which you have heard. 3. What is included in the terms "Great Britain," "British Isles," "British Commonwealth of Nations"? 4. Write a list of the rivers of England and Scotland spoken of in the chapter. Make a map of Great Britain and on it show the rivers in your list. Indicate also the cities in which shipbuilding is caiTied on. 5. Write a list of the different kinds of workmen employed in building an ocean liner. SHIPS AND SHIPBUILDING 39 6. Make a map of the United States and locate some of our great shipyards. 7. Make a map of Scotland. Sliow the surrounding waters, the highlands, lowlands, the coal and iron deposits, the cities mentioned, and the lakes. Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following- place and tell what was said about it in tliis chapter. Add other facts if possible. British Isles California Chile China England France Germany Greece Ireland Japan New England Russia Scotland United States Aberdeen Belfast - Chatham Cowes Dartmouth Devonport Edinburgh Falmouth Glasgow Hongkong- Kiel Leith Liverpool Marseille New York Pembroke Philadelphia Portsmouth Sail Francisco Seattle Southam]>ton Stettin Yokohama Ben Lomond Cheviot Hills Hog Island Scottish Highlands Scottish Lowlands Trossachs Baltic Sea Bristol Channel Chesapeake Bay names. Locate each and in the previous Clyde River Columbia River Connecticut River Delaware Bay Delaware River English Channel Forth River Great Lakes Gulf of Mexico Humber River Irish Sea Kiel Canal Lagan River Loch Katrine Loch Lomond Mersey River North Sea Solway River Tay River Tees River Thames River Tweed River Tyne River Wear River CHAPTER III IRELAND AND THE LINEN INDUSTRY The southern part of Ireland is known as the Irish Free State. This, with the Government of Northern Ireland, makes up the country of Ireland. We will land at Cobh. This city was formerly called Queenstown, but the name has been changed to Cobh. The city is beautifully situated on Great Island, in the harbor of Cork. The bay is about six miles wide at its mouth, but narrows rapidly inland to where the city rises from the water in green hills terraced by zigzag streets. Every summit and island is strongly fortified, for Cobh, guarding as it does the western coast of England, is an important military and naval station of the British Isles." On the green slopes are many fine estates overlooking the harbor, and a splendid cathedral towers from the summit of a hill. A large marine hospital for British sailors is also situated on the heights, while just beyond are the long, low barracks, from which come the rattle of a drum and the shrill sound of a bugle calling the soldiers to the daily drill. \ From the heights we can look down over the beautiful harbor with its encircling hills and green islands, out to the broad entrance, where its blue waters meet the wide expanse of the ocean. A great steamer is sailing majes- tically out into the dim blue beyond, and as we watch it grow smaller and smaller in the distance, until it is onlji 40 IRELAND AND THE LINEN INDUSTRY 41 a tiny speck on the horizon, we think of the mothers and fathers, the wives and sisters and sweethearts, who have watched the ships sail out from this " port of tears," bear- ing away the strongest and finest of Ireland's sons and daughters to seek their fortunes in the New World. Since the great potato famine, which oc- curred near the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury, nearly one half of the entire population of Ireland has emigrated to America. There are but few families in the south- ern part of the coun- try which have not lost a father, a brother, a sister, or some other rela- tive through the port of Cobh. Conditions in Ireland are much bet- ter than in former years. Her people are intensely patriotic, and future years ^nll see fewer of her young men and women emigrating to other countries. We can go from Cobh to Cork, a distance of less than a dozen miles, by train or by boat up the river Lee. As the river is walled in nearly the entire distance and is lined on either side with docks and factories and storehouses, ^ Underwood & Underwood Fig. 15. "Think of the Mothers and FaTHKKS . . . WHO HAVE WATCHED THE Ships sail out from this 'Port OF Tears' " 42 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE we shall find the trip by rail more pleasant. From the ear windows we get flying glimpses of the country around, and we begin to understand why Ireland is known as the Emerald Isle, for surely no fields or meadows in any part of the world can be greener. There are no high mountains to shut out the moist, westerly winds which blow in from the Atlantic Ocean, and as a consequence rains are very frequent. Every one travels with raincoat and umbrella, and no one minds very much the frequent showers, be- cause, as the cheery na- tives tell us, it's such a iXentle rain. We realize after a walk through the streets of Cork, a city consider- ably smaller than Port- land, , Oregon, that we are really in the land of St. Patrick, for we cross St. Patrick's bridge, climb the hill named in his honor, walk down the street called by his name, and rest awhile in St. Patrick's Square. We should know that we are in the land of the Blarney Stone by the kindly greeting, " May Heaven bless your sweet face," given to us by an old woman who, with her small cart filled with butter, eggs, and gooseberries, is on her way to market. In her stout shoes and short skirt, with © I'riderwooil & I iiderwood Fig. 16. We walk down St. Patrick's Stkeet IRELAND AND THE LTXEN INDUSTRY 43 her black shawl over her head, she has driven in from the country in a queer-looking, low-backed donkey cart. We see similar carts piled high with blocks of dried turf, called peat, which the natives use for fuel. The blocks are shaped somewhat like bricks and make a slow, hot fire. In Cork we engage an Irish jaunting car, such as you see in the picture (Fig. 17), for a ride to Blarney Castle. We sit back to back, with our feet on boards over the wheels, and enjoy the ride, while ourdi-iver entertains us with stories, half legend and half history, of old days in Cork and of sieges of the castle. The object of our trip is not to kiss the Blarney Stone, which is built into one of the walls of the castle, and thus acquire the " golden tongue," which is said to be given to those who accom- plish the feat, but to enjoy the view from the top of the tower. It is certainly worth the climb. Spread out at our feet are the greenest of green meadows, dotted with white daisies and red poppies. Fat, contented-looking cattle and sheep are feeding all around. White roads hedged in with old stone walls, some of them covered with beautiful fuchsias, wind in and out over the hills and through the valleys. We catch a glimpse of an old ruined castle and see here and Fig. 17. © Keystone View Co. " In Cork we engage an Irish Jaunting Car " 44 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE there a fine estate of the gentry, set in a grove of grand old trees and inclosed by high stone walls. Most of the buildings in sight, however, are low cottages with thatched roofs, which look very picturesque in the distance. A nearer view soon robs them of much of their charm, for they are poor little shanties at best, built of stone or mud, with the eaves not more than five or six feet from the ground. Small win- dows of only a few panes each ai"e on either side of the door, and the interior of the cottage seems rather damp and gloomy. There are sev- eral skillets and other cooking dishes hanging on the walls around, and a smoldering lire of peat, sending out a not unpleasant odor into the room, glows in the fireplace. You will read further on in this chapter a description of the cutting and preparing of peat, which is the common fuel of Ireland. Near the house we see small patches of potatoes and vegetables and perhaps a small field of wheat or corn, but most of the land is given over to pasturage for the cattle. Since the emigration of so many of the young men from ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K'^v s^i^StM \ < ■: jH ^ 1 s^^fl © Underwood & I'liderwood Fig. 18. It is in sich a Home as this THAT Some of the Poorer People of Irelaxd live IRELAND AND THE LINEN INDUSTRY 45 this part of Ireland, fewer farm products are grown, and hay and cattle, which requii-e a smaller number of hands, are raised instead. All over central and southern Ireland stock raising is the chief industry. We understand now the reason for the great stores of butter and bacon and the large number of cattle, which we saw being loaded at Cork onto steamers bound for England and the Contment. Twice as many cattle are imported into Great Britain from Ireland as come from all the rest of the world put together. It would require a train of cars nearly ten miles long to carry the butter which is sent every year out of the harbor of Cork. As for the eggs, it would take you several years, counting as rapidly as possible and stopping neither to eat nor to sleep, to count the millions of dozens that are ex- ported from Cork in one year. If we were to load into wagons the cans of condensed milk wdiich are shipped from the harbor in the same time, estimating a ton to a horse, we should need more than seven thousand horses to draw the loads to the wharves. The government has been of great help in developing the dairy industry throughout Ireland. Efforts have been made to teach the people better methods of farming, and in many places dairies and creameries have been established where the farmers can find a steady sale for their milk at fair prices. The flax fields which we are to visit, lie in the northern part of the country, and reluctantly we leave the tower and return to Cork, where we take a train for Dublin, one hun- dred sixty miles away. Our route lies through a rolling country similar to that which we saw from the top of Blar- ney Castle. There are the same green pastures and fat 46 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE cattle, the same little thatched cottages, the same kindly old people, who greet us with a cheerier smile and a more hearty '' God bless you " because we come from the coun- try Avhere so many friends and neighbors and relatives have gone. Emigration has drawn most heavily from the counties through which we are passing, — the names of which jon have heard many times, — Cork, Limerick, Tipperary, Kilkenny, and others. They are the most fertile parts of Ireland, yet many of the villages and towns have lost, through the departure of so many of their inhabitants for America, more than one half of their population, and wdiere once grew great crops of M^heat, oats, barley, potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables, we now see hayfields, and pastures where many cattle and sheep are feeding. Every cabin has its garden patch, and in all of them potatoes are the chief crop. In parts of the country, espe- cially in the south and west, these vegetables form the chief food of the people. Ireland is not quite as large as the state of IVIaine, yet several times as many potatoes are raised in the Emerald Isle as in our Pine Tree State. To store them all, you would need a cellar so huge that it would be several times as deep as your schoolhouse is high. It would, in fact, have to be more than five hundred feet long and of the same width and depth. Our journey to Dublin takes us through the peat bogs, or, as someone has called them, " the gold mines of Ire- land." These low, green meadows are made of accumula- tions of a peculiar kind of moss, which has grown and decayed for centuries, until the layers are several feet thick. IRELAND AND THE LINEN INDUSTRY 47 Over there to our right are some men and boys cutting peat. Many hundreds of people earn their living by pre- paring the blocks for fuel and selling them. Let us see how the work is done. We make our war through the coarse grass and the tall rushes toward the long, black mounds of peat, beside the trenches where the cutters are at work. (£) Uuderwood & Underwood Fig. 19. "They cut the Peat into Blocks about the Size of a Bkick or Larger, and throw theji out of the Ditch" The men are standing in the black mud and water halfway up to their knees, and their two garments, Avhich we shall have to dignify by the names of shirt and trousers, are the color of the mud. Using a long, narrow spade, they cut the peat into blocks about the size of a brick or larger, and throw them out of the ditch onto the bank. Another workman piles these onto a curiously made wheelbarrow, while a third wheels the load away toward 48 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE the black pile, where the women stack the blocks to dry. Here they remain for several weeks, until dry enough to be sold or carted away for use. Nearly all the people in Ire- land burn peat for fuel, and it is hard to say what would become of the poorer classes if the supply should fail, for there is no coal and but little wood in the country. There is no immediate danger of exhausting the supply, however, as one sixth of the island, an area larger than the whole state of Connecticut, is covered with bogs from which, though immense quantities are cut each year, Ireland can be supplied with fuel for centuries. We will delay our trip to the flax fields for a short stay in Dublin, the capital of the Irish Free State and the second city in importance. It is about the size of New Orleans and is situated near Dublin Bay. We will take a tram, as the electric cars in Europe are usually called, for a tour through the city. Instead of taking the seats inside the car, we choose those on the top as being the best for sight-seeing. Most of the finer residences are surrounded by high stone walls, behind which the people enjoy in privacy their beautiful parks and gardens, and the higher seats give us a chance to peep over the walls. Several handsome bridges span the Liffey River, on which Dublin is situated, and broad, green-banked canals connect the city with the interior of the country. On these waterways queer, flat boats bring to Dublin many cattle and great quantities of dairy products, potatoes, and grain, to be shipped to England and to other countries. Since Dublin is a capital city, it contains many fine build- ings, including courthouses, hospitals, asylums, libraries, cathedrals, colleges, and the customhouse. We pass many of IRELAND AXD THE LINEN INDUSTRY 49 these on our trip, and on our return we go through the busi- ness and industrial portion of the city, where we see many- breweries and distilleries. The making of ale, beer, whisky, and other liquors is one of the most important industries, and these products are exported in immense quantities. ) Uuderwood & Underwood Fig. 20. "On the Green Meadows are Yards and Yards of Linen bleaching in the Sun and Rain" As we go from Dublin northward the appearance of the country changes. The farms are larger. The fields of flax, grain, potatoes, and other vegetables are well cultivated. The houses are larger and more comfortable; they have wooden floors, stoves, beds, and other conveniences not found in the cottages farther south. From the train we see the smokestacks of factories in the busy towns, and on the 50 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE green meadows are yards and yards of linen bleaching in the sun and rain. We pass field after field of the growing- flax, and realize that at last we are in the midst of the famous Irish linen region. On one of the farms we see some men pulling flax. They knock the dirt from the roots by a blow agamst the foot, and lay the straw m bundles. Farther on we see meadows covered with straw spread out, and spoiling, as it seems to us, in the dampness. What a queer plant it is I It is pulled up by the roots instead of being cut, and is laid out in the dew and rain instead of being kept dry, as most crops are. The part of the plant which is used for manufacturing is the soft inner fiber, which lies under the outer bark, or covermg. We find, by taking one of the stalks and trying to break it, that the fiber is seldom more than two or three inches long. Before it can be used it must be separated ftfom the woody part of the stem. To help m this process ':he stalk is rotted, or retted, as it is usually called, by put- ;ing it into running water or into natural or artificial pools of still water, or by spreading it out on damp meadows. You would not like this part of the work, I am sure, for the smell from the decaying wood is very unpleasant, and those fields where we saw the straw lying on the ground are better examined at a distance. We understand now, how- ever, that the flax was not being spoiled by the dampness, as we thought, but was, instead, being prepared for use. After the retting the decayed, woody matter is sepa- rated from the soft, silky fiber. The bundles of straw are removed from the water cr from the meadows where they have been lying, and are thoroughly dried, after which the stalks are run through machines consisting of fluted IRELAND AND THE LINEN INDUSTRY 51 rollers, which break up and loosen the brittle pieces of woody matter. They are then scraped by means of flat wooden paddles. When this process, called scutching, was done by hand, the farmer held the straw in one hand and struck it a glancing blow with the paddle held in the other. To-day, however, scutching is done not by hand but by machinery. A wheel carrying several blades revolves so rap- idly that these paddles strike the fiber nearly two thousand blows a min- ute. This soon breaks the woody matter up into fine bits, which, with the dust, are removed by currents of air. The silky, gray fibers are then sorted, tied up in small bundles, and done up in bales of about two hundred pounds each. Arriving at the fac- tory, the tangled, un- even fibers are combed, or hackled, until they lie straight and smooth, and the shorter ones, called tow, from which only cheap goods can be made, are combed out. The fibers are spun into yarn or thread and are then woven into cloth or fashioned into fine lace. The spinning and weaving are similar to the spinning and weaving of cotton or wool, except that the flax thread is usually kept ' tfhderwood & Underwood Fig. 21. Ahuiving at the Factory, THE Tangled Fibers are hackled 52 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE moist during the process. For this reason the damp climate of Ireland assists materially in making the manufacture of linen so successful in that country. As we come neai*er to the Belfast district, everything is as different from southern Ireland as a manufacturing city is from a country village. The sunshine and the rain, or " the smiles and tears of Ireland," as some one has called them, are, however, just the same, and the tears come fully as often in the north of Ireland as in the south. In one year in Belfast it rained two hundred thirty-two clays out of the three hundred sixty-five. The linen industry would not be so important as it is if the air were less moist, so the people have cause to be glad rather than to grieve over the frequent rains. Belfast, the Chicago of Ireland, is the largest linen- manufacturing center in the world. It is nearly as large as Cincinnati, and in its bustle and activity reminds us of the great manufacturing cities of the United States. It is more Scotch than Irish in its customs, for many of the inhabitants are descendants of early settlers from Scotland. The coal fields of Scotland, across the North Channel, are largely responsible for the manufacturing development of the city. Coal can be brought to Belfast by water more cheaply than it can be carried by rail for a shorter distance to inland cities of Great Britain. These and other large centers in England and on the Continent furnish good markets for the manufactured products of Belfast. The city is beautifully situated near the mouth of the Lagan River. The green hills which encircle it are thickly studded with villas and country houses of the wealthy mer- chants. The streets are wide and well paved, and there IRELAND AXD THE LINEN INDUSTRY 53 • are fine drives, parks, and gardens. We are less interested, however, in tlie beauty of the city than in its industries, which are remarkable. It has, as you know, some of the largest shipyards in the \Aorld in which thousands of people find employment. It has also extensive rope and twine works for Avhich many thousand tons of fiber are imported annually. The great foundries and machine shops make spinning and weaving machines for the linen industry all over the world. Belfast is one of the noted cities of the world for the making of bottled waters, ginger ale, soda water, and other refreshing beverages. Besides these industries Belfast has many others, among which are bleacheries, dj^ehouses, flour mills, oil mills, and sawmills, calico printing and chemical works, breweries, distilleries, tobacco factories, and other great manufacturing plants. The huffe linen mills interest us more than all the others, and they are really more important. There are many of them, and they produce enormous quantities of linen cloth. In the mills of one of the great companies enough linen thread is made each day to go five times around the earth at the equator. In our ride through Ireland we saw flax fields covering many acres. The linen industry of Belfast, however, is so immense that in ordinary years millions of dollars worth of flax, chiefly from Russia and Belgium, must be imported annually into the city to feed her greedy mills. You are probably wondering what place the United States holds in the flax and linen industry. We raise a great deal of flax, and rank, with Argentina, Russia, and India, among the great flax-producing countries of the world. 54 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The plant is grown in the United States, however, not so much for the liber as for the seeds, which are very valuable. You have doubtless heard of linseed oil, which is made in immense quantities from flaxseed. There is no other oil which, when mixed with paints and varnishes, dries so readily and leaves so fine a surface. Millions of gallons are spread every year on our houses, leathers are dressed with it, the oilskin clothing of sailors is soaked in it, and it stares at us in the ink on our newspapers. The flax seeds are crushed in much the same way as those of the cotton plant in making cottonseed oil. After the oil has been extracted the crushed seeds are made into cakes, which are considered a valuable food for cattle. Millions of bushels of flaxseed are produced annually. Argentina, India, Russia, and the United States produce nearly all of this immense quantity. TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. Desci-iption of Cobh. 7. Xorthern Ireland. 2. A trip to Blarney Castle. 8. Cultivation of flax. 3. Cattle and dairy i^roducts. 9. Manufacture of linen. 4. Emigration. 10. Description of Belfast. 6. Peat. 11. Flax industry in other countries. 6. Description of Dublin. 12. Flaxseed. II 1. Trace the voyage and name the waters sailed on in a voyage from Cobh to New York. 2. Sketch a map of Ireland. Locate all cities mentioned in the chapter. Write the names of the surrounding waters. Trace our route from Cobh to Belfast. Add the map of Scotland and indicate the coal and iron regions of that country. IRELAND Ax\D THE LINEN INDUSTRY 55 3. Write the story of the formation of peat and of its preparation for use. 4. Write a list of the markets to which exports from Belfast may be sent. Locate each city. 5. Name the processes in the prejoaration of flax. Describe each. 6. Make a list of the industries of Belfast. Try to think of some reason for the location of each one in that city. 7. What countries produce the best flax fiber? the most flaxseed? 8. Add to your school collection by bringing samples of flax- seed and linseed oil: also samples of articles made of jute, of flax, and of hemp. 9. Why was there such a linen shortage during the World War? "NMiat very important use did linen serve during the war? Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each i^lace and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Argentina Belgium Connecticut Great Britain India Ireland Maine Russia Scotland United States Belfast Chicago Cobh Cork Dublin New Orleans Portland San Francisco Lagan River Lee River Liffey River North Channel CHAPTER IV JUTE, HEMP, AND OTHER FIBERS Other fibers besides flax are ' of great value in the industrial world, and many new ones, unknown to-day, will be used in the future. In tlie deep forests of tropical lands there are varieties of trees and plants the names of which are as yet scarcely known, but which sometime \\'ill supply much of the demand for libers to use in textiles and other manufactures. You have all seen the brown bags — gunny bags they are called — in which grain is sometimes shipped, or the coarse bagging in which bales of cotton and wool are done up. Perhaps you have on 3'our floors at home some of the liber rugs which are now so popular. All these and many other articles are made of jute. Jute is one of the fibers whose original home was in a tropical jungle. To-day it is widely used in manufacturing. To see the plant growing and to learn how it is raised, we shall have to take a long journey to the southern part of Asia. We will go to the province of Bengal in India, for nearly all the jute used in the ^^■orld comes from that region. There we shall see fields upon fields of the tall, slender plant waving in the tropical breeze. It grows in single stalks to the height of ten or twelve feet, and the jute fields in the province of Bengal alone cover an area half as large as the state of Massachusetts. 56 JUTE, HEMP, AND OTHER FIBERS 57 The crop is sown, cared for, and reaped by the dark- skinned natives of India, who also work in large numbers in the great jute mills of Calcutta. These workmen are very unlike the mill operatives in the United States and in Europe. They live in villages made up of huts built of mud or bricks, or of palm leaves woven into sheets and tacked onto bamboo poles. The huts are thatched with a long, tough grass used for the purpose throughout India. The floor is of clay, covered in places wdth matting made of bamboo grass. There may be a few rough benches, pos- sibly a rude bed, but little other furniture. The natives eat on the floor, squatted around a pot or pan containing the food, which is probably a preparation of rice, vegetables, and curry. No knives, forks, or spoons are used, as the fingers answer all purposes. As the climate is so warm the people wear but little clothing. The men in the jute fields are dressed in Avhat looks to us like a shrunken bathing suit, while the women are draped with many yards of thin muslin. About blossoming tinre the jute is cut close to the ground, and the leaves and branches are trimmed off. The stalks are retted in a manner similar to the retting of flax. They are then beaten to remove the woody matter, after which the fiber is cleaned, dried, and made into bales of four hundred pounds each. Several millions of such bales are produced each year, many of which are sent to Calcutta for manufacture, and many more to Scotland, the remamder being scattered among different countries. Most of that bound for Scotland is shipped direct from Calcutta to Dundee, a fine port on the Tay River, about eight miles from the sea. It is the chief center in Great Britam for 58 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE the manufacture of coarse linen fabrics, and is the birth- place of jute manufacturing. A greater variety of products than most people realize is made in Dundee from this coarse fiber. Among them are burlap, wadding, sailcloth, curtain and furniture hang- ings, imitation tapestries and fancy goods, and mixtures of linen, cotton, and silk. There are more than fifty jute mills in Dundee, in which enough jute cloth is made annually to stretch a layer of more than thirty thicknesses entirely across the United States from Boston to San Francisco. In these mills many thousands of people, three fourths of whom are women, find employment. Jute is raised and manufactured very cheaply in India, and in order to compete with that coun- try, manufacturers in Dundee must keep their prices as low as possible, AVomen can be hired more cheaply than men, and more than half of the seventy-five thousand women and girls who live in the city of Dundee earn their own living, and perhaps that of relatives dependent on them, by working in the mills and factories. ]\Iany of the families of the operatives live in houses of one or two rooms, sleep in the kitchen, and have little leisure for fun. The schools are good, and the boys and girls are obliged to attend them until they are fourteen years of age, when most of them go to work. Their food is plain — porridge and milk for breakfast, a soup made of meat, leeks, carrots, turnips, and barley for dinner, and bread, butter, and tea for supper, with perhaps a piece of fish or meat for the men. The world's entire crops of cotton and coffee, and much of the gram, sugar, and rice, are shipped in jute bagging. JUTE, HEMP, AND OTHER FIBERS 59 and its manufacture is a very important industry. Not alone in Dundee, but in other cities of Great Britain, in other European countries, and in the United States, there are many jute mills. To supply the looms in our country, we buy each year many million dollars' worth of the fiber. FiG. 22. The True Hemp is a Tall, Slender Plant which grows TO A Height of from Five to Fifteen Feet Courtesy of Mr. T. R. Bryant, College of Agriculture, Lexington, Kentucky Brazil is the best customer for British-made jute yarn, which is manufactured in the great South American Republic into millions of bags to hold her immense coffee crop. Calcutta, however, takes highest rank for both the export and the manufacture of jute fiber. In one year there is shipped from India, largely by way of Calcutta, enough jute fiber to fill more than twenty-five thousand freight 60 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE cars, enough yards of gunny cloth to wrap between fifteen and twenty times around tlie eartli at the equator, and more than two hundred million gunny bags. Fig. 23. Combing Hemp Courtesy of the International Harvester Company There are many other fibers used in the manufacture of articles which we should surely miss if we were to be deprived of them. Did you ever think of the value of rope and other cordage as an article of commerce, and of the JUTE, IIEMr, AND OTHER FIBERS 61 great variety of uses to which it is put? By its aid the sailor adjusts his sails, the fisherman reaps his ocean harvest, the soldier fastens down his tent, the workman arranges his staging, and the farmer binds up his sheaves of grain. Rope has been used for many centuries. Pictures on the tombs of Egyptian mummies buried hundreds of years ago illustrate the making of rope. Most savage peoples Fig. 24. One Firm manufactures Twine enough Every Year to stretch to the moon and back more than thirty tlmes Courtesy of the International Harvester Company manufacture rope of some sort, and many different kinds of fiber are used for this purpose. Rope is made chiefly of hemp, and a number of plants are included under this name. The true variety is a tall, slender plant with a single hollow stalk which grows to a height of from five to fifteen feet. Russia has produced more hemp than all tlie rest of the world. It is also grown in Central Europe, Italy, France, Germany, in certain parts 62 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE of Asia and Africa, and to a small extent in the United States — in Kentucky, California, and in some other sections. If any of you own a canary, you have probably noticed how fond he is of hempseed, and large quantities are sold each year to be used as bird food. The newly sown fields of hemp have to be care- fully watched, lest the birds should get more than their share. The hemp is cut and the fiber is separated from the woody part of the stalk in much the same wa,j as the flax is treated. The fibers of the hemp are much longer and coarser and can- not be easily bleached. Hemp is not so use- ful, therefore, for fine, delicate articles as for rougher materials, such as ropes and twine. Hemp is grown all over Russia, except in the extreme north. Nearly two million acres are covered with this tall, graceful plant, and an enormous quantity of the fiber is produced. More than half of this is used in Russia itself, and the remainder is sent to the different European coun- tries and to the United States for making various kinds of cordage which, as different industries of the world are developed, is made in increasing quantities each year. Fig. 25. "Manila Fiber is obtained FROM a Plant Similar to the Banana " JUTE, HEMP, AXD OTHER FIBERS 63 There are many firms iii the United States wliich make immense quantities of rope and twine. Since our wheat crop has grown to such enormous proportions, and those wonderful liarvesting machines which cut, thresh, and tie up tlie bags of grain, have been invented, we use and sell to other grain-producing countries immense quantities of Fig. 'M. "Sisal Hlmi' kesembles an Ovekgrown Century Plant" Courtesy of the International Harvester Company twine. One firm in Chicao'o which manufactures harvesters and the twine to use on them makes in one year enough to stretch to the moon and back more than thirty times. You must not think, however, that these enormous quan- tities of rope and twine are made from the true hemp, such as grows in Russia and other European countries, for com- paratively little is made from that material. INIost of the (34 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE cordaoe iiiade in the world to-day is manufactured from Manila fiber and sisal fiber, neither oi which is related to the real hemp. The Manila fiber is obtained from a plant similar to the banana, whicli grows chiefly in the Philip- pine Islands. The sisal hemp, produced chief!}- hi Mexico, resembles an overgrown century plant. A train of more than three thousand cars would be required to carr}^ our annual imports of either sisal or Manila fiber. The true hemp fiber imported from European countries could be easily loaded onto a few hundred cars. TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. Tlie jute industry of India. 2. Jute manufacturing in Dundee. 3. Uses of jute. 4. The lienip industiy. 5. A'arieties of fiber used for rope. II 1. Name the waters sailed on in a voyage from Calcutta to Dundee. 2. Write a list of places in Scotland mentioned in Chapter II. Add tliose in this chapter. Sketch a map and show these places. 3. Sketch a map of India. Show its land and water boundaries, the province of Bengal, and the city of Calcutta. Ill IJe ablf to sjiell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in tliis and in any previous chajiter. Add other facts if possible. Mexico Boston Philippine Islands Calcutta Russia Chicago Scotland Dundee Tay River San Franci.sco Bengal India Brazil Italy California (ireat Britain Egyi't Kentucky France Massachusetts CHAPTER V THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM For man}'^ years Belgium has been famous for her flax, for her fine linen lace, for her carpets, named for the capi- tal, Brussels, for her wonderful bulbs and seeds, for Iier great commerce with many different parts of the world, and for the thrift and industry of her people. Since the World War, however, Belgium is remembered, more than for any- thing else, for lier heroism in the face of overwhelming odds, for the terrible suffering of her people during the four long years of fighting, and for the awful devastation and ruin left behind by the German invaders. In 1914 Belgium saved the world from a German victory and all the horrors which such a victory would have meant. Through Belgium lay the easiest route from Germany into France. For years Germany had been planning for tlie war and had evervthing in readiness- France was not so prepared, nor England ; and Germany planned to march her armies quickly through Belgium into France and take Paris before the French could be ready to stop her. This done, an attack on England would come next. Witli these two western nations at her mercy, Germany would then turn her attention to the East and hurl her full strength against Russia. Tlie carrying out of these plans meant victory. They all depended, however, on haste, on the capture of Paris before the French army was ready to 65 66 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE defend it. The Germans never anticipated that their well-made plans would be upset by little Belgium. Some years before, the Great Powers of Europe had signed a treaty to the effect that they would respect Bel- gium's neutrality ; that is, that they would not take their armies through her territory to attack another nation. In case any one of them did so, it was Belgium's duty to do her best to prevent it. Few people thought that Germany would be so dishonorable as to break her word which she had solemnly pledged in this treaty, but when the treaty interfered with her plans, slie regarded it only as a mere " scrap of paper " and started her army through Belgium mto France. Belgium in her turn might have broken her pledge, might have kept still and allov'ed the German army to go on its way unmolested and so saved herself the awful destruction and suffering which came to her. But Belgium was too honorable to do this. She knew that her little army could not long hold back the hordes of German soldiers, but she prepared to do her best. One after another her strongly fortified cities — Liege, Xamur, Antwerp — fell before the German attacks and the awful onslauo-ht of her big guns, but the little Belgian army, inspired by their hero-king, Albert, who preferred ruin and death to dishonor, fought on. By the time that the Germans had succeeded in conquering the Belgians, the French were ready, the English were ready, and Paris was saved. Ger- many never forgave Belgium, however, for the delay to her armies and the consequent upsetting of her plans. Throughout the war Belgium was terribly punished for what she had done. With the exception of a very small THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM 67 area, near Ostend, all of brave King Albert's country was in German hands, and for four long years tliey committed every kind of atrocity on cities, industries, and people. Under the name of indemnity they levied blackmail on the cities ; they set fire to the towns, destroyed priceless treasures, killed old men and women and little children, and sent others away into Germany to toil in factories and on EiG. 27. Suppose this avkkb youu Home farms until they died. The German occupation of Belgium during the World War was one long horror. It will be many years before some of the Belgian villages and towns are rebuilt, before her industries flourish as they did before 1914. Can you imagine returning to your home and find- ing not one single building standing in the town ? Can you imagine yourself unable to find where the streets were or to locate the place where you had lived all your life ? 68 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Yet this was the condition of some Beloian and French towns and villages which lay in the path of the (iernians. Per- haps you remember some woods where you liked to play. Imagine returning to them after a short absence and find- ing not a single green tree in sight. If you liye on a farm you can picture the smooth cultiyated lields, the growing crops, and the waving grain. Imagine these fields all rough with hills and holes, covered with barbed wire, and the rich soil saturated with poison gases. The holes are of all sizes, from those big enough for you to play in to some large enough for your house to stand in. So you see it will be long years before all the villages of Belgium and northeastern France will once more resound with the happy voices of the people and tlie play of the children It will be many returning seasons before the fields in some localities are again green with growing crops. Massachusetts is one of our most densely populated states. Belgium contains about twice as many people as Massachusetts in an area less than one and one-half times as large. Before the war it was tlie most densely popu- lated country of Europe, and though it is so small, it held fifth place among the commercial nations of the world. "~^^The northern and southern parts of Belgium are as / different from each other as the fertile plains of Kansas are different from the mining regions of Pennsylvania. In the days of its prosperity some one called southern Belgium a great factory district, smoky, dusty, and disagreeable, and the northern half a market garden, flat, fertile, and green. Is it not terrible that war should lay waste so prosperous a region ? Southern Belgium is the industrial part of the country. Here there are rich deposits of coal and iron, and important THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM 69 manufactures are carried on in the cities and towns. Coal is the principal product of Belgium, and in the mountainous southern part mining has long been a leading occupation. When the Germans retreated from southern Belgium they wreaked such destruction on some of these mines that it will be years before they can be worked again. The people in northern Belgium are very different from those in the south. In the northern part live the Flemings, a light-haired, blue-eyed race, more like the people of Holland than those of southern Belo-ium. In the northern half of the country most of the people earn their living ffoiii their tiny farms, which in some cases seem scarcely larger than good-sized lawns. Long- before sunris^th^^egi'X tlieir Tlay's work Tnthe fields, the women wearing heavy, clumsy wooden shoes, called sabots, with coarse woolen stockings, short, full skirts, and linen sunbonnets, each with a sort of hood which falls over the forehead. The men wear wooden shoes, short trousers, and dark blue smocks or blouses. Their simple breakfast consists of rye bread and coffee. For dinner they have more rye bread spread with butter or butterine, and perhaps a piece of cheese or bacon. For supper the rye bread is supplemented by a soup made of vegetables and meat. If they live near a city the men usually find work in some mill or factory, while the women tend the cow, feed the pig, and raise the vegetables on the little farm. It is in northern Belgium that many interesting old cities are located. One of these is Ghent, with its pic- turesque gateway, its curious old buildings dating from the Middle Ages, its rambling streets, and its dark canals. The city of Ghent is not so important now as it was in 70 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE the bygone days, when it was the proud capital of ancient Flanders and one of the chief cities of Europe. Brussels is the capital of Belgium. Its broad boulevards, its avenues lined with ancient lime trees, its parks and forests, its fountains and statues, its magnificent Palace of Justice, and its Grand Place, or public square, make it one of the most beautiful cities of the world. On one side of the Grand Place stands the Hotel de Ville, or City Hall. It was built a half century before America was dis- covered and is one of the famous buildings of Europe. On the Grand Place there are other interesting buildings several centuries old. In the square inclosed by these buildings, markets are held in the early morning hours. You would like to visit the bird market. Such a chirping and trilling and whistling and singing as you never before heard comes from the hundreds of canaries, thrushes, par- rots, mocking birds, and nightingales. The flower market is fully as interesting. Enormous quantities of roses, pinks, lilies, violets, and other exquisite blossoms fill the air with their fragrance. The Palace of Justice in Brussels is the finest building in all Belgium, perhaps in all Europe. It stands in the newer, higher part of the city, and its central tower rises nearly four hundred feet above the low hill on which it is located. The building cost more than ten million dollars. It is in the form of a square which measures six hundred feet on a side. Find out how far six hundred feet would extend from your schoolhouse and estimate how much space this splendid building covers. In the great World War the Belgians realized the im- possibility of defending Brussels from German invasion. THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM 71 Therefore they surrendered the city in order to preserve its beauties and treasures for future generations. Brussels is a popular residence for the well-to-do people of Belgium, and it is also important as a manufacturing city. It has long been noted for the making of exquisite linen lace and the manufacture of carpets. Printing and all other departments of bookmaking give employment to many of its people, and breweries, distilleries, sugar refiner- ies, foundries, mills, and factories make it a busy industrial city. It is connected by canals with other Belgian cities and with the North Sea. These waterways help in its commerce with other parts of Belgium and with other countries. About fifteen miles from Brussels lie the rums of the old university city of Louvain with its record of five hun- dred years of learning. Its town hall was one of the gems of Gothic architecture. Its university was founded half a century before America Avas discovered and was, up to the time of its destruction in 1914, the most famous Catholic university in the world and attracted students from every country. Louvain was a peaceful, quiet, undefended city, yet, by order of a German official, it was systematically destroyed. The men were made prisoners, the women and children were deported, and the German soldiers were given bombs with whicli to demolish the buildings. Bruges is another interesting old place. Three centuries ago and more Bruges was wealthier and of greater im- portance than Antwerp. Vessels from the far distant East and from the then powerful Italian cities of Venice and Genoa unloaded their rich cargoes on its wharves. To-day the city is of much less importance, but is still a center of some canal commerce. More than fifty bridges span 72 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE the waterways. The word Bruges means '' bridges,'' and the city received its name from the number which it contains. Longfellow wrote a beautiful poem about the famous old belfry of Bruges, which, though '' thrice consumed and © Keystone Vie\'. Fig. 28. Many of the Carts are drawn by Dogs thrice rebuilded, still it watches o'er the town.'' In the poem he sees in imagination the former grandeur of the city, its busy life, and the great traffic which was once carried on throuo-h its doors. THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTllY OF BELGIUM 73 Some one lias called Antwerp the window of Belgium. A better name for it would be the door, for through it passes nearly all the seagoing trade of tlie country. This is so great that Antwerp ranks as the second commercial port on the contment of Europe, Hamburg alone surpassing it. AYe sail about fifty miles up the Scheldt River, which is more like an arm of the sea than a river, before we arrive at the city. We are astonished at the amount of shipping, and at the many acres of docks and quays crowded with vessels whose masts rise like a forest and whose flags repre- sent nearly all the important nations of the world. They have brought to Antwerp pi'oducts of every clime, — ivory and rubber from Africa, oil and breadstuffs from the United States, wheat from Russia, coifee from Brazil, lumber from Scandinavian countries, and many other luxuries and neces- sities. These same vessels will carry to far-away countries the products of the mines, the farms, and the factories of Belgium and the imports from her colonies. A network of canals connects Antwerp and the Scheldt River with other cities and waterways. We can go by boat to the Rhine or Meuse rivers, or even find our way by water .to the Rhone River and thence to the Mediterranean Sea. , "^^ To reach the famous flax -growing district of Belgium we ^ follow the Scheldt River down to Ghent. Many canals, shaded by endTessT61vs~df~i:onil3ardy poplars, lead off from the river into the flat, fertile country, which is dotted with low cottages with red- tiled roofs. /^no H tui-f^t Many of the milk and vegetable carts in Belgium^^are drawn by dogs. These are sometimes driven between the shafts or three abreast like horses. Sometimes they are harnessed behind the cart or beneath it. Most of the dog 74 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE teams that we see are driven by women, and there are many women and girls, as well as men, working in the fields. Continuing on our way, we follow the valley of the river Lys, a branch of the Scheldt, down to Courtrai, where the banks are crowded with factories and warehouses. This is I Uuderwood & Underwood Fig. 29. Tuk Fikek is ketted in the River Lys the famous flax -growing region of Belgium. Nearly every farmer in tlie valley raises flax, which is of so fine a quality that the annual product is often of more value than the land on which it was grown. The water in the river Lys, in which the fiber is retted, contains just the right elements to make it clean, silky, smooth, and of a lustrous color. THE BRAVE LITTLE COUNTRY OF BELGIUM 75 TOPICS FOR STUDY 1 Contrast between northern and southern Belgium. 1. Belgium in the World War 2. Devastation in Bela'ium. 3 4. Cities of Belgium. 5. Destruction of Lou vain. 6. The port of Antwerp. 7. The flax industry in Belgium. II 1. Sketch a map to show the waters sailed on in a voyage from Belfast to Courtrai. 2. Name the waters sailed on in sending to Belgium ivory and rubber fi'om Africa; oil from the United States; wheat from Russia ; coffee from Brazil; lumber from Scandinavia. Name the shipping port in each country. 3. Contrast in appearance and occupations the northern and southern parts of Belgium. 4. Study your map and find wliy the easier route from Germany into France lay through Belgium rather than farther south. 6. On the map of the Western Front (\x 12), find some of the river valleys that the armies followed and in which many battles took place. 6. What historic battle ground is located in Belgium ? HI Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chaptei". Add other facts if possible. Africa Massachusetts Courtrai Lys River Brazil Pennsylvania Ghent Mediterranean Sea East Indies Russia Hamburg- Meuse River England Scandinavia Liege North Sea Flanders Louvain Rhine River France Antwerp Namur Rhone River Germany Bruges Ostend Scheldt River Kansas Brussels Paris CHAPTER VI MANUFACTURING ENGLAND Before we leave the British Isles for our tour of the Continent, we wish to see something of England, a great manufacturing and commercial center of the world. It is such a small country, only about one sixtieth of the size of the United States, that one wonders why it has developed so greatly in these directions. Let us search for some of the reasons. If all the productive land of the United States were to be divided equally among its people, each person would receive about fifteen acres of farm land or forests. This is more than enough to raise the products necessary to feed, clothe, and shelter the entire population. Therefore we are not dependent upon other nations for our supply of life necessities. Let us see how it is in some European countries. If all the productive land of France were divided in the same way, every man, woman, and child living in the country would receive about three acres apiece ; in Germany each person would possess nearly two acres ; while in England the people are so many and the island is so small that less than one acre could be given to each person. This small amount of land makes the people dependent upon other countries for their food and clothing supplies, for in such a country there is little room for large farms. 76 MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 77 It is said that if all outside food material were shut out from England for six months or less, her people would starve. So, to a degree entirely unknown to us, with our immense wheat and corn farms, our large cotton planta- tions, and our great cattle and sheep ranches, European nations, and especially England, must depend on other parts of the world for raw material for food and clothing. Unless she would see all her money slowly drift to other shores, England nnist pay for her imports by selling manu- factured goods, and must give her people employment in making them. England exports enormous quantities of manufactured goods, and it is by means of these exports that she is able to supply three times as many people as could be fed from the products of her own soil. For these great industries nature has given to England every advantage, and first among them is her position. The country is situated in the northern part of the temperate zone, in a latitude where there are long hours of sunshine during the summer months. The cold of winter might inter- fere with the carrymg on of some industries, but the westerly winds, warmed by the Gulf Stream, temper the climate to such a degree that England's harbors are ice free, her rivers are navigable all the year round, and her climate is a moist one, favorable for the spinning of flax, cotton, and wool. To the people of ancient times Britain lay upon the very edge of the great Sea of Darkness, and to venture on this was to expose one's self to all sorts of unknown dangers. The voyage of Columbus and the discovery of a continent to the west put England in the center rather than on the edge of the world, and she forthwith began to earn her title of the " Mistress of the Seas." 78 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Separated from the Continent by water, she was disturbed less than other European nations by the many wars that ravaged the mainland, and she was therefore freer to develop her industries. Look at the map and see how deeply the coast of Great Britain is indented. Some of her river mouths are really bays penetrating the land, and though the rivers are small, the tide makes most of them navigable for some distance. Notice also that the indentations made by the rivers are in several cases opposite one another, thus bringing the coasts and the important seaports much nearer together. The most important of such pairs of rivers are the Severn and the Thames, with Bristol and London near their mouths; the Mersey and the H umber, with Liverpool and Hull only about one hundred miles apart ; the Clyde, with the city of Glasgow, and the Forth, with Edinburgh and its port of Leith linking the east and the west coasts together. Favored thus by a genial climate, by a convenient sepa- ration from warring nations, by a long water boundary of some two thousand miles, by good harbors, and by navi- gable rivers, England has another incentive for commerce in the great number of her foreign colonies. Though England itself is only one sixtieth as large as the United States, the entire British Commonwealth of Nations is large enough to cover an area nearly four times that of the United States and contains nearly five times as many people. In all these countries England finds a market for a great variety of manufactured goods, which she can supply to better advantage than any other nation. No nation, however, can become great in manufacturing and commerce unless nature has favored her in yet another MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 79 way. Stored deep in her soil there must be fuel to sup- ply her factories and mills, and there must be also rich deposits of iron for the manufacture of machinery and other necessary articles. Although other countries connected by trade may possess iron in great abundance, the cost of transporting so heavy a material, and one that must be used in such quantities, is too great to allow of extensive manufactures. The forests with which England was at one time largely covered furnished fuel for her manufactories, which sprang up in any place where charcoal could be easily supplied. Great stretches of forests have disappeared in this way. The discovery of coal, however, in large measure decided the location of the manufacturing districts of England, and her great industrial cities have grown up near the deposits of coal and iron. On account of the size of the country and the indented coast line, the mineral deposits and the manufacturing cities lie near together and near the great seaports. This gives to England a great advantage over those countries whose deposits of coal and iron and whose manufacturing centers lie a long distance away fi-om their seaports. Many of the inventions which have revolutionized great industries were made in England and used in her manufac- turmg districts for years before other nations obtained the secrets. Among the more important inventions which have had an influence in developing important industries are the spinning jenny, which makes it possible for a person to operate more than one spindle at a time, and the power loom, in which, at first, water power and then steam was applied to the weaving of cloth. The invention of the steam 80 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE engine and the perfecting of Stephenson's model have also had a great effect in stimulating English manufactures. Thus because of her great colonial market, her rich coal fields, and her power machinery, England obtained a tre- mendous start in manufacturing and commerce over other European nations. The greater part of our products shipped to England enter the country by way of Liverpool. Let us follow our Fig. 30. "The Docks of Livekpool auk the most Wonderful in THE World " \theat, cotton, wool, cattle, and beef into the country through the door of this great seaport and learn, by visiting the chief industrial centers, what manufacturing England can tell us. Every Cunarder, every White Star liner that docks at Liverpool, leaves on the wharves its hundreds and thousands of passengers. Most of these take a hurried meal, or possi- bly spend the night, and then rush off from the busy port by express to London or to other scenes. We will make MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 81 a longer stop and discover, if we can, what it is that has made this city one of the greatest seaports in the world. Our liner steams slowly up the Mersey to the docks of Liverpool, which extend in a semicircle along the left bank of the river, three miles from its mouth. We see forests of masts and funnels, and pass tugs pouring out clouds of black smoke as they pull along some giant of the deep. We glide slowly by dozens of arriving or departing steamers anchored in midstream. There are vessels loaded with wheat from Montreal and Duluth, steamer loads of cotton from (Jal- veston and New Orleans and from far-away Bombay aiid ancient Alexandria. The holds of the steamers from South America and Africa are filled with wool from the alpacas of Peru and from the Angora goats of Cape Colony. We should find wine from Portugal, olive oil and silk from Italy, fruits and vegetables from France, cork from Spain, sugar from the Bahamas, lumber from our Southern states, and wool from the great sheep ranches in the West. We are bewildered as we look at the crowd of tramp steamers, schooners, ocean liners, and barges, and try to guess their cargoes and their sailing ports. More than twenty thousand vessels of all kinds and descriptions, from every corner of the world, enter and leave the harbor annually. The docks of Liverpool are the most wonderful in the world. They extend for six or seven miles along the river and are lined witli warehouses, elevators, derricks, and cranes. Vessels from all over the world stop at them, but those from America far outnumber all the rest. Truly Liverpool is a city of ships and sailors, but as we go from the wharves up into the city we see that it is a city of manufactures as well. Great quantities of flour are made 82 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE here from the wheat that grew on Canadian farms and on our Western plains. Sugar refineries convert the raw sugar from far-away islands into the pure, white article, which is shipped away in great quantities. There are also rope, leather, soap, paper, and glass factories, and iron and steel works, the products of which add greatly to Liverpool's commerce. Fig. 31. The Manchester Ship Canal is Large enough to ACCOMMODATE OCEAN StEAMERS You are doubtless wondering why it is that Liverpool has grown to be such an important commercial city, why it is that great steamers with their heavy loads seek this harbor rather than others on the coast of England, and why it is that thousands of vessels fi^nd cargoes here awaitmg them to be carried to the ends of the earth. Other things besides a good harbor are necessary in order that a city may grow to be a great commercial port. The MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 83 goods brought to her doors must be disposed of, and cargoes must be supplied for the vessels to carry away. Therefore much of the importance of a seaport depends upon the sur- rounding country. Let us go farther into England and see what the interior supplies to aid Liverpool in her trade. If we continue our journey up the Mersey as far as East- ham, we shall find there the beginning of a great canal, one of Tig. 32. The Docks at Manchester are Larger and more Numerous THAN Many an Ocean Port can boast of the most important in the world. It is twenty-six feet deep and twice as wide as the Suez Canal, large enough, as you see, to accommodate ocean steamers. It follows the valley of the Mersey and, later, of the small tributary called the Irwell. After a trip of about thirty-five miles our boat stops at the docks in the heart of the great city of Manchester, the center of the textile-manufacturing district of England. 84 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE We are astonished at the docks of this inland city. They are larger and more numerous than man}- an ocean port can boast of. All around we see every facility for loading and unloading freight and for hauvUing goods — grain elevators, warehouses, electric and steam cranes, stockyards, cold- storage buildings, great spaces for timber, iron, and other materials not requiring cover, and oil tanks with a capacity of millions of gallons, so situated as to permit of steamers discharging directly into them. The docks and wharves are completely covered with a network of railways. We are in the county of Lancashire, famous the world over for cotton spinning and weaving. This industry, which furnishes such a large part of the cotton goods needed in the world, has been built up over rich coal deposits and near the seaport of Liverpool, through which the raw mate- rial can be imported and the finished goods shipped away. In " Cottonopolis " every town and city is more or less de- pendent upon cotton manufacturing, and five hundred fifty thousand people, a number about equal to the population of Baltimore, Maryland, find employment in the numerous occupations connected with it. Not one of the principal railways of England could earn a dividend if disaster were to overtake the cotton-milling industry of Lancashire ; such a calamity would bring pov- erty to the people, paralyze Great Britain's ocean commerce, and work immense damage to all the industrial interests of the country. More of the actual manufacturing of the cotton is carried on in the smaller places around Manchester than in the city itself, and the goods are carried by rail or by canal to the Manchester docks for shipping. Some of the towns MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 85 specialize in the kinds of goods made. One place, perhaps, makes shirtings, another muslins, while another manufac- tures chiefly heavy cotton dress goods. Many of the work- men have been trained for generations in some particular line. Frequently they are doing the same work to-day that their fathers and grandfathers did before them, and as a consequence, they have become highly skilled. All the towns in the Manchester district are of modern growth, and the cotton industry feeds, clothes, and fur- nishes employment for the entire population. Each town is made up of the warehouse where the cotton is stored, the great factories, the cot- tages of the workmen, and the finer houses of the manu- facturers. Manchester, the center of " Cottonopolis," is about as large as St. Louis and, since the building of the Ship Canal, is increasing in size very rapidly. A large part of the cotton used in the district comes from the United States. Much of this is now shipped without unloading from Galveston or New Orleans to the Manchester docks. Great quantities are carried to the different mills or warehouses in huge drays drawn by some of the largest horses you ever saw, and the rattling of the heavy teams over the cobble-paved streets keeps up a continual racket. Fig. 33. Cotton Goods are caukieu BY Rail or Canal to the Manchester Docks for Shipping 86 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The '' double-decked " street cars, or trams, look queer to our American eyes, but the seats on top make sight-seeing easy, and we climb to our places there for a ride tln-ough the city. We pass great warehouses where bales of cotton are being unloaded from the heavy drays. We see the busy factories filled with whirring machinery. One of these buildings is so large that in it between thirty and forty miles of cloth a yard wide are v/oven every day. We ride by rows of small brick houses in which mill operatives live, and which seem more comfortable than tall tenement blocks. Our ride takes us out into the residential part of the city, filled with the beautiful houses of well-to-do families, and past several pretty parks where children are enjoying the shade and the green grass. Manchester has more than thirty such breathing spaces for the use of her people. We pass some of the fine buildings of the technical schools, which the city maintains at great expense. Many skilled workmen are needed in her industrial establishments, and hundreds of them are trained in these schools. As we come back to the center of the city we stop at the Cotton Exchange ^ a great building with a beautiful portico, dome, towers, and an immense hall, said to be the largest in England. Its floor covers an area of more than four thou- sand square yards. Can you reckon the number of square yards in your schoolroom floor and then find how many times larger this great hall is ? On Tuesday and Friday of each week more than lialf of the ten thousand members of the Exchange meet and transact an enormous amount of business. On those days we could see cotton merchants manufacturers of yarn and cloth, dyers, finishers, printers, MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 87 packers, builders of mill machinery, and representatives of every industrial activity related to the cotton trade. In the galleries are telegraph instruments and telephones, and the Exchange is in constant touch with Liverpool and New York. By an electrical device the prices and sales of cotton at those two controlling points, as well as the condi- tion of the market at other places, are promptly displayed on an immense blackboard which extends across one end of the great room, in figures large enough to be easily read from every part of the floor. The business of the Exchange is transacted without confusion or excitement, and without noise other than a continuous hum natural to conversation being carried on by several thousand persons. Looking at the map, you notice that the Pennme Moun- tains extend north and south through the northern half of England. On the slopes of this range lie two of the great coal fields of the country. The third important deposit is in the northeastern part of England, around Newcastle, and as a consequence a great manufacturing center has grown up in that section. Near the coal field on the western slope of the Pennine Range, around Manchester, the great cotton industry has been built up ; and over the deposits of the eastern slope has grown up the wool-manufacturing center. The woolen industry is one of the oldest and most impor- tant of the countr}'. At the time that the Pilgrims were fighting their Indian battles in the little towns of New Eng- land, and the colonists of Virginia were beginning to find the wealth of their soil in tobacco, the English farmers were largely engaged in raising sheep. At that time this was their chief source of wealth, and England was the only important 88 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE wool-producing country of northern Europe. Most of the wool was sent across the water to Flanders, then the chief manufacturing center of Europe, now a part of Belgium, Holland, and France. Bruges and Ghent, cities which still have a flavor of their old history, manufactured most of the English wool. It seems queer to us in these days of freedom of thought to learn that religious quarrels had a tremendous effect on English industries. But so it Avas. Three or four centuries ago Protestants were persecuted when sovereigns of the Catholic religion were on the thrones of different countries, and when the Protestants came into power they perse- cuted the Catholics. The Catholics were the ruling class in Flanders and France when England had a Protestant gov- ernment; therefore many Protestant workmen, skilled in various trades, fled from the persecutions in the Catholic countries to England. Here they could live and work safelv. Before that time England had l:>eeu almost exclusively an agricultural and pastoral country, exporting its raw wool and importing manufactured goods. Gradually this state of things changed, and more and more manufacturing was done at home until, in time, manufactured cloth and j^arns were exported, and as the home supply became insufficient, raw wool had to be imported. At the present time more than nine hundred million pounds of wool are sent annually by other nations to Great Britain. Two thirds of this comes from the British colonies, and the remainder from other wool-producing countries in Europe and other continents. It is estimated that from this immense quantity of wool enough cloth can be made to stretch a curtain more than three yards wide to the moon. MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 89 The wool-manufacturing industry was at first scattered over the country, but the introduction of steam meant the use of coal, and gradually the factory districts became centered north of the River Trent, where the richest coal deposits lie. The cities of Bradford and Leeds with the surrounding towns in the county of Yorkshire make up the most im- portant wool-manufacturing district in the world. Through Liverpool and London, millions of pounds of wool from Australia, Africa, South America, and the United States, besides great quantities from England and Scotland, are brought to the wool centers. Bradford is the center of the raw wool and the worsted trade. Probably five sixths of all the wool used in England is handled in that city, and the greater part of the worsted yarns and cloth are made there. Most of the woolen cloth is made in Leeds. Both woolen and worsted cloths are made of wool, — the woolen of the shorter fiber, the worsted of the longer. The processes in preparing the fiber differ also. Fiber for woolen cloth is carded, while that for worsted cloth goes through the additional process of combing. From your study of the great textile industries of the United States you are probably familiar with the spinning and weaving of both cotton and wool, so we will not stop here for a long description. You remember that the first process through which the wool goes, after sorting, is the washmg, or " scouring," as it is sometimes called. ^Yool is very dirty and greasy as it comes to the mill, and in the cleansing it often loses half or more of its weight. So much wool is scoured in Bradford, and so much fatty and other matter is washed out, that it is said that the sewage 90 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE is harder to dispose of than that of any other city in the world. Bradford, like some other English cities, owns a large establishment where great quantities of fertilizer are made from the sewage. This is sold in considerable quantity, and an income to the city is thus derived from the waste matter. Bradford, like many other manufacturing centers, is not very attractive. Great dingy mills, in which many of the women as well as the men of the city find employment, are ever3^where. As we pass by dozens of mills and factories and think of the yards and yards of cloth and yarn made in each one, we wonder what can become of it all. Hun- dreds of great ships sailing every week from Liverpool and London carry it to all parts of the world, and thousands and millions of people have coats and trousers and dresses, carpets and blankets, made from Bradford yarn and cloth. Leeds is only eight miles east of Bradford. It is situated on the little river Aire, a branch of the Humber. These two streams and the North Sea furnish water communica- tion with the continent of Europe, while the Leeds and Liverpool Canal opens the way to the west through the Mersey River and the Atlantic Ocean. The old forest, in which centuries ago the barbarians from the Continent fought the Saxons, has long since dis- appeared, and in its place have risen factories and foun- dries, fine public buildings, statues, and churches. Li the great factories, which border some of the streets of the city and which form the most conspicuous feature of the towns around, is made the plain cloth for the use of the army and navy, uniforms for the police, and greenish-drab khaki cloth for the soldiers stationed in tropical countries. In the ship- ping rooms of the factories we should also find numberless MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 91 packages of rainproof cloth, serges, and tweeds, besides quantities of rugs, carpets, and blankets. From Leeds, the fifth city in size, our trip through in- dustrial England takes us southward twenty-five or thirty miles to smoky Sheffield, the sixth city in population. As we pass through the towns and villages we are reminded of the Bible story which tells us how the Israelites were guided in their long journey through the wilderness by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night. Heavy smoke darkens the blue heavens in the daytime, and the flames from hundreds of furnaces and foundries light the sky at night. Sheffield is situated near coal and iron mines, and where sandstone, especially good for grinding, is found. It is at the junction of the Don and Sheaf rivers, branches of the Humber, and the name "Sheffield" is probably short- ened from " Sheaf -field." The city is the great manufacturing center of the northern portion of the so-called " Black Country," just as Birmingham, which we will visit later, is of the southern part. While Sheffield is one of the largest and most important towns of the county of Yorkshire, it is also one of the blackest, dirtiest, and most disagreeable. But iron and steel cannot be manufactured without smoke and dirt, and the words ''' Sheffield" and " iron and steel " have been connected since the earliest times. The city is picturesquely situated on hills, on whose wooded slopes are old estates and man- sions of the nobility. A ride through Sheffield shows us fine public buildings, libraries, churches, parks, and gar- dens. But these do not impress the visitor so much as the hundreds of chimneys rising like a dead forest, the pall of smoke like a thundercloud overspreading the sky, and the 92 IXDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE enormous works where everything that one can think of, made from iron and steel, is produced — saws, razors, knives, scissors, plates for the great ironclad warships, and immense shells strong enough to pierce them, railroad rails, cannon, and delicate watch springs. Sheffield ware has been used since those early days when the Romans invaded England, when wood was the only fuel, and when the workshops were situated in the great forests. And Sheffield ware will be used until the time, far in the future, when the coal pits and iron mines will no longer yield the necessary material. From Sheffield we go southward through the Black Country to Birminsfham. Everywhere are the tall chim- neys and tlie smoky sky, for in all the towns and cities through which we pass there are manufactures of iron and steel or cotton and wool. At the foot of the Pennine Hills we pass through Derby, famous for its silk manufactures. The peculiar properties of the water of that region make a fast, lustrous dye which has given to the Derby silks their high reputation. Ten or a dozen miles east of Derby is Nottingham, the great industrial center for stockings and lace. So famous is it for machine-made laces that Calais, across the English Channel, another of the great lace-manufacturing cities of Europe, is often called the Nottingham of France. Farther south we see on our right the smoke from the woolen mills of Leicester, and soon after we arrive in Birmingham. An old historian says of Birmingham : The Arab eats with a Birmiugham spoon, the Egyptian takes his bowl of sherbet from a Birmingham tray, the American Indian shoots with a Birmingham rifle, the Hindoo dines on a Birmingham MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 93 plate and sees by the light of a Birmingham lamp. The South American horsemen wear Birmingham spurs and gaudily deck their jackets with Birmingham buttons. The West Indian cuts down his sugar cane with Birmingham hatchets and presses out the juice into Birmingham vats and coolers. The German lights his pipe on a Birmingham tinder-box, and the emigrant cooks his dinner in a Birmingham sauce-pan, over a Birmingham stove. Fig. 84. In the Newer Portion or BiiniixcaiAM there are Fixe Streets and Splendid Tlblic Buildings A historian of to-day might add that astronomers study the stars at night through telescopes fitted with Bir- mingham lenses ; architects decorate churches and other buildings with Birmingham stained glass ; armies are supplied with Birmingliam swords. Women in many parts of the world wear Birmingham jewelry and sew with Birmingham needles the cloth which they have fastened together with Birmingham pins. Men in different countries 94 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE drive Birmingham nails, use Birmingham screws, and carry watches containing Birmingham springs. In your school very likely you use pens which were made in this Eng- lish city, for Gillott's pens, which are used by the millions all over our own and other countries, are manufactured there. This "' Metalopolis" is smol^y and dirty. In the old part of the city there are narrow, crooked streets, dingy houses, and huge factories everywhere. But in the newer portion there are fine streets and splendid public buildings. Bir- mingham has the enviable reputation of being one of the best-governed cities in the world. Situated near rich iron mines and in the heart of a great forest, Birmingham, centuries ago, was well known for its metal manufactures. A history of the city tells us that as early as 1727 fifty thousand people were employed in them. Since tlie use of steam and the introduction of coal, of which there are rich beds near, the city has grown very rapidly. The following curious old verses published in 1828 tell of its rapid growth. An old name for Birmingham is used. Full twenty years and more are past Since I left Brummagem ; But I set out for home at last, To good old Brummagem. But every place is altered so, There 's hardly a single place I know ; And it fills my heart with grief and woe. For I can't find Brummagem. I remember one John Growse, A buckle-maker in Brummagem. He built himself a country house, MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 95 To be out of the smoke of Brummagem. But though John's country house stands still, The town itself has walked uphill, Now he lives beside a smoky mill, In the midst of Brummagem. London is one hundred twelve miles away to the south- east, and of coarse we must visit that city before leaving England. The ride from Birmingham takes us through a beautiful, rolling country where the fine, white roads are bordered with linden trees, and the fertile fields are fenced with green hedgerows. These hedges are typical of English scenery. You remember Priscilla, when sick with longing for her old English home, says to John Alden : I have been thinking all day, . . . Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the hedgerows in England, — They are in blossom now, and the couutry is all like a garden. Once in a while we catch a flying glimpse of a fine old estate and see, in the beautiful green park shaded by grand old oak trees, several deer raise their startled heads as we fly by. We pass near Stratford-on-Avon, where, if we were visiting literary fields instead of industrial centers, w^e should stop for a while to see Shakespeare's birthplace, the school he attended, and the memorial erected by a man from Philadelphia who appreciated his genius. We could walk through the very path in which the great poet walked when he went to call on Anne Hathaway, wdio afterwards became his wife. We could visit her cottage and sit on the very oak settle beside the fireplace where William and Anne probably passed many long, happy winter evenings. 9G INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Near by is Warwick Castle, one of the few old feudal buildings now in repair. It is still occupied by descendants of the noble family to whom it was given by the ruler of England. Only a few miles away is Kenilworth Castle, whose ruins have been immortalized in the novel of the same name by Sir Walter Scott. Before we go to London let us visit the two famous uni- versity towns of Cambridge and Oxford. Our institutions are so young that it seems strange to think of English young men going to school to-day in the old buildings, climbing the worn stairs, and playing in the green courts in which English boys worked and played before America was discovered. The oldest of the buildings connected with Oxford University dates back to 12(34, and the most an- cient college in Cambridge is but twenty years younger. At last we reach London, next to New York the largest city in the world. It is hard to imagine how immense it really is. It contains as many people as the New England States, and covers seven hundred square miles. Find the area of your home town and see how many times larger London is. Enough babies are born within its boundaries every year to make a city with a population larger than that of Kansas City, Missouri. It is said that London contains more Irish- men than Dublin, more Scotchmen than Edinburgh, and more Jews than Palestine. Its streets, if laid out in a straight line, would reach from New York to San Francisco and thence across the Pacific Ocean to Japan. It would take you nearly two years to walk through all the highways of London, and you would see many interesting and wonderful sights ui the course of your journey. On many of the streets your progress would be MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 97 slow because of the crowds. As we drive through some of these busy thoroughfares we wonder whether we shall ever gain sufficient courage to cross them on foot, so full are © I'nderwood & I'nderwoofl Fig. 35. The Royal Exchange and Bank of England, London they of heavy drays, lumbering motor '' trusses," innumerable carriages, automobiles, and hosts of other vehicles. When we make the attempt, however, we find it much easier than it looks. All the teams on one half of the street are going in one direction. In the middle of the street we discover 98 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE that there is a raised walk where we can take refuge before we attempt the other half, where the vehicles are all going in the other direction. The streets are lined with buildings, representing such a variety of occupations that it would be impossible to name them all. There are streets bordered with banks, and streets with newspaper and printing offices ; there are some with busmess houses, and some with clubs and hotels. Many- streets are Imed with great stores, which make such a fine display of goods that it is a temptation to linger to look into the wmdows. London is situated farther from the coal and iron mines than are other English cities and is therefore more handi- capped in its manufactures. Still, judging from the large mills and factories that we see on manj- of the streets, it carries on a great variety. The largest breweries, distil- leries, and sugar refineries of the British Isles are in London. The city is noted for the dressing of sealskins and other fine furs. The sealskins are brought from both Alaskan and Russian waters, and in the great establish- ments they are changed from the hard skin to the soft, beautiful fur used for coats and muffs. Machmery of all kinds is made in great quantities. Manufactures on a large scale — of watches, jewelry, brass, books, prints, and boots and shoes — are carried on. There is also much cabinetmak- ing, coopering, coach-building, leather- working, hat -making, shipbuilding, rope-making, and mast-making. Before the Suez Canal was opened London was a great distributing center for oriental goods, and it is to-day the principal world market for tea. Though little or no wine is made in England, London is the greatest market in the MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 99 world for that product. It is the chief money center of the world, and business in many countries is affected by the condition of finances in the mammoth city. Money from ■ London banks supports great enterprises in all parts of the world ; it helps build bridges in Africa, develops silver mines in Peru, constructs railroads in China, and makes possible the carrying out of irrigation projects in Australia. The Bank of Enghmd, an immense gray stone building, is the heart of the whole financial world. You have learned that the importance of a city depends to a great extent upon its situation. Let us notice the loca- tion of London and see whether it has aided the city in its growth. It is on a small but iiavigable river, about forty miles from its mouth. Therefore it has free passage to the ocean, yet is so far inland tliat it is in easy communica- tion with the rest of England. It is separated by only a narrow channel of water from continental seaports, tlie outlets of the most developed and densely populated coun- tries of Europe — countries which need the manufactures of England and which send her in return many of their own products. There are many famous buiklings which you must surely see before leaving the city. The great Tower of London is one of these. During the centuries since it was erected on the bank of the Thames it has served as a prison, a palace, and a fortress. In it we can see crowns and scepters set with wonderful jewels which have been worn by English sovereigns, and robes in which kings and queens have been crowned. There are rooms filled with figures of horses and men in all kinds of armor. One room contains the instru- ments of torture used in those awful days which we do not 100 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE like to think about. There are dungeons and prisons, and so many rooms to visit and so many things to examine that we could spend days at the Tower before we could see it all. The Houses of Parliament are among the most beautiful • buildings of London. They are situated on the Thames River t 1 1 A .iMM^A ^4 , 1- p. . •Attn " -lijii) - :.1J l! iil' 1 1 ' i : 1 ■ : : ' ! n } ; ,1 © Underwood & Underwood Fig. 36. "The Houses of Parliament ake among the most Beautiful Buildings of London" and extend more than nine hundred feet along its bank. We wish that we might visit them when the House of Lords and the House of Commons are in session, and listen to some of the mteresting debates and eloquent addresses which are often given by famous statesmen. One of the buildings in London which perhaps the people love better than any other is Westminster Abbey. MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 101 In it, for many years, their rulers have been crowned ; and in it are the tombs of many famous soldiers, statesmen, inventors, authors, and poets. We find there monuments to ) Keystone View Co. Fig. 37. "The Bridge is strongly built of Stone and will doubtless endure for centuries " such men as the Duke of Wellington, Sir John Franklin, William Pitt, David Livingstone, Sir Isaac Newton, Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning, and Charles Dickens. In the poets' corner is a bust of our dearly loved Longfellow. 102 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE There are several bridges across the Thames River, but the one called London Bridge is the most important of them all. You have all played '' London Bridge " and have sung the old refrain : London Bridge is falling down, falling down, falling down, London Bridge is falling down, my fair lady ! There is little danger, however, of such a disaster ever occurring, as the bridge is strongly built of stone and will doubtless endure for centuries. TOPICS FOR STUDY 1. Density of population in European countries and the results. 2. Natural advantages of England. 3. Description of Liveriwol. 4. The cotton industry. 5. Description of ^Manchester. 6. The wool industry. 7. Description of Bradford and Leeds. 8. The iron and steel industry. 9. Description of Sheffield and Birmingham. 10. Places passed in our trip : Stratford-on- Avon, Warwick Castle, Oxford, and Cambridge. 11. Description of London. II 1. Bound England. AVhat separates it from France? from Ger- many? from Ireland? from Scotland? 2. Name the important indentations on the coast of England. Make a map showing the chief indentations on opposite coasts, the rivers which flow into them, and the cities at their mouths. 3. What was said of these rivers in Chapter II ? MANUFACTURING ENGLAND 103 4. Name the foreign colonies of J^ngland. Ship a cargo from each colony to England ; tell what is carried, the shipping port, and the waters sailed on. 5. Write a list of the causes which have helped England to become such an important manufacturing nation ; an important commei'cial nation. 6. Tell the waters on which a vessel would sail in bi'inging the following cargoes to Liverpool — wheat from Duluth ; cotton from New Orleans; wool from Callao and from Cape Town; wine from Lisbon ; olive oil from Naples ; fruits from Marseille ; cork from Bar- celona ; sugar from the Bahama Islands. 7. What does the Suez Canal connect? What does it separate? What particular interest has England in this canal ? 8. Do you know any cities in other countries noted for iron and steel manufactures ? Which one holds first rank in the world in this industry? 9. Write a list of the different kinds of woolen cloth that you have ever heard of. See how large a collection of samples you can get. 10. Read, if possible, the chapters on Cotton, The Sheep and Wool Industry, and Iron in " Industrial Studies — United States," Vol. I. 11. Make a list of the buildings in London which are spoken of in this chapter. Tell one fact about each. See if you can find ])ic- tures or descriptions of them or of any other important buildings in that city. 12. Tell why each of the men spoken of on page 101 is famous. 13. Name the places in the United States that you can think of that are named for places in England. In what part of our country are most of these situated? Why? Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chajiter. Add other facts if possible. Alaska British Isles Flanders Australia Canada France Bahama Islands Cape Colony Germany Belgium China Great Britain British Commonwealth England Holland 104 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES - - EUROPE Italy Dublin St. Louis Japan Duluth San Francisco Lancashire Eastham Sheffield Palestine Edinburgh Stratford-on-Avon Pennine Mountains Galveston Peru Ghent Aire River Portugal Glasgow Clyde River Russia Hull Don River Spain Kansas City Forth River United King( lorn Leeds Gulf Stream Yorkshire Leicester Humber River Leith Irwell River Alexandria Liverpool Leeds and Liverpool Baltimore London Canal Birmingham Manchester Manchester Ship Canal Bombay Montreal Mersey River Bradford Xewcastle Severn River Bristol New Oi-leans Sheaf River Bruges New York Suez Canal Calais Nottingham Thames River Cambridge Oxford Trent River Derby Philadelphia CHAPTER YII PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS Our next visit will take us to a country which, though only a little larger than the state of ]\Iaine, was once rich and powerful, and famous for exploration and conquest. The great kingdom of Brazil was one of her colonies, and the riches of the East poured into her treasury. To-day she is one of the least important of European countries and is famous, not for her colonies, for she has lost most of them ; not for her wealth, for her treasury is low ; not for her conunerce, for in this many European nations outrank her ; but for two products known and used in many countries — cork and port wine. We will enter Portugal through its capital, Lisbon, which some one has said is " the kernel around which the country has crystallized." It is situated about twelve miles from the mouth of the TaQ-us River, which divides Portuefal into two nearly equal parts. Our first glimpse of Lisbon gives the impression of great beauty as it rises from the water, terrace upon terrace, with masses of white buildings gleaming in the sun. As we enter the city and climb the hills much of the beauty disappears. There are few really beautiful buildings. Perhaps the people feel, because of the earthquakes from which in times past the city has suffered greatly, that it is not wise to put their money into expensive houses. Many of the streets are narrow, crooked, steep, and 105 106 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE dirty. The modern part of the city lies in the valley. Here the streets are broad, straight, and well-paved. Modem con- veniences, such as electric cars and electric lights, are found side by side with bullock carts and springless ox teams. What queer names the streets have ! Nine out of every ten of them are named for some saint. There are also such names as Rua do Ouro, or Gold Street ; Rua da Prata, or Silver Street ; and Chiado, or Noisy Street. Let us walk up the Rua do Ouro, for this is a popular prome- nade. The shop win- dows are gay with line lace, silks, and the gold and silver filigree jewelry for which Lisbon is fa- mous. At the head of the street is the Pra9a do Commer- cio, a large square, bounded on thi-ee sides by public buildings and on the fourth by the Tagus River. After exploring other parts of the city we will go down to the wharves, for we are more interested in what the people are doing than in their houses, parks, and gardens. See that long line of brick buildings stretching along the river. As we come nearer, the smell of fish and of hot oil t I udtr« i'.hI .V i n.lerwood Fig. 38. Many of the Streets in Lisbon ARE Narrow » PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS 107 tells us that they are sardine factories. ]\Iany of the people of Portugal who live near the coast are engaged in sarduie fishing, and great quantities are packed and exported each year. If all the people in the United States were lined up in a long row, we could give every other one a can of sardines, caught and canned by Portuguese fishermen. Fish, either fresh, salted, or dried, is a common food of the poor and is eaten by all classes on the many fast days which occur during the year. Every da}* there is consumed in Lisbon an average of half a pound each for every person in the city. The fish girls, or ovarinas, as they are called, are one of the characteristic sights of Lisbon. Bareheaded except for the huge baskets of fish, and barefooted, two thousand of them, of all ages and degrees of beauty, travel many miles each day through the streets of the city crying their wares in tones no more musical than the creak of the oxcarts. The river and harbor seem full of vessels of all kinds and sizes. At the dock on our left is a small, dirty-looking steamer which plies up and down the Tagus, stopping at the small towns along the shore. At another pier is a large vessel with the flag of Brazil flying from her mast. Portu- gal carries on more trade in wine, salt, cheap cotton goods, and other products with this old colony of hers than with any other country except Great Britain. That vessel flying the Union Jack is from England. Lis- bon and Oporto, the chief ports of Portugal, are situated on the Atlantic Ocean near where English vessels must pass in their voyage to the Mediterranean Sea and Asia, and to West and South Africa. So it is natural that much trade between the two countries should spring up. As Portugal 108 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE has few factories, many manufactured goods, such as cotton and woolen cloth, machmery and tools, as well as coal, oil, and other goods, are brought by these English ships. Dried herring, cod, and other varieties of fish are also brought from northern cities, of which you will read in another chapter. Vessels from other European countries — France, Holland, Denmark, Italy, and Sweden — may be seen in the harbor, and perhaps one from the United States. Our trade with Portugal is not very important. We send her a few million dollars' worth of cotton, corn, petroleum, tobacco, wheat, and staves, and receive in return comparatively little except cork. We will take a train at Lisbon for southern Portugal, for it is in that part of the country that the forests, which produce more than one half of all the cork used in the world, are chiefly found. The country through which we pass on our journey is not very beautiful. In some places there are naked plains, shallow rivers, and broad marshes, stretching as far as we can see. The northern part of the country has many rugged mountains, deep, fertile valleys, and clear streams, but the landscape south of the Tagus River is for the most part flat and uninteresting. The farms here are not so attractive nor so well kept as in the northern part of Portugal. This is owing partly to the nature of the country, and partly to the fact that many of the peasants are the tenants of larger land- owners and do not own their little farms as do the people in the north. Consequently they seldom have the same pride and ambition as their more fortunate northern brothers. There is a thrifty looking place, however, in the fields off to the right. Let us delay our trip to the forests for a little in order that we may see how the Portuguese peasant really PORTUGAL AXD ITS CORK FORESTS 109 lives. The low, square, one-story house is built of stone and is whitewashed without and within. The roof has broad overhanging eaves, gay underneath with bright vermilion paint. As we enter the door we are greeted graciously by a dark -haired peasant, who, with a graceful bow, tells us that his time, his house, his family, and all his possessions Fig, 39, Stripping the Cobs with Threshing Flails in Portcgal From " World's Commercial Products" are ours. This is the hospitable way of the Portuguese, who, however, would be very much surprised if we were to accept their generous offers. Travelers, not understanding the custom, have sometimes been placed in embarrassmg positions by accepting in good faith some admired article which the kindly host, though it was his most valued possession, urged upon them. 110 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The house consists of one central room with the smaller bedrooms opening out of it. Over the small charcoal fire hangs a kettle containing a savory soup made of beans, cabbage, rice, and gourds. Sometimes beef or bacon takes the place of one of the vegetables or is added to them. Various kinds of soup, dried codfish or sardines, olives and olive oil, and dark bread made of rye, or maize, or both, supply the needs of the Portuguese peasants. The fuel of the poorer classes consists of charcoal or of small branches and sticks of wood, which are sold at very low prices. Scattered through the mountain forests are charcoal burners, who look like bandits and who live miserable, lonely lives, preparing this cheapest of all fuels for the peasants. The forests yield other harvests, for pine cones are gath- ered for the fire, and pine needles for beddmg the cattle. The forest products are brought down from the mountains on the backs of mules, while the dark muleteer in his dusty cape and wide-brimmed hat walks beside the mule down the narrow path. Portugal is famous for its fine mules, which, with bullocks and oxen, are used much more than horses. The farmer's oxen can be seen in the cattle shed near at hand — great, shaggy fellows with widespreading horns live or six feet from tip to tip. These make them look very fierce, though the owner tells us that they are really quite gentle and would not harm us. We admire the yoke which the farmer has skillfully carved for the oxen. Centuries ago the old Romans tilled the soil with just such oxen, wearing a similarh' shaped yoke, har- nessed to a plow like the ones used by the peasants to-day, made of a ci'ooked branch of a tree with a small iron share PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS 111' which turns up but a few inches of soil. Things move slowly in some of the countries across the water. Although one might see in Portugal a few modern plows and some other up-to-date machinery, agriculture for the most part is carried on in the same fashion as it has been for hundreds of years. The men and women out there in the fields beyond the cattle sheds are bending low to the ground and cut- ting the grass, a few blades at a time, with reaping hooks, while a man with a pile of fra- grant hay on his head is carrying it across the fields to the barn. The farmer's life is a busy one, with the care of his fields, his crops, and his cattle. In Au- , . © Underwoo.l ^ rn.lirwood gust he must harvest -c ry, after WHICH they weigh IT engaged in this work. Here in Portugal, where the forests cover an area more than one fourth the size of Massa- chusetts, hundreds of men find work in their deep shade. The stripping from the trees is only the first of several processes through which the cork must be put before it is ready for use. The men leave it in piles for a few days to dry, after which they weigh it and carry it in ox teams or on the backs of mules to the boiling stations, which 116 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE sometimes are long distances away. Here, after seasoning ill the open air for some weeks, it is put into vats and boiled. This softens the outer coating of woody matter, which makes up nearly one fifth of the weight of the bark, so that it can be easily scraped off. The bark is then sorted according to quality and again loaded on ox or bullock teams, or piled so high on the backs of mules that, as they walk away, the loads look like moving woodpiles. Arrivmg at the seaport the bark is again carefully sorted and done up in large bales bound with steel or with wire hoops and loaded on vessels bound for dif- ferent ports in Eng- land, Germany, Japan, the United States, and other countries. You may be surprised to learn that we import annually several million dollars' worth of cork bark and cork products. Some of the bark comes from Spain, butlier contribution is much smaller than that sent by little Portugal. In former days all corks were made by hand, and in every peasant's house in the cork district we could have found whole families engaged in slicing the bark into strips, then cutting the strips into blocks, and finally shaping the cork from the block. This house industry is still carried on to (£.' Ariiittruiij; Cork Co.. I'llibburgli Fig. 44. " In Former Days All Corks "WERE MADE BY HaND " PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS li: some extent, but most corks are now made by machinery. A skillful workman with his sharp knife can make perhaps two thousand a day. The machines which are used can each do the work of twenty or more men, and are so simple that skilled labor is not required to operate them. Out of nearly one hundred thirty million pounds of cork produced in Portugal, only about one third is manufactured there. 10 Armstrong Cork Co., I'lttsburgh Fig. 45. When the Bark arrives at the Factory it is placed IN Warehouses until needed We buy from Spain nearly a million and a lialf dollars' worth of manufactured corks, but most of our imports from Portugal come m the large sheets of cork bark. When this arrives at the factory it is placed in ware- houses until needed. In Portugal the bark was sorted into twenty-five or thirty grades. In the sortmg room of a great factory, skilled workmen divide the cork into one hundred fifty different grades, depending on the quality and thickness and on the uses to which it is to be put. 118 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE It is then softened by steaming, after which the slabs are sliced into strips from which machines bore out stop- pers at a daily rate of thirty thousand to fifty thousand an operative. These stoppers are straight sided. If tapering ones are desired they are put tlu-ough a machine which © Armstroug Cork Co., Pittsburgh Fig. 46. In Pittsburgh, in the Largest Cork Manufactory in the World, Five Million Corks are made Each Day holds them against the edge of a circular knife which re- volves so rapidly that it appears to be standing still. The corks are then washed and dried and finally reach the sort- ing room. In a large manufactory in Pittsburgh, the larg- est one in the world, five million corks of all shapes, sizes, and qualities are made each day and sorted into more than twenty grades. An expert sorter can handle from fifteen PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS 119 thousand to fifty thousand daily, the number dependmg on the size and quality. Cork is used not only for stoppers, but in many other ways. It is used for floats and fishing nets, for buoys, and for life preservers. The optician uses small cork strips on the nose pieces of eyeglasses ; the plasterer uses cork floats ; the glass manufacturer polishes his wares with cork wheels. The finest pieces of bark are made into cork paper, so thin I Aniiatroug Cork Co., Pittsburgh Fig. 47. "The Slabs are sliced into Strips from which Machines bore out Stoppers" that five hundred sheets measure but one inch in thickness. Tliis velvety material is used in making cigarette tips. When you push the cork into a bottle, buy a pair of inner soles, use a cork penholder at school, or grasp the handles of your bicycle, just remember that some peasant in the green forests of Spain or Portugal or Algeria labored to procure the material for you. 120 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES— EUROPE In cutting the cork the dust and small shavings accumu- late in large amounts. jNIore than half of the cork bark which started out on its journey tln-ough the factory may be found later in the scrap heaps. None of this is wasted ; it is carefully collected and the small pieces are ground. Perhaps you have seen in some grocery or fruit store the Malaga grapes from Spain packed in ground cork. That very dura- ble floor covering, linoleum, is made from a preparation of cork powder and linseed oil spread on strong cloth. Table mats to be placed under hot dishes, pincushions, fishline floats, and many other articles are made from cork Avaste. You may sleep on a mattress or use in your boat or canoe cushions stuffed with cork shavings. As cork is a non- conductor of heat it is used for filling between the walls of ice boxes, water coolers, cold-storage rooms, and about the sides of freezing tanks m ice factories. In foreign countries cork is put to many strange uses. Spanish houses sometimes have their walls lined with it to make them warm and dry. Cooking utensils, pails, plates, tubs, cups, furniture, boats, and beehives are also made from it. In Turkey this useful bark is made into huts for the cork cutters while alive and coffins for them when they are dead. One writer has said : There are three trees in the world which yield that which is of more real value to man than all the jewels and precious stones ever dug from the earth : a South American tree yields the liquid which is caoutchouc or india rubber, the Peruvian cinchona gives us qui- nine, and a species of live oak supplies the world with cork. PORTUGAL AND ITS CORK FORESTS 121 TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. Former power of Portugal. 2. Description of the Tagus River. 3. Descrijation of Li.sbon. 4. Commerce of Portugal. 5. Southern Portugal. 6. The cork fore.sts. 7. Obtaining cork. 8. Manufacturing cork. 9. Cork areas and production. 10. U.ses of cork. II 1. Find the area of Portugal. Compare it with that of England; of some state in the United States. 2. Ship a vessel from Portugal to Brazil. Xame the waters sailed on, the cargo carried each way, and the shipping and receiving ports. 3. Can you. find a description of the great earthquake at Lisbon? 4. What colonies of England does she reach through the Medi- terranean and Red Sea route ? Name the waters sailed on. 5. With what colonies in West and South Africa does England trade? What cargoes are taken each way? How long a voyage do you think it is from England to South Africa? How many miles is it? 6. Sketch a map of Eui-ope. Show routes from Lisbon to some port in Germany, France, Denmark, Italy, Sweden, and England. Write the name of each port. 7. Imagine yourself a Portuguese boy or girl and write a .story of your life. 8. The Portuguese use charcoal for fuel. How is it prepared ? 9. Sketch a map of Portugal. Show in it the area where cork is obtained. Show also all places mentioned in this chapter. 10. Write a list of the processes in the numufacture of cork; of the uses of cork. 11. Add to your school collection anything you can find which is made of cork. 12. AVhat is linseed oil? What is it made from ? AVhat are its uses ? 122 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE 111 Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Algeria Brazil Denmark England France Germany Great Britain Italy Japan Elaine ^lassachusetts Peru Spain Sweden Tunis Turkey United States Lisbon Oporto Pittsburgh Mediterranean Sea Tagus River CHAPTER VIII A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA Our next trip will take us from little Portugal to great Russia, many times larger. In this, the largest country of Europe, we shall also visit great forests, but they are of a very different kind from those we saw in Portugal. We shall feel more at home in the deep woods of Russia, for they are made up of trees which are common in the United States — birch, oak, pine, fir, and others. We can reach Russia by sailing from Lisbon either to the north or to the south. We will choose the northern route, as this will bring us much nearer to the forest region which we wish to visit. This takes us past the coast of France, where the sardine fishermen are gathering their ocean harvest, and through the English Channel and the Strait of Dover, where the white chalk cliffs of England gleam in the sunshine. Instead of going around the coast of Denmark, through the Skagerrack and Kattegat with their treacherous shal- lows and difficult passages, we will choose a shorter route and a much safer one from the North to the Baltic Sea by means of the Kiel Canal, which was built by Germany to connect these waters. Tliere are several ports on the Baltic Sea at which we might stop and begin our journey into Russia. Riga, the capital and chief city of Latvia and a great timber 123 124 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE and flax port, is one of these. It is situated about seven miles from the mouth of the Diina River, a deep, navigable stream which leads into the heart of Russia. We pass Reval in Estlionia, where in ordinary years we might see vessels loaded with cotton from the United States. Most of that shipped from our Southern states enters Russia through the city of Reval, as this port is open the year round, while Riga, being situated on the Dlina River, is often frozen for two or three months. We desire, however, to make our entrance into the country through " the eye," which Peter the Great made m order that he might, as he said, " look out on the rest of Europe." Consequently we steam past other ports and sail through the Gulf of Finland to Petrograd. The eye of Russia is, of course, very precious and must be well protected. This protection is given by the fortress of Kronstadt, wdiich is built on an island in the narrowest part of the gulf, about twenty-five miles west of Petrograd. Except for the fact that it is frozen over for some months of the year, the harbor of Kronstadt is a fine one. The portion given over to merchant vessels is large enough to hold several hundred of them at the same time. The part devoted to the use of war vessels only is protected by forts built on two small islands. Most of the trade of Petrograd was formerly carried on through Kronstadt, as the Neva River is too shallow to carry large vessels to the capital. Now, however, a canal large enough for ocean steamers has been built between tlie two cities, and but little commerce is carried on at Kronstadt. In the seventeenth century the land where Petrograd now stands was a low marsh peopled only by a few A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 125 miserable fishermen living in rude huts. Peter the Great, the most famous of all Russian rulers, was wise enough to know that before Russia could become the great nation that he thought she was destined to be, she must have knowledge of and communication with other countries. The waters of the Baltic Sea, washing the shores of other nations, furnished a highway to the rest of Europe. There- fore Peter decreed that a seaport should be built upon its borders. " There is no lumber," said his nobles. " Bring it from the forests ! " replied Peter. " There is no rock or building stone," objected the courtiers. " No vessel shall land here unless it brings some ! " retorted Peter. " But it is only a marsh, there is no solid land," pleaded his minis- ters. " Make some ! " thundered Peter. And the nobles and courtiers and ministers dared say no more. Piles were driven, foundations laid, and houses built. Workmen died by the hundreds and by the thousands, l)nt more were brought from other parts of tlie country, and the work went on. I'here were no masons to build the liouses. An order from Peter, and all stonework and brickwork over the entire kingdom stopped. Masons everywhere could find no work : and so they Hocked to Petrograd, and the buildings grew like magic. In one year thirty thousaiid houses were built in the city, and one hundred thousand workmen died. Once more the nobles objected, " There are no people for your city." '' I will bring them ! " declared Peter. And he did. Whole families, whole towns, were ordered to take L their goods and live in the emperor's new capital. Peter himself defied the unhealthy climate and built his palace there. All court functions and festivities were held there, 126 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE and the nobles and officers of the court were obliged, there- fore, to reside in the city. Thus Petrograd grew and flour- ished. To-day it is the second largest city of Russia ; but it is no longer the capital, for during the World War the seat of government was changed to Moscow. The houses are built chiefly of brick or rubble, often covered with stucco and showily decorated, and the streets are broad and straight. The finest of all is the Nevsky Prospekt. It is broad, straight, and well paved. The electric cars occupy the middle of it, and on either side there are spaces for private car- riages, while beyond these limits public carriages and heavy teams may drive. A walk down the Nevsky Prospek't fur- nishes plenty of entertain- ment. Crowds of people of so many different nationalities tln-ong the sidewalks that a secret whispered in any language would hardly be safe. On either side of the street are shops with fascinating windows. Here is one showing beautiful jewelry and glittering gems of all colors and sizes. Beyond the Ural Mountains in Siberia are regions which are very rich in precious stones, and many of those displayed here have come from places thousands of miles away. © Underwood i Underwood Fig. 48. ''A Walk down the Nevsky PliOSriiKT FURNISHES PlENTY OF EN- TERTAINMENT " A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 127 In the next store there is a niagnilicent display of furs — rich, brown sables worth almost their weight in gold ; black fox, soft and fine as feathers ; white, curly, Tibetan goat ; velvety otter ; heavy bearskins, wolfskins, and warm, serviceable reindeer skins. The houses in Petrograd are kept very warm, and people do not wear heavy clothing indoors. When they go out, however, into the biting cold, thick clothing and warm furs are a necessity and are sometimes worn as late as May. There are many market gardens around Petrograd which supply the city with delicious summer vegetables and fruits, strawberries, raspberries, plums, gooseberries, and currants. Mushrooms are eaten in great quantities in Russia, and a special dainty of the peasants is a fresh cucumber covered with honey. Country housewives have many ways of pre- serving fruits and vegetables. Were it not for this, their food during the long winter would be very monotonous. It would seem queer to us to buy milk in a solid block. Not so to the children of Petrograd, for during the winter many of the provisions, including milk, are kept frozen. The fish market, too, with its piles of frozen fish, is inter- esting, and we wish we might hear some of the thrilling stories of storms and suffering which that weather-beaten fisherman from Archangel, at yonder stall, might tell us. Though the cold is intense, it is in the winter that you would most enjoy Petrograd. The houses have walls two or three feet thick, and double windows which are seldom opened. A huge stove made of clay or brick and reaching nearly to the ceiling is commonly used. It is generally built into the wall so that it projects into the rooms on either side and 128 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE warms both of them. A great fire is built, and when the wood has burned down to a pile of coals, the drafts are shut, and the walls of the stove become hot enough to keep the high-ceiled rooms warm for twenty-four hours or longer. You would not care to spend your time in the house in Petrograd even though it is so very cold outside. Low Fig. 49. The Middle Horse is trained to trot, while the Out- side Ones usually gallop Courtesy of JMr. B. E. Baker, Boston sleighs carrying people wrapped up to their noses in furs are dashing hither and thither through the streets. The Russian drivers never go slowly, but urge their willing horses until we hold our breath for fear of an accident. Notice in the picture, above, the peculiar wooden arch over the horse. The duga, as it is called, is fastened to the ends of the shafts and is used on all Russian teams. Tlu'ee horses are often driven abreast, as you see in the A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 129 picture. The middle one is trained to trot, while the outside ones usually gallop. The canal leading from Petrograd to Kronstadt, t\\enty- five miles away, is frozen over for several months, and a roadway for teams is marked on it by a row of evergreen trees fastened in the ice on either side. As the horses dasli down this frozen highway between the green trees, it seems as if it Avere Christmas time, and that this must be the place where Christmas trees for all the Avorld are for sale. In the summer, ferryboats ply from one shore of the Neva River to the other. In the winter, passengers are taken across in chairs furnished with warm robes. The chairs are pro- pelled by skaters, who push one swiftly across the river for less than a penny. It is fascinating to watch the skaters in the skating gar- dens on the canal. Did you ever see such graceful figures ? Every one, old and young, knows how to skate, for the winter is so long that there is plenty of time for practice. The boys and girls have great fun making snow houses, which they people with snow boys and girls. Water poured over them freezes them into solid statues wliich remam as playthmgs for the children for several months. Tln-oughout almost its entire area, Russia is one vast plani. The Ural jNIountains, the backbone of the country, divide it from Siberia, and the lofty Caucasus lie near its southern border. Nowhere else within its boundaries, from the Arctic Ocean to tiie Black Sea and from the Caspian to the Baltic, are there mountains worthy of the name. Tlie only exceptions are the Valdai Hills in the west-central part, the highest of which is only about a thousand feet. These hills are the center in which many of the rivers 130 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE of Russia have their source. Winding southward through forests or through fields of wheat, rye, potatoes, and blue- eyed flax, or making their way slowly toward the deso- late arctic waters, are the Volga, Don, Dnieper, Diina, Dwina, Onega, and many smaller streams, all of which — through the means of communication which they furnish and through the commerce which is carried on in their waters — give union and strength to this great country. Fig. 50. We are surprised to find in a Latitude as far north AS THE Klondike Region in Canada the Port of Archangel These long, navigable highways are the best roads in Russia. Many canals connect these rivers and their branches, so that it is possible to go by water from the White Sea to the Caspian or from the Baltic to the Black. The northward-bound rivers flow for hundreds of miles through forests of dark pines, where the gloomy shades are lightened by clusters of silvery birch. In the regions farther north the trees become smaller and smaller until . only a stunted growth dots the wide plain which stretches, bare of all vegetation, to the lonely arctic sea. The rivers wind A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 131 slowly through the desolate frozen marshes, or tundras, until they lose themselves in the northern ocean. We do not expect to see cities and towns in such a region, and we are somewhat surprised to find at the mouth of the Dwina Kiver, in a latitude as far north as the Klondike region in Canada, the port of Archangel, a city of twenty thousand or more inhabitants. For many weeks in winter the sun cheers the lonely town for only a few hours each day, but the brio-ht moon, the "-litter- ing stars, and the gleaming northern liglits make the long- nights radiant. In the Dwina liiver, during the few months that it is open, you would see great rafts of lumber which have come from the forests hundreds of miles away to the south. This lumber may later be found in tlie shipyards on the Clyde River or at some lumber wharf on the Thames. Before Petrograd was built much more lumber, fish, wheat, flax, and hemp were sent to England and other places by way of Archangel than now. AVe are glad to leave these desolate regions and follow the river southward toward the great forests. These stretch through central Russia, from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, and cover nearly half of the country, an area large enough to include California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. There are few real roads through the forests, only open spaces where one may drive for hours and days and even weeks without reaching the open plain. Perhaps you have seen pictures or have read stories of travelers through the woods being attacked by wolves. This is not uncommon, for the wolves and bears sometimes become fierce from 132 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE hunger and attack cattle in some near-by farmyard, or even children from some of the villages on the outskk'ts of the forest. In a visit to one of these villages we should probably find at home only the very old people, the women, and the children, for the men are away cutting timber in the forests, fishing in the polar seas, or trapping in the deep Fig. 51. " Russian Villages are All very Similar in Appearance " Courtesy of Mr. B. E. Baker, Boston woods. Russian villages are all very similar m appear- ance, and having seen one we shall know what most of them are like. In the forested area the little one-story houses of one or two rooms are made of logs -or of rough boards plugged with moss, and have wooden roofs. In the southern plains, far away from the forests, the cottages are usually made of clay, or of brick or stone, and the roofs are thatched with straw. Three small windows, with their frames pamted A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 133 red or green, are in the front ; and the door, reached tlirough a yard littered with farming tools, chickens, and pigs, is on the side. Each house has near it a wattled shed for fodder and stores or for shelter for the animals. In the coldest weather the cow and horse are often taken into the house for warmth and occupy one of the two rooms. In the very Fig. 62. "The Little Oxe-Stokv Houses of One ok Two Rooms are made of logs " Courtesy of Mr. B. E. Baker, Boston poorest houses the family and animals sometimes live in the same room during the coldest part of the whiter. Our eyes gradually become accustomed to the dim light of the room in which we are standing, and we look curi- ously around. There is very little furniture. A bench extends around three sides of the room against the wall; two or three rough chairs, and a rude table on which are a few wooden bowls and spoons, occupy most of the space. A loom stands near the window and shows signs of hard 134 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE use, for in the villages far from towns and cities most of the coarse cloth used for clothing is woven by hand. The stove interests us more than a,ny other piece of fur- niture. It is a huge, clumsy affair, reaching nearly to the ceiling and occupying one quarter of the whole apartment. The cooking is done by placing the pots among the glow- ino; coals after the roarinor wood fire has burned down. The coarse, dark rve bread is baked after the coals are raked out. 4l^^J^ i> f"^!^ i i ii » III n i^g« Fig. 53. Near the House is a Wattled Shed for Fodder and Stores or for Shelter for the Animals Courtesy of Mr. B. E. Baker, Boston These Russian boys and girls would be very much sur- prised at our food and astonished at the many different kinds of tilings which we eat. They have little besides their black bread, cabbage soup, and perhaps a piece of dried or salted fish. How should you like black bread spread with sunflower oil for your supper, or sunflower seeds to eat instead of peanuts ? You have probably never seen a sunflower farm, but to the Russian children these farms are familiar sights, for thousands of acres are covered with the tall waving plant and the big sunny blossoms. A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 135 The little village which we are describing consists of thirty or forty houses, a small church, and a two-story building which contains a store. The houses are all similar to the one which has been described, and thev stand in two long rows along the wide street, if such it can be called. It is frozen in deep ruts in the winter, is ankle deep in dust in the summer, and is well-nigh impassable because of the mud in spring and fall. Whether our journey takes us into the forested area of Russia, or into the treeless, fertile, " black-earth " region farther south, or into the more arid lands to the southeast, we shall find villages similar to the one described. The muddy or dusty streets, the rows of houses on either side with the windows facing their opposite neighbors, the littered farmyards, the widespreading plain around, with its cultivated fields and pasture lands, can be found in thousands of Russian A'illages. In no other country m the world, probably, is there such a similarity of life over so wide an area. Of course there are in Russia people who live in a differ- ent fashion ; but nearly all of the population is made up of these peasants of whose life you have just read. Some one has said : " The Russian peasant is the Russian nation. He tills the fields, fills the factories, consumes the tea, pays the taxes, equips the army, fights the battles, mans the ships ; he holds in his breast the destiny of the Slav race." Lumbering in Russia is carried on in much the same way as it is in our country, except that it is done for the most part without the aid of machinery. The men have their logging camps, river piles, log jams, log rafts, and river drivers, all much the same as in the United States. Nearly 136 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE every stream flowing from the lumber region carries with it its share of the lumber harvest. One can hear the shouts of the men as they break the jam, or the scream of saws in the busy mills, just as in ^Nlaine or ^linnesota or Washington. Some one has said, " What coal is to Great Britain, the forests are to Russia."' If the wood which is cut every year were sawed into four-foot lengths and stacked up four Fig. 54. Russian Peasants Courtesy of Mr. B. E. Baker, Boston feet high, the pile would extend more than eighty-two thousand miles, or nearly three and one-haK times around the earth at the equator. Most of this wood is used in Russia alone. What a great variety of articles, and what enormous quantities of them, may be made from it I Of course an immense amount is used for fuel, as coal is un- known throughout the greater part of Russia, and the huge stoves need ample food during the long, cold winter. Tlien, too, as in Sweden, much of the srnelting of iron is done A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 137 ^•ith charcoal instead of ^^•ith coal or coke, and as a conse- quence a very superior quality of iron is produced. Another use of charcoal is for making tea. Russians are great tea drinkers and consume nearly one fourth of all the tea raised in the world. Tea is usually made in a samovar. This peculiarly Russian dish is of brass or co[)per. In the center of it is a cylinder filled with burning char- coal, and around this is a space for the water, which is thus always kept hot and ready for use. The Russians are skillful workers and make out of wood nearly everything one can think of. Each village has its specialty at which the men, between harvests or in the winter, work in groups of half a dozen or more. In one village are made barrels, in another spoons, tubs, chairs, spinning wheels, sledges, or pails, or, perhaps, dni/as, the arches which are worn over the horses' heads. Sometimes different parts of the same article are made hi different hamlets; as, for instance, in the case of wheels, one village makes the hubs, another the spokes, and a third the rims. It is said that even if all the many great factories of Russia were closed, the thousands of peasants in the little villages far from the railroad would not be inconvenienced, for most of the articles used by them in their simple lives are made not in the factories, but in the hamlets and towns bv the peasants themselves. ISIot only wooden articles are made, but those of metals and of fibers — cotton, hemp, flax, and silk. Around Nizhni Novgorod fifty or more vil- lages are engaged in making hemp fishing nets. Thousands of families dress hides and skins and prepare sheepskin for clothinGT. 138 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Great quantities of the products of the factories and the busy households are shipped down the Volga River, for through this important water route Russia furnishes many necessary supplies not only to her own people on the plains of the south but also to the people of Siberia, Turkestan, and other countries of western and central Asia. Fig. 55. Great Quantities of the Products of the Factories AXD Households are shipped down the Volga River A voyage on this largest of all European rivers is very mteresting. We pass huge rafts of lumber as high as a house floating down to the treeless regions of the south. On each is a rough log hut in which the rivermen live, for a trip from the forest region to the Caspian Sea on such slow craft takes some weeks. Should we examine the cargoes of some of the vessels which glide slowly along with the current, we should A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 139 find a greater variety of wooden articles than we ever saw before. There seems to be everything on board — from bowls and spoons, chairs and tables, to readj'-made houses. Some of these things may be found later in the cottages on the southern plains, and some will be used by the people in far-away Bokhara, Persia, and Turkestan. Ships loaded heavily with corn, oats, rye, barley, and other grains drift slowly down the great river to furnish food to the animals and people in the barren regions of the southeast. Cargoes of flax will supply the material for Russian blouses, Persian robes, and Turkish garments. There are barges of cattle, which gaze calmly at their four- footed relatives on the shore, and boats laden with rich furs from the wealth of animal life in the forest belt. Even more interesting are the craft ascending the river. We meet many barges loaded with petroleum from the oil fields of Baku, an interesting place situated on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. This region is one of the greatest oil-producing areas of the world. Wheat from the " black- earth " region is carried up the Volga and thence by canal to Petrograd, or even to Archangel, whence it is shipped to other countries.. There are loads of salt from the barren steppes, and cargoes of furs and skins from the plains in the southeast and from Siberia, Persia, and Turkestan. Among them are great piles of coltskins, many of which will be shipped from Petrograd or 'Riga to the shoe fac- tories in the United States. There are also pony skins, which will follow the same route to our country and will be made up into fur coats. Little Mother Volga, as the Russians call the river, is about as long, as placid, and as majestic as our great 140 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Mississippi. Notice on the map the sharp turn in its lower course, where it bends abruptly to the east. A layer of hard rock lay in its way, causing it to flow toward the southeast and into the landlocked Caspian rather than into the Black Sea. The river is therefore of less importance commercially, as all the goods destined for ocean freight have to be taken I)}' railroad across to the Don River, just at the place where the two streams come the nearest together. Sometime a canal may con- nect them at this point, so that goods can be taken from one river to the other without unloading. Not- withstanding its disadvan- tage in flowing into a landlocked sea, much more traffic is carried on on the Volga than on any other Russian river. As we near the lower Volga we see many fishing boats, and we pass ships going north, loaded with quantities of ismglass, dried and salted fish, and a delicacy known as caviare, which is made from the eggs of the sturgeon. The lower Volga and the Caspian Sea are among the most important fishing grounds of the world, and the yield of these waters is worth more than that of Norway and Newfoundland put together. Fig. 56. Russian Peasant on a Volga Boat A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 141 Astrakhan, situated about twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Volga, is very attractive when seen from the water. The tall, slender minarets of numerous mosques gleam among the cupolas and domes of its many churches. In the outskirts are neat-looking vineyards and flourishing fruit and vegetable gardens, where grow the ever-present cucumber and delicious watermelons. But if you wish to hold the illusion that Astrakhan is an interesting city, do not enter it. "An ancient and fishlike smell" fills the place, while dust and du-t and badly paved streets do not invite one to a long stay. Of all its cities Moscow, the capital of Russia, is the most interesting to visitors, for, removed as it is from foreign influences, it is more purely Russian than are the coast cities. If Petrograd is the eye of Russia, Moscow is the heart. It is situated almost in the center of the great country on the little river Moskva, which, though navigable for small vessels only, gives the city, through its canal connections, water communication with the Black, Caspian, and Baltic seas and with the Atlantic Ocean. Moscow is the chief railroad center of Russia, and all main routes converge here. From the great white railroad station one may start over the Trans-Siberian Railroad on a two or three weeks' journey to far-away Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. A view of Moscow from an airship would be most inter- esting. Mixed with the foliage of the many trees and the varied colors of the houses, rise hundreds of towers and domes brilliant in gilt, spangled with stars, or blue as the sky above. Great chimneys, rivaling in number the domes and towers, pour forth their dark clouds of smoke. Around the city stretches an ancient wall, twenty-six miles long, 142 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES -EUROPE useless now for purposes of defense. In the center of the city Ave can see, m the shape of a triangle, a higher wall broken by great towers and massive gates, some of which date back to a time before the discovery of America. Within the inclosure are many buildings — the cathedral where the czars of the great empire have been, crowned, the royal palace where they lived, other churches and palaces, and the tall tower of Ivan the Terrible, a former ruler of Russia, whose character may be imagined from the title given to him by his subjects. In the tower hangs the largest bell which has ever been rung in the whole world, and at the base stands a much larger one, the Great Bell of Moscow, as it is usually called. This bell has never been hung or rung. While it was being raised to the tower it fell, and a great piece was broken out of the side, making a hole so large that a per- son much taller than vou might walk through it without bending his head. Moscow is a city of bells. All of its four hundred churches contain several, and some of them are ringing most of the time. « .i"' ,-. Underwood Fig. 57. The Tall Tower of Ivax THE Terrible and the Great Bell AT ITS Base A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 143 This collection of churches, palaces, monasteries, towers, and fortifications is called the Kremlin. Every Russian city has one, but the Kremlin of JNIoscow is the most celebrated. Let us alight from our airship and explore those parts of the city where the great chimneys are thickest. In ordinary years Petro^rad ranks first amoncf Russian cities in com- merce, while Moscow leads in manufacturing and popula- tion. There are nearly fifteen hundred factories hi the city, among them many large silk, woolen, and cotton mills. The situation of Moscow, in the most thickly populated part of the country, and its railroad and water connections all help in the development of trade and manufacture. There are cotton and woolen factories in the city in which the machinery is as modern as that which may be found in the mills of ]\Ianchester, England, or in Lowell, Lawrence, or Fall River, Massachusetts. There are large factories, too, where very beautiful silks and velvets are made. There are also sugar refineries, for the neighboring farmers raise great quantities of sugar beets. Those long, low buildings with the sparks flying from the chimneys are iron foundries, rolling mills, and other establishments for the manufacture of iron and steel, for rich h'on and coal deposits lie not far from ]\Ioscow. Tula, situated about a hundred miles farther south, manufactures many articles of iron and steel, and is sometimes called the Sheffield of Russia. The leather industry of Russia is very important. In spite of the enormous production of hides and skins, many of which are exported to other countries, Russia imports for home manufacture, in ordinary years, millions of dollars' worth, chiefly from Germany and other countries of Central 144 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Europe, France, the British Isles, and Persia. Perhaps some of you may own a pocketbook or a cardcase made of the so-called Russia leather, which has such an agreeable odor. The smell is given to the leather by the birch oil and bark which is used in the tanning process. Many years ago, before the time of canals and railroads, merchants and producers carried their goods miles and even hundreds of miles overland or by river to great centers, where they were sold or exchanged for other merchandise. There were many such markets in olden times, in both Europe and Asia, where large fairs were held, and in some places the custom still prevails. Of all these cities Nizhni Novgorod is to-day the most important. Its situation at the junction of the Volga and Oka rivers is similar to that of Lyon on the Saone and Rhone, or of St. Louis near the meeting place of the Missis- sippi and the Missouri, the influence of the two navigable rivers in each case contributing to the importance of the city. For the greater part of the year Nizhni Novgorod is a city about the size of Albany, the capital of New York State ; but for six weeks every summer it is more than twice the size of that city, and contains more goods for sale than a great many large cities put together. During the time that the fair lasts one can meet in the streets of Nizhni, merchants from all over Russia, as well as turbaned Turks, swarthy Armenians, slant-eyed Chinese, dark-skinned people of India, tall Persians, vivacious Frenchmen, light- haired Germans, dignified Englishmen, and businesslike representatives from the great firms of the L^nited States. The wholesale merchant asks more for his goods than they are worth; the customer offers less than he knows A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 145 he will have to pay. After much discussion, during which many cups of the ever-present tea are consumed, a bargain is made in which both parties are satisfied. In many cases the amount paid for goods at the fair decides their price for the coming year all over the world. As we stroll through the streets we are astonished at the amount of merchandise. We certainly never saw so Fig. 58. Sheepskins and Goatskins from Southeastern Russia AND THE Neighboring Parts of Western Asia being unloaded ON the Sands at Nizhni Novgorod Courtesy of Mr. B. E. Baker, Boston much in one place before. The wharves are piled high witli iron from the rich Donetz valley to the south ; the grana- ries near the river are filled with wheat from the fertile, " black-earth " region, oats from the north, and rye from all over the kingdom. The streets in that part of the town where the fair is held are laid out at right angles and each one has its own particular article for sale. The fur exhibits are especially interesting. One finds piles of bear, wolf, and 146 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE fox skins from the Far North; sable, marten, and ermine from Siberia ; otter from the peninsula of Kamchatka, and beaver from the streams of Canada. There are pony furs and colt, sheep, and goat skins from the plains in south- eastern Russia and in the neighboring parts of Asia, and ) H. C. White. No. Bennington, Vt. Fig. 59. "There are Hlxdkkds of Bells of All Sizes and Tones" great piles of soft lambskins which have been brought overland from Asia to the Caspian Sea and shipped up the Volga from Astraklian, We are amazed at the quantity of tea which is displayed in Chinatown. Many merchants buy at the fair their sup- ply for the entire year, which, because of the tea-drinking A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 147 habits of many of the Russians, has to be a generous one. Some of the tea has been brought by water from Canton, Chuia, but great quantities have come on the long trip overland from Kiakhta, a journey of more than a year. ) U. C. White, No. Bennington, Vt. Fig. 60. Cloth Market, Nizhni Novgorod There are piles of beautiful rugs from Persia, millions of yards of silk, cotton, linen, and woolen goods from the factories in great Russian cities, and rolls of hand-woven linen crash from the homes of the peasants. 148 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE There are many tons of dried and salted fish from Archangel and Astrakhan ; there are hundreds of bells of all sizes and tones which will later, in scores of towns and cities, call the peasants to worship ; there are thousands of samovars, the makmg of which has kept whole villages busy for months. In one provmce of Russia alone the people make annually more than forty thousand of these dishes. The stores where jewelry and precious stones are for sale are extremely fascinating. From beyond the Ural Moun- tains have come glowing rubies, deep-yellow topazes, rich red garnets, and sapphires blue as the skies. Then there are metals, wonderful enamel work on silver, and arms and cutlery from Russian workshops. There are barrels of sugar from Far Eastern countries, and gaudily painted chests which country merchants will buy to pack their goods in and then sell to peasants to store clothes in. There are laces and ribbons and silks from France and Germany, perfumes from France, gems from India — in short, every- thing that one can think of to eat, drink, wear, or use is here displayed. The goods are not sold by sample, but are bought, packed, loaded, and shipped during the few weeks that the fair is in progress. The Volga is full of steamers and barges, and the railroad station is piled high with freight. The bustle, noise, and confusion last until about the middle of September, when the city settles down into its usual sleepy condition, from which it is roused again the following summer by the arrival of the crowd. Russia is an immense country containing millions of people. For many years the peasants were serfs or slaves. An edict from the Czar in 1861 abolished slavery but, though freed from their masters, the mass of the people A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 149 have been ever since the skives of ignorance and therefore nearly as helpless as they were before. The ruling classes have done little to educate and uplift the peasants but, on the other hand, have tried in every way to keep them in ignorance and poverty. They have made unjust laws which increased the wealth and power of the officials and nobles but which made the life of the peasants harder. For some years during and after the World War, Russia was in a state of revolution. The peasants realized more fully than ever before the injustice and oppression under which they were living and made an effort to change their condition and make such things impossible in the future. Led by dreamers and visionaries, they began to look for- ward to a wonderful eliange of conditions, to a time when all classes of people should be equal, when there should be no rich and no poor, no crime, no greed, no poverty and hunger, no " bosses " or overseers or proprietors. The people were to own everything and run everything. Just how mills and factories were to run with no owners, with no responsible person at the head of affairs, this great child nation was not sure. But everything would come out all right. Surely nothing would be as bad as it had been. They were free. Nothing else mattered much. The excited mobs did not realize that they were bound just as surely by the bonds of ignorance, prejudice, superstition, and lack of experience as they had been by the old chains of slavery. They did not know the best ways of carrying on this great work of uplifting the people and developing the country, nor did they have wise leaders to help them. Russia has had the sympathy of the whole world in her struggle, and all civilized nations have wished to help her. 150 INDUSTRIAL .STUDIES — EUROPE The difficulty lias been iu knowing how to do it. Soldiers and armies would he of but little use, for the mass of the people would look upon them as enemies come to make their state worse rather than better. Other nations can best aid poor Russia by helping her to develop her industries, to increase her commerce, to improve her methods of farming, and above all to build up her system of education. Knowl- edge is power. Russia needs schools for the common people, and also wise teachers and honest rulers. When she possesses these things, we shall see a tremendous development in tliis great Slav nation. Ukraine In southwestern Russia is the region known as Ukraine. The people Avho live here are often called "Little Russians,*' in contrast with the " Great Russians " of the Moscow and Petrograd regions. The surface of Ukrame is, like most of Russia, a wide- stretching plain. The great forest region of Russia lies farther north, and these southern plains are treeless and, where uncultivated, are covered with tall grass. In a trip through Ukraine we shall find the same mo- notonous level land, the same desolate-appearing villages, and the same primitive ways of life that prevail in the rest of Russia. Yet this is one of the richest parts of Europe. So fertile is the soil that, even with the backward methods of agriculture which are common among the people, large crops are produced. Ukraine includes most of the famous " black-earth '' region, where grain is such an important crop. Russia is one of the most important wheat-producing countries of the earth. A freight train long enough to carry the crop A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 151 would reach from Boston to San Francisco. Much of this great crop is raised in Ukraine. Thousands of peasants from tlie httle villages dotting the great plain plow the rich soil with a small homemade Fig. 61. "Odessa is the Greatest Whkat 1'out in the Wuhld" From " World's Comnierciiil Prochicts" plow which just scratches the top of the ground; they sow, reap, and thresh the grain by hand, and draw it in their small wagons or low sleds for long distances to the nearest railroad station, canal, or river, whence it is shipped to Riga, Petrograd, or other ports, but chiefly to Odessa. 152 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The peasants reserve but little for themselves, as the coarse, dark bread which is one of their chief articles of food is made largely from rye. The villages and towns in which the peasants live are separated from one another by great distances. Each one is sure to be located by some meandering stream where the villagers can find water for their flocks and herds in case of drought. As one approaches one of these villages he can see, while yet a long way off, the church towering above the little low houses, and the gray old windmills waviner their arms in the breeze. Around the windmills are the wagons of the farmers who have come from miles away bringing their grain to the mill to be ground. As soon as they receive their grist they will start on their long homeward journey to some little village far out on the great plain. The rich soil is not the only resource of Ukraine. The celebrated Donetz coal fields, which are among the richest in Europe, are in this region. Much of the coal used in Russian factories comes from these Donetz mines. Iron too is found, as well as copper and mercury. Find on your maps the city of Kiev, once the capital of all Russia and now an important city of Ukraine. It is a holy city, and hundreds of thousands of pilgrims with staves in their hands and wallets on their backs visit it annually. So much does this pilgrimage mean to these poor people that they will travel on foot for days and spend their last penny for the sake of visiting this holy place. As the legend runs, a thousand years ago a very holy monk came to Kiev and made his home in a cave. Other A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 153 holy men followed him and made their homes in caves. Many of them, it is said, never came out again into the daylight, but lived on the footl left at the entrance by brother monks. When the food remained where it was placed it was known that the cave monk had died and his niche was then walled up. It is these tombs that the pilgrims come to visit. Odessa is the greatest wheat port in the world. It is situated on a high bluff, on the edge of which is a fine boulevard overlooking the water. The great stone build- ings, the wide streets, the public squares, the fine railroad station, tlie electric cars and lights, all tell us that Odessa is a modern city. Near the water are large flour mills, oil mills, sugar refineries, soap works, tanneries, and other factories, which show that it is a manufacturmg center as well as a commercial port. In the harbor, which is finely protected by strong forts, there are vessels from many countries, bringing to the city coal, tea, fruits, agricultural implements, machinery, iron and steel, and raw cotton. They reload with fish, timber, oil, flour, leather, sugar, and other products and manufactures. C Umlerwoort & Ilnflcrwood Fig. 62. Gukat Staircase, Odessa 15-1 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUllOPE But they cany greater quantities of wheat than uf anything else — wheat for the macaroni makers of Italy, for the silk weavers of France, for the factory hands of England. TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. Route from Lisbon to Petrograd. 2. Russian ports on the Baltic Sea. 3. Kronstadt and Petrograd. 4. Winter sports in Russia. 5. Surface and drainage of Russia. 6. The port of Archangel. 7. Description of a Russian village. 8. Description of a peasant's liome. 9. Forests of Russia. 10. Lumbering in Russia. 11. Household industries. 12. A trip down the Volga River to .Vstrakhan. 13. Kiev and Odessa. 14. The old city of Moscow. 15. Xizhni Novgorod and its great fair. 16. Ukraine. II 1. Sketch a map of Russia and slunv in it (a) the forest region ; (Jj) the " black-earth " region and Ukraine; (r) the Valdai Hills and the chief rivers which have their source in them ; ()!) all the cities mentioned in the text ; (e) all the mountains mentioned in the text. 2. Sketch a map of Gernumy and Denmark and shoM' in it (a) the North and Baltic seas ; (h) the Skagerrack and Kattegat; (c) the Kiel Canal. A TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA 155 3. See if you can find any further facts about the life of Peter the Great. 4. Name the three greatest oil-producing countries of the world. 5. Write a list of all the products of Russia that you know. 6. Why is Tula called the "SSheffield of Russia "'V Where is Sheffield? What does it manufacture? 7. Write a list of all the kinds of furs, hides, and skins produced in Russian lands. 8. Write a list of articles sold at the great fair of Ni/liui Novgorod. Tell where each was produced and the route followed iu bringing it to Nizhni. 9. Write as many differences as you can between the life of an American and a Russian. 10. Write a list of all the likenesses that you can think of between the Volga and the Mississippi River ; the differences. Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said about it in this and iu any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Arizona Klondike Albany Armenia Maine Archangel " Black-earth " Massachusetts Astrakhan region Minnesota Baku Bokhara Nevada Canton British Isles Newfoundland Fall River California New Mexico Kiakhta Canada Norway Kiev Central Europe Persia Kronstadt China Portugal Lawrence Denmark Siberia Lisbon England Sweden Lowell Erance ' Texas Lyon (Germany Tibet Manchester Great Britain Turkestan Moscow India Ukruiue Nizhni Novgorod Italy Utah Odessa Kamchatka Washington Petrograd 156 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Reval Riga St. Louis San Francisco Sheffield Tula Vladivostok Caucasus Mountains Ural Mountains Valdai Hills Clyde River Dnieper River Don River Douetz River Diina River Dwina River ^Mississippi River JMissouri River Moskva River Neva River Oka River Onega River Rhone River Saone River Thames River Volga River Baltic Sea Black Sea Caspian Sea English Channel Gulf of Finland Kiel Canal Kattegat North Sea Skaggerack Strait of Dover White Sea CHAPTER IX FINLAND AND LAPLAND North and east of the arms of the Baltic Sea lies the country of Finland. It is, indeed, a '' fen-land," a region of swamps and marshes and lakes, of deep forests, of short and cold winter days and long and hot summer ones. Finland is often called " The Land of a Thousand Lakes." Five thousand or even ten thousand would probabl}^ come nearer the actual number. In parts of Finland they form a network, separated by deep forests and impassable marshes. This feature of its surface has been a hindrance to the development of the country, but the patient, energetic Finlander has bit by bit overcome these disadvantages by draining large areas of land and by connecting the lakes with canals, thus forming continuous waterways which are the chief highways of the country. Villages and industries have sprung up in places once remote and inaccessible. By means of the canals and lakes, in the summer season one can explore a large part of Finland, and in the winter one can travel for many miles over their frozen surfaces. Some of the poorer people of southern Finland where the lakes are the most numerous find their chief occupation in fishing. Most of the rivers are unnavigable and are used chiefly for water power and for the transporting of logs from the inland forests to the large sawmills near the sea. 157 158 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE From earliest times Finland had to fight against the desire of both Kussia and Sweden to possess her territory. She was annexed, first by one and then by the other of these two countries, until in 1808 she was separated permanently from Sweden and came under Russian rule. Since the World War she has declared her independence of Russia, Pig. 63. The Winter Sports are very Enjoyable Because of the rigorous climate in which they live the Finlanders are a sturdy race. The winters in this northern land are hard and long with very little sunshine. During December and January there are days and weeks when the sun does not come above the horizon and the people in the northern part of the country live in twilight. In spite of the short days and the lack of sunlight it is the winter season that the Finlander loves the best. FINLAND AND LAPLAND 159 The cold is not so severe as one might imagine from the northerly position of the country. This is because of the warmth from the Gtilf Stream which is carried to the con- tinent by the westerly winds. The weather is cold enough, however, to keep the country covered all winter with a white frozen blanket of snow. This is the time of skating parties, of gay sledge rides, of merrymakings on skis and snowshoes. If you lived in Finland in the summer you would scarcely know when to go to bed, for there are weeks when the sun barely dips below the horizon and some nights when it can be seen at midnight, a low, I'ed ball shining in the northern sky. Crops grow very fast during the long hours of daylight, and, although the spring is late and frosts come early, considerable crops of grain and vegetables are raised. Most of the people are farmers. The great glacier, which once covered the country and smoothed off the hills and dug the valley beds for the lakes, strewed many bowlders over the surface of the land. These do not make the farmer's work any easier. ^luch of the land is better for pasturage than it is for raising crops, and therefore dairying lias come to be an important industry. Large quantities of butter are exported, and the Finnish product is considered as cpood as that made in anv countrv of the world. Finland has little natural wealth. The soil is not very rich, the climate is not favorable for agriculture, and the mineral wealth is not great. The water power of tlie rivers, sometimes known as " white coal," is more valuable than any deposits of the black mineral found below the surface. The forests of Finland are more valuable than any other resource. More than half of Finland is covered with trees, 160 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE and the chief mdiistries of the country are connected with them. Little coal is used, and the people would hardly know how to get along without wood tor fuel. Thousands of men work in the forests, and scores of sawmills, situated on the swift streams and near the waterfalls, are operated by water power. Lum- ber is produced and exported in large quantities. Li con- nection with nearly all the sawmills there are factories for the making of wood pulp, paper, card- board, and other forest products. We should not expect a country with few natural re- sources like Finland to have very exten- sive manufactures. Yet in some of the southern cities and towns we find cotton and flour mills, tobacco and glass factories, machine shops, and other industries. In a part of southwestern Finland there are some splendid granite quar- ries and the cities present a finer, more dignified appearance, because the buildings are made of this material. Numerous bridges, monuments, and large buildings in Petrograd are built of Finnish granite. J littitf^ ^Mi i 1 ^ m ^£^mIHI HI RlHnHH| ^?m 1 y^ypti^ r ' HidBiP~'''''^'i Fig 64. Dairying is ax I.mi'01!tant Occu- pation IN Finland The pails are full of milk FINLAND AND LAPLAND 161 Helsingfors, the capital of Finland, is a very attractive city ill spite of the fact that its harbor is closed by ice from November to May. Pine-clad hills surround it, and the deep-blue sea studded with green islands makes a pleas- ing approach. As we walk down the main boulevard and -Tg^y---;^ ■«gu^~- ;-.--- ■ Fig. 05. IIi:LsiN.-.J J k m _, iSu f I' I 'H ^--f-r One of the places in Sweden we should like to visit before leaving the country is Jonkoping, perhaps the most beautifully situated of all Swedish towns. It lies at the southern end of Lake Wetter and is surrounded by hills on the east, west, and south. But beautiful as the scenery is, it is not that which has brought us here. No ; it is those large buildings in the western part of the town where for more than sixty years matches have been manufactured. A Swede invented fric- tion matches, and Johan Lundstrom, whose name is still seen on match boxes, started and built up an immense indus- try in Jonkoping, where they have been manu- factured ever since in such great quantities that the town has become famous for the product. Most of the factories in Sweden manufacture safety matches, which can be lighted only on the box in which they are put up. The matches are made chiefly of aspen wood, much of which has to be imported from Finland and Russia, for the supply in Sweden has diminished rapidly in recent years. When the manufacture of matches first began, each little stick was made and dipped by hand. Now, however, © Underwood & Underwood Tig. 71. Principal Street in Jonkoping 172 IXDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE machines do the whole work. And such wonderful machines ! One of them takes blocks of w^ood as wide as a match is long and two inches thick, cuts the blocks into splints the size of a match, forms the head, puts the finished matches into boxes which are fed into the machine, and thus turns out, untouched by the human hand, forty to fifty thousand boxes a day. There are more than twenty factories in Sweden, now united into one corporation, which turn out annually im- mense quantities of matches. Besides the great number con- sumed in the coun- try, from twenty to twenty-five thousand tons are exported annually. Though this seems a great amount, the United States manufactures many more. It is estimated that the factories of our country produce from two hundred seventy- five to three hundred billion matches every year. If these were fastened too'ether end to end the line thus made would be long enough to stretch to the moon and back nearly twenty times. Some one interested in problems has figured that the nations of the civilized world use about three million matches every minute, and that one half of this immense quantity is consumed in the United States. Fig. 72. '' r:,il' I \'. 1 \ [ iiJerwood Farming neak Joxkopixg SWEDEN AND HER FORESTS 173 TOPICS FOR STUDY 1. The trip from Helsiugfors. 2. Description of Stockholm. 3. A journey to northern Sweden. 4. The forests of Sweden. 5. Lumbering in Sweden. 6. Exjiorts of the country. 7. Jonkoping and the manufacture of matches. 8. World product of matches. 11 1. Sketch Sweden, showing the mountain, forest, and plain region. Show the direction of the rivers. Indicate the cities mentioned. 2. Write a list of the reasons why Sweden ranks so high in the lumber industry. 3. Trace the route of a vessel which is bringing Swedish imu to Philadelphia. 4. Load a vessel with Swedish products for England. Name tlie products carried, the waters sailed on, the shipping and receiving- ports, and the return cargo. 5. Make a list of the addresses which you can find on match boxes. Locate these places. Ill Be able to sjiell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Finland Great Britain Norway Russia United States Berlin Copenhagen Dannemora Edinburgh (iothenburg Helsingfors Jonkoping LuVa Stockholm Venice Baltic Sea Gulf of Finland Lake Malar Lake Wetter CHAPTER XI GERMANY AND THE WURLD WAR Our next trip will talvo us into Germany, a country of Central Europe bordering on the North and Baltic seas. It is less than twice the size of Colorado, while its popu- lation is nearly two thirds that of the entire United States. For many years Germany was a strong military country. As the years passed, and her military and industrial strength grew greater and greater, her ruler and her '' war-lords " became more and more obsessed with the idea of dominat- ing the world ; of creating a Germany that should extend through middle Europe southward into western Asia and eastward across the dominions of the Czar of Russia to the Pacific ; of absorbing the little countries to the north ; of conquering France, then England ; and, in due time, of reaching across the Atlantic even to our own United States and to the countries south of us. Such were the plans of the kaiser of Germany and his advisers, and for years previous to 1914 everything within the mighty empire was directed to their accomplishment. In 1914 Germany was ready, and the great war began. Never in the history of the world had there ever been such a war. It was not a struggle between two conn- tries or between two continents, even. Nearly the whole world took part in the conflict. At iirst the people of the United States were divided in their opinion as to whether 174 GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 175 or not our country should join the AlHed Nations agamst Germany and the other Central Powers, and it was nearly three years after the beginning of the fighting before we entered the war. Our strength, our resources, and our brave boys, added to those of France, England, and the other Allies, proved too much for the foe, and from the time we entered the conflict the German cause was lost, and the world freed from fear of German rule. The war had man}- results. Some of them were awful ones. Millions of men were killed ; hundreds of towns and cities were laid completely in ruins; thousands and thousands of people lost homes, household goods, farms, cattle, every- thing in the world that they possessed. In the fighting- zone, mills, factories, mines, machinery, and industries ol all kinds were laid in ruins. Wonderful art treasures and ancient buildings were forever lost to the world. Forests of splendid trees, hundreds of years old, were laid waste in a few weeks. What had taken man and nature centuries to accomplish was destroyed in four years. Some of the results of the war were as beneficial as others were harmful. In some of the countries of Europe and other continents the people had few rights and privi- leges. They had been oppressed for centuries and governed by autocratic rulers of other races or religions who hated them and forbade them to use their native language, to have schools with teachers of their own race, to make their laws, or to choose their officials. The war changed many of these conditions. New nations, people happy in a new freedom, and new boundary lines drawn by a higher law than greed and selfishness were some of the results. To guard the liberties of peoples, to help 176 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE to prevent wars and all their disastrous results, there was planned the greatest organization the world has ever jet known, the League of Nations, powerful, just, far-seeing, ready to defend the right, to repress the wrong, and to see that law and order, justice and mercy, should prevail. The industrial changes brought about by the war have been many and great. Before 1914 Germany controlled the world's markets in certain important products. Chief among these were optical and surgical instruments which required a high degree of skill in the making, chemical manufactures, such as dyes and drugs, and potash and other substances which help in making the world's ferti- lizers, without which large crops cannot be produced. Soon after tlie war commenced it became impossible to obtain these and other products from Germany. Therefore other nations began experiments in their manufacture. The results of these experiments in building up new industries have been very successful. In the future neither Germany nor any other country will hold a monopoly on those products which are essential to the welfare of the world. For many years few people from the United States or from other countries will care to travel in Germany for pleasure. We should be giving to that country, however, a great advantage over us if we knew nothing of her people, her land, and her industries. It is as important now as it ever has been that we have considerable knowledge of the country of Germany. For many years Germany had been an important country in the production of iron and coal. She ranked first among European nations in her iron output and next to Great Britain in the amount of coal mined. It was largely due GERMAXY AND THP: WORLD WAR 177 to these two products that she was able to build up her manufacturing industries and prepare herself for the great war. A large part of the iron ore was mined in Alsace- Lorraine. Now that this territory has been given back to France, Germany will no longer hold first rank in Europe in iron production. When the German armies retreated from northern France they wrecked the coal mines of the region, destroying and carry mg away the machinery and flooding the mines. ]Many years must pass before some of these mines can be worked : some of them are permanently damaged. One of Germany's richest coal fields lay in the valley of the Saar River, a branch of the Moselle. To make up partially for the great industrial loss to France, the treaty of peace at the close of the World War provided that she should be given control of the Saar valley coal mines in western Germany. At the end of fifteen years from the signing of the treaty the people there are to be given tlie opportunity of deciding to which nation they desire to belong. Although Germany has many large cities and important manufactures, a fourth of all her many million people depend on agriculture for a living. Though most of the farms are small ones, the owners cultivate them so care- fully that there are immense quantities of grain, sugar beets, grapes, potatoes, and other products raised on them. In ordinary years Germany raises more potatoes than any other country in the world. They form one of the chief foods of the people and, with coarse rye bread and butter- milk or sour milk, are eaten daily by the peasants. If we could look down upon Germany from an airsliip, we should see acres and acres of sugar beets W:U ing their 178 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE green tops in the sunshine, for Germany is one of the leadmg countries of the Avorld in the production of beet suo-ar. We should also see from our airship the browner green of the hopvines twining around tall poles twice as hicrh as your head. Thousands of acres of hops are raised to be used in the making of beer, which German people drink in large quantities. Flying low in our airship over the val- ley of the Rhine River we should see below us the ter- raced vmeyards the fruit from which yields the famous Rhine wines. Infer- tile meadows and on green hillsides we should catch a sight of many sleek- looking cattle, for Germany is an important dairying country. Agriculture in a great variety of forms is one of the leading industries of the country, yet Germany is better known as an important manufacturing and commercial nation. She is noted not only for the great amount but for the variety of her productions, and is famous also for the science and skill displayed in their manufacture and use. The making of indigo is an illustration of this. Formerly, © Underwood & I'liderwoci. Fig. 73. In Germany wk can see many Acres of Sugar Bicets GERMANY AXD THE WORLD WAR 179 and to a slight extent at the present time, the indigo plant yielded the dye, large quantities of which were imported at great expense. To-day an artificial product, discovered in coal tar by a German chemist and manufactured in great quantities, is cheaper than the natural product of the uidigo plant. Its use saves the cost of importation, and its sale to other countries increases the value of Germany's exports. i ^^S^^B^^HBiHw!' oH^^^LJi ^^^^^^jg' «BI ■-- -~^^^H^^H Fig. 74. "Thousands of Acres of Hops are raised" This is only one of the many brilliant dyes which scientific men have discovered can be made from the dirty-looking coal tar. Great quantities of fertilizers, artificial camphor, drugs, powders, perfumes, and other chemicals are also made here. Germany is noted for the number of expert chemists con- nected with her manufacturing industries, and chemicals rank among the most important manufactures of the country. The discovery of a method by which beet sugar could be manufactured cheaply enough to make it commercially 180 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE profitable was the work of a German chemist. By pains- taking experiments beets have been developed which yield several times the amount of sugar formerly obtained from the vegetable. To feed and clothe her millions of people Germany must import many million dollars' worth of raw material ; to furnish occupation for them she must manufacture ; and to pay for her imports she must export these manufactured goods. The growth of the nation, therefore, depends to a great extent upon her commerce. Let us see if the situation of Germany favors this com- mercial development. It occupies a central position in Europe, with other nations on every side, and her land routes, therefore, are short ones. This in itself is favorable, for land routes are usually expensive for transportation pur- poses. If we measured her entire boundary line, we should find it to be about four thousand miles. Rather more than a fourth of this borders on the sea — about eight hundred miles on the Baltic and nearly three hundred miles on the North Sea. The Baltic, being farther from the ocean and separated from it by the Scandinavian peninsula, is colder than the North Sea, and the ports on it are closed b}' ice for a part of the year, while the North Sea ports remain open. The Kiel Canal, w^hich connects the waters of the two seas, extends from the city of Kiel to the mouth of the Elbe River, a distance of sixty-one miles. It was built by Germany largely for military and naval purposes, in order that she might move her war vessels at will in and out of the Baltic Sea. Since the Peace Treaty was signed in 1919, at the close of the World War, the Kiel Canal has been open to vessels of all nations. GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 181 Because of tlie disadvantages connected with the carry- ing on of commerce on the Baltic Sea, most of Germany's trade is carried on tln^ough the North Sea ports. This traffic is greatly increased by the position of these cities opposite the great markets of England, and also by the surface and drauiage conditions of the country, for however favorably situated a seaport may be, its importance depends largely upon its means of commmiication with the country which fur- nishes the goods for export. If from our airship we could view at once the whole area of Ger- many, we should see four long, navigable rivers, which rise in or break through the mountains in the south- ern part of the country and flow northward across the great German plain to the North and Baltic seas. These are tlie Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, and the Oder. A fine canal system connects these rivers with one another, and with the Seine, the Rhone, and the Danube, which flow to the west and south. By means of this system of waterways Germany has been able to draw her commercial products from the fields and factories of many countries to the east and Avest and south. ^ : Ikk a^''*^-'-'- rfliiiP Li V j^»^* g^^^ ^^^ 1 ^gSHKffl^'' r- "'■"IH {' • ^1 i © I'nderwoocl & I'nderwood Fu;. 75. The Kiel Canal extends kkom Kiel to the Mouth of the Elbe River 182 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE At or near the mouth of each of the great northward- flowing rivers is a large commercial port. Rotterdam in Holland is located near the mouth of the Rhine, Bremen on the Weser, Hamburg on the Elbe, and Stettin on the Oder. {^jj limierwrood & Underwood Fig. 76. The Rhine River is Faaious for its Castles AND Vineyards Through each of these ports pass not only the products of the river basin which it controls but those also which have come by canal and railroad from other sections. The Rhine River, famous for its castles and vine- yards, is the most westerly and the most important of these commercial streams. A ride through this section GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 183 of Germany and along the Ruhr River would remind us of a visit to Pittsburgh, for it is as full of foundries, rolling mills, and steel works, with their tall chhnneys and roaring furnaces, as is the " Smoky City " of Pennsylvania. In this district is Essen, a city famous for its iron and steel manu- factures. Before and during the World War it was a most important center for the manufacture of munitions. In Elberfeld, a city larger than New Orleans, we should see many large cotton mills and factories. At Krefeld, which is about the size of Lowell, ]M as sac hu setts, there are many factories in which are made silk goods of all kinds and descriptions. In ordinary years many boats descend the Rhine from these and other busy manufacturing cities, carrying all kinds of silk, cotton, woolen and linen goods, cloth, yarn, ribbons, braids, laces, trimmings, and embroideries. Others are heavily loaded with coal and iron and with a variety of iron manufactures — cutlery, hardware, machinery, needles and pins, and guns and rifles. Besides these products- the Rhine boats carry many goods of the finest workmanship, among which are musical, optical, and surgical instruments, and thermometers such as phy- sicians use to tell the temperature of a patient. These have come from the great factories and splendidly equipped labora- tories, and also from the little houses of the peasants, where only one or two workmen find employment, for many of the products of Germany, as well as of other European countries, are made in the homes of the people rather than ill large manufacturing plants. The center of the chemical industry for which Germany is famous lies on the upper Rhine between Frankfort and 184 IXDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Mannheim. ^Millions of dollars" worth of fertilizers, drugs, acids, and powders for use in manufacture and medicine are made in this section of the country. The busy peasants from the small, well-kept farms of the upper Rhine valley send great quantities of wheat, barley, rye, potatoes, grapes, and tobacco down the river in barges. Much of the tobacco will go by canal to the Weser River and thence to Bremen, which is one of the largest tobacco ports of the world. In a trip down the Rhine we should notice that all the more important cities along the river, Ruhrort, Diisseldorf, Cologne, Mainz, jNIannheim, and others, have the best modern conveniences for carrying on commerce — quays, sheds, warehouses, granaries, petroleum tanks, cranes, and other devices for handling heavy goods. The mouth of the Rhine River is in the Netherlands, and the great city of Rotterdam, situated near the coast and connected with the sea by a ship canal, is the natural port of the whole valley. By means of canals, which cut the city into many islands and stretch off through the low plains, we can reach any part of the Netherlands, for the network of waterways extends to all parts of the small kingdom. On them one can see every imaginable variety of canal boat and barge, in such numbers and so close together that they touch one another for long distances along the sides of the canal. Every boat is named, many of them after the dearly loved Queen Wilhelmina. Rotterdam is not a beautiful city, nor is it thoroughly Dutch, for it carries on commerce with too many countries of the world and is visited daily by too many foreigners for it to keep its Dutch characteristics. If you do not like GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 185 sailors and sailor ways do not go to Rotterdam, for they are everywhere, and hundreds of ships lie at the docks, are towed or poled slowly through the dark water of the canals between the rows of boats on either side, or sail proudly out of the harbor toward distant lands. Those bound for the United States carry great quantities of hides and skins, spices from the Dutch colonies in the East Indies, cheese, rice, and many other things. Among the important exports are bulbs, seeds, roots, and plants, for the Netherlands is famous for these products. Thomas Hood has well described Rotterdam in a rather humorous poem written to a friend in England. It runs as follows: Before me lie dark waters In broad canals and deep, Whereon the silver moonbeams Sleep, restless in their sleep ; A sort of vulgar Venice Reminds me where I am ; Yes, yes, you are in England, And I'm in Rotterdam. Tall houses with quaint gables, Where frequent windows shine. And quays that lead to bridges, And trees in formal line, And masts of spicy vessels From western Surinam, All tell me you 're in England, But I'm in Rotterdam. Before the war some of Germany's strongest fortifica- tions lay along the Rhine River and in its valley. By the terms of the Peace Treaty Germany is not allowed to main- tain the forts in this area or to send any armed forces 186 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE there. It is intended that this unarmed corridor of the Rhine valley shall help to protect France from any future invasion of the Germans. The next important stream east of the Rhine is the Weser, with Bremen, the second largest port of Germany, situated about fifty miles from its mouth. The part of the city on the right bank of the river is very old ; as we wander thi'^ugh the narrow, crooked streets lined with the quaint old houses of the Middle Ages, and visit the ancient cathe- dral and the old council house with its famous wine cellars, we feel as if we must be separated by hundreds of j^ears and hundreds of miles from the newer part of the city, which rises from the opposite bank of the Weser with its broad, straight streets, fine busmess blocks, lovely parks, and attractive gardens. The docks at Bremen extend along the banks of the Weser River. The water front is usually crowded with vessels, from many lands in different parts of the world. They are anchored in the harbor, are loading at the docks, and are departing on long voyages to far distant countries. In a single year more than two thousand vessels have ) Underwood & Underwood Fig. 77. German Emigrants GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 187 arrived at this busy port of Germany. From Bremen, also, have sailed more than half of all the emigrants who have left the Fatherland to seek their fortunes in other parts of the vi^orld. As our airship floats slowly eastward we find ourselves above a great river as crowded with boats and barges as the Rhine. This is the Elbe, one of the most important rivers of Germany, for on it goods can be carried entirely across that country, and thence, by means of the JNIoldau River, southward beyond the German border into the new country of Czechoslovakia. Vessels called express trans- ports make the trip of nearly four hundred miles from Hamburg to the frontier in five or six days and the return trip down the river in about half of that time. Canals connect the Elbe with the Weser and Rhine on the one side and with the Oder and Vistula on the other. (Jne of these, on which much of the great trade between Hamburg and the capital city of Berlin is carried on, follows the course of the vSpree River for some miles and then joins the Oder, thus connecting the waters of the North and Baltic seas. Hamburg is the largest seaport on the continent of Europe. It is situated at the head of ocean navigation, sixty-five miles from the mouth of the Elbe River. There are larger and finer docks, quays, warehouses, granaries, and elevators crowded on the water front than we have seen in any other city of Germany, and the machinery for loading and unloading vessels probably equals that in use in any seaport of the world. Large quantities of foodstuffs and much of the raw material for manufacture enter Germany through the port 188 mDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE of Hamburg, for it is admirably situated at the head of the North Sea, across the water from the great markets of England, and near the entrance to the Kiel Canal, which connects it with the Baltic Sea. By the aid of this canal, of the Elbe River and its connections, and of the numerous railroads which enter the city, Hamburg has become a great distributing center, scattering the products received by its ocean commerce all over Germany and into many parts of Central Europe. Much of the trade of the great city of Berlin is carried on through the same port, and goods are conveyed by rail, by canals, and by the Havel and Spree rivers to the capital city, from which they find their way by rail, river, and canal to waterways and cities farther east and south. A list of the exports which Hamburg has sent to other countries would include nearly everything which has been produced or manufactured in Germany, as well as imports from other countries. Millions of dollars' worth of these goods are shipped annually from this busy port. Vessels bound for different parts of the world carry hides and skins, oils, seeds, ore, wood pulp and paper stock, toys, chemi- cals, dyes and drugs, India rubber, fertilizers, cloth, laces, embroideries, and gloves. From different parts of the Elbe valley, boats are continually arriving at Hamburg bringing mineral products, silver, lead, copper, tin, nickel, and iron from Erzgebirge, or ore mountains, on the southern frontier. Other boats bring all kinds of manufactures from Saxony, the most densely populated and the chief manufacturing section of Germany — china from Dresden ; books, furs, and skins from Leipzig ; and all kinds of cotton goods from Chemnitz. There are also cargoes of toys, dolls, trimmings. GERMAXY AND THE WORLD WAR 189 embroideries, laces, artificial flowers, tobacco, thousands and thousands of post cards, real and artificial silk, seeds, salts, and so many other things that if we were to attempt to name all of them the chapter would be a very long one. As our airship takes us still farther east, we pass over the Oder River, with Stettin, a city the size of St. Paul, Minnesota, at its mouth. Stettin has one of the finest harbors in Europe and is connected by the Oder River and numer- ous canals with the Elbe on the west and the Vistula on the east. It is therefore a great trad- ing center for those south- ern countries which can be reached by these water connections and for cen- tral and eastern Ger- many. Both of these reocions include fine agri- cultural areas, and thou- sands of tons of freiglit come to Stettin by way of Berlin, and from Czechoslovakia. Chief among these exports is beet sugar, and following this in importance are flour and starch, products of the great potato crop in which Germany is one of the leading countries of the world. The composition of the soil in this part of Germany favors the manufacture of cement, of which large quantities have been exported. I Underwood & Underwood Fig. 78. We pass the Oder River, AviTH Stettin at its Modth 190 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE If in our tour through Germany, instead of looking down from our airship at the traffic on the rivers and at the great manufacturing cities and seaports, we had examined the quaint little houses in the country regions and in the smaller towns and cities, we should have seen many of the people engaged in an industry which would have interested us more tlian any of those carried on in great factories or mills. You wonder how any industry of importance can be carried on in small houses of two or three rooms, such as many of the peasants live in ; but when thousands of families, — father, mother, and chil- Jveu — in homes all over the country are Avorking at the same occupation they accomplish a great deal, even if they do not work together in a few large buildings. Thousands and thousands of the people of Germany live in the country and depend for a livhig on the products of the farm and on the work which they do in their own homes during their spare hours. JNIany of these peasants are engaged in making toys — woolly dogs, Teddy bears, Noah's arks, tin soldiers, coaches, engines and trains, ducks that float, dolls that cry, sheep that bleat, and scores of others. Many also work on wooden articles, such as kitchen goods, boxes, toothpicks, frames for brushes, carved wood, and barrels. In their own homes, hundreds of families are engaged in making ribbons, laces, silks, and embi'oid- eries, besides knitted and crocheted goods. There are also glass workers, straw plaiters, and glove, basket, and violin makers. Of all these home industries the making of toys is more interestmg than any other. jNIany of these come from Sonneberg, a quaint little town which nestles quietly in GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 191 Fig. 79. ) Underwood & Underwood In One House Notiiixg is made but Dolls" the long valley of the Thuringian Mountains, which you will find on the map opposite page 176. We will plan our visit so that we may arrive in the town on Saturday, for that is the day when the people from the outlying districts 192 IXDUSTRIAL STUDIES —-EUROPE bring to ilie town the toys which they have been making during the week, and we shall find the scene at the rail- road station very interestmg. Some of the peasants have heavy loads. See that Avoman with a basket nearly a yard deep fastened to her shoulders, while an oblong box a yard wide rests on the top of that. Both are filled with woolly dogs which every member of the family, from the aged grandfather doA^ni to the seven-year-old girl, has had a hand in making. The Thuringian Mountains, as you see on the map, lie on the borders of Saxony. Were it not for the difference in the appearance of the people and their homes we might think we were in one of the pleasant valleys of the Green Mountains of Vermont. The German mountains, however, are darker, for their slopes are covered with deep forests of evergreen trees. The Germans take excellent care of their forests. The cutting is very carefully done, the undersfrowth and brush are removed so that the forest areas are as clean as a picnic grove, and a tree is planted for each one felled. Sonneberg is a queer old to\ATL of nearl}- fifteen thou- sand people, where the tall, quaint houses topple toward one another across the narrow streets leading from the market place up the slopes of the mountains. The farms are small, for most of the land is wooded. The peasants raise the rye for their bread, the corn for their meal, and the flax for their linen. The men cut wood in the forests and work on the farms ; the women spin and weave the flax into clothmg for the family ; and the children gather berries or tend the cattle and sheep in the mountain pas- tures. While the animals feed on the green hillsides, the GERMAXY AXD THE WORLD WAR 193 little keeper knits the warm woolen stockings or mittens which will be needed when the mountains are covered with snow and the drifts lie deep in the valleys. If you were to walk throuo-li the village in tlie lonsr, cold Avinter months, you would find nearly every family — mother, father, chubby-cheeked girls, and sober-faced bo^'-g — sittmg around the table in the small, low room working on some kind of toy. In one house nothing is made but dolls. The father makes the heads and the mother cuts out and stuffs the body ; a little girl only eight years old sews on the arms and legs ; her brother, eleven years old, fastens on the hair; while the elder sister paints the eye- brows and cheeks. In another house the whole family are making figures of Santa Claus. Each child has his own particular part of the work to do — perhaps making the legs or arms, per- haps painting the cheeks or fastening on the hair or beard or the white wool hat — and he will continue at this same work day after day and year after year. The reason that the peasants work so quickly and skill- fully is because their fingers, like those of their ancestors, have been trained to do just this special work. But how monotonous it must be ! In the summer the work on the small farms makes some variation ; but in the winter, when the cold winds blow and the snow is piled high around the little house, the Avorkers sit from early morning till late at night painting lips, fastening in eyes, cutting out bodies, sewing on limbs, or doing some other detail, over and over, the whole day through. We must not leave " Toyland " without visiting its capi- tal, Nuremberg. Toys have been made there for many, 194 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE many years, and are manufactured in great numbers both in large factories and in the homes of the peasants. Nuremberg is about as large as our capital city, Wash ington, but it would be hard to imagine two cities more unlike. Nuremberg represents in great measure the old life of some hundred years ago, while Washington stands for the most modern life of the twentieth century. The old wall still surrounds the city, with some of the towers and gates remaining. The quaint old houses with their steep pitched roofs and with the second story projectmg over the first, the ancient market place, and the narrow streets of the older parts of the city make one feel as if he were living in the seventeenth century, in spite of the fact that we see also modern factories for the manufacturs of chemicals, machinery, electrical apparatus, and scientihc and musical instruments. You have all read of the Black Forest and its stories of goblins, witches, and fairies. In parts of it the woods are so dense that it is no wonder that the Germans call it vSchwarzwald, or " Black Woods." Other parts of the forest are very pleasant. The sun flickers through the trees, and the pine needles make a clean, dry carpet under- neath ; birds nest and sing there ; and silvery brooklets trickle between mossy banks. Many peasants live in the more open spaces and till their small farm;;. During the long cold winter the men and boys work at wood carving. They make many toys of various kinds and also the cuckoo clocks which many of you have seen. The cases of these clocks are of wood, often very beautifully ornamented Avith carvings of animals, fruits, or birds. There is a little door on the front just GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 195 above or below the face of the clock. When the hour sounds, this door opens and a little cuckoo springs out and calls his name or warbles some short strain of music. One very interesting region of Germany which we must be sure to visit before leaving the country is the Harz Mountains. As we walk through the little villages or climb the steep slopes of the moun- tains, at whatever door we chance to stop we are greeted by such a chorus of chirps and trills and calls and whistles as only " Birdland "' can furnish. And we are really in the canary center of the world, where in ordinary years many thousands of the beautiful yellow songsters are raised. To see the finest singers let us go up the mountain to St. Andreasburg, a little village high on the slope. The air is so clear and pure that people suffering wath throat or lung troubles are often advised to go there. The birds also become strong and hardy and develop fine voices, and the St. Andreas- burg " rollers," as they are called, are considered the finest songsters in the world. © Underwood & Underwood Fig. 80. The Cases of the Cuckoo Clocks ARE OF Wood, often very beautifully OUNAMENTED WITH CaRVINGS 196 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE To assist in their training, larks, nightingales, and spe- cially trained canaries with soft, sweet voices are used. There are also various mechanical devices which produce long trills, water bubbles, flute notes, and other pleasing sounds. Amid such surroundings the young birds begin to sing. Only those with pure, soft voices capable of high training remain here long. The poorer singers are removed to another room where, though they never will make first- class singers, their trainmg still continues. Most of the birds, however, which are raised in St. Andreasburg and the vicinity are better than those bred in the valley. There are many other cities in Germany which we would like to visit — Heidelberg with its old castle ruins ; Cologne with its marvelously beautiful cathedral ; Leipzig with its great book binderies and establishments for dressingf hides and skins. Time will not allow for all these trips, but we must make a flymg visit to Berlm, the capital of the country. Berlin is one of the three largest cities in all Europe Its situation helps somewhat to explain why this is so. It is the most central city of Europe, situated in the middle of the great plain, where important routes of travel from Paris to Petrogiad, and from northern Europe to Italy, cross each other. On these highways of traffic it was natural that a great city should spring up. Many railroads radiate from Berlin, and canals stretch eastward to the Oder River and west- ward, by the Spree and Havel rivers, to the Elbe. Berlin is a great manufacturmg center as well as an important commercial city. You would soon be lost in the industrial section among the foundries, machine works. GERMANY AND THE WORLD WAR 197 locomotive works, electrical works, and silk, cotton, woolen, and linen mills, unsurpassed in Europe. This is not the part of the city, however, which most visitors like to see, not the part which has earned for Berlin the title of the cleanest city in Europe. There are other sections where we can drive through one wide, shaded street after another and see no dirt, no dust, and no disorder. There is one very beautiful avenue which, because of the linden trees which border it on either side, the Germans call Unter den Linden. On this wide boulevard are sep- arate divisions for heavy teams, for light carriages, for bicycles, for horseback riders, and for people on foot. This avenue is about a mile long. At one end is the palace, and at the other a lovely park, called the Tiergarten, or '' animal garden." Should you like to go into the park fur a while ? We enter it through the Brandenburg Gate, a fine stone structure of five entrances, the middle one surmounted by a splendid statue of the Goddess of Victory. In former years only the royal family might pass through this middle entrance. We should like to remain for hours in this beautiful place, in the deep shade of the trees near one of the lovely lakes, watching the horseback riders, the children playmg in the green grass, and the splendid carriages with liveried coachmen and footmen. We must leave much of the coun- try unseen and many interesting cities unvisited, and hasten on to its southern neighbors where scenes equally beautiful and industries equally mteresting await us. 198 IXDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE TOPICS FOR STUDY 1. Area and popvilation of Germany. 2. Germany and the "World War. 3. Some results of the war. 4. Mineral products. 5. Agriculture in Germany. 6. Manufacturing in Germany. 7. The situation of Germany. 8. Surface and drainage. 9. The Rhine River and its port of Rottei-dam. 10. The Weser River and Bremen. 11. Hamburg and the Elbe River. 12. Stettin and the Oder River. 13. The canal system of Germany. 14. Home industries in Germany. 15. Toys and canaries. 16. Berlin, the capital of Germany. II 1. Sketch a map of Germany. Write the names of all tlie litmi and water boundaries. What ones are different from what they were before the World War ? Is the country of Germany larger or smaller than it was before the war? 2. In your map of Germany trace the courses of the principal rivers and write their names. Write also the names of all the cities mentioned in the text. Be able to state one fact about each of the cities you have named. 3. Sketch a map showing the Baltic Sea, the arms of the sea, and the surrounding countries. Show the Kiel Canal. Why was this canal internationalized at the close of the World War ? 4. Have you ever read " The Pied Piper of Hamelin " ? Tell the story to the class. With what river of (Termany is it connected? 5. Name the waters on which goods would be carried in going from New Orleans to Bremen; from New York to Berlin. 6. Tell the advantages of the situation of Hamburg. Why has Stettin not grown to be so important a, city ? GERMANY AND THE WORLD W AR 199 HI Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Alsace-Lorraine Czechoslovakia Colorado East Indies England France Netherlands Russig, Saxony Scandinavia I'nited States Berlin Bremen Chemnitz Cologne Dresden Dilsseldorf Elberfeld Essen Frankfort Hamburg Heidelberg Kiel Krefeld Leipzig London Lowell ]\Iainz ^Mannheim New (Orleans Nuremberg Paris Petrograd Pittsburgh Portland Rotterdam Ruhrort St. Andreasburg Sonneberg Stettin "Washington Baltic Sea Black Forest Danube River Elbe River Erzgebirge Green Mountains Harz Mountains Havel River Kiel Canal jNIoldau River Moselle River North Sea Oder River Rhine River Rhone River Saar River Seine River Spree River Thuringian Mountains A'istula River Weser River CHAPTER XII THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE DANUBE RIVER If you look at any map of Europe printed before 1919, you will find in the center of the continent the country of Austria-Hungary. Though smaller than Texas, Austria- Hungary contained about half as many people as the whole United States, and the population was made up of more nationalities than could be found in any other European country except, possibly, Russia and Turkey. There were Germans and Magyars, Poles, Czechs, Serbs, and other members of the Slav race, besides other peoples whose names you might find it hard to pronounce. Each of these races differed from the rest as much as a Greek differs from an Italian, or a Frenchman from a Norwegian. There was little in customs, religion, language, or character to bind these different nationalities together. Each was jeal- ous of the others and looked down upon them in scorn as inferior peoples. Many of the people of the part of the empire known as Austria were of the same race as the Germans, resembled them in appearance and character, and used to a great extent the German lanCTuasre. About half the inhabitants of Hungary are Magyars, a people of the same ancestry as the Turks, though there is little resemblance between the two nations to-day. Each of the three races — the Germanic Austrians, the Slavs, and 200 SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE SCALE OF MILES THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 201 the Magyars — had little love for the others and no desire to be ruled by them; for years it was the strong hand of the old emperor, Francis Joseph, that held together these quarrelsome elements. It has long been the desire of the people of the Slav race who lived in the southern part of Austria-Hungary to unite with those of the little countries of Serbia and Mon- tenegro farther south and set up an independent nation. Serbia's chief aim in joining in the World War was to free those people of her race who were living under the rule of Austria-Hungary and thus enlarge the kingdom of the Serbs. Thus has come into being the new country of Jugoslavia. The word Jugodavia means " Southern Slavs." Most of the people in Czechoslovakia, another new country of Central Europe, are also Slavs who live farther north. Between these two new Slav countries lie Hungary, peopled largely by INIagyars, and Austria, most of whose people are Germans. Therefore the greater part of Cen- tral Europe to-da}-, instead of being largely occupied by one great empire, as it was before the war, is made up of four countries, — Jugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary, Czechoslovakia is a country about as large as Alabama. It is an inland region, its southern part drained by the Danube and its branches, and the northern portions by German rivers. Much of the commerce of the country will be carried on by these rivers and their connecting canals. Notice the western part of Czechoslovakia where it juts northward toward Germany. This part, known as Bohemia, occupies about a fourth of the entire country. It is sur- rounded by mountains where are found many valuable 202 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE minerals. The interior of Bohemia is the basin of an old inland sea, about the size of Lake Michigan. The soil of .this old basin is very fertile, as such valleys usually are, and farming is important. The population is dense and consequently the farms are very small. Grains, vegetables, fruits, hops, sugar beets, and grapes are the piincipal crops, Fig. 81. The Life of the Peasant in Czechoslovakia is a Simple One and cattle-raising and hog-raising are important. The life of the peasant is very simple, his needs few, and his food cheap. Yet he is often unable to supply his few needs from his small farm, and during the winter months many of the farmers and their families, like those of Germany and other European countries, work at a variety of occupa- tions in their own little homes. Large quantities of tools THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 203 and kitchen utensils are made in Bohemia in this way, and buttons, bags, lace, embroideries, gloves, hair nets, beads, linen, and many, many other things are made in the peasants' houses during the cold months when there is little to do on the farms. Before the war Bohemia was the most important part of the old empire of Austria-Hungary. It is blessed by Nature with almost every kind of agri- cultural and mineral resource. The great sugar industry of the empire was centered in Bohemia ; the guns of the Au stro- ll ungarian artillery were made here ; about half of the enormous quantity of beer manufac- tured in the country was brewed , in this section ; its textile industries were most important, and its production of embroideries, lace, linen, leather, chemicals, hardware, and machinery was very large. The Elbe River, of which you read in the last chapter, drains much of Bohemia, and Fig. 82. W'li.i, the Butter eveu come? A country scene in Czechoslovakia 204 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE most of the foreign trade is carried on by rail and water through the great port of Hamburg at its mouth. All tourists in Bohemia like to purchase gloves while in this country, and some of the supply m our stores has come from this part of Czechoslovakia. The leather for the gloves is cut at the factories, but the making is done largely in the homes. One of the family does the ornamental stitching on the back, another the stitching of the seams, another makes the buttonholes or fastens on the snaps. In parts of Bohemia there are thousands of women and girls who spend all their time at home in working on gloves. You have all heard of Bohemian glassware, which has been famous for centuries. The china and porcelain made there is almost as well known, and in ordinary years much fine tableware is exported from this part of Europe into the United States. The mineral springs of Bohemia have brought her much fame and money. The hot water of these springs is thought to be helpful in curing many diseases, though the wry faces of some of the drinkers indicate that the taste is not always pleasant. Millions of bottles of mineral waters and salts have been sent out of the country annually, and thousands of people each year have visited the springs. What kind of a bath will you take while you are at the springs ? You may have your choice of a mud bath, a mineral water bath, a carbonic acid bath, or a Russian steam bath. These are only a few of the many varieties which the visitors at the bathing establishments connected with the springs may experiment with. While we are in this part of Czechoslovakia, you will enjoy a visit to the old city of Prague, which, next to THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 205 Vienna and Budapest, is the largest city of Central Europe. Prague is really a cluster of towns connected by as many bridges over the little river in whose valley the city has grown up. Prague is an old city. Its ancient town hall was built one hundred and fifty years before Columbus sailed across Fig. 83. Sheep raising in Czechoslovakia the Atlantic. Its moat filled with water once protected the place from invasion, but has since been changed into a splendid street. Its Jewish burying ground is eight hundred years old. You remember reading in the chapter on Russia of the Kremlin of Moscow, and the wonderful collection of build- ings mside the historic inclosure. Prague has a Kremlin 206 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE also, a collection of castles, cathedrals, monasteries, and arsenals, which forms the most interesting part of the city. Much of the history of the ancient place centers around these buildings. Now let us go to the new city, the modern Prague, as different from the older part as our modern Washington is different from some historic New England village. Here is one of the finest museums in Europe, a splendid modern theater, an art gallery, a university, banks, street railways, and hotels such as one might find in any up-to-date city of the world. Here are also many manufacturing establish- ments, car shops, machine works, breweries, and paper mills, and many other industries which you would expect to see in a busy manufacturing city. The country of Jugoslavia, sometimes known as the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, extends along the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. It is about as large as Italy and is made up of Serbia, Montenegro, and some of the southern provinces of the old country of Austria-Hungary. Of these different divisions, Montenegro is the most rugged and mountamous, and Serbia is the largest and most important. Like the other countries of the Balkan Peninsula, Serbia and Montenegro were once parts of the great Turkish Empire, hike the other countries also, they revolted from Turkey because of the cruelty, the oppression, and the backwardness of their Mohammedan rulers. Owing to wars, oppressive government, and consequent poverty, the Serbs have not as yet progressed very far in civilization. They had made a good start in this direc- tion when the World War broke out in 1914. What they THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 207 suffered during this war has set them back many years. More than a fourth of the people of Serbia were killed in the war or died from disease or hunger. Many of her towns and villages were destroyed, three fourths of her live stock killed and driven away, and half of her tools and Fig. 84. In the Serb City of Uskib A shoe salesman iu the market place machinery^ stolen or broken up by the retreating enemy. Knowing these facts, we can understand that it must be a long time before the villagers will be tilling their small farms and living comfortably and happily again in their little homes. The part of Jugoslavia which is occupied by Serbia is rich in the gifts bestowed on it by ]M other Nature. The 208 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE soil is fertile, the climate good, the water supply abundant, the rivers numerous, tlie mineral wealth great, and the forests large. Before the war none of the people were very rich, but neither were any very poor. Perhaps one reason for this is the fact that most of the peasants owned their little farms. The land was divided among the people, and Fig. 85. Jugoslavia has many Towns Similar to this One there were few large estates held by the wealthy and worked by the peasants as tenants. Nine tenths of the people were farmers and raised on their farms most of the things that they needed in their daily life. Their crops of grain and vegetables and their cattle gave them food, and their flax and flocks supplied materials for clothing. If a Serb ac- quired a little extra money, it was securely hidden m an old stocking or invested in tools or machinery for his farm. THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 209 From the little villages clustered under the plum trees the men carried their wheat and corn in rough wooden carts for miles to the mills along the rivers. Here the grain was ground much as it is in the river mills along the Danube. Every peasant had and, as the country recovers from its great losses, hopes to have again his cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. There is nmch fine pasture land in the countr}^ and many head of live stock can be raised. Some of these wander through the forests of oak and beech and feed on the nuts under the trees. There are two chief reasons why Serbia suffered so greatly in the World War. One is because of its position. The Balkan Peninsula forms a great highway of trade between European countries, with their extensive manu- factures and dense populations, and undeveloped Asia, with its riches of raw materials and its people just awaken- ing^ to new needs and desires, ^lost of the Balkan Pen- insula is mountainous. The ancient trade routes and the modern railroads must follow the valleys of the rivers. These connect Belgrade on the northern border of Serbia with Constantinople, the key to Asia. Study a good map on which these valley routes are shown. Find also another valley route which runs south to the port of Salonica on the ^^gean Sea. The two chief railroads of the Balkan Peninsula follow these valleys. You can readily see that, if Germany wished to get possession of Central and Southern Europe and thence expand into Asia, it was necessary for her to control these railroads and have possession of the through lines from Belgrade to the waters at the south. It was in the campaigns directed to this end that Serbia suffered most. 210 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The other chief cause for much of the destruction and suffering in Serbia was her natural wealth. The Central Powers needed the grain, the cattle, and the mmerals of both Serbia and Rumania. Serbia is very rich in mineral deposits, and some of her mines have been worked smce Fig. 86. A Potter in Jitgoslavia the time of the Romans. Lead and copper were very neces- sary in the carrying on of the war, and neither Germany nor her tool and ally, Austria-Hungary, produced these minerals in abundance. Belgrade is the chief city of Jugoslavia. It was larger than Duluth, Mmnesota, but m the "World War scores and THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 211 hundreds of its buildings were destroyed, and many of its industries were crippled. We all hope that never again will war cause so much suffering and loss. The city is situated on the Danube River near the mouths of both northward-flownng and southward-flowing rivers. Thus its position is of great importance, as it controls routes in all directions. For this reason it has been for ages an object Fig. 87. A Village in Jugoslavia of warfare between nations on all sides, and has been cap- tured and recaptured many times. Belgrade has but few manufactures, but, as you can see from its position, it is an important distributing center for nearly all the exports and imports of the region. The present country of Austria, once a part of the empire of Austria-Hungary, is a hilly and mountainous land in which much of the soil is unfit for agriculture. It has comparatively few resources of importance. The 212 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE greater part of tbe chief industries of the old empire were carried on in other parts of the country. Vienna, once a city of more than two milKon people, and the gay, proud capital of a prouder empire, is to-day the capital city of a little country of perhaps nine or ten million people. Before the World War Vienna was very wealthy, but its wealth came chiefly from people nearly all of whom made their money in parts of the kingdom now included in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and other independ- ent nations. Vienna was the center of art, of science, of government, of education, of commerce, of banking, of sports and amusements, and of wealth and fashion. During the war Vienna lost much of its wealth. To-day, instead of being the capital of a great empire, it is only the capital of a small, poor country with few resources and industries. What will be the future of the city ? Will Prague, Buda- pest, Warsaw, or some other metropolis take its place as the gay center of Central Europe ? Only time can answer the question. The countries of Central Europe have very little sea- coast, but they possess one of the greatest rivers of Europe, the beautiful blue Danube. A sail down this wonderful river takes us into the heart of Hungarj", a region famous for its grain fields. The Danube is about the same length as the St. Lawrence, but bears very little resemblance to it in other ways. Unlike the American river, which has its source in one of the Great Lakes, the Danube has its beginning in two tiny streams, the Brigach and the Brege. They start in the foothills of the Black Forest Mountains and come tumbling over the rocks, gathering strength from little streamlets which hurry down the slopes. THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 213 It seems hardly possible that this small, muddy stream is really the mighty Danube. But as it flows along, now- through smilmg valleys and now in the shadow of tower- ing^ mountain peaks, now spreading its blue' waters around green islands and now receiving swift streams from wooded Fig. 88. Ulm, the Head of Navigation on the Danube highlands and from the high Alps, it grows in volume from the tiny brooklet to the mighty river, the second largest in Europe. Not many miles from the source of the Danube you will find the city of Ulm, the head of navigation on the river. Ulm is a very old city with crooked streets, and narrow houses, many of which have stood since the days, centuries ago, when the crusaders passed down the Danube valley on their way to Asia to rescue the burial place of Clirist from the hands of Turkish Mohammedans. 214 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Below Ulm, in place of the acacia trees which lined the banks of the river farther upstream, we see long rows of willows. Beyond them, in the fields, some peasant women are digging potatoes with curious-looking spades. Central Europe produces enormous quantities of potatoes. The crop is so immense that if it were loaded on freight cars Fig. 89. The Soil i^ Rich, and much Greater Crops than are NOW HARVESTED MIGHT BE RAISED of the ordinary capacity, the train would be more than long enough to fill three tracks stretching from London across Europe and Asia to Peking, China. Farther down the river we see the people working in the hayfields and bending over the long rows of sugar beets. There are many factories where immense quan- tities of beet sugar are made, and this product is one THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 215 of the chief exports of the region. Both men and women are at work in the fields. The women and girls can do nearly as much work as the men, bat their pay is much smaller, in some cases amounting to only twenty-five dollars a year. Some heavy, lumbering wagons filled with hay and drawn by cows or oxen are waiting for the ferry to cross the river. The animals show no hesitation in going aboard the large, flat boat, and stand quietly chewing their cuds while the boat is slowh' pulled across the stream by means of wire guys. Kelheim, where we next stop, is a town of little impor- tance save for the fact that it is the terminus of the Ludwig Canal. This important waterway extends to the Main River and thus joins the waters of the Danul^e and the Rhine and of the Black and North seas. We see many large, flat boats being towed by horses up the stream. These were filled farther up the Danube with cfrain or with lumber from the mountain forests and were drifted downstream with the current, carrying the horses on board. After the freight is unloaded the horses drag the empty boats back to the starting place. Most of the long- distance traffic of this part of the Danube valley is carried on by rail, but the local trade from town to town is carried on in this primitive way on the river. We are approaching Passau, a (^ueer old town where the houses cling to the steep rocks, and the roads zigzag back and forth up the steep hills. When we consult our maps of the region and find that the city is situated almost on the boundary line ox Germany we understand better the reason for the great fort which crowns the heights. 216 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Just below the city of Passau the boundary line is marked by a great rock which stands in the middle of the river. As we pass this ancient landmark we can see on its summit a shrine with a crucifix and a rude fissure of a saint which, as one author says, " gazes eternally on the flowing river as if looking forward to the time when peace Fig. 90. '"We are approaching Passau, a Queer Old Town" shall dwell between all nations and there shall be no need of the frowning fortress on the heights."' Thus far in our trip we have seen freight boats, and barges towed by horses, and a few small skiffs, but no steamer traffic. The regular steamboat service extends no farther up the river than the city of Passau, but at that place we can take a comfortable boat, much like those THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 217 steamers which ply on lakes and rivers in the United States, for places farther downstream. Many of the small streams which enter the river from the mountains are filled with logs. These are floated down into the Danube, where in places they line the banks, while waiting to be towed down to Vienna. Little villages Fig. 91. There are Steep Cliffs with Ruined Castles clinging TO THEIR Sides or perched upon their Summits of quaint houses like those of Switzerland, with broad bal- conies and overhanging roofs, can be seen in the sheltered valleys and on the more gentle slopes. This part of the Danube above Vienna rivals the Rhine in beauty. On either side are dark, wooded mountains, and steep cliffs v/ith ruined castles clinging to their sides or perched upon their summits. iVIany a gallant crusader and 218 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE thrifty merchant lost his wealth and perchance his life to the robber knights who lived in these gray old castles and preyed on the travelers who dared attempt the journey down the Danube. The legends of brave knights, cruel rob- bers, lovely maidens, and horrible witches are as numerous and as fascinating as those of the Rhine. Soon the broadening river full of boats and the open- ing plain surrounded by hills tell us that we are nearing Vienna. The city stands on the shores of the Danube just where the river cuts its way between the Alps on the west and the Carpathians on the east. This natural water highway thus furnishes a route from western Asia into northern and western Europe. Other natural routes of travel lead through passes in the mountains and through river valleys from northern Italy to Germany and Russia. Railroads alwa}- s follow the easiest routes ; therefore they radiate from Vienna through these natural highways like the spokes of a wheel. The rivers of this section do not lead to open ocean ports, so that most of the ocean-bound freight is carried by rail, and Vienna has thus become a great railroad center. We should like to remain in the cit}' for some da^^s, to visit the great university, to see the royal palace, to drive between the long rows of linden trees on the Ring- strasse, the beautiful boulevard which has been built around the city where the ancient moat once lay, or to walk in one of the finest of all the parks of Europe, the Prater. This beautiful pleasure resort contains stately forests of oaks, elms, and chestnuts, lovely gardens, sparkling lakes, and wide avenues. There are games and shows and animals THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 219 and merry -go-roiinds and so many interesting sights that we should find plenty of entertainment for many hours; but we finally decide to turn from these and the other attractions to another part of the city, where are located the great cotton and silk mills and other factories. ^ UnUerwood & Underwood Fig. 92. The Pkater is One of the Finest Parks in Europe We are interested in the glove manufactures and buy several pairs, for they are of fine quality and cheaper than they are in America. Skins from the sheep and lambs which feed on the plain of Hungary, and from the goats which wander over the pastures of the Balkan Peninsula, 220 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE are used in great quantities in the leather manufactories of Vienna, and many gloves are exported from the city. We see also in the stores musical and scientific instru- ments and glittering displays of china and glassware. Many railroads branch out from Vienna, carrying these and other products to all parts of Europe and to the seaports to be shipped to other continents. With regret we leave the gay city behind us and con- tinue our sail down the river. This part of the trip is made in a large steamer which reminds us of those used on the Hudson River. Pleasure boats, carrymg merry Viennese crowds, are flying up and down. The river is full of craft passing and repassing the huge rafts of lum- ber — heavy boats filled with grain and puffing tugs towing vessels many times larger than themselves. Some thirty or more miles from Vienna the hills close in on either side of the river, and we know that beyond them lies the object of our sail — the great plam of Hun- gary. The Carpathian Mountains encircle it for nine hundred miles, forming a natural boundary from the north- west around to the east and south. Besides the opening in the mountains through which the river enters from the west, and the narrow gorge in the south where it works its way through the heights out of Hungarian territory, the only means of communication between the inclosed plain and the outside world is through a few difficult mountain passes. The Danube, as you can see, is the only natural waterway which connects the valley of Hungary with other countries. There is only one river in the whole plain, a small branch of the Vistula, which does not finally join the Danube on its way to the Black Sea. For more than six hundred miles, THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 221 a distance about equal to that from Duluth to St. Louis, winding in and out across the level plain, bordered by corn- fields and waving wheat, the great river flows on, the nar- row remnant of an immense lake which once filled the whole valley. Through long ages the basin has been gradually filled by the fine, rich soil brought by the streams from the mountains around. This deposit, which in places is several hundred feet thick, is the secret of the great fertility of the region. There are a few barren tracts, but nearly all of this great Hungarian plain is capable of producing immense crops much larger than the peasant of to-day in his igno- rance of scientific agriculture has dreamed of raising. For miles and miles on either side of the river one can see fields of nodding wheat, yellow corn, climbing hops, blue-eyed flax, stalky hemp, grapes ripening in the sun, tobacco plants hiding the ground beneath their great leaves, and acres of mealy potatoes such as a Maine farmer might well envy. We must not picture this whole region, however, as a plain. Though there are large areas as level as a floor, there are also great stretches of rolling, hilly land much like parts of New England. In the pastures of the upland region large numbers of horses and cattle feed, and in the oak forests thousands of hogs live on the acorns. In every village you can hear the cackling of hens and the crowing of roosters. A ride through the Danube valley furnishes manj'- odd, interesting sights. Down by the river is a swmeherd tend- ing the hogs from the village yonder ; he makes a curious appearance in his long blouse and full trousers. He has a staff to aid him in guiding his squealing charges, and he carries a long, curiously sliaped pipe from which he enjoys his afternoon smoke. When the sun gets low he drives the 999 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE hogs back to the village and sees that each animal finds its way to its own sty, which is nearer to the family quarters than we should think pleasant. The country is very different from a farming area in the United States. There are no farmhouses dottins: the land- scape, surrounded by orchards and green fields and ripening crops. The peasants live in villages and often go several miles to their work. During the day the villages are deserted except for a few old people and babies. In the early morning the entire population walk, or perhaps ride in springless wagons along the uneven track which serves for a road, to the farm lands, where they work until nearly dusk. At nightfall the rattle of the wagons and the merry chatter of the boys and girls herald their return to their homes. The scattered buildings in the village often cover an area large enough for a good-sized city. The houses are \o\\, one-story, whitewashed structures on either side of wide, unpaved streets which are deep with dust in summer and gullied with rains in winter. Every house has its loom, which is heard continually throughout the winter months, when the women ai-e weaving the cloth with which the family is clothed. Not many moments are wasted. Even Fig. 93. On Some Level Piece of Land NEAR THE WhEAT FiELDS THE GrAIN IS STACKED TO AWAIT TlIRESHING THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 223 the time they spend on the long ride to and from the farms is often occupied in knitting some warm garment for the cold winter days. A harvesting scene in the Danube valley is very different from one on the great plains of the United States, where Fig. 94. Many of the Women occupy thkiu Time diiuxg the Dav BY Washing on the Rivek Banks harvesting machines cut, thresh, and bag the grain. On the Hungarian plain old-fashioned methods prevail for the most part, though the number of up-to-date farming implements is increasing rapidly. We see in many places men beating out the grain with pitchfork and flail ; others are driving- horses round and round over the straw spread out upon the ground, to loosen the seeds. With the introduction of 221 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE more modern methods of cultivating and harvesting, the crop raised in the Danube valley will be greatly increased. As we continue our trip on the Danube we find the scenes on the water fully as interesting as those upon the land, for the peasants use the river and its branches for many purposes. Whole families come to spend the day on the banks. The children watch the pigs and fowl on the shore while at the same time their fingers are busy with some piece of embroidery, for the peasants do beau- tiful work and like to decorate their garments with fine needlework. The women occupy their time by washing on the river banks. On the flat rocks they pound out the dirt from the clothes witli a wooden mallet and carry them to the shore in rude tubs on their heads. Some of the men tend the cattle, while others take the corn to the mill to be ground. It is chiefly for this latter reason that they have come to the river, for in Hungary most of tlie mills for grinding the grain are situated in the water. All along this part of the Danube near the banks where the current is swift these curious structures may be seen. The water wheels are supported by two boats of different sizes. The larger one contains the mill and the home of the miller, while the smaller boat farther out in the stream contains the rest of the machinery. A great deal of the grain raised in Hungary is ground in these river mills. In the harvest season the peasants drive their slow, lumbering carts, drawn by oxen or buffaloes, across the plain to the Danube and camp on its banks, awaiting their turn for the grinding of their grain. The journey often takes many days, for the teams are slow and THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 225 the roads are rough. The peasants carry no tents or extra clothmg and but little food. When night comes they eat their coarse bread, then lie down on the ground beside the tired oxen, and sleep under the stars till daylight awakens them. The carts are rude affairs, made of rough wood and held together for the most part by wooden pins. Centuries Fig. 9.5, The Peasants dtjive their Slow, LrMBERixc. Carts across THE Plain ago the army of crusaders might have seen just such teams crawling over the plains to the river towns, for customs change slowly in interior countries. Besides the o-rain which is ground in the mills on the river, a great deal is floated down to the Black Sea and there loaded on steamers and carried to different European countries. Great quantities are also taken down as far as 226 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Budapest or towed upstream to Vienna, where many large modern mills similar to those in Minneapolis are situated. Budapest, splendidly situated in the heart of the country and at the lowest place on the Danube where it can be easily bridged, is the center of Hungarian trade. It is made up of two cities, Buda and Pest, the one on the right bank of the Danube, which here is wider than the Thames at London, and the other on the left. Buda, on Fig. '.<(). "The White Walls of the Koyal Talace gleam fkom THE Hilltop" the west bank, is the older, the smaller, and the more hilly of the two. On the rocky heights above the city stands an old fortress, keeping watch on the river at its feet. The w^hite \valls of the royal palace gleam from the hill- top. The parliament houses of the capital are in Pest, which is situated on the low plain on the eastern bank of the Danube. Here also are most of the business blocks and fine business houses. Budapest has been a rapidly growing city. To-day it is larger than St. Louis and ranks high in commerce and THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 227 industry. Because of its situation on the river, it carries on a great trade in grain, wine, wool, cattle, and other goods. Though Budapest is modern in all its aspects, scenes of a very different life lie very near. You could not go far from the city without meeting many gypsies, for in Hungary there are thousands of these thriftless, ignorant, Fig. 97. "Budapest is Modern in All its Asi-ects " superstitious people. They usually live on the outskirts of the villages and towns, and although the location is often beautiful, the houses and people are filthy. Sometimes the houses are half buried in the ground and only the thatched roofs are visible. The gypsies seldom engage in any regular occupation. The women sometimes tell fortunes, and the men often do blacksmithing, basket-making, or whitewashing, but 228 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE there is little skilled labor among them. They are very fond of music, and no village festival is complete without the gypsy band. Besides the grain from the borders of the Danube, great quantities are brought from the valleys of the Tisza and the Drave rivers. In their basins are the same level stretches, the same straggling villages, the same rich soil, and the same abundant crops as in the valley of the Danube. Thousands of Magyars, Jews, Russians, Bulga- rians, and Serbians, each with different language, different customs, and different dress, are engaged in raising the same kind of crops. Down the winding Tisza and the muddy Drave and through the canals connecting them with the Danube come barges loaded deep with grain, and rafts of lumber from the distant forests. Whole families Ywe in the tiny houses on both barges and rafts. The children play, and the women attend to the cooking and washing as if they were on land, while the men guide the heavy craft on its slow journey. At the junction of the Save and Danube rivers lies Belgrade, the capital of the new country of Jugoslavia. Being from its situation the key to the rich plain of Hungary, it has been for ages, as has been stated, an ob- ject of warfare between the countries to the north and the south, and has been captured and recaptured many times by these nations. Beyond Belgrade the river flows on, now through fertile plains, now between green foothills, across smiling valleys rich in yellow grainfields, straight on to a narrowing gorge beyond which loom lofty mountains. The gorge grows narrower and darker, the scene more wild and gloomy, the THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 229 cliffs higher and straighter, until the Danube finally makes a wild dash between them and emerges swirling, hurrj-ing, dashing, tumbling over the rocks at Orsova, the Iron Gate. The most dangerous part of this stretch of water is now avoided by a canal, and other portions have been improved In" the deepening of the channel and by the removal of some of the rocks, so that vessels drawing nine feet of Avater can safely pass the place. The Iroii Gate has been from earliest times a place of great importance, forming as it does a natural barrier in this great water highway which connects the East and the West. At one time Russia had control of the moutli of the Danube and, to help her own trade, made unwise laws which restricted the traffic on the river. It is not possible for any nation to do this to-day, for an international com- mission, composed of men from all the interested countries, controls and regulates its navigation. The commission has surveyed and made accurate maps of the delta and has im- proved one of the mouths by making canals to avoid the dangerous places. It has deepened the channel of the river, shortened the route by cuttings, and ctherwise aided the commerce of the countries lying in the Danube valley. TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. The former empire of Austria-Hungary. 2. The new countries of Central Europe. 3. Czechoslovakia. 4. Life and industries in Bohemia. 5. The old city of Prague. 6. Jugoslavia. 7. Life in Serbia. 230 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE 8. The city of Belgrade. 9. The present country of Austria. 10. The Danube River and its valley. 11. A^ienna and Budapest. II 1. Sketch Central Europe. Show the boundaries of tlie countries as they were before the war. 2. Sketch another map of Central Europe, showing the countries as they are to-day. 3. The names of what countries have disappeared from tlie map of Central Europe ? AVhat new names are shown ? 4. Why is the position of Serbia important ? 5. Why has Belgrade grown to be so imjiortant a city ? A'ienna ? Budapest ? Ill Be able to spell and })rouounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Austria Duluth Drave River A ustr i a-II ungary Loudon Elbe River Balkan Peninsula AIoscow Great Lakes Bohemia Orsova Hudson River Czechoslovakia Passau Ludwig Canal Germany Peking Main River Hungary Prague North Sea Italy St. Louis Rhine River Jugoslavia Salonica Save River Montenegro Ulm St. Lawrence River Russia Vienna Thames River Serbia Washington Tisza River Turkey Adriatic Sea Vistula River Belgrade ^Egean Sea Alps Mountains Budapest Black Sea Black Forest Mountains Constantinople Danube River Carpathian Mountains CHAPTER Xin THE NETHERLANDS AND OTHER DAIRYING COUNTRIES Our next visit will be to the Netherlands, and a strange country we shall find it, different in many ways from any other which we have studied. The land is lower than the Ocean, and nearly as level as the floor of your schoolroom ; there are no hills, nor stones, nor dashing waterfalls. The fences are ditches of water instead of wire or wooden pal- ing.s. The people wash their sidewalks, scrub their barns, and blanket their cows to protect them from flies and from the cold. Surely our visit to this queer land will be an interesting one. All of the Netherlands, most of Denmark, and the north- ern part of Belgium may be included in the term " Low Countries." Of these three the Netherlands is the most noted for her dairy products, so we will visit that country first. It is a very small place, being only one and a halt times the size of Massachusetts, with about twice the population. It is very different from tliat state, however, for, as we have said, it has no hills nor stones, while Massa- chusetts has plenty of both. More than halt' of the Dutch people live on farms, while the majority of the people of Massachusetts live in cities. In the Netherlands there are more than two million cattle, while in iNIassachusetts there are hardly more than one eiglith of that number. So if 231 232 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE we wish to see something of the greatest industry of the Netherlands we must go, not to the cities nor the great factories and mills, but to the farms and the small villages and towns- Before we start on our visit let us see why it is that the Netherlands has become such an important dairying country. You have learned in your study of the United States that the industrial life of any place depends very largely on the forces of nature which are always at work in this great world of ours. The story of the changes which they have wrought in this part of Europe is very interesting. Long, long ages ago, where the country of the Netherlands now is, the great ocean lay. The Rhine, the Scheldt, the Meuse, and the smaller rivers of the region scoured the land over which they flowed and carried northward tlieir loads of silt, much of which came from the lofty moun- tains to the south. Tliis helped to build up the land. The winds and the waves washed the sand from the ocean bed back and forth and gradually piled it up in hills, or ''dunes," not very far from where the shore of the continent is to-day. Between these dunes and the mainland the water still lav. For ages the rivers worked on, depositing their loads in this inland basin behind the dunes until, in time, the accumulations grew so deep that the land began to appear above the surface of the water, gradually extending the shoreline seaward and leaving large lakes in the deepest parts of the basin. The mighty ocean did not peacefully give up a part of its territory, but struggled long and fiercely for its possession. Time and time again terrible floods swept over the land, destroying farms and cattle and villages, and leaving great DAIRYING COUNTRIES 233 lakes where before had been fields of fertile soil. One such flood in the fifteenth century covered thousands of acres and destroyed scores of villages. After each disaster the sturdy Dutch people tried harder than before to protect their precious land. Strong earth walls called dikes were made to keep out the ocean, and windmills were built to pump out the water which accu- mulated ill the inclosed land. These reclaimed areas were called polders, and every polder which was made was a victory of the persevering people over the mighty ocean. The work went on little bv little ; everv vear more dikes were built, more windmills pumped out the inclosed water, and more acres of fine farming land were added to the area of the country. If you look at the map of the Netherlands you will see in the northern part a large indentation called the Zuider Zee. This is a part of the ocean basin which has never been entirely filled by the wash from the rivers whose courses lie farther to the south and west. The name Zuider Zee means " Southern Sea " and was given to the inlet in contrast to that of the larger body of water beyond, known as the North Sea. The Zuider Zee has Fig. 98. Windmills pump Water from Caxals; others grind Grain 23-1 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE existed only since the twelfth century, for before that time the part of the country where it now lies was covered by lakes and marshes. The Zuider Zee is about eighty miles long from north to south and about forty miles wide in the widest part. The Dutch people have now set themselves the gigantic task of reclaimmg the southern part of this great basin. The entire work will occupy between thirty and forty years and will be done step by step, as the task is far too great to com- plete as a whole. The entire undertaking has been so well planned that all the near-by cities and the rivers of the region will be undis- turbed. The work will be so gradually carried out that the people engaged in the fisheries of the Zuider Zee will have time to adjust themselves to the changed conditions. The entire cost of this great project will be nearl}^ one hundred million dollars, an immense sum for a small nation to raise. But the Dutch people are willing to make the investment, knowing that the eight hundred square miles of fertile land which will be added to their country will yield rich returns. Having learned something of how the country was made let us see how it looks. We can travel the entire length and breadth of it without seeing a high hill or finding a large stone. The whole surface is level as a floor and is covered with the thickest, greenest grass that you can imagine. Evervwhere throuQ-hout the countrv, scattered over the flat meadows, are large, fat, clean, contented-looking black-and- white cows. You might look for a long time without seeing a red cow such as is common in the United States, though there are a few such now owned in the Netherlands. DAIRYING COUNTRIES 235 If good care, cleanliness, and nourishing food can make a cow happy, then the Dutch herds are certainly to be envied above all others. Their food is of the best and is very care- fully prepared. They are blanketed to protect them from the flies and from the cold winds of autumn, and they live in stables as clean as soap and water can make them. Indeed, many houses in our country would suffer by comparison. Cattle tended with such care and given such nourishing food of course yield great quantities of milk. The greater part of this is made into butter and cheese, both of which are noted for their ex- cellence. Formerly both products were made bv hand on the little farms, much as they are to-day, r ■A. — ■ — . -fr-— — ^^ ■ 44— II r^B -^^ ., iV^ '■' \ ImL 1 Ulft' ''^^^^^H^^■ll^S Hw^^ ^^SaSH K^ ' in BwS © Underwood & Underwood Fig. 99. In Recent Years Large Dairies HAVE been established WHERE ChEESE IS MADE in Great Quantities by Modern Methods but in recent years large dairies have been established here as in most dairying countries. The farmers sell their milk to these dairies, and in them butter and cheese are made in great quantities by modem machinery. The cheese markets of the Netherlands are verv inter- esting. We should find such a market in many towns in the northern part of the country, but the largest and most important is in the little town of Alkmaar, so we will choose that one for our visit. 236 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The square where the market is held is surrounded on three sides by tall, narrow buildings, and on the fourth side by a canal. The market is held every Friday, and on Thurs- day afternoons the canal is filled with boats and barges, piled high with round yellow balls. Queer-looking wagons painted bright red, or green, or blue come in from the country loaded with nothing but cheeses. Until late in the evening the streets resound with the voices of young men and maidens, who make a celebration of the occasion, and the wagons rattle over the pavements through the entke night. Having selected a good place for his product, the farmer tosses the golden balls from boat or wagon to an assistant, who catches them as skillfully as a player of a baseball nine would, and piles them carefully on the ground. When the cheeses are all unloaded they are covered with sailcloth until the market opens. The piles in which they are laid are usually eight or ten cheeses wide, thirty to fifty long, and only two layers deep. Before market time some of the sellers may be seen care- fully rubbing their cheeses with oil until they shine. The market opens promptly at ten o'clock. A little while before that hour we see a number of men with white suits, and hats of red, yellow, blue, or some other bright color, begin to congregate in the market place. These are the porters, who will carry the cheeses to the weighing house. The men who do the weighing have the same brilliantly colored hats, and each porter must take his load to the one who wears his color. When the clock in the old church tower announces the opening of the market, the country people remove the 0Q7 DAmYI^'G COUNTRIES 237 covering from their shining product, and the merchants begin their inspection of the wares. The seller remains quietly standing with an unconcerned air while the buyer feels, smells, and perhaps tastes some of the cheeses in his pile. The bargain is soon made, and is clinched by a striking together of the hands of the two parties. To one who does not know the significance of this handshake, it looks as if the merchant and farmer were giving each other a cordial morning greeting. As the buyer passes to another pile, the farmer who has closed his bargain engages some of the porters to carry his cheeses to the weighing house. At eleven o'clock the mar- ket is nearly over, and when the chimes ring at twelve the square is empty, cheeses, merchants, and farmers having disappeared as if by magic, leaving the square deserted until the next market day approaches. The number of cheeses sold at Alkmaar every Friday is astonishing. It is not unusual for one hundred thousand to change hands during the morning hours. There are many cheese markets scattered over the country, chiefly in the northern part, though in no other is there so much business transacted as in the one at Alkmaar. The quantity of cheese which is now made every year in the Netherlands is truly wonderful. If it were to be divided among the people of the country, every man, woman, and child would have about thirty pounds apiece, but fortunately for the health of the Dutch people more than two thirds of the product is exported to other countries. More than three thousand freight cars would be re- quired to carry the annual exports of Dutch cheese from the dairies to Amsterdam. Six or seven hundred of these 238 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE cars would be loaded with England's share, while the amount carried by the remaining cars would be shipped to several other countries. Some of you are perhaps wondering what cheese is and how it is made. If some rennet, a substance prepared from a calf's stomach, be put into milk it makes the milk curdle. In the process of curd- ling, the casein and fat, two of the principal ele- ments in milk, separate from the others and form a solid substance called curds ; the watery ma- terial which is left is called whey. When the curds are pressed, more of the whey is forced out. Salt is added and the mass is worked over. It is then put into molds of the desired shape and pressed acrain, after which the cheese is left for some days or weeks to ripen. During the ripening process the growth of certain forms of vegetable life called mold gives to each kind of cheese its own peculiar flavor. The Dutch people do not use all their milk for cheese- making, for in the southern part of the country, especially, great quantities are used for butter. A freight train long enough to carry the entiie cheese product of the Netherlands ) Underwood & Underwood Fig. 100. Cheeses in .\ Modern Dairy DAIRYING COUNTRIES 239 would stretch about twenty miles, and one loaded with the butter product would be only four miles shorter. Let us leave the dairy farms and the flat green meadows dotted with black-and-white cows, and follow the butter and cheese to the shipping port, Amsterdam, so that we may see what a Dutch city is like. Amsterdam has often been compared to \^enice. Both have many canals which serve as streets, and hundreds of bridges. Both are commercial cities, Venice chiefly of the past, and Amsterdam of the present. In the northern city as well as in the southern the visitor notices that the water of the canals is very dirty, and there is an abundance of smells of various kinds arising from it. But there the re- semblance ceases. Amsterdam is cold and matter-of-fact. Venice is warm and full of poetry and romance. Venice has beautiful old palaces. Amsterdam is full of solid, dig- nified, but not beautiful, houses. Most of the buildings are built on a foundation of piles driven deep into the loose soil, and it is said that building the part of the house under the ground costs as much as building that which is above. In some of the older streets the piles have settled un- evenly in the swampy soil, so that the houses lean forward as if they were trying to make it possible for the people in the upper stories to shake hands across the narrow street. These old houses are tall and narrow with very slanting roofs and are usually placed with the gable end to the street. In many of them, fastened close to the window on the second floor, is a small mirror which can be tipped in different directions. By looking into the glass the Dutch housewife while busy with her knitting can watch the doings in the street, or see who her caller is without going to the door. 210 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE £) Underwood & Underwood Fig. 101. Amsterdam has Many Canals which serve as Streets Though the water in the canals of Amsterdam is dirty, the houses are spotlessly clean. The Dutch housekeeper is always scrubbing. Furniture, walls, windows, doorsteps. DAIRYING COUNTRIES 241 I and sidewalks are all as clean as soapsuds and strong arms can make them, and one Avriter declares that the trunks of the trees are scrubbed also. Be that as it may, all the other things around the house have their weekly bath. It may be that the fine quality of Dutch butter and cheese is partly due to the clean condition of the cows, stables, pails, and tubs. Could we look down upon Amsterdam from an au'ship. we should see a dense collection of dull-red peaked roofs with here and there a tower of a church rising above them. Winding in and out, in and out, among the buildings are broad, dark canals, crossed by many bridges and filled with low, flat barges or with ships carrying masts taller than some of the housetops. The larger vessels are on the two most important canals, the North Holland Canal and the North Sea Canal, both of Avhich connect Amsterdam with the open water and make the city a commercial port of the North Sea. In the smaller canals we can see from our airship hun- dreds of broad, flat barges. Should you like to live on one of these and creep day after day sloAvly up and down the winding canals ? If you were a Dutch boy you would take your turn walking on the bank and pulling the boat along by a stout rope, while your father would sit in the stern, smoking the long pipe tliat is seldom out of a Dutchman's mouth, and steering the heavy craft. Hundreds and thousands of families in the Netherlands know no other home than these barges. They have their own tiny rooms in the stern of the boat, their cages of song birds, and their neat little flower gardens, and they live happily and contentedly in their moving houses. 242 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE One of the industries in Amsterdam which we wish to see is that of diamond-cutting. There are several estabhsh- ments in the citv, for Amsterdam is one of the chief cen- ters of the world for such work, and many precious stones are cut and polished in its workshops. As the diamonds come from the mine they are rough and dull, and it requires skilled workmen to cut them so that no pieces of the precious gems will be wasted, and to polish them so that they will ghtter and glisten in the light. A diamond is the hardest of stones and can be cut only by an- other diamond and pol- ished only by diamond dust. That which gath- © UnUerwoe.d X I .Hierwood g^g from polishiug tllC Fig. 102. A Familiar Sight in Parts ^^^^^^ -^ ^^ valuable OF THE Netherlands that every gram is care- fully saved in metal boxes. The United States is the best customer of the diamond merchants of Amsterdam, and more than half of the sparkling gems which are cut in that city are bought by Americans. The colonial possessions of the Netherlands are more than fifty times as large as the countrj^ itself, and much of its commerce is carried on with these far-away lands. At the docks in Amsterdam we see vessels from the Dutch possessions in both the East and the West Indies. Some ■MH ■ r i j^4(^^M'^^>'^vm( 1 Mii HHs w '^•^■'' ' . wH j^^^pff^X^^v ^ '^^S^Bf^ -j^ES^^^A if /jf^y ^i i ^£ B IP 1 ^i^f,^ E^ fcf^-" M- '"^ imbSF^^ _ B ^ . i wF DAIRYING COUNTRIES 243 have brought cargoes of coffee and of Ihiseed oil, for Am- sterdam is one of the greatest markets for both of these products. Other ships from the same rich islands in the East are loaded with tea, sugar, spices, and cinchona bark, from which the bitter medicine, quinine, is made. There are also grain ships \Aith cargoes of rye from Russia and wheat from the United States, and many otlier vessels from near-by European countries and from far-away lands. They will be loaded with manufactured goods — leather, sugar, pottery, tiles, bricks, glassware, fish, cattle, dairy products, and bulbs and seeds for the return voyage. In the Netherlands more people in proportion to the whole population are engaged in dairying than in any other country in the world, yet in many other countries the industry is a very important one. Across the Channel in the British Isles there are made in ordinary years enor- mous quantities of butter and even larger amounts of line cheese. The quantity usually produced is enough to give annually every person in the great city of London between thirty and forty pounds of both articles. There are, however, so many other large cities in England to be supplied that she imports annually many thousands of tons. Great quantities come in long trainloads from western Siberia, a region in which the dairy industry has grown more rapidly than people realize. In ordinary years fast freights run from Siberia across the Russian plain which carry nothing but butter for the London markets. Both butter and cheese are imported from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland. Ireland's exports of butter — nearly all of which goes to England — are, next to cattle, of more value than any other product sent out of the Emerald Isle. The 244 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE government lias helped to establish large dairies there, and it is not an unusual sight to meet upon the road barefooted boys or girls driving scores of donkey carts, loaded with fresh milk for the dairy, or carrying the skimmed milk back to the farm to be fed to the calves or pigs. Denmark is an important dairying country. It is low, level, and fertile like the Netherlands, and farming is the chief occupation of the people. Butter is sent out of Den- mark in greater quantities than an}^ other one article, and it is of more value than all the rest of the exports put together. Danish butter is considered by many people the best that is made, and it is sent in sealed cans to all parts of the world. Most of it is shipped from Copenhagen, a city about as large as Buffalo, New York, and the only really large city of Denmark. Perhaps the chief cause of its importance may be that it lies at the entrance of the Baltic Sea, on the only good harbor of the Danish coast. Copenhagen has really been what its name signifies, a " Merchant's Haven," for Russian ships bound for the open sea, those from Norway, and some from eastern Germany stop at its doors. To-day many vessels from the Baltic shorten their route by means of the Kiel Canal, and some from Sweden choose the shorter voyage through the Gota Canal, which you will find shown on the map opposite page 124. In spite of these shorter routes more than fifteen thousand ships, carrying great quan- tities of grain, dairy products, beef, cattle, wool and hides, leave the harbor of Copenhagen annually, and the city is reckoned as one of the principal ports of northern Europe. It is not alone its commerce which has made Copenhagen the most important city of Denmark, for being the only DAIRYING COUNTRIES 245 large city, most of the manufacturing also is done there. We might visit porcelain works and piano factories, watch the fine processes of clock and watch making, or see in our walks about the city great sugar refineries, distilleries, and tobacco factories. Copenhagen is also a center of the Fig. 103. Copenhagen is One of the Principal Ports of Northern Europe literature and art not only of Denmark but of northern Europe. It contains a fine library, and a wonderful museum of northern antiquities in which the customs of the people of Denmark from earliest times may be traced. Weapons, pottery, jewels, facsimiles of dwellings, clothing, and many other interesting exhibits dating back to the stone and bronze ages are preserved there. 246 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE vvs^-'««Er^«aui?Ka~c7'r £.■ i ^ ') Underwood Si Underwood Fig. 104. The Little Counthy of Switzerland is nestled among THE High INIountaixs In the little country of Switzerland, nestled among the high Alps, there are many cattle, sheep, and goats which feed in the mountain pastures. In a summer trip through the country yon would wonder where all the animals were, for you would see scarcely any in the valleys. If they were DAIRYING COUNTRIES 247 kept in the lower liekLs they woukl eat so much of tlie grass that there woukl be but little hay for their winter food ; so in the early summer the boys and girls drive them high on the hills and mountains, where they remain until cold weather approaches. During the summer the young people remain in the high pastures tending the animals, makmg butter and cheese, cutting the grass which the cattle do not need, and spending their spare minutes knit- tmg warm socks for the coming winter. Cold weather comes early in the mountain pastures, and there is a great holiday in the fall when the cattle and sheep come down the steep paths to the valleys. Those boys and girls who do not go to the mountains in the summer find plenty of other work to keep them busy. Switzerland has sometimes been called the Playground of the World, for between four and five hundred thousand tourists visit the country in normal years, most of them in the summer months. Some of the young Swiss people work in the hotels scattered over the country. There are so many of these and they do such a thriving business that hotel- keeping has been called one of the chief industries of Swit- zerland. Many of the tourists wish to climb the mountains, but this is usually dangerous work unless they are accom- panied by a guide thoroughly acquainted with the region. No one knows the Alps so well as the sturdy young Switzers who have spent their lives among them, and hundreds of young men find occupation in this way, while during the winter months many of the men and boys spend their time in carving out of wood, chairs, tables, picture frames, paper cutters, umbrella holders, and boxes of all kinds, which the tourists buy iii great quantities. 248 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE In driving througli the quaint little Swiss villages we should see the girls and women sitting in front of their neat chalets, as the Swiss houses are called, doing exquisite embroidery or tossing the bobbins in and out, in and out, as they add inch by inch to the beautiful lace which each worker is making on a hard pillow in her lap. This work furnishes occupation for all the spare minutes during the summer months and for the long hours in the wmter when there is no work to be done outside on the little farm. Great quantities of embroideries are also made by ma- chinery, and this industry is one of the most important in Switzerland, employing more than seventy-five thousand people. Wonderful machines have been invented, and the work that they do is so fine and beautiful that it is hard in some cases to tell whether or not it is done by hand. American manufacturers of embroideries are equipping their plants with Swiss machinery, and a majority of the factories in St. Gall, the center of the industry in Switzer- land, are either owned outright or controlled by Americans. It seems hardly possible that little Switzerland, a country only about twice the size of iSIassachusetts, can furnish more than thirty-five million dollars' worth of hand-worked and machine-made embroideries, but this immense quantity is exported every year. Making articles for the tourist trade, working on the farm, doing the housework, tendmg the cattle, and making butter and cheese keep most of the Swiss people busy throughout the year. Not all of the people, however, live on farms, for there are large, important, manufacturing cities in Switzerland. The country is so centrally located that, since the mountains have been tunneled, it is easy to DAIRYING COUNTRIES 249 import materials and to send away manufactured products. In the chapter on silk you will read of Zurich, the largest city and the center of the silk industry. Of the eighty silk mills in Switzerland, the majority are in and around Zurich, where this old industry flourishes \Aith most up-to-date ma- chinery and inventions. Basel, another important Swiss city, is noted the world over for its manufacture of ribbons. Perhaps some of you may own or may have seen a Swiss watch. These are made in the city of Geneva, wljich has lono- been famous for the manufacture of watches and jewelry. To many people the shop windows with their fascmating displays prove as attractive as the blue waters of the Lake of Geneva with its border of rugged mountains. Watchmaking is one of the oldest industries in Switzerland and is carried on to-day in several cities besides Geneva. Another industry in Switzerland in which every boy and girl who likes candy will be interested is the making of sweet chocolate. Thousands of tons of cakes of chocolate and cans of cocoa, worth millions of dollars, are made in Switzerland every year. Most of it is of a very superior quality and is sold in large quantities to other European countries. All these and other industries were greatly interrupted by the four years of the World War. Switzerland was not one of the fighting countries, but she was surrounded by nations at war. Her trade was entirely cut off and her industries crippled. Of course no tourists visited Switzer- land during the war, and her big hotels were all closed except a few which were used as hospitals for soldiers of the Allied armies. About four fifths of Switzerland is very mountainous. Few people live in these parts except tourists and hotel 250 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE keepers who stay during the summer months. Most of the people hve in the lowlands. Here the soil is good, but the area is too small to support many of the population. Hence the people have turned to other occupations. The mountains which have proved such an obstacle in many ways have been of great help in others. Tourists in large numbers have been attracted by their beauty. Many of the slopes are covered with forests. The people use the wood in making toys and various articles of furniture and have become very skilled in such work. In some towns and cities wood-carving is taught in the schools. Tumbling down the steep mountain sides there are hundreds of streams which furnish an enormous amount of water-power for manufacturing. Tliis power is one of Switzerland's most important resources and each year sees more and more of it being utilized. The electricity generated by this power runs trolle}^ cars and many railroads. Another use which is made of it is the taking of nitrogen from the air and making it into fertilizer. About four fifths of the air is nitrogen. Plants are very dependent on it and must have it in certain forms to help their growth. The nitrate beds of Chile, South America, are very valuable and for years have furnished a large part of the world's supply. These deposits will not last forever and so, as they have done in other ways, the chemists have come to the help of the farmer. They have experimented in taking nitrogen from the air and getting it to unite with other substances so that it might be used in fertilizers. Switzerland, Norway, the United States, and Germany have gone ahead of other countries in this industry and have been for some years perfecting machinery and methods by which this important DAIRYING COUNTRIES 251 work may be clone. Both Switzerland and Norway are mountainous countries and have been greatly aided by the immense amount of water-power which they possess. Their " white coal " enables them to run their machmery more cheaply than those countries which depend on the black mineral mined in the earth. Before we leave the dairying countries we must visit tlie little mountain village of Roquefort, in the southwest- ern part of France, where cheese-making has been carried on for eight hundred years. The region around is of lime- stone formation, which is easily worn away by water, and consequently the mountains contain many deep caves and (lark passages. In the town there are less than a thousand people. Their tall, narrow- houses clinging to the steep slopes look very queer to us, for they have only one or two rooms on a floor and are from two to four stories high. The wealth of these village people is in the awkward, long- legged sheep, which find their food in the scanty herbage of the mountain sides. The milk which is obtained from them forms the chief support of the villagers ; it is sold to the large firms which control the dairy industry of this region, and is made in their great factories into cheese. This is put to ripen into the cool caves in the mountains, where the peculiar form of mold which develops in Roquefort cheese gives it its special flavor. The United States raises more cattle than any other country. Our great area gives us plenty of room for pasture land, and our fertile soil yields quantities of grass for hay ; so we are not surprised to learn that the United States ranks first in the world in the amount and value of its dairy products. We produce enough milk every year to fill 252 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE a tank fifty feet in diameter and one hundred miles high. The butter made annually in the United States would make a square pile one hundred feet on a side and half a mile high. To appreciate better this immense quan- tity, measure the length and width of your school building and compare its dimensions with those of the pile of butter. If the cheese manufactured every year in this country were spread out six inches deep between the rails of an air- , line railroad, it would reach from Chicago to Charleston, South Carolina. The manufacture of such immense quantities of butter and cheese as are produced in our country and in other lands furnishes occupation for thousands of people. Thou- sands more find employment in caring for the cattle which produce the milk. In making both butter and cheese great quantities of salt are used, and the production of this necessary article gives work to other thousands in various parts of the world. Let us leave the green, fertile plains of the Netherlands, the mountain pastures of Switzerland, and the cool caves of Roquefort for Poland, one of the most mteresting countries of the new Europe. TOPICS FOR STUDY 1. The low countries. 2. The story of the formation of the Netherlands. 3. Floods and dikes. 4. Reclaiming the Zuider Zee. 6. Appearance of the Netherlands. 6. The cheese market of Alkmaar. 7. How cheese is made. DAIRYING COUNTRIES 253 8. Butter-making in the Netherlands. 9. Descrijition of Amsterdam. 10. Dairying in the British Isles. 11. Butter-making in Denmark. 12. Description of Copenhagen. 13. Dairying in Switzerland. 14. Other indiistries in Switzerland. 15. Cities of Switzerland. 16. Roquefort cheese. 17. Dairying in the United States. ^a II 1. "What is said in Chapter III of Ireland as a dairying country? What facts are added in this chapter? 2. Sketch a maj) of Europe and color all the countries where dairying is an important occupation. 3. Add to your maj) the names of all the cities, rivers, and other bodies of water mentioned in this chapter. 4. Do you know Phoebe Cary's poem, " The Leak in the Dike " ? Tell the story as told in the poem. 5. ^Yrite a list of the chief colonial possessions of the Netherlands. What early settlements were made in America by the Dutch? 6. Ship a cargo of dairy products from Amsterdam to each of the Dutch possessions. Tell the waters sailed on in each voyage, the destination, and the return cargo. 7. Where do the diamonds which are cut in Amsterdam come from ? 8. Trace the route on which the diamonds are taken from the mines to the city of Amsterdam. 9. Name the causes which have made Copenhagen an important city. 10. By w'hat route do goods come from Zurich to New York? from Basel? from Geneva? 11. Write a list of the industries of Switzerland. Give the reasons for the carrying on of each industry. \Yliich one would you best like to see? 12. Write a list of the chief dairying states in the United States. What states raise cattle for beef ? 254 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE III Be able to spell and pronounce the follow place and tell what was said of it in this and Add other facts if possible. Belgium British Isles Denmark East Indies England France Germany Ireland Italy Massachusetts Norway Russia Siberia Sweden Switzerland United States West Indies Alkmaar Amsterdam Basel Copenhagen Detroit Geneva London Roquefort St. Gall Venice ing" names. Locate each in any previous chapter. Zurich Baltic Sea English Channel Gota Canal Kiel Canal Meuse River North Holland Canal North Sea North Sea Canal Po River Rhine River Scheldt River Zuider Zee CHAPTER XIV THE COU:sTKY OF POLAND The next place which we will visit is Poland, one of the countries of new Europe. We cannot call it one of the new countries of Europe, for Poland is a very old country. Centuries before the explorers set sail from western Europe to discover and colonize a new world the kincjs of Poland were ruling over a large kingdom. At the time of its greatest power, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, Poland was considerably larger than Germany is to-day and was one of the greatest powers in Europe. For many years since that time, however, though there were millions of Poles in Europe, there was no Poland. A Polish poem says, The wild dove has its nest, and the worm a clod of earth, Each man has a country. The Pole has but a grave. The downfall of the ancient and powerful khigdom of Poland was due largely to two causes. The first one liad to do with the surface of the land. Ancient Poluuil was a great plain with few natural boundaries to separate it from her ambitious neighboi-s, no high mountains, no great rivers, no wide expanse of sea or desert. Such boundaries are always a great protection to a country. In the absence of such natural defenses, Poland, however, could be easily invaded b}' the armies of her enemies. 255 256 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The other reason for the downfall of Poland was con- nected with the people. The Poles have always been noted for their courage and their love of independence. Among the nobles this love of liberty was carried so far that the freedom of the individual counted for more than that of the nation. The nobles were unwilling to sacrifice any- thing of their own wealth or power or privileges in order that the nation as a whole might become strong and power- ful. This soon led to such selfishness and other evils that the kingdom was weakened and so became a prey to the stronger nations around it. Three times Poland has been partitioned among its neighbors, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany. Now these different parts of Poland are united and the country stands again among the inde- pendent nations of the world. The people are once more free to speak their own language, to make their own laws, and to run their own schools. When Poland was divided among her conquerors, Austria was given the part next to the Carpathian Mountains. In this area lies the interesting old city of Krakow, the early capital of the kingdom before the seat of the govern- ment was transferred to Warsaw. Krakow is perhaps the best beloved city of the Polish people. It is an ancient place. Its university is between five and six hundred years old and ever since the vear 1400 has G^ranted des^rees to the students who have attended it. On a rock overlooking the Vistula River is the Wawel (vah-vel), a fortified part of the city. Here, according to the old legend, is the ancient castle in whose deep dungeon Krak, the mythical founder of the city, slew the dragon which had long lived by human sacrifices. THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 257 Within the walls of the Wawel is the old cathedml, dating back nearly five centuries before ever Christoplier Columbus set sail on his eventful voyage across the Atlantic. Here lie the bones of famous Polish statesmen, heroes, and poets. Here also are the tombs of her kings, and here, before the high altar, lier rulers were crowned. ) Brown &• Dawson yiG. 10.5. The Peasant Women still dkive thkik Gkkse in from THE Country as Polish Women have done for Centuries In the old market place we can see much of the life of the city. The electric cars, the well-lighted streets, and the passing automobiles are of the twentietli century. But the old market and the ancient buildings are of much earlier years. The barefooted peasant women bring in from the ■country on their broad backs their loads of vegetables and fruits, or their chickens and geese, as Polish women have done for centuries. 258 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Farther north on the Vistula River is a city larger than St. Louis. This is Warsaw, another city of ancient Poland, founded in 1269. Four hundred years later it succeeded Krakow as the capital of the country, and for many years was one of the gayest, most brilliant capitals of all Europe. Warsaw to-day is an important industrial center. Every- where we see signs of its growth and development. In the manufacturing part of the city among the foundries, the cotton, linen, and woolen mills, the breweries and distil- leries, there is little to remmd us of the fact that we are four thousand miles from home in an ancient city which was vainly lighting for its life at a time when we were struggling to become independent. The new Warsaw is a very beautiful city. It has at- tractive stores, splendid streets, fine parks and boulevards, and numerous open-air cafes like those of Paris. Leaving this part of the city, we soon find ourselves in an entirely different section, where the effects of age, war, and poverty are seen on every side. The mean, low liouses are huddled together with no apparent effort at order or arrangement, and the streets twist and wind as if trvinor to sret bv the buildings which stand in their way. It seems queer to think that into such a city and into the country which lies around it have gone many tools and machines from our most up-to-date factories. We have sent to Warsaw saws, planes, augers, chisels, axes, hammers, hatchets, padlocks, meat choppers, clothes wringers, and other hardware. From our manufactories have gone also binders, reapers, mowing ma- chines, rakes, and harrows for the farms on the fertile plains of Poland. The goods sent to us are chiefly the agricultural products of the country — beet seed, flax, tow, and wool. THE COUNTRY OF POLAND •259 For the most part Poland is an agricultural country and most of the people are farmers. Around Warsaw and Lodz, however, there are rich beds of coal and iron, and the deposits of these useful minerals account for the develop- ment of these cities into important industrial centers. I Brown Bros. Fig. 106. The Newer Part of Warsaw is beautiful In the World War when Russia was fighting against the Central Powers tlie eastern battle front for a long time lay in Polish territory. Parts of her area were fought over agam and again and the sufferings of her people were terrible. Their farms and factories were destroyed, their cities and towns laid in ruins, and men, women, and chil- dren, homeless and starving, died in great numbers. These things set back for many years the development of Poland. 260 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The commercial importance of the great city of Warsaw lies not in its trade with us or with any other distant country but in the traffic which is carried on with Danzig up and down the Vistula River. In our trip down the Vistula we shall certainly wish to visit this queer old city which is Publishers' Photo Service Fig. 107. Polaxd is an Agricultural Country built on the slopes of the hills overlooking the delta. Before the war Danzig was a German port. By the terms of the treaty in 1919 it has been internationalized, that is, made free to the vessels of all nations. During the Middle Ages Danzig was one of the chief commercial centers of the world, and many of the quaint old buildings, narrow and tall, with odd stone porches, still THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 261 remain. There are also great granaries down by the river, still known by such queer names as " Golden Pelican," " Whale," " Milkmaid," and '' Patriarch," which were given them in those far-away days when Danzig merchants sent their grain ships to Venice and brought back spices, gums, perfumes, silks, and other luxuries of the East. DoAvn the Vistula from the peasants' farms to the south- ward come clumsy barges full of wool and lumber, and wheat, corn, and other grains. These are sold and stored in the granaries, the barges taken apart, and the lumber disposed of. The boatmen trudge back on foot through the valley or find passage on some of the vessels ascending the river. If we were to examine the cargoes of some of these vessels, we should find the products of many countries. There is coal from England, oil from the United States, coffee from Brazil, fish from Scandinavia, as well as salt and breadstuff s for the peasants. The display of amber in the stores in Danzig is fascinat- ing, for the beads look like great drops of crystallized sunshine. Amber is often called the " tears of the daughters of the sun," who wept beside the river, mourning the death of Phaethon, who attempted to drive the sun chariot across the sky in place of his father, Apollo. The true story of the origin of amber is as wonderful as the myth. Ages ago the continent of Europe was not of its present shape. Northern Germany, now a low plain, was covered by the waters of a sea much larger than the present Baltic. On its borders grew luxuriant forests of oak, beech, birch, cedar, cypress, chestnut, and many other familiar kinds of trees. There also grew in great numbers a species of pine unlike any found in the world to-day. A tliick, sticky 262 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE sap, or resin, exuded from these trees in much the same way as it does from our common pitch pine, only in much greater quantities. Sometimes it was shed in drops from the branches ; sometimes it trickled to the ground, leaving long threads behind. At certain seasons it flowed in such quantity that it completely covered whole cones and twigs or even branches and trunks. Queer insects which lived m those far-off days were often trapped in the gummy mass, as flies are on sticky paper. These pine forests must have flourished for many centu- ries, for immense quantities of the yellow resin accumulated. During long ages this resin became buried deeper and deeper under accumulating soil, and slowly changed from a sticky gum into a hard substance as yellow as gold and as clear as crystal. As centuries passed, some of the hardened gum was washed by streams and storms into the great sea to the north. Some remained where it had fallen and became buried under the masses of branches, needles, and decay- ing wood which, as generations of forests lived and died, were deposited upon it. Danzig is the chief amber market of the world, and near the shores of the Baltic to the east of the city most of the world's product is obtained. In one small town not far from Danzig nearly all the inhabitants are engaged in the amber industry. We should find a visit there very interesting, for amber fishing is different from any other fishing. It is after the heavy storms that the amber fisher- man reaps his greatest harvest, for the waves and the winds do part of his work. The sand and bowlders are loosened from their beds and roll up and down in the shallow THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 263 waters. The fishermen wade out almost up to theu- shoul- ders and, using their nets or long-pronged forks, pull great masses of seaweed in shore. These are passed on to the women, who examine them to see if any pieces of amber may be entangled^ After the winds and the waters are more quiet the Baltic fishers go out in their boats with dredges, which they drag along the bed of the sea. These become filled with seaweed and stones, among which small pieces of amber may be con- cealed. To recover the larger masses, divers are employed. While these men are fishing for amber in the depths of the ocean other men on land are searching for it m mines. The amber is brought to the surface, separated from the rock which incloses it, and sent to the quaint old city of Danzig to be cut and polished. One of the minerals found in Poland in large quantities is salt, and some of the mines where salt is obtained are among the most interesting in the world. But before we visit them let us think for a few minutes about this most useful product. What should we do without it ? It is so common and so cheap that we do not appreciate its value. If we were to be deprived of it for a long time, however, we should realize how necessary it is to our health and to our enjoyment of food. Where it is scarce people will often exchange their most valued possessions for a little of it. In some regions it is used for money, wliile in other places the most cordial greeting one can give is the offer of a small piece of salt. Salt has many uses aside from seasoning food. It is used in preserving fish and meats, in curing hides and skins, and in making butter and cheese. It is necessary in 264 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE other manufactures, especially in those of washing, cleaning, and baking powders, dyestuffs and extracts, soap, glass, fertilizers, and fireworks. In what form is salt found and how is it obtained ? Mother Nature usually furnish^ very plentifully those things which are neces- sary to life, and in the supply of salt she has been very generous, for it is found in great quantities not only in the earth but in the ocean water too. You know how salt a mouth- ful of sea water tastes. It is estimated that, on an average, a hundred pounds of sea water, if evaporated, would yield about three pounds of salt. The ocean is the final home of nearly all the thousands of rivers that flow over the earth's surface. Journeying through the long ages they collect from the soil and hold in their waters great quantities of mineral matter. Salt is one of the most important of these minerals, and the accumulated loads of centuries are deposited in the ocean depths, there to remain increasing with the passing years. Only the pure, fresh water evaporates, and therefore the ocean is slowly but constantly growing more salty. Fig. 108. ) Underwood & Underwood Large Quantities of Salt are required THE COUNTRY OF POLAXD 2G5 During the long, long ages since the ocean first existed, such enormous quantities of salt have been carried to it that to-day, if it could be extracted and piled up, it would © UnduruuL-l i; UuderwcoU. Fig. 109. The Water is led into Shallow, Artificial Ponds cover the vrhole continent of Europe with a layer consider- ably deeper than the height of the highest mountains. In many warm countries where the heat of the sun makes evaporation rapid, the people obtain much of their salt 266 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE © Underwood & Underwood Fig. 110. "The Salt crystallizes on the Bed and Banks. It is then raked up and stored in piles " supply from the ocean. At high tide the water is led through pipes or channels into shallow, artificial ponds. Evaporation takes place rapidly, and as the brine becomes stronger it is led to a still more shallow pond. This THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 267 process is continued in several pools until, in the last one, the salt crystallizes on the bed and banks. It is then raked up and stored in piles for the sun and rain and air to purify and whiten it. In some places it is redissolved and again evaporated by artificial heat to obtain a finer grade of salt. Inland countries of ten. produce greater quantities of salt than those which border on the ocean. Let us see how this can be. In many places there once existed rivers, lakes, or arms of the ocean whose waters long ages ago evaporated, leav- ing deposits of salt in their dry beds. Changes of the earth's surface have buried these deposits under deep masses of soil and rock, and the salt has in time become as hard as coal. This formation is called rock salt, and it is from such deposits that most of the world's supply comes. The easiest way to obtain salt and tlie one most used to-day is by brine wells. A pipe is driven into the salt deposit, and water is forced down to dissolve it. A strong brine is thus formed which is pumped to the surface and there evaporated either by the sun or by artificial heat, leaving the crystallized salt in the pans. In some of the most up-to-date salt works a double-tube pipe is driven, through the outer opening of which the fresh water is forced down while the brine is pumped out through the inner one. Salt is sometimes obtained from natural brine springs. Underground water percolating through the soil has col- lected in the salt deposits and has formed a strong brine, which is pumped out and evaporated, as in the brine wells. A third method of obtaining salt is by mining, which is carried on in a manner not very different from the 268 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE mining of coal. To see something of this method of pro- duction we will visit the largest and most beautiful salt mine m the world. A few miles from Krakow is the little town of Wieliczka, wliich is built on the roofs of the great salt caverns beneath. These deposits are among the most wonderful in the world. The beds are nearly a quarter of a mile thick m places and extend beneath the surface for a distance equal to that between London and Cologne or between New York and Buffalo. The mines here have been worked for nearly seven hundred years and at one time were the chief source of revenue of the Polish kings. As we ride through the village of Wieliczka we see few men, for they are all at work below the surface of the earth, whither we will follow them. We can descend into tlie mine either by elevators or by a grand staircase carved out of the solid salt. As we wish to go to the lowest floor of this seven-storied cave, we choose the elevator, which drops us quickly through the nine hundred feet to the deepest levels of the mine. We pause for a moment at the foot of the elevator before we begin our tour, and try to realize that we are more than a sixth of a mile below the surface of the earth. The air seems cool and singularly fresh and invigorating. We are told that it remains at about the same temperature during the entire year, and that it is very healthful. As we wander through the great galleries, with the roof and walls of solid salt, we wonder how such great tunnels and rooms have ever been made. It has taken centuries to do it, for peasants have been working in this under- ground world for more than six hundred and fifty years. THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 269 Formerly all the supporting columns were of salt, but now many of these have been wholly or partially removed and wooden supports substituted. The gallery in which we are walking suddenly opens out into a magnificent ballroom. A ballroom in a mine ? Impossible ! Nevertheless it is true, and furthermore it is not only in a salt mine, but it is made entirely of salt ! A ballroom three hundred feet long, ninety feet high, with a dull-gray ceiling, glistening pillars, and flashing chan- deliers all of hard, crystalline salt ! Can you imagine a chandelier thirty feet high and sixty feet in circumfer- ence, all gleaming and glittering as the lights fall on the sparkling white surfaces ? Statues carved from salt, representing Vulcan, Neptune, and other mythological and historical persons, ornament this magnificent room, and a gleaming throne has been erected at one end. Real balls are held here from time to time. What else is a ballroom for? Whenever an old working is closed or a new street opened the event is celebrated in true Galician style. Peasant women from the village above dance with the miners to the sound of shrill pipes and noisy violins, whose music is magnified a hundred times by the wonderful echoes of the cavern. Only a short distance from the ballroom is a cathedral which is fully as magnificent. Here is the great organ, and the high altar with its crucifix, its twisted pillars, and its statues of saints carved in pure, glistening white. Near by are the figures of two monks made from blocks of ruby-red salt. Leaving the cathedral we walk on through several streets to a room two hundred feet long. This contains two im- mense pp-amids carved and ornamented in commemoration 270 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE of a visit of the emperor and empress of Austria-Hungary when this part of Poland belonged to that empire. One of the most thrilling adventures for visitors is a sail on the black waters of the lake far in the depths of the mine. Our boat holds about twenty-five people, and the man in charge pulls it along by means of ropes which extend across the lake. The water is like strong brine — no fish ever swam in it, no bird ever came to drink from it. The torches fastened into the crystal walls throw a weird light out over the black water, and the splashing made by the boat is echoed and reechoed from point to point along the walls. The flickering shadows, the strange echoes, the awful solitude, and the deep, black water be- neath us make us shudder, and we are glad to step from the boat to the solid rock again. But what about the miners ? They are the peasants of the region around and have worked in the mine all their lives. There are several hundred of them, and they mine two or three hundred million pounds of salt annually. This amount might be much increased by the use of modern methods and up-to-date machinery. The salt industry in Germany is important and its history is very interesting. Ages ago a large portion of Germany was covered by the ocean waters, and in the course of time, as these grew more and more shallow, great quantities of salt were deposited. Before the middle of the last cen- tury the production of salt was too small to supply the demand, and the Prussian government undertook some borings in the search for new deposits. At one place near the Elbe River, after boring for more than eight hundred feet, salt formations were reached, but to the disappointment THE COUXTRY OF POLAND 271 of those in charge they were found to be not pure salt but what is known as potassium salts. At that time these were supposed to be worthless, so the borings were abandoned and a further search was made a few miles away. Here more potassium salts were found, but on boring deeper, rich beds of pure salt also were discovered. Further work with the first deposits showed this to be true in that locality also. The potassium salts were thrown out as waste material, and the rock salt was mined for some years. Fmall}- the waste piles became so large that they interfered with the working of the mine. The superintendent then began some experiments to see if he could discover any uses which could be made of the potassium salts. To his surprise he found that they contained substances very useful in fertilizers, in medicines, in photography, and in various manufactures ; so valuable, indeed, were the products ob- tained that in less than twelve years thirty -two factories were in operation. Potassium salts have been for some years one of the most important products of Germany, and many tons of manufactures worth millions of dollars are made from them. In both England and Germany salt is obtamed from mines, from natural brine springs and from brine wells. France obtains some salt from these sources, but most of her large supply comes from the evaporation of ocean water. We have said that the United States is the greatest salt- producing country of the world. The mineral is obtained in several ways — by mining, by pumping from brine springs and brine wells, by evaporating ocean water, and by collect- ing that already deposited in the dry beds of salt lakes. 272 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE By far the greatest part of the enormous quantity of salt produced in our country is obtained from brine wells, where the fresh water which is let into the salt deposit dissolves all the mineral possible and is then pumped up again as a strong brine. The evaporation of the brine is carried on in a scientific way, for the kind of salt produced depends upon the speed with which it is done. When the evaporation is slow the grains are large and coarse, and they grow finer in proportion as the heat is increased and the process hastened. Among the many uses of salt the curing of fish is very important. Were it not for some such method of preserv- ing fish, it would not be possible to furnish this cheap, nourishing food to inland portions of Europe, and the peasants would be deprived of a staple article of diet on w^hich they are dependent. Our next visit will take us to some of the most important fishing countries, where the industry furnishes occupation for many of the people. TOPICS FOR STUDY I 1. History of Poland. 2. The old city of Krakow. 3. Warsaw and its industries. 4. The effect of the World War on Poland. 5. The seaport of Danzig. 6. The story of amber. 7. Uses of salt. 8. Salt in the ocean. 9. Methods of obtaining salt. 10. The salt mines of Wieliczka. 11. Potassium salts in Germany. 12. The United States product. THE COUNTRY OF POLAND 273 II 1. Sketch a map of Poland. Write the names of the countries which bound it. Show its cities. 2. Find the names of some famous Pole.s. For what are they noted ? 3. Write a list of the uses of salt. 4. Account for the saltness of ocean water. 5. Name the countries which produce the most salt. 6. AVhat are the most important salt-i^roducing states of the United States? Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Austria-Hungary Buffalo Venice Brazil Cologne Warsaw England Danzig Wieliczka France Krakow Galicia Lodz Baltic Sea Germany London Carpathian Moun Russia New York tains Scandinavia Paris Elbe River United States St. Louis Vistula River CHAPTER XV A TRIP TO NORWAY AND THE FISHING GROUNDS OF EUROPE In the northern part of Europe lies the long, narrow country of Norway, stretching from the desolate, frozen north to a latitude somewhat farther south than Petro- grad, Russia, or Sitka, Alaska. Forests of pine, spruce, and birch trees cover one fourth of its area. The largest glaciers of Europe fill its mountain passes. Hundreds of waterfalls splash in the sunsliine. Thousands of lakes lie in the valleys. Deep bays, called fiords, fringe its coast and penetrate in some places a hundred miles into the interior. On either side of these inlets bare, rocky walls rise per- pendicularly to a height of two thousand feet or more, and extend for an equal distance below the surface of the blue water. One eighth of the whole population of Nor- way lives on the one hundred fifty thousand islands which dot its shores. These vary in size from those only a few feet across to some nearly as large as the state of Rhode Island. Norway is smaller than California, yet its complete coast- luie measured in all its irregularity would, if extended in a straight line, reach halfway around the world at the equator. In the northern part of this strange country for a period of nearly two months during the summer the sun never sets. Even in the southern portion one can read by 274 A TRIP TO NORWAY 275 ) Underwood Si Underwood Fig, 111. "Deep Bays, called Fiords, fringe its Coast" its light at ten o'clock in the evening. In the winter there are several weeks when the people of the northern towns do not see the sun at all. The long, cold night is made radiant by the glittering stars and by the northern 27t) INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE lights, which gleam and flash and sparkle and send long rays of light streaming up to the very zenith. If upon a map of the United States you should place one of Norway, with its most northern point upon the city of New York, its southern end would reach nearly to the southern extremity of Florida, It is so narrow, however, that the very widest part from east to west would not reach from New York to Buffalo. As Norway borders upon the ocean for its entire length of eleven hundred miles, many of the people find employment on the water instead of on the land. The old Norse sagas tell us that more than a thousand years ago brilliantly painted ships with gay-colored sails carried fish from Norway to England. Though the ships of to-day differ from those of ancient times, and the sails lack the bright colors, they still carry to Great Britain the product of the Norwegian fisheries. The annual sales amount to millions of dollars. So important and valuable is the fishing industry to Norway that one tenth of the national income is derived from the fish exports. Cod, herring, and mackerel are caught in the greatest numbers — more than sbcty million cod being taken annu- ally. Haddock, sole, flounder, and other varieties are also plentiful, while from the cold arctic waters, whales and seals are obtained. In the late winter and early spring be- tween forty and fifty thousand Norwegians find employ- ment in the cod fisheries, which are carried on chiefly from the Lofoten Islands. As we approach these islands in a steamer we see, rising abruptly from the sea, long hues of bare mountains with sharp peaks, and with snow patches on their slopes. The land looks cold and desolate, and it is indeed a lonely, barren waste. A TRIP TO NORWAY 277 Alono- the shores on many of the islands we notice groups of low, dark houses. These are the stations from which fisliing is carried on. Some of the buildings are warehouses of traders, some are storehouses for the fisliing tackle, and still others are the huts for the fishermen. They look dreary and uncomfortable to our eyes, but they are a welcome sight to a Norwegian fishing crew who have perhaps been bat- tling for hours with the winter storm. You may wonder why the men fish dur- ing the awful arctic winter instead of in the warm season. It is at that time that the cod leave the waters of the deep ocean and come to the shallows nearer the coast to lay their eggs, and it is then that the greatest catch can be made. Later, in April or May, the fishing is carried on nearer the coast of Norway, whither the cod go for food. A small fish called the cap- elin frequents the coast waters at that time, and immense numbers of the cod follow to prey upon them. The fishing is done either with nets, sometimes more than half a mile long, or with Imes to which many hundred short lines with hooks and bait are attached. A catch of three or four hundred cod in the net and less than that - Vv 1 © Underwood Sc Underwood Fig. 112. As we approach these Islands •WE SEE Long Lines of Bare Mountains 278 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE number on the lines is considered a good day's work. When the fleet reaches shore with the slippery cargoes, a busy time ensues. Many merchant vessels are waiting at the docks for loads of fish, and the bargaining quickly begins. Many of the cod are salted and then dried on the flat rocks near the shore. The heads, bones, intestines, and all other Underwood & L'uderwooa Fig. 113. More of the Herring than of Any Other Species are caught on the different flshing grounds of the world . parts not useful for food are made into fertilizer ; the eggs, called roe, are sent to France to be used for bait in the sardine fisheries ; the livers are used for cod-liver oil, thousands of barrels of this medicinal oil being made each year in Norway. Next in importance to the cod fisheries of Norway come those of herring — King Herring, it is sometimes called, for more of these small fish than of any other species are A TRIP TO NORWAY 279 caught on the different fishmg grounds of the world. The Norwegian herring are considered the best, and the people of Norway might live on them the whole year tlu-ough, for the product of their fisheries is sufficient to give every man, woman, and child in the country one third of a barrel annually. The herring leave the deep waters of the ocean twice every year and are caught at these times all along the western coast of Norway. A few are exported fresh, but most of the catch is either salted or smoked. The poorer classes in nearly every European country eat herring in some form, for they are not only a cheap food but a nourishing one as well. Many of the people of Europe are Catholics, and on certain days do not eat meat. This is one of the reasons why the Norwegian sales of fish are so enormous. The extent of coastline, the great numbers of fish which come to these waters, the large cities situated on the southern shores of the North Sea which serve as distributmg centers — all help to make the fisheries of Norway among the most important of the world. The fishmg grounds for mackerel lie a little south of the region where cod and herring are most plentiful, and comparatively few are caught in the waters north of Trondhjem. Another branch of the fisliing industry is that carried on in the Arctic Ocean for seals and other fur-bearing animals, and for whales. Norwegian whalers are also found not only in different parts of the Arctic Ocean, but in the far southern waters of the Antarctic and in the Pacific as well. The catch of the fleet which sailed one year from Tromso, 280 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Vardo, and Haramerfest included several thousand seals, many hundred polar bears, whales, reindeer, foxes, and a few musk oxen. All the cities on the western coast of Norway are inter- ested in the fishing industry and export from their harbors large quantities of fish products. Tromso and Hammerfest in the far north and Trondhjem and Bergen in the southern part are the chief centers. The harbors of these places are filled with vessels unloading their slip- pery cargoes, while others are storing away in their holds great quantities of salted, smoked, or canned fish. On the shore are the frames on which to dry Underwood & Underwood Fig. 114. "We should eat Fish, see Fish, AND SMELL FiSH " the fish, the liouses for curing, packing, and canning it, and the factories in which oil and fertilizer are prepared. In such fishing centers we should eat fish, see fish, and smell fish so much that we should long for other food and sights and odors. Long before Columbus discovered America, Bergen was a wealthy city. For years it was the largest in Norway, and was then, as now, the center of the fishing industry. When fishing was the only industry of importance in Norway, the port which directed and controlled the trade naturally became the largest city. Since other industries A TRIP TO NORWAY 281 have risen in importance, other cities have grown in pro- portion, and Bergen to-day no longer holds the first place. No other city, however, rivals it in the collecting and sliipping of fish. Vessels loaded with cod, herring, and © Keystone View Co. Tig. 115. No City rivals Bergen in the Collecting and Shipping of Fish mackerel (pickled, smoked, and salted), sardines, whale oil, cod-liver oil, and cod roe sail from the harbor to England, Scotland, Germany, France, and other countries. The United States buys every year from Bergen great 282 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE quantities of sardines which, together with our purchases of larger fish, oil, and other articles, are worth nearly a million dollars. We send to this Norwegian port goods worth many times that amount, principally flour, oatmeal, petroleum, cottonseed oil, dried, canned, and fresh fruits, machinery, tools, and meat. Though Bergen lies as far north as central Labrador, the winter is not very cold and the harbor is never frozen. The westerly winds bring much rain, which makes the cli- mate rather disagreeable, for it rains or snows more than half of the year. Grass, grain, flowers, and trees flourish well in such a damp climate, and the abundant moisture makes the country much more beautiful than it otherwise would be. About three hundred miles north of Bergen lies the old Norwegian town of Trondhjem. You. thmk, perhaps, that a town as far north as southern Iceland, and the most north- erly city of any importance in the world, must be a cold, disagreeable place with no modern conveniences and with but few places of interest. A visit to Trondhjem would change your opinion. Soon after the petty kingdoms of the Norse country were united into a single stat^, Trondhjem was made the capital and remained such for many years. All the kings of Norway have been crowned m the old cathedral of gray stone. The brilliant ceremonies wliich took place in 1906 at the crowning of King Haakon VII and Queen Maud were held within its walls. Trondhjem contains to-day about forty thousand peojDle, and ranks next to Christiania and Bergen m importance. With the exception of a few small branch lines, it is the northern terminus of the Norwegian railway system, and A TRIP TO NORWAY 283 contains a splendid station far larger and finer than many a more southern city can boast of. The streets of the city are very wide and well paved. On either side are quaint wooden houses with red-tiled roofs and bright patches of garden. Around the city are fine walks and drives. The views of the fiord are grand, and in the near-by hills and mountains beautiful waterfalls come leaping down from the green heights above to the blue waters below. Like the other cities of Norway which are situated on the western coast, the harbor of Trondhjem is a busy place. It is never frozen, though the harbors on the opposite side of the Scandinavian peninsula, in the Baltic Sea, are closed to commerce for many weeks each year. Immense rafts of lumber lie in the fiord awaiting their turn in the busy saw- mills which, with the buildings for the salting, curing, and packing of fish, line the shores. We can see vessels from many European countries being loaded with fish, oil, and furs, and on a neighboring island is a large whale-oil factory which advertises itself by its smell. As we walk up from the wharf we find that this arc- tic town, though farther north than Iceland, has hotels, churches, a telegraph office, schools, and a bank. The main street is very wide, and the houses even in this far northern town are gay with little gardens and window boxes. The furs offered for sale are very attractive. We see many fine bearskins and wolfskins and some warm cloaks of eiderdown. Eider ducks are very plentiful along the shores of Norway, and the down, from which quilts, muffs, and many warm garments 'are made, is obtained from their nests. The female duck plucks the down from her own body to Ime 284 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE her nest iii order that the young birds may have a warm, comfortable home. Many Norwegians find employment in gathering and selling the down, which is used in great quantities in these northern countries and is exported also to those farther south. We will take a steamer at Trondhjem for places farther north. The voyage up the coast is a pleasant one, as the route for the most part lies behind the fringe of islands which furnish protection from the rough waters of the open ocean. The scenery is grand. Cliffs hundreds of feet high rise almost perpendicularly on either side of the long, narrow fiords, in which the water lies deep and dark in the shadow. The first stop which our steamer makes is at Tromso. This city is situated upon an island and has a fine harbor open all the year. In the street we meet some short, dirty, greasy-looking people dressed in blouses made of rough, coarse cloth or of reindeer skin with the fur inside. These people are Lapps. They live outside the town and come in during the summer to sell to the tourists spoons and knives fashioned from the horns of the reindeer, moccasins like those which they are wearing, and bright-colored caps. As we leave Tromso and continue our way northward the country grows more and more barren and desolate. Cliffs gray and bare rise abruptly from the water. The shore seems uninhabited save for the gulls, eider ducks, and other sea fowl which, alarmed by the whistle of the steamer, rise in swarms from the rocks. Our next stop is at Hammerfest, the most northerly town in the world. In this bleak arctic town, far removed from the land of trees, flowers, and warm sunshine, we are surprised to find gay A TRIP TO NORWAY 285 geraniums peeping out of the windows of the rough wooden houses. This touch of brightness is needed, for the region is dreary and desolate. No green trees relieve the somber gray of the rocks and soil, and no roads stretch away from the town to friendly villages, for the country around is un- inhabited. During the long wmter months no visitors come to break the monotony of the cold and darkness. From Thanksgiving time to the latter part of January not even the sun cheers the people with its light and warmth. The stars glitter in the cold sky, and the Aurora Borealis sends long lines of rosy light far up toward the zenith, but every one looks forward to the time when the bright yellow rim of the sun will be first seen at noon, just peeping for a mo- ment above the southern horizon. Every day it rises higher and higher until the middle of May, when it describes a complete circle in the sky, higher in the south at noon and lower in the north at midnight. For many weeks it does not go below the horizon, but shines continually unless hidden by clouds. It is hard to tell when to go to bed and when to get up, or to decide whether it is supper or break- fast one is eating. Finally, near the last of July the ball of light dips for a moment below the northern horizon. It is lost to sight each night for an increasing length of time until the last of November, when it disappears entirely for the long winter. The houses of Hammerfest are close to the shore ; behind the town rise bare, rocky hills, down which avalanches of rock, loosened by the winds and storms, roll with terrific force. Most of the tliree thousand inhabitants of Hammer- fest are fishermen. Near their homes are the frames for drying the fish and the buildmgs for curing and packing it, 286 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE and a fishy smell pervades the town. In the harbor are vessels from Russia, Germany, England, and other Euro- pean countries. One is unloadmg coal, another wheat, and others are taking on cargoes of fish and oil. In one part of the town we notice the low stone huts of a Lapp village, and in the stores of Hammerfest we see ) Keystone View Co. Fig. 116. "The Houses of Hammerfest are close to the Shore" costumes, furs, moccasins, carvings, and reindeer skins .which the Laplanders have brought in to sell. Leaving the town of Hammerfest behind us we steam farther on our way into the bleak, drear arctic world. On our left stretches the blue-gray water ; on our right rise bare, steep cliffs, from the summits of which desolate plateaus stretch off uito the distance, brightened by no sign A TRIP TO NORWAY 287 of human life. The cry of the gulls and the whuring of the wings of sea birds are the only sounds save the splash- ing of water agauist the prow of the vessel. Seven hours after leaving Hammerfest the dark gray promontory called the North Cape comes into view, stand- ing in solitary majesty, with its bold front facing the wild Fig. 117 " Thk Dakk Ukay Pko-aioxtoky called the North Cape" waste of waters. The scene reminds us of the words in which Longfellow describes this lone rock : So far I live to the northward No man lives north of me ; To the east are wild mountain chains And beyond them meres and plains ; To the westward all is sea. The promontory is about a thousand feet high and rises very abruptly from the water. Tourists who visit it to see the midnight sun over the waste of northern waters have to 288 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE climb a zigzag path, which is so steep in places that ropes have been fastened to the rock to assist them. From the summit there is absolutely nothing to see save the cold sea, the gray sky, and the bare rock. If one is fortunate enough to arrive on a clear night, his long, northward trip is re- warded by the sight of the sun at midnight, a golden ball shining low down m the sky near the northern horizon. But clear nights are rare, and many a disappointed traveler returns unrewarded for his tiresome climb. Though so many Norwegians spend much of their life upon the ocean, many more are employed on land. Thou- sands are engaged in lumbering or in the making of paper pulp, for the forests of Norway, you remember, cover nearly one fourth of its surface. The country is so moun- tainous, lies so far north, and is so rugged and barren that comparatively little of the land is adapted for farming, yet the arable portion is divided into farms so small that more people are engaged in agriculture than in any other occupation. Hay is the most important crop. The farmer is dependent on his cows for milk, butter, and cheese. The winters are long and cold, and great quantities of hay are needed to feed the cattle until the coming of summer. Each nook and corner, each steep slope and sheltered valley, yields its small harvest to the thrifty Norwegian. The first mow- ing is done with a scythe, but the second crop is so short that it is cut with a kind of sickle. Everybody works in the hayfields — men and women, boys and girls. In the western part of the country the season is so damp that the grass is hung on long poles to dry, as you see in the pic- ture, instead of being left on the ground. On hillsides too A TRIP TO NORWAY 289 steep for horses to draw, loads, the grass is tied up with ropes into huge bundles. Below, on the steep slope, a man stands ready to receive it on his slioulders. One of the haymakers rolls it onto his back and down the hill he goes, completely covered by the huge pile of hay, which looks as if it were slowly moving down of its own accord. Some- times a stout wire is stretched from some high slope to the I Underwood it Underwood Fig. 118. "The Grass is hung on Long Poles to dry" valley below. The hay is tied up in bundles, fastened to rings on the wire, and sent whizzing on this '' hay -trolley Ime " down to the farm. Though nearly every farmer owns cows, we see but few of them m our summer tour through the country. As in Switzerland, they are driven to the high hills and the mountains to remain through the warm weather. If they were fed in the valley during the summer months there would be little grass left to make into hay for their winter 290 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE food. Ten, twenty, or even fifty, miles from the farm, in some sheltered place in the mountains, is the sceter^ or dairy house. It is built of logs or of rough stones, and there, during the summer, the people from the valley come to pasture their cattle and goats on the scanty grass. H 1 ^ K^'-j 2^^ ■^ — =-■ -^ ^ Fig. 119. "In Some Sheltered Place in the Mountains is the S^TBjt, OR Dairy House" On some pleasant June morning every one at the farm is busy, for on that day the cattle are to be driven to the sceter. Many things must be packed for the trip — the milk pails, the churn, the cheese presses, coffee, bread, warm blankets, a few dishes, a frying pan, and many other necessary articles. Bells are tied to the necks of the cows, and the mark of the owner is fastened into the ears A TRIP TO NORWAY 291 ifi) Underwood Si Uuderwood Fig. 120. "The Norwegian Housewife bakes her Fladbkod only Three or Four Times a Year" of the sheep and the goats. They will wander many miles on the mountains, and perchance become mixed with the herds of other farmers. If you were going away for the summer you would hardly expect to take with you bread enough to last until you 292 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE return, but the Norwegian housewife bakes \\e.v fladhrod only three or four times a year. She makes a dough of water mixed with rye meal and barley, and rolls this into round, flat cakes perhaps as large over as the bottom of a pail or a small washtub. This is baked over the fire and then put away to last through the coming months. It is not eaten until it is some days or weeks old. It is hard and not Yevy appetizing, but it is wholesome and nourishmg, and the people thrive well on it with then other simple food. Milk, usuall}^ sour and changed to a firm mass as thick as blanc- mange, and porridge are often found on the tables of the poorer classes, who eat also a great deal of fresh, salted, and smoked fish. The boys and girls at the sceter find plenty to do to keep them busy during the long, bright summer days. They watch the cattle, drive them to new pastures when necessary, and call them home when they stray by blowing on a long, birch-bark horn. They make butter and cheese, and in then* few spare minutes knit Avarm socks and mittens, which the}" will need during the winter. The people at home on the farm seldom visit the sceter^ for they are too busy haying and the distance is too great ; so the whole summer passes with only one or two trips from the home people, who come to bring provisions and to carry back the butter and cheese and perhaps some small bundles of hay. The life is a lonely one, and the boys and girls are glad when the time comes to pack up the things and to start the cows and goats down the steep path toward home. We do not wish to leave this northern land without a peep at its capital, Christiania. This city is finely situated at the head of a fiord sixty miles long. To the A TRIP TO NORWAY 293 north are high wooded hills, beautifully green in summer and covered with snow in winter. These afford splendid opportunities for tobogganing, skiing, and other sports. © Keystone View Co. Fig. 121. "We do not wish to leave this Northern Land with- out A Peep at its Capital, Christiania " The city is clean and well built and the people live in a healthy, happy way, enjoying their homes and their home hfe. They show the kindly, honest disposition which is characteristic of Norwegian folk. 294 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE The winter sports in Christiania are very enjoyable, and every one, old and young, takes part in them. There are skating and sleighing parties and fine opportunities for coastuig. Horses draw the people and the heavy sleds to Fig. 122. Skiing in Norway the tops of the long hills, and the merry coasters come flying down the steep slopes, which are often four or five miles long. Norwegians are very expert on snowshoes. The skis, as they call them, are from four to seven feet long and from three to five inches wide. If you should try a stand-up A TRIP TO NORWAY 295 slide downhill with them fastened securely to your feet, you would very likely get a tumble before you reached the bottom; but a Norwegian boy guides himself very easily and comes down the steep hills at a terrific pace, showing Fig. 123. When going at Full Speed he sometimes leaps into THE Air out over the Tops of the Trees great skill in dodging trees and rocks. When going at full speed he sometimes, when coming to a sudden drop in the hillside, leaps into the air out over the tops of the trees on the slope below. We watch breathlessly, expecting a mishap 296 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE when he touches the ground again, but he lands safely on his ski and continues his slide to the bottom of the hill. We must leave Norway, however, and visit some of the other countries where fishmg is carried on to a great extent. Little Japan ranks first in this industry, while the United States, England, and Russia are important fishing coun- tries. In Great Britain the services of nearly a hundred thousand men and between twenty-five and thirty thousand vessels are needed to carry on the industry. Even the secondary industries connected with the ocean harvests, such as the importation of the ice and salt for preserving the fish, are of great importance. Every week day sev- eral thousand tons of fish are carried ashore to the fishing centers along the coast. This immense quantity is packed, salted, cured, and distributed over the island kingdom and sent to other countries as well. London is an important center, receiving and distributing daily many tons of fish. Billingsgate, the famous fish market of London, is the largest in the world. The best time to see it is early in the morning, when the fish dealers of London come to buy their daily supplies. From the noise, the confusion, and the piles of fish you would surely think that all Europe was quarreling over its Friday dinner. Hull, Grimsby, and Yarmouth, on the eastern coast of England, are important fishing centers. Thousands of ves- sels sail from these places to the fishing grounds of the North Sea. They may be gone for a few days or for a few weeks, or they may never return. The news from a fishing fleet after a severe storm reminds one of the news from an army after a battle. The life is hard, but it develops strong, brave men, many of whom become sailors in the British navy. A TRIP TO XORWAY 297 Grimsby is one of the most important of the English fishing towns. One of the American consuls in England describes as follows a scene on the wharf at Grimsby when the vessels come in loaded with fish : No sooner has the last knock of the auctioneer's hammer betokened the successful bidder than the fishermen are busy swinging the bas- kets of herring from their vessel to the " sli[)," where the purchaser's men are ready with empty boxes and with barrels of salt to pack the " king of fish." A never-ending string of wheelbarrows convey the boxes when packed to another portion of tlie inarket, where carts are waiting to run them to the railway wagons, to the Scotch curing girls, or to the steamship which is to take them over to Hamburg. Over five thousand boxes of herring are often thus exported, and when the stevedores of the vessel have to cry, " Enough, we can take no more," the quay side is at times covered with another four thousand boxes. One feature of the herring season at the different jiorts on the east coast is the arrival of the " Scotch lasses," who follow the fish- ing fleets down, and who clean and " pickle " the fish on the piers as they are brought in by the trawlers. In a good season these lasses will earn from eight to ten dollars, but in a poor season they will receive little more than their board, which is guaranteed them on engagement. Most of the people who live on the eastern coast of Scot- land are fishermen. Aberdeen, one of the largest cities of Scotland, is the center of trade in that country. It is sometimes called the Granite City, for nearly all of the buildings are made of that material, giving to the city a very handsome, dignified appearance. Granite is found in great quantities in eastern Scotland, and Aberdeen contains the largest polishing works in the liritish Isles. Much of the fishing from Aberdeen as well as from other centers is done at night, and in the early morning 298 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE hundreds of boats come in from the banks. The fish are unloaded, sorted, cleaned, and packed so quickly that before sunrise most of the catch has been put aboard the long train standing beside the dock, and it has started with its ocean cargo for London. Part of the fish will there be reloaded and distributed throughout the country. The other countries near the North Sea — Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Belgium — are engaged in fishmg to a considerable extent, but in none of them does the industry rank in importance with that of Great Britain and Norway. The fisheries which are carried on in the northern part of Russia are of comparatively little importance, but those in the Caspian Sea and in the Volga and the Ural rivers are of great value. The amount caught annually in these waters is enough to give nearly a pound apiece to every man, woman, and child in the world. In many of the markets of Russia one is sure of procur- ing fresh fish, for they are kept alive in tanks of water and are killed after the customer has made his selection. Im- mense quantities of fish are consumed by the poorer classes, for it is one of their chief articles of food. In the Ural River are the most famous sturgeon fisheries of the world. The sturgeon is a fish five or six feet long which lives in the salt water for most of the year, and in the spring comes up the rivers to lay its eggs. This is the harvest time for the Russian peasant of that region. When the migration begins, a gun announces the opening of the fishing season. The sturgeon is caught in nets, by harpooning from boats, and by lines. In some places on the lower Ural a long line is fastened on one bank of the river, A TRIP TO NORWAY 299 and the other end is anchored to a boat in midstream. From this line hang hundreds of shorter ones six or seven feet long, with a large hook in the end of each. As a sturgeon comes up the river it is caught on one of the hooks. In its wild efforts to get away it becomes more and more entan- gled with other hooks, which hold it fast while the peasants kill it. The fishing season lasts only three weeks, but during that short period thousands of sturgeon are captured. The flesh is used by the peasants for food, and the skin some- times serves him for window glass. From the eggs, or roe, a delicacy known as caviare is prepared. This is much nicer when eaten fresh, but as it does not keep well, it is often preserved by salting. The Russians are so fond of caviare that more than one hundred thousand dollars' worth is often prepared in a single season. The swimming bladder of the sturgeon is used in the preparation of isinglass, the name itself coming from two Dutch words which mean sturgeon's bladder. One of the smallest fish that is commercially valuable is the sardine. When we think of the quantities that are sold by the grocers all over the United States, and the great numbers that are eaten in other countries, we wonder where they all come from and who the people are that catch them. Several varieties of small ^ fish are caught, preserved in oil, and sold as sardines. The industry is carried on in Maine and in Norway, but the very best sardines come from France, so we will visit that country to see how they are caught and prepared for market. In the northwestern part of France is the province of Brittany, which some one has called a land of granite and 300 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE rocks. There are meadows, fields, and forests as well, but for the most pai-t the province is dreary and uninteresting. The people are as different from the other inhabitants of France as is the land they dwell in. The monotonous land- scape, the lowering sky, the gray rocks, and the sound of the ever-restless ocean are reflected in the character of the silent, dreamy, persevering Breton. Far removed from the great highways of the mainland, these people know little of the advance of civilization, but live on in the simple ways of their forefathers, clinging to a multitude of old customs and superstitions. In the center of Brittany the people are engaged in cattle breeding and beekeeping, and in raising the gram, vegetables, and other products for their food and clothing. They live simply — on cabbage soup, porridge, rye or bar- ley bread, and fish. Meat is seldom seen on the table. Their houses are usually built of stone, with only one story, and often with only one room, which is sometimes shared by the pig or occupied by the cow on an occasional visit. From the ceiling hang provisions such as gourds, onions, and other vegetables, and bunches of herbs. The people on the coast spend much of their time in fishing. Some of the men go on long voyages to Newfoundland for cod and mackerel, some to the coasts of Iceland, while others fish nearer home for herring, sardines, lobsters, and oysters. The sardine fishing begins in March or April and lasts into November. The early run of fish is not good for can- ning and is not commonly used for that purpose. In the height of the season there are twelve to fifteen hundred boats engaged in sardine fishing off the coast of Brittany, and millions of fish are caught in a single day. A TRIP TO NORWAY 301 The town of Concarneau is one of the chief fishing centers, and nearly all its five or six thousand inhabitants are en- gaged in fishing or in the preparation of the fish for market. If we wish to accompany the sardine fleet to the fishing grounds, we must start very early in the morning, between two and three o'clock, in order to begin the catch by daybreak. With good luck we may be back in port at ten o'clock in the forenoon. Our boat has two masts and carries two pairs of very long, heavy oars and twenty nets. The nets are made of fine cotton twine with small meshes. They are about one hundred thirty-five feet long and five hundred meshes deep. They are usually dyed dull blue to render them more nearly invisible in the water.' When the boats are at the wharves these greenish-blue draperies are hung from the masts to dry. The blue nets, the brown sails, the dull- colored boats, the gray beach, and the shimmering water make a wonderful scene which artists love to paint. The women with full, short skirts, bright bodices, and white ) Underwood & Underwood Fig. 124. "There are Twelve to Fif- teen HuxDRKn Boats engaged in Sar- dine Fishing OFF THE Coast OF Brittany" 302 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE caps, and the men with then- dark blue smocks and their wooden shoes give a touch of hfe to the picture. Out on the fishing grounds a streak of silver m the water some distance away tells the location of a shoal of sardines. The men lower the net from the stern of the boat. It is buoyed up by corks on the upper side and kept in a vertical position in the water by weights on the bottom. The crew lower the sails and take their places at the oars. The captain, giving directions, stands at the stern with the bait near at hand. Sardine bait consists of the eggs of fish and peanut meal. The roe of the cod is used more than that of any other fish, and comes chiefly from Norway, though some is shipped from the cod-fishing grounds of America and the Netherlands. Immense quantities are needed, and between forty and fifty thousand barrels are used in Brittany every season. The bait scattered on the water attracts the sardines and they make an eager rush toward it. At just the right moment more bait is thrown on the opposite side of the net, and the fish swim after it in greedy swarms. As they strike the net their heads pass tlu-ough the small meshes, but as they draw back they are caught behind the gills by thousands. The net, with the struggling mass entangled in it, is pulled into the boat, and another one is put out to be filled in the same manner. When the catch is over, the men remove the fish from the meshes A^ery carefully indeed, as the flesh is easily bruised, and the boats put back to port immediately in order that the sardines may be de- livered at the canneries as soon as possible. On arriving at the wharves the fishermen at once begin to unload their A TRIP TO NORWAY 303 catch. The fish are counted by hand mto wicker baskets with round bottoms and sides, each basket receiving two hundred fish, plus ten additional ones which are allowed for the possible imperfect fish. The baskets could hold from three to five times as many as are put into them, but it is the desire not to crowd the fish. Before the baskets of sardines are sent to the canner, the fishermen move them rapidly up and down in the water in order to remove the dirt and loose scales from the fish and to make them look bright. jVIany scales come off, and the shores of the harbor are lined with them after a day's fishing. The water about the shores is usually quite foul, and the rinsing of the fish therein seems very objectionable. The baskets are then taken by the fishermen to the agent to whom the cargo has previously been sold, and the contents are poured into flat boxes, or trays, which are carried in wagons to the cannery. From the time the sardines are first caught, everything that will bruise, mash, or otherwise impair the soundness of the flesh is carefully avoided. We follow the wagonloads of fish up the narrow streets to the canneries — large stone buildings surrounded by high stone walls and inclosing a courtyard. There are about a hundred of these establishments in Brittany, each with a yearly output of from three hundred thousand to four or five million boxes of sardines. Here the fish are first cleaned and then soaked in a strong brine. Women remove them from their salt bath and place them in wicker baskets, which are dipped in water to re- move all loose dirt, scales, and other matter, after which the 304 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE sardines are carefully packed for drying in shallow, oblong wire baskets. The more modern establishments are equipped with drying rooms heated with steam pipes ; in many can- neries, however, the drying is done outdoors, in yards where the baskets are hung or placed on wooden frames. After drying, the fish are taken in the same wire baskets to the cooking room and are lowered, basket and all, into boiling oil. Olive or peanut oil, sometimes adulter- ated with that of the cotton seed, is gener- ally used. After cooking in the boiling oil, the fish are drained and cooled, and are then packed by hand in the small boxes which are such familiar sights in our grocery stores. Spices and other flavoring matter are often added, sometimes to the boiling oil and sometimes to the fish when they are packed. After covering and sealing, the boxes are placed in iron vessels large enough to hold several thousand at a time, and immersed in boiling water for two hours. This completes the cooking, kills any germs which would otherwise cause the fish to spoil, and discloses any leaks in the boxes. Fig. © Underwood & Underwood 125. "The Sardines are care- fully PACKED FOR DRYING " A TRIP TO NORWAY 305 Think of the enormous quantities of tin plate and boxes which must be made every year to supply these canning establishments ! 'Jlie sardine industry is not one of tlie important ones of the world, yet thousands of people are engaged in it. In one Breton town three thousand men, women, and children are employed in the canning factories, to say nothing of the hundreds of tishermen who catch the sardmes. TOPICS FOR STUDY 1. Description of Norway. 2. Vikings and modern Norwegian sailors. 3. Cod, herring, and mackerel fishing. 4. Fishing in the Arctic Ocean. 5. Description of Norwegian cities. 6. North Cape and the midnight sun. 7. Lumbering and farming in Norway. 8. Norwegian sports. 9. Other fishing countries. 10. The sardine industry. II 1. Through how many degrees of latitude does Norway extend? How far would this distance reach on a map of the United States? 2. What is the area of Norway? the population? How many people are there to every square mile? Compare both area and population with some state or states in our country. Compare the population per square mile with that of England ; of Germany ; of France. What effect may the position of a country have on the density of its population ? 3. Locate the great fishing grounds of the world. Name the countries in which the fishing industry is very important. 4. Sketch a map of the North Sea and show all the countries bordering on it. Indicate all the cities which serve as distributing centers for the fish exported from Norway. Show the regions where cod, herring, and mackerel are cauglit. 306 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES —EUROPE 5. Sketch a map of the Atlantic Ocean showing the eastern coast of North America and the western coast of Europe. Show the Gulf Stream. Indicate by arrows the direction of the prevailing wind. What would be the effect on the climate of both North America and Europe if the prevailing winds were in the opposite direction? Explain the difference in climate between the eastern and western coasts of the Scandinavian jjeninsula. 6. What i^art of North America is in the same latitude as Hammerfest? Write out a comparison of the two places. 7. On a map of Norway locate the four chief cities. Write beside each its latitude and also the names of places in North America equally far north. 8. Name several causes which have contributed to the importance of the Norwegian fisheries. 9. Describe the Norwegian city you would like best to visit. 10. See if you can find any information about the sardine industry in Maine. Ill Be able to spell and pronounce the following names. Locate each place and tell what was said of it in this and in any previous chapter. Add other facts if possible. Belgium Norway London Brittany Rhode Island New York California Russia Petrograd Denmark Scotland Sitka England Sweden Tromso Florida United States Trondhjem France Vardo Germany Aberdeen Y'armouth Iceland Bergen Japan Buffalo Arctic Ocean Labrador Christiania Caspian Sea Lapland • Concarneau Lofoten Islands Maine Edinburgh North Cape Netherlands Grimsby North Sea Newfoundland Hammerfest Ural River New York Hull Volga River CHAPTER XVI SPAIN AND OLIVES Cottonseed oil is made from the seed of a plant, peanut oil from a nut grown in the ground, but olive oil is made from the fruit of a tree, the only fruit which yields oil from its pulp in sufficient quantity to be of great commercial value, though coconut oil is now of considerable importance. The gnarled, twisted olive trees, with gray-green foliage, can be found in great quantities in all countries which bor- der on the Mediterranean Sea, but so numerous are they in Spain, Italy, and France that the fields and hills would seem bare without them. In these three countries — in Greece, across the Mediterranean in Algeria and Tunis, and in those parts of Asia near the eastern end of the great blue sea — olives are raised in sufficiently large quantities to supply the wants of the people at home and to export. The home use is an important one, for the fruit is a common article of food among the poorer classes. Nearly every family in southern Spain keeps a small barrel of pickled olives on hand ; they are eaten, not as a relish as with us, but as a main dish. Olive oil is one of the first necessities of life for the peasantry of southern Europe. In a trip through southern Italy you would see the dark- eyed boys and girls munching a piece of bread spread with oil with as much enjoyment as the American child would eat his slice of bread and butter. Olive oil is used in place 307 308 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE of lard for frying, and from every open door where cooking is going on comes the smell of hot fat. Besides its use for food, olive oil is used in great quan- tities in the makmg of soap, and you will find this product mentioned among the manufactures of many cities located in the olive-producing countries. The oil which is used for soap, for lighting, and for lubricating purposes is not suit- able for food, but is made after the pure, edible oil has been extracted from the crushed pulp. The medicinal qualities of olive oil, knowai centuries ago, are appreciated by modern physicians. The early Grecian athletes used to run along the sandy beaches of the Adriatic Sea until they perspired freely. They then rubbed their limbs with sand, thus irri- tating the skin, and immediately afterwards rubbed olive oil into the pores to lubricate their muscles and limber up their joints. Important as olive oil is in the homes of the people of southern Europe, it is also exported in great quantities. The olives and oil shipped from Spain rank higher than the orange in value. In Italy, only the silk exports exceed those of the olive tree. Not only the oil, but the pickled green fruit as well, is sent m great quantities to America, Eng- land, and, in fact, to all parts of the world. The large olives seen in the bottles at the grocery stores are called queen olives and are produced only in a small circle, not twenty- five miles in diameter, around the city of Seville in southern Spain. Of the fine large olives grown in this region, ninety- five out of every one hundred come to the United States, where they are placed in bottles b}^ American laborers. Millions of the tall slender bottles are now made annually in the United States for this purpose. SPAIN AND OLIVES 309 To see how the fruit is raised and prepared for market, let us visit an orchard in Spain, where more land is covered with olive orchards and more oil is made than in any other country. It is claimed that of every one hundred pounds of Fig. 126. "The Olives and Oil shipped fkom Spain rank higher THAN the Orange in Value" Courtesy of H. C. Newcomb, Philadelphia olives produced in all the world Spain produces more than forty. The land in Spain devoted to the cultivation of ohves is nearly equal to the area of the state of Connecticut. This land bore more than three billion pounds of fruit in a year. Four fifths of this amount was used in the manufac- ture of oil, of which so great a quantity was made that 310 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE a tube three feet in diameter stretching the entire distance across the United States would not hold it all. Our trip will take us through the southern part of Spain to the province of Andalusia, which lies between the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada mountains. This is the most important olive-producing section of the country and in many ways the most attractive portion of Spain, with snow- capped mountains, fertile valleys, and the famous old cities of Seville, Granada, Cordoba, and Malaga. The Guadal- quivir River, which drains much of this region, is the most important river in Spain, for it is the only one in the country which is navigable for any considerable distance from its mouth. The city of Seville is at the head of navigation, about one hundred miles from the ocean. The olive grove which we will visit lies not far from the river and near the city of Seville. In this famous olive- producing section the orchards cover a vast territory. Some of them are very small and are owned by Spanish peasants, but often several estates are controlled by one proprietor. One house in Seville owns seven estates comprismg six thou- sand acres, all devoted to the culture of queen olives. In the region around this city are located many olive-oil fac- tories and pickling establishments. Cultivated olive trees are divided into two classes, ac- cording to the use made of their fruit. The queen olive and the manzanilla are the most popular for pickling. The former is the large heart-shaped fruit sold in great quanti- ties in the United States, while the smaller, stronger-flavored manzanilla is more generally used in Europe. The peasants who work in the orchards are very poor, and live in a way which would seem impossible to us. SPAIN AND OLIVES 311 We should not rest well upon their beds of straw on the hard floor, nor should we enjoy the presence of the goat, the pig, or the hens in the same room with us ; but these things do not trouble the Spanish peasant, for he has known nothmg else all his life. Gay and happy by nature, he comes cheerfully out of the low stone cottage and, in the early dawn, starts for his day's work in the orchards. ?"■ „->-A, I ■^'.3iP' Irwell (ar'wgl) River, 83 Iselle (e zel'), terminus of Simplon Tunnel, 7 Italy, position. 6 ; hemp, 61, 62 ; olives and olive oil, 81, 307, 308, 320 ; silk, 81, 335, 362, 364, 384, 385 ; trade with Portugal, 108 ; cork, 115 ; grapes and wine, 326- 327, 328, 335-337; sights of in- terest, 335 ; macaroni, 347-350, 352, 353; traffic, 350; people, 350-351 ; commerce, 352 ; coral, 353-356; tortoise shell, 353, 356 ; World War, 358-359; trade with France, 376, 381 ; railroad to Lyon, 381 ; occupation of Albania, 415 Ivan (e'van) the Terrible, 142 Jacquard (ja kard') loom, 379-381 Japan (japan'), on route of tramp steamer, 20 ; navy, 34 ; trade with Portugal, 116; fishing in- dustry, 296 ; soya beans, 324 ; coral, 354 ; silk industry, 365, 372 ; trade with France, 376 ; ancient commerce, 389 Jerez (ha rath'), sherry wine, 329 Jerusalem (je roo'sa lem), capture by Turks. 390 ; capture by Eng- lish, 394 ■ Jonkoping (yun'che ping), match industry, 171 Jugoslavia (yoo'gosla'vTa), forma- tion, 201 ; position and size, 206 ; countries included. 206 ; formerly part of Turkish empire, 206; development, 206; World 428 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE War, 206-207, 209, 210; re- sources, 207-208, 210; life and occupations, 208-209 ; trade routes, 209 ; grain, 402 Jute industry, 50-60 Kamchatka (liam chat'ka), f urs, 146 Kattegat (kat'egat), route to Kus- sia,"l23 Kellieim (kgrhini), Ludwig Canal, 215 Kenilworth (ken'il wfirtb) Castle, 96 Kiel (kel), shipyards, 34 Kiel Canal, route to Russia, 123 ; description, 180 ; on route from Baltic, 244 Kiev (ke'yef), description, 152-153 King Albert of Belgium, 66 Kiolen (chft'len) Mountains, 6 Krakow (kra'ko), description, 256- 257 Krefeld (kra'felt), manufactures, 183 Kremlin (krem'lax), of Moscow, 142, 143 ; of Prague, 205 Kronstadt (kron'shtat), canal to Petrograd, 3, 124, 129; protects Petrograd, 124 Lagan (la'gan) River, Belfast, 52 Lake of Geneva, scenery, 249 Lancashire (lan'ka sher) County, cotton industry, 84-86 Lapland (lap'land), position, 162 climate, 162 ; occupations, 162 condition of people, 163~164 Lapps in Norway, 284, 286 Lead, needed in World War, 210 League of Nations, 176 Leather industry of Russia, 143 Lee River, Cork, 41 Leeds, wool industry, 89, 90 Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 90 Leghorn (leg'hOrn), coral, 356 Leicester (les'ter), wool industry. 92 Leipzig (llp'sik or lip'tsiK), indus- tries, 196 Leith (leth). at mouth of Forth River, 25, 78 Leonidas, at Thermopylse, 399 Lifege (le ezh'), capture by Ger mans, 66 Liffey (lif'i) River, Dublin, 48 Linen industry, 53 Linseed oil, uses, 54 Lisbon (liz'bun), description, 105- 107 " _ Liverpool (liv'erpool), on route of tramp steamer, 19 ; description, 80-83 Loch Katrine (16k kat'rin), scenery, 25 Loch Lomond (lo'mund), scenery, 23 Lodz (lodz), industrial center, 259 Lofoten (16 fo'ten) Islands, descrip- tion, 276 ; fishing industry, 276- 278 London (lun'dun), situation, 78, 95 ; description, 96-102 ; fish market, 296, 298 Longfellow, description of North Cape, 287 Lorraine (16 ran') and Alsace (al sas'), iron, 177; in World War, 339-342 Louvain (loo vSn'), description and destruction, 71 Lucca (look'ka), olive oil, 321 Ludwig (loot'vik) Canal, 215 Lulea (loo'le a), iron, 168 Lumbering in Russia, 131, 135-136; in Finland, 159-160 ; in Sweden, 169-170 ; in Central Europe, 217 ; in Norway, 288 Lusitania (lii'si ta'ni a), cost, 32 Lyon (li'un or le 6n'), position, 144, 377 ; silk industry, 375, 377-381 ; canal and railroad connections,38i Lys (les) River, flax industry, 74 Macaroni, food of Italians, 347 ; manufacture, 347-350, 352, 353 ; exports, 352 ; industry in the United States, 353 Madeira (ma de'ra) Islands, wine industry, 335 Magyars (mSd'yorz), people of Hungary, 200, 201 Main (man) River, Ludwig Canal, 215 INDEX 429 Maine, potatoes, 40 ; sardine in- dustry, 299 Mainz (mints), commerce, 184 Malaga {mii'laga), in Andalusia, 310 ; harbor, 319 ; grapes and raisins, 120, 329, 330, 331, 332 Malar (ma'lar) Lake, 167 Manchester (nian'ches ter), impor- tance, 83 ; Ship Canal, 83 ; de- scription, 84-87 Manchuria (man choo'ri a), soya beans, 324 Manila (ma nil'a) hemp, 65 Mannheim (niau'him), chemical in- dustry, 184 ; commerce, 184 Marathon (mar'a thon), battle against Persians, 399 ; races, 399, 401 Marseille (marsa'y'), on route of tramp steamer, 20 ; olive oil, 320; oil seeds and nuts, 322 ; descrip- tion, 375-376 ; railroad to Lyon, 381 Match industry in Sweden, 170, 171-172 Mauretania (mo re ta'ni a), cost, 32 Mediterranean (med i ter a'ne an) Sea, ancient civilization around, 2 ; drainage into, 11 ; canal con- nections, 73, 338 ; olive orchards, 307 ; coral, 353, 354 ; ancient commerce, 389 Mersey (mfir'zi) River, shipyards, 22 ; Manchester Ship Canal, 83 Metz (mets), importance, 340 Meuse (muz) River, canal connec- tions, 73 ; work, 232 Mexico (mek'siko), sisal hemp, 64 Milan (mi Ian'), cathedral, 384 ; silk industry, 384 ; size, 385 Mineral springs of Bohemia, 204 Minneapolis (min e ap'6 lis), mill- ing industry, 412 Mississippi (mis T sip'T) River, 145 Missouri (ml soT/rT) River, 145 Mohammed (mo ham'ed), Turkish followers, 389 Moldau (mol'dou) River, commerce, 187 Montenegro (m6n ti na'grO), union with Southern Slavs, 201 ; sur- face, 200 ; former Turkish prov- ince, 391 Montreal (mont re al'), wheat, 81 Moscow (mos'ko), description, 141- 143 IMoskva (mos'kva) River, 141 Mountains, effect on climate, 4, 5 ; barriers to communication, 5, 6 Mulberry tree, 364, 365, 371, 370 Namur (na'miir), captured by Ger- mans, 06 Kaples (na'plz), situation and cli- mate, 5 ; macaroni, 347, 350 ; de- scription, 350-352, 304 ; coral and tortoise shell, 353, 355, 350 Napoleon, passage over the Alps, 7 Ketlierlands (netii'er landz), the, canals, 9, 10 ; exports, 185 ; pecu- liarities, 231; one of " Low Coun- tries," 231; size, 231; surface, 231, 234; cattle, 231, 234. 235; work of rivers, 232 ; floods and dikes, 233 ; reclaiming land, 233 ; Zuider Zee, 233-234; cheese market, 235-237; cheese-making, 238 ; butter, 238-239 ; canals, 241 ; diamond-cutting, 242 ; col- onies, 242 ; commerce, 242-243 ; dairying, 243 Neva (ne'va) River, in winter, 3, 129; depth, 124; canal, 124; traffic, 129 Newcastle, coal deposits, 87 New England, shipbuilding, 35 ; silk industry, 380 New Jersey, silk industry, 385-380 New Orleans, cotton, 81, 85 New York City, 20, 35, 96. 319, 353 New York State, silk industry, 385 Nice (nes), olive oil, 321 Nile River basin, 391 Nitrogen, fixation, 250 Nizlini Novgorod (nyizh'nye nov'- go rot), village industries, 137 ; fair, 144-148^ Ncn-th America, drainage, 9 North Cape, description, 287-288 430 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Northern Ireland, 40 North Holland Canal, 241 North Sea, connected with Scottish Lowlands, 26 ; shipyards, 33 ; German ports, 180 ; connnerce, 181 ; canal connection with Baltic, 187 ; fishing, 296 North Sea Canal, 241 Norway (nor'wa), climate, 3. 274, 285 ; dairying, 243 ; fixation of nitrogen, 250, 251 ; water-power, 251 ; position, surface, scenery, fiords, 274 ; fishing industry, 276- 282, 298, 299 ; Lofoten Islands, 276-277 ; trip up the coast, 284 ; North Cape, 287-288 ; occupa- tions, 288-290, 292; the soeter, 290, 292 ; food, 292 ; sports, 294 Nottingham (noting am), indus- trial center, 92 Nuremberg (nu'rem blirg), toy in- dustry, 193 ; description, 194 Oder (o'der) River, canal connec- tions, 181 ; port, 182 Odessa (6 des'a), wheat, 151 ; de- scription, 153-154 ; grain port, 412 Oil, vegetable, 322 ; cottonseed, 304, 322, 323, 324 ; from grape seeds, 344 Oka (6 ka') River, 144 Olives, cargo of tramp steamer, 20 ; oil, 304, 307 ; uses, 307, 308 ; queen olives, 308 ; description of industry, 309-321 ; oil mills in Marseille, 376 ; industry in Greece, 396 Olympic (6 lim'pik), ship, 22, 32 Olympic games in Greece, 399-401 Onega (6 ne'ga) River, 130 Oporto (6 por'too), commerce, 107- 108, 333-334; wine port, 332, 333 ; description, 334-335 Ostend (ost end'), during war, 67 Oxford (oks'ferd), university town, 96 Pacific (pa sif 'Ik) Ocean, fishing in- dustry, 279; coral, 354 Palestine (pal'es tin), 394, 395 Paris (par'Is), German plans for in- vasion, 65, 66; route to Rhine River, 340 ; railroad to Lyon, 381 ; description, 383-384 ; per- fume industry, 411 Passau (pas'ou), description, 215 Pat4 de foie gras (pa ta' de fwa gra') made in Strassburg, 342 Patras (pa'tras), seaport of Greece, 398 Peanuts, use of oil, 322 Peat in Ireland, 46-48 Pembroke, shipyards, 22 Pennine (pen'In) Mountains, 87 Pennsylvania (pen sll va'nl a), silk industry, 385-386 Perfumes, in Turkish bazaars, 393 ; attar of roses, 404, 405-407 ; from Riviera, 409-411 Persia (pflr'sha), civilization, 2 ; trade with Russia, 139, 144 ; furs and skins, 139; rugs, 147; wars with Greece, 399 Peru (peroo'), alpaca wool, 81 Peter the Great, 124, 125 Petrograd (pet'ro grad or pye tro- grat'), canal to Kronstadt, 3, 124, 129 ; the eye of Russia, 124 ; built by Peter the Great, 124-126; canal connection with Volga, 139; furs and skins, 139 ; commercial importance, 143 ; wheat, 151 ; use of Finnish granite, 160 Petroleum, from Baku, 139 ; in Rumania, 413 Philadelphia (fil a del'fl a), ship- building, 35 ; macaroni, 353 Philippine (fll'I pin) Islands, manila fiber, 64 Phoenicia (fe nlsh1 a), position, 2 Pisa (pe'sa), leaning tower, 335 Pittsburgh (plts'bfirg), situation and climate, 5 ; cork manufac- turing, 118 Poland (po'land), history, 255 ; causes of downfall, 255-256 ; present independence, 256; trade with United States, 258 ; occu- pations, 259, 261 ; World War, IXDEX 431 259, 260 ; amber industry, 261- 263 ; salt industry, 263-270 Portsmouth (ports'muth), ship- yards, 22 Portugal (por'tu s^al), grape and wine industry, sf, 328, 329, 332- 334, 335 ; former importance, 105 ; sardine industry, 106, 107 ; commerce, 107, 108, 334, 335; northern part, 108 ; southern part, 108 ; life of peasants, 108- 112 ; cork industry, 112-120 ; Douro Kiver, 333 ; industries, 334; size, 335 Potassium (p6 tas'i um) salts in Germany, 271 Potatoes, in Ireland, 46; in Germany, 177; in Central Europe, 214, 221 Prague (prag), description, 204-206 Pyrenees (pir'e nez) Mountains, 5, 319 Queen olives, 308 Queenstown. See Cobh Raisin making, 328, 329, 331-332 Reindeer in Lapland, 162, 163 Reval (ra'val), commerce with United States, 124 Rheims (remz), effects of World War, 342-343 Rhine (rin) River, source, 11 ; canal connections, 11, 73, 181, 187, 215; junction with Saone, 144; port, 182; description, 182-184; cor- ridor of valley, 185-186 ; delta- building, 232; vineyards, 178, 182, 328 ; route to France, 340 Rhone (ron) River, source, 11; canal connections, 11, 73; wine industry, 338 ; trip to Lyon, 376 Ribbon industry, in Basel, 240; in St. Etienne, 382 Riga (re ga), commerce, 123-124 ; furs shipped, 139; wheat, 151 Rivers, length, 9 ; affected by sur- face, 11 Riviei-a (revya'ra), olive oil, 320; fashion resort, 408 ; perfume in- dustry, 408-411 Roman Empire, 356-357 Rome, description, 356-358 Roquefort (rok'for') cheese, 251 Rotterdam (rot'gr dam),conunerce, 182 ; description, 184-185 Rugs, Persian, 147 Huhr Hiver. 183 Ruhrort (rooi-'ort), commerce, 184 Rumania (roo ma'ni a), occupations and resources, 210, 412-413; former Turkisli province, 391. 411; size, position, population, 411; surface, 411-412; World War, 413; life in tlie capital, 414; life in the villages, 414-415 Russia (rusli'a), climate, 4; canals, 9, 10; surface, 11, 129 ; drainage, 11, 130; navy, 34; flax industry, 53 ; hemp industry, 61, 62 ; Ger- man plans in World War, 65 ; forests, 123, 131, 171 ; route from Lisbon, 123; Baltic ports, 123. 124; Peter the Great, 125, 126; the building of Petrograd, 125- 126; furs, 127; food, 127, 134; stoves, 127, 128, 134 ; teams, 128, 129; winter sports, 129; canals, 130, 139 ; villages, 132-135; lum- bering, 135-137 ; village indus- tries, 137 ; traffic on the Volga. 138-139, 140 ; the Volga River, 139-140; fishing, 140, 296, 298- 299 ; manufacturing, 143-144 ; fairs, 144-148; serfs and peas- ants, 148-149 ; World War con- ditions, 149-150 ; wheat industry, 150-152 ; Ukrainia, 150-154 ; rela- tions with Finland, 158; former control of Danube River, 229 ; partition of Poland, 256 ; trade with Norway, 286 ; sunflower oil, 323 ; durum wheat, 352, 353 ; famines, 352-353; trade witli France, 376, 381 Saar (zar) valley coal mines, 177 St. Andreasburg (zankf an dra'as- booriv), canary birds, 195-196 St. Etienne (sax ta tyen'), indus- tries, 382-383 432 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE St. Gall (saN gal'), embroideries, 248 St. Louis, position, 144 St. Paul's Epistles to the Corinthi- ans, 398 St. Peter's Church, 357 Salonica (sa 16 ne'ka), trade routes, 209 Salt, from Russian steppes, 139; in Poland, 263, 268-270; uses, 263-264, 272 ; how deposited and obtained, 264-268 ; in Germany, 270, 271 San Francisco (f ran sis'ko), on route of tramp steamer, 19, 20; macaroni, 353 Saone (son) River, 144, 381 Sardine industry, in Portugal, 107; fishing grounds, 299 ; in Brittany, 299-305; exports from Oporto, 334 Sardinia (sardin'ia), coral, 354 Saxony (sak'sun i), Thuringian Mountains, 192 Scandinavia (skan di na'vi a), posi- tion, 5, 6; commerce with Poland, 261 Scheldt (skelt) River, shipping, 73; work, 232 Scotland (sk5t'land), shipyards, 22, 23, 28-32 ; mineral deposits, 24, 52 ; highlands, 24 ; lowlands, 24, 25 ; lake region and Trossachs, 25; Sir Walter Scott, 25; Loch Katrine, 25 ; Loch Lomond, 25 ; Ben Lomond, 25; Forth River, 25 ; the port of Leith, 25 ; Clyde River, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28; Glasgow,27,28; jute,57,58; trade with Norway, 281 ; fishing, 297 Scott, Sir Walter, 25, 96 Seattle (se at'l), on route of tramp steamer, 19, 20 Serbia (sfir'bi a), union of Southern Slavs, 201 ; size and importance, 206 ; former province of Turkey, 206, 391 ; development, 206 ; World War, 207, 209, 210; re- sources, 207-208, 210; life and occupations, 208-209 ; trade routes, 209 Serfs of Russia, 148 Severn (sev'ern) River, opposite the Thames, 78 Seville (se vil'), olive industry, 308, 310; climate, 311 Sheaf River, branch of Humber, 91 Sheffield, description, 91, 92 Sherry wine from Jerez, 329 Ships, size, 17; schedules, 18; kinds, 18, 19, 20, 22 ; effects of World War on building, 20, 34, 35 ; building, 21-38 ; concrete ships, 35, 36 Siberia (sibe'ria), mineral re- sources, 126 ; trade with-^ussia, 138; furs, 139, 145, 146; dairy- ing, 243 Sicily (sis'ili), coral, 354 Sierra Morena (syer'ra mo ra'na) Mountains, 310 Sierra Nevada (si er'a ne va'da) Mountains, in United States, 4; (syer'ra na va'tha) in Spain, 310 Silk industry, in Russia, 143 ; in Zurich, 249 ; in Italy, 335, 362- 371, 384-385; amount produced, 362 ; in China, 365, 371-372 ; in Japan, 365, 372 ; in France, 365, 372, 375, 376-378; life of silk- worm, 365-371 ; mulberry trees, 371, 376 ; in United States, 872, 385-386 ; manufacturing, 373- 374, 378-381 ; ribbons, 382 ; fash- ions in silk, 383 ; in Switzerland, 385 ; in Greece, 396 ; in Bulgaria, 403 Simplon (sim'plon) Tunnel, de- scription, 6-8 Sisal (se sal') hemp, 64 Skagerrack (sgag'gr rak), route to Russia, 123 Slav (Slav) people, 200, 201 Soap manufacturing in Marseille, 376 Sofia (so'fe ya), rope factories, 403 ; age, 403-404; description, 404 Solway River, shipyards, 22 Sonneberg (zon'e bern), toy indus- try, 190; description, 191-193 Soya (so'ya) beans, uses, 324 INDEX 433 South America, vineyards, 326 Soutliainpton, shipyards, 22 Spain, position, 5 ; corli, 81,115,11 9, 120; grape and wine industry, 120, 328, 329-332 ; olive industry, 307, 308, 309-319 ; cities. 310, 319 ; life of peasants, 311-312, 329 Spartans at Thermopylse, 399 Spree (shpra) Kiver, canal connec- tions, 187, 106 Stettin (shteten'), shipbuilding, 33 ; connnerce, 182, 189 Stockholm (stok'holm), description, 165-167 Strassburg (stras'burg), descrip- tion, 340-342 Stratford-on-Avon (strat'fgrd-6n- a'von), 95 Straw braiding in Italy, 335 Sugar industry, in Russia, 143 ; in Germany, 177, 178, 179, 180; in Central Europe, 214-215; in France, 376 ; in Bulgaria, 403 Sunflowers, oil and seeds, 134, 323 Sweden (swe'den), trade with Por- tugal, 108; smeltingwithcharcoal, 136-137; relations with Finland, 158; lakes, 165; scenery, 165, 168; iron industry, 167-168; farming, 168 ; lumbering, 169- 170 ; manufactures, 170 ; com- merce, 170 ; match industry, 171 ; dairying, 243 ; Gota Canal, 244 ; fish industry, 298 Switzerland (swit'zer land), posi- tion, 6 ; dairying, 243, 247, 248 ; cattle industry, 246-247, 248; Playground of the World, 247; Alps Mountains, 247; lace and embroidery, 248 ; silk industry, 249, 385; watch industry, 249; sweet chocolate, 249 ; World War, 249; surface, 249-250; wood carving, 247, 250 ; water power, 250, 251 ; fixation of nitrogen, 250, 251 ; railroad to Lyon, 381 Tagus (ta'gus) River, 105, 106. 107 Tay River, shipbuilding, 21 ; Dun- dee, 57 Tea at Russian fair, 146, 147 Tees (tez) River, shipbuilding, 21 Tliames (t6mz) River, shipbuilding, 21 ; opposite Severn River, 78 ; Houses of Parliament, 100 ; Lon- don Bridge, 102 ; lumber from Russia, 131 Thermopyhe (thgr mop'i le), battle, 399 Thuringian (thil rln'ji an) Moun- tains, toys, 191 ; appearance, 192 Tiber (ti'ber) River, situation of Rome, 356 Tigris (ti'gris) River basin, 391 Tisza (te'so) River, occupations in valley, 228 Titanic (ti tan'ik), building, 22 Tobacco, in Germany, 184 ; in Dan- ube valley, 221 ; in Bulgaria, 403 Torre del Greco (tor'ra dgl gra'ko), coral, 354 Tortoise-shell industry, 353, 356 Toy industry, in Germany, 190. 191, 193-194 ; in Switzerland, 250 Trent River, 89 Trieste (trees'ta), description, 359 Tripoli (trlp'6 li), coral, 354 Tromso (troms'u), fishing industry, 279-280 ; on coastal route, 284 ; Lapps, 284 Trondhjem (tron'ygm), fishing in- dustry, 280 ; description, 282-283 Trossachs (tros'uks), description, 25 Tula (too'la), iron and steel, 143 Tunis (tu nis), cork, 115; olives, 307, 320; coral, 354 Tunnels : Simplon, 6-8 ; Mt. Cenis, 7 ; St. Gotthard, 7 ; Arlberg. 7 Turkestan (toor ke stan'), trade with Russia, 138, 139 ; furs, 139 Turkey, cork, 120 ; size of former empire, 391 ; menace of rule, 391 ; waning power, 391 ; impor- tance of position, 391 ; World War, 391, 394 ; lost provinces, 206, 391, 401, 411, 415 Turks, migration from Asia, 389 ; capture of Constantinople, 391 ; capture of Sofia, 404 434 INDUSTRIAL STUDIES — EUROPE Twain, Mark, 393 Tweed River, course, 24 Tyne (tin) River, shipbuilding, 21, 22 Ukraine (u'kran), description, 150- 154 Ulm (oolm), description, 213 United States, climate, 4 ; ship- building, 20, 34-36; flax and linen, 53, 64 ; jute, 59 ; hemp, 62, 63 ; rope, 63 ; density of pop- ulation, 76 ; lumber, 81 ; wool, 81, 85; cotton, 85; trade with Portugal, 108, 116, 117; trade with Spain, 116, 117 ; skins from Russia, 139 ; imports from Hol- land, 185 ; diamond trade, 242 ; trade with the East, 243 ; fixa- tion of nitrogen, 250 ; dairying, 251-252 ; trade with Poland, 258, 261 ; salt, 271, 272 ; trade with Scotland, 281-282; fish, 296; olives and olive oil, 308, 310, 321-322 ; bottles for olive oil, 308 ; study of new industries, 320 ; vegetable oils, 322 ; cotton- seed oil, 322. 323-324 ; vineyards, 326, 344 ; raisins, 332 ; trade with Italy, 342 ; macaroni, 352, 353 ; silk, 372, 374, 385-386; trade with France, 376, 381 ; trade with Greece, 398 ; attar of roses, 407 ; wheat, 412 Ural (u'ral) Mountains separate Siberia from Russia, 129 Valdai (val di') Hills, watershed in Russia, 11. 129 Vardo (var'dg), fishing industry, 280 Vasco da Gama (vas'ko da ga'ma), object of early voyage, 390 Vatican, home of Pope, 357 Venice (ven'is), ancient commerce, 71, 261, 359 ; compared with Am- sterdam, 239 Vesuvius (v^ su'vi us), near Naples, 352 Vienna (ve en'a), past, 212 ; pres- ent, 212 ; advantage of position^ 218 ; description, 218-220 ; mill- ing, 226 Vinegar, made from wine, 343 Vineyards, in Germany, 178, 182, 327, 328 ; in Europe, 326 ; in the United States, 326 ; in South America, 326 ; in Africa, 326 ; in Australia, 326 ; in Italy, 326, 327, 335, 336 ; in France, 327, 337, 338, 339 ; in Spain, 329 ; in Portugal, 329, 333 ; support of people, 344-345 Vistula (vis'tu la) River, canal con- nections, 187, 189 ; commerce, 260, 261 Volga (vol'ga) River, 130 ; traffic, 138 ; description, 138-140 ; junc- tion with Oka River, 144 Vosges (vozh) Mountains, route between Germany and France, 340 Warsaw (war'sa), description, 258, 259 ; commerce, 260 Warwick (wor'Ik) Castle, 96 Watchmaking in Switzerland, 249 Water-power in Switzerland, 250 •, in Norway, 251 Wear (wer) River shipyards. 21. Weser (va'zer) River, canal con- nections, 181, 187 ; seaport, 182 ; importance, 186 West Indies, Dutch trade, 234- 235 ; tortoise shell, 356 Wetter (vet'er), lake in Sweden, 171 Wheat, on Volga River, 139; in Ukrainia. 150-151 ; in Jugo- slavia, 209 ; in Hungary, 221, 223. 224. 225, 228 ; durum wheat, 352, 353 ; in Bulgaria, 402 ; in Rumania, 412 ; Black Sea area, 412 White Sea, connected with Cas- pian, 130 White Star Line, shipyards, 22 Wieliczka(vye ly^ch'ka) saltmines, 268-270 INDEX 435 Wine industry, Rhine vineyards, 178, 182, 328 ; where carried on, 326, 328 ; in Spain and Portugal, 329, 335 ; port wine, 332-333 ; in Madeira Islands, 335 ; in Italy, 335-337; in France, 337-339, 343 ; in Algeria, 337 ; use in European countries, 337-338 ; by-products, 343-344 Woodcarving, in Germany, 194- 195 ; in Switzerland, 247, 250 Woolen industry in England, 87-90 World War, change in govern- ments, 12 ; map changes, 13 ; effects on shipbuilding, 20 ; pen- ning up of German navy, 34 ; effects in Belgium, 65-69, 71 ; effects in llussia, 149 ; Ger- many's part, 174, 175, 176, 177; United States, 174-175; results, 175,176; Saar valley coal mines, 177; Kiel Canal, 180; Rhine valley corridor, 185-186 ; Jugo- slavia, 201 ; effects in Switzer- land, 249 ; effects in Poland, 259, 260 ; effects in France, 338, 339, 342-343; effects in Italy, 358- 359 ; Alsace-Lorraine, 339-342 ; effects in Turkey, 391, 394 ; effects in Rumania, 413 ; effects in Albania, 415 Yarmouth (yar'muth), fishing, 296 Yokohama (yo'ko lia'ma), on route of tramp steamer, 20 Yorkshire (york'shgr) county, wool industry, 89 ; metal industry, 91 Zuider Zee (zi'dgr ze'), description, 233-234 Zurich (zoo'rik or tsii'riK), silk in- dustry, 249, 385 ; size, 385 \ This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 15 ISii MAY 15 mo WAR 2 3 193? ^, i.i \^^ FEB 7 1933 ' OCT 3 \^^ 4 O^o, t^( ^, %1 Form L-9-35(?(-8,"28 -4;^ HG 240 _AXlea-* ^j__£iap^raphiri^) 540 789 " 5 udiesi_thi=.Sil=- 1337 1. iNIA, iiilli liii iliiiiliii 1 ; 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 ; [ I ; I ( I J I - r > ' = > '