THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES *-t * X \ / X \ -V T ->t / \ I \ / -+ h -+-+( U-+-. X / I \ X / -A I 3r v ' \ Pax et Streuuitas Copyright 1911 by GEORGE ADAM, M. D. Registered at Stationer's Hall, London, England Foreign Rights Reserved Press of FRANKLIN LINOTYPING CO. San Francisco THE SOLAR SYSTEM AN ASTRONOMICAL UNIT A Work of Deduction Based on a Fundamental Hypothesis GEORGE ADAM, M. D. Author of 'Electricity, the Chemistry of Ether." "Concepts of Electric Phenomena of Planetary Systems." "Prom Ether to the Physio- logic Unit." "The Physiologic Unit." "Theoretical Consid- eration of X-Ray Energy." "Radioactivity." "Earth- quakes, an Astronomical Question." "Nation- alization of the Practice of Medicine." "Medicinal Vibration." "Cataphoresis." "Origin and Character of X-Rays." "Hysteria," Etc., Etc. JOHN J. NEWBEGIN, PUBLISHER 315 Sutter Street, San Francisco, Cal. DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF THE GREAT NEWTON WHO, FROM AN INTUITIONAL PERCEPTION OF TRUTH, STEADFASTLY ADHERED TO THE CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT. NOTHING EXISTS, EITHER ACTUALLY OR POTENTIALLY, BUT WHAT A MIND IS EVOLVED TO CONCEIVE AND TO COMPREHEND. PREFACE. This work is an extension of former publications "Concepts of Electric Phenomena of Planetary Sys- tems," and "Electricity the Chemistry of Ether." The latter, a book of 600 pages, was destroyed by the San Francisco fire of 1906 ; and the former, a smaller book, was partially destroyed by the same fire. The larger work was based on the interpretation of facts of Electricity, Chemistry, Physics and Physiology, as viewed from the standpoint of the Hypothesis; the smaller was the application of the hypothesis to As- tronomical facts. After the California earthquake of 1906 there was issued, in pamphlet form, "Earthquakes, an Astronomical Question." This, with slight altera- tion, is reproduced in the present publication. It was intended to publish the astronomical deduc- tions as the fourth part of a larger volume, the first part of which is an elaboration of the immediate deduc- tions from the general hypothesis, which were formu- lated as a platform of secondary principles, from which to draw further deductions. The second part of the larger work is devoted to Heat and Light; and the third part to Electricity, Roentgen Rays, Photo-electric Phenomena, etc. Hence it is clear that in the present small volume no large amount of space can be devoted either to the hypothesis or to the direct deductions from the hypothesis. For instance the chapter dealing with the physical character of ether is simply a synopsis of the original; and the same characterization applies to that on Heat and Light. The publication of the larger work, now in manuscript, will follow. 919446 PREFACE. The following works have chiefly supplied the facts essential to the deductions recorded: General Astron- omy, by Young; The Evolution of Worlds, by Lowell; How to Know the Starry Heavens, by Edward Irv- ing; Physical Optics, by Wood; and Geology, by Le Conte. Through the courtesies of Dorothea Isaac-Roberts, I have been much encouraged in the pursuit of my work and have had the privilege of copying photographs by the late Dr. Roberts. I am greatly indebted to Alice Marie O'Neill for drawings illustrating my conceptions of the Solar Sys- tem. To my wife, Dr. Alice Douglas Adam, I have to express my very great obligation for encouragement and material assistance rendered in the preparation of this work. San Francisco, California, May, 1915. CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. Introduction: Hypothesis and Deductions 8 I. A Creation. Electric Matter. Matter and Space. Matter and Motion. Anode and Cathode Par- ticles 1 3 Physical Character of the Ether 23 Evolution of a Solar System. A Cosmic Unit.... 26 II. The Reaction of the Forces of Distant Bodies.... 30 III. The Solar System. The Sun 40 IV. The Great Cycle 54 Energy of the Solar System 56 Temperature 62 Tidal and Other Motions 64 V. Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Mountains. Chain- ing an Earthquake. Shape of the Earth 69 VI. Cyclic Periods 87 Period of Cell Life Water. The Cell-Mole- cule 97 VII. The Evolutionary Period of Mars 106 VIII. The Planets 113 IX. Comets 128 X. Orbit of the Earth 136 Velocities of Satellites 155 XI. The Moon 149 XII. Spiral Nebulae 160 Multiple Stars 1 61 The Universe 1 65 Cosmic Reflections 1 67 XIII. Illustrations 1 75 XIV. Light and Heat.... .. 201 INTRODUCTION. Since 1897 the author has labored in developing an hypothesis which he considers elementary to the laws of force. An intuitional appreciation of a truth at the beginning became a firm conviction by the interpretation of facts collated from many channels. The hypothesis was primarily stated as follows: "Electricity is the Chemistry of the Ether." The conception is more fully expressed in the following formulae: The Ether is the Simplest form of Matter, is Molecular, and Electricity, in the broadest sense of the term, is its Chemistry. This is a work of deduction based upon the hypothesis. The term Electricity is here used as being analogous to the term Chemistry; or electricity may be considered a branch of chemistry as dealing with the chemical an- alysis and chemical synthesis of Ether Matter. More fully and conversely the hypothesis may be stated thus: That the matter of the Universe is fundamentally com- posed of two kinds, one the positive, cation, or concen- trative ; the other the negative, anion, or diffusive ; that these exist in their pure or uncombined state respective- ly as positive and negative electric matter (electricity) ; and that positive and negative electric matter chemically combine and mutually neutralize, unit quantity with unit quantity, as the simplest physical form of matter, the Ether. The ether molecule is thus composed of two atoms, one purely positive and one purely negative matter, which under specific conditions of strain dis- sociate into electric matter. In describing an ideal ele- mentary matter (Chapter I) the concordant conditions of differentiated matter are fully considered. INTRODUCTION. 9 It appears that much concern has been bestowed on inductive methods of reasoning, the premises of which have had too limited fields, and hence failures to reach general principles have followed. The investigation of particular phenomena leads to unsafe conclusions, ex- cept it embraces a sphere of action of independent unity. According to the deductions of this work, only one such sphere is available the solar system as a cosmic unit. A phenomenon or group of phenomena pertaining to the terrestrial sphere cannot be fully understood unless the relation of the Earth to the forces of the solar system is fully considered. The relation of local phe- nomena to general forces is well indicated by the fact that the organic cell at present is not developed, and could not be maintained, in any part of our star-space excepting an area approximately bounded by the orbits of Venus and Mars. It is also apparent that deduction from an hypothesis which is not fundamental may be misleading. On the other hand an hypothetical truth fundamental to the physical facts or phenomena of a cosmic unit, and hence to the universe, must be in the position of an arbiter of all conclusions, and must place induction in the position of its hand-maid. Scientists have been yearning for a key to a grand generalization. They have expected it to be revealed by a group of facts uncovered by experimentation, whereas its formula must necessarily spring into being as a simple creation of intuitional thought or imaginative effort, for it must deal with entities beyond observ- ational research. Hence the elaboration of the hypothe- sis must depend on the power to draw a mental picture of conditions beyond perceptive investigation, based on 10 INTRODUCTION. the interpretation of all relative facts, or on the con- struction of analogies with observed conditions. A general hypothesis will demand that all elementary facts be made witnesses to its correctness; and that by virtue of its authority all particular theories must before acceptance receive certificates of good standing. All other theories will thus be transformed into deductions. The method employed has been to draw immediate conclusions from the hypothesis on which to build a platform of secondary principles. In general the con- clusions are therefore interpretations of relative facts on the basis of those principles. With regard to this work it is simply claimed that there has been priorly formulated a basic conception capable of generalization. The deductions are subject to correction without in- validating this claim. There has been constant "posses- sion" and constant "work." A theory recorded without development work is as the squatting of land whose value increases through extraneous efforts. Such guesses are numerous, and sometimes brilliant, but proprietorship should only be awarded to those who expend energy and time in proving the worth of their conceptions. To the great army of workers engaged in uncovering facts too much credit cannot be accorded, for facts are the pillars on which a generalization must rest. In a work of this size many issues appear which cannot be followed. For instance it may be denied that positive electricity is concentrative. This question has been considered and no relative fact has been uncovered but which is fully explainable on the basis of the hypothesis. Deductions give no support to the kinetic theory of matter as presently accepted. This theory is foun- INTRODUCTION. 11 dationless, except as applied to predominating negative or anion conditions. Instead deduction uncovers a molecular vibration consisting of two phases, polar- ization and depolarization, as indicated in the frontis- piece, and finds this vibration elementary to allied phenomena as crystallization, magnetization, muscular- ization, neuralization, cerebration, and to the initiatory energy of light. More important as related to the sub- ject matter of this volume is the definition of heat, which is in the nature of a radiation-pressure and some- what analogous to blood pressure. It may be likened to the pressure of water at the outlet of a lake at the op- posite side of which matter is added. Full discussion of those subjects is made elsewhere. Deductions from this hypothesis lead to some remark- able conclusions, a few of which are as follow: The Ether is the ultimate equilibration of forces under the law that all forces react with an intensity inverse as the square of distance. The cathode particle is indivisible by existing forces. An anode particle of the exact size of the cathode particle is an impossibility under like pressure. The reaction between positive and negative forces, as a strain to neutralize at minimum distance, is the great diffusive agency of positive matter. Positive and negative matter in ether molecules, in ponderable molecules, in planetary bodies, and in solar systems, tend to the same relative arrangement. The Sun is a growing body and is the dominating causal factor in the evolutionary changes of the planets. An astonishing conception of kinetic energy is evolved: There ensues from the fundamental con- ditions of matter as delineated a perpetual motion with- in each Cosmic Unit, which is commensurate with an 12 INTRODUCTION. everlastingly unequilibrated and unequilibratable por- tion of force each cosmic unit intrinsically possesses an all-sufficiency for its own perpetual cyclic evolvement. There is evolved an important concept of the quan- titative relation of all matter and all force to all space. Astronomy is the basic science : We cannot fully un- derstand the properties and activities of the organic cell unless the essential conditions of its production, main- tenance and disappearance within the solar system are comprehended. The evolutionary stages of planets are indicated in a measure by the geological periods of the Earth. The evolutionary as well as the time ages of planets are in direct proportion to their proximity to the Sun, their dimensions in this relation being of slight im- portance. Sun-ward streams of energy must emanate from the poles of the planets, probably manifesting as aurora. The notation is made with extreme gratification that deductions from this hypothesis in the main accord with the corpuscular theory of light. We find that light is corpuscular in every crisis of its course, although inci- dently wave-motion characterizes the propagation of the corpuscle. Wireless telegraphy is easily conceived when the prop- erties of the Ether are understood. CHAPTER I. A Creation. "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." Assuming a creation we proceed to formulate a conception of the essential material to be created and the mode of procedure. The universe being infinite and our minds finite it is necessary that we deal with a limited sphere of action, which must have the quali- fication of a celestial or spacial unit. Hence we will assume that the Creator first plots the Infinite or Cosmic Space. In the allotment the portion awarded the Solar System is demarcated by a line midway between it and adjoining systems. We will designate this the star- space of the Solar System. Based upon a prescience as to the results the Creator estimates the quantity of material requisite for the cosmic unit. This estimate is based on the essential and specific quantitative relation of all matter and all force to all space. He places within the unit plot equal and determinate quantities of positive and negative electric matter (electricity) ; He implants in the positive electric matter, as an in- herent property, the principle concentrativeness; in the negative electric matter, as an inherent property, the principle diffusibility ; and also imparts to both a strain to mutually neutralize at minimum distance and by maximum contact. Furthermore He implants in matter the property of transductivity* whereby the concen- * Obviously this property differs from those pertain- ing to light transmission and electric conduction which are neither fundamental nor general. It is, however, 14 A CREATION. trative and diffusive forces are inductively passed to points of mutual neutralization. The Creator, then considering His physical work finished, stands aside. The electricity the forces as indicated does the rest. If we consider the ideal masses as ponderable or mixed matter then a similar evolvement of a sun and planets would obtain, the essentials being that positive and negative matter be equally represented, and quan- titatively conforming to the relation of all matter and all force to all space. Matter having the properties assigned, in any physical form or forms, injected pro- miscuously into a star-space would evolve by its own forces into a cycle of energy of which a sun and planets would constitute a phase. It is preferable that the ideal masses be unmixed, simple, or purely elementary, that is to say electric matter. We will suppose that the two masses of electric matter are placed apart many millions of miles, the space separating them being a vacuum (not even ether being present). How would they act? The positive mass would draw itself into a complete sphere, each constituent portion attracting all adjoining portions. On the other hand, the negative mass would attenuate into an extreme state of diffusibility, each constituent portion repelling all adjoining portions. The positive matter would concentrate into a motionless mass. The negative matter would diffuse into a mass of vibrating units, each particle repelling adjoining particles until contact is broken, when it would be repelled by proxi- mate particles. By intrinsic force negative matter would the same in principle as electric induction. In this re- spect electricity differentiates as an intensive force and may rupture the medium. ELECTRIC MATTER. 15 infinitely divide but would reach an equilibrium as regards space. It is evident that the action of the negative electric matter would bring it in contact with the mass of the positive, with the result that neutral- ization would occur. As the positive and the negative electric matter seek neutralization at minimum distance and by maximum contact, it will be apparent that the mixed masses will divide and redivide until each minimum quantity of positive electric matter is in contact with an equal quan- tity of negative electric matter. Further, as the prop- erties of positive electric matter are concentrative and those of negative are diffusive, the minimum quantity of the positive will assume a spherical form and will be- come central to a film of the negative which will be cir- cumferential. This form more than any other satisfies the strain to neutralize by maximum contact, and at minimum distance. Thus a molecular substance is formed which fills space to the extent of globular capacity and whose molecular dimensions bear the im- press of the relation of all matter and all force to all space. This substance we call the Ether. Fig. 1 in- dicates the form of ether molecules. Let us consider an ideal condition of the ether with- out pressure whose molecules are spherical without dis- tortion, and as far as possible in equilibrium, occupying space to the extent of its spherical entities. Under this condition there is no attraction between positive atoms nor repulsion between negative atoms. Within the molecular quantity a complete neutralization obtains under the law of distance. There still remains the strain on the part of positive and negative matter to neutralize by greater contact and at less distance, and the material of the molecules strains to a more tenuous 16 MATTER AND SPACE. division. The strain to subdivide constitutes the energy of the ideal condition, and the subdivision would occur indefinitely unless the strain is equilibrated by pressure or by other force. MATTER AND SPACE. Now the evidence of the phenomena of partial vacua sustain the conception that the relation of all matter to all space is such that matter under extreme tenuity is under a pressure which is or approximates the minimum pressure of the universe. Hence the relation of all matter and all force to all space is not the relation in the above ideal condition, but a relation which gives this minimum pressure in a maximum tenuity as in ether matter, and a certain maximum pressure coinci- dent with a maximum condensation as reached in the ponderable state. That is to say there is more matter in a star space than a universal ether matter, as in the above ideal condition, would afford. Therefore, we must conceive that a universal ether without ponderable matter, but capable of evolving ponderable conditions, would be an ether under pressure by virtue of its relationship to space, and by virtue of its molecular globular form. Such a pressure would not necessarily obliterate the intermodular spaces of ether matter, but simply distort the molecular form. This ether matter would have, as already indicated, potential forces as follow: (1) Attraction between adjacent positive units; (2) repulsion between adjacent negative units: and (3) a strain to neutralize at minimum distance and with maximum contact between adjacent positive and nega- tive units. Repulsion between negatives would be balanced by the pressure under the relation of matter to space. The neutralizing strain would be balanced by MATTER AND SPACE. 17 the pressure supported by the concentrativeness of positive matter. The neutralizing strain is a diffusive agency but would reach its maximum effect when the circumferential negative film becomes so attenuated as to allow contact between two positive atoms in vicinity and under pressure. Under such conditions synthetic reactions occur between positive atoms thus initiating the first step towards mass formation. Attraction be- tween positive units in a universal ether under pressure will furnish a kinetic force. The quantitative relation of matter to space is of equal importance to the differential character of the elementary properties of matter. The reactions of force are modified by the modification of such relation. We may conceive of an impenetrable inert matter filling space, without interstices, an addition to this relative quantity, even under pressure, being impossible. As according to the author's conceptions and deductions intermolecular empty spaces exist in ether matter (the only empty spaces in the universe), he concludes that the quantitative relation of matter to space is not the relation of an inert matter as above conceived, but that of a less relative quantity a quantity which allows ether molecules to assume the globular form by virtue of their intrinsic forces, although in a degree distorted by the pressure resulting from such spacial relations, nevertheless admitting of empty interspaces. Thus the quantity of matter within a star-space or celestial unit-space must have a specific relation to the extent of the space, and this relation must be infinitely uniform, varying only as regards fractions of the unit the minimum pressure of the matter of a star-space is the infinite minimum. Pertinent to this it will be observed that two of the three basic properties of 18 MATTER AND MOTION. matter are diffusive in character, hence matter diffuses until the property of concentrativeness is supported (or diffusion is arrested) by pressure dependent on its spacial relation. The quantitative relation of matter to space is a factor in determining the quantity of solid matter in the solar system. It must, however, be borne in mind that the quantity of matter within a star- space of constant dimensions might vary within certain limitations, and yet matter by its properties would so adjust itself as to produce the phenomena of a solar system, simply by altering the quantitative relation between ponderable and ether matter, always remember- ing that such relation must indicate a universal re- lation. MATTER AND MOTION. Here we wish to emphasize, as a corollary to the general hypothesis, that the matter of a star-space, possessing the four fundamental properties as pre- viously defined, and having a certain pressural relation to space as previously indicated, will have, perpetually, throughout changing physical conditions, a proportional quantity in motion, depending upon a relative amount of unequilibrated force. This unequilibrated force con- stitutes the kinetic energy of the star system, which, as hereafter shown, will principally manifest in cyclic forms. Furthermore, it is indicated that, by a play between the fundamental properties of matter under the relation of matter to space, a limitation to the division of matter obtains in definite unchanging minimum atomic and molecular quantities of ether matter, and, as will be afterwards shown, in ponderable atomic and ionic or molecular ultimates ; and also that there is established ANODE AND CATHODE PARTICLES. 19 a definite quantitative relation between ponderable and ether matter. ANODE AND CATHODE PARTICLES. The immediate result of the reactions mentioned as occurring in a universal ether under pressure must be the formation of ponderable particles, each having the value of two positive atoms of ether and one negative atom of ether. This gives the particle a free force equal to one positive atom of ether, which neutralizes inductively by polarizing the ether not participating in the reactions. These we will designate cathode par- ticles (Fig. 2). Coincident with the formation of cathode particles counterparts are formed, which we will call anode particles. The formative process of these is initiated by a nascent repulsion between two negative ether atoms, one becoming a constituent of a cathode par- ticle and the other being repelled. It is obvious that matter thus arranges itself into a simple, imponderable or ether form; and into a more complex form generally known as ponderable matter. The ether form is in- sensible to gravitational or repelling forces by virtue of its positive and negative atoms neutralizing by maxi- mum contact and at minimum distance, according to the law that forces react with an intensity inversely as the square of distance, subject to the relation of all matter and all force to all space. By the same law complex matter is subject to gravitational and repelling forces. The complex form of matter has the two ultimates, the anode and cathode particles, which can be differ- entiated thus: Cathode particles, possessing positive free forces, seek the cathode of an electrolyte, are in general concentrative and form solid masses by virtue 20 ANODE AND CATHODE PARTICLES. of their inherent property; and in the construction of molecules, masses, or systems, when free from extrinsic influence, they assume central positions. Anode par- ticles, possessing negative free forces, seek the anode of an electrolyte, are in general diffusive, and form gaseous masses by virtue of their inherent property; and in the formation of molecules, masses, or systems, when free from extrinsic influences, they assume cir- cumferential positions. The cathode particle or mass is related to the ether molecule as 3 to 2, or perhaps as 6 to 2. The anode particle or mass has been estimated to be related to the cathode particle as 1000 to 1. Anode and cathode particles are the resultants of a residual gas under extreme decrement of pressure, and are the ponderable elements which, when electrified, become the anode and cathode rays of a Crookes or partial vacuum tube. The formative processes of these par- ticles is important to consider. The cathode particle is formed by the inherent forces of its constituents. The anode particle is an aggregation driven from, and en- closed by, the induction fields of cathode particles, its own forces being dissolving. Its quantity is a com- promise between its own dissociating forces and the insulating properties of surrounding fields. The anode particle is neutralized through, and herded by, in- duction fields. The interpretation of the facts of elec- trified partial vacua as expressed by the author in a former work, is in accordance with the above con- clusions. The conclusions are also in accordance with the general facts of chemical dissociation. A synthetic reaction in a universal ether under a minimum pressure would not produce a neutral substance composed of two positive and two negative atoms, but substances such as cathode and anode particles with free molecular ANODE AND CATHODE PARTICLES. 21 forces. The law governing the relation of pressure and force may be formulated thus: Ponderable molecules divide and redivide under decrease of pressure with in- creased molecular free forces until the minimum molec- ular quantities of ponderable matter are reached. The ideal universal ether under pressure being in a sub- normal state of molecular formation would adjust it- self to meet the conditions of minimum pressure. A further adjustment would depend upon the degree of pressure. Matter thus arranges itself into positive and negative units which radiate force, and into a neutral substance (ether) which acts as a medium of radia- tion. An extraordinary correspondence of theory and fact, occurs in the case of anode and cathode particles. Theo- retically we construct the cathode particle of one negative and two positive ether atoms. The counterpart of this would be one positive and two negative ultimates for an anode particle. But it is clear that a con- struction of one concentrative ultimate and two diffusive ultimates would not hold. The facts show that the anode particle can only exist with a mass 1000 times that of the cathode particle under minimum pressure. It must be clearly borne in mind that we are consider- ing the anode and cathode particles as ponderable elements, and unelectrified. The ponderable cathode particle seeks the cathode of a Crookes tube, is nega- tively electrified, and becomes the element of cathode rays. The anode particle seeks the anode of the tube, is positively electrified, and is the element of anode rays. The cathode particle consisting of two positive ulti- mates of concentrative force and one negative ultimate of diffusive force is theoretically indivisible by the forces of the universe. The forces of matter cannot be 22 ANODE AND CATHODE PARTICLES. sufficiently intensified to dissociate it. The author has considered the chemical, electrical, and physical forces of dissociation and has concluded that no force of any character can be brought to bear that will disrupt the chemical union of two positive and one negative ulti- mate quantities. The only way that such a combination can be broken up is to alter the relation of all matter and all force to all space. It is this relation which dictates its constituent value. The facts pertaining to electrified partial vacua support the theoretical con- clusions. The cathode particle is the tenuous ultimate which all ponderable matter strains to reach, and when reaching the progress of dissociation of ponderable matter reaches its finality. It is important to appreciate the fact that a cathode particle neutralized by the poles of ether molecules is in equilibration as regards the strain to neutralize at minimum distance and by maxi- mum contact. It is the ultimate equipoise of the forces of ponderable matter (Fig. 2). It is also important to note the relation of the neutralization strain to the con- centrativeness of ponderable matter. The neutralization strain is not accumulative, whereas the concentrative- ness of positive matter is accumulative. The dissociation of a mass caused by neutralization strain is effected by the strain of its surface molecules, which is not made greater by their being part of the mass. It is a localized property of the molecules and it effects a semi-chemical union between ponderable and ether matter. The neutralization strain of one particle is not added to the strain of adjoining particles it is not a radiating force. On the other hand, gravitational force radiates and is proportional to the mass. Hence particles placed in vacua and free from the concen- tration of lines of force dissociate under the neutral- THE ETHER. 23 ization strain; but the same particles placed in the midst of other positive matter or midst concenerating lines of force are solidified. It is clear that the neutral- ization strain is a dissociating force, is opposed by the gravitational force, and supported by repulsion between negative particles. The neutralization strain is the dis- sociating principle of positive matter. THE PHYSICAL CHARACTER OP THE ETHER. An epitome of the physical character of the Ether follows : Ether Is Immolecularly Neutralizable. Its atoms of equal value possess minimum quantity, are purely of opposite quality, and neutralize at minimum distance and by maximum contact. Ether is Imponderable. Ether is imponderable (1) because its atomic forces are neutralized at minimum distance and by maximum contact; and (2) because the universal equilibrium under the relation of all matter to all space is maintained by ether filling space not occupied by other matter. Ether Is Non-cohesive. Ether does not possess the property of cohesiveness as its forces are immolecularly neutralized, and the condition is safeguarded by the construction of its molecules being such that molecular surface matter is negative in quality. The ether is frictionless, inviscid, and non-rigid. Ether Offers Minimum Resistance to Moving Bodies. Ether possesses fixity only as a medium of radiating forces. By virtue of its imponderability and non- cohesiveness it offers no resistance to moving bodies by its intrinsic forces. 24 THE ETHER. Ether Offers Minimum Resistance to Convective Cur- rents. Electrified particles fly through partial vacua with decreased resistance directly proportional to the decrement of the gas to the critical point of there being no ponderable particles to electrify. Ether Is Compressible. Free molecular interspaces allow ether to be compressed by the attraction and re- pulsion of its atomic forces polarization or by vibra- tory impulse impact thus lessening or obliterating its intermolecular spaces. Ether Is Elastic. Ether molecules are distorted by pulsations or by polarizing forces, and by their im- molecular forces immediately resume their rotundity when the extrinsic force is removed. Ether Is Porous. Ether molecules being globular must have interspaces, hence the substance is porous. Moreover, ether is the only substance which has a true porosity, as it fills the intermolecular spaces of other substances. Ether Molecules Possess Impenetrability. That no two portions of matter can occupy the same space at the same time is an inherent property of all matter. A positive atom of ether does not mix with a negative atom. Ether Cannot Be Projected. Being imponderable ether cannot be projected as ponderable matter is pro- jected. Ether is incapable of acquiring a momentum. Ether Density. The molecular mass of ether is just as dense as the molecular mass of any other matter. The tenuity of ether depends on its true porosity. Ether as Insensible Matter. Ether is insensible be- cause our senses do not identify it with sensation. It is insensible in the sense that it is imponderable. How- ever, ether responds to all the forces and in this respect THE ETHER. 25 it is sensible matter. Ether is the great medium in transmitting force. It is absolutely the only medium for the transmutation of the forces. Ether Is Polarizable. The molecules of ether when free from extrinsic forces assume the globular form with a positive center and a negative circumference. By the push and pull of extrinsic forces the positive atoms become eccentric, the molecules lose their im- molecular neutralization and transmit force by polar- ization. Thus the static forces of the universe radiate influences through ether, within their fields of neutral- ization. By polarization ether inductively acquires properties primarily possessed by ponderable matter. Ether Is the Perfect Medium. Its imponderability, its compressibility, its true porosity, its delicate elas- ticity, its non-cohesiveness, its polarizability, together with the complete immolecular neutralizability of its forces, and its perfect equilibrium in space, allow the ether to be a perfect medium, transmitting force in- fluences (polarizations), and radiations (undulations), without loss of energy, with minimum resistance, and with maximum velocity. Ether Produces Chemical and Physical Changes. As ether possesses the property of impenetrability, when unequilibrated it is capable of chemically and phys- ically dissociating ponderable matter, thus heat sep- arates atoms, molecules, or masses, or allows them to separate by their intrinsic forces. If a mass of ether were confined at a maximum density ponderable matter could not gravitationally encroach on it. Ether Atoms. "When chemically dissociated ether atoms become Electric matter. They pass from the lowest to the highest physical potencies. 26 A COSMIC UNIT. EVOLUTION OF A SOLAR SYSTEM. We will now conceive that the star-space of the Solar system, as a sequence of the Creative act, is occu- pied by matter: (1) Ether, simple in its molecular construction and imponderable; (2) Complex or ponder- able matter: (a) cathode particles, (b) anode particles. Ponderable matter is thus in extreme diffusibility. It must be noted that although all masses of complex matter are ponderable, that they are so by virtue of their positive constituents, and that their negative con- stituents, of equal aggregate value to the positive, are imponderable. Thus quantity and weight of matter are clearly differentiated. Mass if measured by weight does not exactly indicate quantity. Negative matter cannot be directly measured by weight, in fact it is opposed to weight by its resistance to compression in the concentrated field of a positive force. On the other hand, the strain of the medium between a positive and a negative body imparts to negative matter an attrac- tive force. Opposed to this is the consideration that in a mass there is a certain amount of positive matter that is neutralized according to the law of distance and hence is unweighable. The amount of positive matter neutral- ized within a mass so that it is imponderable must vary according to its molecular constitution, always bearing in mind that positive matter strains to approxi- mate the measuring force, and hence may be placed advantageously to be acted on. Weight at least indi- cates if it does not exactly measure the quantity of positive matter. We are now in a position to show how the Solar sys- tem may be built up from anode and cathode particles. These are the maximum diffusible state of ponderable A COSMIC UNIT. 27 matter, and their forces directly or inductively dominate the star-space of the Solar system. Matter is without mass form. Its energy rests in the diffused state of cathode particles in the gravitational force of diffused positive matter. A cathode particle surrounded by ether satisfies the strain to neutralize at minimum distance and by maximum contact (Fig. 2) under the quantitative relation of all matter and all force to all space; but cathode particles in diffusion possess a potential energy of mutual or mass attraction. Hence nuclear masses begin to form throughout the space, and anode particles assume circumferential po- sitions. The nuclear masses being attracted by other nuclear masses larger masses will inevitably be formed. The differential arrangement resulting from positive matter seeking the center thus squeezing negative matter towards the circumference applies to the whole system as well as individually to the planetary masses, and coincident with these processes matter equilibrates in larger molecular quantities. The molecular form of matter is initiated and maintained by the strain of positive and negative matter to neutralize at minimum distance and by maximum contact. Attraction between constituent positives supported by gravitation, pressure, etc., tends to bring molecules together, thus increasing their size. Repulsion between constituent negatives tends to the disruption of the molecular form; never- theless, negative molecules are relatively large as pre- viously shown. Molecules and masses, by their intrinsic forces, assume the globular form, but as will be after- wards shown this form by extrinsic forces is modified towards the oval. Here it is important to consider the evolutionary changes attending condensation: (1) Where cathode 28 A COSMIC UNIT. particles predominate metallic substances will result. (2) Where equal quantities of cathode and anode par- ticles prevail crystallization will occur. Both processes will be extended from nuclei, although these nuclei may unite after the processes are initiated. The crystalli- zation will give the masses polarity. (3) Where negative force predominates matter will remain in diffusion. The direction of the polarity will be uniform, not only as regards the solar star-space, but as regards cosmic space. It will be infinitely uniform. This will furnish a universal north and south with a qualitative distinction as positive and negative poles. A crystal is formed from a nucleus and the molecules polarize uni- formly. The initiatory direction becomes the common or universal direction. The primary condensations are therefore crystalline rocks infiltrated by metallic de- posits, as found in the unstratified rocks of the Earth A planet grows, as a crystal grows, by extension, add- ing molecule to molecule, and molecular pole to molec- ular pole (Fig. 30). Concurrent with the formation of solid bodies ether is set free from the molecular fields of the condensing elements. This ether will radiate as heat. It is evident that the mass in the center of the solar space is advantageously placed to excel in dimensions, and thus to dominate the system. Hence heat radiating from this body will be incident to a smaller proximate body. The latter, being polarized, will convert the incident energy into electric currents and these in turn will charge the poles of the smaller body (Fig. 7). What occurs is exactly analogous to that which occurs in a galvanic battery in which the positive zinc becomes negatively charged and the relatively negative copper becomes positively charged. In the case of the smaller body A COSMIC UNIT. 29 the positive ponderable, or north pole, is negatively charged, and the negative ponderable, or south pole, is positively charged. A study of electrified vacua and of the facts relative to aurora polaris make it conclusive that these charges will form convection currents which will seek the central body the energy emanating as heat from the larger or central body, and incident to the smaller body, will be returned by the latter as convection electric currents to the poles of the larger body (Fig. 7). There are thus deposited at the poles of the central body differential electric charges and differential ions. The electric charges form currents from the poles to the equator, where they neutralize and are transformed into heat, and the ions build up the poles with differ- ential forces (Fig. 8). This body is the Sun of the system. The smaller body becomes a proximate planet. The solar electric currents are the primary currents of the system with an induction field as extensive as the system. The primary currents swing the induction field into a great wheel-like form with definite rotatory direc- tions, and we have thus a type of the Solar systems of the universe, which differentiate as to the contemporary phases of their great cycles, as to the quantities of their ponderable matter, as to the quantities of their ener- gies, and as to the dimensions of their star-spaces, but are identical as to the principles and general forms of their evolutionary processes and cyclic energies. CHAPTER II. Reactions of the Forces of Distant Bodies. The primary forces are static or current. Reactions of Primary Static Forces. These are direct and indirect. The direct are the reciprocal actions of the primary forces through the media; the indirect re- actions are those of media, by acquired properties, on primary forces. We will consider ether as the medium whose polarizing character we must bear in mind. 1. Direct Reactions of Distant Static Forces. (1) Attraction between distant positive forces. This is the gravitational force of Newton. It is lineal. Bodies possessing positive free forces are mutually attracted. The force diffuses through the medium so that its in- tensity is inverse as the square of the distance. Bod- ies with negative free forces develop positive poles on which the distant positive force acts. The medium is in contact with the positive pole, and according to the law of distance the induced force of the medium is ad- vantageously placed to act on the pole as against the free negative force of the polarized body. The force produces a contractile strain on the medium and the medium quantitatively modifies itself by elimination. The curvature of the lines of force at the boundary of the fields indicate the mode of elimination (Figs. 4s and SB. The contractile strain in the lines of force is caused by attraction between the positive atoms of the medium in which a force has been set free by neutralization of negative atomic forces in contact with the primary bodies (Fig. 3). REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. 31 (2) Repulsion between distant negative forces. This force is lineal in character. It diffuses directly as the square of the distance traveled. It causes an attenu- ation of the medium by the mutual repulsion of the negative atoms in which a force has been set free by neutralization of positive atoms by the primary force. Bodies with positive free forces develop negative poles and the induced forces in the medium act on these, but negative poles usually assume a relatively distal position and are disadvantageously placed according to the law of distance. At the boundary line between approximate induction fields of negative bodies the lines of force are straightened and matter is absorbed by the fields (Figs. 4s and SB). It is mainly through this force that nega- tive electric currents travel. The differential positions assumed by the poles of magnetic and electrolytic bodies should be emphatically noted. Two bodies with positive free forces whose con- stituents are free to mutually respond to the external influences will present their positive poles. If one is fixed and dominating a like relative position will be assumed by the other responding. If both bodies possess fixed constituents, and hence irresponsive to the extrinsic influence, proximate negative poles will be maintained in position, although a strain no doubt is imparted to the constituents of both to alter their relative polar positions. Two magnets whose negative poles approximate main- tain the relative position. The Sun and Earth during a definite period of the year mutually present their negative poles without material disturbance of the main bodies. That there is a disturbance in detail will be shown in the analogous action of the Sun on the water of Mars. On the other hand, a comet, whose constit- 32 REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. uents are not fixed, presents its electrolytic positive pole (head) to the positive of the Sun, and the same pole to the negative of the Sun, a demonstration of the funda- mental laws of attraction between positives and re- pulsion between negatives. Two comets, independent of external influence, would approach each other (if approachment were possible) head foremost, and mutu- ally depart tail foremost. The moon as an electrolyte constantly presents the positive pole to the Earth, thus following the example of a cometary body towards the Sun. (3) Neutralization between a positive force and a dis- tant negative force. The forces neutralize through the medium by means of an induced polarized strain, and the medium thus acquires an elasticity. The medium, however, remains in static equilibrium up to a critical point rupture in the intensity of the radiating force. Up to the point of rupture of the medium or a specific intensity of the force, the direct action of distant forces of opposite quality is simply neutralization without any kinetic reaction between the bodies (Figs. 4A and 5A). However, at the instant when the polarized strain is initiated there must be some attraction induced. 2. Indirect Reactions of Distant Static Forces. (1) Repulsion between distant forces of like quality caused by impenetrability and elasticity of fields of force dis- torted under pressure. Each free force inductively radiates through a field toward a point of neutraliza- tion. Fields of force of like quality are mutually im- penetrable, are distorted under pressure, and acquire an elasticity which exercises a repulsive force on the primary bodies. Under pressure the lines of force are bent as in Fig. SB. The repelling force allows the lines to straighten, and brings more matter between the REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. 33 primary bodies. It is clear that the repulsive force of the fields will support the direct reaction between two negative bodies, and will act against the direct reaction between two positive bodies. Negative molecules or negative bodies mutually repel by direct and by indirect reactions. Positive molecules and positive bodies repel each other by the elasticity of their fields to the critical point of equilibration, while they attract each other by a direct reaction between the primary forces. It is thus that positive molecules have free intermolecular fields while possessing adhesive properties. We will see that similar conditions prevail in the case of celestial bodies. It is through the im- penetrability, distortion, and consequent elasticity of fields of force that magnetic and electrified bodies manifest repulsion under the law "Likes repel." It is mainly through the impenetrability of like fields that positive electric currents travel. (2) Attraction between a positive body and a distant negative body. The medium acquires an elasticity from the polarized strain which reacts on the bodies, and when the primary forces are intense, causes attraction. Thus attraction between magnetic and between electric bodies manifest under the law of "Unlikes attract." The attraction is mainly caused by the action of the positive force on the medium and is partially opposed by the action of the negative primary force on the negative atoms of the medium (Figs. 4A and 5A). Per- haps all kinetic energy between bodies of different quality should be classed as direct. (3) Repulsion of negative matter from a concen- trated field of force. Positive forces induce concen- tration, and negative forces resist concentration. A negative particle placed in a concentrated field will be 34 REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. squeezed out by the lines of force. Two positive bodies being attracted will squeeze out a negative body. This is an indirect repulsion between positive and negative forces. We will find that each particle of a comet as the cometary body approaches the Sun finds an equili- brated position amidst the solar lines of force, where attraction ceases. Filling a hole in the earth with sand squeezes out the air. This is an example of attraction between two positive bodies repelling a negative body. In Fig. 3 let the plus symbol within the lower circles denote the positive free forces of two bodies. As in- dicated by the outer arrows the direct reaction between the bodies is attraction. Let the minus signs within the upper circles denote the negative free forces of two bodies. As indicated by the arrows the direct reaction between the bodies is repulsion. The direct reaction between an upper body and a lower body is simply neutralization. The direct reactions are directed through the medium by a polarized strain which bestows on the medium new properties which react on the pri- mary forces. If the polarized strain is relatively below a critical degree of intensity no other actions manifest except those of the primary forces. If the strain on the medium is above a certain critical point it manifests properties of its own which may support or oppose the reactions of the primary forces. For instance the fields of two lower bodies (Fig. 3) being alike and mutually impenetrable, their lines of force under pressure bend as shown in Fig. SB, thus undergoing distortion and assuming an elasticity which will manifest as a repulsive force between the two primary bodies. The repulsion depending on the elas- ticity of the fields opposes the action of the primary forces, as indicated by the inner arrows. REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. 35 The fields between the upper or negative bodies (Fig. 3) are also impenetrable, are distorted under pressure, and assume elastic properties which manifest as a re- pulsive force between the two bodies, but it is evident that the acquired property of the medium and the direct reaction of the primary forces support each other. The field between a positive and negative body being also under a strain (Fig. 3), the medium acquires elastic properties which may produce a pull on the two primary bodies as in the case of magnetic poles of different qualities; or the field may be ruptured as in the case of an electric current. Another important property acquired by a medium is its repulsive action on negative matter by its concen- trated lines of force. It is evident that lines of force by drawing particles towards a common center con- centrate the particles. Negative matter by its diffusi- bility resists this concentration and hence is squeezed out of the field. Thus an indirect repulsion is induced between positive and negative forces. If we suppose a negative particle placed within the field of a lower body (Fig. 3), we can see that the field will squeeze out the particle until it reaches a position of equilib- rium. Such a position will depend on the degree of concentration of the lines of force and upon the ex- pansile power of the particle. Another indirect method of repulsion of negative matter is by the direct attraction of positive bodies. A negative body placed between the two lower bodies (Fig. 3) will be squeezed out by the approximating positive bodies. Reactions of Primary Current Forces. These are more clearly manifested in the case of electric currents, 36 REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. although other currents must be governed by the same principles. 1. Reactions of a Primary Current Force and Dis- tant Static Forces. We will consider the reaction be- tween a primary electric current and static forces in the induction field. Around a primary electric current there is a whirl which has constant direction for a constant quality of force. Fig. 15 shows a wire through which is flowing an electric current. Within the electric field is placed the positive pole of a magnet bent and pivoted in such a way as to be free to rotate. The direction of the positive current is from A to B. The positive pole rotates from left to right as indicated. Maxwell formulated the following law : ' ' The direction of the current and that of the resulting magnetic force are related to one another as are the rotation and for- ward travel of an ordinary (right-handed) cork screw." The author has formulated the following gen- eral law: Facing an approaching positive, or receding negative, primary current, a positive force responding to the induction rotates from right to left, and a negative force responding to the induction rotates from left to right, in the upper segment of the cycle. 2. Reactions Between Induction Fields of Primary Currents. Ampere has formulated the following laws: (1) ''Parallel electric currents of opposite direction mutually repel; those of the same direction mutually attract." Fig. 13 indicates the manifestation of this law. When the currents are of the same direction the lines of force tend to embrace them; when they are opposite in direction the lines of force tend to pass between and repel them. (2) A series of laws may be summed up: " Currents obliquely directed induce stresses in the surrounding media, tending to straighten REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. 37 their paths, as nearly as possible, in parallel direction." (3) "The force exerted between two parallel portions of circuits is proportional to the product of the two currents, to the length of the portions, and inversely proportional to the simple distance between them." This law of Ampere is fundamental to Kepler's second law: "The radius- vector of a planet describes equal areas in equal times." Motions resulting from the reactions of distant forces may be lineal, spiral, circular, or elliptical. It is evident that the motion produced by the reactions of the static forces of two bodies can be no other than lineal. The conclusion is inevitable from the interpreta- tion of relative facts that the orbital revolution of a body has as a chief causal factor a central current force. We expect to show that an ellipse is a compound of lineal and circular motion. It may be postulated that the circu- lar element of orbital motion is evolved from the spiral form. We will consider two elementary motions: (1) Lineal motion caused by the push or pull of a static force ; (2) Spiral motion caused by the push or pull of a current force. When the distance between the poles of the cur- rent force is small relative to the distance between the primary current force and the moving body the motion approaches the circular form. Thus we may regard cir- cular motion as elementary. The primary electric cur- rent must also take on a spiral motion and this we have conceived as depending on the orientation of molecules in the primary conductor. The orientation of molecules is a subject of deep scientific importance which we have discussed elsewhere. Reactions of the forces of distant bodies which produce motion may be classified as follow : (1) Reactions between distant static forces (mass or polar) . 38 REACTIONS OF DISTANT FORCES. (2) Reactions between distant current forces. (3) Reactions between a current force and distant static force. The reactions may be direct, the motion being the re- sult of reaction of the primary forces; or they may be indirect, secondary or induced, the motion being the re- sult of an acquired property of the medium. The motion may be compound in which any number or all of the re- actions are factors. It is in the Earth's orbit that we can best study these forces. The electric currents of the Sun produce a cir- cular motion by acting on the static forces of the Earth. North of the equator of the Sun the orbit is contracted by the direct reaction between positive static forces : south it is dilated by the direct reaction between negative forces. The reactions which produce seasonal changes are indirect or secondary. The orbital revolution of the Earth is compound and embraces all of the reactions named. The Moon is a case of a body under the influence of the static forces of one body while answering to the current forces of another. The orbital motions of a comet are less complex than those of the Earth or of those of the Moon. Force and Energy. Let us here define what we mean by force and energy. Our conception of force is that it rests on the three primary properties of matter: Attraction between positive bodies; repul- sion between negative bodies; and the mutual strain to neutralize at minimum distance and by maximum con- tact. We will define energy as force changing its rela- tive position or seeking equilibrium in obedience to the fundamental properties of matter. Energy is unequili- brated force seeking equilibrium. The energy of a state of matter is that departure from equilibrium as measured by a specific criterion. Thus the difference in the equili- REACTIONS OP DISTANT FORCES. 39 bration of ether and electric matter is the energy of elec- tric matter. The difference in the equilibration of oxygen and coal on the one hand and carbon dioxide and water* on the other is the energy of the former. If we speak of potential energy then we must conceive of a force avail- able for change of relative position. The energy of the ideal creation embraced the forces of the electric masses. The energy of the ether resulting from the union of the electric masses was the strain to neutralize by greater contact and at less distance which was not resisted by pressure. The succeeding pressure changed this energy to attraction between cathode particles which is virtually mass attraction. Only a very small portion of the forces of the universe can assume energy conditions at any one time, the remainder being in different states of equilib- rium to which the energy conditions must be related. It is evident, however, that as the ether molecule and the cathode particle are the ultimate equilibrates as regards electric and ponderable energy all forces are capable of assuming energy conditions. The energy of the solar system consists principally of that stored in the Sun, which in the main is diffused positive matter. It may be postulated that however placed, and whatever physi- cal condition matter of the solar system may be sup- posed to assume, the relation to space and its inherent properties would impel an arrangement so that its energy conditions would be constant. All the forces of the universe could not possibly be placed in equilibrium at the same time. The forces of the solar system, or those of any other celestial unit, based on the properties of matter as stated, demand an unequilibrated portion as energy. CHAPTER III. The Solar System. The solar system in its entirety possesses four signifi- cant features: (1) Its wheel-like form; (2) its isola- tion; (3) its polarization; (4) its intrinsic neutral- ization. No known force can account for the wheel-like form of the solar system except electric currents, and those placed in the central body, the Sun. The plane of the Sun's equator cuts the wheel into two equal parts, and this may be conceived as the normal plane of the orbits of the planetary bodies, and their obliquities accordingly should be calculated from this plane. If the poles of the Sun were simply solargraphical expressions, having no differential potentialities, there would be no wheel-like form of the solar system. All calculations of the posi- tions of the bodies of the solar system, or of their orbits, should be made in reference to their relations to the plane of the solar equator, or in reference to the solar poles. The isolation of the solar system is kinetically com- plete. It takes light four years to traverse the inter- vening space separating it from its nearest known neighbors. No ponderable matter can ever cross this ethereal ocean. Its dimensions are determined by the quantitative relation of all matter and all force to all space, and by the relative amount of the inductive force of the solar system. The star-space of the solar sj'stem cannot be invaded by external ponderable matter, its dimensions are definite, but it is modifiable in form be- cause occupied by a body of matter which is elastic and THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 41 subject to continual change in the character of its ener- The system has a common direction of polarization, that is to say all the north poles of the bodies are qualitatively positive and all the south are qualitatively negative. The differentiation as regards the planets is primarily caused by the direction of the axes of crys- tallized bodies, but an electrolytic arrangement occurs under the influence of solar attraction and repulsion, as we will show when considering the evolution of a planet. The polarity of the universe is a determinating factor in the direction of the polarity of the solar system, and may be the only cause of maintaining this direction dur- ing the nebulous phase of the great cycle. A common direction to a general or cosmic polarization will allow the media, between solar systems in north and south directions, to be in equilibrium, thus in these directions neither attraction nor repulsion occurs between solar systems. At right angles to this general polarity we will show that there may be slight repulsion between systems. This we will further discuss when we consider the influence of the Sun's forces. The capacity of the solar system for self neutral- ization is an important feature. Any form of a con- tradiction of the postulate that the system is self neu- tralizable is inconceivable. The isolation of the system suggests the conception, and the intrinsic phenomena of the system support it. The positive matter and the negative matter of the universe must be quantitatively equal. The apportionment must be such that each star- space or each solar system as a cosmic unit contains equal quantities of the qualitatively differentiated ulti- mate elements of matter. Each solar system possesses an auto-sufficiency for its own evolutionary processes; and 42 SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. the cycles induced by its energies constitute a perpetual motion. We will now proceed to discuss the features of the elementary bodies of the solar system (Fig. 6). THE SUN. The forces of the Sun dominate the system. Recog- nizing this fact we will consider the various elements of the system from the viewpoint of the Sun, and from the standpoint of his dominance. The forces of the Sun may be classified as follows: (1) Mass attraction; (2) electrolytic attraction and repulsion; (3) heat and light; (4) electric currents. Mass Attraction. Positive matter predominates in the Sun's mass. The only negative element that has been detected by spectrum analysis is helium, and that is probably nascent and escaping with lightning speed from the squeeze of a concentrated field of force. The positive mass of the Sun draws toward it the positive matter of the solar system. The matter of the field is thus concentrated. What is important to understand is that the solar lines of force passing through the ether concentrate this substance as well as ponderable matter. In the ether each line of force must be the breadth (thus differing from the geometrical line) of an ether molecule, and the distinguishing character of the line must be a polarization. The ether invariably presents its neutralizing pole to the primary force (Fig. 3). The force is thus propagated by each distant pole polarizing the succeeding molecule. These lines of force partake of the same character as Faraday's lines. Negative matter when dominant, owing to its inherent diffusi- bility, resists concentration and is squeezed out of the field, be that an ether or a ponderable field. The result SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 43 is that, generally as regards ponderable matter, the positive variety, which may be considered as the only matter giving ponderable reactions, prevails in a pro- portion inversely as the distance from the Sun, and that negative matter prevails in a proportion directly as the distance from the Sun. There are a few exceptions to this rule which we will afterward point out. This rule does not apply to ether, as in this substance positive and negative matter is quantitatively equal throughout the universe. Gravitational force is absolutely lineal. It holds the planets in position against repelling forces. It throws a blanket of concentrating lines of force over all planets. The Earth is more concentrated than Neptune. Put the Earth in the position of Neptune and it would immedi- ately diffuse into the condition of the latter, coinci- dently altering the relative amount of its positive and negative constituents. The Sun dominates and his mass attraction concen- trates even the minutest molecule. The water molecule under the law that positive and negative matter strains to neutralize at minimum distance with maximum con- tact would break up into oxygen and hydrogen were it not for the blanket of concentrating force spread by the Sun. The same concentrating influence is exerted on all matter, even on the ether. Where this force is attenuated as in the outer planets, matter diffuses by its own inherent properties. The forces of the lines emanating from the Sun divide and redivide as they pass through the ether molecules, thus diffusing directly as the square of distance. The force of each molecule of the medium acts by contact on the succeeding. The force diffuses as the square of dis- 44 SOLAB SYSTEM THE SUN. tance, but the diffused force acts by contact and at zero distance. It is a mistake to suppose the outer planets to be at a high temperature. The Sun is the only body at a high temperature. The outer planets are no hotter than the Earth's atmosphere. They are diffused by there being present a relatively large amount of negative matter, and by the solar lines of force being weak at that dis- tance. Each planet is in an equilibrated position and condition, and the only modification that can occur is from a change in the relative influence of the Sun. Gravitational force retards orbital rotation by acting lineally on the proximate surface of the planet, thus producing an axial rotation analogous to that of a ball rolling on a floor. This is the case of the planets from the Earth to Uranus, inclusively. When the gravi- tational lines of force are intense the retardation be- comes actually inhibitory to axial rotation, as in the case of Mercury and probably Venus. The inhibition is favored by unequal hemispheres. The Earth will lose its rotation with the eastern hemisphere approximating the Sun. The satellites have no axial rotation (from the standpoint of their orbital centers), because of their approximation to their principals whose fields of force inhibit the movement. We will further discuss this fact when considering the case of the Moon. As the gravitational force radiates outward it is gradually neutralized by forces radiating from negative matter. The radiations of the forces of the solar system as well as the matter of the system, in the main, pre- serve the wheel-like form. The negative matter of the system being driven outward by the concentrated lines of force of the Sun in part collects as a common atmos- phere, from which radiate lines of force of a diffusive SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 45 character. These meet and are continuous with the solar lines, and thus they neutralize as do the lines from the differential poles of two magnets. It is important to note the concentrating effect of the solar lines of force on the matter of the solar system. It is equally important to note the diffusive effect of the lines of force of the common atmosphere on the matter of the system. The solar lines of force and the atmos- pheric lines of force must be equal in quantity, opposite in quality, producing opposite results, and mutually neutralizable. As the radiations diffuse according to the law of distance there must be an inward sphere where solar lines predominate and an outward sphere where atmospheric lines predominate. As the concentrating forces emanate from the Sun, and the diffusive forces emanate from the common atmosphere of the system, it is evident that these forces overlap with no distinct line of demarcation. The forces, however, have spheres of predominance, and the planets have thus been classified as the inner and outer groups. Electrolytic Attraction and Repulsion. The Sun is an electrolyte or magneto electrolyte. The Sun is anal- ogous to an electrolytic body of water with free oxygen at one pole and free hydrogen at the other. Water, H 2 0, is positive and has mass attraction. The free hydrogen being positive reinforces mass attraction. The free oxygen being negative furnishes a negative free force, which, in a clear field, will repel another negative force. Fig. 7 represents the electrolytic arrangement of the Sun. The north pole being positive simply rein- forces solar mass attraction. As the south pole is negative its radiations neutralize the free force of positive matter, but actively repel negative matter. A body such as the Earth, revolving round a polar body 46 SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. such as the Sun of immensely superior forces, passes through two main orbital phases, the character of which determines the form of its orbital path. In this we must consider circularity as the normal orbit. The orbital phases of the Earth are caused by the differential quali- ties of the fields of force north and south of the plane of the Sun's equator. The solar lines of force envelop the Earth so completely that they are the main factors in causing a contraction or dilation of the Earth's orbit from normal circularity. When north of the Sun's equator the Earth is amidst positive lines and the orbit contracts, when south it is amidst negative lines and the orbit dilates. We have, however, to consider that the momentum of the revolving body tends to ex- pand its orbit. We will hereafter consider the modifi- cation of the Earth's orbit by the planet's forces differ- entially reacting with the solar fields of. force. It will be observed that the plane of the solar equator divides the fields of polar forces, and this division will be made plain when we discuss the problems of cometary bodies. Heat and Light. This energy principally emanates from the equatorial regions of the Sun. It is doubtful if much heat or light radiates from the solar body north or south of the regions of Sun spots. Fig. 28 is significant of this fact. We have elsewhere followed the cycle of energy: From the Sun as heat and light to the planets, there transformed to electric energy and thus returned to the Sun. If the energy from the planets were cut off from the Sun his radiations would be as effectually quelched as the light of a candle by snuffing. This energy has some repelling force on bodies on which it is incident. This fact has been raised in im- portance to account for certain repelling influences of SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 47 the forces of the Sun. The position thus given it cannot be sustained. Thermic energy, however, produces im- portant results in as much as it diffuses positive ele- ments. If Mercury has any atmosphere it is composed of a positive gas such as hydrogen; the high albedo of Venus is likely owing to the accumulation of hydrogen gas in the upper atmosphere of that planet, that gas being diffused by the solar heat, and by such heat kept from uniting with oxygen. It will be observed that solar heat thus opposes the concentrating action of solar gravitation. It is well to mark the fact that the solar heat and light constitute an arm of a cycle of energy which con- verts a planet and the Sun into a double thermo electric cell (Fig. 7). Luminous radiations probably extend a greater dis- tance into space than any other force. The relation of heat and light to electric currents, however, must not be forgotten, and it is likely that a delicate instrument might convert the light of a distant star into electricity. No natural difference of potential is presented to the energy of a star by the solar system, hence no motory influence can be exerted between solar systems. Kinetic energy is intrinsic to solar systems. The Electric Currents. The electric currents of the Sun are the revolutionary forces of the solar system. We have previously formulated the law of induced revolution: "Facing an approaching positive, or reced- ing negative, primary current, a positive force respond- ing to the induction rotates from right to left, and a negative force responding to the induction rotates from left to right, in the upper segment of the cycle." We must note the advantageous position assumed by positive matter in being acted upon by a central force. A magnet within an electric field follows its positive 48 SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. pole. A body even when possessing a negative free force develops a positive pole which may direct its motion. When a body is predominately negative it then follows negative direction. A bound negative force as in the case of the south pole of a magnet strains to move in the opposite direction to that of the positive force. When the forces are free of each other's influence they follow opposite directions, as in the induced electric current. In the latter case the ether molecules are dis- sociated just as if the magnetic molecules were divided into poles. The law then denotes that within an induction field positive and negative ultimates are placed under a strain which impels them in different directions. Now let us mentally stand off the north pole of the Sun, so that we can take a general view of the solar system. We see Mercury and all the planets revolving round the Sun from right to left in the upper semi- circle (Figs. 6, 14) ; and we see from Fig. 7 that the negative current of the solar body is receding and the positive current approaching when we occupy this relative position. The positive bodies of the solar sys- tem are therefore obeying the same law as positive matter within the induction field of an electrified wire. How does the negative matter of the system act? If bound to positive matter such as the Earth's atmos- phere, it will be dragged along by the positive matter as in the case of the negative pole of a magnet. On the other hand, if sufficiently free from positive matter as in the faradic current, it will seek the opposite direc- tion. We have shown that within the solar induction field negative matter is squeezed out by the concentration of the field. Negative matter is also squeezed out of con- SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 49 centrated fields surrounding planets. We find the Moon a positive body holding an equilibrated position within the solar induction field, and having the orbital direction of its principal. It obeys the revolutionary law of positive matter. Jupiter is a less positive body than the Earth because it occupies a less concentrative solar field. It has a number of satellites, each one no doubt occupying an equilibrated position. According to the law of concentration we expect to find evidence of the satellites of Jupiter being more diffused and more negative in direct proportion to their distance from Jupiter. Here is the evidence: All the satellites of Jupiter revolve directly, thus obeying the law of positive revolution, except the outer one, which has a reverse movement, thus obeying the law of negative revolution. The satellites of Saturn behave in a similar manner to those of Jupiter, the outer one revolving re- versely. In the case of Uranus the proposition is modified. The solar induction field is more attenuated, and the planet is more negative and diffused. Hence the planet's induction field is less concentrated. Hence the equilibration of the satellites admits of a construction more negative than the corresponding satellites of Jupiter or Saturn. The four satellites of Uranus obey the law of negative revolution. A further modification exists in the case of Nep- tune. Here there is a greater negative construction almost approaching cometary conditions. The planet, however, obeys the law of positive revolution, owing to the relatively advantageous placement of positive mat- ter. The satellite, as might be expected, revolves re- versely to positive revolution. The axial rotation of Neptune is retrograde, and this is a most interesting fact. 50 SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. Outward from Neptune the lines of force traversing the solar induction field are extremely attenuated. Positive matter has lost its revolutionary supremacy and here negative matter claims dominion. No cloud ever interferes with the true transparency of the at- mosphere of the solar system, even the spectroscope will ever fail to detect it. However, the quantity of matter diffused beyond the orbit of Neptune must be very large and probably covers a space equal to or greater than that embraced within the orbit of Neptune. Nevertheless, the electric currents of the Sun direct this matter in its orbital revolution and the direction is reverse to that of the planets. When we mentally stand to the north of the solar system the atmosphere of the system revolves from left to right in its upper semi- circle (Fig. 6). It is now clear why Neptune has a retrograde axial rotation. The other planets have a rotatory direction the same as a ball rolling on the floor, and Neptune has a rotatory direction the same as a ball rolling on the ceiling. The positive lines of force of the Sun direct the former, and the negative lines of force from the common atmosphere direct the latter. The lines demarcating the spheres of influence of the forces of the solar system differentiate according to the character of the force. (1) The spheres of solar lineal attraction and lineal repulsion are divided by the plane of the solar equator. (2) The sphere of physical con- centrativeness and the sphere of physical diffusibility are divided by a line demarcating the inner from the outer planets. These, however, are imperfect demar- cations. (3) The sphere of influence of the electric currents of the Sun uniformly extend throughout the whole system, only diffusing, and this is the case with solar heat and light. SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 51 A line dividing the revolutionary directions of posi- tive and negative matter may be said to exist between the planets and the common atmosphere, although with- in this line the axial rotation of Neptune, and the orbital revolutions of some satellites and comets have the direction of negative matter. The Sun dominates the system. His influence extends to the remote regions beyond Neptune, although here his lines of force are weak and the atmospheric lines are strong. The negative force disputes his concen- trating influence and dictates by negative resistance physical states of matter, but as regards kinetic force he still holds sway and his authority is not even dis- puted. The Sun dominates motion, and he also domi- nates all change, for each part of the system beyond his mass is in equilibrium and is incapable of further change through the initiation of its own forces. The Sun is positive or cation in mass and is positive and aggressive in character; the common atmosphere of the system is negative or anion in mass and is negative and resistant in character. Nevertheless, the Sun is as much dependent on the planetary part of the system for his energy as the planets are on him for their energies. The Sun, however, contains in the main the stored energy of the system ; the energies of the planets are principally induced. The computation of the mass and density of the Sun is based on the present accepted conception of gravi- tation. According to our deductions gravitation is limited to one-half of the matter of the universe. It is evident that if the concentrativeness of positive matter is the fundamental principle of gravitation the com- putation of mass and density in general must be some- what wide of the mark. 52 SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. The Sun's axis is the center of the solar system. Its direction indicates the true north and south as regards the system, and its plane cuts the system into two equal parts. The equatorial plane of the Sun also divides the solar system into two equal parts. These two planes should be the landmarks which should relatively in- dicate the localization of all other points within the system. This does not exclude the ecliptic. The solar planes in their relations to the parts of the system may be considered as invariable. The ecliptic is variable. The solar planes bear a direct causal relation to the lines of the universe, the ecliptic bears a direct causal relation to the solar planes. The ecliptic has an ob- liquity of about seven and one-half degrees. The solar planes are straight. That the lines and planes per- taining to the solar system should be regarded as related to the ecliptic is an inherited mark of the Ptolemaic conception of cosmical arrangement. Photosphere. The photosphere is mainly composed of matter whose forces tend toward the solid state, kept in the liquid or gaseous form by heat. The photosphere is the product of one vast volcano which is normal and general to the Sun's surface between 45 north and 45 south latitude. The volcanic condition is rare as well as abnormal at least at present to the Earth's sur- face. If it be supposed that the material of the strati- fied rocks covering the Earth is in a molten state, caused by heat generated at innumerable foci within the un- stratified rocks, and that this heat is the energy derived from electric currents selectively passing through the unstratified rocks, part of which is also rendered molten, we may gain a conception of what is occurring within the photosphere and its relation to the interior of the Sun. SOLAR SYSTEM THE SUN. 53 Rotation of the photosphere is demonstrated by the movement of Sun spots. In the equatorial zone the rotatory period is about 25 days, while at the latitude of 40 the period is 27 days. In a solid body, such as the Earth, this differential rotation is absent, although it may be present in its atmosphere. It manifests in Jupiter, and may be present in all the outer planets. Differential rotation appears to have two causal factors : (1) The intensity of the free force of the particle acted upon. This, in the case of the photosphere and planets, means the intensity of the positive force re- sponding to the induction. This factor is more par- ticularly shown in the case of the rotatory periods of the belts of Jupiter. (2) The polar forces of a body, being opposed to the current forces, must exercise an inhibitory action on the currents and their effects. This is demonstrable by passing a current through an elec- trolyte, the ions accumulating at the poles decreasing the primary current. Thus rotatory motion will be in- versely proportional to the retarding polar force, or directly proportional to the distance from the poles. CHAPTER IV. The Great Cycle. The Sun grows. The conception brings into view law, order, system, absolute conclusions, certainty, evolution, cyclic change, death only to a phase. The Sun con- tracts. The kaleidoscopic views are accident, catas- trophe, cataclysm, cosmic complexity, awe, doubt, death, accidental awakening. The Sun grows. Charged ions emanating from the poles of the planets and deposited at the poles of the Sun build up his mass, increase his forces, feed his energies, and extend and intensify his dominion over the positive or cation matter of the system. The results in the solar body may be expressed in the term ion- ization. Step by step the mass of the Sun extends its boundaries until the whole system is ionized. Concur- rently, the changes occurring as regards the planets are cationization, contraction of their orbits, decrease of their masses, and finally absorption by the Sun. The changes occurring in the common atmosphere of the system are increase of quantity, and enlargement of sphere. The atmosphere will first of all be pushed out during the period of planet building. When the last planet has been formed and when in its situation it has corresponded to Bode's law, then as the orbit of this planet contracts the inner boundary of the common atmosphere will also contract. The last planet of the system, when it is absorbed by the Sun, may have an orbit corresponding with that of Jupiter or that of Saturn. When the last planet is absorbed by the Sun the Sun will have lost his identity. A dark mass of gaseous matter revolves in space by its momentum. THE