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 6>
 
 THE POPULAR 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND: 
 
 ^n Mustrateti lltstorg 
 
 OF SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT FEOM THE EARLIEST 
 PERIOD TO OUR OWN TIMES. 
 
 BY CHARLES KNIGHT. 
 
 VOLUME VIII. 
 
 FROM THE PEACE WITH THE UNITED STATES, 1815, TO THE FINAL EXTINCTION 
 OF THE CORN-LAWS, FEB., 1849. 
 
 ■WITH 
 
 AN APPENDIX OF ANNALS, 1849-1867, AND INDEX. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JAMES SANGSTEK & CO., PATEENOSTER ROW 
 
 [77ie Rij^lit of Translation is resei-vcd hy the Auihor.l
 
 LOJIDON: 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS 
 
 STAMl'ORD SIREEI AKD CHARIKG CROSS.
 
 K74p 
 1876 
 
 V. 8 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— A.D. 1812 to a.d. 1815. 
 
 TAGE 
 
 Wpj with the United States — Federal Government — States composing the Federal Union 
 — Tlie Democratic Party — War declared — Remonstrance of the State of Massachu- 
 setts — Popiilar Violence — Extravagant Hopes — Taxes —Effects of the War upon 
 American Commerce — Cotton— Two Invasions of Canada defeated — Employment 
 of Indians by the British — Naval successes of the Americans — Larger build of the 
 American frigates — The single combat of tlie Shannon and the Chesapeake — Cam- 
 paigns in Canada — Barbarous system of Warfare — American difficulties — Threats 
 of Secession by New England States — Prophetic fears of Jefferson — Peninsular 
 troops sent to America — Attack upon Washington — Non-warlike Buildings 
 destroyed — Failure of Sir John Prevost at Plattsburg — Armament sent against 
 New Orleans — Sir Edward Pakenham's attack on New Orleans — His defeat and 
 death — Retreat of the British — The war ended by the news of the Peace of Ghent ■, ig 
 
 CHAPTER II.— A.D. 1815. 
 
 The Hundred Days — Landing of Napoleon near Cannes — Retrospect of the Restoration 
 of the Bourbons — The Charter — The French army — The Treaty of Paris published 
 — The escape of Napoleon from Elba — Declaration of the Powers assembled in Con- 
 gress — Advance of Napoleon — He is joined by Labedoy^re and Ney — Flight of 
 Louis XVIII. — Napoleon at the Tuileries — British Parliament declares for war — 
 Napoleon organizes his army — Crosses the frontier — Joins his army at Charleroi — 
 Wellington's position — He marches from Bnissels — Battle of Ligny — Battle of 
 Quatre Bras — The field of Waterloo— Positions of the two annies on the night of 
 the 17th, and morning of the 18th of June — The battle of Waterloo . . on 32 
 
 CHAPTER III.— A.D. 1815 to a.d. 181G. 
 
 Napoleon's return to Paris — His abdication— On board the Bellerophon, at Plymouth — 
 Sails for St. Helena — Specimens of the trutli of history — The Allies take possession 
 of Paris — Return of Louis XVIII. — Definitive treaty with France — Settlement of 
 Eui'ope previously arranged by the Congress of Vienna — Holy Alliance — Treaty for 
 the abolition of the Slave trade — Execution of Labedoy^re — Escape of Lavalette — 
 Execution of Ney — The Battle of Algiers 38—18 
 
 429998
 
 IV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— A.D. 1816. 
 
 Meeting of Parliament — Reception of Lord Castlereagli — Debates on the Address — 
 Government defeated on tlie proposed renewal of the Property-tax — Marriage of the 
 Princess Charlotte — Unpopularity of the Prince Regent — Complaints of Agricul- 
 tural distress — Depression of Commerce and Manufactures — Causes assigned for 
 the depression of industry — Reduction of the circulating medium — Unfavourable 
 season — Riots and outrages in Agricultural districts — Renewal of Luddism — Private 
 benevolence — Progress of legislation for social improvement — Criminal Laws — 
 Forgeries of Bank Notes — Police of London — Gas Light — Mendicity and vagrancy 
 — Law of Settlement — General administration of Poor Laws — Inquiry into the state 
 of Education — Savings-banks — Game Laws . ^i_'7q 
 
 CHAPTER v.— A.D. 181G to a.d. 1817. 
 
 Parliamentary Reform taken up by the ignorant and uneducated — Extended circulation 
 of the "Writings of Cobbett — The Hampden Clubs — The Spenceans — Orator Hunt 
 and the Spa-Fields meeting — Riot in the City — ilaetiug of Parliament — Outrage on 
 the Prince Regent — Secret Committees —Habeas Corpus Act suspended, and other 
 stringent measures — The Blanket Meeting at Manchester — Oliver, the spy — The 
 Derbyshire Insurrection — Loi'd Sidmouth's circular letter — Prosecutions for libel — 
 The three trials of "William Hone — The Government and the People— Eulogies on 
 Francis Horner in the House of Commons ....... ^2 91 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— A.D. 1817 to a.d. 161 1). 
 
 Death of the Princess Charlotte — Illness of the Regent — Causes of his gloom and irrita- 
 tion — Opening of Parliament — BiU of Indemnity — The Petition of Ogden — Mr. 
 Canning — Sir F. Burdett proposes a plan of Parliamentary Reform — Royal Mar- 
 riages — Parliament dissolved — Death of Sir S. Romilly — Death of Queen Charlotte 
 — Evacuation of France by the Allied Troops — ^Meeting of the new Parliament — 
 Duke of York the Custos of the King— Act for Resumption of Cash Payments — ■ 
 Sir James Mackintosh's motion on the Criminal Laws — Parliamentary Reform — 
 Grampound — Last efforts of Mr. Grattan for Catholic Emancipation — Revived 
 agitation for Reform — Sir Charles "Wolseley — Mr. Hunt — The Manchester Mas- 
 sacre : so called — Condemnatory addresses and resolutions — Parliament called 
 together — The Six Acts— Death of the Duke of Kent — Death of George III. 93_iic 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— A.D. 1784 to a.d. 1820. 
 
 English Literature in the three latter decades of the reign of George III. — The Poets : 
 Cowper, Crabbe, Burns, Darwin, "Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, Scott, Byron, 
 Shelley, Keats — Narrative character of Poetry — Campbell, Rogers, Leigh Hunt, 
 Moore — Crabbe's latter delineations of manners — More Evangelical spirit in the 
 body of the people— Theological Literature — "Writers for the Stage — The Novelists : 
 Godwin, Holcroft, Dr. Moore, Burney, Scott : the Waverley Novels— The Edin- 
 burgh Review — The Quarterly Review — Blackwood's Magazine — Essayists : "Wilson, 
 Lamb, Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, Do Quiucey — Political Economists — Scientific dis- 
 covery : Herschel, Davy, Dalton, Wollaston — Travellers —Two great mechanical 
 inventions of the Steam-boat and the Printing-machine — Chronological Table of 
 
 British Writers '. . m i^o 
 
 111 — too 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— A.D. 1784 to a.d. 1820. 
 
 State of the Fine Arts to the close of the Regency — Architecture : Imitation of Greek 
 models— St. Pancras Church— "Wyatt and Gothic Restorations— Soane — Bank of 
 England— Holland— Smirke—"Wilkin3— Nash— Regent-street and Regent's-park —
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 Churches — Bridges — Telford — Rennie — Waterloo-bridge — Sculpture : Bcanks, 
 Bacou, Flaxman, Chantrey, Westmacott — The Townley, Phigaleian, and Elgin 
 Marbles — British Institution — Dulwicli Gallery —Painting : West, Copley, Fuseli, 
 Haydon, Lawrence, Wilkie, Turner : his eaiiy popularity — Painting in Water 
 Colours — Engraving — Line Engi-avers — Wood Engraving — Bewick — Lithography 
 
 139—157 
 
 REIGN OF GEORGE IV. -1820. 
 List of the King's Ministers '. . . , . 158 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— A.D. 1820. 
 
 Meeting of Parliament on the demise of George III — Prorogation and Dissolution — The 
 Cato-street Conspiracy — Debate on the subject of Queen Caroline — Differences 
 between the King and the Cabinet regarding the Queen — The Ministerial Proposi- 
 tions finally agi'eed to — Opening of the New Parliament — Preparations for the 
 Coronation — The Queen expected — Her arrival — Green Bag containing papers laid 
 before Parliament — Adjournment — Conferences for averting a public proceeding — 
 Failure of the negotiation — The Bill of Pains and Penalties — Scenes in the streets 
 — Scenes in the House of Lords — The Third Reading of the Bill carried by a small 
 majority — The Bill finally abandoned — Joy of the country — Prorogation — Discus- 
 sions in the next Session on the subject of the Queen — The Coronation of the King 
 — The Queen vainly endeavours to be present — Her Death and Funeral . j eg i-a 
 
 CHAPTER X.— A.D. 1821 to a.d. 1826. 
 
 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte — Parliamentary Strictures on the measures adopted for 
 his secure detention — Circular of the Congress at Laybach — Parliament — Irish 
 outrages — Agricultural distress — New Corn-law — The King's Visit to Scotland — 
 Death of Lord Londonderry — His Foreign Administration — Mr. Canning Secretary 
 for Foreign Affairs — His instructions to the Duke of Wellington, and his Mission 
 to Verona — French Invasion of Spain — Mr. Canning's Remonstrances — The 
 Spanish American separated States — Consuls appointed — Opposition to Mr. 
 Canning's decree to recognise their independence^Their Recognition by the con- 
 clusion of Commercial Treaties— Cii'cumstances which give to a neutral Power the 
 right of recognising States which have effectuall}'' asserted their independence — 
 Discussions with the Minister of the United States of North America — Spanisli 
 Aggression upon Portugal — Promptitude in sending troops for her defence — 
 Important changes in our Commercial Policy — Mr. Huskisson and his defamers — 
 The transfer of England to "the Camp of Progress and Liberty" — The Present 
 and the Past 
 
 175—192 
 
 CHAPTER XL— A.D. 1823 to a.d. 1827. 
 
 Negro Slavery and the West Indies — The Missionary Case — Opening of Parliament, 
 1825 — Public Prosperity — Joint-Stock Companies — Mining Schemes — The Panic 
 in the Money-market — The Panic arrested — Extensive Failures of Commercial 
 Houses — Joint-Stock Banks established— State of the Catholic question — Death of 
 the Didce of York — Illness of Lord Liverpool — Negotiations previous to the choice 
 of a Minister— Mr. Canning's Administration — Violent opposition to Mr. Canning 
 in both Houses — Charge against the Prime Minister that he had given an uncon- 
 stitutional pledge to the King on the subject of Catholic Emancipation — Close of 
 the Session — Death of Mr. Canning — His last Ministerial act, the conclusion of 
 a treaty on the affairs of Greece — Principles of International Law laid down by 
 Mr. Canning — List of the Cabinet of Mr. Canning — Note on the Negotiations which 
 preceded Mr. Canning's Premiership 193— ''>11
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 . CHAPTER XII.— A.D. 1807 to a.d. 1826. 
 
 India — Retrospect from 1807 to 1826 — Lord Miuto Governor- General — Mutiny of Officers 
 at Madras — Successes in the Eastern Archipelago — Trade of India thrown open — 
 Government of the filarquess of Hastings — War with Nepaul — -War with the Pin- 
 darees — The War terminated, and the Maliratta Confederacy broken up — Conquest 
 of Ceylon — Singapore — Malacca — Lord Amherst Governor-General— War with the 
 Birroan Empire — Campaign of Sir Archibald Campbell — Peace with the Birmese — 
 Bombardment and capture of Bliurtpore — Regulation of the Press in India — The 
 case of Mr. Buckingham — Material progress of British India . . . ojo 2'>3 
 
 CHAPTER XIII.— A.D. 1827 to a.d. 1830. 
 
 Administration of Lord Goderich — Turkey and Greece — The Battle of Navarino — Resig- 
 nation of Lord Goderich — Administration of the Duke of Wellington — Parliament 
 — The Sclioolmaster abroad — Progress of Education — Mr. Brougham's Speech on 
 Law Reform — The Xew Metropolitan Police — Repeal of the Corporation and Test 
 Acts — Mr. Huskisson's retirement from the Ministry — Ireland — Election for 
 Clare of Mr. O'Connell — Ministerial views on Catholic Emancipation — Opening 
 of Parliament — Emancipation referred to in the King's Speech — The Catholic 
 Relief Bill moved liy the Duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel — Continued and violent 
 Debates — The Catholic Relief Bill passed — Mr. O'Counell's second return for Clare 
 — Meeting of Parliament - — Motions for Reform — Illness and death of George the 
 Fourth 
 
 225—243 
 
 CHAPTER XIV.— A.D. 1830. 
 
 Oftthof Allegiance taken by Peers and Commoners — Business of Parliament commenced 
 — Unmeasured language in the House of Commons — Motion for a Regency in the 
 event of the King's demise — France — Retrospect of Government in the reign of 
 Charles X. — Prince Polignac appointed President of the Council — Sudden Proro- 
 gation of the Chambers — Algiers — The Royal Ordinances promulgated — The Thi-ee 
 Days of July — Duke of Orleans Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom — Abdication 
 of Charles X. — Duke of Orleans King — Recognition by England of the new Govern- 
 ment of France— Revolution of Belgium — The Opening of the Liverpool and Man- 
 chester Railway — Early opposition to the Railway system — The Locomotive Engine 
 — George Stephenson — His son Robert — Anticipations of the triumphs of Railways 
 — Death of Mr. Huskisson — Opening of Parliament^Declaration of the Duke of 
 Wellington — The King's Visit to the City postponed— Defeat of Ministers on the 
 Civil List — They resign — Mr. Brougham's Parliamentary position — Administration 
 of Earl Grey completed — List of the Ministry — Contemporary Sovereigns and 
 Rulers, 1815-1837— Population of the United Kingdom .... 244 269 
 
 CHAPTER XV.— A.D. 1831. 
 
 Ee-assembling of Parliament — Reform Bill prepared by the Cabinet — Lord John 
 Russell introduces the Reform Bill — Wonder and alarm at its contemplated pro- 
 visions — Fears of the aristocracy — The Debates on the First Reading— The Debates 
 on the Second Reading — Defeat of the Ministry in Committee — Lord Grey and 
 Lord Brougham urge the King to dissolve Parliament — The Dissolution and Gen- 
 eral Election — The Reform Bill carried— The Bill in Committee— It is passed — The 
 Bill in the House of Lords — The Bill rejected upon the Second Reading — Resolu- 
 tions of the House of Commons — Parliament prorogued .... 270 285 
 
 CHAPTER XVI.— A.D. 1831 to a.d. 1832. 
 
 Intense excitement during the Prorogation — Dangers from popular ignorance — Incen- 
 diary fires and machine-breaking — The Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol Riots — 
 Destruction of property at Bristol — The Cholera approaching— Cowardly alarmists
 
 CONTENTS, Vll 
 
 — Central Board of Health formed — Parliament — New Reform Bill passed by the 
 Commons — The Bill in the Lords read a Second Time — Political Unions — The 
 Lords' Committee, and the majority against Ministers — The King refuses to create 
 Peers — The Ministry resign — The Duke of Wellington attempts to form a govern- 
 ment — The negotiations fail — The Reform Ministry returns to power — The King's 
 consent to a creation of Peers given, but not exercised — Final passing of the 
 Reform BUI 286-300 
 
 CHAPTER XVII.— A.D. 1832 to a.d. 1833. 
 
 Dissolution of Parliament — Proceedings for elections imder the Reform Act — Effect of 
 changes in the system of Representation — Condition of the Nomination Boroughs — 
 Electoral changes in close corporations — The new Representation — Metropolitan 
 boroughs — Manufacturing towns— Scotland — Ireland — Approaching Meeting of the 
 Reformed Parliament — Fears of Anti-Reformers — Extension of Popular Literature 
 during the crisis — Parliamentary Ptepresentation of the United Kingdom before the 
 Reform Acts of 1832 301—313 
 
 CHAPTER XYIII.— A.D. 1833. 
 
 Opening of the New Parliament — Election of the Speaker — The King's Speech — 
 Mr. O'Connell's Amendment — Declaration of Sir Robert Peel — Coercion Bill for 
 Ireland passed by the Lords — Public Health — Observance of the Sabbath — Coei'cion 
 Bill in the House of Commons — The Coercion Bill passed — Financial Measures — 
 Cobbett's Motion against Sir Robert Peel — Bill for the Reform of the Irish Church 
 — Abolition of Slavery in the British Colonies — Effects of the Abolition — Limita- 
 tion of Labour in Factories — Bank Charter — East India Company's Charter — 
 Prorogation — The Ballot 32^ 335 
 
 CHAPTER XIX.— A.D. 1834. 
 
 Poor Law Amendment Act — Commission for Preliminary Inquiry — Commissioners' 
 Report — Striking instances of Parochial Reform at Cookham and Soutliwell — State 
 of the Southern Agricultural Coimties — Of the Manufacturing Districts — Violent 
 opposition to the measure — The Bill passed — Debate on the Repeal of the Union 
 with Ireland — Irish Church — Resignation of Mr. Stanley and three of his colleagues 
 — Resignation of Lord Grey — The Melbourne Administration — The Budget — Pro- 
 rogation — The Grey Banquet at Edinburgh — The Houses of Parliament destroyed 
 
 ^yfii^e 336-348 
 
 CHAPTER XX.— A.D. 1834 to a.d. 1835. 
 
 The King's dismissal of the Melbourne Ministry — Sh Robert Peel's Narrative of his 
 Appointment to the Premiership — The Peel Administration formed — Parliament 
 dissolved — The Tamworth Manifesto — Strong Parliamentary opposition — Mr. Aber- 
 cromby elected Speaker — London Universitj Charter — Irish Church — Repeated 
 defeats of Ministers — Resignation of Sir Robert Peel — Lord Melbourne's New 
 Ministry — Exclusion of Lord Brougham — His Resolutions on the subject of 
 Education — Reform of Municipal Corporations — Report of the Commission of 
 Inquiry — Conflict between the two Houses — The Bill passed — Departing glories of 
 Municipal pomp 351-3C5
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI.— A.D. 1836 to a.d. 1837. 
 
 Parliament : Session of 1836— Opposition of the Lords to the Irish Corpoiatious' Bill — 
 Loi-d Lyndhurst — Alleged Lichfield-house Compact — Tithe Commutation Act — Act 
 for allowing Counsel to Prisoners — Act for Eegulation of Prisons and for appointing 
 Inspectors — General Registration Act — Reduction of Stamp on Newspapers — 
 Reduction of Paper Duty — Foreign Politics — Belgium — Spain — France — Conspi- 
 racies against Louis Philippe— Enterprise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Strasbourg 
 — Parliament — Illness of King William IV. — His death — His character — Accession 
 of Queen Victoria— Ministry at Her Mnjesty's accession — Table of Treaties — Table 
 of National Debt ........... ogg ogg 
 
 CHAPTER XXII.— area a.d. 1837. 
 
 Social condition of Great Britain at the period of the accession of Queen Victoria — 
 Occupations of the people — Growth of cities and towns — London — Increase of 
 hoiises — Supply of food — Improved means of communication affecting that supply 
 — Cheapening of the necessaries of life— Conveyance of mails by railway — Limited 
 Postal accommodation— Public Health — Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the 
 Labouring Classes — Exposure of the imfitness of many dwellings for healthful 
 occupation — "Workrooms without ventilation, such as those of Tailors and Milliners 
 — Public arrangements influencing the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Popu- 
 lation — Neglect and ignorance universal — Want of Drainage — Inadequate Water 
 Supply for the preservation of cleanliness — Public Baths and Wash-houses unknown 
 — Interments ^vithin the precincts of large towns — Public AValks not provided — 
 State of the Factories — Number of workers in Textile manufactures — Beginnings 
 of Improvement — Mining Pojiulation — Employment of Children and Women in 
 Mines — Agricultural Labourers — Operation of the New Poor-law — Neglect of the 
 Labourers by the richer classes — Miserable Cottage accommodation — Dorsetshire 
 Labourer's — Field Employment of Women and Children — Constabulary Report — 
 Crime in England and Wales — Juvenile delinquency — General state of Education — 
 First aid of the State to voluntary exertions — Increase of Schools and Scholars — 
 Limited ability to read and write amongst the adult population — General aspects 
 of English society ggg ^q| 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII.— A.u. 1837 to a.d. 1839. 
 
 Separation of Hanover from Great Britain — Departure of the King of Hanover — The 
 Queen meets the Parliament — Dissolution — Ministry at the Queen's accession — 
 The New Parliament^ — Canada — Insurrection in Canada — Lord Durham appointed 
 Lord High Commissioner — Resigns his ofHce — His Report — Coronation of the Queen 
 — Prorogation — Review of the Session — Canterbury fanatics — Career of John Thorn 
 — Proclaims himself the Messiah at Bough ton — The Three Days' March of his 
 deluded followers — Neglect of Education in tlie district — The Tragedy of Bosenden 
 Wood — Meeting of I'arliament — Chartism — Condition of the Labouring Classes — 
 Jamaica — Resignation of the Ministrj' — Failure in the attempt to form a New Ad- 
 ministration — The Bedchamber Question — DitJoj-al Tories — Chartist Riots^ 
 Insurrection' at Newport — John Frost and others tried for High Treason . aqa if,. 
 
 CPIAPTER XXIV.— A.D. 1810 to a.d. 1841. 
 
 The system of Penny Postage first comes into ojicration — Mr. Rowland Hill — Opposition 
 to the proposed change — Postage Stamps — Marriage of the Queen to Prince Albert 
 of Saxe Coburg — Privilege of Parliament — Stockdale v. Hansard — Attempt upon 
 the Queen's life— Prorogation — A flairs of the Levant — Treaty of Alliance — Exclusion 
 of France — Prince Napoleon lands near Boulogne — Failure of his attempt to produce 
 an insurrection — Dili'crences of England and France on the Aflairs of the East —
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 War threatened — M. Thiers and Lord Palmerston — Naval successes against 
 Mehemet Ali — Interment at Paris of the remains of Napoleon — Session of Parlia- 
 ment — The Anti-Corn-law League — Declarations of the Ministry on questions of 
 Free-trade — Debates on the Sugar Duties — Ministers defeated on the question of the 
 Sugar Duties — Meeting of the New Parliament — Amendment to the Address carried 
 — Kesignation of Ministers — The Ministry as formed by Sir Robert Peel . ^04 440 
 
 CHAPTER XXV.— A.D. 1840 to a.d. 1842. 
 
 War with China and War with Afghanistan — Commercial relations with China — Begin- 
 ning of the Opium War — Its moral aspects — Debates in Parliament — Chusan 
 captured — Treaty made at Canton repudiated by the Emperor — Canton attacked — 
 Arrival of Sir H. Pottinger — Capture of Chin-Kiang-Foo — Treaty of Nanking — 
 Afghanistan — Lord Auckland Governor-General of India-- Causes of the Afghan 
 War — British Army crosses the Indus — The Bolan Pass — Siege of Ghu2nee — Cabul 
 entered in triimiph — Shah Soojali restored — False security at Cabul — Afghan plots — 
 Massacre of Burnes — The British Army in peril — Massacre of M' Naghten— Capitu- 
 lation of the British— The Ketreat from Cabul — Ladies and children given up — 
 Destruction of the Army — One survivor arrives at Jellalabad — Sale's defence of 
 JeUalabad — Arrival of General Pollock — Cabul retaken — Release of the prisoners — 
 The Army returns to India — Lord Ellenborough's Proclamations — Gates of Som- 
 ^«"th 443-461 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI.— A.D. 1842. 
 
 Continuation of the previous notices of English literature — Law of Copyright — Mr. 
 Serjeant Talfourd's long struggle to amend the law — Mr. Carlyle's petition — 
 Serjeant Talfourd's bill rejected — Lord Mahon's bill — Mr. Macaulay's amendments 
 — Application of the Act to copyrights about to expire — Authors recently deceased 
 — Novelists — Theodore Hook and the Silver-fork School— Ephemeral critics and 
 writers without knowledge — Utilitarianism — Changes in the character of literature 
 — Historians : Macaulay, HaUam, Carlyle, Lingard, Eraser Tytler, Palgrave, 
 Kemble, Forster, Mahon, Napier, Mitford, ThirlwaU, Grote, Arnold — Novelists : 
 Bulwer Lytton, Dickens, Ainsworth, Thackeray — Serials — Prevalence of Fiction — 
 Kitchen Literature — Miss Martineau's Tales illustrative of Political Economy — 
 Social Aims of Novelists — Dickens — Mrs. Gaskell — Kingsley — Thackeray's Novels 
 — Poets : Tennyson, Browning, E. Barrett Browning, Thomas Hood — Union of Pen 
 and Pencil — Theology — Milman — Robertson — Political Economy — Science — 
 Ciiticism — Antiquarian Inquiry — Travels — Book Trade — Newspapers — Note on 
 the Classes of Books published, 1816 to 1851 — Chronological Table of British 
 Writers ^qo 487 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIL— A.D. 1842 to a.d. 1843. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, prime minister — Commercial distress — Birth of the Prince of Wales — 
 — Agitation against the Corn-laws — Sir Robert Peel's Bill for a sliding scale — Lord 
 John Russell's proposal of a fixed duty — Income-tax renewed — Reduction of the 
 tariff — Petition for the People's Charter — Assaults on the Queen — Parliament pro- 
 rogued — Relations with France — Treaty of Washington: Boundary question — 
 Disturbances in the Manufacturing Districts — Opening the Parliament, 1843 — 
 Debate on the depression of Maniifactures — Mr. Cobden and Sir Robert Peel — 
 Corn-law Debate — Mr. Charles Puller's Speech on systematic Colonization — 
 Monster meetings for the Repeal of the Union — Arrest of O'Connell — The Scotch 
 Church : Secession of ministers to constitute the Free Church — New district 
 churches in England — The Rebecca riots — Suppression of the disturbances in 
 
 '^^^^^ • - 4?2— 506 
 
 VOL. viii. — h (})
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 PAoa 
 CHAPTER XXVIII.— A.D. 1843 to a.d. 1845. 
 
 General Sir Charles Napier — War in Scinde — Destruction of Emaun Ghur — Battle of 
 Meanee — Annexation of Scinde — Napier the beneficent administrator — Gwalior — 
 BecaU of Lord EUenborough — Trial of O'Connell — Debates on Corn-laws — The 
 Session of 1844 '■ — Position of Sir Eobert Peel — Renewal of the Bank Charter — 
 Eegulation of labour in Factories — Lord Ashley's Ten Hours' clause rejected — 
 Debates on Sugar Duties — Opening letters by the Secretary of State — Pveports of 
 Committees — Lady Hewlet's bequest— O'ConneU's sentence reversed by the House 
 of Lords — Dilference with France on the treatment of the British Consul at Tahiti 
 — Visit of King Louis Philippe to the Queen — Prince de JoinviUe's pamphlet on the 
 naval forces of France ^q-j 522 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX.— A.D. 1845 to a.d. 1846. 
 
 Parliament opened — Improved state of the kingdom — Sir Robert Peel's new tariffs 
 Opposition of the Country party — Mr. Cobden's motion for inquiring into agricul- 
 tural distress — Grant to Maynooth College — Queen's Colleges in Ireland — Jews 
 admitted to municipal offices — Prorogation — Apprehended failure of the potato 
 crop in Ireland — Proposal of Sir Eobert Peel to the Cabinet — Lord John Russell's 
 letter to the electors of London — Dissensions in the Cabinet — Sir Eobert Peel 
 resigns — Failure of Lord John Russell to form a ministry — Sir E. Peel resumes 
 power — Parliament opened by the Queen — Sir E. Peel asserts his determination to 
 be unshackled as minister — The new Tariff and the Corn-law Bill introduced by 
 Sir E. Peel — Debate of twelve nights in the Commons — The bills passed in both. 
 Houses — Bill for the Protection of Life in Ireland rejected by a majority against 
 the government — Eesignation of Sir E. Peel — The Eussell Administration — The 
 Oregon question settled — History of the controversy — British Columbia — India — 
 War with the Sikhs — Battle of Moodkee — Sir Henry Hardinge and Sir Hugh 
 Gough — Battle ot Ferozeshah — Battles of AUiwall and Sobraon — Treaty of peace — 
 Lord John Eussell's Ministry ^24 545 
 
 CHAPTER XXX.— A.D. 1846 to a.d. 1848. 
 
 The great Irish Famine— The Potato rot of 1845 and 1846 — Modes of relief adopted by 
 the government — Mr. O'ConneU's caU upon England for help — His death — Muni- 
 ficent subscriptions — Irish Landlords and Cottier Tenants — Navigation Laws 
 suspended — Ten Hours' Factory Bill — Abundant harvest in England — Monetary 
 pressure and panic — Excitement on the subject of national defences — The Duke of 
 Wellington's letter — Proposed increase of the Income-tax — The House of Commons 
 (in the night of the 24th of February — News of the abdication of Louis Philippe — 
 Eeal causes of the overthrow of the French monarchy — The Eevolution of 1848 — 
 Provisional government appointed — Chartism in England revived by the Socialist 
 Revolution — The 10th of April — Preparations of the government — Physical-force 
 Chartism at an end — The attemjit at insurrection in Ireland — The French Eepublic 
 established in bloodshed — Paris in a state of siege — Prince Louis Napoleon, presi- 
 dent — Convulsions of the Continent — Progress of improvement in England — The 
 Public Health Bill — The impulse to social amelioration given by Prince Albert — 
 Free-trado banquet at Manchester to celebrate the final extinction of the Corn-laws 
 — Meeting of Parliament the next day — Tranquillity and loyalty of England con- 
 trasted in the Royal Speech with the condition of the Continental kingdoms . 5^^ ^q^. 
 
 PosTSOEirr 564
 
 TABLES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 contempdrary so^-ekeig^'s and eclers 568, 569 
 
 Population of the United Kingdom, 1851-1861 570 
 
 Occupations of the People, 1851 571 
 
 Census of Eeligious Worship, 1851 672 
 
 Census of Education, 1851 573 
 
 Public Income and Expenditure, 1815-1850 ....... 574 
 
 Commerce 575 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Ajinals, 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 . 578 
 
 Annals, 1859 
 
 . . 581 
 
 1860 
 
 . 583 
 
 „ 1861 
 
 . . 584 
 
 1862 
 
 . 586 
 
 1863 
 
 . . 587 
 
 1864 
 
 . 588 
 
 1865 
 
 . . 590 
 
 „ 1866 
 
 . 591 
 
 „ 1867 
 
 . . 593 
 
 
 595 
 596 
 598 
 600 
 601 
 604 
 607 
 610 
 613 
 
 INDEX to Voi& I. TO VIII. 
 
 Cl( 1 il
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 PORTRAITS ON STEEL. 
 
 Victoria I.— Pkince Albert Frontispiece. 
 
 Brougham, 1821— L\t;dhurst, 1820— LivERrooL, 1820 . . . tofacepagt 72 
 
 Campbell — Crabbe— Byron— Coleridge ., ,. HI 
 
 Flaxman — WiLKiE — J. M. W. Turner — George Stephenson— 
 
 C. Barry „ ., 139 
 
 Canning — Grey— Huskisson — Peel ,, ,, 193 
 
 George IV.— William IV. ,, ,, 244 
 
 Melbourne, 1832— Palmerston, 1832— Russell, 1825 ...„,, 336 
 Aberdeen, 1843— Derpy, 1860— Richard Cobden, 1843— P^wland 
 
 Hill, 1860 , „ 424 
 
 Tennyson — Carlyle — Macaulay — Dickens, 1839 — Thackeray, 
 
 1843 , ,, 462 
 
 Sarah Siddons — Harriet Martixeau — Charlotte Bronte — 
 
 Elizabeth Browning >, ». 481 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Hougoumont — Gateway 
 Fann-ysu-d, from the Inte- 
 rior 
 
 Hougoumont — Exterior of 
 Garden Wall 
 
 Montmartre and St. Denis : 
 Paris in the distance . . 
 
 SUituo of Bonaparte, by Ca- 
 nova, in Apsley Houkc 
 
 The Uoyal Exichange in 1S17 . 
 
 Claremont . . . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 of 
 
 Abbotsfonl Ill 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Herschol's Great Telescope at 
 
 Slough 130 
 
 Safety Lamp . ... 131 
 Printing Machine . . .132 
 Waterloo Bridge . . . . 139 
 Bank of England, North-west 
 
 View 143 
 
 Waterloo Place, leading to- 
 ward Regent Street . . .145 
 Hill Fortress . . . .212 
 Column in I^a Place Vend6me 244 
 Paris in the Thi-ee Days of July 253 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Paris, in July, 1830 . . . 25f- 
 
 Bramber Castle . . . . 30! 
 
 Finsbury Fields in the time 
 of EUzabeth .... 307 
 
 Pl5,n showing the extent of 
 the Fire in the Houses of 
 Parliament . . . . 350 
 
 University College, Gower St. 3H> 
 
 Plan of Eight Miles round 
 St. Paul's, taken from the 
 Population Ketums of 1831. 3SS 
 
 Chinese Military Station . . 450
 
 POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 \Tar with the United States — Federal government — States composing the Federal Union — The 
 Democratic Party — War declared — Remonstrance of Massachusetts — Popular violence — 
 Extravagant hopes — Effects of the War upon American commerce — Cotton— Two invasions 
 of Canada defeated — Emoloyment of Indiaas by the British — Naval successes of tlie 
 Americans — Larger build of the American frigates — The single combat of the Shannon 
 and the Chesapeake — Campaigns in Canada — Barbarous system of warfare — American 
 difficulties — Threats of secession by New England States— Prophetic fears of Jefferson — 
 Peninsular troops sent to America^Attack upon Washington — Non-warlike buildings 
 destroyed — Failure of sir John Prevost at Plattsburg — Sir Edward Pakenham's attack on 
 New Orleans — His defeat and death — Retreat of the British — The War ended by the 
 news of the Peace of Ghent. 
 
 The Diary of Mr. Abbot, the Speaker, for the month of March, 1815, 
 contains brief but remarkable entries which may suggest some notion of the 
 agitation of the public mind when the news came of two most uuexpected 
 and untoward events. 
 
 " March 8th. — News arrived this day of the failure of the attack on New 
 Orleans ; and the loss of general Pakenham, general Gibbs, and 2500 men 
 killed and wounded." 
 
 " March 10th. — News arrived of Bonaparte having escaped from Elba, and 
 landing at Antibes, with 1000 men." 
 
 The second startliug piece of intelligence, following so close upon the 
 announcement of a great defeat of the British army in America, might have 
 suggested to many a belief that the treaty of peace and amity between 
 Great Britain and the United States, signed at Ghent on the 24th of 
 December, had not been ratified ; that the escape of Bonaparte had been 
 anticipated by his democratic friends in America ; and that a war in both 
 hemispheres would make the peace as perishable as " The Temple of 
 Concord," splendid with lamps and fireworks for a few hours, upon which 
 the people had gazed in the Green Park on the night of the 1st of August. 
 The Peace of Ghent had nevertheless been duly ratified. In the days before 
 steam communication, news from Europe did not reach the United States in 
 less than seven or eight weeks. Port Mobile, at one of the mouths of the 
 Mississippi, had been surrendered to the British on the 11th of Pebruary. 
 The news of the conclusion of peace between the plenipotentiaries at Ghent 
 was received in the States on the 14th of Pebruary. 
 VOL. vni. — 225.
 
 2 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. [1812 
 
 "W^e now propose, as intimated in our previous volume, to review the 
 progress of this unhappy war with the United States.* To render this 
 narrative more intelligible, we shall take a brief view of the position of the 
 Union at the period of the rupture with Great Britain, in June, 1812. 
 
 The iFederal government as then constituted, and as still subsisting, 
 entered upon its iunctions in 1789. On the 21st of February, 1787, Congress 
 haf], deplaTed th?.t it wan unable to conduct the government under the articles 
 of the ■first eonfedcfat:®n of 1777. Each of the thirteen States had then its 
 separate legislature, each being, in fact, an independent republic assuming 
 an absolute sovereignty. There was no sufficient central authority to act 
 for the whole of the States as composing one nation. An assembly of fifty-five 
 members, with "Washington as its president, framed the second constitution, 
 by which the authority is divided between the Federal government and the 
 States. The object aimed at was, that each State should continue to govern 
 itself in whatever concerned its internal aifairs, but that the Union should 
 represent one compact body, providing for the general exigencies of the 
 people. The Constitution did not attempt to prescribe the government of 
 the separate States, each of which had its own constitution. The nature and 
 duties of the Federal government were defined with an exactness which 
 shows how comprehensive was the prevision of the able men who drew up 
 the articles which during a very long period maintained so many conflicting 
 interests in tolerable harmony. The Federal government was endowed with 
 legislative, executive, and judicial powers. All legislative authority was 
 vested in a Congress of the United States, consisting of a Senate and a House 
 of Eepresentatives. The Senate was composed of two members from each 
 State, whether large or small. The House of Eepresentatives was composed 
 of a varying number from each State, according to the amount of population. 
 With the Congress abided the power of raising an army and navy, of 
 declaring war, of making peace, of levying taxes for the common defence and 
 welfixre of the United States. The executive power was vested in an elective 
 President of the United States, who, in some particulars, was to act under 
 the advice and with the consent of the Senate. The judicial power of the 
 Federal government was vested in one supreme court, in district courts, and 
 in circuit courts. 
 
 The sovereignty of the people, which had been nurtured amongst the 
 original settlers, became the guiding principle of the revolution which 
 established the independence of America. Tlie most conspicuous leaders of 
 that revolution were men of old family and of competent fortunes ; but the 
 democratic element, progressively increasing in power, gradually weakened 
 and finally destroyed the influence derived from property and from ancient 
 associations. The English laws of entail enabled estates, especially in 
 Virginia, to be transmitted from generation to generation. Estates tail were 
 abolished in Virginia in 1776 : in other States the English entail laws were 
 wholly suppressed ; and in others were greatly modified. The desire for free 
 circulation of property, in accordance with the general principles of equality 
 which pervaded tlic American government, caused the rejection of the 
 English laws respecting descent. " If a man dies intestate, his property goea 
 
 * Ante, vol. vii. p. 545.
 
 1812.] STATES COMPOSING THE FEDERAL UNION. 3 
 
 to liis heirs in a direct line. If he has but one heir or heiress, he or she 
 Bucceeds to the whole. If there are several heirs of the same degree, they 
 divide the inheritance equally amongst them, without distinction of sex." * 
 
 In 1790 the Federal Union comprised the New England States of Maine, 
 New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, lihode Islaud, Connecticut; the 
 Middle States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland; 
 the Southern States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 
 Vermont had been added to the original Federation of thirteen States — 
 indicated by the stripes of the American flag. These States, with about 
 100,000 settlers in Tennessee and Kentucky, had, in 1790, according to the 
 census, a population of about 4 millions ; in 1800 the population was 
 nearly 5^^ millions ; in 1810 it was nearly 7^ millions. The rate of increase 
 in twenty years was very large in the States composing the Union in 1790 ; 
 but a million of people bad been added in 1810 by the families that had 
 penetrated into the wilds of the West and South-West. Communities rose up, 
 in regions almost unknown to the founders of the American republic, to 
 claim their place in the Union as independent States, having a sufficient 
 amount of population to entitle them to that distinction. Kentucky was 
 admitted to the Union in 1792; Tennessee in 1796; Ohio in 1803. 
 Louisiana, which had been purchased from France in 1803, became a 
 member of the Federation in 1812. These States added largely to the 
 democratic element in the government. In 1790 there were nearly 700,000 
 slaves in the Union ; in 1800 they approached 900,000 ; in 1810 they 
 amounted to nearly 1,200,000. Of the old States, the four Southern, with 
 Maryland, contained, almost exclusively, the Slave Population. Tbe coloured 
 race were soon abundantly found amongst the swarms of the new Western 
 States, particularly in Kentucky and Tennessee. In the ratio of Repre- 
 sentatives to Population, three-fifths of the slaves were added to the whole 
 number of free persons in each State. The slaves, uncared for by legislation, 
 augmented the legislative power of the slave-owners. Universal Sulfrage 
 had one exception — " Blacks excluded." 
 
 Such was the community that, in 1812, declared war against Great 
 Britain. 
 
 John Adams, the second President of the United States, was elected upon 
 the retirement of Washington after his eight years' service, at the end of 
 1796. According to the American constitution, the President might be once 
 re-elected on the expiration of his first term of four years. Adams was not so 
 re-elected, although he had filled the office of Vice-President for eight years 
 under Washington. Each of these eminent men was opposed to the 
 extreme Democratic party, of which Jefierson was the most distinguished 
 representative. The contest between the Federalists and the Democrats 
 was the most violent that the Union had beheld ; and it ended by the 
 election of Jelferson as President by a majority of one vote of the electoral 
 body. Jefferson himself described this event of 1801 as a pacific revolution, 
 as real as that of 1776 — a revolution not in the form of the powers, but in 
 the principles, of the government, which had compelled the vessel of the 
 
 * Kent's "Commentaries," quoted in De Tocaueville, "Ddnocracy in America," foI. L 
 p. 283.
 
 4 THE DEMOCRA.TIC PARTY— WAR DECLARED. [ISI'2, 
 
 state to float out of the monarchical current in which a faction, as if 
 possessed — a faction composed of Anglicised Eoyalists and Aristocrats — had 
 detained it during the sleep of the people. The revolution of 1801, he held, 
 had carried the vessel of the state into its natural course — the Eepublicaa 
 and Democratic course.* 
 
 During the Presidency of "Washington it was with great difficulty that he 
 could prevent the sympathies of the people with Eepublican Erance from 
 plunging America into a war with England. There had been a French and 
 an English party since the Union of the States in 1789. It is pointed out 
 as remarkable, that most of the veterans who bore arms against England 
 during the Eevolution had become of the English party. This party 
 included the majority of the wealthy and the educated. But the universality 
 of suffrage more and more compelled every candidate for power to become 
 the partizan of France. f When the Democratic party became supreme under 
 Jefferson from 1801 to 1809, and afterwards under James Madison, although 
 it might have been conceived that the despotism of the Consulate and the 
 Empire would have revolted the genuine friends of liberty, the commercial 
 derangements arising out of Bonaparte's Milan and Berlin decrees were 
 tenderly dealt with, whilst tlie results of the counter measures of the British 
 Orders in Council created in the majority an exclusive bitterness of feeling 
 against this country. J The injuries inflicted upon American commerce by 
 the decrees of Napoleon called forth no warlike manifestation of American 
 resentment. The Orders in Council of England, in connection with the 
 assertion of our claim to a right of search for British sailors in American 
 trading vessels, produced a hostile Message to Congress of the American 
 President on the 1st of June, 1812. This was the prologue to the Act of the 
 18th of June of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, by which war was 
 declared " to exist between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland and the dependencies thereof and the United States of America and 
 their territories." Eive days after the date of this declaration of war, and 
 before the Message of Madison could have been known in England, our 
 government had unconditionally suspended the Orders in Council as regarded 
 America. A conditional revocation of the Orders had appeared in the 
 " Loudon Gazette" of the 3rd of April. This holding out the hand of 
 fellowship did not produce a corresponding demonstration. The great 
 Democratic party were bent upon war.§ 
 
 To attempt to arrive at an impartial estimate of facts from the counter- 
 pleas of two parties in a civil cause, is a very difficult and unsatisfactory task. 
 To judge between two angry nations by the accusations and recriminations ot 
 their manifestoes, would be an attempt still more embarrassing to the his- 
 torian. The Message of the American President of the 1st of June is such 
 an ex-parte manifesto ;|| the Declaration of the Prince Eegent, relative to the 
 causes and origin of the war with America, of the 9th of January, 1813, is a 
 
 * Cornelis de Wit, "Thomas .Tefforson, ]<;tu(le Ilistcrique," Paris, 18fil. 
 
 t Simond, "Tour in Great Britain," vul. i. p. 321). 
 
 X Ante, vol. vii. pp. 493-494. 
 
 § Avie, vol. vii. )) .'■i4 4. 
 
 11 "AiiDual IJcgisti-i" lur 1S12, p. 424. 
 
 1 
 
 1
 
 1S12.1 REJIOXSTRANCE OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 5 
 
 state paper of a similar character.* There is, however, a very remarkable 
 document of American origin, which, although coming from a community 
 whose interests were deeply opposed to the war, may furnish some evidence 
 to test the value of the rival pleas of the two belligerent governments, t On 
 the 14th of June, 1813, the Legislature of the State of Massachusetts addressed 
 a Remonstrance to the Senate and Representatives of the United States in 
 Congress assembled, in Avhich it was contended that, " the promptness with 
 which Great Britain hastened to repeal her Orders, before the declaration of 
 war by the United States was made known to her, and the restoration of an 
 immense amount of property, then within her power, can leave but little 
 doubt that the war, on our part, was premature ; and still less, that the perse- 
 verance in it, after that repeal was known, was improper, impolitic, and unjust." 
 The Legislature of Massachusetts maintained that the United States had never 
 induced Great Britain to believe that the impressment of her own seamen on 
 board of American ships was a reasonable ground of war. It held that the 
 evil of impressment had been grossly exaggerated ; X and that an honest and 
 fair proposal to exclude the subjects of Great Britain from the American 
 service would have produced an honourable and advantageous arrangement 
 of the whole question. The Prince Regent, in his Declaration, avers, that the 
 complete subserviency of the government of the United States to the ruler 
 of Erance was the real cause of the war ; that " from their common origin, 
 from their common interests, and from their professed principles of freedom 
 and independence, the United States was the last power in which Great 
 Britain could have expected to find a w^illing instrument and abettor ot 
 Preuch tyranny." The Remonstrance of the Legislature of Massachusetts 
 echoes this charge in words of glowing eloquence : " If war must have been 
 the portion of these United States ; if they were destined by Providence to 
 march the downward road to slavery, through foreign conquest and military 
 usurpation ; your remonstrants regret that such a moment and such an occa- 
 sion should have been chosen for the experiment ; that while the oppressed 
 nations of Europe are making a magnanimous and glorious effort against the 
 common enemy of free states, we alone, the descendants of the pilgrims, 
 sworn foes to civil and religious slavery, should voluntarily co-operate with 
 the oppressor to bind other nations in his chains." 
 
 The policy of Jefferson during the eight years of his Presidency, and that 
 of Madison during the first three years of his tenure of ofiice, was not to 
 draw the sword against either of the two great belligerents who interfered 
 with the peaceful course of American commerce by their decrees and counter- 
 decrees. Their weapons were embargoes and tariffs. Gradually the war- 
 party in the States became irresistible. Six months only were wanting to 
 the completion of the term of Madison's Presidency ; he would not be re- 
 elected if he did not yield to the popular voice, whose passionate expression, 
 in the Slave States especially, was no evidence against its real strength. In a 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xsiv. p. 363. 
 
 + "Annual Register," 1813, p. 409 (State Papers). 
 
 * Simond says that one half of the crews of American ships were British seamen, havinr; 
 false protections, and yet not one in a hundred was impressed. He himself owned twenty-four 
 American vessels, and had not ten sailors impressed out of them during the war, although a 
 great Tiumber were British-born. (" Tour," vol. i. p. 334.)
 
 6 POPULAR VIOLENCE— EXTRAVAGANT HOPES— TAXES. [1S12. 
 
 mixed government the violence of the multitude has a counterpoise in the 
 sagacity and prudence of the more educated classes. In America, when two 
 generals, friends of "Washington, who had advocated peace, were conveyed to 
 prison to shelter them from tlie mob, and when the mob broke open the 
 prison, fractured the skull of one, and killed another on the spot, the lesson 
 was very intelligible to waverers between war and peace. Jefferson himself 
 dreaded going to war, because " the licentious and lying character of our 
 journals, but more than this, the marvellous credulity with which the 
 members of Congress received every current lie," would produce constant 
 embarrassment to the government in the conduct of the war. The news- 
 papers had become a new power in the Federation, " indispensable to the 
 existence of freedom, and nearly incompatible with the maintenance of public 
 order." * Tet their rapid and excessive multiplication had neutralized their 
 influence. In 1775 there were 37 newspapers in the thirteen States ; 
 in 1810 there were 358 in the Union. Jefferson, however "quaker" 
 was his general policy, looked upon the probable issue of the war of 1812 
 with an almost childish confidence. The United States had only to create 
 a marine to free the seas from the ascendancy of Grreat Britain, Upon 
 American ground they would be irresistible. The invasion of Canada would 
 be only a march. To carry Halifax would be merely an affair of a few months. 
 New Tork might be burnt by the British fleet, but could not the government 
 of the Union, in its turn, cause London to be burnt by English mercenaries, 
 easily recruited from a starving corrupt population ? No truce, no inter- 
 mission, before Canada was obtained as an indemnity for a thousand ships 
 seized by British cruisers, and for six thousand seamen carried off by im- 
 pressment. No sheathing the sword before full security for the future was 
 obtained for every man sailing under the American flag. All this accom- 
 plished, — peace with Great Britain, and war with France. Such were the 
 dreams of the man who drew the first Declaration of Independence, and who 
 believed that nothing was beyond the power of a democratic government.f 
 The warlike impulses of this democracy were sensibly mitigated by the 
 sudden pressure of taxation for the general purposes of the Federal govern- 
 ment, in addition to the local taxation of each State. In the four years 
 ended ISll, the expenditure upon the Military and Naval Establishments was 
 about 24 millions of dollars. In the four years ended 1815, they had reached 
 102 millions of dollars. The Public Debt had been more than doubled 
 between 1813 and 1816, as compared with the four previous years. 
 
 The injurious effects to the commerce of both countries which residted 
 from the British Orders in Council, the American Embargo Acts, and the 
 war, are manifest in the returns of exports of British produce to the 
 United States, and of the total exports from American ports to all countries. 
 In 1807 the United States imported nearly twenty-nine millions of pounds' 
 worth of foreign merchandise, and exported twenty-two millions and a half 
 of home and foreign produce. In 1811 the imports and the exports were 
 less by one half. In 1811 the total imports from all parts of the world 
 
 * De Tocqueville, vol. ii. p. 20. 
 
 t These opinions are supported by a reference to five letters of JeflFerson, of January, .Tune, 
 and August, 1812, to be found iu "Works of Jeiferson," vol. vi. See De Wit, "Thomas 
 Jefferson," p. 35G.
 
 1S12.] EFFECTS OF THE WAR UPON COMMERCTl;;— COTTOX. » 
 
 amounted only to 2,700,000^., and the total exports to 1,440,000/. TI16 
 internal resources of America vrere indeed very great, in her unlimited amount 
 of territory, in the adventurous industry of her people, and in the rapid multi- 
 plication of the communications between the several States. In 1790 there 
 were under 2000 miles of Post Routes, with 75 Post-offices. In 1S15 there 
 were nearly 44,000 miles of Post Eoutes, with 3000 Post-offices. But the 
 American population would never have quadrupled in half a century without the 
 stimulus of foreign commerce. The great Cotton cultivation of the Southern 
 States was at the period of this war very imperfectly developed, and their 
 slave population was consequently less identified with the ruthless tyranny 
 of the demand for labour than with the milder servitude under the original 
 planters. It might have been supposed that the interruption of our cotton 
 supply by the war of 1812 would have produced an essential derangement of 
 that great brancb of our manufacturing industry wbich had enabled us in a 
 considerable degree to support the pressure of the continental war. But at 
 that period the imports of American cotton were comparatively trifling. The 
 first arrival of cotton wool from America was one bag from Charleston 
 delivered at Liverpool in 1785. In 1791 only 2,000,000 lbs. of cotton were 
 grown in the United States ; in 1801 the crop was about 40,000,000 lbs. ; in 
 1811 the crop was estimated at 80,000,000 lbs. The exports of cotton, which 
 had been 62,000,000 lbs. in 1811, were reduced to 28,000,000 lbs. in 1812, 
 and to 19,000,000 lbs. in 1813. AVhen we compare these figures with the 
 961,707,264 lbs. of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom from the 
 United States in the year ending 31st of December, 1859, we may estimate 
 the danger and difficulty of a diminished supply now, as compared with the 
 period when the commercial intercourse of the two countries was wholly sus- 
 pended, except through the extensive operation of that contraband trade which 
 no blockade or embargo could prevent.* It is a singular fact, as showing the 
 notions of commercial policy which prevailed at that period in the legislative 
 mind, that Earl Darnley, in the House of Lords on May 14, 1813, complained 
 that " American Cotton, on a systera that could not be too severely repro- 
 bated, had, until lately, been allowed to be imported, to the great detriment 
 of our own colonies, and to the great advantage of the territory of our 
 enemies." t The cotton-spinners of York at that time addressed a petition 
 to the House of Commons, in which they said, that having learnt that 
 petitions had been presented to the House in favour of a prohibition on the 
 exportation of cotton-wool, the growth of America, they prayed the House 
 not to adopt any measures which could assist the efi"orts of foreign nations 
 to supplant our cotton manufacture, and which would prove the entire ruin 
 of the trade of the petitioners. J 
 
 In the Eemonstrance of Massachusetts the Congress is asked, " Must we 
 add another example to the catalogue of republics which have been ruined bv 
 a spirit of foreign conquests "Were not the territories of the United 
 
 * For tlie preceding statistical facts regarding the United States at the time of the War, 
 ^e have consulted "Geography of America," published by the Society for Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge ; Porter's "Progress of the Nation ;" Macgregor's "Commercial Statistics," vol iii. ; 
 the "English Cycloptedia," art. United States ; and the " American Almanac," for 1861. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. xxvi. col. 180. 
 
 t Ibid., p. 203.
 
 8 INVASIONS OF CANADA DEFEATED— INDIANS, [1812 
 
 States sufficiently extensive before the annexation of Louisiana, the pro- 
 jected reduction of Canada, and the seizure of AVest Florida ? " Within a 
 fortnight after the declaration of war, the American general Hull set out for 
 the invasion of Canada with a force of 2800 men. On the 12th of July he 
 crossed the river Detroit, and captured the small open town of Sandwich. 
 From this place he issued a proclamation threatening a war of extermination 
 if the savages were employed in resisting his advance. The English com- 
 mander, major-general Brock, had, however, collected a force of 700 British 
 regulars and militia, and GOO Indians, with which he repulsed Hull in three 
 attempts against Fort Amherstburg, and compelled him to recross the river 
 to Detroit. On the 16th of August Hull capitulated with 2500 men to 
 Brock and his little army. A second attempt to invade Upper Canada was 
 made by the American general Wadsworth, who, on the 13tli of October, 
 carried Queenstown with a large force. In the defence of Queenstown, 
 general Brock, the gallant English commander, fell ; but reinforcements of 
 English troops having arrived, Wadsworth was totally defeated, and sur- 
 rendered with 900 men. At the time of Hull's capitulation to Brock, the 
 American fort in the small island of Michillimackinac was taken by a force of 
 English, of Canadians, and of Indians. 
 
 The employment of Indians in the first American war had aroused the 
 eloquent wrath of Chatham, when he exclaimed, " "Who is the man who will 
 dare to authorize and associate to our arms the tomahawk and scalping knife 
 of the savage ? " Not only American but English writers denounce their 
 employment in the war of 1812, as a stain upon our national reputation. 
 Certainly it is to be apprehended that whenever the Indians were acting in 
 detached bodies, as allies of the British and Canadians, their warfare was 
 marked by the reckless destruction of life and property, and by their accus- 
 tomed cruelty to the vanquished enemy. It is not clear, however, that 
 the charge is unexceptionably just that the British brought into the 
 conflict "savages of too low an order to be under military command."* 
 It is but fair to state that in the last despatch of general Brock, addressed 
 to sir George Prevost, Governor in chief of the British provinces 
 of North America, he says, that many of the Indian nations had been 
 engaged in active warfare with the United States, notwithstanding the con- 
 stant endeavours of the British government to dissuade them from it ; that 
 from the breaking out of the war, they took a most active part ; and that 
 they were led in the attack upon Hull at Detroit by an English colonel and 
 an English captain. "Nothing," adds general Brock, "could exceed their 
 order and steadiness. A few prisoners were taken by them during the 
 advance, whom they treated with every humanity. Such was their forbear- 
 ance and attention to what was required of tliem, that the enemy sustained 
 no other loss in men than what was occasioned by the fire of our battery." f 
 This might have been an exceptional case, in which the common ferocity of 
 Indian warfare might have been controlled by one of the most honourable and 
 the most lamented of the British officers in America. The savages fighting under 
 him cannot be described as of " too low an order to be under military com- 
 
 * n. ]\Tartincaii, "Introduction to History of thn Peace." 
 + London Guzttte, October Gtli, 1812, iu "Annual Register."
 
 1S12.] NAVAL SUCCESSES OF THE AMERICANS. 9 
 
 mand." The British authorities undoubtedly put anus into the hands of tlie 
 Indian chiefs when the war broke out. The crime was not iu arming these 
 daring warriors, with the intent to bring them under the common subjection 
 of the soldier to his officer ; but in leaving them when they were armed to 
 their own uncontrolled action, in which "forbearance" would have been 
 accounted by them weakness and not virtue. 
 
 The early successes of our land forces could scarcely have been expected. 
 The number of regular British troops in Canada was about 4500 men ; the 
 militia of the two provinces was not more in number. The American regular 
 army was equally small. But the prowess of the American militia had been 
 capable in the former war of gaining victories over the disciplined troops of 
 Burgoyne and Cornwallis. The politicians of London were surprised at the 
 victories of 1812. They saw a great host of the militia of the Northern States 
 ready to fight with the warlike enthusiasm of democratic populations. They 
 were unacquainted with the philosophical demonstration, " that wben a 
 democratic people engages in a war after a long peace, it incurs much more 
 risk of defeat than any other nation." The first successes of our armies in 
 America begat a confidence that the duration of the war would be attended 
 with similar triumphs. There was surprise when our troops in Canada were 
 beaten. There was universal indignation when, in the last year of tlie war, 
 the choicest of the Peninsular troops were routed at New Orleans. It was 
 not understood that the chances of success for the army of a democratic people 
 are necessarily increased by a prolonged war ; and that such an army, if not 
 ruined at first, would become the victors.* 
 
 At the commencement of the war of 1812, the naval force of the United 
 States consisted of four frigates and eight sloops, manned by 6000 seamen 
 The British navy comprised, of ships in commission for sea service, a total of 
 621 ; of these, 102 were ships of the line ; of frigates, from 41 guns to 32, 
 there were 111 ; of smaller frigates, sloops, gun-brigs, and cutters, there 
 were more than SOO.f "What, thought the people of this country, could the 
 petty American navy efi"ect against such a force ? The London Gazette, 
 of the 6th of October, announced the capture of Detroit and the capitulation 
 of Hull. The London Gazette, of the lOth of October, contains a despatch 
 from vice-admiral Sawyer, enclosing " a letter from captain Dacres, of his 
 Majesty's late ship Guerriere, giving an account of his having sustained a 
 close action of near two hours, on the 19th ult., with the American frigate 
 Constitution, of very superior force both in guns and men (of the latter 
 almost double), when the Guerriere, being totally dismasted, she rolled so 
 deep as to render all further efforts at the guns unavailing, and it became a 
 duty to spare the lives of the remaining part of lier valuable crew by hauling 
 down her colours." The American frigate Constitution, which captured the 
 Guerriere, was of 1533 tons, wliilst the English frigate was of 1092 
 tons. On the 16th of October the American brig Wasp captured the 
 British sloop Frolic, each being of 18 guns, but the American vessel much 
 superior in tonnage. Both these small vessels were captured soon after 
 the action by the British ship of the line Poictiers. Another disaster quickly 
 
 * See De Tocqueville, veil. iv. chap. xxiv. 
 i" See Tables to James's "Naval History."
 
 10 LARGER BUILD OF AMERICAN FRIGATES. [1812. 
 
 followed the loss of the Gruerriere. The British frigate Macedonian, after a 
 most gallant fight, was captured by the American frigate United States. As 
 in the case of the Guerriere, the tonnage of the Macedonian was nearly a 
 tliird less than the tonnage of the enemy's frigate. Again, on the 29th of 
 December, the Java, of 1092 tons, was captured by the Constitution. The 
 British sloop Peacock, which struck to the American brig Hornet on 
 the Mth of February, 1813, was the fifth ship of our navy, numbering 
 621 vessels in commission for sea service, which had hauled down its 
 colours in engagements with four ships of that navy which comprised only 
 four frigates and eight sloops.. The people of this country were in asto- 
 nishment, and almost in despair, at this unexpected result. The glory of our 
 navy had departed. " The charm of its invincibility had now been broken ; 
 its consecrated standard no longer floated victorious on the main." * Prance 
 and other nations rejoiced, saying that England's maritime tyranny was at an 
 end. The Admiralty was assailed by denunciations of its incapacity and 
 neglect. It was answered that our naval force on the American stations at 
 the commencement of the war was in no degree insufficient ; that from Halifax 
 to the West Indies there were stationed sliips seven times more powerful 
 than the whole of the American navy. Our government was evidently 
 ignorant of the great inequality in the comparative size of what were called 
 American frigates. The Constitution, the United States, and the Presi- 
 dent, were intended for line-of- battle ships. Although only single-decked 
 vessels, they had the same tonnage and capacity for carrying men as the 
 greater number of British two-deckers. They were ships of the line in dis- 
 guise. The Americans no doubt knew that the captain of a British 32-gun 
 frigate was bound to fight any single-decked ship, and that he would be 
 liable to a court-martial if he shrank from such an engagement. Our govern- 
 ment, which prescribed the rule, shut its eyes to the inevitable danger. 
 Scarcely a frigate of our navy in the Atlantic was sailing with a consort. As 
 in the outset of every other war, and too often during its continuance, the 
 British Admiralty was the slave of routine. It neither built frigates, nor cut 
 down liue-of-battle ships, capable of meeting these enormous American vessels 
 called frigates. It sent the captains and crews of ordinary frigates to fight 
 single-handed against such disparity of force. There were numerous fast 
 two-deckers that might have been employed on the American stations, ready 
 for meeting these vessels on equal terms. The Admiralty believed that a 
 frigate was a frigate, and ouglit to contend with any other frigate. The 
 government was, in truth, too busy with the European war to pay much 
 attention to an enemy regarded with an official feeling approaching to 
 contempt. 
 
 Seven years only had elapsed since the glories of Trafalgar, when the 
 British navy felt degraded and humiliated by these unforeseen triumphs of 
 an enemy with whoui that generation of seamen had never measured their 
 strength. A spirit of emulation was quickly roused. The commanders and 
 crews of ships in the Atlantic knew that it would not be enough to make 
 prize of merchant vessels and sweep privateers from the seas, but that the 
 honour of the British flag would be impaired unless some achievement could 
 
 • Eari Dnniley in the House of Lords, May 14, 1813— (KaTisarJ, vol. xxiv. col. 182.)
 
 1813.] THE SINGLE COMBAT OF THE SHANNON AND THE CHESAPEAKE. 11 
 
 restore its old prestige. There was a captain of a frigate on the Halitax 
 station whose chivalrous feeling prompted him to some exploit in which, with 
 an equal enemy, he might rely upon a sound ship and upon well-trained 
 men. Captain Broke, of the Shannon, had, by careful training, brought 
 his crew into the highest state of efficiency. He had been long watching the 
 frigate Chesapeake in the harbour of Boston. These frigates were of nearly 
 equal strength in their weight of metal and their number of men. Captain 
 Broke, in his desire to fight a duel with the American frigate, had sent away 
 his consort, the Tenedos, and had then despatched a courteous challenge to 
 captain Lawrence of the Chesapeake, in which he says : — " I request you 
 will do me the favour to meet the Shannon, ship to ship, to try the fortunes 
 of our respective flags. All interruption shall be provided against." This 
 challenge was sent on the 1st of June, and immediately afterwards the 
 Shannon lay-to under Boston lighthouse. Captain Lawrence had not 
 received Broke's letter when he sailed out of the harbour, followed by many 
 seamen and other inhabitants of Boston in barges and pleasure boats, who 
 expected that this daring demonstration of the hostile frigate would be 
 followed by its speedy capture. At half-past five in the afternoon the 
 American hauled up within hail of the Englishman on the starboard side, 
 and the battle began. After two or three broadsides had been exchanged, 
 the Chesapeake fell on board the Shannon, her mizen chains locking in with 
 her adversary's fore-rigging. Broke immediately ordered the two ships to be 
 lashed together, and the select men to prepare for boarding. His own pith}- 
 narrative tells the result more efiectively than any amplification. " Our 
 gallant bands appointed to that service immediately rushed in, under their 
 respective ofilcers, upon the enemy's decks, driving everything before them 
 with irresistible fury. The enemy made a desperate but disorderly resistance. 
 The firing continued at all the gangways, and between the tops, but in two 
 minutes' time the enemy were driven sword in hand from every post. The 
 American flag was hauled down, and the proud old British union floated 
 triumphant over it. In another minute they ceased firing from below, and 
 called for quarter. The whole of this service was achieved in fifteen minutes 
 from the commencement of the action," This single combat, fought on the 
 anniversary of Howe's great victory, had as much effect in restoring the 
 confidence of England in her naval arm as if an enemy's squadron had been 
 brought captured into her ports. Captain Broke sailed off" with his prize for 
 Halifax, where captain Lawrence, who had fought his ship with real heroism, 
 died of his wounds, and was followed to the grave by the officers of the 
 Shannon. 
 
 The details of the campaigns in Canada would have small interest for the 
 present generation. The vicissitudes of this warfare, the advance of the 
 Americans one week and their retreat the next, the skirmishes, the surprises, 
 scarcely excited the attention of the public of this country, coming close 
 upon the stimulating narratives of the retreat of Napoleon from Moscow, or 
 the march of Wellington from Torres Vedras to Madrid. The battle of 
 " Chrystler's Farm" could scarcely compete in interest with the victory of 
 Salamanca. In 1813 the British were compelled to evacuate Tork (now 
 Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. The Americans there burnt the 
 public buildings ; which act was alleged as the justification for a more
 
 i2 CAMPAIGNS IN" CANADA— BARBAROUS SYSTEM OF WARFARE. [1813. 
 
 memorable and more disgraceful act of retaliation by the Britisli at Wash- 
 ington. In an attack upon Burlington, the Americans were compelled to 
 fall back upon Niagara, and lost a great part of their army in a series of 
 unsuccessful actions. The British on the Detroit frontier were forced to 
 retreat in confusion. On Lake Ontario our troops, under sir George Prevost, 
 were repulsed in an attack upon Sackett's Harbour. On Lake Erie the 
 superior force of the enemy destroyed our flotilla; and the Americans, 
 obtaining the command of the lake, became masters of Upper Canada. Ten 
 thousand men then marched from different points upon Lower Canada, 
 where the action near Chrystler's Parm took place, and the American army, 
 totally routed, precipitately crossed the St. Lawrence. General Hull 
 sustained another severe defeat on the 25th of December. In this campaign, 
 when the American general evacuated Port St. George, by the express orders 
 of his government he burnt the Canadian village of Newark. The order 
 said, " The exposed part of the frontier must be protected by destroying such 
 of the Canadian villages in its front as would best shelter the enemy during 
 the winter." "When the British troops under colonel Murray defeated the 
 Americans at Buffalo, that village was burnt as well as the village of Black 
 Eoek ; and the Indians were let loose on the surrounding country to take 
 vengeance for the conflagration of Newark. Sir George Prevost then issued 
 a proclamation lamenting the necessity which had compelled these reprisals, 
 and deprecating a continuance of so barbarous a system of warfare. His 
 retaliation had some effect upon the Americans in putting a stop to what an 
 officer of that government called the " new and degrading system of defence, 
 which, by substituting the torch for the bayonet, furnished the enemy with 
 both motive and justification for a war of retaliation."* The disgrace 
 remained to both sides. The retaliatory spirit was strangely exhibited 
 during this year in another form. Twenty-three prisoners of war were sent 
 to England to be dealt with as British subjects. The American general 
 then ordered into close confinement twenty-three British soldiers, as hostages 
 for the safety of tbe twenty-three who were liable to be dealt with aa 
 traitors. Our government selected forty-six officers and non-commissioned 
 officers — prisoners in England — to be regarded as hostages for the safety of 
 the twenty-three prisoners in America. The affiiir went off with menaces ; 
 :ind, oa an exchange of prisoners, the British who had fought against their 
 country, and the hostages, were silently released. 
 
 The desultory, indecisive, and useless fightings in Canada had produced 
 not the slightest effect upon the relative positions of Great Britain and 
 America. The English, however, had learnt not to underrate the courage 
 and enterprize of their enemy ; the Americans had learnt that Canada couid 
 not be conquered in a day's march, and that a handful of disciplined troops 
 might defend the country against numerous bands imperfectly organized. 
 The naval successes of the United States were almost wholly at an end after 
 the first year. Our government learnt a little caution and providence, and 
 gave up the false confidence that any English frigate could fight a vessel 
 whose tonnage was as three to two. The merchant service of both countries 
 sustained severe losses ; but American commerce suffered still more from the 
 
 • Armstrong (American Secrctai^-at-War) — quoted by Alison.
 
 ISll.] AMERICAN DIFFICULTIES— THREATS OF SECESSION. 13 
 
 restrictive measures of the American government. The interru])tiou to the 
 dealings of North and South with neutral states was so serious, that in 
 March, 1S14, the President proposed to Congress the repeal of the Embargo 
 and Non-Importation Acts. The British government proclaimed a blockade 
 of the whole Atlantic coast of the United States, nearly 2000 miles in extent, 
 and abounding in harbours and navigable inlets. The President, on the 
 29th of June, proclaimed that such blockade was not a regular or legal 
 blockade, as defined and recognized by the law of nations, and that it formed 
 no lawful prohibition or obstacle to friendly and neutral vessels to trade with 
 the United States. We have shown that in 1814 the total exports of the 
 United States had fallen to less than a million and a half in value. The 
 government had almost wholly lost, in the excessive falling off of imports, its 
 great source of revenue — the Customs. It resorted in 1814 to taxes on excisable 
 articles, to licences, and to stamps. The system of loans, coupled with the 
 issue of Treasury notes was also adopted ; and the public debt was very 
 quickly doubled. The Democratic party was depressed, and almost hopeless. 
 Jefferson himself began to speak with bitterness of the ruin of the planters, 
 of the weight of taxes, of the silly boasts of the press.* The personal lot of 
 this distinguished man was truly pitiable. He said, that as for himself, this 
 state of things would compel him to make the sacrifice of all tranquillity, of 
 all comfort, for the rest of his days. From the total depreciation of the pro- 
 ducts which ought to procure him subsistence and independence, he should 
 be, like Tantalus, dying of thirst, with the water up to his shoulders. The 
 New England States began openly to complain of that preponderance of the 
 Southern States which had forced the Union into war. Very early in the 
 contest Massachusetts and Connecticut had refused to send their contingents 
 to the army of the Union ; and now Massachusetts proposed to confer with 
 delegates from other New England States, "to take measures if they think 
 proper, for procuring a convention of delegates from all the United States, 
 to revise the Constitution" — in other words, to break up the Union. Six 
 years later, the question of preponderance between the North and South 
 was again agitated, upon the discussions on the admission of Missouri to 
 the Union ; in which struggle the great question was involved, whether 
 slavery should be established in that State, or excluded by the terms of 
 admission. The confidence of many thoughtful persons in the United 
 States in the duration of the Union had been sbaken by the divisions of 
 Eederalists and Republicans, which had reached a climax in the war of 1812. 
 Jefferson, one of the most foreseeing of the founders of the Eepublic, did not 
 regard these divisions with alarm, because they existed in the bosom of each 
 State. What he regarded with alarm was the coincidence of a line of demarca- 
 tion, moral and political, with the geographical line. The views of a sagacious 
 statesman are sometimes prophetic. The idea of a line of geographical 
 demarcation involving a difi"erent system of politics and morals, once con- 
 ceived, he thought could never be eftaced. He believed that this idea would 
 appear, on every occasion, renewing irritation, and kindling in the end hate 
 80 mortal, that separation would become preferable to eternal discord. H« 
 
 Letters of Jefferson, in the sixth volume of Lis Works.
 
 14 PENINSULAR TROOPS SENT TO AMERICA. [1814. 
 
 bad been, be said, of tbose wlio bad bad the firmest confidence in tbe long 
 duration of tbe Union ; be began much to doubt it.* 
 
 On tbe 31st of May, 1814, two thousand four bundred gallant troops, 
 tbe soldiers of Wellington in tbe Peninsula, were on board a fleet in 
 tbe Garonne, waiting a favourable wind to sail for America. Tbej con- 
 sisted of tbe Forty-fourtb and tbe Eigbty-fifth regiments, and bad marcbed 
 from Bayonne wben tbe wbite flag boisted on tbe citadel bad announces, 
 tbat tbe war witb France was at an end. Tbe squadron sailed for Bermuds^ 
 where they were joined by other forces. Tbe troops, amounting to aboui* 
 3500 men, were under the command of general Ross. Admiral Cockburn 
 commanded tbe fleet. These ofiicers were experienced and energetic. Their 
 political discretion may be doubted, altbougb their first dangerous and 
 unjustifiable measures might have been under tbe positive direction of 
 tbe government at home. Having taken possession of tbe Tangier Islands 
 in the Bay of Chesapeake, they invited tbe negroes in tbe adjoining pro- 
 vinces, with a promise of emancipation, to join tbe Britisb forces. Seven- 
 teen bundred men fled from their plantations, and were marshalled in 
 tbe English ranks. This incitement of the negro population to revolt 
 was a measure that tbe most uncompromising hostility and the nearest 
 danger could scarcely justify. The Britisb government bad to pay a beavy 
 fine to the owners of the slaves ; tbe amount of wbicb was referred at 
 tbe Treaty of Ghent to tbe emperor of Russia. He awarded a com- 
 pensation of 250,000Z. On the 14tb of August admiral Cockburn offi- 
 cially announced to Mr. Monroe, tbe American Secretary of State, that 
 it was bis purpose to employ the force under bis direction " in destroy- 
 ing and laying waste sucb towns and districts upon the coast as may be 
 found assailable." He added tbat this was in retaliation for a wanton 
 destruction committed by the army of the United States in Upper Canada.f 
 The announcement was afterwards withdrawn. The spirit of it was un- 
 happily preserved, to diminish the lustre of a brilliant attack upon the 
 capital of the United States. J 
 
 Tbe Britisb squadron having ascended tbe river Patuxent, tbe army 
 was disembarked at tbe village of Benedict, witb tbe intention of co- 
 operating with admiral Cockburn in an attack on a flotilla of gunboats. 
 The army commenced its marcb on tbe 20tb of August, and in three days 
 had advanced to within sixteen miles of Washington. Admiral Cockburn 
 bad during this time taken and destroyed tbe whole of the flotilla. On the 
 23rd general Ross determined to make an attempt to carry Washington. 
 He put bis troops in motion on tbe evening of tbe 23rd, and on tbe 24tb 
 
 * Works, vol. TJi. quoted by De Wit. See Miss Martineau, " History of tlie American 
 Compromises." 
 
 t Alison, in quoting this announcement, makes admiral Cockburn say, that it became his 
 duty to do this " under the new and imperative character of his orders." 
 
 X The duke of Wellington had ever scrupulously respected private property, and had spared 
 defenceless places. When the Prince de Joinville, in 1814, suggested the bombardment of 
 Brighton in the event of a war, the duke ■wrote to Mr. Raikes — "What but the inordinate 
 desire of popularity could have induced a man in his station, a prince of the blood royal, the 
 son of the king, of high rank and pretensions in that profession of the service, to write and pub- 
 lish such a production — an invitation and provocative to war, to be carried on in a manner such 
 as has been disclaimed by the civilized portions of mankind." — (Ilaikes' " Correspond iace," 
 p. 306.)
 
 ISli.] ATTACK UPON WASHINGTON. 15 
 
 defeated the American army, amounting to between eight and nine thousand 
 men. The catastrophe is related in few words by general Boss : — " Having 
 halted the army for a short time, I determined to march upon Washington, 
 and reached that city at eight o'clock that night. Judging it of consequence 
 to complete the destruction of the public buildings with the least possible 
 delay, so that the army might retire without loss of time, the following 
 buildings were set fire to and consumed : — the Capitol, including the Senate- 
 House and House of Eepresentatives, the Arsenal, the Dockyard, Treasury, 
 War-office, President's Palace, Rope-walk, and the great Bridge across the 
 Potomac : in the dockyard a frigate nearly ready to be launched, and a sloop- 
 of-war, were consumed. The object of the expedition being accomplished, 
 I determined, before any greater force of the enemy could be assembled, to 
 withdraw the troops, and accordingly commenced retiring on the night of 
 the 25th." 
 
 The indignation of the American people was naturally extreme at an 
 event which was not unjustly characterized in a proclamation issued from 
 Washington on the 1st of September. The President therein accuses the 
 invading force, that during their possession of the capital of the nation, 
 though only for a single day, " they wantonly destroyed the public edifices, 
 having no relation in their structure to operations of war, nor used at the 
 time for military annoyance ; some of these edifices being also costly monu- 
 ments of taste and of the arts, and others repositories of the public archives, 
 not only precious to the nation, as the memorials of its origin and its early 
 transactions, but interesting to all nations, as contributions to the general 
 stock of historical instruction and political science." In England there was 
 a general feeling that, however brilliant had been the attack upon Washington, 
 the destruction of non-warlike buildings was something more than a mistake. 
 It was an outrage inconsistent with civilized warfare, which was not likely 
 to produce " on the inhabitants a deep and sensible impression of the cala- 
 mities of a war in which they have been so wantonly involved." Such was 
 the thoughtless and undignified language of the Prince Regent's speech on 
 opening the Session of Parliament on the 8th of November. A more sober 
 view of this demonstration of the calamities of war was taken by a high mili- 
 tary authority at the Horse Guards. " It may tend to disunite and to spread 
 alarm and confusion, but I incline to think that it will give eventually more 
 power to the Congress. A nation may be overpowered and compelled to 
 peace, but it must be a most contemptible set to be frightened into one."* 
 Lord Grenville, with dignified earnestness, lamented a departure from a 
 system of forbearance which had been pursued even by Napoleon during a 
 conflict of twenty years, in whose hands nearly all the capitals of Europe had 
 been, and in no instance, except in that of the Kremlin of Moscow, were any 
 unmilitary buildings destroyed.f We had done, said Mr. Whitbread, what 
 the Goths had refused to do at Eome, when Belisarius represented to 
 them that to destroy works of art was to erect a monument to the folly of 
 the destroyers. J He maintained that the outrage at Washington had con- 
 
 * Sir "WilloTigliby Gordon, Letter to the Speaker, October 1st, 1814 — Lord Colchester ■ 
 ''Diary," vol. ii. p. 520. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. xxix. col. 17. 
 
 + See Oibbon, chap, xliii., a.d. 506.
 
 16 FAILURE OF SIR JOHN PREVOST AT PLATTSBURG. [1814, 
 
 ciliated to the American government tliose parts of the United States which 
 were before hostile to it; had put in motion battalions of militia which before 
 were not allowed to march. It had united all. It had made determined 
 opposition to England a common interest.* 
 
 "Whether to the destruction of the public buildings of Washington may 
 be attributed the extraordinary vigour which seemed now to be infused into 
 the military character of the American democracy, it is certain that after that 
 event the course of the war was one of almost unvarying success to their 
 arms. In a battle on the 11th of September, which was the prelude to an 
 attack upon Baltimore, general Eoss was mortally wounded ; and colonel 
 Brooke wiio succeeded to the command, although gaining a victory, was com- 
 •pelled the next night to retreat to the ships which were intended to co-operate 
 in the assault. The Americans had sunk twenty vessels in the Patapsco 
 river, which effectually prevented tlie British squadron rendering any aid. 
 But a more serious blow was inflicted upon the army in Canada. Our forces 
 there, under sir George Prevost, had been augmented till they had reached 
 sixteen thousand regular troops, who had arrived from the South of France, 
 with the full conviction on the part of our government that the war would be 
 speedily concluded by this array of veterans against undisciplined masses. 
 Nine thousand of the soldiers of the Peninsula were to act in co-operation 
 with a flotilla on Lake Champlain. This little fleet of a frigate, a brig, a sloop, 
 and twelve-gun boats, was ill-manned and equipped. The American squadron 
 on the lake was very superior in strength. The troops under Prevost were 
 to attack the redoubts of Plattsburg, tphilst our flotilla was engaged with 
 the vessels in the bay. Captain Downie led his ship the Coufiance gallantly 
 into action ; but when a heavy fire opened from the American line, the gun- 
 boats, which bad few British sailors on board, took flight like scared wild 
 fowl. The frigate, brig, and sloop were left to bear all the brunt of the eon- 
 test. The Confiance made a brave fight, as did the brig and sloop ; but they 
 were finally compelled to strike. Meanwhile, Prevost lingered ia making the 
 land attack ; and his troops did not reach the point of assault till the fleet 
 had surrendered. He had been thus instructed by earl Bathurst : "take care 
 not to expose his Majesty's troops to being cut off; and guard against what- 
 ever might commit the safety of the forces under your command." He 
 obeyed his instructions to the letter. The command of the lake was lost; 
 and therefore it was useless to attack Plattsburg. A violent outcry was 
 raised against our commander of the forces in Canada. He resigned ; and 
 demanded a court-martial. Wellington thought Prevost was right to retire 
 after the fleet was beaten.f He died before the court-martial commenced. 
 His defence of Canada, with a small force, against repeated incursions of an 
 enemy whose numbers were long thought by the Americans to be irresistible, 
 ought to have saved his memory from the obloquy which has been attempted 
 to be thrown upon it by some writers. J 
 
 On Christmas Day, 1814, general sir Edward Pakenhara, one of the most 
 brave and skilful of the ofilcers who had served under AYellingtou in Spaiu, 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxix. col. 47. 
 + " Despatclus," vol. xii. p. 224. 
 
 ;. A writer in tlie "Quaicerly lleview," No. LIV. is amongst the bitteicst of his a'-'"a.'»era. 
 Alieoc has ably anil <;»,uev(.u.s)y Ujri:iided him.
 
 1814.J ARMAMENT SENT AGAINST NEW ORLEANS. 17 
 
 joined the army that was encamped a short distance from New Orleans, 
 preparing for an assault upon that city. The British government had not 
 unjustly deemed that the capture of a place situated within a hundred miles 
 of the mouth of the Mississippi, and which therefore was the chief emporium 
 of the commerce of the " Great Water," would be an important success, and 
 have a material influence on the favourable conclusion of a peace. Sir Edward 
 Pakenham, accompanied by general Gibbs,i.had arrived from England to take 
 the chief command of the army, which, after the fall of general Eoss, had been 
 under the orders of general Keane. Pakenham found this army, having 
 achieved no final success at Baltimore, now placed in a situation of con- 
 siderable danger and difficulty. On that Christmas-day the ofiicers dined 
 together, but their festivity was not cheered by any pleasant retrospect of a 
 past triumph which could give them confidence in an approaching victory. 
 New Orleans was an unfortified town, then containing only about 17,000 
 inhabitants — one-tenth of its population in 1860. The forts on the Mississippi 
 were too strong to enable an armament to sail up from its mouth in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. But a hostile force having passed from Lake Borgne into Lake 
 Pontchartrain, might land at either of two creeks. The Bayou of St. John was 
 too well guarded to render a landing easy. The Bayou of Catiline, about ten 
 miles from the city, was more practicable ; but an army having landed would 
 find itself planted on open swampy ground, with the Mississippi on the one side 
 of the city, and a morass on the other side, preventing any assault except 
 from the unfavourable ground on the bank of the lake. 
 
 On the 13th of December the troops embarked in small boats, and 
 began to enter Lake Borgne. They had here to encounter a powerful 
 American flotilla, which was finally defeated. A portion of the troops 
 was now landed on a barren place called Pine Island, where it was 
 determined that the whole army should assemble. It was the 21st before 
 all were got on shore in this wretched desert, where, without tents oi 
 huts, and unable to find fuel, the troops were exposed to rain by day 
 and to frost by night. Pine Island was eighty miles distant from the 
 creek where it was proposed to disembark. Only about one-third of the 
 troops could be conveyed at once in the open boats, which only could 
 navigate those shallow waters. It was necessary therefore to arrange for the 
 landing in divisions. The advanced division, consisting of 1600 men, suc- 
 cessfully disembarked at the Bayou of Catiline, having surprised the American 
 sentinels. General Keane was in command of this division. No enemy 
 was to be seen. Deserters came in, saying that the inhabitants of New 
 Orleans were favourably disposed towards the British, Everything appeared 
 to promise safety, and general Keane marched into the open country without 
 waiting, as had been arranged, for the other divisions to join him. He 
 ordered the troops to encamp near the Mississippi. The men had eaten their 
 supper in the belief that their rest would not be disturbed, v\hen a large 
 vessel dropped her anchor in the river, and furled her sails opposite the 
 camp. A cry was at last heard, " Give them this for the honour of America !" 
 and a broadside of grape swept down numbers of our unprepared soldiers. 
 The night was dark as the schooner continued to fire from the river. On the 
 land side the rattle of musketry was now heard. Our troops had found some 
 shelter from the fire of the schooner, but now they were surrounded by a 
 VOL. vm.— 226.
 
 13 ATTACK UPON NEW ORLEANS— DEFEAT OF THE BRITISH. [181.'5. 
 
 superior land force. After a severe struggle, without any possibility of 
 forming the men, the enemy retreated. We liad lost five hundred killed and 
 wounded in this deadly strife. The second division of the army, which had 
 embarked about twelve hours after the first division, heard the firing in the 
 stillness of the night, as the boats were crossing the lake. By great exertions 
 the whole army had been brought into position on the evening of the 24th. 
 The next day Pakenham arrived to take the command, and was received with 
 such hearty cheers as manifested the confidence of the soldiers in a Peninsular 
 commander. 
 
 The first object of the general was to construct a battery, by which, firing 
 red-hot shot, he destroyed the schooner on the river. On the 27th he 
 advanced his whole force to attack the American army. It was advan- 
 tageously posted, being defended in front by a broad canal, and by formidable 
 breastworks. The road by which the army marched was not only commanded 
 by batteries, but by a flotilla on the Mississippi. The British ranks were 
 greatly thinned by this conjoint fire. It was thought necessary to pause 
 before further operations. All this eff'ectual resistance had been evidently 
 planned by some oflScer of high military talent. That ofiicer was general 
 Jackson, who became President of the United States in 1829. The British 
 army was inactive on the 28th, 29th, and 30th. The enemy was strength- 
 ening his lines, which were so formidable, that Pakenham resolved to 
 construct breaching batteries, mounted with heavy cannon, brought up from 
 the vessels on the lake. During the night of the 31st six batteries had been 
 completed, the material of which was not earth, but hogsheads of sugar 
 taken out of the warehouses on the plantations. One of the other great 
 products of Louisiana was employed by the Americans. Their parapets 
 were constructed of earth and bags of cotton. It was soon found that our 
 defences of sugar-hogsheads were wholly unavailing. In the first six days of 
 January, a bold and ingenious attempt was made by the British commander 
 to deepen a canal which ran across the neck of land lying between the Bayou 
 of Catiline and the Mississippi, so that boats might be brought up from the 
 lake, and a portion of the troops carried across the river to attack the battery 
 on its right bank. The morning of the 7th was arranged for a general attack. 
 Tlie army had been reinforced by the arrival of two battalions under general 
 Lambert, and its whole number was now little short of 8,000 men. A series 
 of disasters distiu-bed, at the critical moment, the arrangements which 
 appeared to have been made with a tolerable certainty of success. As the 
 boats went up the canal, its banks crumbled in, blocked up the passage, and 
 permitted only a few of the smaller boats to reach their point of destination 
 The main body of the army was to have attacked the works on the left bank 
 at five o'clock on the morning of the 7th, simultaneously with the projected 
 attack on the right bank. Pakenham waited till his patience was exhausted, 
 and then determined to commence the assault without this support. The 
 advantage of a sudden storming in the darkness of a January morning had 
 passed away. It was broad daylight when the Americans saw the British 
 column of three regiments marching on to the edge of the glacis. They were 
 halted at the moment when a dash might have succeeded ; for the scaling- 
 ladders and fascines had been forgotten. A terrible fire drove them back in 
 disorder. Pakenham, seeing that nothing but daring and endurance would 
 
 I
 
 .;«15.] RETREAT OF THE ARMY— THE WAR ENDED. 10 
 
 carry the day, rallied liis troops, and leading tbeui again to the attack, fell 
 mortally wounded. General Gibbs and general Keane were also struck down. 
 The command devolved upon general Lambert, who prudently resolved to 
 draw off the troops. Our loss had amounted to two thousand men, killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners. An armistice of two days was agreed upon, for the 
 purpose of burying the dead. On the ISth of January, the retreat of the 
 British army commenced ; and was so safely effected, that the troops re- 
 embarked on the night of the 27th, with all the artillery and stores, except 
 eight heavy guns. An insignificant triumph, in the capture of Fort Boyer^ 
 near Mobile, closed our military operations, on the 12Lh of February. The 
 news of the conclusion of peace at Ghent arrived the next day.* 
 
 The Peace of Ghent was concluded by three British commissioners, lord 
 Gambler, Mr. Goulburn, and Mr. Adams ; and by four American plenipoten- 
 tiaries, Mr. John Quiucy Adams, Mr. Henry Clay, Mr. J. A. Bayard, and 
 Mr. Jonathan Eussell. The objection made in October by Mr. Madison to 
 the terms proposed by Great Britain, had led the negotiators on each side to 
 effect a compromise. It was fortunate that it had been effected before the 
 American people, intoxicated by the triumph at New Orleans, should have 
 lost their anxious desire that hostilities should come to an end. The American 
 government, by this peace, had not obtained a concession upon the two prin- 
 ciples for which it went to war — that the flag covers the merchandize, and 
 that the right of search for deserters is inadmissible. It was agreed that 
 each government should use their efforts to put down the slave-trade. Diffi- 
 cult questions of boundary were left unsettled to give rise to future disputes. 
 But in this war of three years the people of both countries had learnt by 
 their commercial privations how desirable, if not indispensable, was a free 
 intercourse between two great communities, having each so much to offer for 
 the satisfaction of the other's wants, and both associated by natural ties of 
 blood and language which the coldest politicians cannot wholly ignore. The 
 mistakes in the conduct of the war were pretty equal on both sides. The defeats 
 of the Americans in the invasion of Canada had in some degree lowered the 
 European opinion of their military qualities. Plattsburg had shaken the confi- 
 dence of the English public in the effect likely to be produced by a large 
 employment of regular forces against imperfectly disciplined troops. The 
 final disaster of our arms led to a more impartial estimate of what a demo- 
 cratic people is capable of effecting after a few years of rash and ill-under- 
 stood warfare. A calm and sagacious writer has said, " The success, which 
 was too late to affect the negotiations at Ghent, was sufficiently striking to 
 be worth more to the American people than a good peace. It is in reality 
 to the victory of New Orleans that a great part is due of the moral impres- 
 sion which has been left upon the world by the war of 1812, — a war impru- 
 dently engaged in, feebly conducted, rarely successful, very costly, perfectly 
 sterile in diplomatic results, and, nevertheless, finally as useful to the prestige 
 of the United States as fruitful for them in necessary lessons,"t 
 
 * These unfortunate operations are detailed with great spirit in "A Narrative of the Cam- 
 paigns at Washington and New Orleans, by an OflScer who served in the Expedition" (Rer. 
 G. R. Gleig). 
 
 t Cornelis de Wit, "Thomas Jefferson," p. 359.
 
 Houjroumont — Gateway of Farac-Tard, from the Interior, 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 The Hundred Days — Landing of Napoleon near Cannes — Retrospect of the Restoration of tli& 
 Bourbons — The Charter— The French army — The Treaty of Paris published — The escape 
 of Napoleon from Elba — Declaration of the Powers assembled in Congress — Advance of 
 Napoleon — He is ioined by Labedoyere and Ney — Flight of Louis XVIIL — Napoleon at 
 the Tuileries- -British Parliament declares for war — Napoleon organizes his army — 
 Crosses the frontier — Joins his army at Charleroi — Wellington's position — He marches 
 from Brussels — Battle of Ligny — Battle of Quatre Bras — The field of Waterloo —Positions 
 of the two armies on the night of the I7th and morning of 18th of June — The Battle of 
 Waterloo. 
 
 On the higli road, midway between Cannes and Antibes, and close to a 
 lane leading to a landing-place in the Gulf of St. Juan, are two cabarets,^ 
 one on the left side of the road, the other on the right, which have set up 
 rival claims to immortality. The cabaret on the left bears this inscription, 
 " Napoleon I., au Golfe de Jouan — debarqua 1 Mars, reposa dans cette meme 
 propriety." The cabaret on the right thus asserts its pretensions: — "Chez 
 moi se reposa Napoleon I. Venez boire passants, celebrez son nom." In 
 the year whose great event these signs pretend to record neither of the 
 wayside public houses had been built. A miserable column, erected a few 
 years since, repeats the one inscription which is the nearest approach to 
 truth — tliat Napoleon rested " in this property." He had sat down under 
 an olive-tree of this estate. He had successfully achieved his perilous voyage
 
 1815.] LANDING OF NAPOLEON NEAR CANNES. 21 
 
 from Elba, from whicli lie had embarked on the morning of the 26th of 
 February, with his Guards, in seven small vessels. He once more stood on 
 tlie soil of France, at three o'clock in the afternoon of that memorable 1st of 
 March. The little army bivouacked that evening on some land that was theii 
 outside the town of Cannes on the east. An attempt was made to seduce 
 the garrison at Antibes, but the commander of the fortress arrested the 
 soldiers who had been employed on this mission, and threatened to fire upon 
 auy others who should approach. Cambronne, one of the generals who accom- 
 panied Napoleon, went into the town of Cannes to demand of the maire six 
 thousand rations for the troops. The demand was very unwillingly complied 
 ■with, for the presence of the ex-emperor excited the hatred of the people, 
 who were tired of wars and revolutions. Some said, if he came into the town 
 they would shoot him. At four o'clock on the morning of the 2nd of March, 
 the troops, in number about eight hundred, with Napoleon at their head, 
 attended by his old companions in arms, Bertrand, Drouet, and Cambronne, 
 commenced their march north on the road to Grrasse ; and possibly skirted 
 Cannes on the east side, which quarter has been almost entirely built since 
 1815.* 
 
 This landing in the Gulf of St. Juan on the 1st of March was the intro- 
 ductory scene to the great drama called " The Hundred Days." These count 
 from the 13th of March, when Napoleon assumed the government, to the 
 22nd of June, when he abdicated. 
 
 The secret departure from Elba was not known to the sovereigns of Austria, 
 Prussia, and Russia, and to the representatives of the other European powers 
 assembled in congress at Vienna, till the 7th of March, when the duke of 
 "Wellington received a despatch from lord Burghersh, the British minister at 
 Florence, announcing the astounding fact. It was some days afterwards 
 before the landing near Cannes and the march towards Grasse were known 
 at Vienna.f Such was the slowness of communication, that on the 5th of 
 March it was not known in Paris that the ex-emperor had quitted the ter- 
 ritory all too narrow for his ambition. Let us, before proceeding to relate 
 the progress and issue of this great adventure, take a retrospect of the events 
 that had followed Napoleon's abdication of the 4th of April, 1814, — eleven 
 months of false confidence and hollow peace. 
 
 The 4th of June, 1814, was an exciting day for Paris ; an important day 
 for the future tranquillity of France and of Europe. A Constitutional Charter 
 was that day to be promulgated by the restored king ; and, on the same day, 
 the last of the allied troops were to quit the capital. Louis XVIII. was to 
 be left in the midst of his subjects, without the guarantee for his safety 
 which some associated with the continued presence of the armed foreigners. 
 The Charter created a Chamber of Peers, of about one hundred and forty 
 members, named for life by the king. These took the place of the servile 
 flatterers of Napoleon, called the Senate. The composition of this new body 
 was an approach to impartiality in the union of Members of the old noblesse 
 •with a remnant of the Senate, and of Generals of the army before the revo- 
 
 * We are indebted for these particulars to a friend resident in Cannes ; and we give them to 
 clear up the obscurity which prevails in some accounts as to the localities of that eventful 
 debarkation. 
 
 t "Wellington's Despatches," vol. xii. p. 266. Despatch to Castlereagh, 12th of March.
 
 22 RETROSPECT OF THE RESTORATIOX— THE CHARTER. [1815. 
 
 lution, with Marshals of the Empire. By the Charter, a Eepresentative body- 
 was also created, with A'ery sufficient authority, and especially with the power 
 of determining the taxes to be levied on the people. But if the value of a 
 representative system was held to be in some degree proportionate to the 
 amount of population by wliich it is elected, some might have doubted if the 
 limitation of electors to those who paid 300 francs direct taxes yearly, thus 
 restricting the nomination wholly to the more opulent class, was a guarantee 
 for the impartial working of the Constitution. The Charter also provided 
 for civil ajid religious freedom, for trial by jury, for the liberty of the press. 
 The exclusive privileges of the old monarchy, — the inequalities before the 
 law, — which produced the revolution of 1789, were no more. The letter of 
 the ancient feudalism had perished. But its spirit lingered in the very date 
 of this Charter. It was held that Louis XVIII. began to reign when 
 Louis XVII., the unhappy son of Louis XVI. was released by death from his 
 miseries. The Charter, " given at Paris in the year of grace 1814, in the 
 nineteenth year of our reign," was an emanation of the royal bounty. The 
 king was declared by the chancellor, in his speech of the 4th of June, to be 
 "in full possession of his hereditary rights," but that he had himself placed 
 limits to the power which he had received from God and his fathers. The 
 compromise was as distasteful to the Eepublicans as the real advantages of 
 the Charter to the people were hateful to the Eoyalists. An acute observer, 
 who was present at the ceremony of the promulgation of the Charter, 
 writes, — " In England such a government would be held to be an execrable 
 despotism, impudently mocking the forms of freedom. I am inclined to 
 believe, however, that it contains nearly as much liberty as the French can 
 bear." * The dissatisfaction which very soon followed the government of 
 Louis "the desired," did not arise out of the greater or lesser amount of 
 liberty bestowed by the Charter ; but out of the manifold contradictions 
 between the acts of the government and the chai'acter and habits of the 
 Erench people. All had been changed since 1702, but the notions of the 
 restored Royalists had undergone no change. 
 
 The Constitutional Charter was in some degree the work of the king 
 himself, inasmuch as he had greatly modified a Charter presented to him 
 by the Senate, which he found busy upon a constitution after Napoleon's 
 abdication. The substance, and even the forms, of liberty, having perished 
 during the Consulate and the Empire, the change was great when freedom of 
 speech and of writing were possible ; when a Senate and a Representative body 
 could debate without reserve and vote without compulsion. But a quarter of 
 a century of revolution and military despotism had really unfitted the Erench 
 to comprehend the value of the partial liberty which they had regained. The 
 desire for liberty had almost wholly disappeared in the passion for equality 
 which the revolution had generated. A Constitutional Monarchy, represented 
 by a gouty old man who could not mount his horse — who had been brought 
 back by foreign armies — was a poor compensation to the national vanity for 
 the glory of living under a ruler who, for the greater period of his power, 
 had only gone forth to new conquests, — who led kings captive, and who filled 
 France with spoils of subject cities. The one surpassing folly of the restored 
 
 * " Lord Dudley's LeUers," p. 42.
 
 1815.J RETROSPECT— THE FRENCH ARMY, 23 
 
 government was the belief that France, and especially Paris, could forget 
 Napoleon. When our Charles II. returned to St, James's under the pro- 
 tection of the army of Monli, it was held that his reign commenced on tlie 
 terrible 30th of January, on wliich his father had perished before the 
 Banqueting House at "Whitehall. It was in England determined to ignore 
 tlie twelve years of the Commonwealth, But it was easier for the Stuarts to 
 take their place as a matter of absolute right and necessity — for tlie loyalists 
 had always been an enduring power even during the supremacy of Cromwell 
 — than for the Bourbons to re-enter the Tuileries as if they had been excluded 
 for twenty years by a mere dominant usurpation which had died out. The 
 very existence of Monsieur, and of the Comte D'Artois, had been as completely 
 forgotten by the people, as they had become alienated from the emigrant no- 
 bility, who had fled from their ancient cliateaux, and whose lands had passed 
 into the hands of small proprietors who hated the name of Seigneurs in the 
 dread that the quiet possession of what they had bought as national domain 
 might be disturbed. The egregious folly which believed that a nation could 
 altogether forget, was exhibited in the attempt to destroy every symbol of the 
 rule of Bonaparte. The Parisians laughed at the littleness which set the 
 upholsterers to work in defacing the N., which was multiplied on the carpets 
 and hangings of the Tuileries ; but they were angry when the white flag took 
 the place of the tricolor. The anger of the bourgeoisie was perhaps of little 
 consequence. They grumbled and sneered at the ordinances of the police, 
 which forbad shops to be opened on Sundays and fete days. "Wine sellers, 
 restaurateurs, and billiard-table keepers, thought that no tyranny could be 
 equal to that of closing their establishments during the hours of divine 
 service. The government was right in its desire that a decent show of 
 respect for religion should take the place of the old license ; yet it was not 
 so easy to change the habits of a generation. The discontent of the idle 
 pleasure-seeking Parisians would not have brought back ^Napoleon, had not 
 oilence been given to a nuichmore powerful and united body. The army felt 
 more acutely than the people the suppression of the tricolor. The men hid 
 their old cockades in their knapsacks ; the officers, when the cockades and 
 the standards were required to be given up, concealed the eagles, or burnt the 
 standards, which they had followed to victory. Thousands of old soldiers 
 were pouring into France, released as prisoners of war, or turned out from 
 the fortresses of provinces once annexed to the empire. The distinctive 
 numbers of the regiments were entirely changed, so that the peculiar glory 
 and heroism of each regiment were lost in the renown of the general mass. 
 The army was reduced with imprudent haste ; officers of the regiments 
 retained by the restored government were put upon half pay, and their places 
 were supplied by young men who had seen no service, or by ancient gentle- 
 men whose only merit was to have emigrated. Numerous luvalides were 
 turned out from their refuge in Paris to exhibit their wounds and proclaim • 
 their wrongs in the provinces. The power which had so long dominated over 
 Prance was not judiciously reduced ; its vanity was outraged by unnecessary 
 afironts. The head of that wondrous military organization which had so long 
 kept Europe in terror was his own master, in an island within two days' sail 
 of the shores of France, unwatched and uncared for, as if he had utterly 
 gone out of the minds of his idolaters. The svmbols of his authoritv had
 
 24 RETROSPECT— THE TREATY OF PARIS PUBLISHED. [1815. 
 
 disappearea from the palaces and public buildings of France ; but a symbol 
 was invented to indicate that with the return of spring the hero would come 
 back to chase the Bourbons from their throne, and to repair the disasters of 
 the last year of the empire. Little prints of groups of Violets were handed 
 from hand to hand, in which the outline of a well-known face might be traced 
 in the arrangement of the flowers. Pere la Violette was the name by which 
 the expected one was now recognized ; and before the violets were come, this 
 sign had passed from soldier to soldier. As they looked proudly and signi- 
 ficantly around them, and talked mysteriously in spite of the police, men 
 fancied that a crisis was approaching, and that the Bee might once more 
 replace the Lily on robes of state and on chairs of sovereignty. The army 
 might gain in a renewed power to dominate at home and to plunder abroad. 
 But what would the people gain who, in less than a year after they had 
 rejected Napoleon, had begun to sympathize with the desire of the army for 
 his return ? Some of the more sober amongst Erenchmen saw, in spite of 
 the ultra-monarchical tendencies of such as the Comte D'Artois and his 
 faction, an almost certainty that genuine liberty and real prosperity would be 
 established when false glory had lost its charm ; that a spirit of Christian 
 tolerance would take the place of the irreligion which the restored priestcraft 
 had thought to supplant by a bigoted formality. These reasoners did not 
 understand the nation whose restless propensities had been confirmed by 
 fifteen years of aggressive despotism, succeeding ten years of sensitive 
 democracy — a nation most difficult to govern, because " always deceiving its 
 masters, who fear it either too little or too much." * 
 
 The Treaty of Paris, ratified between France and the Allied Powers on 
 the 30th of May, was published at the same time that the Charter was pro- 
 mulgated. Thiers describes with a touching sensibility the pain produced 
 amongst all classes by a knowledge of the terms of this treaty : " They 
 recognized the cruel hand of the stranger, above all, in the limitation of our 
 frontiers." The maledictions of the nation, he says, "feU chiefly upon 
 England and upon Austria." f It could have been no matter of surprise to 
 any Frenchman of ordinary intelligence that the prolonged resistance of 
 Napoleon to the moderate demands of the Allied Powers, in 1813 and 1814, 
 had ended in the limitation of France to her ancient frontiers. Whilst 
 Bonaparte was at the head of a powerful army, and the event of a conflict on 
 the soD. of France was full of uncertainty, the Allied Powers published their 
 celebrated Declaration of Frankfort of the 1st of December, 1813, in which 
 they said, "The Allied Sovereigns desire that France may be great, 
 
 powerful, and happy The Powers confirm to the French empire 
 
 an extent of territory which France under her kings never knew." Lord 
 Aberdeen had concurred with Metternich in approving this declaration. 
 Lord Castlereagh, on the contrary, thought this gratuitous engagement 
 previous to the opening of a negotiation was most inconvenient and blame- 
 able. X In the conferences of Chatillon of March 1814, the final terms 
 proposed to Napoleon as the conditions on which he should be recognized as 
 
 • De Tocqueville— " Society before the Revolution." 
 
 + " Ilistoire du Consulat et de I'Empire," tome xviii. p. 192. 
 
 t Letter from the Hague, Dec. 14.
 
 1815.] THE ESCAPE OF NAPOLEON FROM ELBA. 25 
 
 Emperor, were the cession of the whole of the conquests made by Franco 
 since 1792. Napoleon rejected these terms, and was compelled to abdicate. 
 While these negotiations were pending, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia concluded the " Treaty of Union, Concert, and Subsidy," known as 
 the Treaty of Chaumont, which declared, that if the Trench Government should 
 refuse the conditions contained in proposals for a general peace, the solemn 
 ■engagement thus entered into was intended " to draw closer the ties which 
 unite them, for the vigorous prosecution of a war undertaken for the salutary 
 purpose of putting an end to the miseries of Europe, by re-establishing a 
 just balance of power." The restoration of the ancient dynasty was naturally 
 associated with a return to the ancient territorial limits of France. It was 
 this association that, in addition to other grievances, real or imaginary, made 
 the Bourbons obnoxious to a generation incessantly familiar with conquest, 
 and proportionately stimulated into a belief that France was the inevitable 
 arbitress of the destinies of the world. 
 
 The duke of Wellington succeeded lord Castlereagh as the British Minister 
 at Vienna, when the labours of the Congress were approaching their termina- 
 tion. The main points were concluded.* There were only some formal acts 
 to be done. The sovereigns and the ministers of the larger states were about 
 to separate, when their departure for their several countries was arrested by 
 the news of the great event of the return of the ex-emperor to France. 
 
 The position of Napoleon at Elba was that of an independent sovereign. 
 He had many soldiers around him devoted to his interests. He had cruisers 
 by which he could keep up a correspondence with Italy and with France. 
 During the sitting of the Congress, the evident danger arising out of his 
 vicinity to the Continent was constantly present to the minds of some of tlie 
 diplomatists ; although they heard that the monarch of the little island 
 appeared not only resigned to his fate, but interested in the improvement 
 •of his dominions and the prosperity of his people. His occupations of 
 directing new buildings and of planning new roads did not deceive every 
 one ; and there was serious talk of conveying him to some more secure place 
 — some inaccessible island of the Atlantic — where the shadow of the eagle's 
 wing would cease to frighten the timorous birds. The emperor of Russia, 
 however, insisted upon the literal fulfilment of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. 
 It was with him a point of honour to leave Napoleon undisturbed ; to sur- 
 round him with no spies ; to let him feel that he was in no sense of the word 
 a prisoner. Sir Neil Campbell was sent, in April, 1814, by the British 
 government to Elba, with instructions to "pay every proper respect and 
 attention to Napoleon, to whose secure asylum in Elba it is the wish of his 
 Royal Highness the Prince Regent to afford every facility and protection." 
 He was to remain there as long as Napoleon might desire his presence. Sir 
 Neil Campbell lived on the most friendly and familiar terms with the ex- 
 emperor ; occasionally went away to Florence or to Leghorn ; and having 
 no apprehensions of danger, did not consider that he was called upon to 
 exercise any peculiar watchfulness. But in the middle of February his 
 suspicions were excited, and he went to Florence to consult with the Britisli 
 .ambassador there as to the necessity of having some adequate naval force 
 
 • See Chapter IIL
 
 26 DECLARATION OF THE POWERS ASSEMBLED IN CONGRESS. [1815. 
 
 about the island. French historians have generally some recondite theory at 
 hand to account for very natural occurrences. M. Capefigue thinks that 
 there was a complicity on the part of England in the return of Napoleon. 
 He believes that England, which had been an absorbing power in Europe- 
 during the imperial epoch, now seeing that Russia was too paramount, con- 
 ceived that she might recover the first rank in a new struggle with Napoleon. 
 The English cruisers therefore shut their eyes during the passage of Bona- 
 parte to the Gulf of St. Juan.* Always, perfide Albion. 
 
 Upon the 13th of March, " the Powers who signed the Treaty of Paris 
 assembled in Congress at Vienna, being informed of the escape of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, and of his entrance into France with an armed force," published 
 a declaration which at once put an end to all possibility of terminating this 
 issue without a trial of strength more or less severe. The declaration con- 
 tained these emphatic words: — "By thus violating the convention which, 
 had established him in the Island of Elba, Bonaparte destroys the only legal 
 title on which his existence depended ; by appearing again in France with 
 projects of confusion and disorder, he has deprived himself of the protection 
 of the law, and has manifested to the universe that there can be neither 
 truce nor peace with him. The Powers consequently declare, that Napoleon 
 Bonaparte has placed himself without the pale of civil and social relations, 
 and that, as an enemy and a disturber of the tranquillity of the world, he 
 has rendered himself liable to public vengeance." 
 
 In a despatch of the duke of AVellington of the 12th of March, he 
 writes : " It is my opinion that Bonaparte has acted upon false or no 
 information, and that the king will destroy him without difficulty, and 
 in a short time. If he does not, the affair will be a serious one, and 
 great and immediate effort must be made."t On the 4th of April, Wel- 
 lington had arrived in Brussels to devise measures for the defence of the 
 Netherlands. The "affair" had become "a serious one." Napoleon had 
 marched from Cannes to Grenoble without encountering any opposition 
 in the thinly-populated mountainous regions of Dauphiny. He had been 
 in communication with Labedoyere, who was an officer of the garrison at 
 Grenoble, and this young colonel was ready with the men he commanded 
 to hoist the tricolor. General Marchand, the governor of Grenoble, who 
 was firm in his allegiance to the sovereign of the Eestoration, sent out a 
 detachment to observe the force that was approaching. Napoleon alone 
 advanced to meet them, exclaiming, " I am your Emperor ; fire on me if you 
 wish." The soldiers threw themselves on their knees, and amidst shouts of 
 " Vive V Empereur" joined his ranks. Labedoyere and his men swelled the 
 number, and Napoleon entered Grenoble amidst the cheers of the soldiery 
 and the citizens. On the 12th of March he was at Lyon. From this city- 
 he issued decrees which assumed that he was already in possession of the 
 supreme authority. By these the Chambers of Peers and Deputies were 
 dissolved ; the returned emigrants were banished ; titles of honour, except 
 for national services, were abolished ; and emigrant officers who had received 
 commissions from the restored government were struck off the list of the army. 
 
 • " Lf 8 Cent Jours," tome i. p. 123. 
 t "Despatches," vol. xii. p. 268,
 
 1816.^ ADVANCE OF NAPOLEON— HIS ARRIVAL AT PARIS. 27 
 
 On the 11th of March, INIarslial Xey, who on the 7th had taken leave of 
 the king with the assurance that he would bring back Bonaparte in an iron 
 cage, publiahed a proclamation to the army at Auxerre, which thus begins : — 
 " Officers and Soldiers, the cause of the Bourbons is irrevocably lost : the 
 legitimate dynasty which the French nation has adopted is about again to 
 mount the throne." It was in vain that in the two Chambers at Paris 
 Napoleon was denounced as a public enemy, and that the benefits of a charter 
 under a constitutional monarch were set forth in contrast with the principles 
 of a military despot. The troops could no longer be relied upon. On the 
 19th of March the king, by proclamation, dissolved the Chambers. On the 
 20th, after midnight, Louis and the royal family left the Tuileries. On the 
 25th, his Court was established at Ghent. jN'apoleon was at Fontainebleau 
 on the 19th. On the 21st he slept in the palace of the Tuileries, having 
 been borne up the grand staircase by an enthusiastic crowd, and welcomed 
 in the familiar saloons by ladies of his old court, who showered upon him 
 bouquets of violets. The wives and daughters of his marshals and generals 
 had been neglected or openly affronted by those who had come to the levies 
 of the restored monarch with an imprudent contempt of a revolutionary 
 aristocracy : the ladies of the imperial court had now their revenge. 
 
 On the 6th of April, the Prince Eegent sent a message to the two houses 
 of Parliament, that the events which had recently occurred in France had 
 induced his royal highness to give directions for the augmentation of the 
 land and sea forces. It was also announced that the Prince Eegent had lost 
 no time in " entering into communication with the Allied Powers for the 
 purpose of forming such a concert as might most effectually provide for the 
 general and permanent security of Europe." The Treaty of Vienna of the 
 23rd of March had bound the Allied Powers to make war together upon 
 Napoleon, and to conclude no separate peaca with him. The resistance in 
 the British Parliament to the determination to engage in this war was verv 
 feeble. In the debate on the Address for arming and acting in concert with 
 our Allies, INIr. Whitbread moved an amendment, to implore the Eegent to 
 use his utmost endeavours to preserve peace. It was rejected by a majoritv 
 of 220 against 37. A second motion for an Address, praying the Crown not 
 to involve the country in a war upon the ground of excluding a particular 
 person from the government of France, was rejected by a majority of 273 
 against 72. The enormous sums demanded by the government were voted 
 almost without inquiry. "When a budget was brought forward on the 14th 
 of June, which included a total charge of eighty-one millions, of which 
 thirty-six millions were a loan, there were "not more than seventy persons 
 present in the house, though late in the evening." * 
 
 Napoleon, on the 30th of April, had issued a decree convoking the Elec- 
 toral Colleges for the nomination of Deputies to the Chamber of Eepresen- 
 tatives. The greater number of the people abstained from voting. It was 
 necessary to do something striking, and Napoleon determined to revive the 
 old revolutionary fete of the Champ de Mai. It was in this assembly of twc 
 hundred thousand of both sexes that he announced that the wishes of the 
 nation having brought liim back to the throne, his whole thoughts were 
 
 * Lord Colchester's "Diary," vol. ii. p. .546.
 
 38 BRITISH PARLIAMENT DECLARES FOR WAR. [1815. 
 
 turned to the " founding our liberty on a Constitution resting on the wishes 
 and interests of the people." This Constitution was called " Acte additionel 
 aux Constitutions de I'Empire." It was a very literal copy of the Charter of 
 Louis XVIII., and had been forced upon the emperor by a party who believed 
 that a limited monarchy, with representative institutions, might be a suc- 
 cessful experiment whether under a Bourbon or a Bonaparte. Napoleon 
 had addressed letters to the European potentates, professing his moderate 
 and peaceful intentions. No faith could be placed in his professions, and his 
 letters were unanswered. There could only be one solution of the question 
 between Napoleon and the Allied Powers. In the Champ de Mai he 
 exclaimed, " The princes who resist all popular rights are determined on war. 
 Tor war we must prepare." The Chambers commenced their functions, not 
 in the old spirit of the Empire, but as if they were really trusted with power, 
 as portions of that Constitution to which the emperor had' sworn in the 
 Champ de Mai. His real security depended little upon the state of public 
 opinion and upon the subservience of the legislature, but upon the efficiency 
 with which he could reorganize his army. Devoting all his energies to this 
 task, he was very soon prepared with a bold plan of operation. He would 
 not wait for the attacks of his enemies, but would pass the French frontiers, 
 and engage with some portions of the allied armies before they could iinite. 
 On the 11th of June, having appointed a Provisional Government to act in 
 concert with the Chambers, he left Paris in the evening. On the 13th 
 he was at Avesnes. On the 15th he had crossed the frontier, and was at 
 the head of 122,000 men, at Charleroi in the Netherlands. 
 
 Most of the garrisons of the Netherlands had been strengthened by the 
 vigilance of the duke of Wellington ; Charleroi was amongst the weakest. 
 In addition to the general belief that Napoleon would remain on the defensive, 
 the uncertainty as to the line of operations which he would choose if he 
 determined on the offensive by an invasion of the Low Countries, forbade a 
 concentration of force upon any one of the assailable points of the frontier. 
 It was open to Napoleon to attack the Prussians by the Meuse ; to enter by 
 Mons, to drive back Wellington upon Antwerp ; or to advance by the Sambre, 
 upon the point of junction of the two armies. The four Prussian corps of 
 Blucher were at Charleroi, at Namur, at Dinant, and at Liege. The army of 
 Wellington, consisting of British, Netherlanders, and Hanoverians, was dis- 
 tributed in cantonments, a reserve occupying the environs of Brussels, where 
 the duke had established his head-quarters. The troops under his command, 
 however separated, could easily unite, and they had the most precise directions 
 bow to act in the case of the French passing the frontier. The statement that 
 Wellington had received false information from Eouch^ upon Napoleon's 
 movements, and was therefore surprised when Napoleon was upon the Sambre, 
 is thus contradicted by the duke's intimate friend, lord Ellesmere : " I can 
 assert on the duke's personal authority, and on that of others in his con- 
 iidence at head-quarters, that the duke neither acted on nor received any 
 such intelligence as that supposed, from Eouch^ or any one else : that he 
 acted on reports received from his own outposts and those of his allies, the 
 Prussians, and on these alone." The surprise is supposed to be confirmed 
 by the fact tliat Wellington attended a ball at Brussels after hostilities had 
 begun. Upon this, lord Ellesmere says, " it is only necessary to state that
 
 1815.] NAPOLEON AT CHARLEROI— WELLINGTON'S POSITION. 29 
 
 Napoleon's advance was known to the duke long before the period fixed for 
 that festivity ; that the question whether it should be allowed to proceed had 
 been fully discussed and decided in the affirmative. It was held that a recall 
 of the invitations would create premature alarm among the population of 
 Brussels, and premature encouragement to a pretty numerous party in its 
 walls disaffected to the cause of the Allies." Tlie Despatches of Wellington 
 sufficiently prove that he was perfectly aware of the advance of Napoleon 
 when he went to the ball. At half-past nine on the evening of the loth, he 
 wrote to the duke de Berri, that the enemy attacked the Prussian posts at 
 Thuin that morning, and appeared to threaten Charleroi. " I have ordered our 
 troops to prepare to march at break of day." The duke had issued the most 
 precise directions for the several positions which the whole of his army were to 
 take up tliat night ; every separate direction concluding with the emphatic 
 words, " to be in readiness to move at a moment's notice." * For the troops, who 
 were immediately under his eye, the order was " to be in readiness to march 
 from Brussels at a moment's notice :" that moment arrived even before the break 
 of day. The duke quietly supped with the gay assembly at the duchess of Eich- 
 mond's ; he and his generals gradually retired ; the drums beat the alarm ; the 
 bugle-call gave the signal for " mounting in hot haste; " the bagpipes sum- 
 moned the Highlanders ; the artillery was rumbling through the streets ; the 
 measured tread of infantry, and the sharp rattle of cavalry, were heard in every 
 quarter of the old town. The whole scene was changed from revelry to war 
 before the "last light had fled" from that "banquet-hall." The reserve 
 at Brussels were all on the march through the forest of Soignies, on the road 
 to Quatre Bras, in the morning twilight. The duke of Brunswick had gone 
 forth, heading his gallant countrymen in their sombre livery of grief for his 
 father's death at Jena. The prince of Orange had marched to the front 
 the moment he left the ball-room. The duke of Wellington was soon up 
 w.ith his men, who cheered him as he passed. He well knew the ground 
 where his great struggle was to be made. He could calculate with exactness 
 the moment when the divisions would join him upon the road towards the 
 enemy. 
 
 There was an interval only of a few hours before the march from Brussels, 
 and the gathering of other divisions on the roads which led to Quatre Bras, 
 were succeeded by a battle. The Prussians, under general Ziethen, who had 
 been driven from Charleroi on the 15th, had retired upon Fleurus. Marshal 
 BlUcher had concentrated the Prussian army upon Sombref, with the villages 
 of St. Amand and Ligny in front of his position. If Wellington is con- 
 sidered by some to have been tardy in concentrating his troops in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Sambre, Napoleon is equally liable to reproach in having 
 believed that Bliicher was concentrating his troops about Namur, and in 
 having neglected to attack the separate corps early in the morning of the 
 16th, before they had nearly all united. Bulow's corps, however, had not 
 come up to join Bliicher, when Napoleon attacked him in front, expecting 
 that Ney would also have attacked him in the rear. The movement of Ney 
 was interferred with by the timely arrival of Sir Thomas Picton's division at 
 Quatre Bras, in company with the Bruuswickers and the contingent of 
 
 • "Despatches," vol. xiL p. 472.
 
 30 ENGLISH ARMY MARCHES— LIGNY—QUATRE BRAS. [1815. 
 
 Nassau. "Wellington had himself ridden to Sombref, and had conferred with 
 Bliicher before the battle known as that of Ligny had begun. He had 
 returned to Quatre Bras by four o'clock, and then took the command of his 
 own army. The battle between the French and the Prussians lasted for three 
 or four hours. Although BlUcher maintained his position, he was so weakened 
 by the severity of the contest, that he marched in the night and concentrated 
 his army upon AVavre. The Britii^h also maintained their position, " and 
 completely defeated and repulsed," says the duke, " all the enemy's attempts 
 to get possession of it." Our loss was severe, amounting in killed, wounded, 
 and missing, to more than 2,500 men. The duke was very composed after 
 this first trial of strength. The Spanish general, Alava, saw at the close of 
 that day his old companion in the Peninsular war sitting by the road-side ; 
 and to his surprise was asked, " "Were you at Lady 's party last night ?"* 
 
 The movement of Bliicher rendered a correspondent movement necessary 
 upon the part of Wellington. At ten o'clock on the morning of the 17th he 
 retired from Quatre Bras upon "Waterloo, a distance of about seven miles. 
 Between AVaterloo and Wavre was a distance of about ten miles, through a 
 country of difficult defiles. On the 17th the French made no attempt to 
 pursue Bliicher. A large body of French cavalry followed the English 
 cavalry under lord TJxbridge ; and at Genappe they were charged by the first 
 Life Guards. In the course of the day Napoleon moved forward his army 
 upon the same road over which "Wellington had marched earlier in the 
 morning. "Wellington had taken up his position in advance of the village of 
 "Waterloo, near Mont St. Jean, where the high roads from Charleroi and 
 Nivelles crossed. On the night of the 17th, and early in the morning of the 
 18th, Napoleon collected his whole army, with the exception of a corps 
 which had been sent under Grouchy to observe Bliicher, on a range of heights 
 in front of the British position. 
 
 The battle field of "Waterloo has been described again and again by 
 observers capable of impressing us by the spirit or the accuracy of their 
 pictures. The poet, the historian, and the tactician, have made every point 
 in some degree familiar to us. Byron says, " T went on horseback twice over 
 the field, comparing it with my recollection of similar scenes. Asa plain, 
 AVaterloo seems marked out for the scene of some great action, though this 
 may be mere imagination. I have viewed with attention those of Platea, 
 Troy, Mantinea, Leuctra, Chaeronea, and Marathon ; and the field around 
 Mount St. Jean and Hougoumont appears to want little but a better cause, 
 and that undefinable but impressive halo which the lapse of ages throws 
 around a celebrated spot, to vie in interest with any or all of these, except, 
 perhaps, the last mentioned." f Before Byron had gone over the field, it had 
 been called " this modern Marathon." J During the lapse of nearly half a 
 century, it is not the " undefinable but impressive halo which the lapse of 
 ages throws around a celebrated spot," wliich has made this ground such 
 an object of curiosity to English visitors of the continent. Neither are there 
 ■many who think that its interest requires "a better cause." So many of 
 
 * Lord Ellesmcre — " Life of Wellin/^ton." 
 t Notes to "Childo Harold," canto iii. 
 ^ Lord Dudley's "Letters," p. If 2. 
 
 I 
 i
 
 1815.] THE FIELD OF WATERLOO. Gl 
 
 our countrymen have traversed this battle field, and have thus acquired a 
 knowledge which no description can convey, that we shall only attempt 
 briefly to indicate a few of its peculiar aspects in connection with a very 
 general narrative of the leading events of the great day of the 18th of 
 June.* 
 
 On the groimd which we call the field of Waterloo (although the battle 
 was fought about a mile and a half in advance of that village), Wellington 
 had taken up his position, with a certain knowledge, derived from several 
 previous examinations, of its capabilities for defence. " He used to describe 
 the line of ground between the farm of La Haye Saiute and Hougoumont as 
 resembling the curtain of a bastion, with these two positions for its angles. "f 
 The first care of the duke was to occupy with sufficient force these two 
 angles, Hougoumont, near the Nivelles road, in front of the right centre, and 
 La Haye Sainte, close to the Genappe road, in front of the left centre. The 
 Tight of his position was thrown back to a ravine near Braine Merbes, 
 which was occupied ; and its left extended to the chateau of Frichermont, 
 situated on a height above the hamlet of La Haye. The undulating plain 
 upon which the army of English, Belgians, and Germans looked from the 
 ridge on Avhich they stood on the evening of the 17th was covered with crops 
 of grain, of potatoes, and of clover. It had rained incessantly through the 
 day ; as night advanced the torrents of rain were accompanied with thunder 
 and lightning. The troops had to bivouack upon the wet crops, whilst the 
 generals and their staff obtained shelter in the adjacent villages. Wellington 
 had his head-quarters in a house opposite the church at Waterloo. At three 
 o'clock in the morning of the 18th he was writing to sir Charles Stuart at 
 Brussels, with a calm confidence in the result of the almost inevitable 
 struggle of that day. " The Prussians will be ready again in the morning 
 for anything. Pray keep the English quiet if you can. Let them all prepare 
 to move, but neither be in a hurry or a fright, as all will yet turn out well." 
 At the same hour he wrote a long letter in French to the duke de Berri, in 
 which he says, " I hope, and moreover I have every reason to believe, that 
 all will go well." At the time of writing this letter, only a portion of the 
 French army had taken up their ground on the opposite side of the valley, 
 ■and he thought it possible that the main attack might be made at Hal, on the 
 great road from Mons to Brussels. He had there stationed 7000 men, in 
 addition to a large number of troops under the command of the Prince of 
 Orange. The possible success of the enemy there, appeared to him " the 
 only risk we run." J His army was a little superior in number to that of 
 Napoleon, but it was inferior in artillery. There was however a far greater 
 disparity. AYellington commanded an army of various nations, who had 
 never before fought together ; and even some of his British troops were new 
 levies. In the summer of 1814, a large number of his famous Peninsular 
 soldiers had been sent to America. Napoleon, on the contrary, had an army 
 which he could wield with the most perfect assurance of unity of action, 
 
 * The author visited the field in May, 1861, in company with his friend, Mr. W. Harvey, 
 who then made the two sketches of Hougoumont which illustrate this chapter. 
 + Lord EUesmere. 
 J "Despatches," vol. xii. pp. 476, 477-
 
 32 POSITION OF THE TWO ARMIES. [1815. 
 
 composed in great part of veterans who had returned to France at the peace. 
 "When Napoleon saw the English in position before the forest of Soignies, he 
 exclaimed, " At last I have them ; nine chances to ten are in my favour." 
 He was of opinion, in which his generals agreed with him, that it was con- 
 trary to the most simple rules of the art of war for Wellington to remain in 
 the position which he occupied ; that having behind him the defiles of the 
 forest of Soignies, if he were beaten all retreat would be impossible. 
 Extensive and compact as that forest was, Wellington knew that there were 
 many roads through it, all converging upon Brussels, most of which were 
 practicable for cavalry and for artillery, as well as for infantry. " The duke," 
 says Lord EUesmere, " was of opinion that his troops could have retired 
 perfectly well through the wood of Soignies, which, like other beech woods, 
 is open at bottom ; and he was still further satisfied that, if driven from the 
 open field of Waterloo, he could have held the wood against all comers till 
 joined by the Prussians, upon whose co-operation he throughout depended 
 and relied." The greater number of military authorities agree that the 
 position of Mont St. Jean was well chosen, and suitably occupied. * 
 
 General Jomini has described as one of the advantages of the position of 
 Wellington, that all the movements of the French could be geen from it. 
 There was a drizzling rain on the morning of the 18th; but occasionally- the 
 sun broke through the clouds, and displayed the French columns deploying 
 to take up their ground. Amidst the inspiriting airs of the numerous bands 
 which in the French armies were always ready to encourage the spirits of 
 the soldier, three lines were formed, of infantry and cuirassiers and 
 lancers, with the artillery on the crest of the ridge. To the French the 
 British army offered no such magnificent spectacle, the greater number being 
 concealed by the undulations of the ridge on which they stood. They had 
 taken their ground silently in two lines, with the artillery in front, and the 
 cavalry in the rear. They stood noiselessly, except when one loud hurra was 
 raised as the duke rode along the lines between nine and ten o'clock. 
 Large detachments were in the inclosures of Hougoumont and La Haye 
 Sainte. 
 
 The bells of the neighbouring churches were summoning to worship on 
 that Sabbath morn when 150,000 men were thus preparing to destroy each 
 other. The clock of Nivelles struck eleven as the first cannon was fired 
 from the French centre. On the left of their line the quick fire of 
 musketry was soon heard from the column advancing to attack Hougoumont. 
 This property (the Chateau- Goumont — corrupted into Hougoumont) was a 
 comfortable residence of a Flemish yeoman, with farm buildings, and a garden 
 extensive enough to be misnamed an orchard, which was inclosed by a wall 
 on the east and south sides. This inclosure of about two acres was laid out 
 in straight walks and planted with well trimmed trees. The formal garden 
 is now laid down to grass. The ruins of the chateaii, which was burnt, with 
 the exception of a chapel attached to it, have been cleared away. A humble 
 dwelling, formerly the gardener's house, now stands amidst some sheds and 
 other rough buildings, the inclosed space being entered by a pair of wooden 
 gates, closing up the passage to the yard. There is not much here to see, if 
 
 • Brialmont — " Histoirc dc Wellbgton," tome li. pp. 412, 413.
 
 f815.] 
 
 THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 
 
 S3 
 
 •we look cursorily upon this dilapidated residence. If vre examine it carefully 
 there is abundant evidence of the nature of the struggle which here took 
 place during seven or eight hours of that eventful day. The loop-holed 
 walls show where the defenders of Hougoumont fired upon the attacking 
 enemy ; the dints of the assailing shot are still visible on many a brick. One 
 portion of the gate, too injured for repair, is now hung up as a memorial. 
 It is scarcely an exaggeration to say, " This Belgian yeoman's garden wall 
 was the safeguard of Europe, and the destiny of mankind perhaps turned 
 upon the possession of his house."* Sis thousand French, under the 
 command of Jerome Bonaparte, commenced their attack upon the English 
 light troops which were in the wood around the chateau. This wood was 
 defended with an obstinacy which was attested by the bullet marks upon 
 every tree. The wood was, however, carried by the French, and the light 
 troops had now to defend the walls of the garden and the gates of the yard. 
 
 Hougoumont — Exterior of Garden Wall. 
 
 Some preparation had been made for this in the loopholes which had been 
 knocked out, and by scaffolding from which the defenders could fire. This 
 deadly contest was prolonged without any result till two o'clock, when 
 Napoleon ordered that a battery of howitzers should play upon the building. 
 It was soon in flames, but there was no relaxation in the resolute defence 
 of the farm-yard by the 1st and 2nd Foot-Guards. By a vehement rush the 
 French had burst open the gates ; but they were finally closed by a prodigious 
 
 Lord Dudleys "Letters," p. 134. 
 
 VOL. VIII.— 227.
 
 34 THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. [1815. 
 
 exertion of personal strength, in which colonel Macdonnell was amongst the 
 most efficient of the stalwart heroes. The prolonged defence of Hougoumont 
 had a decided influence in deranging the plans of Napoleon. " The general 
 opinion was, that after having taken the post of Hougoumont, he would then 
 render himself master of La Haye Sainte, and afterwards decide the battle 
 by a violent attack of his reserve upon the enemy's centre."* 
 
 The difilculties attending the attempt to give an intelligible description of 
 a great battle, such as that of Waterloo, have been well set forth by "Wellington 
 himself. He had been applied to by one whom he evidently held in great 
 respect — probably AV alter Scott — to give him information as to particular 
 events and instances of personal heroism, for the purpose of a connected 
 narrative description. "The object which you propose to yourself is very 
 difficult of attainment, and, if really attained, is not a little invidious. The 
 history of a battle is not unlike the history of a ball. Some individuals may 
 recollect all the little events of which tlie great result is the battle won or 
 lost ; but no individual can recollect the order in which, or the exact 
 moment at which, tliey occurred, which makes all the difference as to their- 
 value or importance. "t Wellington's own official description of the progress 
 of the contest is in the most general terms. He says that the attack upon 
 the right of our centre (Hougoumont) was accompanied by a very heavy 
 cannonade upon our whole line. Eepeated attacks of cavalry and infantry, 
 either mixed or separate, were made upon us. In one of these the enemy 
 carried the farm-house of La Haye Sainte. The enemy repeatedly charged 
 our infantry with his cavalry, but these attacks were uniformlj^ unsuccessful. 
 They were repeated till about seven in the evening, when a desperate effort to 
 force our left centre was defeated. Having observed that the French retired 
 from this attack in great confusion ; that the arrival of general Bulow's corps 
 had begun to take effect ; and that marshal Bliicher had joiued in person 
 with the corps of hie army, he (Wellington) determined to attack the 
 enemy, and immediately advanced the whole line of infantry, supported by 
 the cavalry and artillery. The attack succeeded in every point. These 
 official generalities have far less interest than some of the familiar and 
 pithy sentences addressed by the duke to personal friends. To lord 
 Beresford he writes, on the 2nd of July, " fou will have heard of our 
 battle of the 18th, Xever did I see such a pounding match. Both 
 were what the boxers call gluttons. Napoleon did not manoeuvre at all. 
 He just moved forward in the old style, in columns, and was driven off 
 in the old style. The only difference was, that he mixed cavalry with 
 his infantry, and supported both with an enormous quantity of artillery. 
 I had the infantry for some time in squares, and we had the French 
 cavalry walking about us as if they had been our own. I never saw 
 the British infantry behave so well." J It has been truly said, " there 
 is nothing in the history of battles more sublime than the generalship 
 which could order, and the patient valour tliat could sustain, such a method of 
 figliting as thi3."§ Tlie desperate attempts to pierce our line were defeated 
 
 * Brialmont (quoting French authorities), tome ii. p. 415. 
 
 + " Despatch fs," vol. xii. p. 590. 
 
 X "Despatches," vol. xii. p. 52S), 
 
 § Miss Martineau — " Introduction to the History of the Peace," p. cccxcv. 
 
 I
 
 1815.] THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 35 
 
 by that unequalled firmness of the British infantry which, it is reported, 
 led Soult to say to the emperor, " Sire, I know these English ; they will 
 die on the ground before they will leave it." 
 
 This devoted endurance during seven or eight of the most tryinof hours 
 was sustained throughout by the presence of the duke at every point of 
 danger, and by his constant care to spare his troops as much as possible, 
 by repressing the natural anxiety of men in battle to be actively employed. 
 The character of a part of the ridge upon which the British line was placed 
 has been materially altered, by removing the earth for a considerable distance 
 to form the materials for an enormous mound, on the top of which is the 
 Belgian lion. Behind this natural parapet the duke had placed several 
 regiments, the men lying down concealed from the French, who were ad- 
 vancing to attack. " Up, Guards, and at them ! " were the words that in 
 a moment presented a wall of bayonets to the confident French. For four 
 or five hours the British commander had to endure the agony of disappointed 
 expectation. He had counted upon being joined by Bliicher about one in the 
 afternoon, according to a message which he had received when the battle 
 had begun. Two o'clock, — three o'clock, — four o'clock, — five o'clock, — six 
 o'clock, — came, but no sign of the expected aid on his left : there was 
 nothing for it but to endure. General Picton had been killed before the 
 battle was half over. When Wellington was told that of Picton's division 
 of 7000 men only 1300 remained, he replied, " They must stand in their 
 place till the last man," and they did stand. A general officer asked that 
 his brigade, reduced to a third, should be relieved. " It is impossible," said 
 the duke, " he and I, and all of us, are called upon to die in the place which 
 we occupy at this moment." Surrounded by his men in a square charged 
 by the French cavalry, he exclaimed, " Stand fast, 95th ! we must not be 
 beaten, my friends. What would they say of us in England ? " This stoical 
 fortitude it was difficult for him always to sustain. Looking upon the 
 carnage around him, he said, " There are yet some hours left for cutting- 
 these brave fellows in pieces : please God that the night or the Prussians 
 would arrive before that is eff'ected ! " 
 
 The official despatch of Wellington contained these words : " I should 
 not do justice to my own feelings, or to marshal Bliicher and the Prussian 
 army, if I did not attribute the successful result of this arduous day to the 
 cordial and timely assistance I received from them." Bliicher had arrived 
 precisely at the time when his co-operation in another part of the field was 
 a warranty for the success of the attack by Wellington which produced the 
 final result. Brialmont cites these words as an example of the perfect equity 
 and noble disinterestedness of which the duke had given so many proofs ; 
 but he protests against the injustice by which some historians have attempted 
 to rest upon this avowal an opinion that to Bliicher is to be attributed the 
 honour of the victory. When the corps of Bulow, Brialmont says, arrived, 
 the position of Wellington was serious, but it was not desperate. If Bliicher 
 had not debouched upon the left of the position, fortune might have declared 
 against the Allies. If the Prussians arrived in the nick of time, and decided 
 the victory, that was owing rather to Wellington than to the initiative of 
 their own general. It is impossible to refuse to Wellington the title of the 
 conqueror at Waterloo, for it was he who settled the joint measures for the
 
 86 ' THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. [1815. 
 
 day of the 18th ; who chose, and who occupied, the field of battle ; who 
 directed during seven hours the whole of the operations ; and who ordered 
 the decisive attack at the moment when the Prussians, according to their 
 promises, debouched on the right of the enemy.* 
 
 At six o'clock in the evening there was no point at which the allied army 
 had yielded, or which had not been recovered from the possession of the 
 French, It was seven o'clock when the emperor made his great attack upon 
 our left centre. It was at this moment that the issue of the conflict was 
 doubtful. The duke, however, rapidly collected his men from aU points, to 
 meet this apparently overwhelming force. An observer of the scene says, 
 " To the most dinning and continual roar of cannon and musketry I have 
 ever known, there succeeded a sudden pause and silence. It was but 
 momentary, — they had turned, and now fled, pursued by our troops." f The 
 Prussians had outflanked the movements of the reserve corps acting against 
 them, and were now pressing on the main body of Napoleon's army. It was 
 then that he was convinced of the worthlessness of the fatal delusion in 
 which he had indulged throughout the day, — that Grouchy, with his thirty 
 thousand men was at hand, and that the Prussians could not come up before 
 he had beaten " that Wellington." The rout and panic of the French became 
 universal. Por a moment Napoleon hoped to arrest this flight by forming a 
 square of the last regiment of his Guards, and by raising a battery with 
 some dismounted cannon. A ball from this battery carried off the leg of 
 lord TJxbridge. In the obscurity of the twilight the fugitives saw not this 
 rallying point, and hurried on, a disorganized and helpless crowd. In the 
 last square formed by the Guard, Napoleon was about to throw himself, 
 there in all likelihood to die. Soult turned Napoleon's horse, exclaiming, 
 "Ah, Sire! our enemies are already too fortunate." The emperor fled with 
 the mass. The square, however, held firm, to allow time for their leader to 
 escape. Cambronne and other officers remained in the square. " Surrender !" 
 was the cry of their assailants. Cambronne threw himself into the ranks of 
 his enemies, and perished. One last cry of " Vive V Empereur^^ was heard 
 amidst the smoke and clash of arms. " Nothing more is heard ; the Guard 
 is dead, the Empire is finished."! 
 
 At nine o'clock, Wellington and Bliicher met near La Belle Alliance, 
 which was in the centre of the Prench position. The Prussian general 
 Gneisenau pursued the flying French, to whom all chance of rallying was 
 impossible. Wellington joined in the pursuit, but the fatigue of his men 
 compelled him to stop between Eossomme and Genappe. It was at 
 Genappe that the carriage of the emperor was taken, to form a show in 
 London. During the pursuit AVellington rode with the advanced guard. 
 Colonel Hervey, who was with him, advised him to desist, as the country 
 was growing less open, and he might be fired at by some stragglers from 
 behind the hedges. " Let them fire away," he replied, " the battle is won, 
 and my life is of no value «ow." § Under the brilliant moon which succeeded 
 the lowering day, Wellington rode across the battle-field to his quarters at 
 
 * "Histoire tie Wellington,'" tome ii. pp. 440 — 445. 
 
 t Letter from sir Kobert Gardiner, in "Ward's Memoirs," vol. i, p. 493, 
 
 :;: Brialmont, tome ii. p. 429. 
 
 § Lord Dudley's "Letters," p. 134.
 
 1815.] THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 37 
 
 "Waterloo. As the heaps of dying and dead lay around him, the emotions 
 must haye rushed upon him which he so beautifully expressed the next 
 day, in a letter to the duke of Beaufort : " The losses I have sustained 
 have quite broken me down, and I have no feeling for the advantages we 
 have acquired." To the earl of Aberdeen, in a letter dated the same day, 
 he said, " I cannot express to you the regret and sorrow with which I look 
 around me, and contemplate the loss which I have sustained, particularly in 
 your brother. The glory resulting from such actions, so dearly bought, 
 is no consolation to me." * 
 
 The total loss of both armies in this tremendous battle is thus stated : — 
 British and Hanoverians, 11,678; Netherlanders, 3,547; troops of Bruns- 
 wick, 1000; of Nassau, 1000; Prussians, 7454. Total, 24,679. Of the 
 IFrench army, 18,500 were killed or wounded, and 7800 made prisoners.t 
 
 * "Despatches," vol. xii. pp. 488, 489. 
 + Biialmont, tome ii. p. 431. 
 
 429998
 
 ''~iff:^^£Bi 
 
 JCoatmartre and St. Denis ; Paris in the distance. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Napoleon's return tc Paris — His abdication— On board the Bellerophon, at Plymouth — Sails for 
 St. Helena — Specimens of the truth of History — The Allies take possession of Paris — 
 Return of Louis XVIII. — Definitive Treaty with France — Settlement of Europe previously 
 arranged by the Congress at Vienna — Holy Alliance — Treaty for the Abolition of the Slave 
 Trade— Execution of Labedoyere — Escape of Lavalette — Execution of Ney — The Battle of 
 Algiers. 
 
 Aftee the fotal night of the 18th of June, Napoleon had travelled with all 
 haste to Paris, where he arrived at four o'clock on the morning of the 21st. 
 The Chamber of llepresentatives met at noon on that day, and declared its 
 sitting permanent. Its manifest intention was to assume the executive power, 
 and to compel Napoleon to abdicate. Lucien Bonaparte appeared at the 
 bar of the Chamber to urge the claims of his brother upon the gratitude of 
 Erance. Lafayette replied, that " during the last ten years three millions of 
 Frenchmen had perished for a man who would still struggle against all Europe. 
 "We have done enough for him. Now our duty is to save our country." 
 During the 22nd Napoleon was xirged to abdicate. He resisted for some 
 time, exclaiming, " The Chamber is composed of nothing but Jacobins and 
 ambitious men. I ought to have driven them away." He yielded at last, 
 and dictated his abdication in favour of his son Napoleon II. ; and in this 
 document, in which he said "My political life is ended," he invited the 
 Chambers to organize a Regency. The Chambers sent a deputation to thank 
 Napoleon for the sacrifice which he had made to the independence and happi- 
 ness of the French nation ; but he replied that he had only abdicated in favour 
 of his sou, and that if the Chambers did not proclaim him, his own abdication 
 would be null. Instead of appointing a Council of Eegency, it was deter- 
 mined by the Chambers that the government should be put into the hands of 
 a Commission of five members. This was indirectly to set aside Napoleon 
 the Second. The provisional government required that Napoleon should 
 leave France, and embark at Rochefort for the United States. He demanded 
 that the government should give him two frigates for his passage there. The 
 frigates were placed at his disposal, and their commanders were ordered to set 
 sail within twenty-four hours after he was on board, if the English cruisers 
 were not in the way. Bonaparte arrived at Rochefort on the 3rd of July.
 
 1815.] NAPOLEON AT PLYMOUTH— ST. HELENA. 39 
 
 Finding that he had no chance of escaping by sea, he sent Las Cases and 
 Savary to captain Maitlaud, who commanded the Bellerophou, to ask for leave 
 to proceed to America, either in a French or a neutral vessel. The reply of 
 captain Maitland was, that his instructions forbad this ; but that if Napoleon 
 chose to proceed to England, he would take him there, without entering into 
 any promise as to the reception he might meet with. 
 
 In the house of a gentleman at Plymouth we have looked with no common 
 interest upon a portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, painted under very extraor- 
 dinary circumstances. At the end of July, 1815, the British ship of war Bel- 
 lerophou is at anchor in Plymouth harbour. On board is the ex-emperor of 
 the French, who, on the 13th of July, had addressed a letter to the Prince 
 Eegent from Eochefort, in which he said, " I come, like Themistocles, to 
 throw myself upon the hospitality of the British nation " {ni'asseoir sur les 
 foyers). The Bellerophon, with Napoleon and his suite, had sailed from 
 Eochefort on the 14th of July. Whilst the British government was in a 
 state of indecision as to the final disposal of its fallen enemy, he was not 
 permitted to land, nor was any person from the shore allowed to enter the 
 vessel. But round the Bellerophon numerous boats, filled with curious 
 observers, were perpetually rowing, and to these gazers Bonaparte seemed 
 rather disposed to show himself than to remain in the privacy of his cabin, 
 Tlie opportunity of making a portrait of this remarkable man was not lost 
 upon a young artist, a native of Plymouth. Charles Eastlake, now President 
 of the Eoyal Academy, was sketching that stout figure and superb head 
 from one of the boats surrounding the sliip of war ; and when Napoleon 
 perceived the object of the artist, he would stop his walk upon the deck, so 
 as to afi"ord him the opportunity of proceeding successfully with his work. 
 The Bellerophon remained a fortnight in Plymouth Eoads, and then Napoleon 
 was removed to the Northumberland, which sailed for St. Helena. 
 
 On the 31st of July, lord Keith, with sir Henry Bunbury, the Under- 
 Secretary of State, had announced to Napoleon the resolution of the British 
 government, that the island of St. Helena should be his future residence. 
 He protested that he was not a prisoner of war, although he subsequently 
 acknowledged that he had made no conditions on coming on board the Belle- 
 rophon. The question as to the status of the ex-emperor under the law of 
 nations gave rise to very grave discussions amongst English jurists. Lord 
 Campbell says, " I think lord Eldon took a much more sensible view of the 
 subject than any of them — which was, ' that the case was not provided for by 
 anything to be found in Grotius or Vattel ; but that the law of self-preserva- 
 tion would justify the keeping of him under restraint in some distant region, 
 where he should be treated with all indulgence compatible with a due regard 
 for the peace of mankind.' " * The probability is, that if Napoleon had fallen 
 into the hands of the Prussians, who were near Paris on the 29th of June, 
 the question of his fate would have been disposed of in a much more sum- 
 mary way than could arise out of any discussion upon the law of nations. 
 On the 28th of June, Wellington wrote to sir Charles Stuart, " General 
 
 has been here this day, to negotiate for Napoleon's passing to America, 
 
 to which proposition I have answered that I have no authority. The Prus- 
 
 * " Lives of tlie Chancellors," cliap. ccii.
 
 40 SPECIMENS OF THE TRUTH OF HISTORY. [1815* 
 
 sians tliiuk the Jacobins wish to give him over to me, believing that I will 
 
 save his life. [Bliicher] wishes to kill him ; but I have told him that I 
 
 shall remonstrate, and shall insist upon his being disposed of by common 
 accord. I have likewise said, that, as a private friend, I advised him to have 
 nothing to do with so foul a transaction ; that he and I had acted too distin- 
 guished parts in these transactions to become executioners ; and that I was- 
 determined that, if the sovereigns wished to put him to death, they should 
 appoint an executioner, which should not be me."* The Prussian general 
 Muffling states in his "Memoirs," that having been appointed to obtain the 
 concurrence of Wellington in the design of Bliicher that Napoleon should be 
 shot in the place where the duke d'Enghien had been killed, Wellington had 
 replied — " Such an act would disgrace our names in history, and posterity 
 would say of us, ' they were not worthy to have been the conquerors of 
 Napoleon.' " The prisoner of St. Helena repaid this conduct by bequeathing 
 ten thousand francs to the man who had attempted to assassinate Wellington^ 
 during his residence in Paris as the commander of the Army of Occupation. 
 Prench historians have attempted to justify this odious testamentary ex- 
 pression of Napoleon's hatred of his victor, by attributing to Wellington that 
 he instigated the banishment to St. Helena. It is now known that, as early 
 as May 1814, the plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Vienna decided, in a 
 secret conference, that if Napoleon should escape from Elba, and should fall 
 into the power of the Allies, a safer residence should be assigned him, at St. 
 Helena or at St. Lucia. 
 
 The assumption that the Sovereigns wished to put Napoleon to death 
 was the interpretation which, in the excitement of that time, many persons 
 attached to the declaration of the Allied Powers of the 13th of March, that 
 he had placed himself without the pale of civil and social relations ; adding^ 
 "as an enemy and a disturber of the tranquillity of the world, he has 
 rendered himself liable to public vengeance." Lord Eldon, referring to this 
 declaration, says that the Allies have " considered him as out of the pale of 
 the law of nations, as the Hostis humani generis, as an outlaw (without 
 knowing very well what they mean by that word), as a robber and freebooter, 
 who might be put out of the world." f M. Thiers, in a spirit very different 
 from that of the impartial historian, argues, with regard to the words of the 
 13th of March, that " the obvious conclusion is, that whoever could seize 
 Bonaparte ought immediately to shoot him, and would be considered a& 
 having rendered to Europe a signal service." % The declaration of the 
 Allies was signed by the plenipotentiaries of eight powers, who had been 
 parties to the Treaty of Paris of the previous year. Talleyrand and three 
 others signed on the part of Prance ; Wellington and three others on the 
 part of Great Britain. When Wellington insisted, against the opinion of 
 Bliicher, that Bonaparte should " be disposed of by common accord," he 
 rightly interpreted the words of the declaration of the 13th of March : — 
 ** coinme ennemi et perturbateur du repos du monde, il s'est livre a la 
 vindicte publique.'''' It is established by the papers of Talleyrand that the 
 
 • Wellington's "Despatches," vol. xii. p. 516. 
 
 + "Life of Eldon," (Letter to Sir William Scott), vol. ii. p. 279. 
 
 t " Histoire du Consulat et de rEinjiire, tome xix. p. 275. 1S61.
 
 1815.] THE ALLIES ENTER PARIS— TREATY WITH FRANCE. 41. 
 
 precise words of the declaration were proposed by Talleyrand himself. 
 Yet M. Thiers attributes to Wellington that he was the instigator, upon his 
 own responsibility, of the measures which the Allies took in this crisis, 
 including, of course, this declaration against jS'apoleon. This eminent writer, 
 in a mistaken view which we are iinwilling to characterize by any harsher 
 name, further represents the duke of Wellington as plunging the British 
 nation into a war without the authority of his government, for the grati- 
 fication of his own personal ambition. Lord Wellington, he says, who had 
 replaced lord Castlereagh, relying upon his great services and his popularity 
 in England, hesitated not to take his resolution. Although he had received 
 no instructions, he judged that it was worth while to renew the war, to 
 maintain the state of things that England was about to establish in Europe. 
 " He had a confused hope of increasing his own glory in this new war ; and 
 he was not afraid of involving his government, convinced that no one would 
 dare to disavow him in England, whatever might be thought of his conduct." * 
 One of the duke's objects in going to Belgium in April, says M. Thiers, was- 
 that he might be nearer London, " to uphold the courage of his own govern- 
 ment, and to compel it to ratify the engagements which he had made without 
 being authorized."t The English Cabinet, he concludes, if it had been pre- 
 sent at Vienna, would not have engaged in the war as easily as the duke of 
 Wellington, for they were aware that public opinion was opposed to it. The 
 opinions thus expressed by M. Thiers, that the war against Napoleon was 
 urged on by the personal ambition of the duke of Wellington, that the 
 British government was reluctant to engage in it, and that the British people 
 were decidedly opposed to it, are quite upon a par with the belief of the same 
 historian, that Bonaparte had returned from Elba entirely changed, — a lover 
 of peace, an upholder of liberty, a friend to the free expression of opinion, a 
 ruler who would vindicate the choice of the people by equity and moderation. 
 Of his good faith no one ought to have doubted. " He gave to the world, 
 after so many spectacles of such instructive grandeur, a last spectacle, more 
 profoundly moral and more profoundly tragic than any which had gone before ; 
 genius, vainly, though sincerely, repentant." J When statements and 
 opinions such as these are boldly put forward, we may give their author the 
 benefit of that charitable scepticism which thinks that " the Historian,, 
 affirming many things, can, in the cloudy knowledge of mankind, hardly 
 escape from many lies."§ 
 
 On the 7th of July the English and Prussian armies entered Paris, and 
 took military possession of all the principal points, under a convention signed 
 on the 3rd of July, by which the Erench army was to evacuate Paris and to 
 retreat beyond the Loire. Louis the Eighteenth made his public entrance, 
 escorted by the ^National Guards, on the 8th of July. To the firm modera- 
 tion of Wellington it is wholly due that the Parisians were not doomed to 
 suffer any humiliation bevond that of the presence of foreign armies. He 
 calmed Bliicher's thirst for vengeance by exhortation, and even by stronger 
 modes of remonstrance. When the Prussian general had begun to mine the 
 bridge of Jena, with the intention to blow it up, because that monument 
 
 * " Histoire du Consulat et de TEmpire," tome xix. p. 361. 
 
 + Ibid., p. 366. X Ibid., p. 629. 
 
 § Sir P. Sidney— " Defence of Poesy," p. 3S, "Poetical Works," ed, 1720.
 
 42 THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. [18 1.1. 
 
 proclaimed a defeat of tlie Prussian arms, " The duke of Wellington," says 
 a Prencli historian, " interfered by placing an English sentinel on the bridge 
 itself. A single sentinel. He was the British nation ; and if Bliicher had 
 blown up the bridge, the act was to be held as a rupture with Great 
 Britain."* 
 
 The definitive treaty between France on the one part, and Great Britain, 
 Austria, Russia, and Prussia, on the other, was signed on the 20th November, 
 1815. Its object was declared to be for the "restoring between Prance and 
 her neighbours those relations of reciprocal confidence and goodwill which 
 the fatal efi"ects of the Revolution and of the system of conquest had for so 
 long a time disturbed." This treaty left the boundaries of France, with a 
 very slight ^Iteration in her frontier lines, the same as agreed at the Peace 
 of 1814. It was, nevertheless, resolved to keep possession of the frontier 
 fortresses for a term not exceeding five years, and to maintain an army of 
 occupation, to be paid and supported by France during the same period. 
 The greatest mortification which the French had to endure was the determi- 
 nation of the Allied Powers that the works of art which had been plundered 
 from various countries during the wars of the Bepublic, the Consulate, and 
 the Empire, should go back to the churches and the museums from wbich they 
 had been forcibly taken. This act of retribution provoked then, as it still 
 provokes, the lamentation of pretended lovers of the fine arts, whose selfish 
 convenience would be more gratified by seeing the greatest masterpieces of 
 sculpture and painting in the Louvre than in their proper sites at Home, at 
 Florence, at Antwerp, at the Hague. The honest national pride of the true 
 owners of such works is accounted as nothing in these lamentations. 
 
 To France alone did the treaty of the 20th of November apply. The 
 settlement of Europe, as it was hopefully called, had been effected by 
 the general treaty signed in Congress at Vienna, on the 9th of June. 
 When the Peace of 1814 was concluded witli the restored Monarchy of 
 France, there were an immense number of political questions left undeter- 
 mined, which were almost of as much importance to the tranquillity of the 
 future as the overthrow of the gigantic power of the French Empire. The 
 convulsions of twenty years had left Europe in a chaotic state, out of which 
 order and harmony could scarcely be evolved even by any exercise of political 
 wisdom based upon an unselfish moderation. In the reorganization of 
 Europe there would unquestionably be a struggle for aggrandizement, whicli 
 might present as great dangers as the military supremacy which had been 
 overthrown. On the 25th of September, 1814, the emperor of Russia ; the 
 king of Prussia ; the kings of Bavaria, Denmark, and Wiirtemberg ; princes of 
 small states, German and Italian ; princesses, amongst whom the duchess of 
 Oldenburg, the sister of Alexander, was the most influential ; great plenipo- 
 tentiaries, such as lord Castlereagh and M. Talleyrand ; and lesser diplomatists, 
 who came to get something, if possible, out of the general scramble — all 
 assembled at Vienna to debate, to dine, to vary the tedious discussions of the 
 morning with the enlivening festivities of the night. Ambassadors vied with 
 Sovereigns in the splendour of their entertainments. Castlereagh gave as 
 sumptuous dinners, and as attractive balls, as Alexander : — 
 
 * Capefigue, "Les Cent Jours," tome ii. p. 365.
 
 1815.] SETTLEMENT OF EUROPE. 43 
 
 " Nove this mask 
 Was cry'd incomparable ; and tlie ensuing night 
 Made it a fool and beggar."* 
 
 Nevertheless, the slightest survey of the map of Europe would show that 
 there was serious work to be accomplished. It had been agreed by secret 
 articles of the Treaty of Paris, that a kingdom, under the title of the 
 Netherlands, should be formed by the union of Belgium with Holland; 
 Prussia was to obtain the Rhenish Provinces ; Sweden and Norway were to 
 be united ; Hanover was to be restored to the king of England, with an 
 accession of territory taken from Westphalia ; Lombardy and Venice were to 
 return to the rule of Austria ; Savoy to that of Piedmont. The Congress 
 had been sitting two months, when rumours of the probable destiny of Saxony 
 and of Poland roused the spirit of inquiry in the British Parliament. 
 Mr. Whitbread, on the 28t.h of November, protested against the reported 
 annexation of Saxony to the kingdom of Prussia. The Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, Mr. Yansittart, could not believe that the fate of Saxony was 
 yet fixed, much less could he believe that any British Minister would 
 have been a party to such a decision as was supposed to have been made. 
 Nevertheless, it is now certain, that up to the end of October, lord 
 Castlereagh had been a consenting party to the annexation of Saxony, which 
 he defended by referring to the tergiversations of the king : of the people no 
 mention was made by our Minister. Mr. Whitbread further said, " the 
 rumours were, that the emperor Alexander had strenuously contended for the 
 independence of Poland, and that he had been opposed by the British Minister." 
 The Chancellor of the Exchequer replied, that "he did not believe that a 
 British Minister had been the author of the subjugation of that country." 
 There is now no doubt, that the very reverse of the rumours with regard to 
 Poland marked the conduct of the emperor Alexander and of lord Castlereagh. 
 As recently as July 2nd, 1861, lord John Russell, founding his opinion 
 upon the correspondence of the time, declared in the House of Commons, that 
 everything that could be done by British diplomacy for Poland was done by 
 lord Castlereagh at the Congress of Vienna ; that our minister wished, 
 when Europe was to be reconstructed, that Poland should rise from 
 her ashes, and should again possess an independent government ; and that 
 thus desiring the independence of Poland, he could not conceive that such 
 independence was consistent with Poland being placed under the domi- 
 nion of the emperor of Russia. In the debate of the 28th of November, 
 Mr. Whitbread said, " AVe now lived in an age when free nations were not 
 to be sold and transferred like beasts of burden ; and if any attempt of the 
 kind was made, the result would be a bloody and revengeful war." The 
 attempt was made, and successfully, in too many instances ; but it was not 
 without the immediate risk of a war that the designs of Russia for the 
 transference of nations Avere encountered in the Congress of Vienna. The 
 policy of lord Castlereagh with regard to Saxony was changed as the 
 negotiations advanced. Talleyrand, as a representative of Erance, had 
 been admitted, after great hesitation, to take a part in the deliberations of 
 
 * Shakspere — " Henry VIIL," act i. scene 1.
 
 U SETTLEMENT OF EUROPE. [1815, 
 
 the Congress. The annexation of Saxony to Prussia was opposed by Austria 
 and by Prance. It had become evident that Prussia and Eussia were 
 assuming a dangerous preponderance in the partition of states, and that 
 Great Britain must join with France in opposing them. These three powers 
 before the end of 1814 had agreed that Russia should not say to Prussia, 
 " Secure me Poland," and that Prussia should not say to Russia, " Secure 
 me Saxony," and that they should shake hands upon this compact. On the 
 3rd of February, 1815, a secret treaty was concluded between Austria, 
 England, and France, to act in concert, each with an army of 150,000 men,, 
 to carry into effect the Treaty of Paris, " holding it necessary, in con- 
 sequence of pretensions recently manifested, to look to the means to resist 
 every aggression." M. Thiers assumes that lord Castlereagh, having 
 received, at the beginning of January, the news of the conclusion of peace 
 with America, had taken a higher attitude towards Eussia and Prussia. 
 " His heart relieved of an enormous weight, that of the American war, he 
 was ready to brave the most extreme consequences, rather than to cede to 
 
 the arrogance of the Prussians and the Russians He had said to them 
 
 that England was not made to receive the law from any one." The attitude 
 of lord Castlereagh, and the fact, which could not be concealed, of nego- 
 tiations going on between him, Talleyrand, and Metternich, apart from the 
 other Powers, probably produced some concessions from Alexander and 
 Frederick William, although they yielded little in reality. Prussia obtained 
 one-half of Saxony, with a portion of the duchy of Warsaw. Eussia secured 
 the kingdom of Poland in undisputed sovereignty. The new kingdom of 
 Poland was to have a constitution, with national institutions and national 
 representation. But these promised advantages were to be bestowed upon 
 the people in the manner which the government should think most suitable. 
 " That, of course, left a very wide scope for interpretation ; but beyond that 
 there was a feeling which acted from that time, and which is acting at the 
 present time, namely, that while the emperor Alexander I. wished to retain 
 his power over Poland, at the same time he wished to grant to Poland large 
 privileges, and to make it, at all events, a flourishing province, under the 
 name of the kingdom of Poland ; but the general feeling at St. Petersburg, 
 the seat of power, was that Poland ought not to be indulged with privileges- 
 more large and more liberal than were granted to Eussia."* 
 
 Whilst Austria was opposing the acquisitions of territory desired by 
 Eussia and by Prussia, she herself was acquiring new dominions and extended 
 sovereignty, however uusuited were her annexed subjects for the yoke of her 
 absolute power. The four millions of the Lombardo-Veneto kingdom would 
 be as difficult to rule as those of the old provinces of the Low Countries 
 which were severed from her empire. Little objection was made at this 
 time to the anomaly of a German rule over Italian people. The only hostile 
 voice in the British Parliament was one raised against the annexation of 
 Genoa to Piedmont. By the final arrangement the hope Avas at an end 
 wliich England had stimulated, when lord William Bentinck, in 1814, entered 
 Genoa at the head of a British army, on whose banners was inscribed 
 *' Italian independence." Italy returned to its old condition of disunion, 
 
 • Lord Jolm Russell — Debate in tlie Commons, July 2, 186L
 
 1815.1 HOLY ALLIANCE— THE SLAVE TRADE. 45 
 
 Murat, who had been placed by Napoleon upon the throne of Naples when 
 Joseph Bonaparte had become the " intrusive king" of Spain, had deserted 
 the cause of his great fellow-soldier after the battle of Leipzig. Joining the 
 Allied Powers, he appeared to have secured his position as an independent 
 sovereign. But in the Congress there was no advance towards his recogni- 
 tion, as in the case of Bernadotte. He entered into correspondence with the 
 €x-emperor at Elba, thus precipitating his own fall. Murat made it impossible 
 for the Allies to believe in Napoleon's professions of a desire for peace, by 
 rashly plunging into hostilities against Austria. The old misrule of the 
 Bourbon in Naples and Sicily was no impediment to the determination of the 
 Allies to restore that miserable dynasty. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was 
 restored, as well as smaller states. A quarter of a century passed away before 
 the hoUowness of these arrangements was tested by the revolt of some 
 portion of the people of the Italian peninsula against their rulers, and by 
 the loudly expressed desire of the whole for a common nationality. 
 
 Whilst the prosaic destinies of Europe had been settled amidst a conflict 
 of jarring interests, the emperor of Russia had assiduously laboured to obtain 
 converts to a political union, which should be founded upon principles verv 
 different from those which ordinarily guide the councils of diplomatists. In 
 a manifesto from St. Petersburg, dated " on the day of the birth of our 
 Saviour, 25th December, 1815," the emperor commanded that there should 
 be read in all the churches a " Convention concluded at Paris, on the 2Gth of 
 September, 1815, between the emperor of Eussia, the emperor of Austria, 
 and the king of Prussia," in which " they solemnly declare that the present 
 act has no other object than to publish in the face of the whole world their 
 fixed resolution, both in the administration of their respective States and in 
 their political relations with every other government, to take for their sole 
 guide the precepts of the holy religion of our Saviour, namely, the precepts 
 of justice. Christian charity, and peace, which, far from being applicable only 
 to private concerns, must have an immediate influence on the councils of 
 princes, and guide all their steps, as being the only means of consolidating 
 human institutions, and remedying their imperfections." This was the 
 famous declaration of " The Holy Alliance." "When asked to sign it, the 
 duke of "Wellington said that the English Parliament would require some- 
 thing more precise. "Whenever, in after years, either of the three Sovereigns 
 manifested symptoms of disregard for " the precepts of justice, Christian 
 charity, and peace," the Holy Alliance was held, perhaps somewhat unjustly, 
 to be a cloak under which their violation of pledges to their own subjects, 
 and their desire for territorial aggrandizement, might be best concealed. 
 Denunciations of this Convention were long heard in the British Parliament, 
 
 The Peace of Europe was settled, as every former peace had been settled, 
 upon a struggle for what the continental powers thought most conducive to 
 their own advantage. The representatives of Great Britain manifested a 
 praiseworthy abnegation of merely selfish interests. Napoleon, at St. 
 Helena, said to O'Meara, " So silly a treaty as that made by your ministers 
 for their own country was never known before. Ton give up everything and 
 gain nothing." "We can now answer that we gained everything when we 
 gained a longer period of repose than our modern annals could previously 
 €ihibit= "We gained everything when, after twenty years of warfare upou
 
 46 LABEDOYERE, LAVALETTE, AND KEY. [1815. 
 
 the most extravagant scale, the spirit of the people coud acted that warfare 
 to a triumphant end. The gains of a great nation are not to be reckoned 
 only by its territorial acquisitions, or its diplomatic influence. The war 
 which England had waged, often single-handed, against a colossal tyranny, 
 raised her to an eminence which amply compensated for the mistakes of her 
 negotiators. It was something that they did not close the war in a huck- 
 stering spirit — that they did not squabble for this colony or that entrepot. 
 The fact of our greatness was not to be mistaken when we left to others the 
 scramble for aggrandizement, content at last to be free to pursue our own 
 course of consolidating our power by the arts of peace. There were years 
 of exhaustion and discontent to follow those years of perilous conflict and 
 final triumph. But security was won ; we were safe from the giant 
 aggressor. 
 
 If the plenipotentiaries of this country might return home a little imbued 
 with the temper of despotic cabinets — if they could be accused of having too 
 strenuously asserted the principle of legitimacy — if they had appeared to 
 have contended too much for the claims of kings, arid too little for the rights 
 of the people — in one respect they had done tlieir duty, and truly upheld the 
 moral supremacy of England. They had laboured strenuously, and they had 
 laboured with tolerable success, for the abolition of the Slave Trade. In the 
 Treaty of Utrecht, England protected her commercial interests — despicable 
 protection — by stipulating for a monopoly of the slave trade for thirty years. 
 In the Treaty of Paris, England wrested from Prance an immediate abolition 
 of the trafiic, and a declaration from all the high contracting powers that 
 they would concert, without loss of time, " the most efl'ectual measures for 
 the entire and definitive abolition of a commerce so odious." At the peace 
 of 1814, the restored government of Prance — restored by our money and our 
 arms — refused to consent to the immediate abolition. Bonaparte, amidst his 
 memorable acts of the Hundred Days, abolished the hateful traffic by a stroke 
 of his pen. The Bourbon government, a second time restored, dared no 
 longer refuse this one demand of G-reat Britain. Other nations had promised. 
 But, where we might have commanded, there alone was resistance. Spain 
 and Portugal still maintained the trafiic. 
 
 After great revolutions, such as those of Prance in 1814 and 1815 — such 
 as England had witnessed in the restoration of the Stuarts — it is almost 
 impossible that a triumphant party should altogether have tlie magnanimity 
 to pardon political offences. But History looks with a just indignation upon 
 any unreasonable severities, and especially upon any signal want of clemency 
 in the ruler who has the unquestioned power to exercise the divine preroga- 
 tive of mercy. Louis XVIII. can scarcely be accused of blood-thirstiness ; 
 yet his character would have stood better, not only with the Prench people 
 but with the British, had he not sanctioned the condemnation and capital 
 punishment of three, who had indeed betrayed the trust which the restored 
 government had reposed in them, but who had some excuse in their inability 
 to resist the fascinations of Napoleon. Talleyrand had been unable to 
 accomplish by negotiation as favourable terms for Prance as he had expected^ 
 and he resigned his office as President of the Council. lie was succeeded 
 by the Due de Eichelieu, who signed the treaty of the 20t]i of November. 
 Whilst Talleyrand remained in power he, as well as Pouchc, was anxious that
 
 3816.J THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS. 47 
 
 uo capital punishments should be inflicted upon any of those who were 
 proscribed by an ordonnance of the 24th of July, for the part they had taken 
 in the return of Bonaparte in March. Key, Labedoyere, and Lavalette 
 were advised to place themselves in safety by leaving France. They were 
 tardy and irresolute ; the friendly warning was useless. Labedoyere was 
 tried by Court-martial ; and was shot. Lavalette, who had been condemned 
 to death by the Cour d'Assise, escaped through a stratagem of his wife, who, 
 having visited him in prison, was able to disguise her liusband in her own 
 dress, remaining herself as an object for the possible vengeance of the 
 royalists. Lavalette was assisted to pass the frontier by the generous friend- 
 ship of three Englishmen, — sir Eobert Wilson, Mr. Bruce, and Mr. Hutch- 
 •.nson ; who were tried for this offence, and sentenced to three months 
 imprisonment. The proceeding which most commanded public attention in 
 England was the trial and execution of Ney ; for it was held to involve the 
 honour of the duke of "Wellington. Whilst the trial Avas proceeding before 
 the Chamber of Peers, Ney was advised to rely' for his defence on the capi- 
 tulation of Paris. His wife had an interview with Wellington, who had 
 previously expressed his opinion, in a letter to the prince de la Moskwa, — 
 to the eifect that the capitulation related exclusively to the military occupa- 
 tion of Paris ; that the object of the 12th article was to prevent the adoption 
 of any measures of severity, under the military authorities of those who 
 made it, towards any persons on account of the offices which they filled, or 
 their conduct or their political opinions. " But it was never intended, and 
 could not be intended, to prevent either the existing French government, 
 under whose authority the French commander-in-chief must have acted, or 
 any French government which should succeed to it, from acting in this respect 
 as it might deem fit." * AVhen the bravest of the French marshals was 
 executed, party spirit blamed the duke of Wellington for not legarding the 
 capitulation as an amnesty. It would have been generous in the king of 
 France to have spared Xey's life ; but the capitulation of Paris offered no legal 
 obstacle to that infliction of punishment which the king had threatened to 
 the guilty before the capitulation. 
 
 " One day of dreadful occupation more "f before England could be held to 
 be at peace with foreign foes. At the Congress of Vienna, the aggressions 
 of the Barbary States formed a natural subject of deliberation. It was pro- 
 posed that a general European crusade should be undertaken against the 
 infidel corsairs ; who, for three hundred years, had been the terror of 
 Europe, warring against every flag in the Mediterranean, and carrying off 
 Christian slaves from every shore. In 1815, the government of the United 
 States, whose ships had been plundered by the Algerines, captured a frigate 
 and a brig belonging to the Dey, and obtained a compensation of sixty thou- 
 sand dollars. In the spring of 1816, lord Exmouth, with a squadron under 
 his command, proceeded to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, where he effected the 
 release of seventeen hundred and ninety-two Christian slaves, and negotiated 
 treaties of peace and amity on behalf of the minor powers in the Mediter- 
 
 * "Despatches," vil. xii. p. 694. 
 t Southey — "Ode ou the Battle of Algiers."
 
 48 THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS. [1816. 
 
 ranean. Trom Tunis and Tripoli a declaration was obtained that no Christian 
 slaves should in future be made by either of those powers. ' The Dey of 
 Algiers, however, refused to agree to the abolition of slavery without permis. 
 sion from the Sultan. Lord Exmouth acceded to a suspension for three 
 months of the Dey's decision, and returned to England. One condition of 
 the treaty with Algiers, then concluded by lord Exmouth, was, that the 
 governments of Sicily and Sardinia should pay ransom for the release of 
 their subjects ; and, in point of fact, they did so pay, to the extent of nearly 
 four hundred thousand dollars. This clause of the treaty was justly de- 
 nounced in the British Parliament, as an acknowledgment of the right of 
 depredation exercised by the barbarians. 
 
 The fleet of lord Exmouth was dismantled ; the crews were paid off" and 
 disbanded. A sudden outrage, which occurred even before lord Exmouth 
 quitted the Mediterranean, but which did not then come to his knowledge, 
 was the obvious cause of the change in the determination of our government. 
 Under a treaty of 1806, we occupied, for the protection of the coral fishery, 
 Bona, a town in the regency of Algiers. On the 23rd of May, the fishers 
 who had landed were massacred by a large body of troops ; the British flag 
 was torn down and trampled under foot, and the house of our vice-consul was 
 pillaged. It was alleged that this outrage was a fanatical movement of the 
 licentious Algerine soldiery. An expedition against Algiers was instantly 
 determined upon by the British Cabinet. A formidable fleet was equipped, 
 with the least possible delay, at Portsmouth, and crews were collected from 
 the different guard-ships, and volunteers invited to serve upon this particular 
 enterprise. For once, a British fleet went to sea without recourse to the 
 disgraceful practice of impressment. Lord Exmouth left Plymouth on the 
 28th of July, with a fleet consisting of twenty-five sail of large and small 
 ships. At Gribraltar he was joined by the Dutch admiral. Van Cappellan, 
 with five frigates and a sloop ; and he finally set sail for Algiers on the 14th. 
 The winds being adverse, the fleet did not arrive in sight of Algiers till the 
 27th of August. During his course, lord Exmouth learnt that the British 
 Consul had been put in chains. 
 
 A most interesting and graphic narrative of the expedition to Algiers was 
 published by Mr. Abraham Salame, a native of Alexandria, who was taken 
 out by lord Exmouth to act as his interpreter. On the morning of the 27th, 
 as the fleet was nearing Algiers, Salame was sent forward with a letter to the 
 Dey, which demanded the entire abolition of Christian slavery ; the delivery 
 of all Christian slaves in the kingdom of Algiers ; the restoration of all the 
 money that had been paid for the redemption of slaves by the king of the 
 Two Sicilies and the king of Sardinia ; peace between Algiers and the 
 Netherlands ; and the immediate liberation of the British Consul, and two 
 boats' crews who had been detained with him. At eleven o'clock, the inter- 
 preter reached the Mole, in a boat bearing a flag of truce, and, delivering his 
 letters to the captain of the port, demanded an answer to the letter addressed 
 to the Dey in one hour. He was told that if answer were returned at all, 
 it should be delivered in two hours. Salame waited for his answer till half- 
 past two, but no answer came. During this time a breeze sprung up, the 
 fleet advanced into the bay, and lay-to within half-a-mile of Algiers. The 
 interpreter then hoisted the signal that no answer had been given, and the
 
 1816.] THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS. 49 
 
 fleet immediately began to bear up, and every ship to take her position. 
 Salarae reached the Queen Charlotte, lord Exmouth's ship, in safety ; but, he 
 candidly acknowledges, almost more dead than alive. Then he saw the 
 change which comes over a brave and decided man at the moment when 
 resolve passes into action. " I was quite surprised to see how his lordship 
 was altered from what I left him in the morning, for I knew his manner was 
 in general very mild; and now he seemed to me all-jiglitful, as a fierce 
 lion which had been chained in its cage and was set at liberty. With all 
 that, his lordship's answer to me was, ' Never mind — we shall see now ; ' and 
 at the same time he turned towards the officers, saying, ' Be ready!' " There 
 is, perhaps, nothing in the history of warfare more terrific in its consequences 
 than the first broadside that the British fired at Algiers. The Queen 
 Charlotte passed through all the batteries without firing a gun, and took up 
 a position within a hundred yards of the Mole-head batteries. At the first 
 shot, which waa fired by the Algerines at the Impregnable, lord Exmouth 
 cried out, " That will do ; fire, my fine fellows ! " The miserable Algerines 
 who were looking on, as at a show, with apparent indifi"erence to the conse- 
 quences, were swept away by hundreds by this first fire from the Queen 
 Charlotte. From a quarter before three o'clock till nine, the most tremen- 
 dous firing on both sides continued without intermission, and the firing did 
 not cease altogether until half-past eleven. During this engagement of nine 
 hours, the allied fleet fired a hundred and eighteen tons of gunpowder, and 
 five hundred tons of shot and shells. The Algerines exclaimed that hell 
 had opened its mouth upon them through the English ships. That the 
 Algerines had plied their instruments of destruction with no common 
 alacrity is sufficiently shown by the fact, that eight hundred and fifty-two 
 officers and men were killed in tlie British squadron, and sixty-five in the 
 Dutch. Lord Exmouth himself says, in his despatch, " There were awful 
 moments during the conflict, which I cannot now attempt to describe, 
 occasioned by firing the ships so near us." The Algerine batteries around 
 lord Exmouth's division were silenced about ten o'clock, and were in a com- 
 plete state of ruin and dilapidation ; but a fort at the upper angle of the 
 city continued to annoy our ships, whose firing had almost ceased. This was 
 the moment of the most serious danger to our fleet. Our means of attack were 
 well-nigh expended ; the upper batteries of the city could not be reached by 
 our guns ; the ships were becalmed. " Providence, at this interval," says 
 lord Exmouth, " gave to my anxious wishes the usual land-wind common in 
 this bay, and my expectations were completed. We were all hands employed 
 warping and towing off, and by the help of the light air the wliole were 
 under sail, and came to anchor out of reach of shells about two in the morn- 
 ing, after twelve hours' incessant labour." Nine Algerine frigates and a 
 number of gunboats were burning within the bay ; the storehouses within 
 the Mole were on fire. The blaze illumined all the bay, and showed the 
 town and its environs almost as clear as in the day-time ; instead of walls, 
 the batteries presented nothing to the sight but heaps of rubbish ; and out 
 of these ruins the Moors and Turks were busily employed in dragging' their 
 dead. When the fleet had anchored a storm arose — not so violent as the 
 storm which here destroyed the mighty fleet of Charles the Fifth, and left 
 his magnificent army, which had landed to subdue the barbarians, to perish by 
 VOL. vm.— 228.
 
 60 
 
 THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS, 
 
 [1816, 
 
 sword and famine — but a storm of thunder and liglitning, which filled up the 
 measure of sublimity, at the close of the twelve awful hours of battle and 
 slaughter. 
 
 On the morning of the 28th, lord Exmouth wrote a letter to the Dej, 
 who had himself fought with courage, in which the same terms of peace were 
 offered as on the previous day. " If you receive this offer as you ought, you 
 will fire three guns," wrote lord Exmouth. The three guns were fired, the 
 Dey made apologies, and treaties of peace and amity were finally signed, to 
 be very soon again broken. The enduring triumph of this expedition was 
 the release, within three days of the battle, of a thousand and eighty-three 
 Christian slaves, who arrived from the interior, and who were immediately 
 conveyed to their respective countries. 
 
 Stahic of Bonapai'tc, by Canova. in Apsley House.
 
 CHAPTER IV,* 
 
 Meeting of Parliament — Eeception of Lord Castlereagh — Debates on the Address-^-Gcvernment 
 defeated on the proposed renewal of the Property-Tax — Marriage of the Princess Charlotte — 
 Unpopularity of the Prince Regent — Complaints of Agricultural Distress — Depression of 
 Commerce and Manufactures — Causes assigned for the depression of Industry — Reduction 
 of the Circulating Medium — Unfavourable Season — Riots and outrages in Agricultural 
 Districts — Renewal of Luddism — Private Benevolence — Progress of Legislation for Social 
 Improvement — Criminal Laws — Forgeries of Bank Notes— Police of London — Gas-Light — 
 Mendicity and Vagrancy — Law of Settlement — General Administration of Poor Laws — 
 Inquiiy into the State of Education — Savings' Banks — Game Laws. 
 
 The Imperial Parliament assembled on the 1st of February, 1816. At 
 this opening of the Session the ministry met the representatives of the people 
 "with all the pride and confidence of a success beyond hope. The march to 
 Paris, twice over, says a conspicuous actor in the politics of that hour, was 
 sufficiently marvellous ; " but it appeared, if possible, still more incredible^ 
 that we should witness lord Castlereagh entering the House of Commons, 
 and resuming, amidst universal shouts of applause, the seat which he had 
 quitted for a season to attend as a chief actor in the arraagement of continental 
 territory." f Why incredible ? Lord Castlereagh in the House of Com- 
 mons was the impersonation of a great national triumph. The parliamentary 
 majority cheered the Minister for Foreign Afi'airs as he would have been 
 cheered by any other assembly, when he came home flushed with success- 
 Eor a little while the nation might bear even the presumption of those 
 who claimed all the merit of the triumph. On the first night of the Session, 
 it was clearly seen that there was to be a limit to what Parliament would bear. 
 The Chancellor of the Exchequer declared his intention to continue the Pro- 
 perty or Income Tax, on the modified scale of five per cent. This avowal 
 was the signal for one of the chief battle-cries which were to lead on the 
 scanty forces of Opposition. 
 
 * The period comprised in this Chapter, and in Chapter V., embracing the annals of 1816 
 and 1817, has been previously treated of by the author of "The Popular History" in "The 
 History of the Peace," published in 1846. This work, begun by hira, was continued and com- 
 pleted by Miss Martineau, and therefore bears her name. Although in the present history the 
 author proposed only to occupy about half the space of what he had previouslj- written, he 
 felt the extreme difficulty of relating the same events, and expressing the same opinions, alto- 
 gether in new words. Having stated his difficulty to Messrs. Chambers, who are now the pro- 
 prietors of the copyright of "The History of the Peace," he has received from them a very kind 
 permission, to condense the original narrative, or adopt any passages, at his own discretion, 
 "Whilst this licence relieves the author from an obvious embarrassment, he has nevertheless been 
 desirous to avoid a mere transcript of any large portion of what he had previously written. But 
 he has not made the useless attempt to distinguish between the new matter and the old, hoping 
 that he has amalgamated the separate parts so as to produce a harmonious result. 
 
 + Brougham's "Speeches," vol. i. p. 634 : Introduction to Speech on Holy Alliance.
 
 52 DEBATES ON THE ADDRESS. [1810. 
 
 In a debate in the Committee of Supply, lord Castlereagh used a memor- 
 able expression which roused a spirit in the country of deep hostility — almost 
 of disgust : " He felt assured that the people of Eugland would not, from an 
 ignorant impatience to be relieved from the pressure of taxation, put every- 
 thing to hazard, when everything might be accomplished by continued 
 constancy and firmness."* From the moment of this offensive declaration 
 the Income Tax was doomed. The people had not borne the taxation of bo 
 niauy years of war with a heroism such as no people had ever before 
 shown, to be taunted with ignorant impatience of taxation, now that they had 
 won peace. The presumption of the government at this period was calcu- 
 lated to produce a violent reaction throughout the land. Men really thought 
 that the old English spirit of freedom was about to be trampled upon when 
 the debates on the Treaties took place, in which lord Liverpool moved the 
 Address. Lord Grenville proposed an amendment, which deprecated in the 
 strongest language " the settled system to raise the country into a military 
 power." In the House of Peers the government had a majority of sixty- 
 four. Lord Holland entered a protest against the Address, in terms which 
 embodied his speech upon the Treaties, and expressed the opinions of that 
 section of the Opposition : " Because the treaties and engagements contain 
 a direct guarantee of the present government of France against the people of 
 that country ; and, in my judgment, impl^ a general and perpetual guarantee 
 of all European governments against the governed." In the House of Com- 
 mons the Foreign Secretary moved the Address upon the Treaties. An 
 amendment was proposed by lord Milton, which deprecated the military 
 occupation of Prance and the unexampled military establishments of this 
 country. The debate lasted two nights, the Address being finally carried by 
 a majority of a hundred and sixty-three. What was said on both sides was, 
 to a considerable extent, the regular display of party conflict. The exultation 
 of the government at the settlement of their war-labours look now scarcely 
 more inflated than the fears of some members of the Opposition that the 
 confederated arms of the despots of Europe might be turned against the 
 liberties of England. The practical business that was at hand — the enforce- 
 ment of economy, the alleviation of distress — was the matter of real importance 
 that was to grow out of these debates. 
 
 The Corporation of London took the lead in the national expression of 
 opinion against the Property Tax. It was not only the anti-ministerial party 
 of the City that joined in the petition of the corporation ; — the judgments of 
 mercantile men against the continuance of the tax were almost universal. 
 The dislike of the rural population was as fixed as that of the inhabitants of 
 towns. The battle against this tax was one of the most remarkable examples 
 of parliamentary strategy that was ever displayed. Por six weeks the Oppo- 
 sition, headed by Mr. Brougham, availed themselves of all the means of delay 
 afforded by the forms of the House. As petitions against the tax were pre- 
 sented night after night, debates on the petitions prevented debate and 
 division on the reading of the Bill. It was the 17th of March before the 
 resolutions for the continuance of the tax were presented to the House. 
 The division of the 18th of March, upon the motion of the Chancellor of 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxxiii. v. 455.
 
 1816.J TROPOSED RENEWAL OF PROPERTY-TAX. 53 
 
 the Exchequer in a Committee of Ways and Means, was terminated in half 
 an hour by the impatience of the House. For the continuance of the Pro- 
 perty Tax 201 members voted ; against it, 238. This defeat of the govern- 
 ment dispelled the belief that resistance to taxation was " ignorant impa- 
 tience." The Chancellor of the Exchequer took a somewhat remarkable 
 course after this defeat. He voluntarily abandoned the war-duties upon 
 malt, amounting to about 2,700,000^. The decision of the House would 
 compel him to resort to the money-market, — in other words, to raise a loan. 
 " It was of little consequence that the loan should be increased by the 
 amount of the calculated produce of the malt-duty." Lord Castlereagh 
 said, " it was a matter of indifference whether they took a loan of six or 
 eight millions." This was the "indifference" — the result of a long course of 
 unbounded expense — that required all the efforts of the people and of their 
 friends, during many years, to change into responsibility. 
 
 The inquisitorial character of the Property Tax had some influence iu 
 producing the popular hostility to its continuance. The returns of the tax- 
 payers were then scrutinized with a severity which has been wisely put aside 
 in the present times. But during the pressure of war-expenditure, and long 
 afterwards, the imposition and collection of other taxes were rendered as 
 odious as possible to the people. The government employed, to an extent 
 which scarcely seems credible now, an army of common informers, through 
 whose agency the system of surcharges and penalties was enforced. Southey 
 attacked this disgrace of our nation as being ten times more inquisitorial 
 than the Holy Office of Spain. " This species of espionage has within these 
 few years become a regular trade ; the laws are in some instances so per- 
 plexing, and in others so vexatious, that matter for prosecution is never 
 wanting." He describes how " a fellow surcharges half the people in the 
 district ; that is, he informs the tax-commissioners that such persons have 
 given in a false account of their windows, dogs, horses, carriages, &c., an 
 oftence for which the tax is trebled, and half the surplus given to the 
 informer." Harassed and perplexed — summoned from distant parts to appear 
 before the commissioners — the persons informed against give up the trouble 
 and expense of seeking justice ; pay the penalty and bear the surcharge.* 
 
 The debates upon the Army Estimates, which eventually caused some 
 reduction — the rejection of the Property Tax — the searching inquiry into the 
 Civil List — the agitation of the question of sinecure offices — were indications 
 of the feeling which any government would have to encounter that did not 
 resolutely determine that a season of peace should be a season of economy. 
 When the details of the Civil List exhibited items of wanton and ridiculous 
 luxury, the members of the Administration themselves were pained and 
 humiliated. When the same ministers proposed the magnificent establish- 
 ment for the Princess Charlotte and Prince Leopold, upon their marriage, 
 not a dissentient voice was heard in Parliament. The nation saw in this 
 marriage of the presumptive heiress of the Crown — a marriage of affection — 
 some assured hope that public duties might be fitly learned in the serenity of 
 domestic happiness. The private virtues were felt to be the best preparation 
 for the possession of sovereign power. The idea of a patriot queen dis- 
 
 * " Espriella's Letters" — Letter xvi.
 
 61 MARRIAGE OF THE PRINCESS CHARLOTTE— TEE REGENT. [1816. 
 
 charging all her bigli functions with steady alacrity, confident in the affections 
 of her people, of simple habits, of refined and intellectual tastes, her throne 
 sanctified by the attributes of womanly affection — such hopes were something 
 to console the nation for the present endurance of authority that claimed 
 only " mouth-honour," without love or respect. The marriage of tbs Princesa 
 Charlotte was hailed as a public blessing. It took place at Carlton House, 
 on the evening of the 2nd of May. 
 
 One of the most painful circumstances of this period, and one pregnant 
 with danger, was the general contempt for the character of him who now 
 wielded the sovereign authority. The military triumphs of the Regency 
 made the nation only consider how strongly in contrast to the elevation of 
 that heroic time were the cravings for ease and indulgence, the reckless 
 expenditure upon childish gratifications, of the Eegent. The attacks of the 
 press upon his sensual follies made him hate the expression of public opinion. 
 That voice was heard in a place where the character and actions of the 
 sovereign are usually unnoticed, even in the greatest freedom of parliamentary 
 debate. The Prince of Wales was in "all but name a King." Eomilly 
 describes a scene in the House of Commons, which took place in a debate on 
 the 20th of March, in which Brougham, he says, made a violent attack upon 
 the Eegent, " whom he described as devoted, in the recesses of his palace, to 
 the most vicious pleasures, and callous to the distresses and sufferings of 
 others, in terms which would not have been too strong to describe the lattei 
 days of Tiberius." He adds, " it is generally believed that, but for the 
 speech of Brougham's, the ministers would again have been in a minority. 
 
 Brougliam's speech Avas very injudicious as well as very unjust, for, 
 
 with all the Prince's faults, it is absurd to speak of him as if he were one 
 of the most sensual and unfeeling tyrants that ever disgraced a throne." * 
 Nevertheless, although satire ran riot in ridicule of the unbounded and 
 effeminate luxury of Carlton House in spite of ex offlcio informations, there 
 was wanting some authoritative voice to proclaim that the mightiest of the 
 earth are unworthy of their high station when they live for their own plea- 
 sures alone. The declamation of Mr. Brougham might be unstatesmanlike, 
 but it was not without its use. 
 
 "When the government, in the name of the Prince Eegent, informed 
 Parliament that " the manufactures, commerce, and revenue of the United 
 Kingdom were in a flourishing condition," the exception of Agriculture was 
 a sufiicieut announcement that the cry of "Distress" was near at hand. 
 Amidst the best and the worst species of opposition — the power of argument 
 and the weakness of tumult — a Bill was in 1815 hurried through Parliament 
 which absolutely closed the ports till the price of wheat rose to 8O5. This 
 law was passed during a season of wonderful abundance. It produced the 
 immediate good to the landed interest of preventing the abundant supply 
 being increased by importation; but the effect which it produced to the 
 nation was to dry up the resources in years of scarcity which the foresight of 
 other countries might have provided. The war-and-famine price of 1812 was 
 again reached in the latter part of 1816, in 1817, and in 1818. The golden 
 days of the deity that is found in no mythology, the Anti-Ceres, were 
 
 • Romilly's "Life." 
 
 I
 
 1816.] COMPLAINTS OF AGEICULTURAL DISTRESS. 55 
 
 returned. .But the people were starving. Misery and insurrection filled the 
 land. 
 
 A year after the hasty enactment of a Corn-Law in ]815, amidst riots in 
 the metropolis and the proviaces, a majority of the landed interest came to 
 Parliament to ask for the remission of peculiar burthens, and to demand 
 fresh protection. The landed interest of 181G had but one remedy for everv 
 evil — unequal remission of taxation conjoined with protection. They desired 
 themselves to pay less to the State than their fellow-subjects ; they required 
 the State to limit their fellow-subjects to that exclusive market for the 
 necessaries of life which should dry up the sources of profitable industry, 
 and thus make their taxation doubly burthen some. On the 7th of March Mr. 
 "Western laid upon the table of the House a series of fourteen Resolutions, 
 which declared the "unexampled distress" of those whose capitals were em^ 
 ployed in agriculture. They demanded the repeal of so much of the Act of 
 1815 as should allow foreign corn to be warehoused, so that only British corn 
 should be stored ; and urged an advance of money by the government to such 
 individuals as might be inclined to buy up our native produce. The prin- 
 ciple upon which all this was advocated was a sufficiently broad one : " That 
 excessive taxation renders it necessary to give protection to all articles the 
 produce of our own soil, against similar articles the growth of foreign 
 countries, not subject to the same burthens;" and "that it is therefore 
 expedient to impose additional duties and restrictions on the importation of 
 all articles, the produce of foreign agriculture." It is a remarkable example 
 of the power of the landed interest in the House of Commons, that these 
 assertions and unconditional demands were received not only with tolerance 
 but respect. The day-spring of economical politics had scarcely yet dawned. 
 The strength either of the Ministry or the Opposition essentially depended 
 upon the numerical force of the country gentlemen. The commercial and 
 manufacturing interests were most imperfectly represented. The landed 
 aristocracy had retained official power, in association with a few " clerkly" 
 workers, from the earliest feudal times. The admission of a merchant to the 
 councils of the sovereign would have been deemed pollution. The mill-owners 
 had carried us through the war ; yet as a political body they were without 
 influence, almost without a voice. There was no one in the House of 
 Commons, who had either the courage or the ab/ity to probe the wounds of 
 the agricultural interests, which were thus paraded before the nation. The 
 itesolutions of Mr. Western in 1816 came to no practical result ; for the 
 chief reason, that the forced abandonment of the property-tax, and the volun- 
 tary relinquishment of the war malt-duty, had really left very little within 
 the reach of Grovernment to be off'ered as a further boon to the landed 
 interest. 
 
 " Manufactures and Commerce," said the speech of the Prince Regent, 
 " are in a flourishing condition." This was to rely upon the bare figures of 
 Custom House returns. In 1815 the declared value of British and Irish 
 produce and manufactures exported was fifty-one millions, being six milliona 
 more than in 1814. "Well might the commerce of the country seem to be 
 flourishiog. Those who knew the real workings of that commerce were not 
 so deceived. Mr. Baring, on the second night of the Session, declared, that 
 ** he saw more loss than gain in this great increase of export." When the
 
 5G DEPRESSION OF COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. [181G. 
 
 destruction of the power of jSTapoleou in 1S14 had opened the ports of the 
 continent to our vessels ; when the consumption of our exports no longer 
 depended upon a vast system of contraband trade ; it was universally thought 
 that there could be no limit to the demand for British manufactures and 
 colonial produce. If, under the anti-commercial decrees of our great enemy, 
 the shipments to European ports had been twelve millions in 1811, why 
 should they not be doubled in 1814 ? And accordingly they were doubled. 
 The most extravagant profits were expected to be realized. The ordinary 
 course of trade was forsaken, and small capitalists as well as large, at the 
 outports as well as in London, eagerly bought up colonial produce, and 
 looked for golden returns. " The shippers found to their cost, when it was 
 too late, that the effective demand on the continent for colonial produce and 
 British manufactures had been greatly over-rated ; for whatever might be the 
 desire of the foreign consumers to possess articles so long out of their reach, 
 they were limited in their means of purchase, and accordingly, the bulk of 
 the commodities exported brought very inadequate returns." * A very slight 
 consideration will explain the causes of this enormous mistake. In the first 
 place, the continent was wholly exhausted by the long course of war ; by the 
 prodigious expenditure of capital that the war had demanded ; by the wasteful 
 consumption of mighty armies embattled against the oppressor ; by the rapine 
 of the predatory hordes that were let loose upon their soil ; by confiscation. 
 The people had necessarily the greatest difiiculty to maintain life ; they had 
 little to spare for the secondary necessaries — nothing for indulgence. The 
 merchants of our own country — the nation in general — had been so accus- 
 tomed to the outward indications of prosperity at home during the course of 
 the war, that they had no adequate idea that war was the great destroyer of 
 capital, and that it essentially left all mankind poorer. In the second place, 
 what had the continent to give us in exchange for our coifee and our sugar, 
 our calicoes and our cutlery ? The old mercantile school stiU existed amougst 
 us, who thought that the perfection of commerce was to exchange goods for 
 money, and that a great commercial nation might subsist without barter. 
 But the continent had no money to exchange for English products, even if 
 the exploded theories of the balance of trade could have found any realization. 
 The continent, exhausted a? it was, had its native commodities, but those we 
 refused. We doggedly h* ^d on in a course of commercial regulation which 
 belonged only to the infancy of society. We perpetuated foreign restrictions 
 and exclusions of our own manufactured produce, by persistence in a system 
 which other nations of necessity regarded as the cause of our manufacturing 
 superiority. We did not then know how essentially this system retarded our 
 own national progress. We listened to those who, on every side, clamoured 
 ibr exclusive interests. Agriculturists and manufacturers, landowners and 
 shipowners, equally shouted for protection. 
 
 The state of the American trade of 1816 was described by Mr. Brougham, 
 after speaking of the disastrous results of the continental speculations : — 
 " The peace with America has produced somewhat of a similar effect ; though 
 I am very far from placing the vast exports which it occasioned upon the 
 same footing with those to the European markets the year before ; because 
 
 * Tooke's "History of Prices," vol. ii. p. 8.
 
 1816.] CAUSES ASSIGNED FOR THE DEPRESSION OF INDUSTRY. 57 
 
 ultimately the Americans aa ill pay ; which the exhiiustcd state of the cou- 
 tinent renders very unlikely." * Let us remark that we did not prevent the 
 Americans paying in the only way in which one great people can pay another 
 — by the interchange of commodities which each wants, in return for com- 
 modities of which each can produce a superfluity. AVe shut out their corn, 
 but we did not shut out their cotton. But we went farther with the United 
 States in the recognition of just commercial principles than with any 
 European nation. By the Treaty of Ghent, in 1814, both countries agreed 
 to repeal their navigation laws, and " the ships of the two countries were 
 placed reciprocally upon the same footing in the ports of England and the 
 United States, and all discriminating duties chargeable upon the goods which 
 they conveyed were mutually repealed." 
 
 The distresses of the agricultural and the commercial interests were 
 coincident ; for the means of purchase amongst all classes were exhausted. 
 The capital which was to impel their profitable industry was dried up. There 
 was " a very general depression in the prices of nearly all productions, and in 
 the value of all fixed property, entailing a convergence of losses and failures 
 among the agricultural, and commercial, and manufacturing, and mining, and 
 shipping, and building interests, which marked that period as one of most 
 extensive sufiering and distress." f Some proclaimed that the depression 
 and the distress were caused, not by the exhaustion of war, but by " the 
 transition from a state of war to a state of peace." The theory upon which 
 this delusion was upheld was this : — " The whole annual war expenditure, to 
 the amount of not less than forty millions, was at once withdrawn from 
 circulation. But public expenditure is like the fountain tree in the Indian 
 paradise, which difiuses in fertilizing streams the vapours which it was created 
 to collect and condense for the purpose of more beneficially returning and 
 distributing them." J According to this logical imagery, or imaginative logic, 
 the capital of a nation in the pockets of its proprietors is " vapour ;" it 
 becomes a " fertilizing stream" when it condenses into taxes. It assumes that 
 there is more demand when the capital of a country is expended by govern- 
 ment, than when the same capital is expended by individuals. It assumes that 
 the expenditure of capital by government in subsidies, in the wasteful con- 
 sumption of armies, in all the tear and wear of war, is more profitable than the 
 expenditure of capital in the general objects of industry which create more 
 capital. It assumes that the partial expenditure of capital by government in 
 its victualling offices, is more profitable than the regular expenditure of the 
 same capital left in the pockets of the tax-payers, to give them an additional 
 command over food and raiment, — over the comforts and elegaacies of life. This 
 falJacy, as well as many others connected with the depression of industry at 
 the close of the war, has been disproved by the long experience of peace. 
 "We had arrived in 1816 at the highest point of war exhaustion. The expen- 
 diture of government in the eleven years between 1805 and 1815 was very 
 nearly 900,000,OOOZ. In 1815 the revenue raised by taxation was 72,000,000^ 
 Upon a population of fifteen millions in the United Kingdom this was a 
 
 * Brougham's "Speeches," vol. i. p. 519. 
 t Tooke's "History of Prices," vol. ii. p. 12. 
 J "Quarterly Review," July, 1816.
 
 ^8 REDUCTION OF THE CIRCULATING MiilDIUM, [1816. 
 
 rate per head of 41. IQs. The rate of taxation per head upon the population 
 of the United Kingdom in 18G0 was 21. 8s. There was the same aggregate 
 amount of taxation, but tlie burden was divided between twice the number 
 of tax-payers. 
 
 The partial return to a real standard of the currency at the period of 
 peace was considered by many to have been a main if not the sole cause 
 of the distress and embarrassment which we have described. Neverthe- 
 less, the Bank of England at the peace scarcely contracted its issues 
 at all. In August, 1813, the circulation of bank-notes was nearly twenty- 
 five millions ; at the same season in 1814 it was twenty-eight millions ; 
 in 1815 twenty-seven millions ; in 1816 only half a million less. The 
 utmost amount of the depreciation of bank-notes was in 181-i, when a 
 hundred pounds of paper would only buy 74<l. 17s. dd. of gold — a depre- 
 ciation of about 25 per cent. In 1815 and 1816 a hundred pounds of 
 paper would buy 83Z. 5s. 9d. of gold — a depreciation of nearly 17 per- cent. 
 Thus the rise in the value of money, which Cobbett, and many others of less 
 violent politics, declared had produced the wide-spreading ruin of 1816, by 
 causing a proportionate fall of the prices of commodities exchanged for 
 money, was not more than 8 per cent., as compared with the period wlien the 
 value of an unconvertible paper-money was at the lowest. It is no less true 
 that a vast amount of paper-money was withdrawn from circulation at this 
 period, by the failure of many country-banks, and the contraction of their 
 advances by all who were stable. This was a consequence of the great fall 
 of agricultural produce — a consequence of the diminished credit of the pro- 
 ducers. "When the restriction upon cash payments by the Bank of England 
 was, in 1816, agreed to be renewed for two years, the bearing of the con- 
 tinuance of tlie restriction upon the state of prices was not overlooked. On 
 the 1st of May, 1816, Mr. Horner, on his motion for a Committee to inquire 
 into the expediency of restoring the cash payments of the Bank of England, 
 said that, " from inquiries which he had made, and from the accounts on the 
 table, he was convinced that a greater and more sudden reduction of the 
 circulating medium had never taken place in any country than had taken 
 place since the peace in this country, with the exception of those reductions 
 which had happened in Erance after the Mississippi scheme, and after the 
 destruction of the assignats. The reduction of the currency had originated 
 in the previous fall of the prices of agricultural produce. This fall had 
 produced a destruction of the country bank-paper to an extent which would 
 not have been thought possible without more ruin than had ensued. The 
 Bank of England had also reduced its issues, as appeared by the accounts 
 recently presented. But without looking to the diminution of the Bank of 
 England paper, the reduction of country paper was enough to account for 
 the fall which had taken place." * William Cobbett, in November, 1816, 
 maintained, not unreasonably, although he exaggerated the extent of the 
 diminished issue of bank-paper, that if, with reduced prices of commodities, 
 the debt and taxes had come down too, there would have been no material 
 injury .t 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxxiv. p. 143. 
 
 t "Political Register," November 30, ISIG.
 
 1816.] UNFAVOURABLE SEASOX. 59 
 
 That the paralysis of industry which marked the latter montlis of 1815 
 and the beginning of 1816 was most felt by those whose voices of com- 
 plaint were least heard, by the working population, was soon made perfectly 
 manifest. There was a surplus of labour in every department of human 
 exertion. Mr. Brand declared in Parliament, at the end of March, speaking 
 especially of the agricultural population, that " the poor, in many cases, aban- 
 doned their own residences. "Whole parishes had been deserted ; and the 
 crowd of paupers, increasing in numbers as they went from parish to parish, 
 spread wider and wider this awful desolation." * Discharged sailors and dis- 
 banded militiamen swelled the ranks of indigence. If the unhappy wan- 
 derers crowded to the cities, they encountered bodies of workmen equally 
 ■wretched, wholly deprived of work, or working at short time upon insufficient 
 wages. But another evil, of which we find no parliamentary record, amidst 
 debates on the prevailing distress, had come upon the land to aggravate dis- 
 content into desperation. "While the landowners were demanding more pro- 
 tection, and passing new laws for limiting the supply of food, the heavens 
 lowered ; intense frosts prevailed in February ; the spring was inclement ; 
 the temperature of the advancing summer was unusually low ; and in July 
 incessant rains and cold stormy winds completed the most ungenial season 
 that had occurred in this country since 1799. In January the average price 
 of wheat was 52s. 6d. ; in May it was 76s. 4:d. The apprehensions of a deficient 
 crop were universal in Germany, in France, and in the south of Europe. The 
 result of the harvest showed that these apprehensions were not idle. The 
 prices of grain in England rapidly rose after July ; and at the end of the year, 
 rye, barley, and beans had more than doubled the average market price at 
 the beginning ; wheat had risen from 52s. Qd. to 103s. 
 
 "The matter of seditions is of two kinds," says lord Bacon, "much 
 poverty and much discontentment." Both causes were fully operating in 
 Great Britain in 1816. The seditions of absolute poverty — " the rebellions 
 of the belly," as the same great thinker writes — were the first to manifest 
 themselves. Early in May, symptoms of insubordination and desperate 
 violence were displayed among the agricultural population of the eastern 
 counties. These " poor dumb mouths" soon made themselves audible. 
 They combined in the destruction of property with a fierce recklessness that 
 startled those who saw no danger but in the violence of dense populations, 
 and who were constantly proclaiming that the nation which builds on manu- 
 factures sleeps upon gunpowder. In Suff"olk, nightly fires of incendiaries 
 began to blaze in every district ; threshing machines were broken or burnt in 
 o^en day ; mills were attacked. At Brandon, near Bury, large bodies of 
 labourers assembled to prescribe a maximum price of grain and meat, and to 
 pull down the houses of butchers and bakers. They bore flags, with the 
 motto, " Bread or Blood." At Bury and at Norwich, disturbances of a 
 similar nature were quickly repressed. But the most serious demonstration 
 of the spirit of the peasantry arose in what is called " the Isle of Ely." 
 "When we regard the peculiar character of this portion of the country, we 
 may easily understand how a great fall in the prices of grain had driven the 
 land out of cultivation, and cast off the labour of the peasantry, to be aa 
 
 * Hu.a3ard, vol, xixiii. p. 671.
 
 60 RIOTS AND OUTRAGES IN AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS. [1816. 
 
 noxious in its stagnation as the overcharged waters of that artificially fertile 
 region. That country was then very imperfectly drained, and the rates for 
 the imperfect drainage being unpaid by many tenants, the destructive agencies 
 of nature were more active than the healing and directing energies of man. 
 It is well known, too, that in the fen countries the temptation of immediate 
 profit had more than commonly led the farmer to raise exhausting crops, and 
 that the nature of the land, under such circumstances, is such, that a more 
 provident tillage, and abundant manure, cannot for a long time restore it. 
 The high prices of wheat from 1810 to 1814 had supplied this temptation. 
 The Isle of Ely, in 1816, had become somewhat like Prospero's isle, where 
 there was " everything advantageous to life, save means to live." It was 
 under such circumstances that, on the 22nd of May, a great body of insurgent 
 fen men assembled at Littleport, a small town on the river Lark. They 
 commenced their riotous proceedings by a night attack on the house of a 
 magistrate. They broke into shops, emptied the cellars of public-houses, and 
 finally marched to Ely, where they continued their lawless course of drunken- 
 ness and plunder. For two days and nights these scenes of violence did not 
 cease : and the parish of Littleport was described as resembling a town sacked 
 by a besieging army, the principal inhabitants having been compelled to 
 abandon their houses in terror of their lives, leaving their property to the 
 fury of this fearful band of desperate men. There could, of necessity, be but 
 one termination. The military were called in, and a sort of skirmish ensued, 
 in which blood flowed on both sides. A large number of the rioters were 
 finally lodged in Ely gaol. Then came the sure retribution of the ofiended laws. 
 A Special Commission was issued for the trial of the culprits. Thirty-four 
 persons were convicted, and sentenced to death, on charges of burglary and 
 robbery, of whom five were executed. 
 
 Incendiary fires, attempts at plunder, riots put down by military force, 
 spread alarm through districts chiefly agricultural. The distress which had 
 fallen upon the manufacturing and other non-agricultural portions of the 
 population was manifested in many signal ways. At the beginning of July, 
 a body of colliers, thrown out of employment by the stoppage of iron-works 
 at Bilston, took the singular rerolution of setting out to London, for the 
 purpose of submitting their distresses in a petition to the Prince Regent, 
 and presenting him with two waggons of coals, which they drew along with 
 them. One party advanced as far as St. Alban's, and another reached 
 Maidenhead Thicket. The Home Office took the precaution of sending a 
 strong body of police, with magistrates, from London, to meet these poor 
 fellows, and induce them to return ; and they were successful. The distresses 
 of the workmen in the iron trade were quite appalling. Utter desolation 
 prevailed in districts where iron-works had been suspended. The workmen 
 in these districts used to be surrounded with many comforts. They had 
 saved a little money. The factories were shut up, the furnaces blown out, 
 the coal-pits closed. Then the neat cottages, where hundreds of families 
 had lived in comfort, were gradually stripped of every article of furniture ; 
 the doors of these once cheerful dwellings were closed ; the families were 
 wandering about the country, seeking for that relief from private charity 
 which the parishes could not supply them. Depredation was very rare- 
 Later in the year, the miners and colliers connected with the great iron*
 
 1816.] RENEWAL 0) LUDDISM— PRIVATE BENEVOLENCE. CI 
 
 works in tbe neighbourhood of Merthyr assembled iu a tumultuous manner, 
 and their numbers gradually swelling till they reached ten or twelve thousand, 
 they finally extinguished the blast at several works, but did little other 
 damage. These men were on very reduced wages, but their distress does not 
 seem to have been nearly so great as the utter destitution of the Stafiordshire 
 colliers. 
 
 The Luddite insurrection of 1812 had never been wholly put down.* In 
 1816, it broke forth with new violence. At Loughborough, in July, many 
 frames employed in the manufacture of lace were destroyed with the same 
 secrecy as in 1812. Armed bands, under the orders of a chief, held the 
 inhabitants in nightly terror, commanding them to put out their lights, and 
 keep within their houses, under penalty of death. Their ravages were not 
 confined to the towns ; they would march with suddenness and secrecy to 
 distant villages, and rapidly efi'ect their purposes of destruction. The 
 General Ludd, who led on these armed and disguised desperadoes, would 
 address his forces in a short speech, divide them into parties, and assign their 
 respective operations. Then, in the silence of night, would houses and 
 factories be broken open, frames and other machines be demolished, un- 
 finished work be scattered on the highways, furniture be wholly destroyed. 
 The ignorance which has more or less prevailed at all times on the subject of 
 machinery — coupled with the want of employment produced by the depres- 
 sion of every branch of industry — was the cause that, undeterred by the 
 terrible penalties of the law, the Luddites still pursued the course which had 
 well-nigh driven the lace manufacture from their district, and converted 
 temporary distress into permanent ruin. 
 
 The suff'erings of the poor in 1816 were too manifest not to call forth an 
 unusual amount of public sympathy, displayed in subscriptions for relief, and 
 in schemes for providing employment. However local charity may have 
 mitigated the intensity of tbe evil arising out of the general exhaustion of 
 capital, the more ostentatious exertions of that period were economic mis- 
 takes, which would have become fatal delusions if they had not quickly 
 broken down. Every scheme to provide unprofitable employment by what is 
 called charity must necessarily be fallacious. Afi'ording no returns to pro- 
 duce continued employment, it soon comes to an end. The higher benevo- 
 lence which goes to the root, as far as possible, of the evils of society, was 
 then little understood and less practised. Let us endeavour to trace the 
 operation, during the first year in which Parliament had leisure to attend to 
 the condition of the people, of that legislation which seeks to remove evil 
 laws and to amend worn-out institutions. 
 
 The notion that had been engendered by the French Eevolution that to 
 innovate was to destroy, that to reform was to revolutionize, was the creed 
 of the majority from the close of the war to the end of the reign of George 
 the Fourth. The re-action, which iu 1816 had commenced, of a more 
 enlightened public opinion, finally produced the remarkable progress in social 
 improvement which is the great characteristic of the happier eras of William 
 the Fourth and of Victoria. This re-action acquired efficiency and perma- 
 nence from the very obstinacy with which it was resisted. It grew up 
 
 * Ante, vol. tu, p. 543.
 
 C2 PROGRESS OF LEGISLATION FOR SOCIAL IMPROVEMENT. [1816. 
 
 during an incessant conflict, in which the roughest weapons of controversy 
 were freely used by speakers and by writers. The amount of acrimony and 
 intolerance which we may trace in the periodical press of that time, now 
 appears ludicrous to the few who have survived what Sydney Smith calls " an 
 awful period for those who had the misfortune to entertain liberal opinions." 
 A later generation turns with loathing from the mode in which educated men 
 denounced those who differed from them in the notion that the English con- 
 stitution, as then understood, was the best possible form of government, and 
 that what those who were sneered at as enthusiasts called social evils were 
 really blessings in disguise. When the enthusiasts attempted to repeal or 
 modify laws wholly unsuited to the advanced opinions of the age, and which 
 appeared unlikely to provoke the hostility of mere selfish interests, there was 
 always some formidable adversary to stand in the breach, ready to defend the 
 crumbling outer walls of our time-honoured institutions, as if they con- 
 stituted the strength and glory of the citadel. Wise men looked upon 
 English life, and thought — 
 
 "'tis an un weeded garden 
 That grows to seed ; things rank and gross in nature 
 Possess it merely." 
 
 They were levellers — they were visionaries — they would make government 
 impossible, said an overwhelming majority. A type of the class who resisted 
 every approach to improvement was the Lord Chancellor Eldon. His thought 
 by day, his dream by night, was to uphold what he called the Constitution — 
 that indefinable compound of principles and expedients, that to him was as 
 sacred as the commands of Holy Writ. Whoever approached to lay his 
 hands on that ark, whether he came to blot out a cruel statute, or to mitigate 
 a commercial restriction, or to disfranchise a corrupt borough, or to break 
 down a religious disability, was his enemy. It has been truly observed, that 
 he confounded every abuse that surrounded the throne, or grew up within 
 the precincts of the altar, with the institutions themselves — " alike the deter- 
 mined enemy of ail wlio would either invade the institution or extirpate the 
 abuse." Eomilly was the foremost amongst the courageous spirits who 
 risked something for the amelioration of the lot of their fellow-men. His 
 perseverance was an example to other earnest labourers, who, amidst much 
 suspicion, and some ridicule, rested not till they had secured a neutral 
 ground on which the benevolent and wise of each party might labour without 
 any compromise of their political consistency. Criminal Laws ; Police ; 
 Poor-Laws; Education; these offered themselves, when the excitement of 
 the war had passed away, as subjects that might be dealt with in the same 
 spirit which had finally carried the abolition of the Slave Trade. Tory might 
 unite with Whig in measures whose necessity was proclaimed in many forms 
 of misery, of oppression, of neglect. Resistance to change gradually became 
 feebler and feebler. There was a wide gulf between the land of promise and 
 the land of reality ; but it was first bridged over with a single plank, and then 
 a solid structure arose, across which the advocates of " things as they should 
 be" securely passed to an enduring triumph, of which the wisest of the 
 adherents of " things as they are" came, in the fulness of time, to share the 
 honour. 
 
 The name of reform in the Criminal Laws had not been heard in the House
 
 1S16.] CRIMINAL LAWS. 63 
 
 of Commons for fifty-eight years, wben, in 1808, Eomilly carried his Bill for 
 the abolition of the punishment of death for privately stealing from the person 
 to the value of five shillings ; in other words, for picking pockets. His 
 friend Scarlett advised him to attempt at once to repeal all the statutes 
 which punish with death mere thefts unaccompanied by any act of violence, 
 or other circumstance of aggravation ; but Eomilly, seeing that he had no 
 chance of being able to carry through the House a Bill which was to expunge 
 at once all those laws from the statute-book, determined to attempt the repeaJ 
 of them one by one. Upon this prudential principle Eomilly carried his 
 first reform in 1808. Nevertheless, the House of Commons, which consented 
 to pass the Bill, forced upon him the omission of its preamble : — " Whereas, 
 the extreme severity of penal laws hath not bsen found eff'ectual for the 
 prevention of crimes ; but, on the contrary, by increasing the difficulty of 
 convicting offenders, in some cases affords them impunity, and in most cases 
 renders their punishment extremely uncertain." The temper with which 
 too many persons of rank and influence received any project of amelioration 
 at the beginning of this century, is forcibly exhibited in an anecdote which 
 Eomilly has preserved for our edification. The brother of a peer of the 
 realm, fresh from a debauch, came up to him at the bar of the House of 
 Commons, and stammered out, " I am against your Bill ; I am for hanging 
 all."* 
 
 In 1810 Eomilly brought in three Bills to repeal the Acts which 
 punished with death the crimes of stealing privately in a shop goods of 
 the value of five shillings, and of stealing to the amount of forty shillings 
 in a dwelling-house, or on board vessels in navigable rivers. The first 
 Bill passed the House of Commons, but was lost in the Lords. The 
 other two were rejected. In 1811 the rejected Bills were again intro- 
 duced, with a fourth Bill, abolishing the capital punishment for stealing in 
 bleaching-grounds. The four Bills were carried through the House of 
 Commons; but only that on the subject of bleaching-grounds was sanctioned 
 by the Lords. The constant argument that was employed on these occasions 
 against the alteration of the law was this — that of late years the offences 
 which they undertook to repress were greatly increased. Justly did Eomilly 
 say, "A better reason than this for altering the law could hardly be given." 
 On the 24th of May, 1811, when three of the Bills were rejected in the 
 House of Lords, lord Ellenborough declared, " They went to alter those laws 
 which a century had proved to be necessary, and which were now to be over- 
 turned by speculation and modern pliilosophy." f The Lord Chancellor, Eldon, 
 on the same occasion stated, that he had himself early in life felt a disposition 
 to examine the principles on which our criminal code was framed, " before 
 observation and experience had matured his judgment. Since, however, he 
 had learnt to listen to these great teachers in this important science, his 
 ideas had greatly changed, and he saw the wisdom of the principles and 
 practice by which our criminal code was regulated." J In 1813 sir Samuel 
 Eomilly's Bill for the abolition of capital punishment in cases of shoplifting, 
 was carried by the Commons in the new ParKament ; but it was again rejected 
 
 * Eomilly's "Diary," June, 1S08. 
 
 t Hansard, vol. xx. p. 299. J Ibid., vol. xx. p. 300.
 
 64 FORGERIES OF BANK NOTES. [131C 
 
 in the House of Lords. No further attempt was made towards the amelio- 
 ration of this branch of our laws till the year 1816. 
 
 On the 16th of February sir Samuel Eomilly obtained leave to bring in 
 a Bill repealing the Act of William the Third, which made it a capital 
 offence to steal privately in a shop to the value of five shillings. He 
 described this Act as the most severe and sanguinary in our statute-book. 
 As recently as 1785, no less than ninety-seven persons were executed in 
 London for this offence alone ; and the dreadful spectacle was exhibited of 
 twenty suffering at the same time. The capital sentence was now constantly 
 evaded by juries committing a pious fraud, and finding the property of less 
 value than was required by the statute. The consequence, if severe laws 
 were never executed, was, that crime went on to increase, and the crimes of 
 juvenile offenders especially. On moving the third reading of the Bill, on 
 the 15th of March, sir Samuel Eomilly called attention to the great number 
 of persons of very tender age who had recently been sentenced to death for 
 pilfering in shops. At that moment there was a child in Newgate, not ten 
 years of age, under sentence of death for this offence; and the Eecorder of' 
 London was reported to have declared that it was intended to enforce the 
 laws strictly in future, to interpose some check, if possible, to the increase 
 of youthful depravity. The Bill passed the Commons, but was thrown out 
 in the Lords on the 22ud of May. On this occasion the Lord Chief Justice 
 agreed with the Lord Chancellor, " that the effect of removing the penalty 
 of death from other crimes had rendered him still more averse to any new 
 experiment of this kind. Since the removal of the vague terror which hung 
 over the crime of stealing from the person, the number of offences of that 
 kind had alarmingly increased." * Thus, with the absolute certainty of 
 experience that bloody laws rigorously administered did not diminish crime, 
 the legislators of the beginning of the nineteenth century believed, or affected 
 to believe, that the same laws scarcely ever carried into execution would 
 operate through the influence of what they called " a vague terror." The 
 inef&ciency of this system is forcibly demonstrated by a comparison of the 
 number of forged notes presented at the Bank of England, with the number 
 of persons convicted of forging and uttering such notes, and the number of 
 these executed for forgery. In 1816 there were 17,885 forged notes pre- 
 sented at the Bank of England ; 104 persons were convicted of forgery ; 18 
 were executed. The capital punishment for forgery was not abolished till 
 1833; but there was no execution for that offence after 1829. The crime 
 had decreased by removing the temptation to its perpetration upon a large 
 scale. In 1820 there were 29,035 forged notes presented at the Bank ; 
 the convictions were 352 ; the executions were 21. In 1823 the forged notes 
 presented were 1648 ; the convictions were 6 ; the executions were 2. The 
 resumption of cash payments had extinguished the notes for one pound and 
 two pounds, which had previously constituted the chief circulating medium. 
 
 In 1816 our system of police had arrived at its perfection of imbecile 
 wickedness. The machinery for the prevention and detection of crime was 
 exactly accommodated to the machinery for its punishment. On the 3rd of 
 April, on the motion of Mr. Bennet, a Committee of the House of CommouB 
 
 * Jlansard, vol. xxxiv. p. 634.
 
 1816., POLICE OF LONDON. 65 
 
 was appointed to inquire into the state of the police of the metropolis. The 
 Committee was resumed in 1817 ; and two Reports were presented, which 
 were among the first causes of the awakening of the public mind to a sense 
 of the frightful evils which were existing in what we flattered ourselves to 
 be the most civilized city in the world. There was no unity of action amongst 
 the petty jurisdictions into which the metropolis was divided. The notion of 
 a preventive police was utterly unknown. The " thief-taker," as the police 
 officer was called, was the great encourager of crime. The suppression of 
 crime would have taken away the chief profits of his occupation. Flash- 
 houses, known in the scientific phraseology of the police as "flash-cribs," 
 " shades," and " infernals," were filthy dens, where thieves and abandoned 
 females were always to be found, riotous or drowsy, surrounded by children 
 of all ages, qualifying for their degrees in the college of crime. " There," 
 says a Middlesex magistrate, examined before the Committee of 1816, " they 
 (the children) see thieves and thief-takers sitting and drinking together on 
 terms of good-fellowship ; all they see and hear is calculated to make them 
 believe they may rob without fear of punishment, for in their thoughtless 
 course they do not reflect that the forbearance of the officers will continue no 
 longer than until they commit a forty-pound crime, when they will be 
 sacrificed." A forty-pound crime ! — the phraseology is as obsolete as if it 
 were written in the pedlar's French of the rogues of the sixteenth century. 
 A forty-pound crime was a crime for whose detection the State adjudged a 
 reward, to be paid on conviction, of forty pounds ; and, as a necessary con-« 
 sequence, the whole race of thieves were fostered into a steady advance from 
 small ofiences to great, till they obligingly ventured upon some deed of more 
 than common atrocity, which should bestow the blood-money upon the officers 
 of the law who had so long petted and protected them. The system received 
 a fatal blow in 1816, in the detection of three officers of the police, who had 
 actually conspired to induce five men to commit a burglary, for the purpose 
 of obtaining the rewards upon their conviction. The highwaymen who 
 infested the suburbs of the metropolis had been eradicated — they belonged 
 to another age. Ofiences against the person were very rarely connected with 
 any off^ences against property. But the uncertainty of punishment, the 
 authorized toleration of small ofienders, and the organized system of nego- 
 tiation for the return of stolen property, had filled the metropolis with 
 legions of experienced depredators. The public exhibitions of the most 
 profligate indecency and brutality can scarcely be believed by those who 
 have grown up in a diff"erent state of society. When Defoe described his 
 Colonel Jack, in the days of his boyish initiation into vice, sleeping with 
 other children amidst the kilns and glasshouses of the London fields, we read 
 of a state of things that has long passed away. But, as recently as 1816, in 
 Covent Grarden Market, and other places affording a partial shelter, hundreds 
 of men and women, boys and girls, assembled together, and continued during 
 the night, in a state of shameless profligacy, which is described as presenting 
 a scene of vice and tumult more atrocious than anything exhibited even by 
 the lazzaroni of Naples. 
 
 The brilliantly lighted, carefully watched, safe, orderly, and tranquil 
 London of the present day, presents as great a contrast to the London of 
 1816, as that again, contrasted with the London of 1762, the year in which 
 VOL. VIII.— 229.
 
 65 GAS-LIGHT— MENDICITY AND VAGRANCY. [181G. 
 
 the "Westminster Paving and Lighting Act was passed. Street robberies, 
 before that period, were the ordinary events of the night. Security was the 
 exception to the covirse of atrocity, for which the Government applied no 
 remedy but to hang. For half a century after this the metropolis had its 
 comparative safety of feeble oil-lamps and decrepit watchmen. The streets 
 were filled with tumultuous vagabonds ; and the drowsy guardians of the 
 night suffered every abomination to go on in lawless vigour, happy if their 
 sleep were undisturbed by the midnight row of the drunken rake. In 1807 
 Pail-Mall was lighted by gas. The persevering German who spent his own 
 money and that of subscribers to his scheme, had no reward. The original 
 gas company, whose example was to be followed, not only by all England 
 but by the whole civilized world, was first derided, and then treated in Parlia- 
 ment as rapacious monopolists, intent upon the ruin of established industry. 
 The adventurers in gas-light did more for the prevention of crime than the 
 Government had done since the days of Alfred. "We turn to the Parlia- 
 mentary Debates, and we see how they were encouraged in 1816, — nine 
 years after it had been found that the invention was of inappreciable 
 public benefit. "The company," said the earl of Lauderdale, "aimed at a 
 monopoly, which would ultimately prove injurious to the public, and ruin 
 that most important branch of trade, our whale fisheries." * Alderman Atkins 
 " contended that the measure was calculated to ruin that hardy race of men, 
 the persons employed in the Southern and Greenland whale fisheries, in each of 
 ■which a million of money, and above a hundred ships, were engaged. If the 
 Bill were to pass, it would throw out of employ ten thousand seamen, and 
 above ten thousand rope-makers, sail-makers, mast-makers, &c., connected 
 with that trade." t Who can forbear to admire the inexhaustible fund of 
 benevolence that for ages had been at work in the advocacy of the great 
 principle of protection ? 
 
 A Committee of the House of Commons was appointed in 1815 to 
 inquire into the state of mendicity and vagrancy in the metropolis and its 
 neighbourhood ; and they continued their sittings in 1816 ; reporting 
 minutes of the evidence in each year. Beyond these Reports no legislative 
 measure was adopted. The evidence went rather to show the amount of 
 imposture than of destitution. To collect such evidence was an amusing 
 occupation for the idle mornings of Members of Parliament. To inquire 
 into the causes of destitution and its remedies would have been a far 
 heavier task. The chief tendency of the evidence was to show how the 
 sturdy beggar was a capitalist and an epicure ; ate fowls and beefsteaks for 
 supper, and despised broken meat ; had money in the funds, and left hand- 
 some legacies to his relations. The witnesses, moreover, had famous stories 
 of a lame impostor who tied up his leg in a wooden frame, and a blind one 
 who wrote letters in the evening for his unlettered brethren ; of a widow 
 who sat for ten years with twins who never grew bigger, and a wife who 
 obtained clothes and money from eleven lying-in societies in the same year. 
 But the Committee had also some glimpses of real wretchedness amidst these 
 exciting tales of beggar-craft — as old as the days of the old Abraham 
 men. They heard of Calmel's Buildings, a small court of twenty-four 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxxiv. p. 1280. t Ibid., p. 1072.
 
 1S16.] LAW OF SETTLEMENT. 67 
 
 houses iu the immediate vicinity of Portman Square, where more than seven 
 hundred Irish lived in the most complete distress and profligacy ; and they 
 were told that the court was totally neglected by the parish ; that it was 
 never cleaned ; that people were afraid to enter it from dread of contagion. 
 In Greorge Yard, Whitechapel, they were informed that there were two 
 thousand people, occupying forty houses, in a similar state of wretchedness. 
 Much more of this was told the Committee ; but the evil was exhibited and 
 forgotten. Legislation for Public Health was unknown till 184S, except in 
 the old laws of quarantine. Very much of what was called the vagrancy of 
 the metropolis was a natural consequence of the administration of ttie Poor 
 Laws throughout the kingdom. A large proportion of the money raised 
 for the relief of the poor was expended in shifting the burthen of their 
 relief from one parish to another; and Middlesex kept a number of 
 functionaries in active operation, to get rid of the vagrants that crowded 
 into London, by passing them out of the limits of the metropolitan county, 
 to return, of course, on the first convenient occasion. As Middlesex worked 
 under the Law of Settlement, so worked the whole kingdom. An intelligent 
 foreigner, who travelled in England in 1810, saw how the poor were repulsed 
 from one parish to another " like infected persons. They are sent back from 
 one end of the kingdom to the other, as criminals formerly in France, de 
 Irigade en hrigade. You meet on the high roads, I will not say often but too 
 often, an old man on foot with his little bundle — a helpless widow, pregnant 
 perhaps, and two or three barefooted children following her — become paupers 
 in a place where they had not yet acquired a legal right to assistance, and 
 sent away, on that account, to their original place of settlement."* This 
 Law of Settlement was in full operation, playing its fantastic tricks from the 
 Channel to the Tweed, when the peace filled the land with disbanded 
 seamen and other servants of war ; and agricultural labourers, who could 
 find no employ at home, were wandering, as it was called, to search for 
 capital in some unknown region where capital was seeking for labour. The 
 statute of 1662, the foundation of the Law of Settlement,t forbade this 
 wandering, and gave a very amusing explanation of the ground of its prohi- 
 bitions : " Whereas, by reason of some defects in the law, poor people are 
 not restrained from going from one parish to another, and therefore do 
 endeavour to settle themselves in those parishes where there is the best 
 stock." The great natural law of labour seeking exchange with capital was 
 tq^be resisted, by a law which declared that those who sought to eifect this 
 exchange were " rogues and vagabonds." In this spirit agricultural parishes 
 very generally came to the resolution of employing none but their own 
 parishioners. " The immediate consequence of this determination was, the 
 removal of numbers of the most industrious families from homes where they 
 had lived in comfort, and without parish relief, all their lives, to a workhouse 
 in the parish to which they belonged." J 
 
 It was not till 1861 that the wedge was introduced that might break up 
 the selfish and ignorant laws for the removal of the poor. One of the 
 
 * Simond — "Tour in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 293. 
 
 t See ante, vol. iv. p. 276. 
 
 + Answers from Sussex to Commissioners of Poor Law Inquiry.
 
 ■58 GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF POOR LAWS. [1816. 
 
 greatest evils attending the parochial terror of new settlers was the filthy 
 and ruinous state of the dwellings of agricultural labourers. The evil has 
 been remedied in some degree, but in too many districts it exists now as it 
 existed when Simond " asked proprietors of land, or farmers, why they did not 
 build houses for their labourers ;" and was told that " far from building, they 
 would rather pull down such houses." The labourers were crowded in 
 hovels of the adjacent town or village. Cottages were not built or properly 
 upheld in agricultural parishes, for what capitalist would speculate in houses 
 for the labourers, when the most industrious might be hurried away at the 
 bidding of the overseer ? The tyranny seems likely to be destroyed by the 
 intelligence which, sooner or later, sweeps away the great or the petty 
 tyrant. 
 
 On the 28th of May, Mr. Curwen, an intelligent agriculturist, brought 
 tlie subject of the Poor Laws before the House of Commons, on a motion for 
 the appointment of a Committee of Inquiry. Mr. Curwen had a plan— as 
 many others had their plans. His scheme formed small part of the delibe- 
 rations of the Committee, which reported in 1817. Their recommendations 
 for the remedy of the enormous evil of the existing Poor Laws did not 
 penetrate beneath the surface. In 1816 the amount of poor-rate levied was 
 6,937,425Z. This charge was at the rate of 12*. 4^d. per head upon the 
 population of England and "Wales.* The average annual expenditure for 
 the relief of the poor had gradually increased from about two -millions at the 
 commencement of the war, to seven millions at its close. A very large 
 portion of the money that had been spent in fostering pauperism during the 
 war years, by parish allowances in aid of wages, represents the amount of 
 degradation and misery which the labourers endured, as compared with their 
 unallowanced forefathers. The national debt represents, in a great degree, 
 the money expended in unprofitable wars, — the waste of capital upon objects 
 that can only be justified by the last necessity, and which are the result of 
 those evil passions which the improved knowledge and virtue of mankind 
 may in time root out. In the same way, had the money expended upon 
 fostering pauperism been raised upon loan, we should have had an amount 
 of some two hundred millions, representing, in a like degree, the waste of 
 capital expended in drying up the sources of industry and skill, and paying 
 the alms of miserable indigence instead of the wages of contented labour. 
 It is difficult to conceive a more complete state of degradation than the 
 allowanced labourers exhibited in 1816. "With the feudal servitude had 
 passed away the feudal protection. The parish servitude imposed the miseries 
 and contumelies of slavery, without its exemption from immediate care and 
 future responsibility. The old workhouse system was as productive of evil 
 in principle, though not in amount, as the allowance system. In the parish 
 workhouses the consequences of want of classification and bad management 
 operated with the greatest hardship upon children. Habits were formed in 
 the workhouse which rendered the path to respectability almost inaccessible. 
 These children were disposed of under the apprenticing system, and were 
 doomed to a dreary period of servitude, under some needy master who had 
 been tempted in the first instance to take them by the offer of a small 
 
 * Purdy, " On the English Poor Rate." 
 
 A
 
 1816.] INQUIRY INTO THE STATE OF EDUCATION. 69 
 
 premium. The parochial plan of putting out children, ^yith its attendant 
 evils, was a necessary consequence of the want of training while in the 
 workhouse. 
 
 In 1807, Mr. "Whitbread proposed to the House of Commons a very large 
 and comprehensive measure of Poor-Law Reform. The principles which he 
 advocated were those of real statesmanship. To arrest the constant progress 
 of pauperism, he desired to raise the character of the labouring classes. He 
 called upon the country to support a plan of general national education ; he 
 proposed a method under which the savings of the poor miglit be properly 
 invested in a great national bank. At the period when Mr. "Whitbread 
 brought forward his plan of Poor-Law Reform, the system of mutual instruc- 
 tion, introduced by Lancaster and Bell, was attracting great attention. Too 
 much importance was perhaps at first attached to the mechanical means of 
 education then recently developed ; but the influence was favourable to the 
 establishment of schools by societies and individuals. The Government left 
 the instruction of the people to go on as it might, without a single grant, for 
 more than a quarter of a century. 
 
 Prom 1807 to the close of the war, the Legislature heard no word on the 
 Education of the People. The man who for forty-five years has devoted 
 much of his untiring energy to this great question, had in 1816 come back 
 to the place in the councils of the nation which he won in 1812 by a com- 
 bination of industry and talent almost unprecedented. Henry Brougham 
 had not been in Parliament for three years. On the 21st of May, 1816, he 
 moved for the appointment of a Select Committee " to inquire into the state 
 of the Education of the lower orders of the people in London, Westminster, 
 and Southwark." The motion, which was brought forward with great 
 caution by the mover, was unopposed. The Committee made its first report 
 on the 20th of June, having conducted its inquiries with more than usual 
 activity. The energy of Mr. Brougham, who acted as chairman, gave a 
 remarkable impulse to this important investigation. It was found tliat in 
 the metropolis there were a hundred and twenty thousand children without 
 the means of education. The principal labours of the Committee had con- 
 sisted in their examination of evidence as to the number and condition of 
 the charity and parish schools destined for the education of the lower 
 orders. The number of such institutions exceeded anything that could have 
 been previously believed ; but the expenditure of the funds was, in many 
 cfljpes, neither pure nor judicious. A few were educated and brought up — 
 the many were neglected. In the country, instances of flagrant abuses had 
 been heard of. Mr. Brougham's Report produced no hostile feelings on this 
 occasion. In 1818 the powers of inquiry granted to the Committee were no 
 longer confined to the metropolis. Then the larger question of the extension 
 of education was merged in a furious controversy as to the amount of abuses 
 in endowed charities, and the propriety of subjecting the higher schools, such 
 as Eton and Winchester, and also Colleges in the Universities, to a searching 
 inquiry into the nature of their statutes, and their adherence to the objects 
 of their foundation. An Act was subsequently passed, in consequence of the 
 labours of the Committee, to appoint Commissioners to inquire concerning 
 the abuse of Charities connected with Education ; and by a second Act the 
 right of inquiry was extended to all charities, the Universities and certain
 
 70 SAVINGS-BANKS. [1816. 
 
 great Foundation schools excepted. The Education Commission was thus 
 merged in tlie Charity Commission. Of the great national benefits that 
 resulted from that Commission no one can doubt. But it may be doubted 
 whether the controversial shape which the question of education assumed in 
 1818 did much to advance the disposition which prevailed in 1816, to provide 
 a general system of popular instruction. From some unhappy prejudice — 
 from apathy, or from cowardice — the education of the people made small 
 legislative progress for twenty years. Perhaps the old fable of the sun and the 
 wind experimenting upon the removal of the traveller's cloak, may afford us 
 some solution of this problem. But the Keports of the Education Committee 
 were of the highest value in showing us the extent of instruction at the time 
 of its labours. There were 18,500 schools, educating 644,000 children ; of 
 this number 166,000 were educated at endowed schools, and 478,000 at unen- 
 dowed schools, during six days of the week. This number was independent 
 of Sunday schools, of which there were 5100, attended by 452,000 children ; 
 but of course many of these Sunday scholars were included in the returns of 
 other schools. 
 
 In the plan of Poor-Law Eeform brought forward by Mr. Whitbread in 
 1807, he earnestly advocated the consideration of a mode by which the savings 
 of the poor might be safely and profitably invested. Three or four years 
 previous, Mr. Malthus, in his "Essay on Population," had argued that "it 
 might be extremely useful to have county banks, where the smallest sums 
 would be received, and a fair interest granted for them." Mr. George Eose 
 had, as early as 1793, legislated for the encouragement of Friendly Societies. 
 In 1798 a bank for the earnings of poor children was established at Totten- 
 ham ; and this was found so successful, that a bank for the safe deposit of 
 the savings of servants, labourers, and others, was opened at the same place 
 in 1804. Interest was here allowed to the depositors. A similar institution 
 was founded at Bath in 1808. But the greatest experiment upon the possi- 
 bility of the labouring poor making considerable savings was tried in Scot- 
 land. "The Parish Bank Friendly Society of Euthwell" was established 
 by the Eev. Henry Duncan in 1810. The first London Savings-Bank did 
 not coaimence its operations till January, 1816. In the Parliamentary Ses- 
 sion of 1816, Mr. Eose brought in a bill for the regulation of Savings-Banks, 
 which was subsequently withdrawn for revision. Of the possible benefits of 
 these institutions there could be no doubt in the minds of all men who were 
 anxious to improve the condition of the people. " What a bubble ! " wrote 
 Cobbett. 
 
 In the Session of 1816 one step was made towards some improvement oi 
 that code which Blackstone termed a " a bastard slip of the old forest laws ; 
 . . . both productive of the same tyranny to the Commons, but with this 
 difierence, — that the forest laws established only one mighty hunter through 
 out the land ; the game-laws have raised a little Nimrod in every manor." 
 The attention of the House of Commons was called to this subject in conse- 
 quence of the murder of colonel Berkeley's gamekeeper by a gang of armed 
 poachers ; and a Committee was appointed " to take into consideration the 
 laws relating to game."* They came to the Eesolution, " that it is the opinion 
 
 * Ilansard, vol. xxxiv. col. 586.
 
 3S16.1 GAME-LAWS. 71 
 
 of this Committee, that all game should be the property of the person upon 
 ■whose lands such game should be found." They contemplated the removal of 
 the qualification to kill game — that law which had its beginning in the 
 reign of Richard II., and which, perfected by the aristocratic legislators of 
 the time of Charles II., required " fifty times the property to enable a man 
 to kill a partridge as to vote for a kjiight of the shire."* The Committee of 
 1816 evidently pointed to the necessity of " removing the restraints upon the 
 sale of game." It was not till after fifteen years of controversy that the 
 statute of "William IV. dispensed with the qualification for killing game, and 
 legalized its sale. The statute of the 9th of George IV., and that of "Wil- 
 liam IV., rendered the law more stringent and eff'ective against poaching, 
 especially by night. The number of convictions under the Acts for the pre- 
 servation of game furnish no uncertain test, not only of the state of morals 
 amongst the agricultural labourers, but of the presence or absence of those 
 qualities which make the landed proprietor a blessing or a curse to his 
 humble neighbours. In the more daring and depraved of the population of 
 the rural districts, the severe administration of the game-laws produced a 
 spirit such as was displayed in January, 1816, by the Berkeley poachers, who 
 cried out " Glory ! glory ! " when they had killed one gamekeeper and 
 wounded six others.f 
 
 * Blackstone. 
 
 + " Annual Register," 1816— Chroiucle, v. 11-
 
 The Royal Exchange iu 1S17. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Parliamentary Reform taken up by the ignorant and uneducated — Extended circulation of the 
 writings of Cobbett — The Hampden Clubs — The Spenceans — Orator Hunt and the Spa- 
 fields Meeting — Riot in the City — Meeting of Parliament — Outrage on the Prince Regent — 
 Secret Committees — Habeas Corpus Act suspended, and other stringent measures — Oliver, 
 the spy — The Derbyshire Insurrection — Lord Sidmouth's Circular Letter — Prosecutions for 
 Libel — The Three Trials of William Hone — The Government and the People — Eulogies on 
 Francis Horner in the House of Commons. 
 
 The call for Parliamentary Eeform seems to have made itself very feebly 
 heard in the Lower House in the Session of 1816. With the exception of 
 some four or five petitions that produced very slight discussion, it v^ould 
 scarcely be thought, from an inspection of the Parliamentary Debates, that 
 such a question agitated any part of the nation at all. On one occasion, in 
 June, some Members spoke very briefly upon the subject. One complained 
 of the apathy with which the question was regarded iu England; another 
 (Mr. Brougham) mentioned the cause as " opposed by some, deserted by 
 others, and espoused by persons whose conduct excited no small degree of 
 disgust out of doors." But from this time the name of Parliamentary 
 Heform became, for the most part, a name of terror to the Government — to 
 the elevated by rank and wealth — to the most influential of the middle
 
 1816.] THE WRITINGS OF WILLIAM COBBETT. 73 
 
 classes. It became fearful from the causes which would have made it con- 
 temptible in ordinary times. It was " espoused by persons whose conduct 
 excited no small degree of disgust out of doors." It passed away from the 
 patronage of a few aristocratic lovers of popularity, to be advocated by 
 writers of "twopenny trash," and to be discussed and organized by 
 "Hampden Clubs" of hungering philanthropists and unemployed "weaver- 
 boys." 
 
 Samuel Bamford, who thought it no disgrace to call himself "a lladical" 
 — a man of real native talent, and of honest intentions, — says, " At tliis time 
 [1816] the writings of William Cobbett suddenly became of great authority ; 
 they were read on nearly every cottage hearth in the manufacturing districts 
 of South Lancashire, in those of Leicester, Derby, and Nottingham ; also in 
 many of the Scottish manufacturing towns. Their influence was speedily 
 visible." 
 
 Cobbett advocated Parliamentary Reform as the corrective of whatever 
 miseries the lower classes sufi'ered. A new order of politicians was called 
 into action — " The Sunday-schools of the preceding thirty years had pro- 
 duced many working men of sufficient talent to become readers, writers, and 
 speakers in the village meetings for Parliamentary Reform ; some also were 
 found to possess a rude poetic talent, which rendered their eft\isions popular 
 and bestowed an additional cliarm on their assemblages ; and by such various 
 means, anxious listeners at first, and then zealous proselytes, were drawn 
 from the cottages of quiet nooks and dingles, to the weekly readings and 
 discussions of the Hampden Clubs." * But let it be remembered, that 
 though the Sunday-schools of the preceding thirty years had made some 
 working men readers, writers, and speakers, the mass of the labouring 
 population were in the lowest state of ignorance, and were consequently 
 ready to accept the crude and violent opinions of a few of their own class as 
 the only true maxims of political action. The speakers at the village 
 meetings echoed the strong words of Cobbett, without the qualifying pru- 
 dence which generally kept that master of our language pretty safe in 
 argument and phraseology. He was not the man to tempt a prosecution hj 
 a rash sentence that could have been construed into sedition. 
 
 Up to the 2nd of November, 1816, " Cobbett's Weekly Political Register" 
 was a publication not addressed to the " cottage hearth," but to persons 
 who could aflord to pay a shilling and a halfpenny weekly for a single octavo 
 stamped sheet, printed in open type. His writings, singularly clear and 
 argumentative, strong in personalities, earnest, bold, never halting between 
 two opinions, powerful beyond all anonymous writing from their rare indi- 
 viduality, would have commanded an extensive influence under any form of 
 publication. But at the beginning of November, he announced his intention 
 to print " The Twopenny Register." We see, therefore, why, at the end of 
 1816, " the writings of AVilliam Cobbett suddeitly became of great authority, 
 and were read on nearly every cottage hearth in the manufacturing districts." 
 Never before had any single writer in England wielded such a power. That 
 his cheap Registers gave the discontent of the labouring classes a new 
 direction cannot be doubted ; that they did much to repress riot and outraofQ 
 
 * "Passages in the Life of a Radical," by Samuel Bamford, vol. i. p. 8.
 
 74 THE HAMPDEN CLUBS. [1816. 
 
 ir.ay fairly be conceded. But that they were scattering the seeds of a greater 
 danger than the outrage and plunder of infuriated mobs cannot be denied. 
 Their object was suddenly to raise up the great masses of labourers and 
 mechanics into active politicians ; to render the most impatient and uncon- 
 trollable materials of our social system the most preponderating. The 
 danger was evident ; the means of repression were not so clear. The effect 
 of Cobbett's writings may be estimated by the violence of his opponents, 
 as well as by the admiration of his disciples. From the date of his twopenny 
 Registers he was stigmatized as a "firebrand" — "a convicted incendiary." 
 " Why is it that this convicted incendiary, and others of the same stamp, are 
 permitted, week after week, to sow the seeds of rebellion, insulting the 
 Government, and defying the laws of the country ? . . . . We have laws to 
 prevent the exposure of unwholesome meat in our markets, and the mixture 
 of deleterious drugs in beer. We have laws also against poisoning the 
 minds of the people, by exciting discontent and disaftection ; why are not 
 these laws rendered effectual, and enforced as well as the former?"* The 
 answer is very obvious. The laws, as they stood at the end of 1816, when 
 this was written, could not touch William Cobbett. He knew well kow to 
 manage his strength. He risked no libels. He dealt with general subjects. 
 He called upon the people to assemble and to petition. He exhorted the 
 people against the use of force. He sowed the dragons' teeth, it in true, 
 but they did not rise up as armed men. They rose up in the far more 
 dangerous apparition of the masses, without property, without education, 
 without leaders of any weight or responsibility, demanding the supreme 
 legislative power — the power of universal suffrage. The idea ceased to be a 
 theory — it became a tremendous reality. 
 
 In a Report of the Secret Committee of the House of Commons, presented 
 on the 19th of February, 1817, the Hampden Clubs are described as "associ- 
 ated professedly for the purpose of Parliamentary Reform, upon the most 
 extended principle of universal suffrage and annual parliaments ;" but that 
 " in far the greater number of them, and particularly in those which are 
 established in the great manufacturing districts of Lancashire, Leicestershire, 
 JS'ottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, and which are composed of the lower 
 order of artisans, nothing short of a Revolution is the object expected and 
 avowed." The testimony of Samuel Bam ford shows that, in this early 
 period of their history, the Hampden Clubs limited their object to the attain- 
 ment of Parliamentary Reform — a sweeping reform, indeed, but not what 
 is understood by the term " Revolution." They contended for the right of 
 every male above eighteen years of age, and who paid taxes, to vote for the 
 election of Members of Parliament ; and that Parliaments should be elected 
 annually. These demands Bamford describes as " the moderate views and 
 wishes of the Reformers of those days." f He adds, " It was not until we 
 became infested by spies, incendiaries, and their dupes — distracting, mis- 
 leading, and betraying — that physical force was mentioned amongst us. 
 After that, our moral power waned ; and what we gained by the accession of 
 demagogues, we lost by their criminal violence, and the estrangement of 
 
 * " Quarterly Review," vol. xvi. p. 275. 
 
 t "Passages iu the Life of a Eadical," vel. i. chap, ii.
 
 1816.] THE SPENCEANS. 75 
 
 real friends." It would appear, however, that iu Scotland, at a very early 
 stage of the proceedings of Eeform Clubs, that is in December, 1816, tlie 
 mode in which large masses of men ordinarily look for the accomplishment 
 of political changes was not so cautiously kept out of view. 
 
 Of the Hampden Club of London, sir Francis Burdettwas the chairman. 
 Vanity, as well as misery, " makes a man acquainted with strange bed-fellows." 
 Bamford, at the beginning of 1817, came to London as a delegate from the 
 Middleton Club, to attend a great meeting of delegates to be assembled in 
 London. The Crown and Anchor Tavern was the scene of these deliberations. 
 There, was Major Cartwright in the chair — a placid enthusiast, sincere in his 
 belief that unmingled good would be the result of the great experiment 
 which he had so long advocated. The chief supporters were Cobbett, with 
 his shrewd self-possession and "bantering jollity;" and Hunt, — "Orator 
 Hunt," as he was called, — the incarnation of an empty, blustering, restless, 
 ignorant, and selfish demagogue. The great Baronet was absent, and his 
 absence provoked no little comment. But he was accessible in his own 
 mansion. Samuel Bamford was awe-struck by the passionate bellowing of 
 Hunt, frozen by the proud condescension of sir Francis Burdett, but 
 charmed by the unaffected cordiality of lord Cochrane. These were the 
 chief actors in the procession scenes of the popular drama that was then 
 under rehearsal. Other and more important parts were filled quite as 
 appropriately. 
 
 The Middleton delegate was introduced, amidst the reeking tobacco- 
 fog of a low tavern, to the leading members of a society called the " Spencean 
 Philanthropists." They derived their name from that of a Mr. Spence, a 
 schoolmaster in Yorkshire, who had conceived a plan for making the nation 
 happy, by causing all the lands of the country to become the property of the 
 State, which State should divide all the produce for the support of the 
 people. Socialism, in its extremest principles, is not a new doctrine. The 
 schoolmaster was an honest enthusiast, who fearlessly submitted his plan to 
 the consideration of all lovers of their species, and had the misfortune to 
 be prosecuted for its promulgation iu 1800. In 1816 " Spence's Plan " was 
 revived, and the Society of Spencean Philanthropists was instituted, who 
 held " sectional meetings," and discussed " subjects calculated to enlighten 
 the human understanding." This great school of philosophy had its separate 
 academies, as London was duly informed by various announcements, at " the 
 Co^k, ia G-rafton-street, Soho ;" and " the Mulberry Tree, Moorfields ;" and 
 " the Nag's Head, Carnaby Market; " and " No. 8, Lumber-street, Borough." 
 At these temples of benevolence, where " every individual is admitted, free 
 of expense, who will conduct himself with decorum," it is not unlikely that 
 some esoteric doctrines were canvassed, such as, that " it was an easy matter 
 to upset Government, if handled in a proper manner."* The Committee of 
 the Spenceans openly meddled with sundry grave questions besides that of a 
 community in land ; and, amongst other notable projects, petitioned Parlia- 
 ment to do away with machinery. Amongst these fanatics some dan^-erous 
 men had established themselves, such as Thistlewood, who subsequently paid 
 the penalty of five years of maniacal plotting ; and some, also, who were 
 
 ♦ "State Trials," vol. xxxii. pp. 215, 216 ; Watson's Trial.
 
 76 ORATOR HUNT AND THE SPA-FIELDS MEETING. [181G. 
 
 clearly in communication with the police, and hounded on the weak disciples 
 of the Cock in Grrafton-street and the Mulberry Tree in Moorfields, to acts 
 of more real danger to themselves than to the public safety. If we are to 
 believe the chief evidence in these transactions, John Castle, a man of the 
 most disreputable character, who became a witness against the leading 
 Spencean philanthropists, they had murderous designs of sharp machines for 
 destroying cavalry, and plans for suffocating quiet soldiers in their barracks, 
 destroying them as boys burn wasps' nests ; and schemes for taking the 
 Tower, and barricading London Bridge, to prevent the artillery coming from 
 Woolwich.* And there were to be five commanders to effect all these great 
 movements of strategy, — Mr. Tbistlewood, Mr. Watson the elder, and Mr. 
 Watson the younger, Mr. Castle, and Mr. Preston, who came the last in 
 dignity " because he was lame." And then there was to be a Committee of 
 Public Safety, who were to be called together after the soldiers were subdued 
 — twenty-four good and true men. And then they calculated at what 
 amount of public expense they could buy the soldiers, by giving them each 
 a hundred guineas ; and, upon an accurate computation, it was found 
 that the purchase-money would be somewhere about two millions, which 
 would be nothing in comparison with the national debt, which would 
 be wiped off.f With this preparation, if we may believe the very ques- 
 tionable evidence of Mr. Castle, a meeting was held in Spa-fields on the 15th 
 November. 
 
 The district known as Spa-fields, now covered with dwellings of industry 
 and comfortable residences of the middle classes, was, at the beginning of 
 the present century, and for some years afterwards, a large unenclosed space, 
 utterly neglected and useless. A public-house was there, called by the 
 mysterious name of Merlin's Cave ; and thither Mr. Hunt came in a chariot 
 ■with the Watsons and harangued a mob from the chariot roof, attended with a 
 flag and cockades, and " everything handsome." After adjourning the meeting 
 for a fortniglit, Mr. Hunt and the chariot went away, drawn by the mob ; 
 and the mob running the chariot against a wall, they all got out and walked. 
 So innocently passed the first Spa-fields meeting — innocently, save that at 
 a dinner at Mr. Hunt's hotel in Bouverie-street, where, as he represented the 
 matter, the philanthropists having thrust themselves upon him very much 
 against his will, the betrayer. Castle, gave a toast, which is too infamous to 
 be repeated here, and was threatened to be turned out of the room, but 
 quietly remained, and went into what was described as " a fox-sleep." But 
 the 2ud of December, the day to which the first meeting was adjourned, closed 
 not so peaceably. Mr. Hunt came to town from Essex in his tandem, and, 
 as he passed along Cheapside, at " twenty minutes to one o'clock," he was 
 stopped by Mr. Castle, who was moving along with a considerable crowd ; 
 and the wortliy man told him that the meeting had been broken up two hours, 
 and that they were going to the Tower, which had been in their possession 
 for an hour. The country squire, to whom " the boisterous hallooing of 
 multitudes was more pleasing than the chinkling of the plough-traces, the 
 bleating of lambs, or the song of the nightingale," — (in these terms Cobbett 
 
 • "State Trials," vol. xxxii. p. 218, &c 
 + Ibid., pp. 233, 234.
 
 1816.] RIOT IN THE CITY. 77 
 
 defended his friend for his aspirations after mob popularity) — was not -n-eak 
 enough to believe the tempter ; and his tandem went on to Spa-fields, 
 where the greatest number of people were collected together that he had 
 ever beheld. But more active Eeformers were in Spa-fields before Mr. 
 Hunt. The Spencean philanthropists had provided a waggon for their own 
 operations, and arrived on the ground considerably before the appointed hour 
 of meeting, with banners and inscriptions, one of which was, " The brave 
 Soldiers are our Friends ! " These men also brought arms and ammunition, 
 which they deposited in their waggon. Mr. "Watson the elder commenced a 
 suflBciently violent address, and then his son followed him. The young mad- 
 man, after declaiming against the uselessness of petition, cried out, " If they 
 will not give us what we want, shall we not take it ? Are you willing to 
 take it ? Will you go and take it ? If I jump down amongst you, will you 
 come and take it ? Will you follow me ? " And as at every question the 
 encouraging " Yes " became louder and louder, and put down the dissen- 
 tient " No," he jumped from the waggon, seized a tri-coloured flag, and away 
 rushed the mob to take the Tower. Two resolute men, the chief clerk of 
 Bow-street and a Bow-street officer, had the boldness to attack this mob, and 
 destroyed one of their banners, without any injury to themselves. The work 
 of mischief necessarily went on. The young fanatic led his followers to the 
 shop of Mr. Beckwith, a gunsmith on Snow-hill ; and, rushing in, demanded 
 arms. A gentleman in the shop remonstrated with him, and, without any 
 pause, was immediately shot by him. Instantly some compunction seems to 
 have come over this furious leader, and he offered to examine the wounded 
 man, saying he was himself a surgeon. The assassin was secured ; but the 
 mob, who destroyed and plundered the shop, soon released him, and pro- 
 ceeded along Cheapside, where they fired their recently-acquired arms, like 
 children with a new plavthing. They marched through the Royal Exchange, 
 where they were met by the Lord Mayor, and several were secured. The 
 City Magistrates on this occasion behaved with a firmness which admirably 
 contrasted with the pusillanimity of their predecessors in the riots of 1780. 
 The courage of the Lord Mayor, Alderman Wood, and of Sir James Shaw, 
 is worthy of honourable record ; and it shows, not only the insignificancy of 
 the so-called conspiracy, its want of coherence and of plan, but the real 
 power of virtue in action to put down ordinary tumult. Sir James Shaw 
 says, " On the 2nd of December last I was at the Eoyal Exchange at half- 
 pq^st twelve •, I saw the mob first in Cornhill ; the Lord Mayor and I went 
 in pursuit of them ; they crossed the front of the Eoyal Exchange ; we rushed 
 through the Eoyal Exchange to take them in front on the other side ; the 
 Lord Mayor and I having received information of prior occurrences, deter- 
 mined on putting them down. I seized several of them, and one flao- of 
 three colours, extended on a very long pole. I did not then perceive any 
 arms. . . The Lord Mayor and I went to meet the mob with Mr. White and 
 two constables ; we got five constables in all ; the whole party consisted of 
 eight." 
 
 Such ia the way in which the beginnings of seditions ought to be met. 
 Firmness such as this would have saved Bristol in 1832. After a further 
 plunder of gunsmiths' shops in the Minories, and the summoning of the 
 Tower by some redoubted and unknown champion, who Bamford tells us was
 
 78 MEETING OF PARLIAMENT— OUTRAGE ON THE REGENT. [1817. 
 
 Preston, the insurrection fell to pieces, altogether from the want of cohesion 
 in the materials of which it was composed. The only blood shed was that of 
 the gentleman in Mr. Beckwith's shop, who eventually recovered. A 
 wretched sailor was convicted of the oifence of plunder at the shop on Snow 
 Hill, and was hanged. The younger Watson escaped from his pursuers. 
 The elder Watson was tried for high-treason on the 9th of June. The trial 
 lasted seven days. It was memorable from " the eccentric exuberance of 
 sir Charles Wetherell, and the luminous energy of Serjeant Copley,"* who 
 were assigned as counsel for the prisoner. The exposure of Castle, the 
 spy, was so complete, that the jury, without hesitation, returned a verdict 
 of Not Guilty. Four other prisoners, who were to have been tried upon the 
 same evidence, were at once acquitted. 
 
 On the 28th of January, 1817, the Prince Eegent opened the fifth session 
 of the existing Parliament. The speech from the Throne contained the 
 following passage : " In considering our internal situation you will, I doubt 
 not, feel a just indignation at the attempts which have been made to take 
 advantage of the distresses of the country, for the purpose of exciting a spirit 
 of sedition and violence. I am too well convinced of the loyalty and good 
 sense of the great body of his Majesty's subjects, to believe them capable of 
 being perverted by the arts which are employed to seduce them ; but I am 
 determined to omit no precautions for preserving the public peace, and for 
 counteracting the designs of the disaffected." It would have been difficult 
 to infer from this language that the Grovernment believed that a formidable 
 and widely-organized insurrection was threatening the country, and that the 
 only remedy was a violation of the constitutional safeguards of the liberties 
 of the nation. Attempts to excite a spirit of sedition, amongst a people 
 incapable " of being perverted by the arts employed to seduce them," were 
 subjects for vigilance towards the few, without infringement of the rights 
 of the many. The seconder of the Address in the Commons asserted that 
 the demagogues and their acts would die of themselves. The debate in the 
 Lower House was suddenly interrupted by a message from the Lords. An 
 outrage had been offered to the Prince Eegent on his return from opening 
 the Parliament. The windows of the state-carriage had been broken by 
 some missile. The two Houses, after agreeing upon an Address to the 
 Prince Eegent on this event, adjourned. Upon the resumption of the 
 debate the next day in the Commons, and upon its commencement in the 
 Lords, the insult to the representative of the sovereign, which was at first 
 asserted to be an attempt upon his life, gave a decided tone to the pro- 
 ceedings of both Houses. In both assemblies the Opposition loudly 
 proclaimed the necessity of a rigid and -unsparing economy, and the proposed 
 amendment upon the Address went directly to pledge the most severe 
 reduction of every possible expense. The practical answer to these abortive 
 proposals was the intimation of lord Sidmouth, that in three days he should 
 present a message from the Prince Eegent on the subject of the alleged 
 disaffection of large bodies of the people. 
 
 On the second night of the debate on the Address, Mr. Canning took a 
 leading part in the proceedings. He had returned from the embassy to 
 
 * Lord Campbell's " Chief Justices," vol. Hi. p. 220. 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 1817.] SECRET COMMITTEES— HABEAS CORPUS ACT SUSPENDED. 79 
 
 Lisbon. Au office so below the proper ambition of such a man was to bim 
 a degradation. He bad been excluded from power for tbree years. The 
 Government opened the Session of 1816 in the confidence that they could do 
 
 without " the greatest speaker in either House of Parliament They 
 
 wondered what use be could be of."* The ministerial inefficiency in that 
 session was the cause of Canning's recall to jealous colleagues. He became 
 President of the Board of Control. He was now put forward as the 
 eloquent anti-reformer, to deny that the existing state of the representation 
 was a grievance ; to confound the most moderate projects of reform with the 
 doctrines of universal suifrage and annual parliaments. It would seem that 
 Eeformers of all grades had, in his mind, a family resemblance to the 
 Spenceans. He chose to forget what bad been the opinions of bis great 
 master, Pitt ; maintaining that our representative system " satisfies the 
 wants, the opinions, and the feelings of the great bulk and body of the 
 nation." He asked the moderate reformers in that House if they hoped to 
 guide the whirlwind which they might raise ? " Are they not aware 
 that mightier spirits are abroad, who will take that task out of their 
 bands ? " f It scarcely needed eloquence like bis to call up the ghosts of 
 the French Eevolution. The day had dawned ; the shadows had lost their 
 midnight terrors. 
 
 The message of the 3rd of February announced that the Prince Eegent 
 had given orders that there be laid before the Houses, " Papers containing 
 information respecting certain practices, meetings, and combinations in the 
 metropolis, and in different parts of the kingdom, evidently calculated to 
 endanger the public tranquillity, to alienate the affections of his Majesty's 
 subjects from bis Majesty's person and government, and to bring into hatred 
 and contempt the whole system of our laws and institutions." In moving 
 the order of the day for the consideration of this message, lord Sidmouth, in 
 the House of Lords, affirmed that the communication was in no degree 
 founded on, or connected with, the outrage upon the Prince Eegent on the 
 first day of the Session. The message of the Prince Eegent was referred to 
 a Secret Committee in each House, and these Committees made their 
 Eeports on the ISth and 19th of the same month. The Spencean Societies, 
 the Hampden Clubs, the Spa-fields Eiot, now called conspiracy, formed the 
 staple of these Eeports. The objects of the conspirators are described not 
 only to be " the overthrow of all the political institutions of the kingdom, 
 bx^t also such a subversion of the rights and principles of property as must 
 necessarily lead to general confusion, plunder, and bloodshed." "Under the 
 influence of these Eeports, it would have been impossible to have made such 
 a resistance to the Government as would have prevented the enactment of 
 stringent measures, one of which was decidedly unconstitutional. Bills were 
 brought in and passed by large majorities, to guard against and avert the 
 dangers which bad been so alarmingly proclaimed. The first of these 
 renewed the Act for the prevention and punishment of attempts to seduce 
 soldiers and sailors from their allegiance ; the second extended to the Prince 
 Eegent all the safeguards against treasonable attempts which secure the 
 actual sovereign ; the third was for the prevention of seditious meetings : 
 
 * Lord Dudley's "Letters," p. 137. + TTansard, vol. xvtv. or,} 1!^t,
 
 JO THE BLANKET MEETING AT MANCHESTER. [1817- 
 
 the last of the four gave to the executive power the fearful right of 
 imprisonment without trial. In common parlance, the Habeas Corpus Act 
 was suspended, under " An Act to empower his Majesty to secure and 
 detain such persons as his Majesty shall suspect are conspiring against his 
 person and government." The suspension was, however, in this instance, 
 limited to the ensuing 1st of July. 
 
 The Habeas Corpus Suspension Act was passed on the 3rd of March ; 
 the Bill for restraining Seditious Meetings did not become law till the 29th 
 of March. Within a week after the passing of the Act for imprisonment 
 without trial, and before the magistrates had received any accession to their 
 powers as to the dispersion of tumultuous assemblies, an occurrence took 
 place at Manchester, which was at once evidence of the agitated condition of 
 distressed multitudes in the manufacturing districts, and of the extreme 
 weakness of their purpose. This was the famous march of the Blanketeera. 
 The Blanket Meeting, which took place in St. Peter's Pield at Manchester, 
 was so called because many of the vast body of workmen who attended were 
 observed to have blankets, rugs, or large coats, rolled up and tied knapsack- 
 like, on their backs. Some carried bundles under their arms ; some had 
 papers, supposed to be petitions, rolled up ; and some had stout walking- 
 sticks. The magistrates came upon the field and read the E-iot Act ; the 
 meeting was dispersed by the military and constables ; three hundred com- 
 menced a straggling march, followed by a body of yeomanry, and a hundred 
 and eighty reached Macclesfield at nine o'clock at night. Some were 
 apprehended, some lay in the fields. The next morning the numbers had 
 almost melted away. The avowed Reform-leaders — delegates and Hampden- 
 Club men — were now under perpetual terror. Some wandered from their 
 homes in dread of imprisonment ; others were seized in the bosoms of their 
 families. Public meetings were at an end. The fears and passions of large 
 bodies of men had no safety valve. " Open meetings thus being suspended, 
 secret ones ensued ; they were originated at Manchester, and assembled 
 
 under various pretexts Their real purpose, divulged only to the 
 
 initiated, was to carry into efi'ect a night attack on Manchester, the attempt 
 at which had before failed for want of arrangement and co-operation."* 
 This scheme was noticed in the Second Report of the Lords' Secret Com- 
 mittee : " It is stated to have been proposed that Manchester should be made 
 a Moscow, for the purpose of strengthening their cause, by throwing numbers 
 of people out of employment." f A little while after this " Moscow" 
 proposal, a co-delegate came to Bamford, to propose the assassination of all 
 the ministers. We know that this scheme smouldered for several years. 
 " The fact was," says Bamford, " this unfortunate person, in the confidence 
 of an unsuspecting mind, as I believe, had, during one of his visits to 
 London, formed a connection with Oliver, the spy ; which connection, during 
 several succeeding months, gave a new impulse to secret meetings and plots 
 in various parts of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, and ended in 
 the tragedy of Brandreth, Ludlow, and Turner, at Derby." This tragedy is 
 the only one of the insurrectionary movements of the manufacturing districts 
 in 1817 that has left any traces of judicial investigation, Avith the exception ot 
 
 * Bamford, vol. i. p. 45. t Hansard, vol. xxxvi. col. 952.
 
 1817.] OLIVER, THE SPY. 81 
 
 proceedings at York, at whicli all the state prisoners were discharged by the 
 Grand Jury, or acquitted upon trial. All the persons connected with 
 the Blanket expedition, and the expected risings at Manchester, were 
 discharged before trial. 
 
 The Midland Counties of Nottingham, Leicester, and Derby, had been 
 in a disturbed state for several years. The habit of daring outrage was 
 familiar to large numbers of the manufacturing population. The course of 
 ignorant and brutal violence, known as Luddism, had revived in redoubled 
 fury. At the Leicester assizes, on the 1st of April, eight men were tried 
 and convicted of the most daring outrages at Loughborough, and six of these 
 offenders were executed on the 17th of the same month. There was not the 
 slightest attempt at this trial to connect the crimes of these men with anj 
 political opinions. But amongst a population that for four years had wit- 
 nessed the night attacks of armed men upon machinery, and with whom 
 some of the leaders of such organized attacks were in habitual intercourse, 
 it is manifest that the materials for political insurrection were abundantly 
 accumulated. It was not the part of a wise and humane government to 
 permit the feeblest spark of excitement from without to approach these 
 inflammable materials. The secret operations of " the Spy System " in the 
 manufacturing districts were first brought to light by the sagacious energy 
 of the late Mr. Baines of Leeds. The circumstances of this discovery are 
 briefly told by his son, to the effect, that Mr. Baines having learnt that a 
 government emissary, named Oliver, had been attempting to entrap Mr. 
 James Willan, a printer, of Dewsbury, to attend a meeting where ten persons 
 had been arrested, thought it his duty to investigate the facts by personal 
 inquiry. Mr. Willan proved that Oliver, who represented himself as a dele- 
 gate from the Eadicals of London, had several times, for the space of two 
 months, endeavoured to seduce him into acts of violence and situations of 
 danger, and that he had especially urged him to attend a meeting of " dele- 
 gates " at Thornhill-Lees on the previous Friday, at which meeting ten men 
 were arrested by a party of military, under the command of major-general 
 sir John Byng. Willan, who was a conscientious man, and a professor oC 
 the principles of the Society of Friends, indignantly repelled every invi- 
 tation to violence, and refused to attend the meeting. The ten prisoners had 
 been conveyed, with Oliver himself, to Wakefield, for examination by the 
 magistrates ; but at that town Oliver was seen at liberty, and in communi- 
 cation with the servant of general Byng. It was further learnt that Oliver 
 had been at general Byng's house at Campsall, a few days before.* Mr. Baines 
 having published a statement of these circumstances in his paper, ' The 
 Leeds Mercury,' the transaction formed the subject of a violent debate in 
 the House of Commons on the 16th of June. In the * Life of Lord Sidmouth,' 
 this affair has been minutely gone into, for the purpose of justifying the 
 Secretary of State for the Home Department against the imputations which 
 arose out of the employment of such persons as Oliver. "None of them," 
 says the author of the Life, " were employed in the first instance by lord 
 Sidmouth ; but themselves sought him out ; and if, which is not probablcr 
 they, in any instances, instigated the conspirators to crime in order to betray 
 
 * " Life of Edward Baines," by his eon, Edward Baines, pp. 92, 93. 
 VOL. vin.— 230.
 
 32 THE DERBYSHIRE INSURRECTION. [1817. 
 
 them, the treacherous act must have been entirely their own, as nothing would 
 have excited more his lordship's indignation than the bare idea of so base a 
 proceeding." * This opinion is supported by a letter of lord Strafford (for- 
 merly sir John Byng), written in 1846. Sir John Byng himself was perfectly 
 meapable, as was acknowledged on all hands, of turning the spy into a tempter. 
 On Sunday, the 8th of June, there was a remarkable assemblage at Pent- 
 ridge, a village situated some two miles from the Ambergate station on the 
 present North Midland Eailway. The village is in the hilly and thinly 
 peopled district to the west of the river Derwent. In the neighbourhood of 
 Pentridge there are several other scattered villages, — all not far removed 
 from a direct road to Nottingham, About a mile from Pentridge, at But- 
 terley, was a large iron foundry. Two men in the employ of the proprietors 
 of this foundry went out into the White Horse public-house at Pentridge, on 
 the morning of the 8th of June, and found a good many persons in the parlour 
 there, " talking about this revolution." There was one amongst them they 
 called " The Captain." He had a map in his hand, and the people came in, 
 and kept asking him questions ; and he said, there would be no good to be 
 done except a complete overthrow of the Government. All the country was 
 to rise, all at one time. Many talked thus. They made no secret. They 
 spoke it openly. They did not mind who heard them. They said they had 
 plenty of pikes ; and they would go and take Nottingham wholly to themselves; 
 and when they got to Nottingham, every man would have a hundred guineas, 
 and plenty of rum, and it would be nothing but a journey of pleasure. This 
 extraordinary assembly lasted six or seven hours. The two men from the 
 iron works were special constables ; but they were afraid to say anything 
 about it. Having agreed to meet on the night of the 9 th after dark, the 
 people separated. The Captain with the map in his hand was Jeremiah 
 Brandreth, a frame-work knitter, whose family had received parochial relief. 
 Mr. Denman (who was counsel for the prisoners), after Brandreth had been 
 convicted, compared this man with * The Corsair ' of lord Byron. In spite 
 of Mr. Denman's rhetorical description of the mastery of this leader over 
 his weak followers, we must be content to believe, from the evidence of 
 Brandreth's acts, that he was a frantic enthusiast, goaded to violence by 
 great poverty, by imaginary oppression, and, what is more, by the grossest 
 delusions as to his own power and the strength of his cause. We do not 
 think that he was the less dangerous from his real character and the real cir- 
 cumstances around him ; but, we believe, as Mr. Denman came to the con- 
 clusion, that, in spite of his influence and command, " he was most clearly 
 himself an instrument wielded by other hands." On Saturday night, the 7th 
 of June, Oliver goes to a meeting at Nottingham, with instructions from sir 
 John Byng " not to conceal anything as to the Yorkshire meeting by which 
 these people could be deceived." On Sunday morning, the Nottingham 
 Captain is heard saying, " All the country is to rise, all at one time." On 
 Monday night he passes the door of a labouring man at South Wingfield, 
 about three miles from Pentridge, in his way to an old barn up in the fields ; 
 and he urges the man to come with him, saying that " the countries, England, . 
 Ireland, and France, were to rise that night at ten o'clock," and that "the 
 
 * "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vcL iii. p. 187.
 
 1817.] THE DERBYSHIRE INSURRECTION. 83 
 
 nortliern clouds, men from the north, would come down and sweep all before 
 them." It is difficult not to regard the language of Brandreth as pure 
 insanity, especially when we contrast it with the sober sense of some around 
 him. "There was an old woman standing by," says the South Wingfield. 
 man, " and she tapped him on the shoulder, and said, ' My lad, we have got a 
 magistrate here '" ; — and the labourer himself "thought he must be drunk 
 or mad to think of such things." But on the madman went. In the old 
 barn at South Wingfield he assembled twenty men, who had pikes and guns, 
 and they went forward, stopping at solitary houses, and demanding guns, and 
 dragging unwilling men out of their beds and hiding-places, and compelling 
 them to march with them. At the farm-house of a widow, who behaved with 
 unflinching courage, Brandreth fired in at a window, and killed one of her 
 servants, upon arms being refused to him. His followers said he should not 
 have shot that poor innocent man ; and he replied, it was his duty to do it. 
 Onwards they marched — the volunteers and the conscripts ; and the Captain, 
 when they halted at some low dwellings, and met with any one who refused 
 to march, had his ready exhortation, that " a great cloud out of the north 
 would sweep all before them," with the more particular information that 
 " it would not be necessary to go farther than Nottingham, for London would 
 be taken by the time they got there." Some of the pressed men ran away 
 in the darkness ; one refused to march in rank, and upon Brandreth swearing 
 he would shoot him in a moment, the bold fellow stepped up to him with his 
 knife, and the Captain turned oE from him. During all this march the rain 
 was incessant. By the time they reached the Butterley Iron-works, their 
 numbers amounted to about a hundred. Brandreth was boldly met by Mr. 
 Ooodwin, the manager of the works, and, when he demanded men was told, 
 " You shall not have one of them. You are too many already, unless you 
 were going for a better purpose ; disperse ! depend upon it, the laws will be 
 too strong for you ; you are going with halters about your necks." Three 
 men took shelter in the office of the works ; one man, Isaac Ludlam, who 
 was afterwards convicted and executed, was exhorted by Mr. Goodwin not to 
 go on ; but he answered, much agitated, " I am as bad as I can be ; I cannot 
 go back." After a short pause, Brandreth gave the command " March." 
 Soon after, this main body was followed by about fifty other men. On the 
 morning of the 10th of June, Mr. Eolleston, a magistrate, went from Not- 
 tingham on the road towards Eastwood, about six miles from Nottingham, 
 an4 meeting there a considerable body of men armed with pikes, he returned 
 to Nottingham, and procured some troops from the barracks, eighteen privates, 
 commanded by a captain and a subaltern. Upon hearing that the soldiers 
 were coming, the insurgents fled. The captain in command of the Hussars 
 deposed that the military were kept on the alert during the night. He was 
 ordered out with a party, on the road towards Derbyshire, about six in the 
 mori^ng, and approached about sixty men, who fled across the fields. A man 
 in the road tried to form them, but they paid no attention to hiin. A number 
 of prisoners were taken, and about forty guns and other arms were collected 
 together. 
 
 Thus ended "the Derbyshire insurrection." For these ofiences, three 
 men were executed ; eleven were transported for life ; four were transported 
 for fourteen years ; and five were imprisoned for various terms.
 
 84 LORD SIDMOUTH'S CIRCULAR LETTER. [1817. 
 
 The acquittal of "Watson, for high treason, appears to have had no 
 influence on the measures of Government, The second suspension of the 
 Habeas Corpue was passed by large majorities in. both Houses ; and the 
 Prince Hegent, in his Speech closing this Session on the 12th of July, 
 averred, that " a favourable change was happily taking place in the internal 
 situation of the country, which was to be mainly ascribed to the salutary 
 measures which Parliament had adopted for preserving the public tran- 
 quillity." The private records of lord Sidmouth's life show that he had no 
 great confidence in the " favourable change." At the end of July, lord 
 Sidraouth established his family at Malvern, intending to remain there a 
 short time himself, " and then back," as he said, " to sedition, and treason 
 again," his under-secretary being left in charge during the interim. Before 
 his lordship's departure, however, as he informed his brother on the 20th, 
 he " revised all the cases of persons committed and detained under the 
 Suspension Act ; and the result, he trusted, would be the release of some 
 upon their own recognizance, and increased indulgence to those who could 
 not be released."* 
 
 On moving the second reading of the Habeas Corpus Suspension Bill, 
 lord Sidraouth made the following statement : — " Some noble lords had com- 
 plained, that prosecutions had not been instituted against the authors, printers, 
 or publishers, of infamous libels ; but it was but justice to Government to 
 state, that they had not neglected their duty with regard to these publica- 
 tions. As soon as they reached the hands of ministers, they were transmitted 
 to the law officers of the Crown, who felt that these publications were drawn 
 up with so much dexterity, — the authors had so profited by former lessons 
 of experience, — that greater difiiculties to conviction presented themselves 
 than at any former time." Within a month from this declaration, lord 
 Sidmouth entrusted the administration of the law of libel to less scrupulous 
 hands than the law officers of the Crown. On the 27th of March the 
 Secretary of State addressed his famous Circular Letter to the Lords- 
 Lieutenants of Counties, in which, urging the importance of preventing the 
 circulation of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, he stated that he had 
 obtained the opinion of the law officers, that " a justice of the peace may 
 issue a warrant to apprehend a person charged before him upon oath, with 
 the publication of libels of the nature in question, and compel him to give 
 bail to answer the charge." He called, therefore, upon the lords-lieutenants 
 to communicate this opinion at the ensuing quarter sessions, so that all 
 magistrates might act thereupon. Such a proceeding as this, was, perhaps, 
 the most daring invasion of public liberty that had been attempted since the 
 time of the Stuarts. It called forth from lord Grey, on the 12th of May, 
 one of the most luminous speeches which that statesman ever delivered. 
 By the libel bill of Mr. Tox, he said, it was at last established, that in prose- 
 cutions for libel, both the law and the fact were within the province of the 
 jury, and to be determined by them. " But, my lords, what avails this just 
 and beneficent statute, — what security is there either for the freedom of the 
 press, or the liberty of the subject, — if, whilst you have imposed this salutary 
 restraint upon the judges in trials for libels, you give to them, and to justices 
 
 * Lord Sidmouth's "Life," vol. iii. p. 19G.
 
 1817.J PROSECUTIONS FOR LIBEL. 3c 
 
 of the peace before trial a right to decide that difficult question ; and to 
 commit to prison (in many instances, perhaps, to inflict a severer punishment 
 than the Court upon conviction would adjudge), upon a charge which, after 
 all, may turn out to have had no foundation, but in the false interpretation 
 of words perfectly innocent by the justice before whom the charge was 
 brought ? .... If such be the power of the magistrate, and if this be the 
 law, where, I ask, are all the boasted securities of our independence and 
 freedom ? " The House of Lords was indiflerent to the preservation of 
 these boasted securities. AVriting four months after this debate to the 
 bishop of Durham, lord Sidmouth says, " The attempt to check the progress 
 of treason and blasphemy, by apprising the magistrates that they had the 
 power of apprehending and holding to bail the publishers or venders of either, 
 was one of the charges brought against me in the course of the last Session. 
 Such a charge it shall be my constant endeavour to deserve ; and I am happy 
 in being able to assure your lordship, that the activity of the itinerant 
 dealers in these articles is materially controlled, and their number greatly 
 diminished." * We apprehend that there cannot be the slightest doubt in 
 many minds, at the present day, that this proceeding of lord Sidmouth was 
 most unconstitutional; and that he speaks and writes in defence of his 
 conduct with aU the self-approval of the worst political bigot of the worst 
 periods of tyranny. 
 
 It is difficult to imagine a more degraded and dangerous position than 
 that in which every political writer was piacea aurmg the year 1817. In the 
 first place, he was subject, by a Secretary of State's warrant, to be imprisoned 
 upon suspicion, under the Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. Secondly, 
 he was open to an ex-officio information, under which he would be compelled 
 to find bail, or be imprisoned. The power of ex-officio information had been 
 extended so as to compel bail, by an Act of 1808 ; but from 1808 to 
 1811, during which three years forty such informations were laid, only one 
 person was held to bail. In 1817 numerous ex-officio informations were 
 filed, and the almost invariable practice then was to hold the alleged oflfender 
 to bail, or, in default, to commit to prison. Under this Act Mr. Hone and 
 others were committed to prison during this year. To complete a triple 
 cord with which the ministers believed they could bind down the " man- 
 mountain " of the press, came forth lord Sidmouth's Circular. The entire 
 Course of these proceedings was a signal failure. There was only one solitary 
 instance of success — William Cobbett ran away. On the 28th of March 
 he fled to America, suspending the publication of his * Register ' for four 
 months. 
 
 On the 12th of May earl G-rey mentioned in the House of Lords that a 
 Mr. Hone was proceeded against for publishing some blasphemous parody •, 
 but he had read one of the same nature, written, printed, and published, 
 some years ago, by other people, without any notice having been officially 
 taken of it. The parody to which earl Grey alluded, and a portion of which 
 he recited, was Canning's famous parody, " Praise Lepaux; " t and he asked 
 whether the authors, be they in the cabinet or in any other place, would also 
 be found out and visited with the penalties of the law ? This hint to the 
 
 ♦ "Life of Lord Sidmouth." voL iii. p. 176. t Ante, vol. vii. p. 345.
 
 86 THE THREE TRIALS OF WILLIAM HONE. [1817. 
 
 obscure publisher against whom these ex-qfficio informations Had been filed 
 for blasphemous and seditious parodies, was efiectually worked out by him 
 in the solitude of his prison, and in the poor dwelling where he had sur- 
 rounded himself, as he had done from his earliest years, with a collection of 
 odd and curious books. From these he had gathered an abundance of know- 
 ledge tliat was destined to perplex the technical acquirements of the Attorney- 
 General, to whom the sword and buckler of his precedents would be wholly 
 useless; and to change the determination of the boldest judge in the land to 
 convict at any rate, into the prostration of helpless despair. Altogether, the 
 three trials of William Hone are amongst the most remarkable in our consti- 
 tutional history. They produced more distinct eifects upon the temper of the 
 country than any public proceedings of that time. They taught the Govern- 
 ment a lesson which has never been forgotten, and to which, as much as to 
 any other cause, we owe the prodigious improvement as to the law of libel 
 itself, and the use of the law, in our own day, — an improvement which leaves 
 what is dangerous in the press to be corrected by the remedial power of the 
 press itself; and which, instead of lamenting over the newly-acquired ability 
 of the masses to read seditious and irreligious works, depends upon the 
 general diflfusion of this ability as the surest corrective of the evils that are 
 incident even to the best gift of heaven, — that of knowledge. 
 
 On the morning of the 18th of December there is a considerable crowd 
 round the avenues of Guildhall. An obscure bookseller, a man of no sub- 
 stance or respectability in worldly eyes, is to be tried for libel. He vends his 
 wares in a little shop in the Old Bailey, where there are, strangely mingled, 
 twopenny political pamphlets, and old harmless folios that the poor publisher 
 keeps for his especial reading as he sits in his dingy back parlour. The 
 door-keepers and officers of the court scarcely know what is going to happen ; 
 for the table within the bar has not the usual covering of crimson bags, but 
 ever and anon a shabby boy arrives with an armful of books of all ages and 
 sizes, and the whole table is strewed with dusty and tattered volumes that the 
 ushers are quite sure have no law within their mouldy covers. A middle- 
 aged man, — a bland and smiling man, — with a half sad half merry twinkle in 
 his eye, — a seedy man, to use an expressive word, whose black coat is 
 wondrous brown and threadbare, — takes his place at the table, and begins 
 to turn over the books which were his heralds. Sir Samuel Shepherd, the 
 Attorney- General, takes his seat, and looks compassionately, as was his nature 
 to do, at the pale man in threadbare black. Mr. Justice Abbott arrives 
 in due time ; a special jury is sworn ; the pleadings are opened ; and the 
 Attorney- General states the case against William Hone, for printing and 
 publishing an impious and profane libel upon the Catechism, the Lord's 
 Prayer, and the Ten Commandments, thereby bringing into contempt the 
 Christian religion. " It may be said," argued the Attorney-General, " that 
 the defendant's object was not to produce this effect. I believe that lie 
 meant it, in one sense, as a political squib ; but his responsibility is not the 
 less." As the Attorney- General proceeded to read passages from the parody 
 upon the Catechism, the crowd in Court laughed; the Bench was indignant; 
 and the Attorney-General said the laugh was the fullest proof of the baneful 
 elFect of the defendant's publication. And so the trial went on in the 
 Buioothest way, and the case for the prosecution was closed. Then the pal©
 
 1817.] HONE'S FIRST TRIAL, 87 
 
 man in black rose, and, with a faltering voice, set forth the diflBculty he had 
 in addressing the Court, and how his poverty prevented him obtaining 
 counsel. And now he began to warm in the recital of what he thought his 
 wrongs ; his commitments ; his hurried calls to plead ; the expense of copies 
 of the informations against him : and, as Mr. Justice Abbott, with perfect 
 gentleness, but with his cold formality, interrupted him, the timid man, who 
 all thought would have ^mumbled forth a hasty defence, grew bolder and 
 bolder, and in a short time had possession of his audience as if he were " some 
 well-graced actor," who was there to receive the tribute of popular admira- 
 tion. They were not to inquire whether he were a member of the Established 
 Church or a Dissenter ; it was enough that he professed himself to be a 
 Christian ; and he would be bold to say, that he made that profession with a 
 reverence for the doctrines of Christianity, which could not be exceeded by 
 any person in that Court. He had his books about him, and it was from them 
 that he must draw his defence. They had been the solace of his life. He 
 was too much attached to his books to part with them. As to parodies, 
 they were as old at least as the invention of printing ; and he never heard 
 of a prosecution for a parody, either religious or any other. There were two 
 kinds of parodies ; one in which a man might convey ludicrous or ridiculous 
 ideas relative to some other subject; the other, where it was meant to 
 ridicule the thing parodied. This latter was not the case here, and therefore 
 he had not brought religion into contempt. This was the gist of William 
 Hone's defence. To show fully how this argument was worked, — with what 
 readiness, what coolness, what courage, — would be to transcribe the trials of 
 three days ; * on the first of which the defendant spoke six hours, on the 
 second seven hours, and on the last eight hours. It was in vain that the 
 Attorney- G-eneral urged that to bring forward any previous parody was the 
 same thing as if a person charged with obscenity should produce obscene 
 volumes in his defence. It was in vain that Mr. Justice Abbott repeated his 
 wish that the defendant would not read such things. On he went, till in- 
 terruption was held to be in vain. It was worse than vain, it was unjust. 
 Truly did Hone reply to Mr. Justice Abbott, " My Lord, your Lordship's 
 observation is in the very spirit of what Pope Leo the Tenth said to Martin 
 Luther, — ' For God's sake don't say a word about the indulgences and the 
 monasteries, and I'll give you a living ; ' — thus precluding him from mention- 
 ing the very thing in dispute. I must go on with these parodies, or I cannot 
 go on with my defence." Undauntedly he went on, from the current litera- 
 ture of the time, such as grave lawyers read in their few hours of recreation, 
 to the forgotten volumes of old theology and polemical controversy, that the 
 said grave lawyers of modern days are accustomed to regard as useless 
 lumber. The Editor of Blackwood's Magazine was a parodist, — he parodied 
 a chapter of Ezekiel ; Martin Luther was a parodist, — he parodied the first 
 Psalm ; Bishop Latimer was a parodist, aLd so was Dr. Boys, Dean of Can- 
 terbury ; the author of the " Rolliad " was a parodist, and so was Mr. Can- 
 ning. Passage after passage did Mr. Hone read from author after author. 
 He thought it was pretty clear that Martin Luther did not mean to ridicule 
 the Psalms ; that Dr. Boys did not mean to ridicule the Lord's Prayer ; that 
 
 * The three trials were printed as separate pamphlets.
 
 88 HONES SECOND TRIAL. [1817. 
 
 Mr. Canning did not mean to ridicule tlie Scriptures. "Why, tlien, should it 
 be presumed that he had such an intention ? As soon as he found that his 
 parodies had been deemed offensive, he had suppressed them, and that he 
 bad done long before his prosecution. It was in vain that the Attorney- 
 General replied that Martin Luther was a libeller, and Dr. Boys was a 
 libeller. The judge charged the jury in vain. William Hone was acquitted, 
 after a quarter of an hour's deliberation. 
 
 But Guildhall " saw another sight." With the next morning's fog, tke 
 Lord Chief Justice rose from his bed, enfeebled by illness, but undiminished 
 in the energy of his talent. He had been deeply mortified by the acquittal 
 of Watson for high-treason. He was now resolved that the libeller should 
 not go unpunished. " He swore," says Lord Campbell, " that at whatever 
 cost he would preside in Court next day himself, so that conviction might be 
 certain, and the insulted law might be vindicated."* With lowering brow 
 lord Ellenborough took his place in that judgment-seat which he deemed had 
 been too mercifully filled on the previous day. The mild firmness of the 
 poor publisher, and his gentlemanly sense of the absence of harshness in the 
 conduct of his first trial, had won for him something like respect ; and when 
 on one occasion Mr. Justice Abbott asked him to forbear reading a particular 
 parody, and the defendant said, " Tour lordship and I understand each 
 other, and we have gone on so good-humouredly hitherto, that I will not 
 break in upon our harmony," it became clear that the puisne judge was not 
 the man to enforce a verdict of guilty on the second trial. Again Mr. Hone 
 entered the court with his load of books, on Friday, the 19th of December. 
 He was this day indicted for publishing an impious and profane libel, called 
 " The Litany, or General Supplication." Again the Attorney- General 
 affirmed that whatever might be the object of the defendant, the publication 
 had the effect of scoffing at the public service of the Church. Again the 
 defendant essayed to read from his books, which course he contended was 
 essentially necessary for his defence. Then began a contest which is perhaps 
 unparalleled in an English court of justice. Upon Mr. Fox's libel bill, upon 
 ex-officio informations, upon his right to copies of the indictment without 
 extravagant charges, the defendant battled his judge, — imperfect in his law, 
 no doubt, but with a firmness and moderation that rode over every attempt 
 to put him down. Parody after parody was again produced, and especially 
 those parodies of the Litany which the Cavaliers employed so frequently as 
 vehicles of satire upon the Roundheads and Puritans. The Lord Chief 
 Justice at length gathered up his exhausted strength for his charge, and 
 concluded in a strain that left but little hope for the defendant : " He would 
 deliver the jury his solemn opinion, as he was required by Act of Parliament 
 to do ; and under the authority of that Act, and still more in obedience to 
 his conscience and his God, he pronounced this to be a most impious and 
 profane libel. Believing and hoping that they, the jury, were Christians, he 
 had not any doubt but that they would be of the same opinion." The jury, 
 in an hour and a-half, returned a verdict of Not Guilty. 
 
 It might have been expected that these prosecutions would have here 
 ended. But the chance of a conviction from a tliird jury, upon a third 
 
 * "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. iii. d. 224.
 
 1817.J HONE'S THIRD TRIAL. 89 
 
 indictment, was to be risked. On the 20tli of December lord EUenborough 
 again took his seat on the bench, and the exhausted defendant came late into 
 court, pale and agitated. The Attorney- General remarked upon his 
 appearance, and offered to postpone the proceedings. The courageous man 
 made bis electisn to go on. This third indictment was for publishing a 
 parody on the Creed of St. Athanasius, called " The Sinecurist's Creed." 
 After the Attorney- Greneral had finished his address, Mr. Hone asked for 
 five minutes' delay, to arrange the few thoughts he had been committing to 
 paper. The judge refused the small concession ; but said that he would 
 postpone the proceedings to another day, if the defendant would request the 
 Court so to do. The scene which ensued was thoroughly dramatic. " No ! 
 I make no such request. My lord, I am very glad to see your lordship here 
 to-day, because I feel I sustained an injury from your lordship yesterday — an 
 
 injury which I did not expect to sustain If his lordship should think 
 
 proper, on this trial to-day, to deliver his opinion, I hope that opinion will be 
 
 coolly and dispassionately expressed by his lordship My lord, I think 
 
 it necessary to make a stand here. I cannot say what your lordship may 
 consider to be necessary interruption ; but your lordship ^interrupted me a 
 great many times yesterday, and then said you would interrupt me no more, 
 
 and yet your lordship did interrupt me afterwards ten times as much 
 
 Oentlemen, it is you who are trying me to-day. His lordship is no judge of 
 me. Tou are my judges, and you only are my judges. His lordship sits 
 
 there to receive your verdict I will not say what his lordship did 
 
 yesterday ; but I trust his lordship to-day will give his opinion coolly and 
 dispassionately, without using either expression or gesture which could be 
 construed as conveying an entreaty to the jury to think as he did. I hope 
 the jury will not be beseeched into a verdict of guilty." The triumph of the 
 weak over the powerful was complete. " The frame of adamant and soul of 
 fire," as the biographer of lord Sidmouth terms the Chief Justice, quailed 
 before the indomitable courage of a man who was roused into energies which 
 would seem only to belong to the master-spirits that have swayed the world. 
 Yet this was a man who, in the ordinary business of life, was incapable of 
 enterprise and persevering exertion ; who lived in the nooks and corners of 
 his antiquarianism ; who was one that even his old political opponents came 
 to regard as a gentle and innocuous hunter after " all such reading as was 
 never read;" who in a few years gave up his politics altogether, and, 
 deyoting himself to his old poetry and his old divinity, passed a quarter of a 
 century after this conflict in peace with all mankind, and died the sub-editor 
 of a religious journal. It was towards the close of this remarkable trial, 
 that the judge, who came eager to condemn, sued for pity to his intended 
 victim. The defendant quoted AVarburton and Tillotson, as doubters of the 
 authenticity of the Athanasian Creed. " Even his lordship's father, the bishop 
 of Carlisle, he believed, took a similar view of the Creed." And then the 
 judge solemnly said, " "Whatever that opinion was, he has gone, many years 
 
 ago, where he has had to account for his belief and his opinions For 
 
 common delicacy forbear." " 0, my lord, I shall certainly forbear." Grave 
 and temperate was the charge to the jury this day ; and in twenty minutes 
 they returned a verdict of Not Guilty. 
 
 Lord Campbell has an anecdote of the Chief J ustice, which indicates tho
 
 90 PROSECUTIONS FOR LIBEL SIGNAL FAILURES. [1817 
 
 struggle he made against any display of bis deep mortification at the issue 
 of this prosecution, " Bishop Turner, who was present at the trial, and 
 accompanied the Chief Justice home in his carriage, related that all the way 
 he laughed at the tumultuous mob wlio followed him, remarking, ' that be 
 was afraid of their saliva, not of their bite ; ' and that passing Charing Cross 
 be pulled the check-string, and said, ' It just occurs to me that they sell the 
 best red herrings at this shop of any in London; buy six.' "* Lord Camp- 
 bell adds, " The popular opinion, however, was, that lord Ellenborougb was 
 killed by Hone's trial, and be certainly never held up bis head in public 
 after." There is a more conclusive evidence of his feelings than popular 
 opinion. On Sunday, the 21st of December, the day after this last trial, lord 
 Ellenborougb wrote thus to lord Sidmouth : " The disgraceful events which 
 have occurred at Gruildhall within the last three or four days have led me, 
 both on account of the public and myself, to consider very seriously my owu 
 sufficiency, particularly in point of bodily health and strength, to discbarge 
 the official duties of my station in the manner in which, at the present 
 critical moment, it is peculiarly necessary they should be discharged. ... I 
 wish to carry my meditated purpose of resignation into effect, as soon as the 
 convenience of Government, in regard to the due selection and appointment 
 of my successor, may allow."t 
 
 The proceedings of the Government in the libel matters of 1817 were 
 signal failures. A few miserable hawkers were held to bail, or sent to prison 
 under lord Sidmouth's Circular ; some ex-officio informations were filed, with 
 only one conviction, — that of a printer in the country, who republished one 
 of Hone's parodies, and was tried before Hone himself was tried. As to 
 the three acquittals we have described, it is perfectly evident that three 
 juries, consisting of respectable London merchants, would have assuredly 
 convicted the defendant, bad they not felt that the real sting of the alleged 
 profaneness was the severity of the political satire. Although the indictment 
 stated that these parodies were seditious as well as profane, the sedition was 
 studiously kept in the background. Had they not been really prosecuted for 
 their political doctrines, their unquestionable indecency and impropriety 
 must have carried a verdict against them on the first trial. The second and 
 third trials looked like persecution ; and public opinion threw its shield over 
 the offender. There was a feeling, moreover, that political passions were 
 influencing the judgment-seat. The severity of the Lord Chief Justice to 
 the reforming member for Westminster, lord Cochrane, was not for- 
 gotten. 
 
 "When we look back upon this unhappy period, we may honestly infer 
 that the real danger was not so much that the people should be irritated 
 and misled by mob-leaders and unscrupulous writers, as that a general 
 feeling should grow up in the nation that Government was a power antago- 
 nistic to the governed — an oppressive and not a protective power — a power 
 of separate interests from the interests of the people. This grew into a very 
 widely-diffused feeling, and was found deeply rooted, long after the first 
 sufferings that attended the transition state of peace had passed away — 3 
 
 * "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. iii. p. 225. 
 t "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. p. 23G.
 
 1817.] THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE. 91 
 
 feeling that was far more dangerous to the national welfare than any insur- 
 rectionary outbreak of the masses of the working population. Deluded 
 these masses unquestionably were — acted upon by demagogues — ready for 
 riot and violence ; capable of serious mischief, but incapable of resisting the 
 law wisely administered. The eagerness of the Government to suspend the 
 constitutional protections for the liberty of the subject ; to call for new 
 enactments to repress sedition ; to fetter the expression of opinion by ren- 
 dering the plain-speaking of the public journals very perilous ; to employ the 
 spy-system, with the certainty that it would excite the violence which it 
 pretended to discover — these were the causes why the Grovernment had no 
 love from any class ; very little respect ; intense hate from many ; slavish fear 
 from more. A large number, indeed, of the upper and middle classes were 
 alarmed into a prostrate adhesion to the menacing policy of the Government, 
 and were ready with " Kves and fortunes " to put down the revolutionary 
 spirit which they were assured was working under the guise of Parliamentary 
 Eeform. Prom this year we may date the retrogression of public opinion on 
 the question of an improved representation of the people. As long as the 
 middle classes were afraid of its agitation, and naturally associated the idea of 
 Reform with the rash movements of the operative classes, — with their violent 
 declamations and their tumultuous meetings, — the differences of principle 
 took the unhappy form of a contest between wealth and poverty, between 
 capital and labour. The humbler classes had been taught by the demagogues 
 that all the evils of civilization are political evils, and that democratic insti- 
 tutions would at once sweep away all social miseries. The upper and middle 
 classes opposed all changes, in the belief that the preservation of existing 
 institutions, however decayed and imperfect, was necessary for the main- 
 tenance of the security of property. There were, nevertheless, many of the 
 wealthy and educated classes who, in 1817, thought, as Mr. "Wilberforce 
 then thought, when he wrote, " I continue friendly to the moderate, gradual, 
 and almost insensibly operating Parliamentary Eeform, which was last 
 brought forward by Mr. Pitt ; " * but who, nevertheless, were " adverse to the 
 measure," on account of the character of its advocates and their followers. 
 The reciprocal distrust of reformers and anti-reformers must have ended in a 
 convulsion, had not alarm and violence gradually shrunk before a growing 
 intelligence. The English mind had been trained by its historical experience 
 to know tliat all the triumphs of liberty had been won quietly and legally. 
 [jThe time was not far distant when this forbearance would have its reward. 
 
 Amidst the democratic agitations of 1817, which necessarily produced a 
 corresponding violence in the tone of political parties, it is pleasant to turn 
 tc an "affecting, improving, and most memorable scene" t in the House of 
 Commons, on the 3rd of March. Francis Horner had closed his valuable 
 and blameless life at Pisa on the 6th of February. Lord Morpeth, in moving 
 a new writ for the borough of St. Mawes, in the room of Mr. Horner, 
 delivered what Macintosh describes as " a speech so perfect, that it might 
 have been well placed as a passage in the most elegant English writer." In 
 
 * " Life of Wilberforce," 7ol. iv. p. 315 
 + Sir James Macintosh — Diary, in his ' 
 
 in his " Life," vol. ii.
 
 92 FRANCIS HORNER— TRIBUTE TO HIS MEMORY. [1817. 
 
 the eulogies upon this statesman, so prematvirely cut off from that career 
 which opened the widest expectations of his future eminence, the leading 
 men of all parties concurred, in a spirit which was calculated to inspire hope 
 and confidence amidst the fears and doubts of that gloomy time. " Never was 
 so much honour paid in any age or nation to intrinsic claims alone. A Howard 
 introduced, and an English House of Commons adopted, the proposition of 
 thus honouring the memory of a man of thirty-eight, the son of a shopkeeper, 
 who never filled an office, or had the power of obliging a living creature, and 
 whose grand title to this distinction was the belief of his virtue. How 
 honourable to the age and to the House ! A country where such sentiments 
 prevail is not ripe for destruction." * 
 
 * Sir James Macintosh — Diary, in his •' Life," vol, ii. p. 389.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Death of the Princess Charlotte — Illness of the Regent — Causes of his gloom and irritation — 
 Opening of Parliament — Bill of Indemnity — The Petition of Ogden — Mr. Canning — Sir F. 
 Burdett proposes a plan of Parliamentary Reform — Parliament dissolved — Death of Sir S. 
 Romilly — Death of Queen Charlotte — Evacuation of France by the Allied troops — Meeting 
 of the New Parliament — Duke of York the Custos of the King — Act for Resumption of 
 Cash Payments — Sir James Macintosh's motion on the Criminal Laws — Last efforts of Mr. 
 Grattan for Catholic Emancipation — Agitation for Reform — The Manchester Massacre, so 
 called— The Six Acts— Death of the Duke of Kent— Death of George III. 
 
 FouTT-roTJii years ago, " without the slightest warning, without the oppor- 
 tunity of a moment's immediate preparation, in the midst of the deepest 
 tranquillity, at midnight a voice was heard in the palace, not of singing men 
 and singing women, not of revelry and mirth, but the cry, Behold, the bride- 
 groom Cometh." * The death of the Presumptive Heiress of the British 
 Crown, on the 6th of November, after the birth of a dead child, was the great 
 event in the domestic history of 1817. Never was a whole nation plunged iu 
 such deep and universal grief. From the highest to the lowest, this death was 
 felt as a calamity that demanded the intense sorrow of domestic misfortune. 
 Around every fireside there were suppressed tears and bitter remembrances. 
 The most solemn disclaimer was uttered, through this universal mourning, of 
 the calumny against the people that they were desirous of a vital charge 
 
 Robert Hall's Funeral Sermon.
 
 n-l DEATH OF THE PRINCESS CHARLOTTE. [1817, 
 
 in their iaws and institutions. "Whatever might be their complaiots, they 
 Bhowed, on this occasion, that their attachment to a constitutional monarchy- 
 was undiminished by factious contests or real grievances ; and that they looked 
 with exulting hopes to the days when a patriot Queen should diftuse the 
 sunlight of just government through every corner of a prosperous and happy 
 land. 
 
 The Princess Charlotte seemed born to build up for generations the suc- 
 cession to the British Crown, by calling around her own person the warmest 
 devotion of a zealous but a reflecting people. The nation exulted in the 
 maturity of her person and her mind. She stood, as was hoped amongst her 
 future subjects, a beautiful, an accomplished, a noble-hearted woman. She 
 had wisely asserted her own right to choose for herself in the most important 
 action of her life. The nation hailed and reverenced her motives. The Prince 
 of her choice brought neither extent of territory nor continental influence ; 
 but he brought an active, firm, inquiring mind, and an amiable temper. 
 In the retirement of Claremont, they lived calmly and unobtrusively, in that 
 enviable tranquillity which is so congenial to British feeling. The public 
 sympathy with the husband of the Princess Charlotte upon his great bereave- 
 ment is vrell characterized by Southey in a private letter : " The manner m 
 ■which I have heard Prince Leopold spoken of on the occasion impressed ne 
 a good deal. He was called ' poor man ' and * poor fellow.^ His affliction 
 has brought him down to our level, and rank was forgotten in the sympathjr 
 of humanity." * 
 
 Since the death of the Princess Charlotte, the Prince Eegent had been 
 seriously indisposed, and for a short time his life was considered iu danger. He 
 was not a hard-hearted though he was a selfish man, and the sudden calamiiy 
 appears to have had a greater influence upon his health and spirits than might 
 have been expected by those who judged that there had been no great afiection. 
 between the father and daughter. In the " Autobiography of Miss Knight, 
 Lady Companion to the Princess Charlotte," there are many curious details of 
 unpleasant passages in the intercourse of the Eegent and the Princess, some 
 of which had acquired an awkward publicity at tlie period of their occurrence. 
 In the unhappy position of the father and the mother of the Princess there 
 ■was a natural source of irritation ; and the restrictions which were placed 
 upon the intercourse of the daughter with the mother were in themselves 
 galling to a young woman of strong aff'ections and high spirit. In the 
 enforcement of these restrictions the public sympathized with the two royal 
 ladies ; and manifested little respect for the support which the Prince Regent 
 received when, in 1813, he placed before the Privy Council all the documents 
 relative to the inquiry into the conduct of the Princess of "Wales in 1806. 
 He then obtained an opinion, that, with reference to the welfare of the 
 Princess Charlotte and the most important interests of the State, the inter- 
 course between the mother and the daughter should continue to be subject 
 to regulation and restraint. The dissension became serious upon the refusal 
 of the Princess Cliarlotte to marry the Prince of Orange. The impulsiveness 
 of the Princess Charlotte's character was manifested when, in July, 1814, 
 
 " Memoirs of Sir William Knighton," by Lady Knigbton, vol. i. p. 131.
 
 1818.] GLOOM OF THE PRINCE REGENT. 95 
 
 she fled from Warwick House, her own residence, to the house of the 
 Princess of Wales, in the belief that she was about to be subjected to more 
 coercion and to a stricter surveillance than she had yet endured. Miss 
 Knight says, " It is possible that when Princess Charlotte was a child, her 
 temper might have been violent and headstrong, and the world held that 
 opinion when she was grown up, I never saw anything of this violence or 
 obstinacy. Much agitation, nervous uneasiness, and sometimes nervous 
 impatience, — all this I observed, and sometimes to such a degree as to injure 
 her health. As a proof of this, it may be remarked, that she was so much 
 afraid of her father, that when she had seen him, or expected him, she 
 stuttered exceedingly, which she never did at times when there was nothing 
 particular to agitate her."* Placed under happier circumstances by her union 
 with a man of extraordinary good sense and prudence, the nation hoped that, 
 although one cause of previous unhappiness still existed in full force, there 
 would be no manifestation of those dissensions which, in former days, had 
 rendered the position of the sovereign and of the heir-apparent one of mutual 
 misery and of public scandal. 
 
 The national expression of feeling upon the death of the Princess 
 Charlotte was termed by lord Dudley "exaggerated lamentation;" and he 
 thought that it " could not but be, from its obvious purport, offensive to the 
 other branches of the E-oyal family." f It certainly might have been 
 offensive to the Regent ; for the strong national expression of hope in a 
 future reign presented a forcible contrast to the small measure of enthusiasm 
 towards him who was in the actual exercise of the sovereign power. But 
 beyond this, there was a more direct cause of the Prince Eegent's depression 
 of spirits — the scandals that had reached him respecting the Princess of 
 Wales. The only remedy for his gloom and irritation " was beset with so 
 many difficulties, that his Ministers shrunk from the responsibility of 
 advising it, though he grew daily more urgent for them to attempt it at 
 any risk." J On the 1st of January the Prince Begent wrote to the Lord 
 Chancellor, " Tou cannot be surprised (much difficulty in point of delicacy 
 being now set aside in my mind by the late melancholy event which has 
 taken place in my family), if I turn my whole thoughts to the endeavouring 
 to extricate myself from the cruellest, as well as the most unjust, predicament, 
 that ever even the lowest individual, much more a Prince, ever was placed 
 in, by unshackling myself from a woman who," &c. &c.§ Mr, Premantle, the 
 gossiping correspondent of the marquess of Buckingham, assigns as a reason 
 for the B/Cgent not opening the Parliament in person, on the 27th of January, 
 " that allusion must be made in the Speech to the death of the Princess Char- 
 lotte, which he cannot bear."|l Lord Dudley considered that, in the Speech 
 composed for the Prince Eegent, he could distinguish somewhat of that feeling 
 which "the exaggerated lamentation" for the Princess was calculated to excite: 
 •* The mention of her is rather dry — sulky rather than sad." 
 
 * " Autobiogi-aphy of Miss Cornelia Knight," vol. ii, pp. 83, 1861. 
 
 + "Letters," p. 195. 
 
 t Duke of Buckingham — "Court of England daring the Regency," vol. ii. p. 202. 
 
 § "Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. p. 305. 
 
 II "Court of England during the Regency," vol. ii, p. 202.
 
 96 BILL OF INDEMNITY— MR. CANNING. [1818 
 
 The general tone of the Eoyal Speech was hopeful and confiding. Improve 
 ment in every branch of domestic industry, and the state of public credit, 
 were proofs that the difficulties under which the country had been labouring 
 were to be ascribed to temporary causes. So important a change could not 
 fail to withdraw from the disaffected the principal means of fomenting* 
 a spirit of discontent. The peace and tranquillity of the country had been 
 restored. The confidence thus expressed by the Government was supported 
 by the announcement of their intention of bringing in a bill for the immediate 
 repeal of the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act. The chief business of the Oppo- 
 sition was therefore to contend against the mode in which the Ministers had 
 exercised their extraordinary powers, and to argue that no necessity had ever 
 arisen for granting those powers. The discussion on these topics was 
 initiated in both Houses by the Ministers themselves. Papers relative to 
 the recent state of the country were presented on the 2nd of February. 
 Committees were appointed to report upon them, and the Eeports of the 
 Lords and Commons were presented towards the end of the month. The 
 Reports went to completely justify the necessity for extraordinary measures, 
 and to prove the discretion and moderation of the Government in the execu- 
 tion of the powers vested in it by the two Acts of the last Session. It was 
 somewhat contrary to the general tenor of these Reports, that they expressed 
 a decided opinion that the great body of the people had remained unseduced 
 by the designs of the disaff'ected, even in the most disturbed districts, and at 
 the periods of the greatest distress. The Reports produced little debate, 
 but the discussions were repeated and vehement upon " A Bill for Indem- 
 nifying Persons who, since the 26th of January, 1817, have acted in appre- 
 hending, imprisoning, or detaining in custody, persons suspected of high 
 treason, or treasonable practices, and in the suppression of tumultuous and 
 unlawful assemblies." On the motion for going into Committee on this 
 Bill, Mr. Canning uttered five words, which long had the eifect of inducing a 
 belief that he regarded the sufferings of the humble with cold-blooded 
 indifference, and made a jest of their misfortunes. One of three petitioners, 
 who complained of severities which they endured whilst under confinement, 
 was described by Canning as " the revered and ruptured Ogden." In 
 Hansard's Parliamentary Debates the words are given as " the ever to be 
 revered and unhappy Ogden." * There appears to be little doubt, that the 
 words which his enemies ascribed to Canning were the words which he 
 used. But in the same sentence in which he employed the unfortunate 
 alliteration, he exposed the shameful mendacity of the petition which had 
 been got up for Ogden, which affirmed that hernia had been caused by 
 the weight of his irons, when he had suffered from the affliction during eight 
 years, and was cured whilst in confinement, having written to his relatives 
 and friends to express the delight he felt in being made a new man again. 
 Amongst the most virulent of the attacks upon Mr. Canning for his some- 
 what imprudent expression, was an anonymous pamphlet, " which he con- 
 sidered as suggestive of his assassination," and of which he " was always fully 
 persuaded that Mr. Hobhouse was the author." t A fashion, now happily 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxxvii. coi. 1026. 
 
 t Stapleton — ** George Canning and his Times," p. 340.
 
 1818.] PARLIAMENTARY REFORM— ROYAL MARRIAGES. 97 
 
 past with regard to all classes, was at that time, for men filling the highest 
 ofiices in the State, to settle attacks upon their personal honour by the 
 arbitrement of a duel. To provoke a duel, Canning wrote to the anonymous 
 author of the pamphlet, " you are a liar and a slanderer, and want courage 
 only to be an assassin." The writer of the pamphlet acknowledged the 
 letter, but declined to remove the mask. 
 
 The question of Parliamentary Eeform, which had slept for ten years, as 
 far as Parliament was concerned, was revived in the House of Commons by 
 sir Francis Burdett. In 1809 he had proposed that every county should be 
 divided into electoral districts, each returning one member ; and that the 
 franchise should be vested in the taxed male population. Fifteen members 
 then supported this motion. In 1818 sir Francis Burdett, in accordance 
 with the views of the Hampden Club, of which he was the chairman, brought 
 forward resolutions for universal male sufi'rage, equal electoral districts, vote 
 by ballot, and annual parliaments. Sir Francis restricted his proposal to 
 male suffrage, although many of the Eeform Associations were composed of 
 women as well as of men. In the session of 1818 the seconder of the reso- 
 lutions, lord Cochrane, was their only supporter on the division, in addition 
 to the mover. The advocates of Eeform out of doors were damaging a cause 
 which had once had the support of Pitt and Fox, of Grey and Erskine. 
 Moderate men had begun to wish that the cause was in better hands than 
 the violent advocates of tlie same principle that Burdett had announced. 
 Sydney Smith, in 1819, wrote to Francis Jeffrey, " I am doubtful whether it 
 is not your duty and my duty to become moderate Eeformers, to keep off 
 worse." * 
 
 In this session messages from the Eegent were delivered to both Houses, 
 announcing that treaties of marriage were in negotiation between the duke 
 of Clarence and the Princess Adelaide Louisa Theresa Caroline Amelia of 
 Saxe Meiningen ; also between the duke of Cambridge and the Princess 
 Augusta Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse ; also announcing that the Prince 
 Eegent had given his consent to a marriage between the duke of Kent and 
 her Serene Highness Mary Louisa Victoria, daughter of the duke of Saxe 
 Cobourg Saalfeld, widow of Enrich Charles Prince of Leiningen, and sister 
 of Prince Leopold. There were long debates as to the sums to be voted by 
 Parliament in consequence of these projected alliances. The marriage of the 
 duke of Cambridge was solemnized on the 1st of June ; those of the duke 
 of Clarence and the duke of Kent on the 13th of July. The daughter of 
 the ""fourth son of G-eorge III., by his marriage with the sister of Prince 
 Leopold, was born on the 24th of May, 1819. It is a remarkable example 
 of the vanity of human fears, that the people who wept, as a people without 
 hope, for the decease of Charlotte Augusta, should have realized through her 
 premature death precisely such a female reign, of just and mild government, 
 of domestic virtues, of generous sympathy with popular rights, of bold and 
 liberal encouragement of sound improvement, as they had associated with 
 her probable career, — a reign more congenial to the spontaneous love of the 
 people than they could have thought, in that season of disqxiiet, was a possible 
 •blessing to be reached in a few coming years. 
 
 * " Memoii- of Sydney Smith," vol. ii. p. 181. 
 ■VOL. TIU.— 231.
 
 98 PARLIAMENT DISSOLVED— DEATH OF QUEEN CHARLOTTE. [1818. 
 
 On the lOtli of June the Prince Regent announced from the throne his 
 intention forthwith to dissolve the Parliament. The word prorogation waa 
 not mentioned. At the close of the royal speech the Lord Chancellor 
 in formal terms notified the will and pleasure of his Royal Highness " that 
 this Parliament be now dissolved, and this Parliament is dissolved accord- 
 ingly." When the Commons returned to their House, Mr. Manners Sutton, 
 the late Speaker, offered to read the speech at the table, as is usual after 
 a prorogation. Mr. Tierney objected to any such proceeding, as implying 
 some approbation of this mode of dissolution, which he considered as an 
 insult to Parliament. Mr. Manners Sutton said that this was a case in which 
 there was no precedent, these having been no such dissolution since that of 
 the Oxford Parliament in the reign of Charles II. The motive for this 
 extraordinary proceeding was, apparently, that no delay should arise in 
 summoning a new Parliament. It had been a stormy session ; and it was 
 not desirable in the view of the ministry, that the same Parliament should 
 re-assemble in consequence of the demise of the Crown, which then appeared 
 to be an event very likely speedily to happen. The Proclamation for calling 
 a new Parliament was issued the same day as that on which the dissolution 
 took place. The writs for the new Parliament were made returnable on the 
 4th of August. 
 
 The elections were all over by the middle of July. Sydney Smith wrote 
 to Earl Grey, " I congratulate you on the general turn of the elections, and 
 the serious accession of strength to the Whigs." There probably never 
 was a general election in which there was a more revolting display of 
 the violence which too often attended protracted contests. In West-^ 
 minster, the government candidate, sir Murray Maxwell, a distinguished 
 naval officer, was nearly killed by the brutality of the mob, who were out- 
 rageous that he stood before Burdett on the poll. In this stronghold of 
 popular opinions, it was creditable to the good sense of the middle classes 
 that Romilly was returned with Burdett, and that Hunt, who continued the 
 contest to the end of the fifteen days allowed by law, had only eighty-four 
 votes. Romilly's high character secured him a triumphant return at the 
 head of the poll, though he had not spent a shilling, nor solicited a vote, nor 
 made his appearance on the hustings. He never took that place in Parliament 
 which the reverence of his fellow citizens had awarded him. On the 29th of 
 October he lost his wife, to whom he was most tenderly attached. In a 
 paroxysm of insanity he died by his own hand on the 2nd of November. 
 
 On the 17th of November took place the death of Queen Charlotte, at the 
 age of seventy-five. Por fifty-seven years she had shared the political anxieties, 
 and watched over the mental aberrations of the King, who had since 1811 
 ceased to be conscious of the sympathy of wife or child. Under the Regency 
 Bill she was appointed the Custos of the king's person. During the Regency 
 she had presided over the Court ceremonies with the same decorum which she 
 had always maintained, and which did something to preserve the appearance 
 of virtue, however the reality might be sacrificed in royal retreats which her 
 scrupulous eye might not care to explore. Richard Rush, the plenipoten- 
 tiary from the United States, who was presented to her Majesty in the 
 February preceding her decease, describes her deportment with a strong 
 feeling of respect : " During the whole interview there was a benignity in her
 
 IblS.j EVACUATION OF FRANCE BY ALLIED TROOPS. 99 
 
 manner, which, in union with her age and rank, was both attractive and 
 touching." * 
 
 At the Congress of the Allied Sovereigns and of the ministers of the 
 several powers, at Aix-la-Chapelle, the duke of Wellington, associated with 
 Lord Castlereagh, represented Great Britain. The only object of the 
 Congress was to determine with regard to the continued occupation of the 
 I'rench territory by the troops of the Allies, of which Wellington was 
 generalissimo. On the 2nd of October, the evacuation was unanimously 
 agreed upon. By the Treaty of Paris, the possible occupation had been 
 fixed at five years. The fears of the more timid of the French Eoyalists 
 inclined the representatives of the continental powers, with the exception of 
 Eussia, to prolong the occupation for the whole term. Louis XVIIL and 
 his ministry had more confidence in the security which had been established, 
 during the three years which had sufiiced to restrain any attempt to shake 
 the government by popular violence. The duke of Wellington was satisfied 
 with the state of things which he had witnessed during that period. A 
 Erench historian says that suf&cient justice had not been done to the duke, 
 " for the liberal and fUithful manner in which he protected the interests of 
 
 i'rance throughout all the negotiations with foreign powers, He 
 
 was of opinion that this measure of precaution ought to cease, seeing that 
 Prance had not only duly discharged her stipulated payments, but that her 
 government appeared to present the character of order and duration." f 
 
 The members of the new Parliament having assembled on the 14th of 
 January, and Mr. Manners Sutton having been re-elected Speaker, the 
 Prince Regent's speech was delivered by commission on the 21st. The most 
 important passage in that speech was in connection with the announcement 
 of the death of the Queen : — " His Eoyal Highness has commanded us to 
 direct your attention to the consideration of such measures as this melancholy 
 event has rendered necessary and expedient with respect to the care of his 
 Majesty's sacred person." This was the preliminary to a Bill appointing the 
 duke of York as a successor to the Queen in the office of the King's Gustos. 
 In a committee on the Civil List it was proposed that the sum of 10,000Z., which 
 her Majesty had received on account of this office, should be continued to the 
 duke of York. The AV^indsor establishment was proposed to be reduced 
 from 100,000Z. to 50,000Z. The motion of Mr. Tierney, that these charges 
 should be defrayed out of the privy piirse, was negatived by a majority of 95. 
 Th« proposed allowance to the duke of York was the subject of continued 
 and animated debate. The repugnance to this measure was not confined to 
 the ordinary parliamentary Opposition. Lord Grenville thought that there 
 was *' something very revolting in paying a sum of 10,000Z. per annum to 
 superintend the condition of his father, that father being the sovereign of the 
 country." J He was apprehensive that this would be a very general feeling. 
 Sydney Smith did not probably express himself too strongly, after the House, 
 on the 22nd of March, had divided upon the question, that the clause grant- 
 ing 10,000/. a year to the duke of York should stand as part of the Eoyal 
 
 * "Residence at the Court of London," p. 134. 
 
 + Capefigue — " Histoire de la Restauration," tome i. p. 478. 
 
 X " Court of England during the Regency," vol. ii. p. 316.
 
 iOO DUKE OF YORK GUSTOS OF THE KING. [1819. 
 
 Housei.old Bill, and the majority for the clause had been 59 : — " You see 
 this spirited House of Commons knows how to demean itself when any solid 
 act of baseness, such as the 10,000Z. to the duke of York, is in agitation." * 
 Mr. Charles Williams Wynn, in a letter to the marquess of Buckingham, 
 shows that there were other reasons for this measure than the desire to put 
 a large sum into the somewhat empty pockets of the king's son : — " The 
 duke of York's anxious wish was to have avoided the question, by declining 
 all salary ; but general Grenville says, ' the Eegent compelled him to take 
 it.' And one of the duke's most intimate friends, who came down to vote 
 for him last night, told Phillimore, in confidence, that the answer to the 
 duke's request was, ' So, sir ! you want to be popular at our expense.' " t 
 
 The state of the currency, and the question of the resumption of cash 
 payments, were aubjects of paramount importance in the deliberations of this 
 session. Secret Committees of both Houses had been appointed to inquire 
 into the state of the Bank of England. Early in April both committees 
 presented Reports, recommending that a Bill should be forthwith passed to 
 prohibit the continuance of the payment in gold by the Bank of their notes 
 issued previous to the 1st of January, 1817, in conformity with the voluntary 
 notice to that effect of the directors. The circulation of these notes having 
 been unusually large, and the price of gold being about 3 per cent, above 
 that of paper, six or seven millions had been rapidly withdrawn from the 
 Bank coffers. It was stated in the Eeports of the Committees that the 
 measure which they recommended had for its object to facilitate the final and 
 complete restoration of cash payments. Mr. Peel, who bad been first re- 
 turned to Parliament in 1809, and who was now, at the age of thirty-one, 
 member for the University of Oxford, was chosen chairman of the Committee 
 of the House of Commons on the currency question. He then filled no office 
 under government. In the agitation of this question he first signally mani- 
 fested that remarkable quality of mind which led to the most important 
 results of his statesmanship. Early in February Mr. "Wynn wrote, " Peel, 
 who is the chairman of the Bank Committee, professes, I find, to have as yet 
 formed no opinion on the subject, but to be open to conviction ; and the same 
 is the language of the duke of Wellington." J On the 24th of May the minis- 
 terial resolutions were proposed to the House of Commons by Mr. Peel. 
 The Eesolution which he had to submit to the House had been adopted 
 unanimously by the Committee. In consequence of the evidence before the 
 Committee, and the discussions upon it, his opinion with regard to this 
 question had undergone a material change. " He was ready to avow, with- 
 out shame or remorse, that he went into the Committee with a very different 
 opinion from that which he at present entertained ; for his views of the 
 subject were most materially different when he voted against the resolutions 
 brought forward by Mr. Horner in 1811, as the chairman of the Bullion 
 Committee. . . . He now, with very little modification, concurred in 
 the principles laid down in the fourteen first resolutions submitted to the 
 House by that very able and much lamented individual. He conceived them 
 
 * "Memoir of Sydney Smith," vol. ii. p. 177. 
 t "Court of England during the Regency," vol. ii. p. 321, 
 i Ibid., vol. ii. p. 303.
 
 1819.] CURRENCY— CRIMINAL LAWS. 101 
 
 to represent the true nature and laws of our monetary system." * Founded 
 upon the resolution thus proposed, the Act for the gradual resumption of 
 cash payments, commonly known as Peel's Act, was passed on the 23rd of 
 June. By this measure the restriction upon ce:ih payments was: continued 
 until February, 1820 ; and it was provided that from the ist of February to 
 the 1st of October, the public should be entitled ■ to Jeiiiaad , paygsent of 
 notes in gold bullion, in quantities of not less thausixcy ounces, at the rate 
 of 81s. per ounce; and that the same mode of payment in bullion,, at a 
 gradually reduced rate per ounce, should continue till the 1st of May, 1822, 
 after which date current gold coin of the realm might be demanded iu ex- 
 change for notes. The Bank anticipated this period, resuming the payment 
 of its notes in specie on the 1st of May, 1821. 
 
 It was in this Session of Parliament that sir James Mackintosh succeeded 
 to a great trust which devolved upon him by the death of sir Samuel Romilly — 
 the advocacy of amendment in the criminal laws. On the 2nd of March, 
 he moved for a Select Committee " to consider of so much of the 
 Criminal Laws as relates to capital punishment in felonies." He did not 
 propose, he said, to form a new criminal code, nor to suggest the abolition of 
 the punishment of death, nor to take away the right of pardon from the 
 crown ; he did not aim at realizing any universal principle. His object was 
 to bring the letter of the law more near to its practice, under which the 
 remission of the law formed the rule and the execution the exception. " It 
 is one of the greatest evils which can befal a country when the criminal law 
 and the virtuous feeling of the community are in hostility to each other. 
 They cannot be long at variance without injury to one, perhaps to both. One 
 of my objects is, to approximate them ; to make good men the anxious sup- 
 porters of the criminal law, and to restore, if it has been injured, that zealous 
 attachment to the law in general, which, even in the most tempestuous times 
 of our history, has distinguished the people of England among the nations of 
 the world." t The proposition of sir James Mackintosh was opposed by the 
 government ; but, upon a division, the numbers in favour of the motion were 
 147 ; against it, 128. The Eeport of the Committee recommended the repeal 
 of many capital punishments. Six bills, embodying some of these recom- 
 mendations, were introduced by Mackintosh in the Session of 1820. 
 
 The determination of the Lord Chancellor to stand, without yielding an 
 inch, upon the ancient ways, was put to the test by a remarkable occurrence 
 in<1818. In the Court of King's Bench, in the celebrated case of Ashford 
 and Thornton, an "appeal of murder" was prosecuted, which involved such a 
 " trial by battle " as Shakspere has exhibited between " the armourer and his 
 man." J Lord Campbell says, as regards the appeal of murder in 1818, "I 
 myself saw the appellee, on being required to plead, throw down his gauntlet 
 on the floor, and insist on clearing his innocence by battle — as the judges 
 held he was entitled to do." Lord Campbell adds, that it was the opinion of 
 many great lawyers that this appeal of murder, which might be brought after 
 an acquittal before a jury, and in which the Crown had no power to pardon, 
 was a glorious badge of the rights and privileges of Englishmen. " Yet 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xl. col. 677. t Ihid., vol. xxxix. col. 784. 
 
 X Henry YI., Second Part, act 2, scene 3.
 
 102 PARLIAMENTARY REFORM— GRAMPOUND. [1819. 
 
 Lord Chancellor Eldon, to the amazement of the House of Peers and of the 
 public, moved the second reading of a Bill, sent up by the Commons, to 
 reform those practices, which he described as abuses, and, notwithstanding 
 their antiquity-, attacked j;n:ttie most unsparing manner." * The conversion 
 of lord Eldon to the support of any legal innovation was the more remarkable, 
 inasmuch -.^a ha was opposed to a great popular authority, the Common 
 Council of the City of London, who petitioned Parliament that the people 
 might not be deprived of their ancient and undoubted right of appeal in 
 criminal cases. 
 
 In this session, the question of Parliamentary Reform was again agitated 
 by sir Francis Burdett. He proposed that, early in the next session, the 
 House should take into its consideration the state of the representation. 
 The occasion was remarkable for the first declaration of the opinions of lord 
 John Eussell, who had entered the House of Commons in 1813, at the age of 
 twenty-one. Lord John did not agree with those who opposed aU and every 
 system of Eeform. He agreed in the propriety of disfranchising such 
 boroughs as were notoriously corrupt ; he would restrict the duration of Par- 
 liament to three years. " He could not, however, pledge himself to support 
 a measure that went the length of proposing an inquiry into the general 
 state of the representation, because such an inquiry was calculated to throw 
 a slur upon the representation of the country, and to fill the minds of tlie 
 people with vague and indefinite alarms." f At the close of the session, lord 
 John Eussell announced his intention, on the next meeting of Parliament, 
 to propose the disfranchisement of Grampound, the corruption of which 
 borough had become notorious. He intimated that he should propose also 
 to adopt the principle which had not yet been recognized by the House — the 
 principle of admitting the unrepresented large towns into a share of the repre- 
 sentation. In the session of 1820, these proposals were brought forward by him 
 in certain resolutions, which were met in a conciliatory spirit by the government. 
 Eventually Grampound was disfranchised in 1821, and it was agreed by the 
 Commons that the two vacant seats should be given to the town of Leeds. The 
 Lords, however, rejected this extension of the representation to great towns, 
 and assigned two additional members to the county of Tork. The moderate 
 Eeformers had become hopeful, when lord Castlereagh gave his assent to 
 lord John Eussell's motion in ]820. Sydney Smith writes to earl Grey, 
 expressing his opinion that this assent " includes every thing that is important; 
 that a disfranchised borough may be taken out of the surrounding hundred 
 and conferred elsewhere ; or rather, that it need not necessarily be thrown 
 into the surrounding hundred." X 
 
 On the 3rd of May, the fervid eloquence of Mr. Grattan was heard for 
 the last time in the House of Commons in support of the measure nearest 
 his heart, that of Catholic Emancipation. He moved, that the state of the 
 laws by which oaths or declarations are required to be taken as qualifications 
 for the exercise of civil functions, as far as affected His Majesty's Eomau 
 Catholic subjects, should be. taken into consideration by a Committee of the 
 
 * "Lives of the Chancellors," chap. 203. 
 t Hansard, vol. xJ. col. 1496. 
 t "Memoir," toL ii. p. 192.
 
 1819.J REVIVED AGITATION FOR REFORM. 103 
 
 whole House. After the speech of Grrattan, the House was impatient to 
 divide. The numbers were, 241 for the motion ; 243 against it. In the new 
 Parliament, on the 28th of April, 1820, sir Henry Parnell gave notice that 
 Mr. Grrattan would, on the 11th of May, submit to the House a motion for 
 the removal of the Eoman Catholic disabilities. The great Irish orator had 
 arrived in London in a state of much debility, and his friends remonstrated 
 that the exertion that he contemplated would be attended with serious 
 injury to his feeble health. His answer was, " I should be happy to die 
 in the discharge of my duty." He died on the 14th of May, at the age of 
 seventy. 
 
 On the 13th of July, Parliament was prorogued by the Prince Regent in 
 person. There was a passage in the Eoyal Speech calculated to renew the 
 alarm that appears to have subsided at the beginning of the year, when the 
 suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act had been deemed no longer necessary. 
 The Prince Eegent now said, "I have observed with great concern the 
 attempts which have recently been made in some of the manufacturing 
 districts to take advantage of circumstances of local distress, to excite a 
 spirit of disaffection to the institutions and government of the country." 
 There had been considerable interruption to the prosperous state of trade 
 from February to July. The number of bankruptcies was unusually great ; 
 credit was very generally impaired ; the demand for labour was of course 
 proportionably affected, and the rate of wages was necessarily lower. At the 
 same time the price of food had been steadily advancing. There had been 
 meetings of the operative classes in Lancashire and at Glasgow, to consider 
 the low rate of wages, and to appeal to public sympathy upon their distressed 
 condition. Gradually, however, at these meetings the peaceably disposed 
 were borne down by the turbulent, and the speeches assumed that character 
 of political violence that justified the terms of the Prince Eegent's speech. 
 Parliament, however, separated without any expectation that serious mischief 
 was at hand. Many of the members of the Cabinet were seeking a tempo- 
 rary repose from their official labours. The Lord Chancellor, perplexed by 
 events which we shall now have to describe, writes to his brother in August, 
 " Tour exhortations to the King's servants, I doubt, can't reach many of 
 them, for, with exception of Liverpool, Castlereagh, Sidmouth, Wellington, 
 Van, and myself, they are all, eight in number, in different parts of Europe." * 
 
 At a great open-air meeting at Stockport on the 28th of June, sir Charles 
 WQlseley, bart., was the chairman, there commencing a career which ended 
 in the jail, and might have ended on the scaffold. He told his audience that 
 he was one of those who had mounted the ramparts of the Bastille at the 
 commencement of the Prench Eevolution, and he would never shrink from 
 attacking the Bastilles of his own country. On the 12th of July, at a 
 meeting held at New Hall Hill, near Birmingham, sir Charles Wolseley was 
 elected " legislatorial attorney and representative " for that town. The 
 government naturally became alarmed, and caused sir Charles Wolseley, and 
 a dissenting preacher, to be indicted for seditious words spoken by them at 
 the meeting at Stockport. Wolseley was arrested at his own house, 
 Wolseley Park, in Staffordshire. At a great assembly in Smithfield, where 
 
 • •' life of Lord EldoD," vol. ii. p. 836.
 
 104 SIR CHARLES WOLSELEY— MR. HUNT. [1819', 
 
 Hunt presided, Harrison was arrested ; and on "being conveyed to Stockport^ 
 the constable who arrived there with him was attacked and shot. These 
 events produced great alarm. Lord Sidmouth, in a private letter of the 15th 
 of August, expressed his opinion that " the laws were not strong enough for 
 the times, but that they must be made so." Nevertheless, he thought the- 
 plentiful season was unfavourable for sedition, and that at Manchester there 
 was happily an increased demand for labour.* The attention of the Home- 
 oiEce had naturally been directed to Manchester with some anxiety, for a 
 public meeting had been called by the Reformers, who had now taken the 
 name of Eadicals, for the 9th of August, to elect a " legislatorial attorney " 
 as representative of that place. The magistrates, in consequence, issued a 
 notice declaring such a meeting to be illegal, and requiring the people, at 
 their peril, to abstain from attending it. The design was relinquished ; and 
 another meeting was advertised to be held in St. Peter's Field, in Man- 
 cheater, for the purpose of petitioning for a Eeform of Parliament. One 
 great cause of alarm at the beginning of August was derived from represen- 
 tations made to the Lancashire magistrates, that in the neighbourhoods of 
 Bury, of Bolton, and of Eochdale, there were nightly assemblies of great 
 numbers of men, who met together for the purpose of learning and practising 
 military training. There is no evidence that these meetings for drill had 
 been long continued, or that there had been any attempt to conduct the 
 drillings in secret. A very plausible reason for this practice, at this parti- 
 cular period, is given by one who was freely admitted to all the councils of 
 the Reformers, and as freely differed from them when they contemplated any 
 resort to physical force. Bamford says, that the Reformers had been 
 frequently taunted by the press with their ragged dirty appearance at their 
 assemblages, with the confusion of their proceedings, and the mob-like crowd 
 in which their numbers were mustered. In preparation for the great meeting 
 of the 16th of August, the Committees issued injunctions for a display of 
 cleanliness, sobriety, and order. He adds, " order in our movements was 
 obtained by drilling," and " peace," according to a subsequent injunction of 
 the Committees, was to be secured "by a prohibition of all weapons of 
 offence or defence ; and by the strictest discipline of silence, steadiness, and 
 obedience to the directions of the conductors." Nothing can look more 
 harmless, and even poetical, than Bamford's description of the evening 
 drills. They were, he says, " to our sedentary weavers and spinners, periods 
 of healthful exercise and enjoyment ; our drill masters were generally old 
 soldiers of the line, or of militia or local militia regiments. They put the 
 lads through their facings in quick time, and soon learned them to march 
 with a steadiness and a regularity which would not have disgraced a regiment 
 on parade. When dusk came, and we could no longer see to work, we jumped 
 from our looms, and rushed to the sweet cool air of the fields, or the waste 
 lands, or the green lane-sides. We mustered, we fell into rank, we faced, 
 marched, halted, faced about, countermarched, halted again, dressed, and 
 wheeled in quick succession, and without confusion ; or, in the gray of a 
 fine Sunday morn, we would saunter through the mists, fragrant with the 
 night odour of flowers and of new hay, and ascending the Tandle hills, salute 
 
 • " Life of Lord SidmoutL," vol. iii. p. 249.
 
 1819.] THE GREAT REFORM MEETING AT MANCHESTER. 105 
 
 the broad sun, as he climbed from behind the high moors of Saddleworth." * 
 Nevertheless, althougb there were no armed meetings and no midnight 
 drillings, we can understand the fears of one of the Manchester magistrates', 
 who deposed that " when he saw the party with the blue and green banners 
 come upon the field in beautiful order, not until then did he become alarmed. '^ 
 It was announced that at the meeting of the 16th of August, Mr. Hunt 
 would take the chair. The arrival of the hero of the day, preceded by 
 flags flying, and a band of music, was hailed by a shout from eighty thousand 
 persons. The greater part of this vast assemblage was not composed of the 
 operatives of Manchester. Detachments, each of several thousand persons, 
 came from the neighbouring manufacturing districts, most of these bodies 
 arriving in that military order for which they appear to have had a consider- 
 able aptitude. Bamford was himself the conductor of the procession of his 
 fellow-townsmen of Middleton, who marched five abreast, every hundred 
 having a leader distinguished by a sprig of laurel in his hat, and these leaders 
 being directed by superior ofiicers. The Middleton band had two silk flags, 
 on which were inscribed, ' Unity and Strength, Liberty and Fraternity,' ' Par- 
 liaments Annual, Sufi'rage Universal.' They also bore a crimson velvet cap 
 of Liberty. The number of the Middleton men was three thousand ; and 
 they were joined by a similar number of the Eochdale people. As they 
 entered Manchester, they found that many other parties had preceded them, 
 including that of the Leeds and Saddleworth Union, bearing a black flag, 
 with the words in white letters, of ' Equal Representation or Death.' It 
 would appear that these ominous words were little in accordance with the 
 loyal spirit of the populace, who are stated to have very generally taken off 
 their hats when the band played ' God save the King.' Mr. Hunt arrives ; 
 he mounts the hustings : he has his distinguishing white hat in his hand as 
 he bows to the people ; he begins to address the assembly amidst a profound 
 silence. After a few sentences he pauses ; there is a pressure from the verge 
 of the field towards the hustings ; a body of cavalry is striving to make wav 
 through the terrified multitude. 
 
 From the exaggerated contemporary accounts, it is difiicult to derive a 
 clear and connected retrospect of the causes which led to such an onslaught 
 upon a peaceable assemblage, as would justify history in continuing to desig- 
 nate it by its original name, * the Manchester massacre.' To obtain an im- 
 partial view of the circumstances we must refer to the statements of the 
 ^^iancashire magistrates in the papers laid before parliament ; to the evidence 
 upon the trial of Hunt and his associates ; and to narratives of individuals 
 which have appeared in more recent times. Twenty-five years after these 
 occurrences, sir William Jolliff"e supplied to the biographer of lord Sidmouth 
 a circumstantial narrative of the events which he had himself witnessed ou 
 the 16th of August, when acting as a lieutenant in the 15th Hussars. His 
 regiment had been quartered in Manchester about six weeks. It was his first 
 ucquaintance, he said, with a large manufacturing population ; he had " little 
 knowledge of the condition of that population ; whether or no a great degree 
 of distress was then prevalent ; or, whether or no, the distrust and bad feeling^ 
 "which appeared to exist between the employers and employed was wholly or 
 
 * "Passages in the Life of a Radical," toI. i. p. 178.
 
 106 THE MANCHESTER MASSACRE. [1819. 
 
 m part caused by the agitation of political questions." * There was an ample 
 military force of the regular army, who were stationed in Manchester ; and 
 Bome companies of the 88th regiment, and of the Cheshire Teomanry, had 
 also been brought into the town. Sir William JoUiflfe adds, " there was a 
 troop of Manchester Yeomanry Cavalry, consisting of about forty members, 
 who, from the manner in which they were made use of (to say the least) 
 greatly aggravated the disasters of the day. Their ranks were chiefly filled 
 by wealthy master manufacturers ; and, without the knowledge which would 
 have been possessed by a (strictly speaking) military body, they were placed, 
 most unwisely as it appeared, under the immediate command and orders of 
 the civil authorities. "t Tlie magistrates had been taking depositions, and 
 deliberating upon some course of action, through the Saturday and Sunday 
 which preceded the meeting. They had been in communication with Lord 
 Sidmouth, who had told them " that he expected occasion to arise for their 
 energy to display itself, and tbat they might feel assured of the cordial sup- 
 port of the government." Mr. Bond, the London Police Magistrate, had at 
 this time observed to lord Sidmouth that, " in periods of disorder and 
 approaching insurrection, the most difl&cult and important point is to ascer- 
 tain to what extent you shall allow the evil to proceed : for unless there is 
 enough done to indicate great and threatening danger, the better classes will 
 not be convinced of the necessity of interference. Tou can never, therefore, 
 call the law into execution with any good effect before the mischief is in part 
 accomplished." J Upon this equivocating and most dangerous principle the 
 Lancashire magistrates appear to have acted. They had a warrant ready for 
 the arrest of the leaders of this meeting. They delayed its execution till 
 Hunt and the others to be arrested were surrounded by a multitude, equal 
 in number to one-half of the entire population of Manchester and Salford at 
 that period. This multitude was wedged together in the narrow area of St. 
 Peter's Pield, now built over, but then an unenclosed space of about three 
 acres, approached by several principal streets. A small body of constables 
 were stationed close to the hustings, and a continued line of the same civil 
 force maintained a communication with the magistrates, who were assembled 
 at a private house on the south side of the Pield. The distance from the 
 hustings to this house was about three hundred yards. The Manchester 
 Yeomanry were stationed in Mosley-street. Two squadrons of the 15th 
 Hussars were in waiting, dismounted, in a street to the north of the Pield, 
 at a distance from it of about a quarter of a mile. In this position — the 
 Reform orators ready to begin, the populace eagerly waiting, the cavalry and 
 yeomanry at hand, the magistrates in full conclave — the warrant for the 
 apprehension of the leaders was given to Nadin, the chief constable of Man- 
 chester, to execute. He could not carry his orders into effect, he declared, 
 with the civil power at his command. It was immediately determined that 
 the chief constable should have military aid. Bamford, having seen Hunt 
 taking off his white hat, and beginniug to address the people, very wisely 
 went out of the crowd to obtain some refreshments after his long march. 
 He heard a noise and strange murmur arising, and " saw a party of cavalry 
 in blue and wliite uniform come trotting, sword in hand, round the corner of 
 
 « "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. r- 253. t Ibid., p. 254. ^ l!d., p. 250.
 
 i819.] THE MANCHESTER MASSACRE. 107 
 
 a garden wall, and to the front of a row of new houses, where they reined up 
 in a line." The men in blue and white were the Yeomanry. He went back 
 nearer the hustings to see what this movement meant. The mounted 
 troops were received with a shout which Bamford understood as one 
 of good will. The military shouted again, and dashed forward. There 
 was a general cry in the quarter where he stood, of * Stand fast.' 
 " The cavalry were in confusion : they evidently could not, with all the 
 weight of man and horse, penetrate that compact mass of human beings ; 
 and their sabres were plied to hew a way through naked held-up hands and 
 defenceless heads ; and then chopped limbs, and wound-gaping skulls were 
 seen ; and groans and cries were mingled with the din of that horrid confu- 
 sion." * According to the narrative of sir William JoUiffe, some one, who 
 had been sent from the place of meeting to bring up the four troops of the 
 15th Hussars, led the way through a number of narrow streets, and by a 
 circuitous route, to the south-west corner of St. Peter's Field. Without a 
 halt or pause, the commands ' front and forward ' were given. Their line 
 extended quite across the ground, which in aU parts was so filled with people 
 that their hats seemed to touch. The lieutenant of Hussars saw the Man- 
 chester troop of Yeomanry " scattered singly or in small groups over the 
 greater part of the field, literally hemmed up and hedged in by the mob, so 
 that they were powerless either to make an impression or to escape." Mr. 
 Hulton, the chairman of the magistrates, states that when the Hussars 
 arrived, colonel L'Estrauge, their commander, asked him what he was to do ? 
 " Good God, sir," exclaimed Mr. Hulton, " do you not see how they are 
 attacking the Yeomanry ? Disperse the crowd!" The panic-struck magis- 
 trate's order was obeyed. The trumpet sounded the charge. The Hussars 
 swept the mingled mass of human beings before them. " People, yeomen, 
 and constables, in their confused attempts to escape, ran one over the other ; 
 so that, by the time we liad arrived at the end of the field, the fugitives were 
 literally piled up to a considerable elevation above the level of the ground." f 
 According to sir William Jolliffe, the Hussars tJrove the people forward with 
 the flats of their swords ; but, as was inevitably the case in such a situation, the 
 edge was also used. He considers that it redounds I'ighly to the forbearance 
 of the men that more wounds were not received, when the vast numbers are 
 considered with whom they came into hostile collision. " In ten minutes," 
 says Bamford, " from the commencement of the havoc, the field was an open 
 an^d almost deserted space. The sun looked down through a sultry and 
 motionless air. . . . The hustings remained, with a few broken and 
 hewed flag-staves erect, and a torn and gashed banner or two dropping ; 
 whilst over the whole field were strewed caps, bonnets, hats, shawls, and 
 shoes, and other parts of male and female dress ; trampled, torn, and bloody." ^ 
 In the evening the people assem.bled in great numbers at the end of Oldham- 
 street, using menacing language. Two companies of the 88th regiment of 
 foot and a squadron of Hussars, being stationed there as a night piquet, were 
 assaulted with stones as the darkness came on. A magistrate having read 
 the Eiot Act, about thirty shots were fired by the 88th, wounding three or 
 
 * " Passages in the Life cf a Radical," p. 207. 
 t Sir W. JoUiffe's account. J Bamford, p. 208.
 
 108 CONDEMNATORY ADDRESSES AND RESOLUTIONS. [181& 
 
 four persons. The number of those killed on this unhappy day did not 
 exceed six, of whom one was a special constable, and another one of the 
 Manchester Yeomanry, who was struck off his horse by a brick-bat. About 
 seventy persons were received in the Infirmary, suffering from sabre wounds, 
 fractures, or contusions. Many more are supposed to have returned to their 
 homes without proclaiming their injuries. 
 
 Hunt, and eight or ten of his companions, having been seized upon the 
 Imstings, were brought before the magistrates upon a charge of high treason. 
 The government having abandoned that charge, they were held to bail, or 
 detained for the want of bail, to be tried for a misdemeanour, upon the charge 
 of having conspired to alter the law by fOrce and threats. The Lord Chan- 
 cellor had urged upon the Cabinet that the persons arrested should be 
 indicted for high treason. The law officers had recommended that they 
 should be indicted for misdemeanour ; and lord Eldon asks, " "Who will be 
 bold enough to command them to institute prosecutions, such as they think 
 they can't maintain ? Without all doubt, the Manchester magistrates must 
 be supported ; but they are very generally blamed here. For my part, I 
 think if the assembly was only an unlawful assembly, that task will be diffi- 
 cult enough in sound reasoning. If the meeting was an overt act of treason, 
 their justification is complete. That it was such, and that the Birmingham 
 meeting was such, is my clear opinion."* The Manchester magistrates 
 were " supported ; " and although they were " very generally blamed here," 
 lord Sidmouth addressed letters to the lord-lieutenants of Lancashire and 
 Cheshire, expressing, upon the special authority of the Prince Eegent, " the 
 great satisfaction derived by his Eoyal Highness from their prompt, decisive, 
 and efficient measures for the preservation of the public tranquillity." 
 
 However great might have been the satisfaction of the Prince Eegent at 
 " the conduct of the magistrates and civil authorities of Manchester, as well 
 as of the officers and troops, both regular and yeomanry cavalry," f there 
 was a very widely spread feeling of indignation, both against magistrates 
 and military, in every part of the kingdom. Strong resolutions and addresses 
 were adopted in public meetings of boroughs, and cities, and counties, little 
 heeding a rough reply which the Prince Eegent made to the Address of the 
 Common Council of the City of London at the beginning of September. 
 In populous counties and in moderate sized towns the excitement was equally 
 great. Twenty thousand persons assembled at a county meeting at York, 
 called by the high sheriff upon the requisition of many influential freeholders. 
 Amongst these requisitionists was earl Pitzwilliam, who, for this offence, was 
 summarily dismissed from his office of lord-lieutenant of the "West Eiding. 
 In the south as well as in the north, the excitement was equally great. In 
 the town-hall of Eeading we ourselves heard an harangue of remarkable 
 eloquence from a young native of that town ; and when he exclaimed, 
 
 ' ' We must be free, or die, who speak tlie tongue 
 That Shakspere spake," 
 
 a shout went up from his fellow-townsmen that he must have well remembered 
 in the merited success of his after life. That young man was Thomas Noon 
 Talfourd. 
 
 * " Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. pp. 338, 339. 
 t Letter of Sir B. BloomfielJ to Lord Sidmouth.
 
 1819.] PARLIAMENT CALLED TOQETHER-THE SIX ACTS. 109 
 
 The government alarmists of that period were in a condition of almost 
 helpless terror. Eldon described the people of this country as divisible into 
 two classes, — the one class insane, who manifested their insanity in perfect 
 apathy, eating and drinking, as if there was no danger of political death, yea, 
 even to-morrow ; contrasted with the other class, in which he included the 
 Cokes and Bedfords, who hallooed on an infuriate multitude to acts of 
 desperation. " The country," said the Chancellor, "must make new laws to 
 meet this state of things, or we must make a shocking choice between 
 military government and anarchy." * Parliament was called together, with the 
 very unwilling assent of lord Liverpool, to make these new laws, which were 
 known as the Six Acts. They were Acts to prevent delay in the adminis- 
 tration of justice in cases of misdemeanour ; to prevent the training of persons 
 m the practice of military evolutions ; to authorize justices of the peace to 
 seize and detain arms ; to more effectually prevent seditious meetings and 
 assemblies. These four had especial reference to the disturbed districts, 
 though they applied to the whole kingdom. The two other Acts were for 
 the prevention and punishment of blasphemous and seditious libel, and to 
 subject certain publications to the duties of stamps upon newspapers. These 
 measures were eventually passed, although resisted at every stage. The 
 Houses adjourned on the 29th of December. Lord Campbell describes " the 
 unconstitutional Code called the Six Acts," as " the latest violation of our 
 free Constitution." The old spirit of liberty would appear to have departed 
 from England when public meetings could not be held without the licence of 
 magistrates ; when private houses might be searched for arms ; and when a 
 person convicted a second time for publishing a libel might be transported 
 beyond the seas. And yet the measures of ministers hardly came up to the 
 expectation of the ultra-Tories of that day. The temper of some who 
 belonged to the parliamentary majority may be estimated from the tone 
 of two letters addressed to lord Colchester. Mr. Bankes highly approved of 
 the measure for compelling printers to enter into recognizances, and for 
 banishing for an indefinite term of years for a second offence for libel. 
 " My only doubt is whether we have gone far enough in our endeavour to 
 restrain and correct the licentiousness and abuse of the press ; it is a 
 tremendous engine in the hands of mischievous men, of which the crop never 
 fails ; and the universal rage for spreading education among the poor rendera 
 them more exposed to ill impressions, through that medium, than they were 
 in our younger days." f Lord Eedesdale is for root-and-branch work that 
 would have been worthy of the Prench reign of terror : " There is a very bad 
 spirit abroad, but I think it will be kept under. I doubt whether it would not 
 have been fortunate for the country if half Manchester had been burned, and 
 Glasgow had endured a little singeing. "We shall again only scotch the 
 snake, not kill it. So we did in 1794. I would have permitted the National 
 Convention at that time to have met, but the ministers did not dare to hazard 
 the consequences. Actual rebellion is generally subdued. Smothered rebel- 
 lion lurks long under the ashes." J Moderate Whigs, such as Sydney 
 Smith, thought that with an administration determined to concede nothing, 
 
 * " Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. p. 340, 
 
 t "Diary of Lord Colchester," voJ iii. p. 104. + Ibid., p. 107.
 
 no DEATH OF THE DUKE OF KENT— DEATH OF GEORGE III. [1819 
 
 there would be a'struggle which would end, not in democracy, but in despotism, 
 " In which of these two evils it terminates, is of no more consequence thau 
 from which tube of a double-barrelled pistol I meet my destruction." * 
 
 Parliament had adjourned to the 15th of February, 1820. An event, not 
 unexpected at any time during the last year or two, called the Houses 
 together at an earlier period. George the Third died at Windsor Castle on 
 the evening of the 29th of January. Six days before the death of the king, 
 his fourth son, the duke of Kent, expired at Weymouth. This was a sudden 
 event. The father had for nine years been secluded from the world, a suiferer 
 under the most fearful of human infirmities. He lived on to his eighty- 
 second year. The son, of robust constitution, had braved, in his habit of 
 regular exercise, the pelting rain of a wintry morning ; on his return from 
 his walk, had remained in his wet boots ; was attacked by feverish 
 symptoms, and died in three days. The duke of Kent's infant daughter was 
 then eight months old. The prince of Wales and the duke of York had no 
 child to succeed. To the duke of Clarence had been born a daughter on the 
 27th of March, but the infant had died on the day of its birth. It seemed 
 probable that Alexandrina Victoria might wear the crown ; and on this 
 probability those who knew the admirable qualities of the duchess of Kent 
 felt hopeful and confident that the nurture of the royal child would fit her 
 for her high destiny. 
 
 The last night of the Eegency passed into the first morning of the reign 
 of George the Fourth, as an event that would be scarcely marked as an 
 epoch in English history. With one exception, that of the position of the 
 Queen, it would be productive of no political vicissitudes ; it would excite no 
 hopes and no fears in the public mind. After a formal meeting, there would 
 be a new parliament ; and the statutes of the existing parliament would have 
 a new title-page. Few then living would remember the very difierent feel- 
 ings with which the transition from George the Second to George the Third 
 was regarded. But the young as well as the old would be impressed with 
 the fact that there had been only one king of Great Britain and Ireland 
 during sixty years. Tlie slightest historical knowledge would attest that 
 these sixty years would be for ever memorable as an era of vast change and 
 tremendous struggle, in which all that constituted the greatness and glory 
 of our country might have been overwhelmed if the nation had not been 
 heart-whole. The old king who was gone had plunged the country into 
 difficulty and danger by his unyielding will at one period ; but he had well 
 sustained the national spirit by the same quality of mind during another 
 crisis of greater peril. He had passed away, and his people looked back 
 with reverence upon hia private virtues, and were willing to forget hia 
 kingly faults. 
 
 * "Memoir of Syduey SiaitL," p. 185,
 
 Abbotaford. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 English Literature in the three latter decades of the reign of Greorge III. — The Poets : Cowper — 
 Crabbe — Burns — Darwin — Wordsworth — Southey — Coleridge — Scott — Byron — Shelley — 
 Keats — Narrative character of Poetry — Campbell — Rogers — Leigh Hunt — Moore — 
 Crabbe's latter delineations of manners — More evangelical spirit in the body of the people 
 — Theological Literature — Writers for the Stage — The Novelists — Godwin — Holcroft — 
 Dr. Moore — Bumey — Scott; the Waverley Novels — The Edinburgh Review — The 
 Quarterly Review — Blackwood's Magazine — Essayists — Wilson — Lamb — Hazlitt — Leigh 
 Hunt — De QuLncey — Political Economists — Scientific Discovery — Herschel — Davy — Dalton 
 — WoUaston — Travellers — Two great mechanical inventions of the Steam-boat and the 
 Printing Machine — Chronological Table of British Writers. 
 
 The termination of a reign, even under tlie circumstances which rendered 
 the change of sovereignty from George the Ttiird to George the Fourth merely 
 ilominal, nevertheless offers a fit resting place, at which we may pause in the 
 narrative of public events, and look back upon matters which belong as 
 essentially to the life of a people as their political condition. 
 
 The great outburst of the French Revolution has always been associated 
 with the Literature which preceded it. This Literature, like that of every 
 other period in which Literature has a marked distinctive character, was the 
 reflection of the thoughts that were seething in the minds of men. It took 
 the form of a fanatical and intolerant irreligion. It gave expression to the 
 belief that existing principles and forms of government were ill-adapted to 
 promote the welfare of the governed, and that worn-out institutions must be 
 replaced by others endowed with a new vitality. The whole spirit of political 
 opposition excited by the corruption of the government, not being able to
 
 112 ENGLISH LITERATURE. [1784-1820. 
 
 find a vent in public affairs, had taken refuge in Literature. As irreligion in 
 Prance had become a general passion, the writers, one and all, stimulated the 
 prevailiug unbelief in Christianity, under the false conviction that political 
 society and religious society were regulated by analogous laws.* The revolu- 
 tionary doctrines thus propagated by the most subtle and the most eloquent 
 of writers very largely influenced, if they did not produce, the great convul- 
 sion upon which Europe looked with fear and wonder. 
 
 The religious liberty of Protestantism, and the political liberty of represen- 
 tative government, however impaired and inefficient, as many held, whilst 
 they permitted the extremest difierences of opinion, saved England from the 
 excesses which saw no remedy for the canker of institutions but the destruc- 
 tion of the institutions themselves. English Literature, reflecting the general 
 public opinion, received but a very feeble infusion of the destructive force 
 that had rent the Erench people and the Erench Church and State asunder. 
 Yet such an upheaving of the whole crust of society ; such an armed contest 
 as succeeded between republican licence and monarchical despotism ; such a 
 ,var into which we were plunged, finally to become a struggle for national 
 existence, producing a real heroic time, and stirring up depths of thought 
 which had been stagnant during a long period of tranquillity, or of mere party 
 agitation, — these circumstances, unprecedented in their conjunction, had a 
 manifest efiect upon our Literature. 
 
 " Oh, not alone when life flows still do truth 
 And power emerge."+ 
 
 A new power and a wider truth were especially marked in the highest 
 expression of ideas, that of Poetry. This outpouring of verse constitutes, in 
 itself, a literary era as remarkable as that of the age of Elizabeth. During 
 the latter three of the six decades of the reign of G-eorge the Third, there 
 had been also a vast increase of the number of readers in our country, with 
 a correspondent extension of periodical writing — that form of literature which 
 is the surest indication of a larger public to be addressed. If we adequately 
 bear in mind the expansion of thought that was coincident with the great 
 events of this remarkable period, and trace also the rapid growth of an 
 influential body of readers beyond the narrow circles of the learned and the 
 fashionable, to whom nearly all writers had addressed themselves in the first 
 three decades of this reign, we may find two links by which to connect the 
 rapid and imperfect notices which we now propose to offer, without any 
 attempt at minute criticism, of what is generically termed The Press. 
 
 About the time when Samuel Johnson died, J there appeared a writer who 
 suddenly emerged from a provincial life of sickness and seclusion, after having 
 passed his fiftieth year, to become " the most popular poet of his genera- 
 tion." § William Cowper was the precursor of the poetical school that 
 sprang up amidst the excitement of the Erench Revolution. He had many 
 distinctive qualities essentially different from the leaders of that school. Ho 
 
 * See De Tocqueville, " Society in France before the Revolution," chap. xiv. 
 
 t Browning — "Paracelsus,"!. 
 
 t See Ante, vol. vii. chap. v. 
 
 § Southey, Life of Cowper in Collected Works, chap, i.
 
 1784-1820.] THE POETS— COWPER. 113 
 
 was unfamiliar -with German modes of thought, and German models of com- 
 position. With the exception of one humorous poem, his writings did not 
 assume the narrative form, which was so marked a characteristic of the next 
 reriod. His first volume, publislied in 1784, contained the didactic poema, 
 which may almost be termed satires, of Table Talk, The Progress of Error, 
 Truth, Expostulation, Hope, Charity, Conversation, Eetirement. Cowper'a 
 poetical talents were known to liis intimate friends, and he had previously 
 published the Olney Hymns. But when jMrs. TJnwin urged upon him, as an 
 employment that might divert him from thoughts under which his mental 
 powers too often broke down, to produce a work of magnitude, she little ex- 
 pected that some six thousand lines would have been written in a time scarcely 
 exceeding three months. The peculiar character of this first volume was 
 scarcely calculated to win for it a sudden popularity. It was not till after 
 the publication of his second volume, in 1785, containing Tbe Task, that the 
 Etrong sense, the high morality, the earnest piety, the love of nature, the 
 depth of the home afifections, which characterize these poems, began to be 
 fully recognized and duly appreciated. The conventionalities of most of the 
 poets who had preceded Cowper were to be cast aside and forgotten in this 
 manifestation of the power of earnestness and simplicity. The popularity 
 which, with some persons, must have been at first retarded by the stroug 
 religious feeling of these poems, was ultimately increased, in what has been 
 denominated " the great religious movement of the end of the last century." 
 Cowper died in 1800 ; but as a painter of manners he represents the 
 fashions and classes before the Ereuch Eevolution. Some of the satire 
 belongs to no especial generation. The waste of time in cards and dice ; the 
 rank debauch, which suits Clodio's filthy taste, who can " drink five bottles, 
 and bilk the score" — Gorgouius the glutton, "abdominous and wan" — these 
 are general portraits. The novelists 
 
 *' "Whose corresponding misses filled the ream 
 - With sentimental frippery and dream,"' 
 
 will possibly never be extinct. The petit raaitre parson in Cowper's admirable 
 portraiture is a successor of the gro<s Trulliber of a former age. Eielding 
 probably never saw the preacher who brings forth the pocket mirror in the 
 pulpit, or with opera-glass watches the slow retiring fair. He might have 
 seen the court chaplain 
 
 / " Frequent in Park, with lady at Lis side." 
 
 But the churchmen generally of his time were marked by the slovenly neglect 
 and rustic coarseness, whicli Cowper preferred to the afi"ectation of the clerical 
 coxcomb of his satire. The political profligacy of those times was nevermore 
 strongly painted than in the picture of the country gentleman, who, having 
 expended his wealth in gaming or building, burns to serve his country, and 
 receives the price of his vote from ministerial grace or private patronage. The 
 venal senator, and the remorseless highwayman, each belong to those good old 
 times : — 
 
 " Oh, innocent ! compared with arts like these. 
 Crape and cock'd instol, and the whistling bitil 
 Sent through the traveller's temples !" 
 VOL. Till.— 232.
 
 lU THE POETS— CRABBE. [17S4-1320 
 
 In those days public corruptiou and private immorality filled the thinking 
 with apprehension: — 
 
 " 'Tis therefore, sober and good men are sad 
 For England's glory, seeing it wax pale 
 And sickly, while her champions wear their hearts 
 So loose to private duty, that no brain 
 Healthful and undisturb'd by factious fumes, 
 Can dream them trusty to the general weal." 
 
 Cowper believed that the public men of his time had grown degenerate — " tli? 
 age of virtuous politics is past." 
 
 In such a brief view of literary progress as we are now attempting to 
 give, it appears to us important to divide our subject into two periods of very 
 moderate extent. In his great work on the Literature of Europe, Mr. Hallatn 
 gives the leading writers in various periods of half a century each. Although 
 such a division has the apparent inconvenience of making a somewhat too 
 distinct line of separation in the works of the same author (as in the case of 
 Shakespere, who wrote at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of 
 the 17th), it is far more satisfactory than the plan pursued by an eminent 
 historian of our own time. It is somewhat embarrassing to our chronolo- 
 gical notions when we find Eogers and Tennyson in the same chapter of 
 poets, Sharon Turner and Macaulay of historians, and Miss Edge worth and 
 Thackeray, of novelists.* The convenience, if not the necessity, of adopting 
 more manageable eras, and even of dividing in some cases the productions of 
 one man into two eras, may be estimated by reference to the cases of Rogers 
 and Crabbe. The author of the " Pleasures of -Memory " published 
 his " Ode to Superstition, and other Poems," in 1786. Crabbe's early 
 poems, " The Library," " The Village," and " The Newspaper," appeared 
 from 1781 to 1784. The "Italy" of Rogers did not appear till 1822; 
 Crabbe's "Tales of the Hall" appeared in 1819. In their early career, 
 Rogers and Crabbe belonged to the generation of Cowper and Burns ; in 
 their latter period they belonged to the same age as Byron and Moore. 
 
 Crabbe, more than any other poet of either of the periods to which he 
 belongs, is a painter of manners. It has been observed by a critic of no 
 common order, that " with all its originality, the poetical genius of Crabbe 
 was acted upon and changed by the growth of new tastes and a new spirit in 
 
 the times through which he lived As he lived, indeed, in two 
 
 eras, so he wrote in two styles."t His early poems, which are essentially 
 didactic, contain little of the poetical element which is to be found in the 
 strong and impassioned narrative of his later years. "The Library" and 
 " The Newspaper " necessarily deal with the subjects of our own present 
 •chapter. 
 
 The age of great books was gone, — the age when an author wrote his 
 one folio, bepraised by poetic friends ; when the ponderous gift was accepted 
 by princes ; and when 
 
 " Ladies read the work they could not lift." 
 
 The age of abstracts, and abridgments, and pamphlets was come, — the age of 
 
 * So in Alison, "Europe from the Fall of Napoleon," vol. i. chap. 5. 
 
 t " History of English Literature," by George L. Craik, LL.D., 1861, vcL ii. p. 4£5.
 
 1784-1820.] THE POETS— CRABBE. 115 
 
 *' a folio number once a week," la " The Library" the " Ancient worthies 
 of Eoraance " are in disgrace ; the giants, the knights and the magicians 
 are gone. The Poet accurately describes the quality of the fiction which had 
 succeeded to the " brood of old Romance." The novels of the Sentimental 
 School were in fashion, as well as the Sentimental Comedy. These mawkish 
 productions were "stories of repentant rakes wooing humble nymphs ;" or of 
 " virtue going to midnight masquerade on purpose to be tried ; " or, the let- 
 ters of the tender Delia to the sympathizing Lucinda. Crabbe's novel-reading 
 experience is also given aa a reminiscence of his later period. " Wanderings 
 of the Heart;" " Confessions of a Nun; " "Tales of Winters, Summers, 
 Springs, at Bath and Brighton," in which " all was love and flight to Gretna 
 Green ; " these were the staple of the Circulating Libraries, then recently 
 called into existence. 
 
 " The Newspaper " describes that great province of the realms of print as 
 it existed four or five yfears before the Prench Eevolution. At the date of 
 Crabbe's poem, there were seventy-nine newspapers published in Great 
 Britain and Ireland. Seven years before, there were seventeen in London, 
 of which seven were daily, and one of once a week. The name of Sunday 
 paper was eschewed till " Johnson's Sunday Monitor " appeared, which 
 Crabbe not unjustly satirizes for "the moral essays on his front, and carnal 
 business in the rear." Flourishing with morning papers and evening papers, 
 there were papers of thrice a week and twice a week. Crabbe gives the titles 
 of some members of the literature which he holds in contempt as " those 
 vapid sheet?," — Ledgers, Chronicles, Posts, Heralds. One paper, which 
 appeared a year after his poem, " The Daily Universal Begister," is remarkable 
 as having been printed and published by John Walter, Printing House 
 Square. The name of that journal, in 1788, was changed to " The Times." 
 Crabbe had no taste for newspapers. In their politics they were " fickle and 
 false ; " they were " the poisoned springs from learning's fountain ; " " blind 
 guides," "anonymous slanderers." The newspaper editors were "mutual 
 tliieves from each brother's hoard ; " "what you read in one you read through 
 all." 
 
 " Their runners ramble day and night, 
 To drag each lurking deed to open light ; 
 For daily bread the dirty trade they ply, 
 Coin their fresh tales, and live upon the lie." 
 
 Some of this satire was no doubt poetical exaggeration ; but at that period 
 newspapers had no high character to sustain. The government dreaded and 
 despised them ; they were in perpetual conflict with the Parliament about 
 privilege ; their contributors were ill-paid ; their proprietors and editors had 
 little social respect. How great has been the change ! It was during tho 
 war that newspapers, such as the Morning Chronicle, became valuable pro- 
 perties. James Perry, the proprietor of that paper, was originally a reporter 
 at a guinea a-week. A payment of this amount for his weekly services was 
 refused by one whose presumption was thus described by one of the most 
 energetic of the newspaper producers : — " We hear much of purse-proud 
 insolence, but poets can sometimes be insolent on the conscious power 
 of talent, as well as vulgar upstarts can be on the conscious power of purse. 
 . . . . It woidd surely have been a more honourable employment thau
 
 AG THE POETS— BURNS. [17841820. 
 
 that of an excise-gaup^er." "We turn from the "base ephemera" of past 
 journalism to Robert Burns " the excise-ganger," the greatest name in that 
 era of our literature that immediately preceded the Trench Revolution. 
 
 Erom the first publication in 1786 of a volume of Poems, chiefly in the 
 Scottish dialect, by Robert Burns, which was printed in the town of 
 Kilmarnock, Scotland felt that a great spirit had arisen to shed a new 
 lustre on the popular language and literature. The immediate and wide- 
 spreading reputation of Burns was produced by something much higher than 
 the wonderment that an unlettered ploughman should have been able U> 
 produce verses not only of such commanding strength, but of such unlaboured 
 refinement. The Scottish dialect which, to a certain extent, was almost 
 obsolete for the purposes of literature, became, in the hands of this peasant, 
 the vehicle of thoughts and descriptions which, whether impassioned or 
 humorous, tender or satirical, received a new charm from the simplicity of 
 the language whose ordinary use Mas vidgarized by the illiterate. Burns had 
 not the creative power of the highest order of poets ; but in describing his 
 own emotions with a warmth equal to the energy with which he plunged into 
 his loves or friendships ; in delineating with the frankest unreserve the errors 
 from which his manly sense and his natural veneration for what is of good 
 report could not preserve him ; in painting with the most admirable truth 
 the appearances of nature or the social characteristics which presented them- 
 selves to his observation, — few poets have approached him. In his occasional 
 impurities of thought and diction, which were the outbreak of a reckless 
 levity, we always see a noble nature beneath the display of the wildest 
 licence. The mode in which Burns " vxnlocked his heart" has nothing in it 
 of that inordinate self-love which exhibits itself in touches of glaring vanity 
 or affected modesty, each intended to challenge admiration. In his manly 
 pride there is no peevish misanthropy. In his violations of decorum tliere 
 is no desire to make proselytes to immorality. The egotism of Burns may 
 be compared with the egotism of the most popular English poet of the suc- 
 ceeding generation. In the morbid introspection and the capricious hatreds 
 of him who " woke one morning and found himself fsamous," we look in vain 
 for the innate nobleness of character of the rustic, who, having gone from his 
 plough to become the spoiled child of Edinburgh society, fell afterwards into 
 habits of intemperance, and yet, in the grossest errors of his life, never 
 exhibited a mean spirit. What Burns produced under all the disadvantages 
 of imperfect education, of continuous labour, of uncongenial employment, of 
 corrupting society, made him emphatically the national poet of Scotland in 
 the twelve years which were allotted to his life after his first publication. 
 It has been affirmed — and we are not disposed to question the truth of the 
 opinion — that the influence of Burns upon the popular mind of Scotland 
 " has been all for good, enlarging, elevating, and refining the national heart, 
 as Avell as awakening it. The tendency of some things, both in the character 
 of the people and their peculiar institutions, required such a check or 
 counteraction as was supplied by tliis frank, generous, reckless poetry." * 
 
 AVhdtit Scotland is producin;!; lier Burns, whose inspiration was the 
 bracing air of his own rivers and hills, and whose imagery was derived from tho 
 
 • Oraik "Eii^lisli Literature," vol. il. p. 421.
 
 1784-1820.] THE POETS— DARWIN. 117 
 
 living or inanimate nature around him, England lias her Darwin, who deemed 
 it the office of a poet to penetrate beneath the surface of natural appearances; 
 and to exhibit the mysteries of physiolou'y in sonorous rhyme. The physician 
 of Derby is almost forgotten. " The Loves of the Plants" are less popularly 
 known than Canning's imitation, " The Loves of the Triangles." The attempt 
 of Darwin to marry Science to Poetry was the mistake of a man of real talent 
 and knowledge. The material spirit of his age pressed heavily upon him. 
 The applications of scientific discovery to the great works of industry filled his 
 fancy with incongruous imagery. He saw in Physics a world of grandeur 
 and beauty not yet appropriated by Imagination ; and he contrived that 
 unnatural alliance of Fact and Fiction which, however admired in bis own 
 day, has made his analogies and similes now appear simply ludicrous. The 
 fantastic machinery by which be attempts to connect the laws of vegetable 
 and animal life, and the operations of art, with the presence of invisible 
 beings, is to make the sylphs, which hovered round Pope's Belinda in their 
 tricksy beauty, very poor substitutes, in Darwin's hard unrealities, for human 
 intercuts. Poetry has better materials to work upon, even in the mortal 
 toilers by the side of the steam-engine, than the " Nymphs," who " in 
 simmering cauldrons played." Darwin is poetical when he becomes prophetic : 
 
 *' Soon shall tby arm, unconquered Steam, afar 
 Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car." 
 
 The prophecy is accomplished. But steam has another work to do : 
 
 " Or, on wide waving wings expanded bear 
 Tlie flying chariot through the iieUs of air." 
 
 The specific levity of air, he explains, being too great for the support of 
 great burdens by balloons, " there seems no probable method of fiying con- 
 veniently, but by the powers of steam, or some other explosive material, 
 which another half-century may probably discover." The aerial journey in 
 the steam-car is to be not only safe but joyous ; there will probably be an 
 intended emigration to the moon, when 
 
 " Fair crews triumphant, leaning from above, 
 Shall wave their fluttering kerchiefs as they move." 
 
 A poetical revolution was at hand. A little before the beginning of the 
 convulsions of Prance, and during the first year or two of the war, there was 
 a swarm of gaudy insects fluttering in the sunshine of fashion, whose painted 
 wings, bearing them from flower to flower, were more admired than the 
 *' ample pinion" of the true Poet. This school, called Delia Cruscan, origi- 
 nated with an English coterie at Florence. The sonnets, canzonets, elegies, 
 epigrams, epistles of the Anna Matildas, Laura-Marias, Orlandos, Cesarioa, 
 were long poured out unceasingly. William Giff"ord, who destroyed the tribe 
 by his "Baviad" and his " Maeviad," says "the epidemic malady was 
 spreading from fool to fool ; " and " from one end of the kingdom to another 
 all was nonsense and Delia Crusca." Giflford not improperly lauds the work 
 which he had done in clearing the gardens of the Hesperides from this deadly 
 blight. " Pope and Milton resumed their superiority." He might have added 
 that he did something to make room for another school, — for Wordsworth, 
 Coleridge, and Southyv hi spite of the " This will never do " of the great
 
 118 THE POETS— WORDSWORTH— SOUTHEY— COLERIDGE. [1784-1820. 
 
 northern critic, the Lake School, so called, which this illustrious trio founded, 
 has survived, and will survive. 
 
 If the estimates of writers hy their contemporaries are not always true, 
 they are at least curious as illustrations of the prevailing taste. In 1809 there 
 appeared a satire, by an anonymous author, entitled " English Bards and 
 Scotch Reviewers. " Some of this early production of Lord Byron is personal 
 spite, and much is false criticism. In after years he suppressed the poem, 
 having moderated his anger and matured his judgment. Yet, if the poetical 
 critic had not, to some extent, reflected the popular opinion, he would not 
 have described "the simple Wordsworth," 
 
 "Who, both by precept and example, shows 
 That prose is verse, and verse is merely prose ;" 
 
 nor characterized " gentle Coleridge " 
 
 ' ' To turgid ode and tumid stanza dear." 
 
 Southey comes off better : 
 
 " Let Southey sing, although his teeming muse, 
 Prolific every spring, be too profuse." 
 
 It may be consolatory to neglected poets to know, that the two greatest of 
 the Lake Poets have won their freshest laurels from a generation that suc- 
 ceeded the doubters and scoffers of their early period. It was not merely the 
 dull and the acrimonious who spoke slightingly of Wordsworth and Coleridge, 
 even as recently as 1811. Leigh Hunt, in most cases a generous critic, in his 
 "Peastof the Poets" makes Apollo look pleased upon "Bob Southey;" 
 but Apollo "turned without even a look " for the " three or four others " 
 who had entered with him : 
 
 *' For Coleridge had vexed him long since, I suppose, 
 By his idling, and gabbling, and muddling in prose ; 
 And as to that Wordsworth ! he'd been so benurst, 
 Second childhood with him had come close on the first."* 
 
 Apollo having cried, " Laurels for four," the honoured guests of the God are 
 Campbell, Southey, Scott, and Moore. Crabbe is to be recreated " down- 
 stairs :" 
 
 " And let him have part of what goes from the table." 
 
 Wordsworth had appeared as a writer of verse in 1793. The first volume of 
 the "Lyrical Ballads" was published in 1798. In the second volume, published 
 in 1800, he was associated with Coleridge. Of "Joan of Arc," the first poem 
 which Southey gave to the world, in 1796, a portion was contributed by Cole- 
 ridge. The relative value of the three friends, as poets, has been somewhat 
 differently adjudged in the present time from the early estimate of their peculiar 
 powers. Southey, the most voluminous, is now little read, and has certainly 
 not produced an enduring influence upon our poetical literature. Coleridge, 
 who, of the trio, has written the smaller amount of verse, is generally held to be 
 the most exquisite artist, although least fitted to be popular. Wordsworth — 
 described by llazlitt as the most original poet living ; but one whose writings 
 were not read by the vulgar, not understood by the learned, despised by the 
 
 • We fjuote from the first edition of this clever poem, published in " The Reflector."
 
 1784-1820.] THE POETS-SCOTT. 119 
 
 greati'and ridiculed by the fashionable — lived to see his writings universally 
 read by learned, great, fashionable, and even " the vulgar." His power was 
 slowly won, but it was enduring ; for he looked beyond the classes that were 
 once deemed to be alone sufficiently elevated for the purposes of didactic 
 or descriptive verse. The great objection to his writings was, " the wilfulness 
 with which he persists in choosing his examples of intellectual dignity and 
 tenderness exclusively from the lowest ranks of society." The Edinburgh 
 Eeviewer wanted Mr. Wordsworth, " instead of confining himself almost en- 
 tirely to the society of the dale-men, and cottagers, and little children, who 
 form the subjects of his book, to condescend to mingle a little more with the 
 people who were to read and judge of it."* The poet had his reward in the 
 fact that the exceptional class of the lower ranks became his readers and 
 admirers. He survived till the era of diffused education. 
 
 It was the complaint of the author of " English Bards," that a new reading 
 public had arisen to buy books according to their own tastes. 
 
 " Each country book-club bows the knee to BaaL 
 And, hurling lawful genius from the throne. 
 Erects a shrine and idol of its own," 
 
 It was a grievance, that out of this new demand authors were to be paid at 
 a rate far beyond that of the exclusive periods of the commerce of literature. 
 Eor this was Byron indignant in his days of innocence, when he could spurn 
 Scott as "Apollo's venal son," deeming it a sin against the dignity of verse 
 that the booksellers had agreed to pay for " Marmion " at the rate of " half- 
 a-crown a line." In a year or two Byron was as greedy a worshipper of " stern 
 Mammon" as any "hireling bard." The Circulating Library and the Book 
 Club had, to some extent, superseded the comparatively small number of 
 private book-buyers. To this more numerous body of readers did the pub- 
 lishers of " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," of " Marmion," of " The Lady of 
 the Lake," and of Scott's other romances in verse, address themselves, when 
 they reprinted his inconveniently splendid and dear quartos in more modest 
 and cheaper octavos. " The Lay of the Last Minstrel " was published in 1805, 
 and " Marmion " in 1808. Byron designated these poems as " stale romance." 
 "With them commenced the new era of narrative poetry, wliich has almost 
 wholly superseded the merely didactic and descriptive orders of verse, and 
 which is not incompatible with the most refined and most subtle reve- 
 lations of poetical feeling. Never was a greater mistake than the designation 
 ^of Scott's narrative poems as " sto^e romance." He had the most ample 
 knowledge of all the romances of chivalry, and especially of the legendary 
 lore of his native land. His critical devotion to this most seductive of the 
 pursuits of antiquarianism was exhibited in his " Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
 Border," originally published in 1802 and 1803. The young Edinburgh 
 Advocate had previously cultivated an acquaintance with the Literature of 
 Germany, of which new well of thought and diction other poets were 
 drinking so freely. But he saw at home a waste ground of imagination 
 ready for his profitable culture. The quaint and sometimes tedious sim- 
 plicity of the old romance was to be superseded by a rush of easy and glowing 
 narrative which the imperfectly cultivated mind could enjoy ; and of Avhich 
 
 * Jeffrey's " Essajs," vol. ii. p. 505.
 
 120 THE POETS— BYRON. [1784-1820. 
 
 the critical faculty could scarcely deny the charm, however it might sueer at 
 mountain spirits and river sprites, the goblin page and the wizard's grave. 
 There are two critical notices of Scott's Poems, reprinted in juxta-position 
 by their accomplished author, which sufficiently indicate the triumplis which 
 Scott had achieved in a few years. That on " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," 
 written in 1805, concludes thus : " The locality of the subject is liliely to 
 obstruct its popularity ; and the author, by confining himself in a great 
 measure to the description of manners and personal adventures, has forfeited 
 the attraction which might have been derived from the delineation of rural 
 scenery." * The critique on " The Lady of the Lake," written in 1810, 
 opens thus : " Mr, Scott, though living in an age remarkably prolific of 
 Driginal poetry, has manifestly outstripped all his competitors in the race of 
 popularity, and stands already upon a height to which no other writer has 
 attained in the memory of any one now alive." f 
 
 The popularity of Walter Scott as a narrative poet was equalled, if not 
 exceeded, by that of lord Bjron, when he reluctantly turned from satire and 
 the comparatively tame Cantos I. and II. of " Childe Harold," to write verse 
 Romances, of which the scenes were Oriental, and the heroes "were modelled 
 from his own likeness. Byron was almost universally held as the first of 
 liviug poets. There were some, it is true, who doubted the reasonableness of 
 the universal homage ; some who ascribed his extraordinary fame to causes 
 of a more temporary and artificial nature than tlie power of bis genius ; who 
 thought that the multiplication of his own portrait was no indication of a 
 real knowledge of the human heart ; who upheld the faith that a truly 
 great poet could not be impressed with the grandeur and beauty of the 
 external world without an abiding sense of the Creator's presence, nor could 
 survey mankind in the spirit of an insane contempt of his country, and 
 of malignant hatred of classes and individuals amongst whom he had 
 lived. In the poem which, considered in a merely literary point of view, is 
 his greatest production, " Don Juan" is the intensification of the sensual 
 attributes of the poet's own character, dressed up with marvellous ability for 
 no other end than to dazzle and corrupt. A higher taste, and a more pre- 
 valent sense of decency, has done more to consign this poem to partial 
 neglect than Lord Eldon's refusal to give it the protection of the law of 
 copyright. One of the most popular of our living novelists has depicted 
 an East Indian officer, who, having returned, after long absence to his 
 native country, quite unfamiliar with the more recent judgments of English 
 society on matters of literature, is scandalized at the critical opinions of his 
 son's friends — opinions which were not of Colonel Newcome's time. What! 
 Lord Byron not one of the greatest poets of the world ! Sir Walter a poet 
 of the second order ! That reverence for Mr. Wordsworth, what did it 
 mean ? Mr. Keats, and the young Mr. Tennyson of Cambridge, the chief of 
 modern poets! Sucli were the mutations of opinion between the last jeara 
 of King George III. and the first years of Queen Victoria. 
 
 Whilst Byron was in the full blaze of his reputation, and Wordsworth 
 was slowly establit-hing an enduring influence upon the popular mind, two 
 ycung poets appeared, who, for a time, had to endure as much obloquy and 
 
 • Jeffrey's "EKsays," vol. ii. p. 236. t Hid., p. 237.
 
 1784-1820.] THE POETS— SHELLEY— KEATS— NARRATIVE POEMS. 121 
 
 neglect as ordinarily falls to the lot of intrusive mediocrity. In 1812, at tba 
 age of twenty, Shelley printed his " Queen Mab." In 1821, he was drowned 
 in the Mediterranean. In these ten years of a feverish and often unhappy 
 existence, he produced a body of poetry " remarkable for its quantity, but 
 much more wonderful for the quality of the greater part of it." * Pew 
 were his contemporary admirers. He was denounced and dreaded. At war 
 with many of the institutions of society ; an unbeliever in Christianity, but 
 with a vague belief of an over-ruling power, and of the soul's immortality; 
 his rash opinions, confirmed by something like persecution ; it was reserved 
 for another age to understand the rare qualities of his genius. Shelley has 
 been called " the poet of poets." His highest excellences are scarcely 
 capable of rousing enthusiasm in ordinary readers, now that he is read. 
 Keats published two volumes of Poems in 1817 ; his third volume appeared 
 a few months before his death in 1821. The inspiration of Keats, like that 
 of Shelley, was fitted to attract fervent votaries, but only amongst a com- 
 paratively small class — those " of imagination all compact." The narrative 
 facility of Scott, the splendid declamation of Byron, were elements of popu- 
 larity which were wanting in these masters of a subtler art. 
 
 The narrative character, by which a great portion of the verse of this 
 period had established its hold upon the popular mind, w^as now adopted by 
 writers w^hose earlier productions were more in conformity with the tastes 
 of a generation passing away. Campbell had a wider reputation than any 
 contemporary at the beginning of the century, created by his " Pleasures of 
 Hope " and his noble lyrics. In 1809, he produced " Gertrude of Wyoming." 
 Rogers appeared to revive from a sleep of twenty years, when, in ISli, he 
 published " Jaqueliue," in conjunction with the "Lara" of Byron. His 
 " Pleasures of Memory " appeared in 1792. He returned to his characteristic 
 style in the "Italy" of 1822. Leigli Hunt, whose Juvenile Poems appeared 
 in 1802, and wliose poetical faculty had been subsequently displayed in 
 graceful verse, light or serious, in 1816 took his place amongst the narrative 
 poets by his " Story of Eimini." Moore, the wittiest of satirists, the most 
 elegant of song-writers, published " Lalla Eookh " in 1817. Crabbe, — who, 
 when he published a volume of " Poems " in 1807, was hailed "with the same 
 sort of feeling that would be excited by tidings of an ancient friend, whom we 
 no longer expected to see in this world,t — in that volume reprinted "The 
 Village." His new productions, which included " The Parish Eegister," 
 were principally of a narrative character. In 1810 came " The Borough," 
 ■v(ith the same marked feature of the recent poetical school; in 1812, 
 " Tales ; " and in 1819, " Tales of the Hall." It is in these novelets in verse 
 of Crabbe that we must look for such occasional delineations of mauners as 
 have made the prose novels of Fielding and Smollett most valuable studies of 
 the times in which they flourished. The life of the country town and its 
 neighbourhood, half a century ago, has coarser and liarder features than 
 wotild now offer themselves, even in the least refined classes. The sea-going 
 population of the " Borough " are " a bold, artful, surly, savage race," — 
 Bmugglers, wreckers, bribed electors. They dwell where there are dung. 
 
 • Craik, "English Literature," vol. ii. p. 496, 
 t "Ediji. Review," April, 1808.
 
 122 CRABBE'S LATTER DELINEATION OF MANNERS, [1784-1820. 
 
 heaps before every door, iu the " infected row we term our street." There 
 " riots are nightly heard." "Within their hr vels all is filth and indecency. 
 Books there are none, but ballads on the wall, abusive or obscene. Aid- 
 borough was then a watering-place, — and had a " Season." There are few of 
 its visitors now who would be content with 
 
 " The brick-floor'd parlour which the butcher lets." 
 
 The Mayor of the Borough, a prosperous fisherman, did not know in the 
 painful accumulation of wealth, that money would multiply at interest. He 
 was not alone in his ignorance. The race of hoarders was common in every 
 district at the beginning of the century. The neighbouring Squire comes 
 once a month to the " Free and Easy Club," to be the hero of the night. 
 The rector, doctor, and attorney meet, in pleasant conviviality, to talk over 
 parish affairs and politics, — election zeal, and 
 
 "The murmuring poor who will not fast in peace." 
 
 In such meetings there was ever a dictator, — a " Justice Bolt," — whose 
 passion was that of " teaching " 
 
 "Those who instruction needed not, or sought ;" 
 
 — -in more recent times a malady most incident to Scots. The attorney 
 then thought that he could best thrive in encouraging litigation. The 
 apothecary, " all pride and business, bustle and conceit," was protected 
 in his neglect of the poor by a "drowsy bench." The parish priest, 
 who heeded not the summons to a pauper's bed,* had not yet been 
 roused out of his indifference by the presence near his church of " Sects in 
 Eeligion." Romanists, Baptists, Swedenborgians, TJniversalists, Jews, were 
 found in the country town ; but most prevailing were the " Methodists, of 
 two kinds, Calvinistic and Arminian." 
 
 " Sects in Religion ? Yes, of every race 
 We nurse some portion in our favoured place ; 
 Not one warm preacher of one growing Sect 
 Can say our Borough treats him with neglect ; 
 Frequent as fashions, they with us appear, 
 And you might ask, ' how think we for the year ? ' " 
 
 In the " Edinburgh Eeview," of 1816, Jeffrey attributed the creation of 
 an effectual demand for more profound speculation and more serious emotion 
 than were dealt in by the writers of the former century, to the agita,tions of 
 the French revolution, the impression of the new literature of Germany, and 
 "the rise or revival of a more evangelical spirit in the body of the people." f 
 The direct relations of this "more evangelical spirit" to our lighter 
 literature are not very manifest ; but its indirect effect may be traced iu the 
 general abandonment in prose works of fiction of the grossness which still 
 lingered in the delineations of social life which came after those of the great 
 humourists who were passing away when George III. ascended the throne. 
 This may be partly attributed to the reformation of manners, which had 
 unquestionably been produced by the same religious influences steadily 
 
 * The picture of "the jovial youth" who thought his duty was comprised in his "Sunday's 
 b»sk," is found in Crahbe'e early poem of "Tlic Village." 
 t "Essays," vol. i. ]>. 1G7.
 
 1781-1820.] MORE EVANGELICAL SPIRIT IN THE BODY OF THE PEOPLE. 12:j 
 
 working amongst a portion of the upper and middle classes. In 1787, 
 Wilberforce entered in his Journal a solemn record of what he deemed one of 
 the great objects of his life : " God has set before me the reformation of my 
 country's manners." His other great object, the abolitiou of the Slave 
 Trade, had been accomplished ; and a visible change had taken place in the 
 general aspects of society — in all of the community except some of the very 
 high, and many of the very low — before the close of his career of practical 
 benevolence in 1833. The " more evangelical spirit " — which many good and 
 earnest men condemned as sectarian, had penetrated into the Church. A 
 writer who has described the various phases of this transition period of 
 religion, with a natural affection for the somewhat exclusive society amidst 
 which he was reared, but with a generous catholicity of mind, has shown the 
 difficulty of discriminating between the senses of two appellations, " Ortho- 
 dox" and " Evangelical." He says, " The knot would perhaps have been best 
 cut, by defining an Orthodox clergyman as one who held, in dull and barren 
 formality, the very same doctrines which the Evangelical clergyman held in 
 cordial and prolific vitality." * The " prolific vitality" fortunately took the 
 form of association. Societies were formed for grappling with open im- 
 morality, and for mitigating some of the more obvious evils of vice and 
 Ignorance. The Theological Literature of this awakening period presented a 
 novel aspect. The spirit of polite unbelief, which England had imparted to 
 Erance in the beginning and middle of the eighteenth century, had travelled 
 back from France to England towards the end of that century, in the grosser 
 forms of denunciation and ribaldry. Dignitaries of the Church applied 
 themselves to put down "The Age of Eeason" with gentle argument — 
 apologetical rather than confiding. The great and fashionable, who shuddered 
 at the notion that those beneath them should have their faith shaken and 
 their morals corrupted by atheistical and licentious writers, did not wholly 
 stand on the outside of the circle to whom the Eoyal Proclamation of 1787 
 against Vice was addressed. The private offences, in the support of whose 
 official interdiction Wilberforce founded a society, were, profanation of the 
 Lord's Day, swearing, drunkenness. The great gave their Sunday card 
 parties, and Sunday concerts, long after Hannah More published, in 1796, 
 her " Estimate of the Eeligion of the Fashionable "World," and "Wilberforce, 
 in 1797, his " Practical Christianity." " The Clapham Sect" strove manfully 
 against these anomalies, amidst hypocritical assent and covert ridicule. Some 
 of this ridicule was deserved. It has been candidly acknowledged that "the 
 spirit of coterie " was amongst them. They " admired in each other the 
 reflection of their own looks, and the echo of their own voices." t It is this 
 quality that now renders " Coelebs in Search of a "Wife " — one of the most 
 popular books of the class of religious novels, of which this production of 
 Hannah More was the first example — the most tedious of homilies pretend- 
 ing to be amusing. What has been called " the unquenchable thirst for 
 spiritual excitement" exposed weU-meaning crowds, who had a perpetual 
 craving for the fountains of platform eloquence, to manifest a spirit of 
 intolerance and exclusiveness whicb detracted largely from their honest 
 
 • Sir J ames Stephen, "Essays in Ecclesiastical Biograiihy," vol. ii. p. 155. 
 + Ibid., p. '607.
 
 124 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. [1784-1820 
 
 enthusiasm for schemes of benevolence. Advertisements in Magazines of 
 Sectarian doctrines, announcing the establishment of a Margate Hoy, set 6r 
 foot for the accommodation of religious characters ; of an eligible residence, 
 in a neighbourhood where the Gospel is preached in three places within half 
 a mile ; and of a serious man-servant wanted who can shave ; — such announce- 
 ments as these, with which half a century has made us more familiar, were 
 new and strange objects of ridicule in 1808* Mackintosh, who looked with 
 a real satisfaction at the public religious advocacy of such measures as the 
 removal of slavery, the amendment of the criminal laws, and the general 
 circulation of the Bible — himself a frequent speaker at Anniversaries of Bible 
 Societies — was fully alive to the mistake of these pretensions to peculiar 
 sanctity which have operated so injuriously on the true interests of religion. 
 He thus makes a note in his Diary of 1818 : " They have introduced a new 
 language, in which they never say that A. B. is good, or virtuous, or even 
 religious, but that he is an Advanced Christian." f 
 
 The orthodox Divinity of this period was distinguished for its scholarship 
 and speculative ability rather than for the spiritual gifts claimed for another 
 school. Of those who maintained the intellectual reputation of the English 
 Church, Paley was the foremost. Of pulpit orators, England could claim no 
 one supreme. Chalmers, whose oratorical powers commanded the admiration 
 of our most accomplished parliamentary speakers, was also the most admired, 
 and deservedly so, of those who committed their eloquence to the calm judgment 
 of the closet. His " Astronomical Discourses," published in 181G, rivalled the 
 novels of AValter Scott in their fascinations for all readers. Scotland produced 
 another writer of Sermons, Hugli Blair, whose popularity for a while was far 
 greater than that of any modern divine of the Church of England. Eeeble and 
 elegant, they excited no profound emotions ; but were generally welcomed as 
 agreeable reading for family Sunday evenings. Of a very different character 
 was the preaching of Eobert Hall, the Baptist minister, — a man who redeemed 
 Dissent from the imputation of ignorance and vulgarity that attached to 
 pulpits filled by uneducated men, who left their proper vocations to be gospel 
 lights. Sound thinkers such as Eobert Hall were calculated to shame 
 the orthodox divines who, in too many instances, were opposed to the spread 
 of Education. In a sermon, preached in 1810, on " The Advantages of Know- 
 ledge to the Lower Classes," he says, " If there be any truth in the figure by 
 which society is compared to a pyramid, it is on them its stability chiefly 
 depends ; the elaborate ornaments at top will be a wretched compensation for 
 the want of solidity for the lower parts of the structure." 
 
 It was one of the objects of the crusade against " Vice " carried on by the 
 school of " Advanced Christians," to imitate the old Puritans in their undis- 
 criminating hatred of the Stage. This hatred was a little out of season, for 
 Comedy, happily ceasing to reflect the worst private manners, had become 
 decorous. The goddess of duluess had driven the imps of licentiousness off 
 the boards ; although their unholy revels were encouraged in the saloons. This 
 shamelessness was certainly enough to make good men sometimes regard the 
 theatres as dangerous for their sons. But is was scarcely sufficient to justify 
 
 * "Edinburgh Review," vol. xi. p. 351, 
 
 1* "Life of Sir Jcames Mackiiito.sl]," vol. ii. p. 353.
 
 1784-1820.] AVRITERS FOR THE STAGE. Vlo 
 
 that tasteless hatred of all theatrical representations, which equally pro. 
 scribed " Hamlet " and " Tom and Jerry," and thought that there would bo 
 contamination in beholding the sublime impersonations of Mrs. Hiddons, or in 
 listening to the majestic rhetoric of Jolin Kemble, Their proscription of 
 the stage was not lessened when Miss O'l^eil and Edmund Kean came to 
 maintain the succession of great tragedians. It is remarkable that, with 
 such actors as the patent theatres possessed in the first two decades of the 
 nineteenth century, and with all the affluence of the poetry of that era, no 
 original tragedy was produced that could hold its place, even by the side of 
 the still popular scenes of Eowe and Otway. The poetical tendencies of tha 
 age were not dramatic ; the most popular of its poets wrote many tragedies; 
 but "it may be doubted whether there is, in all lord Byron's plays, a single 
 remarkable passage which owes any portion of its interest or effect to its 
 connection with the characters or the action."* The same may be said of 
 the dramas of Coleridge. Scott's three attempts at poetical dialogue were 
 utter failures. The poets who wrote plays did not conceive them in the 
 spirit of plays to be acted. Mr. Milman's " Fazio," which was not written 
 for the stage, was better adapted to the stage, and had a greater success 
 than any other works of a living poet, in the hands of the actors, who seized 
 upon it before the existence of the law of dramatic copyright. In the same 
 era, when manners were sufficiently marked to offer valuable studies of the 
 social life of the upper classes, there was no worthy successor to Sheridan. 
 Had there been a comic writer who could have carried forward some portion 
 of the brilliant wit of " The School for Scandal," to have shown us the 
 " dandies" of the Regency — a race whose foppery was not less intellectual 
 than that of the sparkling heroes of Congreve and Vanbrugh — we might 
 have had preserved to us a picture of manners which have wholly departed 
 in the lazy affectation of the exclusive class in more recent days. The 
 manners which the stage presented were made up of traits of character 
 derived from the peculiar aptitudes of the comic actors — the Irishman, the 
 Yorkshireman, the rakish right-honourable, the sentimental tradesman — 
 all drawn to a pattern of the most approved mode of flattering the honest, 
 patriotic, and somewhat obtuse middle class, who were the great supporters 
 of the theatre. John-Bullisra was in the ascendant ; and there was no surer 
 way to an Englishman's heart than to stimulate his national pride, and repre- 
 sent his fireside as the seat of all the virtues. 
 
 If the classic Comedy had passed away, — if Apollo, coming to the " Eeast 
 of' the Poets," mistook " Eeynolds and Arnold, Hook, Dibdin and Cherry," 
 for " the waiters" — the Novel, at the beginning of the century, was beginning 
 to assert its legitimate claims to be the reflector of manners as well as "the 
 mender of hearts." The prose fictions of Godwin and Holcroft were written 
 for the development of political doctrines, " Caleb AVilliams " is not a 
 fiction of actual life ; although a most forcible protest against some of the 
 grosser forms of injustice and oppression which prevailed in a social state 
 professing to be based upon the legal rights of all conditions of men. " Huo-h. 
 Trevor" is a mild infusion of the principles that placed its author in a 
 dangerous position, from which he was saved by the eloquence of Erskine 
 
 * Macnulay, "Essays," vol. L p. 3-fG.
 
 126 THE NOVELISTS. [1784-1820. 
 
 The " Zeluco " and other novels of Dr. Moore were of the same semi-didactic 
 character. Fanny Burney was a delineator of fiishionable life ; but there is 
 nothing half so real in "Evelina" and "Cecilia" and "Camilla," as her 
 pictures of the dull court of George III. at AVindsor, with the equerries 
 standing for two hours in an outer room to hear the evening concerts. The 
 ordinary routine of the upper slaves of Royalty, described by one of the 
 victims as "riding and walking, and standing and bowing" in dutiful atten- 
 dance, and their highest accomplishments, to walk out of a room backwards 
 and never to cough or sneeze — these courtly attributes are eminently sugges- 
 tive of the contrast between the life in the Lodge at Windsor in 1786, and 
 the life in the Pavilion at Brighton thirty years later. George III. asking 
 wise questions of men of science that were admitted to the Queen's tea- 
 table — Dr. Herschel, Mr. Bryant, and Mr. De Luc ; — and the Eegent assuring 
 Mr. "Wilberforce that if he would come to dine with him his ears should 
 not be offended — " I should hear nothing in his house to give me pain, 
 that even if there should be at another time, there should not be when I 
 was there:"* George III. reading his despatches before his eight o'clock 
 chapel ; tramping over his farm or following his harriers till his one o'clock 
 dinner, — and George IV. remaining in his role de chanibre all the morning, 
 either to receive his ministers, or lecturing his tailor on the cut of his 
 last new coat,t — although these may be traits of individual character, they 
 iire nevertheless to be associated with marked changes in the general tone 
 of society. The "plain living" was gone. The " high thinking" might have 
 also been "no more," had not a change come over the manners of the great, 
 and had not the middle classes been raised and refined by a nobler order of 
 literature. It was in 1802 that the despairing poet complained, — 
 
 " No grandeur now in nature or in book 
 Delights us." 
 
 The age of epics was past ; but the charms of poetical or prose narrative 
 were to impart higher pleasures than those of luxurious indulgence to a nevf 
 race of readers. Looking back upon the real dangers, the vain fears, the 
 party distractions, of the beginning of the century, it was a substantial 
 blessing to the boy growing into manhood that such rich stores of pleasurable 
 emotion were spread before him by the imaginative writers who were then 
 developing their riches. The young student of that time might say, — 
 
 " Much have I travelled in the realms of gold ;" 
 
 but never with such joyous feelings as in these days of new poets and new 
 novelists that may aspire to rank with the immortals. 
 
 It is difficult to convey to a reader of a later time an adequate notion of 
 the interest excited by the rapid appearance of that series of novels, of which 
 " Waverley " was the first that surprised the world into a new source of 
 delight. Scott has attributed his desire to introduce the natives of his own 
 country to the sister kingdom, as having been partly suggested by the well- 
 merited fame of Miss Edgeworth, whose Irish pictures had made the English 
 familiar with the character of their gay and kind-hearted neighbours. 
 
 • " Life of Wilberforce," vol. iv. p. 277. 
 t "liuikus's Diavy," vol. iii. p. 56.
 
 2784-1820.] THE WAVERLEY NOVELS— THE EDINBURGH REVIEW. 127 
 
 Admirable in their truth as are those novels of INIiss Edgeworth, in which she 
 delineates the virtues and the foibles of the Irish, of her day ; skilful as she 
 was in the management of some of her stories ; always using her powers in 
 the cause of an honest patriotism, and in the exposure of social abuses — they 
 had the attraction of faitliful representations of existing manners, but wanted 
 that charm of romantic indistinctness which belongs to novels founded upon 
 " chronicles of eld." Tliey have now an historical value which the contem- 
 poraries of the accomplished authoress would have scarcely acknowledged. 
 But the author of" Waverley," who lived essentially in the past, although pro- 
 fessing to have derived his impulse to paint the Scottish character from " tlie 
 rich humour, pathetic tenderness, and admirable tact" of Miss Edgeworth, never 
 ^nttempted the picture of the Scot of his own day. " The ancient traditions and 
 high spirit of a people who, living in a civilized age and country, retained so 
 strong a tincture of manners belonging to an early period of society," were 
 suited to a new form of romance in which the picturesque and the literal 
 might be happily blended. How great was the ultimate success of this 
 experiment it is needless to trace ; or how Scott's original scheme expanded 
 into tales of "fierce wars and faithful loves," common to various climes and 
 eras of cliivalry and feudalism. The success of the Waverley novels made 
 the greater portion of the literature of the Circulating Library a drug in the 
 market. The Inchbalds, and Burneys, and Eadclifies held their places for a 
 little while. But the accumulations of stupidity which had encumbered the 
 booksellers' shelves for thirty years ceased to circulate. Amidst this revolu- 
 tion arose a female writer of real genius, Jane Austen. Her six novels will 
 never be swept away with the rubbish of her "Minerva Press" compeers. 
 The English life of the upper middle classes in the village and the country 
 town — a life unchequered by startling incident ; a simple reality which, it 
 might be thought, every one could paint, and which would be dull and uninte- 
 resting when painted — is by this young woman delineated with a power which 
 makes actual things more real than what is palpable to all, and by which the 
 most familiar scenes are looked upon as if they were new. This is high Art. 
 The rapid development in the first two decades of this century of a 
 popular literature of a nobler order than what had preceded it, is in some 
 degree to be ascribed to the influence upon opinion of a higher school of 
 criticism. " The Edinburgh Eeview," in 1802, divorced the crafts of the 
 reviewer and the bookseller. Without wholly assenting to the dictum of 
 lord Cockburn, that Francis Jefirey was "the greatest of British critics," we 
 may well believe that no one had preceded him, and that few have come after 
 him, who directed the judgment of his contemporaries upon current Litera- 
 ture with sucb a fund of good sense, with such a quick perception of fiiults, 
 with such a generous appreciation of beauties, and with such an honest im- 
 partiality, — always excepting the few cases in which poets, especially, had the 
 misfortune to deviate in*to fields which the critic deemed barren. The 
 services which that Heview rendered to the progress of improvement, in the 
 discussion of the great political and social questions in which improvement 
 at one time looked hopeless, need not here be detailed. It is suflBcient for 
 us to say, that it stimulated a healthful spirit of inquiry, and altogether con- 
 tributed largely to raise the standard of public intelligence. The " Quarterly 
 Eeview " came in 1809 to supply what was deemed a necessary antidote to
 
 128 BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE— ESSAYISTS. [1784-182a 
 
 the political opinions of the " Edinburgh." Its editor, William Gifford, was 
 iar less tolerant as a critic than Jeffrey, and he had altogether more of par- 
 tizanship in his estimate of literary merit. But if he was often stern, and 
 sometimes unjust to those of opposite opinions, he was not a tool in the 
 hands of the party leaders with whom he agreed. If Brougham, and Sydney 
 Smith, and Prancis Horner, and Mackintosh, were associated with Jeffrey, 
 Gifford could marshal Canning, and Southey, and Scott, and Croker, in the 
 rival ranks. The partizans who wore the drab livery were not a whit less 
 dangerous than the smarter champions of the yellow and blue. Each of the 
 visored knights affected not to know the leaders whom they encountered in 
 the melee. Jeffrey never mentioned Gifford, nor Gifford Jeffrey. The 
 multitude shouted, and ranged themselves under the rival banners. After 
 forty years of contest there was very little left to fight about. It is amusing 
 to look back upon this warfare. It is consolatory to know that through the 
 very fierceness of the battle the cause of truth and justice was advanced. It 
 was felt tliat, after all, the practical ends of life are best secured by a com- 
 promise of extreme opinions. In the arbitrement of posterity upon literary 
 merit, we come to know how powerless are the rash or prejudiced decisions 
 of the highest courts of criticism. Keats was not " snuffed out by an 
 article ; " Wordsworth was not doomed to oblivion by " This will never do." 
 
 Following in the wake of the great reviews, there came, in due course, a 
 higher order of Magazines. "Blackwood," about the close of the Hegency 
 acquired an influence that extended far beyond Scotland. There was so 
 much fun in its malice that its violent politics scarcely impeded its universal 
 welcome, at least in England. There was so much of the outpouring of 
 genius in Christopher !North, that few cared to inquire whether that 
 fancy and pathos, that exquisite perception of the grand and beautiful in 
 nature, were in unison with the narrow hatreds that belonged to an Edinburgh 
 clique. The very excess of John Wilson's partizanship looks as if ever and 
 anon he worked up his generous nature to uncongenial wrath, and then put 
 on bis Sporting Jacket and sallied forth to breathe the pure air of the Moors, 
 in a spirit of peace with all mankind. In raising the whole tone of periodical 
 literature he gave the world a series of prose writings that fully manifested 
 how truly he was a poet. Out of the new race of monthly Miscellanies 
 issued other prose writers who made their mark upon their own time, and will 
 long continue to have a niche in fame's temple. Amongst the foremost are 
 Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, Thomas de Quincey. 
 
 The least voluminous of modern Essayists, Lamb, is the most original. 
 His quaint turns of humour and pathos will command admiration, when 
 the wearisome platitudes of many a great moralist are forgotten. He looked 
 upon society with a deep sympathy and a comprehensive charity. The man 
 who wrote to a friend, " I often shed tears in the motley Strand, for feeling 
 of joy at so much life," could not speak of human sorrows and infirmities with 
 indifference. He had as acute a sense of what is hateful or ridiculous as the 
 keenest of satirists, but he seeks not to extirpate evil by abuse, or to shame 
 folly by f^arcasm. Of a very different order of mind was Hazlitt. The quan- 
 tity which he wrote sufficiently indicates the fertility of his genius ; and in 
 many of his critical essays we feel the shrewdness of hia judgment and the 
 correctness of his taste. But as he counted amongst hia merits that of being
 
 17S4-1820.] ESSAYISTS -POLITICAL ECONOMISTS. 129 
 
 a good Later, we must not expect to find a just and impartial estimate of con- 
 temporaneous persons or things in his political or historical writings. He 
 has the merit of being amongst the first to regard Shakspere from a higher 
 point of view than the race of commentators, too often carping and truculent. 
 But the Stephenses and Malones, nevertheless, kept alive a wholesome spirit of 
 inquiry as to the real meaning of the greatest in all literature, when he uses 
 words and phrases which appear nonsensical or obscure to the ordinary reader. 
 Hazlitt approached Shakspere with the same reverential spirit in which 
 Coleridge laboured with a higher faculty of philosophical criticism. Leigh 
 Hunt, of this trio of Essayists who often worked in companionship, will 
 probably continue to have the larger number of admirers. He walked in the 
 pleasantest places of literature. To him the great imaginative writers — 
 especially those of Italy, and of our early school upon which Italian poetry 
 impressed its character — offer " a perpetual feast of neetar'd sweets." In 
 his youthful career he endured a harder fate than most of those who were 
 opposed to the ruling powers ; but he carried " the sunshine of the breast " 
 into his prison, and the same unfailing spirits bore him through many of the 
 disappointments of his after life. The same qualities that made the charm 
 of his conversation pervade aU his writings. The greatest of the thinkers 
 who was cradled in the Magazine Literature, De Quincey, belongs more 
 properly to the next period ; although his " Opium Eater " was produced in 
 the " London Magazine " of 1821. The " Essays " of John Foster, a Baptist 
 minister, which first appeared in 1805, constituted one of the most treasured 
 volumes of a period in which there were fewer books than at the present 
 time, and when good sense, extensive knowledge, and liberal aspirations 
 could secure a warm welcome for miscellaneous works, although not belonging 
 to the class of light literature. These Essays will not readily be neglected 
 even in an age which seeks the excitement of less natural writing. 
 
 The school of Political Economists that succeeded Adam Smith — Malthus, 
 James Mill, and Ricardo — had important influences on the political action 
 of their time. So also had the great philosophical jurist, Jeremy Ben- 
 tham. We shall have to recur to these names at another period. Of a 
 different school was a political economist who took a broader view of 
 the relations of Capital and Labour than these scientific writers, who had 
 principally regard to the production of wealth. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, in his 
 " Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns," advocated the belief that 
 the wants of the poor might be provided for without the machinery of the 
 English Poor Laws. In his own locality of Glasgow he organized a system 
 which was successful in making private benevolence prevent the necessity of 
 a public recognition of pauperism. He was convinced that religion presented 
 the only cure for the evils of society. The eloquence with which he enforced 
 this doctrine, and the sound judgment wbich he applies to the great 
 questions of what is now called " social science," have had a more per- 
 manent influence than his views of the Poor Law System. 
 
 The history of the progress of Scientific Discovery is too large a subject, 
 and requires too many technical details, to permit a notice here beyond an 
 enumeration of the principal discoverers. Sir William Herschel was still 
 pursuing his observations at the age of eighty, when the first eucourager of 
 bis astronomical pursuits, George III., died. He discovered the planet 
 VOL. vui.— 233.
 
 ViO 
 
 SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. 
 
 [1784-18201 
 
 Uranus in 1781. It lias been said of bim, tbat " no one individual ever 
 added so mucb to tbe facts on wbicb our knowledge of tbe solar system is 
 founded." * His great telescope of forty feet focal lengtb was completed 
 by bim at Slougb, on tbe 28tb of August, 1789, on wbicb day be discovered 
 witb it tbe sixtb satellite of Saturn. Tbe principle of tbe reflecting telescopes 
 of Herscbel was an improvement upon tbose of earlier construction. 
 
 Herschell's Great Telescope at Slougb. 
 
 Tbe discoveries in Cbemistry, and tbeir applications to tbe Arts, in tbe 
 earlier portion of tbe reign of George III. were principally derived from tbe 
 experiments of Black, Cavendisb, and Priestley. To tbese pbilosopbers at 
 tbe beginning of tbe present century, succeeded tbe most original of 
 inquirers and tbe most popular of teacbers, Sir Humpbrey Davy. His 
 Lectures at tbe Royal Institution diffused a love of science amongst tbe 
 general community. His invention of tbe Safety Lamp, in 1815, sbowed bow 
 tbe profoundest investigations migbt result in an apparently simple con- 
 trivance of tbe bigbest utility, like most of tbe great inventions tbat bave 
 cbanged tbe face of tbe world. Dalton in 1808 produced bis Atomic Theory. 
 Wollaston followed Dalton in a course of similar researcb, and in otber walks 
 made bis experiments tbe bases of large additions to tbe Industrial Arts. 
 But of all tbose wbo by Science diminisbed tbe amount of domestic sorrow, 
 and enlarged tbe average term of buman life, was tbe pbysician wbo for balf 
 :i century bad been striving in vain to make tbe medical world feel confidence 
 in bis discovery of Vaccination. For tbirty years after tliis antidote to tbe 
 sniall-pox was first practised in 1800, tbe wbolly ignorant and imperfectly 
 udocated still stood in tbe way of tbe general diffusion of tbis great blessing 
 
 'English Cyclopredia."
 
 1784-1820.] TRAVELLERS— TWO GREAT INVENTIONS. 131 
 
 of our era. Now the law prescribes that every child born in tlie kingdom 
 must be vaccinated. "We look back upon the time Avhen many who had 
 escaped with life from the terrible disease that killed ninety-two in every 
 thousand of the population, bore into our public places the indelible marks of 
 the scourge, and we rejoice now to behold the unscarred faces of the young 
 as the best tribute to the memory of Edward Jenner. 
 
 'safety Lamp. 
 
 With the striking exception of Mungo Park, no remarkable traveller had 
 gone forth from England to enlarge the bounds of geographical discovery during 
 the period of the war. Henry Martyn, Claudius Buchanan, and other zealous 
 men were then missionaries in India, and prepared the way for the noble labours 
 of the second Bishop of Calcutta, Eeginald Heber. In 1820 the observations ot 
 Captain Parry in the Polar Seas led to a government expedition for exploring 
 the Arctic Circle, in the expectation of discovering the North- West Passage. 
 These undertakings belong to a chapter which we must devote to the Science 
 of a period nearer the present time, when the vast results of the connection 
 between Philosophy and the Industrial Arts may be briefly traced. 
 
 It may be desirable, however, here to mention two great mechanical 
 inventions that have had the most decided influence on the progress of 
 society. About the first decade of the Nineteenth Century, there was 
 a real beginning in Great Britain of that mode of navigation which was 
 destined to make distant countries less remote, and to change the whole 
 system of communication in our own waters. Henry Bell had his Steam 
 passage-boat running on the Clyde in 1811. In a few years steam-boats 
 were plying on the Thames. In 1816 there were persons who had the 
 hardihood to make a voyage in such a smoke-pufiing vessel even as 
 far as Margate. In 1818 Jeflrey thus described a steam-boat on Loch 
 Lomond, which surprised him as he was sitting with his wife in a lonely 
 wild little bay ; " It is a new experiment for the temptation of tourists. It
 
 L32 
 
 THE STEAM BOAT— THE PRINTING MACHINE. 
 
 [1784-1320. 
 
 circumnavigates the whole lake every day in about ten hours ; and it was 
 certainly very strange and striking to hear and see it hissing and roaring past 
 the headlands of our little bay, foaming and spouting like an angry whale ; 
 but, on the whole, I think it rather vulgarises the scene too much, and I 
 am glad that it is found not to answer, and is to be dropped next year." * 
 Vast as have been the results of the application of Steam to Navigation, we 
 may almost venture to say that the application of Steam to Printing cannot 
 be regarded as a less important instrument in the advance of civilization. 
 The Printing Machine has had as great an influence upon the spread of 
 knowledge in the Nineteenth Century, as the invention of printing itself in 
 the fifteenth century. The first sheet of paper printed by cylinders and 
 by steam, was the ' Times' newspaper of the 28th of November, 1814. The 
 maker of that Printing Machine was Mr. Koenig, a native of Saxony. 
 Machines, less cumbrous and more adapted to all the purposes of the 
 typographical art, gradually came into use. Without this invention the 
 most popular daily paper could only produce, with the most intense exertion, 
 five thousand copies for the demand between sunrise and sunset. Sixty 
 thousand copies of a London morning paper can now be distributed through 
 the country in two or three hours after the first sheet has been rolled. 
 Tliese astonishing changes in the powers of Journalism are not more impor- 
 tant than the effects upon all Literature, in the reduction of the price of 
 books by this invention of the Printing Machine and the concurrent invention 
 of the Paper Machine. 
 
 * "Life of Lord Jeffrey," voL ii. p. 181. 
 
 IMntiiKT Macliiue.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BEITISH WEITEES. 
 
 In the Fifth Volume of the Popular History of England a Table is given of the 
 principal British Writers in each century, from the beginning of the sixth century 
 to the end of the eighteenth. Added to the name of each author are given the 
 dates of his or her birth and death, as far as could be ascertained, and, in some 
 cases, the title of the work by which the writer is best known. The names are 
 arranged in three columns — Imagination, — which includes the Poets and NoveUsta ; 
 Fact, — writers on History, Geography, and other matters of exact detail ; Specu- 
 lative and Scientific, — those who treat of Philosophy and Science. This division 
 is, to a certain extent, useful ; but it is difficult to carry it out with precision, 
 especially in cases where the writings of one author belong to several classes of 
 literature. The subjoined Table is a continuation of that in Volume V., com- 
 prising the principal writers of the present century, with the exception of those 
 who are now living (December 18, 18C1). These wiU remain to be added in a 
 Supplementary Table. 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 Fact. 
 
 Speculative and Scientific. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 Henry Kirke White, 1785- 
 
 1800 Mungo Park, 1771-1805, 
 
 1800 Henry Cavendish, 1731- 
 
 1806, Poems 
 
 Travels in Africa 
 
 1810, Physics, Compo- 
 
 Robert Tannahill, 1774- 
 
 Charles James Fox, 1749- 
 
 sition of Water 
 
 1810, Songs and Poems 
 
 1806, History 
 
 Richard Cecil, 1748-1810, 
 
 John Leyden, 1775-1811, 
 
 J. Macdiarmid, 1779- 
 
 Sermons, Religious Bio- 
 
 Poems and Translations 
 
 1808, Biogi'apliy 
 
 graphy 
 Edmond Malone, 1741- 
 1812, Commentator on 
 Shakspere 
 
 James Grahame, 1765- 
 
 James Forsyth, 1763- 
 
 Alexander Murray, 1775- 
 
 1811, The 'Sabbath,' 
 
 1815, Travels in Italy 
 
 1813, Europeau Lan- 
 
 and other Poems 
 
 
 guages 
 
 Jane Austen, 1775-1817, 
 
 Claudius Buchanan, 1766- 
 
 John Playfair, 1748-1S19, 
 
 'Pride and Prejudice,' 
 
 1815, Christian Re- 
 
 Euclid's Geometry 
 
 and other Novels. 
 
 searches in India 
 
 
 Matthew G. Lewis, 1775- 
 
 
 Arthur Young, 1741-1820, 
 
 1818, Poems and Novels 
 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Hector McNeill, 1746- 
 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks, 1743- 
 
 1818, Scottish Poems : 
 
 
 1820, Natural History 
 
 'The Scottish Adven- 
 
 
 John Bell, 1763-1820. 
 
 1 turers,' a Novel 
 
 
 Anatomy 
 Thomas Brown, 1778- 
 
 1820, Metaphysics 
 J. Bonnycastle, d. 1821, 
 
 Astronomy, Algebra 
 
 Elizabeth Inchbald,l 753- 
 
 Patrick Colquhoun, 1745- 
 
 James Peny, 1756-1821, 
 
 1821, ' A Simple Story,' 
 
 1820, Statistics, Police 
 
 Political Journalist 
 
 and other Tales 
 
 of the Metropolis 
 
 (Morning Chronicle) 
 
 John Keats, 1796-1821, 
 
 
 John Aikin, 1747-1822, 
 
 Poems 
 
 
 'Evenings at Home.' 
 James Sowerby, 1757- 
 
 1822, English Botany 
 C. Hutton, 1737-1*23. 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1 
 
 E. D. Clarke, 1769-1822. 
 
 DavidRicardu,l772-182S- 
 
 1793-1822, Poems 
 
 Travels in Russia and 
 the East 
 
 Political Economy
 
 134 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BIUTISH WRITERS. 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 1 Fact. 
 
 SPECULATI7E AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1300 Robert Bloomfield, 1766- 
 
 1800 David Bogue, 1749-1825, 
 
 1800 Richard Payne Knight, 
 
 1823, 'The Farmer's 
 
 History of Dissenters 
 
 1750-1824, Philology, 
 
 Boy, ' and other Poems 
 
 
 Essay on Taste 
 
 Chares Wolfe, 1791-1823, 
 
 
 A. Rees, 1743-1825, 
 
 ' Ode on the Burial ot 
 
 
 Cyclopaedia 
 
 Sir John Moore' 
 
 
 Samuel Parr, 1747-1825, 
 
 George, Lord Byron, 178S- 
 
 
 Philology 
 
 1824, Poems 
 
 
 
 Anna Lsetitia Barbauld, 
 
 
 
 1743-1825, Poems, 
 
 
 
 Tales, Hymns in Prose 
 
 
 JohnFlaxman, 1755-1820, 
 
 Reginald Heber, 1783- 
 
 W. Mitford, 1744-1827, 
 
 Lectures on Sculpture 
 
 1826, 'Palestine,' and 
 
 History of Greece 
 
 William Gifford, 1757- 
 
 other Poems 
 
 
 1826, PoUtics and Cri- 
 
 Robert Pollok, 1799- 
 
 George Canning, 1770- 
 
 ticism (Quarterly Rev.) 
 
 1827, Coui-se of Time 
 
 1827, Microcosm, Anti- 
 
 Dugald Stewart, 1753- 
 
 Henry Mackenzie, 1745- 
 
 Jacobin 
 
 1828, Metaphysics 
 
 1831, 'Man of Feeling' 
 
 Hugh Clapperton, 1788- 
 
 P. Elmsley, 1773-1825, 
 
 
 1827, Travels in Africa 
 
 Philology 
 
 George Crabbe, 1754- 
 
 James Rennell, 1782- 
 
 W. H. WoUaston, 1776- 
 
 1832, Poems 
 
 1830, Geography 
 
 1828, Physical Science 
 Thomas Tredgold, 1788- 
 
 Sir Walter Scott, 1771- 
 
 William Roscoe, 1753- 
 
 1829, Building and 
 
 1832, Poems, Waverley 
 
 1831, Biography 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Kovels 
 
 
 Thomas Young, 1773- 
 1829, Physics, Hiero- 
 
 Anna Maria Porter, 1781- 
 
 
 glyphics 
 
 1832, Historical Novels 
 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy, 1778- 
 
 Hannah More, 1745- 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh, 
 
 1829, Chemistry 
 
 1833, Sacred Dramas. 
 
 1765-1832, History of 
 
 William Hazlitt, 1778- 
 
 ' Ccelebs in Search of a 
 
 England, Progress of 
 
 1830, Essays on Shak- 
 
 Wife' 
 
 Ethical Philosophy 
 
 spere 
 
 William Sotheby, 1756- 
 
 
 John Abernethy, 1763- 
 
 1833, Poems, Transla- 
 
 
 1831, Physiology, Sur- 
 
 tions 
 
 
 gery 
 Robert Hall, 1764-1831, 
 Sermons, Essays 
 
 Archbishop Magee, d. 
 1831, Sermons, Trea- 
 
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 
 
 Alexander Chalmers, 1759- 
 
 tise on the Atonement 
 
 1772-1834, Poems and 
 
 1834, Biographical Dic- 
 
 Jeremy Bentliam, 1747- 
 
 Essays 
 
 tionary 
 
 1832, Jurisprudence, 
 
 Charles Lamb, 1775-1834, 
 
 James Dallaway, 1763- 
 
 Political Economy 
 
 Poems, 'Essays of Elia' 
 
 1834, Travels, Archeo- 
 
 George Burder, 1752- 
 
 
 logy 
 
 1832, Village Sermons 
 
 Thomas Pringle, 1789- 
 
 Thomas M'Crie, 1772- 
 
 Adam Clarke, 1760-1832, 
 
 1834, Poems, 'South 
 
 1835, Life of John Knox 
 
 Oriental Literature, 
 
 African Sketches' 
 
 II. D. Inglis (Derwent 
 
 Biblical Commentary 
 
 
 Couway), 1795-1835, 
 
 Sir John Leslie, 176G- 
 
 
 Travels 
 
 1832, Physics 
 
 
 John Gillies, 1747-1836, 
 
 William Carey, 1761-1834, 
 
 James Hogg, 1772-1835, 
 
 History of Ancient 
 
 Translations of the 
 
 ' The Queen's Wake,' 
 
 Greece 
 
 Scriptures into Eastern 
 
 and other Poems, 
 
 
 Languages 
 
 Winter Evening Tales' 
 
 ■ 
 
 T.R.Malthus, 1766-1834, 
 ' Essay on Population ' 
 
 Edward Irving, 1792- 
 1834, Interpretation ol 
 Prophecy
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 13^ 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 X.D. 
 
 1800 
 
 A.D. 
 
 I8C0 
 
 Felicia Heraans, 1794- 
 
 1835, Poems 
 
 William Godwin, 1756- 
 
 1836, 'Caleb Williams,' 
 and other Novels 
 
 George Coleman, the! 
 
 Younger, 1762-1836. 
 
 Dramas 
 Sii- S. Egerton Brydges. 
 
 1764-1837, Poems 
 
 Anne Grant (of Laggan), 
 1755-1838, Poems, 
 • Translations from the 
 Gaelic,' 'Letters from 
 the Mountains' 
 
 Lffititia E. Landon (Mrs. 
 Maclean), 1802-1839, 
 Poems 
 
 James Smith, 1775-1839, 
 Novels, 'Rejected Ad- 
 
 John ' Gait, 1779-1839, 
 
 'Ayrshire Legatees,' and 
 
 other Tales of Scottish 
 
 Life. 
 W. M. Praed, 1802-1839, 
 
 Poems and Essays 
 Thomas Haynes Bayley, 
 
 d. 1839, Poems and 
 
 Tales 
 Frances Burney (Madame 
 
 D'Arblay), 1752-1340, 
 
 ' Evelina,' aid other 
 
 Novels 
 Thomas Dibdin, 1771- 
 
 1841, Dramas 
 Theodore E. Hook, 1788- 
 
 1841, Novels 
 
 Allan Cunningham, 1 784- 
 
 1842, Poems 
 
 John Banim, 1800-1842, 
 Irish Novels 
 
 Thomas H. Lister, J. 
 . 1842, 'Granby,' and 
 other Novels 
 
 Robert Southey, 1774- 
 1843, 'Curse of Ke- 
 hama,' and other Poems 
 
 William Taylor, 1765- 
 1836, History of Ger- 
 maa Poetry 
 
 Sir W. Gell, 1777-1836, 
 Classical Topography 
 and Antiquities 
 
 Henry Roscoe, 1799-1836, 
 Lives of Eminent Law- 
 yers 
 
 Sir R. C. Hoare, 1758- 
 1838, Travels, Anti- 
 quities of Wiltshire, &c. 
 
 Speculative and Scientipio 
 
 A. p. 
 
 1800 
 
 Sir Alexander Bumes, 
 1805-1841, Travels in 
 Bokhara and Cabool 
 
 T.D.Fosbroke,1770-lS42, 
 
 Topography, Archteo- 
 
 logy 
 Sir Robert Ker Porter, 
 
 1775-1842, Travels in 
 
 the East 
 William Hone, 1779-1842, 
 
 ' Every Day Book' 
 
 Thomas Arnold, 1795 
 1842, History of Rome 
 
 William Cobbett, 1762- 
 
 1835, Politics and Rural 
 Economy 
 
 Robert Jlorrison, 1782- 
 1834, Chinese Lan- 
 guage 
 
 Sir Charles Wilkks, 1749- 
 
 1836, Oriental Litera- 
 ture 
 
 W. Marsden, 1754-1836, 
 Oriental Languages 
 
 Richard Valpy, 1754- 
 1836, Philology 
 
 John Pond, 1767-1336, 
 Astronomy 
 
 James Mill, 1773-1836, 
 Political Economy, His- 
 tory of India 
 
 W. Elford Leach, 1790- 
 
 1836, British Crustacea 
 John Latham, 1740-1S37, 
 
 Ornithology 
 Joshua Marshman, 1767- 
 
 1837, Chinese Litera- 
 ture 
 
 John .Tamieson, 1759-1838 
 Dictionary of the Scot- 
 tish Language 
 
 Archibald Alison, 1757- 
 
 1839, Essays on Taste 
 
 William Smith, 1769- 
 
 1839, Geology 
 
 Sir Anthony Carlisle, 
 1768-1840, Anatomy 
 and Surgery 
 
 Laut Carpenter, 1780- 
 
 1840, Theology 
 
 Sir Astley Cooper, 1763- 
 
 1841, Surgery 
 Oliuthus Gregory, 1774- 
 
 1841, Mathematics, Evi- 
 dences of Christianity 
 Joseph Blanco White, 
 1775-1841, 'letters 
 from Spain,' Controver- 
 sial Writings against 
 Roman Catholicism
 
 136 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 Fact. 
 
 Speculative and Sciektifio. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 William Beckford, 1761- 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 Thomas Rickman, 1776- 
 
 1844, 'Vathek,' an 
 
 
 1841, Gothic Architec- 
 
 Oriental Komance 
 
 
 ture 
 
 Henry P. Gary, 1772- 
 
 
 Patrick Kelly, 1756-1842, 
 
 1844, Poems, Transla- 
 
 
 Mathematics, ' Univer- 
 
 tion of Dante 
 
 
 sal Cambist' 
 
 Barbftra Hoflaud, 1770- 
 
 
 Sir Charles Bell, 1774- 
 
 1844, Novels, Domestic 
 
 
 1842, Treatise on the 
 
 Tales 
 
 
 Hand, Surgery 
 
 Thomas Campbell, 1777- 
 
 
 William Maginn, 1793- 
 
 1844, ' Pleasures of 
 
 
 1842, Politics, Periodi- 
 
 Hope,' and other Poems 
 
 
 cal Literature 
 
 John Sterling, 1806-1844, 
 
 
 John Foster, 1770-1843, 
 
 Poems, Tales, and E.-- 
 
 
 Essays on Popular 
 
 says 
 
 
 Ignorance, and other 
 
 subjects 
 R. W. Rham, 1778-1843, 
 
 Dictionary of the 
 
 Farm 
 John C. Loudon, 1783- 
 
 1843, Botany, Horti- 
 
 Rog'naMariaRoche,1764- 
 
 Henry John Todd, 1763- 
 
 culture 
 
 1845, 'Children of tlif 
 
 1845, Bibliography, 
 
 John Dalton, 1766-1844, 
 
 Abbey, 'and otherNovels 
 
 New Edition of John- 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 
 son's Dictionary 
 
 Francis Baily, 1774-1844, 
 
 H. Barham, 178S- 
 
 John Adolphus, 1770- 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 1845, 'Ingoldsby Le- 
 
 1845, History of the 
 
 John Abercrombie, 1781- 
 
 gends' 
 
 Reign of George III. 
 
 1844, Metaphysics, 
 
 ThomasHood, 1798-1845, 
 
 John Gurwood, 1791- 
 
 Theology 
 
 'Song of the Shirt,' 
 
 1845, Wellington's Des- 
 
 SydneySmith, 1771-1845, 
 
 ' Comic Annual,' &c. 
 
 patches 
 
 Politics, Periodical Es- 
 
 Laman Blanchard, 1803- 
 
 HughMurray, 1779-1846, 
 
 says 
 
 1845, Poems, Essays, 
 
 Geography 
 
 J. F. Daniell, 1790-1845, 
 
 and Sketches 
 
 
 Chemistry, Meteoro- 
 
 Robert Plumer Ward, 
 
 SharonTurner, 1768-1847, 
 
 logy 
 
 1765-1846, Novels 
 
 ' Sacred History of the 
 
 Christopher Wordsworth, 
 
 
 World,' History of the 
 
 1774-1846, Theology 
 
 
 Anglo-Saxons 
 
 H. Gaily Knight, 1787- 
 
 
 Thomas F. Dibdin, 1776- 
 
 1846, Antiquities, Ar- 
 
 
 1847, Bibliography 
 
 chitecture 
 
 Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, 
 
 Sir John Barrow, 1764- 
 
 George Joseph Bell, 1770- 
 
 1784-1848, Highland 
 
 1848, Biography, Arc- 
 
 1847, Principles of the 
 
 Legends 
 
 tic Voyages 
 
 Law of Scotland 
 
 William Tennant, 17S5 
 
 Isaac Disraeli, 1766-1848, 
 
 Thomas Chalmers, 1780' 
 
 1848, Dramas, 'Anster 
 
 History, 'Curiosities of 
 
 1847, Theology, Meta- 
 
 Fair,' a Poem 
 
 Literature' 
 
 physics, Political and 
 
 Frederick Marryat, 1792- 
 
 Sir N. Harris Nicolas, 
 
 Social Economy 
 
 1848, 'Peter Simple,' 
 
 1799-1848, History, 
 
 Joseph John Gurney, 
 
 and other Sea Novels 
 
 Genealogy, &c. 
 
 1788-1847, Christian 
 
 Maria Edgeworth, 1767- 
 
 Horace Twiss, 1786-1849, 
 
 Evidences 
 
 1849, Moral Tales, 
 
 Life of Lord Eldon, &c. 
 
 Andrew Combe, 1797- 
 
 Novels of Irish Life 
 
 
 1847, Principles of 
 
 Horace Smith, 1780-1849, 
 
 Patrick Fraser Tytler, 
 
 Physiology apglied to 
 
 ' Brambletye House,' 
 
 1790-1849, Biography, 
 
 Health 
 
 and other Novels, ' Re- 
 
 History of Scotland 
 
 J.C.Prichard, 1785-1848, 
 
 jected Addresses' 
 
 
 Ethnology 
 
 Ebenezer Elliott, 1781- 
 
 
 Edw. Copleston, 1776- 
 
 1849, Poems, 'Com 
 
 
 1849, Theology 
 
 Law Rhymes' 
 
 
 Anthony Todd Thomson, 
 
 Bernard Barton, 1784 
 
 
 1778-1849, Materia 
 
 1849, Poems 
 
 
 Medica
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH ^YRITERS. 
 
 U7 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 Marguerite, Countess of 
 Blessington, 1789-1849 
 Novels, ' Idler in Italy, 
 &c. 
 
 W. Lisle Bowles, 1762 
 1850, Poems 
 
 Wra. Wordsworth, 1770 
 1850, Poems 
 
 Jane Porter, 1776-1850 
 Historical Novels 
 
 W. H. Maxwell, 1794 
 
 1850, 'Wild Sports of 
 the West,' ' Random 
 Shots from a Rifleman 
 
 Harriet Lee, 1756-1851 
 
 ' Canterbury Tales' 
 Joanna Baillie, 1762- 
 
 1851, Dramas, 'Tales 
 of the Passions' 
 
 Martha Mary Sherwood, 
 1774-1851, Novelsand 
 Tales 
 
 Thos. Moore, 1779-1852, 
 Poems, ' Irish Melodies' 
 
 Amelia Opie, 1768-1853, 
 Poems, 'Tales of the 
 Heart' 
 
 James Montgomery, 1771- 
 1854, ' The World he- 
 fore the Flood,' and 
 other Poems, Hymns 
 for Public Worship 
 
 Miss Ferrier, 1782-1854, 
 'Marriage,' 'Destiny," 
 ' The Inheritance' 
 
 Thomas Noon Talfourd, 
 1795-1854, Dramas 
 
 Thomas Crofton Croier. 
 1798-1854, 'Fairy Le- 
 gends' and ' Popular 
 Songs of Ireland' 
 
 Samuel Phillips, 1815- 
 
 1854, 'Caleb Stukely,' 
 ' Essays from the Times' 
 
 Samuel Rogers, 1763- 
 
 1855, 'Pleasures of 
 Memory,' ' Italy,' &c. 
 
 John Wilson, 1788-1855, 
 'The Isle of Palms,' 
 ' Trials of Margaret 
 Lindsay,' &c. 
 
 Mary Russell Mitford, 
 1789-1855, Poems, 
 'Our Village,' and 
 other Sketches 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 
 
 John Lingard, 1771-1851, 
 History of England 
 
 H. Fynes Clinton, 1781- 
 1852, Fasti Hellenici, 
 &c. 
 
 George R. Porter, 1792- 
 1852, Statistics, 'Pro- 
 gress of the Nation' 
 
 Eliot Warburton, 1810- 
 1852, Travels 
 
 SirWilliamBetham, 1779- 
 
 1853, Irish Antiqua- 
 rian Researches, The 
 Gael and Cimbri 
 
 E. W. Brayley, 1773- 
 
 1854, Topography, An- 
 tiquities 
 
 John Gibson Lockhart, 
 1794-1854, Life of Sir 
 Walter Scott, Editor of 
 Quarterly Review 
 
 Sir George Head, 1782. 
 1855, Travels 
 
 James Silk Buckingham, 
 1786-1855, Travels 
 
 JosiahConder,l 789-1855: 
 'The Modern Traveller' 
 
 Edv.ard Hawke Locker, 
 1777-1849, Lectures on 
 the Bible aud the 
 Liturgy, &c. 
 
 William Kirby, 1759- 
 1850, Eutomology 
 
 Francis Jeffrey, 1773- 
 1850, Essay on Taste, 
 Critical Essays (Edin- 
 burgh Review) 
 
 Edward Bickersteth, 1 78 6- 
 
 1850, Scripture Help, 
 Guide to the Prophe- 
 cies 
 
 George Dunbar, 774- 
 
 1851, Greek Lexicon 
 John Pye Smith, 1774- 
 
 1851, Scripture and 
 
 Geology 
 Richard Phillips, 1778- 
 
 1851, Chemistry 
 George Crabbe, 1779- 
 
 1851, Dictionary of 
 
 Synonyms 
 Jehu Chas. Tarver, 1790- 
 
 1851, English and 
 French Dictionary 
 
 Samuel Lee, 1783-1852, 
 
 Oriental La-nguages 
 John Dairy mple, 1804- 
 
 1852, Anatomy of the 
 Eye 
 
 William Jay, 1769-1S53, 
 
 Sermons 
 Ralph Wardlaw, 1779- 
 
 1853, Theology, Church 
 Establishments 
 
 James F. W, Johnston, 
 1796-1853, Agricul- 
 tural Chemistry 
 
 F. W. Robertson, 1816- 
 
 1853, Sermons, Lec- 
 tures 
 
 George Stanley Faber, 
 1773-1854, Christian 
 Evidences, Prophetical 
 loterpretation 
 
 Edward Forbes, 1815- 
 
 1854, Geology, Natural 
 History 
 
 Julius C. Hare, 1796- 
 
 1855, Theology 
 
 Sir H. delaBeche, 17S6- 
 
 1855, Geology 
 Martin Barry, 1802-1855, 
 
 Physiology 
 Thomas Tooke, 1771- 
 
 1856, Political Econo- 
 my, History of Prices 
 
 William Buckland, 1784- 
 1856, Geology
 
 138 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 1800 RobertMontgomery,1807 
 1855, 'Omnipresence of 
 the Deity,' and other 
 Poems 
 
 Charlotte Bronte (Currer 
 Bell), 1824-1855, 'Jane 
 Eyre,' and other Novels 
 
 Douglas JeiTold, 1803- 
 1857, 'Men of Charac- 
 ter,' ' Mrs. Caudle's 
 Lectures,' Dramas 
 
 Sydney, Lady Morgan, 
 1785-1859, 'Wikllrish 
 Girl,' and other. Novels 
 
 Leigh Hunt, 1784-1859, 
 Poems, Essays 
 
 Thomas DeQuincey, 1786- 
 1859, 'Confessions of 
 an EnglishOpium Eatei-' 
 Essays 
 
 Thomas K. Hervey, 1804- 
 1859, Poems, Essays 
 
 G. P. R. James, 1301 
 
 1860, Novels 
 
 Anna Jameson, 1794 
 
 1860, ' Female Charac- 
 ters of Shakspere,' 
 * Handbook to Oalleries 
 of Art' 
 
 Albert Smith, 1816-1860, 
 Novels, Tales, Bur 
 lesque Sketches 
 
 Lady Charlotte Bury, 
 1775-1861, Novels 
 
 J. W. Cunningham, 1778 
 
 1861, 'The Velvet 
 Cushion,' Poems 
 
 Catherine Gore, 1800- 
 1861, 'iMothers and 
 Daughters," The Bank- 
 er's Wife,' and other 
 Novels 
 
 Elizabeth Barrett Brown- 
 ing, 1809-1861, 'Au- 
 rora Leigh,' and other 
 Poems 
 
 Charles James Lever, 
 1803-lSGl, 'Harry Lor- 
 requer,' ' Charles 
 
 O'MAlley' 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 
 
 Sir Edward Parry, 1790- 
 1855, Voyages to the 
 Arctic Regions 
 
 Sir T. L. Mitchell, 1792- 
 1855, Expeditions into 
 the Interior of Aus- 
 tralia 
 
 John Britton, 1771-1857, 
 Topography, Antiquities 
 
 John Macgregor, 1799- 
 1859, Commercial Sta- 
 tistics 
 
 Henry Hallam, 1778- 
 1859, Constitutional 
 History of England 
 
 Charles Macfarlaue, 1800- 
 1853, Travels, History 
 
 John Lee, 1779-1859, 
 Ecclesiastical History 
 
 Sir James Stephen, 1788 
 
 1859, History, Essays 
 in Ecclesiastical Bio- 
 graphy 
 
 Thomas, Lord Macaulay, 
 1800-1859, Essays, 
 History of England 
 WilliamMure, 1799-1860, 
 History of Greek Lite- 
 Sir Henry G. Ward, 1796- 
 
 1860, Travels 
 
 DavidJardine, 1794-1 860, 
 History of the Gun- 
 powder Plot 
 
 SirCharles Fellows, 1799- 
 1860, Travels in Asia 
 Minor 
 
 Sir Francis Palgrave, 
 1788-1861, History of 
 the Anglo-Sa-xons 
 
 Joliii, Lord Campbell, 
 1779-1861, Lives of the 
 Lord Chancellors and 
 Chief Justices of Eng- 
 land 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1800 
 
 Speculative and Soikntifio. 
 
 William Yarrell, 1784- 
 1856, Natural History 
 
 John Ayrton Paris, 1785- 
 1856, On Diet 
 
 Sir William Hamilton, 
 1788-1856, Metaphy- 
 sics 
 
 John Forbes Royle, 1797- 
 
 1856, Botany 
 
 T.D. Hincks, 1767-1857, 
 Oriental Languages 
 
 Andrew Ure, 1778-1857, 
 Chemistry, ' Dictionary 
 of Arts and Manufac- 
 tures ' 
 
 John Wilson Croker, 1780- 
 
 1857, Politics, Criticism 
 John Harris, 1804-1857, 
 
 ' Mammon' (prizeessay), 
 Theology and Physics 
 
 J. M. Kemble, 1807-1857, 
 Anglo-Saxon Language 
 and Literature 
 
 Hugh Miller, 1802-1856, 
 Geology 
 
 Stephen Robert Rintoul, 
 1787-1858, Politics, 
 'Spectator' Newspaper 
 
 GeorgeCombe, 1788-1858, 
 Phrenology, ' Constitu- 
 tion of Man ' 
 
 Jane Webb Loudon, 1800- 
 
 1858, Gardening for 
 Ladies 
 
 William J. Broderip, 1788- 
 
 1859, Natural History 
 Dionysius Lardner, 1793- 
 
 1859, Physics 
 John P. Nichol, 1804- 
 
 1859, Astronomy 
 Alexander Fletcher, 1778- 
 
 1860, Theology 
 JohnNarrien, 1782-1860, 
 
 Mathematics, Military 
 
 Engineering 
 William Spence, 1783- 
 
 1860, Entomology 
 Horace Hayman Wilson, 
 
 1786-1860, Sanskrit 
 
 Language 
 R. Bentley Todd, 1809- 
 
 1860, Surgery 
 
 Sir Howard Douglas, 1775- 
 
 1861, Military and 
 Naval Defences 
 
 T. Southwood Smith, 
 1788 — 1861, Philo- 
 sophy of Health 
 
 W. J. Donaldson, 1812- 
 1861, Philology
 
 Waterloo Bridgfe. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 State of the Fine Arts to the close of the Regency — Architecture — Imitation of Greek models— 
 St. Pancras Church — Wyatt and Gothic restorations — Soane — Holland — Smiike — Wil- 
 kins — Nash — Regent-street and Regent's Park — Churches — Bridges — Telford — Rennie— 
 Sculpture — Banks — Bacon — Flaxman — Chantrey — Westmacott — TheTownley, Phigaleian, 
 and Elgin Marbles — British Institution — Dulwich Gallery — Painting — West — Copley — • 
 Fuseli — Haydon — Lawrence — Wilkie — Turner — Painting in Water Colours — Engraving — 
 Line Engrarers— Wood Engraving — Bewick — Lithosjraphy. 
 
 It is the purpose of the present chapter to carry forward the survey of 
 the state of the Fine Arts from 1783 to the end of the Eegeucy. 
 
 Architecture in the last years of the eighteenth century was far from being 
 in a flourishing condition. There was much building, but there was little 
 Art. It was the epoch of the rise of that style of architecture which 
 culminated during the Eegency and then collapsed : the style of imitative 
 Greek art. Towards the end of the century was commenced a publication 
 thijit should be of service in the earlier stage of our inquiry.* It formed, 
 when completed, two costly folio volumes, was addressed to " the Professor, 
 the Student, and the Dilettante, in this noble branch of the Polite Arts," 
 and professed to give " Plans and Elevations of Buildings, public and private, 
 erected in Great Britain " during the past few years. Estimated simply from 
 the examples in these volumes, the character of our architecture and the 
 condition of architectural taste sixty years back must indeed have been at a 
 low ebb. And evidently there was on the part of the author, himself an 
 architect of position, the full intention to afford a favourable representation 
 of the current architecture. He gives views and descriptions of a few 
 
 * "The New Vitruvius Brltannicus, " by George Richardson, Architect, 2 vols, folio. 
 London, 1797—1808.
 
 140 ARCHITECTURE— IMITATION OF GREEK MODELS. [1784-1820. 
 
 public buildings, many mansions, but no churches' — an omission easily 
 explained, for no churches were erected then with any pretensions to archi- 
 tectural character, nor indeed till the last years of the Eegency. The build- 
 ings are by the leading architects of the time ; by the "Wyatts, Soane, 
 Wilkins, Adams, Mylne, Holland, Nash, and others most in request with 
 private employers, as well as public bodies. In looking over the examples, 
 we see certain general characteristics, which are really the characteristics of 
 the architecture of the period : a formal and symmetrical arrangement to 
 which convenience is often made to give way ; in the exterior design, poverty 
 of thought and absence of imagination or invention ; the general mass 
 without grandeur or beauty ; the ornamental details of the most meagre and 
 common-place description. But it was a time when what we should now call 
 poverty was regarded as purity. Dallaway, an authority in those days, 
 writing at this very time,* whilst speaking of the beauty of the newly erected 
 Trinity House, complains that its " purity of style " is injured by the intro- 
 duction of bas-reliefs on the fa9ade. All the examples in the " New Vitruvius " 
 are, or claim to be, Greek in character, except two or three which are pro- 
 fessedly Gothic. With Chambers had ended the classical Italian style. His 
 Somerset House had indeed not long been finished ; yet not only is there no 
 representation of it here, but in none of the buildings shown is any imitation 
 of it traceable. Almost every building, whetlier public or private, has 
 a Greek portico or pediment — usually Ionic — affixed against a wall of 
 the baldest and most un- Grecian character, pierced with plain holes for 
 windows. 
 
 And this sort of thing went on nearly to the end of the period under 
 review. In the latter part of it there was indeed improvement of a certain 
 kind. Grecian travel, or a close acquaintance with Grecian models, came to 
 be as regular a part of every architect's course of study, as a visit to Rome 
 and the measurement of Eoman remains had been a few years before. As a 
 consequence, the Grecian orders were copied with greater accuracy, and 
 Grecian mouldings were more or less liberally introduced. But the portico 
 continued to be the grand feature. So that the portico was an exact copy, 
 or followed strictly the proportions, of some extant example in Athens or 
 Ionia, the body of the building was, externally at least, of comparatively 
 little consequence. Nor was it by any means deemed essential that the 
 portico should have any special adaptation to place or circumstance. An 
 Ionic portico was made, during even these last and best years of Greek 
 imitation, to grace iudifi'erently the front of a lunatic asylum, a post-office, 
 or a church ; whilst the massive Doric was considered equally applicable to a 
 theatre or a mint, a palace or a corn-market. The culminant example of 
 this mechanical reproduction of a Greek type may be seen in the church of 
 St. Pancras, by Euston-square, London, at once the latest, most " correct," 
 and costliest of the semi-Greek churches. On the southern side of a temple 
 dedicated to the Grecian nymph Pandrosus, which stood on the summit of 
 the lofty Acropolis, and under the clear sky of Athens, was a porch the 
 supports of which, instead of being the usual columns, were six exquisitely 
 
 * " ADecdotee of the Arts in England, or Comparative Observations on Architecture," &Cy 
 iio., 1800.
 
 i78i-lS20.] ST. PANCRAS CHURCH. Ill 
 
 sculptured female figures. This porch was copied exactly — except indeed 
 that its size was increased, and that the material of the structure was stone, and 
 of the figures "compo," instead of the bright Penthelic marble — and placed 
 against the side of a church in almost the lowest part of the flat and foggy New 
 Road. And, as though to push the solecism to its limit, whereas the original 
 stood on the south side of the temple under the full glare of a mid-day 
 Athenian sun, while a much larger Ionic portico occupied the corresponding 
 position on the north side, in the church the porch was reproduced in exact 
 counterpart on both sides ; the northern porch, untouched by a gleam of 
 sunshine being that which is in full view of the entire stream of traffic, 
 while the southern porch is comparatively hidden. It only requires to be 
 added to complete the aesthetic conception, that these Loudon porches were 
 made to serve as vestries, a chimney-pot being the crowniug ornament of 
 each, whilst the basements are burial-places. "With such evidence of mere 
 routine reproduction we can hardly be surprised to find, at the very close of 
 the period, one of the most distinguished architects of the time declaring it 
 to be " a melancholy fact that Architecture has not kept pace with our other 
 advances towards perfection — nay, that in that noble art we are at least a 
 century behind our neighbours on the continent." * This was too strongly 
 expressed, perhaps, but it is the fact that it was a time of cold conven- 
 tionalism and unreasoning imitation. Yet, palpable as now seems the 
 absurdity of merely copying Grreek buildings or portions of buildings, 
 without regard to purpose, place, or climate, or to the entirely different cir- 
 cumstances of the age and the people for which the buildings were intended, 
 we must bear in mind that the copying from Greek temples only gave way 
 before the copying of Italian palaces and Gothic churches. The really 
 " melancholy fact " is, that in all the forty years here passed in review, 
 probably not a building could fairly be quoted as an example of con- 
 siderate adaptation of style to purpose, or of thoughtful originality of 
 design. 
 
 Whilst, however, the architecture of this period claimed to be essentially 
 Greek, one of the most conspicuous of its professors secured a large measure 
 of his celebrity by the practice of Gothic. As we saw in a previous chapter, 
 James "Wyatt sprung into fame by the erection, in 1772, of the Pantheon. 
 He had since been extensively employed in the erection of country mansions 
 of the set " classic " style, and he continued to be so employed to the end of 
 hi^ days. But the death, in 1784, of Essex, the protege of Horace Walpole, 
 who had long acted almost exclusively as the architect of cathedrals, colleges, 
 and other important Gothic buildings, left an opening which Wyatt hastened 
 to occupy. Lee Priory, Kent (1781)), his first essay in this style, was 
 praised by "Walpole. He soon found grander opportunities for displaying his 
 capability of rivalling the mediaeval designers or improving on their designs. 
 Chief among his Gothic buildings were Ponthill, erected (1795, &c.) at an 
 almost fabulous cost for the celebrated Beckford ; the palace at Kew, of 
 "castellated Gothic," which was left unfinished, and finally pulled down 
 without having ever been occupied ; and Ashridge, Hertfordshire, built for 
 the earl of Bridgewater. Eegarded as imitations of the Gothic of any 
 
 * Sir John Soane, " Civil Arcliitecture," folio, 1829, p. 12.
 
 142 WYATT— GOTHIC RESTORATIONS. [1784-1820. 
 
 period, or as what is now spoken of as a development of Gothic, these 
 buildings would appear quite puerile. They are in fact an incongruous 
 admixture of what may, perhaps, be called Gothic forms and details, though 
 of the latest and most meagre description, adapted to structures which 
 neither in plan nor elevation are in any sense Gothic. But about some ot 
 them, Ashridge in particular, there is a certain grandiose picturesqueness 
 never seen in the architect's pseudo-classic mansions. And it must be 
 remembered in mitigation of his Gothic heresies, that Gothic, when Wyatt 
 began to practise it, had received no such searching investigation as that to 
 which it has since been subjected. Not only were its principles undefined, 
 but even its details had never been accurately represented. It was in fact 
 to antiquaries as much as to architects an unknown language, and "Wyatt 
 was too busy a man to spend much time in deciphering its hieroglyphics. It 
 is noticeable, however, as an illustration of the little genuine feeling he had 
 for Gothic architecture, as well as of the little regard that was given to the 
 subject generally, that at Oxford — where, if anywhere, Gothic would have 
 seemed the appropriate style — when Wyatt was called in to construct a 
 library for Oriel college, he, as we find it stated in an architectural work of a 
 somewhat later time, " introduced a correct Ionic ;" whilst for the gateway at 
 Christchurch, he introduced " a beautiful Doric," though it is considerately 
 added, " the columns, when compared with the Greek, appear too slender." 
 But his most indefensible Gothic misdeeds were his so-called "restorations." 
 As the chief professor of Gothic architecture he was employed in repairing 
 several of our noblest cathedrals, and in so doing altered or destroyed with 
 reckless hand whatever seemed to him unnecessary or even unsymmetrical. 
 Especially was this the case at Hereford, Litchfield, and Salisbury ; at the 
 last he altogether demolished among other things a bell tower, and several 
 chapels of exquisite beauty. Magdalen, Merton, All Souls, Balliol and 
 several other Oxford colleges, also sufiered in difi'erent degrees from his 
 unhappy restorations. Samuel Wyatt, a brother of James, had a consider- 
 able reputation, and his works are not wholly devoid of invention. Like his 
 brother he was largely employed in constructing private residences. His 
 best building of a public character was Trinity House, Tovver Hill, of no 
 great architectural merit, but noteworthy as having on the front rilievi by 
 Bacon, and in the interior one of the latest of those allegorical ceiling 
 paintings that once furnished such profitable occupation for the pencils 
 of Verrio, and Laguerre. Sir Jeffrey Wyattville, the nephew, scholar, 
 and faithful follower of James Wyatt, belongs only in part to this 
 period ; his great work, the alteration of Windsor Castle, was not com- 
 menced till 1824 ; whilst Sidney Sussex College was eight or ten years 
 later. His earlier works were chiefly private residences of the ordinary 
 Wyatt type. 
 
 Sir John Soane ought to serve as the representative of tlie highest order 
 of architectural ability of this period. On the death of Taylor, in 1788, he 
 was appointed architect to the Bank of England. On the death of Chambers 
 (1790) he was made architect to tlie Woods and Forests. He was a royal 
 academician, and professor of architecture in the Eoyal Academy ; and 
 he was knighted on account of his professional eminence. Sonne's chief 
 building is the Bank of England, which was greatly enlarged and entirely
 
 1784-1S20.] 
 
 SOANE— BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 H3 
 
 remodelled by him, the works extending over a period of thirty years 
 (1788 — 1829). The interior, including the public rooms, has been much 
 altered by Mr. Cockerell since Soane's time, which may be regarded as an 
 evidence of inconvenient arrangement or of extended business ; the exterior 
 has also been altered, and improved in the alteration, by giving an increased 
 elevation to the principal entrance-front; but the great portion of the 
 exterior, on which Soane's reputation now mainly rests, is still nearly as he 
 left it. At the time of its erection it was commonly regarded as a master- 
 piece. It is now as commonly condemmed. There can be no question that 
 it is deficient in one of the grand requisites of good architecture— propriety. 
 The columns have nothing to support ; beneath the pediments are no door- 
 ways ; there are the forms of windows, but they admit no light. The whole 
 is a mask. The parts are for ornament, not use. They may please at the first 
 glance, but the mind refuses to dwell with a continuous pleasure on objects 
 which suggest a use they do not supply. Else, there are parts of this screen 
 
 Bauk of England, North-West View. 
 
 of an elegant and even picturesque appearance. Such is the well-known 
 north-west angle, Soane's own favourite composition, with its skilfully 
 arranged and graceful Eoman-Corinthian columns. Every one feels this to have 
 been a happy conception of the architect, and it serves excellently to conceal 
 the oblique meeting of the walls — a defect that if left apparent would have been 
 an almost fatal injury to a building of classical character. So again some of 
 the inner-courts are very elegant and effective. Soane had considerable 
 ingenuity in these lesser matters. Wherever any irregularity of ground-plan
 
 i44 HOLLAND— SMIRKE—WILKIXS. [1784-1520 
 
 existed, or any peculiarity of arrangement was required, he was usually ready 
 with some quaint or graceful contrivance that would meet or conceal the 
 difficulty. But a sort of scenic ingenuity is the highest meri't his works 
 possess. They have portions of much beauty, but as a whole are mean, if 
 not insignificant. The exterior of a building of so important a character, 
 and covering so vast a space as the Bank of England, might have been 
 expected to form a grand and imposing mass : in reality it is little more than 
 a long, low, unmeaning, decorated wall-screen. Pew of Soane's buildings 
 remain unaltered. The front of the Treasury, "Whitehall, has been entirely 
 remodelled by Sir Charles Barry. The Courts of Law, Westminster, remain 
 nearly untouched ; but they will probably soon be swept away altogether. 
 The Bourgeois Gallery and Mausoleum at Dulwich, and his own house in 
 Lincoln's Inn Fields, are perhaps the chief of Soane's buildings which remain 
 as he left them, but, like the Law Courts, they are inconvenient, cramped, 
 and unsatisfactory. 
 
 Holland, who, as architect to the Prince of "Wales, remodelled Carlton 
 House, and added the Ionic portico and screen, was one of the first to employ 
 the true Ionic order, if he was not, as some have fancied, the first to introduce 
 it. He enjoyed a large measure of celebrity in his day, but little is left ot 
 his more important buildings. Old Drury, opened in 1794, was destroyed 
 by fire in 1809. Carlton House was pulled down in 1826. The Brighton 
 Pavilion was orientalised by Nash. The East India House (designed by him 
 in 1799, but often erroneously ascribed to Jupp, the company's surveyor) is 
 about to be demolished. The loss of these is, however, of little consequence, 
 except as being that of a link in the history of English architecture. 
 
 Sir Kobert Smirke was the first to erect a Doric portico in the metropolis. 
 This formed the grand entrance to Covent Garden Theatre, built by him in 
 1808-9. Smirke had travelled in Greece as well as Italy, and published 
 professional comments on the edifices he examined. His Doric portico 
 was announced as the first absolutely correct reproduction of a pure Greek 
 order. It satisfied classical connoisseurs, and the architect at a bound became 
 famous. He did not indeed attempt to carry "pure Greek" principles 
 beyond the portico, but he placed on the fafade statues and bas-reliefs by 
 Elaxman, which served to indicate the purpose of the building, a purpose the 
 building itself would scarcely have suggested. The theatre was destroyed hy 
 fire in 1856, The chief architectural feature of the long front of the Mint, 
 erected by Smirke in 1811, is a pediment supported on Doric columns, but 
 these rest on a rusticated basement, and there is little else in the building 
 that is Greek either in form or spirit. Smirke erected many other public and 
 private edifices, but his two greatest works, tlie Post Office, and the British 
 Museum, belong to a later period. 
 
 Another of the travelled architects of the classic Greek epoch was Wilkins, 
 who died professor of architecture to the Royal Academy in 1839. Like 
 Smirke, he first came into notice by his descriptions of ancient Greek remains, 
 the result of a professional visit to Athens. His first important building of a 
 public character was Downing College, Cambridge, commenced in 1807, 
 which as far as completed proved to be beyond comparison the dullest, 
 heaviest, and most common-place collegiate building in the two universities. 
 But it was called Greek, and it was considered to be classic ; and when the
 
 1784-1820.] 
 
 NASH— REGENT-STREET, 
 
 145 
 
 East India Company soon after determined on erecting a college, Wilkijis 
 was appointed its architect. Haileybury College is almost a duplicate of 
 Downing College. Wilkins also attempted gothic. His first large building 
 in this style, Donington Castle, Leicestershire, erected about the close of the 
 18th century, hardly rose in any respect above the level of Batty Langley 
 gothic. When called on to execute some gothic buildings at Cambridge, 
 the proximity of King's College Chapel gave a little more elevation to his 
 style. But he still thought it an evidence of refinement to cover the open oak 
 roof of a college-hall with white paint. He will probably be longest remem- 
 bered by the National Gallery and University College, but these were not 
 commenced till after the time with which we are at present concerned. The 
 Nelson Columns which he erected at Yarmouth and in Sackville-street, 
 Dublin, only deserve mention as illustrations of the taste of the time and of 
 the architect. 
 
 Nash, one of the most conspicuous of the architects of the latter portion 
 of this period, commenced his career as a builder as well as an architect. He 
 erected a large number of mansions in England and Ireland, the major part 
 of them " classic" in style with the inevitable Ionic portico ; others " castel- 
 lated," in which strong battlemented keeps and machicolated towers are 
 intermingled with large plate-glass windows and undefended doorways in a 
 manner that would have very much surprised the fierce feudal lords, whose 
 grim abodes these were supposed to reproduce. Nash was the favourite 
 architect of the Prince Eegent ; but his grand architectural efibrt, Bucking- 
 ham Palace was not commenced till 1825. We have here, therefore, to speak 
 
 Waterloo Place, leadiug toward Regent-street. 
 
 of him in connection mainly with the formation of Eegent-street, which, what- 
 ever may be the character of its architecture, must be regarded as a grand 
 improvement on previous London streets, and as having greatly stimulated 
 improvement in our street architecture. Eegent street was begun in 1813. 
 VOL. VIII.— 234.
 
 116 REGENT'S PARK-CHURCHES. [1784-1820, 
 
 In. laying out its course Nash aimed to produce tlie greatest amount of effect. 
 He combined several bouses togetber so as to produce tbe appearance of a 
 single large building ; and be varied tbe design of almost every block. He 
 made the new street of greater widtb tban any former street in tbe metropolis, 
 and vpbere it crossed tbe two great tborougbfares of Oxford-street and 
 Piccadilly be formed widely-sweeping circuses. At tbe southern end be 
 provided a long colonnade. At tbe northern end where tbe broad street 
 curves sharply round he carried forward a church entrance, crowning a 
 circular porch-tower with a lofty spire, so as to produce a striking termina- 
 tion to tbe vista. In tbe same way tbe position of each of the churches and 
 public buildings in tbe new street was laid down with a view to scenic 
 display. But this was the object throughout. Unluckily, in bis eagerness 
 for show, — stone fronts being impracticable on account of tbe expense, — he 
 made all tbe fronts of bis stately "street of palaces" of plaster, and what 
 seemed elaborate carving was mere moulded stucco. It was not left for a 
 succeeding generation to denounce this as " sham." Wits and critics alike 
 launched their weapons against tbe architect, some of them glancing off 
 against bis royal patron.* Nash about tbe same time laid out Regent's Park, 
 and designed the Terraces which border its pleasant glades. It was in this 
 kind of work be was most at home. He was a poor architect, but be has 
 given us tbe finest street we yet have in London, and one of the pleasantest 
 parks. Tbe Regent's Canal, another of Nash's projects, was carried out 
 simultaneously with Regent's Park, to the beauty of tbe northern side of 
 which he made it materially to contribute. 
 
 It has already been said that scarce any churches were erected during tbe 
 period before us. There were indeed several of the " proprietary chapels," 
 then tbe popular class of new churches, but they were usually plain brick 
 buildings of the cheapest description. Towards the end of the period there 
 came about a change. Marylebone Church, commenced in 1813 by tbe elder 
 Hardwick, was a substantial and costly edifice ; and is a fair specimen of 
 tbe architecture of the time. A still more costly structure St. Pancras 
 Church, already referred to, was commenced in 1819. It was designed by 
 tbe Inwoods, and is remarkable as tbe most elaborate attempt made in this 
 country to apply (not to adapt) pure Greek forms to a Protestant church. 
 Marylebone Church cost about 60,000Z. ; St. Pancras very nearly 80,000Z. It 
 is worthy of note that in tbe forty years ending with 1820 scarcely a gotbic 
 church had been erected, whilst during tbe next forty years tbe land was 
 covered with them. But tbe movement which led to the astonishing revival of 
 church building bad already commenced. In March, 1818, parliament voted 
 a million for tbe erection of new churches ; and a Commission was appointed 
 to direct the expenditure of the money. The result of tbe labours of the 
 Commission soon became evident. Tbe Gotbic revival was some years longer 
 in making itself felt. 
 
 * One of the best of the many witticisms circulated at the time, was an epigram in which it wa» 
 proposed to visit on the prince the evil deeds of his architect : — 
 
 " Augustus at Rome was for building renown'd, 
 For of marble he left what of brick he had found : 
 But is not our George, too, a very great master ? 
 He finds London brick, and he leaves it all plaster."
 
 1784-1820.1 BRIDGES— TELFORD. 147 
 
 Tt is needless to carry farther our examination of tlie architecture of 
 this period ; but there is one class of structures, Bridges, which must be 
 noticed, because about this time they passed definitively out of the hands of 
 the architect into those of the civil engineer. The transfer may indeed be 
 said to have originated with one who was a bridge-builder, if he could not 
 be called an architect, before he became an engineer. Thomas Telford was 
 apprenticed to "a general house-builder" of Langholm in Dumfries, and 
 when the future designer of the Menai Bridge, and the engineer of some of 
 the greatest works that had ever been undertaken in this country, first set up 
 as master on his own account, he was ready to undertake any kind of masonry, 
 from cutting letters on grave-stones, to the building of country byres, high- 
 land churches, or plain stone bridges. When he came to London he worked 
 for awhile under Chambers on Somerset House, then in course of erection. 
 He felt no hesitation therefore, on the score of professional disqualification, 
 when required as county surveyor to construct a bridge of some size across 
 the Severn at Montford. This was a stone bridge of the usual type, but in 
 it he introduced some valuable constructive modifications. His next bridge, 
 which crossed the Severn at Buildwas, was of iron on stone piers, and was 
 long regarded as a model of its class. An iron bridge had been built at Coal- 
 brookdale in 1775. Telford's iron bridge was erected in 1795-6, and was a 
 vast improvement on its predecessor. It consisted of an unusually flat arch 
 of 150 feet span. An iron bridge erected about the same time at Sunderland 
 by Mr. T. "Wilson, consisted of a single arch of 236 feet span, and of such a 
 height above the river as to permit the passage under it of vessels of 300 tons 
 burden. The success of these important works insured the use of the new 
 material. Telford was employed upon engineering works of enormous 
 extent, in the course of which he had to erect many hundred bridges, and 
 he employed iron or stone indiiferently according to the nature of the locality, 
 and the greater economy or fitness of either material in each particular case. 
 Telford's grand works, the Highland Eoads and Bridges, the Caledonian 
 Canal, the EUesmere Canal, the Holyhead Eoad, and others of scarcely leas 
 importance, belong to this period, but hardly fall within the compass of a 
 survey of the Fine Arts. In the Highland improvements alone he coi^istructed 
 above a thousand miles of new road, and twelve hundred bridges ; on the line 
 of the EUesmere Canal he spanned the valleys of the Dee and the Chirk 
 with aqueducts of a greater height and magnitude than had been previously 
 ventul'ed upon ; while several of the bridges on the Holyhead road were of 
 importance both as engineering works, and as works of art. Such especially 
 was the grand Menai Suspension Bridge, begun in 1819, a work that has 
 indeed been surpassed as an engineering triumph by its neighbour, the 
 tubular bridge of Eobert Stephenson, but in beauty the suspension bridge 
 far excels its younger rival. 
 
 John Eennie, the elder, like his great compatriot Telford, was of humble 
 Scottish origin. His earliest occupation was that of a millwright, but his 
 remarkably mechanical ingenuity brought him into notice, and he was while 
 yet a young man employed on works requiring much constructive skill. He 
 settled in London as an enginee-r about 1782. In 1799 he commenced a 
 1 handsome stone bridge of five arches at Kelso, and he afterwards constructed 
 some others that were much admired. Bui; his chief work in this line was
 
 148 RENNIE— WATERLOO BRIDGE— SCULPTURE. [1784-1820. 
 
 "Waterloo Bridge, whicli he commenced in 1811, and completed iu 1817, at a 
 cost of above a million. This is by general consent one of the noblest bridges 
 of modern times. Indeed for simple grandeur of character, convenience of 
 roadway, and stability of construction, it would be difficult to name its peer 
 among bridges of any earlier period, and the only bridge of subsequent erec- 
 tion which has, in this country at least, equalled or surpassed it in these 
 most important particulars is the new London Bridge, foF which Eennie 
 himself made the designs, though its erection was confided to his sons George 
 and John. The iron bridge which crosses the Thames at Southwark was 
 another of Eennie's bridges. The iron bridge at Vauxhall was designed and 
 erected by Mr. James Walker. Eennie's magnificent engineering works, the 
 East and "West India Docks, with their vast ranges of warehouses ; the 
 London Docks ; the Prince's Dock, Liverpool ; Plymouth Breakwater, and 
 the improvements carried out by him in the Grovernment dockyards of 
 Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke, with other important works 
 at various harbours, proofs of the amazing growth of the country in wealth 
 and commerce, and of the great increase of engineering skill, rather than 
 works of Fine Art, can only be mentioned here. 
 
 In Sculpture the leading artists were Maxman, Banks, Bacon, and 
 Nollekens, all of whom have been spoken of in a previous chapter, and 
 Chantrey and Westmacott, who belong more particularly to a later period. 
 Our notice of sculpture may therefore on the present occasion be very brief. 
 The first two of the sculptors just named, produced during this period some 
 works of great poetic power, and the last also executed some of much beauty. 
 But in the main sculpture dealt rather with portraits of the living and memo- 
 rials of the dead, than with efforts of imagination. And in monuments of a 
 public character, especially those with which the nation honoured the men 
 who had fought her battles by land and sea, our sculptors continued to repeat 
 with strange persistency the conventionalisms and machinery which had for 
 ages ceased to have any intelligent meaning, or to afiect either the heart or 
 the understanding of any class of spectators. British soldiers and sailors, 
 and even senators, philanthropists, and philosophers, were clad in the scanty 
 folds of a "classical" drapery, in some instances almost without drapery at 
 all, and, although the monuments were to be erected in the midst of a Christian 
 cathedral, and in full view of a congregation engaged in Christian worship, 
 were surrounded with heathen gods, goddesses, and attributes ; or if, as was 
 sometimes the case, the hero wore his full regulation uniform, he yet had his 
 due attendance of undraped heathen deities. Banks was unfortunately one 
 who yielded most unreservedly to this classic misconception. The monu- 
 ments to Captains Burgess and Westcott in St, Paul's, two of the latest of 
 his works, are among the least defensible of their class. Happily Banks will 
 not be judged by his public monuments. The exquisite recumbent figure 
 of Penelope Boothby in Ashbourne Church, showed with what pathos he 
 could invest a private memorial when he trusted to the simple promptings 
 of the feelings. His " Mourning Achilles," of which the model is in the 
 British Gallery, no patron having had sufficient taste to commission ita 
 execution in marble, is perhaps the noblest work of the kind produced by an 
 English sculptor ; and in other works he excelled as much in grace as here in 
 grandeur.
 
 1784-1820.] BACON— FLAXMAN—CHANTREY. 149 
 
 Bacon, who died in 1799, produced at this time little besides public 
 monuments of level modiocrity ; but these he produced with a facility and 
 profusion that aroused the envy of his rivals and the admiration of the 
 multitude. The best are such as those of Dr. Johnson and John Howard in 
 St. Paul's, in which he had no occasion to go beyond simple portraiture ; but 
 even in these the attempt to attain elevation of style by arraying such men 
 in a costume borrowed from antiquity, has nearly destroyed personal resem- 
 blance, and even mental characterization, !Nolleken3 shared only to a small 
 extent in these public commissions, but he was in great request for private 
 monuments. His strength lay however in portraiture ; and his busts and 
 statues are now the most life-like representations left of many of the most 
 memorable personages of his time. 
 
 riaxman lived throughout this period, the truest and greatest sculptor 
 England had ever produced. Sculpturesque design was as much the genuine 
 expression of his mind as it was that of the sculptors of ancient Greece. In 
 some of his imaginative works, as well as in several of his public monuments, 
 his genius was fettered by the current conventionalisms ; but even in works 
 of the latter class, as the monument to Lord Mansfield, he showed of how much 
 grandeur of moral expression sculpture was capable. His private monu- 
 ments, especially some of those to females, are of the most touching tender- 
 ness, and of the purest Christian sentiment. In the magnificent group at 
 Petworth of the Archangel Michael overcoming Satan, illustrative of the 
 famous lines in Milton, we have proof that our sculptors might find in our 
 own poets, or in the Book which is a part of the very life of every one, 
 subjects well fitted for sculpturesque treatment, and which, whilst they 
 would require and repay the utmost exertion of mental power, and technical 
 knowledge and skill, would as much come home to the feelings and the 
 understanding of the men and women of to-day, as did the gods and heroes 
 of the old Greek sculptors to the hearts of their contemporaries. The 
 deities of a dead mythology never can thus come home to any modern people, 
 unless treated as symbols of some deep or subtle truth, as they on rare occa- 
 sions have been by genius of a high order. Plaxman's Psyche may perhaps 
 take rank in this class. His Pastoral Apollo is like a breath of rustic poetry. 
 But the Venuses, Dianas, nymphs, and the like, which Plaxman's contem- 
 poraries and successors put forth in any quantity at every exhibition, will be 
 gazed at with as little genuine sympathy on the part of the spectator as was 
 felt, in their production by the sculptor. How thoroughly Plaxman's mind 
 was imbued with the purest Greek feeling is evinced by his illustrations to 
 Homer, Hesiod, and ^schylus ; while in nobleness of conception, and beauty 
 and delicacy of expression, the illustrations to Dante are fully equal to them. 
 Chantrey, during the latter years of the regency, had taken his place 
 among the foremost living portrait sculptors. The manly simplicity of his 
 style met with early recognition, and his chisel found ample and worthy 
 employment. A large proportion of the men most distinguished in letters, 
 art, and public life, sat to him, and in most instances he was considered to 
 be successful in preserving the likeness, as well as in maintaining a certain 
 elevation of character. His busts are finer than his portrait-statues, and 
 these than his imaginative works. But his statues have the great merit of 
 first fairly grappling with the difficulties of modern costume. The happiest
 
 iSO TOWNLEY, PHIGALEIAN, AND ELGIN MARBLES. [1784-1820, 
 
 of the monuments in whicli he ventured on a poetic mode of treatment, 
 " the Sleeping Children," in Lichfield Cathedral, belongs to the period 
 under review, but the idea vras certainly caught from Banks's monument 
 of Penelope Boothby, and the design was made by Stothard. Westmacott's 
 earlier poetic works include the " Psyche," and " Cupid," at Woburn ; 
 " Euphrosyne," belonging to the Duke of Newcastle, and many other 
 very pleasing classic subjects ; but among them are some of a homelier 
 and more original character, as "the Distressed Mother," "the Homeless 
 Wanderer," and others of a similar order. Westmacott also executed at 
 this time several monumental statues for "Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's 
 Cathedral; the well-known "Achilles," erected in Hyde Park "by the 
 women of England," in honour of the Duke of Wellington, and numerous 
 other commissions of a public character. 
 
 The taste in sculpture of both artists and the public was no doubt much 
 influenced by the purchase and exhibition of three important collections of 
 ancient marbles. The earliest purchase was in 1805, of the large collection 
 formed by Mr. Charles Towuley, of sculpture chiefly of Eoman date, but the 
 work of Greek artists, and embracing many works of exceeding loveliness and 
 interest. This formed the nucleus of the magnificent national collection of 
 ancient sculpture in the British Museum. The next grand addition was that 
 of the series of reliefs whicb had adorned the Temple of Apollo Epicurius, near 
 Phigaleia, and which the Prince Regent bought at a cost of nearly 20,000?,, 
 and presented to the nation in 1815. These rilievi, though falling short of 
 the highest excellence of G-reek art, are believed to be the work of some of 
 the best scholars of Phidias. They are of great beauty, and of greater in- 
 terest, as illustrating the history of Greek art. But the most important of 
 the collections was that of the sculpture of the Parthenon, commonly known 
 as the Elgin Marbles, for the purchase of which parliament voted, in 1816, 
 the sum of 35,000Z. These wonderful works are by far the finest extant 
 examples of Greek sculpture when at its greatest perfection — the sculpture 
 of the time of Pericles, executed by Phidias, or by his scholars under his 
 immediate superintendence. Eor years the Earl of Elgin, who whilst ambas- 
 sador to the Porte obtained the firman through whicb he was enabled to 
 remove the sculpture from the Parthenon, was assailed with the bitterest 
 invectives for this act of Vandalism as it was termed. But in truth, the earl 
 by their removal saved these marvellous works from utter destruction ; he 
 was not in time to save them from grievous mutilation. The Parthenon had 
 been shattered in the Venetian bombardment ; afterwards, the eastern pedi- 
 ment, with its matchless statuary, was thrown down to fit the building for 
 the service of the Greek Church ; later, and up to the hour when they were 
 rescued by Lord Elgin, the statues were used as targets by the Turkish 
 soldiers ; and finally, in the war of Greek independence (1827), the building 
 received great additional injury during the bombardment of the city, but the 
 best of the sculpture was then happily safe in the British Museum, preserved 
 for ever for the free study of all. 
 
 A national collection of sculpture was thus formed ; but it was not till 
 1824 that a national gallery of painting was founded. Something had, how- 
 ever, been done towards clearing the way for such a consummation. In 1805, 
 a small body of nobJ^men and gentlemen who felt an interest in art, succeeded
 
 1784-1820.] BRITISH INSTITUTION— DULWICH GALLERY. 151 
 
 in establishing the British Institution, the primary object of which was de- 
 clared to be " to encourage the talents of the artists of the United Kingdom ;'* 
 and with this view the Shakspeare Gallery, built by Alderman Boydell, was 
 purchased and appropriated to the exhibition and sale of the productions of 
 British artists, and the exhibition of pictures by the old masters. This 
 last was the grand novelty in the scheme. Most of the directors, and many 
 of the subscribers, were themselves the possessors of collections of paintings 
 by the old masters, and from their galleries, and the collections of other 
 liberal amateurs, has been obtained annually enough pictvu'es of a high class 
 to make a most interesting and always varied exhibition. These exhibitions 
 for the first time afforded to the general public the opportunity of seeing at 
 their leisure paintings by the great masters ; and there can be little doubt 
 that to them is to be ascribed a large measure of the interest in art which 
 resulted in the formation of the National Gallery. The directors at the same 
 time sought to encourage living artists, not only by providing a gallery for 
 the sale as well as exhibition of their works, but by offering annual pre- 
 miums for pictures of a high character, and by occasionally purchasing their 
 pictures. Among the painters to whom premiums were awarded were 
 Hilton, Haydon, Alston, Bird, Liunell, Martin, and others whose names 
 will be remembered, but as may be supposed more whose names are already 
 forgotten. Up to 1820 the Society had only purchased four pictures, first 
 among which was Benjamin West's " Christ Healing the Sick," for which 
 the directors gave the painter 3000 guineas, and which they presented to the 
 National Gallery immediately after its formation. The interest in art no 
 doubt also received a considerable impulse from the opening to the public in 
 1812 of the collection of paintings, chiefly of the Dutch and Flemish schools, 
 bequeathed to Dulwich College by Sir Francis Bourgeois, and for the recep- 
 tion of which a gallery was built by Sir John Soane. The Dulwich Gallery 
 does not rank among the great picture galleries, but it has done good service 
 to art in this country, and not least as a precursor of the National Gallery. 
 It is understood that the pictiires now forming the Dulwich Gallery, and 
 which were collected by Mr. Noel Desenfans, were offered to the government 
 during the ministry of ]Mr. Pitt on condition that a gallery should be built 
 for their reception. The offer was declined. 
 
 After a few years of enfeebled health, Reynolds finally laid down his 
 pencil in 1787, and died in 1792. From this time till the year at which this 
 chapter closes, West, as president of the Eoyal Academy, was nominally at 
 the head of the British school of painting. During these years he continued 
 to paint pictures of large dimensions, and treating of the loftiest themes in 
 Bacred and profane history. But his style underwent no change, and we 
 have nothing to add to the summary printed in a former volume. Hi.-' 
 friendly rival was John Singleton Copley, whose manner is favourably shown 
 in his " Death of Chatham," now a leading ornament of the British section of 
 the National Gallery. ^ Fuseli, too, painted, lectured, and taught ; but bis 
 spasmodic compositions now scarcely excite a passing remark ; and though 
 critics termed them sublime, it may be doubted whether they ever were in 
 any degree popular. His greatest effort was his Milton Gallery, a series of 
 fifty paintings illustrative of the poetry of Milton. The pictures were 
 publicly exhibited in 1799, and again in the following year, but the receipts
 
 152 HAYDOX— LAWRENCE. [1784-1820. 
 
 at the doors were insufficient to defray the expenses, and the painter would 
 have been seriously embarrassed had not private admirers come forward to pur- 
 chase enough of the pictures to save him from the consequences of his temerity. 
 Among the younger aspirants for immortality in " high art," the unfor- 
 tunate Haydon was in the latter years of the regency the most conspicuous. 
 His " Macbeth," " Judgment of Solomon," " Christ's entry into Jerusalem," 
 and other gallery paintings, had aroused equal admiration and criticism, and 
 Haydon in an evil hour vras tempted to defend his own theories of art and 
 to denounce those of his adversaries. Controversy has irresistible fascina- 
 tions for some minds. Haydon was one of her victims. To his private and 
 personal quarrels he added one with the Royal Academy. The result was 
 what might have been predicted. He became a fluent speaker, and a piquant 
 if not a very correct or altogether trustworthy writer. In his proper calling 
 he made no advance. His earliest works were indeed his best. And as he 
 found once ardent admirers grow cold, and timid friends fall away, his 
 bitterness increased, and from this time to his unhappy death he was a 
 disappointed man. Tet he might have been a good painter, and he was 
 certainly a good teacher, if we may estimate a teacher's ability by the success 
 of such pupils as Eastlake, Lance, and the Landseers. Hilton was elected an 
 Academician in 1820, but he had as yet chiefly painted classical subjects, and 
 had altogether failed of popular recognition. Etty had at present scarcely 
 made his name at all known. Martin had startled the critics and fascinated 
 the public by his " Joshua" (1814), and his still more extraordinary "Fall of 
 Babylon" (1819). Stothard was delighting a narrow circle with his elegant 
 but rather feeble paintings ; and spending his real strength in making 
 vignettes of almost matchless grace for engraving, at the rate of half a 
 guinea or a guinea a-piece. 
 
 In portraiture, from the early part of the nineteenth century to his death 
 in 1830, Lawrence was regarded as the undisputed successor to Eeynolds. 
 Northcote, Opie, Hoppner, Beechey, and Jackson, portrait painters of con- 
 siderable ability and followers more or less of Eeynolds, enjoyed a fair share 
 of royal or popular patronage, but none obtained like Lawrence universal 
 favour. Perhaps Lawrence owed somewhat of his good fortune to the very 
 contrast afi'orded by his easy superficial elegance to the more sombre splen- 
 dour of his predecessor. It would be foolish to compare Lawrence as a 
 painter with Eeynolds, but Lawrence was undoubtedly in his way an 
 admirable artist. His sitters were the noblest and fairest in the land, and,, 
 whilst preserving the likeness, he seldom failed in the expression of manly 
 intellect, and never in that of female beauty. His grand series of portraits 
 of the distinguished actors in the aff'airs of 1814 and 1815 now in the 
 Waterloo Gallery, Windsor Castle, could probably not have been so well 
 painted by any contemporary artist. In a certain broad and vigorous delinea- 
 tion of a male head, however, Lawrence was surpassed by Eaeburn, at this 
 time the principal portrait painter in Scotland. But Eaeburn was a supremely 
 national painter. It was the hard-featured shrewd Scottish head he gloried 
 in painting and painted so well. The southron fared but indifi"erently under 
 his vigorous pencil. Of a wholly difierent stamp was the elegant Harlow, 
 who might in time perhaps have rivalled his master, Lawrence, but who died 
 in opening manhood. His " Trial of Queen Katharine," despite its popularity. 
 
 i
 
 1784-1820.] WILKIE— TURNER. 153 
 
 gave little promise of greatness as a painter of history ; it was in fact rather a 
 group of portraits of the Kemble family, and as such it should be estimated. 
 
 Portraiture in the hands of Lawrence assumed a new phase at this period. 
 But a far greater change was made in the painting of scenes of domestic life 
 by David Wilkie. Hogarth had painted both high life and low life, but it 
 was with the pencil of a stem and relentless satirist, and in order to point a 
 moral. Bird had still more recently depicted scenes of humble life, but with 
 a halting and unequal touch. Wilkie was the first to paint with thorough 
 artistic skill, and a gentle genial humour and quiet appreciation of character, the 
 pleasant side of the everyday life of the peasant and the yeoman. His earlier 
 pictures, "The ViUage Politicians," " The Blind Fiddler," " The Card Players," 
 " The Village Festival," " The Cut Finger," " Blindman's Bufi"," " The Penny 
 Wedding," and the like, were all of this homely cheerful character. It was not 
 till 1815 that he touched a more pathetic chord in his " Distraining for Rent." 
 From the outset Wilkie achieved an almost unbounded popularity. His 
 pictures told a story that aU could understand ; expressed a sentiment with 
 which all could sympathise ; and were in all respects painted with a truthful- 
 ness which every one could recognise. They won, therefore, the general 
 suffrage ; and at the same time their conformity, in composition, colour, and 
 other obvious technical qualities, to the principles of the Dutch masters 
 who excelled in similar subjects, was equally efficacious with the cognoscenti 
 who then gave the law in pictorial criticism. Up to the close of the period before 
 us, Wilkie continued to paint carefully studied subjects of the healthy homely 
 class in which he first acquired fame. Two or three years later he visited 
 the continent, and from that time he entirely altered his manner of painting 
 and range of subjects. But that change we need not here anticipate. At 
 the time we now leave him he was undoubtedly the most generally popular 
 painter in England. 
 
 Far greater and probably more permanent was the influence on English 
 art of the genius of Turner than that of either of the painters we have yet 
 noticed. Landscape painting towards the close of the last century was fast 
 falling into conventionalism and inanity. The authority of the men who had 
 just passed away, and the imitation of the old masters, paralysed individual 
 effort. Turner commenced his career by making coloured drawings, in which 
 he aimed at little more than correct topographical representation. Long 
 after he began to paint in oil he continued to study and imitate the manner 
 of his predecessors, — Wilson, Loutherbourg, and occasionally Gainsborough, in 
 English scenery ; Vandevelde in representations of the sea ; whilst Claude 
 ■was his guide in classical compositions. But year after year he showed more 
 and more self reliance and originality ; an ever increasing knowledge of the 
 capabilities of landscape art, and extended acquaintance with the phenomena of 
 nature. The wonderful range of Turner's powers as a landscape painter were 
 not wholly developed in the period before us. He visited Italy for the first 
 time in 1819, and his Italian pictures were consequently as yet unpainted. 
 But his power as a painter of English scenery had reached its farthest extent. 
 The " Crossing the Brook," the noblest English landscape of its kind ever 
 painted, was exhibited in 1815. It now forms one of the choicest of the 
 Turner treasures in the National Gallery. Its hitherto unapproached expres- 
 sion of space, magical aerial perspective, quiet beauty of colour, and poetical
 
 154 TURNER— HIS EARLY POPULARITY. [1784-1820. 
 
 feeling, gave it a standing quite apart from the work of any previous painter of 
 English scenery. Gainsborough doubtless excelled Turner in a poetic render- 
 ing of close home scenery ; Wilson perhaps excelled him in a certain classical 
 elevation of style. But neither Wilson nor Gainsborough could have painted 
 a picture like this. Nor did Turner ever equal it. " Richmond Hill," painted 
 in 1819, was a grievous falling off; and he never again painted English scenery 
 on a grand scale, for of course such pictures as "Rain, Steam, a*nd Speed " 
 are to be classed as poetic fancies rather than English scenes. 
 
 But it was not merely as a painter of English landscape scenery that 
 Turner was pre-eminent. In his " Shipwreck," now in the ]>fational Gallery ; 
 " A Gale at Sea," in the gallery of the Earl of Ellesmere ; " The Wreck of 
 the Minotaur," belonging to the Earl of Tarborough, and some others, ho 
 had painted a stormy sea with a force and majesty such as no previous painter 
 had ever reached. In such works again as the " Garden of the Hesperides " 
 (1806); "ApoUo and Python" (1810); "Building of Carthage" (1815); 
 and " Decline of Carthage" (1817); he had treated classical subjects with, 
 singular brilliancy and vigour of imagination. And not only these but a 
 multiplicity of other pictures showed at once his wonderful versatility and 
 poetic feeling, as well as his close observation of nature, especially of every 
 variety of atmospheric phenomena, and his unrivalled knowledge of effect. 
 
 It is sometimes said that it was not till towards the close of his life that 
 Turner's greatness as an artist was recognised. But this is a mistake. From 
 almost the very outset of his artistic career, his superiority was admitted 
 both by his professional brethren and such of the public as then took an 
 interest in art. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy at the 
 earliest age (24), at which, by the laws of the academy he could be elected ; 
 and again, at the earliest legal age (27), he was elected a full member. 
 Collectors bought his pictures at constantly increasing prices ; and engravers 
 and publishers eagerly outbid each other for his drawings, knowing well that 
 engravings after Turner were more popular than engravings after any other 
 landscape painter. He had indeed by the time at which we are arrived 
 become a wealthy man by the exercise of his art, — which is certainly more 
 than at that time could have been said of any other English landscape 
 artist, — and in a country like England pecuniary success is at least an 
 evidence that a man is admired by those to whom he addresses his 
 efforts. There were differences of opinion respecting Turner's works, as 
 there always are differences of opinion respecting the works of a man 
 of original genius, but his genius was not without recognition. It was 
 not till later, when his pictures had become to the ordinary observer un- 
 intelligible eccentricities, that his popularity as a painter began to wane. 
 
 During the later years of this period there were several other admirable 
 landscape painters : — Callcott, a pleasing and graceful artist, coming some- 
 times close to the qiiieter manner of Turner, sometimes approaching the 
 manner of the landscape painters of the Netherlands, but never very original 
 or very vigorous ; Constable, both original and vigorous — a hearty, unsophis- 
 ticated delineator of homely English scenery, and especially of the scenery 
 of the eastern counties — but a good deal of a mannerist, and somewhat 
 confined in his range ; Nasmyth, the best of the minute copyists of our 
 woodlands and commons, ill-understood, and little appreciated in his life, and
 
 1784-1820.] MORLAND— WATER-COLOUR PAINTING— GIRTIX. 155 
 
 now perhaps a little overrated ; Hofland, a genuine lover of quiet river 
 scenery; and Collins, the ablest painter of his day of coast and inland 
 scenery in combination with rustic groups. 
 
 Animal painting had in George Morland, at the early part of this period, 
 a representative of great ability, but of coarse intemperate habits, and the 
 character of the man too often found expression in his pictures. He was 
 succeeded by James "Ward, only lately passed from among us at a patriarchal 
 age, a clever painter, but superseded while still youDg, by a yet younger 
 rival, Landseer, and falling, perhaps as a consequence, into hopeless and most 
 eccentric mannerism. Edwin Landseer, though yet a youth, had attained 
 celebrity before the close of this period, but his real artistic career was 
 hardly commenced. 
 
 The essentially English art of Water-colour Painting dates its rise from 
 this period. In the catalogues of the earliest exhibitions of the Eoyal 
 Academy we find entries of "stained drawings." These belong to the first 
 crude stage of the art. They were produced by the entire drawing being in 
 the first instance made in light and shadow, with a grey or neutral tint. 
 Over this the several local colours were passed in thin transparent washes, 
 the ground tint softening the harshness of the superposed local colours. 
 The sharp markings of the details were then added, usually with a reed pen. 
 In this manner, modified by the habits of the respective artists, some very 
 pleasing drawings were made by Paul Sandby, Hearne, and especially Cozens, 
 a landscape draftsman of refined feeling and considerable power. Turner and 
 his friend and fellow student, Thomas Grirtin, for some time practised in this 
 manner; but they were led gradually to abandon it, and adopt the method — 
 which originated with them — of painting every object in the first instance in 
 its proper local colour, and by subsequent shades and tints, and various 
 manipulatory processes, modifying this first painting till the whole picture is 
 brought to the desired appearance. By this improved method water-colour 
 painting acquired an exquisite freshness and transparency quite its own, and 
 which in the opinion of many almost atoned for the absence of the depth, 
 force, and richness of oil. Girtin was a landscape painter of considerable 
 ability if not genius, and some of his water-colour paintings are of exceeding 
 beauty ; but he died young, and it is mainly to Turner that the infant art 
 owed its early culture and vigorous growth. His sketches and finished 
 pictures in water-colours are extremely numerous and extremely fine ; and in 
 th«m may be traced at least the germs of almost every improvement or 
 modification of the water-colour process. Turner early turned aside to oil 
 painting, though he continued to execute his vignettes for the engravers in 
 water-colours ; but many able artists devoted themselves wholly to the rising 
 art, and brought it to tlie perfection which it ultimately reached. Among 
 these may be mentioned Prout, unrivalled as the delineator of picturesque 
 old houses and fragments of crumbling ruins ; and David Cox, one of the 
 boldest, and at times one of the grandest, painters of English hills, meadows, 
 and sandy coasts, under the influence of storm and rain. So rapidly did the 
 new art become popular, and so confident were its professors in their own 
 strength and resources, that in 1S05 they formed themselves into a Society 
 of Painters in Water Colours, which has ever since continued to hold with 
 unfailing success an annual exhibition of the works of its members.
 
 156 ENQRAVINa, [1784-1820. 
 
 The great extension of a taste for art was in no way more clearly sbown 
 tlian in the increased demand for engravings and for illustrated publications. 
 The higher branches of engraving v^ere however hardly so successfully culti- 
 vated. There was no engraver like Strange or Woollett, and the prints 
 called for by the public were of a less elevated class of subjects. But 
 engravers of unquestionable ability were very numerous, and an unparalleled 
 number of excellent prints was published. Boy dell's Shakspeare was 
 issued towards the close of the century at a vast expense. To such works as 
 this, the folio Milton, Macklin's Bible, the Poet's Gallery, and the like, 
 succeeded a host of topographical works, editions of the poets, essayists, and 
 novelists, with small vignettes, and handsome folios and quartos of antiquarian 
 and architectural subjects. In the former class the drawings of Turner may 
 be said to have formed a school of landscape engravers neat, refined, and 
 brilliant beyond previous example in the execution of small plates, but wanting 
 in grandeur and vigour when grappling with plates of a large size. The archi- 
 tectural publications, especially those of John Britton and the elder Pugin, 
 aided by the singular talent of the Le Keuxes in engraving mediaeval build- 
 ings, did much to arouse that strong interest in Gothic architecture which 
 has in our own day led to such remarkable results. 
 
 The demand for illustrated works had however an inevitable tendency to 
 stimulate their more rapid and cheaper production. Engravers, instead of 
 executing their plates throughout with their own hands, employed pupils and 
 assistants on the earlier and less important parts. Further to expedite the 
 process machines were at this time invented, the best being that of Mr. 
 Lowry, by which the skies, plain backgrounds, and the like, could be ruled in, 
 and thus the work of weeks be accomplished in a few hours. The tendency 
 of this employment of mechanical appliances, and of the system of journey- 
 work, was undoubtedly to interfere with the development of the highest 
 individual excellence ; but the increasing of the quantity and cheapenLug the 
 cost of works only inferior to those of the first class in the higher refine- 
 ments of the art, assisted largely to diffuse a knowledge and a love of art. 
 The use of steel plates instead of copper, which carried this cheapening pro- 
 cess so much farther, was introduced early in the century ; but steel plates 
 were not tried for fine art purposes till about 1818, and did not fairly come 
 into use till five or six years later. 
 
 At the head of the line engravers, at the commencement of this period, 
 was William Sharp, who has left some good prints from the works of the old 
 masters, but who was greatest as a portrait engraver : his print of John 
 Hunter after Eeynolds, is of its kind a masterpiece. Other line engravers of 
 ability, his contemporaries and successors, and like him engravers of subject 
 pieces and portraits, were Fittler, Sherwin, "Warren, John Landseer the 
 father of the painter, James and Charles Heath, Eaimbach, who engraved 
 the earlier prints after Wilkie, and John Burnet, like Eaimbach best known 
 by his prints after Wilkie, but like him an excellent engraver of general 
 subjects. The landscape engravers in line were very numerous, and the later 
 ones especially brilliant executants. Among them were Middiman, Byrne, 
 Cooke, John Pye, a thoroughly conscientious and able artist, the Findens, and 
 others. In mezzotinto engraving, landscape was moat successfully cultivated 
 during this period, as portraiture had been in the preceding. Earlom, who
 
 1784-1820.] WOOD ENGRAVING— BEWICK— LITHOGRAPHY. lo7 
 
 engraved the Liber Yeritatis of Claude ; Lupton, who engraved many plates 
 in the Liber Studiorum and the Eivers of Turner ; Charles Turner, who in 
 bis plate from Turner's Shipwreck produced the noblest print of its class yet 
 published ; and S. Reynolds, were eminent in this branch of art. Aqua- 
 tinta, now almost a lost art, was at this time successfully practised by 
 F. C. Lewis, Daniell, and others. Bartolozzi at the beginning of the period 
 was in the height of popularity for his engravings in the dotted or chalk 
 manner, but they were really of a very meretricious character. "William 
 Blake was also an engraver in various manners, some of them peculiar to 
 himself. But Blake is best known by his designs, full of the wildest extra- 
 vagancies, yet with constantly recurring quaint, graceful, and suggestive 
 fancies, always however running along the narrow line which proverbially 
 divides genius from madness. 
 
 Wood Engraving dates its revival from this period. Thomas Bewick, to 
 whose rare application and ability this revival is almost entirely to be ascribed, 
 began to engrave on wood while apprentice to a general engraver ; and he 
 received from the Society of Arts a prize for a wood-cut of a " Huntsman 
 and Hounds," almost as soon as his apprenticeship had terminated. Bewick 
 resided all his life at his native place, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; drew most of 
 his designs, and engraved them with a combined vigour and delicacy of 
 line, power of expression, and felicitous characterization of surface, that came 
 with all the freshness of novelty upon his contemporaries. Bewick published 
 his " Greneral History of Quadrupeds," the work by which he acquired cele- 
 brity, in 1790. It passed through several editions, and secured a ready 
 reception for all his subsequent publications. In finish it was surpassed by 
 later works, but only his " British Birds " (1797-1804) equalled it in design. 
 Among single prints, the finest was his " Chillingham Bull." Bewick was 
 always happiest in drawing and engraving objects of natural history. But 
 his little tail-pieces, especially those illustrative of the efi"ects of cruelty to 
 animals, have some of them touches of a grim humour that would have done 
 no discredit to Hogarth's pencil. 
 
 Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder towards the end of the 
 18th century. It was introduced into England iu 1801 by M. P. H. Andre, 
 under the designation of Polyautography. Andre's chief publication was a 
 series of thirty-six prints from sketches by "West, Stothard, and other eminent 
 artists ; but his rude and blurred impressions were regarded as mere curiosi- 
 tifes. In 1805 he transferred his business to a Mr. Volweiler, who was 
 equally unsuccessful. The art seems then to have been neglected for some 
 years, till Mr. R. Ackerman established a press, from which was issued in 
 1819 the illustrations to his translation of Senefelder' s " Complete Course of 
 Lithography." These prints, though much better than Andre's, were still 
 very deficient in strength and clearness. It was not till the subject was 
 taken up by Mr. Charles Hullmandel, who to the training of an artist 
 added some chemical knowledge and great manipulative dexterity, that the 
 capabilities of the art were fairly developed in this country. A really good 
 lithograph can, however, hardly be said to have been produced in London aa 
 early as 1820.
 
 REIGN OF GEORGE IV. 
 
 1820.— LIST OF THE KING'S MINISTERS. 
 
 Cabinet Ministkes. 
 
 f 
 
 Earl of Harrowby 
 
 Lord Eldon 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland 
 
 Earl of Liverpool 
 
 Kight Hon. Nicholas Vansittart 
 
 Viscount Melville 
 
 Duke of Wellington 
 
 Viscount Sidmouth 
 
 Viscount Castlereagh 
 Earl Bathurst 
 
 Right Hon. George Canning 
 
 Right Hon. C. B. Bathurst . 
 Bight Hon. W. W. Pole . 
 Right Hon. F. J. Robinson . 
 
 Earl of Mulgrave 
 
 Lord President of the CounciL 
 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Master General of the Ordnanee. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Home Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Aflfairs. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Department of 
 War and the Colonies. 
 
 President of the Board of Control for 
 the Affairs of India. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 Master of the Mint. 
 
 Treasurer of the Navy, and President of 
 the Board of Trade. 
 
 Without office. 
 
 Not of the Cabinet. 
 
 Viscount Palmerston . 
 Right Hon. Charles Long . 
 Earl of Chichester 
 Marquess of Salisbury 
 Bight Hon. C. Arbuthnot 
 S. R. Lushington, Esq. 
 Bight Hon. Thomas Wallace 
 Bight Hon. Thomas Plumer 
 Bight Hon. Sir John Leach . 
 Sir Bobert Gifford . 
 Sir John Copley 
 
 Secretary at War. 
 Paymaster-General of the Forces. 
 
 i Joint Postmaster-General. 
 
 V Joint Secretaries of the Treasury. 
 
 Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 
 Master of the Bolls. 
 Vice-Chancellor. 
 Attorney-General. 
 Solicitor-General. 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 Gkeat Officers of State. 
 
 Marquess of Cholmondeley 
 
 Marquess of Hertford . . . . 
 
 Duke of Montrose .... 
 
 His Boyal Highness the Duke of York 
 
 Sir Hildebrand Oakea 
 
 Bight Hon. WilUam Huskisson . . 
 
 Lord Steward. 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Master of the Horse. 
 Commander-in-Chief. 
 Lieut. -General of the Ordnance. 
 First Commissioner of Woods and Forests, 
 and Land Revenue. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Earl Talbot . 
 
 Lord Manners 
 
 Right Hon. Charles Grant 
 
 Bight Hon. Sir G. F. Hill 
 
 Lord Lieutenant. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 Chief Secretary. 
 Vice-Treasurer,
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Meeting of Parliament on the demise of George III. — Prorogation and dissolution — The Cato- 
 street Conspiracy — Debate on the subject of Queen Caroline — Differences between the King 
 and the Cabinet regarding the Queen — The ministerial propositions finally agreed to — 
 Opening of the new Parliament — Preparations for the Coronation — The Queen expected — 
 Her arrival — Green bag containing papers laid before Parliament — Adjoumment^Con- 
 ferences for averting a public proceeding — Failure of the negotiation — The Bill of Pains and 
 Penalties — Scenes in the streets— Scenes in the House of Lords — The third reading of the Bill 
 carried by a small majority — The Bill finally abandoned — Joy of the country — Discussions 
 on the subject of the Queen in the next Session — The Coronation of the King — The Queen 
 vainly endeavours to be present — Her death and funeral. 
 
 "Upon the Accession of George the Fourth there were the same Ministers 
 in the Cabinet as those which formed the Administration of the Earl of 
 Liverpool at the close of the war ; with the exception of Mr. Canning, who 
 in 1816 succeeded the earl of Buckinghamshire as President of the Board of 
 Control.* 
 
 The Statutes of William and of Anne provided tliat the demise of the 
 Crown should not interfere with the regular course of Constitutional govern- 
 ment. Under these Statutes the Parliament, although adjourned to the 15th 
 of February, assembled on Sunday morning the 30th of January ; adjourned 
 till the next day ; and then proceeded to the swearing in of members. On 
 the 17th of February, the Houses having again assembled, a Message was 
 delivered from the King, recommending that such measures should be adopted 
 by the House of Commons as were necessary to provide for the exigencies of 
 the public service, during the short period that must elapse between the 
 termination of the present Session and the opening of a new Parliament, 
 ■which it was his Majesty's intention to caU without delay. The Houses sat 
 till the 28th of February. During a few days after the death of his father, 
 the King had been seriously ill, not without some apprehension that this 
 would be the shortest reign in English history. When the Parliament was 
 prorogued, with a view to its immediate dissolution, the Speech of the Eoyal 
 Commissioners alluded to " the flagrant and sanguinary conspiracy which has 
 lately been detected." 
 
 "The Cato-street Conspiracy," atrocious as were the objects which it 
 
 * See volume vii. p. 576. The List in the opposite page of the King's Ministers, of the Great 
 Officers of State, of the Law Officers, and of the Irish Administration, is of the date of June. 
 1820.
 
 160 THE CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. [1820. 
 
 proposed to accomplish, base and brutal as were tbe wretcbed persons engaged 
 in it, fearful as might have been the national terror had it been successful, was 
 certainly not calculated, as affirmed in the Eoyal Speech, " to vindicate to 
 the whole world the justice and expediency of those measures " [the Six 
 Acts] to which the Parliament had resorted " in defence of the laws and Con- 
 stitution of the kingdom." The detection and prevention of what was some- 
 thing more formidable than " a little plot in a hay-loft," * though not in any 
 degree a symptom of a revolutionary spirit in the country, were certainly not 
 advanced by the enactment of an unconstitutional code. The proceedings of 
 a knot of sanguinary madmen had for some time been well-known at the 
 Home Office. " The principal informant was a modeller and itinerant vendor 
 of images, named Edwards, who first opened himself at Windsor, as early as 
 the month of November, to Sir Herbert Taylor, then occupying an important 
 official situation in the establishment of George III."t Arthur Thistle- 
 wood, the leader of the gang who desired to assert their patriotism by the 
 murder of all the King's ministers, had been a subaltern officer in the militia, 
 and afterwards in a regiment of the line. He had sojourned in France in 
 the early stages of the French Revolution, and was amongst the number of 
 those who held that violence and insurrection were the proper modes of 
 redressing the evils of what they considered bad government. He was one 
 of the persons engaged in the Spafields riot; and, in company with Dr. Watson, 
 was tried for high treason. Upon his acquittal his rashness displayed itself 
 in sending a challenge to Lord Sidmouth, for which folly he was convicted of 
 a misdemeanor, and underwent a year's imprisonment. This term of con- 
 finement expired about the period of the afiray at Manchester. Upon his 
 trial he declared that his indignation at this occurrence prompted him to take 
 his resolution of murderous vengeance : " I resolved that the lives of the 
 instigators should be the requiem to the souls of the murdered innocents." 
 He adds, " In this mood I met with George Edwards." He had decided 
 that " insurrection became a public duty " before he met with George 
 Edwards, " the contriver, the instigator, the entrapper," as he terms him. J 
 
 A noble writer, whose facts are in most cases of far higher value than his 
 opinions, says, " the history of the Thistlewood Conspiracy, as related in the 
 criminal annals of the period, illustrates in a remarkable manner the diseased 
 state of political feeling then existing in England." § Lord Sidmouth has 
 himself testified to the general healthfulness of public opinion : " Party 
 feelings appeared to be absorbed in those of indignation, which the lower 
 orders had also evinced very strikingly upon the occasion." || It was not in 
 the nature of Englishmen to entertain any other feeling than indignation at 
 
 * Sydney Smith's "Memoirs," vol. ii. p. 195. 
 
 + "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. p. 316. The Author of the "Popular History" well 
 recollects this man, who had a small shop in the High-street of Eton, where the most profitable 
 exercise of his art was in the production and sale of a little model of Dr. Keate, the bead master 
 of Eton, in his cocked hat, the consumption of which image was considerable, from its rapid 
 destruction by the junior boys as a mark to be pelted at. Sir Herbert Taylor, whose honour 
 was unimpeachable, was utterly incapable of .suggesting to the spy that he should incite these 
 wretched men to the pursuance of their frantic designs. Yet in this, as in most similar cases, the 
 functions of the tempter and the betrayer are very closely united. 
 
 * " State Trials." See also " Annual llegister," 1820, p. 946. 
 § Duke of Buckingliam, " Court of George IV.," vol. i. p. 9. 
 
 U "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. p. 320.
 
 1820.] THE CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. 161 
 
 the scheme of assassination which was intended to be carried into effect on 
 the 23rd of February. On Tuesday the 22nd, the Earl of Harrowby, 
 President of the Council, was riding in the Park without a servant, when he 
 •was addressed by a person who said he had a letter directed to Lord Castle- 
 reagh. On th-e 23rd Lord Harrowby was to have had a Cabinet dinner at 
 his house in Grosvenor-square, to which, as is usual, none but members of the 
 Cabinet were invited. The person who accosted Lord Harrowby met him 
 the next morning in the Eing at Hyde Park by appointment. That person 
 was Thomas Hidon, a cow-keeper, formerly a member of a Shoemakers' Club, 
 where he knew one of the conspirators, Wilson. By this man Hidon was 
 invited to come forward and be one of a party to destroy his Majesty's 
 ministers, when they were assembled at dinner, by hand grenades thrown 
 under the table, and by the sword if any escaped the explosion. The paper 
 which Lord Harrowby received from Hidon was described as " a note con- 
 taining the whole plot." * The plans of Thistlewood had been also com- 
 municated to an Irishman named Dwyer, who revealed at the Home Office 
 what he had heard. The evidence of Hidon and Dwyer sufficiently agreed 
 to make the Cabinet take their resolution. They determined not to dine at 
 Lord Harrowby's house, but that the preparations for dinner should go on 
 as if no alarm had disarranged them. Mr. Birnie, the police magistrate, was 
 to proceed to Cato-street, with a strong party of police-officers, at seven 
 o'clock, the appointed dinner hour. In Cato-street, which runs parallel with 
 the Edgeware-road, a loft had been engaged by the parties to the plot, and 
 during the afternoon of the 23rd they had been observed conveying sacks 
 into their place of rendezvous. A detachment of the foot-guards had been 
 ordered to turn out for the purpose of accompanying the police, but through 
 some mistake the civil officers had to enter the loft to execute their warrant 
 Avithout the military support. As Smithers, the police officer, first confronted 
 the twenty-four Avhom he found assembled, having gone up into the loft by a 
 ladder, he was stabbed through the heart by Thistlewood, whilst three others 
 of his comrades were stabbed or shot. The lights were put out, and in the 
 confusion Thistlewood, with about fourteen, escaped. The leader, however, 
 was arrested the next morning, the government having offered a reward of a 
 thousand pounds for his apprehension. "When the soldiers arrived they 
 captured nine of the party, with arms and ammunition. 
 
 Thistlewood and four of his principal accomplices were tried for high 
 treason in April. Chief Justice Abbott, in passing sentence of death upon 
 ihh prisoners, expressed what was the universal public sentiment — " That 
 Englishmen, laying aside the national character, should assemble to destroy 
 in cold blood the lives of fifteen persons unknown to them, except from their 
 having fiUed the highest offices in the State, is without example in the history 
 of this country, and I hope will remain unparalleled for atrocity in all future 
 times." These five were executed on the 1st of May. A motion of Alder- 
 man "Wood on tlie day after the execution, the object of which was to blame 
 the conduct of the govei-nment in the employment of Edwards, did not call 
 forth the same animadversion as in the former case of Oliver at Derby. Lord 
 Campbell says, — and few will disagree with him in his opinion — " I do not 
 
 * «'Anuual Register," 3S20, p. 932. 
 VOL. vui.— 235.
 
 162 DEBATE ON THE SUBJECT OF QUEEN CAROLINE. [1820. 
 
 think that Ministers deserved any censure for the manner in which they 
 conducted themselves in this affair." * In such cases there is always the 
 diflSculty of interfering too soon or too late. Some members of the Cabinet 
 proposed that the dinner should take place ; that guards should be stationed 
 near lord Harrowby's house, and that the conspirators should be arrested at 
 the moment of their attempt. Others contended that ministers, being in 
 possession of evidence to satisfy reasonable men, ought to stop the progress 
 of the crime before it went on to the last step. " Lord Castlereagh was for 
 going to the dinner in the face of it all at the hour invited, and letting each 
 gentleman arm himself if he thought proper ; whilst the duke of Wellington 
 counselled to the course that was taken. "f 
 
 The Cato-street Conspiracy for a while absorbed every other topic of 
 popular interest. If this extraordinary event had not occurred, the public 
 iournals would probably have attached more importance to a short debate in 
 the House of Commons, on the subject of Queen Caroline. On the 21st 
 of February, in a Committee of Supply, Mr. Hume, the Member for the 
 Montrose Burghs, — who, since his return in 1818, had begun to take an 
 active part in the discussion of financial questions — pressed to know whether 
 any distinct provision was to be made for the Queen, inasmuch as the Act 
 which granted to the Princess of Wales the sum of 35,000Z. a year, expired 
 on the demise of his late Majesty. He complained, also, that the Queen was 
 slighted, and asked why her name was not inserted in the Liturgy. Mr. 
 Tierney took the same course, with an important variation : " While the 
 noble lord (Castlereagh) called her merely that ' high personage ' instead of 
 recognising her as the Queen — while all Italy, nay, all Europe, was filled with 
 rumours of her guilt, and of official inquiries about it — while her name was 
 omitted in the Liturgy — while she was not acknowledged, — he could not 
 agree to vote her the means of maintaining herself, until the reasons for such 
 extraordinary circumstances as he had recited should be satisfactorily 
 explained." J Mr. Brougham, who was the chief legal adviser of the Queen, 
 maintained that her title did not depend upon any words in the Liturgy, cr 
 upon any Act of Council, or upon any expression of a Minister of the 
 Crown. The provision for the maintenance of her dignity was, it appeared, 
 to be made out of the general sum for which the Minister was about to move, 
 and that arrangement was at present to his mind quite satisfactory. He 
 totally disregarded the rumours which were imagined to cast a cloud of sus- 
 picion upon the Queen's character. Till some specific charge should be 
 submitted to that House, his lips should be sealed upon the subject. If any 
 charge should be preferred, he must beg it to be recollected, that this illus- 
 trious personage was not remarkable for any slowness to meet accusation, 
 nor for any difficulty to prove her innocence. He trusted no appeal upon 
 this matter would ever be made to any turbulent passions out of doors. 
 Lord Castlereagh rose to thank the honourable and learned gentleman for a 
 speech which did equal honour to his head and his heart. 
 
 The perfect agreement between Mr. Brougham and lord Castlereagh 
 must have excited some surprise. But the Queen's legal adviser was no 
 
 * "Lives of the Chancellors," vol. y. p. 3. 
 
 + Rush, "Kesideiioe at the Court of London," second series, vol i. p. 289. 
 
 X Hansard, vol. xli. col. ]G2i>.
 
 1820.] DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE KING AND THE CABINET. 163 
 
 doubt fully cognizant of an arrangement by which the Cabinet had on the 
 21st of February tided over a difficulty which only four days before threat- 
 ened their removal from office. On the 13th lord Sidmouth had written to 
 earl Talbot, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, a brief note, in which he 
 apologizes for not having answered a letter received on the 12th. " If you 
 knew how the day was passed you would not be surprised at the omission. 
 The Groverument is in a very strange and I must acknowledge in a preca- 
 rious state."* The King had for his confidential private adviser Vice-Chan- 
 cellor Leach, who, in 1818, had arranged the Milan Commission, for the 
 purpose of making inquiries into those rumours of the conduct of the 
 Princess of "Wales, which appeared to have determined the King to press 
 the conduct of some very hazardous enterprise upon his Ministers. Six 
 months before the death of Greorge III., the Cabinet had a full sense of the 
 difficulty and danger that would arise if Caroline of Brunswick should return 
 to England as Queen Consort. But they steadily refused to meet the 
 difficulty by acceding to the Prince Eegent's passionate desire for a divorce. 
 With Mr. Brougham, as the Princess of "Wales's law-adviser, they then 
 communicated " in order to bring about some arrangement which should 
 hold good in the event of her Royal Highness becoming Queen."t In 
 August, "the lady in question," as Mr. Brougham terms his client, 
 wrote to him to express her resolve to come over herself, saying she 
 had written to Lord Liverpool to tell him so. The Princess of "Wales's 
 law-adviser expresses himself with some vivacity upon the public danger, 
 and the private discomfort to himself, that would result from this rash 
 determination. " I am confident from her letter of to-day that she now 
 intends to come, and I am still more clear that her coming would be 
 pregnant with every sort of mischief." Mr. Stapleton, who was private 
 Secretary to Mr. Canning, gives the date of this letter, August 5th, 1819, 
 but does not state to whom it was addressed. It is evidently addressed to 
 some official personage, as Mr. Brougham says, " You had better communicate 
 this. I rely on the honour of the party principally concerned to have justice 
 done to my motives, in the event of the other setting the mob against me, 
 which she is quite capable of doing."J 
 
 In a minute of the Cabinet on the 10th of February, the Ministers com- 
 municated to the King their opinion, individually as well as collectively, that 
 a proceeding for high-treason against the Queen was out of the question, and 
 thap a measure of divorce might seriously prejudice the interests of the King 
 and of the Monarchy. They honestly stated that any private individual, 
 circumstanced as the King had been with respect to the Princess, could not 
 expect to obtain a divorce according to the established usage of Parliament. 
 They were of opinion, therefore, that the notoriety of what had been and 
 still were the situation and conduct of the Princess of "Wales upon the Con- 
 tinent, would induce Parliament to give a ready consent to any measure 
 which, while it afibrded to the King security against the invasion of his dignity 
 and comfort by the return of the Princess to England, would be calculated, 
 at the same time, to avoid discussions and disclosures ofiensive to public 
 
 * "Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. p. 310. 
 
 f Stapleton, "George Canning and his Times," 1859, p. 265. 
 
 J Ibid., p. 266.
 
 1C4 • THE MINISTERIAL PROPOSITIONS AGREED TO. [1S20. 
 
 decency, and likely to disturb tlie peace of the country. Tiiey proposed, 
 therefore, a Bill to make provision for the Queen by an annuity, payable only 
 during her continued residence abroad. They thought that the King would 
 be fully justified in withholding those distinctions which it was in the 
 option of his Majesty to confer upon her, — to be named in the Liturgy, and 
 to be crowned. They add, "the intercourse which took place with Mr. 
 Brougham last summer affords just reason for believing that the Princess 
 would be advised to acquiesce in an arrangement founded upon these princi- 
 ples." On this Minute Mr. Canning made a memorandum. "As a part of" 
 
 the whole I agree to the proposed alteration in the Liturgy I 
 
 could not have agreed to the omission of her name if any penal process, 
 of whatever kind, had been in contemplation."* 
 
 On the 12th of February the King replied seriatim to the various objec- 
 tions to his wishes ofiered by the Cabinet. He altogether disapproved of the 
 proposal of settling an annuity upon the Princess, payable only during her 
 residence abroad. On the 14th of Pebruary the Cabinet re-stated to the King 
 their unanimous opinion that, whatever other measure they might feel them- 
 selves justified in proposing, the originating a Bill of Divorce is that which 
 they cannot recommend. On the 17th the King yielded, being " ready, for 
 the sake of the public decorum and the public interest, to make, therefore, 
 this great and this painful sacrifice of his personal feelings." He recited the 
 terms of the proposed arrangement, " to avoid all future misconception;" and 
 he added, " the King further understands that it is the intention of his 
 servants to assert and justify the omission of the Princess's name from the 
 Liturgy." 
 
 Such was the prologue to the great " sensation" drama which was to be 
 enacted four months afterwards. All political agitation appeared to have 
 subsided. Mr. Hunt, and others concerned in the Manchester meeting, were 
 tried at York on the 16th of March and nine following days, on the charge 
 of unlawfully assembling for the purpose of moving and inciting to contempt 
 and hatred of the Government. Henry Hunt, Joseph Johnson, John Knight, 
 Joseph Healey, and Samuel Bamford, were found guilty, and being brought 
 up for judgment in the Court of King's Bench, were sentenced to various 
 terms of imprisonment. At the Leicester Assizes, on the 23rd of March, 
 sir Prancis Burdett was found guilty of a seditious libel. The verdict was 
 impeached in the Court of King's Bench, and the various arguments upon 
 the case had the effect of postponing the judgment till the beginning of 1821. 
 The baronet was sentenced to three months' imprisonment, and to pay a fine 
 of two thousand pounds. Amidst this political quiet, now and then a flying 
 rumour about the Queen appeared in the newspapers. In the gossip of the 
 liigher circles tliere was no foreboding of a coming storm. " Brougham 
 attends frequently at tlie Treasury upon the Queen's business," writes 
 Sydney Smith on the 15th of April. Every one was thinking of the expected 
 -Coronation, in which it appears to be understood as a matter of course, that 
 
 the Queen was not to appear. " The King sits all day long with Lady C , 
 
 sketching processions, and looking at jewels ; in the meantime, she tells 
 everywhere all that he tells to her." t The placidity of the royal mind 
 
 • Th'' Minutes ami the Memoraiulum are given in Mr. Stajiletou's work, pp. -GQi tc 27t. 
 + *' Meiiioii ct' S^'dney Sinilh," vol. ii. p. VJb.
 
 1820.J OPENING OF THE NEW PARLIAMKNT. 1C5 
 
 appears to have been somewhat disturbed in tlie midst of tliese pleafjaut 
 occupations. On the 26th of April the Chancellor writes to his daughter, 
 " Our Eoyal Master seems to have got into temper again, as far as I could 
 judge from his conversation with me this morning. He has been pretty -well 
 disposed to part with us all, because we would not make additions to his 
 revenue." * These minor troubles have a happy capacity for adjustment in 
 a constitutional monarchy, when responsible Ministers possess the requisite 
 degree of firmness. The King opened the session of the new parliament in 
 person on the 27th of April, and had a brief popularity in declaring that he 
 left; entirely at the disposal of Parliament his interest in the hereditary 
 revenues, and that so far from desiring any arrangement which might lead to 
 the imposition of new burdens vipon his people, or even diminish the amount 
 of reduction incident to his accession, he had no wash that any addition what- 
 ever should be made to the settlement adopted by Parliament in 181G. 
 
 Amidst this sunshine the little cloud, no bigger than a man's hand, was 
 seen from afar. Some members of Opposition began again to call attention 
 to the position of the Queen. Mr. Tierney, in a debate on the Civil List on 
 the 8th of May, said that he never expected to be called upon to vote for a 
 Eill to provide for the maintenance of the royal family and household, out of 
 which the Queen of England herself was to be excluded, after being recognized 
 by the lord high chancellor. His allusion was to this circumstance : In the 
 Court of Chancery, on the 11th of April, Mr. Brougham and Mr. Denmau 
 had presented their appointments as attorney-general and solicitor-general 
 to the Queen, which appointments the lord chancellor immediately accepted, 
 saying that " he would consult no views, and regard no considerations in the 
 matter, except such as were purely professional." In the last days of May 
 the preparations for the King's Coronation still formed the chief topic at court. 
 The committee for settling the forms of that ceremony had reported to the 
 King that, as there was to be no crowning of a Queen, peeresses should not be 
 summoned to attend. His Majesty had a ready answer, that as " Queen 
 Elizabeth, though a lady, had both peers and peeresses, so he, though he has 
 no Queen, will have both ladies and gentlemen to attend him."t AVhile 
 these- discussions were proceeding within the palace, the people in public 
 places were thinking very seriously of some other possible occurrence than a 
 coronation — so seriously, that they committed their opinions to the usual 
 issue of a bet. Some, who thought the Queen would not come very speedily, 
 pa^d fifty guineas to receive a guinea a day till she did come. This was the 
 common entry in the gambler's ' book' on the 29th of May, on which day 
 Eldon wrote, " I retain my old opinion that she will not come unless she is 
 insane." On the 1st of June the Queen was at St. Omers, having rapidly 
 travelled thither, accompanied by alderman "Wood. She had previously 
 despatched a courier with letters to London, demanding that a yacht should 
 be sent to convey her to England, and that a palace should be provided for 
 her reception. The Cabinet authorized lord Hutchinson immediately to 
 proceed to St. Omers to make the proposal of an annuity according to the 
 arrangement of February, but with conditions which appear to have been 
 capable of a different construction from those which formed part of the 
 
 * TwLss, "Life of Eldon." vol. ii. p. 362. t Hid., p. 366.
 
 166 ARRIVAL OF THE QUEEN— THE GREEN BIG. [1820, 
 
 proposition made in the " intercourse which took place with Mr. Brougham 
 last summer." Her Majesty's attorney-general accompanied lord Hutchinson. 
 The proposition, which it appears was made then for the first time in a letter 
 addressed by lord Hutchinson to Mr. Brougham, and which, as her legal 
 adviser, he read to the Queen, was rejected by her under his advice.* Her 
 Majesty, with ker civic councillor, hurried off to Calais, was quickly on board 
 a packet, landed at Dover amidst the shouts of the populace, and entering 
 London on the evening of the 6th surrounded by huzzaing thousands, took up 
 her abode at the house of alderman "Wood in South Audley-street. On that 
 same evening a message from the King was presented to both Houses, stating 
 the arrival of the Queen, and announcing that his Majesty had thought it 
 right to communicate certain papers respecting the conduct of her Majesty 
 since she left this country. On the table of each House a green bag was 
 laid which contained the papers, sealed up. 
 
 In the House of Lords, after some discussion, it was agreed that l;he 
 papers should be referred to a Secret Committee. In the House of Commons, 
 previous to taking into consideration the King's Message, Mr. Brougham, as 
 her Majesty's attorney-general, presented a communication from the Queen, 
 in which she stated that she had returned to England in consequence of 
 measures pursued against her honour and her peace by agents abroad. She 
 protested against the formation of a Secret Committee to examine documents 
 privately prepared by her adversaries. She complained of the omission of 
 her name in the Liturgy, as calculated to prejudge her cause. Lord Castle- 
 reagh declared that the Secret Committee was only a preliminary step, to 
 ascertain whether there was any case to proceed with. Mr. Brougham 
 strongly resisted the appointment of the Committee, and commented in the 
 most unqualified terms upon the proposition made to the Queen, which was 
 nothing more nor less than to ask her to say, " Give me fifty thousand a 
 year, and I will plead guilty." Mr. Canning, in vindicating the conduct of 
 the Government, expressed his earnest desire, that this unhappy business 
 should be terminated without any further public proceedings. In reply to 
 Mr. Brougham's complaint of the terms offered to the Queen, he declared that 
 they were the same terms which the Queen's legal adviser had previously 
 considered reasonable. Mr. Brougham, in reply, complained that if Mr. 
 Canning had not considered himself bound to secrecy, he, Mr. Brougham, 
 felt himself, in some degree, under that obligation. He pledged himself to 
 show that there was nothing inconsistent in his taking part in the negotia- 
 tion of July, and in his present course. There was one circumstance in tlie 
 aate of the transaction referred to, which constituted an essential difference 
 between the terms then suggested, and those proposed by lord Hutchinson. 
 " The illustrious person was not then Queen, and it was a very different 
 proposal that she should forbear to assume a title which might fall to her at 
 Bome distant and contingent time, and that she should lay down what she 
 had in course of law assumed. Widely different, too, was that proposal from 
 the proposition of lord Hutchinson ; the one calling on the Princess of Wales 
 not to assume a particular title, which miglit afterwards descend to her, the 
 other to renounce any title taken from the royal family of England." f 
 
 * Ilaiinaid, vol. i. new aeries, col. 973. •)■ Ibid., vol. i. second scries, col. 971.
 
 1S20.] CONFERENCES FOR AVERTING A PUBLIC PROCEEDING. 167 
 
 Mr. Brougbam declared, on his honour, that her Majesty was not in the 
 slightest degree implicated in the proceeding adverted to. " The right 
 lionourable gentleman might treat as he pleased the person who made those 
 propositions, but her Majesty had no more knowledge, no more influence 
 over those propositions, than the child unborn." The historical inquirer 
 may ask, how was it that the Queen had " no more knowledge than the child 
 unborn" of those propositions? We cannot doubt that when the time 
 for a complete revelation shall arrive, there will be a juster solution of the 
 question than the suspicions of Mr. Canning of an absence of " plain 
 dealing ;" less tinctured, possibly, by political rivalry than his assertion tliat 
 " the Grovernment was not prepared to pursue their own course by any means 
 but those which were indicated to them ; and these indications came from a 
 quarter which wished for extremities." * 
 
 The temper of the House of Commons on "Wednesday, th© 7th of June, 
 was signally manifested by its cordial assent to Mr. Wilberforce's motion, 
 that the debate should be adjourned till the following Priday. Mr. Wilber- 
 force says in his Diary, " I endeavoured to interpose a pause, during Avhich 
 the two parties might have an opportunity of contemplating coolly the 
 prospect before them." f The proceedings of the House of Lords were also 
 suspended. On the Friday, Mr. Brougham, by command of the Queen, 
 transmitted a note to lord Liverpool, in which her Majesty said that, sub- 
 mitting to the declared sense of Parliament, she was willing to consider any 
 arrangements that might be proposed consistent with her dignity and 
 lion our. Lord Liverpool, in reply, referred to a note delivered to Mr. 
 Brougham on the 15th of April, as the proposition made on the part of the 
 King. The Queen replied that she had never seen this note. Mr. Brougham 
 explained that her official advisers had not had an opportunity of delivering 
 it previous to the interview with lord Hutchinson. It was then agreed that 
 two of the King's confidential servants should meet two persons to be named 
 by the Queen, to frame an arrangement for settling the necessary particulars 
 of her Majesty's future situation, upon the condition of her residence abroad. 
 The duke of Wellington and lord Castlereagh were appointed on the part of 
 the King, and Mr. Brougham and Mr. Denman on the part of the Queen. 
 This negotiation failed through the want of concession on either side upon 
 one point alone. The insertion of the Queen's name in the Liturgy was 
 demanded on the one side, and refused on the other, although something like 
 an 'equivalent Avas tendered by the agents of the King. Mr. Wilberforce 
 has succinctly stated the general character of these proceedings. " The 
 concessions made by the King's servants, as Mr. Brougham afterwards 
 declared in the House of Commons, were various and great. The name 
 and rights of a Queen were granted to her Majesty without reserve, any 
 recognition of which had formerly been carefully avoided. A royal yacht, a 
 frigate, &c., were olfered. It was agreed that her name and rank should be 
 notified at the Court either of Rome or Milan — the capitals of the countries 
 in which she had expressed her intention to reside ; and that an Address 
 should be presented to the Queen no less than another to the King, to thank 
 
 * Stapleton, "George Canning and his Times," p. 300. Letter from Mr. Canning to 
 Mr. riuskisson, October 2nd, 1820. 
 + Life, vol. V. p. 55.
 
 168 FAILURES OF THE NI':G0TIATI0NS. [1S20. 
 
 her Majesty for having acceded to the wish of the House of Commous." * 
 On the 19th of June this negotiation was announced to Parliament as having 
 failed, i^gain Mr. "VVilberforce attempted to put an end to this unfortunate 
 conflict, by moving a resolution on the 22nd of June, in which, amidst many 
 qualifying phrases, the House declared its opinion tliat if the Queen would 
 forbear to press farther the adoption of those propositions on which any 
 material dilference yet remained, such forbearance would by no means be 
 understood to indicate any wish to shrink from inquiry. The motion waa 
 agreed to by a very large majority. Mr. Wilberforce, as part of a deputation 
 of members, waited the next morning upon the Queen with this resolution. 
 He and his companions were saluted by the groans of the populace. The 
 answer of the Queen rejected the proposed mediation. ' "When this attempt 
 failed Mr. Wilberforce was accused in the newspapers " with trifling with tho 
 House of Commons, and attempting to deceive the people." He had in his 
 possession a triumphant answer to the charge in the positive engagement of 
 the Queen's chief law-adviser. ' She will accede to your Address,' he wrote 
 to Mr. "Wilberforce (June 22nd), ' I pledge myself.' His influence was 
 overborne by a less sagacious counsellor, and with ' a political forbearance 
 which,' says the party whom it spared, * I never knew equalled,' he 
 suppressed this unfulfilled pledge, and bore quietly the groundless charge of 
 an unreasonable interference." f There was now an end of all attempts at 
 compromise. Mr. Canning, when he saw that the chances of an amicable 
 adjustment were over, waited upon the King to express the impossibility for 
 him to take ])art in any criminatory proceedings towards a person to whom 
 he had formerly stood in confidential relations. The King, who sent his 
 answer through lord Liverpool, insisted that Mr. Canning should remain one 
 of his Ministers, following his own course with regard to the Queen. He 
 went abroad, to avoid taking any part in discussions of the House of Com- 
 mons. That House adjourned on the 26th, that the initiatory proceedings 
 upon the Green Bag might take place in the Upper House. On the 4th of 
 July the Secret Committee of the Lords made its Report, declaring that the 
 evidence affecting the honour of the Queen was such as to require a solemn 
 inquiry, which might be best effected in the course of a legislative proceeding. 
 Lord Liverpool then proposed a Bill of Pains and Penalties, which had for 
 its object " to deprive her Majesty Queen Caroline Amelia Elizabeth of the 
 title, prerogatives, rights, privileges, and exemptions of Queen-Consort of 
 this realm, and to dissolve the marriage between his Majesty and the said 
 Caroline Amelia Elizabeth." The second reading of the Bill was fixed for 
 the 17th of August, and on that day commenced what is popularly known as 
 The Queen's Trial. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary for us to refer to the chronicles of the time for the 
 purpose of recalling the impressions which live in our memory of the extraor- 
 dinary scenes of that summer and autumn of 1820, On the 3rd of August tho 
 Queen had removed from her temporary abode in London, to take up her resi- 
 dence at Brandenburgh House at Hammersmith. For four months from that 
 day there never was a cessation of processions marching to Hammersmith, or of 
 cavalcades shouting around the Queen's carriage. On the day before the judicial 
 
 * " Life of Wilbeiforco." vol. v. p. oG. f Ihid. p. 65.
 
 1820.] THE BILL OF TAINS Ai.'D PEXALTIES. IC^ 
 
 proceedings commenced, addresses were presented to the Qaeen by deputations 
 from the county of Middlesex, from St. Leonards Shoreditch, and from the 
 Mechanics of the Metropolis. These assemblages, whether led by the radical 
 Sheriff of Middlesex, in his state carriage, or by enthusiastic committee- 
 men with white wands, gradually swelled into a multitude, of which the 
 advanced guard were trampling down the laurels in her Majesty's garden at 
 Hammersmith, before the rear-guard had passed Hyde Park Corner. Not on 
 that 13th of November, 164!2, when London poured forth its thousands 
 whilst Rupert was fighting in the streets of Brentford, was there a greater 
 earnestness than in those mechanics who marched to Hammersmith under a 
 burning sun, and marched back again, hungry and weary, satisfied that their 
 shouts had advanced the cause of justice for the oppressed. It is impossible 
 not to recognize something of grandeur in such demonstrations, however 
 capable they may be of affording matter for ridicule; 
 
 " All kinds of addresses 
 From Collars of SS, 
 To venders of cresses, 
 
 Came up like a fair ; 
 And all thi-ough September, 
 October, November, 
 And down to December, 
 
 They hunted this Hare ! " * 
 
 The weekly journal from which we quote these lines was the chief of 
 those new papers which. " were established with the professed object of main- 
 taining a constant war against all who espoused her Majesty's cause."t There 
 certainly never was a time in which the proper functions of the press were 
 more degraded to the purposes of private slander. But it must be said in 
 fairness, that if the Queen and her partizans were attacked with the coarsest 
 reviling or the bitterest wit, the King and his supporters were no less subject 
 to libellous attacks far exceeding the accustomed licence of periodical 
 writing. Milton has described the controversialists of London, sitting by 
 their studious lamps, musing, searching, assenting to the force of reason and 
 convincement. It is scarcely necessary to point the contrast furnished by the 
 writers of 1820. The violence and ribaldry of the journals were perfectly in 
 accord with the floods of indecency that were poured out every morning in 
 the short-hand reports of the evidence on the trial — reports which were regu- 
 larly printed by authority, circulated amongst the Peers, and thence duly 
 cdpied in the daily papers. 
 
 If the scenes that were passing in the streets were extraordinary, cer- 
 tainly the appearance presented by the House of Lords, on any one of the 
 days of this trial, was no less remarkable. That House, the old Court of 
 Requests, had been fitted up anew on the accession of George IV. The 
 elevated arm-chair, from which former monarchs addressed the Parliament, 
 had been supplanted by a magnificent throne — a canopy of crimson velvet, 
 supported by Corinthian columns, and surmounted by the imperial crown. 
 For this special occasion of the Queen's trial, galleries had been erected 
 on each side of the House for the accommodation of the unusual number 
 
 * From Theodore Hook's song of " Hunting the Hare," in "John Bull." 
 + "Lord Brougham's Speeches" — Introduction to the case of Blacow.
 
 170 THE BILL OF PAITSTS AND PENALTIES. [1820. 
 
 of Peers who were expected to attend. A cliair of state was placed for the 
 Queen a little beyond the bar, fronting the throne and the woolsack. The 
 ])laces for her counsel were immediately behind her. On the 2l8t of August, 
 tlie Attorney- General was concluding his speech in support of the Bill, when 
 drums and trumpets, mixed with the shouts of the people, announced the 
 Queen's arrival. She takes her seat. The interpreters being sworn, Teodora 
 Majocchi was called in. The Queen turned suddenly round, uttered a loud 
 exclamation, and rushed out of the House. This man had been one of hei 
 domestic servants. The examination of witnesses for the Bill proceeded till 
 tlae 6th of September. The Solicitor- G-eneral summed up on the 7th, and on 
 the 9th, upon an application from the Queen's counsel, an adjournment took 
 place till the 3rd of October. The examinations and cross-examinations of 
 the witnesses for the Bill, gross and revolting as were many of the details, 
 were signal exhibitions of legal acuteness. It was impossible to deny the 
 right of counsel to put questions offensive to delicacy ; but it was scarcely 
 possible not to feel some indignation when a noble lord now and then asked a 
 question which the most brazen advocate would have attempted to clothe in 
 ^^omewhat more decent language. The universal licence of that unhallowed 
 time seemed occasionally to make some of the highest forget their self- 
 respect. There probably would have been more instances of unseemly inter*- 
 ference with the ordinary course of legal inquiry if one man had not stood 
 in the midst of that assembly, whose whole bearing was that of authority and 
 command; whose look, denouncing "battle dangerous" if any rash offence 
 were given, made the boldest peer prudent. The great admiral, who in the 
 bay of Algiers, was " all-fightful," complained of "the disrespect of counsel 
 [Mr. Brougham] in fixing his eyes on him at the time that he was presuming 
 to check him for an expression which had not been used by him, but by another 
 noble lord." There was another of the Queen's law-officers who dared even 
 to fix his eyes upon a prince of the blood, exclaiming, " Come forth, thou 
 vslanderer." Some who heard these things might well fear that the old respect 
 for " degree, priority, and place " was coming to an end. 
 
 On the 3rd of October Mr. Brougham entered on the Queen's defence. 
 His speech on that day and the following may be cited amongst the greatest 
 examples of forensic eloquence. " At half-past twelve to-day," writes lord Dud- 
 ley, "Brougham concluded a most able speech with a magnificently eloquent 
 peroration. The display of his power and fertility of mind in this business 
 lias been amazing ; and these extraordinary efforts seem to cost him nothing. 
 He dined at Holland House yesterday, and staid till eleven at night, talking 
 * de omni scibili' — French cookery, Italian poetry, and so on."* Mr. Eush, 
 the American minister, notices as illustrative of the English bar, and 
 individually of Mr. Brougham, that during the adjournment of the Queen's 
 trial, her Attorney- General attended the assizes at Yorkshire, and engaged 
 in a cause in behalf of a poor old woman, upon whose pig-cote a trespass had 
 been committed, for which trespass the old woman obtained a verdict of forty 
 shillings damages, f From the 4th to the 24th of October, the examination 
 of witnesses on behalf of the Queen was continued. Mr. Denman then 
 
 ♦ Lord Dudley's "Letters," p. 2G7. 
 
 •*■ " llc3iden:e at the Court of Loudon," second series, voL i. p. 339-
 
 1S20.] THE BILL OF PAINS AND PENALTIES. 171 
 
 summed up the evidence in an address, which lasted two days. His denun- 
 ciations were so unmeasured, that some noble lords complained of the extra- 
 ordinary licence used by the Queen's counsel. Mr. Rush has remarked of 
 this time, when the most daring words were written and spoken with impunity, 
 not only that every day produced its fiery libels against the King and hi» 
 adherents, but that Mr. Denman, addressing himself to the assembled Peerage 
 of the realm, denounced in thundering tones one of the brothers of the 
 King. Perhaps more remarkable was the boldness of the same counsel, 
 which compared the proceedings against the Queen to circumstances in the 
 history of Imperial Eome described by Tacitus — how Octavia, the wife of 
 Nero, in consequence of an unjust aversion which existed in the mind of her 
 husband, was dismissed, and a mistress taken in her place ; how she was 
 banished by means of a conspiracy, in which slaves were produced as evidence 
 against her, although the greater part of her servants protested her innocence ; 
 how Nero persevered, although she was hailed as in triumph by a generous 
 people — and how, on a second conspiracy, she was convicted, condemned, and 
 banished to an island in the Mediterranean. Not so bold, but equally cutting, 
 was the application by Mr. Brougham of a passage from Milton. Having 
 asked John Allen Powell, the solicitor employed on the IMilan Commission, — 
 who is your client or employer in this case ? and being debarred from putting 
 this question, the Queen's Attorney- General exclaimed, " Up to this 
 moment I have never been able to trace the local habitation or the name of 
 the unknown being who is the plaintiff in this proceeding. I know not but 
 it may vanish into thin air. I know not under what shape it exists — , 
 
 ' If shape it might be called that shape had none, 
 Distinguishable in member, joint, or limb, — 
 Or substance might be call'd that shadow seem'd, 
 For each seem'd either — what seem'd his head 
 The likeness of a kingly crown had on.' * 
 
 It is not our intention to furnish even the very briefest abstract of the 
 evidence that was brought forward to sustain, or to rebut, the charge against 
 the Queen upon which the Bill of Pains and Penalties was founded, — namely, 
 that her royal highness conducted herself towards Bartolomeo Bergami, a 
 foreigner engaged in her service in a menial situation, both in public and 
 private, " with indecent and offensive familiarity and freedom, and carried on 
 with him a licentious, disgraceful, and adulterous intercourse." The impres- 
 sioii of the character of the Queen, produced upon all impartial persons by the 
 publication of the evidence, was pretty much the same as that expressed by 
 Sydney Smith after the proceedings had closed : — " The style of manners she 
 has adopted does not exactly tally with that of holy women in the days that 
 are gone, but let us be charitable and hope for the best." f The evidence 
 
 * The orator dovetailed with great skill inconsecutive lines of the famous passage in " Para- 
 dise Lost." The allusion might have been too strong for his audience if he had given the entii-8 
 passage : — 
 
 ' Or substance might be call'd that shadow seem'd. 
 For each seem'd either ; black it stood as Night, 
 Fierce as ten Furies, terrible as Hell, 
 And shook a dreadful dart ; what seem'd his head 
 The likeness of a kingly crown had on." 
 t "Memoir," vol. ii. p. 206.
 
 172 THE BILL ABANDONED— JOY OF THE COUNTIiY. [IS'JO. 
 
 and the arguments of counsel having been concluded, the peers, on the 2rid 
 of November, came to the question of the second reading of the Bill of Pains 
 and Penalties. The question was debated for five nights ; when the motion, 
 for the second reading of the Bill was carried by 123 against 95. The 
 majority was smaller than the Government had expected. It was thought 
 by many that this was " too small a majority for such a Bill to be sent into 
 such a place as the House of Commons." * But the majority was still more 
 reduced when the Divorce clause came under consideration. Some peers 
 were willing to pass the Bill if this clause were removed. In the course of 
 the proceedings lord Harrowby had intimated that the Divorce clause might 
 be withdrawn. Mr. Canning, watching the progress of these proceedings 
 from Paris, at the beginning of October, had written to lord Liverpool, that 
 though he thought the omission of the Divorce clause was likely enough to 
 facilitate the passing of the Bill in the House of Lords, that omission would 
 furnish an argument against it in the House of Commons. The BiU would 
 become " a pure penal enactment for immorality ; and when, from the begin- 
 ning of time, did such an enactment take place ? And where, if it take 
 place now, is this new species of legislation to end ? " f The Opposition saw 
 clearly that the way to defeat the Bill was to press for retaining the Divorce 
 clause ; and that it should be retained was carried by a majority of 129 to 
 62. On the ]Otb of November, on the motion that the Bill be read a third 
 time, the majority was only nine — 108 to 99. After the division, Lord Dacre 
 was about to present a petition from the Queen, praying to be heard by 
 counsel against the passing of the Bill. Lord Liverpool rose and said that 
 sucb a course would not now be necessary : — " Had the third reading been 
 carried by as considerable a number of peers as the second liad been, he and 
 his noble colleagues would have felt it their duty to persevere in the Bill, 
 and to send it down to the other branch of the legislature. In the present 
 state of the country, however, and with the division of sentiment so nearly 
 balanced, just evinced by meir lordships, they had come to the determination 
 not to proceed further with it. It was his intention, accordingly, to move 
 ' That the further consideration of the Bill be adjourned to this day six 
 months.' " 
 
 There was a general joy throughout the country at the termination of 
 these proceedings. Those who looked carefully into the matter did not 
 think with the excited multitude that the result was an acquittal of the 
 Queen ; but all rejoiced that the time was come when the heads of decent 
 families would not be obliged to hide the newspaper from the eyes of theit 
 daughters, and when the legislature would have some better work before it 
 than the discussion of a measure whose only fruits had been — " a Grovernment 
 brouglit into contempt and detestation ; a kingdom thrown into such 
 ferment and convulsion, as no other kingdom or Government ever recovered 
 from without a revolution." J There was one advantage to the Government 
 and to the country, which Mr. Canning could not so well see as those who at 
 home were watching the course of public opinion. What the Ministers at 
 the end of 1819 were dreading as symptoms of revolution, were put an end 
 
 * "Diary of Lord Colcliester," voL iii. p. 179— Letter of Mr. Bootle 'Wilbraham. 
 t Staploton, " Geoige Canniug and Lis Times," p. 298. t J bid., p. 299. 
 
 I
 
 1820.] PUOltUGATION— DISCUSSIONS IN THE NEXT SESSION 173 
 
 to at the end of 1820 by tlie very " ferment aud convulsion" about the Queen. 
 Mr. "Wilbraham writes from Latham House to lord Colchester, during the 
 extremest violence of the popular feeling, " Eadicalism has taken the shape of 
 affection for the Queen, and has deserted its old form ; for we are all as quiet 
 aa lambs in this part of England, and you would not imagine that this could 
 have been a disturbed country twelve months ago." * 
 
 On the 23rd of November Parliament was prorogued. On the 29th the 
 Queen went in procession to St. Paul's, to return thanks for her deliverance 
 from a great peril and afSiction. In the next session of Parliament there 
 were violent discussions on her Majesty's affairs, particularly on her continued 
 exclusion from the Liturgy. An annuity of fifty thousand pounds was pro- 
 vided for her by Act of Parliament. Her popularity gradually declined, aud 
 in April, 1821, it was written — " The Queen is gone by as atopic of inflamma- 
 tion ; and her taking quietly the fifty thousand pounds a year, after her protest 
 and declaration that she would not till her right was acknowledged, was a 
 coup de grace to her. It is said that an attempt is making by lady Jersey, 
 who patronises her, to procure a drawing-room at Brandenbargh House, but 
 it will undoubtedly fail. She is now hardly named in society or in the 
 newspapers." f Cobbett, who had addressed the most violent letters to the 
 Queen, stimulating her to resist every attempt at compromise, says that after 
 the abandonment of the Bill, when the "Whig faction flocked about her, the 
 people, who hated this faction more "than the other, troubled her with no 
 more addresses. " The faction agitated questions about her in Parliament, 
 concerning which the people cared not a straw : what she was doing soon 
 became as indifferent to them as what any other person of the royal 
 family was doing. The people began again to occupy themselves with the 
 business of obtaining a parliamentary reform ; and her way of life, and her 
 final fate, soon became objects of curiosity much more than of interest with 
 the people." J 
 
 It is scarcely necessary, after the lapse of more than forty years, to enter 
 upon any detail of the discussions upon questions connected with the Queen, 
 agitated in Parliament after the great investigation was concluded — questions 
 about which the arch-demagogue declared " the people cared not a straw." 
 These discussions occupied many hundred columns of Hansard's Debates 
 during the Second Session of the Seventh Imperial Parliament. On the 11th 
 of July, the last day of the session, and only eight days before the time 
 appointed for the King's coronation, Mr. Hume moved that an Address be 
 presented to his Majesty, praying that he would issue his proclamation for 
 the coronation of the Queen, " thereby consulting the true dignity of the 
 crown, the tranquillity of the metropolis, and the general expectations of the 
 people." At the moment when Mr. Hume was proposing his resolution the 
 usher of the black rod summoned the Commons to attend in the House of 
 Peers, where Commissioners were assembled to prorogue tlie Parliament. 
 The motion necessarily fell to the ground. The Coronation took place on 
 the 19th of July. The Queen was destined to a more bitter humiliation thai: 
 
 * "Diary of Lord Colchester," vol. iii. p. 164. 
 
 + Ibid., vol. iii. p. 218 — Wiibniliam to Lord Colcljcstcr. 
 
 X (Jobbett's "History of George IV.," § 454.
 
 174 THE QUEEN AT THE CORONATION— HER DEATH. [1820. 
 
 any that she had previously endured. The Privy Council, on the 10th of 
 July, had decided against a claim of her right to be crowned at the same 
 time as the King. The next day she wrote to lord Sidmouth to declare her 
 intention to be present at the ceremony. In this injudicious and undignified 
 determination her Majesty persisted. Between six and seven o'clock in the 
 morning she presented herself at every entrance to the Abbey, and at each 
 was denied admission. The same refusal attended her demand to enter 
 "Westminster Hall. A few of the populace huzzaed, and a few hissed, but 
 the prevailing sentiment was indifference. At the beginning of August the 
 Queen was attacked with internal inflammation, and she died on the night of 
 the 7th. The King had sailed for Dublin on the 1st, and he received at 
 Holyhead the intelligence of this sudden termination of a domestic trouble 
 which had long been a source of public anxiety. Before this close of the 
 unhappy lady's Ufe, the people had very generally begun to feel that in their 
 compassion for the desolate and oppressed, they had somewhat overstepped 
 the safe line of a constitutional respect for the chief magistrate. There was 
 a riot at the funeral procession of the Queen's remains from Brandenburg! i 
 House. They were to be conveyed to Harwich, and there put on board a 
 government sloop, which was to sail to Stade for the purpose of conveying 
 them for interment at Brunswick. The mourning cavalcade was to avoid the 
 crowded streets ; but a mob had determined to force it through the city. 
 The Life Guards having been rudely assaulted at Cumberland Gate, leading 
 out of Hyde Park to Tyburn, a serious conflict ensued, when two of the 
 assailants of the soldiers were shot. The procession went through the city 
 with the lord mayor at its head. Erom this time there was an end of all 
 excitement about the Queen. 
 
 There was one result, however, which was of more political importance 
 than the continued struggles of a few demagogues for notoriety. Mr. 
 Canning, on the 12th of December, 1820, resigned his office of Secretary of 
 the Board of Control, on the ground that the discussions respecting the 
 Queen in the session of 1821 would be so intermixed with the general busi- 
 ness that a minister could not absent himself without appearing to abandon 
 the parliamentary duties of his station, nor could he be present taking no 
 part in such discussions without producing embarrassment to himself and 
 perplexity to his colleagues. The King accepted his resignation, but with a 
 smothered displeasure at the course Mr. Canning and his immediate friends 
 had taken. Upon the death of the Queen lord Liverpool strongly pressed 
 the readmission of Mr. Canning to the Cabinet, and the King as stoutly 
 resisted it. His Majesty was not unsupported by some of his official 
 advisers, who disliked the presence amongst them of the most eloquent of the 
 advocates of Catholic Emancipation, and who, upon this and most other 
 questions, dreaded " the flexible innovator" more than they admired "the 
 eloquent conservative." * 
 
 • Gulzot, "IMemoirs of Sir Robert Pet!," p. 2.1
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Deatb of Napoleon Bonaparte — Parliamentary strictures on the measures adopted for his secure 
 detention — Circular of the Congress at Laybach — Parliament — Irish outrages — Agricul- 
 tural Distress — New Corn Law — The King's visit to Scotland— Death of Lord Londonderry 
 — His foreign Administration — Mr. Canning Secretary for Foreign Affairs — His instruc- 
 tions to the duke of Wellington in his mission to Verona — French invasion of Spain — 
 Mr. Canning's remonstrances — The Spanish American separated States — Consuls 
 appointed — Opposition to Mr. Canning's decree to recognize their independence — Their 
 recognition by the conclusion of commercial treaties — Circumstances which give to a 
 neutral power the right of recognizing States which have effectually asserted their inde- 
 pendence — Discussions with the minister of the United States of North America — Spanish 
 aggression upon Portugal — Promptitude in sending troops for her defence — Important 
 changes in our Commercial Policy — Mr. Huskisson and his defamers — The transfer of 
 England to " the camp of Progress and Liberty " — The Present and the Past. 
 
 On the Stli of May, 1821, died Napoleon Bonaparte. Six years had passed 
 since, in the great festival of the Champ de Mai, he had announced that the 
 people who had called him to the throne must prepare for war. The issue to 
 himself was his imprisonment in this lonely island of the Atlantic, long 
 suffering under a chronic disease, and suffering more from his total want of 
 power to endure his fate with equanimity. A hurricane swept over the island 
 as Napoleon was dying, shaking houses to their foundation, and tearing up 
 the largest trees. We cannot avoid thinking of the similar phenomenon that 
 attended the death of Cromwell. The faithful followers who w^ere around 
 his bed might have felt the sentiment, if they did not know the lines, of 
 Waller:— 
 
 " We must resign ! Heaven his great soul does claim 
 In storms, as loud as his immortal fame : 
 His dying groan, his last breath, shakes our isle, 
 "^ And trees uncut fall for his funeral pile." 
 
 But the last thoughts of the dying men were essentially different. To 
 Napoleon the war of the elements seemed as if " the noise of battle hurtled 
 in the air," and he died muttering the words, Tete cCArmee. Cromwell, also 
 a great soldier, passed away with thoughts of peace in his mind, praying that 
 God would give His people " consistency of judgment, one heart, and mutual 
 love." The death of him who had so long filled the world with the terror of 
 his name, produced no great sensation in England or in Europe. There had 
 been strong differences of opinion expressed in parliament as to the character 
 of the measures which had been adopted to render his detention secure. It 
 
 " Ode on the Death of the Lord Protector."
 
 IJQ DEATH OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. [1821. 
 
 was urged that an unnecessary degree of restraint was imposed upon the 
 captive, and that the governor of the island was a harsh and injudicious jailor, 
 who performed what he thought his dutv in the most vexatious spirit. The 
 answer may be found in a parliamentary speech of lord Bathurst ; " Let 
 them suppose that, instead of sitting to discuss whether a little more or a 
 little less restriction should be imposed, they had thus to examine sir Hudson 
 Lowe at their bar : ' How and when did he escape ? ' * In the early part of 
 the evening, and from his garden.' * Had his garden no sentinels?' 'The 
 sentinels were removed.' ' Why were they removed ? ' * General Bonaparte 
 desired it — they were hateful to his feelings ; they were then removed, and 
 thus was he enabled to escape.' " Prudent and necessary as these restrictions 
 might have been ; querulous and insulting as Napoleon undoubtedly was in 
 all his intercourse with the British officer who was responsible for his safe 
 guardianship ; it must still be lamented that a man was placed over our 
 fallen enemy who, wincing under the pettiness of the captive's exaggerated 
 complaints, appears to have forgotten how great a part he had played in the 
 world. It is not to be supposed that sir Hudson Lowe felt ■ himself to be an 
 instrument of retributive justice, or was possessed with an overwhelming 
 feeling of the hatefulness of that selfish ambition which had desolated 
 Europe. It was for an American statesman, who believed that the great 
 duty of his country was to continue in " peace and fraternity with mankind," 
 to give his testimony against the character of JS'apoleon as set forth by Barry 
 O'Meara. Mr. Jefierson thought that this account placed him in a higher 
 scale of understanding than he had allotted him. He had thought him the 
 greatest of all military captains, but an indifferent statesman. His con- 
 versations with O'Meara proved a mind of great expansion ; but the 
 book also proved that IS'ature had denied him the moral sense. " If he 
 could seriously and repeatedly affirm, that he had raised himself to power 
 without ever having committed a crime, it proves that he wanted totally 
 the sense of right and wrong. If he could consider the million of human 
 lives which he had destroyed or caused to be destroyed ; the desolations of 
 countries by plunderings, burnings, and famine ; the destitutions of lawful 
 rulers of the world without the consent of their constituents, to place his 
 brothers and sisters on tlieir thrones ; the cutting up of established societies 
 of men, and jumbling them discordantly together at his caprice ; the demo- 
 lition of the fairest hopes of mankind for the recovery of their rights and 
 amelioration of their condition ; and all the numberless train of his other 
 enormities ; the man, I say, who could consider all these as no crimes, must 
 have been a moral monster, against whom every hand should have been lifted 
 to slay him.'' * 
 
 On the death of Napoleon there was a larger question presenting itself to 
 the minds of thoughtful men than that which arose out of the contests 
 between the captive of St. Helena and the keeper who was set over him. 
 The condition of the world suggested very grave doubts whether the nations 
 had acquired any guarantees for their freedom or for their repose by the over- 
 throw of the one great oppressor. At the exact period of Napoleon's death 
 the sovereigns of Austria, Eussia, and Prussia, had assembled at Laybach, 
 
 * Tuclicr's " Life of .KlTtrson/' vol. ii. pi" i'OO-l.
 
 1821.] CIRCULAR OF THE CONGRESS AT LAYBACU. 177 
 
 and they addressed a circular despatch to their ministers at foreiga courts, 
 in which they proclaimed the doctrine that " useful or necessary changes iu 
 legislation, and in the administration of states, ought only to emanate from 
 the free will and the intelligent and well-weighed conviction of tliose whom 
 Grod has rendered responsible for power. Penetrated with this eternal truth, 
 the sovereigns have not hesitated to proclaim it with frankness and vigour. 
 They have declared that, iu respecting the rights and independence of all 
 legitimate power, they regarded as legally null, and as disavowed by the 
 principles which constituted the public right of Europe, all pretended reform 
 operated by revolt and open hostility." The sovereigns assembled in 
 Congress did not condescend to explain by what other modes those who con- 
 tended for constitutional government against a despotic rule could establish 
 their desire for reform. They could not proclaim their demands, however 
 moderate or just, through the authoritative voice of a legislative assembly or 
 the discussions of a free press. The denial of these safeguards of liberty had 
 driven them into revolt and hostility to " legitimate power." This declaration 
 of Laybach was not a mere threat of the mode in which these absolute 
 sovereigns would act under any possible contingency of revolt and open 
 hostility of peoples against rulers. The two great monarchs of Germany had 
 denied to their own subjects the representative government which they had 
 promised. They were now engaged, with the support of the autocrat of Russia, 
 iu putting down by military force the insurrections in Naples and Piedmont 
 which had given these portions of Italy constitutions in which the popular 
 voice might have expression. Spain had again obtained her Cortes, and had 
 shaken off for awhile the tyranny of Ferdinand the Seventh, The olit 
 irresponsible principles of legitimacy were to be re-established iu Italy, in 
 Spain, probably in all Europe, as in the times before that great convulsion of 
 Erance, which, full of instruction, had taught no wisdom to the three monarch s 
 who now assumed to be tlie armed police of the world. If Bonaparte had 
 deposed lawful rulers without the consent of their constituents, the Holy 
 Alliance was prepared to maintain tyrannical rulers who were hated by their 
 subjects. If Bonaparte demolished the fairest hopes of mankind for the 
 recovery of their rights and amelioration of their condition, the Holy Alliance 
 had succeeded to his unrighteous office. If he had destroyed millions of 
 lives, and had desolated countries for his ambition, the Holy Alliance was 
 ready to perpetrate the same crimes with an equal deficiency of the moral 
 sense, and with an odious hypocrisy which he did not care to assume. The 
 foreign relations of England will, for a few years, be determined by the pre- 
 ponderance of despotic or liberal tendencies in her government. Upon a 
 right choice of men to guide her destinies iu this crisis of the world's affairs 
 will depend her future position among the nations. 
 
 The man was not in the Cabinet of 1821 who was to shape the foreign 
 policy of England by other principles than those which many construed 
 as subservience to the decrees of absolutism. Nor was he there when the 
 " Gazette " of the 12th of January, 1822, announced that the Marquess 
 of Buckingham was created a Duke. This was the official notification that 
 the Grenvilles had joined the ministry. Lord Grenville had retired from 
 public life to spend the evening of his days in planting the pines of Australia 
 around his wastes at Dropmore. His party was represented in the Cabinet 
 VOL. vni. — 236.
 
 178 PARLIAMr:NT— IRISH OUTRAGE— AGRICULTURAL DISTRESS. [1822 
 
 bv Mr. Charles Williams "Wynn, who filled the ofiice which Mr. Canning had 
 resigTied at the end of 1820. A more important accession to the ministry 
 wa3 the substitution of Mr. Peel for lord Sidmouth, as Secretary of State for 
 the Home Department. By the coalition with the Grenvilles there was au 
 accession of official support to Catholic Emancipation. But this was neutral 
 ized by the appointment of Mr. Peel, whose opinions on that question were 
 deemed incapable of change. Some hope for Ireland was derived from the 
 nomination of the marquess Wellesley as Lord Lieutenant, in the place of 
 earl Talbot. 
 
 The Session of Parliament was opened by the King in person on the 5tli 
 of Peb.ruary. His Majesty continued to receive from foreign powers the 
 strongest assurances of their friendly disposition towards this country. In 
 his visit to Ireland he derived the sincerest gratification from the loyalty and 
 attachment manifested by all classes of his subjects. He believed that his 
 presence in Ireland had been productive of very beneficial efiect, although it 
 was a matter of the deepest concern to his Majesty that a spirit of outrage 
 had led to daring and systematic violations of the law. The commerce and 
 manufiictures of the kingdom were flourishing ; the agricultural interest was 
 deeply depressed. It is scarcely necessary for us to record the wearisome 
 debates in which the real remedies for Irish Outrage and Agricultural Distress 
 were kept out of view. A renewal of the Insurrection Act, and a suspension 
 of the Habeas Corpus, were determined on, for tranquillizing Ireland. The 
 relief of Agriculture was to be efiiected by a loan to parishes for tlie mitigation 
 of local distress, and by the repeal of the Malt-Tax. The pressure of taxation 
 and the change in the currency, were the imputed causes of the adversity of the 
 cultivators and the uncertain resources of the landowners. Some began to 
 think that the protective laws had some efiect which was not beneficial to the 
 industry of the farmer. Lord Liverpool expressed his belief that no material 
 or immediate relief could be efiected by an alteration of the Corn-laws. He 
 admitted that the existing system was a failure, inasmuch as it gave a complete 
 monopoly to the British grower until wheat reached eighty shillings a quarter, 
 and after that point had been attained suddenly permitted the importation of 
 foreign corn without any restraint whatever. In 1816, 1817, and 1818, there 
 had been three deficient harvests, and prices having risen above the rate by 
 which the opening of the ports was decided, immense supplies of foreign corn 
 were thrown upon the market. Prom 1819 to 1822 the native growers had 
 the monopoly of the home market, and during these years the agriculturists 
 endured the severest seasons of distress which had been experienced by that 
 body in modern times ; and the engagements which they had been induced to 
 make, under the fallacious hopes of the Corn-laws of 1815, swept them from 
 the land by thousands.* A new Act was passed in 1822 to permit importa^ 
 tion, upon a high duty when wheat had reached seventy shillings a quarter, 
 and at lower duties when it was above that price and under eighty-five shil- 
 lings. This Act was inoperative, as prices never reached the assigned limit. 
 The time was far distant for going to the root of the great evil to the pro- 
 ducers of fluctuating prices, and of the greater evil to consumers of alterna» 
 tions of abundance and starvation. 
 
 The great measure of Catholic Eelief, which was carried in the House of 
 * See an alio article »^ " Tlie "Wheat Trade," iu " Companion to the Almanac" for 1839.
 
 1S22.] THE KING'S VISIT TO SCOTLAND. 17» 
 
 Comrc.ons in 1821, but was rejected by the Lorda, was on the 30th of April 
 in the present session proposed by Mr. Canning in a modified form. He 
 introduced a Bill to relieve Eoman Catholic Peers from the disabilities im- 
 posed upon them with regard to the right of sitting and voting in the House 
 of Peers. The motion was carried in the House of Commons, but was rejected 
 in the Lords. It was at this time understood that Mr. Canning was to leave 
 the great scene of his oratorical triumphs, and to accept the post of Governor- 
 General of India. "Canning, Governor-General!" wrote Mr. Ward from 
 I'lorence. " It is impossible to say that this is the most natural or desirable 
 termination to the career of the most distinguished speaker in the English 
 parliament ; but I have no doubt but that the appointment is a fortunate one 
 for the country he is sent to govern. In his case, I think I should have 
 judged differently, and preferred the House of Commons."* To be in the 
 House of Commons without office would have been a sore trial for the man 
 who naturally looked forward to be the prime minister of England, when royal 
 prejudices and party rivalries should have ceased to impede his progress. He 
 had made up his mind that his future exertions should be devoted to India. 
 He had been five years at the Board of Control, and he knew how much might 
 be efiTected, by a wise policy of peace, to make the British rule one of justice 
 and benevolence. His future was otherwise ordained. 
 
 On the 10th of August the King had embarked at Greenwich, for the pur- 
 pose of visiting Scotland. On the 18th he lauded at Leith. The reception 
 which his Scottish subjects gave to the first sovereign of the House of Bruns- 
 wick, who had come amongst them to banish the last lingering remembrance of 
 the House of Stuart, was most cordial and sincere. It was said of George the 
 Fourth, when he visited Ireland in the previous year, that " he seems to have 
 behaved not like a sovereign coming in pomp and state to visit a part of his 
 dominions, but like a popular candidate come down upon an electioneering 
 trip.f In Edinburgh, the King, holding his levees in Holyrood House, dressed 
 in the Higliland costume, was dignified as well as gracious. At a banquet 
 given by the Lord Provost, he proposed the health of his host as " Sir William 
 Anderson, baronet," — a dignity thus extemporaneously conferred, — and he 
 afterwards gave as a toast, " Health to its chieftains ! and God bless the land 
 of cakes." When he quitted Scotland he left behind him a reputation which 
 made the well-wishers of the monarchy, tliroughout the kingdom, regret that 
 he generally adopted a system of seclusion which allowed few opportunities. 
 :^r appreciating his popular qualities. It must have required some effort on 
 the part of the King to maintain the hilarity which he exhibited in Edin- 
 burgh. On the evening of the 15th he received, while on board the royal 
 yacht in Leith Eoads, the news that lord Londonderry had died by his own 
 hand. This fatal termination of a temporary insanity took place on the 12th. 
 The King, on hearing this intelligence, immediately wrote to the Lord Chan- 
 cellor : — " On Friday was the last time I saw him : my own mind was then 
 filled with apprehensions respecting him, and they have, alas ! been but too 
 painfully verified. My great object, my good friend, in writing to you to- 
 night, is to tell you that I have written to Liverpool, and I do implore of you 
 not to lend yourself to any arrangement whatever until my return to town. "J 
 
 * Lord Dudley's Letters, p. 312. t Ihid., p. 296. 
 
 X -wiss's " Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. p. 4(34.
 
 180 DEATH OF LORD LONDONDERRY— HIS FOREiaN MINISTuT. [1822. 
 
 A tardy justice has in some respects been done to the memory of lord 
 Londonderry. A few miscreants hissed when his coffin was taken out of the 
 hearse at the door of Westminster Abbey ; Byron, in the same indecent 
 spirit, spoke of him as " Carotid-artery cutting Castlereagh ; " the calumny 
 for a long time passed uncontradicted that he had put down the rebellion in 
 Ireland by cruel and indiscriminate punishment ; his abilities were under- 
 valued, and his power in debate spoken of with scorn. Nevertheless, a con- 
 viction is now pretty generally felt that he had many of the qualities which 
 constitute a statesman, — courage, decision, plain sense, gentleness and 
 suavity of manners in public as in private. It has been said, " Lord Castle- 
 reagh's foreign administration was as destitute of all merit as possible ; no 
 enlarged views guided his conduct, no liberal principles claimed his regard." * 
 This assertion must be taken with some qualification. The American minister, 
 who was in intercourse with him for four years, asserted that, from the end 
 of the Eevolutionary war, there was no ]British statesman who made more 
 advances, or did more in fact, towards placing the relations of England and 
 the United States upon an amicable footing.f "With reference to the particular 
 period of which we have been treating, it has been said by the noble author 
 already quoted, that " on the eve of the Parliament meeting (19th of January, 
 1821), lord Castlereagh delivered a note to the Holy Allies, expressing in 
 feeble and measured terms a very meagre dissent from the principles of inter- 
 ference." There are, no doubt, many courteous expressions in the Circular of 
 lord Castlereagh, which might warrant a belief that his dissent from the 
 measures of the Holy Alliance was feeble — a belief entertained by some thai 
 it was even simulated. The Secretary of State declares that the King has felt 
 himself obliged to decline becoming a party to the measures proposed by the 
 Allies, either as to the establishment of certain general principles, or as to 
 the mode of dealing, under these principles, with the existing afiairs of 
 Naples : — " No government can be more prepared than the British govern- 
 ment is, to uphold the right of any state or states to interfere where 
 their own immediate security or essential interests are seriously endan- 
 gered by the internal transactions of another state. But, as they regard 
 the assumption of such right as only to be justified by the strongest 
 necessity, and to be limited and regulated thereby, they cannot admit 
 that this right can receive a general and indiscriminate application to all 
 revolutionary movements without reference to their immediate bearing 
 upon some particular state or states, or be made prospectively the basis 
 of au alliance." No doubt the time was approaching when England must 
 speak a plainer language to the Allied Sovereigns against their own inter- 
 pretation of " the strongest necessity to interfere with the internal 
 transactions of other states." Lord Londonderry was about to depart for a 
 Congress at Verona, when, in an access of insanity, -he thus miserably died. 
 Whether he would have spoken the stronger language when the principle 
 of interference was about to be extended from the affairs of Italy to the 
 .iffairs of Spain, may remain in doubt. Another took his place at the 
 J'^oreign Office, whose language, though equally courteous, was not to be 
 mistaken. 
 
 * Lnnl BrouKliarn, "Statesmen nf the Time of George III," vol. ii. p. 12G, 8vo ed. 
 f Hush, Sec'-iiid Series, vc>l. ii. p. 2
 
 lb-1-1.] MK. CANNING SECRETARY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 181 
 
 Mr. Cauniug was on his way to Liverpool for the purpose of taking 
 leave of his eoustituents before he sailed for India. Every one believed 
 that he would not now go to India. The desire of some of his former 
 colleagues to get rid of him was very generally known ; many were equally 
 convinced that the government could not go on without him. His own 
 mind was naturally in a position of doubt and anxiety. He writes to a 
 friend on the 26th of August, " I have now nothing to tell, and I have no 
 pleasure in speculating on what may happen. I wish I were well on board 
 the Jupiter." * He was kept in doubt till the 11th of September, when the 
 iPoreign Office was offered to him by lord Liverpool. To the last day, he said 
 he hoped that the proposal made to him might be one which he could refuse 
 — " that which has been made was the only one that I could not refuse." He 
 would "place public duty against private liking and convenience." M. 
 Guizot says that lord Liverpool had endeavoured in vain to induce the King 
 to consent to the appointment of Mr. Canning. " ' I will undertake it,' said 
 the duke of Wellington, who was accustomed to treat George IV. with a 
 rough and unyielding respect, to which the intimidated monarch always 
 ended by giving way. He yielded on this occasion."! Mr. Canning entered 
 the Foreign Office with a clear view of his path of duty. After a few weeks 
 of official experience he writes, — " Por fame, it is a squeezed orange ; but for 
 public good there is something to do, and I will try — but it must be cau- 
 tiously — to do it. You know my politics well enough to know what I mean, 
 when I say that for Europe, I should be desirous now and then to read 
 
 The successor chosen to represent Great Britain at the Congress was the 
 duke of Wellington. His Grace set out on his mission on the 17th of Sep- 
 tember. On the 21st he wrote to Mr. Secretary Canning that he had had a 
 long discussion with M. de Villele on the relations of the French govern- 
 ment with Spain. The French minister said that if the Congress were to 
 separate and come to no decision on the affairs of Spain, it was probable that 
 France and Spain might be forced into a war, and he proposed that the Allies 
 should make a declaration of the line they would each take. The duke 
 applied to Mr. Canning to receive his Majesty's instructions in case this 
 proposition was made at the Congress. The answer of Mr. Canning was in 
 terms that could not be misinterpreted. " If there be a determined project 
 to interfere by force or by menace in the present struggle in Spain, so con- 
 yinced are his Majesty's government of the uselessness and danger of any such 
 interference, so objectionable does it appear to them in principle, as well as 
 utterly impracticable in execution, that when the necessity arises, or (I would 
 rather say) when the opportunity offers, I am to instruct your Grace at once 
 frankly and peremptorily to declare, that to any such interference, come what 
 may, his Majesty will not be a party." The French government had assem- 
 bled an army on the frontiers of Spain, under the pretence of establishing a 
 cordon sanitaire to keep out a fever that was raging at Barcelona. The real 
 object of this army was acknowledged at the Congress. It was to enable 
 Ferdinand the Seventh to put down the constitution under which his subjects 
 
 * " George Canning and his Times," p. 362. 
 + Guizot, " Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 23. 
 J " George Cannijig and his Times," p. 364.
 
 182 FRENCH INVASION OF Si-AlN. [1823. 
 
 were more content to live than under his absolute rule. The declaration of 
 the duke of Wellington under his instructions from the Foreign Office, pre- 
 vented any open support of this project being given by the other great powers. 
 The king of France, in opening the Chambers at the end of January, 1823, lefb 
 no doubt of the intentions of the French government. Louis XVIII. announced 
 that he had recalled his minister at Madrid, and that a hundred thousand 
 Frenchmen, commanded by a prince of his family, were ready to march to 
 preserve the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry the Fourth. He 
 declared that hostilities should cease at the moment " that Ferdinand the 
 Seventh should be free to give his people the institutions which they could 
 not hold except from him." * Mr. Canning wrote to our ambassador at the 
 French court that this paragraph " is construed as implying, that the 
 free institutions of the Spanish people can only be legitimately held from the 
 spontaneous gift of the sovereign, first restored to his absolute power, and 
 then divesting himself of such portion of that power as he may think proper 
 to part with. The Spanish nation could not be expected to subscribe to this 
 
 principle ; nor could any British statesman uphold or defend it 
 
 It is indeed a principle that strikes at the root of the British Constitution." f 
 The French invaded Spain. England had taken her stand upon a principle, 
 but that attitude did not involve the necessity of going to war. Mr. Canning 
 declared in parliament that the king's government would abide by a system 
 of neutrality, except under certain conditions. If Portugal were to be 
 attacked, such an assault would bring Great Britain into the field with all 
 her force to support the independence of her ancient and faithful ally. 
 Spain, though claiming her colonies as a right, had in fact lost all power 
 over them, and the British government would not tolerate for an instant any 
 cession which Spain might make of colonies over which she did not exercise 
 a direct and positive influence. Mr. Canning's declaration of neutrality 
 brought upon him the remonstrances and reproaches of a few members of the 
 Opposition. He triumphantly vindicated his conduct. The proposed censure 
 of what some deemed the feeble tone assumed by the government terminated 
 in an almost unanimous vote of approbation of what had been done. The 
 Opposition could not consistently maintain that the policy of Mr. Canning 
 was in any essential point a departure from the principles that had been 
 most eloquently asserted by Mr. Brougham at the opening of the Session : 
 "He would look forward, in order to avoid all subject of vituperation { 
 reserving his blame for the foreigners whose tyrannical conduct obliged this 
 nation to hate them, and his co-operation for whatever faithful servant of the 
 Crown would, in the performance of his duty to the country, to freedom, and 
 to the world, speak a language that was truly British, — pursue a policy tbat 
 was truly free — and look to free States as our best and most natural allies 
 against all enemies whatsoever ; quarrelling with none, whatever might be 
 the form of their governments; keeping peace wherever we could, but not 
 leaving ourselves unprepared for war, — not afraid of the issue, but calmly 
 resolved to brave it at all hazards ; determined to maintain, amid every 
 sacrifice, the honour and dignity of the Crown, the independence of the 
 
 * " Annuaire Historique Universe! pour 182r;." 
 
 + The papers coucernLug the negotiations relative to Spain are given in " Hansard," vol. viii. 
 eols. [)04-9G4.
 
 1S23.] THE SPANISH AMERICAN SEPARATED STATES. ISJ 
 
 country, the ancient law of nations, the supremacy of all separate States, — ah 
 those principles which are cherished as most precious and most sacred by the 
 whole civilized world." * At this crisis, however, the desires of the English 
 people were probably best represented in a letter of a great humourist to the 
 countess Grey : — " Por God's sake do not drag me into another war ! I am 
 worn down, and worn out, with crusading and defending Europe, and pro- 
 tecting mankind ; I must think a little of myself. I am sorry for the 
 Spaniards ; I am sorry for the Greeks ; I deplore the fate of the Jews ; 
 the people of the Sandwich Islands are groaning under the most detestable 
 tyranny • Bagdad is oppressed ; I do not like the present state of the Delta ; 
 Thibet is not comfortable. Am I to fight for all these people ? The world 
 is bursting with sin and sorrow. Am I to be the champion of the Decalogue, 
 and to be eternally raising fleets and armies to make all men good and happy ? 
 We have just done saving Europe, and I am afraid the consequence will be, 
 that we shall cut each other's throats. Xo war, dear lady Grey ! — no elo- 
 quence ; but apathy, selfishness, common sense, arithmetic ! I beseech you, 
 secure lord Grey's sword and pistols, as the housekeeper did Don Quixote's 
 armour. If there is another war, life will not be worth having." t 
 
 The spectacle of the South American colonies was calculated to awaken 
 the sympathies of every English statesman of large and liberal views. But 
 there were difficult questions involved in this struggle, which rendered it 
 imperatively necessary for the minister directing the foreign afi"airs of England 
 to proceed with the utmost caution. Mr. Canning had made, on the 30th of 
 April, 1823, a declaration in the House of Commons which went through 
 Europe, that whatever might grow out of a separate conflict between Spain 
 and France, the immediate object of England was to hinder the impress of a 
 joint character from being afiixed to the war, — to take care that the war should 
 not grow out of an assumed jurisdiction of the Congress. Mr. Canning's 
 determination had the efi'ect of preventing the great powers of the Continent 
 engaging in the attack upon the Constitutionalists of Spain. The French 
 armies marched to Madrid, which they occupied on the 24th of May. They 
 overran Spain, they accomplished the release of Ferdinand who had been 
 detained at Cadiz ; the Cortes were overturned. Spain entered upon that long 
 night of tyranny and superstition which left her among the feeblest and most 
 degraded of nations. Such was the position of affairs at the close of 1823. 
 At the opening of the session of Parliament on the 3rd of February, 1824, 
 //the Eoyal Speech alluded to the strict neutrality which the king had observed 
 during the war in Spain. With respect to the provinces of America which 
 had declared their separation from Spain, his conduct had been open and 
 consistent, and his opinions frankly avowed to Spain and to other powers. 
 " His Majesty has appointed Consuls to reside at the principal ports and places 
 of those provinces, for the protection of the trade of his subjects. As to 
 any further measures, his Majesty has reserved to himself an unfettered 
 discretion, to be exercised as the circumstances of those countries, and the 
 interests of his own people, may appear to his Majesty to require." On the 
 4th of March Mr. Canning laid upon the table of the House of Commons a 
 memorandum of a conference between himself and the Prince de Polignac. Mr. 
 
 * Hansard, vol. viii. col. 94, and Brougham's " Speeches," p. 299, ed. 1857. 
 + Sidney Smith's "Memoirs aud Letters," vol. ii., pp. 235 — 236.
 
 1S4 OPPOSITION TO THE POLICY OF RECOGNITION. [18'24 
 
 Canning said, at this interview in October, 1823, that being convinced that 
 the ancient system of the Colonies could not be restored, the British govern- 
 ment could not enter into any stipulations binding itself either to refuse or to 
 delay its recognition of their independence; that the British government had no 
 desire to precipitate that recognition so long as there was any reasonable 
 chance of an accommodation with the mother country by which such a recog- 
 nition might come first from Spain ; " but that it could not wait indefinitely 
 for that result ; that it could not consent to make its recognition of the 
 new states dependent upon that of Spain, and that it would consider any 
 foreign interference, by force or by menace, in the dispute between Spain 
 and the colonies, as a motive for recognizing the latter without delay." 
 The lapse of time has shown that Mr. Canning had as great difficulty in 
 the accomplishment of his policy in opposition to the influence exercised in the 
 highest quarter at home, as in the hostility of those powers who bad 
 constituted themselves a union for the government of the nations. At 
 the end of November, 1824, lord Sidmouth withdrew from the Cabinet, 
 upon the ground of his inability to reconcile his opinions to that of so many 
 of his colleagues, who advocated the immediate recognition by his Majesty 
 of the independence of Buenos Ayres. Mr. Charles Williams "VVynn 
 wrote to the duke of Buckingham on the 28th of January, 1825, six days 
 before the meeting of Paiiiament, " There have been steps to revive the 
 discussions of December last, proceeding wholly from foreign influence, which, 
 to my mind, manifest a decided wisb to break up the government." On the 
 27tb of January, the King had addressed a long letter to lord Liverpool, 
 for the purpose of its being laid before the Cabinet. This E-oyal manifesto is 
 the language of one who appears, like the Seven Sleepers, to have awakened 
 from a long slumber, and to have spoken in a tongue with which men had ceased 
 to be familiar. " The Liberalism of late adopted by the King's government 
 appears to the King to be a substantial part of that creed which was hailed 
 in the House of Commons in those revolutionary days when it required all 
 
 the talents and firmness of the late Mr. Pitt to put it down Can 
 
 the present government suppose that the King will permit any individuals to 
 force upon him at this time a line of policy of which he so entirely dis- 
 approves, and which is in direct opposition to those wise principles that thii 
 King's government has, for so many years, supported and uniformly acted 
 upon." The King then asks, Why was the Quadruple Alliance formed ? and 
 he answers, Eor the maintenance of the treaties of Europe, and also for the 
 purpose of controlling the ambition and jealousies of the great allied powers 
 themselves in relation to each other. " The Jacobins of the world, now 
 calling themselves the Liberals, saw the peace of Europe secured by this 
 great measure, and have therefore never ceased to vilify the principle of the 
 Quadruple Alliance." The King desired therefore distinctly to know whether 
 the great principles of policy established by his government in 1814, 1815, 
 and 1818, were or were not to be abandoned. Lord Liverpool, in his answer 
 to the King, stated that so entire an agreement subsisted between his 
 Majesty's servants, as to request his permission to give their answer generally 
 and collectively. He pointed out the divergence of opinion between 
 his Majesty and his allies as to the nature of their engagements for 
 maintaining the peace of Europe, especially in 1815, in 1818, and in 1821
 
 1825.] THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS RECOGNIZED, 185 
 
 " Whatever difference or shades of difference of opinion may have hitherto 
 existed amongst your Majesty's servants on the subject of Spanish America, 
 they humbly submit now to your Majesty their unanimous opinion, that the 
 measures in progress respecting Spanish America are in no way inconsistent 
 with any engagement between your Majesty and your Allies ; tliat those 
 measm-es are now irrevocable ; and that the faith and honour of the country 
 are pledged to all their necessary consequences." The King yielded with a 
 tolerable grace. Disappointed as he might be at the unanimous determination 
 of the Cabinet, he saw it was impossible now to accomplish what was his real 
 object — the dismissal of Mr. Canning. The " foreign influence " was 
 undoubtedly what weighed upon the King. Mr. Canning, writing to our 
 Ambassador at Paris, Lord Granville, in March, after using strong terms 
 with regard to Metternich, says, "I have evidence which I entirely believe, 
 of his having been for the last twelvemonth, at least, perhaps longer, at the 
 
 bottom of an intrigue with the Court here ; of which Madame de 
 
 was the organ, to change the politics of this government by changing 
 me." In April he returned to the same charge against Metternich, 
 and said that he should like him to understand that a renewal of his 
 intrigues would lead to some such public manifestation of Mr. Canning's 
 knowledge of what had passed as might let the House of Commons 
 and the public into the secret. " I wonder whether he is aware that the 
 private communication of foreign ministers with the King of England 
 is wholly at variance with the spirit, and practice too, of the British 
 Constitution." * The recognition of the South American Eepublics was 
 confirmed by the declaration in the King's Speech on opening the Session 
 of Parliament on the 3rd of February, 1825. The firm attitude of the 
 Cabinet had produced the consent of the King that the following passage 
 should represent his opinions : — " In conformity with the declarations which 
 have been repeatedly made by his Majesty, his Majesty has taken measures 
 for confirming by treaties the commercial relations already subsisting between 
 this kiugdom and those countries of America which appear to have esta- 
 blished their separation from Spain," In the debate upon the Address Mr. 
 Canning alluded to the speech of Mr. Brougham upon the subject of South 
 America, The honourable and learned gentlemen admitted that much had 
 been done to which he could not object, but he suggested that things might 
 have been better, especially as to time. " I difler from him essentially ; for 
 if I pique myself on anything in this aflair it is the time. That, at some 
 time or other, states which had separated themselves from the mother 
 country should or should not be admitted to the rank of independent nations, 
 is a proposition to which no possible dissent could be given. The whole 
 question was one of time and mode. There were two modes : one a reckless 
 and headlong course, by which we might have reached our object at once, 
 but at the expense of drawing upon us consequences not lightly to be 
 estimated ; the other was more strictly guarded in point of principle ; so 
 that, while we pursued our own interest, we took care to give no just cause 
 of offence to other powers." It is important to bear in mind this very clear 
 
 * This very curious correspondence is given in ciiap. xxv. of Stapleton'a " George Canning 
 and his Times."
 
 186 THEIR CIRCUMSTANCES AT THE TIME OF THE RECOGNITION. [1825 
 
 statement of the general principle that the precise time for the recognition 
 of States throwing off their allegiance is to be determined by circumstances 
 of which a neutral State is the best judge. The explanation which Mr. 
 Canning proceeded to give of the circumstances of the South American 
 Eepublics at the time of the recognition by Great Britain is equally impor- 
 tant, as showing that the claim for recognition depends upon the power or 
 the separating State to maintain and defend itself. Mr. Canning briefly 
 and clearly explained the actual position of the three States with which the 
 British government had to deal, namely, Buenos Ayres, Columbia,* and 
 Mexico. " Long ago the contest between Buenos Ayres and the mother 
 country had ceased. Buenos Ayres comprised thirteen or fourteen small 
 and separate states, which were not till very lately collected into any federal 
 union. "Would it not have been an absurdity to have treated with a power 
 which was incapable of answering for the conduct of the communities of 
 which it was composed ? So soon as it was known that a consolidation had 
 taken place the treaty with Buenos Ayres was signed. As to Columbia, as 
 late as 1822, the last of the Spanish forces were sent away from Porto 
 Cabello, which was, up till that time, held for the King of Spain. It was 
 only since that time that Columbia could have been admitted as a State of 
 separate existence. Some time after that, however, Columbia chose to risk 
 her whole force, and a great part of her treasure, in a distant war with 
 Spain in Peru. Had that enterprise proved disastrous, the expedition 
 would have returned with the troops to re-establish the royal authority. 
 The danger was now at end. The case of Mexico was still more striking. 
 Not nine months ago, an adventurer who had wielded the sceptre of Mexico 
 left these shores to return thither and re-possess his abdicated throne. "Was 
 that a moment at which this country ought to have interfered to decide, by 
 recognition, the government for Mexico ? The failure of the attempt of 
 that adventurer afforded the opportunity for recognition ; and the instant 
 the failure was known the decision of the British Cabinet was taken." f 
 
 During the progress of the deliberations of the British Cabinet on the 
 subject of the South American Republics, Mr. Eush, the Minister of the 
 United States, was addressed by Mr. Canning, with a view that the two 
 governments should come to an understanding, and join in a concurrent 
 declaration as to the policy to be pursued by them. Mr. Bush, in a 
 despatch to President Monro, on the 23rd of August, 1823, says : — " The 
 tone of earnestness in Mr. Canning's note naturally starts the inference 
 that the British Cabinet cannot be without its serious apprehensions that 
 ambitious enterprises are meditated against the independence of the new 
 Spanish-American States, whether by France alone, or in conjunction with 
 the Continental powers, I cannot now say on any authentic grounds." Z It 
 would seem that the President having made a communication of this 
 despatch to his celebrated predecessor, it was understood by Mr. Jefferson 
 as a proposition by Mr. Canning, that Great Britain should unite with 
 
 * On December 17tb, 1819, in a general Convention of Venezuela and Granada, the tw« 
 States were united under the name of the Republic ut Columbia, of which Bolivar was President* 
 In 1832 this republic was divided into three states. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. xii., col. 78. 
 
 t Kush'a " llesidence at the Court of London," Second Series, pp. 29 — 30.
 
 lS-2o.] DISCUSSIONS WITH THE MINISTER OF THE UNITED STATES, 1S7 
 
 America in an armed resistance to the possible attempt of tlie Allied Powers 
 to intrench upon the independence of the infant republics. Mr. Jefferson 
 considered this as the most momentous question that had been ever offered 
 to his contemplation since that of their own independence. The venerable 
 ex-president appears at once to have thrown aside the prejudices against 
 Great Britain which had sometimes marked his official career. " Great 
 Britain is the nation that can do us the most harm of any one, or all, on 
 earth ; and with her on our side, we need not fear the old world. "With 
 her then, we should most seduously cherish a cordial friendship ; and nothing 
 would tend more to knit our affections than to be fighting once more, side by 
 side, in the same cause." * 
 
 We may here mention that during the residence of Mr, Hush at the 
 Court of Loudon, he entered upon several most important discussions — in 
 1818, with lord Londonderry, in 1824 with Mr. Canning, — upon questions 
 of former controversy, and of possible future differences that might arise, 
 between Great Britain and the United States. The most pressing question 
 was with reference to the American claim for a boundary, which would have 
 given the United States Vancouver's Island and the Columbia river. The 
 settlement of this question stood over, the proposal of each negotiator for a 
 modified settlement being rejected by the other. This was the Oregon 
 question, which was not finally settled till 1846, when, in the strong desire 
 for peace, much more was conceded than Mr. Canning consented to admit 
 as the right of the United States. The maritime questions upon which 
 the two countries had gone to war in 1812, which included the relations 
 of neutral and belligerent powers, were declined by the American pleni- 
 potentiary to be gone into without the question of impressment being con- 
 sidered, which matter the British plenipotentiaries refused to admit into the 
 discussion. Mr. Eush maintained the same principles which he had main- 
 tained in 1818 : " Great Britain claims the right of searching the vessels 
 of other countries on the high seas for her seamen, and here begins the cause 
 of complaint. For, how can the claim ever be enforced consistently with 
 what is due to other nations ? Let the steps by which the enforcement pro- 
 ceeds, be attended to. A British frigate in time of war meets an American 
 merchant vessel at sea, boards her, and v.nder terror of her guns, takes out 
 one of the crew. The boarding lieutenant asserts, and let it be admitted, 
 believes, the man to be a Briton. By this proceeding, the rules observed 
 in deciding upon any other fact where individual or national rights are at 
 stake are overlooked. The lieutenant is accuser and judge. He decides 
 upon his own view, instantly. The impressed man is forced into the 
 frigate's boat, and the case ends. There is no appeal, no trial of any kind." t 
 Thus strongly did the minister of the United States remonstrate in 1818, 
 against the difficulty and danger of entrusting such an authority to the 
 discretion and humanity of an irresponsible naval officer. In 1824, Mr. Eush 
 put the argument with equal force, that " the assumption of a right of search 
 for men,X whether as a right direct or incidental, was denied by the United 
 States to have the least sanction in public law. The bare claim was 
 
 * See Tucker's " Life of Jeflferson," vol. ii. p. fil5. 
 
 t Rush's " Residence at the Court of London," Firft Series, pp. 200—1. 
 
 "t The italics are used by Mr. Rush.
 
 183 AGGRESSION OF SPAIX UPON PORTUGAL. [182C. 
 
 affronting to the United States in the dearest attributes of their national 
 sovereignty." The right of search was not denied by the American Pleni- 
 potentiary, but he maintained that " the doctrine of perpetual allegiance" 
 was but as " a municipal rule, to be executed at home — not upon the high 
 seas, and on board the vessels of a sovereign and independent state."* 
 
 In the remarkable letter of the King to his Cabinet which we have just 
 quoted, his Majesty imputed to "the late policy of Great Britain" a "rest- 
 less desire of self-interest." This was an allusion to the almost universal 
 demand of the mercantile community for the establishment of commercial 
 relations with the new States of South America by treaties of amity and 
 commerce. In point of fact, the ultimate form of recognition consisted in the 
 negotiation and adoption of such treaties. The policy of the British Govern- 
 ment was no doubt in some degree determined by the general wish of the 
 mercantile community ; but Mr. Canning invariably put the recognition of 
 the South American States upon higher ground : " If France occupied Spain, 
 was it necessary, in order to avoid the consequences of that occupation, that 
 we should blockade Cadiz ? No. I looked another way : I sought materials 
 of compensation in another hemisphere. Contemplating Spain, such as our 
 ancestors had known her, I resolved that if Trance had Spain, it should not 
 be Spain ' with the Indies.' I called the New World into existence to redress 
 the balance of the Old." f The paramount object of separating the policy of 
 England from any subservience to the absolutism of the Continent was accom- 
 plished. It was accomplished without war. But when, a year later, the 
 adoption by Portugal of a constitutional government was an offence to the 
 Spanish despot, and he sent an army into Portugal to make the one rule ot 
 irresponsible power prevail throughout the Peninsula, Mr. Canning took the 
 attitude of a great War Minister, and by that attitude prevented a war. On 
 the 11th of December, 1826, a message was presented to the House of Commons, 
 stating that his Majesty had received an earnest application from the Princess 
 Eegeut of Portugal, claiming, in virtue of the ancient obligations of alliance 
 and amity subsisting between Great Britain and Portugal, his Majesty's aid 
 against a hostile aggression from Spain, On the next day, Tuesday, Decem- 
 ber 12th, Mr. Canning moved an Address, in answer to the Royal Message, 
 in a speech which was declared to have been " an epoch in a man's life to 
 have heard him." In his most eloquent periods there was nothing more 
 truly eioj^uent than his brief statement of the manner in which the govern- 
 ment had received the news of the Spanish aggression. The first intimation 
 of the event was a demand on the 3rd from the Portuguese ambassador for 
 assistance. The government desired to obtain official and precise intelligence 
 of facts on which to found an application to Parliament. " It was only on 
 last Friday night that this precise information arrived. On Saturday hia 
 Majesty's confidential servants came to a decision. On Sunday that decision 
 received the sanction of his Majesty. On Monday it was communicated to 
 both Houses of Parliament ; and this day, Sir, at the hour in which I have 
 the honour of addressing you, the troops are on their march for embarka- 
 tion." J Mr. Canning concluded his magnificent speech with these worda: — 
 
 * Rusli's " Residence at the Court of London," Second Scries, p. 244. 
 + llansiiid, vol. xvi. col. l)i)7. 
 :;: Ibid., coL 1307.
 
 1826.] MR. HUSKISSON— CHANGES IN OUR COMMERCIAL POLICY. 189 
 
 " We go to plant the standard of England on the well-known hei<Thts of 
 Lisbon. Where that standard is planted foreign dominion shall not come." 
 The British troops were in the Tagus in less than a fortnight after these 
 words were spoken. Not a shot was fired. The Spanish troops retired from 
 the Portuguese frontier. The British armament returned home. It had 
 accomplished what Mr. Canning proposed to accomplish : " Let us fly to 
 the aid of Portugal, by whomsoever attacked, because it is our duty to do so ; 
 and let us cease our interference where that duty ends." * 
 
 In carrying forward this rapid view of the foreign administration of the 
 country during the four years since the accession of Mr. Canning to oflBce we 
 have necessarily passed over some points of political importance to which we 
 must advert in a future chapter. But as the foreign relations of the country 
 received a marked change during this period, an equal change was wrought 
 upon its commercial policy during the same period — a change that mav 
 therefore properly be regarded as forming part of the same system of takino- 
 a broader and more comprehensive view of human aflairs than was agreeable 
 to those who thought that " all advances towards improvement are retro- 
 gradations towards Jacobinism." 
 
 In January, 1823, Mr. Huskisson became President of the Board of Trade. 
 He was held to be a political adventurer, and it was not till 1825 that his 
 great talents and vast financial and commercial knowledge gave him a seat 
 in the Cabinet. Liverpool, in 1823, had not hesitated to accept in Mr. 
 Huskisson, as its representative, a second political adventurer. In 1816 
 Mr. Canning had told his constituents that he pleaded guilty to the 
 heavy charge that had been made against him that he was an adventurer. 
 " A representative of the people, I am one of the people, and I present myself 
 to those who choose me, only with the claims of character, be they what they 
 may, unaccredited by patrician patronage." The talent and knowled'^e of 
 Mr. Huskisson soon rendered him the highest ofiicial authority in his own 
 ^ralk, in spite of lord Eldon's dislike of this colleague and his principles, 
 " looking to the whole history of this gentleman." f In the Session of 1823 
 Mr. Huskisson developed a broader system of commercial policy than any 
 previous government had dared to propose, in opposition to the prejudices of 
 generations — to the belief that the prosperity of the commerce and manufac- 
 tures of Great Britain rested upon the exclusive employment of her own 
 shipping, upon prohibitory duties, upon restrictive duties almost amounting 
 to prohibition, and upon the Balance of Trade. Mr. Wallace and Mr. 
 Robinson had taken some steps towards commercial freedom, but Mr. Hus- 
 kisson, by rapid strides, advanced towards the completion of a healthier 
 system than had as yet prevailed in the world. In 1823 he carried through 
 Parliament a measure known as the Eeciprocity of Duties Bill, the object of 
 which was that Duties and Drawbacks should be imposed and allowed on all 
 goods equaUy, whether imported or exported in British or in foreign vessels ; 
 but reserving the power of continuing the existing restrictions with respect 
 to those countries which should decline to act upon a system of reciprocity. 
 The Bill was passed on the 4th of July. On that occasion Mr. Stuart 
 
 ' Hansard, vol. xvi. col. 369. 
 
 t Twiss, " Life of Eldoa," vol. ii. p. 468.
 
 100 MK. HUSKISSON— CHANGES IN OUR COMMERCIAL POLICY. [1826. 
 
 "Wortley made a remark which we may now regard somewhat as a prophecy : 
 — " So many impolitic restrictions called protections being removed from the 
 trade and shipping, it would be impossible to retain, for any considerable 
 time, the protection given to agricultural produce."* 
 
 The measure of 1823, which struck a heavy blow at the old navigation 
 Liws, provoked little opposition compared with the clamour against the pro- 
 position of Mr. Huskisson, on the 5th of March, 1824, that the prohibitions 
 on the importation of silk manufactures should cease on the 5th of July, 
 1826 ; that the duties on raw silk should be largely reduced ; and those 
 on thrown silk reduced one half. We all now know the value of the great 
 argument which Mr. Huskisson employed : — " The system of prohibitory 
 duties, which has been maintained with respect to the silk trade, has had the 
 effect — to the shame of England be it spoken — of leaving us far behind our 
 neighbours in this branch of industry. "We have witnessed that chilling and 
 benumbing effect which is always sure to be felt when no genius is called 
 into action, and when we are rendered indifferent to exertion by the indolent 
 security of a prohibitory system. I have not the slightest doubt that if 
 the same system had been continued with respect to the cotton manufacture, 
 it would at this moment be as subordinate in amount to the woollen as it is 
 junior in its introduction into this country." f 
 
 It is unnecessary for us to pursue this subject beyond the point of 
 showing the beginnings of that great system of Free Trade, which has raised 
 this country to a height of prosperity which could scarcely have been con- 
 templated by the most enthusiastic advocates of a liberal commercial policy 
 in the time of Mr. Huskisson. In his own day he had to endure an amount 
 of opprobrium somewhat in excess of that which usually attaches to all 
 reformers. About six months before his measures with regard to the import 
 of foreign silks were to come into operation, Mr. Baring, on presenting a 
 petition from Taunton against the introduction of French silks, expressed 
 a hope that the subject would undergo discussion at an early period, seeing 
 that hundreds and thousands of individuals anticipated ruin and starvation 
 from the late regulations. The discussion was brought on upon a motion 
 for a Select Committee made by Mr. Ellice, the member for Coventry. In 
 seconding the motion, Mr. John Williams declared that if the authors of this 
 measure were prepared to make the sacrifice of the existence of half a million 
 of persons in support of an abstract theory, the strength of their resolution 
 would only prove the quality of their hearts. " A perfect metaphysician, as 
 Mr. Burke had observed, exceeded the devil in point of malignity and con- 
 tempt for the welfare of mankind." Mr. Huskisson most triumphantly 
 vindicated his motives, and asserted his confidence that the power and 
 resources of the country had been increased by those measures of commercial 
 policy which it had fallen to his lot to submit to Parliament. Mr. Canning, 
 on this occasion, came to the defence of his friend, in affirming that the 
 doctrine and spirit which animated tliose \\ho now persecuted him was the 
 ¥ame which had embittered the life of Turgot, and consigned Galileo to the 
 dungeons of the Inquisition — a doctrine and a spirit which had at all times 
 been at work to stay public advancement, and to roll back the tide of civi* 
 
 * Hansard, vol. ix. col. 1439. 
 
 + " Huskissoii's Speeches," vol. ii. p. 219.
 
 182G.] PROGRESS AND LIBERTY. VJZ 
 
 lization. Very noble and impressive "was one passage of Mr. Canning's 
 speech : — " Sir, I consider it to be the duty of a British statesman, m internal 
 as well as external affairs, to hold a middle course between extremes ; 
 avoiding alike extravagances of despotism, or the licentiousness of unbridled 
 freedom ; reconciling power with liberty : liot adopting hasty or ill-advised 
 experiments, or pursuing any airy and unsubstantial theories ; but not 
 rejecting, nevertheless, the application of sound and wholesome knowledge 
 to practical afiairs, and pressing, with sobriety and caution, into the service 
 of his country any generous and liberal principles, whose excess, indeed, may 
 be dangerous, but whose foundation is in truth. This, sir, in my mind, is 
 the true conduct of a British statesman ; but they who resist indiscriminately 
 all improvement as innovation may find themselves compelled at last to 
 tubmit to innovations although they are not improvements." * 
 
 A distinguished statesman and writer of France has thus described the 
 most important effect of Mr. Canning's foreign policy : " By his speeches, 
 by his measures, in recognizing the republics of Spanish America, and in 
 protesting boldly, though merely by word, against the entrance of the 
 French into Spain, he soon effected a change (sooner perhaps than he would 
 have been inclined to do if he had not found it necessary), in the foreign 
 policy of England, and transferred her from the camp of resistance and of 
 European order into the camp of progress and liberty." f This was the all- 
 sufficing benefit which Mr. Canning conferred upon his country. Once fairly 
 severed from the principles and acts of the great Continental powers, and em- 
 barked upon her own course of "progress and liberty," the ultimate hopes of 
 sanguine politicians might still be very far from immediate realization. The 
 great problem of the union of freedom with order might be no nearer a solution 
 in the year 1860 than in the year 1790. The " war of opinion" might have its 
 vicissitudes of anarchy and of despotism. It might eventually seem to have 
 "heen a mere flourish of eloquence, when the great orator, with " an attitude so 
 majestic that he seemed actually to have increased in stature," exclaimed, "I 
 called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old." The 
 representative governments of Europe which had arisen out of the dust and 
 ashes of Napoleon's tyranny might be again trodden down by other despots. 
 The new republics of America might for years be torn to pieces by internal 
 commotions, and their second condition might be even worse than their first. 
 The proud confidence of the founder and upholder of the democratic consti- 
 tution of the United States might be proved fallacious, in an exhibition of 
 arrogance as oflensive as that of absolute rulers ; whilst his belief that men 
 enjoying in ease and security the full fruits of their industry would follow 
 their own reason as their guide,J might some day be held as visionary, when 
 the action of the supreme government should be dictated by the passions of 
 the multitude. Yet for all this we may mistrust the partizan assuming 
 the office of the historian, when we learn that the experience of tlie world 
 since the year 1819, " which was the turning-point in our policy, both 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xiv. cols. 854 — 55. 
 + Guizot, " Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 24. 
 
 t See Jellerson s Letter to Judge Johnson, in bis " TVorks f* and in Tucker's " Life,'" vol, 
 ii. p, 506.
 
 1<)2 THE PRESENT AND THE PAST. [I82S. 
 
 foreign and domestic," has " diffused a very general doubt amongst thought- 
 ful men, whether the whole representative system is not a delusion ;" and 
 are told that " the ruin of industry, and the destruction of property, effected 
 in Great Britain, since the manufacturing school obtained the ascendency in 
 Parliament, much exceeds anything recorded in the history of pacific legisla- 
 tion."* To the restoration of a convertible paper-currency, advocated by 
 Mr. Horner and finally carried by Peel ; to the retirement of England from 
 the Quadruple Alliance and the recognition of South American republics 
 accomplished by Canning; to the removal of commercial restrictions and 
 prohibitions effected by Huskisson; to these causes the ghosts of ultra- 
 Toryism that still walk the earth and will not be laid, attribute what they 
 deem the evils which have fallen upon their country in the peaceful revolu- 
 tions of the reigns of William the Fourth and Victoria, If such were the 
 causes of that vital change in the condition of England, which enables us 
 with an honest exultation to contrast the Present with the Past, doubly 
 blessed were the partial successes of those eminent statesmen. Some 
 thoughtful man of their day might have anticipated the sentiment of a later 
 poet : — 
 
 " Progress is 
 The ]&w of life — man's self is not yet man ! 
 Nor shall I deem his object served, his end 
 Attained, his genuine strength put fairly forth, 
 While only here and there a star dispels 
 The darkness, here and there a towering mind 
 O'erlooks its prostrate fellows. "f 
 
 * Alison, " History of Europe from the Fall of Napoleon," toI. i. p. 54 tnd p. CG, 1862. 
 t Uicwning.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Nfgrc Slavery in the West Indies — Tiie Missionary Case — Opening of Parliament, 1825 — Public 
 Prosperity — Joinl-Stock Companies — Mining Schemes — The Panic in the Money-Market— 
 ThePanicarrested — Extensive failures of Commercial Houses — Joint-Stock Banks established 
 — State of the Catholic Question — Death of the duke of York — Illness of Lord Liverpool — 
 Negotiations previous to the choice of a Minister — Mr. Canning's Administration — Violent 
 opposition to Air. Canning ia both Houses — Charge against the Prime Minister that he 
 had given an unconstitutional pledge to the King on the subject of Catholic Emancipation 
 — Close of the Session — Death of Mr. Canning — His last Ministerial act, the conclusion of 
 a Treaty on the Affairs of Greece — Principles of International Law laid down by Mr. Canning 
 — List of the Cabinet of Mr. Canning — Note on the Negotiations which preceded Mr. 
 Canning's Premiership. 
 
 With the object of presenting a continuous view of the foreign policy of 
 England from the period of the accession of Mr. Canning to office in 1822, 
 we have passed over several matters of public importance to which we must 
 now advert. 
 
 Negro Slavery in the West Indies was the subject of animated debates in 
 the House of Commons in 1823 and in 1824. The difficult question of negro 
 emancipation m our Colonies has been happily settled by a magniticent effort 
 on the part of the government and the people. The curse of Slavery no 
 longer exists on a single rood of the vast possessions and dependencies of 
 the British Empire. But this result could not have been attained without 
 the persevering efforts of the same zeal which had accomplished the abolition 
 of the Slave Trade. A few of the first Abolitionists still remained. Younger 
 men had joined their ranks, with the determination to banish Slavery from 
 our own Colonies, and if possible to unite all Christendom in a league against 
 the hateful traffic, which some States still openly perpetrated and otliers 
 indirectly encouraged. On tlie 15th of May, 1823, Mr. Thomas Eovvell 
 Buxton moved as a resolution, " That the state of Slavery is repugnant to 
 tlie principles of the British Constitution, and of the Christian religion ; and 
 that it ought to be gradually abolished throughout the British Colouies, with 
 as much expedition as may be foufJd consistent with a due regard to the well- 
 being of the parties concerned." Mr. Canning met this resolution by pro- 
 posing other resolutions, to the effect that decit^ive measures sliould be taken 
 for ameliorating the condition of the Slave population of the British Colo- 
 nies ; that through such measures the House looked forward to such a 
 progressive improvement in the character of the Slave population, as might 
 prepare them for a participation in civil rights and privileges. Mr. Canning's 
 proposal was unanimously agreed to by the House. The West Indian 
 VOL. Yui.— 237.
 
 194 NEGRO SLAVERY— THE MISSIONARY CASE. [18C1 
 
 interest at home was greatly alarmed. The resident proprietors were in a 
 state of indignant terror when the Colonial Secretary issued, a Circular 
 which announced the determination of the British Government to interfere 
 between the owner and his slave. This Circular contained an absolute prohi- 
 bition to inflict the punishment of flogging under any circumstances upon 
 female slaves, and a strong recommendation with regard to males that tlie 
 whip should no longer be carried into the field and there displayed by the 
 driver as the emblem of his authority, or employed as the ready instrument 
 of his displeasure.* In most of the West India Islands the Circular of lord 
 Bathurst produced only votes of indignation in their local Assemblies. In 
 Demerara the Court of Policy passed regulations in compliance with the 
 instructions of the Circular, but the negroes entertained a belief that orders 
 had come from England for their complete emancipation. The Government 
 of the Colony had previously issued a prohibition against the negroes attend- 
 ing divine service except under certain conditions, in the belief that the 
 sectaries incited them to insubordination. On the 18th of August a rising 
 took place amongst some of the slaves, who imprisoned their masters but 
 shed no blood. On the 19th martial law was proclaimed, and under sen- 
 tences of Courts-martial forty-seven negroes were executed, and a great 
 number were tortured by tlie most merciless flogging. The Colony was 
 subjected to martial-law for five months. Under this law JMr. John Smith, 
 a missionary of the Independent persuasion, was tried upon a charge of 
 having incited the negroes to revolt, and of having concealed their intention 
 to rise. He was convicted and sentenced to death. The governor did not 
 venture to execute the sentence, but left the decision to the British cabinet, 
 who rescinded the sentence, but decreed Mr, Smith's banishment from the 
 Colony. Mr. Brougham brought the whole case before the House of Com- 
 mons, on the 1st of June, 1824. The missionary, who had been cast into a 
 loathsome dungeon, in a weak state of health, had died after some weeks of 
 severe suffering. The feeling produced at home was that of pity for the 
 victim, and of indignation at the injustice of the Court by which he was 
 tried. The proceedings of this general Court-martial, held on the 13th of 
 October, 1823, published by the Missionary Society, displayed " a series of 
 errors so gross as to mock belief, and of oppressions which are unexampled 
 in the dispensation of English justice."t Mr. Brougham, in this memorable 
 debate, uttered a solemn warning to the Slave-holders : — "Yet a little delay; 
 yet a little longer of this unbearable trifling with the commands of the 
 parent state — and she will stretch out her arm, in mercy, not in anger, to 
 those deluded men themselves ; exert at last her undeniable authority ; vindi- 
 cate the just right and restore the tarnished honour of the English name !" 
 In this debate Mr. Wilberforce spoke for the last time in Parliament. The 
 speech of sir James Mackintosh was that of a statesman whose opinions 
 were of far more practical importance than those of the too sanguine aboli- 
 tionist : " I am as adverse as any one to the sudden emancipation of slaves ; 
 much out of regard to the masters, but still more, as affecting a far larger 
 portion of mankind, out of regard to the unhappy slaves themselves. Emau- 
 
 * "Annual Register," 1823, p. 130. 
 
 + Introductujn to Mr. Bronghftin's speech in the Mipsionary Case, in his Selected 
 Bfcecbes, vol. ii. p. 110.
 
 1825.] rUBLIC PROSPERITY AT OPEXINQ OF PAULIAMENT. 195 
 
 cipation by violence and revolt I consider as the greatest calamity that can 
 
 visit a community except perpetual slavery I acknowledge that 
 
 the pacific emancipation of great multitudes thus -wretchedly circumstanced 
 is a problem so arduous as to perplex and almost silence the reason of man. 
 Time is undoubtedly necessary." 
 
 Of the six Bills for the repeal of Capital Punishments which sir James 
 Mackintosh introduced in the Session of 1820,* three eventually became 
 laws.f These were the only formal results of the perseverance of the legis- 
 lator upon -whom the mantle of Eomilly had fallen. In 1822 he obtained a 
 pledge from the House that it would proceed to a general consideration of 
 t'ae Criminal laws in the next Session. On the 21st of May, 1823, he pro- 
 posed nine resolutions, which went at once to do away with capital punish- 
 ment in a number of offences to which they referred. Mr. Peel, who was 
 now Secretary of State for the Home Department, objected to the extent of 
 these measures. He admitted the necessity of some amendment, and inti- 
 mated his intention to propose measures which should embrace several of the 
 improvements which sir James Mackintosh contemplated. His son has 
 recorded that the defeat on this occasion was a signal to sir James for sur- 
 rendering the superintendence of further reforms into the hands of one 
 whose position as a minister gave him peculiar facilities for carrying them 
 into effect: "He lived," says his biographer, "to see the propriety of many 
 of these very alterations acquiesced in to an extent which he dared scarcely 
 have imagined, and which drew from him the expression, instancing the 
 growth of opinion on these subjects, that he could almost think that he had 
 lived in two different countries, and conversed with people who spoke two 
 different languages."! 
 
 When the Session of Parliament was opened on the 3rd of January, 
 1825, the exultation of the Eoyal Speech upon " public prosperity " was f:ir 
 stronger than ministerial prudence and reserve often ventured to indulge. 
 " There never was a period in the history of this country when all the great 
 interests of the nation were at the same time in so thriving a condition." 
 Alas for the instability of human affairs ! In the King's Speech on the 2nd 
 of Pebruary, 1826, we have this sentence : " His Majesty deeply laments the 
 injurious effects which the late pecuniary crisis must have entailed upon 
 Tnany branches of the commerce and n)anufactures of the United Kingdom." 
 The pecuniary crisis was indeed the most unexpected, the most astounding, 
 and the most severe in its consequences, of any derangement of commercial 
 operations ever produced by extravagant hopes and exaggerated alarms. This 
 pecuniary crisis universally obtained the name of " The Panic." It was des- 
 cribed by Mr. Huskisson as " such a complete suspension of all confidence 
 as, contradistinguished from commercial distress, rendered it impossible to 
 
 procure money upon even the most unobjectionable security 
 
 If the difficulties which existed in the money market had continued only 
 eight-and-forty hours longer, he sincerely believed that the effect would have 
 been to put a stop to all dealings between man and man, except by waj- of 
 barter." § 
 
 * Ante, p. 101. t 1 Geo. IV., cap. 115, llo, 117. 
 
 t " Life of Mackintosh," vol. ii. p. 391. 
 § " Huskisson's Speeches," vol. ii. p. 41.i.
 
 iS6 JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES -MINING SCHEMES. [18'25: 
 
 There can be no doubt whatever that at the beginning of 1825 the 
 sanguine views of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, which obtained for him 
 the name of " Prosperity Robinson," were really justified by whatever was 
 apparent in the material condition of the country. In June of that year an 
 article appeared in the " Quarterly Review " which went very carefully into 
 the proofs that there had scarcely ever been a time when every branch of 
 industry had been so generally prosperous. We are taken into the country 
 to look upon fields better cultivated than a few years before ; barns and stack- 
 yards more fnlly stored ; horses, cows, and sheep more abundant ; implements 
 of husbandry greatly improved : In cities, towns, and villages, more 
 numerous and better shops, and a vast increase of goods, indicating the 
 flourishing circumstances of the community : In manufactories similar 
 manifestations of the increase of wealth. We are then told that if we could 
 examine the accounts of the bankers of the metropolis, and in the small as 
 well as large provincial towns, we should find that the balances resting with 
 them were increased to an enormous amount. The reviewer then adds : 
 " This indeed may be fairly inferred from the low rate of interest in the 
 floating public securities, from the prices of the funds, from the avidity with 
 which every project for the employment of capital is grasped at, and from 
 the general complaint, almost the only complaint heard, that there is now no 
 way of making interest for money." * Those who in all times are ready to 
 treat such maladies in the body politic by salutary venesection, were most 
 busy and successful at the end of 1824 and tlie beginning of 1825. Joint- 
 Stock Companies suddenly rose up, some fur provident schemes of home 
 industry, but others holding forth the prospect of enormous wealth by 
 working the mines of South America. "All the gambling propensities of 
 human nature were constantly solicited into action, and crowds of individuals 
 of every description — the credulous and the suspicious — the crafty and the 
 bold — the raw and the experienced — the intelligent and the ignorant — 
 princes, nobles, politicians, placemen, patriots, lawyers, physicians, divines, 
 philosophers, poets, intermingled with women of all ranks and degrees — 
 spinsters, wives and widows — hastened to venture some portion of their 
 property in schemes of which scarcely anything was known except the 
 name." f 
 
 Tlie South American mining schemes required large remittances in money ,. 
 and an equal expenditure in stores and machinery for the operations to be 
 carried on. The new South American States asked and obtained considerable 
 loans. Speculations in goods were carried forward to an extent, and with a 
 tcmjiorary amount of profit, previously unknown. The rush of purchasers 
 to invest in cofl^ee, in spices, in indigo, in tallow, and in cotton, with a total 
 ignorance of everything connected with the relation of the supply to the 
 consumption, had for a while the effect of producing a general rise of prices. 
 Every article which had not advanced in price Mas soon made the subject of 
 an exaggerated demand. Yery soon after Parliament had separated, cheered 
 by the oflicial announcement of public prosperity, a reaction commenced. 
 The price of every article that had been the subject of this overtrading began, 
 
 * Vol. .xx.vii. |>. 189. 
 
 t " Aiuiiinl Kfgistwr," 1S24, p. 3.
 
 1S25.] THE PANIC IN THE MONEY-MARK KT. l'J7 
 
 to fall. More precipitous was the downward tenJency of the loan and share 
 market; for no dividends came from the South American loans; no remittances 
 in the precious metals to attest that increased productiveness of the mines 
 which was expected to arise out of the application of British capital and 
 machiuexy. The rage for speculation had so penetrated into uncommercial 
 circles, and the sober tradesman who once used to be content with the 
 moderate profits of his own industry had so embarked his capital in rash 
 ventures, that, when a want of confidence began to be felt, universal distrust 
 soon succeeded. The Bank of England, which had ten millions of bullion 
 and coin in its cofters in April, had only one million three hundred thousand 
 pounds in November to maet the rapid drain that was going forward. The 
 Ciirectors of the Bank of England, in their alarm, suddenly diminished their 
 circulation to the extent of 3,500,000/. In the general want of confidence, 
 the country bankers had to endure the consequences of an almost unlimited 
 circulation of their notes, nothing loath as they had been to assist the specu- 
 lative tendencies of their customers by what seemed a method so easy to 
 themselves. The time was at hand when every man would look suspiciously 
 upon the dirty pieces of paper which he had held to be as good as gold ; and 
 these promises to pay would travel, first slowly and then rapidly, to the 
 banker's counter, and many who saw these obligations return to their source 
 would ask what they had done to provoke this run upon them. In London 
 those large balances in the hands of the bankers which the reviewer described 
 as " ready to embrace favourable changes in the price of any commodity, or 
 to be placed at interest as beneficial securities presented themselves," were 
 suddenly withdrawn to meet unforeseen losses, to satisfy unexpected demands, 
 and, in many cases, out of a selfish mistrust of the security of those deposi- 
 tories which had once justly received the public confidence. Selfish and 
 shortsighted was the panic that drove men to the banker's counter, in their 
 ignorant belief that it was his duty to have ready in his till an amoui^t 
 suflicient to pay the balances of every customer. On the 5th of December 
 the banking-house of sir Peter Pole and Company stopped payment. On the 
 6th the bank of "Williams and Company followed. The author of this history 
 cannot easily forget the scene which he witnessed on the morning of the 
 7th of December. On the night of the Gth two personal friends, partners in 
 fl; country bank, who had their accounts with "Williams and Company, arrived 
 at his house in town to consult with him on the best course to be pursued in 
 this hour of danger. It was agreed that one of the partners should imme- 
 diately return home and countermand an order that had been given for the 
 closing of the bank on the following morning. The other partner, who was 
 a member of Parliament, was to set out with the present writer to seek the 
 assistance of friendly capitalists before the general world was astir. In the 
 chambers in the Albany of one of the members of a city bank they fouud 
 the firm assembled, deliberating by lamp-light, as many others were 
 deliberating, whilst the watchman still cried the morning hour. The request 
 for aid was made, and was as promptly answered : " AVe shall stop ourselves 
 at nine o'clock." The two friends proceeded to Lombard-street and its 
 neighbourhood as the morning dawned. Long before the time of opening, 
 the doors of the banking-houses were surrounded by eager crowds, each 
 struggling to be foremost, as at the entrance of a theatre. Many such
 
 193 THE PANIC ARRESTED. 1.1825. 
 
 doors "n'ere opened ; and after the first rush some began to be ashamed of 
 their suspicious impatience. Heads of firms stood quietly beside their clerks, 
 sometimes smiling, with an unmistakeable meaning, upon those who showed 
 how easily are " benefits forgot ;" some pointed to their title-deeds and other 
 securities, as ready for any sacrifice to preserve their commercial honour. 
 Before the close of the year seventy-three banks had failed, of which seven, 
 were metropolitan. The country bank in which we felt an interest waa 
 saved by the more sensible of the townsmen coming promptly forward to 
 declare their opinion of its solvency and their resolution not to press ia 
 the hour of difiiculty. This was a very general course throughout the 
 eountry. 
 
 During the three weeks of alarm and misery which preceded the Christmas 
 of 1825, the Cabinet was daily deliberating upon measures to be pursued to 
 stop the disorder and to mitigate its consequences. The Bank Directors came 
 forward to lend money upon any description of property ; and relaxed all 
 their accustomed regulations for the discount of bills. The amount of mer- 
 cantile bills under discount had been four millions on the 3rd of November; 
 it had increased to fifteen millions on the 29th of December. Sovereigns 
 were coined at the Mint at the unprecedented speed of 150,000 daily. At the 
 Bank of England notes were printed with equal promptitude ; for with the 
 sanction of the Cabinet it was determined that one and two pound notes 
 Avhich the Bank of England had called in should again be issued for temporary 
 purposes. Still these two supplies of an unexceptionable currency could not 
 be produced fast enough to fill up the vacuum occasioned by the almost total 
 withdrawal of country bank paper. An accidental circumstance solved the 
 difficulty. A box containing about seven hundred thousand pounds of one 
 pound notes, which had been put aside unused, was accidentally discovered at 
 the Bank. Mr. Harman, one of the directors, stated it as his opinion, that 
 the timely issue of these notes " worked wonders — it saved the credit of the 
 country."* 
 
 The credit of the country was saved ; in other words the excessive demand 
 for gold did not involve the danger at one time apprehended — a suspension of 
 cash payments. The credit of the country was saved ; but the destruction of 
 private credit, the consequent ruin of many commercial firms, and the terrible 
 struggle of others to keep their position, were wide-spread consequences of the 
 panic of 1825. It was not till towards the end of January, 1826, that important 
 mercantile failures began to create alarm. These failures continued to a vast 
 extent throughout the whole year. The total number of bankruptcies in 
 1825 was a little above eleven hundred ; in 1826 the number was nearly two 
 thousand six hundred. The destruction of capital and credit paralysed all 
 the exertions of industry, and produced excessive distress amongst the manu- 
 facturing population. Diminished employment and lower wages, added to 
 the lo?s which many who lived by their daily labour had sustained in the 
 "ailure of country banks, rendered the year 1826 a very unhappy one to all 
 those, whether wealthy or poor, whose means of support were connected with 
 the industry of the country. Jifany indeed had to pay the penalty of their 
 indulgence in wild speculation, and others had to sufter a severe retribution 
 
 • Porter's " Progress of tlie Natior.."
 
 lii'26.] EXTENSIVE FAILURES OF COAIMEIICIAL HOUSES. 199 
 
 for their abuse of the fiicilities for raising money upon hills, which had gone 
 on till the sudden crash came, and borrowers and lenders were involved in 
 equal difficulty. One well-known example is an illustration of the dangers 
 that always beset men of sanguine hopes, who regard their facility of creating 
 wealth in the future as a power already realised, so as to warrant tlie large 
 outlay which belongs to accumulated capital. On the 18lh of December, 
 1825, there is this entry in the diary of sir Walter Scott : — " Kieh and poor 
 four or five times; once on the verge of ruin, yet opened a new source of 
 wealth almost overflowing. Now to be broken in my pitch of pride, and 
 nearly winged (unless good news should come), because Loudon chooses to 
 be in an uproar, and in the tumult of bulls and bears a poor inoffensive liou 
 like myself is pushed to the wall. But what is to be the end of it? God 
 knows ; and so ends the catechism." The lion would not have been pushed 
 to the wall in the tumult of bulls and bears in London if, in building, and 
 planting, and furnishing, and exercising hospitality upon the most sumptuous 
 scale, he had not only anticipated the resources of his own genius, but had 
 incurred debts on his private account, and as a partner in a printing esta- 
 blishment, to the extent of nearly a hundred and fifty thousand pounds. 
 The printing and publishing houses with wliich Scott was connected neces- 
 sarily failed, and he failed with them. Then began the heroic period of his 
 life, in which his great intellect received the noblest stimulus — that of a 
 desire by his own unaided exertions to discharge the obligatioua which he 
 had incurred by his former disregard' of prudence and moderation. Many a 
 man who had been bowed dowu by the storm might have felt the same 
 aspiration again to stand erect, but few could have accomplished it so 
 thoroughly as the great auth.or, who never lost heart or hope, and in the 
 darkest hour said, " If God grant me life and streugtli for a few years longer, 
 I have no doubt that I shall redeem it all." 
 
 AVhen the Session of Parliament was opened on the 2ud of iVbruarj^ 
 1S26, it was truly said in the royal speech that some of the causes of the evil 
 which had occurred were beyond tlie reach of direct parliamentary inter- 
 position, nor could security against the recurrence of them be found unless 
 in the experience of the sufferings which they had occasioned. But to a 
 certain portion of the evil correctives at least, if not effectual remedies, 
 -might be applied. It was desirable to place on a more firm foundation the 
 currency and circulating credit of the country. Lord Liverpool then sta;ed 
 the measures which Government intended to submit for the consideration of 
 Parliament. One of those measures was a regulation by which one and two 
 pound bank-notes should be gradually withdrawn from circulation, and a 
 metallic currency substituted for them. The other measure had reference to 
 the exclusive privileges of the Bank of England, under their charter whi3h 
 would not expire till 1833. Lord Liverpool said — " If the Bank could be 
 induced to give up so much of their exclusive privilege as related to country 
 banks, and if they would accompany that surrender with a measure which 
 would be desirable for their own sakes, namely, the establishment in some 
 parts of the country of branches of their own institution, the efiect on the 
 general circulation of the country would, he thought, be most beneficial." 
 The privilege of the Bank of England had prevented the establishment of 
 any banking concern with a greater number of partners than six. Lord
 
 200 JOINT-STOCK BANKS ESTABLISHED. [182(>. 
 
 Liverpool said he was old enough to remember the time when there waa 
 scarcely such an institution as a country bank except in great commercial 
 towns, and when the transactions of the country were carried on in Bank of 
 England notes, and money obtained from London. There had been a great 
 change. Any small tradesman, a cheesemonger, a butcher, o-r a shoemaker 
 might open a country bank. The exclusive privilege of the Bank of England 
 did not touch them. But an association of persons with fortune sufficient to 
 carry on a banking concern with security was not permitted to do so.* The 
 panic of 1825 produced the great measure of 1826, sanctioning the establish- 
 ment of Joint-Stock Banks; under which enactment a banking firm might 
 include any number of partners except within sixty-five miles of London. 
 This year was also the date of the establishment of Branch Banks of the Bank 
 of England. Scotland was exempted from the prohibition of the small note 
 currency. It is worthy of note, that during the panic not a single Scotch 
 bank failed. 
 
 The difficulties of capitalists in the manufacturing districts produced, as 
 their inevitable consequence, distress amongst the workers. In those days 
 riot was too commonly the concomitant of distress. The popular excitement 
 took the usual course of the days of popular ignorance, — the destruction of 
 machinery. At various places in Lancashire, from the 23rd to the 30th of 
 April, one thousand power-looms were destroyed, with the old accompa- 
 niments of reading the E-iot Act and calling out the military. At Trow- 
 bridge the populace, who found potatoes dearer in their market than on the 
 previous week, believing themselves injured by the monopolists of vegetables, 
 attacked all the standings of the market gardeners and country butchers, so 
 effectually doing their work that they scared away for some time all those who 
 kept down the prices of the town dealers by competition. There were 
 riotous proceedings and destruction of property in most places where the 
 operatives were suffering distress. Lamentable as such outrages must be in 
 their effects upon the sufierers themselves, they sometimes speak with a 
 stronger voice than the sober arguments of those who would mitigate the 
 sufiering by inquiries into its remediable causes. Whilst the noble and the 
 rich of Lanarkshire, in a public meeting, resolved that the distress of the 
 working people of Glasgow was to be attributed to machinery, they, and 
 most other landed proprietors, strenuously resisted any approach to a relaxa- 
 tion of the Corn Laws. The price of wheat had fallen in March below the 
 price of January, chiefly in consequence of a belief that the government 
 intended to release bonded wheat at a low duty. The ministers declared 
 they had no such intention, and the average price again rose to that of the 
 beginning of the year. The complaints and violence of the manufacturing 
 districts alarmed the government, and at the beginning of May the release 
 of the corn in bond was proposed and carried, with a discretionary power to 
 admit foreign grain to the extent of five hundred thousand quarters, in the 
 event of the next harvest proving unfavourable. These concessions were 
 not obtained without great difficulty, — without a protest on the part of the 
 ministers that they had not, and could not, have any connection whatever 
 with any measure afi"ecting the existing system of the Corn Laws. "If," 
 
 • ' Hansard, ' vol. xiv. col. 19.
 
 1826.] STATE OF THE CATHOLIC QUESTION. 201 
 
 paid lord Eldon, " the measure pledged that House, or any man in that 
 House, to auy alteration unfavourable to the Corn Laws, he would be the 
 last man to stand up as its advocate." * 
 
 At the close of the Session on the 31st of May, the royal intention was 
 announced "to dissolve without delay the present Parliament." It was the 
 seventh session of that Parliament. The dissolution at this early season had 
 no reference to the state of political parties, but simply had regard to the 
 convenience of the time for a general election. The leading question upoa 
 which men's minds would be most stirred throughout the liingdom, and 
 especially in Ireland, would be that of Catholic Emancipation. Tlie Cabinet 
 remained in the position as to this question which it occupied in 1812, when 
 lord Castlereagh became one of its members. Catholic Emancipation was 
 what is called " an open question," upon the principle described by Mr. 
 Canning, — " the principle of treating it as a question out of the ordinary 
 course of ministerial business; as one to be argued upon its own merits, 
 such as they might appear to each individual member of the administration."t 
 Lord Liverpool, as the head of the government, was opposed to the Catholic 
 claims, but his opposition was qualitied by the moderation of his character, 
 and no one doubted his sincerity. Lord Eldon again and again avowed his 
 " tirm and determined purpose to support to the last our establishment in 
 church and state." J When Mr. Canning became Secretary of Foreign 
 Affairs, he was unpopular with the Anti-Catholic party in general, and 
 obnoxious to the Lord Cliancellor in particular. § Lord Eldon was, however, 
 consoled by the decided views of Mr. Peel on this subject, whose influence 
 with the Anti-Catholic party was materially strengthened by his position as 
 representative of the University of Oxford. Mr. Peel, although then of 
 comparative unimportance as a political leader, was in 1818 preferred by 
 the University as a representative of its orthodoxy, whilst Mr. Canning was 
 rejected. Upon the great " open question," the party of Mr. Canning in 
 the Cabinet obtained in 1825 a majority in the House of Commons upon a 
 Bill for the repeal of disabilities, the enactment of a state provision for the 
 E-oman Catholic clergy, and the raising of the qualification of the Irish 
 franchise from forty shillings to ten pounds. The Bill passed the Commons 
 by a majority of twentj'-seven. It was rejected by the Lords by a majority 
 ftf forty-eight. On the 25th of April the duke of York, on presenting a 
 petition from the Dean and Canons of Windsor, made a speech which pro- 
 duced an enormous sensation throughout the country, and especially from 
 his concluding words : — " My own opinions, my lords, are well kuown. They 
 have been carefully formed. I cannot change them. I shall continue to act 
 conformably to them, to whatever obloquy I may be exposed, in whatever 
 circumstances and in whatever situation I may be placed. So help me God! '* 
 The Relief Bill had been read a second time in the House of Commons four 
 days before this memorable declaration by the Prince of the Blood next the 
 throne, — the* heir presumptive ; but it had no doubt a great influence in 
 producing the large majority in the House of Lords against the bill. Lord 
 
 • " Hansard," vol. xv. col. 1375. 
 
 + Ihid., vol. xii. col. 491. 
 
 :^ Twiss, " Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. p. .^38. 
 
 § Ibid., p. 466.
 
 202 DEATH OF THE DUKE OF YORK. [1827. 
 
 Eldon writes : — " If the duke of York's speecli was imprudent, it lias, never- 
 theless, on account of its firmness and boldness, placed him on the pinnacle 
 of popularity." * The duke became the Protestant hero ; his speech was 
 printed in letters of gold, and zealous Protestants interpreted the words 
 "in whatever circumstances I may be placed," as an assurance that whatever 
 might be the dangers of the country, whatever might be the risk of a rebeliioH. 
 in Ireland, probably of a disruption of the Union, the duke of York, if he 
 came to the throne, would interpret the Coronation Oath as his father had 
 interpreted it. The duke, by the frankness of his character, his attention to 
 the interests of the army, and his popular demeanour, had many ftiends and 
 admirers, who, nevertheless, privately thought, as the Lord Chancellor 
 privately wrote : — " It is to be regretted that in his highly important and 
 lofty situation he spends so many days with blacklegs, and so many nights at 
 cards." f In the session of 1826 the question of Catholic Emancipation was 
 not agitated in Parliament. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1827, the death of the duke of York was momen- 
 tarily expected. The duke died on the 5th. The Lord Chancellor mourned 
 deeply over the loss of the Prince, chiefly because he had great influence with 
 the King, and in correspondence with his Majesty upon political questions, 
 and in his recommendation of proper persons to be continued or appointed 
 ministers, was much governed in his judgment, by what had been, and what 
 he thought would be, the conduct of each person as to the Catholic claims. 
 This was the one test of fitness for office with the duke of York and with the 
 Lord Chancellor, who thus recorded their mutual opinions. J Mr. Canning 
 was especially hateful to them at the time of the duke's illness, when the 
 Chancellor " saw a great deal of his Eoyal Highness." The Foreign Secre- 
 tary's memorable speech of the previous 1st of December, on the subject of 
 the aggression of Spain upon Portugal, " was regarded by the Tories as 
 amounting to a demonstration in favour of liberalism. "§ 
 
 The funeral of the duke of York took place at Windsor on the night of 
 the 20th of January. Nothing in that ceremony was more remarkable than 
 the mismanagement by which the Cabinet ministers were marshalled by the 
 heralds in the nave of St. George's Chapel two hours before the arrival of 
 the funeral procession. The night was bitterly cold. As we ourselves looked 
 down from the organ loft upon the greatest in the land, thus doomed to stand 
 upon the unmatted pavement, shivering and shifting their uneasy positions, 
 ■we observed the oldest man of the Cabinet taking very wise precautions for 
 his personal comfort and safety. One who was by the side of Mr. Canning, 
 attributes to his kindness of heart a siiggestion to the Chancellor that he 
 should lay down his cocked hat and stand upon it.]| The Chancellor's health 
 was preserved by this precaution. The funeral of the duke proved fatal to 
 ]Mr. Canning. He caught a cold there which resulted in an illness from 
 which he never really recovered.*i[ 
 
 The removal from the active concerns of life of a public mafi more imme* 
 
 * Twiss, " Life of Lord Eldon," vol. ii. p. 547. 
 
 + Hid., vol. ii. p. 547. 
 
 t Ibid., p. 581. § lUd., p. 578. 
 
 II Stapleton — *' Georjie Canning aud his Times," p. 573. 
 
 Ii Ibid.
 
 1S27.] ILLNESS OF LORD LIVERPOOL. 203 
 
 diately important to the nation very soon followed the death of the duke of 
 York. On the 16th of February lord Liverpool moved an address to the 
 Kino-, expressive of the concurrence of the Peers in a message recommending 
 a provision for the duke and duchess of Clarence. The next morning the 
 servant of the Prime Minister, going into his sitting-room after breakfast, 
 found him senseless on the floor in a fit of apoplexy. On the 18th lord 
 Eldon thus expressed his opinion as to the results of this event : " His life 
 is very uncertain, and it is quite certain that as an official man he is no more. 
 Heaven knows who will succeed him."* 
 
 The hopeless illness of lord Liverpool must have been a heavy blow to 
 Mr. Canning, whatever prospect might have opened to him of taking that 
 post in the state which might be called his by inheritance. The fatal stroke 
 of apoplexy broke up a friendship of forty years between the two statesmen. 
 Immediately after the funeral of the duke of York they were together at 
 Bath, telling stories of their early years, and amusing each other with 
 recounting all sorts of fun and adventures.f They were college friends at 
 Christ Church. They entered the House of Commons together in 1792. 
 They differed, as leading members of the same cabinet, only upon one point 
 of policy — that of Catholic Emancipation. The moderation of lord Liverpool 
 prevented that difference operating in the slightest degree against the cordial 
 support of his friend's liberal foreign policy, and that support of the Prime 
 Minister carried the Foreign Secretary through the opposition which other- 
 wise might have overwhelmed him. This prop was gone, and he must now 
 trust to his own resources to contend with or to propitiate jealous colleagues^ 
 or retire at once from the position which he had won by his administrative 
 talents and his unrivalled eloquence. The Catholic question was the chief 
 barrier which opposed his natural claim to be the head of a ministry such as 
 existed under lord Liverpool. It was a time when the advocates and the 
 opposers of relief to the Catholics would be pitted against each other, and no 
 possible doubt could be entertained of the consistency with which the leaders 
 of each party would maintain their opinions. On the 5th of March sir 
 Francis Burdett had proposed a resolution, " That this House is deeply 
 impressed with the expediency of taking into consideration the laws imposing 
 civil disabilities on his Majesty's Eoman Catholic subjects, with a view t^ 
 their relief." In the adjourned debate on the 6th, Mr. Secretary Peel and 
 Mr. Secretary Canning were distinctly marshalled against each other ; and 
 each, without any direct personal allusions, sufficiently expressed his own 
 A'iews for the guidance of his followers. Mr. Peel, alluding to the death of 
 the duke of York, and the incapacity of lord Liverpool, declared that he had 
 now an opportunity of showing his adherence to those tenets which he had 
 formerly espoused — of showing that he stood by his opinions when the 
 influence and authority which might have given them currency was gone, 
 " and when it was impossible, he believed, that in the mind of auy human 
 being he could stand suspected of pursuing his principles with any view to 
 favour or personal aggrandisement." J The biographer of sir Bobert Peel, 
 his diplomatic friend and ardent admirer, says that this language did not 
 
 * Twiss, vol, ii. p. 583. 
 
 t Stapleton, p. 580. 
 
 X "Hansard, voi. ivi. col. 9S0."
 
 204 NEGOTIATIONS PREVIOUS TO CHOICE OF A MINISTER. [1827. 
 
 .meet with entire credence, it being a prevalent opinion that as Mr. Canning 
 was growing daily in influence with the liberal party, Mr. Peel was anxious 
 on his side to secure to himself the firm support of the Tories, " in order to 
 raise himself eventually to the head of the government." * Mr. Canning, in 
 his reply, glanced with a very intelligible meaning at tlie consequences that 
 would result from throwing away any chance of improving the condition of 
 Ireland, if a ministry wholly Anti-Catholic should carry into effect the 
 doctrine of Mr. Peel, that the troubles and difficulties of that country should 
 be met by firmness and decision : — " Firmness and decision, sir, are admirable 
 qualities ; but they are virtues or vices according as they are used. I will 
 not take them in the unfavourable sense in which they have been taken 
 generally, by the ears which have heard them this night ; for if I did, I 
 should not envy the hand on which w-ould devolve the task of carrying such a 
 Bystem into efiect." f The king had quickly to determine upon his choice, 
 not of either of the principles avowed by these two parliamentary leaders, 
 but of the possibility of reconciling those differences of opinion under a 
 premiership wdiich might allow the continuance of that system of compromise 
 which made the Catholic question an open one for the Cabinet. The king 
 consulted the duke of AV"ellington, Mr. Peel, and Mr. Canning. These 
 ministers had repeated conferences with each other, but no solution of the 
 difiiculty could be arrived at. There was no one to be found, either Pro- 
 Catholic or Anti-Catholic, who could be placed at the head of the govern- 
 ment with the same power and influence as lord Liverpool had exercised for 
 continuing the system of compromise. Mr. Canning saw the diificulty, and 
 ■offered to retire if the king could form an administration wholly composed of 
 persons thinking as the king himself thought. His Majesty did not see the 
 possibility of maintaining such a ministry ; and finally on the 10th of April, 
 gave his commands to Mr. Canning to prepare, with as little delay as possible, 
 a plan for the reconstruction of the administration. J 
 
 On the 12th of April a new writ for the borough of Newport was moved 
 in the House of Commons, in consequence of the acceptance by Mr. Can- 
 ning of the office of Pirst Lord of the Treasury. At the same time it was 
 agreed that the House should adjourn till the 1st of May. During this 
 interval the greatest excitement prevailed, not only amongst political parti- 
 Eans, but in every circle in which the characters and opinions of public men 
 formed subjects of discussion. The commanding talents and the liberal policy 
 of Mr. Canning produced a very extended hope that he would be able to 
 maintain his great position against the attacks of his numerous enemies. 
 At this time lord Eldon wrote — " the whole conversation in this town is 
 made up of abusive, bitterly abusive, talk of people about each other — all 
 fire and flame; T have known nothing like it."§ It was pretty generally 
 known that the ofters of Mr. Canning to six of his late colleagues in the 
 Cabinet had been either contemptuously or civilly rejected. Those of his 
 colleagues who resigned their ofiiccs before or on the 12th, were — the Lord 
 Chancellor, the duke of Wellington, lord Westmoreland, lord Bathurst, lord 
 
 * Guizot, " Momohs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 28. 
 + "Hansard," vol xvi. col. 1007. 
 :^ See Koto at the end of this chapter. 
 § Twiss, vol, ii. p. 688.
 
 1827.1 3m. CANNING'S ADMINISTKATION. 205 
 
 Bexley, and Mr. Peel. Mr. Canning went into the King's closet and said^ 
 presenting these letters of resignation to the King, " Here, sire, is that 
 which disables me from executing the orders I have received from you 
 respecting the formation of a new administration. It is now open to your 
 Majesty to adopt a new course." The King gave Mr. Canning his hand to 
 kiss, and the minister had to look around for new supporters. Lord Bexley 
 afterwards withdrew his resignation. Lord Melville retired from the office 
 of First Lord of the Admiralty, and the duke of Clarence was appointed 
 Lord-High- Admiral. The duke of "Wellington, contrary to the desire of the 
 King and his minister, subsequently resigned, in addition to his seat in 
 the Cabinet, his office of Commander-in-Chief. When the Houses met, after 
 the Easter recess, on the 1st of May, Mr. Canning had completed the forma- 
 tion of his ministry.* On that day all the avenues to the House of Com- 
 mons were crowded by persons anxious to catch a glimpse of the minister 
 so beloved and trusted, so feared and hated. He walked up the old staircase 
 which led to the lobby with a firm and agile step, and one of the crowd, at 
 least, who looked upon his radiant face, thought of Burke's famous descrip- 
 tion of Conway, " hope elevated and joy brightened his crest. "f The 
 House of Commons on that night presented an unusual spectacle. Sir 
 Francis Burdett and Mr. Tierney sat immediately behind the minister. Mr. 
 Brougham took his seat on the ministerial side ; with other members who 
 three weeks previously had sat en the benches of Opposition. Li the House of 
 Peers, lord Lyndhurst was on the woolsack. Three new peers took the oaths^ 
 viscount Goderich (late Mr. Eobinson), lord Plunkett, and lord Tenterden, 
 Mr, Peel on that night made a most elaborate exposition of the causes which 
 had led to the resignation of himself and other members of the late govern- 
 ment. There was no acrimony in his studied oration. Mr. Canning had the 
 gratifying assurance from Mr. Brougham, who in the eminent position 
 which he had won had the right to speak the sentiments of a large and 
 powerful body, that the new government should have his support, without 
 the possibility of his taking office himself. Mr. Canning made his explana- 
 tion calmly as befitted his great place. He could scarcely then have been 
 prepared for the fury of the tempest with which he was soon to be assailed. 
 In the House of Commons he, with his friend Huskisson by his side, was well 
 aBle to hold his ground against any assailant. Mr. Peel did not offer any 
 opposition to the minister which could imply a difference of opinion 
 amounting to personal hostility. A few of the immediate friends of Mr. 
 Peel were not so guarded in joining Avhat has been termed " a teasing 
 opposition." Some " of that species of orators called the yelpers," of 
 whom Canning was the terror, — for his " lash would have penetrated the 
 hide of a rhinoceros,";!: — were perpetually pestering the minister "to give 
 some explanation of the circumstances which led to the dissolution of 
 the late, and the formation of the present, administration." Canning was 
 contented to say, "I will not answer a single question relative to the late 
 transactions, unless it be brought forward as a motion." Mr. Brou^-ham 
 
 * 'We give, at tlie end of this chapter, a list of the Administration as it stood on the Ist of 
 if ay, and as it was modified before the close of the session. 
 + See ante, vol. vi. p. 284. 
 i Scott, Diary in Lockhart's *' Life," vol. vii
 
 206 VIOLENT OPPOSITION IN BOTH HOUSES. [1827 
 
 steadily supported Mr. Canning in tliis determination, declaring that sucli 
 questions were really suggested for the sake of exciting unfair and irregular 
 discussions. Alluding to the same tactics that had been practised in another 
 place, he could only express his unfeigned regret that a prayer that he had 
 heard on the previous Sunday had not hitherto been fulfilled — that it had not 
 yet pleased Divine providence " to endue all the nobility with grace, wisdom, 
 and understanding." Such an enlightenment might have saved a great states- 
 man from what appeared to many as a blot upon his otherwise high-minded 
 career. One of the most judicious politicians of another country has spared 
 us the pain of expressing our own opinions upon the conduct of the most 
 distinguished amongst the Whigs : " Attacked in the House of Peers by 
 lord Grey with haughty and contemptuous violence, Mr. Canning had been 
 but feebly defended by his unskilful and intimidated friends in that House ; 
 and he was so much wounded at this, that for a moment, it is said, he enter- 
 tained the idea of resigning his seat in the House of Commons and obtaining 
 a peerage, that he might have an opportunity of vindicating his policy and 
 honour in the House of Lords." * He might have calmly said, with Lear, 
 "The little dogs and all, see, they bark at me;" but '■ tooth that poisons 
 if it bite" would leave a rankling wound. The duke of Newcastle might 
 call upon every friend of his country to aid in dispossessing " one who 
 was the most profligate minister who had ever been placed in power." Such 
 impotent rage carried its own antidote. But lord Grey was of another order 
 of minds. Lord Holland stood up boldly to defend himself and his friends from 
 the charge of having given an unworthy support to the minister thus assailed 
 by the strong and the impotent. He showed, as Mr. Brougham had shown, 
 how the liberal opinions of Mr. Canning claimed support from those who 
 professed similar principles. 
 
 The attack by lord Grey upon Mr. Canning's foreign policy was not 
 difficult of refutation. But there was one point of material importance 
 upon which lord Grey must have known that he could not receive an answer 
 tvhen he said, "I ask of the noble lords opposite, or of any one of them, to 
 answer me, aye or no, — has or has not an engagement been entered into 
 not to bring forward the Catholic question as a measure of government ?" 
 He added, " If such an engagement have been made, that at once settles 
 my mind, because it is a principle which I have always opposed. It is 
 nothing less than that which in 1807 I rejected, and to which nothing shall 
 ever induce me to agree." f It is possible that the somewhat loose manner 
 in which George IV. was accustomed to talk of state afiairs to his familiar 
 friends, and which thus became the tattle of the Court circle, might have 
 warranted lord Grey in more than insinuating against the conduct of the 
 Prime Minister that he had given an unconstitutional pledge such as had been 
 refused by the ministry of which lord Grey himself formed a part in 1807. % 
 But the confidences of his majesty extended beyond those amongst whom ho 
 passed a life of gentle dalliance and practical jokes at the Lodge in Windsor 
 Great Park. The duke of Buckingham, whom he had raised to the loftiest 
 
 * Quizot, "Memoirs of Sir Eohevt Peel," p. yi 
 t " Hansard," vol. xvii. col. V24. 
 + AnU, vol. vii. p. 41'"2.
 
 1827.] CALUMNY AGAINST MR. CANNING. 207 
 
 eminence of tlie Peerage, relates, in the " Private Diary " wbich the lapse of 
 thirty-five years has brought to light, that the king unbosomed himself to 
 bim in the most unreserved manner as to the recent changes of administration. 
 The duke was very wroth with Mr. Canning, who had not propitiated him by 
 the offer of some great office, although the Greuvilles were represented in tlie 
 Cabinet ; and he was himself friendly to Catholic Emancipation. The con- 
 versation turned upon this absorbing question : " Canning," said the king, 
 " has pledged himself never to pi-ess me upon that subject, and never to be a 
 member of the Cabinet that does." His majesty added, with an oath, that the 
 inoment his minister "changed his line he goes."* AVe can understand how 
 the king's uncontradicted talk might have provoked the indignation of lord 
 Grey against one whom he deemed ready to sacrifice honour for power. Two 
 years afterwards his majesty repeated the same narrative of what passed in the 
 closet when there was no witness present. On the 28th of March, 1829, when 
 lord Eldon was using his influence over his sovereign to prevent the 
 Catholic Belief Bill proposed by the duke of AVellington and sir Robert Peel 
 becoming law, the ex-chancellor makes this entry in his Diary : " His majesty 
 employed a very considerable portion of time in stating all that he repre- 
 sented to have passed when Mr. Canning was made minister, and expressly 
 stated that Mr. C. would never, and that he had engaged that he would 
 never, allow him to be troubled about the Roman Catholic question." f In 
 the " Memoirs by Sir Eobert Peel " — those most interesting revelations pub- 
 lished by the trustees of his papers, — this passage from the Diary of lord 
 Eldon is quoted by him for the purpose of appending to it a vindication of 
 the character of the man of whom Mr. Peel said in the great debate on the 
 Catholic Relief Bill in 1829, — wishing that Mr. Canning were alive to reap 
 the harvest which he sowed, and to enjoy the triumph which he gained, — " I 
 was on terms of the most friendly intimacy with my right honourable friend, 
 down even to the day of his death." The testimony to the political integrity 
 of Mr. Canning upon the question of Catholic Emancipation in 1827 is as 
 follows: — " There must, no doubt, have been some misapprehension on the 
 king's mind as to. the engagement or intentions of Mr. Canning with regard to 
 the Catholic question. I feel very confident that Mr. Canning would not have 
 accepted office having entered into any engagement, or given any assurances, 
 which would have the effect of placing his government and himself in that 
 relation to George the Eourth with respect to the Catholic question in which 
 preceding ministers had stood to George the Third." J What Sir Robert 
 Peel concluded to have been "a misapprehension on the king's mind" has 
 been designated by a coarser term in the "Private Diary" of the Duke of 
 Buckingham, which contains these entries : July 17 — Received a letter from 
 George [Lord Nugent] — " He treats the pledge of Canning not to press the 
 Catholic question as a lie of the king's." .... July 19 — " I had a 
 long letter from George, strongly urgent against the line which I have 
 adopted, and declaring the king to tell falsehoods, and to intend to 
 deceive." § 
 
 * "Private Diary of KicLard, Duke of Buckingliam," 1862, vol. i. pp. 13 aud 14. 
 
 + Twiss, "Life of Lord Eldon," vol. iii. p. 82. 
 
 i "Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," voL i. p. 275. 
 
 § " Private Diai^y " vol. i. p. 21. See Note at end of this chapter.
 
 208 CLOSE OF THE SESSION— DEATH OF MR. CANNING. []827 
 
 During the two months in which the Session was continued after the 
 re-asseinbliug of Parliament on tlie 1st of May, tlie irregular discussions in 
 both Houses left but little opportunity for real progress in the nation's busi- 
 ness. The personal hostility to Mr. Canning, which the duke of Wellington 
 almost acknowledged, was something strange in parliamentary tactics, and 
 some attributed it to the traditional jealousy of the aristocracy, whether Whig 
 or Tory, that a plebeian — an adventurer — should presume to take the helm 
 of the State instead of one of their " Order." Others ascribed the personal 
 attacks of many peers and commoners to that hatred of genius, too often 
 entertained by mediocrity of understanding. The incessant exhibition of this 
 spirit rendered it impossible for the minister either to make a triumphant 
 display of his oratorical power, or to carry through any measure of great 
 public importance. He spoke for the last time on the 18th of June, on the 
 subject of the Corn-trade. The Session was closed on the 2nd of July. 
 
 When men were speculating in February on the probable successor 
 of lord Liverpool, lord Eldon wrote, " I should suppose Canning's health 
 wotild not let him undertake the labour of the situation ; but ambition 
 "will attempt anything."* The prorogation of Parliament did not pro- 
 duce the usual effect of comparative relaxation upon the toil-worn 
 Minister. Pour years previous, Mr. Canning, Mr. Huskisson, and Mr. 
 Hobinson were described after a prorogation, as " boys let loose from 
 school." The American minister who was thus astonished at the deport- 
 ment of grave statesmen, was more astonished when the Secretary for 
 Poreign Affairs, after dinner, proposed that the company should play at the 
 game of " Twenty Questions." Complete relaxation, however impaired may 
 be the health of a Prime Minister, is one of the few things which he is 
 utterly powerless to command. Mr. Canning had an interview with the 
 king on the 30th of July, when his majesty was so struck by the looks of 
 the Premier, to whom he had given a cordial support, that he sent his own 
 physician to attend him. The next day Mr. Canning had to work in 
 Downing-street. The duke of Devonshire had lent him his villa at Chiswick, 
 in the belief that change of air would restore him. He occupied the bed- 
 room in which Fox had died. On the 31st a few friends had dined with 
 him ; but he retired early. The suffering from internal inflammation which 
 lie felt on that last night of July, terminated in his death on the 8th of 
 August. Pie was buried in Westminster Abbey on the 16tli in the most 
 private manner. But the universal display of sorrow told more than any 
 funereal pomp that a great man had departed. 
 
 The settlement of a treaty between Great Britain, France, and Eussia, 
 on the subject of the affairs of Greece, was the latest, as it was amongst the 
 most important, of the ofGcial acts of Mr. Canning. That treaty was signed 
 on the 7th of July, 1827. Forty years had elapsed since, a schoolboy at 
 Eton, he had written a very eloquent poem on " The Slavery of Greece." He 
 painted the ancient glories of her arms and her arts; lie evoked the 
 ^rcat names of her philosophers and her poets, to point tlie contrast of 
 her glories fading into shame, — servitude binding in its galling chain those 
 who had stood up against Asia's millions, — cities mouldering, — the fallen 
 
 • Twiss, vol. ii. p. r>83.
 
 1827.] TREATY ON THE AFFAIRS OF GREECE. 209 
 
 column on the dusty ground, — worst of all, the sons of the freedom-breathing 
 land sighing in abject bondage, groaning at the labours of the oar or of the 
 mine, trembling before 
 
 " The glitt'ring tyranny of Otliman'3 sons." * 
 
 The position of Greece since 1821 was such as to arouse the deepest 
 sympathies of every Englishman who knew anything of her ancient story. 
 The Greeks in that year, seizing the opportunity of a war between the sultan 
 and Ali Pasha, rose in revolt. A proclamation issued by the archbishop of 
 Patras produced a general insurrection. For six years a cruel and devastating 
 war had gone on, in which the Greeks, at first successful, had more and rcore 
 quailed before the greater force which the Porte was able at last to bring 
 against them, by employing the disciplined troops of the pasha of Egypt. 
 The story of this war has a peculiar interest to us in connection with the 
 individual efforts of Englishmen to promote this struggle for freedom, — of 
 Byron, who died at Missolonghi with " Greece" on his lips, — of Cochrane, whose 
 hopes of rousing the Greek leaders to decisive and unanimous action came 
 to an end when all was lost at the great battle before Athens. In September, 
 1826, the Divan having obstinately refused to enter into negotiations with 
 those over whom they considered themselves the absolute masters, — those 
 " who form part of the nations inhabiting the countries conquered ages ago 
 by the Ottoman arms,"t — the British Government proposed to Eussia that the 
 Porte should be apprised that the result of this obstinacy would be the 
 recognition of the independence of Greece. "What, according to international 
 laws, should be the basis of this recognition, was clearly laid down by Mr. 
 Canning. The Turks were to be told that Great Britain and Eussia " would 
 look to Greece with an eye of favour, and with a disposition to seize the first 
 occasion of recognizing, as an independent state, such portion of her territory 
 as should have freed itself from Turkish dominion ; provided that such state 
 should have shown itself substantially capable of maintaining an independent 
 existence, of carrying on a government of its own, of controlling its own 
 military and naval forces, and of being responsible to other nations for the 
 observance of international laws and the discharge of international duties." 
 Such was the exposition which the British government then adopted, in the- 
 affairs of Greece, of the princinles which should determine the recognition of the 
 independence of a revolting or separating state. The principle of what should 
 constitute a belligerent was laid down with equal clearness by Mr. Canning at 
 an earlier stage of this conflict : " The character of belligerency is not so much 
 a principle as a fact. A certain degree of force and consistency acquired by 
 any mass of population engaged in war entitles that population to be treated as 
 a belligerent, and even if their title were questionable renders it the interest, 
 well understood, of all civilized nations so to treat them. For what is the 
 alternative ? A power or community (whichever it may be called) which is 
 at war with another, and which covers the sea with its cruisers, must either 
 be acknowledged as a belligerent, or treated as a pirate." 
 
 Upon the conclusion of the treaty of July, 1827, it was agreed that 
 
 * Microcosm, 1787, No. 5. 
 t Manifesto of the Ottoman Forte, 1327. 
 VOL. vin.— 238.
 
 210 
 
 TRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 [1827. 
 
 instructions sliould be sent to the representatives at Constantinople of the 
 three contracting Powers that they should present a joint declaration to the 
 Divan, stating that as the war of extermination had been prolonged for six 
 years, producing results shocking to humanity, and inflicting intolerable 
 injury on the commerce of all nations, it was no longer possible to admit that 
 the fate of Greece concerned exclusively the Ottoman Porte. They were to 
 oflfer their mediation between the Sublime Porte and the Greeks to put an 
 end to the war, to settle by amicable negotiation the relations which ought 
 for the future to exist between them, and to propose that all acts of hostility 
 should be suspended by an armistice. A similar proposition should be made 
 to the Greeks. A month was to be given to the Ottoman Porte to make 
 known its determination. If no answer were returned, or an evasive answer 
 were given, the Divan was to be informed that the three Powers would 
 themselves interfere to establish an armistice. Although the admirals of 
 the allied squadrons of the three Powers were to be instructed to take 
 coercive measures to enforce an armistice, they were to be warned against 
 any hostile step which would be contrary to the pacific character which the 
 three Powers were desirous to impart to their interference. 
 
 Such were the views of a statesman who, ardently desiring the pre- 
 servation of peace, would not hesitate to enforce the true principles of 
 international law that should govern the recognition of a belligerent Power, 
 and of a State claiming to be independent. These were principles which 
 would remain for our guidance in all future questions involving a similar 
 exercise of discretion and forbearance, but calling for resolute action when it 
 might become necessary to assert the right of civilized communities to decide 
 upon such questions without reference to the passions and prejudices of the 
 contending parties. Mr. Canning was most anxious, in the terrible 
 conflict between Turks and Greeks, to avoid any course of action which 
 would lead to direct hostilities, and especially to avert the possible danger 
 of a policy of absolute neutrality on the part of Great Britain which might 
 have placed the Turkish empire at the feet of Russia. By completing the 
 treaty with Russia and Prance, he secured that co-operation which would 
 prevent that separate action of Russia which would have necessarily resulted 
 in her own aggrandizement. All the complicated previous negotiations for 
 the pacification of Greece had reference to this difficulty. 
 
 Earl of Harrowljy . 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst 
 
 Duke of Portland . 
 
 Right Hon. George Canning 
 
 Riglit Hon. "W. S. Bourne . . 
 
 Viscount Dudley and Ward 
 
 Visci.unt Gdderich 
 
 Right Hon C. W. W. Wyna 
 
 Lord Bexley 
 
 Right Hon. Williara HuskisBon 
 
 Viscount Palmerston 
 
 Right Hon. George Tierney 
 
 Earl of Carlisle 
 
 THE CABINET OF MR. CANNING. 
 
 President of the Council ; succeeded by the Duke of 
 
 Portland. 
 . . Lord Chancellor. 
 
 . Lord Privy Seal ; succeeded by the Earl of Carlisle. 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury, and Chancellor of the 
 
 Exchequer. 
 Secretary of State for the Home Department ; succeeded 
 
 by the Marquess of Lansdowne. 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
 Secretary of State for the Department of War and Colonies. 
 PresideTit of the Board of Control. 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 Treasurer of the Navy, and President of Board of Trade. 
 Secretary-at-War. 
 Master of the Mint. 
 First Commissioner of Woods and Forests ; succeeded by 
 
 tlie Right Hon. W. S. Bourne.
 
 2ll 
 
 NOTE ON THE NEGOTIATIONS WHICH PRECEDED MR. CANNING'S 
 
 PREMIERSHIP. 
 
 The editor of the " Private Diary " of the duke of Buckingham announces that 
 portion which relates to an audience of George IV. as of singular interest : " such 
 an exposition of ministerial intrigue does not exist in any published work." We 
 are constrained to believe that the whole of the exposition, whether relating to the 
 duke of Wellington, Mr. Peel, or Mr. Canning, is, for the most part, a figment of 
 the king's. We have noticed in the text what his Majesty said as to a pledge 
 aiven by Mr. Canning (p. 207). We have & few words to write upon what the 
 duke of Buckingham accepted as a story clearly made out " against Peel and the 
 duke of Wellington, the truth of which I cannot doubt." Twice, said the king, 
 he saw the duke of Wellington, and twice the duke said that " he could not be 
 his minister" — "the duke persevered in excluding himself." The king went on 
 to say that " at last Peel, who had kept a very high and mighty bearing " agreed 
 to meet Canning, and after this meeting wrote to him to say that one had been 
 suggested as Premier whose name he did not like to put in writing ; that delays 
 intervened, and that at last *' Peel came to the king and thundered out the duke 
 of Wellington's name," upon which his majesty said that "having been refused 
 twice by the duke himself," he would not, " in the eleventh hour, have a man 
 crammed down his throat." Peel then refused to act with Canning ; the king 
 refused to accept Wellington ; named Canning as his minister ; and then the 
 resignations took place. 
 
 The circumstances thus recorded and credited are totally at variance with the 
 statements and documents published by Mr. Stapleton in 1859. Mi-. Canning 
 had a long audience of the king on the 27th of March, the particulars of wliich 
 are minutely detailed in a paper dictated by him to his secretary. Between the 
 31st of March and the 6th of April, he had no communication with the king on 
 the subject of the cabinet arrangements ; but he had frequent conferences with the 
 duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel. On the 9th of April, Mr. Canning, hy the 
 kiiufs command, saw Mr. Peel, " who came for the purpose of stating the name of 
 an individual whose appointment as premier Mr. Peel conceived Ukely to solve all 
 difficulties." That individual was the duke of AVellington. Under him Mr. Can- 
 ning declined to serve, as the duke " for years had been combating in the cabinet 
 Mr. Canning's system of foreign poUcy." On the next day the king gave his 
 commands to Mr, Canning to prepare a plan for the reconstruction of the adminis- 
 tration. The "story clearly made out against Mr. Peel and the 'duke of 
 Wellington," like many other stories, is destroyed by a little cross-examination. 
 So far from the king refusing the duke of Wellington, he sent Mr. Peel to Mr. 
 Canning to endeavour to induce him to accept the duke as the Anti-Catholic h^ad 
 of the Ministry.
 
 Hill Fortress. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 India— Retrospect from 1807 to 1826 — Lord Minto Governor-General — Mutiny of Officers at 
 Madras — Trade of India thrown open — Government of tlie Marquess of Hastings — War 
 with Nepaul — War with the Pindarees — The War terminated, and the Mahratta Con- 
 federacy broken up — Conquest of Ceylon — Singapore^Malacca — Lord Amherst Governor- 
 General— War with the Birman Empire— Campaign of Sir Archibald Campbell — Peace 
 with the Birmese — Bombardment and Capture of Bhurtpore — Kegulation of the Press in 
 India — The case of Mr. Buckingham — Material progress of British India. 
 
 At the opening of the Session of Parliament at the end of 1826, the 
 Houses were informed of the termination of war in the Birmese territories, 
 and of the conclusion of a peace highly honourable to the British arms and 
 to the councils of the British government in India. From 1824 there had 
 been war with the Birman empire, lord Amherst being Governor- General. 
 From 1813 to 1822, during the government of the marquess of Hastings, there 
 had been war with the Nepaulese, and war with the Pindarees, the latter war 
 involving changes in the relations of the British power with native princes, 
 ft'liich eventually led to their complete submission. From 1807 to 1812 there 
 had been war with the Eajah of Travancore ; there had been mutinies in the 
 native army ; and, by a series of hostile operations, the British had become 
 the sole European power in India. Lord Minto was Governor-General 
 during this first period, succeeding lord Cornwallis after the very brief term
 
 1807.] LORD MINTO GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 213 
 
 of his government.* AVe propose to take a brief survey of the events 
 of this period of twenty years, during which time there had been important 
 changes in the relations of the State to the East India Company, and a general 
 impatience amongst the commercial community at the continuance of their 
 monopoly, and at the somewhat arbitrary regulations by which it was deemed 
 necessary to uphold their exclusive privileges. But there had never been a 
 year in which the British empire in India was not extending and consolidating, 
 and the same courage, fortitude, and perseverance evinced in military enter- 
 prises which first laid the foundations of that empire, and would still have to 
 sustain it through years of danger and difficulty. Nor let us forget that, 
 during these twenty years in which the native powers adverse to our rule and 
 influence were either crushed or propitiated, some efforts were made to accom- 
 plish a more complete subjection of the native populations by a civil rule of 
 justice and beneficence, by repressing, as far as was safe, th-e barbarous rites 
 of their idolatries and superstitions, and by winning them over to some pos- 
 sible recognition of Christian principles by encouraging rather than repressing 
 eflforts for their conversion, and by the establishment of an Anglican Cliurch, 
 whose first bishops were tolerant as well as zealous, active in well-doing, of 
 high talent, and of blameless life. 
 
 At the beginning of 1807 India was at peace. On the death of the mar- 
 quess Cornwallis, the powers of the Grovernor- General were temporarily exer- 
 cised by sir George Barlow, who was subsequently entruated with the full 
 authority of his post by the Court of Directors. The Grenville administration 
 had just come into office, and they wished to bestow the appointment upon 
 one of their own supporters, and especially upon some nobleman. The har- 
 mony that had hitherto subsisted between the two independent bodies in whom 
 was vested the government of India, was now interrupted. The ministry, who 
 had at first consented to the continuance in office of sir George Barlow, re- 
 called him, by an exercise of the royal prerogative, in direct opposition to the 
 Board of Directors. The debates in Parliament on this subject were conti- 
 nued and violent. The conflict was finally settled by the appointment of lord 
 Minto. The tranquillity of his government was after a while seriously dis- 
 turbed by an outbreak against the power of the Company at Travancore 
 There was war against the Eajah of this state, which originated in a dispute 
 between his Dewan, or chief minister, and the British resident. His troops 
 were beaten in the field during 1808, and the lines of Travancore being stormed 
 at the beginning of 1809, and other forts captured, relations of amity between 
 the Company and the Eajah were restored. A more serious danger arose out 
 of a circumstance which appears now amongst the almost incredible things of 
 the past. The officers of the Madras army, who had long been stirred up to 
 discontent, had mutinied, and lord Minto, in August, 1809, sailed for Madras 
 to quell this extraordinary insubordination of Britisli officers. There were 
 various and contradictory regulations existing in the several Presidencies. 
 There were inequalities in the rate of allowances. At Madras, what the 
 Council termed " a very dangerous spirit of cabal " had been pointed out as 
 early as March, 1807, by the Council to the Court of Directors. There was 
 there an officer high in command, lieutenant-colonel St. Leger, who waa 
 
 * Ante, vol. vii. p. 461.
 
 214 SUCCESSES IN THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. [1810. 
 
 described iu tlie despatch of the Council as " the champion of the rights of 
 the Company's army." Colonel St. Leger, as well as other officers, was sus- 
 pended by an order of the 1st of May, and then open mutiny burst out at 
 Hyderabad, Masulipatam, Seringapatam, and other places. On one occasion 
 only was blood shed in this extraordinary revolt. Many of these officers were 
 very young men, who were incited to acts of insubordination by the example 
 of their seniors. Brave as were the British officers in the field, their exclu- 
 siveness and assumption of superiority were offensive to civilians and dan- 
 gerous in their intercourse with the natives. These misguided men gradually 
 returned to habits of obedience. In September lord Minto published an 
 amnesty, with the exception of eighteen officers, nearly all of whom chose to 
 resign rather than to abide the judgment of a court-martial. It now became 
 the wish of all to obliterate the painful remembrance of the past. During this 
 alarming period, in which the mutiny of the officers might have led to the 
 entire disorganization of the Sepoy army, the King's troops manifested the 
 most entire obedience to the orders of the Governor- General. Lord Wel- 
 lington, engrossing as was his duty in Spain in December 1809, wrote from 
 Badajoz to colonel Malcolm, to express how much he felt on what had passed 
 in the Madras establishment : — " I scarcely recognize in those transactions 
 the men for whom I entertained so much respect and had so much regard 
 a few years back." Those transactions, he said, were "consequences of the 
 first error — that is, of persons in imthority making partizans of those placed 
 under them, instead of making all obey the constituted authorities of the 
 State."* 
 
 During the administration of lord Minto a number of successful opera- 
 tions were undertaken in the Eastern Archipelago, which, in 1810, gave us 
 possession of Amboyna and the Banda isles, of the island of Bourbon, and of 
 the Mauritius. The most important of these conquests was the rich island of 
 Java, which, after a severe battle with the Dutch troops near the capital, 
 capitulated in 1810. Sir Stamford Eaffles, who was appointed Lieutenant- 
 Governor of Java, described it as " the other India." It passed out of our 
 hands at the Peace — a circumstance attributed by many to the complete igno- 
 rance of the British government of the great value of this possession. The 
 policy of the Court of Directors was to maintain peace as long as possible 
 upon the continent of India, and thus the depredations of the Pindarees and 
 the Nepaulese were not met by the Governor- General with any vigorous 
 measures of repression. He demanded redress of the Eajah of Nepaul for 
 the outrages of his people, but he did not make any more efiectual demon- 
 stration to compel a less injurious conduct. His diplomacy had for its main 
 object to prevent tlie establishment of the French in the peninsula. He con- 
 cluded treaties with the Ameers of Scinde, and with the King of Caubul, of 
 which the terms of friendship were, that they should restrain the French 
 from settling in their territories. With Persia, where France was endeavour- 
 ing to establish her influence, a treaty was concluded, binding the sovereign 
 to resist the passage of any European force through his country towards 
 India. 
 
 The usual term of a Governor-General's residence being completed, lord 
 
 * Despatches, vol. v. p. 330.
 
 1813.] TRADE IN INDIA THROWN OPEN— WAR WITH NEPAUL. 215 
 
 Minto resigned in 1813, and proceeded to England. He came at a time 
 when a material alteration was at hand in the position of the East India Com- 
 pany. By the Statute of Queen Anne, and by successive Acts of Parliament, 
 the Company had the exclusive privilege, as regardedEuglish subjects, of trading 
 to all places east of the Cape of Good Hope, as far as the Straits of Magal- 
 haens. In March, 1813, the House of Commons resolved itself into a Com- 
 mittee to consider the affairs of the East India Company. The Government 
 proposed that the charter of the Company should be renewed for twenty 
 years, during which term they should retain the exclusive trade to China, but 
 that the trade to India should be thrown open on certain conditions. The 
 Government also proposed to appoint a bishop for India, and three arch- 
 deacons. The Committee examined various witnesses. The first witness was 
 Warren Hastings, then eighty years of age. He expressed his decided 
 opinion that the settlement of Europeans would be fraught with danger to 
 the peace of the country and the security of the Company, and that the 
 trade between India and England, as then regulated, was far more beneficial 
 than if perfectly free. On the subject of the propagation of Christianity in 
 India, and the proposed episcopal establishment, his evidence is described as 
 having evinced "a most philosophic indifference."* The debates in both Houses 
 on the Kesolutions occupied four months of the session. A Bill was finally 
 passed by which the trade to India was thrown open as proposed, the terri- 
 torial and commercial branches of the Company's affairs were separated, and 
 the king was empowered to create a bishop of India, and three archdeacons, 
 to be paid by the Company. 
 
 Lord Minto was succeeded as Governor-General by the earl of Moira, 
 afterwards marquess of Hastings, who took possession of the government on 
 the 4th of October, 1813. During 1814 and 1815 there was war between 
 the British and the Nepaulese. This is sometimes called the Gorkha war, 
 from that portion of Nepaul which surrounded Gorkha, the capital, and which 
 was originally subject to the separate rule of one of the princes of the Nepaul 
 dynasty. The Gorkhas at the period of the government of the marquess of 
 Hastings were subjecting all the smaller states to their dominion, and were 
 able to maintain an army of twelve thousand disciplined men, who were 
 .clothed and accoutred like the British sepoys. As they advanced towards the 
 British possessions on the northern frontier, they manifested a desire to try 
 their strength against the Company's troops, and exhibited their ill-will 
 in 1814 by attacking two police-stations in the districts of Goruckpoor and 
 Sarun, and by massacreing all the troops in the garrisons there. The first 
 operations of the British troops were unsuccessful ; but in 1815 Sir Davia 
 Ochterlony was enabled to dislodge the Gorkhas from their hill-forts, and to 
 compel their commander, Ammer Singh, to capitulate. A treaty of peace was 
 concluded at the end of 1815, but its ratification by the Eajah being withheld, 
 a large British army advanced to Khatmandu, the present capital of Nepaul. 
 The treaty was ratified and the war concluded at the beginning of 1816. 
 Some portions of territory were ceded to the Company ; but for the most part 
 the chiefs who had been expelled by the conquering Gorkhas were restored 
 to their ancient possessions. 
 
 * Thornton, "British Empire in India," vol. iv. p. 228.
 
 216 WAR WITH THE PINDAREES. [1816. 
 
 The province of Malwa was the chief seat of a body of freebooters, the 
 Pindarees, who carried on a war of devastation with peaceful neighbours, and 
 were more formidable from their want of that political organization which 
 constitutes a state. They lived in separate societies of one or two hundred, 
 governed each by its chief, but they were always ready to combine under one 
 supreme chief for the purposes of their marauding expeditions. In 1814 fifteen 
 thousand horsemen were assembled on the north bank of the Nerbudda, 
 under a leader named Cheetoo. In October, 1815, they seized the opportunity 
 of our troops being engaged in the Nepaulese war to cross the Nerbudda, and 
 haviiig plundered and devastated a territory of our ally, the Nizam of the 
 Decean, recrossed the Nerbudda to prepare for another raid with a greater 
 force. Between the 5th of February and the 17th of May, 1816, they had 
 again collected an immense booty, with which they retired, not only having 
 devastated the lands of our allies, but within the Company's frontiers having 
 plundered more than three hundred villages and put to death or tortured 
 more than four thousand individuals. These fierce and successful attacks of 
 the Pindarees were not solely instigated by their own desire for the rich 
 booty of peaceful provinces. They would scarcely have ventured to defy the 
 British power had they not been secretly supported by a confederacy of 
 Mahratta potentates. The Govern or- Greneral had obtained certain informa- 
 tion that the Peishwa, the Eajah of Nagpore, Scindia, Holkar the younger, 
 and Ameer Khan, were preparing in concert with the Pindarees to invade 
 the Company's territories whilst our troops were engaged in the Nepaulese war. 
 The Governor-Greneral, at the conclusion of the peace with Nepaul, applied to 
 the authorities at home for permission to carry on the war with the Pindarees 
 upon a great scale. Till this permission should arrive he had only to keep 
 the Bengal army in advanced cantonments. When his warrant for extended 
 operations did arrive, the marquess of Hastings was ready with an army in 
 each of the three presidencies to take the field against the Pindarees, and 
 against all their open or secret supporters. The immensity of his prepara- 
 tions, says a French writer, was determined by the importance of his designs. 
 " The Governor- General took the resolution to complete the plan conceived 
 long before and pursued without relaxation by his predecessors — the absolute 
 conquest of the Peninsula."* "Whether or no such a design, which was 
 regarded at home as a dream of ambition, had urged the marquess of Hastings 
 to undertake a war of enormous magnitude, it is quite certain that the issue 
 of that war was another most decided advance in the assertion of our supre- 
 macy, which manifestly tended to " the absolute conquest of the Peninsula." 
 
 At the end of September, 1817, orders were issued for a simultaneous 
 movement of the army of Bengal under the command of the Governor- 
 General, of the army of the Decean under the command of sir Thomas Hislop, 
 and of various corps from difierent stations, each marching to points from 
 which the Pindarees could be surrounded, and at the same time their Mah- 
 ratta and other supporters prevented from uniting their forces. It is not 
 witliin our limits to attempt any detail of this very complicated warfare. 
 Tlie war with the Pindarees was terminated in the spring of 1818, with the 
 entire destruction or dispersion of these terrible marauders. The best 
 
 * " Annuaire Historique," 1818, p. 357
 
 1818.] THE MAHRATTA CONFEDERACY BROKEN UP. 217 
 
 historian of the events which led to this most desirable result is sir John 
 Malcolm, who was himself one of the most active and sagacious of the British 
 commanders. Their complete extinction has been graphically described by 
 him : " Within five years after their name had spread terror and dismay over 
 all India, there remained not a spot that a Pindaree could call his home. 
 They had been hunted like wild beasts, numbers had been killed, all ruined, 
 those who espoused their cause had fallen. Early in the contest they were 
 shunned like a contagion, — the timid villagers whom they had so recently 
 oppressed were among the foremost to attack them." * 
 
 On the 5th of November the Governor-General had extorted by the 
 presence of his powerful army a treaty with Scindia, in which that Mahratta 
 chief engaged to aid in the destruction of the Pindarees. That army was at 
 this moment attacked by an enemy far more dangerous than any w'hich it 
 would be likely to encounter in the field. It was encamped in low ground, 
 on the banks of a tributary of the Jumna. The Indian cholera morbus, 
 which had broken out at Jessore, had ascended the valley of the Ganges, and 
 reaching the camp of the main British army destroyed in little more than a 
 week one-tenth of the number there crowded together. The camp was 
 broken up, and the army marched on in the hope of reaching some spot where 
 the disease would be less fatal. It was the end of November before the 
 remnant of this fine army having reached Erech, on the Bettwa river, the 
 pestilence seemed to have exhausted its force. During its rage the marquess 
 of Hastings fully expected to be a victim ; for his personal attendants were 
 dropping all around him. Bury me in my tent, he said, lest the enemy 
 should hear of my death, and attack my disheartened troops. Scindia had 
 seized the opportunity, not to render aid against the Pindarees, but to invite 
 them to come into his territory. The cholera passed away, and the Governor- 
 General hurried back to his former position to cut off the possible junction 
 between the marauding bands and Scindia's troops. In the remaining months 
 of 1817 and the beginning of 1818 the Mahratta confederacy was utterly 
 broken up by the successes of the British. The Eajah of Nagpore, after a 
 battle of eighteen hours, was defeated, and his town of Nagpore taken on the 
 26th of November. Holkar was beaten on the 21st of December at the battle 
 of Meehudpoor, and peace was concluded with him on the 6th of January. 
 Th.e Peishwa of the Mahrattas surrendered to the English in the following 
 June, agreeing to abdicate his throne, and become a pensioner of the East 
 India Company. 
 
 During the period of the administration of the marquess of Hastings 
 Ceylon was entirely subjected to the British dominion. The Dutch had been 
 in possession of the maritime provinces of this island from the beginning of 
 the seventeenth century, whilst the interior, known as the kingdom of Kandy, 
 was governed by native princes, with whom the Dutch were continually at war. 
 In 1796 these maritime provinces were wrested from the Dutch by a British 
 armament, and our establishments there were rendered more secure by the 
 acquiescence of the Jiing of Kandy in this occupation of the coast districts. 
 The British administration of Ceylon was not connected with that of the East 
 India Company ; it was a distinct possession of the Crown, having been formally 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm, "Memoir of Central ludia."
 
 218 CONQUEST OF CEYLON— SINGAPORE— MALACCA. [1819. 
 
 ceded by the Treaty of Amiens. In 1815 the king of Kandy had rendered himself 
 so obnoxious to his subjects by a series of atrocities, — such as causing a mother 
 to pound hei' children to death in a mortar, — that his deposition took place, 
 and the British were invited by Kandian chiefs to take possession of his domi- 
 nions. The conquest of the island was thus effected, and the natives had 
 begun to taste the value of a just and merciful rule, vrhen, in 1817, a rebellion 
 broke out in the eastern provinces, and was with diflB.culty suppressed after a 
 costly and sanguinary warfare of two years' duration. From 1819 to 1848 
 complete tranquillity prevailed in that island, and its material and moral con- 
 dition were greatly advanced under intelligent and zealous governors. At 
 Singapore, in 1819, sir Thomas Eaffles established a factory on the south shore 
 of the island, and in 1824, a cession in full sovereignty of this and the neigh- 
 bouring islands was obtained by purchase from a person who claimed to be 
 king of Jahore, and was afterwards raised to that throne. Malacca was 
 ceded to the British in 1824 by treaty with the government of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 HadMr. Canning become Governor- General of India whenhis appointment 
 as successor of the marquess of Hastings was resolved upon, it may be doubted 
 whether he could have carried through the policy which, as President of the 
 Board of Control, he avowed in Parliament in 1819, upon the vote of thanks 
 to the marquess of Hastings and the army in India : — " Anxious as I am for 
 the prosperity and grandeur of our Indian empire, I confess I look at its 
 indefinite extension with awe. I earnestly wish that it may be possible for us 
 to remain stationary where we are ; and that what still exists of substantive 
 and independent power in India may stand untouched and unimpaired. But 
 this consummation, however much it may be desired, depends not on ourselves 
 alone. Aggression must be repelled, and perfidy must be visited with its just 
 reward. And while I join with the thinking part of the country in depre- 
 cating advance, who shall say that there is safety for such a power as ours iu 
 retrogradation ? " * Of the prudence and wisdom of the theory of policy thus 
 set forth, the nation at large, the East India Company, the great Indian admi- 
 nistrators, never appeared to entertain the slightest doubt. But, practically, 
 it was invariably found that without advance there would be retrogradation. 
 It was in vain that those who led the British armies in India must have felt 
 what Mr. Canning expressed — with how much jealousy the House and the 
 country are in the habit of appreciating the triumphs of our arms in India ; 
 how our military operations, however successful, have always been considered 
 as questionable in point of justice. f Lord Amherst, who iu March 1823 
 embarked for India as Governor-General, had to pass through this almost 
 inevitable process of entering upon a war of conquest with the most sincere 
 desire to remain at peace. Within six or seven months after his arrival in 
 India he had to write to a friend at home : — " I have to tell you that I most 
 unexpectedly find myself engaged in war with the king of Ava." { This was 
 the war with the Birman empire, which involved us in hostilities from March 
 1824 to February, 1826. Before the middle of the eighteenth century tho 
 name of Birman signified a great warlike race that had founded various 
 
 * "Hansard," vol. xxxix. coL 882. 
 
 \r Ibid., col. 806. 
 
 X "Diary of Lord Colchester," vol. iii. p. 316.
 
 1823.] WAR WITH THE BIRMAN EMPIRE. 219 
 
 kingdoms, amongst wliicli were Siam, Pegu, Ava, and Aracan. The kingdoms 
 of Ava and of Pegu were in a continued state of warfare, in which the Peguers 
 were ultimately victorious. Ava had been conquered by them, when, in 1753, 
 a man of humble origin but of great ability, who has been called " the Napo- 
 leon of the Hindo-Chinese peninsula,"* raised a small force, which, constantly 
 increasing, expelled the conquerors and placed Alompra on the Birman throne. 
 It has been remarked as equally curious and instructive, that " the last resto- 
 ration of the Birman empire, and the foundation of ours in India, were exactly 
 contemporaneous. Clive and Alompra made their conquests at the same 
 moment." t Por nearly seventy years the British from the Ganges, and the 
 Birmesefrom the Irawaddi, pushed their conquests, whether by arms or nego- 
 tiation, till they met. Their inevitable rivalry soon led to hostilities. The 
 Birmese had gradually subjugated the independent states which formerly 
 existed between their frontiers and those of tbe Company. Lord Amherst, 
 in the letter we have already quoted, describes how they seized an island on 
 whicb we had established a small military post, and when the Grovernor- 
 General mildly complained to the king of Ava of this outrage, attributing it 
 to the mistake of the local authorities, a force came down from Ava, " threat- 
 ening to invade our territory from one end of the frontier to the other, and to 
 re-annex the province of Bengal to the dominions of its rightful owner, the 
 Lord of the White Elephant." 
 
 At the beginning of April the Bengal army embarked for Eangoon, the 
 chief seaport of the Birman dominions, situated at the embouchure of the 
 Irawaddi — according to lord Amherst " the Liverpool and Portsmouth of 
 Ava." This important place was taken possession of almost without striking 
 a blow ; but the hope of the Governor- General that from thence he should 
 be able to dictate the terms of a moderate and therefore lasting peace, was 
 not very quickly realised. The British had to deal with the most warlike of 
 their neighbours. The king of Ava called his people to arms. During the 
 rainy season they had abundant time for preparation ; and sir Archibald 
 Campbell, who occupied Rangoon, felt the immediate necessity of fortifying it 
 against the probable attack of a bold and persevering enemy. An enormous 
 pagoda, more than three hundred feet high, became a citadel, garrisoned by a 
 battalion of European troops, and the smaller Bhuddist temples assumed the 
 character of fortresses. During June and July the Birmese made repeated 
 attacks upon the British positions, but were as constantly repelled. On the 
 night of the 30th of August, when the astrologers had decided that an attack 
 upon this sacred place would free the country from the impious strangers, a 
 body of troops called Invuluerables advanced to the northern gateway. A 
 terrible cannonade was opened upon these dense masses, and they fled at once 
 to the neighbouring jungle. 
 
 The Birmese were more successful in their ofifensive operations In Bengal. 
 Under the command of an officer called Maha Bandoola, the Aracan array 
 advanced to Hamoo, and completely routed a detachment of native infantry. 
 The alarm was so great in Calcutta that the native merchants were with 
 difficulty persuaded to remain with their families, and the peasants almost 
 
 * " Annuaire Historique," 1824, p. 537. 
 + "Edinburgh Reyiew," vol. xlvii. p. 183.
 
 220 CAMPAIGN OF SIR ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL— PEACE. [1S25. 
 
 iiuiversally fled from their villages. The Birmese, however, did not advance. 
 The British had taken some important places of the Birman territory, and 
 Maha Bandoola was recalled by the Lord of the "White Elephant for the defence 
 of his Golden Empire. In December Maha Bandoola brought sixty thousand 
 fighting men to make one overwhelming attack upon Rangoon. For seven 
 days there was severe fighting. The Birmese troops were repeatedly driven 
 from their stockades, and at last, when they advanced on the 7th of December 
 for a grand attack on the great pagoda, they were driven back into their 
 entrenchments, and after severe fighting were chased into the jungle. 
 
 In February, 1825, Sir Archibald Campbell began to move up the Irawaddi 
 into the interior of the Birman empire. As part of his force advanced to 
 attack the formidable works of Donoopew, they were repulsed, and the retreat 
 was so precipitate that the wounded men were not carried ofi". The barbarity 
 in warfare of the Birmese was notorious. These unfortunate men were all 
 crucified, and their bodies sent floating down the river upon rafts. On the 
 25th of March sir Archibald Campbell undertook the siege of Donoopew. 
 For a week there had been an incessant fire from our mortars and rockets, 
 and the breaching batteries were about to be opened, when two Lascars, who 
 had been taken prisoners, came to the camp, and said that the chiefs and all 
 the Birmese army had fled, for that Maha Bandoola had been killed the day 
 before by one of our shells. By the possession of Donoopew the navigation 
 of the Irawaddi became wholly under our command. The army continued to 
 advance, and Prome was occupied at the end of April. The rainy mon- 
 soon now set in, and there was a suspension of operations. In the middle of 
 November and beginning of December there were two great battles, in 
 the latter of which the Birmese were thoroughly discomfited. Overtures of 
 peace were now made, but their object was only to gain time. At the begin- 
 ning of 1826 there was severe fighting as the British advanced towards Ava. 
 Sepeated defeats and the approach of a conquering army compelled the king 
 really to sue for peace when the British had reached Tandaboo, only forty- 
 five miles from the capital. He had previously refused to ratify preliminaries 
 which had been concluded on the 3rd of January, in announcing which event 
 to her friends at home, lady Amherst described herself " in the highest state 
 of exultation and joy." * The vigorous operations of sir Archibald Campbell, 
 who had defeated a large army styled " The' Eetrievers of the King's glory," 
 had finally compelled the treaty of Tandaboo, which was signed on the 24th 
 of February. By this treaty the king of Ava agreed to renounce all claims 
 upon the principality of Assam and its dependencies ; to cede in perpetuity 
 the conquered provinces of Aracan, of Teh, of Tavoy, of Mergui, and of 
 Tenasserim ; and to pay the sum of one erore of rupees towards the 
 expenses of the war. He further agreed that accredited British ministers 
 should be allowed to reside at Ava ; that an accredited Birmese minister 
 should reside at Calcutta ; and that free trade to British subjects should be 
 allowed in the Birmese dominions. 
 
 The fierce conflict of two years on the banks of the Irawaddi presented a 
 memorable example of that courage and endurance which eventually over- 
 comes dangers and difficulties apparently insuperable. It has been truly said 
 by an officer engaged in this war, " Perliaps there are few instances on record 
 
 * Lord Colchester's "Diary," vol. iii. p. 430.
 
 1825.J BOMBARDMENT AND CAPTURE OF BHURTPORE. 2?1 
 
 in the history of any nation of a mere handful of men, with constitutions 
 broken down by many months of previous disease and privation, forcing their 
 way in the face of such difficulties, and through a wilderness liitherto un- 
 trodden by Europeans, to the distance of five hundred miles from the spot 
 where they originally disembarked, and ultimately dictating a peace within 
 three days' march of the enemy's capital." * During these land operations, 
 with all this bravery and fortitude of the little army, it w^ould have been im- 
 possible to succeed without the active co-operation of a flotilla on the rivers. 
 The naval assistance thus rendered is memorable for " the employment of a 
 power then for the first time introduced into war — steam. The steam-vessel 
 nad been very useful, not merely in carrying on communications with des- 
 patch but in overcoming formidable resistance." t 
 
 During the last year of the Birmese war the East India Company became 
 engaged in a new conflict, for the purpose of protecting a native prince, with 
 whom we were in alliance, against an usurper. The Eajah of Bhurtpore, 
 before his death at the beginning of 1825, had declared his son to be his suc- 
 cessor, and had included him in the treaty of alliance with the Company. The 
 nephew of the deceased prince raised a revolt against this succession. Many 
 of the native princes looked on anxiously to see if the British, with the Bir- 
 mese war on their hands, would put forth any strength to maintain one of 
 their devoted adherents. In the streets of Delhi the populace had shouted, 
 " The rule of the Company is at an end." The prince who had been expelled 
 had been assured by sir David Ochterlony that he should be supported. Lord 
 Amherst was at first for non-interference. He knew that Bhurtpore had been 
 deemed impregnable ; and he might fear that, now occupied with an enormous 
 force by the usurping Rajah, the same ill fortune might befall an attack upon 
 the place as had befallen lord Lake in 1805, when he was beaten from the 
 city by the Jauts, who had ever since regarded themselves as invincible. The 
 Commander-in-Chief in India, lord Combermere, in his Peninsular experience 
 as sir Stapleton Cotton, had seen what war was in its most difficult operations, 
 and he could not despair of taking an Indian fortress when he recollected the 
 terrible sieges of Ciudad Eodrigo and Badajoz. He had just come to India 
 to succeed sir Edward Paget in the chief command. The duke of "Wellington 
 described his old companion-in-arms as having lost no time in joining the 
 army on his arrival in India, and as having travelled upwards of a thousand 
 miles in ten days, in order that he might begin the operations at a proper 
 season. " He had commenced those operations," says the duke, " carried 
 them on with that vigour and activity which insured their success, and had 
 closed them by a military feat which had never been surpassed by any army 
 upon any occasion." X Lord Combermere, upon his arrival before Bhurtpore, 
 addressed a letter to the usurper, requesting him to send out the women and 
 children, who should have safe-conduct. This humane request was not 
 acceded to. On the 23rd of November the bombardment commenced. On 
 the morning of the 18th of January the assault began at the signal given by 
 the explosion of a mine, which utterly destroyed the whole of the salient 
 
 * Lieut. -Col. Alexander M. Tullocb, quoted in Mac Farlane's "Our Indian Empire," vol. ii. 
 p. 32.'>. 
 
 T Mr. Wynn, in debate on Vote of Thanks to the Army, "Hansard," vol. xvii. col. 668. 
 ^. "Hansard," vol. xvii. col. 771.
 
 i22 THE PRESS IN INDIA. [1818- 1S26. 
 
 angle of tlie fortress. Our troops rushed in at the breaches. In two hours 
 the whole rampart, though obstinately defended, was in our possession, and 
 early in the afternoon the citadel surrendered. The formidable works of 
 Bhurtpore were afterwards destroyed; the rightful prince was reinstated; 
 and the people returned to their allegiance. The rapid and decided success 
 of lord Combermere dissipated the fears which bishop Heber had expressed 
 to his friends at home at the beginning of the siege. He thought that 
 should lord Combermere fail, " all Northern and "Western India, every man 
 who owns a sword and can buy or steal a horse, will be up against us, less 
 from disliking us than in the hope of booty." 
 
 Before concluding this notice of the affairs of India during the adminis- 
 tration of three governors-general, we must advert to a matter of important 
 controversy — the regulation of the Press in India. The first newspaper 
 published under the rule of the Company was one established at Calcutta in 
 1781. Other newspapers were set up during the next twenty years. In 
 1799, under the administration of the marquess Wellesley, regulations were 
 issued for the newspaper press, the most important of which was that no 
 paper should be published until it had been previously inspected by the 
 Secretary to the government, or by a person duly authorized by him. The 
 penalty for contravening these regulations was immediate embarkation for 
 Europe. Mr. James Mill, in his " History of British India," describes the 
 Indian press as a great nuisance, in its indecorous attacks upon private life, 
 and its ignorant censures of public measures, to control which lord Wellesley's 
 regulations were framed. In 1818 the marquess of Hastings promulgated 
 new regulations, which did not attempt to establish a censorship, but pro- 
 hibited animadversions on proceedings in England connected with the 
 government of India; discussions on the political transactions of local 
 administration; private scandal; and disquisitions having a tendency to 
 create alarm amongst the natives as to the probability of any interference 
 with their religious opinions or ceremonies. In 1816 Mr. James Silk Buck- 
 ingham, who had obtained a licence to reside in Calcutta, purchased the 
 copyright of two of the newspapers published there, and amalgamated them 
 under the title of " The Calcutta Journal." Although the marquess of Hast- 
 ings had abolished the censorship previous to publication, he had established 
 a tribunal whose business it was to watch the statements and opinions of the 
 Indian newspaper press, and to give to their conductors that sort of warning 
 with which we are familiar enough in the control of the press in a neighbour- 
 ing country. In India a neglect of such warnings would be followed by the 
 deportation of the offending proprietor, if not by a total suppression of the 
 journal in which he had embarked his property. Mr. Buckingham, accord- 
 ing to a statement of Dr. Phillimore in the House of Commons, received 
 three such warnings previous to the marquess of Hastings resigning his 
 administration, one of which, in 1822, was called for by his ofl'ence in 
 traducing the government of India respecting the kingdom of Oude.* Mr. 
 Adam, during the interval in which he administered the government pre- 
 vious to the arrival of lord Amherst, took a very summary mode to put an 
 end to the freedom of IVl r. Buckingham's strictures upou Indian affairs, and 
 
 • "Hansard," vol. XV. col. 1013.
 
 1826.] THE CASE OF MR. BUCKINGHAM. 223 
 
 especially of a freedom most obnoxious to the authorities — the disposal of 
 their patronage. The appointment by Mr. Adam of a Scotch clergyman, 
 the head of the Presbyterian establishment in India, to the lucrative agency 
 through which the government was supplied with stationery, called forth 
 the animadversions of " The Calcutta Journal." Mr. Adam immediately 
 annulled Mr. Buckingham's licence to remain in India, adding the threat 
 that if he were found in the country after two months he should be sent to 
 England as a prisoner. Mr. Buckingham transferred his paper to a British- 
 born subject of the name of Arnot. At the period of lord Amherst's arrival, 
 by a series of arbitrary proceedings the deportation of Mr. Arnot was 
 effected ; " The Calcutta Journal" suppressed ; and its circulation merged in 
 a Calcutta newspaper, over whicb the government had efficient control by its 
 appointment of an editor. Mr. Buckingham, — who long made England 
 resound with the story of his wrongs, and who was in some degree recom- 
 pensed by a large public subscription, — appealed to the Privy Council against 
 the regulations of the Bengal government on the subject of the Press. The 
 East India Company contended before the Privy Council, as Dr. Phillimore 
 contended in his place in Parliament in 1826 : " When the House considered 
 the vast importance of our possessions in India, and the delicate tie by which 
 they were held — that a handful of Europeans exercised supreme sway over 
 many millions of the native people, and that our empire was maintained by 
 opinion alone — they must see that if the same freedom of discussion were 
 allowed to prevail in that country as we enjoyed in this, and if individuals 
 were permitted to traduce the government through the means of the press, it 
 would be impossible to retain the power which this country held in India."* 
 Nevertheless, lord Amherst adopted a different policy with regard to the 
 Press, which was undoubtedly the most prudent, as it was the most dignified. 
 He had made one mistake on this subject upon his first arrival in India, 
 seduced, it is alleged, by evil counsels. " Ever after, while his lordship was 
 present in Calcutta to protect it, the Press enjoyed a freedom unknown to it 
 for forty-four years, and experience showed, as it had done before, that that 
 freedom was as safe as it was beneficial." f Mr. Elphinstone, in a conver- 
 sation with bishop Heber, whilst maintaining the inconvenience and even 
 danger of unrestricted political discussion, " acknowledged that the dangers 
 ascribed to a free press in India had been exaggerated." 
 
 In the history of British India up to this period, we find very few traces 
 of any effort on the part of the government to call forth the material 
 resources of the Peninsula ; to supply by new appliances of modern science 
 the decay of the ancient works by which lands were irrigated and fiimine 
 prevented ; to bring distant places into correspondence by roads and improved 
 navigation. The all-absorbing business of conquest prevented any marked 
 attention to the improvement of the native cultivation of the soil, or of the 
 communications by which produce could be conveyed from the producer to 
 the consumer. The Company was indeed very solicitous about the growth 
 of opium, its great source of revenue, but it did little for the cultivation of 
 cotton, the British demand for which would have formed a sufficient 
 
 • " Hansard," vol. xv. col. 1013. 
 
 t " Edinburgh Reyiew," vol. xlvii. p. 182.
 
 224 MATERIAL PROGRESS OF BRITISH INDIA. [ISH. 
 
 excitement to its growth and preparation for market by improved processes. 
 Some efforts in this direction were however made by the East India Company. 
 As early as 1788 they distributed amongst the natives seeds from different 
 cotton-growing countries. In 1813 they brought an American to teach the 
 people how to cultivate the cotton-plant, and they imported American gins 
 for cleaning the wool. Small progress was made in carrying forward such 
 improvements. The cultivation of cotton, of the sugar cane, of the hemp- 
 plant, and of the cereals, would be always restricted to the local demand, 
 as long as roads and water communications were neglected by the authorities 
 which governed the country. Lord William Bentinck succeeded lord Amherst 
 as Grovernor- General, and until his administration the roads of the country 
 consisted of little more than native wheel-tracks. " Above Allahabad, and 
 in various other parts, so recently as the year 1830, a regiment proceeding 
 in course of relief from one station to another, had to be preceded by a native 
 guide." ♦ 
 
 * "CJjmpamou to tbe Almiuuio, 1857."
 
 CHAPTER Xni. 
 
 i^dir.iiiistratlon of Lord Goderich — Turkey and Greece — The battle of Navarino — Kesignation of 
 Lord Goderich — Administration of the dulie of Wellington — Parliament — The School- 
 master abroad — Progress of Education — Mr. Brougham's speech on Law Reform— The New 
 Metropolitan Police — Repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts — Mr. Huskisson's retirement 
 from the Ministry — Ireland — Election for Clare of Mr. O'Connell — Ministerial views on 
 Catholic Emancipation — Opening of Parliament — Emancipation referred to in the King's 
 Speech — The Catholic Relief Bill moved by the duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel — Conti- 
 nued and violent debates — The Catholic Relief Bill passed — Mr. O'Conneirs second return 
 for Clare — Meeting of Parliament — Motions for Reform — Illness and d^eath of George the 
 Fourth. 
 
 The death of Mr. Canning placed Lord Grodericli at tlie head of tlie govern- 
 ment. The composition of the Cabinet was shghtly altered. Mr. Huskisson 
 became Colonial Secretary, Mr. Herries Chancellor of the Excliequer. The 
 government was generally considered to be weak, and not calculated for a 
 long endurance. Its greatest accession of strength seemed to be in the 
 acceptance of the office of Commander-in-Chief by the duke of Wellington. 
 Lord Eldon, in serious apprehension that this appointment committed the duke 
 to the support of the administration, wrote to him a letter which called forth 
 this explanation : " If, on the one hand, the administration have no claim 
 upon my services out of my profession, I, on the other hand, can be of no 
 counsel or party against them."* The cabinet of lord Goderich had not a 
 long existence. It lasted scarcely five months, and it fell through the petty 
 jealousies of some of its members, which gave the finishing blow to the 
 tottering fabric. 
 
 On the 10th of November it was known in London that despatches had 
 been received at the Admiralty, announcing a great naval battle in the bay of 
 Navarino. If the popular belief in omens of national success or disaster had 
 not nearly passed away, the public might have looked with trembling anxiety 
 to these despatches, in the dread that the battle would prove a defeat. For, 
 at the lord mayor's banquet on the 9th of November, a great device of illu- 
 minated lamps representing an anchor suddenly fell down upon the dignitaries 
 below, slightly wounding the duke of Clarence and the lord mayor, scattering 
 unwelcome oil over the dresses of the ladies who graced the civic feast, and 
 altogether marring the usual flow of hollow compliment which is so coarsely 
 proffered and so greedily accepted en these occasions. The Gazette soon pro- 
 
 * Twiss, "Life of Eldon," vol. iil. p. 13. 
 VOL. vm.— 239.
 
 226 TURKEY AND GREECE. [1827. 
 
 claimed that the Turkish fleet had been nearly annihilated ; that the flags of 
 England, France, and Russia floated supreme on the shores of the Morea. 
 Nevertheless, politicians shook their heads at what they considered an aggres- 
 sion, which might lead to an interminable war — an aggression which ultra- 
 Toryism regarded as particularly objectionable, inasmuch as it crippled the 
 means of a despotic Power eff"ectually to crush its rebellious subjects. The 
 Sublime Porte had well learnt the lessons taught by the Congresses of 
 Troppau and Laybach when it proclaimed, in its manifesto of the previoua 
 June, that "Almighty wisdom, in dividing the universe into difierent coun- 
 tries, has assigned to each a Sovereign, into whose hands the reins of absolute 
 authority over the nations subject to his dominion are placed." 
 
 "When the demand under the Treaty of London, which was made by 
 England, Prance, and Russia, for an im.mediate armistice, as a preliminary 
 and an indispensable condition to the opening of any negotiation, was an- 
 nounced by the Ambassadors of these Powers at Constantinople, the Divan 
 declined to recognize any interference with its conduct towards its rebellious 
 subjects. The Greeks readily accepted the armistice proposed by the Treaty. 
 Ibrahim Pasha had come from Alexandria with the E^'yptian fleet during the 
 period of the discussions at Constantinople. The Allied fleets were lying off 
 Navarino, their admirals being without authority to prevent the junction of 
 the Egyptian fleet with the Turkish, already moored in that harbour. The 
 Egyptian commander was informed by sir Edward Codrington that he might 
 return, if he chose, with a safe conduct to Alexandria, but that if he entered 
 the harbour he would not be sufiered to come out. Ibrahim Pasha made his 
 choice to join the Turkish fleet. On the 25th of September a conference 
 took place between the admirals and Ibrahim Pasha, at which the Egyptian 
 prince entered into a verbal agreement for a suspension of hostilities during 
 twenty days. The English and French commanders, relying upon this agree- 
 ment, sailed to Zante to obtain fresh provisions. Ibrahim Pasha then came 
 out of the harbour, with the object of carrying his warfare to some other 
 point in the Morea. Sir Edward Codrington met him near Patras with a 
 small force, and compelled him to return. After that, says the Protocol of 
 the three admirals, " the troops of the Pasha have not ceased carrying on a 
 species of warfare more destructive and exterminating than before, putting 
 women and children to the sword, burning their habitations, and tearing up 
 trees by the roots, in order to complete the devastation of the country." 
 The despatch of sir Edward Codrington, dated from H.M.S. Asia, in the 
 port of IS'avarino, narrates the subsequent decisive event. The Count de 
 Hayden, rear-admiral of Eussia, and the French rear-admiral the 
 Chevalier de Eigny, having agreed with him to enter the port in 
 order to induce Ibrahim Pasha to discontinue his brutal war of extermi- 
 nation, took up their anchorage about two o'clock on the afternoon of 
 the 20th of October. The Turkish ships Avere moored in the form of a 
 crescent. The combined fleet was formed in the order of sailing in two 
 columns, the British and French forming the weather or starboard line, and 
 theEus^'ian the lee line. The Asia led in, followed by the Genoa and Albion, 
 and anchored close alongside a ship of the line bearing the flag of the Capitana 
 Bey. The stations of the French and Eussian squadrons were marked 
 out by the English admiral, who was the chief in command. " I gavo
 
 1827.] BATTLE OF NAVARINO. 227 
 
 orders," says sir Edward, " that no gun should be fired unless f^uns were 
 fiired by the Turks, and those orders were strictly observed." The three 
 British ships passed the batteries, and moored without any act of hostility on 
 the part of the Turks, although they were evidently prepared for a general 
 action. At the entrance of the harbour were sis Turkish fire-vessels, which 
 a portion of the English squadron were appointed to watch. On the Dart- 
 mouth sending a boat towards one of these vessels her crew was fired 
 upon by musketry. The fire was returned from the Dartmouth and La 
 Syrene, which bore the flag of admiral de Eiguy. An Egyptian ship then 
 fired a cannon-shot at the Erench admiral's vessel, which was immediately 
 returned ; " and thus," says sir Edward Codrington, " very shortly afterwards 
 the battle became general." After describing, with the usual indistinctness, 
 the movements of various ships, he comes to the catastrophe. " This 
 bloody and destructive battle was continued with unabated fury for four 
 hours, and the scene of wreck and devastation which presented itself at its 
 termination was such as has been seldom before witnessed." Of the 
 Egyptian and Turkish fleets, which numbered about a hundred and twenty 
 men-of-war and transports, one-half were sunk, burnt, or driven on shore. 
 The Allied admirals published a notice after the battle, that as they did not 
 enter Navarino with a hostile intention, but only to renew propositions to 
 the commanders of the Turkish fleet, they would forbear from destroying 
 what ships of the Ottoman navy might still remain, " now that so signal a 
 vengeance has been taken for the first cannon-shot which has been ventured 
 to be fired on the Allied flags." They threatened that if there were any new 
 act of hostility they would immediately destroy the remaining vessels and 
 the forts of Navarino. The despatch of sir Edward announcing the victory 
 contains a frank admission that he was not insensible to other feelings than 
 those of professional obedience to his instructions : " When I found that the 
 boasted Ottoman word of honour was made a sacrifice to wanton, savage 
 devastation, and that a base advantage was taken of our reliance upon 
 Ibrahim's good faith, I own I felt a desire to punish the ofi"enders. — But it 
 was my duty to refrain, and refrain I did ; and I can assure his royal highness 
 [the duke of Clarence] that I would still have avoided this disastrous 
 extremity, if other means had been open to me." 
 
 - The difl'erences upon financial measures between Mr, Herries the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Huskisson Secretary of State for the 
 Colonies, could not be reconciled by lord Goderich, and he therefore tendered 
 his resignation to the king on the 9th of January, 1828. His majesty 
 immediately sent to lord Lyndburst to desire that he and the duke of 
 "Wellington should come to Windsor. The king told the duke that he 
 wished him to form a government of which he should be the head. " He 
 said that he thought the government must be composed of persons of both 
 opinions with respect to the Soman Catholic question ; that he approved of 
 all his late and former servants ; and that he had no objection to anybody 
 excepting to lord Grey."* It was understood that lord Lyndhurst was to 
 continue in office. The duke of Wellington immediately applied to Mr. Peel, 
 who, returning to his post of Secretary of State for the Home Depar(ment, 
 
 * " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," part i. p. 12 ; letter of the duke.
 
 228 DUKE OF WELLINGTON'S ACMINISTRATIGN". [1828 
 
 saw the impossibilit}'- of re-uniting in this administration those who had 
 formed the Cabinet of lord Liverpool. He desired to strengthen the govern- 
 ment of the duke of Wellington by the introduction of some of the more 
 important of Mr. Canning's friends into the Cabinet and to fill some of the 
 lesser offices. The earl of Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, lord Palmerston, an(\ 
 Mr. Charles Grrant became members of the new administration. Mr. William 
 Lamb, afterwards lord Melbourne, was appointed Chief Secretary fo'' 
 Ireland. The ultra- Tories were greatly indignant at these arrangements 
 They groaned and reviled as if the world was unchanged. The duke ol 
 Wellington and Mr. Peel had disappointed the country by making a mixed 
 government ; Mr. Huskisson was odious to the agricultural and shipping 
 interests ; the whole cabinet was composed of a majority of favourers of the 
 Roman Catholic claims ; above all, lord Eldon was omitted.* The ex-chan- 
 cellor considered himself very ill-used, and publicly said, " I don't know why 
 I am not a minister." Mr. Peel, in his private correspondence of this date, 
 shows how clearly he saw that the nation could no longer be governed upon 
 the old exclusive principles. He was fast sliding into that liberality which, 
 was incomprehensible to those who had looked upon his previous career. 
 He writes, on the 18th of January, " I care not for the dissatisfaction of 
 ultra-Tories ; this country ought not and cannot be governed upon any other 
 principles than those of firmness, no doubt, but of firmness combined with 
 •moderation." A fortnight afterwards he asks, in writing to the same corre- 
 spondent, — What would have been the inevitable fate of a government com- 
 posed of himself and of some ultra-Tories whom be names, who would indeed 
 be supported by very warm friends, but those very warm friends country 
 gentlemen and fox-hunters, who would attend one night in parliament, but 
 who woiild quickly weary of sitting up till one, two, or three o'clock in the 
 morning, fighting questions of detail ? The greater difficulty was expressed 
 in the fact that the country could no longer be governed by " country gentle- 
 men and fox-hunters." t 
 
 On the 29th of January Parliament was opened by Commission. The 
 most important part of the Eoyal Speech was that which, after reciting the 
 progress of events in the East, and referring to the treaty with. Erance and 
 liussia, says — " With a view to carry into effect the object of the treaty, a 
 collision, wholly unexpected by his Majesty, took place in the port of Navarino 
 between the fleets of the contracting Powers and that of the Ottoman Porte. 
 Notwithstanding the valour displayed by the combined fleet, his Majesty 
 deeply laments that this conflict should have occurred with the naval force of 
 an ancient ally ; but he still entertains a confident hope that this untoward 
 event will not be followed by further hostilities, and will not impede that 
 amicable adjustment of the existing differences between the Porte and the 
 Greeks, to which it is so manifestly their common interest to accede." The 
 expression "untoward event" produced angry remonstrances from many 
 quarters — from the Whigs, from some of lord Goderich's ministry, from the 
 friends of sir Edward Codrington. But all united in declaring that no blame 
 was attached to that gallant officer. The duke of Wellington, in a few 
 
 * " Diary of Lord Colchester," vol. ill. p. .'(34. 
 t "Memoirs by itJir Robert Peel," pp. Hi, 17.
 
 1828.] PARLIAMENT— THE SCHOOLMASTER ABROAD, 229 
 
 straiglitforward words, defended the expression. The Treaty of July was not 
 intended to lead to hostilities. The former government thought the object of 
 the treaty would be effected without hostilities. " Therefore, I say, that when 
 unfortunately the operations under the treaty did lead to hostilities, it was 
 an untoward circumstance." 
 
 In the debate upon the Address in the House of Commons, Mr. 
 Brougham raised very strong objections to the appointment of the duke of 
 "Wellington as the head of the government. Though he professed to entertain 
 the highest opinion of the noble duke's military genius, he evidently under- 
 valued his administrative talents. He thought a great soldier's experience was 
 no fit preparation for civil duties. Mr. Brougham had not then the advantage 
 of knowing, through the publication of the duke's " Despatches," how equal 
 he was to the highest statesmanship, with probably the one exception of 
 undervaluing the strength of popular opinion. Mr. Brougham in 1828 
 thought it unconstitutional that almost the whole patronage of the State 
 should be placed in the hands of a military Premier. With his unfailing 
 power of sarcasm, he considered that there was no validity in the objection 
 that the duke was incapable of speaking in public as a First Minister ought to 
 speak, because he had heard last year the duke declare in another place, that 
 he was unfit for the situation of First Minister, " and he really thought he 
 had never heard a better speech in the whole course of his life." Mr. 
 Brougham wound up his objections to the appointment of the duke of 
 "Wellington by a passage of splendid declamation, whose concluding words, 
 especially, were echoed through the country with extraordinary fervour — with 
 an enthusiasm which speedily carried forward the small beginnings of a 
 great change to very decided results which would more than ever make the 
 action of the government in a great degree dependent upon the opinion of the 
 people. "When he had called the appointment of the duke of Wellington to 
 the head of the government unconstitutional, let it not be supposed, he said, 
 that he was inclined to exaggerate. " He was perfectly satisfied that there 
 would be no unconstitutional attack on the liberties of the people. These 
 were not the times for such an attempt. There had been periods when the 
 country heard with dismay that the soldier was abroad. That was not the 
 case now. Let the soldier be ever so much abroad, in the present age he 
 could do nothiog. There was another person abroad — a less important 
 person — in the eyes of some an insignificant person — whose labours had 
 tended to produce this state of things — the Schoolmaster was abroad." * 
 
 It was no idle boast of the orator that education was in various ways 
 raising the moral and intellectual character of the community. There had 
 been a real beginning of this great work. Yet it was only a beginning. 
 To imagine, however, that England had been wholly destitute of the means of 
 education, whilst the schoolmaster was doing his work efficiently in Scotland, 
 is to a certain extent a mistake. "When the endowed Grammar-schools were 
 founded, it never entered into the minds of their benefactors that all the people 
 — or. in the language of those ages, that all the poor — should be instructed. 
 A few who were unable to pay for their, education were to be selected, and 
 these were to receive for ever an education of the highest order. Thesa 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xviii. col. 53.
 
 230 PROGRESS OF EDUCATION. [1828. 
 
 schools were the natural successors of the schools and chantries of the unre- 
 formed Church. This was the only system of education in England almost 
 up to the time of the Revolution. The commercial classes had then grown 
 into wealth and importance, and they began to think that schools in which 
 nothing was taught but Latin and Greek were not altogether fitted for those 
 destined to a life of traffic. At the beginning of the eighteenth century 
 there were endowments and subscriptions in most towns, not for new Grammar- 
 schools, but for new Eree-schools, During the progress of education in 
 recent years, it has been common to speak with contempt of these schools 
 and of the instruction afforded in them. Y,''ith a comparatively small popu- 
 lation, these Eree-schools, we venture to think in opposition to modern 
 authorities, were admirable beginnings of the education of the poorer classes. 
 While the Grammar-schools were making divines and lawyers and physicians 
 out of the sons of the professional classes and the wealthier tradesmen, the 
 Free-schools were making clever handicraftsmen and thriving burgesses out of 
 the sons of the mechanics and the labourers ; and many a man who had been a 
 charity-boy in his native town, when he had risen to competence, pointed 
 with an honest pride to the institution which had made him what he was, 
 and drew his purse-strings to perpetuate for others the benefits which he had 
 himself enjoyed. The Reports of the Commissioners for Inquiry into Charities 
 presented in 184!2, showed that the annual income of the Grammar-schools 
 (some, however, being exempted fi-om the inquiry) was 152,047Z., and the 
 income of the Pree-schools Ml,385/. There was also an income amounting 
 to 19,112?. belonging to charities for general educational purposes. This 
 income was a small educational foundation for the whole population iji 
 England and Wales at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The first 
 attempt to place the instruction of the poor upon a broader basis was 
 by the establishment of Sunday schools in 1783. Mr. Malthus (in 1803) 
 described these institutions as very few, some objectionable, and all imper- 
 fect. But the Parliamentary Returns of 1818 exhibit 5100 Sunday schools, 
 attended by 452,000 children. In 1833 the number of Sunday school 
 scholars exceeded a million and a half. In 1818, the Returns, under a. 
 Circular Letter addressed to the ministers of the respective parishes, showed 
 that there were about 15,000 unendowed day-schools, containing about 
 500,000 scholars. Of these 336,000 were in the ordinary schools,— the private 
 day-schools, such as have always existed amongst us, for the education of the 
 middle and poorer classes. There were only then, when the systems of Bell 
 and Lancaster had been in operation about twelve years, 175,000 scholars 
 receiving instruction partly or wholly gratuitous through the operation of 
 private benevolence. Eour years alter Mr. Brougham had declared that the 
 Schoolmaster was abroad, the Government Returns showed that both the 
 paying and the non-paying scholars in the unendowed day-schools were more 
 than doubled. 
 
 Moving onwards in other roads than tliat of school education, the Scliool- 
 inaster was abroad. " The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge " 
 originated with Mr. Brougham in 3 826. It had long been felt that books 
 of sound information were, through their dearness, inaccessible to the bulk 
 of the people. Constable, in 1825, was " meditating nothing less than a 
 total revolution in tlie art and traffic of bookselling." He would issue " 3
 
 1828.] Mil. BROUGHAM'S SPEECH ON LAW REFORM. 231 
 
 three shilling or half-crown volume every month, which must and shall sell, 
 not by thousands or tens of thousands, but by hundreds of thousands — ay, 
 by millions."* The sanguine bookseller published his "Miscellany," which led 
 the way in the combination of superior literature with comparative cheap- 
 ness ; but its sale was numbered by hundreds rather thau by millions. lu 
 
 1827, " The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge " commenced the 
 publication of their Sixpenny Treatises — valuable manuals, but still far from 
 supplying what the hard-worked classes wanted in the union of goodness and 
 cheapness. Nevertheless the modern epoch of Cheap Literature was com- 
 mencing. " The London Mechanics' Institution" was inaugurated in 1823 
 by Dr. Birkbeck ; and gradually similar institutions were founded in populous 
 towns of England and Scotland. In 1828, " The London University" was 
 opened, the building having been in progress, and the organization nearly 
 completed, in 1826 and 1827. To Mr. Brougham belongs the honour of 
 being amongst the most zealous for the formation of tliis institution for tlie 
 higher branches of education, independent of religious opinions. The 
 opposite plan of " King's College " was developed at a public meeting in 
 
 1828. Unquestionably at this period "the schoolmaster was abroad." In 
 setting forth upon his mission he had to climb the steepest hill, like the 
 prince of the Arabian story, surrounded by a chorus of hisses and execrations. 
 But he went steadily on his way, stopping his ears to these sounds of impo- 
 tent fury ; and the prize which he won was the power of accomplishing all 
 needful reforms by moral force, so that those who once feared and despised 
 the people should never more be ready to proclaim that " the soldier was 
 abroad." 
 
 On the ninth day after the meeting of Parliament, Mr. Brougham took 
 that position which he has ever since maintained, of being the most inde- 
 fatigable and persevering of Law reformers. The reformation of the Criminal 
 Law was no longer opposed, except by a few whose opinions had very 
 speedily come to be considered as worthless as they were obsolete. A Com- 
 mission had been appointed to_inquire into abuses in Courts of Equity. The 
 course of improvement which was open to Mr. Brougham was to promote an 
 inquiry " into the defects occasioned by time and otherwise in the laws of 
 this realm of England, as administered in the Courts of Common Law." Mr. 
 Brougham introduced his motion in a speech of nearly six hours. It has 
 been said of this speech, " its huge length and unwieldy dimensions com- 
 pelled attention." f These are not the qualities which usually compel atten- 
 tion in the House of Commons. During that extraordinary exhibition ol 
 the rare ability to mass an infinity of details, so as to make each contribute 
 something to the general effect, the attention of the House was uninterruptedly 
 sustained. The first listeners were amongst the last. Whilst the orator 
 exhibited no signs of physical exhaustion, scarcely one of his audience seemed 
 to feel a sense of weariness. J The peroration of this great effort of memory 
 and judgment was the only portion that could be properly deemed rhetorical : 
 
 * Lockhart's " Life of Scott," vol. vi. p. SI. 
 
 f Roebuck, "History of tbe Whig Ministry," vol. i. p. 50. 
 
 + We speak from personal observation, having sat under tlie gallery with the object of 
 preparing the speech for publicatioa in a more enlarged shape than the reports of the daily 
 papers.
 
 232 THE NEW METROPOLITAN POLICE. [1828. 
 
 — " It was the boast of Augustus — it formed part of the glare in wliicli the 
 perfidies of his earlier years were lost — that he found Eome of brick, and 
 left it of marble ; a praise not unworthy a great prince, and to which the 
 present reign also has its claims. But how much nobler will be the sove- 
 reign's boast, when he shall have it to say, that he found law dear, and left 
 it cheap ; found it a sealed book — left it a living letter ; found it the patri- 
 mony of the rich — left it the inheritance of the poor ; found it the two-edged 
 sword of craft and oppression — left it the staff of honesty and the shield of 
 innocence !" On the adjourned debate of the 29th of February, upon Mr. 
 Brougham's proposition for a Commission, the Government, through the 
 Law Officers and the Home Secretary, expressed its intention so far to concur 
 in the motion as to consent that separate Commissions should issue — one 
 for inquiry into the progress of suits at Common Law ; the other into the 
 state of the Laws affecting Eeal Property. Mr. Brougham concurring in this 
 alteration, the two Commissions were forthwith appointed. 
 
 The House of Commons was now fairly engaged in the work of improve- 
 ment. On the motion of Mr. Peel a Select Committee was appointed to 
 inquire into the Public Income and Expenditure ; to consider measures for 
 an effectual control on all charges connected with this receipt and expendi- 
 ture ; and also for reducing the expenditure without detriment to the public 
 service. No one can trace the course of our parliamentary history after the 
 close of the war, without feeling how much of the tardy recognition by the 
 government of principles of financial economy was due to the unwearied exer- 
 tions of Mr. Hume. His views, however they might at times be impracticable, 
 produced as a whole the inevitable triumph of all zealous and continuous 
 labour. Mr. Secretary Peel early in the Session proposed another measure 
 which, he said, might at first sight appear limited in its application, and local 
 in its objects, but which was connected with considerations of the highest 
 importance to the well-being of the country. He proposed that a Committee 
 should be appointed to inquire into the state of the Police of the Metropolis. 
 In the next Session of Parliament Mr. Peel carried his great plan for abo- 
 lishing the local establishments of nightly watch and police, for forming the 
 Metropolitan Police District, and for appointing a sufficient number of able 
 men under the direction of the Secretary of State to be the police force for 
 the whole of this district. Per several years a prodigious clamour was raised 
 against this force, not only by thieves and street-walkers, but by respectable 
 upholders of the Ancient Watch, and by zealous friends of the nation's free- 
 dom, who dreamt that the New Police would have the certain efiect of 
 depriving us of our immemorial liberties. The New Police was to be " the 
 most dangerous and. effective engine of despotism." Sensible men were 
 satisfied to believe that Mr. Peel's innovation would have no other effect upon 
 our liberties than that of depriving us "of the liberty we have hitherto en- 
 joyed of being robbed and knocked on the head at discretion of their honours 
 the thieves." * 
 
 A great parliamentary struggle was at hand in 1828, which was the pre- 
 lude to a still more important conflict in 1829. This was lord John Russell's 
 motion, on the 2Gth of Pebruary, for a Committee of the whole House to con* 
 
 * I'uiililanque, "England under Seven Administrations," voL i. p. 266.
 
 i828.] IIEPEAL OF THE CORPORATION AND TEST ACTS. 238^ 
 
 Bider of so much of the Acts of the 13 & 25 of Charles II. as requires 
 persons, before admission into any office in corporations, or having accepted- 
 any office civil or military, or any place of trust under the Crown, to receive 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, according to the practice of the Church 
 of England. The motion was opposed by Mr. Huskisson, lord Palmerston, 
 and Mr. Peel. It was opposed, says sir Eobert Peel in his Memoirs, " with 
 all the influence and authority of the Government recently appointed." 
 Nevertheless, on a division on the motion of lord John Russell, it was carried 
 by a majority of forty-four, there being two hundred and tliirty-seven in favour 
 of the motion, and one hundred and ninety-three against it. Sir Eobert 
 Peel says, in his Memoirs, that the administration considered that they should 
 not be justified in abandoning the service of the Crown in consequence of 
 this defeat, and farther, that it would have been very unwise hastily to com- 
 mit the House of Lords to a conflict with the House of Commons on a ques- 
 tion of this nature. Mr. Peel eventually proposed a measure of compromise — 
 that a declaration should be substituted in place of the Sacramental Test. 
 The Bill as amended passed the House of Commons, and met with very little 
 effectual opposition in the House of Lords, the two Archbishops and three 
 bishops speaking in its favour. Sir Eobert Peel says that the conciliatory 
 adjustment of the question was what he earnestly desired ; that had any 
 other course been taken by the Government the final result of parliamentary 
 discussion would probably have been the same — namely, the repeal of the 
 Test and Corporation Acts ; and that it may fairly be questioned whether 
 the repeal would have taken place under circumstances more favourable ta 
 the true interests of the Church, or more conducive to the maintenance of 
 harmony and goodwill amongst the professors of different religious creeds. 
 It was in vain that lord Eldon described the bill to be "as bad, as mischie- 
 vous, and as revolutionary as the most captious Dissenter could wish it to be." 
 He nevertheless prophesied truly when he said, " Sooner or later, perhaps 
 in this very year, almost certainly in the next, the concessions to the Dis- 
 senters must be followed by the like concessions to the Eoman Catholics." * 
 Mr. Huskisson opposed the repeal of the Corporation and Test Act upon tho 
 same principle which had determined Mr. Canning's opposition. " I am 
 convinced," said Mr. Huskisson, " that the present measure, so far from being 
 a-step in favour of the Catholic claims, would, if successful, be the means of 
 arraying an additional power against them." However eager for the applica- 
 tion of religious toleration to themselves, the greater number of English 
 Dissenters were ready to make common cause with the Brunswick clubs, who,. 
 without the slightest reference to political dangers, clung to the extremest 
 assertion of Protestant Supremacy. 
 
 The support which Mr. Huskisson's opinions derived from his position a3 
 a Minister of the Ci"own very soon came to an end. He entered the 
 Cabinet as a suspected man who was desirous of carrying forward his policy 
 upon the questions of Corn-laws and commercial restrictions much faster 
 than the head of the Government and the majority in Parliament deemed 
 prudent and profitable. There were two cases of borough corruption before 
 the House of Commons, those of Penryn and East Eetford, which 
 
 * Twisa, vol. iii. p. 38.
 
 234 MR. HUSKISSON'S RETIREMENT FROM THE MINISTRY. [1828. 
 
 imperatively called for disfraucliisemeut. On the discussions with regard 
 to these disfranchisements it had been proposed that the seats of these offend- 
 ing boroughs should be transferred to Manchester and Birmingliam. The 
 Ministry opposed the proposition for giving both seats to these great com- 
 munities. The bill for disfranchising Penryn and giving its seats to Man- 
 chester was expected to be thrown out by the Lords. The seats for one 
 borough only would have to be transferred. Mr. Huskissou, in one of these 
 debates, had declared that if there were only one case before the House he 
 would have no hesitation in transferring the franchise to Birmingham. On 
 the 19th of May Mr. Calvert moved that the franchise of East Eetibrd should 
 be extended to the neighbouring hundred. Mr. Huskisson in vain desired the 
 postponement of the question ; but v/hen his vote was claimed for Birming- 
 ham, upon the ground of consistency, he yielded, and voted with the minority 
 against the Government. He went home, he says, observing the intelligible 
 looks of some, and hearing the audible whispers of others, and, perhaps mag- 
 nifying the impression which his vote might make, wrote, before he went to 
 rest, a letter to the duke of Wellington, offering him the opportunity of 
 placing the oflBce of Colonial Secretary in other hands, " as the only means in 
 my power of preventing the injury to the king's service which may ensue 
 from the appearance of disunion in his Majesty's councils." The duke 
 immediately took the letter to the king, regarding it as an absolute resigna- 
 tion. The letter was marked "private and confidential." Eriends of Mr. 
 Huskisson went to the duke, contending that Mr. Huskisson's letter did not 
 convey a formal resignation; that it was a mistake : "It is no mistake," said 
 the inflexible premier, and the words passed into a common form of speech. 
 Those of Mr. Canning's ministry who had joined the government of the duke 
 of Wellington felt that this stern and resolute attitude was intended to get 
 rid of them altogether. Lord Dudley, Mr. Grant, lord Pahnerston, and Mr. 
 Lamb resigned their offices. Sir George Murray succeeded Mr. Huskissou 
 as Secretary of War and the Colonies ; sir Henry Hardinge became Secretary 
 at War in the place of lord Palmerston ; the earl of Aberdeen Secretary of 
 State for Foreign Afiairs in the place of earl Dudley ; and Mr. Vesey Pitz- 
 gerald President of the Board of Trade in the place of Mr. Charles Grant. 
 Other changes in civil and diplomatic appointments were the necessary conse- 
 quence of this rupture. 
 
 The able French minister, who had ample experience of party conflicts 
 during the term of representative government in his own country, at once 
 assumes that the duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel, in eagerly seizing the 
 opportunity of removing the four Canningites from the Cabinet, and of 
 supplying their places with Tories, " thus manifested their anxious desire to 
 rally all Protestants beneath the same standard, and to restore unity of 
 principles and purpose in the government." * A little more than a week 
 before the discussion on the disfranchisement of East E-etford, sir Francis 
 Burdett had obtained for the first time in the parliament of 1826 a majority 
 of the House of Commons in favour of the Komau Catholic claims. The 
 resolution was affirmed by a majority of 272 to 2CG. Sir Robert Peel says 
 in his Memoirs that he should have declined to remain Minister for the Home 
 
 * Guizot, "Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 37.
 
 i828.] IRELAND— ELECTION FOR CLARE OF MR. O'CONNELL. 235 
 
 Department and to lead the House of Commons, being in. a minority on the 
 most important of domestic questions. The duke of Wellington's govern- 
 ment was in danger from the retirement of Mr. Huskisson and his friends, 
 and Mr. Peel therefore remained to give his support to a Cabinet which now 
 appeared to be wholly constructed upon the principle of hostility to the 
 Catholic claims. The resolution for considering the Catholic claims whicli 
 had been carried in the House of Commons was debated in the House of 
 Lords on the 9th and 10th of June. The majority against the motion which 
 had passed in the House of Commons was forty-four. But there were 
 admissions in the course of the debate which were as important as a majority 
 in favour of the resolution. The lord chancellor and the duke of AV^elliugton 
 had admitted that the Catholic question was a great difficulty, out of which 
 they at present saw no outlet. " This statement," said the marquis of 
 Lansdowne, " having been made by two noblemen so high in the confidence 
 of the sovereign, it almost necessarily follows that it is accompanied with their 
 intention of looking at this difficulty with a view to its final arrangement." * 
 The appointment of Mr. Vesey i'itzgerald to a ministerial office caused a 
 vacancy in the representation of the county of Clare. The contest for this 
 fieat produced events in Ireland " of deep importance, especially in their 
 relation to the Catholic question." f Mr. Fitzgerald was a person of great 
 influence in the county of Clare. He had conciliated the Buman Catholics 
 by a constant advocacy in Parliament for the removal of their disabilities. 
 Certainly no Protestant could have had a fairer chance of support, not only 
 from the landlords but from their tenantry. Yet the whole power of the 
 Catholic Association was called iorth to prevent his return, and to secure the 
 election of Mr. O'Connell, who, by his faith, was disqualified from sitting in 
 Parliament. During the short administration of Mr. Canning the Association, 
 founded in 1823, had voluntarily dissolved itself, having confidence that the 
 Minister would bring forward some efiectual measure of relief. The accession 
 to power of the duke of "Wellington and Mr. Peel, and the subsequent 
 changes in the Cabinet which had disturbed the balance of opinions on the 
 greatest question of domestic policy, revived the Association with new strength, 
 which was calculated to produce the most serious alarm. Lord Anglesey, 
 the Lord-Lieutenant, had gone to Ireland with the decided opinion that con- 
 cessions to the Catholics should be refused. What he saw there in the 
 summer of 1828 produced in his mind a conviction of the positive danger of 
 persevering in the old system of policy. Mr. O'Connell, whose power as 
 a demagogue was probably never exceeded by any Irishman or English- 
 man — gifted with a popular oratory which completely won the hearts of 
 a fervid peasantry — professing the utmost deference to the Catholic priest- 
 hood, which he swayed as much by his devotion as a son of the Church 
 as by his prompt and versatile ability — wanting perhaps " very deter- 
 mined courage," J but with every other quality for the leader of a rebellion 
 — Mr. O'Connell stirred up his countrymen to a madness of which the 
 Clare election was the type. The Catholics had a common grievance and 
 d common sympathy, which, since the Union, had been a constant source 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xix. col. 1292. 
 
 + " Memoirs by Sir liobert Peel," vol. i. p. 105. 
 
 + Ibid., p. 147 (Lord Anglesey's expressicai.
 
 236 MINISTERIAL VIEWS ON CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. [1828. 
 
 of irritation and of occasional alarm. But a real sense of the imminent 
 danger of refusing concession had never been produced, until the proof 
 was supplied bj the Clare election that local and personal attachments 
 were weakened, that the friendly relations of men in different classes were 
 loosened, and that a power had arisen " to unite the scattered elements of 
 society into a homogeneous and disciplined mass, yielding willing obedience 
 to the assumed authority of superior intelligence, hostile to the law and to 
 the government which administered it."* At the period of the Clare election 
 the Lord-Lieutenant wrote to the Home Secretary that he was quite certain 
 that the agitators could lead on the people to rebellion at a moment's notice, 
 but that the hope of tranquillity, present and future, rested upon the belief 
 of O' Council and his friends that they could carry their cause by agitation 
 and intimidation, without coming to blows. Lord Anglesey believed their 
 success to be inevitable. " There may be rebellion; you may put to death 
 thousands ; you may suppress it ; but it will only be to put ofi" the day of 
 compromise, and in the meantime the country is still more impoverished, and 
 the minds of the people are, if possible, still more alienated." f On the 5th 
 of July Mr. O'Connell was elected for Clare. A petition against his return 
 was presented to the House of Commons, but nothing was done, for the 
 Session was nearly at an end. The great Agitator did not attempt to take 
 iis seat during the three weeks which elapsed between his return and the 
 prorogation of Parliament. He had sis months before him for continued 
 agitation. The Session closed on the 28th of July, without a word in the 
 King's Speech regarding Ireland. 
 
 The duke of Wellington, in the course of a debate in May, 1829, said, " It 
 is now well known that during the whole of the last autumn and summer I 
 had those measures in contemplation which have been since brought into 
 effect. It is also well known that my principal object, and that to which all 
 my efforts were directed, was to prevail upon the person in these kingdoms 
 the most interested of all others, from his situation, in the settlement of the 
 Catholic question, to give his consent to its being brought forward." if In 
 the autumn and summer of 1828 the duke had not only a difficulty with 
 the king, but with the one of most importance amongst his colleagues. 
 At the beginning of August the Premier and the Lord Chancellor had 
 been in communication with the King. Mr. Peel was invited to participate 
 in the proposed arrangement. He gave his deliberate opinion by letter 
 to the duke of "Wellington, that there was upon the whole less of evil 
 in making a decided effort to settle the Catholic question than in leaving 
 it, as it had been left, an open question. Mr. Peel, however, proposed 
 to retire from the government, although he was willing to support it, 
 but unwilling to undertake the management of this business in the 
 House of Commons. Twenty years after, he says that this letter was 
 written with a clear foresight of the penalties to which the course he resolved 
 to take would expose him — " the rage of party, t'he alienation of private 
 friends, the interruption of family affections." He would not condescend to 
 notice other penalties, such as the loss of office and of royal favour, " if they 
 
 • " Memoirs by Sir IloLcrt Peel," p. IIG. t Ibid., p. 147. 
 
 1^ ll;ins:ircl, vol. ,\xi. col. 1023.
 
 1829.] OPENING OF PARLIAMENT— EMANCIPATION ANNOUNCED. 23t 
 
 were not the heaviest in the estimation of vulgar and lovr-minded men 
 incapable of appreciating higher motives of public conduct."* 
 
 The efforts of the duke of "Wellington to obtain the sanction of the king, 
 that the whole subject of Ireland, including the Catholic question, should be 
 taken into consideration by his confidential servants, were not successful 
 during the remaining months of 1828. In his interviews with the duke his 
 majesty manifested much uneasiness and irritation. Lord Eldon represents 
 that the king told him, at an interview on the 28th of March, 1829, that his 
 Ministers had threatened to resign if the measures were not proceeded in, and 
 that he had said to them, " Go on," when an interview which had lasted several 
 hours had brought him into such a state that he hardly knew what he was 
 about.f Mr. Peel, very early in the course of these discussions, had expressed 
 his opinion that whenever it was once determined that an attempt should be 
 made by the Government to settle the Catholic question, the settlement 
 should be, if possible, a complete one. Partial concessions would be of no 
 use. X On the 12th of January, 1829, the six Ministers who had voted 
 uniformly against the Catholic claims, had each a separate interview with his 
 Majesty, when he intimated his consent that the whole question of Ireland 
 should be considered without his being pledged by such consent to adopt the 
 views of his confidential servants, however unanimous they might be. On 
 the 17th the duke of Wellington wrote to Mr. Peel, that he did not see the 
 slightest chance, in consequence of what had passed in interviews with the 
 king, and with certain of the bishops, of getting rid of these difficulties, if 
 Mr, Peel should not continue in office. Mr. Peel yielded to this earnest 
 solicitation. "When the draft of the Speech from the Throne was submitted 
 to the king, he gave a reluctant assent to the passage which implied an 
 intention on the part of the Government to make a decisive effort to adjust 
 the Catholic question. The Parliament was opened by Commission on the 
 5th of Pebruary. The day before the meeting of Parliament Mr. Peel 
 addressed a letter to the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford expressing his intention 
 to vacate his seat for that University. 
 
 In the Speech from the Throne the existence of an Association in Ireland 
 dangerous to the public peace, and inconsistent with the spirit of the Con- 
 stitution, was pointed out, to ask for such powers as may enable his Majesty 
 to-maintain his just authority. " His Majesty recommends that, when this 
 essential object shall have been accomplished, you should take into your 
 deliberate consideration the whole condition of Ireland ; and that you should 
 review the laws which impose civil disabilities on his Majesty's Roman 
 Catholic subjects. Ton will consider whether the removal of those disabili- 
 ties can be effected consistently with the full and permanent security of our 
 establishments in Churcli and State, with the maintenance of the Reformed 
 Religion established by law, and of the rights and privileges of the bishops and 
 of the clergy of this realm, and of the churches committed to their charge." 
 In the House of Peers the duke of "Wellington announced that the measura 
 which it was the intention of the Government to propose for the adoption 
 
 • " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. i. p. 188. 
 
 + Twiss, vol. iii. p. 83. 
 
 J " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. i. p. 1S9,
 
 238 THE CATHOLIC RELIEF BILL PROPOSED. [182» 
 
 of Parliament, would extend to the removal generally of all civil disabilities 
 under which the Roman Catholics laboured, with exceptions solely resting 
 on special grounds. In the House of Commons Mr. Peel made a similar 
 announcement. The great contest in Parliament was not to come on till 
 Mr. Peel should be in his place to take his proper share in the discussions. 
 He was persuaded to allow his name to be put in nomination for re-election 
 at Oxford. His friends did not sufficiently estimate the power of a party cry. 
 Sir Robert Inglis, his opponent, was finally returned by a majority of one 
 hundred and forty-six votes. Lord Colchester records the termination of the 
 election, adding, " Cheers for lord Eldon in Convocation, hisses for the King, 
 hisses and groans for Peel." Nevertheless the value of these hisses and 
 groans may be tested from the fact that Mr. Peel polled twice as many first- 
 class men as sir Eobert Inglis, and the " No-Popery" and " Church in 
 Danger" cries were not universally successful, for he had three hundred and 
 thirty-three clergymen amongst his supporters. Mr. Peel took his seat for 
 Westbury on the 3rd of March. The Bill for suppressing the Catholic 
 Association had passed during the Secretary's absence from Parliament. In 
 that interval several thousand petitions were presented to Parliament, — the 
 greater part against the proposed measures of concession. Lord Eldon was 
 the most indefatigable in the enforcement of the prayer of these very exclu- 
 sive productions, which echoed his own assertion on the first night of the 
 Session, that if a lloraan Catholic were ever admitted to form part of the 
 Legislature, or to hold any of the great offices of state, from that moment the 
 sun of Great Britain was set for ever. In the House of Commons Mr. Peel 
 gave notice, on the 3rd of March, that on the 5th he would call attention to 
 that part of the speech from the throne which referred to the civil disabili- 
 ties of the Roman Catholics. On the evening of the 3rd the king com- 
 manded the duke of 'V\'^ellington, lord Lyndhurst, and Mr. Peel, to attend 
 him at Windsor on the following day. The audience lasted five hours. The 
 king most tenaciously insisted that no alteration should be made of the 
 ancient oath of supremacy. The ministers as firmly maintained that without 
 this alteration the measure of relief would be unavailing. They left the 
 royal closet in the assured belief that their official functions were at an end. 
 " At the close of the interview the king took leave of us with great com- 
 posure and great kindness, gave to each of us a salute on each cheek, and 
 accepted our resignation of office, frequently expressing his sincere regret at 
 the necessity which compelled iis to retire Irom his service." * Before the 
 king went to rest a great and sudden change had come over him. He wrote 
 to the duke of Wellington to acquaint him that he anticipated so much 
 difficulty in the attempt to form another administration that he could not 
 dispense with the services of those whose resignations he had accepted, and 
 that they were at liberty to proceed with the measures of which notice had 
 been given in Parliament, f 
 
 On the 5th of March, from ten o'clock in the morning, all the avenues of 
 the House of Commons were crowded by persons who hoped to gain admis- 
 sion to the gallery. The doors were not opened till six o'clock ; for, accord- 
 ing to a notice previously given, the House was called over. To put an end 
 
 * " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. i. p. Dd7. t Hid., p. 349.
 
 1829.] CONTINUED AND VIOLENT DEBATES. 23» 
 
 to all possible cavil on the part of the king, Mr. Peel had suggested to the 
 duke of Wellington that a distinct authority should be given to them to say 
 to Parliament that the measures in contemplation were proposed with the 
 entire sanction of his Majesty. That authority having been received durin"' 
 the night, Mr. Peel commenced his speech in these words : — " I rise as a 
 Minister of the King, and sustained by the just authority which belongs to 
 that character, to vindicate the advice given to his Majesty by an united 
 Cabinet." "With regard to himself, he had for years attempted to maintain 
 the exclusion of Homan Catholics from Parliament and the high offices of 
 state. He did not think it was an unnatural or unreasonable struggle. He 
 resigned it, in consequence of the conviction that it could no longer be 
 advantageously maintained. As Mr. Peel proceeded to explain the proposed 
 measure, in a speech of four hours, the cheers of the House were occasionally 
 heard in "Westminster Hall. The Bill would admit a Eoman Catholic to 
 Parliament upon taking an oath, in place of the old oath of supremacy, that 
 he would support the existing institutions of the State, and not injure those 
 of the Church. It would admit a Roman Catholic to all the greatest offices 
 of government, with the exception of Eegent, Lord Chancellor of England, 
 and Lord Chancellor and Viceroy of Ireland. All corporate offices and 
 municipal privileges, all that pertained to the administration of justice, 
 would be open to Koman Catholics, Prom all offices connected with the 
 Church, wdth its universities and schools, and from Church patronage, they 
 would be necessarily excluded. Commands in the army and navy had been 
 open to them before this measure. Connected with the Bill of Eelief, there 
 were securities and restrictions proposed ; and by a separate bill the quali- 
 fication for the freeholder's electoral franchise in Ireland was increased from 
 forty shillings to ten pounds. It is unnecessary to trace the course of the 
 debates in either House during the conflict, which lasted to the 10th of April, 
 when the Eelief Bill was read a third time in the House of Lords by a 
 majority of a hundred and four. It had been passed in the House of Com- 
 mons, on the 30th of March, by a majority of a hundred and seventy-eight. 
 Amidst the passionate invectives, the taunts and sneers, of the opposers of 
 the measure, there was one sentence in the speech of a great man who relied 
 upon no oratorical power for enforcing conviction, which made more impres- 
 tiion upon the mind and heart of the nation than the highest displays of 
 argument or declamation. Thus spoke the duke of Wellington, on moving 
 the second reading of the Bill on the 4th of April : " My lords, I am one of 
 those who have probably passed a longer period of my life engaged in war 
 than most men, and principally, I may say, in civil war ; and I must say 
 this, — that if I could avoid, by any sacrifice wliatever, even one month of 
 civil war in the country to which I am attached, I would sacrifice my life in 
 order to do it. I say that there is nothing which destroys property and 
 prosperity, and demoralizes character, to the degree that civil war does ; by 
 it the hand of man is raised against his neighbour, against bis brother, and 
 against his father ; the servant betrays his master, and the whole scene ends 
 in confusion and devastation. Tet, my lords, this is the resource to which 
 we must have looked — these are the means to which we must have applied, 
 in order to have put an end to this state of things, if we had not made the 
 option of bringing forward the measures, for which I hold myself respon-
 
 240 THE CATHOLIC REIilEF BILL PASSED. [1829. 
 
 eible." * The great Captaiu was assailed as virulently as Mr. Peel was 
 assailed, by the most furious of those who assumed to be the only true 
 supporters of Churcb and State. The earl of "Winchelsea published a letter 
 in which he insinuated that the duke had supported the establishment 
 of King's College, that he "might the more effectually, under the 
 cloak of some outward show of zeal for the Protestant religion, 
 carry ou his insidious designs for the infringement of our liberties, 
 and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State." 
 The duke demanded that the letter should be withdrawn ; the earl refused 
 to do so. On the 21st of March the two peers had a hostile meeting iu 
 Battersea fields. The duke of Wellington fired without effect ; the earl of 
 "Winchelsea discharged his pistol in the air, and then tendered a written 
 apology. In a letter to the duke of Buckingham a month after this transac- 
 tion the duke of Wellington thus defended a conduct which he admitted 
 must have " shocked many good men :" — " The truth is that the duel with 
 lord Winchelsea was as much part of the Eoman Catholic question, and it 
 was as necessary to undertake it, and carry it out to the extremity to which 
 I did carry it, as it was to do everything else which I did do to attain the 
 object which I had in view. I was living here in an atmosphere of calumny. 
 I could do nothing that was not misrepresented as having some bad purpose 
 in view." When lord Winchelsea published his letter the duke determined 
 to act upon it. " The atmosphere of calumny in which I had been some 
 time living cleared away. The system of calumny was discontinued." f Mr. 
 Peel had to endure calumnies even more galling than those which the duke 
 of Wellington decided to resist by the course which a brave soldier, jealous 
 upon the point of honour, was then almost compelled to take in deference to 
 the false opinions of society. Twenty years after this great political struggle 
 sir Robert Peel wrote the following solemn appeal to protect his memory • 
 " I can with truth affirm, as I do solemnly affirm in the presence of Almighty 
 God, ' to whom all hearts be open, all desires known, and from whom no 
 secrets are hid,' that iu advising and promoting the measures of 1829 I was 
 swayed by no fear except the fear of public calamity, and tliat I acted 
 throughout on a deep conviction that those measures were not only condu- 
 cive to the general welfare, but that they had become imperatively necessary 
 in order to avert from interests which had a special claim upon my support — 
 the interests of the Church and of institutions connected with the Church — 
 an imminent and increasing danger." | 
 
 The Catholic Eelief Bill received the royal assent on the 13th of April. 
 Lord Eldon at two previous audiences of George IV. had urged him to refuse 
 the royal assent. The king, who was a great actor, not only in the power 
 of mimicry which he possessed but in exhibiting a well- feigned passion, 
 deceived his ex-chancellor into the belief that his old master would peril 
 everything, even his throne, by this obsolete exercise of the royal prerogative. 
 Dangerous, almost infatuated, as was this advice of lord Eldon, we cannot 
 doubt his sincerity ; we cannot believe that any corrupt motive, or even any 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xxi. col. 45. 
 
 t Duke of Buckingham, " Court of George IV.," vol. ii. p. 397. 
 
 ^ " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. i. p. 365.
 
 1829.] MR. O'CONNELL'S SECOND RETURN FOR CLARE. 241 
 
 personal ambition, prompted his interference to avert -what he believed would 
 be a great political evil. He distrusted the Eoman Catholics, not from a 
 blind adherence to a worn-out bigotry, but from a reliance upon that 
 unstatesmanlike caution which could not look beyond a dark Present into a 
 brighter Future. Happily, he had to deal with a sovereign of different 
 character than he who compelled Pitt — in the fear that he might drive the 
 king into insanity — to lay aside the implied pledges of the Union, and thus 
 to make the Legislature equivocate for thirty years with the just expectations 
 of disappointed millions. A few childish lamentations, and there would be 
 an end of the opposition of George the Fourth to the resolve of his Ministry. 
 He would go to Hanover — he would return no more to England — let them 
 get a Catholic king in Clarence — were his ejaculations at the interview of 
 the 9th of April. On the 14th lord Eldon wrote to his daughter, — " The fatal 
 Bill received the royal assent yesterday afternoon. After all I had heard in 
 my visits not a day's delay."* 
 
 About a month after the passing of the Bill Mr. O'Connell was 
 introduced to the House of Commons for the purpose of taking his 
 seat for Clare. A petition against his return had been referred to a 
 Committee, who declared that he was duly returned. Mr. O'Connell had 
 been elected before the passing of the new Act, and the Clerk of the House 
 accordingly tendered to him the oath of supremacy which was required to be 
 taken under the old law. This oath Mr. O'Connell refused to take, claiming 
 to take the oath set forth in the Relief Act, He was the next day heard 
 at the bar. His courtesy, his moderation, his legal knowledge, surprised the 
 House, and called forth the approving voices of the great law officers who had 
 opposed his claim at once to take his seat. Upon a division a new writ was 
 ordered for Clare. A large subscription was entered into for securing Mr. 
 O'Connell's second return, which took place on the 30th of July. His 
 violence at that election was a painful and disgusting contrast to his assumed 
 gentleness at the bar of the House of Commons. His unmeasured words 
 almost induced a general apprehension that the great measure of Catholic 
 Emancipation had been too readily yielded to that sense of an overwhelming 
 necessity which had converted opposing statesmen into its responsible 
 promoters. There was a higher principle than the expediency which changed 
 the policy of Mr. Peel — a principle thus proclaimed out of the walls of 
 Parliament, to assert the Christian obligation of passing this law : — 
 " It is the direct duty of every Englishman to support the claims of 
 the Roman Catholics of Ireland, even at the hazard of injuring the 
 Protestant Establishment ; because those claims cannot be rejected without 
 great injustice ; and it is a want of faith in God and an unholy zeal to 
 think that he can be served by injustice, or to guard against contingent 
 evil by committing certain sin." f This was a great truth, maintained in 
 words not to be forgotten, by a bold thinker who did not fear evil tongues 
 — one whose tolerant zeal for the Church establishment, which he ardently- 
 desired to uphold, could not shut Ins eyes to the exclusive pretensions of those 
 
 * Twiss, -vol. ili. p. 37. 
 
 t Dr. Arnokl, "Christian Duty of considering the Roman Catholic Claims." — Miscellaneous 
 Works, p. 6. 
 
 VOL. Yin.— 240.
 
 242 MEETING OP PARLIAMENT— MOTIONS FOR REFORM. [1830. 
 
 who would have built its security upon a rotten foundation. It was a truth 
 whose constant recognition would support every conscientious statesman 
 through the perils with which Ireland would yet be surrounded ; would 
 neutralize the interested agitation for the Eepeal of the Union which the chief 
 Agitator would for years carry forward to the verge of rebellion ; would produce 
 the general conviction that the " great injustice " being effectually removed, a 
 fair field would be left for the removal or amelioration of social evils ; would 
 convert even the terrible calamity of a famine into a final blessing ; would 
 " assert eternal Providence " in manifesting that a righteous act would at 
 last have its reward, in rendering the once wronged Ireland no more a terror 
 to England, but the sharer of her liberty and her prosperity — a true sister, 
 no longer to be alienated by just complaints, much less by demagogic 
 violence and priestly stratagem. 
 
 The Parliament was prorogued on the 24th of June. The landowners 
 when they returned to their country mansions did not find happy faces 
 amidst either tenants or labourers. The summer and autumn were wet and 
 cold ; the harvest was protracted ; the crops were ill got in, and were hurried 
 to market. They were found to be of inferior quality, and prices suffered 
 temporarily a great depression. Then came the severest winter since 
 1813-14. Parliament met on the 4th of Pebruary, 1830. The King's Speech 
 lamented that notwithstanding the indication of active commerce afforded 
 by increased exports, distress should prevail amongst the agricultural and 
 manufacturing classes. One effectual mode of mitigating the pressure upon 
 industrial capital was announced in the intention to propose a considerable 
 redaction in the amount of public expenditure. The promise was realized. 
 The Chancellor of the Exchequer proposed, on the 15th of March, the total 
 remission of the excise duties on beer, cider, and leather. Increased duties 
 on spirits were to supply a portion of the deficiency. The propositions of 
 the government were finally agreed to. Motions for Eeform of Parliament 
 were brought forward, with the usual fate of every previous attempt to carry 
 a sweeping or a partial measure. Again was it resolved that the seat which 
 was vacant through the corruption of East Retford should not be trans- 
 ferred to Birmingham. Mr. O'Connell proposed to bring in a Bill to 
 establish universal suffrage, triennial parliaments, and vote by ballot. Lord 
 John Russell had a counter-proposition for additional representatives for 
 populous counties and large unrepresented towns. The solution of this 
 difficult problem seemed as far off as ever. It was helped forward by the 
 imprudent conduct of a great peer who openly proclaimed what too many 
 of the aristocracy felt in their hearts. A petition was presented to the 
 House of Commons complaining of the interference of the duke of Newcastle 
 in the elections for the borough of Newark, and praying that his power of 
 ejecting tenants from the property which he held as lessee of Crown lands, 
 should be prevented in future by the non-renewal of his lease. The govern- 
 ment declared that it was not their intention to renew this lease : it was 
 unnecessary, therefore, to grant a committee to inquire into this matter. The 
 debate, however, disclosed a correspondence which roused a feeling of indig- 
 nation througliout the land. A public meeting had been held at Newark 
 to condemn the proceedings of the nobleman who appeared to have held in 
 small respect the well-known resolution of the House of Commons that it
 
 1830.] ILLNESS AND DEATH OF GEORGE IV. 248 
 
 is a violation of the privileges of Parliament for Peers of the Eealtn to 
 interfere in elections. The duke of Newcastle was invited to attend that 
 meeting. He declined to attend, and asked the bold question, " May I not 
 do what I will with mine own ?" It was the argument of Shy lock, when he 
 demanded the pound of flesh, " 'Tis mine, and I will have it." These words 
 went forth to teach Englishmen that property had its duties as well as its 
 rights, preparing the way for that quickly-coming change when the 
 democratic element would assert its claim to be more respected — when the 
 franchise would cease to be considered as a chattel which the great could call 
 their own. One measure of great importance was proposed this session by 
 Mr. Brougham, as a specific measure connected with his extensive views of 
 Law Eeform which he had developed in 1828. On the 29th of April, 1830, 
 he moved for leave to bring in a Bill to establish Local Jurisdiction in certain 
 districts in England. He showed that to recover small sums in the superior 
 courts was a process involving delay and expense which prevented a creditor 
 obtaining the satisfaction of his just demands. It was his hope that he might 
 be eventually able to establish the system of local jurisdiction, from which he 
 expected benefits unspeakably valuable to the country. That hope was long 
 deferred. The County Courts, which were founded upon the recommenda- 
 tion of the Common Law Commissioners, arising out of Mr. Brougham's 
 views in 1830, and upon their further enforcement when he became Lord 
 Chancellor, were not established till queen Victoria had been eight years 
 upon the throne. 
 
 On the 24th of May, a message was sent to both Houses of Parliament 
 by the king, announcing his illness and stating the inconvenience of signing 
 public instruments with his own hand. A Bill was introduced for the 
 appointment of commissioners to affix the king's sign-manual by a stamp, in. 
 the king's presence, and by his immediate order given by word of mouth. 
 The Bill received the royal assent on the 29th of May. On the 26th of 
 June, at three o'clock in the morning, king George the Pourth expired afe 
 "Windsor Castle. It is difficult to look back upon the career of this prince, 
 whose sovereignty either as Eegent or King formed one of the most impor- 
 tant eras in the annals of our country, without feeling how much his life 
 had been one of great opportunities wasted and of natural powers perverted ; 
 bow the circumstances by which he had been surrounded from his youth 
 were almost wholly injurious to his character and his happiness. The 
 present generation, — in some degree by the force of contrast — have come 
 to look very severely upon the faults of this erring brother. They were 
 painfully visited upon him by the absence of all domestic happiness, by 
 the feeling that he was not beloved or respected by the people he was 
 appointed to rule over. The duke of "Wellington has given a character of 
 the monarch who held in dread the great captain's strong sense and 
 inflexible resolution : " He was indeed," said the duke, " the most extra- 
 ordinary compound of talent, wit, bufi"oonery, obstinacy, and good feeling— 
 in short, a medley of the most opposite qualities, with a great preponder- 
 ance of good — that I ever saw in any character in my life." * 
 
 * Kaikes's " Diary," toL i. p. 92
 
 CoKimu in La Place Veiidume. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Oath of allegiance taken by Peers and Commoners — Business of Parliament commenced — Unmea- 
 sured language in the House of Commons — Motion for a Regency in the event of the king's 
 demise — France — Retrospect of government in reiga of Charles X. — Prince Polignac 
 appointed President of the Council — Sudden prorogation of the Chambers — Algiers — The 
 Royal Ordinances promulgated — The three days of July — Duke of Orleans Lieutenant- 
 General of the Kingdom — Abdication of Charles X. — Duke of Orleans King — 
 Recognition by England of the new government of France — Revolution of Belgium — The 
 opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway — Early opposition to the Railway 
 system — The Locomotive Engine — George Stephenson — His son Robert — Anticipations of 
 the triumphs of Railways — Death of Mr. Huskisson — Opening of Parliament — Declaration 
 of the duke of Wellington — The king's visit to the City postponed — Defeat of Ministers on 
 the Civil List — They resign — Mr. Brougham's parliamentary position — Administration of 
 earl Grey completed — List of the Ministry. 
 
 On Friday, the 25th of June, both Houses of Parliament had adjourned 
 to the following Monday. The death of George the Fourth having taken 
 place at three o'clock on the morning of the 26th, summonses were issued 
 for the immediate attendance of the Peers for the purpose of taking the 
 oath of allegiance to King William the Fourth as administered by the Lord 
 Chancellor. According to ancient practice the oath to the Commons was to 
 be administered by the Lord Stew^ard. At an early hour, therefore, many 
 members of the Lower House attended in the Long Gallery for the purpose 
 of taking this oath. The Lord Steward, the Marquis of Conyngham, did 
 not arrive till late. When the House did meet, Mr. Brougham made an 
 indignant protest against the treatment which the Commons of England had 
 experienced; for many members had that morning, like himself, been kept 
 for hours dancing attendance in the Long Gallery, and waiting the pleasure 
 of the Lord Steward. On the following Monday Mr. Brougham explained

 
 1830. UNMEASURED LANGUAGE IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. 245 
 
 that he should not have indulged in the remarks which he had made on the 
 Saturday had he been aware that the Lord Steward, being also governor of 
 "Windsor Castle, could not leave till he had handed over the body of the 
 king to the Lord Chamberlain. The incident is scarcely worth notice, except 
 as affording a very early indication of the policy of Mr. Brougham — " that 
 he at least had no intention of any longer forming a portion of what was 
 termed his Majesty's opposition, but that he was about to resume in earnest 
 the character of an opponent." * The voice of public scandal, whose echo 
 never died away, asserted that the Marquis of Conyngham and his family 
 had very important private interests to take care of at Windsor Castle, in 
 the few hours that elapsed between the death of the king and their departure 
 from the palace of which they had long been inmates. 
 
 On the 29th of June the business of parliament commenced. A message 
 from the king recommended " such temporary provision as may be requisite 
 for the public service in the interval that may elapse between the close of the 
 present session and the meeting of a new parliament." During the remaining 
 three weeks of the session there was much sharp discussion in both Houses. 
 On the 30th of June, in the House of Lords, earl Grey, upon the question 
 of an Address to his Majesty, moved an amendment to adjourn, in order to 
 give time for the consideration of the Civil List, and the expediency of 
 providing a Regency. The original motion was carried by a large majority. 
 In the House of Commons, lord Althorp moved a similar amendment which 
 was also lost. On that night, after the proposed amendment had been 
 negatived, a new debate arose upon the question being put on the original 
 Address. Several years bad passed since the House of Commons had heard 
 such unmeasured language as now proceeded from the orator who was the 
 real leader of the Opposition. It is difficult to understand how this fierceness 
 should have been provoked by any act or manifest temper of the government 
 — by anything beyond the popular suspicion that the duke of Wellington was 
 an enemy to the liberties of his country. A threat was supposed to have 
 been held out in the other House by the duke which Mr. Brougham thus inter- 
 preted for him — " if you leave government in the minority, I will resign, and 
 where then will you get a Field-Marshal to superintend your finances and your 
 law-courts ?" Mr, Brougham then warned the government that in the event 
 of a new election they might look back even to the parliament with some of 
 the pleasures of memory. Their case might be the same as that of prince 
 Polignac, who must needs send the representatives of France to their 
 constituents, and in choosing a new Assembly that great nation was up, not 
 in arms, but in the panoply of reason. " We can perceive, sir, in this 
 country as in that, that the day of force is over, and that the Minister who 
 hopes to rule by an appeal to Royal favour or military power may be 
 overwhelmed, though I in nowise accuse him of such an attempt. Him I 
 accuse not. It is you I accuse — his flatterers — his mean, fawning parasites." 
 Sir Robert Peel rose : " I ask the hon. and learned gentleman, as I am one 
 of those on this side of the House to which he is referring, whether he 
 means to accuse me of such conduct ? .... I ask him whether he presumes 
 — whether he presumes to call me the mean and fawning parasite of any- 
 
 * Uoebuck, " History of the Whig Ministry," vol. i. p. 251.
 
 246 MOTION FOR A REGENCY IN THE EVENT OF THE KING'S DEMISE. [1830. 
 
 Tbody ?" The historian of the Whig Ministry says, " Checked thus suddenly 
 m mid-career, Mr. Brougham seemed at once to perceive that the phrase he 
 had used, and the charge he had brought, were not to be justified." He 
 disclaimed every intention of applying the words to sir Eobert Peel himself. 
 Sir Eobert Peel required something more. Mr. Brougham had " no right to 
 accuse men as honest, upright, and independent as himself, of being parasites. 
 He would make the apology and retractation for the hon. and learned 
 gentleman" — that *' these words were uttered in the warmth of debate, and 
 without reference to any individual application."* Mr. Brougham at once 
 adopted the apology thus prescribed to him. 
 
 On the 6th of July Mr. E. Grant moved an Address to his Majesty, 
 touching the expediency of making provision against the dangers to which 
 the country might be exposed by a demise of the crown. The motion was 
 rejected by a majority of a hundred and fifty-four. It was on this occasion 
 that Mr. Macaulay, who had very recently been returned to Parliament for 
 the borough of Calne, first exhibited his power of discussing a constitutional 
 question upon broader principles than those of the mere debater. The 
 Solicitor- General had talked about the delicacy due to the new monarch ; 
 that in previous cases of interference there had been a suspension of the 
 executive functions. "I should wish," said Mr. Macaulay, "to ask the 
 honourable and learned gentleman what he conceives to be the end and object 
 of Parliament ? The history of our hereditary form of government does 
 Dot present us with any certain security for the wisdom or virtue of the 
 chief magistrate. The destinies of the community may be entrusted to the 
 feeble hands of infancy ; and this and other consequences have afibrded ample 
 themes to the satirist and the declaimer. Look, at this moment, at the 
 enormous weight and extent of power confided to the hereditary monarch, 
 
 whether an infant or an adult Yet this enormous empire, with all 
 
 its complicated interests, may be placed under the control of a thoughtless 
 boy or girl. Por a child, unable to walk or to express the simplest wish in 
 3ts mother tongue, the claims of veteran Generals and of accomplished States- 
 men are passed by. Senates pay it homage, and by the years of its rule laws 
 are numbered and public Acts are dated. To many this system may appear, 
 if not absurd, unreasonable ; and what is the answer ? Why in this enlight- 
 ened age do we resist, and would oppose even with our lives any change of 
 that system ? What is the advantage that counterbalances its numerous and 
 
 admitted evils ? It may be designated in one word — certainty 
 
 Under an hereditary government the Eoyal authority passes without interval 
 from one Eoyal depository to another, and none can dispute in whom the 
 light to the supreme magistracy resides. If this certainty be of more vaiue 
 than wisdom, virtues, or public services — if it be paramount to every other 
 consideration, then, I ask, what becomes of all the arguments of the honour- 
 able and learned member ? He tells us to pause in the appointment of a 
 Eegency, and to choose well, rather than to choose soon ; but if we follow 
 his advice, we forego the only advantage of our hereditary form of government 
 — its certainty, "t A satisfactory measure by which this desirable certainty 
 "was attained, the personage in whom the nation could place the utmost confi- 
 
 '^ Hansard, vol. xxv. col. 32*5, t Hid., vol. xxv. col. 1029.
 
 1830.] FRANCE— GOVERNMENT IN REIGN OF CHARLES X. 247 
 
 dence being nominated sole Eegent, was passed in the new Parliament. The 
 duchess of Kent was appointed to this high office, in the event of the prin- 
 cess Victoria becoming Queen before she had attained the age of eighteen. 
 
 The king, on the 23rd of July, prorogued Parliament in person. The 
 royal speech contained these flattering words : " It is with the utmost satis- 
 faction that I find myself enabled to congratulate you upon the general tran- 
 quillity of Europe." On the 24th Parliament was dissolved by proclamation. 
 
 It has been observed by M. Guizot that the ties, apparent or concealed, 
 that exist between France and England, have never been broken even by 
 their rivalries. " Whether they know or are ignorant of it, whether they 
 acknowledge or deny the fact, they cannot avoid being powerfully acted upon 
 by each other." * Never was this truth more strikingly exemplified than in 
 the effect produced upon English opinion with regard to our domestic politics, 
 by that French revolution of 1830 which, bursting forth within forty-eight 
 hours of the dissolution of our own Parliament, had a most decided influence 
 upon the elections that took place during the month of August, and thus pro- 
 duced a change of administration which immediately led to our own peaceful 
 revolution — the Reform of Parliament. To comprehend in some degree the 
 causes of the great event which hurled the elder branch of the Bourbons from 
 that throne upon which they appeared to be firmly seated after the battle of 
 Waterloo, we must advert very briefly to the course of the government of 
 France after the death of Louis XVIII., on the 16th of September, 1824. 
 
 On the 15th of August, a month only before the decease of Louis, th& 
 censorship of journals was re-established by a royal ordinance. The state 
 of the king's health appeared to the minister, M. de Villele, to require that 
 the government should have in its hands this power of controlling tlie press. 
 The good sense of Louis XVIII., and his desire to govern as far as possible 
 in an enlightened and liberal spirit, preserved France during his reign from 
 any popular convulsion. Under the Charter the struggles of parties were of 
 a constitutional character. There were great orators in the Chamber of 
 Deputies who were opposed to the government ; there were bitter satirists in 
 prose and verse, such as Courier and Beranger, who attacked the ultra- 
 royalist party and the priestly party with uneparing ridicule ; — nevertheless 
 the nation had not arrived at the belief that another vital change in its 
 institutions was necessary, and was content to confide in the power of the 
 Charter gradually to repair its own deficiencies. Charles X. came to the 
 throne. The French saw the change with something like dread, for he was 
 considered the representative of ultra-royalist opinions. He at once mani- 
 fested a solicitude that the people should accept him as a constitutional king. 
 His first act was to abolish the censorship of the journals. He said to the 
 peers and deputies that liis great desire was to consolidate the Charter for 
 the happiness of his people. He promised to each religious body protection 
 for its worship. The ceremony of consecrating the king at Rheims was little 
 in accordance with the spirit of the age, or the general character of the 
 French. The people laughed and sneered when the " Moniteur" said : — 
 " There is no doubt that the holy oil which will flow on the forehead of 
 Charles X. in the solemnity of his consecration, is the same as that which, 
 
 * Guizot, " Memoirs to illustrate the History of My Time," vol. i. p. 306.
 
 248 PRINCE FOLIGNAC APPOINTED PRESIDENT OF COUNCIL. [1830. 
 
 since the time of Clovis, has consecrated the French kings." Napoleon 
 putting the crown upon his own head, was a fitter type of popular sovereignty 
 in France than Charles X. anointed in seven parts of his body by the Arch- 
 bishop of Rheims. Nevertheless, the king had solemnly promised to main- 
 tain the Charter, and the obsolete pageantries of his coronation were not 
 imputed to him as a fault. The people had soon to learn how little depen- 
 dence could be placed upon the professions, and even upon the liberal actions, 
 of their new king. " Without false calculation or premeditated deceit, 
 Charles X. wavered from contradiction to contradiction, from inconsistency 
 to inconsistency, until the day when, given up to his own will and belief, he 
 committed the error which cost him his throne." * He was at heart "a true 
 emigrant and a submissive bigot." In 1826 a shrewd Englishman, writing 
 from Paris, saw clearly how the bigotry would terminate : — " The French 
 government are behaving very foolishly, flinging themselves into the arms of 
 the Jesuits ; making processions through the streets of twelve hundred 
 priests, with the king and royal family at their head ; disgusting the people, 
 and laying the foundation of another revolution, which seems to me (if this 
 man lives) to be inevitable." f 
 
 M. de Villfele's career, as the chief minister of Louis XYIII. and Charles 
 X., had been of a longer duration than might have been expected from the dis- 
 cordant elements by which he was surrounded. For six years he had been the 
 presiding spirit of the government. When he entered upon power he said, 
 " I am born for the end of revolutions." This belief had little of the spirit 
 of prophecy, however the prudence and sagacity of this minister might have 
 retarded that isolation of the ruler from the ruled which is the beginning of 
 new revolutions. The elections of 1827 were unfavourable to the govern- 
 ment ; and the minister, not having the cordial support of the whole Royalist 
 party, was compelled to retire from office. The dauphiness said to the king, 
 *' in abandoning M. de Villele, you have descended the first step of your 
 throne." M. de Martignac became the head of the cabinet which replaced 
 that of M. de Villele. His tendencies were liberal and constitutional ; his 
 talents had not their proper influence either with the king or the chambers. 
 He did what was in his power to prevent the measures of repression which 
 one party desired, and to carry forward those measures of conciliation which 
 he thought would retard a rupture between the throne and the nation. 
 Lafayette characterised the policy of Martignac in a very significant sen- 
 tence : — " Three steps forward and two backward, we have the net product 
 of one little step." To move forward at all, and not to have the power of 
 carrying the chambers in a retrogressive policy, was held at the Tuileries to 
 be the fault of this minister. In August, 1829, a royal ordinance appeared 
 changing the whole of the ministry, and finally appointing Prince Jules de 
 Polignac president of the council. The prince had been ambassador in Eng- 
 land ; and many of the French, and not a few of the English, chose to believe 
 that he had been appointed to his post through the influence of the duke of 
 Wellington, and that his subsequent measures were taken in concert with 
 our cabinet. Sir Eobert Peel, on the 2nd of November, 1830, emphatically 
 (leiiicd that the government of this country, directly or indirectly, had inter- 
 
 • Guizot, vol. i. p. 253. + " Letters of Sydney Smitb," vol. ii. p. 2'31.
 
 1830.] SUDDEN PROROGATIOX OF THE CHAMBERS— ALGIERS. 'H'J 
 
 fered in this appointment,* In the choice of Poh'goac as his prime minister, 
 " Charles X.," says M. Guizot, " had hoisted upon the Tuileries the flag of 
 the counter-revolution." On the 2nd of March, 1830, the chambers were 
 opened. There was a half menace in the royal speech, which appeared to 
 presage some exercise of arbitrary power. " If criminal manoeuvres were to 
 place obstacles in the way of my government, which I neither can, nor wish 
 to foresee, I should find the power of surmounting them in a resolution to 
 maintain the public peace, in the just confidence of the French people, and 
 in the devotion which they have always demonstrated for their king." The 
 address of the Chamber of Deputies, which was carried by a majority of 221 
 to 181, affirmed that it was their duty to declare to the king that the Charter 
 supposed, in order to its working, a concurrence between the mind of the 
 sovereign and the interests of his people ; that it was their painful duty to 
 declare that such concurrence existed no longer, as the administration 
 ordered all its acts upon the supposition of the disafiection of the people. 
 The next day the chambers were prorogued till the 1st of September. On 
 the 16th of May they were dissolved. New elections were ordered for June 
 and July, and the parliament so elected was to meet on the 3rd of August. 
 Most men saw clearly that a great struggle was at hand. The duke of 
 Orleans, on the 31st of May, gave a fete in honour of his brother-in-law, the 
 King of Naples, at the Palais Eoyal, at which Charles X. and the royal 
 family were present. M. de Salvandy said to the duke of Orleans, " This ia 
 truly a Neapolitan festival; we are dancing on a volcano." The duke agreed 
 with him, adding that he would not have to reproach himself with making 
 no effort to open the eyes of the king. " What am I to do ? Nothing is 
 listened to. Heaven only knows where they will be in six months. But 
 I well know where I shall be. Under any circumstances my family and I 
 remain in this palace." f 
 
 On the 12th of July, during the progress of the French elections, the news 
 arrived of the capture of Algiers. For two or three years the French govern- 
 ment had been carrying on a small war against that barbarian power. But 
 the ministry of Polignac resolved to strike a great blow for the establishment 
 of a colonial dominion, and for the revival of that passion for military glory 
 which had so often bestowed popularity upon the rulers of France, in their 
 neglect of the national industry and their indifference to the growth of the 
 people's liberties. A formidable expedition sailed from Toulon on the 25th 
 of May, of which the three hundred and fifty ships carried forty thousand 
 troops. Before the elections began, the landing of this expedition was 
 announced. Before they were concluded, Algiers had been surrendered, and 
 the Dey had been dethroned. But this triumph produced not the slightest 
 effect upon the elections. In some respects, it made the electors more deter- 
 mined that a military glory should not encourage the tendencies to Absolutism 
 at home. M. Gruizot, upon hearing the news of the capture of Algiers, wrote, 
 " I hope this success will not stimulate power to the last madness." The 
 elections being completed, it was ascertained beyond a doubt that a very large 
 majority of the Chamber of Deputies would be opposed to the administration 
 of the prince de Polignac. Charles X. at this juncture was meditating some 
 
 * Hansard, Third Series, vol. i. p. 90. t Guizot, vol. ii. p. 12.
 
 250 THE ROYAL ORDINANCES PROMULGATED. [1830. 
 
 desperate act wbicli would restore what he believed to be his legitimate rights. 
 " The Charter contained, for a prudent and patient monarch, certain means of 
 exercising the royal authority, and of securing the Crown. But Charles X. 
 had lost confidence in France and in the Charter."* The historian of his own 
 time relates that the Russian ambassador, count Pozzo di Borgo, a few days 
 before the government was committed to its fatal determination, had an 
 audience with the King, in which his Majesty's conversation led the shrewd 
 diplomatist to have little doubt as to the measures in preparation. He had 
 found the King studying the fourteenth article of the Charter, " seeking with 
 honest inquietude the interpretation he wanted to find there : in such cases we 
 always discover what we are in search of."t The fourteenth article of the 
 French Constitution says that the King is supreme head of the State. How 
 Charles X. interpreted this is disclosed in that Eevolution of July for which 
 it is afiirmed France had no desire. " The spirit of legality and sound poli- 
 tical reason had made remarkable progress. Even during the ferment of the 
 elections, public feeling loudly repudiated all idea of a new revolution." J 
 
 On the 21st of July a Eeport, signed by the prince de Polignae, was pre- 
 sented to the King in council, in which it was represented that signs of 
 disorganization and symptoms of anarchy presented themselves in every part 
 of the kino'dom ; that the periodical press was the chief instrument of disorder 
 and sedition. It had endeavoured to eradicate every germ of religious senti- 
 ment from the heart of the people ; worst of all, it had dared to criticise the 
 causes, the means, the preparations, and the chances of success of that expe- 
 dition whose glory had cast such a pure and durable brilliancy over the crown 
 of France. The laws were insufficient to restrain the licence of the press ; it 
 was time, it was more than time, to stop its ravages. The report then set forth 
 that the ordinary conditions of representative government did not then exist 
 m France ; that a turbulent democracy had disposed of a majority of the 
 elections through the means of the journals and by affiliated societies. The 
 fourteenth article of the Charter was then appealed to as giving to the King 
 a sufficient power, not indeed for the change of institutions, but for their 
 consolidation and immutability. No government on earth could stand if it 
 had not the power of providing for its own security, which is pre-existent to 
 laws, because it is in the nature of things. The moment was come to have 
 recourse to measures which were in the spirit of the Charter, but which are 
 beyond the limits of legal order, the resources of which have been exhausted 
 in vain. Such was the tenor of the document which an infatuated ministry 
 presented to an infatuated king, as a justification of the decrees which they 
 proposed for the overthrow of the Constitution. 
 
 The three ordinances by which the liberty of the periodical press was sus- 
 pended, the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, and the number of deputies 
 was lessened, and their term of office regulated, were kept profoundly secret 
 till nearly midnight of the 25th of July. No communication whatever was 
 made to the heads of the police, nor to the commanders of the forces, that any 
 unusual amount of vigilance or energy might be required in the possible event 
 of a popular movement. The ministers had not the least idea that any effect 
 would be produced by their acts beyond the suspension of obnoxious journals, 
 
 • Guizot, vol. i. p. 857. t IhuL, p. 358. t Hid., p. 355i.
 
 1830.] THE THREE DAYS OF JULY. 251 
 
 and the re-election of a Chamber of Deputies under conditions more favour- 
 able to the government. At eleven o'clock on the evening of Sunday, the 25th 
 of July, copies of the memorial of the ministers to the King, and of the three 
 ordinances which had been signed in Council on that day, were sent to the 
 responsible editor of the " Moniteur," to be published in his paper of the 
 following morning. 
 
 On Monday morning, the 26th of July, whilst the population of Paris were 
 quietly proceeding to their various duties or pleasures, Paris was shaken to its 
 centre as by a political earthquake. Before the doors of the Bourse were 
 opened, the holders of stock were crowding thither to sell. More important 
 than the operations of commerce were the proceedings of the journalists. 
 The proprietors and editors of the chief opposition papers took a wise and 
 prudent course in the first instance. They consulted the most eminent law- 
 yers, who gave their opinion that the ordinances were illegal, and ought not 
 to be submitted to. One of the judges of the Tribunal of First Instance 
 authorized the "Journal of Commerce" to continue its publication provi- 
 sionally, because the ordinances had not been promulgated in legal forms. 
 Forty-four conductors of newspapers assembled at the office of tlie " ^Na- 
 tional," signed a protest in which they declared their intention to resist the 
 ordinances as regarded their own interests, and invited the deputies to meet 
 on the 3rd of August as if no decree had gone forth for new elections. The 
 Government, said this protest, has this day lost that character of legality 
 which commands obedience ; we resist it as far as we are concerned ; it remains 
 for France to judge how far it should carry its own resistance. On that Monday 
 there was no appearance of popular insurrection. There was occasionally a 
 cry in the streets of " Long live the Charter! — Down with the ministers !" 
 
 The next day a more ominous cry went forth — " Up with Liberty — Down 
 with the Bourbons." The provisions of the decrees respecting the Press were 
 to be carried through by naked force. Four of the most popular journals 
 had been printed without the licence which was required by the ordinance. 
 Sentinels were placed around the offices to prevent their sale ; but copies of 
 the journals, which not only contained the ordinances, but the protest of 
 the journalists, were thrown out of the windows, and were quickly circulated 
 throughout Paris. The old scenes of the Eevolution of 1789 were rapidly 
 developed. In the Palais Eoyal, and other public places, men mounted upon 
 chairs read the ordinances and the bitter comments upon them to assembled 
 crowds. The steps taken by the police to prevent the farther issue of these 
 papers were calculated to stimulate the excitement of the people into absolute 
 fury. The doors of the offices where they were printed were broken open, 
 and the presses rendered unserviceable. The printers thrown out of their 
 employ joined the crowds in the streets ; and they are not a class to be 
 injured without lifting up their voices against the wrong. In the course of that 
 Tuesday the resistance to the acts of the government began to be transferred 
 to men who might have been able to guide its course more safely than the 
 declamation of the journalists or the passions of the populace. ' The Deputies 
 were beginning to arrive in Paris. M. Guizot describes how, on reaching the 
 city on the morning of the 27th, he found a note from M. Casimir P^rier, 
 inviting him to a meeting of some of their colleagues. " A few hours before," 
 he says, " and within a short distance of Paris^ the decrees were unknown to
 
 252 THE THREE DAYS OF JULY. [1850. 
 
 me ; and, bv the side of legal opposition, I saw on my arrival revolutionary 
 and unchained insurrection." * He went to the meeting at the house of 
 M. Casimir P^rier, and was selected, in conjunction with MM. Villemain 
 and Dupin, to draw up in the name of the deputies present a protest 
 against the decrees. This protest was adopted on the 28th. It was signed 
 by sixty-three deputies. Its tone was moderate, and did not close the door 
 against conciliation. It left to the king and his advisers a locus penitentics. 
 
 The solution of the great question was very soon to be taken out of the 
 hands of deputies who entertained a diversity of opinion ; some wishing to 
 carry resistance to the utmost limit of legal order and not beyond, some 
 desiring a change of dynasty, and a few sighing for a republic. The people 
 in the streets were not distracted by contending opinions ; they were not 
 inclined to look forward to " the fashion of uncertain evils/' They saw that 
 the government had forfeited its claim to their obedience, and they little 
 cared what form of government might succeed to the one that had betrayed 
 its trust. There were ten thousand soldiers in Paris under the command of 
 Marmont. The immediate business which presented itself to the minds of 
 the people was to fight, if necessary. Guizot relates that, whilst he and a 
 few other deputies were consulting on the evening of the 28th of July, in a 
 drawing-room of the ground-floor of a private residence, whose windows were 
 open, a crowd of labouring people, youths, children, and combatants of every 
 kind, filled the court-yard, and addressing the deputies, said, they were 
 ready to defend them, if soldiers and police, as was stated, were coming to 
 arrest them. At the same time they demanded an instant adhesion to their 
 revolutionary proceedings. M. Guizot says, that the revolutionists at any 
 price, the dreamers of an imaginary future, had rapidly thrown themselves into 
 the movement, and became hourly more influential and exacting. " Some firm 
 well-regulated minds ventured to resist and show themselves resolved not to 
 become revolutionists even while promoting a revolution." This was a subtle 
 distinction, which certainly did not enter into the views of the great body of 
 the bourgeoisie, who entered almost with one accord into the contest with 
 unconstitutional power, although they had everything to lose by the spread 
 of anarchy. The manufacturers bad closed their workshops, and sent their 
 men into the streets to contend for their common liberties. The members of 
 the National Guard, which had been disbanded in 1827, had again put on 
 their uniforms and taken their arms, which the greater part of them had 
 retained. The crowd which on the evening of the 28th surrounded the 
 drawing-room with open windows had been fighting themselves throughout 
 the day, or knew that there had been fighting in almost every quarter of 
 Paris. Prom daybreak, multitudes had begun to assemble, armed with sticks 
 and pikes, old guns and sabres. They unpaved the streets ; they threw up 
 barricades of timber and of carts filled with the paving-stones ; they seized 
 the Hotel de Ville ; they hoisted the tri-coloured flag on its roof, and on the 
 towers of Notre-Dame. The bells of the municipal palace and of the metro- 
 politan church again called the citizens to arms as in the days of the first 
 Revolution. Terror was in every family now as then ; but there were no 
 frightful excesses, no sanguinary scenes of popular vengeance, to make even 
 
 * Guizot, " My Own Time," vol. ii. p. 3.
 
 1830.] THE THREE DAYS OF JULY. ^53 
 
 the name of Liberty hateful. The people stood prepared for the struggle with 
 the regular troops that was coming upon them — for Paris, on that morning of 
 the 28th, had been declared by the government to be in a state of siege. 
 Marmont had not begun to act after receiving the ordinance, which thus 
 declared that the military power was the sole arbiter, before the insurgents 
 were in possession of the chief part of the capital. He finally formed his 
 troops in four columns, which were directed upon different points. It was 
 not long before the sanguinary conflict began. It would be beyond the 
 object of this history, even if it were in the power of the writer, to furnish 
 a clear detail in a small compass of the struggles of this memorable day. 
 Those who witnessed some of the many occurrences which were proceeding 
 simultaneously in distant parts of Paris felt this difficulty in the subsequent 
 discharge of their official duty. " The events," said M. Martignac, in the 
 defence of Polignac, " so press upon, jostle, and confound each other, that 
 the imagination can scarcely follow them, or the understanding range them 
 in order." The first serious fighting appears to have 
 taken place in the narrow street of St. Antoine, ^_ _ _ 
 
 which was closed by barricades. Prom the houses 
 approaching this street, paving-stones, broken bottles, 
 and even articles of furniture, were showered upon 
 the heads of the unfortunate soldiery. The column 
 which was ordered to force this street returned to 
 the Tuileries where Marmont had his head-quarters. 
 Another column had to sustain an obstinate fight 
 about the Hotel de Ville. The general who com- 
 manded the troops obtained possession of the place, 
 but he was compelled to confine his resistance to the 
 populace to defensive operations. Another column 
 lost many men at the Marche des Innocens. The 
 
 fourth column sustained less loss. Night came on. The firing was still con- 
 tinued ; the tocsin was rung from every church ; the lamps were extinguished in 
 the streets. Neither mail nor diligence left Paris. The communication with 
 the provinces by telegraph was cut ofi". During the afternoon five deputies 
 headed by M. Lafitte had waited upon Marshal Marmont at the Tuileries to 
 ask for a suspension of hostilities, that in the interval they might send a 
 deputation to the King. The marshal said he could only despatch a 
 messenger to the King to inform him of the proceedings of the assembled 
 deputies and of the state of afiairs in Paris. His aide-de-camp received at 
 St. Cloud a verbal answer directing Marmont to hold out, to collect his 
 forces, and to act in masses. In conformity with these orders, the column 
 which had held the Hotel de Ville returned at midnight to the Tuileries, 
 having left in the streets several hundred men killed or wounded. The King 
 in his suburban palace had no conception of the magnitude of the danger ; 
 but was passing his evening at cards, whilst the court routine went forward 
 as if the distant boom of the cannon was a sound which should inspire no 
 fear and awaken little sympathy. 
 
 On the 28th the working classes had almost exclusively borne the brunt of 
 the battle. On the morning of the 29th, hostilities had again commenced by 
 seven o'clock. National Guards, young students, and even deputies, wero
 
 254 THE THREE DAYS OF JULY. [1830 
 
 now at the barricades. The stately Faubourg St. Gernmin was now as ready 
 for battle as the dingy Faubourg St. Antoine. The posts of the Luxembourg 
 were disarmed. At a very early hour several royalists of high rauk went 
 to the Tuileries and had an interview with Marmont and Poliguac. They 
 urged the minister to recall the ordinances. He was calm and polite, but 
 would promise nothing. He would consult his colleagues. They then 
 suggested to Marmont that he should arrest the ministers. He seemed 
 somewhat inclined to take their advice, when Peyronnet, one of the most 
 obnoxious of the cabinet, came in, and exclaimed, " What ! are you not gone 
 yet ?" They had stated their intention to go to St. Cloud. They set out, 
 but Polignac got there before them. According to M. Guizot, the duke de 
 Mortemart, Messrs. de Semonville, d'Argout, de Vitrolles, and de Sussy, 
 were " the enlightened royalists who attempted to give legal satisfaction to the 
 country, and to bring about an arrangement between the inert royalty at 
 St. Cloud and the boiling revolution at Paris. But when they demanded an 
 audience of the king they were met by the unseasonable hour, by etiquette, 
 the countersign, and repose." Prom Charles X., whose inconsistency in this 
 trying hour of his destiny was as remarkable as in all his previous actions, 
 they at last extorted a promise for the dismissal of the Polignac ministry, 
 the appointment of the duke de Mortemart as President of the Council, 
 and for other appointments which would be a guarantee for constitutional 
 government. Still the king lingered and delayed the proper signatures till 
 late in the day to the necessary ordinances.. The duke de Mortemart, who 
 set out on his return to Paris without a proper passport, met with a 
 succession of interruptions from the royal guards. He had equal difficulty 
 with the people in passing the barricades. The battle was raging all around 
 Marmont at the Tuileries. The detachment at the Palais Bourbon was 
 attacked, and the commander retired with his troops into the garden, and 
 promised to be neutral. The Louvre was surrounded by masses of the 
 populace, of whom a great number fell by the fire of the Swiss from the 
 windows. At the Place Vendome two regiments of the line were stationed, 
 and a remnant of the gendarmerie. They were surrounded by the people, 
 who, manifesting no inclination to regard the soldiers as enemies, the whole 
 body of the troops with their officers went over to the side of the insurgents. 
 On a second attack the Swiss were driven from the Louvre. The defection 
 of the army, which was beginning to spread, proclaimed to Marmont that it 
 was impossible to continue this contest. The insurrection had become a 
 revolution. He hastily quitted the Tuileries with his troops to repair to 
 St. Cloud. The populace as quickly broke into the palace. The tri-colour 
 was hoisted on the staff where the white flag of the Bourbons had floated for 
 fifteen years. The deputies who had met in the morning had determined 
 to establish a provisional government. Lafayette, who had received fi'om 
 them the command of the forces in Paris, had, in the uniform of a National 
 Guard, gone to take possession of the Hotel de Ville. Upon the newi5 of 
 the defection of the two regiments, and the capture of the Louvre and the 
 Tuileries, a municipal commission that had been formed by ballot, with 
 authority to take all measures that the public safety might require, installed 
 themselves at the Hotel de Ville, surrounded by dead bodies heaped up on 
 the Place. In a few hours the National Guard was organized ; the adminis-
 
 1830.] DUKE OF ORLEANS LIEUTENANT-GENERAL OF THE KINGDOM. 255 
 
 fcration of finance was provided for ; the Post-office was again set in action •, 
 the mails and the diligences left Paris bearing the tri-colour flag. Three of 
 the Eoyalists who had been at St. Cloud arrived at ten o'clock at night with 
 the ordinances already mentioned, and with a further ordinance, repealing 
 those of the 25th July, and appointing the Chamber of Deputies to meet on 
 the 3rd of August. The three Royalists from St. Cloud came to negotiate for 
 the preservation of the Crown to Charles X. They were interrupted by 
 cries of" It is too late !" The sovereignty of Prance had vanished from the 
 grasp of the elder branch of the Bourbons. 
 
 On the 30th of July the deputies who had held their previous meetings 
 at private houses, met more formally in the Hall of the Chamber of Deputies, 
 inviting their absent colleagues to join them there. They came to a resolu- 
 tion of soliciting the duke of Orleans, who was at his country seat at 
 Neuilly, to repair to the capital to assume the functions of Lieutenant- 
 Greneral of the kingdom. Porty deputies signed this resolution. Three 
 only declined being parties tO' it, considering this as a decisive step towards 
 a change of dynasty.* On the 31st the deputies so assembled published 
 a proclamation which thus commenced : " Prance is free ! Absolute power 
 elevated its standard ; the heroic population of Paris has beaten it down. 
 Paris, under attack, has made the sacred cause triumph by arms which had 
 succeeded already through the constitutional elections." The proclamation 
 then announced that the deputies, in anticipation of the regular concurrence 
 of the Chambers, had invited a true Prenchman, one who had never 
 fought but for Prance, — the duke of Orleans, — to exercise the functions 
 of Lieutenant- General of the Kingdom. "We shall secure to ourselves 
 by law all the guarantees we require to render liberty strong and per- 
 manent." On the 1st of August the duke of Orleans was at the Palais 
 Royal, had accepted the office, and proceeded on horseback to the Hotel 
 de Ville, as a mark of courtesy to the National Guard, and to their 
 commander Lafayette. M. Guizot relates that the deputies accom- 
 panied the duke on foot across the barricades. Women and children sur- 
 rounded them, dancing and singing the Marseillaise. Cries and questions 
 of every kind burst incessantly from the crowd. Who was that gentle- 
 man on horseback ? was he a Prince ? A hope was expressed that he 
 was not a Bourbon. " I was much more deeply impressed," says Guizot, " by 
 our situation in the midst of that crowd, and their attitude, than even by 
 the scene which followed a few moments after at the Hotel de Yille. What 
 future perils already reveal themselves for that new-born monarchy!" 
 Lafayette, surrounded by his stafi", advanced to the steps to meet the duke, 
 who cordially embraced him. In the Great Hall the proclamation of the 
 deputies was read, and received with cheers. The Lieutenant-General of 
 the kingdom advanced to the window, holding Lafayette by the hand and 
 waving the tri-colour flag. He then appointed provisional ministers, of whom 
 M. Guizot was Minister of the Interior. Meanwhile it was known at St. 
 Cloud that the king's authority was at an end. The crowd of courtiers 
 quickly dropped ofi" from him. In his restlessness he went to Trianon and 
 then to Eambouillet. He was still surrounded by a large body of soldiery, 
 
 • Gukot, vol, ii. p. 9.
 
 256 ABDICATION OF CHARLES X.— DUKE OF ORLEANS KING. 11830. 
 
 On the 2nd of August he addressed a letter to the duke of Orleans, inclosing 
 a formal act of abdication in favour of his grandson the duke of Boideaux. 
 Remaining at Rambouillet with numerous soldiers around him, the provisional 
 government began to be uneasy as to the possibility of another conflict 
 Three commissioners were sent to confer with Charles and to urge him to 
 depart. Their recommendations were backed by the presence of six thousand 
 of the National Guard, who marched to Rambouillet, accompanied by vast 
 numbers of Parisians on foot and in vehicles of every description. The king 
 consented to leave, and to proceed to Cherbourg, escorted by the &arde-du- 
 Corps. Throughout his journey the unfortunate king and his family received 
 no indignities from the people, but they saw on every steeple the tri-coloured 
 flag, and the tri-coloured cockade in many a hat. They embarked for England 
 on the 16th, and were carried to the coast of Devonshire, the king having 
 decided that England should be his place of refuge. For a short time he 
 resided at Lul worth Castle. He subsequently occupied Holyrood House. 
 Some ultra-liberals in Edinburgh having shown an inclination to treat the 
 fallen monarch with disrespect upon his arrival, sir 
 Walter Scott published a manly and touching appeal 
 to the more honourable feelings of his fellow- 
 citizens. " If there can be any who retain angry or 
 invidious recollections of late events in Erance, they 
 ought to remark that the ex-monarch has, by his 
 abdication, renounced the conflict into which, 
 perhaps, he was engaged by bad advisers ; that he 
 can no longer be the object of resentment to the 
 brave, but remains to all the most striking emblem 
 of the mutability of human affairs which our 
 mutable times have afforded." * 
 On the 3rd of August the duke of Orleans opened the legislative session 
 in the Chamber of Deputies. In that Chamber during the next four days 
 there was a partial opposition from the adherents of the fallen dynasty against 
 the manifest tendency to a solution of the difficult question of a future 
 government by the appointment of the duke of Orleans as king. The 
 Charter of Louis XVIII. received some alterations, and then it was declared 
 by a large majority, that, subject to the acceptance of the modified Charter, 
 the universal and urgent interests of the French nation called to the throne 
 the duke of Orleans. On the 9th of August the duke of Orleans in the 
 Chamber of Deputies declared his acceptance of the Crown, with the title 
 King of the French, and took this oath : " In the presence of God, I swear 
 to observe faithfully the constitutional charter, with the modifications 
 expressed in the declaration ; to govern only by the laws and according to the 
 laws ; to cause good and true justice to be rendered to each according to his 
 riglit ; and to act in all things only with a view to the interest, the happiness, 
 and the glory of the French people." 
 
 " While two American packets, escorted by two French men-of-war, rapidly 
 conveyed the old king and his family from France, all France hastened to 
 Paris. "t An English liistorian may add that no inconsiderable portion of 
 
 • Lockhart's " Life of Scott," voL vii. p. 22G. + Guizot, voL ii. p. Z?.
 
 1S30.] THE BELGIAN REVOLUTIO.'^. 257 
 
 the population of this kingdom were, as he himself -witnessed, looking with 
 intense interest upon the localities of the great events of the three days. 
 Some were fraternizing with National Guards in the cafin ; others were 
 mingling in a crowd of all nations at the evening receptions of general La 
 Fayette ; a privileged few were banqueting at some shady guinguette with a 
 great company of French, English, Belgian, and Polish liberals, whose fervid 
 eloquence seemed the prelude to a very unsettled future of European Society. 
 There was, however, so much to admire in the conduct of the French people, 
 that although the traces of carnage were everywhere around — although 
 men of education joined their voices in the common cry of " death to the 
 ministers," as an atonement for the blood of the slain whose graves were daily 
 strewn with immortelles, — the old idea of revolution had lost something of 
 its terrors. There had been more bold speaking at our elections for the new 
 Parliament than was considered in some quarters safe or decorous. Yet tho 
 sympathy of the British population with the revolution of France was not 
 to be mistaken for an approbation of levelling and destructive doctrines, such 
 as had led astray many enthusiasts amongst us in 1789. It was " a contrast 
 to the first revolution ;" it "vindicated the cause of knowledge and liberty, 
 showing how humanizing to all classes of society are the spread of thought 
 and information, and improved political institutions."* The sympathy was 
 too manifest to be set at nought by the government of this country, even if 
 it had been as much disposed to uphold " a royal rebellion against society," 
 as it was the fashion unjustly to ascribe to the great warrior who was the head 
 of the Cabinet. He, it has been stated, was for a short time ])crplexed and 
 undecided. " When nothing was known beyond the ordinances of July, some 
 one asked the duke of Wellington, ' What are we to think of this ?' 'It is 
 a new dynasty,' answered the duke. ' And what course shall you take ?' 
 inquired his friend. ' First, a long silence, and then we will concert with our 
 allies what we shall say.'"t A. wiser and nobler policy tlian "a long 
 silence " and " concert with our allies," was speedily adopted. When the 
 new parliament was opened on the 2nd of November, " the ready manner in 
 which ministers recognized the new government of France " was cordially 
 approved by earl Grey. 
 
 The Revolution of France necessarily produced a great effect upon the 
 popular feeling throughout Europe, and especially in the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands. Since the settlement of Europe in 1815, when the Congress of 
 Vienna decided that Belgium and Liege, together with the Seven United 
 Provinces, should be formed into one kingdom, there had been constant dis- 
 sensions between the Belgian and Dutch subjects of William Frederick I. 
 The union with Holland had imparted an extraordinary imiml.-e to the com- 
 merce and manufactures of Belgium, but this material prosperity could not 
 blend the two peoples into one nation. The differences of religion and of 
 language, and the inequality upon several financial matters of the northern 
 and southern kingdoms, kept up the acrimony which was exhibited, not only 
 in the public journals, but in the debates of the States-General. In April, 
 1830, Messrs. Potter, Tielmans, Bartells, and others, were tried at Brussels 
 
 • Dr. Arnold, August, 1830. "Life," vol. i. p. 254. 
 t Guizot, "Memoira of Sir R. Peel," p. 46. 
 VOL. vni.— 241.
 
 258 THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY. [1830. 
 
 on a charge of conspiracy against the government of the Netherlands. The 
 three named were found guiltj, and sentenced to be banished. Potter was ui 
 Paris during the Eevolution of July, the events of which period were not 
 calculated to moderate his revolutionary zeal. He was an active agent in pro- 
 moting the rising of the populace in Brussels on the 25th of August. In a 
 Becond insurrection, of September, the Dutch troops were compelled to retreat 
 before the armed insurgents. The contest went on in various sanguinary con- 
 flicts, until the five great Powers imposed a cessation of arms on both nations 
 and recognized the independence of Belgium by a protocol of the 4th of 
 November. 
 
 The autumn of 1830 witnessed in England the most remarkable contrast 
 between the triumphs of intellect and the disgraces of ignorance. On the 
 15th of September the first Railway for the conveyance of passengers was 
 opened, the carriages being drawn by a locomotive engine, at the speed of a 
 racehorse. Immediately after the harvest the Southern Agricultural Counties 
 were given over to more havoc and alarm than had ever attended the opera- 
 tions of the frame-breaking general Ludd. There was a war of the labourer 
 against the farmer, in the shape of incendiary fires of barns and corn-stacks, 
 and the destruction of threshing-machines and other implements of industry 
 beyond the commonest tool. Before we proceed to trace the course of the 
 universal political excitement of the next two years, let us rapidly view the 
 rise of the new power of Communication which was destined to produce 
 results beyond all possible conception in the progress of civilized communities. 
 The simultaneous manifestation of the belief of large bodies of labourers, that 
 their condition would be bettered by driving back society to the commonest 
 inventive arts of savage tribes, and to the barbaric ignorance which, in de- 
 stroying capital, would make all poorer, may be more fitly treated of in a 
 subsequent view of the condition of the labourers in husbandry, when incen- 
 diary fires and the destruction of machinery were traced to causes of no 
 temporary nature. 
 
 On the 2nd of March, 1825, there was a debate in the House of Commons 
 on the motion for the second reading of the Bill for the Liverpool and Man- 
 chester Eailway. The subscribers to this undertaking were the bankers, 
 merchants, traders, and manufacturers of Liverpool and Manchester. They 
 had not engaged in this project with a view to individual profit as share- 
 holders, for it had been agreed that no person should hold more than ten 
 shares, and they would be satisfied if they received ten per cent., or even five 
 per cent, upon their investment. Their great object was the increase of 
 commerce. It was alleged that no such encouragement was necessary ; for 
 there were two or three canals, which were sufiicient for every purpose of 
 commerce in the districts through which the railway was to pass. The 
 answer was, that under the existing system cotton had been detained at 
 Liverpool for a fortnight, whilst the manufacturers of Manchester were 
 obliged to suspend their labours, and goods manufactured at Manchester 
 could not be transmitted to Liverpool in time for shipment, on account of the 
 tardy canal conveyance. Then came the rejoinder. The experiment of con- 
 veying goods on a railway had been tried, and had completely failed. The 
 best locomotive engine that could be found had been selected ; and the 
 average rate on a plane surface was not three miles and three-quarters per
 
 1830.J THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE?. 259 
 
 hour, -fthich was slower than caual convejance.* Before a Committee upon the 
 Bill, Telford and others expressed an opinion that with the improvement of 
 the locomotive the speed upon a railway might be fifteen miles, and even 
 twenty miles an hour. These opinions were called " the gross exao-o-erations 
 of the powers of the locomotive steam-engine ;" and it was contended that 
 even if such a speed could be attained, the dangers of burstiuf boilers and 
 broken wheels would be so great, that we should as soon expect that "people 
 would suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of Congreve's ricochet 
 rockets, as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such a 
 rate." In the same article from which we quote, the general question of 
 railways is thus summarily disposed of: "As to those persons who speculate 
 on making railways general throughout the kingdom, and superseding all the 
 canals, all the waggons, mail and stage-coaches, post-chaises, and, in short 
 every other mode of conveyance by land and by water, we deem them and 
 their visionary schemes unworthy of notice."! 
 
 The Bill for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway passed, in spite of 
 the most strenuous opposition from canal companies, and from proprietors of 
 laud through or near which the line was intended to run. For four years 
 the works went on. Difficulties were overcome which then appeared in- 
 superable, but which would be deemed trifles in the great engineering opera- 
 tions of a later period of railway speculation. Nevertheless, satisfactory as 
 was this progress, no one believed that a passenger traffic would arise that 
 would dispense in any considerable degree with mails and stage coaches. 
 Railways were not a new invention ; nor were locomotive engines. Tram- 
 roads were used in collieries ; and the construction of a steam-engine that 
 would move forward with a weight behind it had been attempted by various 
 projectors. But the tramways were laid on yielding beds, and out of level ; 
 and the engines would either not go at all or very soon come to a stand. The 
 alliance of the railway and the locomotive was still far distant. In 1813 
 there was a superintendent engineer of a colliery at Killingworth, who had 
 gradually risen from the humble position of an engine-fireman to be worthy 
 of an employ which, placed him above the condition of a labourer. This self- 
 taught man was George Stephenson. His mind was ever active. He had 
 constructed an incline and an apparatus by which waggons descending from 
 the coal-pit to the loading-place were made to draw up the empty wago-ons. 
 At the time when Davy had invented his safety-lamp, Stephenson had 
 constructed a similar lamp, without any knowledge of the coutemporarv 
 invention, and this lamp is still in use in the pit at Killingworth. In 1814 
 he had constructed a locomotive engine for the colliery in which he was 
 engaged. It was a success, drawing eight loaded waggons along the tram- 
 way at the rate of four miles an hour. He then declared that there waa 
 no limit to the speed of such an engine, if the works could be made to 
 stand it. During the next ten years his skill and perseverance raised him 
 into employment as the engineer of railways connected with colliery proper- 
 ties. A more important undertaking was the construction of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Railway, on which an engine was employed which drew 'a 
 
 * Ilansai'd, 2nd series, vol. xii. cols. SJ5 to 854. 
 t " Quarterly Review," vol. xxii. p. i561.
 
 260 GEORGE AND ROBERT STEPHENSON. [1830. 
 
 joad of ninety tons, at the rate of eight miles au hour. In 1824 be surveyed 
 the line for the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway, and superintended that 
 work till the line was opened in 1830. Great were the objections of engineers 
 to locomotives being employed on this line ; but, with the true confidence of 
 genius, George Stephenson persevered in working out, with the aid of his 
 son Eobert, the plans of an engine which would produce results undreamt of 
 by the most sanguine believers iu the wonders to be effected by the appliances 
 of science to the industrial arts. He persuaded the directors of the railway 
 to offer a prize for the best locomotive. The Eocket engine con.-'tructed by 
 him won the prize. The old modes of transit were from the hour of that 
 experiment changed throughout the wliole civilized world. Burke has de- 
 scribed in glowing imagery the beneficent augelof a noble house unfolding to 
 lord Bathurst, in the reign of Anne, the commercial grandeur of his country; 
 but pointing to America, a little speck, a seminal principle, then scarcely 
 visible in the national interests, which, seventy years afterwards, should 
 give to England a commerce equal to the whole of that wl)ich the young man 
 saw at the beginning of the century. AVe may imagine the angel of the 
 humble house of Stephenson showing to the father and tlie son, intensely 
 meditating over their models and their plans, what would be the effect of 
 their projects upon themselves and upon the world. To the father he might 
 have said — you shall not only construct mighty works yourself, but be the 
 precursor of a great race of engineers who will cover England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland with a web of railways, bringing districts once inaccessible to com- 
 mercial interchange into easy communication, equalizing prices throughout 
 the land, cutting tunnels through the adamantine rock, carrying bridges over 
 great rivers. You were the first that should realize the dream of the poet's 
 " Car of Miracle," 
 
 " Steady-and swift the self-moved chariot -n-ent." * 
 
 Before ye both shall "taste of death," — the one in the fullness of years, the 
 other too soon called away from his appointed task — the whi.^tle of the 
 Locomotive shall have been heard upon the continent of Europe, from the 
 Garonne to the Danube. France, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy, shall have 
 welcomed the sound ; Eussia shall not have forbidden its approach. It 
 shall have penetrated the densest forests of North America ; its jubilant voice 
 shall tell that a railway has connected the coasts of the Atlantic and the 
 Pacific. Wherever England has colonized there shall have come this sound, 
 the herald of the never-resting spread of her arts, her laws, and her language, 
 To the son the angel might have foretold, — it shaU be yours to connect 
 Birmingham with London, as your father connected Liverpool with Man- 
 chester ; you shall carry the ponderous train over the broad Tyne at Newcastle, 
 and, more daring, over the Menai Strait, by a tubular bridge that shall be a 
 wonder of the world ; you shall complete the railway communication 
 between West Canada and the United States without interruption by 
 the waters of the St. Lawrence ; you shall unite Alexandria with Cairo, to 
 perfect the overland route to India, by works as grand and far more 
 iiselul than the Pyramids, and " forty centuries shall louk down upon 
 
 * Southev, "Curse of Kehama," xxlii.
 
 iSCO.] ANTICIPATIONS OF RAILWAY TRIUMPHS. 261 
 
 you," the true conqueror.* The aggregate results in their own country 
 that followed that auspicious, and yet so melancholy, opening of the 
 Liverpool and Mancliester Kailway, might have been shown to them in a 
 vision too vast to be comprehended by us, except by the aid of common 
 computation. Four hundred millions sterling expended upon, ten thousand 
 five hundred miles of railway ; the receipts of these lines in one year, 
 that of 18G0, nearly twenty-eight millions ; the passengers in that year, 
 one hundred and sixty three millions, exclusive of periodical ticket-holders ; 
 in that year the merchandise carried, nearly thirty million tons ; the coal 
 and other minerals above fifty million tons ; the live-stock, consisting of 
 cattle, sheep, and pig's, about thirteen millions. t Extend the view beyond 
 our own land, and even figures convey an inadequate idea of the efi'ect 
 produced upon civilization by the untutored genius of the engine fireman 
 of Killingworth, and the more cultivated miud of his equally illustrious 
 son. 
 
 Glimpses of the coming era of railways might have filled the mind of the 
 great economist who led the advancing steps of Commercial Freedom, anu 
 who, of all statesmen, was best fitted to deal with the difficulties that would 
 surround the rush of speculation to this novel species of enterprize. At the 
 public meeting of the 18th of June, 1824, for erecting a monument to James 
 Watt, Mr. Huskisson said, that the man to whose memory they owed a 
 tribute of national gratitude had, by his discovery, " subdued and regulated 
 tl)e most terrific power in the universe, — that power which, by the joint 
 operation of pressure and heat, probably produces those tremendous con- 
 vulsions of the earth, which in a moment subvert whole cities, and almost 
 change the face of the inhabited globe. This apparently ungovernable power 
 Mr. AVatt reduced to a state of such perfect organization and discipline — if 
 I may use the expression — that it may now be safely manoeuvred and brought 
 into irresistible action — irresistible, but still regulated, measured, and ascer- 
 tained — or lulled into the most complete and secure repose, at the will of 
 man, and under the guidance of his feeble hand. Thus one man directs it 
 into the bowels of the earth, to tear asunder its very elements, and brine to 
 light its hidden treasures; another places it upon the surface of the waters, 
 to control the winds of heaven, to stem the tides, to check the currents, and 
 defy the waves of the ocean ; a third, perhaps, and a fourth, are destined to 
 apply this mighty power to other purposes, still unthought of and unsuspected, 
 but leading to consequences, possibly, not less important than those which it 
 has already produced." J The " other purposes still unthought of and 
 unsuspected" might be dimly contemplated in the triumphs of the locomotive 
 engine. 
 
 Mr. Huskisson had been returned as the representative of Liverpool to 
 the new Parliament. Being in ill-health he was unable to appear on the 
 hustings when his constituents re-elected him ; but he was sufficiently 
 recovered to attend the intended magnificent ceremonial of opening the 
 railway. On the morning of the 15th of September he took his seat in the 
 
 * Ante, vol. vii. p. <i54. 
 
 + For details of tlifso results in England, SvitlauJ, and Ireland, see " Companion to the 
 Almanac" for 1 S62. 
 
 + " Huskis-son's Siieeclies'" wl. iii. p. G7"2.
 
 *G2 DEATH OF MR. HUSKISSOl^. [1830. 
 
 first of the eight carriages that were to proceed to Manchester. At the 
 other end of that carriage was the duke of Wellington. There were eight 
 locomotive engines with their attached carriages forming this procession. 
 On quitting the tunnel at Liverpool the Northumbrian engine, which drew 
 the three carriages containing the directors and their most distinguished 
 visitors, took the south line of the railway, the seven other engines with their 
 carriages proceeding along the north line. The speed of the Northumbrian 
 was accelerated or retarded, as the visitors might desire, to look at particular 
 portions of the works. At Parkside there was a stoppage. Many of the 
 gentlemen in the Northumbrian carriages got out. Mr. Huskisson was 
 induced by a friend to go forward to speak to the duke of Wellington, from 
 whom he had been estranged by his vote on the transfer of the seat of East 
 Eetford. As Mr. Huskisson approached, the duke held out his hand. It 
 was a moment of agitation for the sensitive commoner. Suddenly a cry was 
 heard — " Get in — get in." The Eocket was coming. There was a space of 
 four feet between the two lines ; and only eighteen inches between the 
 carriages as they overhung the lines. Many ran round to the end of the 
 stationary carriage. Mr. Huskisson lost his presence of mind ; fell upon 
 the north rail as he attempted to escape ; and his right leg being crushed by 
 the Eocket, he felt at once that the injury was fatal. He was carried to the 
 vicarage of Eccles. The surgeons, who were quickly in attendance, declared 
 that he would sink under amputation. Erom the moment he was struck he 
 received the solace of the presence of his wife. He died that night after 
 nine hours of agony ; and was buried in the cemetery at Liverpool, followed 
 to the grave by thousands of his sorrowing constituents. 
 
 The formal commencement of the first session of the ninth parliament of 
 the United Kingdom had taken place on the 26th of October ; the members 
 of the two Houses had taken the customary oaths ; Mr. Manners Sutton had 
 been re-elected Speaker of the Commons ; — when, on the 2nd of November, 
 King William the Fourth opened the parliament in person. Never had 
 public expectation been so roused to discuss the probable tone of the King's 
 Speech ; never was one of the great parties more exultant, or the other more 
 indignant, — not so much at that portion of the speech which had reference to 
 the revolutions of France and the Netherlands, or the outrages of the 
 Southern counties, or the efforts to produce a clamour in Ireland for a 
 repeal of the union, but at the concluding paragraph, in which it was in- 
 directly but unmistakeably intimated, that a reform in parliament, for whose 
 necessity public opinion had been so loudly expressed in the recent elections, 
 would have no sanction from the government. The obscurity of the oracle 
 was soon dissipated by the interpretation of the chief priest. In the House 
 of Lords, when earl Grey had said that the only mode to avert from this 
 country the dangers which were apprehended from the political convulsions 
 of Europe was to secure the afiections of the people ; to redress their griev- 
 ances ; " and, my lords, I will pronounce the word, by reform in parliament," 
 the duke of Wellington thus replied : " He was fully convinced that the 
 country possessed at the present moment a legislature which answered all 
 the good purposes of legislation, and tliis to a greater degree than any legis- 
 lature ever had answered in any country whatever. He would go further, 
 and say, that the legislature and the system of representation possessed the
 
 1830.] PARLIAMENT— DUKE OF WELLINGTON'S DECLARATION. 26a 
 
 full and entire confidence of the country. . . . He was not prepared tc 
 bring forward any measure of the description alluded to by the noble lord. 
 He was not only not prepared to bring forward any measure of this nature, 
 but he would at once declare that as far as he was concerned, as long as he 
 held any station in the government of the country, he should always feel it 
 his duty to resist such measures when proposed by others." * In the House 
 of Commons not a moment was lost by the real leader of the House, — whose 
 importance as a leader of the people had been unequivocally pronounced by 
 his election as one of the representatives of Yorkshire — in declaring his 
 determination to bring the great question of reform to an immediate prac- 
 tical issue. The Commons have a constitutional right to do whatever busi- 
 ness they please before the king's speech is taken into consideration. On 
 the motion that the usual sessional orders be agreed to, Mr. Brougham said 
 " he could not allow the opportunity which that question presented to pass 
 over without giving notice of his intention on that day fortnight to bring the 
 great question of a reform of the Commons' House of Parliament fully under 
 consideration. His object was not revolution but restoration." On that 
 day fortnight the government of the duke of "Wellington and Sir Robert 
 Peel was at an end. " Never," says Sydney Smith, " was any administration so 
 completely and so suddenly destroyed ; and, I believe, entirely by the duke's 
 declaration, made, I suspect, in perfect ignorance of the state of public feel- 
 ing and opinion." f During that fortnight men's minds in the metropolis 
 and throughout the country were in a most unusual and, in some respects, 
 alarming state of ferment. In parliament it was sufficiently evident, not 
 only from the altered character of the Lower House in the distribution of 
 seats, but from the unmeasured language against ministers of some of their 
 former supporters in both Houses, that upon the first important question 
 the government would be in a minority. Sir Eobert Peel is reported to have 
 said, immediately after his retirement from office, " We have alienated the 
 Tories without conciliating the Whigs." 
 
 It is usual some time after the commencement of a new reign that the 
 sovereign should go in state to the city and dine in Guildhall. The King 
 had promised to dine with the Lord Mayor on Tuesday, the 9th of November. 
 The Lord Mayor elect, Mr. John Key, on the previous Saturday, wrote to 
 the duke of Wellington that while the feelings of all the reepectable citizens 
 were decidedly loyal, and they were desirous to testify their loyalty on the 
 approaching occasion, he had learned that there were some desperate cha- 
 racters who would take the opportunity of making an attack on his grace's 
 person on his approach to the hall. He therefore suggested the propriety of 
 the duke coming strongly and sufficiently guarded. The king was advised 
 upon this warning to decline fulfilling the promise which he had made to 
 the Lord Mayor. On the 8th of November lord Althorp asked sir Eobert 
 Peel for an explanation " of one of the most extraordinary and alarming 
 events that he had ever known in the course of his public experience. 
 It was not in London alone tliat the most serious efiects would result from 
 this afiair. The alarm throughout the kingdom would be excessive." Sir 
 Robert Peel explained that it was not fitting that the duke of Wellington, 
 
 * Hansard, 3rd series, vol. i. col. 52. t "Memoirs," vol. ii. p. 313.
 
 264 THE KING'S VISIT TO THE CITY POSTPONED. [1830. 
 
 .after all the services he liad rendered to Lis country, should be seen going to 
 Guildhall with a large military guard. In the course of the Saturday and 
 Sunday the most industrious attempts had been made to inflame the public 
 mind against the new police. On the night of the 2nd, after the King had 
 been to parliament, there had been sixty-six cases of assault committed on 
 the police constables. He sincerely believed that if his Majesty had not been 
 advised to forego the satisfaction of visiting the city of London, there would 
 have been such a disturbance of the public peace as would have rendered it 
 necessarv to resort to military authority for its preservation. The explana- 
 tion seemed in some degree satisfactory to the House, but it was contended 
 by many of the journals that the too ready credence of the government to 
 a.derman Key's alarm was to disseminate alarm throughout the country. It 
 was more rationally contended in parliament that the unpopularity of tho 
 auke of Wellington, produced chiefly by his declaration against reform, ought 
 not to have cast a doubt upon the universal popularity of the King. Sip 
 William Knisjhton records that the duke of Wellington told him that he 
 advised the King and Queen not to go, because the probability was that 
 bloodshed would have happened in their presence. " ' In regard to myself,' 
 he said, " I have no desire to be massacred ; which would have happened. I 
 would have gone, if the law had been equal to protect me ; but that was not 
 the case. Fifty dragoons on horseback would have done it ; but that was a 
 military force. If firing had begun, who could tell where it was to end ? I 
 know what street firing is ; one guilty person would fall, and ten innocent 
 be destroyed. Would this have been wise or humane, for a little bravado^, 
 or that the country might not be alarmed for a day or two ? It is ali 
 over now, and in another week or two will be forgotten.' " * 
 
 For another week the business of Parliament went on with tolerable 
 smoothness. On the 15th of November, on the order of the day for the 
 House to go into a Committee upon the Civil List, sir Henry Parnell moved, 
 as an amendment, that a Select Committee be appointed to examine the 
 accounts presented to the House by order of his Majesty connected with the 
 Civil List, and to report thereon. The debate was very short, being prin- 
 cipally confined to the mover of the amendment and to the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, ISIr. Goulburn, who met the motion of sir Henry Parnell by a 
 decided negative. The division was very quickly taken, showing, in a house 
 of four hundred and thirty-seven members, the Ministers to be in a minority 
 of twenty-nine. The next day lord Sidmouth thus expressed himself in a 
 private letter: " Last night's division was a surprise to the Ministers and 
 their opponents. The general expectation appears to be that the duke will 
 resign to-day. In that case the regrets of the good and the fears of the wise 
 will be almost universal." f Lord Sidmouth appears to have had a confused 
 recollection of Johnson's line, 
 
 *' Fears of the braye, and follies of the wise." 
 
 There were fears, and there were follies, which drove the duke of Wellington 
 and eir Kobert Peel from power. Sir Eobert Peel is reported to have said 
 
 • " Meiiioira of Sir 'Williara Knighton," vol. ii. p. 132. 
 t " Life of Lord Sidmouth," vol. iii. p. 428.
 
 1830,] RESIGNATIONS OF MINISTERS— MR. BROUGHAK 2G5 
 
 immediately after liia retiring from office, " The doAvnfall of the Cabinet was 
 inevitable. The duke, by his declaration against all Eeform, hastened the. 
 catastrophe. The head of the government ought never to allow his secrets 
 to be discovered."* The follies of the wise were associated with the fears of 
 the brave. "I was defeated," the duke subsequently said, "on the Civi! 
 
 List I admit I resigned next morning because I did not 
 
 wish to expose his Majesty and the country to the consequences that raighf: 
 result from the government going out on the success of the question of 
 Parliamentary Reform." Sir Robert Peel corroborated this: "Though w>^ 
 retired on the Civil List question, yet it is impossible to deny that the anti- 
 cipation of the probable manifestation of opinion on the question of lieform 
 in this house entered into the consideration of the government." 
 
 The resignations of the Ministers were formally announced in both 
 Houses on the 16th of November, it having been previously known that earl 
 Grey had been sent for by the King. On that evening lord Althorp said he 
 hoped that, as there was [no longer any administration in existence, Mr. 
 Brougham would not submit to the House that evening a question of so 
 much importance as that of which he had given notice. Mr. Brougham said, 
 if the motion were put off it would be contrary to his opinion and to his 
 wishes, but that if he gave up his opinion he would do so in deference to the 
 wishes of the House. " And further, as no change that may take place in the 
 administration can by any possibility affect me, I beg it to be understood 
 that, in putting off the motion, I will put it off until the 25th of this month, 
 and no longer. I will then, and at no more distant period, bring forward 
 the question of Parliamentary Eeform, whatever may be the condition of cir- 
 cumstances, and whosoever may be his Majesty's Ministers." f On the 22nd 
 of November the Commoner who had so decidedly proclaimed his isolation 
 from the expectant Ministry — further declaring on the 17th, " I have nothing 
 to do with them except in the respect I bear them," — took his seat as Chan- 
 cellor in the House of Lords. The patent by which he was created a Peer 
 was not then in the hands of the Clerk of Parliament. As Mr. Brougham he 
 could be Speaker of the House of Lords, but he had only power to put the 
 question. Tlie negotiations which had been carried on for Mr. Brougham's 
 acceptance of a minor office than that of Lord Chancellor are for the most 
 part matter of conjecture, with the exception of the fact that he refused the 
 office of Attorney-General. "VVe personally know, as we knew thirty years 
 ago, that Mr. Brougham's reluctance to leave the House of Commons was 
 almost insuperable ; that the high dignity of Lord Chancellor was not the 
 object of his ambition ; that there was no coquetting on his part, having the 
 Great Seal in prospect, when he made in the House of Commons the declara- 
 tions that we have recited. Lord Althorp himself said — and it is now, 
 through the lapse of time, no violation of confidence to repeat his words — 
 " I almost forced the Great Seal upon Mr. Brougham. I told him that if he 
 did not consent to join the administration the possibility of forming a govern- 
 ment of his political friends would be broken up. Slowly, most unwillingly, 
 was his consent wrung from him. ' What,' he said, ' leave the House of 
 
 * Guizot, " Memoirs of Peel," p. 51. ' 
 
 + lidusard, iiid series, vol. i. col. 5i33.
 
 266 ADMINISTRATION OF EARL GREY COMPLETED. [1830. 
 
 Commons ? If I yield, do not be surprised if my repentance should urge me 
 to some rash act of which you may too soon hear.' " 
 
 The administration of earl Grey had been readily completed, when the 
 difficulty about Mr. Brougham had been surmounted. On the 22nd of No- 
 vember the principal members of the government kissed hands on their 
 appointments ; and on that evening earl Grey, in the House of Lords, made 
 his statement, as Prime Minister, of the principles which would determine 
 the conduct of his government. . Moderate Eeform ; Economy and Retrench- 
 ment ; repression of Outrage and relief of Distress ; the preservation of 
 Peace with foreign Powers — these were the principles which he and his 
 friends would uphold, and for the maintenance of which they threw them- 
 selves upon the confidence and support of their sovereign, of their lordships, 
 and of the country. In the course of a fortnight all the minor offices were 
 filled up, and were printed in the Gazette. The two Houses continued to 
 sit for a month after the accession of the Whigs to power ; but, in consequence 
 of the necessity for re-election of various members of the Lower House, the 
 proceedings were of little permanent interest. On the 23rd of December 
 earl Grey, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, moved the adjournment o^ 
 the Houses to the 3rd of February.
 
 267 
 
 MINISTRY, DECEMBER, 1830. 
 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne 
 
 Lord Brougham and Vaux 
 
 Lord Durham 
 
 Earl Grey . 
 
 Viscount Althoi-p 
 
 Sir James Graham, Bart. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne . 
 
 Viscount Palmerston . 
 Viscount Goderich 
 Right Hon. Charles Grant 
 Lord Holland . 
 Lord Auckland . 
 
 Lord President of the Coimcil. 
 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Home Depart. 
 
 ment. 
 Sec-retary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 President of the Board of Control . 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 President of the Board of Trade ai^d 
 
 Master of the Mint. 
 
 Not of the Cabinet. 
 
 Right Hon. C. W. AV. Wynn . 
 
 Sir James Kempt , . . . 
 
 Lord John RusseU .... 
 
 Right Hon. G. A. Ellis . , . 
 
 Duke of Richmond, K. G. . 
 
 Right Hon. Robert Grant 
 
 Lord Nugent, Robert Vernon Smith, 
 
 Esq., Francis T. Baring, Esq., Hon. 
 
 G. Ponsonby .... 
 
 Right Hon. E. EUice, Right Hon. 
 
 Spring Rice ..... 
 Right Hon. Poulett Thomson. 
 
 Sir Thomas Denman . . 
 
 Sii' "William Home . . . . 
 
 Secretary at War. 
 Master-General of the Ordnance. 
 Paymaster-General of the Forces. 
 First Commissioner of Land Revenue. 
 Postmaster-General. 
 Judge Advocate-General. 
 
 Lords of the Treasury. 
 
 Joint Secretaries of the Treasury. 
 
 Vice-President of the Board of Trade 
 
 and Treasurer of the Navy. 
 Attorney-General. « 
 
 Solicitor-General. 
 
 Marquis Wellesley 
 Duke of Devonshire 
 Earl of Albemarle 
 Marquis of Winchester 
 
 Gkkat Officers of State. 
 
 Lord Steward. 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Master of the Horse. 
 Groom of the Stole. 
 
 Marquis of Anglesey 
 
 Lord Plunkett 
 
 Hon. E. G. S. Stanley 
 
 Ibbland. 
 
 Lord Lieutenant. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 Chief Secretary. 
 
 Francis Jeffrey, Esq. 
 Henry Cockburn, Esq. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Lord Advocate. 
 Solicitor-GeneraL
 
 208 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS, 1815-1837. 
 
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 Thomas Madison, ) 
 (President). ) 
 James Monroe. 
 
 James Monroe. '; 
 Re-elected 1821. ) 
 
 JohuQuincy Adams. 
 
 Andrew Jackson. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, j 
 Re-elected 1833, J 
 
 
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 ... .... . 1
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 UOITNTIKS. OF 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Berks 
 
 Bucks 
 
 Cambridge .. 
 
 Chester 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Derby 
 
 Devon 
 
 Dorset 
 
 Durham 
 
 Essex 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Hertford . 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 Kent 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Northumberland ... 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Oxford , 
 
 Rutland 
 
 Salop 
 
 Somerset... 
 
 Stafford 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Sussex 
 
 Warwick 
 
 i Westmoreland , 
 
 Wilts 
 
 Worcester 
 
 - ( East Riding .. 
 g < North Riding .. 
 >H / West Riding .. 
 
 Total 
 
 PROTINCES OF 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1821. 
 
 Leinster ... 
 Munster... 
 Ulster ... 
 Coniiaught 
 
 T^tal 
 
 83,716 
 131,977 
 134,0G8 
 121,909 
 270,098 
 257,4^7 
 156,1-24 
 218,333 
 439,040 
 144,499 
 207,673 
 289,424 
 335,843 
 283,298 
 103,243 
 129,714 
 
 48,771 
 
 426,016 
 
 1,052,859 
 
 174,571 
 
 283,058 
 
 1,144,531 
 
 71,833 
 344,368 
 162,483 
 198,965 
 186,873 
 136,971 
 
 18,487 
 206,153 
 355,314 
 341,040 
 270,542 
 398,658 
 233,019 
 274,392 
 
 51,359 
 222,157 
 184,424 
 190,449 
 183,381 
 799,357 
 
 1831. 
 
 95,383 
 145,289 
 146, .-.29 
 143,955 
 334,410 
 802,440 
 169,681 
 237,170 
 494,168 
 159,252 
 253,827 
 317,237 
 386,904 
 314,313 
 110,976 
 143,341 
 
 53,149 
 
 479,155 
 
 1,3:?6,854 
 
 197,003 
 
 317,244 
 
 1,358,541 
 
 98,130 
 390,054 
 179,276 
 222,912 
 225,320 
 151,726 
 
 19,385 
 222,503 
 4031908 
 410,483 
 296,304 
 486,326 
 272,328 
 336,988 
 
 55,041 
 239,181 
 211,356 
 204,018 
 190,873 
 976,415 
 
 11,261,437 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 1,757,492 1,909,713 
 
 1,935,612 2,227,152 
 
 1,998,494 I 2,286,622 
 
 1,110,229 1,343,914 
 
 6,801,827] 7,767,401 
 
 COUNTIES OF 
 WALES. 
 
 Anglesey .... 
 
 Brecon 
 
 Cardigan ..., 
 Carmarthen , 
 Carnarvon 
 Denbigh ... 
 
 Flint 
 
 Glamorgan 
 Merioneth 
 Montgomery 
 Pembroke... 
 Radnor 
 
 Total 
 
 SHIRES OP 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 ArgyU 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Bute 
 
 Caithness 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Dumfries 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 i:igiii 
 
 Fife 
 
 Forfar 
 
 Haddington 
 
 Inverness 
 
 Kincardine 
 
 Kinross , 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 Lanark 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 Nairn 
 
 Orkney & Shetland 
 
 Peebles 
 
 Perth - 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 Ross and Cromarty 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 Selkirk , 
 
 Stirling 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 Wigton 
 
 Total 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 45,063 
 43,613 
 57,784 
 90,239 
 57,953 
 76,511 
 53,784 
 101,737 
 34,382 
 59,899 
 74,009 
 22,459 
 
 717,438 
 
 1821. 
 
 15.5,387 
 97,316 
 
 127,299 
 43,561 
 33,385 
 13,797 
 30,238 
 13,263 
 27,317 
 70,878 
 
 191,514 
 31,162 
 
 114,556 
 
 113,430 
 35,127 
 90,157 
 29,118 
 7.762 
 38,903 
 
 244,387 
 
 22,685 
 
 9,006 
 
 53,124 
 
 10,046 
 
 139,050 
 
 112.175 
 68,828 
 40,892 
 6,637 
 65,376 
 23,840 
 32,240 
 
 2,093,456 
 
 48,325 
 47,763 
 64,780 
 
 100,655 
 65,753 
 83,167 
 60,012 
 
 126,612 
 35,609 , 
 66,485 . 
 81,424 I 
 24,651 I 
 
 805,236 
 
 1831. 
 
 177,651 
 
 101,425 
 
 145,055 
 
 48,604 
 
 34,048 
 
 14,151 
 
 34,529 
 
 14,72i> 
 
 33,211 
 
 73,770 
 
 219,592 
 
 34,231 
 
 128,839 
 
 139,606 
 
 36,145 
 
 94,797 
 
 31,431 
 
 9,072 
 
 40,590 
 
 316,818 
 
 23,291 
 
 9,354 
 
 58,239 
 
 10,578 
 
 142,894 
 
 133,443 
 
 74,820 
 
 43,663 
 
 6,833 
 
 72,621 
 
 2.5,518 
 
 36,258 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 England .. 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland . . 
 Ireland 
 
 Total 
 
 Males. 
 
 5,483,679 
 350,487 
 983,552 
 
 8,341,926 
 
 10,1.59,644 
 
 1821. 
 Females. 
 
 5,777,758 
 
 366,951 
 
 1,109,904 
 
 3,459,901 
 
 10,714,514 
 
 Total. 
 
 11,261,437 
 
 717,438 
 
 2,093,456 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 20,874,158 
 
 1831. 
 
 Males. 
 
 6,375,394 
 
 394,075 
 
 1,115,132 
 
 3,794,880 
 
 11,679,481 
 
 Females. 
 
 6,713,944 
 
 411,161 
 
 1,2.50,675 
 
 3,972,521 
 
 12,348,301 
 
 TotaL 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 805,236 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 7,767,401 
 
 24,027,782
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Ee-asaembling of Parliament— Reform Bill prepared by the Cabinet — Lord John Russell intro- 
 duces the Reform Bill — Wonder and alarm at its contemplated previsions — Fears of the 
 Aristocracy — The Debates on the First Reading — The Debates on the Second Reading — 
 Defeat of the Ministry in Committee — Lord Grey and Lord Brougham urge the King to 
 Dissolve — The Dissolution and General Election — The Reform Bill carried — The Bill in 
 Committee — It is passed — The Bill in the House of Lords — The Bill rejected upon the 
 Second Reading — Resolutions of the House of Commons — Parliament prorogued. 
 
 When the Legislature re-assembled on the 3rd of February, numerous 
 petitions were presented to the House of Commons praying for Reform of 
 Parliament. Lord Althorp then informed tbe House that on Tuesday the 
 1st of March the government would be prepared to submit their plan for the 
 improvement of the representative system ; and that the task of explaining 
 the nature and extent of the reform whicb they contemplated would be 
 confided to Lord Jobn Kussell. He was best entitled to propose a full and 
 ef&cient improvement of the representation who had so often failed in his 
 most zealous attempts to procure a partial one. In the House of Lords earl 
 Grey stated that a measure of reform which would be effective, without 
 exceeding the bounds of a just and well-advised moderation, had received the 
 unanimous consent of tbe wbole government, and would at as early a period 
 as possible be submitted to the other House of Parliament, It is now known 
 that a Committee of four members of the government, two of whom were 
 of the Cabinet, had been selected by lord Grey to consider the manifold 
 details connected with so large a change, and to prepare a BiU. That Com- 
 mittee consisted of lord Durham, sir James Graham, lord John Eussell, and 
 viscount Duncannon. The assertion of a son of earl Grey that his father 
 " laid down the principles on which the measure was to be founded, the 
 details of which were to be worked out by other members of the government," 
 is no doubt substantially correct.* The measure prepared by the Committee, 
 which was finally adopted by the Cabinet, was submitted to the king on the 
 30th of January. The time had gone by, as far as regarded England, when, 
 on that day which was then called the anniversary of a martyrdom, according 
 
 ' Life and Opinions of Charles Earl Grey," by Lieut, -General Hon. C. Grey, 1861.
 
 1831.] LORD JOHN RUSSELL INTRODUCES THE REFORM felLL. 271 
 
 to Yoltaire every king in Europe rises from liis bed with a crick iu his 
 neck. "William IV. is represented to have been anxious to postpone the 
 proposal of the measure to parliament. Lord Grey would have had little 
 difficulty in convincing him that the Crown was most safe when the three 
 branches of the Constitution were working in harmony with the just desires 
 of the people. 
 
 In the interval between the announcement of the 3rd of February, and 
 the bringing forward the Eeform Bill, the Chancellor of the Exchequer had 
 introduced his budget, of which some portions were carried and others 
 abandoned. The duties on newspapers and advertisements were to be 
 reduced; those on coals, on candles, and on printed cottons were to be 
 abolished. The propositions to reduce the duty on glass and the duty on 
 tobacco were withdrawn ; for some of the taxes offered as substitutes had 
 been strenuously opposed. The Whig ministry had not learnt to know the 
 ministerial safety of firmness. It was to be the privilege of the financial 
 minister of fourteen years later to produce improvements in our architectural 
 taste and in our domestic comforts, which few could have anticipated, by 
 relieving the manufacturers of glass altogether from the payment of duty and 
 from the interference of the officers of revenue with their processes. In 
 that same interval lord Brougham had also introduced a Bill for establishing 
 a new Court in Bankruptcy, which was read a first time. 
 
 During the month of February the scope of the Eeform Bill had been 
 kept profoundly secret. A few persons were in the confidence of the govern- 
 ment whose judgment and experience were valuable in the arrangement of 
 its details. But when on the 1st of March the Speaker came down to 
 prayers, and not only found the House remarkably full, but every empty seat 
 bearing a label of the name of its proposed occupant, not a dozen of that 
 crowd had the slightest conception of the nature of that measure which they 
 might be called upon to support or to oppose. The speech with which lord 
 John Eussell introduced the proposition of the government was lucid, slightly 
 argumentative, entirely free from rhetorical ornament. The proposed reform 
 was far too great to require more than the simplest and most intelligible 
 statement. It was intelligible enough to produce both wonder and ridicule. 
 It was proposed to a House of Commons of which one hundred and sixty- 
 eight members for England were returned by boroughs. They could scarcely 
 imagine that the whole system of nomination should come to an end. 
 Sixty boroughs were proposed to be wholly disfranchised, as having each less 
 than two thousand inhabitants ; forty-seven boroughs, having less than four 
 thousand inhabitants each, were to return one member instead of two ; and a 
 single borough which had formerly returned four members was to be reduced 
 to half its number of representatives. It was not proposed wholly to fill 
 up the seats thus to be disposed of, but to reduce the number of members 
 of the House of Commons. The existing number of six hundred and fifty- 
 eight was to be curtailed to five hundred and ninety-six. Seven unrepre- 
 sented large towns were to have the right of returning two members each 
 twenty smaller towns unrepresented were to return one member each. 
 London was to be divided into four districts, each having two members, 
 fifty-four members were to be added to the county representation. These 
 and other details of the measure were subsequently altered. Instead of
 
 27-2 WONDER AND ALARM AT THE PROPOSAL. [1831. 
 
 the old rights of election in boroughs, a household franchise of 101. was 
 substituted. Corporations were deprived of the exclusive privileges which 
 some possessed of returning members. The duration of elections was to be 
 remedied by a previous registration. When lord John Russell proceeded to 
 read the names of the boroughs to be disfranchised wholly or in part, then 
 indeed was the excitement of the House at an unprecedented height. Por 
 once in the grave records of Parliamentary debate we find a morsel of 
 description upon which the imagination may raise up a picture of a most 
 extraordinary scene. "The noble lord accordingly read the follovvirig list, 
 in the course of which he was frequently interrupted by shouts of laughter, 
 cries of ' Hear, Hear,' from members for these boroughs, and by various 
 interlocutions across the table." * For many members it was indeed a 
 personal question of the last importance. Statesmen, too, who looked 
 beyond individual interests were aghast at a proposal so sweeping, so revolu- 
 tionary as they were warranted in believing. It was left to Opposition 
 members somewhat below the highest mark to reply that night to lord John. 
 Kussell. Sir Eobert Peel sat rigid as a statue, his face working with internal 
 emotion, his brow furrowed as by the wrinkles of age. Around him were 
 many of his supporters, bursting again and again into uncontrollable laughter 
 at what appeared to them the prelude to a certain and speedy downfall of 
 the ministry. There were fashionable parties that night where the hosts and 
 the guests sat late in anxious expectation of intelligence from the House. 
 At one of these was the duke of Wellington. As news of the ministerial 
 proposition was read or told there was a burst of merriment in the company. 
 " It is no joke," said the duke ; " you will find it no laughing matter." All 
 London knew the next day what the ministerial project meant. Lord Eldon 
 wrote, in his first moments of surprise, " There is no describing the amaze- 
 ment this plan of reform has occasioned." f 
 
 Sir llobert Inglis, the member for the University of Oxford, was the first 
 to reply to the arguments of lord John llussell. His speech was an able 
 one, anticipating most of the arguments which were employed for the seven 
 wearisome nights of debate on the introduction of the Bill, and making a 
 free use of that great weapon of alarm which had been so successfully- 
 employed by his party, from the time when Pitt abandoned his position as a 
 reformer in the general terror at the first outbreak of the French revolution. 
 The lapse of forty years had furnished a new argument to prove the danger 
 of any accession to the strength of the democratic principle. Sir Robert 
 Inglis maintained the impossibility of the co-existence of a monarchy with a 
 free press and a purely popular representation, " Sir, I am fully persuaded 
 that a representative system so exclusively popular as that which the noble 
 lord wishes to introduce, has never yet been found in juxtaposition with a 
 free press on the one hand and with a monarchy on the other." J The 
 destruction of the monarchy was to involve the simultaneous destruction o- 
 the House of Peers. On the very day, said sir Robert Inglis, when the 
 House of Commons of 1G4S murdered their king they voted the I ords to 
 
 * Hansard, vol. ii. col. 1077. 
 
 t Tvviss, vol. iii. p. ]"20. 
 
 ^ Hansard, vol. ii. col. 1122.
 
 ISni.J FEARS OF THE ARISTOCRACY, 2:£ 
 
 be useless and dangerous. The abolition of the House of Lords was the 
 most stirring and practical of the prophecies of the alarmists. " Whatever," 
 added sir Robert Inglis, "the intentions of the framers or of the supporters 
 of this measure may be, I am quite sure that, if carried, it will sweep clean 
 the House of Peers in ten years," In or out of Parliament the cry was 
 that the destruction of the aristocracy by the passing of the democratic 
 Eeform Bill was inevitable. 
 
 The word aristocracy was used, both by the enemies and friends of 
 reform, with a very loose signification. By some it was intended exclusively 
 to mean the nobility ; to others it more properly signified the governino' 
 body of the great and wealthy families, and not a particular class whose rank 
 was hereditary. It is recorded that during one of the debates on the Reform 
 Bill lord Sidmouth said to lord Grey, " I hope God will forgive you on 
 account of this Bill ; I don't think I can :" to which lord Grey replied, 
 " Mark my words ; within two years you will find that we shall have become 
 unpopular, for having brought forward the most aristocratic measure that 
 ever was proposed in parliament." * We have understood that lord Althorp 
 expressed pretty much the same opinion, Neither of the two ministers 
 could have meant to say that the Reform Bill would especially increase the 
 power and influence of the Peers, Lord Eldon must also have used " aristo- 
 cracy " in the extended sense of a governing body not wholly composed of a 
 privileged order, when he said at a Pitt dinner in May, " The aristocracy 
 once destroyed, the best supporters of the lower classes would be swept 
 away. In using the term lower classes he meant nothing offensive. How 
 could he do so ? He himself had been one of the lower classes," f To see 
 nothing in the social condition of our country but a governing body of great 
 families and the " lower classes," was one of the defects of the able lawyer's 
 mental vision. He boasted, and not improperly so, that, like himself, " the 
 humblest in the realm might, by a life of industry, propriety, and good moral 
 and religious conduct, rise to eminence," But the father of lord Eldon and 
 of lord Stowell would have been indignant enough could he have foreseen 
 that his distinguished son would have ranked him as one of " the lower 
 classes;" the father being, according to the description of his other remark- 
 able son, " a considerable merchant, who by a successful application of his 
 industry to various branches of commerce raised a competent fortune." J 
 The ex-Chancellor, when he thus talked about " the lower classes," looked at 
 them with the prejudices of caste which, singular enough, were most cherished 
 by the new nobility. That system had not only been modified, but almost 
 destroyed, a century before John Scott sat in the House of Peers. " The 
 nobility and the middle classes in England followed the same business, 
 embraced the same professions, and what is far more significant, intermarried 
 with each other." § There was another mode of amalgamation in England 
 between the highest and the humblest, which was more rare and yet not less 
 instructive. In the lapse of time, some of the lower classes — some even of 
 
 * "Life of Lord Sidmouth, " vol. iii. p. 439, uote. 
 + Twiss, vol. iii. p. 127. 
 t Twiss, vol i. p. 23. 
 
 § Dc Tocqiieville, "France before Llie Revoliiliori," book ii. cLnp. Lx. 
 -242,
 
 27 i THE DEBATES ON THE FIEST READING. [18:^1. 
 
 the lowliest — could, by right of blood, have stood upon the same level as tho 
 proudest peer of the realm, who in common with them could trace his lineago 
 to one of the three great fountains of honour, Edward III., Edward I., or 
 Henry III. The Marquis of Chandos, who was one of the most conspicuous 
 of the noble opponents of the Reform Bill, was christened Richard Plan- 
 tagenet, by reason of his descent from Elizabeth of York. There were others 
 of his time not so highly placed, but perhaps more happily, who could carry 
 up their lineage even higher than himself. In 1845, John Penny, apprentice 
 to Mr. Watson, saddler, of Windmill-street, the only surviving son of 
 Stephen James Penny, late sexton of St. Greorge's, Hanover-square, could 
 claim undoubted descent from Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Grloucester, 
 fifth son of king Edward the Third. At the same period George Wilmot, 
 keeping the turnpike-gate at Cooper's Bank, near Dudley, who is shown to 
 have descended from Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent, sixth son of king 
 Edward the First, was taking toll " almost under the very walls of those 
 feudal towers that gave the name to the barony of which he is a co-heir." * 
 The aristocracy and the lower classes were not wholly separated by an 
 exclusive right of quartering coat armour. The author of " Royal Descents" 
 thinks that the princely blood of Plantagenet might be found to flow through 
 veins even more humble than some of those which he has recorded. He 
 adds, " This is as it should be. There is no prescriptive right of interminable 
 gentility, any more than of great talents or personal attractions." The 
 intermarriages that prevented the aristocracy becoming a caste in England, 
 and the constant elevation of what lord Eldon denominated " the lower 
 classes" to form part of the governing body, rendered it quite certain tliat 
 the revolution, as it was called, — the Reform measure of 1831, — would resolve 
 itself into something very different from the government of a democracy ; 
 and that no fears were more idle than those which proclaimed that the 
 degradation of rank and the destruction of property were close at hand. 
 
 The second night of the debate was memorable for the speeches of Mr. 
 Macaulay and Mr. Stanley, of which sir James Mackintosh said, they were 
 " two of the finest speeches ever spoken in Parliament." M. Guizot, having 
 affirmed that "the loftiest minds, the most eloquent orators of England, called 
 for reform with earnest conviction, and seemed to regard it as even more 
 indispensable than irresistible," f then quotes, though imperfectly, the pero- 
 ration of Macaulay's speech :-— " Turn where we may, within, around, the 
 voice of great events is proclaiming to us. Reform, that you may preserve. 
 ]N'ow, therefore, while everything at home and abroad forebodes ruin to those 
 who persist in a hopeless struggle against the spirit of the age, now, while 
 the crash of the proudest throne of the continent is still resounding in our 
 ears, now, while the roof of a British palace affords an ignominious shelter 
 to the exiled heir of forty kings, now, while we see on every side ancient 
 institutions subverted and great societies dissolved, now, while the heart of 
 England is still sound, now, while old feelings and old associations retain a 
 power and a charm which may too soon pass away, now, in this your accepted 
 
 * We derive these particulars from the curious and interesting volume of the late Mr. C. E. 
 Long, entitled " Koyal Descents : a Genealogical List of the several persons entitled to Quarter 
 the Arms of the Royal Houses of England," 1845. 
 
 f "Memoirs of reel," p. 56.
 
 IS31.] THE DEBATES ON THE SECOND READING. '27i, 
 
 time, now, in this your day of salvation, take counsel, not of prejudice, not 
 of party spirit, not of the ignominious pride of a fatal consistency, but of 
 history, of reason, of the ages which are past, of the signs of this most por- 
 tentous time. Pronounce in a manner worthy of the expectation with which 
 this great debate has been anticipated, and of the long remembrance which 
 it will leave behind. Eenew the youth of the State. Save property, divided 
 against itself. Save the multitude, endangered by its own ungovernable 
 passions. Save the aristocracy, endangered by its own unpopular power. 
 Save the greatest, and fairest, and most highly civilized community that ever 
 existed, from calamities which may in a few days sweep away all the rich 
 heritage of so many ages of wisdom and glory." * The comment of M. 
 Guizot upon this burst of eloquence is : " These sombre prognostics, this 
 powerful language, carried some disturbance into the soul of Peel." 
 
 The third night of the debate presented unusual interest in the antagonism 
 of lord Palmerston and sir Eobert Peel. The minister who had quitted office 
 when the friends of Mr. Canning appeared to be insulted in the ejection of 
 Mr. Huskisson from the Cabinet, now stood forward as the advocate of a 
 measure of reform compared with which the case of East Eetford was but a 
 drop in the ocean. Lord Palmerston ventured to assert that if Mr. Canning 
 " had lived to mark the signs of the present times, and to bring his great and 
 comprehensive intellect to an examination of the difficulties to be overcome 
 he would have been as ardent a supporter of the measure now proposed by 
 the government as any of the friends he saw around him." f Sir Eobert 
 Peel, in his reply, exclaimed, would to God that Mr. Canning were here, 
 " to confound the sophistry and fallacies of reformers, and to win back the 
 people by the charms of truth and eloquence to a right appreciation of the 
 form of government under which they live." Sir Eobert Peel concluded his 
 speech by a solemn admonition to the ministers : " It was the duty of the 
 government to calm, not to stimulate, the fever of popular excitement. They 
 liave adopted a different course — they have sent through the land the fire- 
 brand of agitation, and no one can now recal it." | The debate on lord John 
 Eussell's motion for leave to bring in the Bill was closed on tlie seventh 
 night without a division ; and when the Speaker had decided that the ayes 
 had it, the cheers from the ministerial benches were enthusiastic. The bill 
 was read a first time on the 14th of March. 
 
 On the 21st of March, lord John Eussell moved the order of the day for 
 the second reading of the Eeform Bill. Sir Eichard Vivian moved, as an 
 amendment, that the bill be read a second time that day six months. The 
 second reading was carried by a majority of one only in a house of six 
 hundred and eight ; " probably the greatest number which up to that time 
 had ever been assembled at a division." § In ordinary times this bare 
 majority would have compelled the retirement of a ministry from office. 
 They had now the support of the great body of the people, and they must 
 fight the battle till the proper time should arrive for an appeal to the consti- 
 
 * " Speeches of T. B. Macaulay, corrected by himself," i>. 18. 
 
 t Hansard, vol. ii. col. 1323. 
 
 t Hansard, vol. ii. col. 1334 and 1356. 
 
 § May, " Coustitutiotual History," vol. i. p. 352.
 
 276 DEFEAT OF THE MINISTERS IN COMMITTEE. [1831. 
 
 tuencies that liad returned the unreformed parliament. On the 18th of 
 April the House went into Committee ou the order of the day, to consider 
 the provisions of the bill for the amendment of the representation. General 
 Gascoigne, following lord John Eussell, moved, "that it is the opinion of this 
 House that the total number of knights, citizens, and burgesses, returned to 
 parliament for that part of the United Kingdom called England and Wales, 
 ought not to be diminished." The debate was adjourned to the 19th. At a 
 late hour the House divided ; for General Gascoigne's amendment, 299 ; 
 against it, 291. The ministry were beaten by a majority of eight. A man 
 of the rarest genius, though not a striking parliamentary orator, — Francis 
 Jeffrey — has left an exquisite picture of an outdoor scene on tliis memorable 
 day-break : " It was a beautiful, rosy, dead calm morning, when we broke up 
 a little before five to-day ; and I took three pensive turns along the solitude 
 of "Westminster Bridge ; admiring the sharp clearness of St. Paul's, and all 
 the city spires soaring up in a cloudless sky, the orange red light that was 
 beginning to play on the trees of the Abbey and the old windows of the 
 Speaker's house, and the flat, green mist of the river floating upon a few lazy 
 hulks on the tide and moving low under the arches. It was a curious 
 contrast with the long previous imprisonment in the stifling roaring 
 House, amidst dying candles, and every sort of exhalation." * 
 
 On the 21st of April, in the House of Peers, lord Wharncliffe gave 
 notice that he should the next day move that an address be presented to his 
 Majesty praying that he would be graciously pleased not to exercise his un- 
 doubted prerogative of dissolving parliament. On the same evening in the 
 House of Commons, ministers were again defeated by a majority of twenty- 
 two on a question of adjournment. Mr. May states that this vote could not 
 bear the construction which lord Brougham affirmed on the following day, 
 that it amounted to " stopping the supplies." The question before the 
 House was a question concerning the Liverpool election. " Late down in 
 the list of Orders for the day a report from the Committee of Supply was to 
 be received, which dropped by reason of the adjournment." f 
 
 On the morning of Priday the 22nd, the Prime Minister and the Lord 
 Chancellor were with the King. They had come either to lay the resignations 
 of the Ministry at his Majesty's feet, or to request him to dissolve the Parlia- 
 ment. The popular story of the time was that the King was reluctant to 
 dissolve until the notice given by lord Wharnclifie was felt by him to be an 
 interference with his prerogative ; that then he was impatient to go at once 
 to Parliament, and said, if the royal carriages were not ready send for a 
 hackney coach. Mr. Eoebuck has given a most interesting relation of " the 
 whole scene of this interview of the King and his Ministers, as related by 
 those who could alone describe it." J The Chancellor was requested to manage 
 tlie King on the occasion. His Majesty was startled at their proposition of a 
 dissolution — how could he, after such a fashion, repay the kindness of Parlia- 
 ment in granting him a most liberal civil list, and giving to the Queen a 
 f-plcndid annuity in case she survived him Nevertheless the Chancellor said 
 
 * Coclcburn, " Life of Lord Jeffroj;," p. 317. 
 
 + "Constitutional History," vol. i. p. 352. 
 
 t " History of the Whig Ministry," vol. ii. p. 148.
 
 1831.] LORD GREY AND LORD BROUGHAM URGE THE KING TO DISSOLVE. 27/ 
 
 that the further existence of the present House of Commons was incompatible 
 •witli the peace and safety of the kingdom. Lord Grey stated that without a 
 dissolution they could not continue to conduct the aflfairs of the countrv. But 
 nothing is arranged, said the King, the great ofBcers of State are not sum- 
 moned — the crown and the robes are not prepared — the Guartls, the troops, 
 have had no orders, and cannot be ready in time. The " daring Chancellor," 
 as Mr. Eoebuck terms him, replied, deferentially, that the officers of State had 
 been prepared to be summoned, and that the crown and robes would be ready. 
 The difficulty about the troops was not so easily answered. The orders for 
 the attendance of the troops upon such occasions always emanate from the 
 sovereign. " Pardon me. Sir," said the Chancellor, " I have given orders, and 
 the troops are ready." The King then burst out, " Tou, my Lord Chancellor, 
 ought to know that such an act is treason, high treason, my lord." The 
 Chancellor humbly acknowledged that he did know it, and that nothing but 
 his own solemn belief that the safety of the State depended upon that day's 
 proceedings could have emboldened him to venture upon so improper a pro- 
 ceeding. The King cooled down ; the speech to be read by his Majesty was 
 in the Chancellor's pocket ; and the Ministers were dismissed with something 
 like a menace and a joke upon the audacity of their proceedings. The Lords 
 had begun to assemble at two o'clock. At twenty minutes before three 
 the Lord Chancellor took his seat, and almost immediately withdrew from 
 tlie House, lord Sljaitesbury being called to the chair. Lord Wharn- 
 clitfe rose to make his motion. At the moment of completing the reading of 
 his resolution, the Lord Chancellor entered the House, and immediately 
 addressing it said, with great emphasis, " 1 never yet heard that the Crown 
 ought not to disj^olve Parliament whenever it thought fit, particularly at a 
 moment when the House of Commons had thought fit to take the extreme 
 and unprecedented step of stopping the supplies." * There was great con- 
 fusion, with cries of " The King, the King." Lord Londonderry rose in 
 
 fury, and exclaimed, "I protest, my Lords, I will not submit to" The 
 
 Chancellor, hearing the King approaching, clutched up the Seals and rushed 
 again out of the House. There was again terrible confusion. The earl of 
 Shaftesbury resumed the chair, and the earl of Mansfield proceeded to deliver 
 a general harangue against the Eeform Bill. The Lord Chancellor had met 
 the King whilst the noise of the House was distinctly audible. " What's 
 that ?" said his Majesty. " Only, may it please you. Sir, the House of Lords 
 amusing themselves while awaiting your Majesty's coming." The King 
 entered the House, cut short lord Mansfield's oration, and after the Speaker 
 of the House of Commons and about a hundred members had attended 
 at the bar, commenced his Speech with these very decisive words : " My 
 Lords and Gentlemen, I have come to meet you for the purpose of proroguing 
 this Parliament, with a view to its immediate dissolution." The House of 
 Commons, before the Usher of the Black Rod had tapped at the door, had 
 heea a scene of turbulence and confusion — even outrivalling that of the Lords 
 — which the Speaker had vainly endeavoured to repress. Lord Campbell, 
 at that time member for Staftbrd, says, " Never shall I forget the scene then 
 exhibited in the House of Commons, which might convey an adequate idea 
 
 * Ilarisard, vA. iii. col. 1S07.
 
 278 '^ THE DISSOLUTION AND GENERAL ELECTION. [1831. 
 
 of the tumnlifuary dissolutions in the times of the Stuarts. The most excit- 
 ing moment of my public life was when we cheered the guns which announced 
 his Majesty's approach."* Had those guns been heard a day later, the proba- 
 bility is that both Houses would have resolved upon an Address to the King 
 against dissolution, and the royal prerogative would not have been exercised 
 at all, or exercised under circumstances of great difficulty and danger. 
 
 On the dissolution of Parliament there was an illumination in London, 
 sanctioned by the Lord Mayor, which was attended with more mischief from 
 the turbulence of a mob — who broke the windows of the duke of Wellington 
 and other anti-reformers, — than productive of any real advantage to the 
 popular cause. After the Edinburgh election the Lord Provost was rudely 
 assaulted, and was with difficulty rescued by the soldiery. These things were 
 disclaimed by Eeformers as being the acts of blackguards ; but it must be 
 acknowledged that there was a very slight approach to justice in the charge 
 that sir Robert Peel had made against the government, that they had, " like 
 the giant enemy of the Philistines, lighted three hundred brands and scat- 
 tered through the country discord and dismay." t The zeal of their sup- 
 porters, we fear, was not everywhere satisfied with the formation of Political 
 Unions ; but that they read without much dissatisfaction the newspaper 
 reports of smashed glass, and rude assaults during the elections in towns 
 where the magistrates were supine and the police feeble. Such proceedings 
 seriously damaged the just cause of peaceable Eeform. The cry that went 
 through the country of " The Bill, the whole Bill, and nothing but the Bill," 
 delighted the Government, for it set aside all minor differences of opinion 
 amongst lieformers, and materially influenced the elections by the applica- 
 tion of this simple test to a candidate, — would he support the Bill ? But the 
 mob-violence became to them a source of anxiety and alarm, producing dis- 
 trust and desertion amongst the ranks of Eeformers. " Por God's sake keep 
 the people quiet in Scotland," wrote the Lord Advocate a few months later ; 
 " nothing in the world would do such fatal mischief as riot and violence." J 
 
 The appeal to the people was signally triumphant. Parliament opened on the 
 14th of June, when Mr. Manners Sutton Avas chosen Speaker for the sixth time. 
 The king went in state to the House of Lords on the 21st of June, and in 
 his speech recommended the important question of reform in the representa- 
 tion to the earliest and most attentive consideration of parliament. On the 
 24tli lord John Bussell again brought in the Eeform Bill, with a few altera- 
 tions. The measure thus proposed was confined to England. There was to 
 be a separate bill for Scotland, which was brought in by the Lord Advocate 
 on the 1st of July ; and a separate bill for Ireland, which was brought in 
 by Mr. Stanley on the 30th of June. The discussion upon the English bill 
 was to take place on the second reading, which was moved by lord John 
 Eussell on the 4th of July. There were three nights of debate. Mr. Macaulay's 
 speech on the second night was described by lord Jeflrey as putting him 
 " clearly at the head of the great speakers, if not the debaters, of the 
 House." One passage of that speech may be now read with especial interest. 
 
 * " Lives of the Chancellors," chap, ccx., note, 
 t Hansard, vol. ii. col. 13.1 6, 
 t "Life of Jeffrey," p. 324.
 
 1831.] THE REFORM BILL CARRIED. 279 
 
 " Tour great objection to this bill is that it will not be final. I ask you 
 whether you think that any Eelbrm Bill which you can frame will be final ? 
 For my part, I do believe that the settlement proposed by his majesty's 
 ministers will be final, in the only sense in which a wise man ever uses that 
 word. I believe that it will last during that time for which alone we ought 
 at present to think of legislating. Another generation may find in the new 
 representative system defects such as we find in the old representative 
 system. Civilization will proceed. Wealth will increase. Industry and 
 trade will find out new seats. The same causes which have turned so many 
 villages into great towns, which have turned so many thousands of square 
 miles of fir and heath into cornfields and orchards, will continue to operate. 
 
 Por our children we do not pretend to legislate. All that we 
 
 can do for them is to leave to them a memorable example of the manner in 
 Avhich great reforms ought to be made." * On the third night of debate the 
 House divided : for the second reading, 367 ; against it, 231. On the 12th 
 of July the House went into Committee. It was not till the 6th of Sep- 
 tember that the bill came out of this harassing stage of its progress, being 
 the thirty-ninth sitting of the Committee. Night after night there were 
 debates upon every clause of disfranchisement and every clause of enfran- 
 chisement. The leader of this mode of opposition was Mr. John Wilson 
 Croker, whose power of mastering the most obscure details, whether in 
 politics or literature, was perhaps unrivalled, and, we fear we must add, whose 
 application of his minute researches was not always quite honest. His mind 
 was formed by nature and habit for controversy. His acuteness and his 
 energy were supported by his determined will, and his passionate resolve to 
 look only at one side of the shield. He was a master of sarcasm, which, 
 however, was not unaccompanied by a kindly spirit. Guizot, with a just 
 discrimination between the value of set speeches and real business, assigns to 
 this "man of vigorous, clear, precise, and practical mind," f the real leadership 
 in the opposition to the Reform Bill in the House of Commons. The minister 
 who was always ready to repel his attacks was one of very different character. 
 Lord Althorp subdued his adversaries, and was a buckler to his supporters, 
 by his siugleness of purpose. Never was any one more truly described than 
 the Chancellor of the Exchequer was by Jeffrey : " There is something to 
 me quite delightful in his calm, clumsy, courageous, immutable probity and 
 well-meaning, and it seems to have a charm for every body." J Mr. Croker 
 was to the last a most unyielding advocate of principles which had ceased to 
 have any consistent application. When the Reform Bill passed, he believed, 
 with men of >aore timidity and less intellectual grasp, that the time was not 
 far distant when all that England prized would perisli under a reformed 
 parliament. In September, 1832, it was written of Mr. Croker by one of 
 his own party, that " no words can describe his desponding, hopeless view of 
 all public matters ; national ruin and bankruptcy with him are inevitable." § 
 In 1836 his friends observed that he absolutely seemed to rejoice at any 
 
 * "Speeches of T. B. JSIacaulay, corrected by himself," p. 31:, 
 
 + " Memoirs of Peel," p. 5(5. 
 
 t Cockburn, " Life of Jeffrey," p. 32-2. 
 
 § liaikes's "Diary," vul. i. p. fc7.
 
 280 THE BILL IN COMMITTEE— IT IS PASSED. [1331. 
 
 partial fulfilment of his prophecies. " Fitzgerald once said to lord Welleslej 
 
 at the Castle, 'I have had a very melancholy letter from C ■ this morning.' 
 
 ' Aye !* said lord Wellesley, ' written, I suppose, in a strain of the most 
 sanguine despondency.' " * It is satisfactory to contrast the opinions of the 
 duke of Wellington after the passing of the Reform Bill, as reported by the 
 same authority : " He said, we have seen great clianges ; we can only hope 
 for the best ; we cannot foresee what will happen ; but few people will be 
 sanguine enough to imagine that we shall ever again be as prosperous as 
 we have been. His language breathed no bitterness, neither sunk into 
 despondency." f 
 
 Before the lieform Bill came out of Committee, an important alteration 
 was carried by the marquis of Chandos, — that tenants-at-wili paying fifty 
 pounds per annum for their holdings should have a vote for the county. 
 This proposal, which involved other amendments of a similar tendency, Avas 
 carried by a majority of eighty-four. It was contended that this clause, 
 instead of making the farmers more independent, as was alleged, would 
 make a tenant wholly dependent upon the will of his landlord in the exercise 
 of liis franchise. Undoubtedly, before the repeal of the corn-laws, which, in 
 freeing the farmers from the shackles of protection, gave scope for the exercise 
 of their skill and capital, the tenant-at-will was more subservient to the com- 
 mands of the owner of the soil. It may, however, be doubted now, when 
 the interests of landlord and tenant have become more identified, because the 
 social relations of each are better understood, whether it would be possible, 
 as apprehended by lord Milton, that " a knot of persons, of great lauded 
 possessions, would combine for the purpose of securing the representation, 
 and by the power which the adoption of these proposed amendments would 
 give them, would fix the whole representation in the hands of an oligarchy." + 
 Freed from the committee ; having been read a third time, after a division in 
 a House whose diminished numbers showed how wearisome were the pro- 
 tracted discussions ; the Eeform Bill passed the House of Commons on the 
 21st of September, the numbers being tlu'ee hundred and forty-five for the 
 measure, and two hundred and thirty-six against it. 
 
 On the 22nd of September the House of Lords presented an unusual 
 attendance of Peers. Peeresses were accommodated at the bar, and the space 
 abetted to strangers was thronged to an overflow. The Lord Chancellor 
 takes his seat at the "Woolsack. The Deputy-Usher of the Black Eod 
 announces " A Message from the Commons :" the doors are thrown open ; 
 and lord Althorp and lord John Eussell, bearing the Eelbrm Bill in their 
 hands, appear at the head of a hundred members of the Lower House. Lord 
 .John Russell, in delivering the Bill to the Lord Chancellor, who had come to 
 the bar, says with a firm and audible voice, "My Lords, the House of 
 Commons have passed an Act to Amend the Representation of England and 
 Wales, to which they desire your Lordships' concurrence." § The words, 
 usually of mere form and ceremony, by which a Message of the Commons is 
 communicated to the Lords, were spoken by the Lord Chancellor wiih unusual 
 
 • Raikes's "Diary," vol. iii. p. 43. + I'l'nl., vol. \. p. G8. 
 
 X Hansard, vol. vi. col. 274. 
 
 § This scene forms the suliject of a iiistorioal j).-iiiitiii;;.
 
 1831.] THE BILL IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS. 2Si 
 
 solemnity of tone and manner amidst breathless silence. * The Bill was tliei: 
 read a first time, and vras ordered to be read a second time on Monday the 
 3rd of October. 
 
 During the five nights of debate in this memorable week, the House of 
 Lords stood before the nation presenting examples of the highest eloquence 
 that ever characterized a great deliberative assembly. Whatever adverse 
 sentiments the Reports of these debates might excite, they could not fail to 
 impress the thinking part of the nation with the conviction that the House of 
 Lords fitly represented the most powerful nobility in Europe, not only because 
 it was the most wealthy and the best educated of any aristocratic assembly ; 
 not only that it was surrounded with grand historical associations ; but that, 
 however it might be opposed for a time to the prevailing popular opinion, it 
 was in many essentials so intimately allied with the body of the people that 
 they could never be in a long continued state of isolation or antagonism. 
 This debate was opened by earl Grrey. There was a calmness and solemnity 
 in his words and manner which well befitted the statesman who now, in his 
 sixty-eighth year, stood prominently forward as the advocate of a measure 
 which he had proposed in the House of Commons forty years before ; and, more 
 than advocate, as the responsible author of a Eeform Bill of far greater scope 
 and of more practical importance than any plan which he had supported duriu"' 
 his long parliamentary career. But it was not enough, he said, for a public 
 man, pretending to the character of a Statesman, to show that what he has to 
 propose is in conformity with opinions long established in his mind ; he is 
 bound to feel the conviction that in proposing a measure aflecting the mighty 
 interests of the State, the course he takes is called for by justice and necessity. 
 He has further to prove that he has not brought right opinions into notice 
 rashly, precipitately, or at a dangerous season. Having explained the general 
 character of the proposed Bill, he thus vindicated its extent and comprehen- 
 siveness, t "I felt that the most prudent and the safest measure of Eeform 
 would be a bold one, because, when I looked at the condition of the country — 
 when I considered how just the claims of the people were — and when, above 
 all, I reflected upon the absolute necessity of satisfying the respectable and 
 reasonable part of the community, in order that thereby the Government and 
 Legislature might be furnished with a ground on which a firm and safe stand 
 might be made in defence of the principles of the constitution, if ever they 
 should be really assailed — from all these considerations, I say, I was satisfied 
 that nothing but a bold and decisive measure would give such general 
 satisfaction and content as would set the question at rest." J Earl Grey was 
 followed by lord Wharnclifle, who moved an amendment to the effect that the 
 Bill be rejected altogether. 
 
 On the second night of debate the duke of AYellington spoke at much 
 greater length than he usually spake. He maintained tliat this country 
 having enjoyed a larger share of happiness, comfort, and prosperity than were 
 ever enjoyed by any nation, could any man believe that tiiese advantages 
 would remain if such a democratic assembly as that proposed should once be 
 established in England? " A democracy has never been established in any 
 
 • Hansard, vol. vii. col. 480. + Ibid., col. 035. 
 
 t Ibid., col. lOJ-2.
 
 282 THE BILL IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS. [1831, 
 
 part of the world tliat it has not immediately declared war against property, 
 against the payment of the public debt, and against all the principles of 
 conservation which are secured by, and are in fact the principal objects of, 
 the British Constitution as it now exists." The duke of Wellington's speech 
 gave a very significant anticipation of the rejection of the Bill by the Lords, 
 and of the probability that, the government being defeated, there would be 
 another ministry who would propose a reform that might not be dreaded as "a 
 bold and decisive measure." "I recommend to you to keep yourselves free 
 to adopt any measure upon this subject which should secure to this country 
 the blessings of a government." * The duke, after the passing of the Bill, 
 always asked, How is the King's government to be carried on ? The long 
 continued Tory belief was that lord Grey's vital change — " that sweeping 
 Bill which prevented him, and will prevent any other government, 
 from ruling the country again," f — would render any government impossible 
 but that which was dictated by the will of a turbulent democracy. The great 
 soldier's notion of " ruling," which was the one idea of his party, was 
 something different from that which we entertain at this day, when the best 
 rule which England has ever lived under is the most in harmony with the sober 
 desires of the great middle class, and most careful of the rights and liberties of 
 the universal people. 
 
 Lord Dudley, upon the third night of debate, delivered an elegant and 
 classical speech opposing the Bill, which lord Brougham subsequently 
 characterized as " an exercise or essay of the highest merit, on change, on 
 democracies, on republicanism, — an essay or exercitation on some other thesis, 
 but not on this Bill." J One part of the speech of lord Dudley was however 
 anything but irrelevant to the measure before the House. In a yery few 
 words it comprehended volumes of declamation that had been already spoken, 
 of the well working of nomination boroughs and of all the other anomalies of 
 the representative system. " It was only by the abuses of the Constitution, 
 as they were called, that the due balance was maintained, and the evils which 
 would arise from the superiority of the popular branch of the Legislature 
 prevented, or at least mitigated. It was only because the Crown and the 
 House of Lords had an influence in that of the Commons, which was wholly 
 unacknowledged by the theory of the Constitution, that the Constitution had 
 been maintained." § The fourth night of the debate was chiefly occupied by 
 the able speeches of lord Carnarvon and lord Plunkett. 
 
 On the fifth and last night the speech of lord Eldon was affecting, from his 
 allusions to his great age, and to his early education upon cheap terms in the 
 Corporation school of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He appeared to think that the 
 school would be destroyed by lessening the influence of the Corporation and 
 that of freemen of the borough ; and that thus a hope which he bad cherished 
 would not be realized. " I had hoped that when my ashes were laid in the 
 grave, where they probably soon will be, that I might have given some 
 memorandum that boys there, situated as I was, might rise to be Chancellors 
 
 * Hansard, vol. vii. coL 1205. 
 
 t Raikes's "Diary," vol. iii. p. 7. 
 
 :;: Speech od Ileform, October 7th. 
 
 § Uansard, vol. vii. col. 1342.
 
 1831.] THE BILL REJECTED UPON THE SECOND READING. 283 
 
 of England." On that night the great lawyers had almost exclusive possession 
 of the House, — two ex-chancellors and he who now sat on the AVoolsack. 
 Lord Brougham rose to speak before his friend and rival, lord Lyndhurst. 
 To attempt a selection of passages from this speech — from what lord 
 Lyndhurst described as "a splendid declamation which had never been 
 surpassed on any occasion even by the noble and learned lord himself" — would 
 be to carry us beyond our proper limits. One passage however in the 
 peroration may be fitly given : " Hear the parable of the Sibyl ; for it conveys 
 a wise and wholesome moral. She now appears at your gate, and offers you 
 mildly the volumes — the precious volumes of wisdom and peace. The price 
 she asks is reasonable ; to restore the franchise, which, without any bargain, 
 you ought voluntarily to give : you refuse her terms — her moderate terms, — 
 she darkens the porch no longer. But soon, for you cannot do without her 
 wares, you call her back ; — again she comes, but with diminished treasures ; 
 the leaves of the book are in part torn away by lawless hands, — in part defaced 
 Avith characters of blood. But the prophetic maid has risen in her demands 
 — it is Parliament by the Tear — it is Vote by the Ballot — it is Suffrage by the 
 Million ! Prom this you turn away indignant, and for the second time she 
 departs. Beware of her third coming ; for the treasure you must have ; and 
 Avhat price she may next demand, who shall tell ? It may even be the mace 
 which rests upon that woolsack. What may follow your course of obstinacy, 
 if persisted in, I cannot take upon me to predict, nor do I wish to conjecture. 
 But this I know full well, that, as sure as man is mortal, and to err is human, 
 justice deferred enhances the price at which you must purchase safety and 
 peace ; — nor can you expect to gather in another crop than they did who went 
 before you, if you persevere in their utterly abominable husbandry, of sowing 
 injustice and reaping rebellion."* Lord Lyndhurst followed. The debate 
 was concluded by a reply of earl Grey to the principal arguments against the 
 Bill which had been adduced during those five nights. He was exhausted, as 
 were nearly all his listeners, but his intellectual vigour was never more 
 signally manifested. Of the sincerity of his concluding words not even the 
 bitterest of his political adversaries could doubt : " I have lived a long life of 
 exclusion from office ; I had no official habits ; I possessed not the advantages 
 which those official habits confer. I am fond of retirement and domestic life, 
 and I lived happy and content in the bosom of my family ; I was surrounded 
 by those to whom I am attached by the warmest ties of affection. What, 
 then, but a sense of duty could have induced me to plunge into all the 
 difficulties, not unforeseen, of my present situation ? What else, in my 
 declining age, — 
 
 ' What else could tempt me on those stormy seas, 
 Bankrupt of life, yet prodigal of ease ?' " t 
 
 Between six and seven o'clock on the morning of Saturday the 8th of 
 October, the House of Lords divided upon the second reading of the Reform 
 Bill: 
 
 * "Brougham's Speeches," vol. ii p. ^34, 
 + Hansard, vol. viii. col. 338.
 
 284 RESOLUTIONS OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. [1S3I 
 
 Ts^on-contents, present 150, proxies 49 — 199 
 Contents, present 128, proxies 30 — 158 
 
 Majority against the Bill — 41 
 
 Lord EUlon rejoices, in a letter of the next day, that the mob would not 
 Btay lor the close of the debate.* Their patience during a cold and drizzling 
 night of waiting in Palace Tard had been worn out ; and when the Peers 
 came forth there were none to salute them with cheers or hisses. The roll- 
 ing of the carriages alone was heard, as Reformers or Conservatives, in the 
 broad daylight, went to their homes as quietly as if a whole nation had 
 not been anxiously awaking that morning to know how the great work was so 
 far concluded. 
 
 The rejection of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords was not un- 
 foreseen. The disproportion of the two parties in that House was perfectly 
 well known. During the reigns of George III. and George IV., the creation 
 of peers had been almost exclusively confined to the Tory party;— the 
 bishops had, with very few exceptions, been selected with no forgetfulness of 
 their political opinions. To remedy, in some degree, this disproportion, six- 
 teen new peers had been created before the second reading of the Bill. Lord 
 Grey, in moving that reading, had addressed to the bishops a very significant 
 Avarnia-g "to put their house in order." Many of the peers had refrained 
 from voting ; but on the 7th of October the bishops were on their bench in 
 strong numbers ; and, of thirteen present, twelve voted against the bill, nine 
 others sending their proxies for the same object of defeating the measure 
 Avhich had so triumphantly passed the House of Commons. The great con- 
 test was yet, however, to be fought out in another campaign. The Lords 
 had gone from the house on the Saturday morning, after such a night of 
 excitement and fatigue as few had before encountered. On the following 
 Monday lord Ebringtou, member for Devonshire, moved in the House of 
 Commons a resolution to the efiect that the House lamenting the present 
 fate of the bill for amending the representation, feels itself called upon to 
 I'e-assert its firm adherence to the principle and leading provisions of that 
 great measure, and to express its unabated confidence in the integrity, perse- 
 verance, and ability of those ministers who, in introducing and conducting it, 
 had so well consulted the best interests of the country. The resolution was 
 carried by 829 votes to 198. The public enthusiasm gave a hearty assent to 
 the principle urged on that occasion by Mr. Macaulay, when he asked, 
 " ought we to abandon the bill merely because the Lords have rejected it ? 
 "VVe ought to respect the lawful privileges of their House, but we ought also 
 to assert our own." Hiot and outrage at Derby ; and at Nottingham the 
 burning of the Castle by a frantic mob, clouded for a time the hope which 
 all honest reformers entertained that reason and justice should alone pre- 
 vail. The saddest, however, could relish the wit, which, however pungent, 
 was like oil upon the waves. " Mrs. Partington" became famous throughout 
 the land: — "As for the possibility of the House of Lords preventing ere 
 long a reform of parliament, I hold it to be the most absurd notion that 
 
 * " Life," vol. i. p. 329.
 
 1831 J PARLIAMENT PROROGUED. 285 
 
 ever entered into human imagination. I do not mean to be disrespectful, 
 but the attempt of the Lords to stop the progress of reform reminds me 
 very forcibly of the great storm of Sidmouth, and of the conduct of the ex- 
 cellent Mrs. Partington on that occasion. In the winter of 1824, there set 
 in a great flood upon that town — the tide rose to an incredible height — the 
 waves rushed in upon the houses, and everything was threatened with de- 
 struction. In the midst of this sublime and terrible storm. Dame Partington, 
 who lived upon the beach, was seen at the door of her house with mop and 
 pattens, trundling her mop, squeezing out the sea-water, and vigorously 
 pushing away the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic was roused. Mrs. Part- 
 ington's spirit was up ; but I need not tell you that the contest was un- 
 equal. The Atlantic Ocean beat Mrs. Partington, She was excellent at 
 a slop, or a puddle, but she should not have meddled with a tempest. 
 Gentlemen, be at your ease — be quiet and steady. Tou will beat Mrs. 
 Partington." * 
 
 The ministry stood firm, although they were taunted witli their con- 
 tinuance in power after they had found themselves opposed by such a 
 majority in the House of Lords as no minister had ever encountered a 
 second time. There was no wavering in the king. He went to the House 
 of Peers on the 20th of October; and having given the royal assent to 
 lord Brougham's Bankruptcy Court Bill, amongst other bills, he prorogued 
 the parliament, stating that its attention must necessarily be called upon 
 nt the opening of the ensuing session to the important question of a cou« 
 stitutional reform in the Commons House of Parliament. 
 
 * Srdney Sniiih : "^^'ccch at Taunton," Oct. 12, 1831.
 
 CHAPTER XVI, 
 
 Intense excitement during the prorogation — Dangers from popular ignorance — Incendiary fires 
 and machine-breaking — The Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol Riots— Destruction of pro- 
 perty at Bristol — The Cholera approaching — Cowardly alarmists— Central Board of Health 
 formed — Parliament — New Reform Bill passed by the Commons — The Bill in the Lords, 
 read a second time — Political Unions — The Lords' Committee, and the majority against 
 Ministers — The King refuses to create Peers — The Ministry resign — The Duke of Welling- 
 ton attempts to form a Government — The negotiations fail — The Reform Ministry returns 
 to power — The King's consent to a creation of Peers given, but not exercised — Final 
 passing of the Reform Bill. 
 
 It is impossible to look back at the interval between the prorogation of 
 Parliament on the 20th of October, 1831, and the conclusion of the labours 
 of the last unreformed Parliament on the 16th of August, 1832, without a 
 sense of relief in feeling that the country had passed without permanent 
 damage through a crisis of unexampled danger, aggravated by a special 
 visitation of Providence which many persons regarded as a judgment. The 
 times were truly alarming. Nevertheless, during the great political conflict 
 of seven months, — during the terrific outbreak of a knot of miscreants at 
 Bristol, the occasional violence of the mob in London, the partial outrages of 
 the peasantry of the southern counties, the terrors of a new and frightful 
 disease for which no medical authority could prescribe a satisfactory treat- 
 ment and which no public regulation could arrest — the political excitement 
 was so great and universal, that, like combatants on a field of battle, the 
 energy of the hour was sufficient to repress, whether amongst reformers or 
 anti-reformers, any sentiment of fear that would have amounted to a panic. 
 The nation, whether ranged on one side or the other, had never been so 
 much in earnest since the days of the Long Parliament. It is true that the 
 popular cause could number its supporters by thousands, whilst those on 
 the other side might be counted by hundreds. But the leaders of the 
 hundreds believed that they had everything to lose, and they not only 
 fought with desperation themselves, but were cheered on by a most zealous 
 following, who sincerely dreaded that the end of all government and the 
 destruction of all property were close at hand. There were everywhere 
 wrong-headed men in popular assemblies ranting about the unequal distribu- 
 tion of wealtli ; pretended teachers of political economy proclaiming the 
 tyranny of Capital, and showing how easily a change might be made by
 
 1831.] INCENDIAllY FIRES AND MACHINE-BREAKING. 2S7 
 
 whieli the labourers, without any intervention, might till the fields and work 
 the looms. Some more modestly proposed that at the death of any member 
 of the community his widow and children should have no exclusive claim ; 
 and that all his property should be divided amongst every member of society 
 of adult age. The absurdities that hung around every scheme for the 
 " division of property" neutralized their possible efiect upon the great body 
 of mechanics, who were not without some means of instruction that had been 
 placed within their reach. There was another class more open to dangerous 
 advice, and more incapable of weighing the probable consequences of lawless 
 acts. 
 
 The labourers in husbandry had been often told that they had a claim 
 upon a much higher rate of allowance from the poor's-rates, whilst at this 
 very time the enormous pressure of those rates was driving the land even of 
 whole parishes out of cultivation. The labourers believed, as they had been 
 long encouraged by magistrates to believe, that the parish was bound to find 
 work and pay wherever there was no profitable work to be done. The 
 " Organization du Travail" of the French political philosophers in 1848 was 
 not an original invention. In England we had not the National Workshop, 
 but we had the Parish Gravel-pit. The gravel-pit lowered the wages of all 
 agricultural labour, by confounding the distinctions between industry and 
 idleness, between strength and weakness, between dexterity and clumsiness. 
 All the moral qualifications that made one labourer more valuable than 
 another were utterly broken down. And so, when the weekly pittance for 
 unprofitable labour was doled out by the overseer of the poor, — when the 
 farmer equalized the rate of wages by reducing his ploughman and carter 
 almost to the level of the gravel diggers, and sent tlieir wives to the over- 
 seers to make up by allowance the just payment of which they were 
 defrauded — the peasantry took to burning ricks and breaking machines. The 
 machine breaking was intelligible. Machines were held to be substitutes 
 for manual labour, and thus to diminish profitable employment. But the 
 rick burning : How could arson be a relief for hunger P The destruction of 
 food raised the price of food. The excessive ignoranc© of the peasantry — the 
 hateful isolation of their class from their employers — the neglect of the rich — 
 made them apt listeners to the devilish promptings of some village Cade in 
 the beer-shop. They had undoubted grievances ; and we can scarcely wonder 
 that paupers and poachers became rick-burners and machine breakers, in 
 the belief that those above them in rank were in a conspiracy to oppress 
 them. The southern labourers knew nothing of the Eeform Bill, and cared 
 nothing. They thought only of the misery and neglect of their own unhappy 
 lot. "Swing" was at work months before lord Grrey came into power — 
 " Swing" was their one reform leader. They took their own course of pro- 
 claiming their wretchedness and their ignorance, to the terror and shame of 
 those who had kept them ignorant, and passed them by in the haughty 
 indifierence which regarded a peasant and a slave as something near akin — 
 " slaves in ignorance, without having them chained and watched to prevent 
 chem hurting us." * The jail and the gallows seemed the only remedies 
 when property became unsafe — 
 
 • Dr. Arnold, " Life," vol. i. p. 282.
 
 288 THE DERBY, NOTTINGHAM, AND BRISTOL RIOTS. [1831. 
 
 " The blind mole casts 
 Copp'd hills toward heaven, to tell, the earth is throng'd 
 By man's oppression, and the pooi* worm doth die for 't." * 
 
 In the same state of ignorance, especially of political ignorance, as tbe 
 southern peasantry, but not with equal provocation for their outrages, were 
 the dregs of the people who broke open the city jail at Derby and set the 
 prisoners at liberty, and those who burnt down Nottingham Castle. More 
 entirely distinct, even than the agricultural labourers, from those who 
 cherished any over-zealous aspirations for an amended representation of the 
 people, were those who formed the mass of rioters at Bristol. There, an 
 insignificant mob of the merest outcasts of a seaport long remarkable for a 
 filthy, ignorant, and drunken horde of labourers of the lowest class, — many 
 of the so-called workers habitual thieves, — held during a Saturday afternoon, 
 and the whole of Sunday till daybreak on Monday, the lives and property of 
 the inhabitants of one of the great cities of the empire at the mercy of their 
 reckless brutality. 
 
 Sir Charles Wetherell had been amongst the most determined opponents of 
 the Reform Bill during its passage through the House of Commons. He was 
 Recorder of Bristol, and being a man of as much eccentricity as talent, he 
 disregarded the warnings which were given him, that it might be more 
 prudent to open the City Sessions on the 29th of October without any 
 public entry. Recorders now-a-days go more modestly about their business ; 
 but sir Charles Wetherell determined to have a procession. A large 
 number of influential inhabitants, whether as political supporters, or to 
 maintain the dignity of his judicial function, formed a great cavalcade around 
 tbe sheriff's carriage in which the Recorder was to enter the city. He 
 reached the Guildhall amidst tbe hisses of the populace, but with no injury 
 from the few stones that were thrown at his carriage. There was some 
 confusion in the hall during the opening of the Commission : but the pre- 
 liminary business having been gone through, and the Court adjourned till 
 Monday morning, the Recorder retired, the people giving three cheers for 
 the king. Sir Charles Wetherell took up his residence at the Mansion' 
 house. This, during the whole of the afternoon, was surrounded by a moi, 
 upon which constables occasionally rushed to seize some prominent offender, 
 bov or man, who manifested his spirit by hurling some missile at an irri- 
 tated guardian of the peace. The evening came on ; the mob of blackguards 
 became more daring ; colliers came in from the neighbouring pits to join the 
 fun, and the Mansion-house was attacked in a far more formidable manner 
 than at the earlier hour in the afternoon ; for the greater number of con- 
 stables had left the rioters to their diversion, and had quietly gone away to seek 
 refreshment. In the darkness of that autumnal night, the windows of the 
 Chief Magistrate's residence were shattered, the doors were forced, and pre- 
 parations were made to set the Mansion-house on fire. Sir Charles 
 Wetherell during the tumult effected his retreat. The troops arrived, and 
 arrested the conflagration. The soldiers were cheered as they trotted their 
 liorses backward and forward ; the Commander of the district. Colonel 
 Brereton, exhorted the mob to peace, but he did not effectually clear the 
 
 * " Pericles," act i. scene 1.
 
 /83i.] DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY AT BRISTOL. * 289 
 
 streets. The ragged populace were triumphant for that Saturday. On 
 the Sunday morning the consequences of a too humane lenity were 
 signally exhibited. The troops had remained in the streets all night. 
 On the Sunday morning, all being quiet, they retired to their quarters. 
 The churches and chapels were filled as usual, without any apprehension of 
 danger. A crowd was again collected before the Mansion-house. They 
 burst into the hall, and reaching the upper rooms threw the furniture into 
 the street. They penetrated to the wine-cellars, and carrying off the cor- 
 poration stores of the choicest port, were soon lying upon pavements dead 
 with drunkenness. The troops again came out, and the tumult, which might 
 have been quelled without bloodshed if the respectable inhabitants had been 
 sworn in on the Saturday as special constables, which they entreated to be, 
 now became a wide-wasting career of rapine and destruction. There was a 
 little firing of the 14th Light Dragoons upon the mob, who assaulted them 
 with brick-bats. Still there was a belief that the worst had passed. The 
 soldiers were then, for the most part, withdrawn from the city. The subse- 
 quent proceedings of the mob sufficiently indicated the class of persons of 
 which it was composed. They beat in the doors of the Bridewell with sledge- 
 hammers, set free the prisoners, and fired the building. Another party con- 
 ducted the same operations with equal success at the New Borough Jail. 
 A third manifested their zeal for Liberty by releasing all confined in the 
 Gloucester County Jail. There were to be no more prisons in Bristol. 
 From these three places of confinement the flames were rising at one and the 
 same time. Fire now became the great manifestation of the savagery which 
 some dreaded, or pretended to dread, as the natural result of the Reform 
 agitation. The Mansion-house was set on fire. The demoniacs ran from 
 room to room, kindling the flames, and when the roof fell in the progress of 
 the conflagration had been so rapid that many were cut off from a retreat. 
 The bishop's palace was reduced to ashes. The Custom-house followed. 
 This building was near the Mansion-house in Queen's Square. Prisons and 
 stately buildings were not the sole objects of this most causeless outbreak. 
 There was no rallyihg-cry in the streets, such as that of "No Popery" in 
 1780, and of " Church and King " in 1791. No voice was heard to exclaim 
 " The Bill." It was all mad fury without any possible object except plunder 
 and the indulgence of the grossest sensuality. At three o'clock in the 
 morning there were forty-two dwelling-houses and warehouses burning. 
 Two sides of Queen's Square, with the exception of two houses, were de- 
 stroyed. The fliimes were lighting the ruffians who paraded the streets and, 
 knocking at the doors of ale-houses and liquor-shops, were demanding " drink 
 or blood." Their intoxication quelled the outrages even more effectually 
 than the soldiery, who were now brought back into the city, and hesitated 
 not to fire and charge, as they might have done far more advantageously had 
 force been employed at the commencement of the outbreak. The outrages 
 were at an end ; not through this final act of tardy vigour by direction of 
 the magistracy, but through the exhaustion of the handful of blackguards 
 when the daylight showed the extent of the ruin which they had perpetrated 
 It was a lamentable circumstance, though one not without its lesson, that 
 Colonel Brereton, having been brought to trial at a court-martial for neglect 
 of duty, shot himself on the fourth day of the inquiry. The law avenged 
 VOL. vui.— 243.
 
 290 THE CHOLERA APPROACHING. [1831. 
 
 itself in January on tlie rioters. Bristol had for many a year to levy a rate 
 of 10,000Z. for compensation to the losers of property. 
 
 The Author of the "Popular History " ventures to obtrude some words 
 which he wrote at this fearful season — not as containing any very striking 
 reasoning or exhortation, but as expressing his own feelings in common with 
 those of the eminent men with whom he was then associated in the diffusion of 
 knowledge : " In moments such as these, when we hear of a few hundreds of 
 abandoned miscreants, — not working men in any sense of the title, but thieves 
 and outcasts, — not knowing the first interests of working men, because 
 wanton destroyers of the capital by which labour must be supported, — when 
 we hear of a small band of these most ignorant of mankind, in this enlightened 
 country, in this intellectual age, holding the lives and possessions of a com- 
 munity of eighty thousand people,* even for a single hour at the mercy of 
 their lawless passions, we could almost be tempted to think that real freedom 
 should never be the birthright of such spurners of the laws of God and man. 
 Cast your eyes for a moment upon such scenes of frantic not, of desperate 
 outrage, of grovelling drunkenness in the lowest stage of brutal abandon- 
 ment ; think of the terror of the peaceful inhabitants of such a place in those 
 hours of midnight plunder and Sabbath riots ; and picture to yourselves the 
 wives and children of those once happy families clinging to their husbands 
 and their parents to shield them from the destruction that was let loose in 
 such unnatural and hideous shapes. When you have pondered upon these 
 things, look round for the remedy. It is the diffusion of sound knowledge 
 which leads to the cultivation of genuine religion. Unless you, each in your 
 own circle, put down that ignorant spirit that would make this temple of our 
 once industrious and peaceful island ' a den of thieves,' our liberties are at an 
 end, because our security is at an end. There can be no liberty without 
 security. Unless you, each in your own circle, endeavour to instruct the 
 less informed in the knowledge of their rights in connexion with their duties, 
 we shall all go backward in freedom, and therefore in national prosperity." t 
 
 "Whilst Bristol was burning, the cholera had come to England. At the 
 beginning of November, cases which had terminated fatally were reported 
 from Sunderland. A true Christian, — one whose honour it was to lead the 
 way in the establishment of a better system than prevailed in great public 
 schools, — a liberal thinker who regarded "the Ministerial Eeform BiU as 
 a safe and necessary measure," — is described as filled with the most anxious 
 fears towards the end of 1831. Dr. Arnold was accustomed to preach a 
 practical sermon to his school on Sundays. His biographer says, — " There 
 are those among his pupils who can never forget the moment when, on that 
 dark November afternoon, after the simple preface, stating in what sense 
 worldly thoughts were or were not to be brought into that place, he at once 
 began with that solemnity which marked his voice and manner when speaking 
 of what deeply moved him : — ' I need not tell you that this is a marked 
 time, — a time such as neither we, nor our fathers for many generations before 
 us, have experienced ; and to those who know what the past has been, it ia 
 
 * The population of Bristol in 1831, as shown hy the Population Returns published in 1832, 
 was above 100,000. 
 
 ■f " The Rij^htB of Industry: addressed to the Working Men of the Uuite<l Kingdom. Bf 
 the Author of ' The Results of Machinery.' » 1831.
 
 iS31.] COWARDLY ALARMISTS. 2i»I 
 
 no doubt awful to think of the change which we are now about to encounter.' 
 But in him the sight of evil, and the endeavour to remove it, were hardly 
 ever disjoined ; and whilst everything which he felt partook of the de- 
 spondency with which that sermon opens, everything which lie did partakes of 
 that cheerful activity with which the same sermon closes in urging the example 
 of the Apostle's ' wise and manly conduct amidst the dangers of storm and 
 shipwreck.' " * Very diflferent from a counsellor of " wise and manly 
 conduct " was a writer in a periodical work of the highest authority, published 
 in November, 1831. To produce a terror amongst the community for a poli- 
 tical object has been considered the especial function of a corrupt minister. 
 To exaggerate real causes of alarm, in the endeavour to terrify the heads of 
 families into a retreat from the political battle-field, was now the object of a 
 factious journalist. He asked, what has been done to meet this fatal con- 
 tagion ? Anticipating the sudden paralysation of commerce through every 
 limb of our body politic, — with prodigious masses of artisans sunk at once 
 into the depths of pauperism, — he asks whether the ministers have considered 
 the necessity of guarding against the rapacity of monopolists as respects food 
 and fuel ; whether they had begun to think of public stores of bread ? Have 
 they considered what ought to be done for the supply of our markets, the 
 regulations as to travellers, inns, and public conveyances of all kinds ? 
 " Have they even dreamed of the enormous burden of care that may within 
 a week devolve upon them as a cabinet ? " Unquestionably the ministers 
 had not so dreamed. They knew perfectly well, as the author of this article 
 most probably knew, that any interference with the laws of demand and supply 
 would render a temporary disturbance of the ordinary intercourse between 
 man and man, between town and country, ten thousand times more dangerous. 
 The advice to private persons is as remarkable for the most extravagant 
 selfishness, as the advice to the government is conspicuous for ignorance of 
 the commonest laws of political economy. Such families as mean to quit 
 the town in which they reside ought to hold themselves prepared for 
 immediate flight ; the civil power should be prepared to take charge of 
 the houses and property left behind ; the opulent must expect to pay dearly 
 for such protection, " but they have a right to expect it." When the desire 
 to quit the town becomes general, the more that go the better ; but none 
 must go unless they have the means of conveyance. There should be lazar- 
 ettoea out of town to which families might if they pleased remove ; care being 
 taken that families of the same class be placed together. Encampments 
 might be allowed under proper regulations. All these recommendations are for 
 the runaways. Those who have the courage to remain in great cities, such as 
 London, are not to be less scrupulous in manifesting the same selfish cowardice. 
 To the utmost practicable extent disfurnish the house. Get rid of all super- 
 fluous domestics, and take care that it shall be impossible for those that are 
 retained to communicate with any one out of doors. All letters and supplies 
 of food must be received from the police messengers. They must be drawn 
 up to a window of the first floor by means of a rope having a yard of chain 
 and an iron pail attached to it. Mixed up with some semi-medical pre- 
 cautions, the article sets forth how in some cities this pest destroys here a 
 
 • " Life of Dr. Arnold," vol. i. p. 272.
 
 292 CENTRAL BOARD OF HEALTH FORMED. [1831, 
 
 sixth, there a fourth, and in a third town a half of the population. The plague 
 of Marseilles, the plague of Messina, are examples of false confidence. To 
 excite fear is a true mode of being safe. At Messina, where no precaution 
 was adopted, " all at once the pest was found raging, and the populace rose 
 in the frenzy of wrath and despair, and glutted themselves with murder." * 
 Marseilles was named without a word of " Marseilles' good bishop." There 
 were many in England, lay and clerical, who remembered noble examples 
 in their own country, of the duty of the rich to the poor in such a season 
 of calamity, and they followed them in the spirit of Christian brotherhood. 
 Perhaps the cholera awakened some of this feeling which had been too long 
 slumbering. 
 
 The Ministers were solemnly warned by this writer of the responsibility 
 they incurred, if they neglected those preparations which they alone could 
 make. "The more rigorous the laws, and the more strictly they are 
 enforced, the more certainly will the government be pronounced a merciful 
 one." The government did not neglect preparations, and did not shrink 
 from wise precautions ; but these were of a very dilFerent character than 
 such as would have plunged the whole country into a confusion far more 
 dreadful than any visitation of the most pestilent disease. A Central Board 
 of Health was formed, which, in a circular letter dated from the Council 
 Office, recommended as to precautionary measures, that every large community 
 should be divided into sections to form distinct Boards of Health, each to 
 consist, if possible, of a resident clergyman, of a number of substantial house- 
 holders, and of one medical man at least. Such boards were to appoint 
 inspectors, each of whom was daily to visit a hundred houses, and upon their 
 reports to endeavour to remedy such deficiencies as might be found to exist 
 in the primary elements of public health, namely, food, clothing, bedding, 
 ventilation, space, cleanliness, habits of temperance, prevention of panic. 
 With regard to intercourse with suspected or infected persons or places, 
 they strongly deprecated all measures of coercion for avoiding communica- 
 tion, which measures, when tried upon the Continent, had invariably been 
 found productive of evil. Temporary cholera hospitals, detached, insulated, 
 and thoroughly exposed to free and open air, were recommended to be 
 established. Fortunately the good sense of the English people prevented a 
 natural and wholesome alarm being degraded into a panic. Religious trust 
 and active benevolence were much better supports than the practical atheism 
 which would have turned domestic servants out of doors, and have fled from 
 the duties of social life to seek some imaginary hiding-place where the 
 destroyer could not come. On the 6th of November the people knelt in 
 their churches to utter a form of prayer, whose words would not be forgotten 
 in their private orisons : " Lord ! have pity on thy people, both here and 
 abroad ; withdraw thy heavy hand from those who are suffering under thy 
 judgments, and turn away from us that grievous calamity, against which our 
 only security is in thy compassion." The visitation of this calamity, although 
 very fatal in some districts, was by no means extensive, compared with the 
 aggregate number of the population. It had died out after the ensuing 
 summer. There had not been during its continuance any marked inter- 
 
 * ' Quarterly Review," No. xcl. November, 1831, article viii.
 
 1832.] PAKLIAIIENT— NEW REFORM BILL PASSED. 293 
 
 ruption in the ordinary intercourse of life, and in the communications between 
 place and place. The cholera left a real blessing behind it. The care of the 
 public health from that time became a duty which no ministry could neglect, 
 and which, after many experiments in the organization of a fit machinery, 
 placed us in a condition not only to mitigate the effects of any pest in 
 recurring years, but to elevate the whole body of the people in habits of 
 cleanliness and comfort, and to prolong the duration of life in village and in 
 city, in the pleasant fields and in the close factories. 
 
 In the midst of the cholera visitation. Parliament assembled on the 6th of 
 December. In the King's Speech, first of all was recommended a careful 
 consideration of the measures to be proposed for the Eeform of Parliament ; 
 a speedy and satisfactory settlement of the question becoming daily of more 
 pressing importance to the security of the State and to the contentment 
 and welfare of his majesty's people. On the 12th of December, lord John 
 Eussell introduced the new Bill for Parliamentary Eeform. It was in many 
 respects really a new measure. The results of the Census of April had 
 been obtaired. The Census of 1821 had been found a fallacious guide as 
 to what boroughs ought or ought not to be disfranchised. Taking the 
 Census of 1831 as the basis of the population test, the boundaries of towns, 
 which had been carefully surveyed, were included in the boroughs of which 
 they had previously formed no part. A mixed test of the importance of 
 boroughs was to be determined by the number of persons, the number of 
 houses, and the amount of assessed taxes paid. The disfranchised boroughs 
 were still to be fifty-six, though the list of those to be placed in what 
 was called Schedule A was materially varied from that formerly proposed. 
 Schedule B, of boroughs to return only one member, was now reduced from 
 forty-one to thirty, whilst others which had formerly been in this schedule 
 were to be taken out, and to return two members. These variations from 
 the former scheme were rendered necessary chiefly by the determination of 
 the government not to diminish the number of the House of Commons, con- 
 tinuing the number as it then stood of six hundred and fifty-eight. Some of 
 the most ardent Eeformers thought that the Bill was impaired by these 
 alterations. Sir Eobert Peel taunted the ministers with having adopted 
 amendments ofiered from his side of the House, but nevertheless expressed 
 his determination of giving to the principle of this Bill a steady and firm 
 opposition. On the second reading in the House of Commons there was a 
 debate of two nights, terminating on the morning of Sunday the 18th, 
 when the ministerial majority was a hundred and sixty-two. Parliament 
 was now adjourned to the 17th of January. 
 
 To follow the progress of the Eeform Bill through the House of Commons 
 during the next two months would be impossible for us to attempt, even if 
 the details of the conflict — in which the cleverness, pertinacity, and unfairness 
 of the opposition were strikingly in contrast with the good-humoured steadi- 
 ness of lord Althorp, and the impassability of lord John Eussell — were less 
 wearisome than they now would be when the interest of such a session of 
 skirmishes is wholly lost in the result of the great battle. The Scotch and 
 Irish bills were brought in on the 19th of January. On the 20th, the House 
 went into Committee on the English Bill, which Committee was not ended 
 till the 10th of March, the Eeport being considered on the 14th. On the
 
 2D4 THE BILL IN THE LORDS READ A SECOND TIME. [1832 
 
 19th, the third reading of the Bill was moved. There was again a final debate, 
 in which the combatants on each side were marshalled in as great numbers aa 
 on any previous occasion. In a House of five hundred and ninety-four 
 members the Bill was passed by a majority of a hundred and sixteen. 
 
 On Monday the 26th of March the Reform Bill was carried up to the 
 House of Lords, and was read a first time on that day. There was a general 
 opinion that the Bill would not pass unscathed through the Upper House 
 without a large creation of Peers. On the 7th of January Sydney Smith 
 wrote to the countess Grey, that everybody expected a creation as a matter 
 of course* "I am for forty, to make things safe in Committee." * It was 
 impossible that lord Grey should not have felt the most extreme reluctance 
 to resort to so bold and hazardous a measure. Somewhat later, Sydney Smith, 
 wrote, " If you wish to be happy three months hence, create Peers. If you 
 wish to avoid an old age of sorrow and reproach, create Peers." Upon 
 this letter of Sydney Smith, which was addressed to lady Grey, the 
 following note is written by herself: "Many of lord Grey's friends, as 
 represented by Mr. S. Smith, concurred in the opinions expressed in this 
 letter, and the whole of the liberal press, the ' Times ' in particular, 
 urged the necessity of creating Peers, with alarming violence, and did not 
 scruple to assert that even the life of an old and timid man should be sacri- 
 ficed for the good of the country ! And had the Bill been again thrown out, 
 there is every probability that lord Grey would have run considerable 
 risk. Fully aware of this fact, it was therefore an act of no inconsiderable 
 courage to resist the entreaties of his friends and the opinion of the public ; 
 but the event justified the wisdom of his decision." f The "alarming 
 violence " of the liberal press at this subsequent period was only the reflection 
 of the more alarming violence which then prevailed throughout the country. 
 In the concluding portion of his speech on moving the second reading, lord 
 Grey said, " My lords, I admit that we have of late heard none of that outcry 
 on the part of the people which first marked the progress of this Bill. In 
 its place, a fearful silence at present prevails, — a silence which may, perhaps, 
 lead some persons foolishly to imagine that the people are no longer looking 
 at this question with the same feelings of interest. But I caution your lord- 
 ships to beware how you form that opinion." J The previous strong mani- 
 festation of popular opinion ; the formation of Political Unions throughout 
 the country ; the open talk of making force prevail if reason could not prevail, 
 had produced some alarm in the Court. Communications, it is affirmed, had 
 passed between the king's private secretary and lord Wharncliffe, in which 
 the royal wish had been expressed that the opposition to the Bill in the House 
 of Lords should be less decided. Lord Grey was aware of some partial change 
 of opinion. He said on this first debate on the second reading, " I must 
 confess that I look with something like hope to that which appears to be a 
 sort of approach to a favourable decision on the part of this House." Lord 
 "Wharncliffe and lord Harrowby had announced to him that they intended to 
 vote for the second reading, but with a full intention of striking from the Bill 
 
 « " Memoir," vol. ii. p. 334. 
 
 t " Life and Opinions of Charles, Earl Grey, by Lie 8on, the Hon C Grey," p. IC. 
 
 ? Haneard, vol. xii. col. 25.
 
 1832.] THE LORDS' COMMITTEE IN A MAJORITY AGAINST MINISTERS. 295 
 
 those parts vrhichthey deemed the most obnoxious.* The debate was carried 
 on for four nights, lord Ellenborough having moved as an amendment that 
 the Bill be read that day six months. At seven o'clock in the morning of 
 the 14ith of April, the Bill was read a second time by a majority of nine — a 
 hundred and eighty-four contents ; a hundred and seventy-five non-contents. 
 There were votes for the Bill from some who had been absent from the 
 division in 1831 ; some who had voted against it now abstained from voting ; 
 seventeen who had voted against the previous Bill now voted for this Bill. 
 Jeffrey, who was present through the debate, described it as not very bril- 
 liant, but in its latter stage excessively interesting. Lyndhurst's, he said, 
 was by far the cleverest and most dangerous speech against the government ; 
 lord Grey's reply, considering his age and the time, really astonishing, — he 
 having spoken near an hour and a half after five o'clock, irom the kindling 
 dawn into full sunlight. Of the aspect of the House through that night the 
 Lord-Advocate has left a striking picture.f The benches of the Peers very 
 full ; their demeanour, on the whole, still and solemn ; nearly three hundred 
 members of the Commons clustered in the space around the throne, or 
 standing in a row of three deep below the bar ; the candles renewed before 
 tne blue beams of the day came across their red light, and blazing on after 
 the sun came in at the high windows, producing a strange efiect on the red 
 draperies and dusky tapestries on the walls. 
 
 Parliament was adjourned for the Easter recess till the 7th of May. 
 Although there might be some rejoicing at the majority for the second 
 reading of the Bill, the popular conviction was, that it was not safe from 
 mutilations which would have materially changed its character. Por three 
 weeks there was incessant agitation, fur more formidable than riot and 
 window-breaking. Petitions from almost every populous place exhorted 
 " King William, the father of his country," not to hesitate if a necessity 
 should arise for creating Peers. The petition from Birmingham to the Lords 
 implored them to pass the Reform Bill into a law unimpaired in any of its 
 great parts and provisions. On the day appointed for the Parliament to 
 meet, the Political Unions of "Warwick, Worcester, and Stafi'ord were 
 assembled in Birmingham, at New Hall Hill. It was considered to be the 
 largest meeting ever held in Great Britain. There was a solemnity in the 
 enthusiasm of this vast body of people which may awake the memory of the 
 fervid zeal of the old Puritans. One of the speakers, Mr. Salt, called upon 
 the vast multitude to repeat, with, head uncovered, and in the face of 
 Heaven, the words which he should repeat — and every man bared his head, 
 and slowly uttered word by word this comprehensive resolve — " With 
 unbroken faith through every peril and privation we here devote ourselves 
 and our children to our country's cause." On that afternoon the House 
 of Lords went into Committee on the Eeform Bill, The first great 
 principle of the measure was the disfranchising of the boroughs. Lord 
 Lyndhurst moved, that the first and second clauses of the Bill be postponed. 
 These were the disfranchising clauses ; and the motion was carried against 
 ministers by a majority of thirty-five. Lord Grey, on that Monday night, 
 moved that the Chairman of the Committee should report progress, and ask 
 
 ♦ Roebuck's " Whig Ministry," vol. ii. p. 261. 
 
 t Cockburn— " Life of Lord JeflVey," vol. i. p. 330.
 
 296 THE KING REFUSES TO CREATE PEERS— THE MINISTRY RESIGNS. [1832. 
 
 leave to sit again on Thursday. His motion was carried. That interval of 
 two days preceded a week of intense excitement, such as the country had not 
 witnessed in any previous stages of this contest, — such as had certainly not 
 occurred in the memory of man, — perhaps had not occurred since the 
 Eevolution of 1688. 
 
 On the morning of the 8th of May the Cabinet, not without some appre- 
 hensions of the ultimate consequences of such a proceeding, resolved upon 
 asking the king to give his sanction to a large creation of Peers. Lord 
 Brougham has recorded his doubts as to this step in the following words : — 
 " I had a strong feeling of the necessity of the case, in the very peculiair 
 circumstances we were placed in ; but such was my deep sense of the 
 dreadful consequences of the act, that I much question whether I should not 
 have preferred running the risk of confusion that attended the loss of the 
 Bill as it then stood, rather than expose the Constitution to so imminent a 
 hazard of subversion." * The king without any hesitation refused his assent 
 to the proposition. " His Majesty's resolution had already been shaken by 
 the threatening aspect of affairs, and by the apprehensions of his family and 
 Court, and he not unnaturally shrank from so startling an exercise of his 
 prerogative." t The resignation of the ministers was at once tendered to the 
 sovereign, and the next day was formally accepted by letter. The details of 
 this audience have not yet escaped into the materials for history which are 
 found in private memoirs. Let us stray a moment from the dull highway 
 of politics into the pleasanter by-path of a private interview between lord 
 Althorp and the Lord Advocate of Scotland. " I went," writes Jeffrey on 
 the 9th, " to Althorp at ten o'clock, and had a characteristic scene with that 
 most honest, frank, true, and stout-hearted of all God's creatures. He had 
 not come down stairs, and I was led up to his dressing-room, where I found 
 him sitting on a stool, in a dark duffle dressing-gown, with his arms (very 
 rough and hairy), bare above the elbows, and his beard half shaved, and half 
 staring through the lather, with a desperate razor in one hand and a great 
 soap-brush in the other. He gave me the loose finger of the brush hand, 
 and with the usual twinkle of his bright eye and radiant smile, he said, ' You 
 need not be anxious about your Scotch bill for to-night, for I have the 
 pleasure to tell you, we are no longer his Majesty's ministers.' " Lord 
 Althorp's parting exhortation to the Lord Advocate was, "Do what you can 
 to keep peace, and with your last official breath exhort and conjure lovers of 
 liberty to be lovers of order and tolerance." On the evening of the 9th, lord 
 Grey announced to the Lords, and lord Althorp to the Commons, the resigna- 
 tion of ministers. On the 10th lord Ebrington moved, that the House should 
 address the King, expressing their deep regret at the change which had taken 
 place in the Councils of his Majesty, and to implore him " to call to his 
 Councils such persons only as will carry into eflfect, unimpaired in all its 
 essential provisions, that Bill for reforming the representation of the people 
 which has recently passed this House." The motion was carried by a 
 majority of eighty — ayes, 288 ; noes, 208. 
 
 For one week the nation was left to its conjectures, to its fears, to ita 
 
 * " British ConBtitution," 1861, p. 270. 
 f M;iy — " Coustitutioual History," p. 119.
 
 1832.] THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON ATTEMPTS TO FORM A GOVERNMENT. 297 
 
 anger, at the position of the government. The functions, indeed, of a govern- 
 ment were suspended. The "Whig Cabinet had gone out without leaving one 
 holder of a subordinate office who would consent to join the government 
 which the duke of Wellington had received authority from his sovereign to 
 form. But thougli the nation was in suspense, that week was not a time of 
 inactivity. In every populous place there were public meetings ; and there 
 was scarcely a town or city where resolutions were not entered into that 
 petitions should be presented to the House of Commons, praying that no 
 supplies should be granted till the Bill was passed unimpaired. Mr. John 
 Wood, — whose political character was distinguished through many years of 
 public service for his temperate support of liberal principles, — on presenting 
 a petition from Manchester, signed in the space of three hours by twenty-five 
 thousand persons, stated that the whole of the north of England, as a depu- 
 tation which brought the petition informed him, was in a state of indignation 
 which it was impossible to describe. It was his firm conviction that if a 
 boroughmongering faction should prevail, the people would themselves take 
 the most eff"ectual mode of stopping the supplies, by telling the tax-gatherer 
 to call again when the Reform Bill was passed. The danger seemed coming 
 on which Mr. Macaulay had dreaded when the first Eeform Bill was rejected 
 by the House of Lords : "I do not predict, I do not expect, open armed 
 insurrection. What I apprehend is this, — that the people may engage in a 
 silent but extensive and persevering war against the law. I fear that we 
 may, before long, see the tribunals defied, the tax-gatherer resisted, pubhc 
 credit shaken, property insecure, the whole frame of society hastening to 
 dissolution." * All these possible consequences presented a greater danger 
 than the threats of some Political Unions that they would march to London 
 and bivouack in the squares ; more fearful than the protestations of the Bir- 
 mingham Union that two himdred thousand men should go forth from their 
 shops and forges to encamp on Harapstead Heath, and there become the 
 arbiters of the nation's destiny. Much of this was wild talk, and equally 
 wild were the speculations that the duke of Wellington had resolved to put 
 an end to such popular demonstrations by the power of the sword. A debate 
 ensued upon the presentation of the Manchester petition, in which violent 
 expressions were employed, touching " a fighting duke and a military govern- 
 ment," — of a people not to be diverted from their purpose by " swords and 
 bayonets." It was stated that the duke of Wellington had stood pledged 
 since the 9th to quiet the country in ten days. The Scots Greys, quartered 
 at Birmingham, had been employed on the Sunday in grinding their swords, 
 as was afterwards told the world in the Autobiography of a trooper who 
 held some strong political opinions in common with other members of his 
 corps, and was punished, as many averred with some appearance of truth, for 
 the too free expression of those opinions.f The duke of Wellington had 
 other business in hand far more pressing, and with far more promise of 
 success, than an attempt to govern England by the sword. He set out with 
 confidence upon a royal commission to endeavour to give the necessary 
 cohesion to the variously shaped atoms whose parliamentary union had 
 
 • " Speeches of T. B. Macaulay, corrected by himself," p. 59. 
 + " Autobiography of a Working Mau" (Somerville).
 
 298 THE NEGOTIATIONS FAIL— THE MINISTERS REPLACED. [1832: 
 
 tlirown out the Eeform Bill. Out of the conglomeration of these, a road was 
 to be formed over whicli the state carnage might travel in safety, — not a 
 macadamised road, but one constructed of round and square, smootb and 
 rough materials, thrown together in a heap, to become serviceable when the 
 people had sustained many accidents with fortitude, had ceased to be 
 impatient of unavoidable obstruction, and were reconciled to what they 
 deemed tyrannous. Of the failure of this plan the duke of "Wellington gave 
 a narrative to the House of Lords on the 17th of May. His majesty, when 
 he was left entirely alone by his ministers, had sent for lord Lyndhurst, " to 
 inquire if, in his opinion, there were any means, and if so, what means of 
 forming a government for his majesty, on the principle of carrying an exten- 
 sive Eeform in the representation of the people."* Lord Lyndhurst com- 
 municated with the duke of Wellington, and the duke found" that a large 
 number of his friends were not unwilling to give their support to a govern- 
 ment formed upon such a principle, and especially to resist the advice which 
 had been given to the king by his retiring ministers. His majesty thought 
 an extensive measure of Eeform should be carried. He, the duke, was 
 always of opinion that Eeform was unnecessary, and would prove most 
 injurious. Nevertheless, he went about his task without any object of 
 personal ambition. No part of the Bill before Parliament was safe, but 
 undoubtedly a part of the Bill would be less injurious than the whole Bill. 
 The duke very clearly pointed to a sufficient cause for his failure, — he 
 had differed with some right honourable friends with whom he had 
 been for many years in habits of cordial union. Sir Eobert Peel, the 
 next night in the House of Commons made the whole course of the 
 negotiation perfectly intelligible. Lord Lyndhurst had conferred with 
 him, although no communication was then made by the express com- 
 mand of his majesty — and had asked whether he, sir Eobert Peel, would enter 
 into the king's service at this crisis — whether he would accept that office 
 which in political life is supposed to be the highest office of ambition, on the 
 clear understanding that his majesty's past declarations with regard to 
 Eeform should be fulfilled. "I answered," said sir Eobert, "under the 
 influence of feelings which no reasoning could abate, that it would not be for 
 my honour, or the advantage of the country, that I should accept office on 
 the condition of introducing an extensive measure of Eeform. "f The differ- 
 ent courses taken by the duke of Wellington and sir Eobert Peel were cha- 
 racteristic of the two men. The first impulse of the duke was to obey the 
 wishes of his sovereign, not caring for a sacrifice of consistency. Sir Eobert 
 Peel took a broader view than that of a dutiful obedience to the wishes of his 
 sovereign. He saw very clearly that no compromise of the principle of 
 Eeform would now satisfy the expectations of the people. He had made a 
 sacrifice of his consistency on a previous great occasion. He would now 
 maintain it, and let others carry the measure which he held to be dangerous. 
 These personal questions are, to a certain extent, of a temporary nature. 
 More important and ])ermanent are the Constitutional questions which became 
 prominent in this ministerial crisis. In the debate of the 17th tlie duke of 
 Wellington said, with reference to the proposed creation of peers : — " I ask, 
 
 •» Hansard, vol. xii. col. 993. t lOid., col. 1074.
 
 1832.] THE KIXG'S CONSENT TO CREATE PEERS NOT EXERCISED. 299 
 
 my lords, is there any one blind enough not to see that if a minister can with 
 impunity advise his sovereign to such an unconstitutional exercise of his 
 prerogative, as to thereby decide all questions in this House, there is abso- 
 lutely an end to the power and objects of deliberation in this House, and an 
 end to all just and proper means of decision? " In answer to this question 
 lord Grey said : " And I ask, what would be the consequences if we were to 
 suppose that sucli a prerogative did not exist, or could not be constitutionally 
 exercised ? The Commons have a control over the power of the Crown by 
 the privilege, in extreme cases, of refusing the supplies ; and the Crown has, 
 by means of its power to dissolve the House of Commons, a control upon any 
 violent and rash proceedings on the part of the Commons ; but if a majority 
 of this House is to have the power, whenever they please, of opposing the 
 declared and decided wishes both of the Crown and the people, without any 
 means of modifying that power, then this country is placed entirely under 
 the influence of an uncontrollable oligarchy."* 
 
 On the 15th of May it was announced in both Houses that ministers had 
 resumed their communication with his majesty. As the news went through 
 the land the people everywhere settled down, in patience to abide the result. 
 On the 18th lord Grey declared in the House of Lords that he now enter- 
 tained a confident expectation of being able to carry the Reform Bill unim- 
 paired and immediately. TJpon what grounds did this confidence rest ? 
 Lord Grey and lord Brougham had an audience of the King at Windsor, on 
 the 17th. The King, it is stated, was alarmed, and manifested not only 
 emotion, but displeasure. He kept the two peers standing, contrary to usage, 
 during their audience. He retained his private secretary, sir Herbert Taylor, 
 in the room, during the whole time. Lord Grey and lord Brougham declined 
 to return to office unless the King gave a promise to the necessary creation 
 of Peers, The promise was most reluctantly given. Lord Brougham 
 requested permission to have it in writing. The words of this document 
 were as follows : " The King grants permission to earl Grey, and to his chan- 
 cellor, lord Brougham, to create such a number of Peers as will be sufficient 
 to insure the passing of the Eeform Bill — first calling up peers' eldest sons. 
 (Signed) William E,, Windsor, May 17, 1832."t The power of creation 
 was never called into exercise. The King, through sir Herbert Taylor, em- 
 ployed his personal influence with the opposition Peers to induce them to desist 
 from further attempts to arrest the course of the Eeform Bill. It has been 
 stated that his private secretary — a man of remarkable sagacity and discre- 
 tion — had communicated to some of the more vehement of the Peers a narra- 
 tive of what had passed at the interview at Windsor, and had thereby in- 
 CTU-red a tremendous responsibility. There was no personal danger in his 
 writing a circular letter to the anti-Reform Peers in general, stating " that all 
 difficulties to the arrangements in progress will be obviated by a declaration 
 in the House to-night from a sufficient number of Peers, that, in consequence 
 of the present state of affairs, they have come to the resolution of dropping 
 their further opposition to the Reform Bill, so that it may pass without delay, 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xii. col. 1006. 
 
 + Roebuck's " History of the Whig Ministry," vol. ii. p. 331. Mr. Roebuck states that the 
 document is missing from the papers of Lord Brougham, but that it was seen by many persons at 
 tiie time.
 
 300 FINAL PASSING OF THE REFORM BILL. [1832. 
 
 and as nearly as possible in its present shape." The pressure of the royal 
 will upon the Peers was unconstitutional. " This interference of the King 
 with the independent deliberations of the House of Lords was in truth a 
 more unconstitutional act than a creation of Peers."* But it overcame the 
 difficulties of an alarming crisis. It saved the necessity of what was popu- 
 larly called " swamping the House of Lords ;" it averted the manifold 
 dangers of a continued resistance to the wishes of the people ; it removed a 
 g]'eat embarrassment from the Cabinet, — for unquestionably the prime minis- 
 ter, the lord chancellor, and others, would have hesitated to use at all, certainly 
 to use to their full extent, the powers which were granted to them. The 
 advice tendered by sir Herbert Taylor was at once adopted. The duke of 
 Wellington withdrew after his explanation on the 17th, and did not return to 
 the House of Lords till the night after the passing of the Reform Bill. His 
 wise and patriotic example was followed by a sufficient number of Peers to 
 afford a decided majority for the ministers. On the 21st of May the discus- 
 sion of the Bill was resumed. The duke of Newcastle, after several of the 
 clauses had been passed, said, with bitter irony, that he would recommend to 
 the Committee to vote all the details of the Bill at once, and send it up to a 
 third reading. The business in Committee was finished on the last day of 
 May. On the 4th of June the Bill was passed by a majority of eighty-four. 
 The Commons next day agreed to the unimportant amendments proposed by 
 the Lords, and on the 7th of June the English Eeform Bill received the royal 
 assent. The Beform Act for Scotland and the Reform Act for Ireland were 
 also quickly passed — the Scotch Bill on the 13th of July ; the Irish on the 
 18th. After the experience of thirty years this measure has been described 
 by one perfectly well acquainted with the theory and practice of Parliament, 
 as "a measure at once bold, comprehensive, moderate and constitutional; 
 popular but not democratic, it extended liberty without hazarding revolution. 
 . That it was theoretically complete, and left nothing for future 
 statesmen to effect, its authors never affirmed ; but it was a masterly eettle- 
 ment of a perilous question."! 
 
 * May, vol. i. p. 120. 
 
 t May, " CouBtitutiona,! Hist-^ry," p. 357.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Dissolution of Parliament — Proceedings for Elections under the Reform Act — Effect of Changes 
 in the system of Representation — Condition of the Nomination Boroughs — Electoral 
 changes in close Corporations — The new Representation — Metropolitan Boroughs — 
 Manufacturing Towns— Scotland — Ireland — Approaching meeting of the Reformed Par- 
 liament — Fears of Anti-Reformers — Extension of Popular Literature during the Crisis. 
 
 Paeliament, having been prorogued on the 16th of August, was 
 dissolved by proclamation on the 3rd of December. A new parliament was 
 then summoned. During the autumn and early winter the entire population 
 had been engaged in preparing for that reconstruction of the entire frame- 
 work of the representative system with which, according to some, a new and 
 more glorious temple of liberty should be built up. According to others, 
 this disjointed and dangerous scaffolding of modern experiment would perish 
 in that whirlwind of anarchy which was soon to sweep over the land. The 
 preparations for a general election were altogether so new, — so entirely 
 different from the rough and ready license long associated with the exercise 
 of the suffrage — that many in England began to think with regret of the
 
 302 PROCEEDINGS FOR ELECTIONS UNDER THE REFORM ACT. [1S32, 
 
 good old times ■when the oath at the election-booth, amidst the bluster of 
 counsel and the cheers or hisses of the mob, was the sole test of the free- 
 holder's or occupier's right to vote. "What formalities were now to be gone 
 through. Oil the 20th of June there was affixed on the door of every 
 church and chapel a notice, requiring all persons who might be entitled to 
 vote for Knights of the Shire in respect of property situate in that parish or 
 township, to send the particulars of their claims to the overseers. Of the 
 claims thus made the overseers were to prepare a list, and publish it in the 
 same manner before the last day of July. A similar process, with some 
 slight variation, was to be pursued in boroughs. The overseers were to 
 prepare the list, and parties who had been omitted were to demand the 
 insertion of their names. But now arises a second process which, whether 
 in village or in town, is for a fortnight to be a perpetual source of discussion 
 and dispute, at every market dinner-table and in every club-room. Objectors 
 to the names in the lists are to send their objections to certain authorities. 
 The cavillings are hushed for awhile. The objections are made ; but these 
 are no more than the pleas for a judicial investigation. A new and strange 
 machinery is to come into operation between the 15th of September and the 
 25th of October, to separate the wheat from the chaff. The great winnower 
 is the revising-barrister. A day or two of dispute in every county town and 
 in every borough, and then the object is accomplished which is set forth in 
 the Act — " it is expedient to form a Register." The lists are duly attested 
 and copied into proper books. All the work of swearing, and cross-examina- 
 tion, and decision of the returning- officer, — who, if he were the mayor of a 
 borough, had as little legal knowledge as mayors commonly possessed, — 
 was at an end. The marginal note to the statute describes in a few 
 words what would be the result of this preliminary investigation — " no 
 inquiry at the time of election, except as to the identity of the voter, 
 the continuance of his qualification, and whether he has voted before at the 
 same election." 
 
 The proclamation summoning a new parliament has gone forth. But 
 what a change has taken place in the arrangements for the approaching hour 
 of battle. Por county elections the polling was to continue for two days, 
 and to last during seven hours of the first day, and eight hours of the second. 
 To accomplish this the counties were to be divided into convenient districts 
 for polling. In the same way the elections for boroughs were to occupy only 
 two days, and if necessary, polling-booths were to be erected at separate 
 places of the same borough. Not altogether would the immemorial election- 
 row, the speeches, the fun and the fight below the hustings, be discon- 
 tinued. There would be a nomination-day, on which protestations and 
 pledges might be duly given, and the troublesome querist bowed off or hooted 
 down. After the nomination the humours of an election were pretty nearly 
 over. There was much real business to be done in committee-rooms, and 
 zealous partizans hurried to and fro, and whispered magical words of 
 encouragement to voters whose consciences were too scrupulous for a sudden 
 resolve. Eight-and-forty hours saw the end of all this. The day of payment 
 was to corae for the unhappy candidate ; probably the petition to the House 
 of Commons against an undue return ; the determination of a committee to
 
 1832.] EFFECT OF CHAXGES IX THE REPRESENTATION. 303 
 
 put down bribery ; the ranker gro-wtli of the weed after tbe scratching over 
 of the ground on which it flourished. 
 
 If the modes of election were altered in this most revolutionary fashion, 
 in places which had retained their old, or acquired their new, privilege of 
 sending members to parliament, how much more revolutionary was the 
 change which took away this right from fifty-six English boroughs returning 
 collectively a hundred and eleven members : and which reduced the number 
 of representatives in other boroughs so as to take a hundred and forty-three 
 members out of the old scheme of representation. 
 
 The history of our ancient system of summoning to Parliament for cities 
 and boroughs is full of obscurity. It is difficult at first to understand how 
 places which could never have been very populous or wealthy should have 
 been selected, in common with towns which in very early times were great 
 marts of commerce, possessing as they did all the organization of municipal 
 government which was so marked a characteristic of the life of England in 
 the days of feudality. These seats of industry were fitted for electoral rights. 
 Gradually many of the municipal authorities usurped the rights of the 
 freemen, and became themselves the sole possessors of the franchise. 
 The earliest record of the regular existence of the House of Commons is 
 from the reign of Edward the Eirst. The list up to the time of Henry the 
 Eighth of cities and boroughs sending representatives is strikingly illustrative 
 of the stability as well as the mutability of human afiairs. Of the hundred 
 and sixty-three places of this early period which had not intermitted their privi- 
 lege at the time of the Reform Bill, — returning collectively three hundred 
 and thirteen members, — there were only twenty-nine wholly disqualified, and 
 twenty»Iive partially disqualified, for want of a sufficient population in 1832. 
 Mr. HaUam was of opinion that it would be difficult to name any town of 
 the least consideration in the 14tli or 15th centuries which did not at some 
 time or other return members to parliament ; and he concluded that if we 
 found any inland town or seaport which had never enjoyed the elective 
 franchise, we must suppose that it had since emerged from obscurity. He 
 subsequently qualified this opinion, although true in the main, by recollecting 
 exceptions in the northern part of England, such as Sheffield and Manchester.* 
 Of the petty boroughs of the 15th and 16th centuries that passed into 
 schedule A, we can scarcely understand why the number should have been 
 so few, except by referring to the undoubted fact that representation was 
 often regarded by the burgesses as a burden rather than a privilege. Their 
 old custom of returning members to parliament often dropped into disuse. 
 John Paston, in 1472, writes to his brother Sir John, " If ye miss to be 
 burgess of Maldon, and my lord Chamberlain will, ye may be in another 
 place. There be a dozen towns in England that choose no burgess which 
 ought to do it. Ye may be set infer one of those towns, if ye be friended." f 
 In the reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, there were forty-six new 
 writs addressed to comparatively petty places with the exception of the City 
 of Westminster. Eew of these were derived from a popular principle, such 
 as had influenced the early constitution of the House of Commons. They 
 
 * " Constitutional History," chap. xiii. 
 
 + " Paston Letters," Ramsaj's edition, vol. ii. p. 71.
 
 304 CONDITION OF THE NOMINATION BOROUGHS. [1532. 
 
 were called into parliamentary existence for the purpose of strengthening 
 the government, whether Protestant or Popish, in the revolutions of religion. 
 Of the boroughs of Edward the Sixth, seven passed into Schedule A ; of 
 those of Mary, five were thus disfranchised ; and of those of Elizabetli 
 sixteen. Of these comparatively modern seats of venality twelve were in 
 Cornwall. 
 
 Of the fifty-six English boroughs which had been scheduled into a political 
 death, the representative history would be exceedingly curious if it could be 
 traced not merely from the dry rolls of parliament, but from the secret 
 records of great peers, who held not only these very obscure places to do 
 what they would with their own, but dominated over others which had their 
 mark upon them in schedule B, and even over others which had no mark at 
 all. " "What right," exclaimed Sydney Smith, during the discussions on the 
 Eeform Bill, " has this lord or that marquis to buy ten seats in Parliament 
 in the shape of boroughs, and then to make laws to govern me ?"* This was 
 not a rhetorical flourish ; the question was founded upon a well-known fact. 
 " The duke of Norfolk was represented by eleven members ; lord Lonsdale by 
 nine ; lord Darlington by seven ; the duke of Rutland, the marquis of Buck- 
 ingham, and lord Carrington, each by six. Seats were held, in both Houses 
 alike, by hereditary right." f Marvellous is it to look back upon the condi- 
 tion of some of the nomination boroughs, which my lord handed over to his son 
 just come from Eton, or to Vellum the Steward, or to Mr. Plumpkin, a neigh- 
 bouring country gentleman, or to the distant relation in the County Militia who 
 calls up the carriage at the Opera, or to the barrister who has written an article 
 in the " Quarterly," — as these nominees are described by the reverend humorist. 
 Foremost is Old Sarum, which, in 1831, returned two members, absolutely 
 
 with a population that stands in the census thus, , as too small to be 
 
 enumerated. Nevertheless, a ceremony of choosing two burgesses who should 
 interpret his patriotic wishes in Parliament was gone through by the one 
 elector of the borough, who kept tlie ale-house at the foot of the venerable 
 mound. Bramber borough, also returning two members, was in schedule A — 
 borough and parish having twenty-one inhabited houses and six uninhabited, 
 with a male population of fifty-six. The railway traveller approaching the 
 Kedhill station may look upon the picturesque woods and beautiful mansion 
 of Gatton. Its glory is departed, for no longer come out upon the lawn the 
 seven electors enjoying household suifrage to return the two right honourables 
 who were nominated by the owner of that great house. Dunwich, once the 
 seat of the first East- Anglian bishop, was washed away by the sea ; but it 
 had not lost all its splendour, for, out of its forty-four hovels came the half- 
 dozen voters who returned the earl of Brecknock and a Commoner to repre- 
 sent them in Parliament. The changes in the coast line had made Win- 
 chelsea desolate, but no changes of society could deprive "Winchelsea of its 
 glorious privilege of having as potent a voice in the legislature as Liverpool. 
 Most valuable were such places as property, for the nomination to them was 
 notoriously sold. The nomination for Gatton, without the estate, was held to 
 be worth a hundred thousand pounds as an investment. There is a passage 
 
 * Speech at Taunton. 
 
 t May, " Constitutional Histoid," p. 277.
 
 1832.] ELECTORAL CHANGES IN CLOSE CORPORATIONS. 305 
 
 in Locke's famous "Treatise on Civil Government" which sufiBciently showa 
 that such anomalies of English representation existed at the time of the 
 Eevolution, as they would continue to exist for nearly a century and a half 
 later. " Things not always changing equally, and private interest often keep- 
 ing up customs and privileges when the reasons of them are ceased, it often 
 comes to pass, that in governments, where part of the legislative consists of 
 representatives chosen by the people, in tract of time this representation 
 becomes very unequal and disproportionate to the reasons it was at first 
 established upon. To what gross absurdities the following of a custom, when 
 reason has left it, may lead, we may be satisfied when we see the bare name 
 of a town, of which there remains not so much as the ruins, where scarce so 
 much housing as a sheep-cote, or more inhabitants than a shepherd is to be 
 found, sends as many representatives to tlie grand assembly of law-makers 
 as a whole county, numerous in people and powerful in riches. This strangers 
 stand amazed at, and every one must confess needs a remedy." 
 
 The electors of the favoured Nomination Boroughs, whether voters by 
 scot and lot, or potwallopers, or holding by burgage tenure, had little cause 
 to weep over what some parliamentary orators called the extinction of ancient 
 rights. They had a very small share in the division of the spoil. A leg of 
 mutton and trimmings at the Chequers was their general reward for the 
 discreet exercise of their noble privileges. The borough patrons, Whigs or 
 Tories, — for each party had a tolerably equal share in this species of property, — 
 put the purchase-money into their pockets at every election, without caring 
 to oil the machinery which worked the mine. When Eomilly bought his seat 
 for Horsham of the duke of Norfolk, the "free and independent electors" 
 had little advantage of the cash. When George the Third, in 1779, wrote to 
 lord North, " If the duke of Northumberland requires some gold pills for the 
 election, it would be wrong not to satisfy him,"* his grace of Northumber- 
 land's electors were necessarily content with a bread pill or two without the 
 gilding. There was no insurrection in the decayed boroughs ; no threatened 
 march to London, when their electoral privileges Avere quietly buried, never 
 again to be exhumed. Not so noiseless was the grief of the close corpora- 
 tions, who, in some ancient cities and manufacturing towns, returned the 
 representatives of populous communities. Sad was the day of December 
 when the mayor, ten aldermen, and twenty-four common-councilmen of the 
 city of Bath found that their power of choosing the representatives of fifty 
 thousand persons was come to an end. Dire was the grief when the bailiif 
 and twelve burgesses of Buckingham could no longer do the bidding of the 
 lord of Stowe. With dejected looks the corporators of no very small number 
 of boroughs had to go forth into the market-place to proclaim the writ that 
 would cease to be a symbol of their exclusive power. And yet, in such case, 
 what was called the respectability of a town was not wholly swamped in the flood 
 of democracy. With singular inconsistency it was maintained, in the case 
 of Bath, that "the first member elected by the new constituency was the very 
 same gentleman whom the corrupt andjobbingcorporatorshad returned for six 
 or seven parliaments, as they had done his father for three parliaments,before."t 
 
 • Letters of Lord North, appended to Lord Brougham's " Sketches of Statesmen," vol. i, p, 
 137, edition 1855. 
 
 + " Quarterly RevieTV," voL ilix. p. 207. 
 VOL. VIII.— 244.
 
 306 THE NEW REPRESENTATION— METROPOLITAN BOROUGHS. [1832. 
 
 The grief was, that the second member, whom the corporation generally chose 
 from the families of the marquis of Bath or the marquis Camden, was one of 
 those " extraordinary missionaries whom Mr. Hume despatched by the several 
 stage-coaches, labelled and ticketed, and, for aught we know, specified in the 
 way-bill, as members to be chosen for such and such a place." What has 
 Bath gained by the change ? asks the reviewer. It gained John Arthur 
 Roebuck instead of the nominee of lord Bath or lord Camden. 
 
 Let us turn from what the Reform Bill destroyed in England to what it 
 created or restored. Mr. May has pointed out that in 1776 John Wilkes 
 proposed a scheme comprising " all the leading principles of Parliamentary 
 Reform which were advocated for the next fifty years without success, and 
 have been sanctioned within our own time." We refer to the " Parliamentary 
 History," and find that the proposition of the famous demagogue, who then 
 triumphantly sat in Parliament for Middlesex, was to give an increased 
 representation to the metropolis ; to lop ofi" the mean, venal, and dependent 
 boroughs ; and to permit " the rich, populous, trading towns Birmingham, 
 Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, and others, to send deputies to the great 
 council of the nation." The motion of Wilkes was of course negatived with- 
 out a division. The terms in which lord North told him this would happen 
 supply an amusing contrast to the political hypocrisy of half a century later, 
 which maintained that " the rotten part of our constitution " was " a thing 
 of beauty" — the ornament and safety of the State. The member for Mid- 
 dlesex, said the frank and good-humoured minister, " would find it no easy 
 task to prevail on those who had an interest in the boroughs, on which he 
 bestowed so many hard names, to sacrifice to ideal schemes of reformation 
 so beneficial a species of property."* The increased representation of the 
 metropolis was effected by the Reform Bill in the creation of four new 
 boroughs — Marylebone, Tinsbury, the Tower Hamlets, and Lambeth. The 
 increase of Marylebone had been going on for more than a century. After 
 the building of Cavendish Square in the reign of George the First, Maryle- 
 bone became the most aristocratic district of London. There were five hun- 
 dred and seventy-seven houses in the parish in 1739, and the number of 
 persons who kept coaches was thirty-five. In 1831 the number of houses 
 was eleven thousand six hundred and eight. The statistics of the nineteenth 
 century would have little regard to the number of coaches as an index of the 
 wealth of the people. The returns of assessed taxes aff"ord a surer criterion. 
 In 1831 the aggregate amount so paid for each one hundred persons was 
 IQSl. in the City, 150L in Westminster, 1201. in Marylebone. Finsbury ex- 
 hibited only three-fourths of the wealth thus indicated by direct taxation, 
 though its population was greater than that of Marylebone. The Tower 
 Hamlets contained the poorest population, with the greatest commercial 
 wealth. It was the seat of the docks and of ship-building yards. It was a 
 vast maritime city, with all the inequalities of condition that belong to such 
 a population. The Tower Hamlets paid only a fourth of the amount of 
 assessed taxes collected in Marylebone. Lambeth was the seat of the 
 principal manufacturing industries of London. Its population was con- 
 siderably less than that of the other new metropolitan boroughs. Its large 
 
 • " Parliamentary History," vol. xviii. cols. 1295 — 1297.
 
 1S32.] 
 
 MANUFACTURING TOWKS. 
 
 307 
 
 number of the smallest houses was balanced by its larger number of 
 moderate-sized private houses, especially in its pleasant southern districts, 
 which might then be called rural. Such were the populations of the 
 metropolitan north that had succeeded " the archers of Finsbury and the 
 citizens that come a-ducking to Islington ponds." * Such were the popula- 
 tions of the metropolitan south that had trodden out the memories of the 
 bishop of Winchester's palace, of the Liberty of the Clink, of the Bear- 
 garden, and of the Globe. 
 
 Finsbury Fields in the Time of Elizabeth. 
 
 The most important of the manufacturing towns which attained to the 
 dignity of sending two members to Parliament under the Eeform Act were 
 Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Sunderland, 'Wolverhampton, 
 "Bolton, Bradford, Blackbura, Halifax, Macclesfield, Oldham, Stockport, 
 Stoke-upou-Trent, and Stroud. Brighton, a wealthy and fashionable water- 
 lug-place, was included in this catalogue. Of the twenty-one less important 
 new boroughs which were to return one member, the chief commercial towns 
 
 Ben Jonson — " Every Man in his Humour."
 
 808 MANUFACTURING TOWNS. [1832. 
 
 were Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Dudley, Frome, Q-ateahead, Huddersfield, 
 Kidderminster, Kendjl, Eochdale, Salford, South Shields, Tynemouth, 
 "Wakefield, Warrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Merthyr-Tydvil. To this 
 catalogue were added Chatham and Cheltenham. What vast changes in the 
 whole structure of society are indicated by this bare enumeratioa ! With 
 this list is associated all the history of the wondrous rise of the textile 
 manufactures, dating from the times of Arkwright and Crompton ; of the 
 first rotatory steam-engine of Watt, erected at Warrington in 1787 ; of the 
 power-loom of Cartwright. How suggestive it is of the vast changes in the 
 smelting of iron from the time of the improved processes of Eoebuck ; of the 
 opening of vast beds of coal that lay useless beneath the surface, and of the 
 workings of copper and tin mines, whose treasures were drowned till the 
 new power of mechanics had made them dry ; of the numberless beautiful 
 arts that had been called into life in the working of metals ; of the discoveries 
 of chemistry, which had done as much for the triumphs of industry as the 
 inventions of machinery. If the opposers of the Reform of 1832 could have 
 put back the dial of a nation's progress for three more decades, we may ask 
 how the population of Manchester and Salford, which in 1831 was two 
 hundred and twenty-seven thousand, would have endured their position in 
 1861, when their population was four hundred and sixty thousand; how 
 Birmingham, which in 1831 was a hundred and forty-two thousand, would 
 have felt in 1861 with two hundred and ninety-five thousand ; how Leeds, 
 with its hundred and twenty-three thousand would have been content when 
 it had reached two hundred and seven thousand ; how Shefiield, with its 
 hundred and twenty-six thousand would have remained quiet when it had 
 reached a hundred and eighty-five thousand ; how Bradford, with forty-three 
 thousand, would have rested without representation with a hundred and six 
 thousand. Since the era of the Eeform Bill there have been other changes in 
 the relative importance of industrial communities, but not so great as those 
 we have glanced at. Macaulay, in bis speech on the second reading of the first 
 Beform Bill, exclaimed against the doctrine of finality — " Who can say that 
 a hundred years hence there may not be, on the shore of some desolate and 
 silent bay in the Hebrides, another Liverpool, with its docks and warehouses and 
 endless forests of masts ? Who can say that the huge chimneys of another 
 Manchester may not rise in the wilds of Connemara ?" * This is the poetry 
 of eloquence. But it is a significant fact, illustrative of the same principle, 
 that "another Liverpool" should have arisen on the sparsely populated 
 south-western shore of the Mersey since Macaulay talked of industry and 
 trade finding out new seats ; that Birkenhead should have been by the 
 statute of the 25th of Victoria constituted a parliamentary borough, — the 
 first borough obtaining the right of representation by the energy that in 
 twenty years produced a port that might rival those of famous cities that had 
 been growing for centuries. 
 
 We may add to this imperfect notice a few words about the Reform Act 
 for Scotland. The number of its representatives had been determined by the 
 Act of Union. Wilkes shrewdly said, in 1776, " I am almost afraid the 
 forty-five Scottish gentlemen among us represent themselves," In 1831 the 
 
 • " Speeches," p. 32.
 
 1832.] SCOTLAND. 309 
 
 total number of county voters was about two tLousand five hundred : the 
 sixty-six burghs had an aggregate constituency of one thousand four hundred 
 and forty. Edinburgh, with its population of a hundred and sixty-two 
 thousand, had a constituency of thirty-three persons ; Glasgow, with its two 
 hundred and two thousand, rejoiced in the same number of capable men to 
 save its inhabitants from the troublesome choice of a fit and proper person to 
 represent them in Parliament. The great authorities who domineered over 
 the total Scotch electoral body of four thousand were under the dominion 
 of the minister of the day who distributed patronage for the government, 
 and of the succession of such ministers none was more active and adroit than 
 the second lord Melville. Those who went to Parliament acted upon the 
 sound principle of the Scotch county member, who said, " that his invariable 
 rule was never to be present at a debate or absent at a division, and that 
 he had only once in his long political life ventured to vote according to his 
 conscience, and that he found that on that occasion he had voted wrong." * 
 Without entering minutely into a description of the wonderful local ma- 
 chinery by which this extraordinary system of representation was managed, 
 and of which system Jefirey, as Lord Advocate, justly boasted that he had 
 "left not a shred or patch," it maybe sufl&cient to say that the elective 
 franchise in counties being enveloped in feudal and technical absurdities, 
 and thus costing a heavy price to attain, it was beyond the reach, not only of 
 the lower class, but even of the majority of the middle and many of the 
 higher classes. Of the town members Edinburgh returned only one ; four- 
 teen were returned by groups of burghs, each electing a delegate, and the 
 four or five delegates so associated electing the representative. " Whatever 
 this system may have been originally, it had grown, in reference to the 
 people, into as complete a mockery as if it had been invented for their degra- 
 dation. The people had nothing to do with it. It was all managed by town 
 councils, of never more than thirty-three members, and every town council 
 was self-elected, and consequently perpetuated its own interests. The elec- 
 tion of either the town or the county member was a matter of such utter 
 indifference to the people, that they often only knew of it by the ringing of 
 a bell, or by seeing it mentioned next day in a newspaper ; for the farce was 
 generally performed in an apartment from which, if convenient, the public 
 could be excluded, and never in the open air." f 
 
 The Eeform Bill for Ireland, although contributing to the general 
 improvement of the representation of the United Kingdom, was a much 
 milder change of system than either the English or the Scotch bills. There 
 was the same influence of great patrons in counties and boroughs ; but the 
 mode in which that influence was principally exercised, through the right of 
 election in many places being vested in the corporations, was taken away by 
 the Reform Act and vested in ten pound householders. There were no dis- 
 franchising clauses in the Act. The number of members was increased from 
 one hundred to one hundred and five. The franchise, however, was com- 
 paratively very restricted. It was somewhat extended by a statute of the 
 13 & 14 Victoria, 1850. 
 
 Hansard, Third Series, vol. vii. col. 543, from a speech of Mr. Gillon, member At 
 Selkirk. 
 
 t Cockbum, " Life of Lord Jeffrey," vol. i. p. 75.
 
 310 APPROACHING MEETING OF THE REFORMED PARLIAMENT. [1S3S. 
 
 The Electiona were over before the close of the year. According to the 
 estimate of a journalist of that time, who was long famous for his scrupulous 
 attention to the accuracy of minute details, there were two hundred and 
 fifteen gentlemen who occupied seats for England in the last Parliament who 
 were not returned to the new one. Of these, one hundred and forty-eight 
 were anti-reformers. In Scotland, eighteen who were formerly in Parliament 
 were also not returned. In Ireland, forty-two of the old members ceased to 
 sit. Thirty of those who had thus lost their seats were Eeformers ; but they 
 were principally driven out by Eepealers. Altogether it was estimated that 
 five hundred and eleven ministerialists and reformers were returned ; and a 
 hundred and forty-seven who, now designated as Conservatives, were anti- 
 ministerialists.* . 
 
 And now the dreaded Eeform Parliament was to assemble at the end of 
 January, 1833. In 1835 a sensible traveller in England wrote to his friend 
 in Germany, " Those who compared the Eeform Parliament to the French 
 !N'ational Assemblies have happily been greatly mistaken in their calculations ; 
 otherwise, instead of the tranquillity and satisfaction in which England lives, 
 the guillotine would be already at work," f The crisis of terror through 
 which many of the rich and fashionable classes had passed, and from which 
 they had not yet emerged after six months' experience had shown them that 
 chaos was not come again, is described by one who lived in the exclusive 
 circles. Eive days after the passing of the Eeform Bill, Mr. Eaikes thus 
 writes in his Diary : — " I do not think that in all my experience I ever 
 remember such a season in London as this has been ; so little gaiety, so few 
 dinners, balls, and fetes. The political dissensions have undermined society,, 
 and produced coolnesses between so many of the highest families, and 
 between even near relations, who have taken opposite views of the question. 
 Independent of this feeling, the Tory party, — Avhose apprehensions for the 
 future are most despondiDg, who think that a complete revolution is near at 
 hand, and that property must every day become less secure, — are glad to 
 retrench their usual expenses, and are beginning by economy to lay by a 
 poi7-e pour la soi/.^ Those who have money at command are buying funds in 
 America, or in Denmark, which they think least exposed to political changes." 
 One of the chief terrors of the landed aristocracy, whether Whig or Tory, 
 was that the Corn-laws would perish under the Eeform Parliament. " The 
 Unionists," writes lord Eldon after the passing of the Bill, "are, it seems, 
 unanimous for a repeal of the Corn-laws. The abused and misled lower 
 orders are all for this. It will ruin them." § The ex- Chancellor, — who held 
 pretty much the same opinions about commercial freedom as the traders of 
 Worcester, who denounced in a petition to parliament, " the Free-trade 
 system " as " a reliance on the doctrines of certain speculative persons called 
 political economists," || — the great lawyer, who was the smallest of states- 
 men, believed that the entire prosperity of the country depended upon the 
 
 * "Spectator," January 12, 1S33. 
 t Von Raunier—" England in 1835," vol. iii. p. 309. 
 
 J " Garder une poire pour la soif" — " to keep a pear in case of thirst" — is equivalcut to 
 laying up something in case of want. 
 g Twiss, vol. iii. p. 181. 
 ]| Hansard, vol. xii. col. 1278.
 
 1833.] FEARS OF ANTI-REFORMERS. 311 
 
 expenditure of " the landed gentlemen " with " tradesmen and manufac- 
 turers," and that the ruin of the lower classes would necessarily follow if the 
 repeal of the Corn-laws were to produce the lowering of rents. Many years 
 were to pass before the industry of England should be freed, even in a Eeformed 
 Parliament, from the crushing weight of Corn-laws. The great minister wha 
 effected their repeal was a most strenuous opponent of the Eeform Bill 
 during its troublesome and dangerous birth. Other reforms which were 
 loudly called for, or faintly suggested, and which were then denounced as 
 " infamous projects," have, to a considerable extent, been realized during the 
 course of thirty years. It was asked if lord Teynham, the author of a 
 pamphlet entitled "How it must work," was of "sane mind," when he 
 suggested the reduction of the jN'ational Debt; the abolition of Excise 
 taxation ; an ascending property tax ; abolition of slavery ; freedom to our 
 colonies under a domestic form of government of their own ; abolition of 
 bounties and monopolies of every description ; a general plan of education 
 for the people ; a revision of the Eree-trade system, including the Navigation- 
 laws and the Corn-laws ; a new legal code of cheap justice ; a new municipal 
 system. Accept the plan of Henry Francis, lord Teynham, said the leader of 
 the alarmists, " and then England will be brought back to a far more 
 enviable state of civilization than that which she enjoyed in the days of the 
 Heptarchy. We shall have neither agriculture nor commerce, neither manu- 
 factures nor trade ; we shall none of us be embarrassed with superfluous 
 luxuries; there will be no property worth preserving or contending about." * 
 Marvellous are the changes of opinion when freedom of speech and freedom of 
 writing are established. "What was denounced as individual madness thirtv 
 years ago has become the established belief of the sanest nation on earth. 
 The terrors of the alarmists at the " infamous projects " of lord Teynham, 
 seem as obsolete as the belief of king James, that witches can raise storms and 
 tempests in the air, either by sea or land. 
 
 There was a remarkable circumstance in the temper and habits of those 
 called the working classes, during the political hurricaues of 1832, which we 
 ought not wholly to pass over, although there may be a slight approach to 
 egotism in the mention of it. "Whilst Jeffrey was exhorting his oiScial 
 friends in Scotland to " keep peace," there had been at work for two or three 
 months a little instrument for calming political agitation, at no expense to the 
 government, called " Chambers's Edinburgh Journal." There was a similar 
 instrument in England, which was commenced to be published durino' the 
 very heat of the Eeform Bill, called the "Penny Magazine," In the first 
 number of that weekly sheet, which was issued on the 31st of March, 1832, it 
 was proposed to lead the popular mind to " calmer and, it may be, purer 
 subjects of thought than the violence of party discussion, or the stimulating 
 details of crime and suffering," "We have, however," said the editor, "no 
 expectation of superseding the newspaper, and no desire to supersede it. We 
 hope only to share some portion of the attention which is now almost exclu- 
 sively bestowed upon the folio of four pages, by those who read little and 
 seldom." In looking back upon his work of that period — work which he 
 regards as the best labour of his life — the author of this History is almost 
 
 • " QuarterJ;v Review," vol, xlTiii, pp. 553 — 554.
 
 312 EXTENSION OF POPULAR LITERATURE DURING THE CRISIS. 
 
 surprised at the boldness of the undertaking, when the whole country, in the 
 opinion of many unprejudiced persons, was fast verging towards anarchy. 
 The fact that, before the year was out, he had to record the regular sale of two 
 hundred thousand copies, warranted the calculation that there were about 
 a million of readers for that miscellany alone. Forty years before, Burke had 
 estimated that there were eighty thousand readers in this country. The sale 
 of the two unexciting miscellanies of the Reform period not only offered a 
 proof of the vast increase of the desire for knowledge, but afforded a hope that 
 the old system of governing by the ignorance of the masses was rapidly 
 comincr to an end.
 
 Counties. 
 
 Members. 
 
 
 Bedfordshire 
 
 . . 2 
 
 F 
 
 F 2 Berkshire 
 
 . 2 
 
 F 
 
 F 2 Buckinghamshire 
 
 . . 2 
 
 F 
 
 F 2 Cambridgeshire 
 
 . 2 
 
 F 
 
 F Cornwall . 
 
 . . 2 
 
 F 
 
 F Cumberland 
 
 . 2 
 
 F 
 
 FAELIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM BEFORE 
 THE REFORM ACTS OF 1832. 
 [The letter F indicates those Counties which, by Schedule F of the Reform Act, are divided 
 into two electoral districts ; F 2 is prefixed to undivided Counties, to which an additional 
 member was given.] 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 England and Wales.— [Continuous from the reign of Edward I.] 
 
 Counties. Members. 
 
 Somersetshire . . . .2 
 
 Staffordshire . . . . . 2 
 
 Suffolk 2 
 
 Surrey . . . . . . 2 
 
 Sussex . . . . . .2 
 
 Warwickshire . . . . . 2 
 
 Westmoreland . . . . .2 
 
 F Wiltshire 2 
 
 F Worcestershire . . . . .2 
 2 Yorksliire (2 added in 1821) . . . 4 
 
 2 [From Henry VIII.] 
 
 2 Anglesey 
 
 2 Brecknockshire .... 
 
 Cardiganshire 
 2 Carmarthenshire .... 
 
 2 Carnai-vonshire 
 
 2 F Cheshire 
 
 2 Denbighshire .... 
 
 2 Flintshire 
 
 2 Glamorganshire 
 
 2 ilerionethshire .... 
 
 2 Monmouthshire 
 
 2 Jlontgomeryshire 
 
 Pembrokeshire 
 2 Radnorshire. .... 
 
 2 [From Charles II.] 
 
 Durham 2 
 
 F Derbyshire 2 
 
 F Devonshire . . . . .2 
 F 2 Dorsetshire 2 
 
 F Essex 
 
 F Gloucestershire . 
 
 F Hampshire .... 
 F 2 Herefordshire 
 
 F 2 Hertfordshire .... 
 Huntingdonshire . 
 
 F Kent " 
 
 F Lancashire .... 
 
 F Leicestershire .... 
 Lincolnshire 
 Middlesex .... 
 
 F Norfolk .... 
 
 F Northamptonshire . 
 
 F Northumberland . 
 
 F Nottinghamshire 
 F 2 Oxfordshire 
 
 Rutlandshire .... 
 
 F Shropshire 2 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Argyle 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 Berwick . 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Dumfries 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Fife . 
 
 Forfar . 
 
 Haddington 
 
 Inverness 
 
 Kincardine 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 Scotland. — In the Britkh Parliament, from the Union under Anne. 
 
 Lanark .... 
 
 Linlithgow ..... 
 Orkney and Shetland .... 
 Peebles ...... 
 
 Perth 
 
 Renfrew ...... 
 
 Ross ....... 
 
 Roxburgh ..... 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Stilling ...... 
 
 Sutherland ..... 
 
 Wigton ...... 
 
 Bute and Caithness, alternately . 
 Clackmannan and Kinross, alternately 
 Cromarty and Nairn, alternately 
 
 Ireland. — In the Imperial Parliament, from tlie Union under George III. 
 
 Antrim 2 
 
 Armagh . . . . . , .2 
 
 Carlow 2 
 
 Cavan . .• 2 
 
 Clare 2 
 
 Cork 2 
 
 Donegal 2 
 
 Down 2 
 
 Dublin 2 
 
 Fermanagh 2 
 
 Galway . . , . . . . 2 
 Kerry . , . . . . .2 
 
 Kildare 2 
 
 Kilkenny .... • . 2 
 
 King's County 2 
 
 Leitrim ... ' . . . 2 
 
 Limerick . . . . . . , 2 
 
 Londonderry 2 
 
 Longford . 2 
 
 Louth 2 
 
 ilayo . . . , . . . . 2 
 
 ileath 2 
 
 Iklonaghan . . . . . . , 2 
 
 Queen's County 2 
 
 Roscommon 2 
 
 Sligo 2 
 
 Tipperary 2 
 
 Tyrone 2 
 
 Waterford 2 
 
 Westmeath . . . . . ,2 
 
 Wexford . . . . . . . ?: 
 
 WickJow y
 
 CITIES AND BOROUGHS. 
 
 England and Wales. 
 
 [Continuous from the reign of Edward I.] 
 [The letters A, B, indicate the Schedule in which the Borough was placed by the Eeform Act.] 
 
 City or 
 
 County wherein ilem- 
 
 City or 
 
 County wherein Mem- 
 
 Borough. 
 
 situatcd. bers. 
 
 Borough. 
 
 situated, bers. 
 
 A Amersliam 
 
 (Bucks) 
 
 2 
 
 London (co. of 
 
 itself, locally in Mid- 
 
 
 Andover 
 
 (Hants) . 
 
 2 
 
 dlesei) 
 
 ..... 
 
 4 
 
 A Appleby 
 
 (Westmoreland) 
 
 2 
 
 A Lostwithiel 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 2 
 
 B Arundel 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 A Ludgershall 
 
 (WUts) . 
 
 2 
 
 B Ashburton 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 B Lyme Regis 
 
 (Dorset) 
 
 2 
 
 Barnstaple 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 Lynn 
 
 (Norfolk) . 
 
 2 
 
 Bath 
 
 (Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 B Malmesbury 
 
 (Wilts) _ . 
 
 2 
 
 Bedford 
 
 (Bedfordshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Malton 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 A Bedwin 
 
 (Wilts) . 
 
 2 
 
 Marlborough 
 
 (Wilts) . 
 
 2 
 
 Beverley 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 A Milbourne Port 
 
 (Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 A Blechingley 
 
 (Surrey) 
 
 2 
 
 Newcastle -upon- 
 
 Tyne (co. of itself, lo 
 
 
 Bodmin 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 . 2 
 
 cally in Northumberland) . 
 
 2 
 
 A Bramber 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 Newport 
 
 (Hants) . 
 
 2 
 
 Bridgenorth 
 
 (Shropshire) 
 
 2 
 
 New Sarum, or Salisbury, (Wilts). 
 
 2 
 
 Bridgewater 
 
 (Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 B Northallerton 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Bridport 
 
 (Dorset) 
 
 2 
 
 Northampton 
 
 (■Northamptonsh 
 
 )2 
 
 Bristol (CO. of itself, locally betweci 
 
 
 Norwich (co. of itself, locally in Norfolk) 
 
 2 
 
 Gloucestershire and Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 Nottingham (co. 
 
 of itself, locally in Not 
 
 
 Bury St. Edmund's (Suffolk) . 
 
 2 
 
 tinghamshire) 
 
 
 2 
 
 B Calne 
 
 (Wilts) _ . 
 
 2 
 
 A Okeham2iton 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 (Cambridgeshire) 
 
 2 
 
 A Old Sarum 
 
 (Wilts) 
 
 2 
 
 Canterbury (co 
 
 of itself, locally in Kent 
 
 2 
 
 A Orford 
 
 (Sufiblk) . 
 
 2 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 (Cumberland) 
 
 2 
 
 Oxford 
 
 (Oxfordshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Chichester 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 B Petersfield 
 
 (Hants) . 
 
 2 
 
 Chippenliam 
 
 (Wilts) . 
 
 2 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 Cockermouth 
 
 (Cumberland) 
 
 Q 
 
 A Plympton 
 
 (Do.) . 
 
 2 
 
 Colchester 
 
 (Essex) 
 
 2 
 
 Pontefract 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Coventry (co. 
 
 of itself, locally in War 
 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 (Hants) . 
 
 2 
 
 wickshire) 
 
 .... 
 
 2 
 
 Preston 
 
 (Lancashire) 
 
 2 
 
 Cricklade 
 
 (Wilts) 
 
 2 
 
 Reading 
 
 (Berkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 B Dartmouth 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 B Reigate 
 
 (Surrey) 
 
 2 
 
 Derby 
 
 (Derbyshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Ripon 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 Devizes 
 
 (Wilts) 
 
 2 
 
 Rochester 
 
 (Kent) 
 
 2 
 
 Dorchester 
 
 (Dorset) . 
 
 2 
 
 St. Alban's 
 
 (Hertfordshire) 
 
 2 
 
 A Dowiiton 
 
 (Wilts) . _ 
 
 2 
 
 Scarborough 
 
 (Yorkshii-e) 
 
 2 
 
 13 Droitwicli 
 
 (Worcestersliire) 
 
 O 
 
 A Seaford 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 A Dunwich 
 
 (Suffolk) . 
 
 2 
 
 B Shaftesbury 
 
 (Dorset) 
 
 2 
 
 Evesham 
 
 (Worcestershire). 
 
 Q 
 
 Shorcham 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 Exeter (co. of 
 
 itself, locally in Devon). 
 
 2 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 (Shropshire) 
 
 . 2 
 
 Gloucester (co. 
 
 of itself, locally in Glou.) 
 
 2 
 
 Southampton (co. of itseK, locally ir 
 
 
 Great Marlow 
 
 (Bucks). . 
 
 2 
 
 Hants) . 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 B Grimsby 
 
 (Lincolnshire) . 
 
 2 
 
 Southwark 
 
 (Surrey) 
 
 2 
 
 Guildford 
 
 (Surrey) 
 
 2 
 
 Stafford 
 
 (Staffordshire) 
 
 2 
 
 A Hedon 
 
 (Yorkshire). 
 
 2 
 
 Stamford 
 
 (Lincolnshire) 
 
 2 
 
 B Helston 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 2 
 
 A Steyning 
 
 ■(Sus.sex) 
 
 2 
 
 Hereford 
 
 (Herefordshire) . 
 
 2 
 
 Taunton 
 
 (Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 Hertford 
 
 (Hertfordshire) . 
 
 2 
 
 Tavistock 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 Honitoii 
 
 (Devon). . 
 
 2 
 
 B Thirsk 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 2 
 
 B Horsham 
 
 (Sussex) 
 
 2 
 
 Totnes 
 
 (Devon) 
 
 2 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 (Huntingdonshire 
 
 2 
 
 A Tregony 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 2 
 
 A Ilchester 
 
 (Somerset). 
 
 o 
 
 Truro 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 2 
 
 Ipswich 
 
 (Suffolk) . 
 
 2 
 
 B WaUingford 
 
 (Berks) . 
 
 2 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 (Lancashire) 
 
 2 
 
 B Warehaiu 
 
 (Dorset) 
 
 ' 2 
 
 B Launceston 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 o 
 
 Warwick 
 
 (Warwickshire) 
 
 . 2 
 
 Leicester 
 
 (Leicestershire) 
 
 2 
 
 Wells 
 
 (Somerset) . 
 
 2 
 
 Leoniinstor 
 
 (Herefordshii'e) 
 
 2 
 
 A AVendover 
 
 (Bucks) . 
 
 . 2 
 
 Lewes 
 
 (Sussex) . 
 
 2 
 
 A Wcobly 
 
 (Herefordshire) 
 
 o 
 
 lichlield (co. of itself, locally in Stafford 
 
 2 
 
 Wigau 
 
 (Lancashire) 
 
 2 
 
 Lincoln (co. of 
 
 itself, locally in Lincoln 
 
 
 B Wilton 
 
 (Wilts) . 
 
 '. 2 
 
 shire) . 
 
 • . - . 
 
 o 
 
 Winchester 
 
 (Hants) . 
 
 o 
 
 B Liskcard 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 
 2 
 
 Windsor 
 
 (Berks) 
 
 2 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 (Lancashire) 
 
 2 
 
 B Woodstock 
 
 (Oxfordshire) 
 
 '. 2
 
 CITIES AXD BOIIOUGIIS. 
 England and Wales — continued. 
 
 City or County wherein Mem- 
 
 Borough, situated. bers. 
 
 Worcester (co. of itself, locally in Wor- 
 cestershire) . . . . .2 
 AVycombe, Chipping (Bucks) . . 2 
 A Yarmouth (Hants) . . 2 
 
 Yarmouth (Norfolk) . . 2 
 
 York (co. of itself, locally in Yorkshire) 2 
 
 [Edward II.] 
 
 A East Grinstead 
 Ketford 
 
 (Sussex) 
 (Notts) 
 
 [Edward III.] 
 
 Dover (Kent) 
 
 Harwich (Essex) 
 
 Hastings (Sussex) . 
 
 BHythe (Kent) 
 
 Kingston-upon-HuU (co. of itself, lo- 
 cally in Yorkshire) .... 
 
 Mai don (Essex) 
 
 B Midhurst (Sussex) 
 
 Newcastle-under-Lyne(Stafrordshire) . 
 
 Poole (co. of itself, locally in Dorset) . 
 
 Eichmond (Yorkshire) 
 
 A Eomney (Kent) 
 
 B Eye (Sussex) 
 
 Sandwich (Kent) 
 
 Weymouth & Melcombe Eegis (Dorset). 
 A Winchelsea (Sussex) 
 
 [Henry YL] 
 
 A Gatton (Surrey) 
 
 A Heytesbury (Wilts) 
 
 AHindon (Do.) 
 
 BWestbury (Do.) 
 
 A Wootton Basset (Do.) 
 
 [Edward IV.] 
 
 Grantham (Lincolnshire) . 
 
 Ludlow (Shropshire) 
 Wenlock (Do.) 
 
 [Henry VI II.] 
 Beaumaris (Anglesey) . 
 
 Benvick-upon-Tweed (co. of itself) 
 Brecon (Brecknockshire) 
 
 Buckingham (Bucks) 
 
 Cardiff, sharing with Aberavon, Cow- 
 bridge, Ken-fig, Llantrissent, Loughor, 
 Neath, and Swansea (Glamorganshire) 
 Cardigan, sharing with Aberystwith, 
 Adpar, and Lampeter (Cardiganshire) . 
 Carmarthen (co. of itself, locally in 
 Carmarthenshire) .... 
 
 Carnarvon, sharing with Conway, Cric- 
 cieth, Nevin, and Pwllheli (Carnar- 
 vonshire) ...... 
 
 Chester (co. of itself, locally in Cheshu'c) 
 
 Denbigh, sharing with Holt and Euthin 
 
 (Denbighshire) .... 
 
 Flint, sharing with Caergwrley, Caerwys, 
 
 Overton, and EhydtUan (Flintshire) . 
 
 Haverfordwest (co. of itself, locally in 
 
 Pembrokeshire) .... 
 
 Monmouth, sharing with Newport and 
 
 Usk (Monmouthshire) . 
 Montgomery (Montgomeryshire) . 
 
 City or County wherein Mem- 
 
 Borough, situated. bers. 
 
 Penibroke, shaa-ing with Tenby and Wis- 
 
 ton (Pembrokeshire) ... 1 
 Eadnor, sharing witli Kevinleece, Knigh- 
 ton, Knucklar, and Ehayder (Eadnor- 
 shu-e) 1 
 
 A Bossiney 
 
 Boston 
 A Brackley 
 
 A Cajuelford 
 
 Maidstone 
 A Newport 
 
 Penryn 
 
 Peterborougli 
 A St. Michael's 
 A Saltash 
 
 Thetford 
 A West Looe 
 
 Westminster 
 
 [Edward VI.] 
 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Lincolnshire) 
 (Northamptonsh) 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Kent) . . 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Northamptonsl 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Do.) . 
 (Norfolk) . 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Middlesex) 
 
 [JIary.] 
 
 Abingdon 
 A Aldborough 
 
 Aj'lesbury 
 
 Banbury 
 A Boroughbridge 
 A Castle Rising 
 A Higham Ferrers 
 
 Knaresborough 
 B Morpeth 
 B St. Ives 
 
 (Berks) 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 (Bucks) 
 
 (Oxfordshire) 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 (Norfolk) . 
 
 (Northamptonsh) 
 
 (Yorkshire) 
 
 (Northumberld) 
 
 (Cornwall) , 
 
 [Elizabeth.] 
 
 A Aldeburgh 
 A Beeralston 
 A Bishop's Castle 
 A Callington 
 B Christchurch 
 
 Cirencester 
 B Clitheroe 
 A Corfe Castle 
 A East Looe 
 BEye 
 A Fowey 
 A Haslemere 
 
 Lymington 
 A Minehead 
 A Newtown 
 A Newton 
 A Queenborough 
 A St. Germain's 
 A St. Mawe's 
 A Stockbridge 
 
 Sudbury 
 
 Tamworth 
 A Whitchurch 
 
 (Suffolk) . 
 (Devon) 
 (Shropshire) 
 (Cornwall) . 
 ^Hants) 
 
 (Gloucestershire) 
 (Lancashii'e) 
 (Dorset) 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Sufiblk) . 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Siu'rey) 
 (Hants) 
 (Somerset) . 
 (Hants) 
 (Lancashire) 
 (Kent) 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Cornwall) . 
 (Hants) 
 (SufioDv) . 
 (Warwickshire) 
 (Hants) 
 
 Bewdley 
 
 Tewkesbury 
 
 Tiverton 
 
 Durham 
 
 Newark 
 
 [James I.] 
 
 (AVorcestershire). 
 (Gloucestershire). 
 (Devon) 
 
 [Charles II.] 
 
 (Durham) . 
 
 (Notts)
 
 CITIES AND BOKOUGHS. 
 
 Scotland. 
 In tJoe British Parliament, since the Union under Ai 
 Edinburgli city .... 1 member. 
 Districts of Burtjlis. 
 
 tricts. ^"^g^^^- 
 
 ( Dingwall 
 
 I Dornoch . 
 1 -1 Kirkwall 
 
 I Tain . . 
 
 I Wick . 
 
 r Forres . 
 (, J Fortrose 
 " I Inv-^rness 
 
 I Nairn . 
 
 ( Banff . 
 
 I Cullen . 
 
 3-; Elgin . 
 
 Inverury 
 
 L Kintore 
 
 fAberdeen 
 Aberbrothwick 
 Brechin . 
 Inverbervie 
 
 l^Montrose 
 
 ('Cupar . 
 
 I Dundee . 
 o-{ Forfar . 
 
 I Perth . 
 
 l^St. Andrew 
 
 rAnstruther Easter 
 
 I Anstruther Wester 
 6s;Crail. . . 
 Kilrenny . 
 
 l^Pittenweem 
 
 ( Burntisland 
 » 1 Dysart . . 
 
 \ Kinghorn . 
 
 ( Kirkaldy . 
 
 Counties where- 
 in locally 
 situated. 
 Ross . . 
 Sutherland 
 Orkney 
 Eoss 
 
 Caithness 
 Elgin . 
 Ross 
 
 Inverness 
 Nairn . 
 Banff . 
 Banff . 
 Elgin . 
 Aberdeen 
 Aberdeen 
 Aberdeen 
 Forfar . 
 Forfar . 
 Kincardine 
 Forfar . 
 
 Forfar & Perth ^ 
 Forfar , 
 Forfar . 
 Perth . 
 Fife . . 
 Fife . 
 
 Fife 
 
 Fife, 
 
 Fife , 
 
 Fife, 
 
 Fife. 
 
 Fife, 
 
 Fife. 
 
 Fife, 
 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 1^ 1 
 
 J 
 
 V 1 
 
 > 1 
 
 Dis- -o 1 
 
 tricts. ^^^e'^^- 
 
 rCulross . . 
 1 Dunfermline 
 8<( Inverkeithing 
 I Queensferry 
 IStirling . . 
 
 ! Dumbarton 
 Glasgow 
 Renfrew. . 
 Rutherglen . 
 C Dunbar . 
 Haddington 
 10 < Jedburgh . 
 Lauder . . 
 t North Berwick 
 ^ Lanark . , 
 Linlithgow . 
 Peebles . . 
 Selkirk . . 
 
 11 
 
 TAyr 
 (C 
 
 Campbelton 
 12 ^ Inverary 
 
 I Irvine . . 
 
 LRothsay. . 
 
 f Annan . . 
 
 I Dumfries . 
 Kirkcudbright 
 Lochmabeu 
 Sanquhar . 
 New Galloway 
 Stranraer . 
 Whithorn . 
 Wigton . . 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Counties where- 
 in locally 
 situated. 
 
 . Perth . . 
 
 . Fife. . . 
 
 . Fife. . . 
 
 . Linlithgow 
 
 . Stirling 
 
 . Dumbarton 
 
 . Lanark . . 
 
 . Renfrew . 
 
 . Lanark . . 
 
 . Haddington 
 
 . Haddington 
 
 . Roxburgh 
 Berwick 
 
 . Haddington 
 
 . Lanark 
 
 . Linlithgow 
 Peebles . 
 
 . Selkirk 
 
 . Ayr . . 
 
 . Argyle . 
 
 . Argyle . 
 
 • Ayr . . 
 
 . Bute . 
 
 . Dumfries 
 
 . Dumfries 
 
 . Kirkcudbri 
 
 . Dumfries 
 
 . Dumfries 
 Kirkcudbri 
 
 . Wigton 
 
 . Wigton 
 
 . Wigton 
 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 r 
 
 I- 1 
 
 tht) 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 In the hnperial PcM'liament, from the Union under George III. 
 
 Cities and Counties wherein Mem- 
 
 Boroughs, locally situated. bers. 
 
 Ai-magh (Armagh) 
 
 Athlone (Roscommon and Westmeath) 
 
 Banuon 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Carlow 
 
 Carrickfergus 
 
 Cashel 
 
 Clonmel 
 
 Coleraine 
 
 Cork 
 
 Downpatrifk 
 
 Drogheda 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dundalk 
 
 Dungannon 
 
 Dungarvan 
 
 Ennis 
 
 (Cork) 
 
 (Antrim) 
 
 (Carlow) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (Tipperary) 
 
 (Tipperary) 
 
 (Londonderry) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (Down) 
 
 (CO. corporate) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (Louth) . 
 
 (Tyrone 
 
 (Waterford) 
 
 (Clare) . 
 
 Cities and 
 
 Boroughs. 
 
 Enniskillen 
 
 Galway 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 Kinsale 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Lisburn 
 
 Ijondonderry 
 
 ^Mallow 
 
 New Ross 
 
 Newry 
 
 Counties wherein 
 locally situated. 
 
 (Fermanagh) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (Cork) 
 
 (co. corporate) 
 
 (Antrim) 
 
 (Londonderry) 
 
 (Cork) . 
 
 (Wexford) 
 
 (Down) 
 
 Mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Portarlington (King's County and Q 
 County) 
 
 Shgo (Sligo) , 
 
 Tralee (Kerry) 
 
 Waterford (co. corporate) 
 
 Wexford (Wexford) 
 
 Youghal (Cork) 
 
 Universities. 
 [From the reign of James I.] 
 
 Cambridge 2 members. ] Oxford 2 members. 
 
 [From the Irish Union under George 111.] 
 Dublin ..... 1
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Opening of the New Parliament — Election of the Speaker — The King's Speech — Mr. O'Conaell's 
 Amendment — Declaration of Sir Robert Peel — Coercion Bill for Ireland passed by the 
 Lords — Public Health— Observance of the Sabbath — Coercion Bill in the House of Com- 
 mons — The Coercion Bill passed — Financial Measures — Cobbett's Motion against Sir 
 Robert Peel — Bill for the Reform of the Irish Church^Abolition of Slavery in the British 
 Colonies — Effects of the Abolition — Limitation of Labour in Factories — Bank Charter — 
 East India Company's Charter— Prorogation. 
 
 On the 29th of January, 1833, the new Parliament was opened by Com- 
 mission. The Act for abolishing the oaths to be taken before the Lord 
 Steward had come into operation ; and a House of Commons was at once 
 formed. The attendance of members was very large. One of the new repre- 
 sentatives of Ireland, Mr. John. O'Connell, has described some of the circum- 
 stances of that first meeting. His father, Daniel O'Connell, he says, led 
 what might have been called his " household brigade," namely, his three sons 
 and two sons-in-law, down to the House. In the passages they met and were 
 introduced to Cobbett, habited in a kind of pepper-and-salt garb, in fashion 
 something between that of a quaker and of a comfortable farmer, and wearing 
 a broad-brimmed white hat, thrown back so as to give the fullest view of his 
 shrewd though bluff countenance, and his keen cold-looking eye. The 
 " household brigade" proceeded to take their seats upon the second bench on 
 the opposition side, somewhat indignant at a long quizzing from Mr. Stanley's 
 eye-glass. The great Irish orator was more modest in selecting his seat than 
 others of the Eadical party, who boldly ranged themselves upon the front 
 bench, as if to awe the Ministerial Whigs, who were immediately opposite. 
 .A.ccording to the Irish member's " Eecollections," William Cobbett was 
 amongst the most conspicuous of those Avho took this post of honour.* One 
 who foxxr days afterwards records what he saw, says, " On our entering 
 the House, and turning our eyes to the Treasury bench, the first person 
 we saw, in the place of the black-whiskered, blufi", yeomanlike lord Althorp, 
 was the white-headed veteran of the Radicals, WiUiam Cobbett, who had 
 
 "Recollections and Experiences," by John O'Connell, Esq., M. P., 1849, vol, i. chap. 1.
 
 818 ELECTION OF THE SPEAKER— THE KING'S SPEECH. [1833. 
 
 taken his seat above the minister, and thus, as it were, installed himself as 
 Leader of the E-eformed House of Commons."*. 
 
 The first business of the Lower House was the election of a Speaker. 
 Mr. Hume, asserting the principle that it was necessary to have a Speaker 
 who should represent the opinions of the majority of the House, and believing 
 that the majority were Reformers, proposed Mr. E. J. Littleton, the member 
 for the southern division of Staffordshire. He was seconded by Mr. O'Con- 
 nell. Lord Morpeth, upon the principle of looking to the change which had 
 taken place in the constitution of parliament, considered that it was most 
 advisable to have all possible assistance to their proceedings from a gentleman 
 of long practical experience and tried ability. He proposed the right hon. 
 Charles Manners Sutton. The debate went on with little variation from the 
 usual forms of parliamentary courtesy, when the broad-brimmed white hat of 
 the singular man on the foremost place of the Treasury bench was taken off, 
 and up rose the author of the " Register," who had written that he was born 
 " to be one of the greatest terrors to one of the greatest and most powerful 
 bodies of knaves and fools that ever were permitted to afflict this or any other 
 country." t Out of that most powerful body of which he now formed a part 
 some of the especial objects of his wrath had been withdrawn. But many 
 objects of his old hatred still remained — many a country gentleman whose 
 class he had denounced as unfeeling tyrants who squeezed the labourer 
 for gain's sake ; many " lords of the loom," who had been designated 
 as "rich ruffians;" many of the "education-canters," who did not follow 
 out his theory that nothing could " be good with regard to the labouring 
 classes unless it made an addition to their victuals, drink, or clothing." Cob- 
 bett's style of speaking was as strange to the House of Commons as his 
 habiliments. In supporting Mr. Hume's nomination of a Speaker, he began 
 with these very plain words : — " It appears to me that since I have been 
 sitting here I have heard a great deal of vain and unprofitable conversation." 
 He objected to placing a man in the chair who had already received large 
 sums of the public money. The right honourable gentleman had been for 
 sixteen years in the office of Speaker ; he had received every year a salary of 
 six thousand pounds, taken from the starving people of England, Scotland, 
 and Ireland. Mr. Hume's motion was rejected by a majority of two hundred 
 and ten, and Mr. Manners Sutton again became Speaker. 
 
 On the 5th of February the King opened the Parliament for " the des- 
 patch of business," according to the formal expression of what is the duty 
 expected from parliament. The despatch of business in that one session is 
 recorded in six volumes of Hansard, containing seven thousand seven hundred 
 and forty-four columns of debate. Great measures were indeed discussed in 
 both Houses during that session, which lasted till the 29th of August. During 
 this time the House of Commons had sat a hundred and forty-two days, upon 
 an average of nine hours daily. The usual average had been four and a half 
 or five hours. + The chief objects upon which the members of that House 
 had thus vied with factory workers were suggested in the King's Speech ; the 
 approaching termination of the charters of the Bank of England and the 
 
 * " Spectator," February 2. _ t " Kur.al Rides," p. 18. 
 
 :;: Hansard, 3rd series, vol. xx. col. 907 : Statement of sir Robert Inglis, upon infor- 
 iniition derived from Mr. Rickman, an officer of the House.
 
 1833.] MR- O'CONNELL'S AMENDMENT. 313 
 
 East India Company ; the state of the Church, more particularly regarding 
 its temporalities ; the Church of Ireland ; the necessity of entrusting the 
 Crown with greater powers for controlling and punishing the spirit of insub- 
 ordination and violence in Ireland, which had greatly increased, and for pre- 
 serving and strengthening the legislative union between the two countries. 
 There were two other great measures, not indicated at the commencement of 
 the session, that occupied the further attention of Parliament — the regulation 
 of infant labour in factories, and the abolition of Slavery in the West-India 
 colonies. To the task of dealing with many of these important subjects, both 
 Houses applied themselves with a sedate and earnest spirit. But there was one 
 topic in the King's Speech which instantly called up a host of turbulent feelings, 
 little in accordance with that spirit of brotherhood which some enthusiasts 
 believed would in future render the House of Commons an assembly altoge- 
 ther labouring for the national good, and redeem it from its old character of 
 the cockpit of party. The Irish members who followed the leadership of 
 O'Connell came away " with hearts full of bitterness," after listening to the 
 royal speech, believing that the only part of it which the King's infirmities or 
 his inclinations allowed him to deliver with any distinctness was that in which 
 be threatened Ireland.* The amendment was moved by Mr. O'Connell. 
 Never, since on his own Irish ground of agitation he designated Mr. Stanley 
 a "shave-beggar," had he ventured upon such coarseness as he now thrust 
 upon the House of Commons. He described the echo of the King's speech 
 as "a bloody and brutal Address ;" " a bloody, brutal, and unconstitutional Ad- 
 dress." Pity it was that the remarkable powers of O'Connell, the "Demosthenic 
 directness and vehemence," as Jeffrey described the oratory of this great 
 artist, were so often degraded into the utterance of a copious vocabulary of 
 scurrility. Mr. Stanley replied to what he called " the eloquent and forcible 
 invective " of the honourable and learned member for Dublin. The speech of 
 the Secretary for Ireland was something far more telling than invective, 
 although it contained sufficient bitterness to make lasting enemies. He set 
 forth the system of outrages which prevailed in a land where the law was a 
 dead letter ; where the law was insufficient to meet the exigencies of insur- 
 rectionary crime, — where no witness could afford to give evidence, where 
 no jury could dare to convict, though the guilt of the culprit were as noto- 
 rious as the sun at noonday. " No government could apply itself efficiently 
 to the remedying of grievances, unless it also possessed the power to make 
 the laws respected." f The opening of Mr. Stanley's speech was received 
 with cries of " Bravo" in the House, and even with applause in the strangers' 
 gallery. He taunted Mr. O'Connell with the declaration that he would 
 relieve Ireland " from the yoke of the Sassenach." The Grovernmeut now 
 told him that his panacea of Repeal " should be resisted to the death." Such 
 was the spirit of courageous defiance that won for Mr. Stanley the name of 
 *' the Eupert of debate." Mr. O'Connell's amendment was finally rejected 
 by a majority of three hundred and eighty-eight in a House of four hundred 
 and sixty-eight ; ayes, 40 ; noes, 428. Of his forty supporters, six were 
 members for England, two for Scotland, and thirty-two for Ireland. 
 
 • John O'Connell, vol. i. p. 9. 
 + Hansard, vol. xv. col. 196.
 
 2-20 DECLARATION OF SIR ROBERT PEEL. [1833. 
 
 The debates upon the Address occupied five nights. It certainly was a na- 
 tional benefit that much of the eloquence which had been expended, both in 
 England and Ireland, for the excitement of popular assemblies, now harm- 
 lessly exploded In a place where the freedom of debate was indeed unlimited, 
 but where no demagogue could make extravagant statements without receiving 
 an immediate contradiction. It was curious that the great Irish Agitator in 
 his eloquent Invective said no single word tending to raise a discussion about 
 Eepeal. " He keeps it, and prudently keeps it," said Mr. Macaulay, "for 
 audiences of a very different kind." O'Conuell and Cobbett might in their 
 hearts aspire to be the Danton and Marat of a new National Assembly. But 
 the House of Commons, with all its renovated spirit of democracy, was not 
 so favourable a theatre for their coarser harangues as the Hall of the Catholic 
 Association or the farmer's table of a country town on market-day. There 
 was some voice of the past in that old Chapel of St. Stephen, which pro- 
 claimed that liberty had there been won by the gentlemen of England, and 
 that if it ceased to be a place where the habits of gentlemen could be pre- 
 served, it would cease to be a place worthy of the efibrts which had been 
 made by the people to renovate and exalt its character. 
 
 Looking beyond the almost solitary attempts of the English demagogue to 
 speak in Parliament so as to set the poor against the rich, — hearing some- 
 thing more harmonious than the war-trump of the Irish leader to call his 
 followers to skirmishes or pitched-battles in which the reward of victory 
 would be the repeal of the union, — there were Important lessons to be ga- 
 thered from those five nights of debate introductory to the practical business 
 of the session. They pretty conclusively showed, In the first place, that 
 the expectations of the ultra- Tory party that the Reform Bill would be re- 
 pealed — that another Restoration, more joyful than the royal triumph of 
 Charles the Second, would terminate the execrated career of the Revolution 
 of 1832 * — were sanguine hopes which would be quickly dispersed even by 
 the breath of him who had most consistently opposed a Reform in parlia- 
 ment. On the third night of the debate on the Address, sir Robert Peel thus 
 declared himself : — " The Kiug's Government had abstained from all unseemly 
 triumph in the King's speech respecting the measure of Reform. He would 
 profit by their example, and would say nothing upon that head ; but consider 
 that question as finally and irrevocably disposed of. He was now determined 
 to look forward to the future alone, and considering the Constitution as it 
 existed, to take his stand on main and essential matters — to join In resisting 
 every attempt at new measures which could not be stirred without unsettling 
 
 the public mind, and endangering public prosperity He was 
 
 for reforming every Institution that really required reform ; but he was for 
 doing It gradually, dispassionately and deliberately, In order that the reform 
 might be lasting."t Further, the apprehensions of many who in common 
 with lord Eldou thought they saw that monarchy, peerage, property, would 
 inevitably sink under the rule and domination of democrats, were as signally 
 disappointed. J Sir Robert Peel, indeed, correctly describes the notices in 
 
 • See "Quarterly Review," vol. xlvii. p. 589. 
 
 t Hansard, Srd series, vol. xv. col. 385. Given also verbatim from Hansard, in sir R 
 Peel's "Metuoirs," vol. ii. p. 69. 
 t Twiss, vol. lii. p. 2iti.
 
 1833.] COERCION BILL FOR IRELAND PASSED BY THE LORDS. 321 
 
 the Order-book as promising motions for new laws on every imaginable subject; 
 for simultaneous change in everything that was established. But the Order- 
 book remains the principal historical record of schemes which were in great 
 part the wind-bubbles of new members who thought that the spirit of inno- 
 vation would best recommend them to the constituencies by which they had 
 been chosen. Although upon great political questions the disposition to force 
 extreme opinions was very small, yet a vast mass of crude notions was evi- 
 dently afloat upon social questions, which many with their strong prejudices and 
 small knowledge thought themselves qualified to discuss. The complaint that 
 the new parliamentary system did not work well was not confined to the 
 remnants of the anti- Reform party. Jefirey very frankly and truly wrote, 
 after the House of Commons had risen for the Easter holidays : — " The 
 friction in the working of the machine, and the consequent obstruction of its 
 movements, has been much greater than was ever known ; and though this 
 may grow less when it has been longer in use, as is the case with all new 
 machines, I am afraid part of it is owing to the increased number of inde- 
 pendent movements, and part, perhaps, to the want of the old oiling which 
 can no longer be aiforded."* 
 
 The House of Commons having endured for six nights the incessant labour 
 and excitement of the debates on the Address, had now a short interval of 
 relaxation and calm, whilst in the Upper House the question of coercive 
 measures for the repression of Irish disturbances was discussed with the judi- 
 cial temper of that assembly. On the fifteenth of February lord Grey intro- 
 duced the Bill for the more effectual suppression of local disturbances and 
 dangerous Associations in Ireland. He stated that between the 1st of 
 January and the end of December, 1832, there had been committed a total of 
 nine thousand and two crimes, — homicides, 242 ; robberies, 1179 ; burglaries, 
 401 ; burnings, 568 ; houghing cattle, 290 ; serious assaults, 161 ; riots, 203; 
 illegal rescues, 353 ; illegal notices, 2,094 ; illegal meetings, 427 ; injuries to 
 property, 796 ; attacks on houses, 723 ; firing with intent to kill, 328 ; rob- 
 bery of arms, 117 ; administering unlawful oaths, 163 ; resistance to legal 
 process, 8 ; turning up land, 20 ; resistance to tithes, 50 ; taking forcible 
 possession, 2. This enumeration sufficiently shows how large a proportion of 
 the offences were out of the ordinary course of criminal acts. The proposi- 
 tion of the government was, to give the Lord Lieutenant power to forbid 
 objectionable public meetings, and to introduce martial law into districts 
 proclaimed to be in a state of disturbance. The Bill was read a third time in 
 the House of Lords and passed on the 22nd of February. It was not till the 
 27th that the subject was introduced to the House of Commons. Meanwhile 
 lighter topics might there be dealt with, by which personal hostility would 
 not be so easily provoked. Joseph Pease, having been elected for the south- 
 ern division of the county of Durham, appeared on the 8th of February 
 to take his seat in the House. He objected to the oath tendered to him, 
 and prayed to be allowed to make his solemn affirmation. The Speaker 
 having stated that without the sanction of the House he dared not allow this 
 course, the subject was referred to a Select Committee. Although some 
 members might have dreaded that the sturdy Quaker would refuse to take 
 
 * Cockburn, "Life of Jeflfrey," voL i. p. 346. 
 VOL. Yin.— 245.
 
 322 PUBLIC HEALTH— OBSERVANCE OF THE SABBATH. [1833. 
 
 off bis hat when he passed the Speaker's chair, upon the Eeport of the Com- 
 mittee the affirmation was allowed to be substituted for the oath, the resolu- 
 tion being carried amidst the cheers of the House. One of the greatest of 
 social questions, the Health of the People, was now brought into view by Mr. 
 Slaney, — a gentleman who has never ceased for thirty years to promote some 
 sound measure of real popular advantage. He proposed that a Committee be 
 appointed to consider the best means of securing open places in the neigh- 
 bourhood of great towns for the healthful exercise of the population. Mr. 
 Lamb, the Secretary of State, regretted that too little attention had been paid 
 to this subject at the passing of Enclosure Bills. On this occasion the expe- 
 diency was suggested of throwing open the grounds of the Eegent's Park, 
 which had been kept so long closed to the public* The table of the House 
 had been covered with petitions praying for the better observance of the 
 Sabbath, the greater part being presented by sir Andrew Agnew. Upon the 
 presentation of one of these petitions, it was explained that the proposed 
 alteration of the law was to prevent the tyranny by which individuals who 
 followed certain trades on that day were compelled by their masters to violate 
 their consciences by working on the Sabbath. Mr. Cobbett brought his 
 strong common sense and plain English to deal with this point. A measure to 
 prevent masters working men-servants on Sunday would be perfectly 
 nugatory, unless it went into private families : " Were gentlemen backward 
 in employing their coachmen, tlieir grooms, and their footmen on Sundays ? 
 Why, these were a set of workmen who laboured verj hard, in Hyde Park, 
 for instance. They were well dressed up, and looked very fine with their 
 gold-headed canes, but he would be bound to say, that if they had their 
 choice they would much rather be at home with the maids."t The Bill of 
 sir Andrew Agnew, which was truly described by Mr. M. D. Hill, the member 
 for Hull, as " a Bill for the desecration of the Sabbath by the rich, and for 
 the observance of it by the poor ;" — which was termed by lord Althorp, "a 
 Bill of pains and penalties uncalled for and impolitic, not desired by the 
 public, and not deserved by them ;" — was rejected on the 17th of May. We 
 may lastly mention, before we proceed to notice the greater legislative mea- 
 sures of this Session, that although there had been some mitigation of the 
 Criminal Code so as to render capital punishments less frequent, there was yet 
 much to be accomplished before the great truth was recognized by the legis- 
 lature, " that laws which cannot be carried into execution without shocking 
 the feelings of society and exciting sympathy for the offender, are contrary 
 to reason, inconsistent with morality, and opposed to the interests of justice." 
 These were the words of a petition signed by five thousand inhabitants of the 
 metropolis. On the debate upon this petitiona hope was expressed that the 
 Session would not pass without a more general application of secondary 
 punishments. Mr. Lamb said, that the subject was under the consideration 
 of government ; that a gentleman had been sent out to America to investigate 
 tlie system of secondary punishments, and the state of prison discipline 
 established in that country. Thus, then, thirty years ago we were only pre- 
 
 * The Regent's Park was laidout in 1812. The admission of the public was confined to its 
 outer roads for twenty-six years, tliey being entirely excluded from the inside of the park 
 11111838. 
 
 t Hansard, vol, xv., col. 1191.
 
 1833.] COERCION BILL IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. 323 
 
 paring to inquire into one of the most complicated social questions of more 
 recent times. The difficulties of the question — difficulties which have 
 become far greater since the growth of the Colonies has rendered the system 
 of transportation almost impossible — seem principally to have induced lord 
 Eldou to maintain the doctrine, now happily obsolete, — that the fear of death 
 prevented the commission of those crimes against which it was directed. In 
 a debate on the 25th of June, 1832, the ex-Chancellor said, that after the 
 experience of half a century he had never known a lawyer or a politician who 
 was able to point out to him what to his mind was a satisfactory secondary 
 punishment. The legal or the legislative mind had scarcely then associated, 
 in the smallest degree, the notion of reformation with secondary punish- 
 ment. 
 
 On the 27th of February, in the House of Commons, lord Althorp moved 
 the second reading of the Bill for the Suppression of Disturbance in Ireland. 
 His speech was a temperate statement of facts, concluding with a forcible 
 and almost eloquent inference from those facts : " "We shall, doubtless, have 
 divers declamations in praise of liberty, which no man wishes to gainsay ; 
 but the question is, is it from a state of liberty that Ireland is to be rescued ? 
 Is she not to be rescued from a state of great and severe tyranny ? Is she 
 not to be rescued from a state of anarchy, where life has no safety, and pro- 
 perty no security? Liberty is something more than a name, and the benefits 
 of liberty are the protection of life and property — the protection of every 
 man in doing that which pleases himself, and is not detrimental to society."* 
 Very different in tone was the speech of Mr. Stanley on the same night. 
 The terrific outrages which he detailed supplied the strongest arguments for 
 the measure advocated by the government. But there was an object beyond 
 the passing of this immediate measure which the Secretary for Ireland steadily 
 kept in view in his fervid denunciations. He would put down, if possible, 
 the "political domination" which prevented the free expression of public 
 opinion in Ireland. In his hands the great Agitator experienced no mercy. 
 He quoted the words of a ballad which had been sung in the streets of 
 Kilkenny, in which the Sassenach tyrants — "those cursed demons" — must 
 quit the land, and poor Irish captives be liberated, " all by the means of our 
 noble Dan." Mr. Stanley asked, with bitter emphasis, " "Who was it that 
 furnished to the ignorant people these topics of declamation, and then con- 
 demned the outrages which had been caused by the hatred and discontent 
 which he had himself excited." f Mr. Stanley brought down a storm of 
 indignation upon the head of Mr. O'Connell by referring to a speech made 
 by him only a few days before at a meeting of the working classes, in 
 which he had termed the members of the House " six hundred robbers o- 
 scoundrels." Henceforth it was " war to the knife" between these two 
 great parliamentary orators. Whether it was politic to render peace 
 impossible between the government and the astute leader of the Irish Ee- 
 pealers, may perhaps be doubted. Some of his followers might have wavered 
 under a milder treatment. Very few now disbelieve that the charge against 
 •the chief of Mr. O'Connell's lieutenants, that he privately said that ministers 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xv. col. 1226. 
 + Ihid.y col. 1282.
 
 S24 THE COERCION BILL PASSED— FINANCIAL, MEASURES. [1833. 
 
 ought not to abate an atom of tlie bill, was substantially true. The cowardice 
 of some who knew its truth, and had not the courage to support the member 
 who, with more honesty than discretion, proclaimed it, permitted the allega- 
 tion to be disposed of in the next session of Parliament as " founded upon 
 information that was erroneous." On the adjourned debate on the 1st of 
 March, sir Eobert Peel supported the government in a speech of extraor- 
 dinary power. He referred to the catalogue of crime in one province, in 
 which were included one hundred and ninety-six murders and murderous 
 attempts — crimes of insurrectionary violence. " One hundred and ninety- 
 six murders ! — why, you have fought great battles, and achieved famous 
 victories, at a less cost of English blood ! [An Hon. Member : No, no !»] 
 No ! but I say emphatically, Yes. The battle of St. Vincent cost you less. 
 The terrible bombardment of Algiers cost you less. "With less profusion of 
 English blood you rolled back the fiery tide which the exulting valour of 
 Prance poured upon the heights of Busaco. But why do I talk of battles ? 
 Oh, how tame and feeble the comparison between death on the field of 
 honour, and that death which is inflicted by the hand of Irish assassins." * 
 The debate on the first reading of the Coercion Bill was carried on during 
 five sittings. On the last night Mr. O'Connell spoke with his accustomed 
 force. The Bill was read a first time by a majority of three hundred and 
 seventy-seven. It was read a second time by a majority of two hundred 
 and seventy-nine. But it was in Committee that the great Agitator, who 
 could there speak as often as he pleased, was most efi'ective. " He was free," 
 says his son, " to meet every charge, answer every argument, throw back 
 every taunt, and crush, with overpowering ridicule every puny assailant." t 
 The Bill was read a third time on the 29th of March. It was sent back to the 
 Lords for their approval of the alterations in some enactments which minis- 
 ters had thought it prudent to make, and being quickly passed, it received 
 the royal assent on the 2nd of April. During this conflict the opinions of 
 Mr. Stanley had been so strongly expressed, and the mutual hostility of the 
 agitators and the Irish Secretary had become so personal, that he re- 
 moved to the ofiice of Secretary for the Colonies (vacated by viscount 
 Goderich, who became Lord Privy Seal, by the title of earl of Eipon), and 
 was succeeded by sir John Cam Hobhouse. 
 
 The difilculties of the government during the first session of the Eeformed 
 Parliament did not arise out of the afiairs of England or Scotland. Their 
 financial measures were not very strong ; they were compromises, for the 
 most part, of large demands for the abolition of taxes, made by the indepen- 
 dent members of the Eeform party. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, for 
 example, thought the tax upon newspapers a bad tax, but he did not con- 
 sider its repeal would confer a benefit equivalent to the loss the revenue 
 would sustain. He would reduce the duty on advertisements ; he would, 
 repeal the taxes on particular classes of servants, such as shopmen and 
 bailiffs ; he would reduce the duties on soap ; altogether he would aff"ord 
 relief to the amount of more than a million and a quarter. This peddling 
 mode of looking at the operation of taxes long continued to prevail, for 
 
 • HanBard, toI. xvi. col. 05. 
 
 t John O'Connell, "Recollections," vol. i. p. 17.
 
 1833.] COBBETT'S MOTION AGAINST SIR R, PEEL. 325 
 
 neither the legislature nor the people yet understood that the most opores- 
 sive of all taxation was that which interfered with the free march of 
 industry ; that any partial reduction, without sweeping away the fiscal re- 
 gulations which hampered the operations of commerce or manufactures, was 
 comparatively worthless. A motion was made, on the 26th of March, by 
 Mr. George Eobinson, for a Select Committee to revise the existing system 
 of taxation with a view to the repeal of those burdens which pressed most 
 heavily upon productive industry, and to substitute an equitable tax on pro- 
 perty in lieu thereof. The motion, opposed by the government, was negatived. 
 One of the objects contemplated by a certain class of reformers was the re- 
 turn to a paper currency, they contending that the distress of the country — 
 a, distress which was always assumed rather than proved — was produced by 
 our existing monetary system. Mr. Attwood, the member for Birmingham, 
 moved for a Select Committee on this subject on tlie 22ud of April, and 
 after a debate of three nights, an Amendment of the Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer was carried by a very large majority. Connected with this intricate 
 subject, which of all others demanded the calmest consideration, was a violent 
 motion of Mr. Cobbett on the 16th of May, calling for an address praying 
 his majesty to dismiss sir Robert Peel from the Privy Council, as the author 
 of the Currency Bill of 1819. The debate upon a proposition so utterly 
 unreasonable and absurd was remarkable for a speech of sir E,obert Peel, in 
 which, replying to the taunts of his present assailant and of others, that he 
 was the son of a cotton weaver, he said — "they taunted him with the ob- 
 scurity of his birth, as if they were themselves the descendants of the Cour- 
 
 tenays and the Montmorencies So far from that taunt causing him 
 
 any shame, he felt only proud." Cobbett, in rising to reply, was received 
 with the strongest manifestations of disapprobation. Upon the division on 
 his motion the ayes were four, the noes two hundred and ninety-eight. 
 Lord Althorp then proposed that tlie resolution should not be entered on the 
 minutes. The Speaker explained that every proposition is entered upon 
 the minutes the moment it is moved and seconded, and that therefore he 
 must put the question, " that the proceedings be expunged." The House 
 divided, ayes, two hundred and ninety-five ; noes, four. There were two 
 Irish members who voted with the minority. We record this to notice the 
 mode in which a member of parliament, whether Irish, English, or Scotch, 
 Dot absolutely devoid of the commonest principles of honesty, may be led by 
 the violence of partisanship into a really dishonest action. Mr. John 
 O'Connell says, " I was one of four unfortunates who, amid the laughter and 
 jeers of the House, went out in favour of the motion when the division came. 
 I did so, not for Cobbett' s reasons but my own — namely, the mischiefs done 
 to Ireland by the object of his wrath." * The government was not less 
 successful in supporting a measure in the House of Commons for the relief 
 of the Jews from civil disabilities. That Bill, however, was lost in the Upper 
 House. The Lord Chancellor was unsuccessful in carrying a Bill for estab- 
 lishing Courts of Local Jurisdiction in certain parts of the kingdom. It was 
 introduced by him on the 28th of March. In the debate on the 24th of 
 June it was opposed by all the law lords. They were most probably moved 
 
 * " Kecollections," vol. i. p. 39.
 
 326 BILL FOR REFORM OF THE IRISH CHURCH. [1833; 
 
 thereto by lord Eldon, who denounced it as " a most abominable Law Bill of 
 the Chancellor's, one of the most objectionable I have ever seen proposed to 
 parliament." * The Bill was finally negatived by 134 to 122. In these 
 minor questions success or defeat was not important to the stability of the 
 government. The great questions of the session which followed the Irish 
 Coercion Bill involved a real trial of strength. 
 
 The King, in his speech, in calling attention to the state of the Church, 
 and more particularly to the Church of Ireland, foreshadowed a contest that 
 would last through his own reign and not be perfectly settled in another reign. 
 "Within a week after the meeting of Parliament, the Chancellor of the- 
 Exchequer obtained leave to bring in a Bill, to alter and amend the laws 
 relative to the Church Establishment in Irelaud. On the 11th of March the 
 bill was read a first time. It was brought forward during the heat of the 
 debates on the bill for the repression of Irish disturbances. This bill for the 
 reform of the Irish Church was considered by the ministers to be " a healing 
 measure," necessary to be immediately passed. There were various delays 
 which prevented the preliminary resolutions being debated till the 2nd of 
 April. The details of the measure of reform thus contemplated may be very 
 briefly stated. The total revenues of the Irish Church were about £800,000 
 per annum. Upon these it was intended, after abolishing first-fruits, to 
 impose a tax, varying according to the value of livings and bishoprics, exempt- 
 ing, however, all livings under £200 per annum. The sum thus obtained was 
 to be applied under Commissioners to the abolition of church-cess, the 
 augmentation of poor livings, and the building of glebe-houses. Deans and 
 chapters were to be abolished wherever they were unconnected with the 
 cure of souls, and ten bishoprics were to be merged in those that were to be 
 preserved. If by the Act to be introduced any new value not properly 
 belonging to the Church should be obtained, especially from the large increase 
 that might be expected .from letting episcopal lands, that value, estimated at 
 three millions, should be appropriated to the exigencies of the State. In the 
 passage of the bill through the House Mr. Stanley resisted this appropriation, 
 as an alienation of Church property, and proposed that it should be paid into 
 the hands of ecclesiastical Commissioners appointed under the Act. This 
 alteration was stigmatised by Mr. O'Connell as the basest act which a national 
 assembly could sanction. It was however carried by a large majority. The 
 Bill finally passed in the Commons by a majority of a hundred and eighty. 
 The second reading was debated in the House of Lords for three nights, and 
 was carried by a hundred and fifty-seven votes against ninety-eight. In the 
 Committee earl Grey was defeated by a majority of two upon an important 
 clause, upon which the Committee was adjourned, — a movement which looked 
 like an intimation that ministers might resign if the bill were not carried in 
 its integrity. This and other amendments were, however, submitted to, and 
 the bill passed on the 30th of July. The Commons agreed to the Amend- 
 ments, and Mr. O'Connell, declaring that the Lords had not made the bill 
 much worse than they found it, said that he received it only " as an instalment 
 of a debt due to Ireland." There were at that time, as there still continue 
 to be, many stedfast friends of the English Established Church who thought 
 
 • Twiss, Tol. iii. ?. 201.
 
 1833.] ABOLITIOX OF SLAVERY IN THE BRITISH COLONIES. 327 
 
 that this bill was really onlj aa instalment of some liealiug measure that 
 would make the Irish Church cease to be a danger and a reproach. There 
 were many who thought, as Mr. Macaulay thought in 1845, when he said in 
 Parliament, " I am prepared to support my opinion that of all the institutions 
 now existing in the civilized world, the Established Church of Ireland is the 
 most absurd." On the other hand, there were many who supported the 
 esclusively endowed Church of a minority, not only in the conscientious 
 belief that its revenues ought not to be applied to secular purposes, but in the 
 sanguine hope that, by preserving it in its integrity, it would remain a refuge 
 and a bulwark until by the progress of enlightenment it might grow into a 
 National Church iii the truest sense of the term. Thirty years have seen very 
 slight approach to the realization of this hope. 
 
 It is refreshing to escape out of the region of party violence and personal 
 animosity, to behold the legislature applying itself to the calm consideration 
 of the best way to accomplish a righteous act of justice and mercy, of which 
 the first condition of its accomplishment was that the country should make a 
 great pecuniary sacrifice. In 1823 Mr. Canning had proposed tliat decisive 
 measures should be taken for producing such a progressive improvement in 
 the character of the slave population by the amelioration of their condition as 
 would prepare them for a participation in civil rights and liberties. * In 1832 
 lord Althorp on the part of the government, in reply to a motion by Mr. T. 
 Eowell Buxton for a Select Committee to prepare for the extinction of slavery 
 in the British dominions at the earliest possible moment, moved an amend- 
 ment which was essentially a repetition of the resolution of 1823, For nine 
 years no sensible effects had been produced by that resolution. It was a 
 friendly warning to the Colonists, but it was unheeded by all the Colonial 
 legislatures, with the exception of some very slight improvements affecting the 
 physical condition of the slaves, which they did not resist. Lord Althorp 
 would not pledge himself to any immediate abolition of Slavery, because he 
 did not think that the slave population was in a condition to receive that boon 
 beneficially for themselves. The pacific emancipation of great multitudes in 
 slavery had been held by Mackintosh, as we have seen, as a problem so 
 arduous as to perplex and almost silence the reason of man.f Ten years after 
 his emphatic declaration the government boldly proposed to the Reformed 
 Parliament, not a compromise which might again postpone the decision of this 
 question for another ten years, but a comprehensive and final measure. To 
 the ])rinciple of this proposal there was scarcely any opposition ; its details 
 were considered in the spirit of a dignified liberality, worthy of a great nation 
 preparing to do a great act. On the 14th of May Mr. Stanley, the Secretary 
 for the Colonies, proposed five resolutions in a Committee of the House of 
 Commons. The first declared — "that it is the opinion of the Committee that 
 immediate and effectual measures be taken for the entire abolition of Slavery 
 throughout the Colonies, under such provisions for regulating the condition 
 of the negroes as may combine their welfare with the interests of the proprie- 
 tors." The subsequent four resolutions were in substance as follows : 2, any 
 children who should be under six years of age at the time of passing an Act 
 for the abolition of slavery, were to be declared free : 3, all persons now 
 
 • Ante, p. 193. t An!e, p. 194.
 
 528 ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN THE BRITISH COLONIES. [1833. 
 
 slaves were to be entitled to be registered as apprenticed labourers, to acquire 
 thereby all rights of freedom, under the restriction of labouring for their 
 present owners for a time to be fixed by parliament : 4, to afford compeasatiou 
 to proprietors against a risk of loss by the abolition of slavery : 5, to defray 
 any expense in establishing an efficient stipendiary magistracy, for the pur- 
 pose of assisting the local legislatures in providing for the religious and moral 
 education of the negro population.* In the introduction of this measure Mr. 
 Stanley adverted to the heavy responsibility which devolved upon him. The 
 interests, the comforts, the prosperity, perhaps the very existence, of a large 
 population in the West India Colonies hung upon the decision of those 
 resolutions which he would have to submit — the generations yet unborn were 
 to be affected for good or for evil by the course which the House might think 
 proper to adopt : " Nor can I conceal from myself or from this House the 
 immense influence on the population of foreign countries which must arise 
 from the result of the mighty experiment which we now propose to make."t 
 The resolutions of the Committee were modified in one or two points of 
 importance. The term of apprenticeship for the field slaves was reduced from 
 twelve years to seven ; for the house slaves, from seven years to five. The term 
 for the expiration of slavery was subsequently further reduced. It was originally 
 proposed to make a loan of fifteen millions to the Colonial proprietors. Their 
 acquiescence in the measure was secured by a positive gift of twenty millions. 
 It is unnecessary to trace the progress of the Bill for Negro Emancipation 
 through the two Houses. The debates were not of great length, and they 
 exhibited no violence. Even the proposed grant, the interest of which was 
 to be defrayed by an additional tax upon sugar, produced little remonstrance 
 either from the Parliament or the people. The Bill was read a second time 
 in the House of Commons on Monday the 22nd of July without a division. 
 This was equivalent to the measure being substantially passed. Three days 
 before, William Wilberforce had arrived in London in a state of health that 
 precluded all hope. The last time he spoke in Parliament was on the case of 
 the Missionary Smith, on the 1st of June, 1824. His biographers, alluding to 
 the second reading of the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery, say, " The last 
 public information he received was, that his country was willing to redeem 
 itself from the national disgrace at any sacrifice. ' Thank God,' said he, ' that 
 I should have lived to witness the day in which England is willing to give 
 twenty millions sterling for the abolition of Slavery.' " J He died on Monday, 
 July the 29th. The bill was read a third time in the House of Commons on 
 the 7th of August. On the 25th of June the resolutions of the Committee of 
 the Lower House were adopted in the House of Lords. Upon the second 
 reading of the Bill lord Brougham said that the measure was loudly demanded 
 by the all but unanimous voice of the people of England. He concluded by 
 saying, that after the exertions of more than a quarter of a century, it was no 
 little gratification to him, and no little consolation for many disappointments 
 and disquietudes, to have lived to see thisgreat and good woi-k brought so near to 
 a consummation. § The bill was there read a third time on the 20th of August. 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xvii. col. 1230. + Ibid., col. 1194. 
 
 X "Life of Wilberforce," by Lis Sons, vol. v. p. 370. By a mistake of the biographers, the 
 bill is Ktated to have been read a second time on Friday the 26th- 
 § Hansard, vol. xx. col. 525,
 
 1833.] ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN THE BRITISH COLONIES. 329 
 
 The freedom of the negro slaves was to commence under the system of 
 apprenticeship on the 1st of August, 1834. Many had dreaded that there 
 would he insurrections in some of the West India islands during the interval 
 between slavery and freedom. There was no insurrection ; little turbulent 
 manifestation of impatience. Planter and slave had equally settled into a 
 sober preparation for their future condition. There is a most interestino- 
 account of the first day of Emancipation in Antigua, a passage of which we 
 transcribe : " Tlie first of August came on Priday, and a release was pro- 
 claimed from all work until the next Monday. The day was chiefly spent by 
 the great mass of negroes in the churches and chapels. Thither they flocked 
 as clouds, and as doves to their windows. The clergy and missionaries 
 throughout the island were actively engaged, seizing the opportunity, in order 
 to enlighten the people on all the duties and responsibilities of their new 
 situation, and above all, urging them to the attainment of that higher liberty 
 with which Christ maketh his children free. In every quarter we were 
 assured that the day was like a Sabbath. Work had ceased ; the hum of 
 business was still, and noise and tumult were unheard in the streets. Tran- 
 quillity pervaded the towns and country. A Sabbath indeed! when the 
 wicked ceased from troubling, and the weary were at rest, and the slave was 
 freed from the master ! The planters informed us, that they went to the 
 chapels where their own people were assembled, greeted them, shook hands 
 with them, and exchanged most hearty good wishes." * 
 
 The influence on the population of foreigu countries, to which Mr. Stanley- 
 alluded, was intensely felt by the Abolitionists of the United States. Dr. 
 Channing, — one of the most earnest of this band, who amidst neglect, 
 calumny, and ridicule, have by perseverance become powerful enough to 
 impart a moral character to the contest of the Northern States against the 
 Southern, — delivered an address at Lenox on the anniversary of Emancipa- 
 tion in the British West Indies. This emancipation, he said, "whether 
 viewed in itself, or in its immediate results, or in the spirit from which it 
 grew, or in the light of hope which it sheds on the future, deserves to be 
 commemorated. In some respects it stands alone in human history." The 
 eloquence of Dr. Channing had for its especial object to rouse his countrymen 
 into an emulation of a high and generous deed, eff"ected by a nation which 
 America, as well as other nations, had been too ready to traduce as given 
 over to the promptings of selfish ambition. There were passages in that 
 address which appear to have sunk into the American mind, to exhibit their 
 fruits twenty years afterwards : " The cause had nothing to rely on but the 
 spirit of the English people ; and that people did respond to the reasonings, 
 pleadings, rebukes of Christian philanthropy, as nation never did before. 
 The history of this warfare cannot be read without seeing, that, once at least, 
 a great nation was swayed by high and disinterested principles. Men of the 
 world deride the notion of influencing human affairs by any but selfish 
 motives ; and it is a melancholy truth, that the movements of nations have 
 done much to confirm the darkest views of human nature. What a track of 
 crime, desolation, war, we are called by history to travel over ! Still history 
 
 * Thome and Kimball, "Emancipation in tbe West Indies," quoted by Dr. Channing, in his 
 A.ddress on the 1st of August, 18i2.
 
 880 EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION. [1833. 
 
 is lighted up by great names, by noble deeds, by patriots and martyrs ; and 
 especially in Emancipation, we see a great nation, putting forth its power, 
 and making great sacrifices, for a distant, degraded race of men, who had no 
 claims but those of wronged and suffering humanity." At the hour at which 
 we are writing on this great historical event, and considering its possible 
 influence on foreign nations, there arrives a telegram from New York of the 
 7th of March, announcing that a message has been sent by President Lincoln 
 to Congress, urging the passing of a Eesolution for co-operation with the 
 Slave States, by means of pecuniary aid from the Federal revenues for the 
 gradual emancipation of the slaves.* 
 
 We mention the remarkable fact of Mr. Lincoln's proposition to Congress, 
 chiefly to point out that the suggestion of pecuniary compensation to the 
 Slave-owners was not likely to be received by the planters of the Southern 
 States, or even of the Border States, to whom it seems more peculiarly 
 addressed, with any conviction that the position of the proprietors in the 
 British West India colonies had been improved by the emancipation of the 
 slaves a quarter of a century before. The owners of four millions of slaves 
 have constantly alleged that the British government, by converting seven 
 hundred thousand slaves into free labourers, had destroyed the prosperity of 
 their West India colonies by practically repealing the divine law that all men 
 must work, — that by the sweat of his brow every man should eat his bread. 
 They have pointed especially to the largest and most fertile of the British 
 West India islands — Jamaica — and they have maintained that from the 
 1st of August, 1834, may be dated the ruin of its towns, the desolation of 
 its cane-fields, the bankruptcy of its sugar growers. The emancipated negro, 
 they affirmed, will not work. Such a consequence was indeed foretold during 
 the debates on the Abolition Bill. It was said that of Jamaica two-thirds 
 were wood and bush — by bush being meant, not unprolifie but uncultivated 
 ground ; — that it abounded in means of support ; that the rivers teemed with 
 fish ; that the negroes possessed abundance of swine and poultry. Their 
 numbers were too few to produce a competition for land ; they would obtain 
 it at a nominal rent, or become squatters. Would not the free labourers, it 
 was asked, rather cultivate the soil on their own account than work for 
 wages. These were the opinions of the earl of Belmore.f The duke of 
 Wellington held that it was absurd to expect that the negroes in such a 
 climate as that of the West Indies would work as regular agriculturists 
 unless they were obliged to work. J To this argument lord Brougham 
 answered, that if it were the nature of the negro, under existing circum- 
 stances, to find a delight in cultivating his ground after his day's work waa 
 at an end, surely he would not so alter his nature as to refuse voluntary work 
 when this new arrangement came into operation. § In too many cases the 
 negro did refuse to work at the especial business of sugar cultivation, to 
 which he had formerly been driven by the fear of the whip. Upon the 
 growers of sugar-canes', who combined the business of the cultivator with 
 that of the manufacturer in producing rum and sugar, the Emancipation Act, 
 
 * "Times," March 20, 1862. 
 + Hansard, vol. xx. col. 511. 
 t Jl'id., col. 518. 
 § Ibid., col. 522.
 
 1883.] EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION. 331 
 
 especially in Jamaica, came like a destroying blight. It was not a sudden 
 uprooting of the solid foundations of a real prosperity, for every estate waa 
 encumbered, and every planter embarrassed ; but it destroyed the system 
 which had still enabled the proprietors profitably to supply the markets with 
 their produce by compelling the greatest amount of work at the smallest 
 pay out of the slave population. "When hired labour became dear or 
 impossible to be procured at all, — when a white or coloured population could 
 
 not labour with the physical energy of the black under a tropical sun, 
 
 there came insolvency, forced sales of estates, amazing reduction in the value 
 of all property, families connected with "West Indian interests reduced from 
 opulence to poverty. 
 
 Ten years after the Emancipation, whilst Exeter Hall still boldly main- 
 tained the unmixed good of the Abolition of Slavery, there were writers and 
 speakers who denounced the eloquence of Exeter Hall as " rose-pink senti- 
 mentalism." Those who in 1833 dreaded that the negro would not work, 
 were too true prophets of a certain amount of evil. "Whilst lord Brougham 
 and others had believed that the ordinary laws of demand and supply would 
 operate upon the freed negro, the experience of a considerable period had 
 shown, it was thus quaintly alleged, that they had not so operated : " The 
 West Indies, it appears, are short of labour ; as, indeed, is very conceivable 
 in those circumstances. "When a black man, by working about half an hour 
 a day (such is the calculation), can supply himself, by aid of sun and soil 
 with as much pumpkin as will suffice, he is likely to be a little stiff to raise 
 into hard work ! Supply and demand, which, science says, should be brought 
 to bear on him, have an uphill task of it with such a man. Strou^ sun sup- 
 lies itself gratis, rich soil in those unpeopled or half-peopled regions almost 
 gratis ; these are his ' supply,' and half an hour a day, directed upon these, 
 will produce pumpkin, which is his ' demand.' The fortunate Black man 
 very swiftly does he settle Ms account with supply and demand : — not so 
 swiftly the less fortunate White man of those tropical localities. A bad case 
 his, just now. He himself cannot work ; and his black neighbour, rich in 
 pumpkin, is in no haste to help him."* Ten years roll on, and still the Black 
 man " can listen to the less fortunate White man's demand, and take his own 
 time in supplying it.",t One amongst the ablest of recent authors goes to 
 the West Indies, in 1859, and describes, in" Jamaica, the negro "lyino- at hia 
 ease under his cotton-tree, and declining to work after ten o'clock in the 
 morning. ' No, tankee, Massa, me tired now. Me no want more money.' " + 
 The first desire, says Mr. Trollope, of man in a state of civilization is for 
 property. " The negro has no such desire." What is to be done ? Eng- 
 lishmen, whether prompted or not by Exeter Hall, will not assent to the doc- 
 trine, to say nothing of the difficulty of its enforcement, " that no Black man 
 who will not work according to what ability the gods have given him for 
 working, has the smallest right to eat pumpkin, or to any fraction of land that 
 will grow pumpkin, however plentiful such land may be ; but has an indisput- 
 able and perpetual right to be compelled, by the real proprietors of said land 
 
 * CarlylG, "Latter-Day Pamplilets : The Nigger Question j" first published in 1843 
 
 + Ibid. 
 
 t Anthony Trollope, " The West Indies," p. 64.
 
 £32 EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION. [1833. 
 
 to do competent work for his living."* The traveller through Jamaica may- 
 ride on for days and only see a "cane-piece" here and there; but very 
 frequently on the roadside are to be seen the pleasant gardens or provision- 
 grounds of the negroes. In these are cocoa trees, bread-fruit trees, oranges, 
 mangoes, limes, plantains, and other tall food-producing plants. The yam is 
 there in great profusion, with a score of other edibles. " Then one sees also 
 in these provision-grounds, patches of coft'ee, and arrow-root, and occasionally 
 also patches of sugar-cane. "f So the black man, then, is not altogether idle. 
 He has not wholly gone back in his free condition to a state of uncivilizatiou. 
 His oranges, and his bread-fruit, and his yam, will grow with little labour. 
 Having these he does not care for the half-crown a-day which he would be 
 paid for digging cane-holes. "Whilst in Jamaica there are eleven acres of land 
 to one man, and that land will yield subsistence for scraping it, it is dif&culfc 
 to say how any new competition of free labourers could change the habits of 
 the negro. The case is essentially dilierent in Barbadoes, where there is no 
 unoccupied land. This little island is fully peopled with negroes, and every 
 negro works as a free labourer in the cane-fields or the mills, without hesitat- 
 ing to work after ten o'clock in the morning. The exportation of sugar from 
 that island has been more than doubled since the Emancipation. In some 
 islands, such as St. Vincent, the exportation of sugar has declined one-half. 
 But the exportation of arrow-root has increased twenty-fold. In other islands 
 immigrations of coolies have supplied the labour which the negro reluctantly 
 performs. It has not displaced his labour, but has left him to the lazy but 
 not wholly improvident enjoyment of his own provision-ground. The changes 
 in the political circumstances of the world hold out to the "West India pro- 
 prietors some cultivation of equal importance with that of the sugar-cane. 
 Some islands grow cotton, and they probably will grow much more. "Whilst 
 there is lamentation, and no doubt justly, over the reverses of the planters 
 in particular islands or districts, it is stoutly maintained that the colonies 
 generally are flourishing. It is universally maintained that the negro is pros- 
 pering. J This condition of things, after a quarter of a century's experience, 
 is perhaps as satisfactory as could reasonably be expected. It is far more 
 satisfactory than a persistence in the sin of slavery would have been. Most 
 truly is it said by Mr. Trollope, that " the discontinuance of a sin is always 
 the commencement of a struggle.'* "Whether with the notable fact that " the 
 black African alone of wild men can live among men civilized," § he will 
 refuse to accommodate himself to the customary labours of civilization 
 amongst the whites, is a problem not to be solved where the rich lands are so 
 abundant that they yield no rent, for the inferior lands remain uncultivated. 
 If this law of political economy be true, the time may not be very distant 
 when the negro will cease to despise property, and not having land for 
 .nothing, will not continue to sit " up to the ears in pumpkins, imbibing 
 sweet pulps and juices." However that may be, the question of slavery or 
 no slavery was not a question of imports and exports. The conscience of 
 
 * " Latter-Day Pamphlets." 
 t Trollope, p. 28. 
 
 X See " The Ordeal of Free-Labour iu the British West Indies," by W. G. Sewell (a Canadian); 
 also in " Edinburgh Keview," for January 180li, an article on Mr. Sewell's book. 
 § Carlyle.
 
 1S33.J LIMITATION OF LABOUR IN FACTORIES. 333 
 
 England could not rest happy under tlie load of injustice, and she at once 
 threw off the burthen and the shame. 
 
 Whilst the British legislature was decreeing that within a few years no 
 slave should exist in the empire, and was providing as far as it could for the 
 moral and religious education of children who would instantly become free, a 
 beginning was made in the reformation of a crying evil which, however, was 
 surrounded with difficulties almost aa great as those of negro emancipation. 
 The condition of children in our Factories had long been, one of neglected 
 education, of excessive labour, producing together the miserable effect of 
 stunted intellects and diseased bodies. On the day when Mr. Stanley intro- 
 duced his Bill for the abolition of !N^egro Slavery, lord Ashley moved that tho 
 house should go into a Committee on the Factories Bill,— a Bill not only to 
 prevent the overworking of children in factories ; but to limit the hours of 
 adult labour. The government proposed by lord Althorp to refer the bill to 
 a Select Committee. A Commission had been appointed in a previous Session 
 with a view to obtain information, and it would be inconsistent to legislate 
 without having had time to read their Report, and the voluminous evidence 
 which it contained. He contended that the effect of reducing the hours of 
 labour might increase the power of foreigners to compete in the British 
 market, thus causing the decline of the manufacturing interests of the 
 country, and producing misery among the manufacturing population. He 
 desired to see the insertion of a clause in the Bill, by which protection to 
 children properly so called would be increased, whilst adults should be left 
 unshackled and unrestricted. He moved that the Bill should be referred to 
 a Select Committee, to whom it should be an instruction to make provision, 
 1st, that no child who had not entered upon its fourteenth year should 
 labour more than eight hours a-day ; 2ndly, for securing opportunities of 
 educating the children during the times they were not employed ; and 3rdly, 
 that a system of inspection be enforced throughout the factories so as to 
 ensure the execution of the above provisions. The amendment of lord 
 Althorp was opposed, not without considerable heat, upon the ground that 
 delay would be caused if the matter were referred to a Select Committee ; 
 and that the protection should extend beyond those under the age of four- 
 teen. The plea for instant legislation was one of the frequent manifestations 
 that philanthropy too often exhibits of an infantine impatience for the cure 
 of a malady, without stopping to consider the greater derangements of 
 society which a sudden and strong remedy might induce. The proposition of 
 the government was rejected by a majority of twenty-three. The Bill went 
 into Committee; when lord Ashley proposed to limit the labour in factories 
 to ten hours daily till the employed were eighteen years of age. Lord 
 Althorp moved as an amendment that the hours of daily work should be 
 limited to eight until children should attain the age of fourteen. The Com- 
 mittee divided against the proposal of eighteen years, rejecting it by a majority 
 of a hundred and forty-five. Lord Ashley, finding, he said, that the noble 
 lord had completely defeated him, surrendered the Bill into his hands. The 
 Bill, whose operations were to commence on the 1st of January, 1834, 
 provided regulations for the employment of children which were to come 
 into gradual operation. School attendance was to be cared for, and medical 
 superintendence was directed. Four Factory Commissioners were appointed
 
 334 BANK CHARTER— EAST INDIA COMPANY'S CHARTER. [1833. 
 
 to watch over tlie operation ox'" the Act. This first attempt at legislation upon 
 a great social question was materially amended by the statute of the present 
 Queen (7 Vict. c. 15.) 
 
 There were two other great questions before the parliament of 1833, 
 which necessarily involved changes of system, by some accounted dangerous, 
 by most received as an absolute necessity concurrent with the progress of 
 society. One of these was the renewal of the Bank Charter, which would 
 expire upon a year's notice after the 1st of August, 1833. A Secret Com- 
 mittee had been appointed in May, 1832. Its Report, presented in August 
 of that year, was printed, and the transactions of the great Corporation would 
 no longer be secret. A new Charter was granted, for a limited period, by an 
 Act which received the royal assent on the 29th of August, 1833. The exclu- 
 sive privileges of the Governor and Company were to end upon one year's 
 notice given at the end of ten years after August, 1834. All other banks 
 having more than six partners were restricted from issuing notes or bills 
 within sixty-five miles of Loudon. The notes of the Bank and of its 
 branches were to be a legal tender, except at the Bank and its branches. 
 "Weekly returns of bullion, and of notes in circulation, were to be sent to the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in order to publication in the Loudon Gazette. 
 These were the more important provisions of the Act. In another ten years 
 the constitution of the Bank was necessarily remodelled. 
 
 The charter of the East India Company had been renewed for twenty years 
 in 1813, during which term they were to retain the exclusive trade to China. 
 The trade to India was partially thrown open. In the session of 1833, the 
 success even of the limited experiment of private trade had sufficiently shown, 
 that if British commercial intercourse with India should be freed from the 
 restrictions tliat still pressed upon it, and that if China could be opened to 
 general enterprise, avast market would be created for our produce and manu- 
 factures. The charter was in 1833 renewed for twenty years. The territorial 
 government of India was to remain in the hands of the Company. Its exist- 
 ence as a commercial body was to be wound up after the 22nd of April, 1834. 
 All the regulations which interfered with the free admission of Europeans to 
 India, and their free residence there, were to cease. The government of India 
 was to be in a Governor- General and Councillors. A Law Commission was to 
 be appointed to inquire into the jurisdiction of existing courts of justice and 
 the operation of the laws. No native, nor any natural-born subject of the 
 King resident in India, should be disabled from holding office on account of 
 his religion, place of birth, descent, or colour. Slavery was to be mitigated, 
 aud abolished as soon as practicable. We shall have to show, in a future view 
 of British industry, what vast results were accomplished by the assertion of 
 the principle for which the traders of England had been contending for gene- 
 rations — that monopolies were injurious and ought to be abolished. 
 
 In the present chapter we have considered it important to display, at some 
 lengtli, the vast amount of work of the highest interest which was effected 
 in the first session of the Eeformed Parliament. The prorogation took place 
 on the 29th of August. There was no exaggeration in the boast of the Speaker 
 of the House of Commons when he thus addressed the King upon his throne : 
 *' Sire, in reviewing our labours of the last seven months, it may, I think, bo 
 truly said, that the history of Parliament will not furnish a Session so wholly
 
 1833.] THE BALLOT— PROROGATION. 335 
 
 engrossed and overwhelmed witli matters so various and so difficult in tlieir 
 character, and so deeply important to the vital interests of the empire, as this 
 Session.* "We have seen that many of the discussions on " matters so various 
 and so difficult " had abiding results ; that the legislation of the year was the 
 commencement of a succession of political and social improvements whose 
 value we are now all ready to acknowledge. This was the first genial seed- 
 time, when the " good seed" might he expected to fall into " good ground," 
 and " bring forth fruit." Nevertheless men's minds were much divided upon 
 the question of what was " good seed." Such division effectually prevented, 
 during this season of hope, as it has prevented for many succeeding years, 
 any favourable result to the agitation of the question of the Ballot. It was 
 a subject in great part new to Parliament, when, in 1833, Mr. Grote made 
 this question his own, and continued for six years to maintain his conviction 
 of the necessity for secret voting, with that temperate judgment, that unob- 
 trusive learning, that calm philosophy, which subsequently he has devoted 
 with rare success to labours probably more congenial than parliamentary 
 excitement. On tlie 25th of April he moved, " that it is expedient that the 
 votes at elections for members of Parliament be taken by way of ballot." The 
 principle of the Ballot has been repeatedly expounded in more recent times, 
 but never with greater success than during the period when the question was 
 in the hands of Mr. Grote. Tear after year he gained new adherents to the 
 principle. He had one hundred and six supporters in 1833 ; he had two 
 hundred and sixteen in 1839. Since 1848, under the advocacy of Mr, Henry 
 Berkeley, its supporters have grown fewer and fewer every year. In 1848 it 
 was carried by a small majority. " Such reaction of opinion," it has been 
 observed, " upon a popular measure, is more significant of ultimate failure 
 than a steady position, without progress indeed, yet without reveraes."t 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xx. col. 901. 
 
 + May — •' Constitutional History," voL i. p. 373.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Poor Law Amendment Act — Commission for preliminary inquiry — Commissioners' Report — • 
 Striking instances of Parochial Reform at Cookham and Southwell — State of the Southern 
 Agricultural Counties — Of the Manufacturing Districts — Violent opposition to the measure 
 — The Bill passed — Debate on the Repeal of the Union with Ireland — Irish Church — Resig- 
 nations of Mr. Stanley and three of his colleagues — Resignation of lord Grey — The Mel- 
 bourne Administration — The Budget — Prorogation — The Grey Banquet at Edinburgh — 
 The Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire. 
 
 The great measure of the Session of Parliament for 1834 was the passing 
 of the Act for " the Amendment and better Administration of the Law3 
 relating to the Poor in England and "Wales." That session was opened on the 
 4th of Pebruary, and concluded on the 15th of August. The Speaker, in his 
 Address to tbe King on the day of prorogation, said, that the Poor Law 
 Amendment Bill had almost from the commencement to the close of the session 
 occupied the unwearied attention of the Commons. It was impossible, he 
 continued, for them to approach a subject of such infinite delicacy and such 
 immense importance " without much of apprehension, and, he might say, 
 much of alarm." It was several years before tbe apprehension and alarm 
 passed away ; before the hope of the Speaker could be generally entertained, 
 " that its benefits will be as lasting as they will be grateful to all ranks and 
 classes of society." The Bill was brought in by lord xilthorp on the 17th of 
 April. To understand the scope of the Parliamentary proceedings, we must 
 notice with some detail the preliminary steps of a Commission which was 
 appointed in 1832, " to make a full inquiry into the practical operation of the 
 Poor Laws, and into the manner in which those Laws are administered." These 
 Commissioners were also charged to report their opinion as to " what improve- 
 ments might beneficially be made in these laws, aud in the manner of admi- 
 nistering them." This Eeport was signed by Charles James Blomfield, bishop 
 of London ; John Bird Sumner, bishop of Chester; and by Sturges Bourne, 
 Nassau W. Senior, Henry Bishop, Henry Gawler, AV. Coulson, James Traill, 
 and Edwin Chadwick, — all known to the public for their cjipacity to deal with 
 a question which had never yet been approached in a philosophical and coura- 
 geous spirit of legislation. 
 
 The Eeport of the Commissioners, dated tlie 20th of February, 1834, was 
 preceded by the publication of " Extracts from the information received,*' 
 which volume was addressed to viscount Melbourne, Secretary of State for
 
 1834.] POOR-LAWS— COMMISSION OF INQUIRY. 887 
 
 the Home Department. The Commissioners, in their introductory letter to 
 this volume, expressed their belief that, although only a small part of the 
 evidence which they were preparing to report, it contained more information 
 on the subject to which it related than had ever been afforded to the country. 
 These extracts were very largely circulated; and they contributed in a 
 remarkable manner to the establishment of the principle that the utmost 
 publicity and the freest discussion afford the best security for an eventual 
 triumph of sound statesmanship over popular prejudice, enabling a govern- 
 ment resolutely to labour for the removal of a deeply-rooted mischief — a task 
 whose difficulties might have appeared almost insurmountable when " the 
 inveterate canker" had eaten into the heart of the largest portion of the 
 community. 
 
 The annual amount of the poor-rate at the close of the American War in 
 1783 was 2,132,487^. In half a century, that is, in 1833, the amount had 
 risen to 8,606,501/. The population of England and Wales in the first period 
 was about eight millions ; in the second period about fourteen millions. The 
 poor-rate levy had increased 300 per cent. ; the population had increased 
 about 75 per cent. Assuming that the increase of taxation, the fluctuation 
 of the currency, and other disturbing causes, had contributed to produce this 
 enormous increase, there could be no doubt in the minds of thinking men, that 
 -there was something beyond the mere pressure of the times which had long 
 deranged the usual relation of labour and wages, and had produced, amongst 
 the agricultural labourers especially, a reliance upon other means of support 
 than their own industry and foresight. There had been several successful 
 experiments of a parochial struggle against the mischievous system, which 
 appeared to be rapidly proceeding to a consummation which would be equiva- 
 lent to the whole rental of the country being swallowed up, not by poverty 
 but by pauperism. Two or three remarkable men had been able to show, in 
 their respective localities, that a consistent assertion of a principle might 
 arrest the evil which a nation deplored, but of which few could see the way to 
 a remedy. Of the parish of Cookham, in Berkshire, more than thirty years 
 before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Bill, the Eev. Thomas 
 Whateley was the vicar. Under his active promotion and superintendence 
 the most important reforms had been produced in an agricultural population, 
 which, in common with the populations of all the southern counties, had sunk 
 into the lowest state of pauper degradation, " The moral and intellectual 
 character of the good old English labourer, who in former times had boasted 
 with honest pride that he never was beholden to a parish officer, was destroyed 
 altogether." * Upon the termination of Mr. Whateley's pastoral residence 
 in Cookham for forty years, his parishioners presented him with a service of 
 plate. In his address of thanks he told them, that they, with no precedent to 
 refer to, no authority to quote, had carried into active operation the great 
 principles upon which the new Poor-Law Amendment Bill was founded. The 
 destruction of the allowance system in aid of wages was the foremost of the 
 principles to which Mr. Whateley alluded. You have eflfected, he said, *' a 
 saving of thirty thousand pounds to the ratepayers ; but you did that which 
 was worth more than double the money — you bettered the condition while 
 
 * Mr. Wbateley's Evidence, 
 VOL. vm.— 246.
 
 S38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INQUIRY. [1834. 
 
 you improved the manners and morals of the lower orders to a degree that is 
 scarcely credible. . . .Ton have the satisfaction of having placed a Bible 
 in every house, blankets upon every bed, fuel upon every fire, clothes upon 
 every back, and plenty of wholesome food in every pantry." There was 
 another great principle upon which the Poor-Law Amendment Bill was 
 founded. Southwell, in Nottinghamshire, deserves especial mention as having 
 been the parish where, with the humble experience of an overseer of the 
 poor, one of the most energetic, clear-headed, and truly benevolent poor-law 
 reformers saw clearly what great eifects would result from refusing out-door 
 relief to the able-bodied poor, and oifering the workhouse as a test of desti- 
 tution. Mr. Nicholls, afterwards sir George NichoUs, in 1821 addressed a 
 series of letters to the editor of the " Nottingham Journal," which were sub- 
 sequently collected and published under the title of " Eight Letters on the 
 Poor-Laws, by an Overseer." In the parish of Southwell at that time there 
 was living, under the shade of the magnificent collegiate church, a pauper 
 population constantly supported in their demands upon the rates by a bench 
 of magistrates assembled weekly in petty sessions. There was a paid over- 
 seer to assist the ordinary overseers ; there was a workhouse maintained at a 
 considerable expense, without order or discipline, which had become the resort 
 of the idle and profligate of both sexes. Under the bench of magistrates and 
 the paid overseer the circle of pauperism became so widened as to embrace 
 nearly the whole labouring population. Self-reliance and provident habits 
 were destroyed. " In youth and in age, in sickness and in health, in seasons 
 of abundance and in seasons of scarcity, with low prices or with high prices, 
 the parish was still looked to and relied upon as an unfailing resource to 
 which everyone clung, and from which every poor man considered that he had a 
 right to obtain the supply of every want, even although such want was caused 
 by his own indolence, vice, or improvidence."* The remedy for this evil was 
 efiected by discontinuing employment by the parish ; by refusing allowances 
 in aid of wages ; by withholding the payment of rents of cottages ; by excusing 
 none from paying the poor's-rate; by establishing a school where the children 
 of labourers burdened with large families might be fed and taught during the 
 day ; and by making workhouse relief the foundation of all other reforms. 
 The workhouse principle insured the non-acceptance of parish relief unless 
 under circumstances of actual want ; such want being, at the same time, 
 always certain of finding the relief of which it stood in need. By these 
 energetic means, the expenditure for the relief of the poor was reduced from 
 2,006/. in 1820-21 to 5171. in 1823-24. The examples of Southwell, and of 
 Bingham, a parish on the opposite bank of the Trent, " were therefore of 
 infinite value to the Commissioners, on whom had devolved the duty of devis- 
 ing a remedy for the abuses of the Poor-Laws ; and they were relied upon 
 accordingly as instances of substantial reforms, founded upon and growing 
 out of the practical application of a principle simple and efiective, and that 
 might be reasonably expected, wherever it was adopted, to be as efiective a& 
 it had proved in the case of these two parishes." t 
 
 * " Stattnient of the Proceedings at Southwell, drawn up by Mr. Nicliolls in 1834, at the 
 request of the Inquiry Commissioners. 
 
 + " History of the English Poor Lixw," by Sir George Nichclls, vol. ii, p. 250.
 
 1834.] REPORT OF COMMISSION ERS— SOUTHERN COUNTIES. 239 
 
 In the Eeport of the Commissioners of Inquiry the workhouse of South- 
 well is described as one of the few instances of a place iu which the aged 
 and impotent are maintained in comfort, and the able-bodied supported, but 
 under such restrictions as not to induce them to prefer it to a life of inde- 
 pendent labour. Let us compare such a workhouse system with that which 
 prevailed in parishes where the great ambition of the managers of the poor 
 was to make the condition of the pauper infinitely superior to that of the inde- 
 pendent labourer. Some of the details brought to light by the Commission of 
 Inquiry are almost too ludicrous to be readily believed by those of the 
 present generation. And yet no one who had experience of the pariah busi- 
 ness of the time of George IV. and William IV. would hesitate to admit 
 their correctness to the fullest extent. Mr. Chadwick goes to the parish of 
 St. Lawrence, Eeading. The governor of the workhouse little knew the 
 quality of the gentleman with whom he had to deal. Q. " AVhat description 
 of food do you give those under your charge ?" A. " Good wholesome victuals 
 as anybody would wish to taste. Tou shall taste it yourself We give them 
 all meat three times a week. The working men have a bellyful. We never 
 weigh anything, and there is no stint, so as they do not waste anything. Then 
 they have good table-beer and good ale." The querist then asked whether 
 he might say that not only was the condition of those under the complacent 
 governor's care better as regarded food, clothing, lodging, and comfort, than 
 the labourers who toil out of doors, but that they were under no uncertainty, 
 and had no anxiety about providing for themselves. " Yes, sir ; you may 
 say that. Tou may say, too, that they are better ofi" than one-half of the 
 ratepayers out of the house." * In this favoured parish of Eeading the 
 management of the out-paupers was equally characteristic, they having nearly 
 the same amount of wages allowed them without work as could have been 
 obtained by independent labourers with hard work. It was the same every- 
 where. The pauper was the favoured of God's creatures. Imposture and 
 crime were bountifully rewarded, whilst industry and frugality met either 
 with neglect or with persecution. There was a systematic slavery enforced 
 in many parishes almost as cruel and certainly as demoralising as the slavery 
 in the West Indies. Mr. Hickson, a manufacturer at Northampton, a trades- 
 man in London, and the owner of land at Stansford in Kent, thus describes 
 his country experience. Some circumstance had occurred which obliged him 
 to part with a hard-working industrious man, who had saved some money, 
 who had cows and pigs, and who lived in a well-furnished cottage. Mr. 
 Hickson says, " He told me at the time I was obliged to part with him, — 
 ' Whilst I have these things I shall get no work. I must part with them all. 
 I must be reduced to a state of beggary before any one will employ me.' I 
 was compelled to part with him at Michaelmas — he has not yet got work, 
 and he has no chance of getting any until he has become a pauper ; for, until 
 then, the paupers will be preferred to him. He cannot get work in his own 
 parish, and he wiQ not be allowed to get any in other parishes." f When the 
 hard-working industrious man became utterly destitute he would most pro- 
 
 * " Extracts from Information," pp. 216 — 217. 
 
 t " Extracts of Evidence," p. 270. As to the operation of the Law of Settlement, see ante, 
 p. 67
 
 340 REPORT— MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. [1834. 
 
 bably get work, but his spirit would be broken. He tniglit become reckless 
 ■ — be would certainly become surly. The administrators of pariah relief, 
 before they administered to the actual necessities of a poor man, were always 
 occupied in discussions about his character. It was this pottering about 
 " character," about " governors" (that is, magistrates and overseers), " being 
 appointed for the punishment of evil-doers, and for the praise of them that 
 do well," that produced grievous injustice under the old administration of the 
 Poor-Laws. The squire, the clergyman, and the farmer, constituted them- 
 selves a tribunal for the suppression of vice and the encouragement of virtue, 
 and they succeeded in producing either desperation or hypocrisy amongst 
 the entire labouring population. If the junta was completed by the addition 
 of a paid assistant overseer the discrimination was perfect. Those who have 
 ever been conversant with the workings of the old system know that squalid 
 filth was the test of destitution, and whining gratitude, as it was called, for 
 the alms distributed was the test of character. If a labourer with a manly 
 bearing came to the overseer, or to the Parish Committee, to remove some 
 sudden calamity — if he asked something to prevent him selling his bed — he 
 was insulted. The writer has seen the agonized tear of wounded pride start 
 from the eye, and perhaps the groan of suppressed indignation escape from 
 the lips ; — if the groan was heard, that man's " character" was gone for ever. 
 This pretence to discriminate between the good and the evil did much worse 
 for the community than occasional injustice. It led away parish functionaries 
 from the real object of their appointment — to administer relief to the indigent 
 — into the belief that they were the great patrons of the whole labouring 
 population, who could never go alone without their aid. They almost forced 
 the condition of pauperism upon the whole working community by their 
 beautiful system of rewards and punishments. They forgot that it was their 
 business to give relief to destitution, and to destitution only, and so they 
 established every sort of false test to guide them in the one duty of their 
 office — to find out whether the want was real, and if so, to relieve it in a 
 manner that would satisfy the necessity without destroying the honest pride 
 of self-reliance. 
 
 The facts which we have thus touched upon as to the operation of the Poor- 
 Laws in the southern counties must not be considered as exhibiting the 
 general condition of the agricultural peasantry in the north, and certainly 
 not as paralleled amidst the manufacturing population. The Commissioners 
 indeed say in their letter to lord Melbourne, that " the mal-administration 
 which was supposed to be confined to some of the agricultural districts 
 appears to have spread over almost every part of the country and into the 
 manufacturing towns." In the manufacturing districts there was a peremp- 
 tory and comparatively sudden necessity for the extension of the allowance 
 system, arising out of the transition from hand to power-loom weaving. This 
 vicissitude aft'ected three-fifths of the population of Lancashire, especially in 
 the country places, where the power-loom was not used, but where its eflects 
 had reduced the wages of tlie country weavers to a minimum which was not 
 adequate for their maintenance. In the manufacturing towns the power-loom 
 created a new but partial demand for labour, especially for that of children. 
 To mitigate the inevitable distress the allowance-system was applied to able- 
 bodied weavers. The farmers in their management of the parish funds could
 
 1834.] POOR-LAW AMENDMENT BILL. 341 
 
 depress the rates of wages below the natural level. The manufacturers could 
 not attempt— they certainly did not attempt — to imitate this practical oppres- 
 sion. The rate of wages of the hand-loom weavers did not sink lower than 
 was to be expected as the natural result of an invention which compelled 
 them to compete with the power of steam.* 
 
 On the 17th of April lord Althorp moved that leave be given to bring in a 
 Bill to alter and amend the laws relative to the Eelief of the Poor in England 
 and Wales. It was absolutely necessary, he said, that there should be a dis- 
 cretionary power vested in some quarter to carry into eflfect recommendations 
 calculated to introduce sound principles and the fruits of salutary experience 
 into the administration of the Poor-Laws. It was his intention tlierefore to 
 propose-that his Majesty should be authorized to appoint a Central Board of 
 Commissioners, invested with extraordinary power to enable it to accomplish 
 the object proposed. The Bill introduced by lord Althorp was founded upon 
 the recommendations of the Commissioners of Inquiry. It had remained a 
 month under the consideration of the Cabinet, two of the Commissioners, 
 Mr. Sturges Bourne and Mr. Senior, occasionally attending to afford explana- 
 tions.f Tlie great value of the preliminary inquiry and of the able Eeport 
 of the Commissioners, as well as the sedulous attention which was bestowed 
 upon all the details by a Committee of seven members of the Cabinet, may 
 Ire inferred from the fact that, with very slight modifications, the Poor-Laws, 
 as they are now administered throughout the country by Boards of Gruar- 
 dians acting under a Central Board, have during twenty-eight years been 
 prescribed by the legislation of 1834. The proposition of this great measure 
 was very favourably received by the House of Commons. The second read- 
 ing was carried by a large majority ; ayes, 299 ; noes, 20. 
 
 Between the sconed reading on the 9th of May, and the third reading on 
 the 1st of July, a most powerful opposition had been got up against the mea- 
 sure. It was maintained, and of course popularly believed, that it was a bill 
 of pains and penalties against the poor ; that the endeavour to take the relief 
 of the necessitous out of the hands of benevolent magistrates was to expose 
 the poor to the grinding tyranny of centralization which could have no sym- 
 pathy with local or individual 'wants. The metropolitan parishes, whose 
 select vestries had long enjoyed a fame for the most outrageous jobbery, were 
 amongst the loudest opponents of the measure. The sentiments of Mary- 
 lebone were spoken by sir Samuel Whalley, who maintained that the power 
 proposed to be given to the Commissioners — " to these bashaws, to these 
 
 three-tailed bashaws, was subversive of all constitutional principles 
 
 He believed that one of the effects of this measure would be, that men of 
 character would abstain from filling parochial offices, while those who under- 
 took them must consent to be the degraded tools of the Commissioners."! 
 On the day of the second reading the Common Council of London had, with 
 only two dissentient voices, agreed to a petition against the Bill. Mr. Grote, 
 one of the members for the City, nevertheless did not hesitate to express his 
 approval of the main ends of the Bill, and of the new machinery by which 
 those ends were to be accomplished. He declared that so strong was his 
 
 * " Extracts," &c., p. 340. 
 
 + Nicholls — " History of the English Poor Law," vol. ii. p. 273. 
 
 t Hansard, vol. xxiii. col. 811.
 
 342 THE BILL PASSED, [1834. 
 
 conviction of the absolute necessity of some large remedial measure as an 
 antidote to the overwhelmibg evil of pauperism — so firm was his belief of the 
 necessity of some central supervising agency — that if it were to cost him the 
 certain sacrifice of his seat he should feel bound to tell his constituents that 
 he dissented from them, and that he would do his best to promote the attain- 
 ment of this necessary, and in the main valuable, remedy.* Upon the third 
 reading of the Bill the ayes were 157, the noes 50. The duration of the 
 measure was then limited to five years. 
 
 Between the passing of the Bill by the Commons on the 2nd of July and 
 its proposed second reading by the Lords, lord Grey had retired from the 
 government, and lord Melbourne had become the head of the administration. 
 It was not till the 21st that lord Brougham moved the second reading. "My 
 lords," he said, " I should have been unworthy of the task that has been 
 committed to my hands, if by any deference to clamour I could have been 
 made to swerve from the faithful discharge of this duty. The subject is infi- 
 nitely too important, the interests which it involves are far too mighty, and 
 the duty correlative to the importance of those interests which the govern- 
 ment I belong to has to discharge is of too lofty, too sacred a nature, to 
 make it possible for any one who aspires to the name of a statesman, or who 
 has taken upon himself to counsel his sovereign upon the arduous concerns 
 of his realm, to let the dictates of clamour find any access to his breast, and 
 make him sacrifice his principles to a covetousness of popular applause."t 
 Never were the qualities of the great orator more remarkably displayed than 
 in this speech. Historical research, accurate reasoning, a complete mastery 
 of facts, majestic rhetoric, — all were brought to bear upon a subject which 
 the mere utilitarian would have clothed with the repulsive precision of statis- 
 tical detail. The measure was opposed by lord "Wynford ; it was supported 
 by the duke of "Wellington. The House divided upon the motion for the 
 second reading : contents, 76 ; non-contents, 13. During the progress of the 
 Bill through both Houses many of the clauses were strenuously resisted in 
 Committee. The amendments that were carried were however comparatively 
 of little importance, and it finally received the royal assent on the 14th of 
 August. 
 
 The three Commissioners, Sir Trankland Lewis, Mr. John Lefevre, and 
 Mr. Nicholls, entered upon the functions of their office on the 23rd 
 of August. On the 8th of August, 1835, they issued their first Report, 
 which clearly indicated the extent and complicated nature of the subjects 
 which had come under their consideration, and furnished an evidence of the 
 sagacity with which they had set in motion an organization which was to com- 
 prehend the whole of England and Wales. This vast machinery, which, iu 
 1860, was in force in six hundred and forty-six unions, including 14,427 
 parishes, with an aggregate population of 17,670,938 souls, has become so 
 complete in its working, and is so thoroughly applied by Boards of Guar- 
 dians throughout the country, that the provisions of the Act of 1834 with 
 its subsequent amendments are perfectly familiar to the intelligent part of 
 the community, and therefore any analysis of its enactments would be unne- 
 cessary in this place. 
 
 • Hansard, vol. xxiii. col. 81?. t Ibid., vol. xxt. col. 212.
 
 1834.] THE REPEAL OF THE UNION DEBATED. 343 
 
 "When the King closed the session of 1834, he with great justice compli- 
 mented the two Houses upon their extraordinary exertions, and expressed 
 his deep sense of the care and labour which they had bestowed upon the 
 public business. There was one quality of the House of Commons as con- 
 spicuous as its energetic industry — its patience under the most wearisome 
 inflictions. That it should have endured six nights of debate on the question 
 of the Repeal of the Union with Ireland, — having the perfect certainty that 
 nothing could be produced by Irish members on that subject which had not 
 formed the staple of popular orations in many a mob-gathering, and that 
 what could be replied would only be a rose-coloured version of well-known 
 facts, — such a triumph of temper is a signal instance of meekness, only to be 
 paralleled by that of a creature generally obstinate, and sometimes vicious, 
 who was equally placid whether eating the bitter stem of an artichoke or the 
 sentimental traveller's macaroon. One of the Irish members informs us how 
 it became inevitable that such an infliction should fall upon the House of 
 Commons. Mr. Feargus O'Connor insisted at the beginning of the session 
 that the testing of the Eepeal question in Parliament should no longer be 
 delayed. Mr. O'Connell in vain remonstrated. A cry was got up in Ireland 
 in support of Mr. Peargus O'Connor's patriotism ; " and, sorely against his 
 will, and with very uncomfortable forebodings, the originator of the Repeal 
 movement had to yield, and give notice tor an early day of subjecting it to a 
 Paliamtentary discussion." * On the 22nd of April Mr. O'Connell, in a 
 speech which lasted nearly six hours, moved for a Committee " to inquire and 
 report on the means by which a dissolution of the Parliament of Ireland was 
 efiected ; on the effects of that measure upon Ireland ; and on the probable 
 consequences of continuing the legislative Union between both countries." 
 After a fremendous homily of the cruelties practised upon Ireland in bar- 
 barous times, and of the bribery by which the Union was effected, the debate 
 was adjourned. On the second night Mr. Spring liice occupied as long a 
 time in showing what benefits Ireland had derived from the Union, and con- 
 cluded by moving, as an amendment, that an Address should be presented to 
 his Majesty, expressing the resolution of the House to maintain the legis- 
 lative Union inviolate, but persevering in giving its best attention to the 
 removal of all just causes of complaint, and to the promotion of all well-con- 
 sidered measures of improvement. On the sixth night of the debate five 
 hundred and twenty-three members voted for the Address, only thirty-eight 
 members voting with Mr. O'Connell. The Address was sent up to the Peers 
 for their concurrence, which was given unanimously. It was presented to 
 the King by deputations from both Houses. 
 
 The consequence of the pledge of removing all just causes of complaint, 
 and of promoting all well-considered measures of improvement, was, that the 
 affairs of Ireland occupied the greater part of the session, split the Whig 
 ministry into fragments, and rendered their future existence altogether pre- 
 carious. On the 27th of May Mr. "Ward, the member for St. Albans, having 
 previously given notice of his intention to propose certain resolutions on the 
 subject of the Irish Church, moved a resolution, "That the Protestant Epis- 
 copal Establishment in Ireland exceeds the spiritual wants of the Protestant 
 
 * John O'Connell, " Recollections and Experiences," vol. i. p. 82.
 
 S44 IRISH CHURCH— MINISTERIAL RESIGNATIONS. [1834. 
 
 population ; and that, it being the right of the State to regulate the distribu- 
 tion of Church property in such manner as Parliament may determine, it is 
 the opinion of this House, that the temporal possessions of the Church of 
 Ireland, as now established by law, ought to be reduced." Mr. Ward's 
 motion having been seconded by Mr. Grote, lord Althorp rose and said, 
 that during Mr. Grote's address circumstances had come to his knowledge 
 which induced him to move that the further debate on the subject should be 
 adjourned till the following Monday. Lord Althorp on that Monday explained 
 bis reasons for adjourning the debate, which were, that four of his colleagues 
 had differed from the rest of the Cabinet upon the question of appropriating 
 the temporal possessions of the Church of Ireland ; that consequently the 
 Cabinet could not agree upon the mode in which the resolution of Mr. Ward 
 was to be met ; and that during the speech of the seconder of the motion of 
 the 27th, he had learnt that Mr. Stanley, Secretary for the Colonies, sir James 
 Graham, Pirst Lord of the Admiralty, the duke of Richmond, Postmaster- 
 General, and the earl of Eipon, Lord Privy Seal, had resigned their offices. 
 Lord Althorp added, that the course his Majesty had been advised to adopt, 
 had been to issue a Commission of Inquiry. Mr. Ward expressed his willing- 
 ness to agree to an address to the Crown which affirmed the principle of his 
 proposition, but declined withdrawing his resolution in the want of such 
 affirmation. Upon this lord Althorp moved the previous question, which 
 was carried by a majority of two hundred and seventy-six, thus negativing 
 Mr. Ward's resolution. The four vacancies in the ministry were filled up by 
 Mr. Spring Rice being appointed Secretary for the Colonies, lord Auck- 
 land First Lord of the Admiralty, the marquis of Conyngham Postmaster- 
 General (without a seat in the Cabinet), and the earl of Carlisle Lord Privy 
 Seal. 
 
 In the House of Lords, on the 6th of June, the proposed Commission of 
 Inquiry into the state of the Irish Church was denounced by some peers as 
 an "illegal and sacrilegious measure of prospective spoliation." Earl Grey, 
 in a speech worthy of his high character and position, denied that the mea- 
 sure looked to anything that deserved the name of spoliation. The object of 
 the Commission was to collect facts, and he and his colleagues were prepared 
 to act upon the Commission so far as this — " that when it produces such a 
 body of information as we expect, we will take it into consideration, and be 
 prepared to act upon it honestly and conscientiously, with a view to the 
 general interests of the country." In the course of his speech the Prime 
 Minister pretty clearly intimated that he w^as tired of his position — he was 
 tired of a systematic opposition of their lordships to salutary improvements in 
 conformity with the spirit of the age — opposition conducted in a feeling of 
 bitterness calculated to excite throughout the country a factious spirit of 
 discontent. 
 
 Earl Grey disclaimed the imputation as most unjust, that the ministry 
 would take the revenues of the Protestant Church, and give them to the 
 Catholic. Lord Brougham declared that he would as strenuously oppose as 
 any noble lord on the other side of the House a proposition to give one single 
 fraction of the fund to the Catholic Church. These ministers said this, well 
 knowing the violent prejudices existing against any recognition of the church
 
 1834.] RESIGNATION- OF LORD GREY. 345 
 
 of the majority in Ireland. Dr. Arnold, a liberal thinker, but not a respon- 
 sible politician, thought that the surplus of the Protestant Church ought to 
 furnish the Christian people of Ireland with Catholic clergymen.* So thought 
 the promoters of the Union. 
 
 On the 9th of July the House of Lords exhibited the unusual spectacle of 
 a great Minister, overpowered by his feelings, wholly losing his presence of 
 mind. The Export of the Committee on the Bill for the Suppression of 
 Disturbances in Ireland having been brought up, earl Grey said, " I rise, my 
 lords," — he could proceed no farther. Again he said, " I rise, my lords." — 
 The House cheered, as they had cheered before, but the Prime Minister 
 could not proceed, and he sat down. The duke of Wellington then con- 
 siderately presented petitions, to afford earl Grey time to recover himself. 
 He at last rose,and tremulously said, "My lords, I feel quite ashamed of the sort 
 of weaknessi show on this occasion, a weakness which arisesfrom my deep sense- 
 of the personal kindness which, during my having been in his service, I have re- 
 ceived from my Sovereign. However, my lords, I have a duty to perform which, 
 painful as it may be, I must discharge ; and in rising to propose to your lordships 
 to agree to the Jieport which has just been read, I have to state that I no longer 
 do so as a Minister of the Crown, but as an individual member of parliament,, 
 strongly impressed with the necessity of passing this Act to invest the govern- 
 ment, in whatever hands the government may be placed, with the powers 
 given by this Bill, and which I believe to be necessary to the maintenance of 
 the peace of Ireland." f In the course of his speech earl Grey stated that 
 on the previous day he had received the resignation of lord Althorp, which he 
 had transmitted to the King. Former breaches had considerably weakened 
 the government ; he felt that in losing the assistance of his friend the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, whom he considered as his right arm, he saw no 
 alternative, but was compelled, by irresistible necessity, to tender his own 
 resignation. He had desired to resign previous to the commencement of the 
 session. He had completed his seventieth year, and although he might have 
 been able to discharge the duties of the office which he held under ordinary 
 and easy circumstances, considering the present condition of affairs the duties 
 imposed upon him were too much for his strength. The circumstances which 
 immediately led to this decision of earl Grey, as well as to that of lord Althorp, 
 although of great interest at the time, are now unnecessary to detaU with 
 minuteness. They were connected with the proposed renewal for one year of 
 the Irish Coercion Bill, which had been moved by earl Grey on the 1st of 
 July. The only difference between that measure and the one which was about 
 to expire was the omission of clauses by which certain offences might be tried 
 by Court Martial. There was a warm debate in the House of Commons on 
 the 3rd, in which it appeared that Mr. Littleton, the Irish Secretary, had 
 confidentially communicated to Mr. O'Conuell, that the Irish government had 
 not demanded the insertion of the clauses prohibiting meetings. In the Bill 
 introduced by earl Grey those clauses appeared. Lord Althorp had also 
 intimated to Mr. O'Connell that they would not be inserted in tlie Coercion 
 
 * " Life," vol. i. p. 380. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. xxiv. col. 1305—6-
 
 346 THE MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATION. [1834. 
 
 Bill. A Tnajority of the Cabinet had determined to introduce the Bill in the 
 form in which it was offered to the House of Lords by earl Grey, Upon this 
 decision the Chancellor of the Exchequer resigned. On the 10th of July the 
 House of Commons adjourned for four days. On the 14th viscount Melbourne 
 stated in the House of Lords that his Majesty had honoured him with his 
 commands to lay before him a plan for the formation of a new Ministry. He 
 had undertaken the task, but it was not yet completed. 
 
 The task which his Majesty had first imposed upon lord Melbourne was one 
 of insurmountable difficulty. It was to effect " an union in the service of the 
 state of all those who stand at the head of the respective parties in the 
 country." * The King in desiring lord Melbourne " to enter into communi- 
 cation v/ith the leading individuals of parties," specially mentioned the duke 
 of Wellington, sir Eobert Peel, and Mr. Stanley. In an audience upon the 
 9th viscount Melbourne had laid before his Majesty some of those general 
 objections which pressed forcibly upon his mind to unions and coalitions of 
 opposing parties. He wrote to the King on the 10th that he considered the 
 successful termination of such an attempt utterly hopeless. He had no 
 personal dislikes or objections ; on the contrary, for all the individuals in 
 question he entertained great respect. In consequence of the communication 
 to sir Eobert Peel, on the 13th of July, he wrote to the King that such an 
 union as that proposed could not, in the present state of parties and the 
 present position of public affairs, hold out the prospect of an efficient and 
 vigorous administration. The King admitted on the 14th that the opinions 
 which had been stated by sir Eobert Peel and by others, of the impracticability 
 of his proposal, had appeared to him to be conclusive. The King had evidently- 
 imagined that if he could effect such a union of parties, the question of the 
 Irish church, upon which he had recently expressed himself very strongly, 
 in answer to an address from dignitaries of the Establishment, might be set at 
 rest. The duke of Wellington and sir Eobert Peel were prepared to take 
 office, if they had been invited to do so " without conditions as to union with 
 others of different political principles and party connections." f The King 
 was not prepared at that time for so bold a step, necessarily involving a 
 dissolution of parliament. On the 17th July lord Althorp stated in the House 
 of Commons that lord Melbourne had completed his arrangements for the new 
 administration, under which lord Duncannon would occupy the place vacated 
 by the Premier, sir J. C. Hobhouse would be Commissioner of the Woods and 
 Eorests, with a seat in the Cabinet, and himself (lord Althorp) would, at the 
 desire of his Majesty, resume his former office. The third reading in the 
 House of Lords of the Coercion Bill was not proposed. In the Commons 
 lord Althorp brought forward a less restrictive measure, which was carried by 
 a majority of a hundred and forty, and was finally passed on the 26th of July. 
 
 Parliament had now a few weeks to sit before the usual time of proro- 
 gation. The financial statement of the government for the year ending 
 July 5th, had to be made. The budget was a popular one. There was an 
 estimated surplus of nearly two millions, and it was proposed to make various 
 reductions in taxation. The repeal of the duty on Almanacs was a concession 
 
 • Letter from Lord Melbourne to the King, July lOj 1834, enclosed in a letter from Lord 
 Melbourne to Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 t See " Memoirs, by Sir Robert Peel," vol. ii. pp. 1 to 13.
 
 1834.] THE BUDGET— PROROGATION. S47 
 
 to the opinion that taxes upon knowledge were amongst the most objec- 
 tionable. The repeal of the house-tax was an unstatesmanlike deference to 
 popular clamour. The far more objectionable tax upon windows was allowed 
 to remain. Legislators had a glimmering of light as to the impolicy of that 
 taxation which interfered with the processes of industry. Mr. Poulett 
 Thomson, President of the Board of Trade, admitted that the relief to be 
 experienced from the reduction of the house-tax, or any other direct tax, was 
 little in comparison to that which would have been derived from the reduction 
 of the taxes on glass, paper, and cotton. Tet, as the house-tax had been a 
 cause of general and loud complaint, it was right to take it off. Sir Eobert 
 Peel was not sure that those who clamoured most suffered most ; the removal 
 of the house-tax was merely a bonus to the landlord ; the removal ot 
 the glass-tax would be a bonus to every class of the community. Before 
 the prorogation the Irish Tithe Bill'was carried in the Commons, not as pro- 
 posed by the government, but with an amendment moved by Mr. O'Connell, 
 which provided that two-fifths of the amount of tithes should be at once 
 struck off, and the remaining three-fifths paid to the clergy by the landlord. 
 The Peers wholly threw out the Tithe Bill four days before the prorogation of 
 Parliament ; and O'Connell went home to his congenial work of exciting the 
 people to violent resistance. Parliament was prorogued on the 15th of August. 
 Whilst, during the vacation, Mr. O'Connell was publishing letters to lord 
 Duneannon, in which he declared that " Ireland had nothing to expect from 
 the "Whigs but insolent contempt, and malignant and treacherous hostility," 
 some of the leaders of the Eeform movement were damaging the Whigs more 
 materially by painfully exhibiting the worst symptom of the weakness of the 
 government, — the hostile jealousy of two who had once formed the great 
 strength of the Cabinet. Looking back upon the journalism of this period, 
 it is difficult to arrive at an impartial estimate of the merits or defects of the 
 two chief combatants who entered the lists at the " free and gentle passage 
 of arms " of Edinburgh, at the banquet to lord Grey on the 15th of Sep- 
 tember, Por some months lord Brougham had been a mark for the attacks 
 of the ultra-liberal press. Harmless exhibitions of that vanity which occa- 
 sionally peeped out through his real greatness had brought down upon the 
 Chancellor a measure of indignation which is generally reserved for political 
 crimes. In a tour through Scotland he made some oratorical displays, in 
 which the reticence of the cautious statesman was abandoned in the excite- 
 ment of popular applause. At Inverness, the Chancellor, in telling the 
 burgesses that during four years he had experienced from his Majesty only 
 one series of gracious condescension, confidence, and favour, added words 
 which were tossed about throughout the kingdom as "argument for a week, 
 laughter for a month, and a good jest for ever." " To find that the king 
 lived in the hearts of his loyal subjects in the ancient and important capital 
 of the Highlands, as it had afforded him (lord Brougham) only pure and 
 unmixed satisfaction, would, he was confident, be so received by his Majesty, 
 when he (lord B.) told him, as he would do by that night's post, of the 
 gratifying circumstance." * At the Grey banquet, earl Grey, in replying to 
 his health, acknowledged the compliment of this great banquet in very dig- 
 
 * From " Inverness Courier," quoted iu Fonblanque's " England under Seven Administra 
 tions," vol. iii. p. 99.
 
 318 THE GREY BANQUET AT EDINBURGH. [1834. 
 
 nified and touching words : " This most gratifying of all honours is not paid 
 to a minister newly raised to power, in the vigour of his age, with a long 
 career of active and useful services before him, and holding out an expec- 
 tation to others of official benefita, not yet conferred : No, gentlemen, this 
 proud mark of distinction has been given to a minister who has descended, 
 I will not say has fallen, from power, whose official life has ended, whose long 
 parliamentary career is hastening to a final close, — to one when the balance 
 has been struck between his promises and his performances ; to one when the 
 past IS before his country for its judgment ; and the future, as far as he is 
 concerned, presents no object either for hope or for fear." * Lord Brougham, 
 in replying to the toast of the Lord Chancellor and his Majesty's other 
 ministers, proclaimed the differences that existed between two classes of 
 Eeformers, — the hasty spirits who hurrying into the wished-for harbour by 
 the nearest channel, and, not inquiring whether there was a compass on 
 board, would run their vessel into the breakers, — and the more moderate, 
 who would better provide for the safety of the voyage. " I wholly respect," 
 he said, " the good intentions of these men, but when they ask me to sail in 
 their vessel, I must insist on staying on shore." Lord Durham bad his 
 opportunity of reply : " My noble and learned friend (lord Brougham) has 
 been pleased to give some advice, which I have no doubt he deems very 
 sound, to some classes of persons, — I know none such, — who evince too 
 strong a desire to get rid of ancient abuses, and fretful impatience in awaiting 
 the remedies of them. Now I frankly confess that I am one of those persons 
 who see with regret every hour which passes over the existence of recognized 
 and unreformed abuses." The dispute was not yet ended. At a meeting at 
 Salisbury, lord Brougham made some strong remarks upon lord Durham. At 
 another meeting at Glasgow, lord Durham said that the Chancellor had been 
 pleased to challenge him to meet him in the House of Lords. " I fear him 
 not; I will meet him there." 
 
 There were two most unexpected events which deranged the completion 
 of these hostile purposes. First, the two peers could not meet on the old 
 battle-ground. The Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire on the 16th 
 of October. It was between six and seven o'clock on that evening, that 
 flames were seen bursting forth from tlie roof of the House of Lords, in that 
 part of the building opposite to Henry the Seventh's Chapel, and in the corner 
 next "Westminster Hall. By nine o'clock all the apartments of that portion 
 of the parliament buildings, including the Painted Chamber and the Library, 
 were in flames, and the whole interior was in a few hours destroyed. The 
 fire extended to the House of Commons, first destroying the large offices oi 
 the House, and next seizing upon the Chapel of St. Stephen. "When all the 
 interior fittings were destroyed, this building, which had been famous as the 
 seat of English legislation from the time of Edward the Sixth, was a mere 
 shell. It had stood in its strength and beauty like a rock amidst the sea of 
 fire, and had arrested the force which had till then gone on conquering and 
 overthrowing. The Speaker's official residence was also partially destroyed. 
 There was one time when the destruction of "Westminster Hall seemed almost 
 inevitable. To those who mixed amongst the crowd in Palace Yard, and knev? 
 
 * " Anuual Register for 1834," p. 142.
 
 1834.] HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT DESTROYED BY FIRE. 349 
 
 that the antiquities of a nation are amongst its best possessions, it was truly 
 gratifying to witness the intense anxiety of all classes of people to preserve 
 this building, associated with so many grand historical scenes. " Save the 
 Hall ! " " Save the Hall ! " was the universal cry. There was a more efficient 
 interposition than the destruction of the House of Lords to the purpose of 
 the two peers to enter the lists where the Mowbray and Bolingbroke of 
 modern times were to decide their quarrel. 
 
 " The king has thrown his warder down." 
 
 William the Fourth, without a word of preparation, intimated to lord 
 Melbourne, on the 14th of November, that his ministry waa at an end.
 
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 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The King's dismissal of the Melbourne Ministry — Sir Robert Peel's Narrative of his appoint- 
 ment to the Premiership — The Peel Administration formed^Parliament dissolved — 
 The Tamworth Manifesto— Strong Parliamentary Opposition — Mr, Abercromby elected 
 Speaker — London University Charter — Irish Church — Repeated defeats of Ministers 
 — Resignation of Sir Robert Peel — Lord Melbourne's New Ministry — Exclusion of 
 Lord Brougham — His Resolutions on the subject of Education — Reform of Municipal 
 Corporations — Report of the Commission of Inquuy — Conflict between the two 
 Houses — The Bill passed — Departing glories of Municipal Pomp. 
 
 Much that was obscure in the circumstances connected with the extraordi- 
 nary act of the King in the removal of liis ministers has been brought to 
 light in the " Memoirs by Sir Eobert Peel." In his " Memorandum as to my 
 appointment to the ofQce of First Lord of the Treasury in 1834, and 
 to the administration over which I presided," he says: "The time will 
 come when these records will be interesting, and may throw a light on the 
 history of the period which they embrace." Sir Eobert states that he left 
 England for Italy on the 14th of October, 1834, little foreseeing the proba- 
 bility of his sudden recaU, and having had no communication previously to 
 his departure with the duke of "Wellington, or any other person, respecting 
 the position and prospects of the administration which existed at the time 
 when he quitted England. He treats with contempt the report that there 
 had been some previous concert or understanding with the king in contem- 
 plation of events that took place in November. Sir Eobert Peel was in Eome 
 when a letter reached him from the king, dated November the 15th, in 
 which his Majesty says, that having had a most satisfactory and confidential 
 communication with the duke of "Wellington on the formation of a new 
 government, he called upon sir Eobert Peel to return without loss of time to 
 England, to put himself at the head of the administration. The messenger at 
 the same time brought a letter from the duke of "Wellington, pressing his 
 immediate return home, and announcing that his grace held for the present 
 the offices of First Lord of the Treasury and Secretary of State for the Home 
 I)epartment, till Sir Eobert should return. The copy of a letter from the 
 king to lord Melbourne was enclosed by the duke, in which the ostensible 
 ground for the dismissal of lord Melbourne is, that lord Althorp, by the death 
 of his father, having been removed to the House of Peers, the general weight
 
 352 SIR ROBERT PEEL APPOINTED PRIME MINISTER, [1834. 
 
 and consideration of the Government would be so mucli diminished in the 
 House of Commons as to render it impossible that they should continue to 
 conduct the public affairs. The duke of Wellington writes a confidential 
 letter to sir Eobert Peel, accompanying his official dispatch, in which, plainly 
 implying that the king was not quite justified in being "so ready to seize 
 upon the first notion of difficulties resulting from lord Spencer's death," he 
 concludes by saying, " I don't think that we are at all responsible for his 
 quarrel with them. It was an aflfair quite settled when he sent for me." Sir 
 [Robert Peel received this important communication on the night of the 25th 
 of November. He left Eome the next afternoon. On his journey he had 
 ample opportunities, he says, for considering various important matters coolly 
 and without interruption. His habitual caution is strikingly manifested in 
 his description of his meditations during his journey, which terminated in 
 London on the 9th of December. " In my letters to the King and the duke 
 of "Wellington from Eome, I had merely given an assurance that I would 
 return without delay to England. As I should, by my acceptance of the 
 office of First Minister, become technically, if not morally, responsible for the 
 dissolution of the preceding government, although I had not the remotest 
 concern in it, I did not at once, upon the hurried statement which was sent 
 to me of the circumstances connected with it, pledge myself to the acceptance 
 of office. I greatly doubted, indeed, the policy of breaking up the govern- 
 ment of lord Melbourne at that time. I entertained little hope that the 
 ministry about to replace it would be a stable one — would command such a 
 majority in the House of Commons as would enable it to transact the public 
 business. I was not altogether satisfied by the accounts I first received with 
 the sufficiency of the reason for the dissolution of the late government — 
 namely, the removal of lord Althorp to the Lords — and the objections of the 
 king to lord John Eussell as lord Althorp's successor in the lead of the 
 House of Commons." * 
 
 The sensation produced in London by the reported dismissal of the 
 ministry was a natural consequence of the suddenness of the act, as it pre- 
 sented itself to the body of the people ; — of its really unconstitutional 
 character, as it appeared to thoughtful and well-informed men. On the 
 morning of Saturday, the 15th of November, — the day when the duke of 
 Wellington was writing his confidential letter to sir Robert Peel, — the 
 " Times " had this startling announcement, given in the words of a commu- 
 nication which had been received at an early hour that morning : " The king 
 has taken the opportunity of lord Spencer's death to turn out the ministry, 
 and there is every reason to believe that the duke of Wellington has been 
 sent for. The queen has done it all." The act of the king was wholly 
 without precedent. He might have become converted to the politics of the 
 Opposition. He might have been alarmed at the possible scandal of the 
 quarrel between the Chancellor and lord Durham. But there was no disunion 
 in the Cabinet. The ministry had retained the confidence of Parliament up 
 to the last day of the session. They had pressed no opinions upon his 
 Majesty which could be disagreeable to him. The government of lord 
 Melbourne had more elements of Conservatism than were agreeable to many 
 
 • '* Memoirs by Sir Robert reel," vol. ii. p. 30.
 
 1835.] THE PEEL ADMINISTRATION FORMED. 353 
 
 Kefbrmers, and therefore appeared unlikely to excite the feara of the kin*;- 
 and of his Court. The sovereign has a constitutional right to dismiss his 
 ministers, but it must be on grounds more capable of justification to Par- 
 liament than the simple exercise of his personal will. The suddenness of the 
 resolve rendered an arrangement necessary which could not be justified hv any 
 precedent, except on one occasion of critical emergency in the last days of 
 queen Anne.* The duke of Wellington, from the 15th of November to the 9th 
 of December, was First Lord of the Treasury and the sole Secretary of State, 
 having only one colleague, lord Lyndhurst, who held the Great Seal, at the 
 same time that he sat as Chief Baron of the Court of Exchequer. This tempo- 
 rary government was called a Dictatorship. " The great military commander " 
 was told that he " will find it to have been much easier to take Badajoz and 
 Ciudad Eodrigo than to retake the liberties and independence of the people." f 
 The famous caricaturist of the day, H. B., represented the duke multiplied into 
 ten or a dozen members of the cabinet, seated at the council board. Jour- 
 nalists exclaimed, "Why is the business of the country to be suspended till a 
 stray baronet should return home from his pleasure tour ? There were 
 meetings and there were addresses, but there was no violence, and very little 
 alarm. The majority of the people, whose zeal for a continued course of 
 improvement had not been shaken by some reverses and shortcomings, knew 
 perfectly well that what was called a Conservative government could not 
 meet the present parliament. There must be a dissolution to afford them 
 any chance of a continuance in office. They would reserve their zeal for a 
 practical issue of the contest between Reform and Conservatism. 
 
 And so, as to the inevitable necessity of a dissolution, thought sir Eobert 
 Peel. In spite of his doubts of the policy of breaking up the government of 
 lord Melbourne, he had become convinced that he had no alternative but to 
 undertake the office of Prime Minister instantly on his arrival. He at once 
 waited upon the king, and accepted the office of First Lord of the Treasury 
 and Chancellor of the Exchequer. "With the king's permission he applied to 
 lord Stanley and to sir James Graham, earnestly entreating them to give 
 him the benefit of their co-operation as colleagues in the cabinet. They both 
 declined. Lord Stanley manfully said, " The sudden conversion of lono- 
 political opposition into the most intimate alliance, — no general coincidence of 
 principle, except upon one point, being proved to exist between us, — would 
 shock public opinion, would be ruinous to my own character, and injurious 
 to the government which you seek to form." J "When sir Eobert arrived he 
 found one important question practically decided, — the dissolution of the 
 existing parliament. He does not appear to have been sanguine that the 
 indications of a very great increase of the Conservative strength in the new 
 House of Commons would be sufficient to insure the stability of his govern- 
 ment. He looked beyond the immediate present. " It would certainly be 
 sufficient to constitute a very powerful Conservative body, controliin"- a 
 future government leaning upon Eadical support." He tried to make a govern- 
 ment as strong as he could with Conservative materials. The re-establish- 
 
 * See a very able view of the constitutional question in IMr. May's "History," vol i in 
 120—125. 
 
 t Lord Durham — Speech at Newcastle on the 19th of November, 
 t " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. ii. p. 39. 
 VOL. vni.— 247.
 
 354 
 
 PARLIAMENT DISSOLVED— THE TAMWOETH MANIFESTO. 
 
 [1835. 
 
 raent, he says, of the duke of Wellington's government in 1830 would have 
 saved him much trouble, but would have diminished the little hope he ever 
 entertained of being able to make a successful struggle. So, amidst the 
 reproaches of those who regarded the minister as doing them positive wrong 
 by not reinstating them in their former offices, he constructed a ministry of 
 which the duke's name was a tower of strength, and of which lord Lyndhurst as 
 Chancellor gave the assurance that it would have the support of one man of 
 great talents. The high qualities of statesmanship which distinguished lord 
 Aberdeen were not yet sufficiently recognized. It was not a popular 
 ministry, but it could not be held to comprise any of that band of violent 
 anti-reformers who would have imperilled everything by resisting the declared 
 opinion of the Prime Minister that he considered the Eeform Bill as a final 
 ?.nd irrevocable measure.* 
 
 The facilities which the political constitution and the social habits of our 
 country afford for the official expression of State policy, were never more 
 remarkably displayed than in the course adopted by sir Robert Peel imme- 
 diately that he had formed his administration. The Prime Minister was one 
 of the representatives of Tamworth, a borough with a population under four 
 thousand. To the electors of this comparatively unimportant place he 
 addressed what has been denominated "the Tamworth manifesto." It was 
 not a hasty expression of individual opinion, but a declaration of the general 
 principles upon which the government proposed to act, and the address was 
 submitted to the Cabinet for their consideration. Foreigners, who were 
 looking with intense anxiety upon the ministerial crisis in London, might 
 well be surprised that a little country town should be the first recipient of 
 the government's confidential disclosures, and be thus the representative of 
 the entire population of the United Kingdom. It is unnecessary to go over 
 the various points of this long and comprehensive document. In his 
 " Memoirs " sir Robert Peel declares that he held no language and expressed 
 no opinions in this address which he had not previously held while acting in 
 opposition to the government ; that he did not attempt to mitigate hostility 
 by any new profession, or to court popular favour by promises of more exten- 
 sive reforms than those to whose principles he had previously assented ; that 
 although he therein made an explicit declaration that he considered the 
 measure of Parliamentary Eeform final and irrevocable, that language was 
 not new, but was used by him when he took his seat as a member of the first 
 parliament summoned under the Eeform Act. 
 
 * Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet was arranged as follows : — 
 
 Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel . 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst 
 
 Earl of Rosslyn . 
 
 Lord Whamcliffe . 
 
 Right Hon. H. Goulburn 
 
 Luke of Wellington 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen 
 
 Earl De Grey 
 
 Right Hon. Sir H. Hardinge 
 
 Lord Ellenborough 
 
 Right Hon. Alexander Baring 
 
 Right lion. Sir E. Knatchbull 
 
 Right lion. J. G. Herries . 
 
 Right Hon. Sir George Murray 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 Lord Chancellor. 
 
 President of the Council. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Home Department. 
 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Chief Sccretai^ for Ireland. 
 
 President of the Board of Control. 
 
 Master of the Mint and President of the Board of Trade, 
 
 Paymaster of the Forces. 
 
 Secretary at War. 
 
 jMaster-General of tlie Ordnance.
 
 1835.] MR. ABERCROMBY ELECTED SPEAKER. 355 
 
 The anticipations of sir Eobert Peel that the Conservative party would be 
 strengthened by a general election were, to a considerable extent, realized. 
 So, also, was his apprehension that the increase of strength wx)uld not be 
 sufficient to give stability to the new government. Before the parliament 
 met it was calculated that the anti-ministerialists had a majority of a hundred 
 and thirty-three, but that eighty-two votes were doubtful. Looking at the 
 extraordinary efforts that had been made on both sides at this general election, 
 and at the violence of party feeling which had been necessarily called forth, 
 it appears almost surprising that, from the opening of parliament on the 9th 
 of February, the ministry should not have been driven from their position 
 before the 7th of April. Temporary accommodation had been provided fer 
 the business of the two Houses on the site of those destroyed by the fire on 
 the 16th of October. On the 9th of February, when the House of Commons 
 proceeded to the election of a Speaker, a larger number of members were 
 assembled than ever had been known before to have been congregated at one 
 time. Six hundred and twenty-two members divided on the question whether 
 sir Charles Manners Sutton should be re-elected, or the right hon. James 
 Abercromby be chosen to fill the chair. The votes for Abercromby were 
 three hundred and sixteen ; for Sutton, three hundred and six. 
 
 On the 24th of February the King opened the business of the session. 
 The two last paragraphs of the King's Speech expressed his Majesty's reliance 
 on the caution and circumspection which would be exercised in altering laws 
 which affected extensive and complicated interests, and were interwoven with 
 ancient usages; and that, in supplying that which was defective, or renovating 
 that which was impaired, the common object would be, to strengthen the 
 foundations of those institutions in Church and State which are the inheri- 
 tance and birthright of the people. In the House of Lords viscount Mel- 
 bourne moved an amendment upon the two paragraphs, to the effect that their 
 Lordships hoped his Majesty's councils would be directed in the spirit of 
 well-considered and effective reform, and lamenting the dissolution of the late 
 parliament, as having interrupted and endangered the vigorous prosecution of 
 measures to which the wishes of the people were directed. This amend- 
 ment was negatived without a division. In the House of Commons, lord 
 Morpeth proposed a similar amendment, which, after three nights' debate, 
 was carried by a majority of seven, the numbers being 309 against 302. How- 
 ever the eloquence of sir Eobert Peel might fail to carry the complete appro- 
 bation of the House of Commons, it unquestionably produced a powerful 
 effect upon the country, inducing a very general desire that a fair chance 
 should be given to the administration for carrying forward their professions 
 into satisfactory results. It is my first duty, said sir Eobert Peel, to main- 
 tain the post which has been confided to me ; to stand by the trust which I 
 did not seek, but which I could not decline. Eeceive, at least, the measures 
 which I propose ; amend them if they are defective ; extend them if they 
 fall short of your expectations. " I offer you reduced estimates, improve- 
 ments in Civil Jurisprudence, reform of Ecclesiastical Law, the settlement of 
 the Tithe question in Ireland, the Commutation of Tithe in Eugland, the 
 removal of any real abuse in the Church, the redress of those grievances of 
 which the Dissenters have any just ground to complain. I ofter you these 
 specific measures, and I offer also to advance, soberly and cautiously it is
 
 d56 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY CHARTER. 
 
 [1835. 
 
 true, in the path of progressive improvement. I offer also the best chance 
 that these things can be effected in willing concert with the other autho- 
 rities of the State — thus restoring harmony, ensuring the maintenance, 
 but not excluding the reform, where reform is really requisite, of ancient 
 institutions." * 
 
 Satisfactory as such a declaration df general principles might appear to 
 a large portion of the nation, those who were familiar, not only with the 
 comparative strength of parties, but with the violent differences of opinion 
 that would necessarily arise upon questions that would seem beyond 
 the limits of party, would know perfectly well that the day of violent 
 collision could not be far off. The government had been beaten in 
 the choice of a Speaker ; it had been out-voted on the amendment to 
 the Address ; its first diplomatic appointment could not be persisted in, 
 for, on the 13th of March, the strong expressions used in the House 
 of Commons as to the qualifications of the marquis of Londonderry to 
 be Ambassador to Eussia were sufficient to induce him to state in the 
 House of Peers, on the 16th, that he had declined the post offered to him by 
 the government. Another signal defeat of the Ministry involved a question 
 which some deemed to be one of principle, but which we may now regard as 
 
 University College, Gower Street. 
 
 belonging to the ancient confusion of principle with intolerance. On the 
 2Gth of March Mr. Tooke moved for an " Address to his Majesty, beseech- 
 iiig him to grant his Eoyal Charter of Incorporation to the University of 
 London, as approved in the year 1831 by the then law officers of the Crcwn, 
 
 ITansard. vol. xxvi. col. 242.
 
 1835.] IRISH CHURCH— REPEATED DEFEATS OF MINISTERS. 3o7 
 
 and containing no other restriction tlian against conferring degrees in divinity 
 and in medicine." Mr. Goulburn, the member for the University of Cam- 
 bridge, moved, as an amendment, that they should address the Crown for a 
 eopy of the memorials in this case to the Privy Council, and a statement of 
 the proceedings. The real objection, which sufficiently appeared in the speech 
 of sir Eobert Inglis, the member for Oxford University, was contained in the 
 fear that the motion for a Charter to grant degrees only in Arts and Law, 
 was merely an attempt to get the small edge of the wedge in, and that the 
 rest was sure to follow in time. The London University, it was implied, 
 having no religious education in its system of instruction, was in a position of 
 hostility to the Church. Sir Eobert Peel supported the amendment. He 
 was not opposed to some provision being made that should accord to Protes- 
 tant Dissenters the power of acquiring academical distinctions ; but he was 
 opposed to a hasty resolve in favour of the terms on which the Charter should 
 be granted to the London University.* The original motion was carried by 
 246 to 136. Such were the skirmishes previous to the grand battle. 
 
 On the 30th of March lord John Eussell, after a debate of four nights, 
 carried a resolution by a majority of thirty-three, that " the House do resolve 
 itself into a Committee of the whole House to consider the temporalities of 
 the Church of Ireland." On the 3rd of April lord John proposed a resolu- 
 tion in that Committee " that any surplus of the revenues of the Church of 
 Ireland not required for the spiritual care of its members, should be applied 
 to the general education of all classes of the people without religious dis- 
 tinction." After a debate of two nights the resolution was carried by a 
 majority of twenty-five. On the 7th of April the report of the Committee was 
 brought up. Lord John Eussell proposed a resolution, " that it is the 
 opinion of this House that no measure upon the subject of tithes in Ireland 
 can lead to a satisfactory and final adjustment which does not embody the 
 principle contained in the foregoing Eesolution," — namely, in the resolution 
 agreed to on the previous night. Upon the division there appeared — ayes, 
 285 ; noes, 258 ; majority, 27. 
 
 The division of the 7th was fatal to the existence of the Ministry. Sir 
 Eobert Peel's sagacity had distinctly seen that if the government were beaten 
 upon the motion about to be made by lord John Eussell for the alienation 
 from ecclesiastical purposes of any surplus revenues of the Irish Church, 
 there would be no other course but for the government to resign. On the 
 25th of March he addressed " a Cabinet Memorandum " to his colleagues, 
 in which he said — " Nothing can, in my opinion, justify an administration in 
 persevering against a majority, but a rational and well-grounded hope of 
 acquiring additional support, and converting a minority into a majority. I 
 see no ground for entertaining that hope." f On the 8th of April the duke 
 of Wellington, in the House of Lords, said that in consequence of the 
 Eesolution of the House of Commons, the Ministry had tendered their 
 resignations to the King. Sir Eobert Peel made a similar explanation to the 
 
 * In 1835 what is now known as "University College " was called, according to the original 
 idea of its establishment, the " University of London." In 1837 the government institution of 
 the " University of London," for conferring degrees on graduates of University College and King's 
 College, and of other places of instruction, was established. 
 
 t "Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol, ii. p. 89.
 
 358 RESIGNATION OF SIR ROBERT PEEL. [1835. 
 
 House of Commons. " For himself, the whole of liis political life had been 
 spent in the House of Commons — the remainder of it would be spent in the 
 House of Commons ; and, whatever might be the conflicts of parties, he, for 
 one, should always wish, whether in a majority or in a minority, to stand well 
 with the House of Commons. Under no circumstances whatever, under the 
 pressure of no difficulties, under the influence of no temptation, would he 
 ever advise the Crown to resign that great source of moral strength which 
 consisted in a strict adherence to the practice, to the principles, to the spirit, 
 to the letter of the Constitution. He was confident that in that adherence 
 would be found the surest safeguard against any impending or eventual 
 danger, and it was because he entertained that belief that he, in conformity 
 Avith the opinions of his colleagues, considered that a government ought not 
 to persist in carrying on public affairs, (after the sense of the House had been 
 fully and deliberately expressed,) in opposition to the decided opinion of a 
 majority of the House of Commons."* The immense cheering of the 
 House during this brief speech, and at its close, was in many respects a 
 reflection of the general public opinion that no minister during a short term 
 of power had conducted the public affairs, under the pressure of extra- 
 ordinary difficulties, with greater temper, honesty of purpose, and strict 
 adherence to constitutional obligations. " After a conflict of four months," 
 says M. Gruizot, " the vanquished had grown far greater than his con- 
 querors."t At any rate we may acknowledge that there was no individual 
 amongst the victors who could fairly compete with the fallen minister in 
 those qualities of practical statesmanship which consist not only in knowing 
 what is best to do, but how and when to do it, and what to leave undone. 
 The interest which the country generally felfc in the duration of the ministry 
 was not very vehement, nor, on the other hand, was there any intense desire 
 for its fall. After three years of excitement the people rather desired a 
 term of repose. An intelligent foreigner, Von Eaumer, who came to 
 London at this time, has described his sensations at the contemplation of the 
 public calm during a great crisis. He goes on the 9th of April to the public 
 dinner for the relief of' decayed actors. The toasts, the music, the spouting, 
 and the cheering greatly amuse him ; but he says, " all these particulars 
 lost their interest with me in comparison with one thouglit : In this very 
 same hour the ministry was dissolved ; and this dissolution was not (as it so 
 often is in France) a mere concern of coteries and tracasseries, but had a real 
 substantive meaning, and tended to real and efficient changes. What a deal 
 of wit, good and bad — what angry passions — what hope and fear — what 
 praise and blame — would have foamed over, like champagne mousseiix, in such 
 
 an hour, in Paris ! Here, not a trace of the kind It seemed as if 
 
 all that was passing without were but a light ripple on the surface of the 
 waters. The weal of England, her riches, her laws, her freedom, seemed 
 moored to some immovable anchor in the securest and serenest depths of 
 ocean, whence neither winds nor waves can ever tear them loose. The clouds 
 whicli flit along the face of heaven, and so often seem, to us timid 
 spectators, to portend a coming storm, may here be regarded as but the 
 
 * nansard, vol. xxvii. col. P84. 
 + "Memoirs of Peel," p. 77.
 
 1835.] LORD MELBOURNE'S NEW MINISTRY— LORD BROUGHAM. 359 
 
 passing fleeces of a summer sky ; or rather as the proof and the earnest of 
 an equable and safe state of the atmosphere."* 
 
 On the 18th of April viscount Melbourne, in moving the adjournment of the 
 House of Lords, stated that the King had been pleaaed to appoint him First 
 Lord Commissioner of the Treasury, and that he and his friends who had 
 taken office had received from his Majesty the seals of their respective depart- 
 ments. The other House would adjourn to the 12th of May, as some time 
 must necessarily elapse before ministers in that House, waiting their 
 re-election, could proceed to business. On the 12th of May the Houses 
 accordingly met.f The exclusion of lord Brougham from the ministry, by 
 putting the Great Seal in Commission, was necessarily the subject of popular 
 wonder. This exclusion was not to be explained at the time ; it has never 
 been satisfactorily explained at any subsequent period. The ultra-liberals 
 exulted that those principles which the Chancellor had proclaimed at the 
 Grey banquet had now no expression in the Cabinet ; the friends of Educa- 
 cation and of Law-reform lamented that the energy with which these great 
 objects had been pursued was now to be confined to the independent exer- 
 tions of a peer building his hope of success upon his own powers alone. It was 
 a painful situation for one of such restless activity. To deliver elaborate 
 judgments in the Court of Chancery ; to be ready for every meeting of the 
 Cabinet ; duly to be in his place on the woolsack at three o'clock, rarely 
 abstaining from taking a part in debate ; after the adjournment of the 
 House to sit up hall" the night writing out his judgments ; occasionally 
 to dash off an article in the "Edinburgh Review;" discoursing, writing, 
 haranguing, on every subject of politics, or science, or literature, or theology; 
 and then suddenly to have all the duties of official life cut away from him — 
 to sink into the state which he of all others dreaded and despised, that of a 
 " Dowager Chancellor ;" — this, indeed, was a mortification not very easy to be 
 borne, and we can scarcely be surprised if it were sometimes impatiently 
 submitted to. Nevertheless, there was a great career of usefulness before 
 Henry Brougham. It would be a long career ; and thus, after the lapse of a 
 quarter of a century, we look back upon the unofficial labours of this remark- 
 able man, to whom repose was an impossibility ; and, measuring him with 
 the most untiring of recorded workers, deem it marvellous that he has ac- 
 complished so much, and with few exceptions has accomplished it so well. 
 He very soon proclaimed to the world that his comparative leisure would not 
 be a season of relaxation. On the 21st of May he submitted to the House of 
 Lords a series of resolutions on the subject of Education. His speech was a 
 most elaborate review of whatever had been done, and a practical exposition 
 of what he thought remained to be done. In these resolutions will be found 
 the germ of many of the principles which have become established axioms 
 in the education of the people. The main feature of his plan was the esta- 
 blishment of a Board of Education, empowered to examine into the state of 
 endowed charities, and to compel a due application of their funds. These 
 resolutions collectively affirmed that although the number of schools where 
 
 * "England in 1835," vol. i. p. 77. 
 
 + The Cabinet as formed at this time was the same as in the list gii'en at page 331, with 
 the exception that the Great Seal was in Commbsion, lord Cotteuham being appointed 
 Chancellor in 1836.
 
 360 LORD BROUGHAM'S EDUCATION RESOLUTIONS. [1835. 
 
 some of the elementary branches of education are taught had greatly in- 
 creased, there was still a deficiency of such schools, especially in the metro- 
 polis and other great towns ; they maintained that the education given at the 
 greater number of the schools established for the poorer classes of the 
 people is of a kind by no means sufficient for their instruction, being for 
 the most part confined to reading, writing, and a little arithmetic ; they called 
 upon Parliament to provide effectual means of instruction, doing nothing, 
 however, to relax the efforts of private benevolence ; they set forth that for 
 the purpose of improving the kind of education given at schools for the 
 people at large it was necessary to establish proper seminaries for training 
 teachers. The resolutions of lord Brougham were favourably received by 
 the Prime Minister. The bishop of Gloucester and the archbishop of Canter- 
 bury expressed their general concurrence in the eloquent and instructive 
 speech of the noble and learned lord, but they contended that in order to 
 make education real and useful it must be founded on the basis of religion. 
 Lord Brougham said that he was not nnaware of the difficulties which 
 surrounded this question on the subject of religion ; but that he thought he 
 should, at a future time, be enabled to lay before them a plan by which the 
 objections which had been urged would be obviated. We have reason to 
 believe that, at this time, an office analogous to that of Minister of Public 
 Instruction might have been within the reach of lord Brougham. It may be 
 doubted whether even his energy could have surmounted the difficulties pre- 
 sented in the religious aspect of the question. 
 
 On the 5th of June the great measure of the session was proposed by lord 
 John Eussell. He asked on behalf of his Majesty's government leave to 
 bring in a bill to provide for the regulation of Municipal Corporations in 
 England and Wales. The measure proposed by the government was founded 
 upon the Eeport of a Commission apppointed by the Crown, which, during a 
 year and a half of laborious and minute investigation, had inquired into 
 the condition of more than two hundred corporations. Lord John Hussell 
 quoted the conclusion of this Report, as calling for a safe, efficient, and 
 wholesome measure of Corporation Eeform : — " We feel it to be our duty to 
 represent to your Majesty that the existing Municipal Corporations of 
 England and Wales neither possess nor deserve the confidence or respect of 
 your Majesty's subjects, and that a thorough reform must be eftected before 
 they can become, what we humbly submit to your Majesty they ought to be, 
 useful and efficient instruments of local government." 
 
 The Eeport of the Commissioners on Municipal Corporations presents 
 some interesting views of the early constitution of these bodies. The diffi- 
 culty of accurately describing such early constitution is adverted to. Many 
 of their institutions were established in practice long before they were 
 settled by law. The examination of the charters by which a corporation is 
 constituted was one of the duties prescribed to the Commissioners. In some 
 cases their Eeport is confined to an enumeration of the early charters ; in 
 other cases a summary of their contents is given. The forms of the municipal 
 government were defined by an express composition between the magistracy 
 and the people in some towns. It is deemed probable that the powers of the 
 local government, in all ordinary cases, were exercised by the superior 
 magistracy, but that in extraordinary emergencies the whole body of bur-
 
 1S35.1 REFORM OF MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS. 361 
 
 gesses was called upon to sanction the measures whicli interested the com- 
 munity. The difficulty of conducting business in such an assembly seema 
 to have suggested the expedient of appointing a species of committee out ol 
 the larger body, which acted in conjunction with the burgesses, and which was 
 dissolved when the business was concluded. These committees afterwards 
 becoming permanent, a governing body was created which in process of time 
 became more and more independent of the general community. The greater 
 number of the governing charters of corporations was granted between the 
 reign of Henry VIII. and the Revolution. The general characteristic of these 
 documents is to eflect directly what the lapse of several centuries had been 
 gradually accomplishing, — the removal of any control upon the governing 
 body by the majority of their townsmen. Almost all the councils named in 
 these charters were established on the principle of self-election. During 
 the reigns of Charles II. and James II, many corporate towns were induced 
 to surrender their charters, and to accept new ones which contained clauses 
 giving power to the Crown to remove or nominate their principal ofiicers. 
 In his apprehension of the speedy arrival of the Prince of Orange, in October 
 1688, James II. issued a proclamation restoring all the municipal corporations 
 to their ancient franchises, as contained in their earlier charters. Since the 
 Revolution the charters granted, including those of the reign of George III,, 
 exhibit a total disregard of any consistent plan for the improvement of 
 municipal policy corresponding with the progress of society. In the greater 
 number of cases the corporations had gradually parted with the duty and 
 the responsibility belonging to good municipal government. By local Acts 
 of Parliament the powers of lighting, watching, paving, and cleansing, supply- 
 ing with water, and other useful purposes, had been conferred not upon 
 the municipal officers, but upon Trustees or Commissioners, who were em- 
 powered to levy the necessary rates. A very small portion of the funds of 
 the corporation was applied to any public purposes ; large revenues were 
 devoted to the support of what was called the dignity of the corporate body, 
 the due sustenance of which dignity was amply provided for by periodical 
 banquets. In some cases the corporal-ion divided the surplus funds amongst 
 themselves. Leases of corporate estates were also granted at low rents to 
 the favoured few in those boroughs where it was believed that pubHc and 
 personal property were identical It is more painful to reflect that some- 
 times charity bequests of which the corporations were trustees were dealt 
 with in the same corrupt manner. The Mayor of the borough, annually 
 elected out of the close body, was the chief magistrate ; and in nearly all 
 the corporations criminal jurisdiction was exercised within the limits of the 
 borough, and quarter sessions Avere held for the trial of prisoners. The 
 Recorder was appointed by the corporation, generally upon some principle of 
 local favouritism, which excluded barristers of any general reputation in their 
 profession. A High Steward was the grand functionary who was the 
 medium of the lofty patronage of some noble house, which, by the present of 
 a buck for the Mayor's dinner, secured the willing servility of successive 
 magisterial grocers and drapers. The maintenance and regulation of tlie 
 borough prisons were, of course, confided to the municipal officers. But 
 previous to the establishment of a system of government inspection by a 
 statute of 1835, it was impossible to imagine any more horrible dens of filth —
 
 362 REPORT OF THE COMMISSION OF INQUIRY. [1835- 
 
 any places of coufinemeut more repugnant to our notions of the discipline that 
 might lead to the reformation of the offender, — than these city or borough 
 prisons. 
 
 The Commissioners of Inquiry found that there were two hundred and 
 forty-six municipal corporations in England and "Wales. Of these, two 
 hundred and thirty-seven formed the subject of investigation. In one 
 hundred and eighty-six boroughs the governing body was found to be self- 
 elected. The ancient corporations were elected by a constituency known as 
 freemen. Birth, marriage with the daughter or widow of a freeman, servi- 
 tude or apprenticeship, being a member of a guild or trading company, gave 
 a claim to the rights of freedom or burgess-ship. In the greater number of 
 cities and boroughs the freemen had ceased to exist as connected with the 
 municipal body. There were some places, indeed, where the freedom, con- 
 fined to a few persons, secured to them valuable privileges, such as exemption 
 from tolls. But in nearly all cities and boroughs where freemen were recog- 
 nized they possessed the pernicious right of exclusive trading within the 
 limits of the municipality. The Commissioners often found that the freemen 
 had long ceased to consider themselves as forming any part of the corpora- 
 tion, which term in popular language was exclusively applied to the ruling 
 body. One of the greatest struggles during the passage of the Eeform Bill 
 was to preserve what were called the rights of the freemen. It was a con- 
 test for the maintenance of those exclusive privileges injurious to the excluded 
 many, corrupting to the privileged few, which it was the object of Municipal 
 Eeform to abolish. In many cases the freemen were non-resident, but were per- 
 sons unconnected with the town who were appointed to maintain the interests 
 of particular families. Where the freemen were resident and had exclusive 
 privileges, the dues from non-freemen, as at Liverpool, were so onerous, that 
 they had little chance of competition with their enfranchised townsmen. 
 Where the freemen generally had a voice in the election of municipal 
 ofhcers, the corruption at the annual elections, whether by liquor or by 
 money, was so great, that the lower class of freemen became systematically 
 demoralised. 
 
 Looking then at the inquiry into Municipal Corporations as bringing to 
 light in the greater number of cases a system which, to say the least, was a 
 gross imposture, we can scarcely be surprised that the Commissioners, in 
 winding up their Report, should have used some very expressive words : " We 
 report to your Majesty that there prevails amongst the inhabitants of a great 
 majority of the incorporated towns, a general and in our opinion a just 
 dissatisfaction with their Municipal Institutions ; a distrust of the self 
 elected Municipal Councils, whose powers are subject to no popular control,, 
 and whose acts and proceedings, being secret, are unchecked by the influ- 
 ence of public opinion ; a distrust of the Municipal Magistracy, tainting with 
 suspicion the local administration of justice, and often accompanied with 
 contempt of the persons by whom the law is administered ; a discontent 
 under the burdens of local taxation, while revenues that ought to be applied 
 for the public advantage are diverted from their legitimate use, and are 
 sometimes wastefully bestowed for the benefit of individuals, sometimes 
 squandered for purposes injurious to the character and morals of the 
 people."
 
 1835.] OPPOSITION TO THE BILL OF MUNICIPAL REFORM. 363 
 
 The great object of the bill proposed by lord John Eussell was to open a 
 free course to the beneficial operation of those subordinate bodies in the 
 government of the country which were provided in our ancient institutions 
 as an essential counterpoise to the central authority. It has been truly said 
 that the diffusion of political duties and political powers over every part of 
 the body politic is like the circulation of the blood throughout the natural 
 body. In the case of municipal corporations that healthful circulation was 
 essentially impeded by chronic diseases which required no timid practice 
 effectually to subdue. The object of the Municipal Eeform Bill was to place 
 the government of the towns really in the hands of the citizens themselves ; 
 to make them the guardians of their o.wn property and pecuniary interests ; 
 to give to them the right of making a selection of qualified persons from 
 Avhom the magistrates were to be chosen ; in a word, to put an end to power 
 without responsibility. 
 
 We may judge of the opposition which the Bill of Corporation Reform 
 was likely to encounter from the mode in which it was regarded by lord 
 Eldon : " Its interference with vested rights shocked his sense of equity even 
 more than the sweeping clauses of the Eeform Act." To regard, he said, 
 ancient charters as so many bits of decayed parchment was, in his eyes, " a 
 crowning iniquity." * At this distance of time it is scarcely necessary to 
 trace the course of the Municipal Eeform Bill through both Houses of 
 Parliament. The measure was in the House of Commons from the 5th of 
 June to the 20th of July ; the great battles were fought in Committee after 
 the Bill had been read a second time on the 15th of June. The chief struffs'le 
 was for the preservation of the existing rights, privileges, and property of 
 freemen. Upon the third reading there was an instructive exposition by 
 sir Eichard Vy vyan, the Member for Bristol, of the great principle upon which 
 the Bill was to be shown by the strictest of all logical proof to be utterly 
 subversive of the Constitution : " It was the vice of the present Bill that at 
 the expense of one principle it went to set up another. It was an attempt 
 to set up generally the republican principle of representation upon the ruin 
 of the principle of vested right. It was against that principle of the Bill 
 that he mainly protested, although he considered it vicious and dangerous in 
 many other respects. And, let him ask, would the hereditary aristocracy 
 support the principle of a Bill which was against all hereditary right ? 
 Would the Peers now declare that an old charter of incorporation was worth 
 less than a patent of nobility on which the ink is scarcely dry ? The Peers 
 had now to fight their own battle. The first step that they took in this 
 instance would be irrevocable. They would have to decide, when this 
 Bill was sent up to them, whether their Lordships were to be maintained on 
 the doctrine of temporary expediency, or to preserve their privileges upon 
 the principle of vested right." f The third reading of the Bill was passed 
 without a division. 
 
 The endeavour in the House of Lords to impair the efiiciency of the 
 measure for Municipal Eeform was sufficiently prosperous to produce the 
 danger of such a conflict between the Upper and the Lower Houses aa had 
 
 * See Twiss, vol. iii. p. 2iG. 
 + Hansard, vol. xxix. coL 740.
 
 SS-l CONFLICT OF THE TWO HOUSES— THE BILL PASSED. [1835. 
 
 scarcely before occurred since the time of the Long Parliament. The oppo- 
 sition to the Bill in the House of Lords was headed by lord Lyndhurst. It 
 is unnecessary to say that the pre-eminent abilities of this great advocate were 
 called forth in the most striking manner. His subtlety was far more 
 dangerous, not only to this measure but to the government which had adopted 
 it, than all the impassioned violence of certain Peers, who seemed to have 
 come to the conclusion that this was a fit season for bringing to an issue the 
 contest, as they deemed it, between aristocratic and democratic government. 
 Their plan of campaign appeared to be carefully considered. It might have 
 been more successful if, like a famous charge in modern warfare, the strength 
 of the enemy had not been too much left out of consideration. They called 
 to their aid an irregular leader, who, taking the sword and mace of an old 
 captain of condottieri, laid about him with relentless fury, careless whether 
 he damaged his own cause or that of his enemy. On the 30th of July, when 
 the House of Lords determined to call in counsel to be heard on behalf of 
 certain corporations, sir Charles "Wetherell addressed the House, whicli 
 address was concluded on the following day. His violent invectives were no 
 doubt contributory to the adoption of certain damaging amendments. But 
 they had a more permanent effect. They produced through the country an 
 irritation against the obstructive powers of the House of Lords. The people 
 felt that the permission of that august body for the use by an advocate of the 
 most insulting expressions toward the House of Commons was a proof that 
 the House of Lords was out of harmony with the spirit of the age. "When 
 the amendments of the Peers were sent back to the House of Commons, — in a 
 debate in which lord John Russell expressed a sober indignation at the license 
 which had permitted counsel at the bar of the Peers to insult the other branch 
 of the Legislature, and sir Eobert Peel did not defend the language of the 
 rash advocate, but maintained that it was extremely difficult to place any 
 restriction on what counsel might please to express — Mr. Eoebuck maintained 
 that every act of the Lords proved that they contemned and hated the people, 
 and that they were determined to show this contempt and hatred by insulting 
 the people's representatives. The quarrel between the two Houses was growing 
 very serious. Lord John Eussell and sir Eobert Peel, much to their honour, 
 took the part of moderators in this great dispute. Sir Eobert Peel, especially, 
 whilst he contended that they should uphold the perfect independence of the 
 House of Lords, expressed his willingness to make some concessions which 
 would have the effect of reconciling the differences between the two Houses 
 There were free conferences between a Committee of the House of Commons 
 and Managers on the part of the House of Lords. After the last conference 
 on the 7th of September, three days before the prorogation of Parliament, 
 lord John Eussell recommended that for the sake of peace, and as the Bill, 
 though deprived of much of its original excellence, was still an effective 
 Eeform of Municipal Institutions, the House should agree to it as it then 
 stood, reserving the right of introducing whatever improvements the working 
 of it might hereafter show to be necessary. The Bill for Municipal Eeform 
 received the royal assent on the 9th of September. 
 
 Lord Eldon, in this perilous crisis of a contest between the Peers and the 
 Commons, lamented that his infirmities prevented him from going down to 
 the House of Lords — not to conciliate, not to reconcile the differences
 
 lS3o.] DEPARTING GLORIES OF MUNICIPAL POMP. 3t35 
 
 between the two Houses, — but to grapple with the proceedings altogether, 
 and persuade the Lords utterly to reject the Bill. Sitting " pale as a marble 
 statue," and seeing terrible changes gradually darkening over all he had 
 loved and venerated in corporate institutions,* we may venture to inquire if 
 the outward glories of municipal power thus departing were as dear to his 
 troubled soul as their ancient charters ? What wonderful manifestations of 
 grandeur were presented to the admiring eyes of the people by the majority 
 of corporations as they existed in 1835 ! What processions were there on 
 every possible occasion, of red gowns and bine, with mace-bearer and beadle ! 
 To walk in toged state to church, or to proclaim an election writ, or to open 
 a ginger-bread fair ; — to be adorned with golden chains as mayor and alder- 
 men sitting on high in their tribunals at quarter sessions ; to look venerable, 
 clothed in scarlet and fur, at solemn supper in open hall like the Tudor and 
 Stuart kings, on Tair-nights, holding the Pie-powder Court, where the " dusti- 
 foot" might go for justice, — these were indeed gorgeous displays. Magnifi- 
 cent pageants on the Mayor's day existed in a few provincial cities and 
 boroughs: Norwich had its " Whifflers" and its "Dragon." All the ancient 
 and modern glories were to depart ; even the Mayor's feast was to be an 
 inexpensive banquet, not defrayed out of the corporate funds. The Mansion 
 Houses were to be let for warehouses. Well might the good ex-Chancellor 
 weep, haviug only one poor consolation, that the City of London was to be 
 spared ; that its Lord Mayor would still have the glorious privilege of inter- 
 rupting for one day in the year the real business of three millions of people, 
 to assert by his men-in-armcur, and his pasteboard Gog and Magog, his pre- 
 tended rule over a community of which only one-thirfcieth would be subject 
 to his jurisdiction. 
 
 * See Twiss, vol. iii. p. 24",
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Parliament —Session of 1836 — Opposition of the Lords to the Irish Corporations' Bill — Lord 
 Lyudhurst — Alleged Lichfield House Compact — Tithe -Commutation Act — Act for allowinr? 
 Counsel to Prisoners — Act for Regulation of Prisons and for appointing Inspectors — General 
 Kegistration Act — Reduction of Stamp on Newspapers — Reduction of Paper Duty — Foreign 
 Politics — Belgium — Spain — France — Conspiracies against Louis Philippe — Enterprise of 
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Strasbourg — Parliament — Illness of King William IV. — 
 His death — His character — Accession of Queen Victoria — Ministry at Her Majesty's Ac- 
 cession — Table of Treaties — Table of National Debt. 
 
 The disposition wliich Lad been manifested in tlie Session of 1835 by the 
 majority of the House of Lords, threatening something beyond a passing 
 difference with the majority of the House of Commons, became stronger and 
 more confirmed in the Session of 1836. The compromise upon the English 
 Municipal Reform Bill had averted, in some degree, the apprehension of a 
 perilous conflict between the two branches of the legislature. The question 
 of Corporation Eeform in Ireland was to be disposed of in the Session of 
 183G, with an absolute indifference to the opinions of the Commons. In 
 1835, on the reading of that Bill a third time in the Lower House at so late 
 a period of the Session as the 13th of August, Mr. Sinclair, a Scotch 
 member, anticipating the probable course that would be taken by the Lords 
 when in the next Session it should be sent to the Upper House, said that it 
 must pass through the ordeal of an Assembly in which the laws of truth and 
 iustice would not be set at nought, — in which vested rights would not be 
 invaded, — in which no bill would pass for the destruction of the Protestant 
 Establishment in Ireland, by transferring the influence from property, which 
 in a preponderating ratio was in the hands of Protestants, to Eoman 
 Catholics, who in point of numbers would in most cases obtain the pre- 
 eminence.* It is easy to judge from this declaration how sustained and 
 bitter would be the controversy upon the subject of Irish Corporations in 
 the Session of 1836, in which a new bill was brought in and passed by the 
 House of Commons on the 28th of March. On the 18th of August of that 
 year, just previous to the prorogation, lord Lyndhurst, who had with infinite 
 courage and ability directed the triumphant strategy of the Tory Peers, took 
 
 * Hansard, toI. xxs. col. CIS.
 
 1S36.] LORDS AND COMMONS AGAIN IN CONFLICT. 3G7 
 
 a review of the business of the Session, in which, with unmeasured sarcasm, 
 he taunted the government with its failure in carrying certain measures which 
 had been recommended in the Speech from the throne on the 4th of 
 February. " And this, my lords, is a government ! AVas there ever, in the 
 history of this country, a body of men who would have condescended so low 
 as to attempt to carry on the government under such circumstances ? In this 
 House they are utterly powerless ; they can effect nothing." * Sir Eobert 
 Peel, in a dinner-speech at the Merchant Taylors' Hall, had warned his 
 heasers not to depend upon the prerogative of the Crown or the influence or 
 authority of the House of Lords, as bulwarks against the storm and stru"-o-le 
 of events. The royal prerogative, the authority of the House of Lords, 
 were most useful, nay, necessary, in our mixed and balanced Constitution ; 
 "but you must not strain those powers." The dangerous opinion was 
 gradually gaining ground that the House of Lords was an obstructive body, 
 and that their policy was determined by the will of some one peer who 
 dominated over their general inertness, "It has generally yielded," says 
 Mr. May, " with an indolent facility, to the domination of one or two of its 
 own members, gifted with the strongest wills. Lord Thurlow, lord Eldon, 
 the duke of "Wellington, and lord Lyndhurst, have swayed it, at different 
 times, almost with the power of a dictator." f Mr. Hume, in the House of 
 Commons on the day of prorogation, had his own review of the business of 
 parliament during the twenty-eight weeks of its sitting. He was not alone 
 in the expression of his opinion when he asked whether it were possible that 
 the Commons could allow the Lords any longer to continue their opposition 
 to all measures of real reform ? They had lost nearly a Session. " If he 
 lamented one thing more than another, it was to see the high-minded noble- 
 men of England led by such a man as was now at their head." Such 
 personalities were not confined to attacks in one House upon members of the 
 other House. The bitterness of lord Lyndhurst's invective stimulated even 
 the placability of viscount Melbourne, to " refer him to what was once said 
 by the earl of Bristol of another great statesman of former times (the earl 
 of Strafford), to whom tbe noble lord might, I think, be not inapplicably 
 compared ; and of whom it was said, ' the malignity of his practices was 
 hugely aggravated by his vast talents, whereof God had given him the use, 
 but the Devil the application.' " J The experience of the Session of 1836 
 had produced amongst men of moderate opinions a very unwilling conviction 
 of the necessity for remodelling the Upper House. The altered circum- 
 stances of the succeeding year had a sensible influence in assuagino- this 
 dangerous access of fever in our constitutional sj-stem. But an equally 
 beneficial change in public opinion was produced by the calm conviction that 
 this had not been " a lost Session." Several measures of real utility had 
 struggled into life amidst the rivalries, the jealousies, the political hatreds, of 
 the opposing parties of each House. It is with these measures and with 
 their permanent eftects, that the historian of the progress of a nation is best 
 satisfied to deal, leaving the course of party struggle to the annalists of 
 the immediate Present. 
 
 * Hansard, to], xxxv. col. 1293. 
 
 + " Constitutional History," vol. i. p. 268. 
 
 t Hansard, toI. xxxv. col. 1304.
 
 308 ALLEGED LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT. [1833. 
 
 Before we altogether escape from the bitterness of party conflicts in the 
 sessions of 1835 and 1836, chiefly excited by Irish questions, we may remark 
 that a great deal of the beat of the Conservative party is to be attributed to 
 the very general belief that the Whig party had made a compact with Mr. 
 O'Connell and his followers, by which their hostility was to be averted on the 
 distinct understanding that they were fully to participate in the sweets of 
 ofiice. Upon lord Melbourne's announcement in April, 1835, that he had been 
 appointed t(j the Premiership, lord Alvanley asked him on what terms he had 
 negotiated with Mr. O'Connell? Lord Melbourne answered that he had 
 made no terms with Mr. O'Connell. Nevertheless in debate after debate it 
 was affirmed, or implied, tliat a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, 
 between the Whig government and the Irish Eepealers had been concluded on 
 the last accession of the Whigs to power. The locality where this negotiation 
 was completed was as distinctly pointed out as the house at TJxbridge which 
 was the seat of the treaty between Charles the First and his parliament, or 
 the Orchard at Hal where Boufiflers and Portland settled the terms of the 
 peace of Byswick. A careful topographer does not hesitate to tell us, 
 speaking of St. James's Square, and of No. 13, Lichfield-house, built by 
 Athenian Stuart, and so called from Anson, earl of Lichfield, that "here the 
 Whigs and O'Connell often met, and the ' Lichfield-house Compact ' with 
 O'Connell was formed by the Whigs in 1835." * Mr, John O'Connell says, 
 " stupid affairs enough were those meetings in the dusty unfurnished 
 drawing-rooms of that dingy fronted mansion." They got lectures on pro- 
 priety and moderation, and vague promises of great things to be done at 
 some future period, and some glimpses of a want of cordial feeling towards 
 them and their English associates. Of the compact, he says, " it was an 
 utter and unredeemed calumny. No such compact ever was made. No 
 engagement, no stipulation, no barter, no compromise of any kind, species, or 
 description, took place then, or at any time." t Enough, however, was 
 admitted to give point to the virulence of Lyndhurst and the gentler sarcasms 
 of Peel. 
 
 During the short administration of sir Robert Peel he submitted to a 
 Committee of the House of Commons the details of a measure for facilitating 
 the settlement of the vexatious Tithe-question in England and Wales. He 
 proposed to establish a commission to superintend the voluntary commutation 
 of tithe in parishes, and to remove the impediments in the way of an easy 
 accomplishment of sucb voluntary principle. The Committee agreed to the 
 proposed resolution for a payment in money in substitution for tithe, to be 
 charged upon the titheable land in each parish, such payment to be subject to 
 variation at stated periods according to the prices of corn. On the 9th of 
 February, in the session of 1836, lord John Eussell introduced the govern- 
 ment plan, which was founded upon the same principle as that of sir liobert 
 Peel, of a money payment instead of a payment in kind, but diflfering from 
 it as establishing something more eff'ective than a mere voluntary commuta- 
 tion. By the measure of lord John Eussell a voluntary commutation way in 
 the first instance to be promoted ; but in case of no such agreement a compul- 
 
 * Cunn^njrliam, " Hand Book of LonJon." 
 + " KecollectioDs," vol. i. p. 133.
 
 1S36.] TITHE-COMMUTATION ACT. 369 
 
 sory commutation was to be effected by commissioners. The object of the 
 Tithe Commutation Act which was finally passed was to assimilate tithes as 
 much as possible to a rent-charge upon the land. That charge was to be 
 determined by taking the averages of the corn-returns during seven preceding 
 years ; and a fixed quantity of corn having been previously determined as a 
 proper portion for the tithe owner, the amount of money payment was to be 
 settled by a septennial average of the price of corn. The opposition to this 
 measure assumed no party character. The clergy did not feel their interests 
 to be invaded. The land owner and farmer had for years complained that no 
 institution was more adverse to cultivation and improvement than tithes, as 
 Dr. Paley had long before declared. The clergy were disposed to believe that 
 the plan of the same sagacious political philosopher to convert tithes into 
 corn-rents would secure the tithe-holder a complete and perpetual equivalent 
 for his interest. This measure, with subsequent statutory improvements, has 
 worked successfully under the management of three Commissioners. To one 
 of the most wise and energetic of these Commissioners, the late Eev. E-ichard 
 Jones, may be ascribed many of the early triumphs over the diificulties of 
 carrying this measure iuto practice, and the subsequent general conviction 
 that it is calculated to remove all grounds of discord and jealousy between 
 the clergy and their parishioners, and thus add security and permanence to the 
 property of the church. 
 
 Another measure of the Session of 1836, which amply refuted the opinion 
 that legislators in either House could only look at great social questions 
 through the mists of party, was the passing of the Bill for allowing Counsel 
 to Prisoners. The final debate upon the Bill in the House of Lords was 
 remarkable for a most honourable declaration of lord Lyndhurst, that his 
 former opposition to the measure had been converted into a hearty approval 
 of it. In an interesting volume by Mr. Matthew Davenport Hill* we have 
 a succinct and very complete history of the course of public opinion on the 
 question of counsel to prisoners. He shows that even Judge Jeffreys had 
 told a jury that he thought it a hard case that a man should have counsel to 
 defend himself for a twopenny trespass, but that he should be denied counsel 
 where life, estate, honour, and all were concerned. It was not until 1824 
 that any attempt was made in parliament to remove this disability under 
 which prisoners laboured. In that year Mr. Greorge Lamb, the brother of 
 lord Melbourne, brought the subject before the House of Commons. He 
 was supported by sir James Mackintosh, Dr. Lushington, and Mr. Denman. 
 Mr. Canning was favourable to the change, but the speech of Mr. Attorney- 
 General Copley had converted him into an opponent of the measure. 
 Sydney Smith in 1826 drew a picture of the cruel oppression involved in the 
 disability of the prisoner's counsel to address a jury : "It is a most affecting 
 moment in a court of justice when the evidence has all been heard, and the 
 judge asks the prisoner what he has to say in his defence. The prisoner, who 
 has (by great exertions, perhaps, of his friends) saved up money enough to 
 procure counsel, says to the judge, * that l^e leaves his defence to his counsel.' 
 We have often blushed for English humanity to hear the reply, * Tour counsel 
 
 * " Suggestions for the Expression of Crime, contained in Charges delivered to Grand Juries 
 •iif Birmingham." 
 VOL. VIII.— 248.
 
 S70 COUNSEL FOR PRISONERS' ACT. [183G. 
 
 cannot speak for you; you must speak for yourself,' And this is the reply 
 given to a poor girl of" eighteen — to a foreigner — to a deaf man — to a stam- 
 merer — to the sick — to the feeble — to the old — to the most abject and 
 ignorant of human beings!"* In 1834 the Prisoners' Counsel Bill was 
 introduced into the House of Commons by Mr. Ewart. The debate was on, 
 the second reading, when Mr. Hill, then member for Hull, seconded Mr. 
 Ewart's motion. The measure was passed by the House of Commons 
 without a division, but was rejected by the Lords. It was brought forward 
 again by Mr. Ewart in 1835 — when it dropped on account of the late period 
 of the Session — and in 1836. In the latter year it was carried by a majority 
 of forty-four. It was then introduced to the House of Lords by lord 
 Lyndhurst. It was on that occasion that he made his honest recantation of 
 his former opinion. He had come to a conviction that the evils and incon- 
 veniences of allowing counsel to prisoners had been greatly exaggerated, and 
 ought not to be put for a moment in competition with that which the 
 obvious justice of the case so clearly demanded. Twice did the House of 
 Lords debate this question, but the measure passed without a division. 
 Lord Abinger, formerly Mr. Scarlett, might have great doubts as to the 
 policy of the Bill, and be afraid of their lordships becoming too much in 
 love with theory ; but no expression of doubt, no plea for delay, could stand 
 up against the united opinions of such men as lord Denman, lord Cottenham, 
 then Chancellor, and lord Lyndhurst. It is a remnant, said lord Lyndhurst, 
 of a barbarous practice. The continuance of it is against the great current 
 of authority. It is contrary to the practice of all civilized nations. An 
 alteration was essential to the due investigation of truth. 
 
 "We have incidentally referred to the'important Act that was passed in the 
 session of 1835 for effecting greater uniformity of practice in the govern- 
 ment of prisons in England and Wales, and for appointing Inspectors of 
 Prisons in Great Britain. This most salutary statute was founded upon 
 Reports of a Select Committee of the House of Lords. The duke of 
 Richmond, who was the promoter of this inquiry, laboured most assiduously 
 in the collection of the evidence upon which the measure of reform was to be 
 founded, himself with other peers visiting many of the ill-regulated dens 
 where the old criminal became more hardened in his iniquity, and the 
 youthful offender was systematically trained to a maturity in guilt. The 
 Eeport of the Lords' Committee proposed that entire separation between the 
 prisoners should be enforced, except during the hours of labour and of 
 religious worship and instruction. Many persons out of the large number 
 examined by the Committee were governors or chaplains of gaols in the 
 country, and they all, without a dissentient voice, concurred in opinion as to 
 the contaminating influence of prisons as they were then conducted. They 
 held that the associations of prisons were destructive to every casual offender. 
 The country gaols, especially those under corporate management, could only 
 be regarded as great nurseries of crime. There was no religious instruction, 
 no education of juvenile prisonete, no employment. The county gaols and 
 houses of correction were better managed, some system of discipline being 
 observed. But none of the gaols in corporate towns could present a more 
 
 • " Ed'mburgh Review," toI. xiv. p. 5, quoted by ]\rr. Hill.
 
 1836.] REGULATION OF PRISONS' ACT. 871 
 
 disgusting example of the contaminating influence of an ill-managed prison 
 than the great gaol of Newgate, under the jurisdiction of the Lord Mayor and 
 Aldermen of London. In the session of 1836, when the Inspectors appointed 
 under the Act of 1835 had made their first Eeport, the management of prisons 
 again came under the consideration of Parliament. This Report drew 
 attention to what the duke of Eichmond described as " the dreadful state of 
 the City gaols." The visits of the Inspectors had produced a correction of 
 some of the most striking evils of the country gaols, and he trusted that before 
 the next session they would find the great gaol of the City of London not in 
 a worse condition than the prisons in other parts of the country. It was on 
 this occasion that an earnest conviction of the horrors of the gaol-system with 
 regard to juvenile oflfenders was manifested in a manner which promised at 
 no distant time the establishment of Eeformatories. The marquis of Lans- 
 dowue acknowledged that although this country abounded with the means 
 of juvenile employment, yet the number of juvenile offenders exceeded that of 
 any country in Europe. He announced that lord John Eussell, the Secretary 
 for the Home Department, was preparing, at least as a matter of experiment, 
 the means of establishing a place of detention having the character of an 
 asylum or refuge, where children yet young in crime, but who were the 
 victims of ignorance, of abandonment, of desertion by their parents, or were 
 totally incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong, should be saved 
 from condemnation to any prison whatever. * The Act for tlie Government 
 of Prisons was not as yet extended to Scotland, except as regarded the 
 appointment of Inspectors. The first Inspector of the Scotch prisons was 
 Mr. Prederic HlU. Prom his early Eeports there is no difficulty in coming 
 to the conclusion that they were absolutely w^orse than the worst in England. 
 Dirt, idleness, drinking, gambling, figliting, and stealing were their distin- 
 guishing characteristics. Prisoners of different ages, tried and untried, — 
 thieves, deserters, persons convicted of petty assaults, — all were herded 
 together, almost secure from observatiou, and wholly unprovided with useful 
 employment. It was, says Mr. P. Hill in his Eeport of 1838-39, " a system 
 under which the smuggling of forbidden articles into the prisons, smoking, 
 drinking, gambling, swearing, the use of obscene language, stealing from each 
 other, cheating, quarrelling, fighting, and various acts of tyranny, are of 
 common occurrence ; and under which robberies are planned to be executed 
 after the offenders shall have left prison." f 
 
 One of the most important measures towards a more complete system of 
 national statistics was brought forward by lord John Eussell in the session 
 of 1836. On the 12th of Pebruary he introduced the Bill for the General 
 Eegistration of Births, Deaths, and Marriages. At the same time he brought 
 forward a Bill for amending the law regulating the Marriages of Dissenters, 
 which regulation was connected with the establishment of a General Civil 
 Eegistration. "With regard to the second Bill it was shrewdly anticipated by 
 sir Eobert Peel that, when no point of honour was concerned, many of the 
 Dissenters, particularly the female portion of them, would prefer being 
 married in church. There were no intolerant prejudices opposed in the 
 
 • Hansard, vol. xxxv.. Debate of August 12th. 
 
 + "Crime : its Amount, Causes, and Remedies," by Frederic Hill, p. ISO,
 
 372 GENERAL REGISTRATION ACT— BUDGET. [1836. 
 
 legislature to the passing of the Bill which permitted Marriages to be 
 solemnized in the presence of the district-registrar. To the other Bill no 
 stickler for antiquity could prefer the parochial registry established by Secre- 
 tary Cromwell exactly three hundred years before this measure was to come 
 into operation, to one general system which under responsible officers should 
 supersede the variable entries of sixteen thousand parishes, so often lost or 
 mutilated, and so difficult to be referred to even when properly preserved. 
 The important office of Superintendent-Eegistrar was created by this statute. 
 The Poor-Law Unions were divided into districts for which Eegistrars were 
 appointed, with a Superintendent-Registrar in each Union, The regulations 
 by which a complete registration of births and deaths is accomplished are now 
 familiar to every father and mother, and every occupier of a house in which 
 any birth or death may happen, who are bound to furnish information of the 
 fact to the Registrar. Mr. Porter, in his valuable " Progress of the Nation," 
 says, " The establishing of a department for the systematic registration of 
 births, marriages, and deaths, in England and "Wales, has been of great use in 
 the examination of questions depending upon various contingencies connected 
 with human life." Certified copies of the entries of births and deaths are 
 sent quarterly by the Registrar to the Superintendent-Registrar, and by him 
 to the Registrar- General. It is from this source that we derive the knowledge 
 of many most interesting facts connected with the progress of the population 
 — facts which the scientific knowledge and the literary skill of the heads of 
 the Registrar-General's department have redeemed from the ordinary dulness 
 of statistics to constitute some of the most attractive reading of the public 
 journals. The Registrar- General's Annual Report enables the legislature to 
 form a tolerably accurate estimate of the increment of the population in the 
 decennial intervals of a census. 
 
 In this session there were two most important changes proposed by the 
 Government with reference to journalism and the general commerce of 
 literature. On the 20th of June the Chancellor of the Exchequer moved 
 " that the duty payable upon every sheet whereon a newspaper is printed 
 shall in future be one penny." The newspaper stamp for many years had 
 been four-pence. Amongst the opponents of this measure one county 
 member complained that already the mails were so heavily laden on a 
 Saturday night with newspapers that it was hardly safe to travel by them. 
 The Chancellor of the Exchequer had anticipated that the penny stamp would 
 produce quite as much as the fourpenny stamp. " If he is right," said sir 
 Charles Knightley, " then the quantity of newspapers must be more than 
 trebled, and if so, there must be a tax raised for their conveyance." The 
 proposition of the Chancellor of the Exchequer was carried by a majority 
 only of thirty-three, and with some alterations finally passed the House of 
 Lords. Tlie other measure was a reduction of the duty on paper. Lord 
 Francis Egerton, himself a man of letters, in presenting a petition before the 
 government proposition was introduced, claimed for this subject the best 
 attention of the House on account of the effect which the state of the law 
 produced on literature, especially upon cheap literature. By the Act to 
 repeal the existing duties on Paper, which received tlie royal assent on the 
 13th of August, the varying duties according to the class or denomination 
 were merged in one uniform duty upon all paper of three halfpence per
 
 1836.] FOREIGN POLITICS— BELGIUM— SPAIN. 378 
 
 pound. The relief to the publishers of cheap works was as timely as it was 
 important. "We may instance that it came to save the " Penny Cyclopaedia'* 
 from extinction in the fourth year of its struggle against heavy loss, under 
 the opposing conditions of paying at the highest rate for literary labour, and 
 selling at as low a rate as that of works in which the quality of the authorship 
 was a secondary consideration. 
 
 The great interest of events at home after the French Eevolution of 1830, 
 has precluded us from giving even a passing notice of foreign politics. S:Vice 
 that time, indeed, the peace of Europe had not been materially disturbed so 
 as to influence the political action of the British Government. Belo-ium had 
 quietly settled down into a Constitutional Monarchy, subsequently to the 
 fortunate period for that country when prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was 
 chosen king in 1831. In that year the boundaries of the new kingdom were 
 defined, and the peaceable possession of his territory was guaranteed by the five 
 great Powers to this most sagacious and discreet of sovereigns. The stability 
 of the Belgian monarchy appeared to be still more effectually secured by the 
 marriage of king Leopold in 1832 to the eldest daughter of Louis Philippe, 
 king of the Erench. At the close of the parliamentary session of 1836, it 
 was lamented in the king's speech that Spain was the only exception to the 
 general tranquillity of Europe ; that the hopes entertained of the termination 
 of the civil war in that country had not been realized. Under the treaty 
 of Quadruple Alliance, whose object was the restoration of internal peace in 
 Spain, Great Britain had afforded to the queen of that country the co- 
 operation of a naval force. Ferdinand the Seventh, who died in 1833, had 
 left by his will his infant daughter Isabel as heir to his throne. The queen- 
 mother, Christina, was appointed queen-regent. The brother of Eerdinand, 
 Don Carlos, immediately disputed the title of Isabel, maintaining that by the 
 Salic law females were excluded from the sovereignty of Spain. The civil 
 war which ensued lasted till 1840. The partisans of Don Carlos were then 
 finally defeated; but the contest w^as attended with so many circumstances of 
 bitter and cruel animosity, that the Spanish nation became greatly demora- 
 lized, and the old glories and prosperity of the country appeared to be 
 altogether passing away. The intervention of our government, and the 
 whole scope of the Quadruple Treaty of 1834, were the objects of severe 
 parliamentary censure. The British Legion, under the command of lieutenant- 
 general sir De Lacy Evans, which acted with the consent of our government 
 in aid of the queen of Spain, accomplished some brilliant exploits, and was 
 generally successful against the Carlist troops ; but these triumphs were 
 bought with severe losses. The intervention of Great Britain, whether direct 
 or indirect, excited little sympathy at home ; for popular opinion was gradually 
 reaching the conviction that the safety and prosperity of our country were 
 best maintained by leaving foreigners to fight out their own quarrels, always 
 provided that the honour of the nation should not be compromised by apathy 
 or inertness. 
 
 During the six years in which Louis Philippe had been king of the French, 
 his reign had not been exempted from solicitudes of a more painful nature 
 than the ordinary cares of monarchs. In the first two years of his rule 
 events had been in some degree propitious to him. The duke of Eeichstadt, 
 the son of Napoleon, died in 1832. His presence in France might at any
 
 374 FRANCE— CONSPIRACIES AGAINST LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1836. 
 
 time have raised up a Lost of Bonapartists, whose movements might liave 
 been exceedingly dangerous to the Citizen King. The attempts of the duchess 
 of Berri to excite an insurrection in favour of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, 
 had signally failed. Freedom of debate in the Chambers, and the liberty of 
 the press, appeared the best guarantees for the security of the constitutional 
 government. But the unrestricted power of speaking and writing was not 
 used with moderation. The licence of the press, and the occasional hostility 
 of the Chambers, produced a counter-disposition on the part of the king to 
 struggle against what he believed to be the evils of the representative system. 
 There were constant changes of administration since Lafitte took the reins 
 of government in November, 1830. In 1831 Lafitte was succeeded by 
 Casimir Perier, who had a premiership of something more than a year and 
 a half. From October, 1832, to September, 1836, there had been nine 
 changes of ministry — Soult, Guizot ; Soult, Broglie ; Soult, Thiers ; Gerard ; 
 Bassano ; Mortier ; Broglie, Humann ; Broglie, d'Argout ; Thiers. In 
 September, 1836, the heads of the cabinet were Mole and Guizot. During 
 these changes, and the consequent excitement of parliamentary conflicts, 
 there had been more than one conspiracy of which the great object was to 
 assassinate the king. The 28tli of July, 1835, was the second day of the 
 fetes to commemorate the Revolution of 1830. Louis Philippe, with his 
 three sons and a splendid suite of military officers, was riding through the 
 line of the National G uard, drawn up on the Boulevard du Temple, when an 
 explosion resembling a discharge of musketry took place from the window 
 of a house overlooking the road. Fourteen persons, amongst whom were 
 marshal Mortier and general De Virigny, were killed upon the spot. A 
 shower of bullets had been discharged by a machine consisting of twenty-five 
 barrels, which, arranged horizontally side by side upon a frame, could be fired 
 at once by a train of gunpowder. The king was unhurt. The police rushed 
 into the house and seized the assassin, who was wounded by the bursting of 
 one of the barrels. He proved to be a Corsican named Fieschi, who main- 
 tained that he had no object in this wholesale massacre but his desire to 
 destroy the king. Another attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe was 
 made in 1836, by a man of the name of Alibaud, wlio fired into the king's 
 carriage, the queen and his sister being with him. A third attempt was 
 made in the same year by another desperado, named Meunier. In the 
 history of such fearful manifestations of wickedness or madness, there is 
 nothing more remarkable than the extraordinary escapes of Louis Philippe 
 as if he bore a charmed life. 
 
 More interesting at the present day than these brutal attempts at assassi- 
 nation was the failure of an enterprise which contemplated, without any 
 apparent organization, the overthrow of a strong government by a young 
 man of twenty-five, who relied only upon his name, his abilities, and his 
 daring. Charles Louis Napoleon, the youngest son of Louis Bonaparte, king of 
 Holland, and of llortense Eugenie, daughter of the empress Josephine by her 
 first husband, had so dwelt upon his boyish remembrances of his illustrious 
 uncle, that when in 1832 the duke of Eeichstadt died, and he became, 
 according to a decree of 1804, heir to the throne, the natural course of his 
 ambition was to assert his claim against one whom he regarded as a usurper. 
 Louis Philippe was always apprehensive of the rivalry of this young man.
 
 1837.] ENTERPRISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 375 
 
 lie had refused him permission to return to France in 1830. He had 
 farther influenced the government of Eome to order him to quit the Papal 
 territory. Escaping from Italy, he resided with his mother in the Chateau 
 Arenenberg in Switzerland, where he devoted himself to the study of 
 politics and of military science, and became known in Europe as a writer of 
 diligent research and unquestionable ability. Whatever study he pursued and 
 whatever ideas he promulgated had evidently some bearing upon what he 
 implicitly believed would be his great future. 
 
 The ordinary relations of the attempt of Louis Napoleon — availing himself 
 of the general unpopularity of the king of the Erench, to risk the result 
 of a popular' commotion to overthrow the Orleans dynasty — have recently 
 received a new interest from the ofGcial revelations of M. Gruizot. He 
 relates that on the evening of the 31st of October the Minister of the Interior 
 brought to him a telegraphic despatch received from Strasbourg, dated 
 on the evening of the 30tb, which announced that about six o'clock that 
 morning Louis Napoleon "traversed the streets of Strasbourg with a 
 
 party of "A mist which enveloped the line of telegraph had 
 
 left the remainder of the despatch uncertain. Guizot and the Minister of 
 the Interior repaired instantly to the Tuileries, where they found the whole 
 Cabinet assembled. All was conjecture. Instructions were drawn up, 
 founded upon many possible contingencies. The ministers remained with 
 the king nearly the whole night, expecting news which came not. During 
 those hours of suspense, the queen, the king's sister, the princes, entered 
 again and again to ask if anything had transpired. " I was struck," says 
 M. Guizot, " by the sadness of the king, not that he seemed uneasy or 
 subdued, but uncertainty as to the seriousness of the event occupied his 
 thoughts ; and these reiterated conspiracies, these attempts at civil war, 
 republican, legitimist, and Bonapartist, this continual necessity of contend- 
 ing, repressing, and punishing, weighed on him as a hateful burden. Despite 
 his long experience and all that it had taught him of man's passions and the 
 vicissitudes of life, he was and continued to be naturally easy, confiding, 
 benevolent, and hopeful. He grew tired of having incessantly to watch, 
 to defend himself, and of finding so many enemies on his steps."* 
 
 The next morning, the 1st of November, an aide-de-camp of the com- 
 mandant at Strasbourg brought to the perplexed king and his ministers a 
 solution of the telegraphic mystery. Louis Napoleon, having the support of 
 a colonel who commanded a battalion, had presented himself at the barrack 
 of a regiment of artillery, and was received with shouts of " Long live the 
 Emperor." At another barrack the attempts of the prince upon the 
 fidelity of the troops was repulsed ; and he and his followers were arrested 
 by the colonel and other oflicers of the forty-sixth regiment of infantry. 
 The afiiair was over in a few hours without bloodshed. One only of the 
 known adherents of Louis Napoleon, M. de Persigny, his intimate friend, 
 efiected his escape. On ascertaining the result of this rash enterprise, 
 queen Hortense, whose aflfection for her son was most devoted, hurried to 
 Erance to intercede for him with the government. Erom Viry, near Paris, 
 she addressed her supplications to the king and M. Mole. M. Guizofe 
 
 * "Memoirs to illustrate the History of My Time," vol. iv. p. 197 ,* 1861,
 
 376 PARLIAMENT— ILLNESS OF THE KiN(J. [1S07 
 
 says, " She might have spared them. The resolution of not bringing prince 
 Louis to trial, and of sending him to the United States of America, was 
 already taken. This was the decided inclination of the king, and the 
 unanimous advice of the cabinet." The adventurer was brought from the 
 citadel of Strasbourg to Paris, where he stayed only a few hours. He waa 
 then taken to L' Orient, where he embarked on the 14th of November iu a 
 frigate which was to touch at New York. The sub-prefect of L'Orient 
 waited on the prince when he was on board, inquired whether he would find 
 any resources when he arrived in the United States, and being told that 
 none were at first to be expected, the prefect placed in his hands a casket 
 containing fifteen thousand francs in gold, which tlie king had ordered him 
 thus to appropriate. Louis Napoleon remained in the United States till 
 October 1837, when, hearing of the illness of his mother, he encountered the 
 risks of a return to Europe, and was with Hortense at her death. The 
 Prench government demanded his extradition from Switzerland. The Can- 
 tons refused to comply ; but Louis Philippe enforced his demand by the 
 irresistible argument of an army, and the prince withdrew to England. The 
 fashionable circles of London regarded him merely as a man of pleasure, and 
 he was popular in country houses from the spirit with which he could follow 
 hounds in a fox-chase. His attempt at Strasbourg had only excited laughter 
 here. He was not generally regarded as possessing any force of character 
 that would justify a lofty ambition. 
 
 On the 31st of January, 1837, Parliament was opened by Commissioners. 
 The most important passage in the royal speech had reference to the state of 
 the province of Lower Canada. It is unnecessary here to enter upon the 
 history of those discontents which ended in insurrection. Grrievances were 
 removed, and revolts were put down, at no distant period ; from which time 
 the course of events may be regarded as a whole. Pew of the proceedings 
 of parliament during a session which circumstances had rendered unusually 
 short acquired a legislative completion. Lord John Kussell proposed the 
 government plan for introducing Poor-Laws into Ireland. The dissolution of 
 parliament interrupted the progress of the Bill. The Chancellor of the Exche- 
 quer proposed a measure for the abolition of Church-rates, which was stre- 
 nuously opposed, and finally was abandoned by the government. Lord John 
 Hussell introduced a series of bills for the further amendment of the Criminal 
 Law. These also were to stand over till another session. Only twenty-one 
 public Acts, none of which efiected any important changes, received the royal 
 assent of king "William the Fourth. 
 
 On the 9th of June a bulletin issued from Windsor Castle informing a 
 loyal and really aff'ectionate people that the king was ill. It announced that 
 he had suffered for some time from an affection of the chest, which had 
 confined him to his apartment, had produced considerable weakness, but 
 had not interrupted his usual attention to business. There was less appre- 
 hension of a serious result from it being generally known that his majesty, 
 previous to his accession to the throne, had been subject to violent attacks of 
 what is called the hay-fever. This malady had returned. Prom the 12th of 
 June bulletins were regularly issued till the 19th. The irritation of the 
 lungs had then greatly increased, and respiration had become exceedingly 
 painful. By the king's express desire the archbishops of Canterbury and
 
 1837.] flIS DEATH, AND CHARACTER. 37r 
 
 York prepared a prayer for bis restoration to health, which, on the 16th, wa3 
 ordered by the Privy Council to be used immediately before the Litany. On 
 Sunday, the 18th of June, the symptoms assumed a more alarming character, 
 and it was announced in the bulletin of the 19th that his majesty on that day- 
 had received the sacrament at the hands of the archbishop of Cauterbury. 
 On Tuesday, the 20th of June, the last of these official documents was 
 issued. His majesty had expired that morning at twelve minutes past two 
 o'clock. 
 
 The lapse of a quarter of a century has enabled us to appreciate the 
 justice of those parliamentary eulogies on the character of AVilliam the 
 Fourth which immediately followed his death.* In the House of Lords, 
 Viscount Melbourne dwelt upon his zeal and assiduity in the discharge of 
 the public business; upon his fairness and sense of justice — "most fair, moat 
 candid, most impartial, most willing to hear, to weigh, and to consider what 
 was urged even in opposition to his most favourite opinions." The duke of 
 Wellington bore distinct testimony to the total absence of vindictive feelings 
 in the late king. The opposition of the duke when prime minister to the views 
 of the Lord High Admiral, had compelled him to resign that great office which 
 he was most anxious to retain ; and yet on his accession he employed the 
 duke in his service, and manifested towards him the greatest kindness. Earl 
 Grey described him as truly "a Patriot King" — one whose most anxious 
 desire was to decide what was best for the country over which he ruled. 
 Lord Brougham entirely agreed in what had been said of the amiable 
 disposition, the inflexible love of justice, and the rare candour by which the 
 character of "William the Fourth was distinguished. In the House of 
 Commons, lord John Eussell panegyrized the conduct of the late king 
 towards his ministers as marked by sincerity and kindness. He was in the 
 habit of stating his opinions frankly, fairly and fully ; never seeking any- 
 indirect means of accomplishing an object, but in a straightforward and 
 manly way confined himself to an open, simple, and plain attempt to impress 
 the minds of others with the opinion which he might at the moment entertain. 
 If his constitutional advisers differed from him, and still continued to be his 
 servants, he left them wholly responsible for carrying into efi'ect the course 
 of policy which they recommended. His devotion during his last illness to 
 the public business was the same as it had been through his whole reign. 
 During a period of great suffering whatever required immediate attention 
 received immediate notice. On the last day of his life he signed one of those 
 papers in which he exercised the royal prerogative of mercy. Sir Robert 
 Feel bore the same testimony to the king's utter forgetfulness of all amuse- 
 ment, and even of all private considerations, that could for a moment 
 interfere with the most efficient discharge of his public duties. 
 
 It is impossible to read these testimonies to the public virtues of "William 
 the Fourth, given by the most eminent men of the two great parties in the 
 State, without subscribing to their general truth. They did not overdo their 
 praise. They did not attempt to represent their late master as a sovereign of 
 eminent ability, of a highly cultivated understanding, of great refinement. 
 They spoke of him as a man who honestly endeavoured to understand the 
 
 * See Debates in both Honses on the Queen's Message, June 22 — Hansard, vol. xxxvili.
 
 378 CHARACTER OF KING WILLIAM IV. [1837. 
 
 important questions upon which he had to decide, and faithfully to do his 
 part of letting his ministers work out their own policy without meddling and 
 without intrigue. It was certainly a beautiful part of the character of the 
 king that he did not treasure up the grievances of the duke of Clarence. 
 Queen Caroline's Solicitor- General, who had denounced him as a slanderer, 
 became his Lord Chief Justice. The duke of Wellington, who turned him 
 out of a lucrative office which he could ill-afford to give up, was retained as 
 his Prime Minister when he came to the Crown. It is impossible not to see 
 in how marked a manner, although it might have been without a direct 
 intention, the traits most dwelt upon in the public character of William the 
 Eourth were in forcible contrast with the public and private life of the Eegent 
 and of George the Pourth. This contrast was evidently in the mind of the 
 preacher who thus spoke of the monarch then unburied : " When he entered 
 into his palaces he did not say, ' All this is my birthright ; I am entitled to 
 it — it is my due. How can I gain more splendour ? how can I increase 
 all the pleasures of the senses ? ' " * 
 
 We have noticed one slip in the prudent course of the constitutional 
 government of the sailor-king — his abrupt dismissal of the ministry of lord 
 Melbourne. This mistake has been ascribed, and perhaps not untruly, to 
 the influence of the family by whom he was surrounded. Por many years 
 the duke of Clarence enjoyed as much domestic happiness as the Eoyal 
 Marriage Act permitted to him, Mrs. Jordan, one of the most fascinating 
 of actresses, lived with him in all the relations of a faithful and affectionate 
 wife, except that of the sacred inviolability of the nuptial tie. This lady 
 bore him ten children. The world did not look unkindly upon this union. 
 The five sons and five daughters were affectionately cherished by their father ; 
 and when state reasons led the duke of Clarence to marry in 1818, the excel- 
 lent sense and kindly nature of the princess Adelaide of Saxe Meiningeu 
 were shown in her treatment of the Pitzclarences. When she became queen, 
 her own court was a model of correctness ; but the presence there of her 
 husband's ofi"spring was no ofience against its decorum, except to the few 
 whose strictness bordered on uncharitableness. This family were freely re- 
 ceived into the highest society. There, however successful had been the 
 reforms of the Greys and Russells, Toryism, and indeed very mild Whiggism, 
 looked with apprehension upon any further progress in the battle against 
 decayed institutions. Por a season the king caught the fears of those 
 around him, and he changed his government. When lord Melbourne re- 
 turned to office he had not to complain of an obstructive power behind the 
 throne. 
 
 It was five o'clock on the morning of the 20fch of June when the doors 
 of Kensington Palace, where the princess Victoria dwelt with her mother, 
 were opened to the archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chamberlain, and the 
 physician of William IV., Sir Henry Halford. They had come direct from 
 the dark chamber of death at Windsor, to tell the youthful princess, who had 
 attained the age of eighteen on the 25th of May, tliat slie was Queen of one 
 of the greatest amongst the nations. The intelligence had been momently 
 
 * Sydney Smith — "Sermon at St. Paul's."
 
 1837.] ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 37» 
 
 ■expected. The household was astir at that early hour of the sunny morning , 
 the three messengers were at once in the presence of their Sovereign Lady. 
 Lord Melbourne had an audience at nine o'clock. At eleven the state apart- 
 ments of Kensington Palace were filled with members of the Privy Council 
 of the late king — Peers, Cabinet Ministers, the two Archbishops, the Lord 
 Mayor of London, Eight Honourable Commoners. The duke of Cumberland, 
 now king of Hanover, and the duke of Sussex, were conspicuous in that 
 historical group which Wilkie has painted. The doors of the Council 
 Chamber were opened ; and Queen Victoria, entering with the duchess of 
 Kent, — pale, but perfectly self-possessed, — took her seat at the head of the 
 Council table. The Lord Chancellor administered the oaths prescribed for 
 the sovereign's accession ; the Privy Councillors took the oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy : and then for the first time was heard by her assembled 
 subjects that exquisitely modulated voice whicb for a quarter of a century 
 has lent a charm to the formal periods of a speech from the throne. The 
 opening sentence of the Queen's Declaration had a graceful simplicity, which 
 appeared more like the natural effusion of the heart than the elaborate com- 
 position of a ministerial adviser: — 
 
 " The severe and afflicting loss which the nation has sustained by the 
 death of his majesty, my beloved uncle, has devolved upon me the duty of 
 administering the government of this empire. This awful responsibility is 
 imposed upon me so suddenly, and at so early a period of my life, that I 
 should feel myself utterly oppressed by the burden, were I not sustained by 
 the hope that Divine Providence, which has called me to this work, will give 
 me strength, for the performance of it, and that I shall find in the purity 
 of my intentions, and in my zeal for the public welfare, that support and 
 those resources which usually belong to a more mature age, and to long 
 experience." 
 
 The queen's demeanour on that eventful morning impressed every one 
 who was present, not only with profound admiration, but with confident hope 
 of a glorious future. Truly did sir Eobert Peel say of this demeanour that 
 there is something which art cannot imitate and lessons cannot teach. There 
 was evidence of a high and generous nature in her solemn expression of regret 
 at the domestic calamity which had just occurred ; in her manifestation of a 
 deep and awful sense of the duties she was called upon to fulfil ; in the 
 becoming and dignified modesty of all her actions. When the newspapers 
 described how, on the next day, Victoria, the queen, appeared at a window over- 
 looking the courtyard of St. James's Palace, " dressed in black silk, with a 
 crape scarf over her white tippet, and a little black chip bonnet," — when they 
 told how, looking " paler than usual," she wept as she acknowledged the 
 plaudits of the people, sucb plaudits "as never could be surpassed" * — there 
 were few amongst her subjects who did not put up a prayer for the happi- 
 ness of this young creature, exposed so early to all the temptations of luxury 
 and all the bewilderments of power. But there was little fear. There was 
 confidence, — as she had been brought up in the unobtrusive simplicity of her 
 mother's life — as her natural abilities had been diligently cultivated — as from 
 her childhood she had learnt the great lessons of self-denial — as she was well- 
 
 • "Spectator," June 24.
 
 380 ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA. [183f?. 
 
 grounded in religious principle — that the perils of such greatness would be 
 escaped. Never were the feelings of the nation more nobly expressed than 
 by a voice from the pulpit of the metropolitan cathedral : 
 
 " What limits to the glory and happiness of our native land, if the Creator 
 should in his mercy have placed in the heart of this Royal Woman the 
 rudiments of wisdom and mercy ; and if, giving them time to expand, and to 
 bless our children's children with her goodness, He should grant to her ?, 
 long sojourning upon earth, and leave her to reign over us till she is wsE 
 stricken in years ! What glory ! what happiness ! what joy ! what bounty of 
 God!"* 
 
 • " "Works of the Rev. Sydney Smith," vol. iii. p. 320.
 
 MINISTRY AT THE ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne 
 Lord Cottenham 
 Viscount Duncannon 
 
 Viscount Melbourne . 
 Right Hon. T. Spring Rice 
 Earl of Minto . 
 Lord John Russell . 
 
 Viscount Palmerstou . 
 
 Lord Glenelg . 
 
 Sir John Cam Hobhouse 
 
 Lord Holland 
 
 Right Hon. C. P. Thomson 
 
 Viscoxmt Howick 
 
 Lord President of the Council. 
 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal and First Commissionet 
 of Land Revenue, 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Home Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 
 President of the Board of Control. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 President of the Board of Trade. 
 
 Secretary at War. 
 
 Not of the Cabinet. 
 
 Earl of Lichfield 
 
 Right Hon. Henry Labouchere . 
 
 Sir Henry Parnell 
 
 Right Hon. Sir R. H. Vivian, Bart. 
 
 Sir John Campbell . 
 
 Sir R. M. Rolfe .... 
 
 Postmaster-GeneraL 
 
 Master of the Mint and Vice-President of 
 
 the Board of Trade. 
 Paymaster- General of the Forces. 
 Clerk of the Ordnance. 
 Attorney-General. 
 Solicitor-General. 
 
 Duke of Argyll 
 Marquis of Conyngham 
 Earl of Albemarle • 
 
 Great Officers of State. 
 
 Lord Steward. 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Master of the Horse. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Earl of Mulgrave 
 Lord Plunkett 
 Viscoimt Morpeth 
 
 Lord Lieutenant. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 Chief Secretary. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Right Hon. John A. Murray 
 Andrew Rutherford, Esq. 
 
 Lord Advocate. 
 Solicitor-Genera],
 
 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF TEEATIES. 
 
 (Continued from vol. vii. p. 581.) 
 
 1815 March 23 : Treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, confirming the principles of the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 
 1814, on which they had acted ; and uniting Belgium to the Netherlands 
 under the sovereignty of the king of the Netherlands. 
 
 1815 June 8 : Federative Constitution of Germany signed at Vienna. 
 
 1815 July 3 : Convention of St. Cloud between Marshal Davoust on the on© 
 part, and Wellington and Bliicher on the other, by which Paris was sur- 
 rendered to the Allies, who entered it on the 6th. 
 
 1815 August 2 : A Convention signed at Paris between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner of those powers, and 
 confiding his safeguard particularly to the British government. 
 
 1815 September 14 : A Convention entered into at Vienna, whereby the duchies 
 of Parma, &c., were secured to the Empress Maria Loixisa, and on her 
 demise to her son by Napoleon. 
 
 1815 September 26 : The Treaty denominated of the Holy Alliance, ratified at 
 Paris by the Emperors of Austria and Russia and the King of Prussia. 
 
 1815 November 5 : A Treaty ratified at Paris between Great Britain and Russia 
 respecting the Ionian Islands, which were declared to form a united state 
 under the sole protection of the former power. 
 
 1815 November 20 : Peace of Paris between France on the one part, and Great 
 Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, on the other, establishing the boun- 
 dai'ies of France, and stipulating for the garrisoning of several of the for- 
 tresses in France by foreign troops for three years. 
 
 1818 October 9 : A Convention entered into by the great powers of Europe, 
 
 assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle, on the one part, and the Duke de Richelieu 
 on the other, whereby it was stipulated that the army of occupation should 
 quit the French territory on the 30th of November ensuing ; it was also 
 agreed that the remaining sum due from France to the Allies was 
 265,000,000 francs. 
 
 1819 August 1 : Congress of Carlsbad. 
 
 1820 October 20 : Congress of Troppau. 
 
 1820 October 24 : Treaty between Spain and America : Florida ceded to the 
 
 United States. 
 
 1821 May 6 : The Congress of Laybach, which had been for some time attended 
 
 by the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, finally broke up, having 
 issued two circulars stating it to be their resolution to occupy Naples with 
 Austrian troops, and proscribe popular insurrection. 
 
 1822 August 25 : Congi-ess of Verona. 
 
 1824 February 4 : A Convention between Great Britain and Austria laid upon 
 
 the table of the House of Commons, by which the former agreed to accept 
 2,500,000^. as a final compensation for her claims upon the Jatter power, 
 amounting to 30,000,000^. 
 
 1825 February 28 : Convention between Great Britain and Russia ; frontier of 
 
 north-west coast of America settled.
 
 I CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF TREATIES. 88? 
 
 1825 April 17 : France recognizes the independence of St. Domingo. 
 
 1825 April 18 : Treaty of Amity between Great Britain and Columbia. 
 
 1825 October 18 : Treaty between Great Britain and Brazil for Abolition of Slav© 
 
 Trade. 
 1829 July 6 : Treaty of London between Russia, France, and Great Britain, for 
 
 tbe settlement of the affairs of Greece. 
 
 1829 September 14 : Peace of Adrianople, between Russia and Turkey, by which, 
 
 Russia acquires the protectorate of Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 
 1830 May 7 : Treaty between Turkey and the United States. American vessels 
 
 allowed to pass to and from the Black Sea. 
 
 1830 November 2 : The independence of Belgium recognized by England and 
 
 France. 
 
 1831 The Commercial Union of the northern states of Germany, known as the 
 
 Zollverein, commenced under the auspices of Prussia. 
 1831 November 15 : A Treaty signed between Great Britain and France, for a 
 settlement of the points of dispute between Holland and Belgium, to 
 which Holland acceded March 13, 1838. 
 
 1833 July 8 : Treaty at Constantinople between Turkey and Russia, by which it 
 
 was stipulated that the Dardanelles should be shut to all foreign vessels 
 of war. 
 
 1834 April 22 : Quadruple Treaty between Great Britain, France, Spain, and 
 
 Portugal, in support of the two queens, Isabella and Maria. 
 
 1835 Supplementary Treaties with Portugal and Spain, by the former of which 
 
 the Methuen Treaty with Portugal was annulled. 
 
 1840 July 15 : Treaty signed in London between Great Britain, France, Austria; 
 
 Russia, Prussia, and Turkey, for the settlement of the dispute between. 
 Turkey and Mehemet Ali. 
 
 1841 July 13 : Convention at London between the Eiu-opean Powers and Turkey, 
 
 by which the closing of the Dardanelles against ships of war is made 
 general to them all while Tiu'key is at peace. 
 
 1842 August 29 : Treaty of Nankin with China, by which several ports were 
 
 opened to the British trade, Hong-Kong ceded, and an indemnification of 
 21,000,000 dollars paid. 
 
 1845 May 29 : A Convention signed in London between Great Britain and 
 
 France for the suppression of the Slave Trade. 
 
 1846 November IG : Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke the treaty of 1815, 
 
 constituting Cracow a free republic, and restore the territoiy to Austria. 
 Soon after, the kingdom of Poland is incorporated with Russia. Great 
 Britain, France, Sweden, and Turkey unite in a protest against these 
 proceedings. 
 
 1849 August 6 : Treaty of Milan, between Austria and Sardinia. 
 
 1850 February 27 : Treaty at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
 
 Wtirtemberg, to form a Southern German Union against the pretensions of 
 Prussia, 
 
 1850 April 19 : Treaty at Washington between Great Britain and the United 
 States, respecting a ship-canal through the state of Nicaragua, to connect 
 the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 1850 July 2 : Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, Prussia with- 
 drawing from the support of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig ; and 
 on July 4 a protocol was signed in London between Great Britain, France, 
 Prussia, and Sweden, guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish territories.
 
 THE NATIONAL DEBT, 
 
 FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS. 1815, TILL 1837. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Principal. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Peace . . 
 
 ^- 
 
 ' 56 & 57 
 
 1816 
 
 845,968,483 
 
 32,055,350 
 
 
 HH 
 
 57 &58 
 
 1817 
 
 839,382,145 
 
 31,591,927 
 
 
 <D 
 60 
 
 58 &59 
 
 1818 
 
 840,582,664 
 
 31,485,753 
 
 
 O 
 
 59 & 60 
 
 1819 
 
 836,530,982 
 
 31,168,540 
 
 
 G5 
 
 L 60 ) 
 
 r 1 i 
 
 2 
 
 1820 
 
 834,900,960 
 
 31,354,749 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 827,984,498 
 
 31,105,319 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1822 
 
 835,207,294 
 
 29,722,533 
 
 
 > 
 
 4 
 
 1823 
 
 827,480,164 
 
 30,142,582 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 5 
 
 1824 
 
 819,023,672 
 
 29,174,122 
 
 
 to - 
 
 6 
 
 1825 
 
 809,831,468 
 
 28,987,773 
 
 
 o 
 
 7 
 
 1826 
 
 808,826,590 
 
 29,415,102 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1827 
 
 805,098,942 
 
 29,328,782 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1828 
 
 800,032,289 
 
 29,167,877 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1829 
 
 796,799,532 
 
 29,067,658 
 
 
 
 11 ) 
 
 r 1 ) 
 
 1830 
 
 784,803,997 
 
 28,325,936 
 
 
 )— 1 
 
 1 &2 
 
 1831 
 
 782,716,684 
 
 28,329,986 
 
 
 2 &3 
 
 1832 
 
 781,457,599 
 
 28,351,318 
 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 3&4 
 
 1833 
 
 779,730,379 
 
 28,481,181 
 
 
 4 &5 
 
 1834 
 
 773,234,401 
 
 28,517,236 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 &6 
 
 1835 
 
 788,664,201 
 
 29,135,811 
 
 '' 
 
 ^ 
 
 6&7 
 
 1836 
 
 789,496,896 
 
 29,667,464 
 
 
 Victo] 
 
 ^ia 1 i 
 
 1837 
 
 787,529,114 
 
 29,537,333 
 
 THE GROWTH OF THE DEBT, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Increase of 
 
 
 Period. 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Years of War. 
 
 Debt in 
 Years of War. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 1691 
 
 3,130,000 
 
 332,000 
 
 
 
 
 1701 
 
 12,552,486 
 
 1,219,147 
 
 1691—1697 
 
 11,392,925 
 
 French War. 
 
 1714 
 
 36,175,460 
 
 3,063,135 
 
 1702—1713 
 
 21,932,622 
 
 War of the Succession. 
 
 1748 
 
 75,812,132 
 
 3,165,765 j 
 
 1718—1721 
 1740—1748 
 
 14,025,424 
 22,531,551 
 
 [ Continental Wars. 
 
 1763 
 
 132,716,049 
 
 5,032,733 
 
 1756—1763 
 
 58,141,024 
 
 Pitt's Administration, 1 
 
 1792 
 
 239,663,421 
 
 9,432,179 
 
 1774—1783 
 
 104,681,213 
 
 American War. 
 
 ( War of French Revo- 
 
 1815 
 
 861,039,049 
 
 32,645,618 
 
 1793—1815 
 
 621,375,628 
 £854,080,387 
 
 < lution and against 
 ( Napoleon. 
 
 1 
 
 ^crease of Nati 
 
 onal Debt, 181 
 
 6 to 1837 . 
 
 73,509,535 

 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Bocial condition of Great Britain at the period of the Accession of Queen VicioiIa^Occupationa 
 of the People — -Growth of Cities and Towns — London — Increase of Houses — Supply of 
 Food — Improved means of Communication affecting that supply — Cheapening of the neces- 
 saries of life — Conveyance of Mails by Ilaihvays — Limited Postal accommodation — Public 
 Health — Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes — Exposure of the 
 xmfitness of many Dwellings for healthful occupation — Workrooms without ventilation, 
 such as those of Tailors and Milliners — Public arrangements influencing the Sanitary Con- 
 dition of the Labouring Population — Neglect and ignorance universal — Want of Drainage 
 — Inadequate Water supply for the preservation of cleanliness — Public Baths and Wash- 
 houses unknown — Interments withiu the precincts of large Towns — Public Walks not 
 provided — State of the Factories — Number of Workers in Textile Manufactures — Begin- 
 nings of improvement — Mining Population — Employment of Children and Women in 
 Mines — Agricultural Labourers — Operation of the New Poor Law — Neglect of the 
 Labourers by the richer Classes — Miserable Cottage accommodation — Dorsetshire Labourers 
 — Field employment of Women and Children— Crime in England and Wales — Juvenile 
 Delinquency — General state of Education — First aid of the State to voluntary exertions — ■ 
 Increase of Schools and Scholars — Limited ability to read and write amongst the aduU 
 population — General aspects of English Society. 
 
 In the celebrated description by Macaulay of " the state in wliich England 
 was at the time when the Crown passed from Charles the Second to his 
 brother," he rests its necessary imperfection upon the " scanty and dispersed 
 materials" from which it was composed. In now attempting a description of 
 the state in which the United Kingdom was at the time, or about the time, 
 when the Crown passed from William the Fourth to his niece, we have not 
 the same apology for its incompleteness. The materials from which it must 
 be composed are embarrassing, not from their scantiness but from their 
 fulness, — not from their dispersion in scarce and curious tracts, in private 
 letters and diaries, in the observations of foreigners, in estimates of national 
 wealth resting upon no solid bases, in county histories, in meagre news- 
 papers, in old almanacs. In 1837 we were passing out of the transition state 
 of very imperfect statistics to the period when every aspect of our social 
 condition was to be delineated ; when everj^ dark corner w^as to be explored ; 
 when every fact connected with Education, Public Health, Crime and 
 Punishment, Industrial Employment, Pauperism, was to be recorded and 
 tabulated; — the period of Commissioners and Boards — the period when, 
 according to Sydney Smith, " the whole earth was, in fact, in Commission." 
 Out of several hundred Official Eeports we may to some extent learn what 
 we were a quarter of a century ago, and be enabled to answer the question, 
 •** Are we improved ?" 
 VOL. viii.— 249.
 
 386 OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE. [1837, 
 
 In commencing our survey of what Shakspere, in bis famous comparison 
 of " the state of man in divers functions" with the working of " the honey- 
 bees," calls " a peopled kingdom," we beg to repeat what we said at the 
 outset of this History, that we do not apply the term " People" to any 
 distinct class or section of the population. We especially protest against the 
 abuse of the term "People" which some amongst us have adopted from the 
 modern literature of France, when they assume that the non-capitalist 
 portion of the industrious classes are exclusively " the People." The intelli- 
 gent public officers to whom h^s been committed the superintendence of the 
 Census during the last twenty years have classified the " Occupations of the 
 People" as the occupations of the entire community. 
 
 The Census of 1841 is sufficiently near the date of the accession of 
 Victoria to furnish a tolerably correct estimate of the various functions per- 
 formed in that great working-hive of which she was the queen-bee. In the 
 spring of that year, out of the entire population of England, Wales, and 
 Scotland, amounting to nearly nineteen millions, nearly eight millions, male 
 and female, were distinctly classified by their occupations. They were the 
 supporters of the residue of the population, including children of all ages. 
 Speaking in round numbers, three millions were engaged in commerce, trade, 
 and manufactures ; a million and a half in agriculture ; seven hundred 
 thousand were labourers not agricultural ; a hundred and thirty thousand 
 formed the army at home and abroad ; two hundred and eighteen thousand 
 were employed on the sea and in inland navigation ; sixty-three thousand 
 were professional persons, clerical, legal, and medical ; a hundred and forty 
 thousand were following miscellaneous pursuits as educated persons ; 
 seventeen thousand were in the government Civil Service ; twenty-five 
 thousand were parochial and other officers ; eleven hundred thousand were 
 domestic servants ; five hundred thousand were persons of independent 
 means ; and two hundred thousand were almspeople, pensioners, paupers, 
 lunatics, and prisoners. This wonderful variety of stations and pursuits con- 
 Btitutes the distinctive character of modern British civilization. All are held 
 together upon that great principle which Plato sets forth in emphatic words : 
 " It is not alone wisdom and strength which makes a State simply wise and 
 strong. But order, like that harmony called the diapason, is diff'used 
 throughout the whole State, making both the weakest, and the strongest, and 
 the middling people, concent the same melody." 
 
 A very large proportion of the three millions of the people engaged in 
 commerce, trade, and manufacture were necessarily to be found in the cities 
 and towns. In 1811, at the commencement of the Eegency, there were in 
 England only twelve of the cities and towns whose population exceeded' thirty 
 thousand ; in Scotland there were four above that number. In 1841, taking 
 the same limits of places as in 1811, there were thirty-one cities and towns 
 in England with a larger population than thirty thousand, and in Scotland 
 six. In the course of thirty years the London of one million ten thousand 
 people had become the dwelling-place of one million seven hundred thousand ;* 
 Manchester and Salford, which thirty years before 1841 numbered a hundred 
 
 • In tlie Census of 1841 more cxtoii(led limits? of LonJon were given as adopted ty the 
 Registrar-General, which gave the population as 1,873,670.
 
 1837.] GROWTH OF CITIES AND TOWNS-LONDOX. oil 
 
 and ten thousand, held two hundred and ninety-six thousand ; Liverpool of 
 one hundred thousand had reached two hundred and sixty-four thousand; Bir- 
 mingham with eighty-five thousand had added a hundred and five thousand to 
 its number ; Leeds with sixty-two thousand had added ninety thousand ; 
 Bristol with seventy-six thousand had added forty-six thousand. Sheffield, 
 Eochdale, Norwich, Nottingham, each under forty thousand, had about doubled 
 their numbers. Plymouth and Portsmouth had grown in a less proportion. 
 In Scotland, Edinburgh had increased from a hundred and two thousand to a 
 hundred and sixty-six thousand ; Glasgow from a hundred thousand to two 
 hundred and seventy-four thousand; Paisley, Aberdeen, Greenock, had doubled 
 their numbers, each exceeding sixty thousand. Of non-commercial places the 
 extension of Brighton and Cheltenham were the most remarkable ; in thirty 
 years they had quadrupled their populations. The growth of the smaller 
 provincial seats of trading and manufacturing industry was as remarkable as 
 the instances we have selected of the greater places. Of the sixty-eight 
 chief cities and towns of Great Britain whose comparative population is 
 exhibited in decennial periods by the Census of 184il, the total amount of 
 the population was two million six hundred and ninety-two thousand at the 
 commencement of the Eegency, and five million three hundred and forty- 
 one thousand, three years after the Crown passed to Queen Victoria. During 
 the period of thirty years, when the population of sixty-eight principal towns 
 had increased 100 per cent., the aggregate population of England and Scot- 
 land had increased only 54 per cent., that is, from twelve million to eighteen 
 million five hundred thousand. 
 
 The one million seven hundred thousand of the people of London in 1841 
 were inhabiting two hundred and sixty-three thousand houses. Since 1811 
 the number of houses in the metropolitan district had increased in a much 
 higher proportion than the increase of population. There had been rapidly 
 going on since the Peace, not only in London but in every part of the country, 
 that want which appears never to be satisfied, — the demand for more houses, 
 whatever number of houses are built. In London, during the half century 
 from 1811 to 1861, there has ever been an increasing number of the people 
 ready to pay rent, — people beginning housekeeping, people seeking better 
 house accommodation than the old dwellings, people turning their city houses 
 into warehouses and daily going to and fro in search of health in suburban 
 air. One of the most curious social problems at the period of the Queen's 
 accession, as it had been the marvel of several previous generations, was the 
 apparent difficulty of feeding even five hundred thousand, much more a 
 million, a million and a half, two millions, of human beings, collected together 
 in places more or less densely peopled, comprised within a circle whose 
 radius was four miles from St. Paul's. 
 
 In 1841, the metropolitan district of the Eegistrar- General comprised a 
 population of nearly nineteen hundred thousand on a radius considerably 
 Bmaller than that of the plan given in the census of 1831,* which, in a radius 
 of eight miles, comprised a population a little under eighteen hundred 
 thousand. 
 
 * The little Plan we give (on the next page) is of eight miles round St. Paul's, taken f/om 
 the Population Returns of 1831.
 
 £88 
 
 SUPPLY OF FOOD, 
 
 [1837. 
 
 A proclamation of Elizabetli agaiust the extension of London exhibits 
 the dread of the Grovernment that the increasing multitudes " could hardly be 
 provided of susteutation, of victual, food, and other like necessaries for man's 
 relief, upon reasonable price." The economists of our own day have shown 
 how visionary would be such a dread under the self-regulating movements of 
 the present social organization. The greatest wonder that London presented 
 to a New Zealander who was brought to England some years ago, was the 
 mystery of feeding an immense population, as he saw neither cattle nor crops. 
 The enormous number, and the fluctuations in their number, of the persons to 
 be fed ; the quantity and variety of the provisions to be furnished ; the necessity 
 in most cases for their im^mediate distribution in convenient localities ; the 
 accurate proportion of the supply to the demand, so as to be ample without 
 waste ; — these considerations point to the difficulty, as well as the paramount 
 importance, of furnishing their daily rations to a host far greater than any 
 army which a commissariat upon the grandest scale could undertake to sustain 
 even for a single day. " This object," says Dr. Whately, " is accomplished 
 far better than it could be by any eff'ort of human wisdom through the agency 
 of men who think each of nothing beyond his own immediate interest, — who, 
 with that object in view, perform their respective parts with cheerful zeal, 
 and combine unconsciously to employ the wisest means for efiecting an 
 object the vastuess of which it would bewilder them even to contemplate." * 
 
 What appeared to the economist so vast an undertaking in the London of 
 1831, must at the first glance have appeared a greater difficulty in 1841, 
 when the population had still gone on rapidly increasing. But during that 
 decennial period the means of communication had been so largely increased 
 tluit the certainty of the supply of food, both as to its abundance and the 
 time occupied in its transit, could be more accurately measured. Tlie corn- 
 barge was still duly sailing I'rom the maritime counties to the port of London. 
 
 Introductory Lectures oa Political Economy, 1831.
 
 1837.] SUPPLY AFFECTED BY IMPROVED COilMUNICATIOX. 3S9 
 
 to bring the produce of many thousand acres for sale in Mark Lane ; the steam- 
 boat was also moving up the Thames to bring corn quickly from the ports of the 
 Baltic ; and the first steam-ships from England had crossed the Atlantic in 1838 
 to contribute to the transportation of that supply of foreign produce which was 
 scantily poured in till the fetters of Protection were knocked off. The cattle 
 of Smithfield were still travelling in vast droves from the north by Highgate, 
 and from the eastern counties by the Whitechapel Koad ; but the Birmingham 
 Bailway was already bringing large numbers to market in better condition 
 and at a lower cost than were effected by the drovers' toilsome march. That 
 railway, and the few others that were gradually being opened, brought also 
 to London large quantities of country-killed meat. In the smaller articles 
 of produce, London, by the agency of steam-vessels, had now an almost 
 inexhaustible supply from foreign ports. Fresh vegetables and fruits came 
 to Covent Garden Market from Portugal ; the Pas de Calais sent millions of 
 eggs from its small farms ; and the eggs which Ireland exported to England, 
 as well as Scotch eggs and English eggs brought in coasting vessels, justify 
 the calculation that the London population had in the first year of the Queen 
 an annual supply of a hundred millions of eggs collected from sources which 
 were not accessible thirty years before. In 1813 a great meeting of noblemen 
 and gentlemen was held in the Thatched House Tavern, St. James's, to 
 establish a Fish Association, the object of which was to insure a better supply 
 of that luxury of the wealthy in the metropolis. It was scarcely in the con- 
 templation of this meeting that the humbler markets where the poor con- 
 gregate should ever have an adequate supply of a perishable article, then 
 brought up the river by hoys dependent upon wind and tide, or carried by 
 stage-coaches at a large increase of the first cost. Tt has been stated in an 
 interesting little volume,* that when salmon were brought from Scotland in 
 sailing vessels, one cargo in three was totally spoiled from the voyage being 
 protracted by adverse winds. The steam-boats were in 1837 delivering some 
 hundred tons of salmon from Scotland to Billingsgate. A few years later 
 the railways from the southern coast were rendering the turbot and the sole 
 almost as cheap in the London markets as in the fish-shops of the fashionable 
 watering-places near which they were taken. "Within the last ten years, the 
 electric telegraph has come to the aid of the railway, by apprising the fish- 
 dealers in London when there is a glut of fish — as of mackerel, which is 
 sometimes taken in extraordinary quantities. Instead of perishing on the 
 shore, the mackerel thus finds its way to thousands of consumers, " alive, 
 alive, ;" as the itinerant dealer was allowed to proclaim on a Sunday 
 morning in the old days of slow conveyance. 
 
 As important as the equalization of prices in the necessaries of life by 
 improved means of conveyance, was the more rapid communication beginning 
 to be eff'ected in the transmission of letters. The Railway System was so 
 far established in 1838, that an Act of Parliament was passed in that year 
 for providing for the conveyance of Mails by railroads. The mails between 
 Manchester and Liverpool were conveyed by railroad as early as 1830 ; but 
 between London and every town in Great Britain the comparatively slow 
 mode of conveyance continued to prevail. Upon the reduction of the 
 
 * " Our Exemplars, Poor and Rich," p. 123.
 
 890 LIMITED POSTAL ACCOMMODATION-. [1837 
 
 Newspaper Stamp from fourpence to a penny in 1835, tlie dispatch of News- 
 papers througli the post office was so greatly increased that some of the mails 
 were obliged to run without their usual number of passengers, the contractors 
 being indemnified for their loss. The addition to the old mode of conveyance 
 enabled day-mails to be dispatched, when the routine of the post office had 
 been revolutionized by Rowland Hill. The organization which was necessary 
 to ensure the triumph of a cheap and uuiform rate of Postage was so little 
 developed when the Queen came to the throne, that there were only three 
 thousand post offices in England and Wales, while the number of parishes 
 was eleven thousand. It was estimated that a fourth of the population were 
 entirely destitute of postal accommodation. Pour hundred of the Registra- 
 tion districts, the average extent of each being nearly twenty square miles, 
 were without a post office. Tet when we consider what was the cost of 
 postage at that time, we may possibly come to the conclusion that the 
 facilities afforded for sending and receiving letters were ample. The number 
 of chargeable letters in 1839 was in the proportion of four letters per annum 
 to each individual of the population of England and "Wales; three in Scot- 
 land ; one in Ireland. Large as this number may seem when compared with 
 the period of Mr. Palmer's reforms in 1784, when the first mail coach left 
 London, we can only judge of its comparative littleness when we learn that 
 the average of England and AVales.in 1861 was in the proportion of twenty- 
 four letters to every one of the population ; nineteen in Scotland ; and nine 
 in Ireland.* A representative of the spirit which sees nothing but evil in 
 every great social improvement wrote thus in his Diary of July 8, 1839 : 
 " The Chancellor of the Exchequer, in bringing forward his Budget, has 
 proposed that the postage on a single letter should be reduced to one penny. 
 This will increase the number of idle scribblers; be of little benefit to the lower 
 classes who seldom have occasion to write ; and is likely only to advantage 
 the commercial houses and bankers who can well afford to pay the postage." f 
 The greatest benefit to his country which the organizer of cheap postage has 
 effected — a benefit which he may contemplate with the honest pride of every 
 man who feels that he has not lived for himself alone — is that he has given 
 a motive for education to "the lower classes," who now often "have occasion 
 to write ;" that he has linked together the affections of households that have 
 become separated by distance, so that even to the colonist in Australia a letter 
 can now find its way as cheaply as it once travelled from London to Windsor. 
 The distribution of the food of London to its two hundred and sixty-three 
 thousand houses was accomplished more by the agency of shop-keepers than 
 by the stall-sellers at markets. The costardmonger, who derived his name 
 from the apple which he sold, was still the great purveyor of vegetables in 
 the silent streets of the suburbs. He had almost v.-holly passed away from 
 the busy streets. The orange-woman standing on the pavement with her 
 basket had nearly ceased to traffic. The millions of oranges that steam had 
 brought ripe from the Antilles were to be found in every quarter where there 
 
 * In a Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution in 1862, Mr. M. D. Hill brought together a 
 vast body of interesting facts on the Postage System, vliich we trust he will publish in some 
 jiernianfiiit firm. 
 
 + Kaikcs's "Diary," vol. 3.
 
 1837.] SANITARY CONDITION OF LABOURING CLASSES. 391 
 
 was a fruit-sliop or a stall. The public places of refreshment in 1837 were 
 not essentially different from those of the beginning of the century as far as 
 regarded the chop-house and the eating-house. But there were two 
 important changes. The institution of Clubs had materially contributed to 
 the luxurious comforts of the higher classes at a far less expense than that 
 of the old tavern ; and the two thousand Coffee-bouses that bad sprung up 
 in London, where the artizan could obtain his cup of tea or coffee for three 
 half-pence or two-pence and read the newspapers and periodical works, was 
 an advance indicating a very different state of society from that which 
 prevailed in the exclusive days of the B-egency. 
 
 Valuable to every class of the London population as was the partial 
 cheapening of some of the necessaries of life by the gradual equalization of 
 prices produced by improved conveyance, the physical and moral condition of 
 the great bulk of the people would have been little improved, as long as they 
 were compelled to crowd in districts undrained, in perishing houses ill- 
 ventilated, in pestilential courts and alleys from which typhus especially 
 and every form of contagious and epidemic disease never departed. It is 
 difficult, with all the recorded experience of the better time that has suc- 
 ceeded the first awakening to the consideration of the great question of 
 Public Health, to believe that we are only looking back a quarter of a century 
 when we trace what the humbler classes of London, and of all other great 
 towns, were enduring when Victoria became our Sovereign. Three years 
 before her Majesty's Accession, the public mind was roused, in some degree, 
 to the consideration of this evil in the metropolis by a distinguished 
 architect, Mr. Sydney Smirke ; and before a road was made from the east end 
 of Oxford-street direct to Holborn, he pointed out that there was a district — 
 known by the names of The Kookery and the Holy Land, — the retreat ol 
 wretchedness, the nest of disease, the nursery and sanctuary of vice. There 
 was scarcely a single sewer in any part of it. AVhere the plague once raged 
 there was then constant fever. There were houses in which squalid families 
 were lodged in the proportion of twenty-four adults and thirty children to 
 nine small rooms. There were Lodging Houses in which sixty persons 
 occupied nightly a pestilential den of filth and depravity. There were many 
 such places in other quarters of the town. Under the authority of the Poor 
 Law Commissioners in 1838, Dr. Arnott and Dr. Kay made a laborious investi- 
 gation into the prevalence of fever in the metropolis ; and Dr. Southwood Smith 
 carried on similar inquiries into some of the causes of sickness and mortality 
 to which the poor are peculiarly exposed. AVhen their Eeports were pub- 
 lished, even thoughtful men, as well as those who had rarely looked below 
 the glittering surface of society, were little prepared for such a revelation of 
 the details of the mass of vice, misery, and disease, which existed in close 
 ■contiguity with the most opulent parts of the great city. In 1839 an Ad- 
 dress to her Majesty from the House of Lords, prayed that a similar inquiry 
 should be instituted with regard to the labouring classes in other parts of 
 England and Wales ; and such an inquiry was in 1840 required to be 
 extended to Scotland. This duty was undertaken by the Poor Law Commis- 
 sion ; and their Eeport, prepared by IMr. Chadwick, embraced the evidence 
 not only of their Assistant Commissioners, but of numerous medical men of 
 ■the highest authority. The miserable dens of the working classes in London,
 
 392 FILTHY DWELLINGS AND CLOSE WORK-ROOMS. [1637. 
 
 inhabited not exclusively by the lowest in condition and in morals, were not 
 xmfrequently surrounded by the luxurious mansions of the rich and fashion- 
 able, and commonly by the Avell-constructed houses of the middle ranks. 
 The proportions in which each class bore up against the ills which flesh is 
 heir to are indicated, hoAvever imperfectly, by returns of the comparative 
 mortality amongst the average of a town population. The lowest in the 
 scale of well-being indicated by duration of life were the mechanics, 
 labourers, and their families ; the highest in the scale were the families of the 
 gentry and professional persons ; the medium place was that of the tradesmen 
 and their families. Comparative poverty, no doubt, had a large share in this 
 result ; but the peculiar character of the dwellings of each, and the habits of 
 filth and intemperance induced by the total unfitness of many tenements for 
 healthful occupation, had a much larger share in that astounding difference 
 in the death-rate, which showed that the families of the most opulent classes 
 lived twice as long as those of their least fortunate neighbours. In closed 
 courts where the sunshine never penetrated, where a breath of fresh air 
 never circulated, where noxious vapours filled every corner from the horrible 
 cesspools, where the density of population was so excessive as in itself to be 
 sufiicient to produce disease, where a single room was often occupied by a 
 whole family without regard to age or sex, — the wonder is how the poor lived 
 at all, uncared for by the rich, who knew them not — neglected by their 
 employers, who in some trades exposed them to labour in workshops not 
 far superior in ventilation to the Black Hole of Calcutta. Amongst these 
 careless and avaricious employers the master-tailors were the most notorious, 
 who would huddle sixty or eighty workmen close together, nearly knee to 
 knee, in a room 50 feet long by 20 feet broad, lighted from above, where the 
 temperature in summer was 30 degrees higher than the temperature outside. 
 Young men from the country fainted when they were first confined in such 
 a life-destroying prison ; the maturer ones sustained themselves by gin, till 
 they perished of consumption, or typhus, or delirium tremens.* One of the 
 most eminent of our living physiologists says, " Mr. Chadwick has shown that 
 many are driven to drinking gin as aftbrding a temporary relief to the feelings 
 of depression and exhaustion produced by living in a noxious atmosphere." t 
 The overworked class of milliners and dressmakers employed in the larger work- 
 rooms of London, ill-ventilated, and rendered doubly injurious by the constant 
 habit of night-work, when the air was still more deteriorated b>v gas and lamp- 
 light, — this suffering class of young women was being constantly renewed, 
 more than one-half dying of lung diseases before they had attained the 
 average age of twenty-eight. 
 
 In the General Eeport of 1842, next in importance to the inquiry mto 
 the condition of the residences of the labouring classes, was the in- 
 vestigation into the public arrangements external to the residences which 
 influenced the sanitary condition of the mass of the population. In London, 
 in the seats of manufacturing industry, in the ports, in the borouglis with a 
 moderate number of inhabitants, in the smallest towns and villages, there was 
 
 • Compare the vivid descriiitions in "Alton Locke" with the evidence in the "Sanitary 
 Kcport" of 1842, pp. 98 to 104. - 
 
 t " Psychological Inquiries." By Sir Benjamin C. Brodis Bart. 3rd edit., p. 78.
 
 J837.] PUBLIC ARRANGEMENTS INFLUENCING SANITARY CONDITION. G9S 
 
 ample evidence of neglect and ignorance, so manifest, and yet so littlo 
 observed by the people themselves and by the local authorities, that after 
 twenty years of remedial measures, we look back with horror upon the state 
 of the towns in which the father of a family of the present day passed his 
 infancy and boyhood. It was the same throughout the land, whether under 
 the palatial walls of Windsor Castle, or under the crescents of Bath built 
 upon the brows of the hills, or in the steep lanes climbing up to the 
 Cathedral of Durham, or in the open channels in the wynds and closes of 
 the romantic city of Edinburgh, or in the enormous seats of factory labour in 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire, or in Liverpool the great emporium of Commerce 
 which was fast rivalling London — wherever there was a want of drainage, 
 there were always disease, and misery, and families rendered destitute by 
 premature deaths. In Liverpool there were eight thousand cellars occupied 
 by thirty thousand people, few of which cellars, from the absence of drains 
 and sewers, were entirely free from damp, and most of them were inundated 
 after a fall of rain. In a Report laid before the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science it was stated, that the proportion of the population 
 of Liverpool that lived in cellars was 13 per cent., of Manchester llf- per 
 cent., of Salford 8 per cent., of Bury 3i per cent. In Ashton, Staley- 
 bridge, and Dukinfield, where only about 1^ per cent, of the population 
 lived in cellars, the death-rate was abundantly kept up by the common 
 practice, rendered necessary by the insufficient dwelling accoinmodation, of 
 three, four, five, and even six persons sleeping in one bed. 
 
 In the poorer districts of London, such as Whitechapel, and in nearly every 
 city and town of Great Britain, the supplies of water were wholly inadequate 
 to preserve the cleanliness and consequent health of the labouring population. 
 It had been ascertained in all sanitary inquiries that an adequate supply of 
 water had a most advantageous effect on the health of the people. In 1841 
 there was not a house of the labouring classes in the Whitechapel district in 
 which the water was laid on. Where the poor had to fetch water from the 
 pump or from the plug in the street at a considerable distance, they would 
 rarely take the trouble to obtain the supply without which their dwellino's 
 and their persons would be marked by that absence of cleanliness which is 
 almost always accompanied by a low state of morals. 
 
 At the commencement of the Queen's reign there was no public provision 
 in London, nor as far as we know in any of the provincial towns, for promot- 
 ing cleanliness amongst the poor by the establishment of Public Baths and 
 Washhouses. In 1832, when the cholera first appeared in England, there 
 was a poor woman named Catherine Wilkinson, who was so impressed with 
 the necessity of cleanliness as a preventive to the disease, that she encouraged 
 her neighbours to come to her comparatively better house, which comprised 
 a kitchen, a parlour, three small bedchambers, and a yard, for the purpose of 
 ■washing and drying their clothes. The good that was manifest induced some 
 benevolent persons to aid her in extending her operations. The large 
 amount of washing done in one week in a cellar, under the superintendence 
 of this excellent woman, represented the amount of disease and discomfort 
 kept down by her energetic desire to do good without pecuniary reward. 
 Such was the origin of public baths and washhouses, which Catherine 
 Wilkinson had the satisfaction of seeing matured in Liverpool in 1846, in a
 
 394 INTERMENTS IN TOWNS. [1837, 
 
 jai'ge establishment under the Corporation, to the superintendence of which 
 she and her husband were appointed. In 1844 an Association for promoting 
 Cleanliness amongst the Poor hired an old building in the midst of a dense 
 and indigent population near the London Docks, and fitted it up as a bath-house 
 and a laundry. What has been since done by this first step in the promo- 
 tion of cleanliness amongst the poor is one of the most interesting circum- 
 stances in our social progress. A quarter of a century ago London was 
 behind every other country in Europe in a provision for convenient and 
 inexpensive public baths. A warm bath, if such could be found without 
 traversing five hundred streets, would have cost the mechanic as much as a 
 week's dinners. Such a bath may now be procured for twopence. 
 
 Equally injurious to health as an insufficient supply of pure water 
 was the prevailing custom twenty years ago of burying the dead in towns. 
 In March, 1842, a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed 
 to consider the expediency of framing some legislative enactment (due respect 
 being paid to the rights of the clergy) to remedy the evils arising from the 
 interment of bodies within the precincts of large towns, or of places densely 
 peopled. Their Eeport averred that England exhibited, especially through its 
 capital, " an instance of the most wealthy, moral, and civilized community in 
 the world, tolerating a practice and an abuse which has been corrected for 
 years by nearly all other civilized nations ia every part of the globe." A 
 Supplement to the Greneral Sanitary Eeport was prepared by Mr. Chadwick 
 in 1842 on the subject of Interment in Towns. It is full of the most curious 
 facts, which contributed to awaken public attention to this national disgrace. 
 The parochial divisions of the metropolis, and the rapid increase of the 
 population in each division, had filled the graveyards in the very heart of the 
 densest neighbourhoods, in a manner which was truly described by a witness 
 before the Parliamentary Committee as " sickening and liorrible." Liverpool 
 and Manchester had established Cemeteries long before London had attempted 
 this partial remedy of an enormous evil. In 1832 an Act was passed for the 
 formation of a cemetery at Kensal Green. The cemeteries of Norwood and 
 Highgate were added some eight or ten years later, but all these were for the 
 opulent. The parish graveyards still continued open in their constantly 
 increasing abomination. It was the same nearly in every other city and 
 large town, till almost absolute powers were given to the government to put 
 down the evil by the strong hand. 
 
 A Committee of the House of Commons was appointed in 1833 to con- 
 sider the best means of securing open spaces in the vicinity of populous 
 towns, as Public Walks and places of exercise, calculated to promote the 
 health and comfort of the inhabitants. London had its parks in the west- 
 end ; but the east, inhabited by a dense population, presented no opportunity 
 to the toiling artizan to enjoy the fresh air without a long walk beyond the 
 region of chimneys. In the seats of the three great manufactures of the 
 kingdom, cotton, woollen, and hardware, whilst the wealth of the large 
 towns had increased in proportion to the increase of population, no provi- 
 sion had been made to afi"ord the people the means of healthy exercise or 
 cheerful amusement. Debasing pleasures naturally took the place of inno- 
 cent recreations. 
 
 In 1831 one of our most lucid prose writers, whose beauty of stylo waa
 
 ISSr.J FACTORIES— MINING POPULATION. 3&5 
 
 not altogether based upon a solid foundation of wisdom, speaks of the factory- 
 system, which was an inevitable consequence of the application of invention 
 and discovery to manufactures, as " a wen, a fungous excrescence from the 
 body politic : the growth might have been checked, if the consequences had 
 been apprehended in time." * He describes this system as one " which in 
 its direct consequences debases all who are engaged in it ; a system that 
 employs men unremittingly in pursuits unwholesome for the body and un- 
 profitable for the mind." In 1841 the total number of persons engaged in 
 the cotton manufacture was about half a million. The total number employed 
 upon all textile fabrics in Great Britain was eight hundred thousand, of 
 which number about four hundred and fifty-three thousand were males, and 
 three hundred and forty-six thousand were females. Many of the evils which 
 Southey exaggerates, in the dread which ultra-Toryism had of artizans and 
 factory-workers, — of all whom they believed could not be regimented into 
 obedience, as they imagined to be possible with the agricultural labourers, — ■ 
 had in 1833 begim to be remedied by legislative interference. These evils 
 had grown up in the rapid development of the powers of the steam-engine ; 
 but in 1841, when the textile factories employed five hundred and fifty-five 
 thousand of both sexes above twenty years of age, and two hundred and 
 forty-five thousand under twenty years, the number of very young children 
 had been greatly reduced, the hours of labour were rendered more moderate, 
 and the education of children, with a proper regard for their health, was a 
 duty to be provided for. f Much remained to be done, but a beginniug had 
 been made. Independently of the unwholesome dwellings in which many of 
 the factory operatives were compelled to abide at the epoch of which we are 
 writing, their health was better cared for, during their hours of labour, 
 than in the miserable workshops in which too many artizans then earned 
 their bread. 
 
 In 1841 the number of persons employed imder ground in Mines was 
 about a hundred and ninety-four thousand, — about an eighth of the total 
 numbers employed in the cultivation of the surface. More than one-half of 
 this number were employed in coal-mines. In 1840 a Commission was 
 appointed to inquire into the employment of the children of the poorer classes 
 in mines and collieries. The Eeport of that Commission, presented to Par- 
 liament in 1842, exhibited in some mining districts a state of things, with 
 regard not only to children but to women, which could scarcely be paralleled 
 by any of the barbarous practices which have contributed to make negro 
 slavery so abhorrent to the feelings of the people of England. Till this 
 Eeport was presented, few were aware that a child of six years of age, with a 
 girdle round his or her waist, to which was attached a chain passing under 
 the legs, and fastened to a cart, had thus to drag a load on all fours through 
 avenues not so good as a common sewer. Children and women who were not 
 employed in dragging loads by the girdle and chain had to carry loads of coal 
 on their backs up steep ascents equal in distance to the height of St. Paul's, 
 fourteen times a day. An old Scotchwoman said to one of the Couimissiouers, 
 *' You must just tell the Queen Victoria that we are quiet, loyal subjects; 
 women-people here don't mind work ; but they object to horse-v.ork ; aud 
 
 * Souttey, "Colloquies," vol. i. p. 171. + Jji'c, p. S33.
 
 S96 CHILDREN AND WOMEN EMPLOYED IN MINES. [1837. 
 
 that she would have the blessings of all tile Scotch coal-women if she would 
 get them out of the pits, and send them to other labour." Through the 
 einployment of children the seeds of painful and mortal disease were sown, 
 which were steadily developed as they advanced to maturity ; but their mora, 
 corruption, through their subjection to uneducated and ferocious men and the 
 indiscriminate employment of girls and boys, was as serious an evil, of which 
 the evidence was perfectly clear. Children of seven years of age, of amiable 
 temper and conduct, who went for one season into the collieries returned 
 greatly corrupted, and, as one witness emphatically said, " with most hellish 
 dispositions." The effect of this employment upon women was to produce a 
 total ignorance of all domestic duties ; it wholly disqualified them from even 
 learning how to discharge the duties of wife and mother. This awful misuse 
 of the labour of children and women proceeded not from the necessities of the 
 collier's family but from his own gross and sensual indulgences. It was in 
 evidence that many of the miners worked only eight or nine days in a fort- 
 night, and then spent the large earnings of two-thirds of their working-time 
 in drinking and gambling. Throughout the Staffordshire collieries cock- 
 fighting was the ordinary amusement of the population. Their vices had 
 been transmitted from father to son ; the employment of women and children 
 was a relic of former days of barbarous ignorance in the general community. 
 In these cases the slave-driver of his wife and children was the father of the 
 family. But there was another species of slavery in the apprenticeship of 
 orphan boys or paupers to "butty" colliers — those who took assistants or 
 partners in their work.* It was the custom of many of these hard task- 
 masters to take two or three apprentices at a time, supporting themselves 
 and families out of the labour of these unfortunate orphans, who from the 
 age of fourteen to twenty-one never received a penny for themselves, by a 
 servitude in which there was nothing to learn beyond a little dexterity readily 
 acquired by short practice. The cruelties which were sometimes endured by 
 these unhappy boys appear now to belong to the times of Elizabeth Brownrigg ; 
 yet there is nothing in the story of her whipping her apprentices to death 
 that could not be exceeded by the admission of a collier that he had been in 
 the habit of beating his apprentice with a flat piece of wood in which a nail 
 was driven, projecting about half an inch. There are middle-aged men at the 
 present time amongst us, who having escaped from the horrors of a pit- 
 boy's life twenty years ago, detail the cruel punishments that were inflicted 
 by those who knew no mode of enforcing obedience but that of brutal 
 severity. 
 
 The total number of Agricultural Labourers m Great Britain in 184)1 was 
 a little above one million one hundred and thirty-eight thousand, of which 
 number fifty-six thousand were females. Since 1811 the proportion of the 
 agricultural to the commercial and miscellaneous classes of the people haj 
 been gradually diminishing. The general condition of the agricultural 
 labourers of the South, at the period of passing the Act for the Amendment 
 of the Poor Law, has been already indicated.f The amended law had been 
 
 * " Butty. A working companion ; a comrade. Not so general with us as aujongst the 
 miners and colliers." — Miss Baker's Northavq>tonshire Glossary. 
 + Chap. xix. pp. 33(3 to 342.
 
 1837.] AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS. 397 
 
 in operation for three years, when a Parliamentary Inquiry was instituted 
 upon complaints of its administration. The evidence regarding three rural 
 Unions occupied nine-tenths of the labours of the Committee. In ISSl the 
 labourers had manifested a lawless spirit of opposition to the operations of 
 the new law. In 1837 they had become aware that the intention of the 
 amended law was to raise them to a better condition instead of griiidiuc them 
 down. They had increased wages and greater regularity of employment ; 
 they had not to endure the degradation of receiving as alms what they had a 
 right to demand as the wages of their industry. Undoubtedly there was 
 individual suffering in the transition from the allowance system to the stern 
 refusal of aid to the able-bodied labourer. In 1840 a great thinker, who had 
 looked below the surface of immediate evils, thus wrote : " Let us welcome the 
 New Poor Law as the harsh beginning of much, the harsh ending of much ! 
 Most harsh and barren lies the new plougher's fallow-field, the crude subsoil 
 all turned up, which never saw the sun ; which as yet grows no herb ; which 
 has 'out-door relief for no one. Yet patience : innumerable weeds and cor- 
 ruptions lie safely turned down and extinguished under it ; this same crude 
 subsoil is the first step of all true husbandry ; by Heaven's blessiug and the 
 skyey influences, fruits that are good and blessed will yet come of it."* But 
 the time was yet distant when what was wanting in the New Poor Law 
 towards placing the agricultural labourer in his proper relation to the whole 
 social system would be supplied, not by what is called the charity of the rich, 
 but by their feeling of brotherhood towards those who sat with them in the 
 same place of worship, and whose children were christened in the same font 
 as their children. There was a great deal to be done by education before the 
 agricultural labourer could be rendered provident and moral by instruction ; 
 before the poor should cease to be abject, and the rich should cease to be 
 overbearing ; before the friendly intercourse between man and man, which 
 religion and philosophy equally prescribe, should stand in the place of that 
 proud reserve and that suppressed insolence which were the remaining badges 
 of feudality. The time was still distant when, to say nothing of the sympathy 
 arising out of an enlarged public sentiment, land-proprietors and rich cultiva- 
 tors would be ashamed to let the labourers and their families inhabit cottages 
 inferior to the thatched stables and cattle-sheds of the slovenly farmyards of 
 a quarter of a century ago. A recent writer says of Dorsetshire, that " the 
 next thing after the advent of Judge Jefferies that gave the county a down- 
 right shake from end to end was the crusade of S. Gr. 0."t What was that 
 crusade of one who seldom put his lance in rest except to tilt against some 
 armour-clad oppressor ? The publicity given by this famous correspondent of 
 the "Times" to the miserable condition of the Dorsetshire labourers pro- 
 duced a controversy in Parliament, in which facts alleged against the neglect 
 of the landowners and farmers of that county were attempted to be disproved. 
 The "Times" then employed a Commissioner to see with his own eyes what 
 was the real condition of a county held to be chronically behind the age. 
 That Keport was entirely confirmatory of all that had been alleged of the 
 excessively low rate of wages, which in most cases was about seven shil lings 
 
 * "Chartism," by Thomas Carlyle, p. 22. 
 t "Quarterly Review," April, 1862, p. 285.
 
 398 CONSTABULARY REPORT— CRIME. [1837. 
 
 a week; of the oppression exercised over the labourer who did job-work, by 
 his master giving him whatever the master liked ; of the system of paying the 
 labourers partly in kind, when they were compelled by the farmers to take an 
 inferior quality of corn called "grists" at a price equal to or above the 
 market price of the best grain ; and of the disgraceful state of the labourers* 
 cottages, small, inconvenient, and so entirely unfit for the decent accommo- 
 dation of a family that in some cases nine persons slept in one room. Lord 
 Sidney Godolphin Osborne (S. Gr. O.), rector of Bryanstone, near Bland- 
 ford, in Dorsetshire, had in 1842 testified to the physical and moral injuries 
 to the labourer of a dwelling of the most confined space without anything 
 like proper drainage. His evidence was taken by one of the Special Assistant 
 Commissioners, who reported "on the Employment of "Women and Children in 
 Agriculture." Of the early employment of children of both sexes in the fields 
 the greatest evil was to be found in their removal from school before they had 
 acquired the commonest rudiments of knowledge. The employment of women 
 was injurious in their being withdrawn from the proper superintendence of 
 their families, and in that consequent absence of domestic comfort which in 
 most cases drove the labourer to the beer-shop. 
 
 In 1836 a Commission was appointed to inquire as to the best means of 
 establishing an efiBcient Constabulary Force in the counties of England, for 
 the prevention of ofiences, the detection of criminals, and the protection of 
 property. The Heport of this Commission showed that there was an average of 
 a hundred thousand commitments annually of the able-bodied population ; and 
 that from eleven thousand to twenty thousand persons were constantly r.n gaol. 
 Crimes of violence were gradually decreasing, though crimes characterized by 
 fraud were increasing in a still greater proportion. The criminal population 
 of London, and of a few of the larger towns, had been kept within narrower 
 bounds than in the time of Greorge the Fourth, by the establishment of a 
 vigilant Police Force. In the rural districts there was no power but that of 
 the parish constable to prevent the most extensive system of depredation. 
 Even the labouring classes were constantly plundered of the produce of their 
 gardens and garden allotments. " There is no protection for us," said a 
 labourer to a clergyman near Bath. The altered character of criminal punish- 
 ments, as exhibited in the sentences passed in the years before and after the 
 accession of the Queen, is very remarkable. In 1834 four hundred and eighty 
 persons were sentenced to death; in 1838 a hundred and sixteen. In 1834, 
 eight hundred and ninety-four persons were sentenced to transportation for 
 life ; in 1838 two hundred and sixty-six ; in 1834 two thousand four hundred 
 were sentenced to transportation for seven years ; in 1838 under nineteen 
 hundred. There was a proportionate increase in the sentences of minor 
 punishments. The number sentenced to terms of imprisonment or to sum- 
 mary punishment was eleven thousand five hundred in 1834 ; it was thirteen 
 thousand in 1838. The per-ceutage of criminals unable to read and write 
 was, in 1840, 33-32 for England and Wales. The proportion of criminals 
 unable to read and write was 7 per cent, more in the agricultural counties 
 than in the manufacturing and mixed counties. 
 
 It was found, upon an average of five years, 1838 to 1842, that more than 
 one-third of those committed for trial at the assizes were under twenty years 
 of age. The records of summary convictions exhibited a frightful amount of
 
 1837.] JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. 399 
 
 juvenile delinquency. It was estimated that in London thirty thousand of 
 those who have been called the Arabs of civilization, depending from day 
 to day on the uncertain support of mendicancy and plunder, were under 
 sixteen years of age. There was a district lying near Westminster Abbey, 
 called "The Devil's Acre," where depravity was universal; where profes- 
 sional beggars were fitted out with all their appliances of imposture ; where 
 there was an agency office for the hire of children to be carried about by 
 forlorn widows and deserted wives to move the compassion of street-giving 
 benevolence ; where young pickpockets were duly trained in the art and 
 mystery which was to conduct them in due course to an expensive voyage for 
 the good of their country. A Scotch gardener, Andrew "Walker, attempted 
 to weed the Devil's Acre ; and in 1839 set up a school, in a stable, 
 for reclaiming and instructing the wretched children who swarmed around 
 him. This was the beginning of " Ragged Schools " in London. In that 
 year died John Pounds, the Portsmouth cobbler, who for many years had 
 been rescuing poor children in a similar way, in the populous town where he 
 earned a scanty living. In the course of his benevolent career he had been the 
 gratuitous instructor of five hundred children, who without him would have 
 swelled the numbers of the criminal population. AVhen the Queen came to 
 the throne there was not a Bagged School in London, Liverpool, Manchester, 
 or Birmingham. Bristol was the first great town in wliich such an insti- 
 tution was organized. Aberdeen led the way in Scotland, to attempt the 
 abatement of juvenile delinquency by the establishment of Industrial 
 Schools. 
 
 In that sermon upon the accession of Victoria with whose prophetic 
 aspirations we concluded our last chapter, the preacher, taking a short view 
 of the duties which devolved upon the young Queen, — what ideas she ought 
 to form of her duties, — and in what points she should endeavour to place the 
 glories of her reign, — says, " Pirst and foremost, I think the new queen 
 should bend her mind to the very serious consideration of educating the 
 people. Of the importance of this I think no reasonable doubt can exist. 
 It does not in its eliects keep pace with the exaggerated expectations of 
 its injudicious advocates, but it presents the best chance of national 
 improvement." 
 
 A quarter of a century is past since these words were uttered. The 
 necessity that was first and foremost in the thought of the sagacious divine 
 and the especial application of his words, can only be adequately measured, 
 and properly understood, by referring to the fact that up to the period of 
 the accession of queen Victoria the government had scarcely considered it a 
 part of its duty to interfere with the course of private benevolence in ren- 
 dering assistance to the general education of the people. In 1834, however, 
 lord Althorp, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, had proposed a vote of 
 20,OOOZ. for assisting in building schoolhouses. This sum was to be placed 
 at the disposal of the Treasury ; but the government was to take the recom- 
 mendations of the National Society and of the British or Lancasterian 
 Society, in its appropriation. Grants of nearly similar amount were made 
 by Parliament in 1835, 1836, and 1837. During those four years a sum, 
 double to that contributed by Parliament, had been supplied by the private 
 funds of individuals towards the erection of schools. The same private fundS;
 
 400 GENERAL STATE OF EDUCATION. [1837 
 
 in addition to the old endowed cliarities, had been deemed sufficient to carr^ 
 on the great work of rescuing the people out of the thick darkness in which 
 too many of them were groping their way through life. In February, 1839, 
 the government first constituted a Board of Education, consisting of five 
 Privy Councillors, with the President of the Council as the head of the 
 Board. It was proposed that the distribution of the votes of Parliament for 
 the promotion of education should be confided to this Board, which was 
 especially charged with the formation of Normal Schools. In June of that 
 year a vote of 30,000Z. was proposed by the government, and was only carried 
 by a majority of two in the House of Commons. After a debate of three 
 days, two hundred and seventy-three members voted an amendment to the 
 ministerial proposition, praying the Queen to revoke the Order in Council 
 by which the Board of Education had been appointed. An address of the 
 same character was carried by a large majority in the House of Lords. But 
 the government, with a firmness for which every poor child born in the 
 reign of Queen Victoria has cause to be grateful, persevered in its plan. 
 
 We have thus anticipated the regular course of our notice of parliamentary 
 proceedings that we may proceed to the last, but not the least important, 
 point of our estimate of the social condition of the great body of the people 
 at the accession of the Queen. In the debate of June, 1839, Mr. "Wyse, one 
 of the lords of the Treasury, who, as Member for Waterford, had during 
 several sessions laboured with unwearied diligence to rouse the House of 
 ■Commons to sanction even the faintest beginnings of a national system of 
 education, boldly maintained that, instead of standing the highest in rank in 
 point of civilization, this country might be regarded as being almost the lowest 
 in comparison with other European nations, in the general diffusion of know- 
 ledge amongst the people. He instanced the evils which were constantly 
 experienced of want of education in the elements of science, in matters of 
 every-day life, and in the general pursuits of industry. The farmers were 
 almost wholly ignorant of agriculture as a science ; the greater number of 
 them kept indifterent accounts, and many of them none. They were jealous 
 of their labourers, discouraged the education of their children, and made no 
 attempts to improve their social condition. In the towns the gross ignorance 
 of all sanitary arrangements prevented any desire for the improvement of the 
 condition of the lower classes being made available. The people, whether of 
 town or country, whether in the wynds of Glasgow or the cultivated fields 
 of Norfolk, were equally incapacitated by the want of education from rising 
 above the misery and degradation of their social condition. Calculating that 
 there were three million of children in England to be supplied with instruc- 
 tion, half of whom were left in a state of complete ignorance, he maintained 
 that through the effects of this ignorance there were large masses of the 
 population either actually in the commission of crime, or preparing for it. 
 Most truly did he say that the inattention of the upper classes led to the 
 dislocation of the lower classes from them, and they were thus often induced 
 to adopt Chartism and infidelity. The religious education as given in this 
 country was not sufficient.* As an especial illustration of this remark Mr. 
 Wyse referred to an eytraordinary occurrence in 1838, when a baud of 
 
 * ITansard, toI. xlviii. cols. C'29 to 538.
 
 1837.] INCREASE OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS. 401 
 
 fimatics near Canterbury manifested an amount of ignorance whirh appeared 
 ratlier to belong to the superstitions of barbarous countries tlian to the 
 England of the nineteenth century. "We reserve the relation of this outbreak 
 of the grossest ignorance for our next chapter. 
 
 Popular education had been making progress in England since 1818.* 
 Taking the Public and Private Schools, it appears as to Day Schools 
 that while in 1818 there was a scholar for every 17-25 persons, in 1833 there 
 was a scholar for every 11-27 persons. As to Sunday Schools, it appears that 
 while in 1818 there was one Sunday scholar for every 24-40 persons, in 1833 
 there was one scholar for every 9-28 persons. The Day scholars in 1833 had 
 more than doubled those of 1818 ; the Sunday scholars were three times as 
 many. Between 1811 and 1841 there had been above thirteen thousand 
 schools established, of which five thousand four hundred were Public Schools, 
 and eight thousand seven hundred Private Schools. t The increase of Public 
 Schools in the period between 1831 and 1841 had been equal to the total 
 increase in the three decennial periods from 1801 to 1831. The increase from 
 1831 to 1841, in the numbers of schools where the children of the Labouring: 
 Classes could be taught in the schools to which the State had begun to lend a 
 grudging assistance, had slowly proceeded, amidst the disputes of the advocates 
 and the opponents of popular education in the abstract, and of Churchmen 
 and Dissenters, who, essentially differing as to the religious elements in the 
 instruction of the poor, resisted the interference of the State at all. The 
 increase of schools eight or ten years before the accession of the Queen had 
 produced very little visible effect upon those growing into young men and 
 women. In 1838, upon a comparison of statistical returns in some agricul- 
 tural and manufacturing districts, the conclusion was come to that, speaking 
 roughly, it might be safely asserted that less than one-half of the adult popu- 
 lation of England could write, and that less than three-fourths could read. J 
 
 If we were to attempt to pass from the condition of the poor and lowly 
 to any minute view of the condition of the rich and powerful, we should 
 necessarily be in the region of vague generalities instead of having our course 
 marked out by trustworthy statistics. We must therefore conclude this 
 imperfect notice of the social condition of the kingdom by a few remarks, 
 having reference to all classes, derived from the observations of others rather 
 than from our own impressions. 
 
 An Englishman whom circumstances had compelled to relinquish the 
 fiishionable society of the Eegency for a residence in Paris, returns to London 
 in 1841. He finds the great capital very much altered, and in some respects, 
 such as the buildings and parks, considerably improved. The change of 
 society, he says, has become very apparent within the last few years. " It 
 was called, and perhaps justly, in my time, dissipated ; but the leaders were 
 men of sense and talent, with polished manners, and generally high-minded 
 feelings. "§ One of the most distinguished of Frenchmen comes as ambassa- 
 dor to England in 1840, and regarding with a philosophical intelligence both 
 
 * See an/e, p. 230. 
 
 + See Education Report, Census 18."1, pp. xix, xx. 
 i "Penny Magaz.ine," voL vii. p. 324. 
 § Raikes's " Diary," vol. iv. p. 181. 
 TOL. VIII.— 250.
 
 402 GENERAL ASPECTS OF ENGLISH SOCIETY. [1837. 
 
 the great and the humble, he thus contrasts the past with the present. 
 Looking back to the end of the eighteenth century, he says that there were 
 at that time, even in the elevated classes of English society, many remains of 
 gross and disorderly manners. Precisely because England had been for cen- 
 turies a country of liberty, the most opposite results of that liberty had been 
 developed in startling contrasts. A puritan severity was maintained side 
 by side with the corruption of the courts of Charles II. and the first 
 Georges ; habits almost barbarous kept their hold in the midst of the pro- 
 giess of civilization ; the splendour of power and of riches had not banished 
 from the higher social regions the excesses of a vulgar intemperance ; even 
 the elevation of ideas and the supremacy of talent did not always carry 
 with them delicacy of taste, for the Sheridan who had been electrifying Par- 
 liament by his eloquence might the same night have been picked up drunk in 
 the streets. This picture of M. Guizot is not an overcoloured one. The 
 union of dissipation with sense and talent and high-minded feelings was not 
 absolutely necessary to the existence of the better qualities. M. Guizot 
 goes on to say, "It is in our time that these shocking incongruities in 
 the state of manners in England have vanished, and that English society has 
 become as polished as it is free — where gross habits are constrained to be 
 hidden or to be reformed — and where civilization is day by day showing 
 itself more general and more harmonious." Two conditions of progress, he 
 continues, which rarely go together, have been developed and attained during 
 half a century in England : the laws of morality have been strengthened, 
 and manners have at the same time become softer, less inclined to violent 
 excesses, more elegant. " Steam," says Mr. Eaikes, " has here dissolved the 
 exclusive system, and seems to have substituted the love of wealth for both 
 the love of amusement and of social distinction." There is some truth in 
 this ; but the moralist will have no difficulty in making his choice between a 
 profligate exclusive society, and one less brilliant, perhaps less educated, 
 where wealth and learning and refinement are more difi"used. Mr. Eaikes 
 tells us of Gaming Clubs, the members of which died early, often by tbeir 
 own hands ; and how those who survived often looked back to the life at the 
 fashionable Club as the source of their embarrassments.* He tells us of 
 frequent duels, which formerly ended more fatally than when he returned to 
 England. Duelling was not banished then ; it was not ridiculed and de- 
 spised, as it is now. As long as manners were "gross and disorderly," duelling 
 was inevitable ; it was almost necessary. The eminent writer and statesman, 
 whose testimony to the social condition of England we are glad to quote, says 
 that the double progress of a stricter morality and a refinement of manners 
 was not confined to the higher and middle classes, but was very apparent 
 amongst the bulk of the people. " The domestic life, laborious and regular, 
 extenftls its empire over these classes. They comprehend, they seek, they enjoy 
 more honest and more delicate pleasures than brutal quarrels or drunken- 
 ness. The amelioration is certainly very incomplete. Gross passions and 
 disorderly habits are always fermenting in the bosom of obscure and idle 
 misery ; and in London, Manchester, or Glasgow there are ample materials 
 for the most hideous descriptions. But take it all in all, civilization and 
 
 * " Diary," vol. iii. p. 85.
 
 1837.] GENERAL ASPECTS OF ENGLISH SOCIETY. 403 
 
 liberty have in England, during the course of the nineteenth century, turned 
 to the profit of good rather than of evil. Eeligious faith, Christian charity, 
 philanthropic benevolence, the intelligent and indefatigable activity of the 
 higher classes, and good sense spread amongst all classes, have battled, and 
 DOW battle effectually, against the vices of society and the evil mclinations of 
 human nature. "When one has lived some time in England one feels to be in 
 an atmosphere cold but healthy, -where the moral and social health is stronger 
 than the moral and social maladies, although these abound there." * Such 
 impressions of English society are written under the date of 1840. The 
 sentence, "when one has lived some time in England," seems to carry us to 
 the time when M. Guizot found a home amongst us. But, at any rate, in 
 1840 that change was beginning, which it is one of the greatest glories of the 
 reign to have seen steadily advancing — a better understanding between rich 
 and poor, high and lowly, of their relative duties, — something far safer and 
 happier than arrogant assumption or haughty indifference, — than envious dis- 
 content or grovelling servility — in their habitual intercourse. 
 
 o Gfoisaif — " Memoucs pour servir a rhistoire de mon tempe," tome v. 1862.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Separation of Hanover from Great Britain — Departure of t'ue King of Hanover— Ti)e Queen meefci' 
 the Parliament— Dissolution — l\liuistry at the Queen's Accession — The New Parliament- 
 Canada — Insurrection in Canada — Lord Durham appointed Lord High Commissioner — ■ 
 Resigns his office — His Report — Coronation of the Queen — Prorogation — Review of the 
 Session— Canterbury Fanatics — Career of John Thorn — Proclaims himself the Messiah at 
 Boughton — The Three Days' i\Iarch of his deluded followers — Neglect of Education in the 
 District — The Tragedy of Bosenden Wood — Meeting of Parliament — Chartism — Condition 
 of the Labouring Classes^Jamaica — Resignation of the ]\Iinistry — Failure in the attempt 
 to form a New Administration — The Bedchamber Question — Disloyal Tories — Chartist 
 Riots — Insurrection at Newport — John Frost and others tried for High Treason. 
 
 Teom the hour that the Crown of these kingdoms devolved upon Queen 
 Victoria, dates a change which was a real blessing in the relations of the 
 Sovereign to the Continent of Europe. Hanover was at that instant wholly 
 separated from Great Britain. By the law of that country a female could 
 not reign except in default of heirs male in the Eoyal family. But in addi- 
 tion to the great advantage of separating the policy of England wholly from 
 the intrigues and complications of a petty German State, it was an immediate 
 happiness that the most hated and in some respects the most dangerous man 
 in these islands was removed to a sphere where his political system might be 
 worked out with less danger to the good of society than amongst a people 
 where his influence was associated with the grossest follies of Toryism and the 
 darkest designs of Orangeism. On the 24th of June the duke of Cumberland, 
 now become Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, left London. On the 28th 
 he made a solemn entrance into the capital of his states, and at once exhibited 
 to his new subjects his character and disposition by refusing to receive a 
 deputation of the Chambers, who came to offer him their homage and their 
 congratulations. By a proclamation of the 5th of July he announced his 
 intention to abolish the representative constitution, which he had previously 
 refused to recognize by the customary oath. We shall have little further 
 occasion to notice the course of this worst disciple of the old school of 
 intolerance and irresponsible government, and we may therefore at once state 
 that he succeeded in depriving Hanover of the forms of freedom under which 
 fihe had begun to live ; ejected from their oflQces and banished some of the 
 ablest professors of the University of Gottingen, who had ventured to think 
 that letters would flourish best in a free soil ; and reached the height of hia
 
 1837.] THE QUEEX MEETS THE PARLIAMENT— DISSOLUTION. 405 
 
 ambition in becoming the representative of whatever in sovereign power was 
 most repugnant to the spirit of the age. 
 
 The funeral of AVilliam the Fourth had taken place at "Windsor on the 
 9th of July. On the 17th the Queen went in state to Parliament. The 
 chronicles of the time are eloquent in their descriptions of the enthusiasm 
 with which her Majesty was received, and of the extraordinary concourse of 
 ladies of rank in the House of Lords to do honour to the rare occasion of the 
 presence there of the third female sovereign who had thus met the Lords and 
 Commons assembled in Parliament. In the speech from tbe throne her 
 Majesty stated that amongst the useful measures which Parliament had 
 brought to maturity she regarded with, peculiar interest the amendment of 
 the Criminal Code and the reduction of the number of capital punishments. 
 She hailed this mitigation of the severity of the law as an auspicious com- 
 mencement of her reign. " It w ill be my care," she said " to strengthen our 
 institutions, civil and ecclesiastical, by discreet improvement wherever im- 
 provement is required, and to do all in my power to compose and allay 
 animosity and discord." These were not words of course. They were the 
 key-note of that harmony which, during the progress of a quarter of a century, 
 has superseded in a great degree the harsh discords which had too long distin- 
 guished the contests of parties and of principles. The Parliament was pro- 
 rogued, and was dissolved the same evening. 
 
 The ministry which Queen Victoria found at her accession* was one 
 whose general character was in harmony with the opinions in which she had 
 been educated. Viscount Melbourne, the First Lord of the Treasury, was 
 at her hand to guide and assist her in the discharge of the technical busines3 
 of her great office. The daily duties of the Sovereign are of no light nature. 
 Many of the complicated details of the various departments of the State must 
 pass under the eye of the Constitutional Monarch for approval, and a vast 
 number of documents can only receive their validity from the signature of the 
 Sovereign. During the elections, which were over early in August, the party 
 contests assumed a tone not entirely constitutional ; for the adherents of the 
 ministry alleged to their constituents that in supporting them they were 
 exhibiting their loyalty to the Queen, whilst the adverse party maintained 
 that her Majesty had only passively adopted that administration of her uncle 
 which she found established. But amidst these fluctuating demonstrations of 
 political management there was one feeling predominant, which was certainly 
 favourable to the duration of the ministry — that of a deep and growing 
 attachment to the person of the young Sovereign. JS"ever was there a more 
 enthusiastic demonstration of popular feeling than when, on the 9th of 
 November, the Queen went in state to the City to dine with the Lord Mayor 
 at Guildhall. In less than a fortnight after the gorgeous banquet and the 
 universal excitement of a general holiday in London, the real business com- 
 menced which was to test the position of the Grovernment. On the 15th of 
 November the new Parliament met. Mr. Abercromby was re-elected speaker 
 without opposition. On the 20th the Queen in person opened the new 
 
 Parliament. The most important paragraph in her Majesty's speech was 
 
 " I recommend to your serious consideration the state of the province of 
 
 * See List, p. 381.
 
 406 THE NEW PARLIAMENT— CANADA. [1837. 
 
 Lower Canada." At the opening of the last Parliament of king "William the 
 !Fourth a similar expression of solicitude as to the condition of Canada is 
 found in the king's speech. We shall endeavour to trace as briefly as possible 
 how the discontents which existed at the beginning of 1837 broke out into 
 open insurrection at the end of that year, and how they were finally allayed. 
 In the House of Commons on the 6th of March, 1837, lord John Eussell 
 brought forward a series of resolutions which declared that since the 31st of 
 October, 1832, no provision had been made by the legislature of the province 
 of Lower Canada for defraying the charges of the administration of justice, 
 and for the support of the civil government within the province ; that for four 
 years the payments in arrear had amounted to a large sum which the House 
 of Assembly, in answer to a recommendation of the Governor, declined to 
 discharge by a vote of supply, declaring, amongst other things, that it persisted 
 in the demand of an elective legislative council, and a free exercise of its 
 control over all the branches of the executive government. The resolutiona 
 of lord John Russell expressed the refusal of the British Legislature to accede 
 to these demands, although it was held expedient to adopt certain improve- 
 ments in the legislative council and in the executive council. These resolu- 
 tions were passed by large majorities in both Houses. The promulgation in 
 Canada of the determination of the British Government was a signal for revolt. 
 On the 22nd of December the Government announced in both Houses of 
 Parliament that there was an open insurrection and rebellion in Lower 
 Canada, and it was in consequence proposed that the adjournment for 
 Christmas should be for a shorter period than originally intended. The 
 debate on this occasion shows how completely it had become a creed of those 
 who held strong democratic opinions that the dominion of England in America 
 should at once be brought to a conclusion. " Great," said sir William. 
 Molesworth, " would be the advantages of an amicable separation of the two 
 countries." The civil war which sir William Molesworth considered almost 
 inevitable would, he believed, involve this country in a contest with the 
 United States of America. A passage in the philosophical baronet's speech 
 is worth considering, although a quarter of a century has passed over since its 
 utterance. " How powerful soever the central government of the United. 
 States may be when it goes along with the wishes of the people, it is most 
 feeble when the people are opposed or indifi'erent to its commands, or when 
 one or more of the sovereign states are desirous of evading its decrees. It is 
 exactly in a case like this that the central government of that republic is 
 weakest ; for how anxious soever it may be, from general views of policy, to 
 prevent all interference in the affairs of Canada — all hostilities with this 
 country — yet its people will see in this struggle but a repetition of their own 
 glorious struggle for independence ; they will behold in the conduct of England 
 towards Canada the sequel of those despotic and unjust principles wliich a 
 little more than half a century ago caused them to shako off our yoke." * 
 The ultimate consequence of this temporary estrangement of the popular 
 party in Canada from the Imperial government was the establishment of a 
 better system of policy. This change had been strenuously advocated by 
 colonial reformers, who contended that all which was needed to preserve oiu! 
 
 • IJaiisai-J, vol. xxxix. col. 14C5.
 
 1838.] INSURRECTION IN CANADA. 407 
 
 colonies was " a clear demarcation of their rights from ours, a full exemptiou 
 from all control iu the matters which solely regarded them, with a super- 
 vision only on the part of the empire in matters strictly of imperial concern- 
 ment." This view, it is added, " may be said to have rendered Canada 
 loyal." * 
 
 Between the adjournment and the re-assembling of Parliament, important 
 events had taken place in Canada. On the 14th of December the rebels 
 were defeated at St. Eustace, their leaders saving themselves by flight. On 
 the 29th of December the United States' steamboat " Caroline," which was 
 laden with arms and ammunition for the insurgents, was attacked and burnt 
 on the territories of the United States. This act was committed under 
 the orders of the governor, sir Francis Head. It produced a long con- 
 troversy between the two governments, and was justified by the necessity 
 of defending the British territory, which had been assaulted from the 
 American side. The President of the United States subsequently forbade 
 the attacks of the citizens of the republic on neighbouring states. On the 
 5th of January, 1838, the insurgents, headed by Dr. Mackenzie, surrounded 
 Toronto, but were repulsed by sir Prancis Head. Such was the course of 
 the insurrection, when, on the 22nd of January, in the House of Commons, 
 lord John Eussell moved for leave to bi'ing in a bill by which, for a certain 
 time, the calling of an assembly in Lower Canada, which was a duty incum- 
 bent on the governor for the time being, might be suspended, and authority 
 be given to meet the present emergency, and to provide for the future 
 government of the province. He thought with respect to the principal 
 question on which the alleged grievances of the Canadians were based, a 
 satisfactory adjustment might, in the course of time, be arrived at. He 
 proposed that a high functionary should be sent out, who should be 
 conversant with matters of administration, with the most important affairs 
 which are from time to time brought before Parliament, as well as with the 
 aifairs of the various spates of Europe, and moreover that it should be implied 
 by his nomination that he was favourable to popular feelings and popular 
 rights. He then announced that her Majesty had been pleased to entrust 
 the conduct of this affair, with the high powers implied in the appointment, 
 to the earl of Durham, who had accepted the office. Lord Durham, in his 
 place in the House of Lords, stated that he did not go to Canada ft r the 
 purpose of suspending the constitution, but in the endeavour to provide for 
 the extraordinary state of circumstances produced by the rebellious part of 
 the Canadian community, that would render it impossible for the constitution 
 to continue in operation. '' I go," he said, " not for the purpose of exercising 
 that power, that species of discreditable power, as the noble and learned 
 lord [Brougham] calls it, which is to be vested in me ; but in the first 
 place to restore, I trust, the supremacy of the law, and next, to be the 
 humble instrument of conferring upon the British North American pro- 
 vinces such a free and liberal constitution as shall place them on the same 
 scale of independence as the rest of the possessions of Grreat Britain." f 
 
 Lord Durham landed at Quebec on the 29th of May, 1838. The history 
 
 * " Secularia," by Samuel Lucas, M.A., p. 265. 
 + Hausard, vol. xl. col. 243.
 
 408 LORD DURHAM APPOINTED LORD HIGH COMMISSIOKER. [1S38, 
 
 of the administration of Canada by her Majesty's High Commissioner 
 furnishes a remarkable proof of how great and salutary changes may be 
 effected in the government of a great dependency, by the union of firmness and 
 conciliation, and by the application of liberal political principles in the place 
 of a continued system of coercion and tutelage. Lord Durham had at his side 
 an adviser, a person of eminent ability and with large views of statesmanship 
 — Mr. Charles Buller. All went well for a few months. The rebellion was 
 dying out. The French population had given up their notion of being 
 supported by the borderers of the United States, and were conciliated by 
 seeing that no difference was to be made between British and French 
 subjects. A general amnesty was published, and measures were taken for 
 inquiring into the feasibility of a plan for constituting a Federal Union of the 
 British North American provinces. The measure which lord Durham 
 pursued with regard to the disposal of the rebel prisoners was successful in 
 the colony, but obnoxious to many of influence in the legislature of Great 
 Britain. By an ordinance of the 28th of June it was declared, that eight 
 rebel leaders in the jail of Montreal who had acknowledged their guilt 
 should be transported to Bermuda ; that sixteen other rebel leaders who 
 were named had fled, and that if any of either class should return without 
 permission and be found in the province, they should suffer death. On 
 the 7th of August lord Brougham made a strong attack upon what he 
 described as the "appalling fact of fourteen persons, and M. Papineau 
 making fifteen, being adjudged to suffer death, if they appeared in Canada, 
 not one of those individuals having been previously tried. Such a pro- 
 ceeding was contrary to every principle of justice, and was opposed to the 
 genius and spirit of English law, which humanely supposed every accused 
 party to be innocent until he was proved to be guilty." * On the 10th of 
 August lord Melbourne announced that her Majesty's Grovernment had 
 counselled the disallowance of the ordinance. When lord Durham received 
 the news of this censure of his administration he resolved to resign his great 
 ofiice ; and on the 9th of October he issued a proclamation, according to the 
 terms of the Indemnity Act which lord Brougham had proposed and carried, 
 which proclamation was a humiliating abrogation of the ordinance of the 
 28th of June, Lord Durham at the same time published a document in which 
 he ju.-)tified the policy pursued by him since his arrival in Canada, and an- 
 nounced his determination of resigning his government. He did not wait 
 to obtain leave for his return. This was a grave error. He arrived home 
 in a state of wretched health, produced by the irritation of a proud and 
 sensitive nature working upon a feeble constitution. The censure implied in 
 the abrogation of the ordinance of lord Durham was a severe measure towards 
 a man whose great hope was to have secured the allegiance and prosperity of 
 Canada, by a system of high policy which was utterly opposed to the old 
 metliods of colonial government. Great lawyers at home differed as to the 
 legality of the course which he pursued. The eloquence of lord Brougham 
 in denouncing it as an illegal act of despotic authority met with supporters 
 amongst those who hated lord Durham's liberal policy. He came home a 
 broken-hearted man ; and his career, which might otherwise have been so 
 
 * EaDsard, vol. xliv. col. 1022.
 
 1838.] RESIGNS HIS OFFICE— HIS REPORT. 409 
 
 glorious, terminated iu his death in 1840, but not without the noble satisfac- 
 tion he derived from establishing his policy in his counsels to his successor, 
 Mr. Poulett Thompson. During the voyage home his Report on the affairs 
 of British North America, which is attributed to the pen of his friend Mr. 
 Charles Buller, was in great part prepared. It is a most able view, not only 
 of the particular circumstances of the provinces which were placed under 
 lord Durham's government, but generally of colonial administration. A 
 passage in the conclusion of this Keport is now of higher interest than the 
 occurrences to which it had a special reference. " The experiment of 
 keeping colonies and governing them well ought at least to have a trial, 
 ere we abandon for ever the vast dominion which might supply the wants of 
 our surplus population, and raise up millions of fresh consumers of our 
 manufactures and producers of a supply for our wants. The warmest 
 admirers, and the strongest opponents of republican institutions, admit or 
 assert that the amazing prosperity of the United States is less owing to 
 their form of government, than to the unlimited supply of fertile land, which 
 maintains succeeding generations in an undiminishing affluence of fertile soil. 
 A region as large and as fertile is open to your Majesty's subjects in 
 your Majesty's American dominions." At that time emigration from the 
 United Kingdom was upon a very limited scale. The vast resources of 
 Australia were yet undeveloped. In 1837 the emigrants to the Nortli 
 American colonies were about 30,000, and to the United States 30,000 ; to 
 the Australian colonies and JS'ew Zealand the number was only 5,000. In 
 1838 the emigration to America was reduced to one-fourth of the amount of 
 the previous year, whilst that to Australia was trebled. From 1815 to 1838 
 the annual average of emigrants to all places during the 24 years was 38,376. 
 From 1839 to 1852, when what is termed the Irish Exodus was in full opera- 
 tion, and the gold discoveries had been made in Australia, the annual average 
 during the 14 years was 181,612. The realization of the great triumph of 
 science in accomplishing the passage by steam power alone across the 
 Atlantic offered new facilities for emigration. The first vessels which solved 
 this problem were the " Sirius " and the " Great "Western ;" the one having 
 accomplished the voyage to New York in twenty days, the other in sixteen 
 days. We may conclude this rapid notice of the affairs of our American 
 colonies by stating that, after a series of defeats in November, especially one 
 on the 17th near Prescott in Upper Canada, the insurrection was wholly 
 suppressed. In 1840 an Act was passed for the union of the provinces of 
 Upper and Lower Canada as one province, under one Legislative Council and 
 one Assembly. 
 
 The coronation of the Queen at Westminster Abbey took place on the 
 28th of June. The splendours which had attended the coronation of George 
 the Fourth were to some extent dispensed with. There was no solemn pro- 
 cession of the Estates of the Eealm. There was no banquet in Westminster 
 Hall, with its accompanying feudal services. But there was a gorgeous 
 cavalcade which more than realized the pomp of ancient times, when the 
 king came "from the Tower of London to his Palace at Westminster 
 through the midst of the City, mounted on a horse, handsomely habited, and 
 bare-headed, in the sight of all the people." Charles the Second was the 
 last king who thus went to his coronation in procession from the Tower.
 
 410 CORONATION OF THE QUEEN. [1838. 
 
 Queen Victoria went from Buckingham Palace tlirougli tlie line of streets 
 from Hyde Park Corner, where the houses were not hung with tapestry, as 
 of old, but where galleries and scaffbiding were raised throughout the line, 
 Jind the windows were filled with ladies whose enthusiasm was as hearty as 
 that to which Elizabeth bowed. Never were the streets more crowded. 
 Never were the cheers of an enormous multitude — swelled, it is said, by two 
 hundred thousand persons from the country — more deafening than when the 
 Queen passed along ; the last of a cavalcade in which, next to herself, the 
 persons most greeted by the popular voice were the Duke of Wellington 
 and his old opponent Marshal Soult, who came as a Special Ambassador on 
 this occasion. The day was remarkable, not only for the entire absence of 
 accidents, but for the wonderful forbearance of that class who are most 
 usually active on public occasions ; there being only seven persons brought 
 to the police stations for pickiug pockets. The day was observed throughout 
 the kingdom as a general holiday ; with public dinners, feasts to the poor, 
 and brilliant illuminations. On this occasion, when tbe attachment of the 
 people to their young queen was so universally manifested, some might 
 recollect an eloquent passage of a speech made by lord Brougham in the 
 House of Lords six months before, in which he qualified his opposition to 
 some of the details of the Civil List : " Not any one among you all can 
 rejoice more sincerely than I have done in the enthusiasm of affection which 
 has burst from all her subjects, to greet the accession of the reigning 
 Monarch. They have generously let expectation usurp the place of gratitude. 
 They have taken counsel with hope, rather than experience. Por as memory 
 scatters her sweets with a cold and churlish hand, it has been found more 
 pleasing to array the object of the general love in the attire of fancy ; and 
 as fervent a devotion has been kindled towards the yet untried ruler, as 
 could have glowed in her people's bosom after the longest and most glorious 
 reign, in which she should have only lived and only governed for the country's 
 good ; by some chronic miracle escaping all error and all failure, and only 
 showering down blessings upon mankind. I heartily rejoice in this enthu- 
 siasm, and I do not complain of it as premature. I rejoice in it because it 
 must prove delightful to the royal object of it. I rejoice still more because 
 I know that it will stimulate the queen to live for her country, in order to 
 earn the aflections which have already been bestowed, and justify the opinion 
 which has been formed, and is so fondly cherished upon trust. But most 
 chiefly do I rejoice, because 1 extinguishes for ever all apprehensions of the 
 English people's loyalty and trustworthiness ; puts to shame all who would 
 represent them as disaffected towards monarchical institutions ; demonstrates 
 the safety of entrusting them with an ample measure of political rights ; 
 and teaches to statesmen this great practical lesson, that the more we 
 extirpate abuse from our system, the more searching we make our re- 
 forms, the more we endear the Constitution to the people by making them 
 feel its benefits — the safer will be the just rights of the monarch who 
 is its head, and the stronger will be the allegiance of the subject who cheer- 
 fully obeys." * 
 
 Parliament was prorogued by the Queen in person on the 16th of August. 
 
 * *' Speeches of Ilenry lord Broui;ham," vol. iv. p. 337.
 
 1838.] PROROGATION— REVIEW OF THE SESSION. 411 
 
 The cbief measures whicli had occupied the discussions in both Houses were 
 the settlement of the Civil List and the state of Canada. Other measures, 
 which provoked less conflict, were not less important. In his review of the 
 measures of the Session the Speaker emphatically dwelt upon the provision 
 made for the destitute in Ireland. He said that no measure like the intro- 
 duction of a Poor Law into a country circumstanced as Ireland is with respect 
 to the number and condition of its population, could be proposed without 
 incurring heavy responsibility ; but that looking at what had been done on 
 this subject by former parliaments with respect to England, they had thought 
 that the time was come when they might legislate for Ireland with safety 
 and with a reasonable prospect of success. The Irish Poor-Law Statute was 
 in great degree founded upon three comprehensive Eeports of JVIr. Nicholls, 
 The Speaker expressed a hope that the execution of that most important 
 law would be watched over and guided by the same prudent and impartial 
 spirit which governed the deliberations which led to its enactment. It was 
 felt by every one conversant with the subject, that no better prospect could 
 be afforded of the probable realization of this hope than the immediate 
 determination of the Government that Mr. ]S"icholl3 should proceed to Ireland 
 for the purpose of carrying the new law into operation, which he had, in 
 great part, planned, basing it upon the most searching inquiry and the 
 most careful consideration. Amongst the other important measures of the 
 Session were a mitigation of the law of imprisonment for debt ; the abridg- 
 ment of the power of holding benefices in plurality ; and the abolition of 
 composition for tithes in Ireland, substituting rent-charges payable by those 
 who had a perpetual interest in the land. In his Address to her Majesty 
 the Speaker adverted to " the improving opinions and increasing knowledge 
 of the educated classes of the community." He probably considered that 
 the time was distant when there would be " improving opinions and increasing 
 knowledge" amongst the bulk of the population who could scarcely be recog- 
 nized as " educated classes." A circumstance which occurred during this 
 Session furnished a sufficient proof of the necessity for exertion before the 
 labours of Parliament to maintain respect for our laws and institutions by 
 salutary amendments should be generally appreciated. 
 
 A month before the coronation of the Queen, that manifestation of 
 popular ignorance took place in Kent, to which we alluded in our last chapter. 
 The Eeports of the parliamentary discussions upon the subject at the 
 beginning of June in that year, are under the head of " Canterbury 
 Panatics." The debates to which these occurrences gave rise were little 
 more than personal and party squabbles ; except in the argument of Mr. 
 Hume that such an exhibition of brutal ignorance, in a district within fifty 
 miles of London, where the people were surrounded by country gentlemen 
 of great wealth, and where there was a large body of clergy, presented an 
 occasion for endeavouring to arouse the government to the absolute necessity 
 of a comprehensive system of education for the people.* Little as the atten- 
 tion of parliament was aroused by the proceedings of a band of Kentish 
 fanatics, the notice of foreign countries was painfully directed towards this 
 
 H;iasarc], vol. xliii. col. 547.
 
 412 CANTERBURY FANATICS— CAREER OF JOHN THOM. [1838. 
 
 contradiction of our boasted advance in civilization as an event almost iucon« 
 ceivable in the Nineteenth Century.* 
 
 About the beginning of the year 1832 a stranger made his appearance at 
 Canterbury who attracted a good deal of notice by his commanding figure 
 and handsome features. He represented himself as a Jew, which character 
 was in some degree supported by his ample beard at a time when such au 
 ornament was not common amongst Englishmen. He gradually put forth 
 pretensions of superior sanctity, and mysteriously intimated that he had a 
 mission to fulfil of no common nature. Devotees soon surrounded him, not 
 wholly of the lowest and most ignorant class, but comprising a few having 
 wealth and respectable position. Parliament was prorogued in August of 
 that year, after the passing of the Eeform Bill, and the electors of Canter- 
 bury began to look out for proper persons to represent their opinions, whether 
 Eeforming or Conservative. The handsome Jew had then become sir 
 "William Courtenay, the expectant heir of great estates, and a Knight of 
 Malta. There were two candidates for the suffrages of the citizens in the 
 ministerial interest — the Hon. Kichard Watson and viscount Eordwich. 
 Two Conservative Baronets came forward to oppose them, but quickly with- 
 drew. No other candidate of known character appearing in the field, a knot 
 of citizens calling themselves Conservatives put forward sir AVilliam. 
 Courtenay. He came on the hustings in a velvet coat, " like a mountebank," 
 said some irreverent newspapers. He was proposed and seconded at the 
 election by two Conservative tradesmen ; members of the liberal professions, 
 and even a clergyman of the Church of England, all of Conservative politics, 
 voted for him ;t and the adventurer, who was manifestly an impostor or a 
 madman, actually obtained three hundred and seventy-eight votes. Such was 
 the undiscriminating violence of party feelings at the crisis of our great 
 Constitutional Keform. Defeated in the object of his ambition he retired 
 to Heme Bay, which was then more distinguished as a resort of smugglers 
 than as a fashionable watering-place. In some affray between the coast- 
 guard and a band of these free-traders, sir AVilliam Courtenay came forward 
 as a witness ; subjected himself by his evidence to an indictment for perjury ; 
 and having been convicted under his proper name of John Nicholls Thorn 
 was sentenced to a term of imprisonment. He underwent some portion of 
 the penalty of the law until his extravagances rendered it necessary to 
 transfer his safe keeping from the County Prison to the County Lunatic 
 Asylum. In the fourth year of Thorn's confinement, namely, in August. 
 1837, his father and mother-in-law presented themselves to lord John 
 Hussell, the Home Secretary, who was residing at Endsleigh in Devonshire, 
 to express their deep distress at the continued confinement of their son ; 
 stating that they had been told by his keepers that there was no danger 
 likely to arise from his liberation; promising that the utmost care should be 
 taken of him by themselves ; and affirming that he had suflicient property to 
 
 * See " Annuairc nistoriquc" for 1S38, p. 4S7.— Tliis most extraordinary episode in the 
 history of the first year of the reign of (iueen Victoria appearing to us as something more 
 inipottant than a mere outbreak of local fanaticism, we thuut;lit it our duty to ascertain by 
 personal inquiry if any elucidation of these events could be obtained from witnesses still living 
 In the district where tliey occurred. 
 
 t Hansard, vol. xliii. cols. 1108, 1112.
 
 1838.] PROCLAIMS HIMSELF THE MESSIAH AT BOUGHTOX. 413 
 
 pay for any expense attending upon sucli care.* Upon these assurances lord 
 John EusseU, in his official capacity, took measures for obtaining Thorn's 
 release ; and having recommended that a pardon should be granted in the case 
 of the prisoner, which was equivalent to an order for his discharge, he was 
 taken away from the asylum in October by some person not accustomed to 
 the treatment of lunatics. The visiting justices had not opposed this 
 discharge. During the winter of 1837, and the spring of 1838, the unfortu- 
 nate man, who had been described by the medical superintendent of the 
 asylum simply as a lunatic fancying himself a knight, and having a right to 
 an estate and to a castle, was living in farmhouses and cottages in a rural 
 district between Canterbury and Paversham, and there acquired a most 
 extraordinary influence over the deluded people amongst whom he dwelt. 
 From the subsequent parliamentary proceedings connected with this case, it 
 appeared that Thorn had been engaged in extensive mercantile transactions 
 in Cornwall ; had left Truro for Liverpool in May, 1832, for the purpose of 
 selling a quantity of malt ; and after having written a sane and affectionate 
 letter to his wife, had never returned to his home with the money derived 
 from this sale, and had passed entirely out of the notice of his family whilst 
 he was pursuing the high destinies of sir William Courtenay. 
 
 On the pleasant high road to London, about six miles from Canterbury, is 
 the village of Boughton-under-Blean. On the right of the road before 
 reaching Boughton is an extensive wood called Bosenden. The parish of 
 Heme Hill on the north adjoins Boughton, as does Duukirkville, a populous 
 non-parochial place, on the south, Boughton Church is a mile from the 
 village. The hamlets of Goodnestone, Graveney, and Selling lie at short 
 distances around. No district can present a more thoroughly Euglish 
 character of quiet beauty. Broad meadows, rich corn and clover lands, 
 hawthorn hedges bursting into blossom, scattered cottages with pretty 
 gardens, farmhouses with apple and cherry orchards — the scene altogether, 
 such as we beheld it on a morning of May, seemed of all others the most ill- 
 suited for such a tragedy as had been here witnessed on a similar May morn- 
 ing. The winter of 1837-8 was one of extraordinary severity. The spring 
 was cold and raw. The price of wheat was steadily rising. The labourers 
 were suffering through the inclement season, and both farmers and labourers 
 were complaining of the operation of the new Poor Law which compelled the 
 employer to pay wages to his labourers instead of sending them to the poor- 
 rates, and which refused relief to the able-bodied except under the workhouse 
 test. Sir "William Courtenay, as he was still called, went about amongst the 
 discontented of both classes, to proclaim himself a great social Heformer. 
 He told the labourers that all laws were made for their oppression, and that 
 their greatest enemy was the new Poor Law. He told the farmers that they 
 were oppressed by their landlords, and that the time would come when they 
 should live upon the land without paying rent. On such matters his haran- 
 gues on the village-green, or around the blacksmith's shop, were not essen- 
 tially different from what Mr, Fielden the niember for Oldham, and his 
 friends Mr. Feargus O'Connor and the Eev. J. E. Stephens were telling the 
 people at Manchester at this very time, calling upon them to shed the last 
 
 * Lord Joliu Russtli's Statement, Hansard, vol. xliii. ccl. 1099.
 
 414 THE THREE DAYS' MARCH OF HIS DELUDED FOLLOWERS. [1838. 
 
 drop of their blood rather than submit to that law of devils which had filled 
 the country with Poor Law Bastilles, which were intended to be a chain of 
 barracks to be garrisoned by the military and by Eussell's Eural Police.* 
 But Courtenay had far more powerful means of arousing the ignorant than 
 those possessed by the common demagogues who afflicted the land in the first 
 decade of the reign of Victoria. He told them that not only was his worldly 
 rank so great that he was to sit on her Majesty's right hand on the approach- 
 ing day of the coronation, but that he was really the Messiah ; that no harm 
 could befal him whatever force came forth against him ; that if he anointed 
 them with oil and gave them the sacrament no bullet could touch them ; but 
 that if they disobeyed his commands he should rain fire and brimstone upon 
 them and then call them to judgment. At the entrance of Boughton village 
 there is a little public-house, the Woodman's Hall. In a room of that house 
 the frantic impostor used to perform his impious rites. The old landlord, 
 with whom we conversed, did not like to acknowledge his share in this 
 fanaticism, but he was not unwilling to speak of the tall and stout man 
 whom he had heard preach of a Sunday afternoon — " Oh ! he was a fine man, 
 and talked so grand." It was Monday morning the 28th of May when the 
 landlord of the Woodman's Hall saw Courtenay coming over the fields from 
 Fairbrook, a yeoman's house where he was harboured. There were many 
 people with him whom he compelled to go on, as he threatened to shoot them 
 if they hung back, for he had two pistols in his hand. Away they went, and 
 four days after the old publican had heard him preach that he was the 
 Messiah, he saw him lying dead in Bosenden Wood with many others who 
 fell with him. " Ah ; it was a sad job." 
 
 At the head of a large troop of willing or terrified followers, about a 
 huiidred in number, Courtenay sallied forth from Boughton on that morning 
 of the 28th of May, with a flag of white and blue and the device of a 
 rampant lion. A broken loaf was also carried upon a pole. They marched 
 by one of the pretty byroads to Goodnestone near Faversham. Here 
 some of the multitude attempted the old and ready process of redressing 
 their wrongs by putting a lighted match to a bean-stack ; but lo, it would 
 not burn ; and this was a miracle wrought by the power of him they wor- 
 shipped. To Heme Hill they next proceeded ; where Courtenay required 
 that his people should be fed, and without delay their wants were supplied. 
 Sometimes praying with the fanatics on their knees, — occasionally performing 
 some piece of imposture, such as firing at a star to bring it down, — he led 
 them into Bosenden Wood. The night was coming on, and before the people 
 dispersed he said they should have music from heaven to attest his mission. 
 There was method in his madness, for there was a confederate up a tree with 
 a flute. Supper was given them at a farmhouse, and they slept in the barns. 
 An intelligent tradesman of middle age who lives in Boughton parish, on the 
 road to Heme Hill, described to us the movements of Courtenay and his 
 followers on that day. He knew most of those who believed in him and 
 were amongst his train. They were not all ignorant labourers. There were 
 small farmers amongst them, with some of whom Courtenay had been living, 
 going about from house to house. They not only had confidence in his divine 
 
 • "Spectator," June 9, 1838.
 
 1S3S.] NEGLECT OF EDUCATIOX IN THE DISTRICT. 415 
 
 mission, but were assured that every man should have an estate in land, and 
 should enjoy plenty, as well as eternal liappiness. Many of the more decent 
 people who followed him were at the present time ashamed to speak of it. 
 There was one who was now an office-bearer in a "Wesleyan congregation 
 who would speak frankly of the circumstances, and acknowledge the folly of 
 which he had been guilty. But the greater number of the rabble were 
 horribly ignorant. They could not well be otherwise. At Dunkirk, with a 
 large population, there was then no church and no clergyman. There were no 
 National or Lancasterian schools for the children in any of the villages. 
 The people were utterly neglected by their rich and educated neighbours. 
 The Wesleyans had their meetings in cottages, but they had then no chapel. 
 The statements of this sensible tailor of Boughton were perfectly in accord- 
 ance with the details of the education of this district presented by Mr. 
 Wyse in parliament in 1839. Out of fifty-one families at Heme Hill there 
 were forty-five persons above the age of fourteen, of which number only 
 eleven could read and write. Porty-two out of a hundred and seventeen 
 children were at school, but they learnt little, and those who had left school 
 and could once read the New Testament could not do so now. The Sunday 
 schools were inefficient, as the children could never be brought to connect 
 what they learned with their practice in life. In the ville of Dunkirk there 
 were a hundred and thirteen children, of whom only ten could read and 
 write, thirteen could do so a little, and the remainder not at all. Of a 
 hundred and nineteen children in Boughton, thirty -two attended the Sunday 
 school, but only seven went to a school where writing was taught. * All 
 with whom we conversed were strongly impressed with the belief that the 
 occurrences which they deplored were wholly attributable to the neglect of 
 education, and to the indifference of the superior classes to the welfare of 
 their poorer neighbours. Out of evil comes good, said an honest wheel- 
 wright of Selling. After the outbreak the Dunkirk gentry built a church. 
 The Boughton people were ashamed of what Dunkirk people did, and built a 
 National school. Clergy and Dissenters bestirred themselves, and church, 
 chapel, and schools in a few years rose up and flourished. 
 
 "With the dawn of the 29th of May the fanatics were on their march from 
 Bosenden Wood. Along the great road they tramped for ten miles till they 
 reached Sittingbourne — along that road where the fields on each side looked 
 like one garden to the foreigner who travelled from Dover — along that road 
 which exhibited such beauty to the eyes of a sanguinary republican in 
 1792 that he exclaimed, " Oh, what a pity, what a pity, if they set about to 
 revolutionize this fine country." f If the ignorant enthusiasts who followed 
 an impious madman along that road in 1838 had gathered in any formidable 
 numbers, there might have been scenes even worse than the days of terror in 
 Prance, — scenes that would have revived the memories of the Anabaptists of 
 ISIiinster. John Thorn and John Matthias present a remarkable parallel in 
 their fates. The baker who made himself master of Miiuster, and calling 
 
 * Hansard, vol. xlviii. col. 538. Tbe?e statistics, quoted by Mr. Wyse, were furnished from 
 a Report made to the Central Society of Education on the State of the Peasantry at Boughton, 
 Heme Hill, and the Ville of Dunkirk, near Canterbury, by F. Liardet, Esq., published in 1?38, 
 
 + Ante, Tol. vii, p. 210.
 
 416 THE TRAGEDY OF BOSENDEN WOOD. [1838. 
 
 liimself its king, undertook with thirty followers to disperse a military force 
 •vhich came agaiust him, perished with all around him at the first onset with 
 regular soldiery. The factor of Truro, who styled himself king of Kent, 
 stood up to do battle with a detachment of the 45th Foot regiment, who had 
 seen a hundred fights, and he and eight of his wretched disciples fell at the 
 first volley. The circumstances of the catastrophe may be shortly told. 
 From Sittingbourne the rabble marched during two days through a circle of 
 villages on the south of the great road — Newnham, Eastliug, Throwley, 
 Sheldwich, Lees, Selling. The leader prayed and preached — promised and 
 denounced — the peasants knelt — they obtained food at yeomen's houses — 
 they gathered more and more in numbers — farm-labourers quitted their field- 
 •vYork — women threw down their hoes and left the beans unweeded. The 
 third nif^ht closed upon this mad march as they once more entered Bosenden 
 Wood and lay down in barns or under the leafy canopies of that spring- 
 time. On Thursday morning the 31st, three men appeared in the camp to 
 search for a farmer's labourer who had been seduced from his employment 
 to follow a man who promised that all should have plenty without work. One 
 of these, a constable, bore a warrant to arrest the servant who had off'ended 
 ao-ainst the law. Thorn took as efi"ectual a method to resist intruders as did 
 his great predecessor Cade when he hanged the clerk of Chatham — Thorn 
 instantly shot the constable. Drawing his sword, he hacked the body of his 
 victim, and cried out to the people, "Now, am I not your Saviour ?" Two 
 of the fanatics then knelt at his feet. One of them, who still lives to repent 
 his folly as he quickly repented it for a year in Maidstone gaol, was asked 
 by Thorn whether he would follow him in the body, or go home and follow 
 him in heart ; upon which he sprang to his feet and exclaimed, " Oh be 
 joyful — the Saviour has accepted me — Gro, go on — till I drop I'll follow thee." 
 The murder of Mears, the constable, caused a messenger to be sent to Canter- 
 bury for military aid. A party of a hundred men immediately marched in 
 two divisions. One division under major Armstrong proceeded into the 
 centre of the thick wood, about a mile and a half from the road. Here a 
 party of fifty or sixty men made their appearance, led on by one who 
 answered the description of the person called Courtenay. Lieutenant Bennett, 
 with his section of the soldiers, advanced towards these men, one of whom 
 carried a white flag. The lieutenant and the leader of the fanatics each 
 advanced till they were within two rods of each other. Courtenay com- 
 menced running ; jumped over the trunk of a tree ; there was a shot ; and 
 lieutenant Bennett fell. The soldiers screamed with horror ; there was a 
 rush upon them wath bludgeons by the frantic rabble, led on by Courtenay ; 
 another man was shot by them ; the command was given to the soldiers to 
 fire ; Courtenay and eight others of the rioters were killed ; several were 
 severely wounded. Those who did not &y in time were apprehended, and 
 were subsequently tried. Three were sentenced to death, which was commuted 
 for transportation ; and six others were imprisoned for a year. The wretched 
 cause of this bloodshed and misery, at once madman and impostor, was buried 
 in the churchyard of Heme Hill. Not a stone marks where he lies under 
 the green turf. But years passed over before the peasants ceased to visit that 
 grave, firmly believing that his coming to life again would take place, although 
 the promise he had given to the poor woman who lived in the farm in the
 
 1S39.] MEETING OF PARLIAMENT— CHARTISM'. 417 
 
 wood that if he were killed, aud she poured water on his face, he Avould 
 assuredly revive, was not fulfilled. 
 
 Three hundred years before these events there was a display of fanaticism 
 of a very different nature at Adlington, in Kent, not twenty miles from 
 Bosenden "Wood. Elizabeth Barton belonged to an age " when the pre- 
 tensions to miraculous powers, which still lingered round the shrines of a 
 thousand saints and martyrs, imposed to some extent upon the clearest 
 understandings." * The statute, by which she and five others were attainted, 
 states that she deluded by her false revelations a great multitude of the 
 king's subjects "inclined to newfangleness." The followers of John Thorn 
 were also inclined to newfangleness ; but their fanaticism was not connected 
 with the superstitions of a perishing faith or the devices of a cunning 
 priesthood. It was the ignorance that had no foundation of religious belief 
 or secular knowledge ; the ignorance that had not been reached by tlie divine 
 or the schoolmaster ; the ignorance which Avas a reproach to the nation, aud 
 especially discreditable to the richly endowed Church under whose proudest 
 seat of Christian instruction such a state of society had grown up. Although 
 forming an exceptional illustration of the degrees in which knowledge had 
 advanced during the nineteenth century, these events are yet suggestive of 
 how much was required to be done before England should arrive at the state 
 of social improvement which marks the greatest difference between the iirst 
 year and the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Queen Victoria. 
 
 "When the Parliament was opened by the Queen on the 5th of Februarv, 
 1839, a passage in the Eoyal Speech had reference to a state of domestic affairs 
 which presented an unhappy contrast to the universal loyalty which marked 
 the period of the Coronation. Her Majesty said : " I have observed with 
 pain the persevering efforts which have been made in some parts of the country 
 to excite my subjects to disobedience and resistance to the law, and to recom- 
 mend dangerous and illegal practices." Chartism, which for ten subsequent 
 years occasionally agitated the country, had then begun to take root. On the 
 previous 12th of December a proclamation had been issued against illeo-al 
 Chartist assemblies^ several of which had been held, says the proclamation, 
 " after sunset by torch-light." The persons attendiog these meetings were 
 armed with guns and pikes ; and demagogues, such as Feargus O'Connor and 
 the Eev. Mr. Stephens at Bury, addressed the people in the most inflammatory 
 language. The existence of Ciiartism was a painful and almost an appalling 
 fact, of far deeper significance than the discontents of ignorant masses of the 
 manufacturing population stirred up by unscrupulous leaders. Tliinkiug men 
 felt that there was something rotten in the composition of society — a gan- 
 grene that must be removed before the body politic could be sound and 
 healthful. The state of the labouring classes was the subject of anxious 
 solicitude, in their want of employment or their low wages, partly arising out of 
 the great changes produced by scientific applications to industry, at a time 
 when an unsound commercial and fiscal policy forbade the developments of skill, 
 under the influence of increasing capital, to be a general blessing. The evils cf 
 unrestricted competition, in its operation upon a superabundant population 
 of artizans and factory workmen, were then very slightly mitigated by any 
 
 * Ante, vol. ii. p. ron. 
 VOL. viri.— 251.
 
 418 CONDITION OP THE LABOURING CLASSES. [1839. 
 
 considerate feelings of the employer for the employed. There was no sym- 
 pathy, — there was in most parts a jealous antagonism, — between the twoclasses. 
 Dr. Arnold wrote to a friend in 1839, " Men do not think of the fearful state 
 in which we are living. If they could once be brought to notice and to appre- 
 ciate the evil, I should not even yet despair that the remedy may be found 
 and applied ; even though it is the solution of the most difficult problem ever 
 yet proposed to man's wisdom, and the greatest triumph over selfishness ever 
 yet required of his virtue." * It was seen, however imperfectly, at that 
 period, what a resource England, Scotland, and Ireland possessed against the 
 evils of over population, — against the terrible competition for a bit of potato 
 ground, or for a hand-loom, or for a seat in a tailor's pestilent garret — in all 
 which forms of unprofitable labour there was the sweat of the brow but not 
 the earning of the bread. These suff"eriugs were taking place " in a world 
 where Canadian forests stand unfelled, boundless plains and prairies unbroken 
 with the plough ; on the west and on the east, green desert spaces never yet 
 made white with corn ; and to the over-crowded little western nook of 
 Europe, our Terrestrial Planet, nine-tenths of it yet vacant or tenanted by 
 nomades, is still crying, Come and till me, come and reap me!"t The 
 eloquent expounder of the miseries of that unhappy time has a hopeful pro- 
 phecy of a better future : " Is it not as if this swelling, simmering, never 
 resting Europe of 'ours stood, once more, on the verge of an expansion without 
 parallel ; struggling, struggling like a mighty tree again about to burst in the 
 embrace of summer, and shoot forth broad frondent boughs which would fill 
 the whole earth ? A disease ; but the noblest of all, — as of her who is in 
 pain, and sore travail, but travails that she may be a mother, and say, Behold, 
 there is a new Man born ! " J It was not only the benevolent schoolmaster 
 and the philosophic man of letters who were perplexed by the condition of 
 the working-classes. M. Guizot records that in his first intercourse with sir 
 Hobert Peel in 1840, what struck him most of all was sir Robert's constant 
 and earnest solicitude with regard to the condition of the labouring classes in 
 England. " There is," he often said, " too much sufiTering and too much per- 
 plexity in the condition of the working classes ; it is a disgrace as well as a 
 danger to our civilization ; it is absolutely necessary to render their condition 
 less hard and less precarious. We cannot do everything, far from it ; but we 
 can do something, and it is our duty to do all that we can." § Was sir 
 Robert Peel then thinking that the time might come when he should " leave 
 a name sometimes remembered with expressions of goodwill in the abodes of 
 those whose lot it is to labour, and to earn their daily bread by the sweat of 
 their brow, when they shall recruit their exhausted strength with abundant 
 and untaxed food, the sweeter because it is no longer leavened with a sense of 
 injustice ?" || 
 
 The document called " The People's Charter," which was embodied in the 
 form of a Bill in 1838, comprised six points — universal suffrage, excluding, 
 however, women ; division of the United Kingdom into equal electoral 
 
 • " Life," voL ii. p. 164. 
 
 t Carlylo — " Chartism," p. 112. 
 
 t Ibid., pp. 112, 113. 
 
 g Quizot— " Memoirs of Sir Rotcrt Peel," p. 83. 
 
 II Sir II. Peel's Speech on tbe resignation of Ministers, June 2D, 18161,
 
 1839.] JAMAICA— RESIGXATIOX OF THE illNISTUY. 41 j 
 
 districts ; vote by ballot ; annual parliameuts ; no property qualification for 
 members ; and a payment to every member for his legislative services. 
 These principles so quickly recommended themselves to the working classes, 
 that in the session of 1839 the number of signatures to a petition presented 
 to Parliament was upwards of a million and a quarter. The middle classes 
 almost universally looked with extreme jealousy and apprehension upon any 
 attempt for an extension of the franchise. The upper classes for the most 
 part regarded the proceedings of the Chartists with a contempt which scarcely 
 concealed their fears. This large section of the working population very soon 
 became divided into what were called physical-force Chartists and moral-force 
 Chartists. As a natural consequence, the principles and acts of the physical- 
 force Chartists disgusted every supporter of order and of the rights of pro- 
 perty, and left the whole educated community very unwilling to sanction any 
 measure which would rectify the anomaly of which many sound-hearted and 
 right-thinking working men complained, — that the Eeform Bill of 1832 had 
 set up an invidious and irrational barrier against the claim of the artizan to 
 the rights of citizenship ; and had settled the question as to who was qualified 
 to choose a representative in Parliament by the arbitrary and varying test of 
 occupying a tenement at an annual rent of Ten Pounds. There were many 
 of the best men amongst a class rapidly growing into the ability to judge 
 temperately and honestly on all political questions who deeply felt this 
 exclusion; and they resented it the more when they were confounded with 
 the physical-force slaves of the brutal demagogues that disturbed England in 
 1839. 
 
 At the opening of Parliament it was stated in the Queen's Speech that in 
 the West Indies the period fixed by law for the final and complete emancipa- 
 tion of the negroes had been anticipated by Acts of the Colonial legislatures; 
 and that the transition from the temporary system of apprenticeship to entire 
 freedom had taken place without any distui'bance of public order and tran- 
 quillity. But although the emancipation had taken place without any excesses 
 on the part of those who had now become free men, responsible only to the 
 laws, the planters in Jamaica were in a state of moody discontent at the 
 altered relations between the capitalist and the labourer, and they testified 
 their displeasure by opposition, often frivolous and always stubborn, to the 
 desire of the Imperial government to protect the negroes from cruelties and 
 oppressions. Local legislation came to a stand. Lord Melbourne and his 
 colleagues determined to adopt a strong measure, by proposing to Parliament 
 a suspension of the Constitution of Jamaica for five years, during which period 
 the affairs of the colony would be administered by a provisional government. 
 A motion to this efiect was brought forward on the 9th of April by Mr. 
 Labouchere. It was a great occasion for a trial of the strength of parties. 
 Counsel were heard at the bar of the House of Commons against the bill, and 
 it was not till the Gth of May that the parliamentary discussions on this 
 subject were brought to a close by a division in which two hundred and ninety- 
 four voted with the ministry, and two hundred and eighty-nine against them. 
 This slender majority showed upon how frail a foundation rested the tenure 
 of office by the Melbourne ministry. On the 7th of May lord John Eussell 
 announced the resignation of ministers upon the ground of not having such 
 support and such confidence in the House of Commons as would enable them
 
 420 FAILURE IN THE ATTEMPT TO FORM A NEW ADMINISTRATION, [1839. 
 
 efficiently to carry on the public business. Upon the resignation of her 
 servants the Queen had consulted the duke of Wellington, who recommended 
 that sir Eobert Peel should be sent for. The attempt to form a new admini- 
 stration failed, and lord Melbourne and his colleagues returned to power in 
 a week. On the 13th sir Eobert Peel, having received her Majesty's permis- 
 sion to explain the circumstances under which he had relinquished the attempt 
 to form an administration, made that explanation in the House of Commons. 
 The Queen's most ingenuous truthfulness was conspicuous in these nego- 
 tiations. Her Majesty at once asked sir Eobert Peel whether he was willing 
 to undertake the duty of forming an administration, at the same time telling 
 him that it was with great regret that she parted with the administration 
 which had just resigned. The next day sir Eobert; submitted to her Majesty 
 the names of those he proposed to associate with him. JS^o objection was 
 raised as to the persons who were to compose the ministry or to the principles 
 on which it was to be conducted. But a difficulty suggested itself to the 
 minds of sir Eobert and his friends. He again waited upon the Queen to 
 state to her Majesty the necessity of making some change in the appointment 
 of ladies to fill the great offices of her household. Her Majesty consulted 
 her ministers, and on the 10th wrote the following note : " The Queen, having 
 considered the proposal made to her yesterday by sir Eobert Peel, to remove 
 the Ladies of her Bedchamber, cannot consent to adopt a course which she 
 conceives to be contrary to usage, and which is repugnant to her feelings." 
 Sir Eobert, it seems, took an especial objection that the wife of lord Nor- 
 manby. Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and the sister of lord Morpeth, the Chief 
 Secretary, were in the closest attendance upon the Queen. He and his party 
 had wholly disapproved the policy of conciliation which was advocated by the 
 Irish administration, and they thus objected to the continued position about 
 the royal person of the marchioness of Normanby and the duchess of Sutherland. 
 Upon the abstract constitutional question it is now generally felt that sir 
 Eobert Peel was right. Immediately after he had declared his inability to 
 form an Administration unless the Ladies of the Bedchamber were removed, 
 the ministry recorded their opinion in a Cabinet minute that they held it 
 " reasonable that the great offices of the Court, and situations in the house- 
 hold held by members of Parliament, should be included in the political 
 arrangements made in a change of the Administration ; but they are not of 
 opinion that a similar principle should be applied or extended to the offices 
 held by ladies in her Majesty's household." The Cabinet had precedents to 
 support their view. Lady Sunderland and lady Eialton had remained in the 
 bedchamber of Queen Anne for a year and a half after the dismissal of their 
 husbands from office, and it was the uniform practice that the ladies of the 
 household of every queen consort should be retained on changes of 
 administration, notwithstanding their relationship to men engaged iu 
 political life. 
 
 The discussions in and out of Parliament which arose upon this question 
 were protracted and violent. The people generally were inclined to think 
 that an attempt had been made to treat tlie Queen with harshness by 
 removing from her presence ladies who had become her personal friends — 
 ladies exemplary in their private lives, and whose accomplishments shed a 
 grace over the Court of a female Sovereign. Meetings were held in vuriuua
 
 ]839.] THE BEDCHAMBER QUESTION— DISLOYAL TORIES. 421 
 
 parts of the country to express approbation of her Majesty's conduct. 
 These were no doubt to some extent meetings influenced by political con- 
 siderations ; but the sentiments there expressed were consonant with the 
 general opinion that the Queen was wortliy of the most respectful sympathy 
 with her actions and feelings. It is painful to relate that from this period 
 was manifested, on the part of some who, disdaining the name of Conserva- 
 tives, clung to the extremest Tory opinions, a virulence that did not even 
 exempt from their personal attacks the conduct and character of the Sovereio'n. 
 To those of the present day who have not traced the course of politics in the 
 early part of the Queen's reign it would seem impossible to believe that a 
 member of Parliament, at a public dinner at Canterbury, should have 
 designated the Sovereign who has secured to an unparalleled extent 
 the love and veneration of her subjects, as one who thought that if 
 the monarchy lasted her time it was enough ; that this party firebrand 
 should have been cheered when he talked of the abdication of James the 
 Second as a precedent not to be forgotten. It would seem impossible to 
 imagine that the colonel and officers of a regiment should have brought 
 themselves under the censure of the Commander-in-Chief for having sat at a 
 Conservative dinner, at Ashton-under-Lyne, to listen to " expressions most 
 insulting and disrespectful towards the Queen."* Mr. Macaulay, — who, in 
 May, 1839, had been returned as member for Edinburgh, upon the elevation of 
 Mr. Abercromby to the peerage, when he retired from the office of Speaker, — 
 thus expressed himself on the first night of the Session in 1840, in burnin"- 
 words that must have been bitterer to some than the contempt of good and 
 quiet subjects : " A change has come over the spirit of a part, I hope not the 
 larger part, of the Tory body. It was once the glory of the Tories that, 
 through all changes of fortune, they were animated by a steady and fervent 
 loyalty which made even error respectable, and gave to what might otherwise 
 have been called servility something of the manliness and nobleness of free- 
 dom. A great Tory poet, whose eminent services to the cause of monarchy 
 had been ill requited by an ungrateful Court, boasted that 
 
 ' Loyalty is still the same, 
 Whether it win or lose the game ; 
 True as the dial to the sun, 
 Although it be not shined upon.' 
 
 Toryism has now changed its character. We have lived to see a monster of 
 a faction made up of the worst parts of the Cavalier and the worst parts of the 
 Eoundhead. We have lived to see a race of disloyal Tories. We have lived 
 to see Tories giving themselves the airs of those insolent pikemen who puffed 
 out their tobacco-smoke in the face of Charles the First. We have lived to 
 see Tories who, because they were not allowed to grind the people after the 
 fashion of Strafford, turn round and revile the Sovereign in the style of Hugh 
 Peters. I say, therefore, that, while the leader is still what he was eleven 
 years ago, when his moderation alienated his intemperate followers, his 
 followers are more intemperate than ever." f 
 
 Let us contemplate this violence of the fierce and unscrupulous partizans 
 who professed to serve under the leadership of sir Eobert Peel, but who 
 
 * See Annual Register (then a vehicle of Conservative politics), 1839, pp. 311, 312. 
 + Macaulay's " tipeeches," p. 201.
 
 i22 CHARTIST RIOTS— INSURRECTIOX AT NEWPORT, [lS:i9 
 
 were most indignant that his great measure of Catholic Emancipation was 
 attended with some practical results — let us view these Tory agitators going 
 about the country proclaiming that the Poor Laws were a system of 
 •wholesale murder, that children were tortured in factories for the amusement 
 of the mill-owners, and that the Corn-laws were the only restraint upon the 
 power of the manufacturers to oppress their work-people — and then let us 
 ask ourselves how the country could have been full of this madness and folly 
 without inducing the physical-force Chartists to believe that their time for 
 action was at hand. The first serious demonstration of this revolutionary 
 spirit was made at Birmingham in a series of outbreaks and contests between 
 the police, the military, and the mob, which lasted from the 4th to the 15th 
 of July. There Avere smashing of windows and street-lamps ; bonfires 
 made of goods pillaged from warehouses ; houses burnt down. The commu- 
 nity of this thriving seat of manufactures, where workmen had ample wages 
 and could afford to be Ten-pound householders, was kept in terfor till the 
 riots were put down by the necessary employment of the military under 
 judicious regulation. There were the same demonstrations at Sheflield, with 
 the disposition too common in that place to think lightly of secret murder. 
 The most violent outbreak took place later in the year. At Newport, in 
 Monmouthshire, there was a magistrate of the borough, named John Erost, 
 who in the j)revious February had used violent language at a public meeting 
 at Pontypcol. Lord John Eussell was greatly blamed for treating this 
 insolent demagogue with some leniency, and for not at once removing him 
 from his position as a magistrate. In a few months, however, he earned his 
 degradation by new violence. During the summer and autumn he was 
 organizing an insurrection in the country near Newport, where there was a 
 large population engaged in labours connected with the mineral wealth of 
 the district. The Attorney- General, on the trial for high treason in which 
 this Chartist organization ended, described the country as, in a great degree, 
 wild and mountainous, abounding in every part with mines of coal and iron, 
 of late years worked to a considerable extent. In a district, he said, where, 
 fifty years before, there were scarcely any inhabitants, save the scattered huts 
 of a few shepherds and mountaineers, there was then a dense population, 
 amounting to upwards of forty thousand. Those who know the wonderful 
 country from which the TJsk and the Taff", assisted by railroads running into 
 the hearts of the mountains, bring their rich freights to Newport and Cardiff, 
 will comprehend how those towns alone now comprise more than fifty 
 thousand inhabitants. It was arranged by the insurgents that on the night 
 of Sunday the 3rd of November, three divisions from various points were to 
 march upon Newport and take possession of the town while the inhabitants 
 were asleep. The weather was such as to prevent the completion of these 
 arrangements. The divisions from Nant-y-Glo and Pontypool did not join 
 their leader at the time appointed, but after waiting till daylight he marched 
 into the town with five or six thousand followers about ten o'clock. The 
 mayor, Mr. Phillips, was very imperfectly prepared for resistance to this 
 rabble, who came into the town five abreast, armed with guns, bludgeons, 
 pikes, and pickaxes. Mr. Phillips, with his party of special constables and 
 about thirty soldiers had taken his position in the West Gate Inn, which 
 stands in the market-place, TI)e insurgents moved up to the door of the inn
 
 1S39.3 JOHN FROST AND OTHERS TRIED FOR HIGH TREASON. 423 
 
 and called upon those within to surrender. The demand was of course re- 
 fused. A volley from the street was then discharged against the bow-window 
 of the room. The wooden pillars of the porch still show by bullet-holes the 
 sort of conflict that here took place. Almost at the instant of the first) 
 street firing, the rioters broke open the door of the inn and poured into the 
 house. There would have been a massacre of the civil and military guardians 
 of the peace, had not the ofiicer in command given orders to fire, as the 
 Chartists were rushing down the passage. A volley soon put to flight the 
 terrified assailants. The mayor distinguished himself by the gallantry which. 
 befits an English gentleman. He, with lieutenant Gray and Serjeant Dalev, 
 fearlessly opened each one of the three shutters of the window that looked 
 upon the street. A shower of slugs was immediately poured in upon them, 
 and Mr. Phillips and several others were wounded ; but the construction of 
 the window enabled the military to pour a raking fire upon the mob, who 
 soon fled in all directions. The soldiers then made a sortie and efi"ectually 
 cleared the streets. Frost and two other of the leaders, Zephaniah Williams 
 and William Jones, were quickly apprehended. On the 1st of January 
 they were tried at Newport, under a Special Commission before that able and 
 constitutional judge, sir iNicholas Tiudal. They were each found guilty of 
 liigh treason, and received the capital sentence, which was finally commuted 
 to transportation for life. Within the last few years the chief delinquent has 
 been allowed to return. Sir Thomas Phillips was knighted by her Majesty, 
 and was received at Court with signal honour.
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Til-; System of Penny Postage first comes into operation — Mr. Rowland Hill — Opposition to th<s 
 proposed change — Postage Stamps — Marriage of the Queen to Prince Albert of Saxo 
 Coburg — Privilege of Parliament — Stockdale v. Hansard — Attempt upon the Queen'a 
 Life — Prorogation — Affairs of the Levant — Treaty of Alliance — Exclusion of France — 
 Prince Napoleon lands near Boulogne— Failure of his attempt to produce an insurrection — 
 Differences of England and France on the affairs of the East — War threatened — M. Thierg 
 and lord Palmerston — Naval Successes against Mehemet All — Interment at Paris of the 
 remains of Napoleon— Session of Parliament— The Anti-Corn Law League — Declarations 
 of the Ministry on questions of Free Trade — Debates on the Sugar Duties — Ministers 
 defeated on the question of the Sugar Duties— Meeting of New Parliament — Amendment 
 to the Address carried — Resignation of Ministers. 
 
 On the morning of the 10th of January, 1840, the people of the United 
 Kingdom rose in the possession of a new power — the power of sending by 
 the post a letter not weighing more than half an ounce upon the prepayment of 
 one penny, and this without any regard to the distance which the letter had 
 to travel. * At this time, when the system of a universal penny postage has 
 been in operation two-and-twenty years — when the number of letters trans- 
 mitted by the post has increased from 76 millions in 1839 to 593 millions in 
 1861, aa increase of 680 per cent. — it is more interesting to look back upon 
 the difficulties of achieving sucb a result than to trace the gradual success 
 which in a few years put an end to all opposition to a system so pregnant 
 with national advantage. To the sagacity and the perseverance of one man, 
 the author of this system, the high praise is due, not so much that he 
 triumphed over the petty jealousies and selfish fears of the post-office autho- 
 rities, but that he established his own convictions against the doubts of some 
 of the ablest and most conscientious leaders of public opinion. The govern- 
 ment adopted his views reluctantly, strengthened in their hesitation by such 
 a clear-headed supporter of the government as Sydney Smith. Temperate 
 opposers of the government, such as the duke of Wellington and sir Eobert 
 Peel, saw great danger and little good in the project. Mr. Rowland Hill in 
 1837 published his plan of a cheap and uniform postage. A Committee of 
 the House of Commons was appointed in 1837, which continued its inquiries 
 throughout the session of 1838, and arrived at the conviction that " the mode 
 recommended of charging and collecting postage, in a pamphlet published by 
 Mr. liowland Hill," was feasible, and deserving of a trial under legislative 
 
 * Ante, p. 390.
 
 J840.] OPPOSITION TO THE PROPOSED CHANGE— POSTAGE STAMPS. 425 
 
 sanction. The Committee examined a great number of mercantile and other 
 authorities, the questions and answers contained in their Eeport amounting 
 to nearly twelve thousand. There were necessarily strong differences of 
 opinion amongst the witnesses, many even of the most favourable to a re- 
 duction to a uniform rate considering that a penny postage was too low. 
 Lord Ashburton, although an advocate of Post-ofEce Reform, held that the 
 reduction to a penny would wholly destroy the revenue. Lord Lowther, the 
 Postmaster-General, thought twopence the smallest rate that would cover the 
 expenses. Colonel Maberly, the secretary to the post office, considered Mr. 
 Hill's plan a most preposterous one, and maintained that if the rates were to 
 be reduced to a penny, the revenue would not recover itself for forty or fifty 
 years. The Committee, after a long struggle between its members, negatived 
 both a penny and a three-halfpenny rate as inadequate, and finally recom- 
 mended the adoption of a twopenny rate. Public opinion, however, had 
 been brought so strongly to bear in favour of a penny rate, that the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Spring Eice, on the 5th of July, 1839, proposed 
 a resolution, " that it is expedient to reduce the postage on letters to one 
 uniform rate of a penny postage, according to a certain amount of weight to 
 be determined — that the parliamentary privilege of franking should be 
 abolished, and that official franking be strictly limited — the House pledging 
 itself to make good any deficiency that may occur in the revenue from such 
 reduction of the postage." A Bill was accordingly passed to this effect in 
 the House of Commons, its operation being limited in its duration to one 
 year, and the Treasury retaining the power of fixing the rates at first, 
 although the ultimate reduction was to be to one penny. This experimental 
 measure reduced all rates above fourpence to that sum, leaving those below 
 fourpence unaltered. With this complication of charge the experiment could 
 not have a fair trial, and accordingly on the 10th of January, ISIO, the 
 uniform half-ounce rate became by order of the Treasury one penny. The 
 final accomplishment of this great reform presented a signal example of 
 the force of public opinion when brought to bear upon a subject uncon- 
 nected with party feelings, and the demonstration of whose necessity had 
 been established not by passionate appeals for public support and sympathy, 
 but by patient investigation and conclusive reasoning. This was the high 
 merit of the man who conceived the scheme of Post-office Reform ; and the 
 manifest earnestness of his character, and the invincibility of his logic, mainly 
 conduced to establish those convictions in the public mind wliich eventually 
 settled all doubts. Lord Melbourne, in moving the second reading of the 
 bill, assigned as a conclusive answer to the question, how he could venture 
 to tamper with so large a sum as that derivable from the Post-office revenue, 
 that "there was such a general demand from all classes of the community for 
 a measure of this nature, that it was a very difficult matter to withstand 
 it."* In 1840 the number of letters sent through the post had more than 
 doubled, and the legislature had little hesitation in making the Act of 
 1839 permanent, instead of its duration being limited to the year wlilch 
 would expire in October. A stamped envelope, printed upon a peculiar 
 paper, and bearing an elaborate design, was originally chosen as the mode of 
 
 * Hanganl, vol. xlix. col. 121 4.
 
 426 MARRIAGE OF THE QUEEN TO PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE COBURG. [1840. 
 
 rendering prepayment convenient to the sender of a letter, A simpler plan 
 soon superseded this attempt to enlist the Pine Arts in a plain business opera- 
 tion. The plan of prepaying letters by affixing a stamp bearing the head 
 of the ruler of the country, came into use here in May, 1840. The habit of 
 prepayment by postage stamps has now become so universal throughout the 
 world, that in 1861 the system was established in eighty diiFerent countries 
 or colonies ; and there were between six and seven hundred varieties of 
 stamp known to the post-office authorities. Even in the Sandwich Islands 
 the Postage Stamp was in use.* 
 
 On the 16th of January Parliament was opened by the Queen in person. 
 The first paragraph of her Majesty's speech contained an announcement 
 which had been previously made to the Privy Council. " Since you were 
 last assembled, I have declared my intention of allying myself in marriage 
 with the Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg and Gotha. I humbly implore that 
 the Divine blessing may prosper this union, and render it conducive to the 
 interests of my people as well as to my own domestic happiness, and it will 
 be to me a source of the most lively satisfaction to find the resolution I have 
 taken approved by my Parliament." The preliminary measures of the legis- 
 lature for the naturalization of prince Albert, and for granting him an 
 annuity, produced some discussion, — first, upon the subject of precedence, 
 and next, as to the amount of the annual sum to be granted. The one 
 question was settled by omitting from the bill of naturalization all mention 
 of precedence ; the other by a reduction of the ministerial proposition of an 
 annuity of 50,000Z. to one of 30,OOOZ. The distresses of tlie country fully 
 justified the decision of the majority who supported the grant of a smaller 
 sum. The good sense of the Queen and of prince Albert prevented the 
 slightest expression of discontent at the vote of the House of Commons, 
 which was carried by the union of the Conservative party with those generally 
 classed amongst Eadicals. The marriage took place on the lOfch of Pebruary, 
 and it was welcomed with general festivities throughout the country. There 
 was a welcome of a higher kind from those who knew something of the 
 character and acquirements of the young prince ; from those who were aware 
 that he had received a public education at the University of Bonn, and that 
 his abilities were as conspicuous as his total freedom from all desire to find 
 " a royal road to learning." But the people generally rejoiced in this union 
 because it was understood to be one of affection, and which gave that earnest 
 of domestic happiness which offered a solid foundation for the discharge of 
 public duty. The modest answer of prince Albert to the congratulatory 
 messages of the Houses of Parliament evidently expressed the feelings of 
 one who was careful to weigh the words which he uttered. To the marquis 
 of Lansdowne and other peers who had attended upon his Eoyal Highness 
 with the congratulations of the peers, he said, " I return to the House of 
 Lords my warmest thanks for the message which you have now delivered. 
 I learn witli lively satisfaction their approbation of the choice which her 
 Majesty has made, and it will be the study of my life to justify the favour- 
 able opinion which you have now expressed." 
 
 There was a subject which occupied the attention of Parliament during 
 
 * Report of the rustranstoi-Generil. 1SC2.
 
 1840.] PRIVILEGE OF PARLIAMENT— STOCKDALli v. HANSARD. 427 
 
 this Session whicli excited considerable public interest at tlie time, but which 
 must be dismissed by us as briefly as possible. It was the question of Privi- 
 lege of Parliament. In 1837 the privilege of the House of Commons came 
 into conflict with the jurisdiction of the Law Courts. There had been similar 
 conflicts in earlier times, and the opinions of great lawyers were by no means 
 settled as to the powers of Courts of Law in matters of privilege. The words 
 of the Bill of Eights would appear to liave settled that "debates and pro- 
 ceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court 
 or place out of Parliament." But since the Eevolution there had been several 
 occasions in which there was a clashing of jurisdictions. The House of 
 Commons was probably taken by surprise when, in the case of Stockdale 
 against Hansard, — which was an action for libel against the printer of the 
 House of Commoi-s, contained in a Eeport of the Inspector of Prisons, pub- 
 lished by order of that House, — Lord Chief Justice Denman declared that the 
 lact of the Hoiise of Commons having directed Messrs. Hansard to publish 
 all their Parliamentary Eeports was no justification for them, or for any 
 bookseller who publishes a Parliamentary Eeport containing a libel against 
 any man. A Committee of Parliament was then appointed to inquire into this 
 question. The House resolved that the publication of its Eeports was essen- 
 tial to the constitutional functions of Parliament ; that the House of Com- 
 mons has a sole and exclusive jurisdiction to determine upon its privileges ; 
 and that for any Court or tribunal to assume to decide upon matters of pri- 
 vilege inconsistent with the determination of either House, is a breach and 
 contempt of the privileges of Parliament. Stockdale was defeated upon the 
 first trial. He commenced a second action, when the Queen's Bench again 
 decided against the privileges of the House. Upon a third action, which was 
 undefended, Messrs. Hansard were instructed by the House of Commons not 
 to plead ; judgment consequently went by default ; and the damages were 
 assessed in the Sherifi''8 Court at six hundred pounds. Then ensued a contest 
 between the House and the Sheriff's. As in all cases in which personal 
 interests are held to be arbitrarily attacked, the sheriff's had a large amount of 
 public sympathy when they, as well as Stockdale, were committed to the cus- 
 tody of the Sergeant-at-Arms. The sheriff's were kept in close custody for 
 having refused to obey the order of the House for restoring the money which 
 tliey had levied upon Hansard, holding that they were bound by their duty 
 to the Court of Queen's Bench to refuse their obedience to the order. There 
 were other actions arising out of these vexatious proceedings ; but the main 
 question was finally settled by the passing of an Act, which received the 
 Eoyal Assent on the 14th of April, 1840, by which proceedings, criminal or 
 civil, against persons for publication of papers printed by order of either 
 House of Parliament, were to be stayed by the Courts, upon delivery of a cer- 
 tificate and affidavit to the eff'ect that such publication was by order of Par- 
 liament. Mr. May has very clearly stated the necessity for this measure, 
 which was one of compromise. " No course was open to the Commons 
 befitting their high jurisdiction and dignity, by which the obedience of courts 
 and plaintiff's could be ensured : their power of commitment was at once 
 impotent and oppressive ; yet they could not suff'er their authority to be 
 \vholly defied and contemned. Hence their proceedings were inevitably 
 marked by hesitation and inconsistency. In a cise for which the Coustitu-
 
 128 ATTEMPT UPON THE QUEEN'S LIFE. [1840. 
 
 tion lias made no provision, even the wisdom of sir Robert Peel, and the solid 
 learning of Mr. Serjeant Wilde, were unequal to devise expedients less open 
 to objection."* 
 
 The Houses of Parliament were proceeding in due course in the discussion 
 of various important matters — such as a rupture with China, the reform of 
 the municipal institutions of Ireland, measures for further carrying into efiect 
 the Reports of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and the Corn Laws — when 
 they were startled by a circumstance which produced a similar amount of 
 alarm and indignation throughout the kingdom. As the Queen, with prince 
 Albert, was riding up Constitution Hill in an open carriage, a pistol was fired 
 at them, and in about half a minute there was a discharge of a second pistol. 
 Neither of the royal couple were injured, and they both preserved remarkable 
 presence of mind. Lord John Russell, in moving the next day for a joint 
 address with the House of Lords to congratulate her Majesty on her escape, 
 stated that the Queen, immediately after the attempt, proceeded to the house 
 of her mother to relieve her mind under the anxiety in which she might have 
 been thrown by exaggerated reports ; and that on her return her Majesty 
 showed herself in her usual manner to her subjects, affording a proof at once 
 of her safety and ofthe kindness and fortitude of her character.f The youth, 
 named Oxford, who had committed this atrocious crime, was a barman at a 
 public-house. He was tried at the Old Bailey on the 9th of July. Wit- 
 nesses were produced to prove that he was insane. Dr. Connolly held that 
 he was of unsound mind. Dr. Chowne considered the doing a criminal act 
 Avithout a motive was a proof to some extent of an unsound mind — what was 
 called moral insanity. Chief Justice Denman cautioned the jury against the 
 dangerous doctrine that the commission of a great crime without an apparent 
 motive was in itself proof of insanity. Sir Benjamin Brodie has written 
 some sensible remarks upon the acquittal of the boy Oxford upon the ground 
 of moral insanity. We give these remarks of an eminent physiologist, 
 because juries are too often embarrassed by opinions and arguments which, if 
 taken without great qualification, would have the effect of impairing the safer 
 belief that every person not absolutely a lunatic is responsible for his actions: 
 " It seems to me that juries have not unfrequently been misled by the refine- 
 ments of medical witnesses, who, having adopted the theory of a purely moral 
 insanity, have applied that term to cases to which the term insanity ought 
 not to be applied at all. It is true, that the diff'erence in the character of 
 individuals may frequently be traced to difference in their organization, and 
 to diff"erent conditions as to bodily health ; and that, therefore, one person 
 has more, and another has less, difficulty in controlling his temper, and regu- 
 lating his conduct. But we have all our duties to perform, and one of the 
 most important of these is, that we should strive against whatever evil ten- 
 dency there may be in us arising out of our physical constitution. Even if 
 we admit (which I do not admit in reality) that the impulse which led Oxford 
 to the commission of his crime was at the time irresistible, still the question 
 remains, whether, when the notion of it first haunted him, he might not have 
 kept it under bis control ; and thus prevented himself from passing into that 
 
 • "Constitutional History," vol. i. p. 454. 
 t Hansard, vol. liv. col. 104".
 
 1840.] PROROGATION— AFFAIRS OF THE LEVANT. 429 
 
 state of mind whicli was beyond his control afrerwards. If I have been rightly 
 informed, Oxford was himself of this opinion; as he said, when another 
 attempt had been made to take away the life of the Queen, ' that if he himself 
 had been hanged, this would not have happened.' * 
 
 Parliament was prorogued by the Queen on the 11th of August. The 
 Royal Speech touched upon some important points in the foreign relations of 
 the country. Her Majesty congratulated the Parliament upon the termina- 
 tion of the civil war in Spain, the objects for which the Quadruple engage^ 
 ments of 1834 had been contracted having been accomplished. Differences 
 with the government of Naples had been put into a train of adjustment by 
 the mediation of Prance. Her Majesty was "engaged, in concert with the 
 Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, the Emperor of Eussia, and the 
 Sultan, in measures intended to effect the permanent pacification of the 
 Levant, to maintain the integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire, 
 and thereby to afford additional security for the peace of Europe." 
 
 The events which had rendered the intervention of the European powers 
 necessary for the pacification of the Levant were these : Mehemet Ali, the 
 pasha of Egypt, had in 1831 invaded Syria, in a war which he waged against 
 the pasha of Damascus. Egypt and Syria were both integral parts of the 
 Ottoman dominions, and Mehemet Ali was bound to yield obedience to the 
 command of the sultan. He refused to withdraw his troops from Syria ; and 
 in 1832 the sultan Mahmoud and his powerful viceroy were at open war. The 
 Turkish government was saved from utter ruin by the aid of its most for- 
 midable enemy, Eussia. But the victories of Mehemet Ali had secured for 
 him the possession of Syria, yet only as a vassal of the Porte. A war 
 between the sultan and his viceroy was prevented for six years by the 
 mediation of England, Prance, and Eussia. But in 1839 the sultan could no 
 longer endure the ambition of his great vassal, who evidently designed to 
 subject all Arabia to his sway ; and Mahmoud sent an army across the 
 Euphrates to recover Syria. A signal victory of Mehemet Ali preceded the 
 death of Mahmoud on the 1st of July, 1839. His successor Abd-ul- 
 Mejid, was only in his sixteenth year. The pasha of Egypt was encouraged 
 in his resistance by the youth and apparent weakness of the new sultan, who 
 was surrounded by treacherous officers. The influence of Mehemet Ali was 
 so powerful at Constantinople that the Capitan Pasha (High Admiral) took 
 the Turkish fleet through the Dardanelles to Alexandria and delivered it over 
 to the sultan's rebellious viceroy. The strong will and propitious fortune ot 
 Mehemet Ali seemed to threaten the dissolution of the Turkish empire. The 
 European powers tendered their mediation, which the sultan accepted. He 
 offered Mehemet Ali the hereditary sovereignty of Egypt instead of remaining 
 a vassal, but the ambitious pasha required to have Syria as well. Prance, 
 although formally bound by a treaty of 1839 to act in co-operation with 
 England, Eussia, Austria, and Prussia, had her own policy as to a settlement 
 of the Syrian question, and declined entering into the views of the other 
 four powers. Lord Palmerston resolved to conclude a treaty for the main- 
 tenance of the Ottoman empire without the co-operation of Prauce. The 
 
 * Brodie's " FsycLological Inquiries," 3id edition, p. 98.
 
 430 TREATY OF ALLIANCE— EXCLUSION OF FRANCE. [1810 
 
 treaty of Alliance to which allasion was made ia the Queen's speech was 
 signed at London on the 15th of July, 1840. 
 
 The exclusion of France from the European alliance was very nearly 
 precipitating us into a war with the government of Louis Philippe. 
 M. Thiers, then President of the Council, evinced no desire to calm 
 that passionate agitation which burst out in Prance in the belief that 
 the nation had been insulted. The duke of Wellington, with his usual 
 strong sense, rightly interpreted the disposition of the people and of 
 the government of this kingdom. In a private letter of the 5th of 
 October he thus expressed himself: " God send that we may preserve peace 
 between these two great countries, and for the world ! I am certain that 
 there is no desire in this country on the part of any party, I may almost say 
 of any influential individual, to quarrel with, much less to do anything offen- 
 sive towards Prance. But, if we should be under the necessity of going to 
 war, you will witness the most extraordinary exertions ever made by this or 
 any country, in order to carry the same on with vigour, however undesirable 
 we may think it to enter into it." * Upon the conduct of lord Palmerston, 
 then Secretary of State for Poreign Affairs, there was some diversity of 
 opinion at home. Even members of the Cabinet were not wholly in accord 
 with his policy, and many of the public held that he was rash and obstinate. 
 His policy was signally triumphant. Although the cry of the Parisians for a 
 few months was, " Guerre aux Anglais," the Prench Government found that 
 their country was not in a condition to go to war, and that the popular (3ry 
 for hostilities had some association with revolutionary tendencies. After the 
 lapse of twenty-one years, M. Guizot has published his Memoirs of that stirring 
 time, when he was ambassador in England. His intelligent and candid revela- 
 tions may present to those who are curious to trace the movements and 
 counter-movements of two such adroit players in the great game of politics 
 as M. Thiers and lord Palmerston, a juster view of the causes of this tem- 
 porary interruption of the friendly feelings between the two governments 
 and of the policy of the British Minister for Poreign Affairs, than they could 
 otherwise derive from the contemporary expressions of opinion either in 
 England or in Prance. 
 
 The Hesolutions of the four powers upon which the treaty of the 15th of 
 July was founded had become known in London on the 23rd. At the 
 anniversary of the 28th of July, when sixty thousand men were under arms 
 in Paris, the popular desire for war was shown in the most marked manner. 
 M. Guizot was perplexed by the contrast of the uneasiness of lord JMel- 
 bourne and lord John Eussell with the decided language of lord Palmerston. 
 In answer to the ambassador's despatches, M. Thiers had only one word to 
 reply — " tcnezferme^''^ but the warlike minister invited him to a meeting 
 with the king and himself at the Cliateau d'Eu on the 7th of August. 
 Guizot left London for this interview on the 6th. Whilst he was crossing 
 the Channel to Calais another person was crossing the channel to Boulogne, 
 to be the hero of what was then described as " a wild attempt to excite civi] 
 
 * Raikes's "Private Correspondence with the Duke of Wellington," &c., p. 156. 
 + Guizot — "Meinoires," tome v. p. 255.
 
 1840.1 PRINCE NAPOLEON LANDS NEAR BOULOGNE, 43J 
 
 war, made by a maniac of the Bonaparte family." * The maniac of 184.0 
 became the emperor of 1852. 
 
 On the 7th of July the Prench frigate la Belle Poule, commanded by 
 the prince de Joinville, had sailed for the purpose of receiving at St. Helena, 
 and transporting to Prance, the remains of the emperor Napoleon. To this 
 somewhat strange request of the government of Louis Philippe made by 
 M. Guizot, the English Cabinet accorded its consent, lord Palmerstou giving 
 a courteous reply to the demand, whilst he was unable to conceal a passino- 
 smile. At this time prince Louis N'apoleon was residing at Carlton 
 Gardens, in London, and M. Guizot had been required to keep an eye on 
 his movements. The ambassador described the refugee as being constantly 
 in the park; as frequently also at the opera, where aides-de-camp stood 
 behind him in his box. In public they were bragging and ostentatious. 
 Their private life was idle and obscure. In spite of their tall talk M. Guizot 
 thought there was little of r,eality in their boastful projects. The French 
 Poreign Office, however, believed that some attempt would be made by this 
 party of Bonapartists, although their action would be confined to a very 
 narrow circle. 
 
 On the 4th of August a steam packet, the City of Edinburgh, which 
 had been hired as for a party of pleasure, left the port of London, bearing 
 prince Louis Napoleon, count Montholon, and about forty officers and 
 attendants. Arms and. ammunition, military uniforms, horses and carriages, 
 and a large quantity of specie, had been previously taken on board ; with a 
 tame eagle that the prince had taught to feed out of his hand. The steam- 
 packet dropped down the river ; took a Prench pilot on board at Gravesend ; 
 and made for the Prench coast, where it arrived on the evening of the 5th. 
 Between two and three miles to the north of Boulogne is the miserable 
 village of "Wimereux, around which, in 1803, a camp was formed of a portion 
 of tho Grand Army for the invasion of England. The country here is barren, 
 and a few hovels lie between the sand hills on the shore. Here, at the 
 mouth of a petty stream, Napoleon caused a port to be formed, which at the 
 end of six months was capable of containing a hundred and seventy 
 vessels. It is now choked up and altogether decayed. Here, then, sur- 
 rounded by associations with the memory of the great emperor — in the 
 harbour which his army had dug out of the sands, and in view of the column 
 which they had raised to his glory — the nephew landed with his followers 
 at four o'clock on the morning of the 6th. Those of military rank had 
 exchanged their ordinary dress for the uniform then worn by Prench 
 officers. The invading band, who had been joined from Boulogne by a young 
 lieutenant of the 42nd, named Aladenise, and three soldiers, marched towards 
 the town, bearing a tri-coloured flag surmounted by an eagle. There were 
 few persons about at that hour except two or three officers of the customs, who 
 were compelled to march with them. Upon arriving at the guard-house in 
 the Place d' Anton, an attempt to seduce the soldiers failed, and the party 
 marched to the Quai de la Caserne. The barrack there, now given up to 
 peaceful purposes as a vast storehouse, was occupied by the 42nd regiment. 
 The officers slept out of the barrack, and had not arrived at five o'clock, 
 
 * " Spectator," August 8.
 
 432 FAILURE OF HIS ATTEMPT TO PRODUCE AN INSURRECTION". [1840. 
 
 when lieutenant Aladenise called up the soldiers, ordering them to take 
 their arms, and march with the nephew of the emperor to Paris ; Louis 
 Philippe, he told them, had ceased to reign. The proposed march was, 
 however, interrupted by the arrival of captain Puygelier and two other 
 officers. To the splendid offers that were made to the captaiu and his 
 companions they turned a deaf ear. The captain was as unmoved by the 
 threats of some of his men as by the promises of the adventurers. To the 
 shouts of Vive le JPrince Louis he replied Vive le Roi. A scuffle ensued, 
 when a shot was fired fi'om a pistol which Louis Napoleon had in his hand, 
 by which a grenadier was w^ounded. The prince was not absolutely charged 
 with a murderous intention in thus discharging his pistol, but it was implied 
 that this part of the affair was an accident, or at least uupremeditated. 
 Immediately after this the barrack-yard was cleared of the intruders, and they 
 marched to the Haute Ville, distributing proclamations and throwing abouc 
 money. They fancied they could seize arms in the old chateau for the purpose 
 of arming the population, but their course was stopped by the sub-prefect of 
 Boulogne, who, in the name of the king, commanded them to disperse. He 
 was answered by a blow on the head with the eagle which one of the officers 
 carried. They tried to force the door of the chateau. During this time the 
 rappel had called out the IN'ational Guard, who marched out towards Wime- 
 reux, to do battle with a large force which they were told had landed there. 
 It was now six o'clock. Failing in the attempt to force the chateau, unsup- 
 ported by any portion of the population, there was nothing lefc to the adven- 
 turers but flight to the place of their debarkation. With a mad movement of 
 defiance they marched on the Calais road, and then stopped at the Napoleon 
 column, instead of proceeding over the hill to Wimereux. The first stone of 
 the column had been laid by Marshal Soult in 1801. Left unfinished under 
 the Empire, it had been proceeded with under Louis XVIIL, " as a monu- 
 ment of peace." Louis Philippe, whose doubtful policy was to revive the 
 national appetite lor glory which belonged to the memory of Napoleon, was 
 in 1840 finishing this column. But the statue of the great Emperor by which 
 it is crowned was not placed there till 1841. The prince and his party sur- 
 rounded the monument, whilst the eagle-bearer entered the column to plant 
 the standard on its summit. He was left to mount the dark stairs whilst his 
 leader and his companions made a hasty retreat before the large force that 
 was now coming against them. The soldiery, commanded by captaiu 
 Puygelier, with the National Guards and gendarmerie under the orders of 
 the sub-prefect and the mayor, rendered resistance vain. Some fled into the 
 fields. Louis Napoleon and five or six others got down to the sands to the 
 north of the harbour. The prince threw himself into the sea and swam to 
 a little boat. The National Guard fired upon the fugitives, of whom one man 
 was killed and another dangerously wounded. An inhabitant of Boulogne, 
 who had been one of the National Guard in 1840, expressed to us the indig- 
 nation which he felt at beholding men who were swimming for their lives 
 being fired upon when their power of doing mischief was at an end. Louis 
 Napoleon swam back and surrendered himself. He was taken to the dun- 
 geon of the chateau, where he remained two days before being conveyed to 
 Paris. 
 
 The trial of the prince and of nineteen other conspirators took place oa
 
 1S40.] DIFFERENCES OF ENGLAND AXD FRANCE ON EASTERN AFFAIRS. 433 
 
 the 6th of October before the Chamber of Peers. Louis Napoleon maintained 
 a bold front upon his trial. la the speech which he addressed to his judges 
 he said, " I represent before you a principle, a cause, a defeat : the principle, 
 it 13 the sovereignty of the people ; the cause, that of the empire ; the defeat, 
 "Waterloo. The principle, you have recognized ; the cause, you have served ; 
 the defeat, you desire to avenge." He was sentenced to imprisonment for 
 life ; his companions to various terms of confinement. The prison of Louis 
 Napoleon was the fortress of Ham in the department of Aisne. The sis 
 years of solitude which he there passed were not unprofitably employed in 
 study. In 1846 he escaped in the dress of a workman, and again found a 
 refuge in England. The Paris press of 1840 teemed with denunciations 
 against the ministersof Queen Victoria, maintaining that they had encouraged 
 the prince in his project, being angry with the government of Louis Philippe. 
 It was asserted that lord Palmerston had made a visit to Louis Napoleon, or 
 had been visited by him, previous to his departure. Lord Palmerston found 
 it necessary to assure, upon his honour, le baron de Bourqueney, who repre- 
 sented the French embassy in the absence of M. Gruizot, that neither he nor 
 lord Melbourne bad seen Louis Napoleon for two years, nor any one of the 
 adventurers who had accompanied him.* 
 
 The conferences at the Chateau d'Eu were soon terminated. The king of 
 the French went to Boulogne to express hia thanks to the inhabitants for 
 their loyalty on the 6th of August. To a deputation of the English Jie said 
 that afiairs between Erance and England were taking a favourable turn. 
 M. Guizot returned to England, and was satisfied by the cordiality of his 
 reception by the authorities and populace of Ramsgate that the English 
 people bore no ill-will towards France. Arrived in London he found an 
 invitation from the queen to visit her at "Windsor, where he met the king 
 and queen of the Belgians, lord Melbourne, and lord Palmerston. "With 
 Leopold he had many confidential discussions, the sagacious king manifesting 
 the strongest desire that the amicable relations between England and France 
 should be preserved. M. Guizofc says that not a word of politics passed 
 between him and lord Palmerston or lord Melbourne. He was satisfied that 
 Leopold's attempts to shake the resolution of the Foreign Secretary had 
 produced no efiect, that the situation was in no degree changed, and that 
 events would follow the obscure course indicated by the treaty of the 15th of 
 July. In a few days he had a private after-dinner talk with lord Palmerston. 
 One part of that conversation still preserves its interest. " Is it true, my 
 lord," said Guizot, "that you are increasing your fleet by several vessels ? " 
 This question had reference to the Mediterranean fleet. " Yes," replied lord 
 Palmerston, " we will raise it to sixteen vessels, — you, at this moment, have 
 raised yours to eighteen. Moreover, you have five new ships building, which 
 will give you a preponderance which we cannot accept." f Mr. Cobdeji 
 shows that in 1840-41 the accustomed proportion of the French navy to ours 
 underwent a great and sudden derangement, and that instead of being content 
 
 The details of this extraordinary attempt are to be collected from the proceedings on the 
 trial of the conspirators, given in "Annuaire Ilistorique," 18J0, p. 268 to p. 291. See also 
 Uuizot's " Memoires," tome v. p. 258 to p. 264. 
 
 t Guizot—" Memoires," tome t. p. 282. 
 
 VOL. vni. — 25S. .
 
 434 WAR THREATENED— M. THIERS AND LORD PALMERSTON. [ISiO. 
 
 vvith two-thirds of our force, the French navy approached almost to an 
 equality with our own.* M. Thiers, a few weeks later, contemplated au 
 increase of 150,000 men to the French array, making a total of 639,000. t 
 It was not raised to this height, but it was greatly increased. The duke of 
 Wellington, at the beginniug of ISll , wrote : " I very much fear the conse- 
 quences of these large armaments. It would almost appear that it was the 
 interest of France to recommence the war in Europe." J One consequence 
 of the feeling in France that produced these armaments was the interruption 
 to two important treaties with England. M. Guizot on the 2nd of Sep- 
 tember wrote to M. Thiers : " If you conclude at the same time with Eng- 
 land a treaty on material interests — the treaty of commerce, and a treaty 
 on a great moral interest — the abolition of the slave-trade, that will produce 
 a great effect and a good effect upon the English public." § At this period 
 Mr. Porter, of the Board of Trade, had been sent to Paris to negociate a 
 commercial treaty. " I will receive Mr. Porter well," replied M. Thiers, 
 " but it is a serious thing to consent to a treaty of commerce in our present 
 situation. Nevertheless I comprehend the inconveniences of a refusal .... 
 I must hold counsel as to the treaty about the negroes. I dread to make 
 treaty upon treaty with folks who have done so ill by us." || We have 
 heard Mr. Porter say that one morning Thiers dipped his pen in the ink to 
 sign the treaty, but suddenly said that he would wait another day. When 
 that day came Mr. Porter had been ordered to proceed no further in the 
 business. He believed that Thiers was sincere. He further believed, most 
 unjustly, th?^ lord Palmerstoii was the instrument of Eussia. Mr. Porter — 
 one of- the rt jst honest and confiding of men — was in some degree under the 
 same influcTxe as many other persons ordinarily of calm judgment. He sur- 
 rendered bis judgment to a monomania which acquired a plausible shape in 
 the hands of a man of great talent and powers of persuasion, who talked of 
 "treason" and "Eussian gold" in a way that attracted many followers. 
 These, by their frantic denunciations of lord Palmerston at " TJrquhartite 
 meetings," constrained even his political enemies to vindicate his personal 
 honour.^ The Foreign Secretary remained unmoved either by the extrava- 
 gances of a feeble minority in England, or the threatenings of a war-majority 
 in France. He vindicated his policy by the promptitude of his acts. 
 
 The four powers had determined that the ports of Syria and Egypt should 
 be declared to be in a state of blockade. Our Mediterranean fleet was under 
 the command of sir Eobert Stopford, and his second in command was Charles 
 John Napier. Whilst in August admiral Stopford was blockading the port 
 of Alexander, captain Napier was blockading Beyrout. On the 9tli of 
 September' admiral Stopford was before Beyrout with the English fleet and 
 a few Turkish and Austrian vessels. On the 10th the bombardment of the 
 town and fortress commenced; which continued till the 16th, when the 
 Egyptian troops abandoned the place. Meanwhile Napier, who had landed 
 
 * " The Three Panics," p. 5. 
 
 + Guizot, toiuc V. p. 342. 
 
 Z Raikes's " Private Correspondence," p. 248. 
 
 § Guizot, tome v. pp. 299, 300. 
 
 II Guizot, tome v. pp. 299, 300. 
 
 U See " Quarterly Review," vol. Isvi. art. viii.
 
 i840.] NAVAL SUCCESSES AGAINST MEHEilET ALL 435 
 
 •with 5000 men, liad routed the army of Ibrahim Pasha, and had taken Saida 
 by storm. On the 3rd of November the allied squadron commenced hostili- 
 ties against the famous fortress of Sfc. Jean d'Acre, which was considered to be 
 almost impregnable. It was bombarded through that day. In the night the 
 Egyptian troops quitted the town, and it was taken possession of by a party 
 of Turks and Austrians. The bombardment of St. Jean d'Acre was remark- 
 able as being the first occasion on which war-steamers had been employed in 
 battle. To the rapidity of movement of four English steamers, which enabled 
 them to take the most advantageous positions, it was in some degree owing 
 that so strong a fortress was reduced by the cannon of ships of war in so 
 short a time, and with scarcely any loss to the assailants. When the thanks 
 of the House of Lords were voted to admiral sir Robert Stopford and to 
 commodore sir Charles Napier, the duke of Wellington stated that he con- 
 sidered the achievement of St. Jean d'Acre one of the greatest deeds of 
 modern times. He thought it hia duty on this occasion to warn their lord- 
 ships that they must not always expect that ships, however well commanded, 
 or however gallant their seamen might be, were capable of commonly engaging 
 Buccessfully with stone-walls.* The decided naval successes led to the final 
 submission of Mehemet Ali. The British government, with the other powers, 
 had recommended that if he yielded in a reasonable time ; gave up posses- 
 sion of the Turkish fleet ; and evacuated Syria, Adana, Candia, and the Holy 
 Cities, he should be reinstated as Pasha of Egypt, and have an hereditary 
 tenure of his pashalic. On the 2nd of December he accepted the terms 
 proposed. The contest was at an end. 
 
 Looking at the execution of the treaty of the 15th of July, M. Guizot 
 frankly acknowledges the errors of the policy of the Erench government. 
 *' We had attached to this question an exaggerated importance ; we had 
 regarded the interests of Erance in the Mediterranean as more associated 
 than they really were with the fortunes of Mehemet Ali." Erance had, he 
 says, believed that Mehemet Ali would have been able to resist all the eiforts 
 of the four powers united, when it was finally shown that an English squadron 
 would be sufiicient to subdue him. These errors, he continues, were public, 
 national, everywhere spread, and maintained in the Chambers as well as in the 
 country, in the opposition as well as in the government. " The hour of dis- 
 appointment was come, and it was the cabinet over which M. Thiers 
 presided which had to bear the burthen." f Louis Philippe refused his 
 assent to the warlike speech which M. Thiers proposed for the opening of 
 the Chambers. The ministry resigned, and Soult and Guizot were their 
 successors. 
 
 The belligerent spirit which had been called forth in Erance by these 
 difierences between the Euglish and French governments were not likelv to 
 subside into cordial friendship under the influence of a pageant which 
 recalled the glories and the humiliations of the Empire. The population of 
 Paris had the gratification of a magnificent spectacle on the 15th of Decem- 
 ber, when the remains of Napoleon were interred in the church of the 
 Invalides. The procession has been described as wearing more of a tri- 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ivi. col. 2.54. 
 + " MemoireSj" tome v. p. 644.
 
 436 SESSION OF PARLIAMENT— THE ANTI-CORX-LAW LEAGUE. [1841. 
 
 umphaut than a funeral air. Long cavalcades of troops were succeeded by a 
 few mourning coaches ; Grenadiers of the Old Guard and Mamelukes 
 followed the splendid car on which was placed the body. Imperial eagles 
 veiled with crape were carried by eighty-six non-commissioned officers. 
 Even to the sword and the hat of the Emperor, which were laid upon the 
 coffin, the whole, solemnity was calculated to call up remembrances of the 
 past which were not favourable to the security of the reigning family. 
 There was no tumult ; but there were demonstrations of popular feeling 
 which showed that the pacific policy of the king and of his new ministry 
 was not so welcome to the populace as M. Thiers and war with Europe. 
 
 The public interest in foreign affairs became merged in the more imme- 
 diate importance of the discussions upon great subjects of domestic policy, 
 which signalized the Session of parliament opened by the queen on the 
 26th of January, 1841. This Session will be memorable, not more for the 
 defeat of the Whig government after ten years of power, than' for the unex- 
 pected adoption of the principles of free-trade by that government, after a 
 long period of indecision, if not of hostility to any vital changes, especially in 
 regard to the Corn-Laws. In February, 1839, Mr. Villiers was not sup- 
 ported by the members of the Cabinet, with the exception of Mr. Poulett 
 Thompson, in his motion that evidence should be taken at the bar of the 
 House on the operation of the Corn-Laws. Lord John Eussell had, how- 
 ever, declared to his constituents at Stroud that the time had come for a 
 change in the Corn-Laws, which he considered as indefensible in principle. 
 The motion of Mr. Villiers was negatived by a majority of a hundred and 
 eighty-one. Between the Session of 1839 and that of 1841 a most effective 
 agitation against these laws had been carried on throughout the country. 
 Associations were established in Manchester, and in other great manufac- 
 turing and commercial towns, for promoting the principles of Free Trade ; and 
 their scattered efforts were effectually combined by the formation of the 
 Anti-Corn-Law League. This name was adopted by a convention of three 
 hundred delegates assembled in London at the opening of the Session of 
 1839. Large sums were subscribed for the purpose of circulating tracts, 
 and for engaging lecturers to enlighten public opinion upon the injurious 
 operation of the Corn-Laws and other laws called protective. These efforts 
 produced necessarily strong convictions in the minds of many of the thinking- 
 part of the community. But the principle of abandoning protection for agri- 
 culture could scarcely be expected to find favour with any large portion of 
 landlords and cultivators, who believed that a fall in prices would be the ruin 
 of their property and the bane of their industry. The class of mechanics 
 and factory-workers were too ready to believe the fallacy proclaimed in par- 
 liament, that a fall in the price of food would inevitably produce a lowering 
 of the wages of labour. The Chartists always presented themselves in force 
 at the Anti-Corn-Law Meetings, to maintain the one panacea for the distress 
 of the country — universal suftrage. It is difficult therefore to imagine that 
 when Lord John Eussell, on the 7th of May, 1841, announced the intention 
 of government to propose a fixed duty on the importation of foreign corn, 
 instead of the slidiug-scale w^hich was then in operation, the Cabinet had come 
 to tliis resolve solely with the object of obtaining some popularity that might 
 eventually cemponsato then for the gradually increasing loss of their strength
 
 1841.J DECLARATIONS OF MINISTRY ON QUESTIONS OF FREE-TRADE. 407 
 
 iu parliament. The popular opinion was decidedly against them. Tiie 
 interests that would be aftected by Pree Trade were too deeply rooted in old 
 habits and traditions — the benefits were too remote — to be swayed by the 
 convictions of believers in the doctrine that legislation ought first to have 
 regard to the general good — that of the consumers. Members of the govern- 
 ment were necessarily open to the charge of inconsistency. Lord Melbourne, 
 on the 3rd of May, was twitted by the duke of Buckingham that in the 
 previous year, upon, the motion of earl Fitzwilliam " that it is expedient to 
 reconsider the laws relating to the importation of foreign corn," he had 
 opposed the motion, believing that the advantages to be gained by the change 
 were not worth the evils of the struggle. Lord Melbourne answered this 
 reproof by stating that the words which he used also conveyed his opinion 
 that a time might come, and circumstances might arise, when this question 
 must be taken into consideration. Those circumstances had arisen ; that 
 time in his opinion had now come when it was found necessary, in order to 
 meet the exigencies of the country, to adopt wide and extensive financial 
 measures. Sir Eobert Peel, in Part III. of his Memoirs relating to " Corn- 
 Laws, 1845 — 46," says that at the close of the Session of 1845 " the progress 
 of discussion had made a material change iu the opinions of many persons 
 with regard to the policy of protection to domestic agriculture, and the 
 extent to which that policy should be carried." * He names lord John 
 Eussell and lord Melbourne as having adopted, as well as himself, the 
 opinions upon this subject generally prevalent at an early period of his public 
 life among men of all parties. It would seem, therefore, rather unjust not 
 to give the Whig Cabinet of 1841 some credit for being influenced by " the 
 progress of discussion," instead of repeating the charge commonly made 
 against them of having rushed into free-trade principles " to make a bid for 
 popularity" when the agitation of the League had produced its effect upon 
 public opinion. Little effect had been produced in 1841. "What lord John 
 Eussell proposed was not accepted by the League, which in point of fact 
 repudiated his plan of a fixed duty, demanding an absolute freedom from all 
 duty upon foreign corn. 
 
 The " wide and extensive financial measures " to which lord Melbourne 
 alluded on the 3rd of May, were brought forward in propositions by the 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer in his budget, to raise the duty on colonial 
 timber, reducing that on Baltic timber ; and to keep the existing duty on 
 colonial sugar, lowering the duty on foreign sugar. These propositions were 
 really a considerable step in the direction of Pree Trade. The proposal iu 
 reference to the sugar duties was brought forward by lord John Eussell in a 
 Committee of Ways and Means on the 7th of May. During eight nights 
 was this proposal debated with all the zeal that was stimulated by the fears 
 of West India merchants and Canadian timber merchants, and by the more 
 influential terrors of the landed interest. All saw in this abandonment of 
 the principle of protection a dismal future of the general ruin of domestic 
 industry. It was expected, moreover, in this protracted debate that the 
 result would involve the fall of the Whig government, which had prematurely 
 and rashly espoused the Pree Trade doctrines. A necessary consequence 
 
 • " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. ii. p. 98.
 
 438 DEBATES ON THE SUGAR DUTIES. [1841. 
 
 would be the restoration to power of tlie Conservative party, who, it waa 
 supposed, would always hold to the principles of Protection, which Toryism 
 had never willingly relaxed even when under the pressure of the economical 
 doctrines of Canning and Huskisson. The importance of these debates on 
 the sugar-duties has necessarily in a great measure passed away ; but it is 
 interesting to look back upon the opinions maintained by two of the most 
 accomplished debaters of that day — sir Eobert Peel and lord Palmerston. 
 Sir Eobert Peel maintained that if the principle of Free Trade announced by 
 the government was that, without reference to any other consideration, we 
 should go to the cheapest market, he could not concur in it. " In a country 
 of such complicated relations as this, the rigid application of such a principle 
 would involve us in inestricable confusion." N'ever, on the other hand, were 
 Eree Trade principles more ably advocated than by lord Palmerston. " We 
 intend to supply the deficiency of the revenue by striking a blow at some of 
 the great monopolies which have hitherto retarded the prosperity of the 
 
 country The question is, whether the great springs of our national 
 
 industry shall be relieved from some of those artificial obstructions which 
 have hitherto retarded their development, or whether the sources of our 
 national prosperity shall, for the benefit of private interests and of privileged 
 classes, continue to be choked up. The question is between Pree Trade (and 
 by Free Trade I mean trade open to competition) on the one side, and 
 monopoly on the other. The question is between reason and prejudice : 
 between the interests of the many and the profits of the few Pro- 
 tection, in the sense in which the word is used by those who now oppose the 
 plan of the government, is a tax levied upon the industry and skill of the 
 mass of the community to enable a few to remain indolent and unskilful. 
 Such protection is not only erroneous in principle, but, after all, utterly 
 useless to those for whose particular benefit it is maintained. Show me a 
 trade that is free, by which I mean, open to fair competition, and I will show 
 you a trade carried on with intelligence, enterprise, and success." Prom his 
 own ofiicial experience he adduced many examples that " Protection is a 
 game that two can play at." He showed conclusively that it was impossible 
 that a great country like England could go on protecting, as it was called, its 
 various interests, and that other countries should not follow its example. * 
 
 In his reply, which concluded the last night of the debate, lord John 
 Eussell emphatically asserted the principle of a free trade in corn. The 
 noble lord the member for North Lancashire (lord Stanley) " had said, that 
 the producer of corn could not depend upon his own skill and industry, but 
 must rely upon the sunshine or the storm for the abundance or scarcity of 
 his crop. That was true as to the producer of a particular country ; he must 
 depend upon a higher power. But the same power that directs the storm 
 had given a remedy for any local disadvantage, for such was the bounty and 
 benevolence of Providence, that if in one country there was a bad season 
 and a deficient crop, anotlier was blest with a good season and an abundant 
 harvest. It was fortunately in the power of man, by his skill and ingenuity 
 and the means they gave of traversing the ocean, to take advantage of the 
 beneficence of the Creator. If that intercourse were not permitted hy short- 
 
 • Hansard, vol- Iviii. col. CiS.
 
 1341.] MINISTERS DEFEATED ON THE QUESTION OP THE SUGAR DUTIES. 439 
 
 siglitedness and error, do not let it be said that it was to the infliction of 
 heaven that a deficiency of food was to be attributed. Let the blame be laid 
 where it was due. Let the laws be blamed which defeated the magnificent 
 sjheme by which plenty would be given to all the nations of the world, more 
 or less depending upon each other, and keeping up a kindly and a beneficial 
 intercourse. Let the laws be blamed which blasted the fair prospects of a 
 nation, and inflicted the curse of sterility, barrenness, and scarcity upon a 
 land where plenty might reign, and marred the gracious designs of Pro- 
 vidence by unjust legislation." * 
 
 Upon the question of the Sugar Duties the ministers were defeated by a 
 vote of 317 to 281. With this majority of 36 against them it was expected 
 that there would have been an immediate resignation. The notice to quit did 
 not expel the tenants of Downing Street. On the 27th of May sir Eobert 
 Peel moved, " that her majesty's ministers do not sufficiently possess the con- 
 fidence of the House of Commons to enable them to carry through the House 
 measures which they deem of essential importance to the public welfare ; and 
 that their continuance in office under such circumstances is at variance with 
 the spirit of the constitution." This Eesolution was carried by a vote of 312 
 to 311. On the 7th of June lord John Eussell stated that the ministry had 
 determined to appeal to the country. On the 22nd the parliament was pro- 
 rogued by the queen, and the dissolution was proclaimed the next day. 
 
 When the new Parliament met on the 19th of August, 1841, it had been 
 ascertained with tolerable accuracy that the results of the elections were 
 wholly unfavourable to the continued existence of the ministry. What was 
 called the Conservative principle was not only triumphant over the Tree- 
 trade principle boldly proclaimed at the last hour by the Whigs ; but many 
 of their former supporters, now known as the Eadical party, were either 
 distinctly hostile towards the ministry, or very lukewarm in their support. 
 The parliamentary trial of strength was close at hand. Mr, Charles Shaw 
 Lefevre was re-elected Speaker without opposition. The queen did not open 
 the Parliament in person, the Speech being read by the Lords Commissioners. 
 With the absolute certainty that a change of administration would very 
 quickly ensue, some expressions in the Speech from the throne must have 
 appeared rather as the challenge to a future contest from a retreating force to 
 an enemy about to drive it from the field, than as the measured and conciliatory 
 language of the sovereign to those ranged in battle array on either side. The 
 attention of Parliament was in this Speech called to the revision of duties 
 aflecting the productions of foreign countries. It would be for Parliament to 
 consider not only whether some of those duties were unproductive to the reve- 
 nue, but were vexatious to commerce ; whether, further, the principle of Protec- 
 tion, upon which others were founded, was not carried to an extent injurious 
 alike to the income of the state and the interests of the people. Her Majesty 
 also expressed her desire that the Parliament should consider the laws which 
 regulated trade in corn. It would be for them to determine whether those 
 laws did not aggravate the natural fluctuations of supply, embarrass trade, 
 derange currency, and diminish the comfort and increase the privations of 
 the great body of the community. Lord Stanley, on a subsequent night, 
 
 * Hansard, vul. Iviii. col. 666.
 
 440 NEW PARLIAMENT— AMENDMENT TO THE ADDRESS CARRIED. [1841. 
 
 expressed his regret that the Speech had been so framed as to be liable to 
 misconstruction in the eyes of the country ; that its recommendation.s 
 appeared to be the recommendations of the Crown, and not of the ministei« 
 who constitutionally advised the Crown. Lord John Eussell answered, that 
 he thought it was generally understood that the Speech from the throne 
 was the Speech c£ ministers ; the Speech was the result of the advice of 
 ministers, and ministers alone were responsible for it. M. Guizot shrewdly 
 observes, that with the sagacity of party spirit the adversaries of sir 
 Eobert Peel estimated more accurately than perhaps he did himaelf the 
 difficulties which awaited him. "Retiring with every possible advantage, the 
 Whigs charged sir Eobert Peel to repair their faults, and to perform their 
 promises."* 
 
 In the House of Commons an Amendment to the Address was moved by 
 Mr. Stuart "Wortley, to the effect that the public expenditure having for 
 several years exceeded the annual income, the House was convinced of the 
 necessity of adopting measures for the purpose of remedying so great an evil ; 
 that it was the duty of the House humbly to submit to her Majesty that it 
 was essential to the satisfactory results of their deliberations in reference to 
 the subjects to which their attention had been especially directed, and other 
 matters of public concern, " that your Majesty's government should possess 
 the confidence of this House and of the country ; and respectfully to re- 
 present to your Majesty that that confidence is not reposed in the present 
 advisers of your Majesty." The debate on the Address was continued four 
 nights. The speeches by the leaders of the two parties, sir Robert Peel 
 and lord John Eussell, were necessarily the most important. Sir Robert 
 Peel, in concluding his address, said " If I accept ofiice, it shall be by 
 walking in the open light and in the direct paths of the constitution. If I 
 exercise power, it shall be upon my conception— perhaps imperfect — perhaps 
 mistaken — but my sincere conception of public duty. That power I will 
 not hold unless I can hold it consistently with the maintenance of my 
 own opinions, and that power I will relinquish the moment I am satisfied 
 that I am not supported in the maintenance of them by the confidence of the 
 House and of the people of this country." f The conclusion of lord John 
 Russell's speech was equally emphatic : " I have only to express my conviction, 
 that if this country is governed by enlarged and liberal counsels, its power 
 and might will spread and increase, its influence will become greater and 
 greater; that liberal principles will prevail, and civilization will be spread 
 to all parts of the globe ; that you will bless millions by your dominion 
 and mankind by your example." J On the 27th of August the House 
 divided on Mr. Wortley's Amendment, when in a House of six hundred 
 and twenty-nine members the government was in a minority of ninety- 
 one. In the House of Lords, where an Amendment to the Address, similar 
 to that of the Commons, had been proposed by the earl of Ripou, 
 the majority against ministers was seventy-two. Her Majesty's answer 
 to the amended Address of the House of Commons conveyed the only 
 decision which could be made by a constitutional sovereign. " Evei 
 
 * Guizot, "Memoirs of Sir Robert reel," p. 91. 
 + Hansard, yol. lix. col. 420. 
 t Ibid., vol. lix. col. 449.
 
 1841.] RESIGNATION- OF MINISTERS. 441 
 
 anxious to listen to the advice of the Parliament, I will take immediate 
 measures for the formation of a new administration." The resignation of 
 ministers was announced in both Houses on the 30tli of August. 
 
 The biographer of sir Eobert Peel has said, " Never perhaps had a first 
 minister united at his accession so many elements and guarantees of a safe 
 and strong government. But he was called on to perform the most 
 difficult of tasks — a task essentially incoherent and contradictory. He 
 was obliged to be at once a Conservative and a Eeformer, and to 
 carry along with him, in this double course, a majority incoherent in 
 itself, and swayed, in reality, by immoveable and untractable interests, 
 prejudices, and passions."* Sir Eobert Peel has given his own testimonv 
 to the difficulties which beset his path at the very onset of his attempts a^ 
 a commercial reformer. One of his first acts was to propose to his colleagues 
 a material change in the Corn-Law of 1828. He had also to propose a 
 removal of the prohibition which existed on the import of foreign cattle and 
 meat. " These changes," he says, " although they gave little satisfaction 
 to the most eager opponents of the Corn Law, and were indeed denounced 
 by some as perfectly nugatory, were not effected without great murmuring 
 and some open opposition to the government on the part of many of its 
 supporters. The duke of Buckingham resigned his seat in the Cabinet 
 rather thaa be a party to them, nor was it an easy matter to procure 
 the unanimous adoption of the measures I proposed by the remaiuii;^' 
 
 Gnizot, " :\remoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 89. 
 "Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," vol. ii. p. 100,
 
 442 
 
 THE MINISTRY AS FORMED BY SIR ROBERT REEL. 
 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Lord Wharncliffe 
 
 Lord Lyndliurst 
 
 Diike of Buckingham* 
 
 Right Hon, Sir Robert Peel 
 
 Right Hon. Henry Goulburn . 
 
 Earl of Haddington 
 
 Right Hon. Sir James Graham, Bart, 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen 
 Lord Stanley- 
 Lord Ellenboroiighf . 
 Earl of Ripon 
 
 Right Hon. Sir Henry Hardinge . 
 Right Hon. Sir E, KnatchbuU, Bart. 
 Duke of Wellington 
 
 Lord President of the Council. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 Secretary of State for the Home Depart- 
 ment. 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 President of the Board of Control. 
 President of the Board of Trade. 
 Secretary at War. 
 Paymaster-General. 
 Without office. 
 
 Not of the Cabinet. 
 
 Lord Lowther 
 
 Lord Granville Somerset 
 
 Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone , 
 
 Earl of Lincoln . 
 
 Right Hon. Sir George Murray 
 
 Sir Frederick Pollock 
 
 Sir William Webb FoUett . 
 
 Postni aster-G eneral. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 Vice-President of the Board of Trade and 
 
 Master of the Mint. 
 First Commissioner of Laud Revenue. 
 Master General of the Ordnance. 
 A+torney-General. 
 Solicitor-General. 
 
 Earl of Liverpool 
 Earl Delawarr 
 Earl of Jersey 
 
 Great Officers of State. 
 
 Lord Steward. 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Master of the Horse, 
 
 Earl de Grey 
 
 Sir Edward Sugden 
 
 Lord Eliot 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 Lord Lieutenant, 
 Lord High Chancellor 
 Chief Secretary. 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 Right Hon. Sir William Rae, Bart. 
 Duncan M'Neil, Esq. , 
 
 Lord Advocate, 
 Solicitor-General, 
 
 * His Grace rcsifrnccl January 31, and was succeeded by the Duke of Bucclcueh, 
 + lior.l laieiiborougli accepted the Governor-generalship of India, and was succeeded by 
 Lord h'iUgcndd and Vesci, October 23,
 
 CHAPTER XXY. 
 
 W^ar v.'ith China and War with Afghanistan — Commercial Relations with China — Beginnings o4 
 the Opium War — Its Moral Aspects — Debates in Parliament — Chusan captured — Treaty 
 made at Canton repudiated by the Emperor — Canton attacked — Arrival of Sir H. 
 Pottinger — Capture of Chin-Kiang-Foo — Treaty of Nanking — Afghanistan— Lord Auck- 
 land, Governor -general of India — Causes of the Afghan War — British Army crosses the 
 Indus — The Bolan Pass — Siege of Ghuznee — Cabul entered in triumph — Shah Soojah 
 restored— False security at Cabul — Afghan plots — Massacre of Burnes — The British 
 Army in peril — Massacre of IMacNaghten — Capitulation of the British — The Eetreat from 
 Cabul — Ladies and children given up — Destruction of the Army — One survivor arrives at 
 Jellalabad — Sale's Defence of Jellalabad — Arrival of General Pollock — Cabul retaken — 
 Kelease of the prisoners — The Army returns to India — Lord Ellenborougb's proclamations 
 — Gates of Somnauth. 
 
 At this point of our domestic history it may be conveuient to take a rapid 
 view of the events connected with two distant wars in which the country was 
 now engaged — a war with China and a war in Afghanistan. Briefly referring 
 to the origin of each of these serious contests, we shall conduct the narrative 
 to the period when peace was concluded with the Chinese government, and 
 when terrible calamities in India were overcome, and security was again won, 
 by the triumphs of our arms. We begin with China. 
 
 In the Session of Parliament which was opened on the 16th of January, 
 1840, it was announced, in the Speech of the Queen, that "events had 
 happened in China, interrupting commercial intercourse." The circumstances 
 attending this interruption Avere debated in the House of Commons on the 
 7th, 8th, and 9th of April, upon a resolution moved by Sir James Graham, to 
 the effect that the interruption in our commercial and friendly intercourse 
 with China, and the hostilities which had since taken place, were mainly to 
 be attributed to the want of foresight on the part of her majesty's advisers, 
 and especially in their neglect to furnish the superintendent at Canton with 
 powers and instructions calculated to provide against the growing evils con- 
 nected with the contraband trade in opium. As the circumstances which led 
 to this first war between Great Britain and the Chinese empire are really 
 more important than any minute details of the events of the war, we must, 
 as briefly as we can, relate what was the position of affairs up to the time 
 when the discussion on Sir James Graham's motion took place. 
 
 By the new charter of the East India Company, granted in 1833, the 
 Company's monopoly of the China trade was abolished. It had probably not 
 been sufiicientlv considered that serious collision with a government that had
 
 444 COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH CHINA. [1840. 
 
 so long and so pertinaciously insisted upon the exclusion of foreigners would 
 be the natural consequence of the position in which the trade with China 
 was now placed. The change was calculated to inspire vague fears of aggres- 
 sion amongst those who were not unacquainted with the fact that the 
 merchants who, not a century before, had humbly asked for permission to 
 establish a trade in India, were now the masters of that country, and that the 
 descendants of Aurungzebe were their pensioners. The Chinese, however, 
 had got accustomed to the East India Company, whose officers pretended to 
 no public capacity, who came as humble merchants, and who kept up a quiet 
 sleepy trade. In this intercourse there were occasional quarrels between the 
 natives and the foreigners, but their traffic, whether legal or illegal, kept on 
 its jog-trot course by the adroit management of the Company's agents, who 
 could calculate to a nicety the amount of bribery that was necessary to pro- 
 pitiate a Chinese official. The British legislature upset all this ; abolished 
 supercargoes, vesting their authority in king's officers instead of mercantile 
 agents ; and authorized the executive to employ a Superintendent, with 
 instructions to get into direct communication with the Chinese authorities. 
 The number of European ships, merchants, and seamen, rapidly increased. 
 The contraband trade ia opium was suddenly augmented. In the first ten 
 years of the present century the exports of opium from India to China 
 averaged about 2500 chests ; in 1833 they exceeded 23,000 chests, having 
 risen from 13,000 chests in the previous year ; and the subsequent average 
 of five years was about 19,000 chests.* Opium was always an article pro- 
 hibited by the Chinese government, or rather by the public acts of the 
 Court of Pekin. The provincial authorities invariably nullified everything 
 which was done by the superior power to discountenance the illicit trade, so 
 that when the government of Pekin attempted to put down that traffic 
 between Lin-tin and Canton, the viceroy of Canton substituted himself for 
 the other opium smugglers, so that the whole afiair bore the aspect of a 
 juggle among the Chinese authorities. f The Imperial government of China 
 increased the severity of the law against opium smuggling, but still the 
 smuggling went on, and especially increased on the east coast. There was a 
 belief in 1837-8 that the trade would be legalized. A mandarin in high 
 authority at Pekin, having sounder notions about smuggling than had pre- 
 vailed in Europe with some persons, proposed that the sale of opium should 
 be legalized, it being admitted like other goods with a duty of seven dollars 
 a chest, whilst the expense of smuggling amounted to forty dollars. In a 
 very able state paper he argued that the increased severity of the law against 
 opium had only tended to increase the amount of the bribe paid to the official 
 underlings for their connivance. The unfortunate mandarin was banished for 
 his liberal advice, and the Imperial government adopted more violent but less 
 efiectual measures to put down the opium trade. J There were two motives 
 which influenced tlie Court of Pekin. They were alarmed at the rapid drain of 
 silver for the purchase of opium, and they had to protect the interests of 
 native poppy-growers. Lord Palmerston quaintly said, in the debate on the 
 
 * MacCulloch's " Commercial Dictionary," article, Opium. 
 + Speecli of Wr. Charles liuller, Hansard, vol. liii. col. 788. 
 t Davis's " Cliii.ct^e," cliap. iv.
 
 1840.] BEGINNINGS OP THE OPIUM WAR-ITS MORAL ASPECTS. 44 5 
 
 0th of April, " The fact was that this was an exportation-of-bullion question, 
 an agricultural-interest-protection question." * The Chinese authorities 
 were at last brought into open collision with the resident British merchants. 
 In consequence of an attempt to strangle a Chinese opium-smuggler in front 
 of the factories at Canton, there was an affray between the Europeans and 
 the Chinese. Captain Elliot, the Superintendent at Canton, issued a notice 
 requiring all British-owned vessels trading in opium to leave the river within 
 three days. But this measure did not conciliate the High Commissioner 
 from the Imperial Court, Lin-Tsih-Sew, who in 1839 commanded all opium 
 in British ships, whether in the Canton river or on the coast of China, to be 
 given up. All the foreign residents being forbidden to leave China, Captain 
 Elliot jomed his countrymen in the Eactories, which were surrounded by 
 Chinese soldiers. More than twenty thousand chests of opium were delivered 
 up and destroyed. War was now imminent. Captain Elliot applied for a 
 naval force, and in October two English frigates were blockading Canton. 
 These were attacked by Chinese war-junks, which were beaten off with great 
 loss. In January, 1840, an Imperial edict directed all trade with Great 
 Britain to cease for ever. 
 
 Thus commenced what has been called the Opium "War. Putting aside 
 the consideration of the treatment of this subject as a party question — one 
 which so nearly involved the fall of the Ministry, that in a House of five 
 liundred and thirty-three members, they had only a majority of nine upon 
 Sir James Graham's motion — it is startling, after this lapse of time, to trace 
 the very different views which its moral a!spects presented. The combatants 
 were fighting about the colour of a shield which showed its blackness on one 
 side and its whiteness on the other. The representative of the British 
 Government, it was argued by the supporters of the Ministry, had been 
 treated in a manner contrary to all public law, and the whole body of Eng- 
 lish traders had been subjected to imprisonment and indignities in conse- 
 quence of oflences in which they had no participation. Exact reparation for 
 these injuries, said Mr. Macaulay. In one of his despatches Captain Elliot 
 described his arrival at the Factory in the moment of extreme danger. " As 
 soon as he landed he was surrounded by his countrymen, all in an agonv of 
 distress and despair. The first thing which he did was to order the British 
 flag to be brought from his boat and planted in the balcony. The sight 
 immediately revived the hearts of those who had a minute before given them- 
 selves up for lost. It was natural that they should look up with hope and 
 confidence to that victorious flag, for it reminded them that they belonged 
 to a country unaccustomed to defeat, to submission, or to shame; to a 
 country which had exacted such reparation for the wrongs of her children as 
 had made the ears of all who heard of it to tingle ; to a country which had 
 made the Day of Algiers humble himself to the dust before her insulted 
 Consul; to a country which had avenged the victims of the Black Hole on 
 the Field" of Plassey ; to a country which had not degenerated since the great 
 Protector vowed that he would make the name of Englishman as much re- 
 spected as ever had been the name of Roman citizen." t " I am not com]>e- 
 
 * Elarsard, vol. liii. col. 940. 
 t Mac;uilay's Speeches, p. 227.
 
 146 DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT— CHUSAN CAPTURED. [1840. 
 
 tent," answered Mr. Gladstone, " to judge how long tliis war may last, or how 
 protracted may be its operations, but this I can say, that a war more unjust 
 in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with 
 permanent disgrace, I do not know, and I have not read of." He asked, 
 with reference to the eloquent description of the British flag planted on the 
 balcony at Canton, " How comes it to pass that the sight of that flag always 
 raises the spirit of Englishmen ? It is because it has always been associated 
 with the cause of justice, with opposition to oppression, with respect for 
 national rights, with honourable commercial enterprize ; but now, under the 
 auspices of the noble lord, that flag is hoisted to protect an infamous contra- 
 band frafiic, and if it were never to be hoisted except as it is now hoisted on 
 the coast of China, we should recoil from its sight with horror, and should 
 never again feel our hearts thrill, as they now thrill, with emotion, when it 
 floats proudly and magnificently on th^e breeze." * Such were the contrary 
 views in 1840 of the nature of this war ; such are the contrary views which 
 still prevail amongst those who write upon this war. The China merchants 
 of London, in a Memorial to lord Palmerston, expressed their opinion that 
 unless the measures of the government were followed up with firmness and 
 energy, the trade with China would no longer be conducted with security 
 to life and property. This was the commercial point of view. The senti- 
 mental point of view is that, confident in our military power and the com- 
 parative ignorance of the Chinese in the arts of war, we forced upon them 
 the contraband drug which the government would have kept out of the 
 reach of the intemperate. The opponents of the "Whig ministry in 1840 did 
 not, however, deny the necessity of a hostile demonstration with respect to 
 China. Sir E-obert Peel said that, " after what had passed, British honour 
 and the British name would be disgraced unless some measure were taken to 
 procure reparation for the injuries and insults which had been committed on 
 us. . . . Again and again I say, do not enter into this war without a 
 becoming spirit — a spirit becoming the name and character of England. Do 
 not forget the peculiar character of the people with whom you have to deal, 
 and so temper your measures that as little evil as possible may remain. 
 Eemember that the character of the people has lasted for many generations ; 
 that it is the same now that was given to them by Pliny and many subse- 
 quent writers. It is your duty to vindicate the honour of England where 
 vindication is necessary, and to demand reparation wherever reparation is 
 
 due." t 
 
 A small naval force having been left in the Canton river to maintain a 
 blockade, the British fleet sailed northward along the coast of China. 
 The first important operation of the war was the capture on the 5th of 
 July, by the squadron, of the city of Ting-hai in Chusan. The Chusan islands, 
 upon the possession of which the maritime intercourse of the eastern coast 
 of China essentially depended, were captured after a slight resistance. 
 Admiral Elliot arrived as plenipotentiary at Chusan on the day on which 
 the city was taken, and he despatched to Ning-po a letter from lord 
 Palmerston to be transmitted to the emperor of China at Pekin. The autho- 
 
 * IlanKarcI, vol. liii. col. 818. 
 + Hausaid, vol. liii, col. 9-3.
 
 1841.] TREATY" MADE AT CANTON REPUDIATED BY THE EMPEROR. 447 
 
 rities at Niug-po refused to receive or to forward the letters. A blockade was 
 consequently declared of the east coast, from Ning-po to the mouth of the 
 Ejaug. Captain Elliot in August entered the Pei-ho, which flows past Pekin 
 on the south. The letter of lord Palmerston was now forwarded, and on the 
 30th of August a conference was held between captain Elliot and the emperor's 
 minister Keshen, who was subsequently appointed Imperial Commissioner, 
 Lin having been deprived of his ofiice. Admiral Elliot somewhat indiscreetly 
 consented to transfer the negotiations for peace to Canton, thus neutralizing 
 the efiect that had been produced by the successes at Chusan, and by the ap- 
 proach of British vessels of war to the vicinity of Pekin. The admiral soon after 
 resigned. A truce which had been announced by admiral Elliot was violated, 
 in the midst of the negotiations, by an edict that all Englishmen and ships 
 should be destroyed wherever they were met with near Cliina. The forts 
 Chuen-pe and Tae-cok-tow on the Canton river were now stormed and 
 captured, and the Chinese squadron of war junks collected in Anson's Bay 
 was destroyed. Negotiations were then resumed; and on the 20th ol 
 January, Captain Elliot issued a circular stating that a treaty had been 
 agreed to by Keshen, the conditions of which were that Hong-Kong should 
 be ceded to England ; that six million dollars should be paid by the Chinese ; 
 that the trade should be opened within ten days ; and that there should be 
 direct official communication between the two countries on equal terms. 
 Eormal possession was taken of Hong-Kong, and Chusan was evacuated — 
 not too soon — for the troops left there had been greatly reduced by the 
 unhealthiness of the climate. Keshen proclaimed that the English barbarians 
 were now obedient to order, and that all afi'airs were perfectly well settled. 
 But, on the 11th of Eebruary an Imperial edict was received from Pekin by 
 the Commissioner at Canton, disapproving and rejecting the conditions 
 agreed to by him. The war was now resumed with increased vigour. 
 
 On the 2nd of March general Gough, — who had entered the British 
 army in 1794, had greatly distinguished himself in the Peninsular war, and 
 in 1837 was in command of a division of the Indian army, — arrived in China 
 to take the command of the British land forces. Erom the renewal of hos- 
 tilities to the end of April there had been armistice upon armistice, during 
 which the attempts of Captain Elliot to negotiate were repeatedly defeated 
 by the intervention of the Imperial government. Keshen was degraded and 
 deprived of his office for consenting to these suspensions of hostility, the 
 Imperial edicts proclaiming, " it is difficult for heaven and earth to bear any 
 longer with the English." General Gough saw that this temporizing policy 
 would only prolong the war, and be more injurious to the Chinese themselves 
 than its vigorous prosecution. He determined to attack Canton. It was 
 resolved to make the principal points of debarkation of the British forces to 
 the north-west of the city, while another column was to take possession of 
 the Factories, which had been ceded to the Chinese. The attack upon the 
 Eaetories was very soon successful. The point chosen for debarkation on 
 the north-west was about five miles by the river line above the Factories. 
 The troops were landed on the 23rd, and early on the morning of the 24th 
 proceeded to the attack. General Gough describes the heights to the norrii 
 of Canton. They were crowned by four strong forts, and the city walls ran 
 over their southern extremity. The intervening ground between the point of
 
 448 CANTON ATTACKED— ARRIVAL OF SIR H. POTTINGER. [1841. 
 
 landing and the forts was undulated, and intersected by hollows under wet 
 paddy cultivation. The walls of Canton, of brick on a foundation of red 
 sandstone, were about twenty feet thick, and varied in height from twenty- 
 five to forty feet. At this time there were twenty thousand Tartar troops, 
 famous for their courage and daring, garrisoning the city. On the 24th the 
 two western forts were captured with comparatively small loss, and " in little 
 more than half an hour after the order to advance was given, the British 
 troops looked down on Canton within a hundred paces of its walls."* It 
 was intended next day to assault the city itself, but the attack was prevented 
 by a flag of truce being hoisted on the walls. Captain Elliot wrote to the 
 general, requesting him to suspend hostilities, as he was employed in a settle- 
 ment of the difiiculties. The terms were little different to those which had 
 been formerly agreed to, and to which the Chinese government had refused 
 its assent. General Gough observed upon this termination of the conflict : 
 " "Whatever might be my sentiments, my duty was to acquiesce ; the attack, 
 which was to have commenced in forty-five minutes, was countermanded, and 
 the feelings of the Chinese were spared. Of the policy of this measure I do 
 not consider myself a competent judge ; but I say * feelings,' as I would have 
 been responsible that Canton should be equally spared, with the exception of 
 its defences, and that not a soldier should have entered the town farther than 
 the fortified heights within its walls." The terror induced by the operations 
 of the fleet and army extorted from the authorities of Canton the payment of 
 six million dollars as a ransom for the city. 
 
 Although trade was resumed in Canton, peace was still distant. The Im- 
 perial edicts still breathed vengeance against the " barbarians ;' ' the British 
 government disapproved the arrangements of captain Elliot. Sir Henry Pot- 
 tinger, who arrived as Plenipotentiary on the 10th of August, took the chief 
 direction of the afiairs which had so long been in the hands of the Superin- 
 tendent. He immediately published a copy of his credentials, authorising 
 and empowering him " to negotiate and conclude with the minister vested with 
 similar power and authority on the part of the emperor of China, any treaty 
 or agreement for the arrangement of the differences now subsisting between 
 Great Britain and China." He also issued a notification, in which, after 
 stating his anxiety to promote the prosperity of all her majesty's subjects and 
 other foreigners, he went on to say that " it was his first duty distinctly to 
 intimate for general and individual information, that it was his intention to 
 devote his undivided energies and thoughts to the primary object of securing 
 a speedy and satisfactory close of the war ; and that he therefore could allow 
 no consideration connected with mercantile pursuits and other interests to 
 interfere with the strong measures which he might find it necessary to 
 authorize and adopt towards the government and subjects of China, with a 
 view to compelling an honourable and lasting peace." 
 
 To the end of 1841 there were various successes achieved by the laud and 
 naval forces, which gave the British possession of many large fortified towns, 
 amongst which were Amoy, Ting-hai, Chin-hai, Ning-po, and Sliang-hai. The 
 Chinese were nevertheless persevering in their resistance, and in most cases 
 evinced a bravery which showed how mistaken were the views which regarded 
 
 * General Gongh's Despatcli, "Actual Register," 18-11, p. 2S2.
 
 1842.] CAPTURE OF CHIN-KIANQ-FOO— TREATY OF NANKING. 449 
 
 the subjection of this extraordinary people as an easy task. To the end of 
 June these successes had produced no overtures from the Imperial govern- 
 ment evincing a real desire for a pacification. The British fleet on the 13th 
 of June entered the great river Kiang, and on the 6th of July advanced up 
 the river, and cut off its communication with the Grand Canal, by which 
 Nanking, the ancient capital of China, was supplied with grain. The point 
 where the river intersects the canal is the city of Chin-Kiang-foo. " This 
 city, with its walls in excellent repair, stands within little more than half a 
 mile from the river; the northern and the eastern faces upon a range of 
 steep hills ; the west and southern faces on low ground, with the Imperial 
 Canal serving in some measure as a wet ditch to these faces. To the west- 
 ward the suburb through which the canal passes extends to the river and 
 terminates under a precipitous hill." * On the morning of the 2lst the city 
 was stormed by the British, in three brigades. The resistance of the Tartar 
 troops was most desperate. Our troops fought under a burning sun, whose 
 overpowering heat caused some to fall dead. The obstinate defence of the 
 place prevented its being taken till six o'clock in the evening. "When the 
 streets were entered, the houses were found almost deserted. They were 
 filled with ghastly corpses, many of the Tartar soldiers having destroyed their 
 families, and then committed suicide. The city, from the number of the dead, 
 had become uninhabitable. On the 9th of August the British fleet, proceeding 
 up the river, had arrived before Nanking. General Gough determined to 
 storm this fortified city, containing half a million of inhabitants. The 
 debarkation was suspended, upon a communication from sir Henry Pottiuger 
 that he was negotiating with high officers of the empire who had now the 
 direct authority of the emperor to treat for peace. The treaty was finally 
 signed before Nanking on board the Cornwallis on the 29th of August, by 
 sir Henry Pottinger on the part of Great Britain, and by Ke-jing, Elepoo, 
 and Neu-Kien, on the part of the emperor of China. Its most important 
 provisions were as follows : Lasting peace and friendship were to be main- 
 tained between the two empires ; China was to pay to Great Britain twenty- 
 one millions of dollars within four years ; the porta of Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
 choo-foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hai, were to be thrown open to British 
 merchants, consular officers were to be allowed to reside at these ports, and 
 just tariffs, as Avell as inland transit duties, established and published ; Hong- 
 Kong island to be ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain ; all British subjects, 
 whether natives of Europe or of India, then in confinement in any part of 
 the Chinese empire, to be unconditionally released ; an amnesty to be 
 published by the emperor to all Chinese subjects on account of their having 
 held service under the British government or its officers ; correspondence 
 between the officers of the two governments to be conducted on terms of 
 perfect equality. On receipt of the emperor's assent to the treaty, and of 
 the first six million dollars of the indemnity, the British forces were to retire 
 from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and the military posts at Chin-hai were 
 to be withdrawn ; but the islands of Chusan and Ku-lang-su were to be held 
 till the whole amount of the indemnity was paid, and the ports opened. On 
 the 8th of September the emperor signified his assent to the treaty ; which, 
 
 * " Annual Register," 1842, p. 273- 
 vol.. VIII.— 253.
 
 450 
 
 LORD AUCKLAND, GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA. 
 
 ri838. 
 
 on the last day of tlie year, received the ratification of the great seal of 
 England. 
 
 Chinese Militiuy Station. 
 
 On the 10th of September, 1838, lord Auckland, the Governor-general of 
 India, who had entered upon his office at the end of 1835, proclaimed in 
 General Orders his intention to employ a force beyond the North- West 
 frontier. On the 1st of October he published a declaration of the causes 
 and objects of the war. The ostensible object was to replace Shah Soojah 
 on the throne of Cabul, the troubles and revolutions of Afghanistan having 
 placed the capital and a large part of the country under the sway of Dost 
 Mahomed Khan. Shah Soojah, driven from his dominions, had become a 
 pensioner of the East India Company, and resided in the British cantonment 
 of Lodiana. Dost Mahomed had in May, 1836, addressed a letter to lord 
 Auckland, which conveyed his desire to secure the friendship of the British go- 
 vernment. He was desirous of obtaining the aid of the British against Persia, 
 whose troops were besieging Herat, and to recover Peshawur from Hunjeet 
 Singh, the ruler of the Punjaub. The Governor-general in 1837 despatched 
 Capt. Alexander Burnes as an envoy to Cabul. He was received with great 
 courtesy. His instructions did not allow him to give any hopes of British 
 assistance to Dost Mahomed. Soon after the arrival of Burnes a Eussian 
 envoy arrived at Cabul, who was liberal in his promises, but whose autliority 
 was afterwards disavowed by liis government. In the posthumous narrative 
 by sir Alexander Burnes of his journey to Cabul, he says that the tranquillity 
 which had dawned on the east, and the invasion of Afghanistan by the Persians 
 on the west, " had a prejudicial effect at Cabul, which was further heightened 
 by the presence of an agent from Russia, who reached the place soon after 
 my arrival. To the east, the fears of Dost Mahomed Khan were allayed — 
 to the west they were increased ; and in this state of things his hopes were 
 fio worked upon, that the ultimate result was liis estrangement from the
 
 1839.] CAUSES OF THE AFGHAN WAR— THE BRITISH CROSS THE INDUS. iul 
 
 British government." * Capt. Burnea carried back witli him a belief that 
 Eussia was meditating an attack upon British India, having established her 
 influence in Persia ; that Dost Mahomed was treacherous ; and that the 
 true way to raise a barrier against the ambition of Eussia was to place the 
 dethroned Shah Soojah upon the throne of Cabul, as he had numerous friends 
 in the country. The alarm of the possible danger of a Eussian invasion 
 through Persia and Afghanistan led to the declaration of war against Dost 
 Mahomed in the autumn of 1838, and to the preparation for hostilities 
 under a Governor-general whose declared policy, at the commencement of his 
 rule, was to maintain the peace which had been scarcely interrupted since 
 the conclusion of the Birman war. But it is not to the apprehensions alone 
 of the envoy to Cabul, or the impressions produced by him upon the sensi- 
 tiveness of the Grovernor-general, that we must wholly impute the resolve to 
 put forth the British strength in a distant and dangerous expedition. There 
 was an universal impression throughout India that some imminent danger was 
 about to assail us on the north-west ; that a powerful combination of hostile 
 powers, of which Eussia was the head, was about to pour down upon our terri- 
 tories, whose arrival would be the signal for a general rise amongst the uei<i-h- 
 bouring States and in our own provinces.f This general feeling of alarm was 
 confirmed by representations made to the Grovernor-general from all the intelli- 
 gent men who were in the Government, or connected with the different dis- 
 tricts in India. J Unquestionably there was a panic, and under such circum- 
 stances the heaviest charge against lord Auckland would have been that be 
 remained in supine indifference. 
 
 On the 14th of February the Bengal division of the army under sir 
 "Willoughby Cotton crossed the Indus at Bukkur. The Indus is here divided 
 into two channels, one of which is nearly five hundred yards in breadth. 
 The passage of eight thousand men with a vast camp-train and sixteen 
 tliousand camels was efiected without a single casualty. Sir John Cam 
 Hobhouse, in moving the thanks of the House of Commons to the Indian 
 army, in February, 1840, read a glowing description of this passage. " It was 
 a gallant sight to see brigade after brigade, with its martial music and its 
 glittering arms, marching over file by file, horse, foot, and artillery, into a 
 region as yet untrodden by British soldiers." He quoted also from a peri- 
 odical publication an eloquent allusion to the grand historical contrasts of 
 this expedition. " For the first time since the days of Alexander the Great, 
 a civilized army had penetrated the mighty barrier of deserts and mountains 
 Avhich separates Persia from Hindustan ; and the prodigy has been exhibited 
 to an astonished world of a remote island in the European seas pushing- 
 forward its mighty arms into the heart of Asia, and carrying its victorious 
 standards into the strongholds of Mohammedan faith and the cradle of the 
 Mogul empire." § The Bengal army was preceded by a small body of troops 
 under the orders of Shah Soojah, and it was followed by the Bombay 
 division under the command of sir John Keane. Into an almost unknown 
 
 * "Personal Nai-rative," p. 143. 
 
 + Letter of General Cubbon from Bangalore, quoted by Lord John Russell in Debate, I\Iarcli Ij 
 1843 — Hansard, vol. xlvii., col. 154. 
 
 :J: Lord John Russell — Hansard, vol, xlvii. col. 154. 
 § Hansard, vol. li. col. 1330.
 
 152 THE BOLAN PASS— SIEGE OF GHUZNEE. [1839. 
 
 and untrodden country twenty-one thousand troops had entered through the 
 Bolan Pass. Sir Willougliby Cotton, with the Bengal column, entered this 
 Pass in the beginning of April. Beloochee rulers had rendered him all the aid 
 in their power, but the Beloochee freebooters were murdering stragglers and 
 cutting off baggage and cattle. The passage of this formidable Pass, nearly 
 sixty miles in length, was accomplished in six days. Por the first eleven and 
 a half miles into the Pass the only road is the bed of the Bolan river. The 
 mountains on every side are precipitous and sterile ; not a blade of vegetation 
 of any kind being found, save in the bed of the stream. There was no 
 sustenance for the camels, unless it were carried for their support during six 
 days, and thus along the whole route their putrefying carcasses added to the 
 obstacles to the advance of the army. * At length the column emerged into 
 the open country. Havelock, who now, after twenty-three years' service, 
 had been promoted to the command of a company, has described how the eye 
 swept with delight over a wide plain bounded with noble mountain ranges, 
 how the carol of the lark mounting up in the fresh morning air broke charm- 
 ingly on the English ear.f 
 
 The Bombay army sustained considerable loss from freebooters in their 
 passage through the Bolan Pass, but the two columns were enabled to unite at 
 Candahar, and to proceed to the siege of Ghuznee, under the command of sir 
 John Keane. On the 22nd of July the British forces were in camp before 
 this famous city, built upon a rock, towering proudly over the adjacent 
 plain. The intelligent officers of the army could not have viewed without 
 deep interest this stronghold of Mohammedism, where the tomb of sultan 
 Mahmoud, the conqueror of Hindustan, was still preserved, and where 
 Mohammedan priests still read the Koran over his grave. The sandal-wood 
 gates of this tomb, which in 1025 had been carried off from the Hindoo 
 temple of Somnauth in Guzerat, were to acquire a new celebrity at the close 
 of this Afghan war by an ostentatious triumph, not quite so politic as that of 
 the sultan Mahmoud, At Ghuznee, Mohammedism maintained its most 
 fanatical aspect. On the day before the final attack, major Outram attempted 
 with part of the Shah's contingent to force the enemy from the heights 
 beyond the walls. He describes that over the crest of the loftiest peak floated 
 the holy banner of green and white, surrounded by a multitude of fanatics, 
 who believed they were safe under the sacred influence of the Moslem ensign. 
 A shot having brought down the standard-bearer, and the banner being seized, 
 the multitude fled panic-stricken at the proof of the fallacy of their belief. J 
 This was desultory warfare. But it had been determined that three hours 
 flfter midnight, on the morning of the 23rd, the fortress and citadel should be 
 stormed. Ghuznee was regarded by the Afghan nation as impregnable. It 
 had a garrison of tliree thousand five hundred Afghan soldiers, with a com- 
 manding number of guns, and abundance of ammunition and other stores. 
 The Cabul gate was blown open by a terrific explosion ; the storming party 
 ^^ntered the gate ; a few moments of darkness and confusion, and then the 
 foremost soldiers caught a glimpse of the morning sky, and pushing gallantly 
 
 * Outram, "Rough Notes of the Campaign," pp. 71, 72. 
 
 f Kaye, " History of the War in Af^'hanistaTi," vol. i. p. 408. 
 
 t Outram, " Kough Nates of the Campaign," j-. 111.
 
 1839.] CABUL ENTERED IN TRIUMPH— SHAH SOOJAH RESTORED. 453 
 
 on, were soon established in the fortress.* In two hours from the com- 
 mencement of the attack Ghuznee was in the hands of the British forces. 
 There were great doubts, almost universal doubts, at home as to the policy of 
 this Afghan war. There could be no doubt as to the brilliancy of this exploit. 
 The duke of Wellington gave his warmest testimony to the merits of the 
 officer who had achieved this success. The duke went further. Carefully 
 reserving his opinion as to the origin of the war, he declared, in assenting to 
 the vote of thanks to the army of the Indus, that he had had frequent oppor- 
 tunities of noticing the arrangements made for the execution of great military 
 enterprises, but that he had never known an occasion on which the duty of 
 government had been performed on a larger scale, on which more adequate 
 provisions had been made for all the contingencies which might have occurred, 
 or in which more attention had been paid to the wishes of the officers, the 
 comforts of the soldiers, and all those considerations which are likely to make 
 a war successful, t 
 
 On the 29th of July the British army quitted Ghuznee. It entered Cabul 
 in triumph on the 7th of August. Shah Soojah, restored to his sovereignty, 
 was once more seated in the Bala-Hissar, the ancient palace of his race. Dost 
 Mahomed had fled beyond the Indian Caucasus. The country appeared not 
 only subjected to the new government, but tranquil and satisfied. There was 
 a notion at one time of withdrawing the greater part of the forces, but it was 
 finally determined that the first division of Bengal infantry with the I3th 
 Queen's regiment should remain in Cabul and Candahar, and that Ghuznee 
 and Jellalabad should be occupied by native regiments. One division of the 
 Bombay army, which was returning home, effected the capture of the strong 
 fortress of Khelat, with a view to the deposition of the Khan, who had con- 
 ducted himself hostilely and treacherously towards the British. To the forces 
 remaining in Cabul there were a few months of ease and recreation. As the 
 spring and summer advanced insurrections began to break out in the sur- 
 rounding country. Dost Mahomed had again made his appearance, and had 
 fought a gallant battle with the British cavalry, in which he obtained a partial 
 victory. Despairing, however, of his power efiectually to resist the British 
 arras, he wrote to Cabul, and delivered himself up to the envoy, sir William 
 MacNaghten, claiming the protection of his government. He was sent to 
 India, where a place of residence was assigned to him on the North- West 
 frontier, with three lacs of rupees (about SOfiOOl.) as a revenue. But the 
 danger of the occupation of Afghanistan was not yet overpast. The events 
 of November and December, 1841, and of January, 1842, were of so fearful 
 a nature as scarcely to be paralleled in some of their incidents by the dis- 
 asters of the mutiny of 1857. 
 
 In September and October, 1841, the direction of affairs at Cabul was 
 almost wholly in the hands of sir William MacNaghten, the envoy. Sir 
 Alexander Burnes was also there, but without any official appointment. The 
 chief command of the army was committed to major-general Elphinstone, an 
 old Peninsular officer, but whose energy had passed into a state of nervous 
 debility, totally unfitting him for any sudden emergency. Shah Soojah was 
 
 * Kaye, vol. i. p. 447. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. li. col. 1174.
 
 454 FALSE SECURITY AT CABUL— AFGHAN PLOTS. [1841. 
 
 complaining that lie bad no real authority, and that he did not understand his 
 position. Barnes was equally dissatisfied that at Cabul he was without 
 employment, consulted at times, but possessing no responsibility. An adminis- 
 trative change was at hand. MacNagbten was appointed governor of 
 Bombay, and Burnes looked forward to the attainment of a sphere of duty 
 suited to his abilities, as the successor of MacWaghten. The British at 
 Cabul were in a condition of false security. The army was in cantonments, 
 extensive, ill-defended, overawed on every side. "Within these indefensible 
 cantonments English ladies, amongst whom were lady MacNaghten and 
 lady Sale, were domesticated in comfortable houses. Sir E-obert Sale had 
 left Cabul in October, expecting his wife to follow him in a few days. The 
 climate was suited to the English ; and our officers, true to their national 
 character, had been cricket-playing, riding races, fishing, shooting, and, when 
 winter came, astonishing the Afghans with skating on the lakes. After the 
 catastrophe which we shall have to relate, an unfinished memorandum was 
 found among the papers of sir "William MacNaghten, in which he says, "I 
 may be considered culpable for not having foreseen the coming storm. To 
 this I can only reply that others, who had much better opportunities of 
 watching the feelings of the people, had no suspicion of what was coming." * 
 All looked with complacency upon the profound tranquillity around them, as 
 that of an unclouded morning, — all 
 
 " Kegardless of the sweeping wliirlwind's sway, 
 That, hush'd in grim repose, expects his evening prey." 
 
 On the night of the 1st of November there was a meeting of Afghan 
 chiefs, who were banded together, however conflicting might be their 
 interests, to make common cause against the Eeringhees (foreigners). One 
 of these, Abdoollah Khan, who had been active in his intrigues to stir up 
 disaffection, had an especial quarrel with Burnes, who had called him a dog, 
 and had said that he would recommend Shah Soojah to deprive the rebel of his 
 ears. He proposed that at the contemplated rising on the 2nd of November 
 the first overt act should be an attack on the house of Burnes. Lady 
 Sale, in her journal of that day, says, " This morning early all was in commo- 
 tion in Cabul ; the shops were plundered, and the people were all fighting." 
 Before daylight an Afghan who was friendly to Burnes came to report to him 
 that a plot had been hatched during the night which had for its chief object 
 his murder. The Vizier arrived with the same warning. Burnes was in- 
 credulous, and refused to seek safety either in the king's fortress-palace, the 
 Bala Hissar, or in the British cantonments. A mob was before his house. 
 Perfect master of the language of the people, he harangued them from a 
 gallery. At his side stood his brother Charles, and lieutenant Broadfoot, 
 who had arrived to perform the office of military secretary to Burnes when 
 he should be tlie highest in place and power. The mob clamoured for the lives 
 of the British officers, and Broadfoot was the first to fall by a shot from the 
 infuriated multitude. The insurgents had now forced their way into Burnes's 
 garden, upon the culture of which he prided himself, and they called to him 
 
 * Kaye, toI. ii. p. 3.
 
 1S41.J MASSACRE OF BURNES— THE BRITISH ARMY IN PERIL. 455 
 
 to come down. Charles Burnes and the servants of the house had been firing 
 from the gallery. A Mussulman from Cashmere, who had entered the house, 
 swore by the Koran that if they would cease firing, he would convey the 
 brothers in safety to the Kuzzilbash (Persian) fort. The three entered the 
 garden, when the betrayer proclaimed to the insurgents " This is Secunder 
 Burnes." The brothers were instantly struck down, and were cut to pieces 
 by the Afghan knives. Sir Alexander Burnes, who thus perished in the 
 thirty-sixth year of his age, was of the same family as the great Scottish poet, 
 his grandfather being the brother of the father of Eobert Burns. He was 
 one of those remarkable men who have won their way to high distinction in 
 the service of the East India Company through their intimate knowledge 
 of the Oriental languages, associated with that indefatigable spirit of in- 
 quiry and observation which have made Hindostan and the neighbouring 
 countries so familiar to the nation that was gradually advancing to supreme 
 dominion over two hundred millions of men. He is described as one of an 
 impulsive temperament, whose mind was subject to fluctuations of opinion, — 
 sometimes an alarmist, more frequently sanguine and over-confident. " His 
 talents were great ; his energies were great. What he lacked was stability 
 of character."* 
 
 From the 2nd of November to the 23rd of December, the position of the 
 British at Cabul became more and more perilous. At the beginning of the 
 insurrection some vigorous resolve, some demonstration of the power of the 
 British arms, might have insured safety, if not ultimate triumph. There were 
 four thousand five hundred good troops in the cantonments, but there was 
 no one eflectually to lead them against the rebels in the city. There were 
 about six hundred British troops in the Bala Hissar. MacNaghten at the 
 beginning of December urged general Elphinstone to retire from the can- 
 tonments, and place the remainder of the troops in that fortress, ia which 
 they would be in a position to overawe the populace. The last alternative 
 was to march at once to India, and turn with the desperate courage of the 
 lion at bay upon their surrounding foes. General Sale and general Nott 
 were expected with reinforcements, but they were themselves hemmed in by 
 enemies. The public events of this distressing time are told with the clear- 
 ness and spirit of the intelligent historian by Mr. Kaye. The alternations of 
 hope and fear amongst the unhappy residents, especially the women, are 
 recorded in the journal of lady Sale. In the first week of December the 
 troops in cantonments were threatened by the near approach of starvation. 
 The camp followers were living upon the carcases of dead camels. Negotia- 
 tions were going on with the Afghan chiefs for the safe retreat of the army, 
 and for a supply of provisions. They were protracted from day to day, the 
 Afghans requiring as a first condition that the forts in the neighbourhood of 
 the cantonments should be given up. They were evacuated ; and then the 
 enemy looked down with triumphant derision upon those who, within their 
 defenceless walls, were perishing, whilst the supplies which had been pro- 
 mised them were intercepted by a rabble from the city. Every day 
 added to the expected difficulties of the retreat. The winter was 
 setting in. On the 18th of December snow began to fall. MacNaghten, 
 
 • Kaye, vol. ii. p. 13.
 
 456 MASSACRE OF MACNAGHTEN— CAPITULATION. [1841. 
 
 wearied and almost desperate amidst the bad faith and insulting 
 demands of the chiefs, received on the evening of the 22nd a pro- 
 posal from Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mahomed, which even Elphinstone, 
 enfeebled as he was by illness and generally inapt to offer a decided 
 opinion, regarded as treacherous. On the morning of the 23rd, according to 
 the proposal that had been made to him, MacNaghten, with three friends, 
 Lawrence, Trevor, and Mackenzie, went out about six hundred yards from 
 the cantonment for a conference witli Akbar Khan, the Sirdar (the title 
 which the chief assumed). The envoy had desired to propitiate him by send- 
 ing that morning the present of a beautiful Arab horse. On a hill side 
 Akbar Khan's servants had spread some horse-cloths over the fallen snow. 
 The party were invited to dismount and sit down. The Afghans were 
 gathering around them in numbers — a circumstance which corroborated the 
 suspicions of Lawrence and Mackenzie. In an instant they were seized from 
 behind. The two who were best prepared by their apprehensions for some 
 plot against their lives contrived to escape. Trevor was murdered ; Akbar 
 Khan rushed upon MacNaghten in the endeavour to seize and detain him. 
 " The look of wondering horror that sat upon his upturned face will not be 
 forgotten by those who saw it to their dying days. The only words he was 
 heard to utter were, Az harae Klioda ('for God's sake!')."* Akbar Khan 
 drew a pistol from his girdle — it was one of a pair which MacNaghten had 
 presented to him the previous day — and he shot the unarmed envoy through 
 the body. "Wonderful to relate, not a gun was fired from the British canton- 
 ments, not a soldier went forth to avenge the murder of the British minister. 
 On Christmas-day intelligence arrived that reinforcements were on their 
 way from India. Major Pottinger, who now took the place of the unfor- 
 tunate MacNaghten as political agent, exhorted the military chiefs either to 
 fight their way to Jellalabad, or forciblj' to occupy the Bala Hissar. They 
 preferred to capitulate. At a Council of War on the 26th a treaty was 
 ratified, which contained the humiliating conditions that all the guns should 
 be left behind except six ; tliat all the treasure should be given up, and forty 
 thousand rupees paid in bills, to be negotiated upon the spot ; and that four 
 ofiicers as hostages should be detained to insure the evacuation of Jellalabad 
 by general Sale. On the 6th of January, 1842, on a morning of intense 
 cold, the army, consisting of four thousand five hundred fighting men and 
 twelve thousand followers, began to move out of the cantonments. So 
 tedious was the progress, chiefly caused by the disorderly movements of the 
 camp-followers, that, at six o'clock in the evening, the rear-guard was leaving 
 the walls of the cantonments which the advanced guard had quitted at half- 
 past nine in the morning. The order and discipline whicb could alone save 
 an army retreating in the midst of a hostile population had no place in that 
 confused mass, who were without food or fuel or shelter. Akbar Khan 
 came up with a body of six hundred horsemen to demand other hostages as 
 security for the evacuation of Jellalabad. On the 8th, Pottinger, Lawrence, 
 and Mackenzie were placed in his hands. Akbar Khan declared that he also 
 came to protect the British and Hindoos from the attacks of the Ghilzyes, 
 one of the most fanatic of the Mussulman tribes of Afghanistan. His autho- 
 
 Kaye.
 
 1842.] RETREAT FROM CAEUL— LADIES AND CHILDREN GIVEN UP. 457 
 
 rity appears to have been exerted with all sincerity to interfere between 
 these cruel assailants and their victims ; but it was manifested in vain. The 
 disorganized force entered the Pass of Khoord-Cabul, which for five miles 
 is shut in by precipitous mountains, with a torrent rushing down the centre. 
 On the hill-sides were the unrelenting Ghilzyes, who shot down the fugitives 
 without a chance of their being resisted or restrained. In this Pass three 
 thousand men are stated to have fallen. " The ladies were mostly travelling 
 in kujavas (camel-panniers), and were mixed up with the baggage and 
 column in the Pass. Here they were heavily fired on." * Lady Sale, who 
 rode on horseback, was shot in the arm. Her son-in-law was here mortally 
 wounded. On the 9th, Akbar Khan, who had arrived with his three hostages, 
 "turned to Lawrence and said that he had a proposal to make, but that he did 
 not like to do so lest his motives might be misconstrued ; but that, as it con- 
 cerned us more than himself, he would mention it ; and that it was, that all 
 the married men, with their families, should come over and put themselves 
 under his protection, he guaranteeing them honourable treatment, and safe 
 escort to Peshawur. He added, that Lawrence must have seen from the 
 events of the day previous — the loss of captain Boyd's and captain Ander- 
 son's children — that our camp was no place of safety for the ladies and 
 children." f Lawrence and Pottinger urged the acceptance of this proposal 
 upon general Elphinstone. There were ten women and thirteen or more 
 children; six married men went with them, with two wounded officers. 
 It was better to trust to Akbar Khan for the protection of these helpless 
 women and children than to continue their exposure to the attacks of the 
 cruel tribes' whom the Sirdar could not restrain, and to the horrors of a con- 
 tinued march in a most inclement season. " There was but faint hope," 
 says lady Sale, " of our ever getting safely to Jellalabad ; and we followed 
 the stream. But although there was much talk refjardine: our coins: over, 
 all I personally know of the affair is, that I was told we were all to go, and 
 that our horses were ready, and we must mount immediately and be oft\" 
 
 On the 10th of January the small remnant of the force that had left Cabul 
 on the 6th continued its march towards Jellalabad. The Native regiments were 
 nearly annihilated by cold and hunger and the Afghan knife. The frost- 
 bitten Asiatics, who still crawled to a narrow defile, were unable to make 
 any resistance. The dying and the dead soon choked up the narrow gorge 
 between the precipitous spurs of two hills. There was now not a single 
 Sepoy left. Not more than a quarter of the men who had left Cabul now 
 survived. The European officers and soldiers scarcely numbered five hundred. 
 They would have fought with the energy of desperation, but they were 
 hemmed in by the crowd of camp-followers, who from the first had rendered 
 their march as dangerous as the assaults of their enemies. The next day 
 Akbar Khan invited general Elphinstone and two English officers, brigadier 
 Shelton and captain Johnson, to a conference. The Sirdar required that the 
 three should remain as hostages for the evacuation of Jellalabad. Elphin- 
 stone implored the Afghan to permit him to return and share the fortune of 
 his troops. The two officers were equally unwilling to leave their doomed 
 comrades. But resistance was in vain. On the evening of the 12th the march 
 
 • Lady Sale's " Journal." t Ihid.
 
 i58 DESTRUCTION OF THE ARMY— ONE SURVIVOR. [1842. 
 
 was resumed. They had to struggle with the dangers of the Jugdulluck 
 Pass, in which the steep road ascends through a dark defile. As they ap- 
 proached the summit they found a barricade of bushes and branches of trees. 
 Here the relentless enemy was in waiting. A general massacre ensued, in 
 which many of the remaining officers perished. Twenty officers and forty- 
 five European soldiers were able to clear the barricade. The next morning 
 they were surrounded by an infuriated multitude. They were as one to a 
 Imndred ; most of them were wounded ; but they were resolute not to lay 
 down their arms. They all perished except one captain and a few privates, 
 who were taken prisoners. Out of those who had been in advance of the 
 column in the Pass, six reached Puttehabad, within sixteen miles of Jellala- 
 bad. These last companions in misery were three captains, one lieutenant, 
 and two regimental surgeons. Pive were slain before the sixteen miles were 
 traversed. General Sale's brigade had held possession of Jellalabad from 
 the morning of the 13th of November, when they took the place from the 
 Afghans by surprise. Prom time to time they heard rumours of the perilous 
 position of the British force in Cabul. At last a letter, addressed to captain 
 MacGregor, the political agent, arrived from Elphinstone and Pottinger, 
 stating that an agreement having taken place for the evacuation of Cabul, 
 they should immediately commence their march to India. In the absence 
 of any security for the safe conduct of the troops to Peshawur, they resolved 
 to disobey these instructions, and not to surrender the fort, whose defences 
 they had been assiduously labouring to improve. Thi Afghan chief who 
 bore the letter had been appointed governor of Jellalabad. On the 13th 
 of January a sentry on the ramparts saw a solitary horseman struggling on 
 towards the fort. He was brought in, wounded and exhausted. The one 
 man who was left to tell the frightful tale of the retreat from Cabul was 
 doctor Pry don. 
 
 The refusal of Sale and MacGregor to surrender Jellalabad was that 
 heroic determination to face the danger which in almost every case makes the 
 danger less. Akbar Khan lost no time in besieging Jellalabad. Sale had 
 well employed his enforced leisure in repairing the ruinous ramparts and 
 clearing out the ditch. He had made the place secure against the attack of 
 an army without cannon. But the garrison was not secure against the ap- 
 proach of famine. Akbar Khan with a large body of horse was hovering 
 around to prevent the admission of supplies. On the 19th of Pebruary a 
 serious misfortune called forth new energies in these resolute men. An 
 earthquake to a great extent rendered the labour vain which had been so long 
 employed m the repairs of the works. By the end of the month- the parapets 
 were restored, the breaches built up, and every battery re-established. At 
 the close of March, being at the last extremity for provisions, the garrison 
 made a sortie, and carried ofl" five hundred sheep and goats. It was known 
 to sir Kobert Sale that general Pollock was advancing to his relief. The 
 time was come when a vigorous attack on the enemy without might have 
 better results than a protracted defence. On the morning of the 7th of April 
 three columns of infantry, with some field artillery and a small cavalry force, 
 issued from the walls of Jellalabad to attack Akbar Khan, who with six 
 thousand men was strongly posted in the adjacent plain. The columns were 
 commanded by colonel Dennie, colonel Monteath, and captain Havelock, who
 
 i842.] SALE'S DEFENCE OF JELLALABAD— ARRIVAL OF POLLOCK. 453 
 
 led the attack. In leading his column to storui a square fort colonel Dennie 
 feU. Every point attacked by the three columns was carried, and the victor}' 
 ■was completed by a general assault upon the Afghan camp. In a few hours 
 the battle was over. Two days before this victory general PoUock had forced 
 the Khyber Pass, which general AVild had previously attempted without suc- 
 cess. This was an achievement in which the bravery of troops would have 
 been thrown away if the arrangements of the general had been less skilful. 
 The Afghans made no attempt to resist the progress of the troops till they 
 were at the entrance of the Pass. They relied upon being able to destroy 
 them from the precipices that overhung the road. The heights were carried 
 on both sides, and the Afghans themselves in the Pass were exposed to that 
 fire from above which had been so perilous to the British army in its former 
 marches through the mountainous barriers of their country. It is considered 
 that if Pollock had moved precipitately with his main column into the Pass, 
 he would probably have been driven back with great slaughter, but that the 
 precaution he took in crowning the heights and turning the enemy's position 
 secured him, though not without some fighting the whole way, a safe passage.* 
 On the 16th of April Pollock's advanced guard was in sight of Jellalabad ; 
 and the two little armies were united in the exulting hope that it would 
 be for them to retrieve the disasters which had befallen the British arms. 
 Lord Ellenborough had arrived at Calcutta as Governor-general on the 25th 
 of February. The close of lord Auckland's rule in India was clouded with 
 misfortunes which fell heavily upon a proud and sensitive man. His policy 
 was proved to be a mistake. Nothing in the annals of our country had ever 
 exhibited so disastrous an issue to a war undertaken in the confidence that , 
 it would avert the possibility of an impending danger. When, on the 30th 
 of January, the utter destruction of the army of Cabul was known at Calcutta, 
 the Governor-general published a proclamation containing brave words. A 
 new Governor-general had arrived, who, appointed by a new Administration, 
 had been amongst the most vehement denouncers of the Afghan war. 
 
 The interest attached to the remaining history of this war is the interest 
 attached to the hopeful anticipation of lord Auckland in his proclamation of 
 the 31st of January. The calamity which had overtaken the British arms was, 
 he said, " a new occasion for displaying the stability and vigour of the British 
 power, and the admirable spirit and valour of the British-Indian army." The 
 successes of Sale and Pollock had renewed the confidence of our countrymen 
 in India that the storm would soon be overpast. They had interrupted the 
 hopes of those native Powers who believed that the rule of the Feringhees was 
 coming to an end. Shah Soojah had been for some time able to maintain 
 himself in the citadel of Cabul after he had been left to his own resources. He 
 finally perished by assassination. The English ladies, children, and ofiicers, 
 who were treated as prisoners rather than as hostages, were carried from fort 
 to fort. General Elphinstone died at Tezeen on the 23rd of April. At the end 
 of April, general England had forced the principal Pass between Juettat 
 and Candahar ; and early in May had joined his forces to those of general 
 Nott at Candahar. Ghuznee, which was in the possession of the Afghans, 
 was recaptured by him on the 6th of September. General Pollock had been 
 
 * Kaye, vol. ii. p. 338.
 
 460 CABUL RETAKEN— RELEASE OF THE PRISONERS. [1842. 
 
 detained by sickness and otber impediments at Jellalabad to the end of 
 August. He then fought his way through the Passes, and was joined by 
 general Nott. On the 15th of September the British standard was flying on 
 the Bala Hissar of Cabul. The prisoners of Akbar Khan had been hurried 
 towards Turkistan. The khan who had charge of them agreed with the 
 English officers, for the future payment of a sum of rupees and an annuity, 
 that he would assist them to regain their freedom. The advance of the 
 army upon Cabul secured the aid of other chieftains. On the 15th of 
 September, the hostages, the ladies and the children, had quitted the forts of the 
 friendly khan, and were proceeding towards Cabul, when, on the 17th, they were 
 met by a party of six hundred mounted Kuzzilbashes, under the command of sir 
 Hichmond Shakespear, who had been sent by general Pollock to rescue them 
 from their perils. On the 19th a horseman met the party alternating be- 
 tween hope and fear, to say that general Sale was close at hand with a brigade. 
 The husband and the father met his wife and widowed daughter. Their 
 happiness produced " a choking sensation, which could not obtain the relief 
 of tears." The soldiers cheered ; a royal salute from mountain-train guns 
 welcomed them to the camp ; the j oy was proportioned to the terrible dangers 
 that were overpast. On the 1st of October a proclamation was issued from 
 Simla by lord Ellenborough, which stated that the disasters in Afghanistan 
 having been avenged upon every scene of past misfortune, the British army 
 would be withdrawn the Sutlej. On the 12th of October the army began its 
 march back to India. Dost Mahomed was released, and returned to his 
 sovereignty at Cabul. 
 
 Of the proclamation dated from Simla on the 1st of October there was 
 much adverse notice in Parliament. Mr. Macaulay maintained that it was 
 ante-dated ; for that on the 1st of October the release of the captives on the 
 19th of September could not have been known to the Grovernor-general ; and 
 that knowing of this joyful event on the 12th he omitted all mention of it, 
 that he might have the childish gratification of insulting his predecessor in 
 the vice-royalty, by dating on the same day on which, in 1838, lord Auck- 
 land had published his unfortunate declaration of the causes and objects of the 
 war. But there was another proclamation by lord Ellenborough which his 
 ministerial friends could scarcely vindicate, and which brouglit down upon 
 him the bitterest denunciations of his political enemies. It was as follows : 
 
 '•From the Governor-General to all the Princes, and Chiefs, and People of India. 
 
 "My Brothers and My Friends, 
 
 " Our victorious army bears the gates of the temple of Somnauth in triumph from Afghan- 
 istan, and the despoiled tomb of Sultan Mahomed looks upon the ruins of Ghuznee. 
 
 ' ' The insult of eight hundred years is at last avenged. The gates of the temple of Somnauth, 
 so long the memorial of your humiliation, are become the proudest record of your national glory ; 
 the proof of your superiority in arms over the nations beyond the Indus. 
 
 "To you, Princes and Chiefs of Sirhind, of Rajwarra, of Malwa, and of Guzerat, I shall 
 commit this glorious trophy of successful war. 
 
 " You -will yourselves, with all honour, transmit the gates of sandal-wood through your 
 respective territories to the restored temple of Somnauth. 
 
 " The chiofs of Sirhind shall be informed at what time our victorious army will first deliver 
 the gates of the temple into their guardianship, at the foot of the bridge of the Sutlej."
 
 1S42.1 LORD ELLENBOROUGH'S PROCLAMATIONS— GATES OF SOMNAUTH. 4G1 
 
 The Hindoo temple of Somnauth was in ruins, and it was maintained by 
 those to whom the pompous words of the proclamation were distasteful, 
 that the Governor-general meant to restore it, and thus to manifest a 
 preference for one of the great rival creeds of India — a preference which 
 the policy of England expressly forbade. This might be a wrong infer- 
 ence from the words of the proclamation. But to despoil the tomb of a 
 worshipper of Mahomed, that honour might be done the worshippers of 
 Vishnu, was to offer an outrage to those sensibilities which more than any 
 other cause made and still make the British rule in India so like treading on 
 beds of lava.
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Continuation of the previous notices of English literature— Law of Copjright — Mr. Serjeant 
 Talfourd's long struggle to amend the Law — Mr. Carlyle's petition — Serjeant Talfourd'a 
 Bill rejected — Lord Mahon's Bill — Mr. Macaulay's Amendments — Application of the Act 
 to Copyrights about to expire — Authors recently deceased — Novelists — Theodore Hook 
 and the Silver-fork School — Ephemeral Critics and Writers without knowledge — 
 Utilitarianism — Changes in the Character of Literature — Historians — Macaulay — Hallam 
 — Carlyle — Lingard — Eraser Tytler — Palgrave — Kemble — Forster — Mahon — Napier — 
 Mitford — Thirl wall — Grote — Arnold — Novelists — Bnlwer Lytton — Dickens — Ainsworth — 
 Thackeray — Serials — Prevalence of Fiction — Kitchen Literature — Miss Martineau's Tales 
 illustrative of Political Economy — Social Aims of Novelists — Dickens — Mrs. Gaskell — 
 Kingsley — Thackeray's Novels — Poets — Tennyson — Browning — E. Barrett Browning — 
 Thomas Hood — Union of Pen and Pencil — Theology — Milman — Robertson — Political 
 Economy — Science — Criticism — Antiquarian Inquiry — Travels — Book Trade — Newspapers. 
 
 Bepoee we enter upon a narrative, whicli may be best given continuously, 
 of tbe great historical period from 1841 to 1846 during wbicb sir E-obert 
 Peel Avas Prime Minister, we purpose to introduce a chapter on the Litera- 
 ture of that period and of the period immediately preceding. "We shall 
 attempt this in connexion with the subject of the New Law of Copyright, 
 which was finally settled in the session of 1842. 
 
 In the present volume we have devoted a chapter to English Literature 
 in the three latter decades of the reign of George the Third, and have given 
 a chronolo»|,ical table of the principal writers of the present century, with the 
 exception of those who were living at the end of 1861. "We propose in this 
 chapter to point out a few of the more prominent instances of the beneficial 
 operation of the Copyright Act of 1842 with reference to the families of 
 authors then recently deceased. Its benefits to living authors, whether in 
 the maturity of a high reputation or rising into public notice, need not be 
 illustrated by individual instances. The oldest writer with a dependent 
 family, and the youngest writer who had given hostages to fortune, felt a 
 comfort and a relief in its salutary provisions against the uncertainty of the 
 future with regard to the descendants " of those who devote themselves to 
 the most precarious of all pursuits." * "What is now called " the Victorian 
 Era " of Literature, in contrast with " the Georgian Era," had established its 
 most prominent characteristics, and had produced the greater number of its 
 eminent writers, at the period when the New Law of Copyright came into 
 
 * " Pickwick Papers," 1837 ; Dedication to Serjeant Talfourd.
 
 1542.] TALFOURD'S EFFORTS TO AMEND THE COPYRIGHT ACT. 463 
 
 operation. We therefore do not essentially narrow the ran^e of our view of 
 " the Victorian Era " when we take our stand-point in the sixth year of the 
 queen's reign. Although this view must be incomplete with regard to some 
 popular writers of the more immediate present,* it relieves us from the 
 invidious task of making any pretension to estimate the value of new reputa- 
 tions ; leaving us to speak chiefly of those whose foremost place in the long 
 file of illustrious contemporaries had been for the most part settled by 
 continuous public opinion in the first decade of the queen's reign. Of these 
 contemporaries we shall consider it most becoming to speak with the brevity 
 of a bibliographer rather than with the elaborate judgment of a critic. 
 
 In the session of 1842 " an Act to amend the Law of Copyright " — the 
 Act now regulating literary property — was passed, after a struggle that had 
 endured five years. In 1837 Mr. Serjeant Talfourd first drew the attention 
 of the House of Commons to the law of Copyright, as it then existed under 
 the statute of the 54th of George the Third, which gave to the author of a 
 book or his assigns the sole liberty of reprinting such book for the term of 
 twenty-eight years from the date of publication, and if the author should be 
 living at the expiration of that term, for the residue of his natural life. The 
 proposition of Serjeant Talfourd was to extend the term of copyright in a 
 book to sixty years, reckoned from the death of the writer, in addition to its 
 duration during his life. The opposition to this proposal, on every occasion 
 on which it was debated, was of a mixed character. There were legislators 
 who altogether denied the inherent natural right of an author to a property 
 in his labours. These maintained that it was for the public interest that he 
 should labour without reward, or at any rate that he should receive as little 
 as possible in the shape of a money reward, the love of fame being deemed 
 by them amply sufficient to secure to the public an adequate supply of the 
 best books. Others, who did not go quite so far, maintained that the exist- 
 ing term uiider the Act of George the Third — " an Act to amend the several 
 Acts for the Eucouragement of Learning by securing the Copies and Copyright 
 of printed Books to the Authors of such Books and their Assigns" — was amply 
 sufiicient for the remuneration of authors. Others more reasonably opposed 
 Serjeant Talfourd's Bill, upon the ground that the term which he suggested 
 would in many cases give a monopoly for eighty years and even for a hundred 
 years. There was a class of publishers then, as there always will be, who 
 were only debarred by the laws against piracy from reducing to practice the 
 philosophical theory that an author should work for nothing, to make books 
 cheap. One of these kept a very accurate account of the original date of a 
 publication by a living author, and could calculate the chances of his life 
 according to the most trustworthy tables of mortality. There was a worthy 
 citizen and merchant-taylor of London of the days of Queen Elizabeth, who 
 kept a most exact register of the funerals of the great and wealthy in his 
 time. It was in the way of business, for he was " a furnisher of funeral 
 trappings." f So was it in the way of business that the industrious publisher 
 of Cheapside in the days of Queen Victoria recorded, with Christian satis- 
 faction, the final release of those who, after long battling with fortune, left, 
 
 * We shall in part supply this deficiency by appending to this chapter a Table supplementary 
 to that before given, pp. 133 to 138. 
 
 t " Diajy of Henry Machyn" — Camden Society.
 
 464 MR. CARLYLE'S PETITION— TALFOURD'S BILL REJECTED. [1842. 
 
 by the expiry of their copyright, no heritable title to tlie property which 
 they had created. Such encouragers of learning stoutly petitioned against 
 any alteration of the law. There were few petitions for the Bill, but there 
 was one which amused and edified the House of Commons in 1839. Of this 
 remarkable and characteristic document we give a sentence or two : " The 
 petition of Thomas Carlyle, a writer of books, Humbly showeth. That your 
 petitioner has written certain books, being incited thereto by various innocent 
 or laudable considerations, chiefly by the thought that said books might in 
 
 the end be found to be worth something That your petitioner 
 
 does not undertake to say what recompense in money this labour of his 
 may deserve : whether it deserve any recompense in money, or whether money 
 in any quantity could hire him to do the like. That this his labour has found 
 hitherto, in money or money's worth, small recompense or none : that he is 
 by no means sure of its ever finding recompense : but thinks, that, if so, it 
 will be at a distant time, when the labourer will probably no longer be in 
 need of money, and those dear to him will still be in need of it." 
 
 The various discussions on the Copyright Bill, during five sessions of par- 
 liament, brought forward many curious points of literary history. The 
 almost universal range of the learning of Mr. Macaulay had a great efiect in 
 inducing the House in 1841 to reject Mr. Serjeant Talfourd's Bill. He 
 arfTued against the public injury of a monopoly of sixty years that the boon 
 to authors would be a mere nullity, but that considered as an impost upon 
 the public it would be a very serious and pernicious reality. He maintained 
 that there would be the danger that, when an author's copyright should 
 remain for so long a period in the hands of his descendants, many valuable 
 works would be totally suppressed or grievously mutilated.* On that occa- 
 sion Serjeant Talfourd's Bill was rejected by a majority of seven. His long- 
 continued advocacy of the extension of copyright is held to have been unsuc- 
 cessful " chiefly through the efforts of Mr. IMacaulay who, strange to say, 
 strained every nerve to defeat a measure calculated to give independence to a 
 class of which he himself was so bright an ornament." f This judgment 
 upon the conduct of a great writer towards his fellows is more than unkind, 
 coupled with the entire suppression of the fact that in the next session of 
 parliament when "the tardy act of justice was done to literary men," the 
 benefits conferred upon them were greatly increased, not only by the insertion 
 of clauses known to have originated with Mr. Macaulay, but by his proposi- 
 tion for an extension of time more practically beneficial than that proposed by 
 lord Mahon. On the 3rd of March, 1842, his lordship obtained permission to 
 bring in a Bill to amend the law of Copyright, his plan being that the existing 
 term of twenty-eight years should stand — he would make no addition to the term 
 that was certain, — but that the copyright should last twenty-five years after 
 the autlior's death. Mr. Macaulay proposed a different plan. He would make 
 no addition to the uncertain term, but would add fourteen years to the twenty- 
 eight years which the law allowed to an author. The illustrations from 
 the history of literature, ancient and modern, foreign and domestic, which 
 Mr. Macaulay brought forward, went to prove that the most valuable works 
 
 * To meet thia possible consequence a clause was introduced in the Bill of 1842. 
 + Alison — " History of Eurpjje," chap. xli.
 
 1812.] LORD MAHON'S BILL— MR. MACAULAY'S AMENDMENTS, 4i35 
 
 of au author being generally produced in the maturity of hia powers, bis 
 proposition would give a longer term of copyrigbt tban tbat of lord Mahon. 
 " To Lear, to Macbeth, to Othello, to the Faery Queen, to Paradise Lost, 
 to Bacon's Novum Organum and De Augraentis, to Locke's E^say on the 
 Human Understanding, to Clarendon's History, to Hume's History, to 
 Gribbou's History, to Smith's "Wealth of Nations, to Addison's Spectators, 
 to almost all the great works of Burke, to Clarissa and Sir Charles Grandi- 
 son, to Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones, and Amelia, and with the single excep- 
 tion of "Waverley, to all the novels of sir Walter Scott, I give a longer term 
 of copyright than my noble friend gives. Can he match that list ? Does 
 not that list contain what England has produced greatest in many various 
 ways, poetry, philosophy, history, eloquence, wit, skilful portraiture of life 
 and manners?"* Sir Eobert Peel supported the amendment upon the 
 original proposal, but at the same time he "admitted the weight of the 
 argument founded upon the necessity for an author to provide for his family 
 after death, and on this account he should be glad, if possible, to combine 
 the two propositions, and besides the forty-two years of the amendment, to 
 give an author's family a right for seven years after his death." Mr. 
 Macaulay was against this suggestion. The proposition for the term of 
 forty-two years certain was carried by a majority of seventy-nine ; that for 
 a further term of seven years commencing at the time of the author's death 
 was carried by a majority of fifty-eight. The extension of term was to 
 apply not only to future publications, but to books previously published in 
 Avhich copyright still subsisted at the time of the passing of the Act. There 
 was an exception, however, in cases of existing copyright to the extension of 
 the term tc be enjoyed, when tlie copyright should belong to a publisher or 
 other person who should have acquired it for otlier consideration than natural 
 love and affection, in which case it should cease at the expiration of the 
 existing term, unless the extension should have been previously agreed to 
 between the proprietor and the author. The provisions of the Act of 1842 
 which had reference to an increased and increasing class of literary works — 
 cyclopaedias, reviews, magazines, or works published in a series of books or 
 parts — were of the utmost importance both to the interests of publishers 
 and of authors, which interests, rightly understood, are one and the same. 
 
 There were no attempts to conceal, on the part of the advocates for the 
 extension of copyright, that one of the objects of that extension was to 
 benefit the family of sir Walter Scott, and to give an assurance to the 
 venerable age of Wordsworth that the advantage to himself or his family in 
 the popularity which had followed his early period of neglect would not 
 suddenly cease. In the House of Lords, lord Campbell, who warmly ad- 
 vocated the Bill, expressed his belief that the copyright of some of the works 
 of the great author of the Waverley novels was about to terminate, and 
 without the assistance of this Bill it was doubtful whether tlie descendants 
 of that illustrious man could continue to occupy Abbotsford.f The case 
 with regard to Scott's works was this : the copyright in four of his poems 
 ivas expired at the passing of the Act — the Lay of the Last Minstrel, pub- 
 
 * " Macaulay's Speeches," p. 255. 
 •*• Hansard, vol. Ixiii. col. 812. 
 VOL. vm.— 254.
 
 466 APPLICATION OF THE ACT TO COPyillGHTS ABOUT TO EXPHIE. [1842. 
 
 listed in 1805, ceased to be copyright in 1S33 ; and so Mannion in 1830, 
 Don Koderick in 1839, Eokeby in ISil. The copyright of the Lord of tlie 
 Isles wonld expire in 1842, when the copyright of Wavcrley would also be 
 at an end. It was a favourite argument that a monopoly such as was con- 
 templated by an extended period, would have a tendency to keep up a high 
 price in books. Lord Mahon very truly said, that " the general diffusion of 
 education, and the desire for cheap books which now prevails, precludes the 
 possibility of prices being unduly raised by any copyright bill," Under the 
 extended term of forty-two years, the copyright of Waverley and that of 
 six or seven novels, its successors, have expired. But in 1862 those pub- 
 lished between 1820 and 1826 still remain the exclusive property of the 
 assignees of the copyright. It was truly prognosticated in 1842 that tlie 
 interests of booksellers " would be lietter promoted by a low price to the 
 multitude rather than by a high one to the few." Messrs. Black are 
 issuino- the Waverley novels in a series, of which three volumes, originally 
 published at a guinea and a half, are comprised in a single volume at one 
 shilling. The case of AVordsworth stands thus : — be died in 1850 in his 
 eifrhtieth year. The old law gave him protection during his life ; but it was 
 an exceptional case. He was seventy-two years of age when the Act of 
 1842 was passed. Had he died before the passing of that Act the " Excur- 
 sion" would have become the property of that class of speculators whose 
 position lord Brougham greatly commiserated. "He could show that as 
 much as five thousand pounds had been expended in the expectation of the 
 expiration of copyrights. A man was perfectly justified in making such pre- 
 parations, and might already have filled his warehouses with the intended 
 publications. "Was it for their lordships to step in and ruin those men by a 
 Budden change of the law ?"* In the debates on the Copyright Bill the 
 names of Coleridge and Southey were as freely used as those of Scott and 
 'Wordsworth. Serjeant Talfourd called up " Coleridge speaking as it were 
 from the grave." It was well known that great as was the reputation of 
 Coleridge in his latter years, " if the income-tux had continued to the day of 
 his death, the collectors of it would have had a sorry recompense for the 
 trouble of calling upon him for his return." f Coleridge has himself said, 
 " I expect neitber profit nor general fame by my writings ; and I consider 
 inyself as having been amply repaid without income." X At the time of 
 Coleridge's death in 1834, the copyright of many of his poems had termi- 
 nated with his own life. His two tragedies, Christabel, and a few miscel- 
 laneous poems, had one or two years of legal protection left to them. His 
 accomplished nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, and the poet's gifted 
 daughter, the wife of his nephew, wer© engaged in producing those admirable 
 editions of his works which acquired a new value under their hands. In 
 these labours of affection were included a new edition of The Friend. 
 The protection of the existing law was thus sufficient to keep off the violat- 
 ing hands of literary traders from these bequests to posterity. But the new 
 law of 1842 enabled these labours to be completed by another son, Derwent. 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixiii. col. 802. 
 
 + Anonymous Letter, attributed to " a most illustrious pea" by the "Quarterly Review, ' 
 Tol. Ixix. p. 225. 
 
 i I'refacc to tie first and second eaiuona of his Fucins.
 
 I?i2.] AUTHORS RECENTLY DECEASED— NOVELISTS. 467 
 
 We have tlius a monument raised to tlie father's memory in complete 
 editions of bis ■works, which acquired a new commercial value wheu the 
 world had arrived at a juster appreciation than during his life of that com- 
 bination of the poetical and philosophical faculty whicli rendered him one of 
 the most remarkable men of his time. Southey, the early associate in literary 
 enterprise of Coleridge and "Wordsworth, was in 1842 in a condition of un- 
 consciousness as to the various modes in which his name was connected with 
 the copyright question. His overtasked intellect had given way a few years 
 before, and he was quite insensible to what was said in parliament by friends 
 or foes — equally indifferent to the just eulogies of Mr. Monckton Milnes, or 
 to the vulgar ridicule of Mr. "Wakley. This gentleman — who not only held a 
 coroner's inquest in a jocose fashion upon " mighty poets in their misery dead," 
 but volunteered an appraiser's estimate of the market value and the proper 
 remuneration of living authors — called upon the House not to be led away 
 by sentimental tales. Mr. Monckton Milnes answered the member for 
 I'insbury, that when he talked of sentimental tales he must have heard the 
 tale of a man of the purest and highest life, who was distinguished in many 
 walks of literature, — a poet, a historian, a critic, — he must have heard that 
 this man was at present bereft of his great mind, and that his family were 
 very dependent for their future comfort on the event of the debate of that 
 night.* 
 
 Dismissing the individual consideration of the influence upon the fortunes 
 of their representatives effected by the Copyright Bill of 1842, we may briefly 
 recapitulate the names of a few eminent writers, belonging to what is called 
 the Georgian era, who had then recently paid the debt of nature. Of poets, 
 Crabbe had died in 1832 ; James Hogg in 1835. Of novelists, John Gait had 
 died in 1839, at the age of sixty. AVhilst Scott was in the height of his repu- 
 tation as a delineator of the past manners of his countrymen, Gait was noting 
 ■with minute accuracy the domestic characteristics of the humbler classes of 
 Scotland in his own day. The Ayrshire Legatees was published in 1820 ; 
 the Annals of the Parish, which appeared in 1821, established Gait's repu- 
 tation. More interesting perhaps at the present time than either of these is 
 his Lawrie Todd. This is not only the true picture of a Scotchman in 
 America, but a most graphic representation of the extraordinary process bv 
 which mighty cities have grown up in the forest and the swamp. The per- 
 severing labours of adventurers such as the " splorifying" Lawrie have, during 
 the last half century, built miserable shanties on the bank of many a solitary 
 river which has now its vast quays and warehouses — large constituent parts 
 of a mighty empire ; yet an empire too extensive not ultimately to be sepa- 
 rated by conflicting interests, although long held together by the silken thread 
 of a federal union. Theodore Hook died in 1841. He was essentially the 
 novelist of those manners which came to an end very soon after the close of 
 the reign of the last of the Georges. The clever youth, of whom the Eegent 
 declared that " something must be done for Hook" — not for his wisdom or 
 his \irtue, but for his powers of mimicry — had five years in the Mauritius of 
 luxurious gratification out of his enormous salary as Accountant-general of 
 the colony. He returned to England a defaulter rather from carelessness than 
 
 • II.-.Tisai-a, vol. Ixi. col. 13S9.
 
 468 THEODORE HOOK AND THE SILVER-FORK SCHOOL. [1842. 
 
 dishonesty ; and from 1824 to 1841 wrote some dozen novels, whose aggregate 
 volumes amount to forty. These productions constitute an important item in 
 the collection known as " Standard Novelists." If a reader unacquainted with 
 the literature of the last generation were to open these novels, from Sayings 
 and Doings to Gilbert Gurney, and therein expect to find a "standard" 
 of wit or humour — even of that worldly wisdom which results from a large 
 observation and clearsighted estimate of manners — we apprehend that, reason- 
 ing from a part to the whole, he would come to very unsound conclusions upon 
 the literary characteristics of an age that had produced Maria Edgewortli and 
 Jane Austen. Hook's novels are essentially artificial. He was, we trust, the 
 last of that race of authors who, without being the hired servants of the great, 
 found a place at their tables for the sole purpose of contributing to their 
 amusement, like the jesters of the middle ages ; the last of those who, 
 indulging the belief that they were valued in their higher capacity as men of 
 letters, arrogated a place in the fashionable world, and devoted all their small 
 powers of ridicule to depict the violations of the conventionalities amongst 
 the middle classes. Hook was almost the last of what was called the " silver- 
 fork school." It was a school that flourished before Heform-bills and rail- 
 roads ; and its disciples long persisted in their ignorant endeavour to paint 
 the domestic life of the flourishing citizen as uniformly vulgar, and in their 
 base delineations of the struggles of honest poverty as revolting and dis- 
 reputable. Every invention of industry, every social arrangement, which had 
 a tendency to put high and low on a level of convenience and comfort, was 
 hateful to such writers and to their fashionable admirers. 
 
 At the time when Theodore Hook flourished, in company with a host of 
 imitators who combined the dandyism of the drawing-room with the ignorance 
 of the servants' hall, the tone of periodical criticism was as essentially artifi- 
 cial as the novels and poems w^hich it held up to popular admiration. It was 
 characteristic of the ephemeral criticism which seized only upon the 
 amusing portions of new books for extracts to administer to a lazy taste for 
 the superficial and exciting, that a sort of antagonism was fomented between 
 the class who desired to instruct and the class who sought only to amuse. Ifc 
 was the same dispute which Swift has so happily described in The Battle of 
 the Books, between the Spider and the Bee. The " man of genius," as he 
 called himself — and every small critic was " a man of genius" as well as the 
 object of his laudation — unconsciously used the reproaches of the Spider to 
 the Bee in his periodical attacks upon the literary drudge — " the obscure 
 literary drudge who has not a single idea in his head save what he filches 
 i'rom the British Museum." * Swift's Spider was a self-producing creature, 
 like the "man of genius." The "literary drudge" had his answer in the 
 language of the Bee, who claimed to be the nobler creature of the two, in his 
 universal range bringing home honey and wax, instead of feeding and 
 engendering on itself and producing nothing but fly -bane and cob-web. The 
 " compilers," as they were sneeringly called — and ignorantly called, for 
 what great historical work, for example, is not essentially a compilation — 
 had tlu! best of the battle with the professors of " la Litttrature facile." The 
 habit of research, which could not be sneered down, tended to produce 
 
 " Kew Monthly Magazine."
 
 1842.] EPHEMERAL CRITICS AND WRITERS WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE. 469 
 
 that accuracy which gradually became necessary in journalism and even in 
 the fashionable novel. The value of drawing from nature and realities had 
 been tested by the example of a young writer who never looked upon society 
 or upon " still life" without seeing peculiarities which he faithfully repro- 
 duced in his characters and scenes. Dickens at once threw his broad day- 
 light upon the "twilight interim" of the herd of his immediate predecessors 
 in prose fiction. " The mob of gentlemen who write with ease" could no 
 longer bug themselves in the false application of a dictum of Burke's : " It 
 is the nature of all greatness not to be exact." Instead of attempting to 
 verify a quotation, the usual phrase of those who dabbled in history, philo- 
 sophy, or criticism, was, when they misquoted, " "We perfectly well remember 
 that So-and-so said." The poets and novelists, in describing a landscape, 
 never attempted to look upon the face of Nature. Their storms aud their 
 sunshine were derived from some hazy recollection of " The Seasons ;" their 
 flowers and their trees would have puzzled the greatest master of classification 
 to arrange even in families. They gave the apple blossom to the pear, and 
 brought the wheat into ear before the rye. In their delineations of human 
 character, vague generalities took the place of the nice distinctions of passions 
 and humours found in the great dramatists of the Elizabethan age, and in the 
 great novelists of the first half of the Georgian era. Everything, whether in 
 J^f ature or in Art, in Science or in Literature, in the Manners of high life or of 
 low life, was indistinctly painted in their ephemeral manufacture for the Cir- 
 culating Library. Their style was made up of a barbarous jargon of slip-slop 
 English interlarded with the commonest phrases of Erench that had no idio- 
 matic meaning. Occasional dashes of slang and half-profanity indicated that 
 the old rags of the court-dress of Vice were still the patches upon the easier 
 and neater costume of the age which had succeeded that of buckles and knee- 
 breeches. All honour to a higher criticism, and to the nobler aims of popular 
 writers following the increase of readers, this race is extinct. Each one of its 
 many genii has faded into vapour, aud has gone into a bottle to be sealed up 
 with the seal of Solomon. 
 
 Little as there was of philosophy in the small criticism that prevailed in 
 the latter time of George the Fourth, it might have had its origin in the 
 popular expression of distaste to the doctrines of Ulilitariauism, which, were 
 then advocated somewhat dogmatically in many influential quarters. Tiie 
 Utilitarian creed of morals, and the political economy creed which was 
 associated with it, were imperfectly understood ; and they thus became 
 to common apprehensions the exponents of whatever was hard, and narrow, 
 and selfish, in a view of human actions and motives. Some of the disciples 
 of Bentham and Malthus in many respects did great injustice to the real 
 benevolence that was at the root of the principle of " the greatest happiness 
 for the greatest number," and of the principle that mankind has a tendency 
 to increase faster than the food which is to maintain an increasing popu- 
 lation. The extreme Utilitarians could see no object in the pursuit of 
 knowledge but the acquirement of something that would conduce to worldly 
 success. With them the Industrial Arts attained their highest dignity in 
 ministering to the satisfaction of physical wants. The Beautiful was not an 
 essential adjunct to the Useful. The Utilitarian teaching had many important 
 results in legislation and jurisprudence. But it was wholly incompetent to
 
 470 UTILITARIAXISM— CHAXGES IN THE CHARACTER OF LITERATURE. [1S12, 
 
 deal with the whole realm of thought. Literature refused to submit to the 
 dictation of a new school that soon produced its pedants in abundauco. Out 
 of the contests of thirty or forty years has grown up a school of compromise 
 which best reflects the character of our age. 
 
 It has been expressively said, " All Literature is more or less both an effect 
 and a cause, both a product and a power. It both follows and leads. It 
 takes an impulse from its age, and it also gives an impulse to its age." * 
 The amount of the impulse which literature imparts to an age must, to a 
 considerable extent, depend upon the geniu& of the writers. The opinions 
 and feelings of an age are sometimes so definite and so strong, that the most 
 original thinker is moulded by them into a participation with the prevailing 
 modes of thought, so that at one time every form of literature is highly 
 coloured, and at another time all its tints are neutral. Grradually the pris- 
 matic colours become blended into an equable light, as the political and 
 religious contentions of a stirring period fade away into something approach- 
 ing a catholicity of opinion. A period of quietude succeeds a period of 
 excitement. After the outburst of fiery writing produced by the French 
 Revolution, English literature became for the most part Conservative. After 
 the agitation of Parliamentary Reform had come to an end, writers as well 
 as statesmen became tolerant and compromising. The liberal author was not 
 to be hunted out of society as an Infidel and a Democrat ; the Conservative 
 was not to have the mob raised upon him as a slave of the Aristocracy and 
 the enemy of the People. One principal cause of this approach towards 
 forbearance, if not to union, was the general spread of intelligence. Extreme 
 opinions flourish amidst popular ignorance. Tlie passions and prejudices of 
 sect and party, during a long period of contention such as the half century 
 before the age of Victoria, influenced every expression of thought in 
 Philosophy, in History, in Poetry, in Prose Fiction, It came at length to be 
 perceived that two halves of any domain of letters are not equal to the 
 whole; that the useful and the beautiful could not be advantageously culti- 
 vated apart like a potato-field and a flower garden ; that as the classical and 
 the romantic schools of the French drama were gradually blending, so, in 
 History, it was not absolutely necessary to leave the Picturesque to the 
 Novelist, and the Literal to the Chrouicler ; that Poetry would acquire a new 
 charm by an infusion of the real with the imaginative, as, rightly applied, 
 Pre-B-apbaelism would work out a needful reform in the highest and the 
 humblest Art. It is enough for us to indicate this change, without 
 attempting any formal illustration of the progress of all literature in the 
 present generation towards a certain homogeneousness. 
 
 Of the Historians of this period those who have exercised the greatest 
 influence upon their age have been Henry Hallam, Thomas Babingtou 
 Macaulay, and Thomas Carlyle. As the ofiice of historian has a wider range 
 than the description of public events, each of these writers was also Essayist 
 and Critic. Their modes of treating the Past and the Present were as essen- 
 tially dillerent as their mental characteristics. Guizot has described with 
 more than ordinary animation a visit to Westminster Abbey in ISIO in. 
 which Macaulay was liis cicerone. During three or four hours they walked 
 
 • G. L. Craik, " EnglLsb Mtevaturc aud Lar-iiage," vol. ii. r- ^22.
 
 1S42.] HISTORIANS— MACAULAY. 471 
 
 together tlirougli this monumental gallery of the Eiiglisli nation. " Afc 
 every fitep," says tlie memoir-writer, " I stopped, or Mr. Macaulay stopped 
 me. Sometimes answering my questions, sometimes anticipating them, he 
 explained to me an allegorical sculpture, he recalled to me a forgotten fact, 
 he related to me an anecdote little known, he recited to me some fine passage 
 from the poet or the orator at whose name "we paused. . . . As tho 
 great dead of Italy throng around the passage of Dante, so the most illuy- 
 trious personages of English History and Literature came out of their tombs 
 before me, at the voice of a representative full worthy of them." * Prom 
 the stores of his prodigious memory Macaulay thus improvised the learning 
 "which he elaborated in his writings. This eloquent monologue — for w!io 
 that knew the illustrious ciceroue could doubt that his ordinary monologue 
 would in such a position almost become an oration — this monologue was 
 uttered some seven years before the publication of the first two volumes of 
 " The History of England from the Accession of James II." The great 
 purpose of that History had beea long seething in the mind of him who, in 
 his earliest writings, exhibited " his tendency to concentrate his thoughts 
 upon a single subject, — the rescue of our native English liberties from the 
 futile and wearisome tyranny of the Stuarts, and the consolidation of those 
 liberties by the settlement of the Eevolution." f If the subject had been 
 in his mind from the time when, in 1824, he wrote in " Knight's Quarterly 
 Magazine" his " Conversation between Mr. Abraham Cowley and Mr. John 
 Milton touching the great Civil AVar," the mode of treating it was also in 
 his mind when, in 1S28, he wrote in " The Edinburgh Review" his article 
 on " The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry 
 VII. to the death of George II. by Henry Hallam." He therein complains 
 that we have good historical romances and good historical essays ; that the 
 imagination and the reason have made partition of that province of literature, 
 and hold their respective portions in severalty, instead of holding the Avhole 
 in common. " To make the past present," he says, " to bring the distant 
 near, to place us in the society of a great man or on the eminence which 
 overlooks the field of a mighty battle, to invest with the reality of human 
 flesh and blood beings whom we are too much inclined to consider as per- 
 sonified qualities in an allegory, to call up our ancestors before us with all 
 their peculiarities of language, manners, and garb, to show us over their 
 houses, to seat us at their tables, to rummage their old-fashioned wardrobes, 
 to explain the uses of their ponderous furniture, these parts of the duty 
 which properly belongs to the iiistorian have been appropriated by the his- 
 torical novelist. . . . Sir AVaUer Scott gives us a novel ; Mr. Hallam a 
 critical and argumentative history. Both are occupied with the same matter. 
 But the former looks at it with the eye of a sculptor. His intention is to 
 give an express and lively image of its external I'orm. The latter is an 
 anatomist. His task is to dissect the subject to its inmost recesses, and to 
 lay before us all the springs of motion and all the causes of decay." J lb 
 was for Macaulay, by a wonderful conibinatiou of the two great attributes of 
 
 * "Memolres," tome v. p. 155. 
 + Lucas, " Secularia," p. £48. 
 J "Essays," vol. i. p. llo.
 
 472 HALLAM— CARLYLE. [1842. 
 
 History and Romance, to build up a narrative that with the greatest power of 
 charming the Fancy compelled, with very few exceptions, the submission of 
 the Eeason. Where he fails it is where he is carried away by the ardour 
 of his political feelings and habits of thought, losing the historian in the 
 partizan. But this total surrender to an overwhelming impulse in some 
 degree ensured his triumph. It required no ordinary amount of energy to 
 turn the young men and maidens who had been nurtured upon Hume, from 
 a sickly sympathy with discrowned Stuarts and plotting Jacobites ; to give 
 them, in the place of that sugar-candy of History which sees nothing but the 
 misfortunes of the great and forgets the wrongs and sufferings of the lowly, 
 some more nourishing diet — some diet fitter for a great free people. His 
 view of the Eevolution and of the character of William of Orange was 
 producing its effects when Prince Albert, with the moral courage and 
 sagacity that were his by nature and education, said, in a large meeting of 
 Churchmen on the 150th Anniversary of the Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, " This society was first chartered by that 
 "reat man William the Third — the greatest sovereign this country has to 
 boast of." Some of the Churchmen winced, and thought of Sacheverell and 
 right divine. 
 
 If Macaulay were not always impartial himself, he was fully sensible of 
 the value of impartiality. He characterizes Mr. Hallam's " Constitutional 
 History " as eminently judicial — summing up with a steady impartiality, 
 turning neither to the right nor to the left, glossing over nothing, exaggerating 
 nothing. But Hallam in his impartiality seldom, we may perhaps say never, 
 compromises the great cause of freedom and toleration by an indiscreet 
 acceptance of the creeds of despotism disguised under the sentimentalism of 
 loyalty, and the creeds of bigotry anathematizing heresy and schism. Under 
 his somewhat cold and dry expositions there is a solid foundation of liberal 
 and generous sentiment ; a profound reverence for truth ; a deep respect for 
 popular rights, measured, however, by a natural dread of extreme democratic 
 opinions. In the work which preceded his Constitutional History — " Europe 
 during the Middle Ages," — there is more of colour filling up the clear out- 
 line ; but he has a distinct perception of the task before him. Its limited 
 extent, its character of dissertation rather than of narrative, " must neces- 
 sarily preclude that circumstantial delineation of events and of characters 
 upon which the beauty as well as usefulness of a regular history so mainly 
 depends." * 
 
 Macaulay is well described as "having knocked out the brains of the 
 Stuart superstition." f The third eminent historian of the Victorian era has 
 done something more than aid in this salutary work of destruction — he has 
 taught us how to appreciate one of the greatest of England's sons— warrior, 
 statesman, patriot— and yet king-killer. Mr. Carlyle has cleared away the 
 rubbish that two centuries had accumulated round the memory of Cromwell ; 
 and has raised for him a monument that will endure when some of the marble 
 shall have perished amongst which his statue lias no place. Partizan as Mr. 
 Carljle is, he is not the partizan of party. His reverence is for the indi» 
 
 * " Middle Ages"— Preface to Fast Edition, 1813. 
 |- " Secularia," p. 270.
 
 1S42.J LIN GARD—TYTLER—PALG RAVE— KEMBLE—FORSTER. 47S 
 
 vidua]. He bows before iutellectual power of wbicb it is the nature gene- 
 rally to obtain the mastery over fortune ; and thus by some he is held in his 
 hero-worship to be tlie idolater of success rather than of virtue. Unques- 
 tionably his contempt for the weak is somewhat too decided — for those who 
 halt between two opinions — for those who compromise the right with the 
 expedient. Shams and unveracities, that absolutism rides over, are the abomi- 
 nations of a balancing age which it is his business to underrate. With a 
 style which is well suited to the original character of his mind in its forcible 
 quaintness and occasional ruggedness, there is no writer of narrative who has 
 a greater command of that descriptive power which combines the rush of the 
 poet with the minuteness of the naturalist — the hawk's swoop with the 
 hawk's vision. Amongst writers professedly aiming at word-pictures there 
 can no passages be found more eminently picturesque than many which arrest 
 the reader and hold him captive in the " French Eevoiution " and in the 
 " Cromwell." 
 
 The "History of England" of Dr. Lingard comes down to the Revolu- 
 tion of 1688. The author, a Roman Catholic divine, could not be expected 
 to deal with the great ecclesiastical reforms of three centuries without a 
 leaning to the opinions of his own Church. But he is worthy of all respect 
 for his abstinence from any attempts to proselytize, and for his general fair- 
 ness iu commenting upon the documents upon which he claims the merit of 
 having founded his nai'rative. If his professed endeavour to separate himself 
 as much as possible from every party be not always successful, we may accept 
 his declaration that he is not conscious to himself of any feeling wliicli 
 should induce him to pervert the truth.* The " History of Scotland," of 
 Patrick Fraser Tytler, is another of those valuable works which are based 
 upon authentic materials. The narrative is brought down to the Union of 
 the Crowns in 1603. Thus dealing with events that are not only obscure in 
 the hands of the early narrators, but surrounded in all narratives, ancient or 
 modern, with a haze of national prejudice, Mr. Tytler has succeeded in telling 
 a great story in a just spirit — not in an unpatriotic spirit, but with a con- 
 viction that the historian's duty may be best performed by looking at the 
 Past without surrendering his faith to legends and traditions which only 
 represent the violence of semi-barbarous times. Over the Anglo-Saxon 
 History new streams of light have been thrown by the learning of Sir 
 Francis Palgrave and of John Mitchell Kemble. The " Historical Essays " 
 of John Forster, particularly those on " The Grand Remonstrance of 
 16-il," and " On the Civil AVars and Oliver Cromwell," form a valuable 
 Bupplemeut to those " Lives of Eminent British Statesmen " which 
 appeared at an earlier period of his distinguished literary career. Lord 
 Mahon's " History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to 1783," filled up a 
 considerable gap in our historical narratives of particular eras which require 
 to be treated with fullness of detail. This is a work which is safe from its 
 conscientiousness ; pleasing from its equable flow rather than from its occa- 
 sional brilliancy ; reflecting the mind of an amiable and accomplished 
 Avriter, who ordinarily avoids the dogmatism of a political instructor, and 
 seeks to inform rather than to convince. Lord Brougham's " Historical 
 
 * Preface — Fourtli Edition, p. ix.
 
 474 MAHOX— NAPIER-MITFORD— THIRLWALL— GROTE, [1S42. 
 
 Sketches of Statesmen who flourished in the time of George III." would be 
 out of nature if they pretended to a similar calmness and reticence. Tet, 
 strong as they occasionally are in their language and tone, and therefore tlie 
 cause of much controversy, it is obvious that the great orator of half a 
 century has, witli all his personal and party antipathies, a deep sympathy 
 with honesty of purpose, a profound admiration of true eloquence, a just 
 appreciation of the difSeulties that surrounded the course of the advisers of 
 the Crown, when the functions of the Constitutional Sovereign were ill 
 understood in the lingering superstitions of expiring feudalism. With the 
 exception of Sir William Napier's grand " History of the War of the 
 Peninsula," we prefer to leave, without any attempt to characterize them, the 
 historical narratives of our own immediate times. The merits of Sir 
 Archibald Alison and of Miss Martineau are abundantly recognized by 
 readers who properly estimate the value of their information, without being 
 disturbed by the opposite political tendencies of the one or the other.* 
 
 The field of historical writing is too wide for any extension of these im- 
 perfect notices beyond the historians of our own country. If our limits would 
 uUow we might devote a page to a contrast between the popular History of 
 Greece (Mitford's) in the time of George III., and two great works thus 
 described by an accomplished scliolar : — " Within the last fifty years more has 
 been done by both English and foreign scholars to elucidate the history of 
 Greece than at any former period since the revival of learning ; and the results 
 of all these labours are two English works on the history of Greece, such as no 
 other nation can boast of." The works tlius alluded to by Dr. Leouhard Schmitz 
 are those of Bishop Thirlwall and Mr. Grote. The one was commenced in 
 1835, and was greatly improved in 1845 ; the other, commenced in 1846, was 
 completed in 1856. Dr. Arnold's " History of Eome" was left unfinished in 
 1842, when England could ill afibrd to lose a man of the purest virtue and 
 the highest ability, who so put his heart into what he did that, if he had been 
 longer spared, he might by his honest zeal have reconciled some of the theo- 
 logical difl'erences of his time, and have produced a nearer approach to recon- 
 cilement between democratic and aristocratic politics. He died when these 
 contests appeared to threaten formidable convulsions in the Church and in the 
 State. 
 
 Dr. Johnson, " speaking of the Erench novels, compared with Hi chard- 
 son's, said, they might be pretty baubles, but a wren was not an eagle."t 
 The French novels were those which Gray had a lazy delight in dreaming over 
 as he lay upon a sofa in his college rooms, and all around him was the dull 
 monotony of his half monastic life. Another generation turned away from 
 E-ichardson and knew nothing of Crebillon. Our own wrens of fiction were 
 Lopping about and chirruping their little notes on every side in the quarter 
 of a century after Johnson. How were they petted in every parlour, aye, and 
 in every kitclien, in anolher half century! Erom 1816 to 1851 there were a 
 hundred new works of prose fiction published in every year. J Erom 1852 to 
 
 * For oTivioiis reasons we would only point out "The Pictorial History of England" as a 
 general history that su| plied a great -Mant at the Licgiuniiii; oi the Queeii'tj rcigu. 
 f HoRwell, cliap. xxiv. 1770. 
 i See Note at the end of this Ciinpter.
 
 lSi2.j BULWER LYTT0X—DICKE2^S—AIN-S WORTH— THACKERAY. 475 
 
 ISGl, it may fairly be conjectured that their annual number had doubled. 
 To catalogue even the names of all the writers of our own day in this depart- 
 ment would occupy many pages. There has been a never-failing succession of 
 new candidates for possible profit — even for the honour alone of appearing in 
 print. In most cases born and dying like the Mayfly, they were perhaps to be 
 envied in their one day's existence. But those who have lived through many 
 Springs have given manifest proof that their long lives have not been idle. 
 Never were novelists so numerous ; never were the works of the enduri no- 
 ones so voluminous. Snail we oifend sir Edward Bulwer Lytton if we record 
 that he began writing novels in the seventh year of George the Fourth, and 
 is still writing novels in the twenty-fifth year of Victoria, — that there is 
 not a province of fiction into which he has not made a foray, and carried 
 off' the richest spoils ? Mr. James was in 1825 aspiring to be the 
 imitator, if not the rival, of Sir Walter Scott, and had scarcely given 
 up his especial function of re-vivifying, in an apparently endless series, 
 
 " Great heaps of ruinous mortality," 
 
 when his own mortal career was terminated in 18G0. Captain Marryat did 
 not begin to write till he was nearly fort}', and he died when he was fifty-six ; 
 but in that period he produced a novel each year. Dickens was writin"- 
 '• Sketches by Boz" in 1836 ; he was writing " Great Expectations" in 1861. 
 Of his voluminousness it may be sufficient to say that his eio-ht laro^er serial 
 stories, according to a typographical estimate, contain nearly double the 
 quantity of the four great novels of Eielding and the five of Smollett. Ains- 
 worth published" Eookwood" in 1834 ; he is still lingering around prisons 
 and palaces and civic banquetiug-halls. Thackeray was not a novelist proper 
 till 1846; but what a large space has he filled in the world's eye during the 
 sixteen years between "Vanity Fair" and the "Adventures of Philip." The 
 Idleness of Authors must be classed with the false beliefs of another a^-e. 
 
 It would be as manifestly impossible, as it would be unnecessary, for us 
 to follow the flights even of the eagles. Many there are who cannot be 
 classed amongst "the little birds," but whose names we can only indicate. 
 Some have a moderate share of surviving reputation, such as the novelists of 
 Irish life, John Banim, William Carleton, and Charles James LeA^er. 
 Charlotte Bronte, who first awakened the world to an appreciation of her 
 remarkable genius in 1847, has been too prematurely removed, before a wider 
 experience might have mellowed her views of life without impairing their 
 originality. A greater has succeeded to the elevated seat which she filled — 
 the authoress of " Adam Bede." Let us proceed to a few general observations 
 upon the increased and increasing prevalence of prose-fiction, and upon its 
 general tendencies in obedience to the character and influence of the era in 
 which its writers are living. 
 
 Superficially considered, an age of novel-reading might be pronounced to 
 be an idle and a frivolous age. Yet the living generation is far more hardly 
 worked than the generation immediately preceding ; its work is exhaustinfr 
 its pace is killing, compared with the times before the French devolution. 
 Yet the age is not frivolous, as in other times and other countries for it is a 
 home-keeping age, and its pleasures are of a domestic character. And home 
 pursuits and habits have made the Novel take the place of the Comedy. AVer
 
 476 SERIALS -PREY ALENCE OF FICTION— KITCHEN LITERATURE. [184-2. 
 
 may repeat a few sentences we have written elsewhere : " It is remarkable 
 bow, within the last quarter of a century, the Novel has been the principal 
 reflector of manners — how the players have, to a great extent, foregone their 
 function of being ' the abstracts and brief chronicles of the time.' It was 
 not so when Fielding and Smollett held ' the mirror up to nature' in the 
 modern form of fiction, whilst Groldsmith and Sheridan took the more ancient 
 dramatic method of dealing with humours and fashions. The stage has still 
 its sparkling writers — England is perhaps richer in the laughing satire and 
 fun of journalism than at any period. But the novel, especially in that cheap 
 issue which finds its entrance to thousands of households, furnishes the chief 
 material from which the future philosophical historian will learn what were 
 our modes of thought and living — our vices and our follies — our pretensions, 
 and our realities — in the middle of the nineteenth century." * The severe 
 moralist of ten years ago might say, as he may now say, that the Theatre was 
 a rare indulgence for the middle classes, and was scarcely accessible to the 
 lower ; but that the Circulating Library was sending its seductions into everj 
 household, and that the fictions of the Monthly Serial and the Weekly Sheet 
 were interfering with the serious thoughts and duties of life amongst all 
 classes ; that, even if they did not corrupt, they were diverting from useful 
 studies. There was something of justice in this harsh estimate. The so- 
 called mischief, which before the age of Serials was confined to the Circulating 
 Library, had reached the humblest ranks in the Penny "Weekly Sheets. The 
 popular tendency had forced upon every weekly periodical the necessity for 
 introducing fiction in some form or other. The great masters of fiction did 
 not shrink from publishing their creations in weekly or monthly fragments. 
 The humblest hacks, utterly devoid of knowledge and abounding in bad taste 
 could reproduce all the forgotten trash of the Minerva Press, in what has been 
 called the Kitchen literature. Their labours were crowned with an enormous 
 popularity in periodicals which founded their large circulation upon a 
 meretricious cheapness. Hence, for the most part, a deluge of stories that, 
 to mention the least evil of them, abounded with false representations of 
 manners, drivelling sentimentalities, and impossible incidents. The apologist 
 for the light reading of histime could notshut hiseyes to the ever-present fact, 
 that in proportion as the number of readers had increased, the desire of the mass 
 of the population had been rather for passing amusement than solid instruc- 
 tion. But his true apology would be founded upon another ever-present 
 fact. The labouring people of this country were labouring harder than any 
 other people, not only from the absolute necessity of the competition 
 around them, but through the energy of their race. The middle classes 
 were carried along that stream of excitement which had grown from the 
 tranquil course of Denham's " Thames," " though gentle, yet not dull," 
 into the rush of the "swift and arrowy Ehone." The quickened Post, 
 .liaihvays, Telegraphs, had made all life go faster. The energies of all 
 had become overtasked. It could not, therefore, in the nature of things 
 be expected that much of the reading of all classes should have been 
 other than for amusement. Further, when it was considered hovr com- 
 j)aratively recent had been the training for any reading amongst a large 
 
 * " Half Hours with tlic best Authors," vol. iv. p. 4S2, edit. 1S48.
 
 1842.] MISS MARTINEAU'S ILLUSTRATIONS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. 477 
 
 proportion of those who had become readers, we could scarcely look for a 
 great amount of serious application in their short leisure after a Lard 
 working day. The entertainment which was presented to all whether in the 
 shape of a shilling novel or a penny journal was not debasing; it might 
 enfeeble the intellect, but it did not taint it. We had got beyond the 
 scurrilous stage — the indecent stage — the profane stage — the seditious stage, 
 of cheap Miscellanies. 
 
 Let us turn to another aspect of the prose fiction of our age, in regard to ^ 
 which it would be difficult for the most sturdy utilitarian to deny that it has 
 accomplished higher ends than the supply of mere amusement. 
 
 About the beginning of the reign of William the Fourth, there was a lady 
 whose zeal as a political and social teacher has been unwearied, who came 
 suddenly upon the world as a writer of an extensive series of tales, having a 
 more distinct purpose than other works of imagination. Her purpose was to> 
 teach political economy through fiction : — 
 
 " So we, if children young diseased we fiud, 
 
 Anoint with sweets the vessel's foremost parts, 
 To make them taste the potions sharp we give." * 
 
 Miss Martineau had small encouragement in the onset of her adventure.. 
 Paternoster Eow would willingly have bargained for the sugar on the edge of 
 the cup without the physic within. Gray's Inn Square, wherein dwelt the 
 Society for the Difi"usion of Useful Knowledge, believed that the sweets 
 would impair the efficacy of the physic. At length a somewhat obscure 
 sectarian publisher made a bidding ; and a little volume was cast upon the 
 world entitled "Illustrations of Political Economy. No. 1. Life in the 
 Wilds : A Tale." Without intermission for more than two years came out 
 every month a new Tale, with a short " Summary of .Principles" indicated 
 therein. The success was complete. " I take my Btand upon Science," said 
 the now popular authoress. " The sciences on which I touch bear no relation 
 to party." Without inferring that Miss Martineau did not strenuously 
 labour to fulfil what she considered her mission as a teacher of political and 
 social truths, we may venture to believe that her skilful development of an 
 interesting story — her great power of assimilation, by which loqal images and 
 scenes were reproduced as if they had been the result of actual observation 
 -—her skilful admixture of narrative and dialogue — her ability to conceive a 
 character and to carry it through with a real dramatic power — that these 
 qualities excited the admiration of thousands of readers, who rose from the 
 perusal of her monthly volumes without the " Principles" having taken the 
 slightest hold upon their minds. Her triumph as a novelist was the more 
 remarkable as her purpose was a mistake in Art. It was the same mistake 
 that Joanna Baillie made in her " Plays on the Passions." As it was a 
 mistake to make the conduct of a drama wholly rest upon the exhibition of 
 one intense master passion, it was also a mistake to conduct a novel so as to 
 lay aside most of the modifying social circumstances which would divert the 
 progress of the action, and render a denouement according to scientific laws 
 at least improbable. ^Nevertheless, we liold these remarkable little books to 
 
 * Tasso — Fairf;ix"s tra-nslation — book i. canto 3.
 
 <TS NOVELISTS' SOCIAL AIMS— DICKENS— MRS. GASKELL— KINGSLEY. [1842. 
 
 have, in a considerable degree, led the way in the growing tendency of all 
 novel-writing to extend the area of its search for materials upon which to 
 build a story, and to keep in view^ the characteristic relations of rich and poor, 
 of educated and uneducated, of virtuous and vicious, in our complicated state 
 of society, so as to bring all classes and conditions nearer to each other in the 
 exposition of a common humanity prescribing a common brotherhood. This 
 was the great benefit to his age which Charles Dickens has accomplished, 
 without having a ground of scientific " Principles" lor his social pictures — 
 indeed, sometimes too ostentatiously despising the doctrines of political 
 economy in bis search after a broader foundation for lessons to be implied 
 by his readers rather than enforced upon them. Whatever be the political 
 or theological opinions of the more prominent novelists of the Vic- 
 torian era, no one, even twenty years ago, could get away from the fact 
 that the one solemn and imperative duty of every man and woman in 
 these days is to act upon the precept of " Blessed is he that con- 
 sideretli the poor," — to act upon it, not in the spirit of alms-giving, but in 
 tl)e spirit of Christian brotherhood. To understand, wherever possible, 
 what are the habitual thoughts and feelings of the great mass of the people ; 
 to go to the root of that isolation which separates the receiver of wages from 
 the capitalist ; to see where the scientific laws which regulate Labour and 
 Capital press unequally, and how their inevitable tendency to a segregation 
 of classes can be modified ; to ascertain what is the true nature of the 
 popular prejudice which requires to be enlightened on political questions ; 
 to cast away all undue suspicion of democratic opinions and of religious 
 dissent, and to open as wide as prudence may prescribe the doors of the Senate 
 and of the Church ; lastly, to trace crime to its dens, and finding out how 
 much it is identified with misery and with that barbarism which sits grim 
 and dangerous by the side of civilization, to abate if possible the want, and 
 to remove the ignorance before the dimness of the child becomes the total 
 darkness of the adult ; — such are the duties which it is the especial honour 
 of many of the present race of our writers of prose fiction to have success- 
 I'ully inculcated. They have brought us to know our fellows in the great 
 community to which we belong. It is a knowledge which promises safety 
 to the great .and to the rich ; to the landowner and the merchant ; to the 
 lawyer and the divine; to all who serve the State in administrative functions; 
 to the secular teacher, and even to the abstracted student who would " let 
 the world slip :" — " Blessed is he that considereth the poor ; the Lord will 
 deliver him in time of trouble." All honour to those beguilers of life's dull 
 hours who have laboured to bring us all to a knowledge of each other by 
 repeated efforts, such as those of Ciiarles Dickens ; to the illustrious females, 
 euch as Elizabeth Gaskell, who have seen in this work an especial vocation ; 
 to a band of manly thinkers, of whom Charles Kingsley is the type. They 
 have their reward, though not a complete one, in seeing the great change 
 which marks the difR'reuce between 1831 and 1861. The author of " Alton 
 Loclce," who, from his recollections of twenty years ago, drew a painful 
 picture of the hateful severance of classesy, thus describes the great change 
 which presents itself to his view in 18G2 : "Before the influence of religion, 
 both Evangelical and Anglican ; before the spread of those liberal principles, 
 loundcd on Ctuimon humanity and justice, the triiimpli of whicli we owe lu
 
 1S12,] THACKERAY'S NOVELS -POETS. 479 
 
 the courage and practical good sense of the Whig party ; before the example 
 of a Court, virtuous, humaue, and beneficent ; the attitude of the British 
 upper classes has undergone a noble change. There is no aristocracj in the 
 world, and there never has been one as far as I know, wliich has so honour- 
 ably repented, and brought forth fruits meet for repentance ; which has so 
 cheerfully asked what its duty was, that it might do it. It is not merely 
 enlightened statesmen, philanthropists, devotees, or the working clergy, 
 liard and heartily as they are working, who have set themselves to do good 
 as a duty specially required of them by creed or by station. In the gene- 
 rality of younger laymen, as far as I can see, a humanity (in the highest 
 sense of the word) has been awakened, which bids fair, in another genera- 
 tion, to abolish the last remnants of class prejudices and class grudges." * 
 
 The novels of Mr. Thackeray are signal examples of a great change in 
 the mode of conducting prose fiction. When Garrick played Macbeth in 
 the court costume of the reign of Anne, the pit did not hiss the anachronism. 
 When the bold baron of the Minerva Press talked to his ladye-love in the 
 style of Sir Fopliug Flutter, the scene of their passion might have equally 
 fitted Alnwick Castle or Sion House. The trusting reader did not regard 
 language, or costume, or local colouring, as in any way essential to the 
 development of a story whether of the 15th or the 19th century. Mr. 
 Thackeray saw the great vulgar and the little vulgar of the Club or the 
 Drawing-Room, when he first looked around him for his materials for satire, 
 and he laid them bare in his "Book of Snobs." He has painted the passion 
 for notoriety, the childish ostentation, the sacrifice of comfort for show, the 
 pride that goes before a fall, the money-worship of the scheming mothers, the 
 flirtations of the ambitious daughters, the sycophancy, the hypocrisy, the selfish- 
 ness of his own age. He has shown the same inuer life in the days of " two pages 
 and a chair," of buckles and periwigs. But he never confounds the characteris- 
 tics of the Past and the Present. If there is often a family likeness in his 
 portraits, he is careful to individualize them by peculiarities characteristic of 
 the shifting fashions of a generation. " The Virginians " belong to the time 
 when Decorum sat prim and solemn by the side of George and Charlotte at 
 Kew ; when if the high-born wanted an occasional frolic with Licentiousness 
 they were perfectly indifiereut to the effects of their example upon the swinish 
 multitude Avho admiringly looked on. "Vanity Fair" is of the Eegency, — 
 its noise and its glitter, — the constable to keep order in the crowd, the 
 profligacy going forward where justice stands hoodwinked outside the door. 
 
 If any attempt only to indicate those who have taken rank amongst the 
 Novelists of the Victorian age be embarrassing from the length of the roll, 
 what shall we say of the Poets, whose name is legion. The elder, such as 
 Bowles and Eobert Montgomery, will not be numbered by future critics as 
 belonging to the same class as the ephemeral tribe of another age that John- 
 son's "Lives" have rescued from oblivion. Allan Cunningham and Bryan 
 Waller Proctor, who belong to the middle period, are worthy of long memory. 
 A younger race to whom we, individually, were bound by ties of friendlv in- 
 tercourse — Winthrop Mackworth Praed, Sidney AValker, John Moultrie 
 Derwent Coleridge — may perhaps be more impartially estimated bv otliers 
 
 • "Alton Locke," Preface to edition of 18C2, p. viii.
 
 480 TENNYSON— BROWNING. [1842- 
 
 but bjnone witli a more hearty esteem for those who are living, and with a 
 deeper regret for those who were too prematurely taken away. Ebenezcr 
 Elliott will be remembered for more enduring qualities than are displayed in 
 his *' Corn Law Ehymes." John Clare is still amongst us in the flesh, but 
 his true pictures of rural life and of the peculiar aspects of his own Midland 
 scenery will never again delight by that truth and freshness which stand out 
 amidst the imitative and conventional herd, liichard Monckton Milnes has 
 accomplished the very diflScult feat of taking a really distinguished position as a 
 poet, without impairing his usefulness as a politician. B-ichard Barham was 
 equally successful in producing the most humorous Fabliaux of the nineteenth 
 century, without compromising his character as a clergyman by putting on the 
 dress of a Troubadour. 
 
 Dramatic Poetry had nearly reached its culminating point when Victoria 
 came to the throne. Sheridan Knowles, Bulwer Lyttou, Leigh Hunt, Thomas 
 Noon Talfourd, James White, had attained a well-merited popularity, before 
 the time when the scene-painter and the property-man usurped the functions 
 of the poet. We need not enlarge upon tbeir merits, nor contrast them with 
 a time which has produced no drama to be acted which is likely to be known 
 after it has dragged through a brief and inglorious life. We have dramas not 
 for the stage ; of which those of Henry Taylor may be mentioned as noble 
 poems, and those of Eobert Browning, of wliom we have presently to speak in 
 his general poetical character, as vivid dialogues without the "business" 
 which makes a play. 
 
 The two great poets who came early in the fourth decade of the nineteenth 
 century, to fill up the void when Byron, and Keats, and Shelley had passed 
 away, were Alfred Tennyson and Eoberb Browning. Wordsworth, Rogers, 
 Crabbe, Southey, Coleridge, Campbell, were still amongst us when Tennyson, 
 an undergraduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, published, in 1830, " Poems, 
 chiefly lyrical." Browning, educated at the University of London, in 1835 
 published " Paracelsus." Moving onward by difterent roads towards high 
 excellence and permanent fame, each is, in his several way, a representative of 
 our age. To Browning belongs its inquiring and sceptical spirit ; to Tenny- 
 son its cultivation of the home affections, its sympathy with all natural emo- 
 tions, whether belonging to the refined or the uneducated. To Browning it 
 belongs to follow Paracelsus in his wanderings through continental Europe ; 
 to see Pippa pass in the Trevisan ; to be in Sardinia with Victor Amadous 
 and Charles Emmanuel ; to celebrate Colombo's Birthday at Cloves. In his 
 greater Dramas and his Dramatic Lyrics nearly all his scenes are laid iu 
 foreign lands which had become accessible to Englishmen in the age of steam- 
 boats and railroads. He leaves to others to walk in English lanes and amid 
 English trees. This is the landscape amid which Tennyson moves. Where 
 " The lady of Shalott" dwells, 
 
 " On either side tlie river lie 
 Long fields of barley and of rye." 
 
 " The Gardener's Daughter" grew amidst meadows^. 
 
 "Dewy fresh, browsed by deep-udder'd kiue," 
 
 and to the solitary garden comes 
 
 " The windy clanging of the minster clock."
 
 IS42.] E. BARRETT BROWNING— THOMAS HOOD. 481 
 
 When the poet leaves the familiar scenes of to-day he takes us into the same 
 English landscape of the past. "We look upon " King Arthur" 
 
 "Among the mountains by the winter sea ;" 
 
 Godiva, "clothed on with chastity," rides through old Coventry, but the 
 poet thinks of her as he is " vraiting for the train." However steadily 
 regarding the Past and glancing at the Puture, he has still the great nine^ 
 teenth century flashing upon his mind : 
 
 " Yet I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs, 
 And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns." * 
 
 Tennyson looked upon the transition time of 1832, when fear of change 
 was perplexing the old, and hopes of a bright future were leading on the 
 young, and he thought of his country, as 
 
 " A land of settled government, 
 A land of just and old renown, 
 Where Freedom broadens slowly down 
 From precedent to precedent." 
 
 At once the poet of progress and of conservatism, he is essentially the 
 representative of the opinions that have made our country secure, amidst the 
 war of Opinion which has been raging all around us. What Shakspere was 
 to the age of Elizabeth as the suggestive poet of a just patriotism, Tennyson 
 is to the age of Victoria. 
 
 We cannot close the mention of our Poets without adding the name of 
 Elizabeth Barrett, who in wedding as true a poet as herself — one who could 
 walk with her in all the fields of learning — over wbose thoughts her genius 
 would have a perceptible influence — gave a double immortality to the name 
 of Browning. Nor must we forget one who long stood alone in the most 
 remarkable combination of humour and pathos, which gave him an equal 
 command over laughter and over tears. Thomas Hood was a poet of the 
 rarest genius ; and yet he was classed by many with the laborious manu- 
 facturers of jokes who had little care for any result of their witticisms other 
 than the passing smile. Put Hood's " AVhims and Oddities" by the side of 
 Colraan's "Broad Grins," and we at once see the almost immeasurable 
 superiority to the merely grotesque of tbe " infinite jest " which belongs to 
 the " most excellent fancy." There was in Hood's table-talk a gravity, almosC 
 amounting to melancholy, which surrounded his humour with a halo which 
 added to its charm without impairing its power. It was the same with his 
 writings. The depth of his sympathies with sorrow and sufl'ering burst out 
 in his latter years in those pathetic lyrics which abided in the memories of 
 many who were then coming into the active labours of life, and made them 
 thoughtful about more things than money-getting. The economist mio-ht 
 say that "Songs of the Shirt" presented a one-sided picture of human affairs. 
 Eigid moralists might affirm that the frail self-destroyer might better be left 
 unwept. Nature triumphed. We believe that the true relations of Labour 
 .and Capital, and the just limitations of Christian sympathy with sin were 
 
 * "Locksley E.-ill." 
 TOT- VITT. — 255.
 
 482 UNIONOFPEN AND TENCIL— THEOLOGY -MILMAN— ROBERTSON. [1842. 
 
 better understood by looking at the exceptional cases wliicli the Poet drew 
 in his day of sickness and poA'erty. 
 
 Hood occasionally illustrated his writings by his own sketches. "When he 
 died a remarkable publication was in its full vigour in which the Pen and 
 the Pencil were united to present the ludicrous aspects of human life, and not 
 seldom the serious aspects of that sorrow which seemed to spring from legis- 
 lative indiflerence to social evils. "Punch" has been one of the most vital 
 emanations of tins mixed quality of the ludicrous and the reflective. In 
 this school, Douglas Jerrold first toolc that hold of the public mind which his 
 brilliant wit, his ready sarcasm, and his real benevolence, long commanded. 
 In this school Thackeray first Avon his spurs. To look over the forty 
 volumes of the twenty years' existence of " Punch," is to trace the political 
 and social England of the Victorian era through a medium which, if the age 
 of the Tudors or the Stuarts could have tolerated such a mirror, would 
 have been worth a wilderness of State Papers, such as we are now rescuing 
 out of the dust of oblivion. 
 
 "We have thus hastily run through three principal classes of Literature 
 which have been " both an effect and a cause " in relation to their age. Por 
 very obvious reasons we pass by the great mass of the Theology of this epoch, 
 which the future historian will have to study as carefully as the High- Church 
 and Nonconformist polemics must be studied to understand the character of 
 the time which produced Jeremy Taylor and Baxter. In the Episcopal Church 
 of England, and in tlie Presbyterian Church of Scotland, there have been 
 heresies and schisms, discords and separations, which have left little leisure 
 for the calm pursuits of learned investigation, or the cultivation of an 
 eloquence suited to all time. The Butlers and Barrows have had few rivals 
 in logical profundity ; the Lardners and Paleys have scarcely had adequate 
 successors as historical or textual commentators. Those, we presume to say, 
 who have most stood aloof from the controversies of their own day appear 
 most certain of a durable place in the esteem of another generation. Such 
 appreciation will, we believe, be awarded to the Ecclesiastical Historian, Dean 
 Milman ; to Frederick "W. Eobertson, the most fervent and yet the most 
 tolerant of preachers ; to those who have walked in the footsteps of Arnold, 
 and have more enforced that Eeligion of Love which is all-comprehensive, 
 than the Worship which rests upon ceremonial, and the Eaith which assumes 
 to be most Christian when it is most exclusive. But amidst the controversies 
 between the two great ssections of the English Church, one great fact stands 
 out, to mark most distinctly that the spirit of the age has made its Eeligion 
 more practically beneficent ; and out of division has compelled union. When 
 the Clergy, whether Anglican or Evangelical, discovered clearly that apathy and 
 neglect amidst surrounding ignorance and vice were not only a reproacli but a 
 danger. Dissent saw that the area of proselytism was materially narrowed, and 
 ^liat its triumphs must henceforth be won in the generous and honest rivalry 
 )f all religionists in doing good — in Schools, in Hospitals, in Prisons — in the 
 pestilent Alleys and the marsh-girt Hovels ; by weaning the drunkard from 
 his dram by inducing a desire for knowledge ; by teaching the slattern and tlm 
 Bcold that discomfort makes the husband brutal and the child undutiful. There 
 is other teaclilng than that of liomilies ; and all Christian teachers have learnt 
 that there is otlier work for tliem to do than that which Sunday brings.
 
 1842.] POLITICAL ECONOMY— SCIENCE— CRITICISM. 483 
 
 The essential dependence of all social improvements upon accurate 
 Statistics has been signally manifested in the period about which we are 
 writing. The Political Economists, of whom without disparagement of others 
 we may mention John Stuart Mill as the most original and influential, have 
 more than ever built their Science upon Statistics. Macculloch and Porter 
 were individually leading the way in supplying Theory with its only safe and 
 durable materials. Graham and Parr directed official inquiries to more 
 extensive uses than the correction of Tables of Mortality. They made the 
 figures of the Eegistrar-General's Office subserve every amelioration of our 
 social condition ; rendering even the most careless observer sensible that 
 health is dependent upon cleanliness and upon ventilation, and that the 
 epidemics, which were once deemed the scourges of a wicked generation, 
 are the visitations of a Gracious Euler to teach Man to read in the great 
 book of Nature how sharp and certain are the penalties of the social neglect 
 of His laws. 
 
 The scientific writers, whetlier in Natural History, or Physiology, or 
 Physics, or Mathematics, are so numerous, and their labours have pro- 
 duced such mighty results upon Arts and Industry, that to name the more 
 eminent would in us be presumptuous. It is not for us to speak of the 
 great Geologists — Buckland, Sedgwick, Lyell, De la Beche, Hugh Miller — 
 of the interpreters of primeval ages who have trod in the footsteps of 
 Cuvier — Owen, Murchison, Porbes — of those who have compelled that 
 alliance of Science with Sacred Texts which can never impair the true value 
 of Eevealed Truth. But we may pronounce one word of respect for the 
 teachers who, not stepping down from their lofty heights of pure science, 
 have made its abstract wisdom lovely in the eyes of the uninitiated — of such 
 as Brewster, as the younger Herschel, as Sabine, as Airy, as Babbage, as 
 Arnott, as "Whewell, as Paraday. Of the great Discoverers and Inventors — 
 "Wheatstone, of the Electric Telegraph — Talbot, who first showed how the sun 
 could paint, and thus made Photography the delight of the age, multiplying 
 all remembrances of the perisliiug ruin or the fresh landscape, and making 
 the familiar faces of the parent or the sister of the English home its truest 
 memorials in the Antipodes — of these, and especially of the Chemists, who 
 have penetrated more deeply than any other philosophers into the hidden 
 secrets of nature — of these the honours are inscribed on the imperishable 
 column which records our 'Victories over Matter, compelling its umvilling 
 obedience to the service of man. 
 
 The Critics and Essayists abound in an age whenEeviews and Magazines 
 abound more than ever. There are distinct works which stand out as self- 
 contained achievements. The elder D'Israeli's " Curiosities of Literature ;" 
 Walter Savage Landor's "Imaginary Conversations;" Hallam's "Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe ;" " Guesses at Truth," by Julius Hare 
 and his brother ; "Essays written in the Intervals of Business," by Arthur 
 Helps ; " The Statesman " of Henry Taylor — these are works of real vitality. 
 In Art Criticism Mrs. Jameson exhibited her remarkable knowledge of the 
 religious symbolism of the Middle Ages, whilst Mr. Euskin was startling the 
 orthodox critics by hie eloquent originality on the characteristics of "Modern 
 Painters." Let us add a word on the impulse which was given in the 
 first ten years of the Queen's reign to Shaksperean criticism. It would
 
 484 ANTIQUARIAN INQUIRY— TRAVELS— BOOK TRADE. [1S42. 
 
 be arrogant in the author of this History to dwell upon his own labours as a 
 commentator on Shakspere ; it would be affectation in him not to mention 
 them in association with the names of Collier, Dyce, Halliwell, and Hunter. 
 The spirit of inquiry applied to the illustration of Shakspere and our early 
 dramatists, was in some degree a continuation of the labours of the commen- 
 tators of the previous century, but constructed upon those broader principles 
 of criticism with which Coleridge had made us familiar. But it was a pecu- 
 liar characteristic of this era that not only were the labours of eminent indi- 
 viduals, such as Palgrave and Kemble, directed towards a more searching 
 investigation into all questions of our history and early literature, but that 
 the deeper and more accurate spirit of antiquarian inquiry was followed up 
 by the formation of Archaeological Institutes and Associations, not merely in 
 London but in every part of the country. The same spirit gave rise to the 
 establishment of Publishing Societies, such as the Camden Society, for printing 
 old manuscripts and reprinting scarce books. These and many other pecu- 
 liarities in the literary tendencies of the Victorian era, afford satisfactory 
 proof that the age of loose research and vague generalities was happily past, 
 in whatever department of literature aspired to a permanent influence. 
 
 If we were to attempt a record of those whom an age of universal communi- 
 cation has sent forth to explore the uttermost ends of the earth — if we were 
 to trace even such persevering and sagacious explorers amidst the dust of 
 ages as Layard, and such interpreters of the great fruitful past as "Wilkinson 
 — we might add to the suggestive interest of our chapters, but should usurp the 
 functions that belong to a more special history of our age. Of Travel in the 
 time of Queen Victoria, there are no details more full of human interest 
 than those which belong to African research, and to the Arctic expeditions, 
 the last of which only developed how our countrymen would persevere and 
 die in the discharge of the duty assigned to them, and how their followers iu 
 the same course would never rest till a difficult problem had been solved, 
 whatever might be its intrinsic value. 
 
 "We may conclude with a remark or two on the Commerce of Literature, 
 "When we look back at the various periods of English publication, and 
 consider how amazingly the aggregate number of books published in any one 
 period liad increased, we must also regard the size and price of the works 
 published, to form any adequate notion of the general diftusion of literature. 
 Even with a general reduction of price during a quarter of a century, with 
 the substitution of duodecimos for quartos, and with single volumes beyond all 
 former precedent, there is little doubt that the annual returns of publishing 
 in all its departments had been doubled in 1850, as compared with 1825. 
 The book-trade was to be estimated, not by the number of the learned who 
 once collected folios, and of the rich who rejoiced in exclusive quartos, but 
 of the many to whom a small volume of a living author had become a 
 necessity for instruction or for amusement, and who desired to read our 
 established literature in editions well printed and carefully edited, though 
 essentially cheap. This number of readers had been constantly increasing, 
 and as constantly pressing for a reduction of price upon modern books of 
 high reputation. 
 
 The altered tone and ability of newspapers was decidedly marked at 
 this period. At the beginning of the present century the local newspapers
 
 1842.] NEWSPAPERS. . 48S 
 
 " had no editorial comments whatever," * and scarcely an original paragraph. 
 The conductors of our five hundred provincial journals at the end of the first 
 half of the century were watching for every particle of news in their own dis- 
 tricts ; reporting public meetings ; waiting for electric telegraphs ; pondering 
 upon grave questions of social economy; and, to the best of their jud fo- 
 ment, fairly representing the course of events. Much of this intelligent and 
 honourable spirit they owed to the progressive improvement of the London 
 KuwspaptT Preas, 
 
 * " Life of Edward Baines," by hi.i Son.
 
 486 
 
 NOTE ON THE CLASSES OF BOOKS PUBLISHED, 1816 to 185L 
 
 In 1853 tliere was issued a "Classified Index to the London Catalogue of 
 Books, 1816-1851," in which there are 34 Divisions of Classification. For a 
 special object we took the pains to analyse this octavo volume of 300 pages, and 
 were thus enabled to estimate in round numbers the sort of books which the public 
 were buying, or reading, or neglecting, in these 3G years. We found that th(iy 
 were invited to purchase in the following proportion of classes : — 
 
 Works on divinity . 
 
 History and geography 
 
 Fiction . . . ." 
 
 Foreign languages and school-books 
 
 Drama and poetry . 
 
 Juvenile books . 
 
 Medical . 
 
 Biography . 
 
 Law 
 
 Science. — Zoology 
 
 ,, Botany . 
 
 ,, Chemistry . 
 
 ,, Geology , 
 
 , , Mathematics 
 
 i. Astronomy 
 
 ,, Natural phUosopby 
 
 Arts,&c. — Antiquities . . 
 
 ,, Architecture 
 
 ,, Fine arts 
 
 ,, Games and sports 
 
 ,, Illustrated works 
 
 ,, Music 
 
 , , Genealogy and hei'aldry 
 
 Industry. — Mechanics, &c. . 
 ,, Agriculture . 
 
 ,, Trade and commerce . 
 
 ,, Political economy, statistics 
 
 ,, Military , 
 
 Moral Sciences. — Philology, &c. 
 ,, Education 
 
 ,, Moral philosophy 
 
 ,, Morals 
 
 ,, Domestic economy 
 
 Miscollaneo-as (so classed) . 
 
 10,300 
 4,900 
 3,500 
 4,000 
 3,400 
 2,900 
 2,500 
 1,850 
 1,850 
 
 550 
 700 
 170 
 280 
 350 
 150 
 300 
 
 350 
 500 
 450 
 300 
 500 
 220 
 140 
 
 500 
 250 
 600 
 700 
 200 
 
 350 
 300 
 300 
 450 
 200 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,460 
 
 2,350 
 
 1,600 
 1,400 
 
 45,510 
 
 Upon calculations based upon the London Catalogues of Books from 1828, we 
 learn that after the lapse of a quarter of a century there were three times as many 
 books published as in 1828 ; that the comparative increase in the number of 
 volumes was not so great, showing that of the new books more single volumes 
 Were published ; that the average price of each new work had been reduced 
 nenrly one-half ; and that the average price per volume had fallen about fiv« 
 thilliugs below the price of 1828.
 
 487 
 
 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WEITEllS, 
 
 In continuation of the Table in this Volurae, p. 133. 
 
 Imagiration. 
 
 "W. H. Ainsworth, bom 1805. 
 
 Rookwood, 1834. 
 W. E. Aytoun, b. 1813. 
 
 Lays of the Scottish Cava- 
 liers, 1849. 
 
 P. J. Bailey, b. 1816. 
 
 Festus, 1839. 
 John S. Blackie, b. 1809. 
 
 Lays and Legends of Greece. 
 Sir John Bowring, b. 1792. 
 
 Specimens of the Russian 
 Poets, 1821. 
 G. Shirley Brooks, b. 1815. 
 
 Plays, 1850. 
 
 The SUver Cord, 1861. 
 Frances Browne, b. 1818. 
 
 Poems. 
 Piobert Browning, b. 1812. 
 
 Paracelsus, a poem, 1835. 
 
 William Carleton, b. 1798. 
 
 Traits and Stories of the 
 Irish Peasantry. 
 John Clare, b. 1793. 
 
 Poems of Rural Life, 1820. 
 ^Y. Wilkie Collins, b. 1825. 
 
 Antonina, 1850. 
 
 The Woman in White, 1860. 
 Eliza Cook, b. 1817. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Sir A. Alison, b. 1792. 
 History of Europe, 1839. 
 
 Charles Babbage, b. 1792. 
 Economy of Manufactures and 
 Machinery, 1832. 
 Edward Baines, b. 1800. 
 History of Cotton Manufac- 
 tures, 1835. 
 Robert Bell, b. 1800. 
 
 Lives of the English Poets. 
 George Borrow, b. 1803. 
 The Bible in Spain; The 
 Zincali, 1841, 
 Sir David Brewster, b. 1781. 
 On some Principles of Light, 
 1813. 
 Henry Lord Brougham, b. 1779. 
 Enquiry into the Colonial 
 Policy of the European 
 Powers, 1803. 
 Historical Memoirs. 
 Political Philosophy. 
 Henry T. Buckle, b. 1822. 
 History of Civilization in 
 England. 
 
 (Died in 1862.) 
 John Hill Burton, b. 1809. 
 Benthamiana, 1843. 
 History of Scotland, 1853. 
 Thomas Carlyle, b. 1795. 
 Life of Schiller, 1824. 
 French Revolution, 1837. 
 William Chambers, b. 1800. 
 
 Book of Scotland. 
 Robert Chambers, b. 1802. 
 Traditions of Edinburgh. 
 
 F. R. Chesney, b. 1789. 
 Survey of the Euphrates and 
 
 the Tigris, 1850. 
 Mrs. Cowden Clarke, b. 1809. 
 Concordance to Shakspere, 
 1845. 
 J. Payne Collier, b. 1789. 
 Works of Shakespeare. 1S44. 
 
 G. Lillie Craik, b. 179Ct. 
 Pursuit of Knowledge aader 
 
 Difficulties, 1831. 
 
 Speculative and Scikntifio. 
 
 G. B. Airy, b. 1801. 
 
 Gravitation, 1838. 
 Neil Arnott, b. 17S8. 
 
 Elements of Physics, 1827. 
 
 Joseph Bosworth, b. 1788. 
 Elements of Anglo-Saxon 
 Grammar, 1823. 
 W. T. Brande, b. 1780. 
 Outline of Geology, 1817. 
 Manual of Chemistry, 1819. 
 Sir B. C. Brodie, b. 1783. 
 Physiological Researches on 
 the influence of the Brain 
 on the Action of the Heurt, 
 1811. 
 
 W. B. Carpenter, b. 1813. 
 
 Principles of Physiology, 
 1839. 
 Arthur Cayley, b. 1821. 
 
 Mathematical Terminology. 
 Edwin Chadwick, b. 1801. 
 
 Education ; 
 
 Sanitary Improvement. 
 John Cumiuing, b. 1810. 
 
 I'ropheticdl Intcrpretati la.
 
 488 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 Charles Dickens, b. 1812. 
 
 Sketches by Boz, 1836, 
 B. Disraeli, b. 1805. 
 
 Vivian Grey, 1828. 
 
 Elizabeth C. Gaskell, b. 1822. 
 
 Mary Barton, 1848. 
 T. C. Grattan, b. 1797. 
 
 Highways and Byways, 1838. 
 
 Anna Maria Hall, b. 1802. 
 
 Sketches of Irish Character. 
 Mary Hewitt, b. 1804. 
 
 Forest Minstrel, and other 
 Poems, 1823. 
 
 Sir E. S. Creasy, b. 1812. 
 The Fifteen Decisive Battles 
 of the World. 
 Peter Cunningham, b. 1816. 
 
 Hand Book of London, 1849. 
 
 Wm. Hep worth Dixon, b. 1821. 
 
 John Howard, a Memoir, 
 
 1849. 
 
 Alexander Dyce, b. 1798. 
 
 Editions of Greene, Peele, 
 
 Marlowe, Webster, Shake- 
 
 Sir Henry Ellis, b. 1777. 
 Introduction to Domesday 
 Book, 1833. 
 
 William Farr, b. 1807. 
 
 On Vital Statistics, 1837. 
 J. D. Forbes, b. 1809. 
 
 Norway and its Glaciers, 
 1853. 
 John Forster, b. 1812. 
 
 Life of Oliver Goldsmith, 
 1848. 
 J. A. Froude, b. 1818. 
 
 Histor.y of England, 1856. 
 
 George Gilfillan, b. 1813. 
 
 Bards of the Bible, 1850, 
 
 Gallei-y of Literary Portraits. 
 G, R. Gleig, b. 1795. 
 
 Military History of Great 
 Britain. 
 George Grote, b. 1794. 
 
 History of Greece, 1846. 
 
 Speculative and Scientific. 
 
 Samuel Carter Hall, b. 1801. 
 Ireland, its Scenery and Cha- 
 racter; Art Journal, 1839. 
 0. Halliwell, b. 1821. 
 Dictionary of Archaic and 
 
 Provincial Words, 1846. 
 Life of Shakspeare, 1848. 
 William Hanna, b. 1808. 
 Memoir of Dr. Chalmers. 
 
 Charles Darwin, b. 1816. 
 
 Voyage of a Natui-alist, 1838. 
 
 Origin of Species, 1859. 
 A. De Morgan, b. 1806. 
 
 Elements of Arithmetic, 
 1830. 
 
 Sir Charles Eastlake, P.R.A., 
 b. 1793. 
 Contributions to the L'tera- 
 ture of the Fine Arts. 
 William Ellis, b. 1800. 
 
 Social Economy for Schools, 
 Michael Faraday, b. 1794. 
 On Chemical Manipulation, 
 1817. 
 James Fergusson, b. 1808. 
 Principles of Beauty in Art, 
 
 1849. 
 Handbook of Architecture. 
 F. Ferrier, b. 1808. 
 Institutes of Metaphysics, 
 1854. 
 Albany W, Fonblanque, b. 
 1797. 
 England under Seven Admi- 
 nistrations, 1837. 
 
 W. E. Gladstone, b. 1809. 
 The State considered in its 
 Relations with the Church, 
 1840. 
 George Godwin, b, 1815, 
 
 The Builder. 
 John Gould, b. 1804. 
 
 A Century of Birds from the 
 Himalaya Mountains, 1830. 
 Thomas Graham, b. 1805. 
 
 Elements of Chemistry, 1842 
 Robert Grant, b. 1800. 
 
 History of Physical Astro- 
 nomy, 1852. 
 [Thomas Guthrie, b. 1800. 
 ' The Gospel in Ezekiel. 
 Pleas for Ragged Schools. 
 
 J. Renn Hampden, b. 1792. 
 Bampton Lectures, 1832. 
 Sir W. Snow Harris, b. 1791. 
 Rudimentary Laws of Elec- 
 tricity, 1834. 
 Sir J. F. W. Herschel, b. 1790. 
 Examples of the Application 
 of the Calculus to Finite 
 Difl'erences, 1820. 
 Outlines of Astronomy, 1S49.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 48&- 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 Fact. 
 
 Speculatite and Scientific. 
 
 
 Arthur Helps, b. 1818. 
 
 M. D. Hill, b. 1792. 
 
 
 Essays written in the Inter- 
 
 Jurisprudence. 
 
 
 vals of Business, 1841. 
 
 Reformatory Legislation. 
 
 
 The Spanish Conquest in 
 
 J. R. Hind, b. 1823. 
 
 
 America, 1855. 
 
 Account of Recent Comets,. 
 
 
 Walter Farquhar Hook, D.D., 
 
 1845. 
 
 
 b. 1798. 
 
 J. D. Hooker, b. 1817. 
 
 
 Ecclesiastical Biography, 
 
 Flora Antarctica. 
 
 
 1845—52. 
 
 Flora Indica. 
 
 
 Church Dictionary, 1854. 
 
 
 
 William Howitt, b. 1795. 
 
 
 
 Book of the Seasons, 1831. 
 
 
 
 History of Prie.stcraft, 1833. 
 
 
 John Keble, 1). 1790. 
 
 Charles Knight, b. 1791. 
 
 T. H. Key, b. 1799. 
 
 Christian Year, 1827. 
 
 Results of Machinery, 1830. 
 
 Latin Grammar, 1846. 
 
 Lyra Innocentium. 
 
 Pictorial Shakspere, 1842. 
 
 
 Charles Kingsley, b. 1819. 
 
 
 
 Alton Locke, 1846. 
 
 
 
 James Sheridan Knowles, b. 
 
 
 
 1784. 
 
 
 
 Leo, or the Gipsy, 1809. 
 
 
 
 AValter Savage Landor, b. 1775. 
 
 Austen Henry Layard, b. 1817. 
 
 Edwin Lankester, b. 1814. 
 
 Poems, 1795. 
 
 Nineveh and its Remains, 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Imaginary Conversations, 
 
 1849. 
 
 R. G. Latham, b. 1812. 
 
 1824—29. 
 
 George H. Lewes, b. 1817. 
 
 Varieties of Mankind, 1850. 
 
 Mark Lemon, b. 1809. 
 
 Biographical History of Phi- 
 
 Sir G. CornewaU Lewis, b. 
 
 The Drama; Editor of 
 
 losophy, 1845. 
 
 1806. 
 
 Punch. 
 
 David Livingstone, b. 1817. 
 
 Influence of Authority in 
 
 Samuel Lover, b. 1797. 
 
 Missionary Travels and Re- 
 
 Matters of Opinion, 18 i9. 
 
 Rory G'More, 1S31. 
 
 searches in South Africa, 
 
 John Lindley, b. 1799. 
 
 Legends and Stories of Ire- 
 
 1857. 
 
 Monographia Rosarium, 1820, 
 
 land. 
 
 George Long, b. 1800. 
 
 Alexander William Crawford, 
 
 Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton, b. 
 
 Civil Wars of Rome, 1844-48. 
 
 Lord Lindsay, b. 1812. 
 
 1805. 
 
 Editor of Penny Cyclopaedia. 
 
 History of Christian Art, 
 
 Falkland, 1827. 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 The Caxtons, 1849. 
 
 
 Lives of the Lindsays, 1849, 
 Sir Charles Lyell, b. 1797. 
 Principles of Geology, 1833. 
 
 Charies Mackay, b. 1813. 
 
 J. R. Macculloch, b. 1790. 
 
 F. D. Maurice, b. 1805. 
 
 Poems ; Life and Liberty in 
 
 Principles of Political Eco- 
 
 The Kingdom of Christ, 
 
 America. 
 
 nomy, 1825. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Gerald Massey, b. 1828. 
 
 Sir Frederick Madden, b. 1801. 
 
 ReUgions of the World. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Layamon's Brut, 1847. 
 
 Theological Essays, 1853. 
 
 H. H. Milman, b. 1791. 
 
 Wycliffe's Bible, 1850. 
 
 Henry Melvill. 
 
 Fazio, a Tragedy, 1815. 
 
 Samuel Rofifey Maitland, b. 
 
 Sermons, 1833. 
 
 History of Christianity, 1840. 
 
 1792. 
 
 Edward Miall, b. 1809. 
 
 R. Monckton Alilnes, b. 1809. 
 
 The Dark Ages, 1844. 
 
 Voluntary Education. 
 
 Poems ; Life of John Keats, 
 
 Essays on the Reformation in 
 
 Ethics of Nonconformity. 
 
 1848. 
 
 England. 
 
 John Stuart MUl, b. 1806. 
 
 Dinah Maria Mulock, b. 1826. 
 
 Harriet Martineau, b. 1802. 
 
 System of Logic, 1843. 
 
 Jcin Halifax, Gentleman, 
 
 Illustrations of Political Eco- 
 
 Principles of Political Eco- 
 
 1856. 
 
 nomy, 1834. 
 
 nomy, 1848. 
 
 
 History of the Thirty Years' 
 
 William Allen Miller, b. 1817. 
 
 
 Peace, 1850. 
 
 Elements of Chemistry, IS5T 
 
 
 David Masson, b. 1822. 
 
 Sir R. 1. Murchison, b. 1792. 
 
 
 Life of Milton, 1859. 
 
 Silurian System, 1839. 
 
 
 Henry Mayhew, b. 1812. 
 
 
 
 London Labour and the Lon- 
 
 
 
 don Poor. 

 
 490 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 Fact. 
 
 Speculative and Scientific, 
 
 Hon. Mrs. Norton, b. 1808. 
 
 
 Francis W. Newman, b. 1805. 
 
 The Undying One, and other 
 
 
 Phases of Faith, ISf^O. 
 
 Poems, 1830. 
 
 
 
 History of the Hebrew Mo- 
 narchy, 1847. 
 John Henry Newman, b. T^Ol. 
 
 Tracts for the Times, lSo3— 
 36. 
 
 Religious Development. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Catholicism in England. 
 
 
 
 
 Richard Owen, b. 1804. 
 
 
 
 
 Directions for preparing Ani- 
 
 
 
 
 mals and Parts of Animals 
 
 
 
 
 for Anatomical Purj^cises, 
 
 
 
 
 1835. 
 
 Bryan Waller Procter, b. 
 
 1790. 
 
 James Robinson Plaachd, b. 
 
 John Philipps, b. 1800. 
 
 (Barry Cornwall. ) 
 
 
 1796. 
 
 Treatise on Geology, 1837 — 
 
 Dramatic Scenes, and 
 
 other 
 
 History of British Costume, 
 
 39. 
 
 Poems, 1819. 
 
 
 1S34. 
 
 Rivers of Yorkshire, 185 3. 
 
 
 
 Dramas. 
 
 E. B. Pusey, b. 1800. 
 
 Tracts for the Times, 1833-36. 
 
 Leitch Ritchie, b. 1800. 
 
 
 W. Howard Russell, b. 1821. 
 
 Sir H. C. Rawlinsou, b. 1810. 
 
 Novels and Tales. 
 
 
 War in the Crimea, 185o. 
 
 Philology. 
 Charles Richardson, b, 177-^. 
 Dictionary of the English 
 Language, 1837. 
 Henry Rogers, b. 1806. 
 Life of John Howe, 1S3G. 
 Contributions to Edinburgh 
 Review. 
 Peter Mark Roget, b. 1780. 
 Animal and Vegetable Physi- 
 ology, 1834. 
 J. Forbes Royle. 
 
 Floraof the Himalayan Moun- 
 tains, 1839. 
 John Ruskin, b. 1819. 
 Modem Painters, 1843. 
 
 Catherine Sinclair, b. 1800. 
 
 Earl Stanhope (Lord ]\Iahon), 
 
 Edward Sabine, b. 17f 0. 
 
 Beatrice; or, the Unknown 
 
 b. 1805. 
 
 Terrestrial Magnetism. 
 
 Relatires, 1852. 
 
 
 History of the War of Suc- 
 
 Adam Sedgwick, b. 1786. 
 
 
 
 cession in Spain, 1832. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 
 
 History of England, 1836. 
 
 Samuel Smiles. 
 
 
 
 Sir James Stephen, b. 17i'0. 
 
 Self Help, 1859. 
 
 
 
 Ecclesiastical Biography. 
 
 William Smith, b. 1814. 
 
 
 
 William Stirling, b. 1818. 
 
 Dictionary of Greek and 
 
 
 
 Annals of the Artists of 
 
 Roman Antiquities, 1312. 
 
 
 
 Spain, 1848. 
 
 Mary Somerville, b. 17!^0. 
 
 
 
 Agnes Strickland, b. 1805. 
 
 Mechanism of the Heavens, 
 
 
 
 Lives of the Queens of 
 
 1832. 
 
 
 
 England, 1840—51. 
 
 Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. 
 
 
 
 Letters of Mary Queen of 
 
 Sinai and Palestine in con- 
 
 
 
 Scots, 1842, 
 
 nection with their History, 
 1856. 
 John Bird Sumner, b. 1780. 
 Records of Creation, 1816. 
 
 Henry Taylor. 
 
 
 Sir James Emerson Tennont, b. 
 
 Isaac Taylor, b. 1787. 
 
 Jsa.ic Comnenue, a 
 
 riay, 
 
 1804. 
 
 Elements of Thought, 1824. 
 
 1827. 
 
 
 History of Modern Greece, 
 
 Alfred Swaine Taylor, b. 1808. 
 
 Alfred Tennyson, b. 1810. 
 
 1830. 
 
 On Poisons in Relation to 
 
 Poems, 1830. 
 
 
 Ceylon, an Account of the 
 
 Medical Jurisprudence and 
 
 
 
 Island, 1859. 
 
 Medicine, 1848,
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF BRITISH WRITERS. 
 
 491 
 
 Imagination. 
 
 Fact. 
 
 Sl'ECCLATIVH AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 W. M. Thackeray, b. 1811. 
 
 Connop Thirl wall, b. 1797. 
 
 Tom Taylor, b. 1817. 
 
 Paris Sketch Book, by 
 
 History of Greece, 184.';-52. 
 
 Life of Haydon, 1853. 
 
 Michael Angelo Titmarsh, 
 
 William J. Thoms, b. 1803. 
 
 R. C. Trench, b. 1807. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Early Prose Romances, 1828. 
 
 Notes on the Miracles, 1816. 
 
 Frances Trollope, b. 1790. 
 
 Editor of Notes and Queries. 
 
 Philology. 
 
 The Abbess, 1832. 
 
 .Tames Thorne, b. 1815. 
 
 
 JMartin Farquhar Tupper, b. 
 
 Rambles by Rivers, 1844. 
 
 
 1810. 
 
 John Timbs, b. 1801. 
 
 
 Proverbial Philosophy, 1839. 
 
 Laconics, 1825-2(5 ; 
 Year Book of Facts, 1839. 
 Robert Vaughan, b. 1800. 
 Life of Wycliflfe, 1828. 
 
 
 Samuel Warren, b. 1807. 
 
 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, b. 1798. 
 
 Archbishop Whately, b. 1787. 
 
 Passages from the Diary of a 
 
 Materia Hieroglyphica, 1823. 
 
 Bampton Lectures, 1822. 
 
 Late Physician, 1830-38. 
 
 Manners and Customs of the 
 
 Elements of Logic, lS2t3. 
 
 Alaric A. Watts, b. 1799. 
 
 Ancient Egyptians, 183(3. 
 
 Charles Wheatstone, b. 1802. 
 
 Poems, 1822. 
 
 Christopher Wordsworth, b. 
 
 Binocular Vision ; 
 
 William Henry Wills, b. 1810. 
 
 1808. 
 
 Electric Telegraph. 
 
 Old Leaves gathered from 
 
 Athens and Attica, 1836. 
 
 William Whewell, b. 1795. 
 
 Household Words, 18(iO. 
 
 Greece : Pictorial, Descrip- 
 
 Bridgewater Treatise on As- 
 
 
 tive, and Historical. 
 
 tronomy, 1833. 
 
 
 Thomas Wright, b. 1810. 
 
 Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of 
 
 
 Queen Elizabeth and her 
 
 Oxford, b. 1805. 
 
 
 Times, 1838. 
 
 Life of WiUiam Wilberforce, 
 
 
 The Celt, the Roman, and 
 
 1833. 
 
 
 the Saxon, 1853. 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 
 Matthew Digby Wyatt, b. 1820. 
 
 Robert Willis, b. 1800. 
 
 
 Specimens of the Geometrical 
 
 Architecture of the Middle 
 
 
 Mosaics of the Middle Ages, 
 
 Ages, 1835. 
 
 
 lb 48. 
 
 Principles of Mechanics, 1841. 
 Forbes Winslow, b. 1811. 
 Application of the Principles 
 of • Phrenology to the Elu- 
 cidation and Cure of In- 
 sanity, 1831. 
 Nicholas Wiseman, b. 1802. 
 Lectures on the Doctrines and 
 Practices of the Catholic 
 
 
 
 Church, 1836. 
 
 
 
 Ralph Nicholson Wornum, b. 
 1812. 
 History of Painting, 1847. 
 
 
 ! 
 
 Aaalysis of Ornament, 1856.
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Sir Bobert Peel, Prime Minister — Commercial Distress — Birth of the Prince of Wales — Agitation 
 against the Corn-Laws — Sir Robert Peel's Bill for a Sliding Scale — Lord John Russell's 
 proposal of a Fixed Duty — Income Tax renewed — Reduction of the Tariff — Petition for 
 the People's Charter — Assaults on the Queen — Parliament prorogued — Relations with 
 France — Treaty of Washington settling the Boundary Question — Disturbances in the 
 Manufacturing Districts — Opening of Parliament, 1843 — Debate on the depression of 
 Manufactures — Mr. Cobden and Sir Robert Peel — Corn-Law Debate — Mr, Charles 
 Buller's speech on Systematic Colonization — Monster Meetings for Repeal of the Union — 
 Arrest of O'Connell — The Scotch Church — Secession of Ministers to constitute the Free 
 Church — New District Churches iu England — The Rebecca Riots — Suppression of the 
 Disturbances in Wales. 
 
 The ministerial arrangements of sir Eobert Peel were completed ; the 
 members of the House of Commons who had accepted office were all re-elected. 
 On the 16th of September, 1841, the Prime Minister made a declaration 
 of his policy in the most explicit terms, which policy amounted to this, that 
 not a word would he utter of what he intended to do. He asked for the 
 confidence of the House, whilst he considered the mode in which the great 
 financial evil of the previous seven years could be removed. Being pressed 
 upon the subject of the Corn-Laws, he said, in a subsequent debate, he should 
 have thought it reasonable that on returning to power after a lapse of ten 
 years, he should have not been called upon within a month to propose 
 an alteration of the law in respect to the trade iu corn. If he were to be 
 responsible for not instantly proposing a measure on the Corn-Laws, what 
 must be thought of that government that had held office for five years, and 
 never until the month of May, 1841, had intimated an united opinion on 
 that subject ? During the remainder of the Session, from all the manufac- 
 turing districts came the most afflicting statements of the depression of trade 
 and of the suflTerings of the operative classes. Again and again it was said 
 that the Corn-Laws were the principal cause of this commercial distress ; and 
 eir Eobert Peel was urged not to let parliament separate without making 
 some disclosure of the measures which he contemplated for the settlement of 
 this question. The prorogation took place on the 7th of October. During 
 these three weeks of continued debate not a syllable could be extracted iu 
 either house of parliament from any member of the government, as to the 
 course to be pursued, by wliich hope might be afforded to those who suftered, 
 and discontent might be deprived of some of its power of stirring up a
 
 1842.] BIRTH OF THE PRINCE OF WALES -AGITATION AGAINST CORN-LAWS, i'.ri 
 
 starving population into madness. The lloyal Speech, delivered by Commis- 
 sion, was as vague and mysterious as the individual declarations of members 
 of the Cabinet. The difficulties of sir Eobert Peel arose, as we bave already 
 seen, not only from the distrust of his political opponents, but from the 
 almost impossibility of reconciling some members of his own administration 
 to any large change of financial and commercial policy opposed to their own 
 class interests, and to the principles wbicb had so long held them together 
 as a great party. 
 
 On Tuesday tbe 9tb of November the " London Gazette Extraordinary" 
 announced tbe birtb that morning of a Prince. By letters patent of the 8tli 
 of December the Queen created " our most dear son, the Prince of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (Duke of Saxony, Duke of 
 Cornwall and Eotbsay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Eenfrew, Lord of the Isles, 
 and Great Steward of Scotland), Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester." On 
 the following 25th of January the baptism of the Prince of Wales was 
 performed in the royal chapel of St. George at Windsor, the King of 
 Prussia, who had visited England for this especial occasion, being one of the 
 sponsors. 
 
 After four months of anxious speculation on the part of the public as to 
 the course that the ministry would pursue upon the two great questions of 
 finance and trade, the Queen opened the Session of Parliament on the 3rd of 
 February, 1842. The King of Prussia accompanied the Queen to witness 
 this ceremonial. A great personal interest was given to the speech by its 
 opening sentence : " I cannot meet you in parliament assembled without 
 making a public acknowledgment of my gratitude to Almighty God on 
 account of the birth of the Prince, my son ; an event which has completed 
 the measure of my domestic happiness." The state of the finances and of the 
 expenditure of the country was recommended to the immediate attention of 
 parliament ; and so also was recommended " the state of the laws which 
 affect the importation of corn and of other articles the produce of foreign, 
 countries." There was no amendment to the Address. It was announced on 
 the 3rd by sir Eobert Peel that on the 9th he should move for a Committee 
 of the whole House for the purpose of considering the laws which affected 
 the import of foreign corn. When the day arrived great was the excite- 
 ment in and around the House of Commons. Six hundred An ti- Corn-Law 
 delegates had gone in procession to Palace Yard and had there taken their 
 station, crying out from time to time as members passed them, " Total Ee- 
 peal," " Pixed Duty," "No Sliding Scale." The plan which sir Eobert Peel 
 developed in his speech was in no degree calculated to allay the commercial 
 discontent with regard to the trade in corn. He maintained the existing prin- 
 ciple of the sliding scale of duties on the importation of foreign corn, but he 
 lowered the protection afforded, and- introduced a more liberal method of 
 fixing the averages. To no party was the minister's scheme satisfactory. 
 The Whigs, by lord John Eussell, proposed, instead of the sliding scale, a 
 fixed duty of eight shillings per quarter. Mr. Villiers and Mr. Cobden 
 insisted upon that total repeal of all duties on corn which they had long so 
 strenuously and consistently advocated. The ultra- Protectionists demanded 
 that a higher rate of duties should be adopted at every move in the sliding 
 scale. The debates upon each and all of these various principles were
 
 494 Sm ROBERT'S BILL FOR A SLIDING SCALE OF DUTIES ON CORN. [1842. 
 
 earned on -without intermission till the bill introduced by sir Robert Peel 
 passed the House of Commons on the 7th of April. Tor four nights lord John 
 llussell's proposition of a fixed duty was debated ; and it was rejected by a 
 majority of a hundred and twenty-three. During five nights the motion of 
 Mr. Yilliers for the abolition of all duties on com was discussed, and it was 
 rejected by a majority of three hundred and ninety-three. The higher Pro- 
 tectionist scale proposed by Mr. Christopher was rejected by a majority of 
 three hundred and six. In defending his proposal sir Eobert Peel main- 
 tained that it was of the utmost importance to the interests of the country 
 that we should be as far as possible independent of foreign supply ; that 
 the main sources of the supply of corn should be derived from domestic 
 agriculture ; but that all ibreign supplies should be for the purpose of 
 making up deficiencies, rather than as the chief sources of subsistence. 
 There was a tone, however, in the speech of sir Eobert Peel which indicated 
 to some of the Protectionists that the minister was not the man to carry 
 out their extreme views. " I should not consider myself," lie said, " a friend 
 to the agriculturist if I asked for a protection with a view of propping up 
 rents, or for the purpose of defending his interest or the interest of any 
 particular class." 'Lord Palmerston, in a speech at the close of the Session, 
 m which he reviewed the measures of the late and present ministers, 
 congratulated the government upon having come into ofiice fully imbued 
 with those sound principles, " the enunciation of which has excited so much 
 admiration on this side of the House, and has created so much surprise and 
 alarm on the other." * Sir Eobert Peel retorted — in allusion to lord 
 Palmerston's support of the Reform Bill after his opposition to all Reform in 
 the time of Mr. Canning — that harsh and intolerant criticisms on the versa- 
 tile opinions of others proceeded with a very bad grace from the noble lord. 
 It was insinuated that he had deluded his supporters by the extent and 
 importance of the alterations he had made in the Corn-Laws. There might 
 have been shades of difference — there might have been occasional dissatis- 
 faction and complaint — but he had the firm belief that the conduct of him- 
 self and his colleagues in office had not abated one jot of that confidence on 
 the part of their friends which cheered and encouraged them in the blank 
 regions of Opposition. Subsequent revelations have shown how materially 
 sir Robert Peel was hampered by the suspicions of his party. In his own 
 Memoirs, published by the Trustees of his papers, he says, "During the dis- 
 cussions in parliament on the Corn-Law of 18-12 I was more than once 
 pressed to give a guarantee (so far as a minister could give it) that the 
 amount of protection established by that law should be permanently ad- 
 hered to ; but although I did not then contemplate the necessity for 
 further change, I uniformly refused to fetter the discretion of the govern- 
 ment by any such assurances as those that were required from me." f 
 
 The measure propounded by sir Robert Peel upon the Corn-Laws was 
 tliat halting between two opinions which it was evident he himself could not 
 regard as a final settlement of the question: "I did not then contemplate the 
 necessity for further change." This measure, like most compromises, required 
 
 * Iliinfiard, vol.lxv. ool. 1237. 
 
 t " Memoirs by Sir Robert l\cl," vol. ii. p. 101.
 
 1S42.] IXC0:ME tax renewed— REDUCTIOX of the tariff. 405 
 
 something like a tone of apology both to his friends and his opponents. But 
 the minister was on far safer ground when he came forward with his great 
 ■financial measure. AVhen he proposed the renewal of the property-tax for 
 the purpose of sweeping away a host of vexatious and embarrassing duties 
 upon foreign commerce, he had not to defy the opposition of a great class- 
 interest such as that of the landed proprietors and tlie agriculturists. He 
 would make many of the tax-payers indignant, especially those who saw in 
 direct taxation according to their means, the closing of that door of escape 
 from the general burden of the community of which many of the rich could 
 avail themselves by parsimony or absenteeism. The ministerial proposition 
 was a tax upon all incomes above 1501. a year, not to exceed sevenpence in the 
 pound, for the limited period of three years. The tax, he said, would not 
 only supply the deficit occasioned by the excess of expenditure over revenue, 
 but would justify such a large reduction of commercial taxation as would, 
 in regard to the expenditure of most individuals, indirectly make up the dif- 
 ference that was taken from them by direct taxation. Out of a tariff of 
 twelve hundred articles sir Eobert proposed to reduce the duty on seven 
 hundred and fifty. " We have sought," he declared, " to remove all ab- 
 solute prohibitions upon the import of foreign articles, and we have endea- 
 voured to reduce duties which are so high as to be prohibitory, to such a 
 scale as may admit of fair competition with domestic produce. In cases 
 where that principle has been departed from, and prohibitory duties main- 
 tained, we justify our departure from the rule by the special circumstances 
 of the case. "With respect to raw niateriak^, which constitute the ele- 
 ments of our manufactures, our object, speaking generally, has been to 
 reduce the duties on them to almost a nominal amount. In half-manufac- 
 tured articles, which enter almost as much as the raw material into our 
 domestic manufacture, we have reduced the duty to a moderate amount. 
 And with regard to completely manufactured articles, our design has been 
 to remove prohibition, and to reduce prohibitory duties, so that the manu- 
 factures of foreign countries may enter into a fair competition with our 
 own." That part of the financial measure which revived the obnoxious war 
 tax upon income, with all its original inquisitorial character, and its unequal 
 operation upon permanent and upon uncertain revenues, was strenuously 
 opposed in both Houses. But the necessity for some bold measure for putting 
 the finances of the country upon a solid foundation, bore down all opposition 
 whether in or out of parliament. The commercial and manufacturing in- 
 terests could not regard the new tariflf with any feeling but that of satisfac- 
 tion. The actual amount of the seven hundred and fifty reductions would 
 not much exceed a quarter of a million sterling, but an immense number of 
 vexatious custom-house restrictions were at once swept away, and an example 
 was held up to foreign nations which sir Hobert Peel believed would 
 ultimately prevail. The agriculturists were in a fearful state of alarm. 
 Salted and fresh meat, oxen, sheep, and cows, were to be admitted at reduced 
 rates of duty. There was a wide-spread panic, raised upon prophecies that 
 U would be impossible to compete with the foreign grazier ; that meat would 
 oe reduced to threepence per pound ; and that all who had stock had better 
 sell it as fast as possible. This senseless alarm, which we can laugh at in 
 18U2, was only a foretaste of the terror which would prevail when a bolder
 
 196 PETITION FOR THE PEOPLE'S CHARTER. [1842. 
 
 approach should be made to those principles of free trade which, during the 
 twenty yeai's befc«re sir Robert Peel's opening administration, had been 
 slowly advancing, and which in the succeeding twenty years have changed the 
 whole character of English industry, giving an impulse to every employment 
 of capital and labour beyond what the most sanguine of economists could have 
 -contemplated as so immediate and so permanent a result of legislation. After 
 many debates in both Houses, the financial propositions of sir Eobert Peel 
 were carried with little alteration. The government had done something in 
 its advance towards a sound commercial policy ; it had done nothing, as some 
 had expected, to go back to antiquated principles, or to halt altogether on 
 the road of improvement. 
 
 Whilst the House of Commons was in committee on the Income Tax 
 Bill, its attention was diverted from the minute details involved in its nume- 
 rous clauses by the presentation of a very remarkable petition. On the 
 2nd of May a long procession of working men, escorting sixteen of their 
 number bearing a heavy burden,' entered the lobby of the House of Com- 
 mons. The load which required for its support this aggregate amount of 
 human strength was a petition, signed, it was alleged, by three millions of 
 people. The document was too large to pass through the folding doors of the 
 House of Commons, and it was necessary to unroll it to carry it into the 
 House. "When unrolled it spread over a great part of the floor, and rose 
 above the level of the Table. The petition set forth many evils of which the 
 petitioners complained, and they demanded that the House of Commons " do 
 immediately without alteration, deduction, or addition, pass into a law the 
 document entitled ' The People's Charter.' " Mr. Thomas Duncombe pre- 
 sented the petition, and the next day he moved that the petitioners should 
 be heard at the bar of the House in support of their allegations. The 
 debate on this occasion was interesting. Probably its greatest interest was 
 a speech of Mr. Macaulay. Of the six points of the Charter, he said, there 
 was one for which he had voted — the ballot — and he saw no reason to change 
 his opinion on that subject. There was another point of which he decidedly 
 approved — the abolition of the pecuniary qualification for members of that 
 House. He differed from the Chartists in their demand for annual parlia- 
 ments, as he differed also as to the expediency of paying representatives of the 
 people, and of dividing the country into electoral districts. He did not 
 consider these matters as vital. They were subordinate questions when 
 compared with that one question which still remained to be considered. 
 "The essence of the Charter is Universal Suffrage. If you withhold that, it 
 matters not very much what else you grant. If you grant that, it matters 
 
 not at all what else you withhold. If you grant that the country is lost 
 
 My firm conviction is, that in our country universal suffrage is incompatible^ 
 not with this or that form of government, but with all forms of government, 
 and with everything for the sake of which forms of government exist ; tliat 
 it is incompatible with property, and that it is consequently incompatible 
 with civilization."* The motion of Mr. Duncombe was rejected by two 
 hundred and eighty-seven votes to forty-nine. 
 
 It was in this Session that, after considerable debate in both Houses, lord 
 
 • " Macaulay's Speeches," p. 25G.
 
 i842]. ASSAULTS ON THE QUEEN— PAHLIAMENT PROROGUED, 497 
 
 Ashley's bill for restraining tlie employment of women and children in mines 
 and collieries was passed.* In this Session important alterations were made 
 in the constitution of Courts of Bankruptcy. The Court of Eeview was 
 formed of one judge instead of three judges ; and District Courts of Bank 
 ruptcy were established. This amendment of the Bankruptcy Law was intro- 
 duced by the Chancellor, lord Lyndhurst. "Whilst parliament was sitting, 
 two infamous assaults were made upon the person of the Sovereign. On 
 the 30th of May John Francis, a young man under twenty years of age, fired 
 a pistol at the Queen as she was returning to Buckingham Palace down 
 Constitution Hill, in a barouche and four, accompanied by Prince Albert, 
 Some rumour of the intended attempt upon the Queen's life had previously 
 reached the Palace. Her Majesty, thinking of others rather than of herself, 
 desired that none of the ladies in waiting should accompany her in her ride, 
 which she would not forego for ambiguous threats that had reached the ears 
 of the police. Prancis, who had been immediately seized, was found guilty 
 of high treason, and received the usual capital sentence, which on the 2nd 
 of July was commuted into transportation for life. On the 3rd of July a 
 deformed youth, named John "William Bean, presented a pistol at her 
 Majesty, but being seized by a bystander was prevented firing it, Tho 
 mode in which the legislature dealt with offences of this nature was com- 
 pletely successful in putting an end to attempts which were odious and 
 contemptible, having their origin in no feelings of public or private grievance, 
 but were the results most probably, in each of the three cases which had 
 shocked the public feeling, of a distempered imagination producing a morbid 
 desire for notoriety. On the 12th of July sir Eobert Peel brought in a bill 
 for the better protection of the Queen's person. He proposed that any party 
 not actually designing to take away the Queen's life, but intending to hurt 
 her or alarm her, should be subject to transportation for a term not exceeding 
 seven years ; but that there should also be another punishment, more suitable 
 to the offence and more calculated to repress it — a discretionary power of 
 imprisonment with authority to inflict personal chastisement. "What we 
 have to guard against, said sir Eobert Peel, is not any traitorous attempt 
 against the peace of the nation by conspiring to take away the life of the 
 Sovereign, but it is the folly or malignity of wretches who are guilty of acts 
 prompted by motives which are scarcely assignable. The bill was rapidly 
 passed through all its stages in both Houses, 
 
 On the 12th of August her Majesty prorogued parliament in person 
 The Queen's Speech necessarily adverted to the great financial and com- 
 mercial measures of the Session, and expressed a trust that there were indica- 
 tions of a recovery from that depression which had afi'ected many branches 
 of manufacturing industry. 
 
 In the debate at the conclusion of the Session — a debate which was truly 
 a passage-at-arms between lord Palmerston and sir Robert Peel — the Prime 
 "Minister said, that the non-ratification of treaties by Prance, and her delay 
 in admitting our just claims, had been the consequences of that alienation, 
 that irritable feeling, which either through the fault or the misfortune of the 
 noble lord (Palmerston) had been the result of his foreign policy. " Thii* 
 
 ♦ See Ante, p. 395. 
 VOL. vHi.— 256.
 
 498 RELATIONS WITH FRANCE— TREATY OF WASHINGTON. ri8i2<. 
 
 country," said sir Eobert Peel, " has no feeling of hostility towards Prance. 
 It was but the other day that "vre heard of the lamentable death of the duke 
 of Orleans, the heir to the throne of Prance, with deep and uniTersal regret 
 and sympathy." * The duke of Orleans was thrown from his carriage and 
 killed on the 13th of July. Twenty years ago, so different was the mode of 
 transmitting intelligence from one country to the other, that the news of 
 this event reached London by pigeon-carriers on the morning of the 14th.t 
 The foreign policy of the British government was chiefly intrusted by sir 
 Eobert Peel to lord Aberdeen. M. Gruizot has said of this able and honest 
 member of the Cabinet : — " Like Peel, he desired that peace and justice 
 should prevail in the mutual relations of States : — better than any one else, 
 he knew how to discern and accept their conditions, and to employ only 
 those means and that language which were calculated to secure their pre- 
 dominance, and by inspiring the men with whom he treated with confidence 
 in his moderation and equity, he disposed them to deal with him in the same 
 spirit." J In the debate of the 14th of August, sir Eobert Peel said, " We 
 have no hostile, no irritable feeling towards Prance, neither have we any 
 fear ; we are too proud, too conscious of our own strength, to regard the 
 power of Prance with apprehension ; but we deprecate, for the interests of 
 humanity, the interruption of friendly relations with that country." § The 
 Count de Jarnac, who succeeded M. Guizot in his embassy to England, had 
 an interview with sir Eobert Peel at this period, at which " in spite of his 
 habitual reserve and lacouicism," the Prime Minister strongly expressed his 
 opinion upon the temper of the Prench government : " The recent policy of 
 Prance has entirely alienated from you the party which sustains me. No 
 one more often than myself has testified from its origin my respect and con- 
 fidence for the actual government of Prance. I have supported it from the 
 beginning with all my power against the convictions and antipathies of a 
 great number of my partizans. I have never endeavoured to impede its 
 march or augment its difilculties. But never have I foreseen that our rela- 
 tions would be placed in such a situation as I find them in to-day." 
 Who, says Count Jarnac, shall fathom the depth of popular credulity ? 
 At this epoch Louis Philippe and his government were seriously accused cf 
 excessive condescension towards England, and sir Eobert Peel and lord 
 Aberdeen escaped not the reproach of extreme complaisance towards 
 Prance. |1 
 
 It was in this year that lord Ashburton, having proceeded to the United 
 States as a Special Commissioner, concluded a treaty which settled the ques- 
 tion as to the boundary between Canada and the state of Maine. Sir Eobert 
 Peel, at the commencement of the Session of 1843, declared that the treaty 
 which lord Ashburton had concluded at Washington in August 1842, esta- 
 blished such a division of the disputed district as secured our British posses- 
 sions in North America, and at the same time preserved our military 
 communication intact. Subsequent circumstances have manifested that these 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixv. col. 1281. 
 
 ■f" See Kaikes's " Memoirs," vol. iv. p. 208. 
 
 :): " Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 146. 
 
 § Hansard, vol. Ixv. col. 1281. 
 
 li " Revue des Deux Moudee," 15 July, 1861, p. 443.
 
 1842]. DISTURBANCES IN MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 499 
 
 results were not altogether obtained by what lord Paltneraton called " tho 
 Ashburton Capitulation." * 
 
 On the day after the prorogation of Parliament a proclamation by the Queen 
 was issued, setting forth that in divers parts of Great Britain multitudes of 
 lawless and disorderly persons had assembled and with force and violence had 
 entered into mines, mills, and manufactories, and by threats and intimidation 
 had prevented those employed from following their usual occupation. The 
 distress in the manufacturing districts had been most severe for a con- 
 siderable time. Many employers had failed ; mills were shut up ; the poor- 
 rates were enormously increased ; and Grovernment was called upon to supply 
 that aid for the relief of the distress which was beyond the management of 
 local administrators of the Poor-Law. The working people upon the whole 
 bore their privations with patience and fortitude ; but in many places the 
 Chartists were busy stirring them up to demand higher wages than the 
 capitalists could afford out of their reduced means, although the workmen 
 perfectly well knew that their employers were fast sinking into ruin. Strikes 
 were unavailing ; and then came riots. Sir James Grraham, the Home Secretary, 
 encountered the crisis with decision and firmness. The system of railroads 
 had enabled him to send troops rapidly to any scene of outrage, and their 
 appearance was suflBcient in any case to effect the restoration of tranquillity 
 without a repetition of such sanguinary collisions as those of Manchester and 
 Bristol at a past time. Some of the more dangerous Chartists, amongst 
 whom was Feargus O'Connor, were held to bail, and during the first fortnight 
 of October Special Commissions sat at Stafford, at Chester, and at Liverpool, 
 for the trial of persons accused of riots and political offences, a great number of 
 whom were convicted and sentenced either to transportation or to various 
 terms of imprisonment. 
 
 When parliament met on the 2nd of February, 1843, the government 
 had few subjects for exultation, which were not more than counter-balanced 
 by circumstances calculated to weaken the confidence of the country, if not 
 to inspire distrust and alarm. The treaty with the United States, the con- 
 clusion of the war with China, the final success of military operations in 
 Afghanistan, were the favourable topics of the royal speech delivered by 
 Commission. The diminished receipt from some of the ordinary sources of 
 revenue, which it was acknowledged must be attributed to reduced consump- 
 tion caused by depression of the manufacturing industry of the country, was 
 a most significant index of the continuance of that depression which a few 
 months before had produced serious violations of the public peace. There- 
 was no Amendment proposed to the Address. But very little time was 
 suffered to elapse before the one great cause assigned for the stagnation of 
 commerce, for the languor of manufacturing industry, for men working at 
 half-time or wholly unemployed, was rung into the ears of the minister in 
 parliament. That cause had been most effectually proclaimed throughout the 
 country by a body of agitators more powerful in their wealth, their social posi- 
 tion, their talents, and their perseverance, than had ever before been banded 
 together to force upon an unwilling legislature a great measure ofEefcrmt 
 
 * The ■boundary as finally agreed upon by the Treaty of 1842, is fully stated in the "Englisb 
 Cvcliipajilia," art. Canada, col. 276.
 
 coo DEBATE ON THE DEPRESSION OF MANUFACTURES. [13iu. 
 
 Against this dreaded lleform was arraj^ed a no less powerful combination of 
 the noble and the exclusive classes, hounded on by orators and writers who 
 took their stand upon the wisdom of their forefathers, and despised all 
 opinions founded upon increasing knowledge. On the 13th of February 
 lord Howick moved for a Committee to consider so much of her Majesty's 
 Speech as referred to that depression of the manufacturing interest of the 
 country which had so long prevailed. The debate was continued for five 
 nights. It was on the fifth night that Mr. Cobden uttered one of those 
 harangues which, making no pretensions to be eloquent, extorted conviction 
 from a few, and respect from many, by their strong common sense, their 
 logical array of facts, and their utter contempt for the conventionalities of 
 party. It is time, he said, to give up bandying the terms Whig and 
 Tory about from one side of the House to the other, and engage in a serious 
 inquiry into the condition of the country " I tell the right honour- 
 able baronet that I, for one, care nothing for Whigs or Tories ; I have said 
 that I never will help to bring back the Whigs ; but I tell him that the whole 
 responsibility of the lamentable and dangerous state of the country rests 
 with him." At the close of Mr. Cobden' s speech sir Eobert Peel rose with 
 manifest emotion, and said, " the honourable gentleman has stated here very 
 emphatically, what he has more tlian once stated at the Conferences of the 
 Anti- Corn-Law League, that he holds me individually — individually respon- 
 sible for the distress and suff'ering of the country ; that he holds me per- 
 sonally responsible ; but be the consequences of those insinuations what they 
 may, never will I be influenced by menaces either in this House or out of 
 
 this House, to adopt a course which I consider " The minister was 
 
 unable to complete his sentence. Mr. Cobden denied that he had said that 
 he held sir Hobert Peel personally responsible. " You did !" was the cry 
 from the ministerial benches; "Ton did!" said sir Robert Peel. It was 
 some time before the orator, usually so calm and unimpassioned, could shake 
 ofi" this sensitiveness, to which the term extraordinary might be applied, if it 
 had not been associated with a lamentable event that had occurred on the 
 previous 21st of January. On that day Mr. Drummond, private Secretary 
 of the Minister, was shot by a Scotchman of the name of Mac Naughten, who 
 had come to London brooding over some supposed ofiicial injury, and had 
 mistaken Mr. Drummond for sirEobert Peel. There was no political motive 
 in this act ; the man upon his subsequent trial was shown to be a maniac. 
 But it produced a deep impression on the mind of sir Eobert Peel ; and when 
 Mr. Cobden held him individually responsible for the state of the country, 
 he considered that the words were an incentive to assassination. This extra- 
 ordinary scene was concluded by Mr. Cobden disclaiming, amidst repeated 
 interruptions, the meaning which had been ascribed to his words. He 
 declared that in what he stated he intended to throw the responsibility of 
 his measures upon the right honourable baronet as the head of the govern- 
 ment, and in using the word individually he used it as the minister himself 
 used the first pronoun when he said " I passed the tariff, and you supported 
 me." The construction which Mr. Cobden had put upon the language he 
 employed was accepted by sir Eobert Peel. But, says his biographer, " he 
 accepted the explanation coldly, and still maintained an air of reserved 
 distrust." M. Guizot adds, " Who can tell how much fatal poison may be
 
 1843]. CORN-LAW DEBATE— SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. 501 
 
 contained in words uttered without any evil design ? " He repeats a 
 sentiment which was expressed in a speech by Mr. lloebuck : " I ask the 
 honourable member if he did not see the danger of such language ? Passion 
 does sometimes destroy people's judgment." The motion of lord Howick 
 was finally rejected by a majority of a hundred and fifteen. 
 
 If the Corn-Laws were not on the point of being repealed, it was not for 
 the want of perseverance in their parliamentary opposers. The general 
 subject was directly and indirectly brought forward again and again ; but on 
 each occasion a large majority asserted the principle of protection. At the 
 close of one debate, which had lasted five nights upon a motion* by Mr. 
 Villiers, Mr. Cobden declared that whatever might be the fate of the motion 
 it would not have the slightest eff'ect upon the progress of public opinion on 
 this subject. The League would go on as it had hitherto done, and if there 
 were any force in truth and justice, it would go on to an ultimate and not 
 distant triumph. The landed and agricultural interests were so much alarmed 
 by what they considered the coquettings of the government with free-trade, 
 that when lord Stanley, as Secretary for the Colonies, proposed to impose a. 
 duty only of three shillings per quarter upon wheat imported from Canada, 
 tlie more sensitive of the party shrieked out their horror of the Canadiaq 
 Corn-bill as a free-trade measure. They were not soothed when they were 
 told by Mr. T. Duncombe that " between their pledges to their constituents, 
 their attachment to the government, and their antipathy to the "Whigs, they 
 were in a most unpleasant predicament. They smelt a rat ; it was in the 
 Canadian Corn-bill." * Skirmishes such as these occupied much of the time 
 of the House during this Session. The Canadian Corn-bill passed — the one 
 practical move towards a great change of policy, although its supporters did 
 not clearly see where their steps were tending. 
 
 Important as was the question of the repeal of the Corn-Laws with 
 reference to tlie condition of the great bulk of the people, there were legisla- 
 tors who could take a wider view of the circumstances of the country than was 
 implied in the one prevailing cry of Cheap Bread. On the 6th of April Mr. 
 Charles Buller moved au Address to the Queen on the subject of Systematic 
 Colonization. His speech was a most able and comprehensive exposition of 
 his belief that there was a permanent cause of the depression of industry, and 
 the suftering of the people, in the constant accumulation of capital and the 
 constant increase of population within the same restricted field of employment. 
 He proposed Colonization as a means of remedying the competition both of 
 Capital and Labour in this restricted field. He stated that Emigration had 
 promised to be of little service until Mr. Wakefield propounded the tlieory 
 of Colonization that goes by his name. The great principles of that theory 
 were, the sale of colonial land, and the expenditure of the proceeds in carrying 
 out labourers. The government opposed Mr. Buller's motion, upon the plea 
 that it would raise false hopes in the public mind. Mr. Buller withdrew his 
 proposal, but it was clear that, with or without an official inquiry, new princi- 
 ples of colonization would gradually take root and finally produce, in con- 
 currence with the rapid development of the resources of a vast colonial 
 empire, that refuge for a surplus population which has been attended 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixix. col. 945.
 
 502 MONSTER MEETINGS FOll REPEAL OF THE UNION. [1843. 
 
 willi sucli beneficial results upon our domestic condition in the present 
 generation. 
 
 At the beginning of May the agitation in Ireland for the Repeal of the 
 Union had become sufficiently formidable to make a declaration of the inten- 
 tions of the government a matter of imperative necessity. In the House of 
 Lords the duke of Wellington, and in the House of Commons sir Robert 
 Peel, expressed a determination to abide by the principle of the joint Address 
 of both Houses in 1884 — "to maintain unimpaired and undisturbed the 
 legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland." Sir Robert Peel said 
 that the executive government would rely as long as possible on the ordinary 
 powers which the law and constitution gave them ; but that if the necessity 
 for increased authority should arise, they would not hesitate for a moment to 
 appeal to Parliament for additional powers. He added, " I am also prepared 
 to make, in ray place here, the declaration which was made, and nobly made, 
 by lord Althorp, that deprecating as I do all war, but above all civil war, yet 
 there is no alternative which I do not think preferable to the dismember'^ 
 ment of this empire." * It was certainly time that the government should 
 speak out. In January, at the weekly meeting of the Repeal Association, Mr. 
 O'Connell announced that " 1843 is and shall be the great Repeal year." He 
 abstained from attendance in Parliament to devote himself to that system 
 of political agitation which continued to arrest the removal of social evils till 
 their overwhelming magnitude was fully manifested in the great collapse of 
 the existing relations of landlord and tenant. The abuse of the right of 
 property in land had long rendered the condition of the Irish peasantry 
 inferior to that of any other peasantry in Europe. The organization for 
 Repeal which Mr. O'Connell had accomplished was to be supported and 
 extended by the means of a universal subscription. The members of the 
 Repeal Association were to subscribe twenty shillings a year, but throughout 
 the country there were to be associate subscribers of a shilling each, with a 
 machinery of inspectors, wardens, and collectors. This great sinew of war 
 thus compelled from a starving population was known as the " Rent." With 
 moat Englishmen there was not an utter forgetfulness of some benefits for his 
 countrymen which O'Connell had worked out by his eloquence and his per- 
 severance. But much of their respect had passed into a profound contempt 
 for the unscrupulous agitator, which those who could pretty accurately read 
 the public sentiment embodied in such graphic representations as that of 
 " The Irish Ogre fattening on the finest pisantry." f Vast assemblies of the 
 people were exultingly called by the great demagogue, " Monster Meetings." 
 He addressed thirty thousand people at Trim on the 16fch of March, and 
 referred to the physical force by which he was surrounded as something much 
 more efi'ectual than idle petitioning of Parliament. Through the summer 
 meetings of this nature were held in various parts of Ireland, where the 
 same inflammatory language was repeated by laymen and priests with 
 increasing vehemence. Father Mathew had been working a vast change in 
 the habits of many of the Irish by the great Temperance movement, of which 
 lie was an honest and zealous leader. But O'Connell adroitly adopted the 
 Teetotalers as the Repealers upon whom rested the hope of sweeping away 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixix. col. 25. t " Punch," vol. v. p. 15.
 
 1S43]. ARREST OF O'CONNELL— THE SCOTCH CHURCH. 503 
 
 Saxon domination. On the 15th of August there was an assembly of which 
 the lowest estimate of the number was half a million of people. During the 
 previous night, and from the break of day, the people had been marching from 
 all points to the Hill of Tara, where the ancient kings of Ireland had been 
 elected. A sort of crown was prepared which the Liberator was tliere to put 
 on, and to declare to his people that the day was come when they should no 
 longer be slaves, — when the land should overflow with plenty, and every one 
 should hold his half-acre with fixity of tenure, and out of its produce main- 
 tain his portion of a constantly increasing population. When the Parliament 
 was prorogued on the 24ith of August, the Queen in her Speech noticed these 
 persevering efibrts to stir up discontent and disaffection ; and expressed her 
 earnest desire to administer the government of Ireland in a spirit of strict 
 justice and impartiality, and to effect such amendments in the existing laws 
 as might improve the social condition and develope the resources of that 
 country. But she also expressed her firm determination to maintain the 
 legislative union. Eelying on the good sense and patriotism of the people, 
 the Queen called upon those who had influence and authority in Ireland to 
 discourage a system of pernicious agitation. This moderate declaration of 
 the government was pronounced by O'Connell to be " an excess of impudence 
 and stupidity combined." His dangerous career was coming to an end. A 
 meeting had been announced for the 8th of October at Clontarf, near Dublin. 
 On the 7th a proclamation was agreed to by the Privy Council at Dublin, 
 which, referring to the seditious language used at the monster meetings, 
 declared the proposed assembly to be illegal. The demagogue was at once 
 tamed. He called the Repeal Association together ; and it was agreed that 
 no meeting at Clontarf should take place. On the 14th Mr. O'Connell 
 and his principal associates were arrested on charges of conspiracy, sedition, 
 a,nd unlawful assembling. The accused were admitted to bail ; and after 
 various pretexts for legal delays of which they availed themselves, it was 
 finally determined that their trial should take place on the 15th of January, 
 1S44. 
 
 At the prorogation of Parliament the Speaker addressed these words to 
 her Majesty, upon a subject of great and permanent interest: ""We have 
 witnessed, with deep concern, the unhappy divisions which have occurred in 
 the Church of Scotland, and which have led to the secession of many of her 
 most valued ministers. We have endeavoured, we trust successfully, to heal 
 those divisions, and to restore peace to an establishment which is fraught 
 with such inestimable blessings to the inhabitants of that part of the United 
 Kingdom." The "unhappy divisions" of the Scotch Church had been 
 maturing for nine years, till, in 1843, the event occurred which is known as 
 " The Disruption." In 1834 the difi'erences which had existed for more 
 than a century between the supporters of lay patronage, long known as the 
 " Moderates," and the opposers of lay patronage, then recently termed " Non- 
 Intrusionists," assumed a more important character than that of a war of 
 pamphlets, by the Anti-patronage party obtaining a majority in the General 
 Assembly, and passing a measure known as the Veto Act. The object of 
 this Act was to make it a law of the Church that no presentee to a benefice 
 was to be held fit to be ordained as minister of a parish unless he were 
 acceptable to a majority of the parishioners. The mode of collecting the
 
 504 THE FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. [18i3. 
 
 opinions of a congregation was this : The Presbytery, when a presentee 
 laid his presentation before them, appointed him to preach twice in the 
 church, and they also appointed a day for " moderating in a call," or, in 
 other words, for receiving dissents. If a majority of the male heads of 
 families in communion with the church dissented, the presentee was rejected 
 as an unfit person. In 1839 the question of a presentation to the parish of 
 Auchterarder, in Perthshire, which had been agitated in the ecclesiastical 
 courts, where the decision of the Presbytery against the presentation was 
 confirmed, was finally decided on appeal in the House of Lords against the 
 Presbytery. There was another case, that of Strathbogie, in which this im- 
 portant question was agitated under somewhat different circumstances, but in 
 which the decisions of the ecclesiastical and civil courts were also at variance. 
 The formal disruption of the Scotch Church took place at the meeting of the 
 General Assembly on the 18th of May, 1843; when, before the roll of 
 members was made up, Dr. Welsh, who had been Moderator of the preceding 
 Assembly, read a protest against the constitution of the Assembly signed by 
 120 ministers and 73 lay elders. Those who had signed the protest and 
 their adherents then left the Assembly in a body, and constituted in another 
 place " The General Assembly of the Pree Church of Scotland." Of this 
 Assembly Dr. Chalmers was chosen as Moderator. On the 23rd of May 
 the disruption was completed, by the seceders and many other clergymen 
 who were members of the Assembly signing " An Act of Separation and 
 Deed of Demission," which completely cut them ofi" from the benefits as well 
 as burdens of the Establishment. " "Whatever previous diff"erences of opinion 
 existed, and whatever objections there were to a body such as the General 
 Assembly of the Church of Scotland, entitled to legislate and adjudicate for 
 its own interest and according to its own feelings, being exempt from the con- 
 trol of the courts of law, the sacrifice of emolument and station thus made 
 elicited general respect and sympathy, and was creditable to the sincerity of 
 those who made it." * The intervention of the legislature by passing " An 
 Act to remove doubts respecting tlie admission of Ministers to benefices " 
 presents one of many examples of the difiiculty of legislating for unity in 
 ecclesiastical establishments when conscientious scruples lead to separation. 
 The Pree Church pursued its course perfectly indifi"erent to the operation of 
 a measure which was expected "to restore religious peace in Scotland." 
 That peace was best promoted by leaving a people keenly alive to all questions 
 of religious liberty to follow the impulses of their own feelings, in making an 
 adequate provision throughout the land for a zealous and able body of 
 ministers chosen and supported upon the voluntary principle. It may be 
 mentioned that there was a secession from tlie Church of Scotland a century 
 before the great difference which resulted in the Veto of 1834. This 
 seceding body was called the "United Secession Church." There was a 
 smaller body of seceders in the middle of the last century who formed the 
 " Relief Church." In 1847 these two bodies coalesced and became the 
 " United Presbyterian Church." They now constitute a most extensive 
 organization, comprising nearly a fourth of the congregations of Scotland. 
 An important statute affecting the Church of Enghand was passed in the 
 
 • English Cyclopiodi.a : article, " Fi'ce CliurcL of ScotlaiiJ. ♦
 
 1S431. NEW DISTRICT CHURCHES IX ENGLA.XD— R:-:BECCA RlOTS. 505 
 
 session of 1843. It was an Act for increasing the means of spiritu;i] 
 instruction in populous parishes, by making a portion of the revenues of tho 
 Church available for tlie endowment of additional ministers. The Ecclesi- 
 astical Commissioners for England were empowered to borrow 60O,O00Z. from 
 the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty for the purpose of forming districts 
 for spiritual purposes in populous parishes with the consent of the bishop of 
 the diocese, each such district to be permanently endowed and to become a 
 new parish upon a new church being consecrated. The patronage of sucb 
 new districts or parishes might be conferred, either in perpetuity or for ono 
 or more nominations, on any person or persons contributing to the permanent 
 endowment of the minister or toward providing a church or chapel for the use 
 of the inhabitants. The vast extension of church-building in this country, 
 beyond the precedent of any former time, may to a considerable extent be 
 attributed to this brief but important enactment. 
 
 The Annalist of 1843 says that his narrative of public events would be 
 very imperfect if he did not include some particular notice of three popular 
 movements in three diiferent quarters of the United Kingdom. In one 
 chapter of the " Annual Eegister" we find, therefore, the history of the 
 Itepeal agitation in Ireland, of the Secession from the Church of Scotland, 
 and of the Eebecca riots in South "Wales. There is no parity of interest 
 in the abortive efforts to destroy the legislative union of two nations ; 
 in the great schism in an established church ; and in what is dignified by 
 the name of an insurrection for the removal of turnpike-gates. Yet if 
 the historian were to consult only his own fancy in recording what is 
 picturesque, the riots in "Wales would furnish a much more spirit-stirring 
 record than the most elaborate description of the popular ceremonials of the 
 Hill of Tara, or of the procession of seceding ministers from St. Andrew's 
 Church through the streets of Edinburgh to Canonmills Hall, four abreast. 
 We must tell the story of Eebecca and her daughters as briefly as we can 
 under the temptation it afibrds for graphic details. It is recorded that 
 when the first turnpike upon " the ancient highway and post-road leading 
 from London to Tprk and so into Scotland " was established in 1663, the 
 toll was so unpopular that " the mob " broke the toll-gates. " The mob " is 
 rather a loose term to apply to the drovers, swineherds, pack-horse carriers, 
 and waggoners, of the days of Charles II., who would rather have floundered 
 through roads described in the first Turnpike Act as " almost impassable and 
 very dangerous to his majesty's liege people," than pay the somewhat heavy 
 toll which the Act prescribed. But even in those very insecure times, when 
 the parish constable was the chief instrument for preserving the peace 
 of the realm, we hear of no general insurrection in Middlesex, or Hertford, 
 or Cambridge, or Huntingdon, to pull down the toll-gates and injure the 
 toll-keepers. At the beginning of 1843, in the counties of Pembroke and 
 Caermarthen, there suddenly appeared at nightfall a body of horsemen under 
 the command of a leader who wore a female dress, and who was generally 
 surrounded with a body-guard in similar costume. These were Eebecca and 
 her daughters, and their commission was derived from the following verse in 
 the twenty-fourth chapter of Genesis : " And they blessed Eebecca, and said 
 unto her, Thou art our sister, be thou the mother of thousands of millions; 
 and let thy seed possess the gate of those which hate them." Eebecca wa<
 
 606 SUPPRESSION OF THE DISTURBANCES IN WALES. [1343. 
 
 ubiquitous ; for wherever there was a gathering for the purpose of a nocturnal 
 assemblage, there was a Eebecca. Amidst the blowing of horns and the 
 firing of guns such a body of men would arrive at a turnpike gate, and 
 immediately proceed to break the gate into fragments, saw off the posts 
 close to the ground, and pull down the toll-house. This remarkable com- 
 bination soon extended to all the South "Welsh counties, with the exception 
 of Brecknockshire. The disturbances were not confined to any peculiarly 
 obnoxious locality. There was one indiscriminate onslaught upon the turn- 
 pike system, and so successful were these operations during the spring and 
 summer that nearly all the roads in the autumn were practically toll free. 
 When bodies of ignorant and lawless men feel their physical strength, they 
 are easily induced to believe that this power is sufficient to bid defiance to 
 the law, for the removal of every supposed grievance. The local magistrates 
 were unable to contend with Eebecca ; and E-ebecca was very soon set up 
 as an authority to provide summary redress against Poor Laws, and Tithes, 
 and heavy rents, and all other evils which small occupiers of land, little 
 elevated above the condition of common labourers, believed themselves 
 peculiarly subjected to. On the 10th of June a large body marched into 
 Caermarthen, consisting of some thousands on foot and three hundred on 
 horseback. Their purpose was to pull down the workhouse. Their excesses 
 were stopped in the middle of their career of destruction by the arrival of 
 a troop of cavalry who had ridden thirty miles without drawing bit. The 
 whole province was gradually falling into the condition of the worst parts of 
 Ireland. Intimidation by threatening letters had become general ; land- 
 owners, clergymen, and magistrates were kept in terror of the vengeance of 
 Eebecca ; the law was so utterly suspended that when an old woman who 
 kept a turnpike gate was deliberately shot by one of the rioters, and the fact 
 of her murder was distinctly made out to a coroner's jury, they returned a 
 verdict that she died from suffusion of blood which produced suffocation. 
 The government at last sent down a large body of troops into Wales, and, 
 what was equally serviceable, they also sent a detachment of that active and 
 intelligent body, the London Police, who were everywhere engaged in tracing 
 the secret agencies by which this extraordinary conspiracy had been con- 
 ducted. A Special Commission was appointed for the trial of the offenders, 
 and three of the leadei's were sentenced to transportation. The Turnpike 
 Acts in force in Wales were in many instances oppressive and unequal. A 
 government Commission of Inquiry was appointed to examine into the 
 operation of these laws, and into the other causes of disturbance. Ignorance 
 and poverty were at the root of the matter; but the especial object of 
 the Eebecca organization ceased to be a cause of complaint and agitation, 
 after the passing of an Act in the next Session of Parliament for the 
 Consolidation and Amendment of the Laws relating to Turnpike Trusts in 
 South Wales.
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 General Sir Charles Napier — "War in Scinde — Destructiou of Emaua-Ghur — Battle of Meanee — 
 Annexation of Scinde — Napier the beneficent Administrator — Gwalior — Recall of Lord 
 EUeiiborough — Trial of O'Connell— Debates on Corn Laws in the Session of 1844 — Position 
 of Sir Robert Peel — Renewal of the Bank Charter — Regulation of Labour in Factories — 
 Lord Ashley's ten-hours' Clause rejected — Debates on Sugar-Duties — Opening Letters by 
 the Secretary of State— Reports of Committees — Lady Hewlet's bequest — O'Connell's 
 Sentence reversed by the House of Lords — Difference with France on the treatment of 
 the British Consul at Tahiti — Visit of King Louis Philippe to the Queen — Prince de 
 Joinville's Pamphlet on the Naval Forces of France. 
 
 Ih" Trafalgar Square, under the shadow of the Nelson Column, is a statue 
 of " Charles James Napier, General." The inscription bears that it was 
 " erected by Public Subscription, the most numerous Contributors being 
 Private Soldiers." This renowned warrior is ordinarily termed "Conqueror of 
 Scinde." By the side of this figure was erected, also by public subscription, 
 a statue of one of the scientific benefactors of the human race, Edward Jenuer. 
 That statue has been removed to Kensington Gardens. An objection was 
 raised that one whose science had so materially conduced to the prolongation 
 of life, and to the consequent increase of the population of the world, was 
 somewhat out of place in his close proximity to a great soldier — especially 
 great in the estimation of the " Private Soldiers" whom he had led to triumph 
 — whose vocation was, according to the belief of an ancient poet, " to ease the 
 earth of her too numerous sons." But the " Conqueror of Scinde," taking a 
 broad and just view of his career, was a promoter of civilization, by which alone 
 the earth is adequately peopled ; and thus he had also a claim to be recorded 
 as a benefactor of mankind in his successful endeavour to make his conquest 
 a source of good to the conquered people. He was the just and beneficent 
 Administrator of Scinde. His "victories of Peace" are "not less renowned 
 than those of War." He was the warlike instrument of injustice ; but the 
 aggression, which resulted in triumphs as brilliant and as decisive as any 
 other of the wonderful events of the career of the British in India, may be 
 received as a remarkable addition to the many instances of dangers and 
 difficulties overcome, as if for some special working out of the decrees of a 
 Buperintending Providence, which does not permit the supremacy of a domi- 
 nant nation for the gratification of its own ambition, but through that agency 
 carries forward the great law of Progress.
 
 503 WAR IN SCINDE— DESTRUCTION OF EMAUN GIIUR. [1343. 
 
 Scinde, a country capable of an almost boundless increase of agricultural 
 and commercial wealtb, having the river which bears its name (as well as that 
 of Indus) flowing through its whole extent, was, in 1842, under the rule of a 
 body of despotic nobles, the Ameers, who about seventy years before had dis- 
 possessed the legitimate sovereigns. The original inhabitants, who groaned 
 beneath the yoke of these conquerors, cultivated the fields less for themselve3 
 than for their tyrannous masters, to whom the land was little better than a 
 hunting ground, whilst their idea of government was simply that of exacting 
 tribute by their fierce military retainers, the Beloochees. Whatever were 
 the relations of these rulers to the people whom they misgoverned, the British 
 authorities in India had repeatedly entered into treaties with them, and in the 
 treaty of 1820 these words were used : " The two contracting parties mutu- 
 ally bind themselves from generation to generation never to look with the eye 
 of covetousness on the possessions of each other." But the passage of troops 
 through Scinde was necessary for carrying on the war with Afghanistan. 
 The Ameers remonstrated, but were compelled to yield. Something more was 
 required by a subsequent treaty. Kurrachee and Tatta were ceded to the 
 British, with power to station troops there ; and the free navigation of the 
 Indus was stipulated as another condition of our friendship. At an earlier 
 period some of the Ameers had expressed their fears that Scinde was gone — 
 " the English have seen the river." After w^e had withdrawn from Grhuznee, 
 and when the terror of the British name was no longer sufficient to com- 
 mand a compliance with enforced engagements, the Ameers began to manifest 
 hostile designs. Sir Charles Napier, having learned that they had assembled 
 an army of twenty-five thousand men, resolved upon a direct and immediate 
 act of hostility, instead of allowing them to gain time by delays and negotia- 
 tions. He "had permission," he has said, "from the Governor-General to 
 assemble an immense force to impose his final treaty ; " he told the Governor- 
 General it could be done with the troops he, ^Napier, already commanded. 
 Boldness and promptitude in this short war efiected more than unlimited 
 reinforcements. Emaun-Ghur, in the desert of Beloochistan, was a strong- 
 hold where the mercenaries of the Ameers could gather together, safe from 
 pursuit. Napier resolved to attack this fortress, whither upon hia approach 
 a large body of troops were marching. But having ascertained that the 
 Beloochees had mutinied and turned back upon reaching the wilderness where 
 there was no water, he saw that a march of eight days from the Indus was 
 impossible for a numerous army. On the night of the 5th of January, 1843, 
 he commenced a perilous adventure. With three hundred and sixty of the 
 22nd Queen's regiment on camels, with two hundred of the irregular cavalry, 
 with ten camels laden with provisions and with eighty carrying water, he set 
 forth to traverse the arid waste, defying the armed bands on every side. 
 After a few days the camels which drew the howitzers were unable to drag 
 them over the sand-hills, and the unshrinking Irish soldiers took their place. 
 When the fortress, which no European eye had before seen, was reached, it 
 was found deserted. The governor had fled with his treasure, but he had 
 left immense stores of ammunition behind. Napier resolved to destroy 
 Emaun-Ghur ; and having mined it in twenty-four places, by a simultaneous 
 explosion all the mighty walls of the square tower, which stood as it were 
 the monarch of the vast solitude, crumbled into atoms, an d the wild bands
 
 1843]. BATTLE OF MEANEE. 6C9 
 
 who went fortli to plunder and harass the populoaa Scinde, had to retire still 
 further into the desert. Napier and his hardy companions, after undergoing 
 great privations on their march back by a different route, rejoined the main 
 army on the 23rd near Hyderabad. In the House of Lords in 1844, upon a 
 motion for the thanks of Parliament to Sir Charles Napier and his army, the 
 duke of Wellington said that the march to Emaun-G-hur was one of the most 
 curious military feats which he had ever known to be performed, or had ever 
 perused an account of. 
 
 The British Resident at Hyderabad was Major Outram. On the 12th of 
 February, the Ameers with one exception, the Ameer of Khyrpore, signed the 
 treaty which in the previous December had been tendered to them, and which, 
 as was to have been expected from its hard conditions, they had evaded signing. 
 This was Lord Ellenborough's "final treaty," which Napier was to have im- 
 posed upon them by an immense force. The day after the signature Major 
 Outram was attacked in the Eesidency by eight thousand Beloochees. He 
 had only a hundred foot-soldiers with him. Tnthe river, however, there were 
 two war steamers. To these he effected his retreat, by presenting a bold 
 front to his assailants, whilst the guns of the steamers swept the flanks of the 
 pursuers. "With the loss only of three men killed and two wounded the 
 gallant officer joined the main army. The force which Napier commanded 
 could scarcely however be termed an army, if that name is to be applied only,, 
 to a large body of soldiers. It consisted of four hundred British of the 22nd, 
 and two thousand two hundred sepoys and other native troops. The 22nd 
 were under the command of Colonel Pennefather, a name of renown in the 
 Crimean war. The artillery consisted of twelve guns. AVith this force the 
 battle of Meanee was fought on the 17 th of Pebruary. On this day Napier 
 wrote in his journal, " It is my first battle as a commander: it may be my 
 last. At sixty, that makes little difference ; but my feelings are, it shall be 
 do or die." Whatever deeds have been done by heroic Englishmen under the 
 inspiration of duty, never was there a greater deed of warfare than the victory 
 of Meanee, which was won by two thousand six hundred men against twenty- 
 two thousand. The Beloochees were posted on a slope behind the bed of the 
 river Pulailee, which was for the most part dry. The half-mile between the 
 two armies was rapidly passed ; the bed of the river was crossed ; up the 
 slope ran the intrepid 22nd, and from the ridge looked down upon the 
 Beloochees "thick as standing corn." The Beloochees covering their heads 
 with their large dark shields, and waving their bright swords in the sun, 
 rushed with frantic gestures upon the front of the 22nd. The Irish soldiers, 
 with shouts as loud and shrieks as wild and fierce as theirs, met them with 
 the bayonet, and " sent their foremost masses rolling back in blood." * The 
 native infantry came up ; the artUlery took a commanding position, and 
 mowed down the Beloochees with round-shot and canister. Upon the slope 
 went on the deadly conflict for three hours, the assailants rushing upwards 
 against an enemy who resolutely held his ground, the gaps in his ranks being 
 closed up as fast as they were made. The result was at one time uncertain. 
 The greater number of the European officers were killed or wounded. 
 Napier was in the thick of the fight, and though surrounded by enemies was 
 
 * Sir W. Kacier.
 
 510 ANNEXATION OF SCINDE— NAPIER AS ADMINISTRATOR. [1843. 
 
 unliarmed. Had lie fallen, there would have been a tale to he told of rash- 
 ness courting destruction. Like Nelson, his daring was his safety ; but then 
 it was under the direction of his genius. He saw, what the eye only of a 
 great commander can see, the opportunity for closing a doubtful struggle by 
 one decisive blow. He ordered a charge of cavalry. Defying the guns on 
 the top of the ridge, the chosen band of horsemen charged right into the 
 enemy's camp. Those who had so long stood firm on the hill fell into confu- 
 sion. The 22nd and the sepoys gained the ridge, and drove the Beloochees 
 over. The mighty host of the Ameers was thus beaten by a handful of 
 troops led on to victory by one who had gained his experience in the great 
 battles of the Peninsula ; by one who knew that large masses of men, 
 however brave and strong, are comparatively weak unless their movements 
 are directed by some master-mind, bold in the conception of his plans, cool in 
 their execution, and having all the resources of strategy at his command at the 
 instant when all would be lost by ignorance or incertitude. 
 
 Sir Charles JSTapier followed up his victory the next day by a message sent 
 into Hyderabad that he would storm the city unless it surrendered. Six of 
 the Ameers came out, and laid their swords at his feet. He returned their 
 jewelled weapons to the humbled chiefs. He refused to intrude upon their 
 privacy by occupying their splendid palaces, heroically abiding in his humble 
 tent. There was another enemy yet unsubdued — Shere Mahomed of Meer- 
 poor. On the 24th of March Napier, who had been reinforced and had now 
 five thousand troops, attacked this chief who had come with twenty thousand 
 Beloochees before the walls of Hyderabad to recover the city. It was a hard- 
 earned victory, which was followed up by the British occupation of Meerpoor. 
 The spirit of the Beloochees was so broken that after two slight actions in 
 June, wlien Shere Mahomed was routed and fled into the desert, the war was 
 at an end. Scinde was annexed to the British possessions, and Sir Charles 
 Napier was appointed its Governor. He ruled the country for four years. He 
 saw the great natural resources of Scinde, and he led the way in rendering them 
 available for commercial purposes by costly public works. The great branch 
 of the Indus was opened to restore the fertility of Cutch. A gigantic pier 
 was constructed at Kurrachee, by which a secure harbour was formed ; and 
 now the port is connected with the Indus by a railway. He made the revenue 
 of the province sufiicient to support the expenditure for its civil and political 
 administration. But above all, he made the native population prosperous and 
 contented under the British rule. The state of the people under his wise 
 government is thus described by the historian of the Scinde war : " The 
 labourer cultivates in security his land ; the handicraftsman, no longer dread- 
 ing mutilation of his nose or ears for demanding remuneration for his work, 
 is returning from the countries to which he had fled, allured back by good 
 wages and employment. Young girls are no longer torn from their families 
 to till the zenanas of the great, or sold into distant slavery. The Hindoo 
 merchant and Parsee trafiicker pursue their vocation with safety and con- 
 fidence ; and even the proud Beloochee warrior, not incapable of noble 
 sentiments, though harsh and savage, remains content with a government 
 uhich has not meddled with his right of subsistence, but only changed his 
 feudal ties into a peaceful and warlike dependence. He has, moreover, become 
 personully attached to a conqueror whose prowess he has felt in battle, anc
 
 1844]. GWALIOR— RECALL OF LORD ELLENBOROUGH. 511 
 
 ■whose justice and generosity he has experienced in peace."* The best proof 
 that this high praise is not exaggerated is furnished by the fact that during 
 the great period of danger through which we have passed, when so many 
 enemies of the British power raised their heads in revolt, Sciade was 
 faithful. 
 
 The close of the year 1843 was marked by another great military euccess 
 in India. The state of Gwalior was in 1801 placed under the protection of 
 the British government. The successor of the Eajah who died in 1843 was 
 a minor, and a Eegent was appointed, with the approbation of the Governor- 
 General. The Eegent was expelled by the Mahrattas, and the British Re- 
 sident was insulted. Lord Ellenborough, to whom war appeared a noble 
 pastime in which an amateur might laudably indulge, immediately sent sir 
 Hugh Gough from Agra with fourteen thousand troops ; and on the 29th of 
 December he fought the battle of Maharajpoor, when the Mahrattas were 
 defeated witli great loss. On the same day, Major- General Grey also defeated 
 the Mahrattas at Punniar. The usurping government immediately submitted, 
 and the strong fortress of Gwalior was occupied by a British governor. These 
 warlike proceedings, however brilliant and successful, were not acceptable to 
 the majority in the direction of the East India Company. In Parliament, 
 on the 21st of April, 1844, Sir Eobert Peel, in answer to a question put to 
 him by Mr. Macaulay, said, " I beg to state that on Wednesday last Her 
 Majesty's Government received a communication from the Court of DirectorSj 
 that they had exercised the power which the law gives them to recall at their 
 will and pleasure the Governor-General of India." There were loud cheers 
 from the Opposition benches. Mr. Macaulay then stated that he should not 
 now bring forward a motion of which he had given notice respecting tliO occu- 
 pation of Gwalior. In the House of Lords the duke of Wellington declared 
 that the Government had not concurred in the measure adopted. There was 
 a prevailing opinion in Parliament and in the country that the recall of a 
 Goverjior- General upon their sole authority was a dangerous power to be 
 entrusted to the Court of Directors ; nevertheless there was a feeling that 
 India would be safer under Sir Henry Hardinge, who had seen too much of 
 war to be inflated by its " pride, pomp, and circumstance." 
 
 AVheu the Session of Parliament was opened by the Queen on the 1st of 
 Eebruary, 1844, there was a State trial proceeding in Ireland, which excited 
 more attention throughout the country even than the royal speech. This 
 speech could not avoid an indirect reference to the circumstances which had 
 placed Daniel O'Connell and seven others at the bar of their country. It was 
 the fifteenth day of this trial in the Court of Queen's Bench, in Dublin. At 
 this remarkable juncture her Majesty said to the Lords and Commons — and she 
 uttered these words with a marked emphasis — "At the close of the last Session 
 of Parliament, I declared to you my firm determination to maintain inviolate 
 the Legislative Union between Great Britain and Ireland. I expressed at the 
 same time my earnest desire to co-operate with Parliament in the adoption of 
 all such measures as might tend to improve the social condition of Ireland, and 
 to develope the natural resources of that pai-t of the United Kingdom. I am 
 resolved to act in strict conformity with that declaration." It was the 12th 
 
 * Sir W. Napier,
 
 612 TRIAL OF O'CONNELL. (.184*. 
 
 of February, the tweuty-fourth day of the trial, when O'Connell and the 
 other traversers were, under various counts of the indictment, found guilty of 
 conspiracy. As the Queen's speech could not offer " observations on events 
 in Ireland, in respect to which proceedings are pending before the proper legal 
 tribunal," so the attack upon the policy of the government, which was inevi- 
 table, could not be opened with propriety whilst the great legal issue was in 
 suspense. But on the 13th of February the question was raised in both 
 Houses. The marquis of Normanby moved a resolution pledging the House 
 of Lords to examine into the causes of the discontent prevalent in 
 Ireland, and to carry into effect the true principles of Union by securing to 
 that country equal rights. After two nights' debate the Resolution was 
 rejected by 175 votes against 78. In the House of Commons, lord John 
 Russell moved for a Committee of the whole House on the state of Ireland. 
 The debate was continued for nine nights, Mr. O'Connell himself taking a 
 part in it. It would be wearisome to attempt to follow its course, even in 
 the barest outline. Perhaps the most impressive as well as the most truthful 
 sentiment uttered was contained in the conclusion of sir Robert Peel's 
 speech : " I do earnestly trust that the influence of public opinion, as well as 
 that of the laws, may control this agitation — may convince those who are con- 
 cerned in it, that they are prejudicing the best interests of Ireland — impeding 
 its improvement, preventing the application of capital, and hindering the 
 redress of those grievances which can, I think, be better redressed by the 
 application of individual enterprise than by almost any legislative interference. 
 I have the firmest conviction that, if there were calmness and tranquillity in 
 Ireland, there is no part of the British dominions which would make such 
 rapid progress as that country ; for I know that there are facilities for im- 
 provement, opportunities for improvement, which would make that advance 
 more rapid than that of any other part of our empire. I do hope — and I 
 will conclude by expressing that earnest hope, — that this agitation and all its 
 evil consequences may be permitted to cease." * On the division on the 23rd 
 February the numbers for lord John Russell's motion were, 225, — against it 
 324. The sentence against Mr. O'Connell was not pronounced till the 30tli 
 of May, when he was adjudged to be imprisoned for twelve months ; to be 
 fined 2000Z. ; and to be bound in his own recognizances, and by two sureties, 
 to keep the peace for seven years. The other persons convicted, with the 
 exception of one not bi'ought up for judgment, were sentenced to nine 
 months' imprisonment, and to a fine of 501., with smaller sums for their own 
 recognizances, with sureties, to keep the peace for the like terms of seven 
 years. 
 
 When sir Robert Peel met the House of Commons in the Session of 
 1844, he was enabled with justice to take a favourable view of the condition 
 of the country as the best justification of his financial policy of 1842. There 
 had been a disposition, he said, to draw too hasty a conclusion as to the 
 operation of the great change in the Customs' Duties. The Government had 
 asked for time properly to judge what would be the effect of tliat alteration. 
 It was now admitted that there was a material improvement in some branches 
 of manufacture. AYith regard to Revenue, he was enabled to state that the 
 
 * ITan;yjr.l, vol. Ixxii'. col. 25-1,
 
 1S44.] DEBATES ON TEE CORN-LAAYS— POSITION OF SIR R. PEEL. 513 
 
 course of deficiency had been suspended, and that the revenue of the current 
 year would be amply sufficient to meet the existing charges. He explicitly 
 declared that he had not contemplated, and did not contemplate, an alteration 
 in the present Corn-Laws. Neither on account of the price of corn, nor on 
 account of variations in that price, was he led to form a more unfavourable, 
 opinion v\'ith respect to the operations of the existing law, than he entertained 
 at the time when he proposed it. 
 
 The improvement in the condition of the people was attributed by mem- 
 bers of the Opposition less to the measures of the Grovernment than to the 
 effects of a plentiful harvest. To this cause may be ascribed the diminished 
 agitation for the repeal of the Corn-Laws. But the League held firmly 
 together, and continued its salutary course of endeavouring to enlighten the 
 public upon the permanent results of those laws. During the Session there 
 were two formal discussions on the subject of Protection to Agriculture. Mr. 
 Cobden, on the 12th of March, moved for a Committee to inquire into the 
 effects of protective duties on agricultural tenants and labourers. The 
 motion was negatived by a majority of 91. On the 25th of June, Mr. 
 Villiers proposed Resolutions which contemplated the total repeal of the 
 Corn-Law. These Resolutions, after a debate of two nights, were rejected 
 by a majority of 204. In this debate, as at the beginning of the Session, 
 sir Eobert Peel maintained his determination to stand by the existing law. 
 He avowed himself an advocate for protection to agriculture, not for the 
 sake of the landlords, but from a conviction of the evils which the sudden 
 removal of protection would infiict upon general interests, domestic and 
 colonial. He looked to those general interests ; he looked especially to 
 Ireland, of which agriculture was the great staple. 
 
 The principles avowed and the measures proposed by sir Eobert Peel in 
 his legislative career must be viewed under two aspects. He is the minister 
 of expediency, holding a party together by deference to the opinions of the 
 majority that placed him in power, and in this capacity we may always trace 
 in his speeches some evasion of the logical points of a controversy — some 
 inclination to skirmish on the outside of the field of debate instead of encouu'- 
 tering the risks of a general conflict of principles. Thus he always deals 
 with the question of Protection, and especially of Protection to Agriculture. 
 His adversaries tell him again and again that he is speaking against his own 
 convictions. Mr. Yilliers closed the debate of the 25th of June, by saying 
 that sir Eobert Peel had just made a speech with which the agriculturists 
 were well pleased ; but he had made the same sort of speech for them in 
 1839, and had thrown them overboard afterwards, because the state of the 
 season and the distress of the people had made it indispensable to give some 
 relief to the country : the same thing would happen again. Mr. Milner 
 Gibson averred that sir Eobert Peel would not say that he meant to make 
 Protection permanent, but his will must give law to his party, for they could not 
 make a Ministry without him. As a party-leader we must therefore regard 
 the Pirst Lord of the Treasury when he deals with questions upon which the 
 majority appeared to be irrevocably committed. Now and then, indeed, 
 there was a slight indication that the powerful minister, under some pressure 
 of circumstances, might think for himself, and risk the consequences of an 
 independent judgment. The extreme Protectionists were occasionally rest- 
 
 voL. Tin.— 257.
 
 514 RENEWAL OF THE BANK CHARTER. [1844. 
 
 less and suspicious under his reserved and cautious demeanour. There were 
 men amongst them quite ready to become their leaders in the character of 
 advocates ; but the doubt always arose — could they govern as statesmen ? 
 The nation forbad the experiment in its support of the temperate Conservatism 
 of sir Eobert Peel. Those who suspected more than ever that he was losing 
 the "undoubting mind" of a party-leader, could not affirm that he was acting 
 against a secret conscientious belief that should have urged him forward 
 with or without his following. For him, the abandonment of Protection was 
 not a purely scientific question. Representative Government imposed upon 
 him, for a time at least, the inevitable distinction between speculation and 
 action. Essentially different was the course of the minister when some great 
 policy could be safely treated without reference to the chances of a Division. 
 When such an occasion arose, the timid partizan threw off his trammels 
 and became the confident legislator. 
 
 The question of the renewal of the Bank Charter furnished such an 
 opportunity, which real statesmanship knew how to seize. He was now 
 consistently acting upon principles which he had tardily adopted upon con- 
 viction a quarter of a century before. Considering, he said, the part which 
 he took in 1819 in terminating the system of inconvertible paper-currency, 
 and in re-establishing the ancient standard of value, it would be to him a 
 source of great personal satisfaction, if he should obtain the assent of Parlia- 
 ment to proposals, which were in fact the complement of these measures, — 
 which were calculated to guarantee their permanence and to facilitate their 
 practical operation. He chiefly looked forward as the result of these pro- 
 posals to the mitigation or termination of evils such as had at various 
 times afflicted the country, in consequence of rapid fluctuation in the amount 
 and value of the medium of exchange. The leading proposals which he 
 submitted to the House of Commons on the 6th of May, were, briefly, as 
 follows : — To continue for a limited time, under certain conditions, the 
 privileges of the Bank of England ; to provide by law that the Bank 
 should be divided into two departments, one confined to the issue and circu- 
 lation of notes, the other to the conduct of banking business ; to limit the 
 amount of securities upon which it should be lawful for the Bank to issue 
 Promissory Notes payable upon demand ; to provide that a weekly publica- 
 tion should be made by the Bank of the state both of the circulation and the 
 banking departments. With regard to other banks, the issue of promissory 
 notes payable to bearer on demand was prohibited to any bank not then 
 issuing such notes, or to any bank hereafter to be established ; and the banks 
 of issue that were to continue were to be subject to limitations of the extent 
 of issue, and to various regulations, including the weekly publication of the 
 amount of notes issued. The Bill founded on sir Robert Peel's Resolutions 
 Tvas carried, with very slight opposition, through both Houses. M. Guizot 
 saySj " he keenly enjoyed that success ; and delighted to speak of liis Bank 
 Act as one of the most important achievements of his public life. Perhaps 
 because it was one of those in wliich he most fully succeeded in obtaining 
 the object which was ever present to his mind — the union of scientific truth 
 with practical efficiency." * Eighteen years have gone by since the passing 
 
 * " Memoirs of Sir EoLcrt Peel," p. 191.
 
 1344.] REGULATION' OF LABOUR IN" FACTORIES. 515 
 
 of this measure; and unquestionably its "practical efficiency" has often been 
 tested in times of improvident speculation. On the other hand, whilst the 
 advocates for unlimited paper currency maintained that the " scientific 
 truth" shackled all the operations of industry, which would have flourished 
 with less risk under a perfectly free system of banking, more sober econo- 
 mists could not suppress their belief that, in a season of commercial collapse, 
 the Bank Act increased the difficulties of the crisis, and made a season of 
 pressure become a season of ruin to a far wider class than that of rash 
 speculators. 
 
 In the Session of 1843 the Ministry had brought forward a measure 
 for the Eegulation of Labour in factories, which embraced a comprehensive 
 plan for the education of the children employed in the large and increasing 
 establishments where the cotton, flax, wool, and silk manufactures were 
 carried on. These education clauses produced an outcry throughout the 
 kingdom, equally strong from Churchmen and from Dissenters ; so that the 
 Government was compelled by the hostility of sects and parties to make no 
 provision at all for the proper training of a class of children who, with a 
 very few exceptions in the case of some enlightened millowners, were left in 
 their ignorance and evil habits to grow up into brutalized and dangerous men 
 and women. Sir Jatnes Grrahara, who had assiduously laboured in the con- 
 struction of an efficient plan of factory education, was thus compelled, after 
 his measure had been four months under discussion in Parliament, to announce 
 that he would not in that Session press the education clauses in the Factories 
 Bill. He had made alterations, he said, which had not abated the hostility 
 of the Dissenters ; the Church had not given him any very cordial support ; 
 and without general concord and co-operation the Bill would be inoperative, 
 and would engender religious strife and animosity. Early in the Session of 
 1841 sir James Grraham again introduced a Bill for the Regulation of Labour in 
 Factories ; but the education clauses of the former Bill were now dropped ; 
 and, without any provision whatever for education, the sole object aimed at 
 was a proper limitation of the hours of employment for women and children. 
 The House was in Committee on this Bill on the 15th of March, when upon 
 the discussion of the interpretation clause which defined the word " Night," 
 and the word "Meal-time," lord Ashley proposed an amendment, " that the 
 word * night ' shall be taken to mean from six o'clock in the evening to six 
 o'clock in the following morning ; and that the word ' meal-time ' shall be 
 taken to mean an interval of cessation from work, for the purpose of rest 
 and refreshment, at the rate of two hours a day ; with a view to efi'ect a 
 limitation of the hours of labour to ten in the day." Sir James Graham 
 opposed this amendment, which he asserted would seriously aff"ect the com- 
 mercial prosperity of the country, reducing the returns on capital, and 
 involving a diminution of wages to the amount of twenty-five per cent. The 
 government Bill proposed to retain the existing term of twelve hours of 
 factory labour, extending protection to females and young persona. Sir 
 Robert Peel maintained that the opposite suggestion for the limitation of 
 labour to ten hours for females and young persons, would produce a limita- 
 tion to ten hours for male adults also. The most urgent argument that sir 
 Robert Peel used was founded upon statistical facts. The exports of the 
 cotton, linen, silk, and woollen manufactures of the country amounted to
 
 516 LORD ASHLEY'S TEN-HOURS' CLAUSE REJECTED. [1844. 
 
 thirty-five millions sterling out of forty-four millions of all Britisli manu- 
 factures exported ; so that five-sixths of the exported manufactures of this 
 country would be subjected to a new law, which was to provide that it would 
 not be legal to labour at them for more than fifty-nine hours instead of sixty- 
 nine hours a week ; the Saturday being proposed by lord Ashley to remain 
 without alteration. There would thus be two hundred and fifty days in a 
 year, of which the working hours being reduced from twelve to ten, there 
 would be five hundred hours less labour during fifty-two weeks, which would 
 be equivalent to a loss of seven weeks' working time. Singular were some of 
 the arguments by which lord Ashley's proposal was supported. Lord John 
 Russell, for example, would vote for it in the hope that a limitation in the 
 hours of labour would compel us to resort to additional supplies of foreign, 
 corn to counteract the effect of falling wages. The government were 
 defeated, lord Ashley carrying his amendment by one hundred and seventy- 
 nine votes against one hundred and seventy. Sir James Graham said that 
 the proposed alteration, when the eighth clause came to be discussed, could 
 be considered in a more substantive form. The next night lord Ashley stated 
 that he should so word his clause, that for two years the limitation should be 
 for eleven hours, and that after that period the ten hours' restriction should 
 take effect. On the 22nd, when the government strongly opposed the 
 amendment of their Bill in this modified shape, the debate was terminated 
 by two divisions, one of which was contradictory of the other. Upon the 
 proposal to fill up the blank in the clause with the word "twelve," one 
 hundred and eighty-three voted in favour of the motion, and one hundred 
 and eighty-six against it. The House again dividing on the motion that the 
 blank be filled up with the word " ten," for the motion there were one 
 hundred and eighty-one votes, against it one hundred and eighty-eight. In 
 various and complicated shapes this question continued to be discussed for 
 two months, till on the 13th of May, sir Eobert Peel, having declared that, 
 estimating that a ten hours' Bill would strike off thirty-six thousand pounds a 
 week from the wages of those employed, and believing it was the duty of the 
 government to take a comprehensive view of all the great interests, com- 
 mercial, political, social, and moral, of all classes, he would resist the wishes 
 of the factory operatives in order to promote their welfare. "I protest," he 
 said, " against the doctrine, that we are to concede because it is the popular 
 will. If we are satisfied that it is not for the popular interests, then it is 
 our painful but necessary duty to resist. If this House be of a different 
 opinion — if you are satisfied that you must make this great experiment on 
 labour — or if you think concession is inevitable, and that you must give way 
 to the wishes and feelings of the people — be it so ! But if you take that 
 course, and if you resolve (as you cannot but do in consistency) to pursue 
 it, you must — I say it with all respect — you must do so under other auspices, 
 and under guides who can trace a clearer and a better way than can the 
 present administration." This very plain intimation, which the biographer 
 of sir Eobert Peel describes as " using his right with a somewhat ungentle 
 haughtiness," produced its natural effect. The House rejected the ten hours' 
 clause by a majority of one hundred and thirty-eight, and the government 
 Bill was passed. 
 
 The question of the Sugar Duties, which was formerly debated less on
 
 184i.] DEBATES ON SUGAR DUTIES, 517 
 
 finaucial grounds than on moral and religious, has now lost, in the equaliza- 
 tion of duties between colonial and foreign sugar, the interest which once 
 attached to the strong repugnance of a great party to admit slave-grown 
 sugar. Upon commercial grounds there were also two parties, whose 
 interests and principles were strongly opposed. The West India interest 
 resisted that enlargement of the area of supply which would result from the 
 admission of any other than colonial sugar. With them went the formid- 
 able Anti-slavery party. The Free-Traders, constantly protesting against the 
 preference of colonial over foreign sugar, had against them the great band of 
 enthusiasts who regarded slave-grown sugar as the abomination which every 
 good housewife ought to resist, by supporting that monopoly of the West 
 India proprietors which was quite insufficient to supply the demand in this 
 country, and therefore kept all sugar dear. The government in 1814 still 
 held to the principle of a differential duty; but the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, on the 3rd of June, proposed an abatement of the duty on foreign 
 sugar provided it was the produce of free labour. Upon a proposition of 
 Mr. Miles, a conservative member, for reducing the duty upon British 
 plantation sugar to 20*. per cwt. instead of 245., and foreign free-grown 
 sugar to 30s., the government were defeated by a majority of two hundred 
 and forty-one against two hundred and twenty-one. This division was a 
 great crisis for the ministry. The division took place on a Saturday morning. 
 On the Sunday a Cabinet Council was held, and on the Monday sir Kobert 
 Peel, amidst intense excitement, called upon the House to reconsider its 
 decision, of which important consequences might be the result. This was to 
 declare, in words that could not be mistaken, that if he were to continue in 
 office he must have the full and untrammelled support of the party he repre- 
 sented. The House did reconsider, reversing its decision by a majority of 
 two hundred and iifty-five against two hundred and thirty-three. It was on 
 the occasion of this debate that Mr. Disraeli, with a more marked hostility 
 towards sir Robert Peel than he had before displayed, adverted to the former 
 opinions of the Prime Minister, when he said that he had never entered into 
 the Anti-slavery cry, and would never enter into the cry of " Cheap Sugar." 
 "Now the right honourable gentleman had adopted certain opinions of a very 
 decided character with respect to slavery ; and he told the House cheap sugar 
 was of such importance that the existence of his ministry depended upon it, 
 and that the character of his supporters must be sacrificed to secure his 
 ministry. Twenty-four months had only elapsed, and the right honourable 
 gentleman came forward with a detestation of slavery in every place — except 
 in the benches behind him. If the Anti-slavery repugnance were only a little 
 more prevalent — if the right honourable gentleman did not expect upon every 
 division, and at every crisis, that his gang should appear, and the whip should 
 sound with that alacrity which he understood was now prevalent — it would 
 be a little more consistent with the tone which he assumed with respect to 
 the slave-trade, and with that which was now the principal subject of 
 discussion." 
 
 The great questions, financial and social, whose decision was to have a per- 
 manent influence upon the progress of improvement, produced little excitement 
 beyond the walls of parliament compared with one ministerial act, which 
 startled the nation for awhile and then quickly passed into oblivion. The
 
 518 OPENING LETTERS BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE. [1844. 
 
 Britisli people are, aa they ought to be, excessively jealous of any secret and 
 apparently despotic exercise of power by the executive government. The 
 power of issuing a warrant from the Secretary of State for the opening of 
 letters at the Post Office had been exercised, under the sanction of the law^ 
 from the very first formation of that institution. It was the express condi- 
 tion in the preamble to the early Acts of Parliament relating to the Post 
 that the government should have this power. In subsequent statutes the 
 power had been confirmed, with certain modifications, even as recently as at 
 the accession of Queen Victoria. There could be no question about the law 
 of the case, and the power had been exercised by Secretaries of State of all 
 parties, without any apprehension that in a discreet use of this right they had 
 violated the great principles of English liberty ; from Mr. Fox to lord John 
 Eussell they believed that such a power was necessary to the safety of the 
 State. On the 14th of June Mr. Thomas Duncombe presented a petition to 
 the House of Commons from Serafiuo Calderara, Joseph Mazzini, "W. J. 
 Linton, and Wm. Lovett, complaining that their letters had been opened at 
 the Post Office. Sir James Graham stated that, under the power of the act 
 of 1837, which consolidated previous laws, he had given a warrant, no longer 
 in existence, to open the letters of one of the petitioners, whom he did not wish 
 to name. On the 24th of June Mr. Duncombe moved for a Committee of 
 Inquiry, which was refused by a majority of forty-four. Por some weeks the 
 country became agitated with a prevailing belief that no letters were safe ; 
 that there was an extensive spy-system conducted within an inner chamber 
 of the Post Office. There were few who did not to some extent adopt the 
 declaration of the four petitioners, " that they considered such a practice, 
 introducing as it did the spy-system of foreign states, as repugnant to every 
 principle of the British constitution, and subversive of the public confidence 
 which was so essential to a commercial country." This was indeed a fertile 
 theme for journalists and caricaturists. Continental nations looked on with 
 astonishment at the ebullition of popular rage at an act which appeared to 
 them the simplest and most natural course of a government to pursue. They 
 were accustomed to much stronger displays of bureaucratic power. Sir 
 James Graham, it soon became understood, had thus endeavoured to trace the 
 intrigues of one distinguished foreign enthusiast, whose designs he was 
 powerless to repress in a country where aliens were subjected to no stringent 
 supervision. Wisely did the ministers resolve at last, that the disclosures of 
 all the facts in a full inquiry was the best mode of setting themselves right in 
 public opinion. On the 2nd of July sir James Graham expressed his anxiety 
 for inquiry ; and when Mr. Duncombe moved again for a Committee, the sus- 
 pected Secretary of State, whilst proposing that the Committee should be 
 secret, moved that it should consist of nine persons, none of whom should 
 bo connected with office, and five of whom should be selected from the Oppo- 
 sition. This fairness went far to disarm the public hostility. In August the 
 Committee made their Eeport. It is a most interesting and elaborate review 
 of the history of the practice, from the time of the statute of Anne in 1711, 
 to that of its exercise in 1844. The Committee reported that tlie general 
 average of the warrants during the present century did not much exceed 
 eight a year. A siniilar Committee was formed in the House of Lord?. Their 
 Report showed that since 1822, one hundred and eighty-two warrants had
 
 1844.] REPORTS OF COMMITTEES— LADY HEWLET'S BEQUEST. 51S 
 
 been issued, averaging about eiglit per annum; two-thirds of wliicli had been 
 for the purpose of tracing persons accused of oiFences, or of tracing property 
 embezzled by suspected offenders. The warrants for detention of letters, at 
 periods when the circumstances of the country seemed to threaten public 
 tranquillity, had scarcely, upon an average of twenty-one years, exceeded two 
 warrants annually in Great Britain. After the publication of these Reports 
 the people were effectually tranquillized ; the advertisers of secure envelopes 
 and anti-Grraham wafers ceased to find customers ; the law remained unal- 
 tered. There was a generous motive for the indignation expressed at the 
 opening of the letters of Senor Ivlazzini, for it was understood that he was 
 the one petitioner to whom the warrant of sir James Graham applied. It 
 was said that this warrant was issued at the instance of the Sardinian mi- 
 nister. The duke of "Wellington, in the House of Lords, declared that he 
 was enabled to state that there was no foundation whatever for such a rumour. 
 The Report of the Committee of the House of Commons related that the 
 warrant to open and detain letters addressed to Mazzini was issued on the 
 1st of March and was cancelled on the 3rd of June ; that representations had 
 been made to the government that plots, of which he was the centre, were 
 carrying on upon British territory to excite an insurrection in Italy ; that 
 the information, calculated to frustrate this attempt, which was deduced from 
 tlie letters so opened, was communicated to a foreign power ; but the informa- 
 tion so communicated was not of a nature to compromise, and did not com- 
 promise, the safety of any individual within the reach of that foreign power, 
 nor was it made known to that power by what means, or from what source, 
 such information had been obtained. 
 
 An Act of this Session for the " Regulation of Suits relating to Meeting- 
 Houses and other Property held for Religious Purposes by Persons dissenting 
 from the United Church of England and Ireland," was a measure of justice 
 promoted and carried through by the Government. In the«time of Charles 
 the Second there was a bequest of certain manors in York in trust to support 
 " godly preachers of Christ's holy gospel." The lady Hewlet, v/ho made 
 this bequest, was a dissenter, and the terms " godly preachers" was sufii- 
 cient to indicate that the bequest was not intended for the benefit of the 
 Church of England ; neither could the sect of Unitarians which afterwards 
 arose have been held as "godly preachers" in the seventeenth century. But 
 after the lapse of many years the Trinitarian sectaries to which lady Hewlet 
 belonged, gradually became Unitarians. Other dissenters, however, held that 
 those in possession had no legal right to the benefit of the bequest, having 
 forfeited it when they abandoned the doctrine which she considered that of 
 " (^Jhrist's holy gospel." After a suit of fourteen years, and an appeal to 
 the House of Lords, the judgment of the Court of Chancery was confirmed, 
 that the Unitarians were excluded from the bequest, and that the Trini- 
 tarian Protestant dissenters ought to be the possessors of the property. 
 To put an end to the recurrence of similar disputes, lord Lyndhurst 
 brought in a bill, which, however, was strenuously opposed in and out of 
 parliament. The principal object of the Bill was to comfirm in the full pos- 
 session of their establishments any society of Protestant dissenters which had 
 been in possession of them for twenty years. The bishop of London opposed 
 the Bill, on the ground that it legalized the use of chapels for purposes
 
 620 O'CONNELL'S SENTENCE REVERSED BY THK HOUSE OF LORDS. [1844. 
 
 entirely contrary to that for which they were founded. But there was 
 another object in the Bill which provoked a wider opposition. Previous 
 to a statute of 1813, the exceptions to the Act of Toleration which exclu- 
 sively affected Unitarians had continued in force ; in repealing these excep- 
 tions the Legislature had not made the Act retrospective. It was the 
 intention of the present Bill to give Unitarians as firm a possession of their 
 ancient property as of that which they had acquired since the statute of 1813. 
 This measure generally was denounced by certain portions of what is called 
 the Religious World as being solely for the benefit of a sect ; which other 
 sects, suspending their own difi"erences to unite against a community, rich 
 and intelligent indeed, but a njere fraction as to its numbers, — denounced as 
 standing outside the pale of Christianity. Nevertheless in both Houses the 
 Bill, with an alteration of the term of occupancy from twenty to twenty-five 
 years, was passed by large majorities. 
 
 The actual prorogation of parliament was deferred for a month later than 
 was required by the exigencies of public business. On the 9th of August 
 lord John Eussell took a survey of the general condition of the country, 
 his speech being remarkable for the absence of party spirit. Sir Eobert 
 Peel recapitulated the measures of the Session, which he said was distin- 
 guished for important and efficient legislation. The House of Commons then 
 adjourned to the 5th of September. The House of Lords was engaged in 
 one of the most important fauctions of tliat body, that of being a Court of 
 Law in the last resort. Mr. O'Connell and the other prisoners had appealed 
 for a reversal of their sentence upon a Writ of Error. The judges of the 
 English courts were referred to by the Lords for their opinions. Six of the 
 eleven counts were decided by all of nine judges to be bad or informal ; 
 seven of the judges held that the judgment must stand, as the Irish judges alone 
 could know upon how much of the verdict they had grounded their sentence. 
 The peers were now to decide. The people both of Ireland and England 
 were waiting their decision with intense iiiterest ; the Irish Eepealers antici- 
 pating that the servile and despotic peers of England would eagerly embrace 
 the opportunity of condemning their great agitator to a prolonged incarcera- 
 tion, and the people of England for the most part being afraid that, through 
 the high sense of honour and the impartial justice of these peers, he would be 
 et loose for further mischief. It was a question of legal construction which 
 could only be properly settled by the Law Lords. On the 5th of September, 
 when the judgment was to be delivered, some lay peers contended that they 
 had a right to vote. The ministry, speaking with a voice of moderation by 
 lord Wharnclifie, one of their supporters, left the decision of the question 
 with the four Law Lords, although it was pretty well known what their 
 decision would be. It was voted by lord Denman, lord Cottenham, and lord 
 Campbell, that the judgment of the Court below should be reversed ; lord 
 Brougham voted that it should be maintained. O'Connell on the 6th of 
 September left his prison in a triumphal car, wearing the green and gold 
 repeal cap ; and escorted by thousands of people paraded the streets of 
 Dublin for four hours. He then addressed the multitude from his own 
 house in Merrion-square. He told them that on the next Monday, at 
 Conciliation Hall, he would put forth his plans for the future. His triumph 
 was celebrated throughout Ireland by the most enthusiastic demonstrations.
 
 1814.] DISPUTE WITH FRANCE IN THE MATTER OF TAHITI. 521 
 
 But his power was gone. His " plans for the future " were altogether abor- 
 tive. He again had his Monster Meetings, but they ceased to furnish a 
 subject of apprehension to the government. From his balcony on the 6th of 
 September he had told the people, " this is the great day for Ireland — a day 
 of justice." By the justice he was extinguished. 
 
 During the month of August the governments of Great Britain and France 
 had been nearly on the point of a serious rupture. In September, 1843, the 
 queen of Tahiti (Otaheite), named Pomar^, who was a follower of the English 
 missionaries, and had professed her desire that her subjects should be con- 
 verted to Christianity, was induced — probably under the threats of the ad- 
 miral of a French squadron off her shores — to place herself under the protec- 
 torate of France. The natives were angry at this, and showed marked hosti- 
 lity to the French among them. In November admiral Dupetit Thouars 
 landed troops on the island ; set up the French flag, removing queen Pomare's 
 ensign ; and issued a proclamation that Tahiti belonged to France. The French 
 government disavowed this act ; but, says M. Guizot, " The French flag had 
 just been planted in the islands of Polynesia, and we could not consent that, 
 at the very moment of its appearance, it should be withdrawn." * French 
 honour would be wounded, said a party in the Chambers, if the national flag 
 which the admiral had set up should be removed. The office of British consul 
 at Tahiti was filled by a missionary named Pritchard. "When queen Pomare 
 was deposed he hauled down his flag, declaring his functions as consul were 
 at an end, as he was not accredited by the English government to a French 
 colony in that capacity. Four mouths afterwards the French authorities, 
 believing that he had instigated the hostility of the natives to their rule, seized 
 him, and required as a condition of his release from imprisonment that he 
 should immediately leave the Pacific. Mr. Pritchard arrived in England on 
 the 26th of July, and there was immediately an outburst of national indigna- 
 tion which the government did not attempt to repress. On the contrary, sir 
 Eobert Peel said in parliament on the 31st ot July, " We have received 
 accounts from Tahiti, and presuming on the accuracy of these accounts, which 
 I have no reason whatever to call in question, I do not hesitate to say, that a 
 gross outrage, accompanied with gross indignity, has been committed upon 
 the British consul in that island." M. Guizot, in his account of this afiair, 
 says the words which sir Robert Peel had used were " unseasonable and inac- 
 curate;" but he adds, that sir liobert Peel, in his communication with the 
 French government, stated that he did not admit the correctness of the news- 
 paper versions of his speech. Nevertheless the parliamentary language of lord 
 Aberdeen might have been equally termed "unseasonable;" for on the 1st 
 of August he said, " the late outrage of the French at Tahiti was of so 
 flagrant a character as to be almost incredible." M. Guizot says in his Me- 
 moirs of sir E. Peel, that he could not with propriety relate the delicate 
 negotiations to which this affair gave rise between lord Aberdeen and himself, 
 which, " ended in results, just in themselves, honourable to the two cabinets, 
 and salutary to the two countries." t The French government, whilst main- 
 taining that it had good reason for sending Mr. Pritchard away from tho 
 island, acknowledged that useless and vexatious proceedings had been taken 
 
 * " llemoirs of Sir R. reel," p. IGS. t ra;;e 173.
 
 522 VISIT OF KING LOUIS PHILIPPE TO THE QUEEN. [1^44. 
 
 respecting liiiu, of wliich they disapproved, and oftered to award him com- 
 pensation for his losses and sufferings. 
 
 Upon the prorogation of parliament it was stated in the Queen's Speech 
 that the danger of an interruption to the good understanding and friendly 
 relations between this country and Trance had been happily averted by the 
 spirit of justice and moderation which had animated the two governments. 
 The entente cordiale was to be confirmed by a visit of the King of the Prench 
 to her Majesty, On the 7th of October he arrived at Windsor Castle, where 
 he remained for a week, being installed a Knight of the Garter, and enter- 
 tained with sumptuous banquets. It will perhaps be for the historian at some 
 future day to relate whether Louis Philippe, during this friendly visit, forebore 
 altogether to approach the delicate subject of matrimonial alliances of his own 
 family with Spain. His far-reaching projects presented, a year or two later, 
 a question of far greater danger to the good understanding and friendly 
 relations between the two countries, than the arbitrary acts perpetrated upon 
 a poor missionary at Tahiti. 
 
 It was in this year that the Prince de Joiuville published his celebrated 
 '' Note on the State of the Naval Forces of Erance." With the general 
 public a document like this passes into oblivion, after the lapse of eighteen 
 or twenty years, unless it be revived for the purpose of maintaining some 
 exclusive opinions either of a war-party or a peace-party. We have alluded 
 to this production in the first chapter of this volume ; * and there we should 
 have left the subject, had not a politician of no ordinary mark recently called 
 attention to it as a point of history, — of course with his own gloss. " The 
 principal contribution to the first panic," says Mr. Cobden, " previous to the 
 publication of the duke of Wellington's letter, was the pamphlet of Prince 
 Joinville. It is difiicult now, after a calm perusal of this tract, to under- 
 stand how it could have been pressed into the service of the alarmists. It is 
 filled throughout with complaints of the inferiority of the French navy, and 
 off'ers not a few probably unmerited compliments to the superior management 
 of England." Mr. Cobden then quotes the concluding passage of the 
 pamphlet : " * I have been obliged to expose the secret of our weakness com- 
 pared to the greatness of British power ; but I should think myself happy 
 if, by the sincere avowal of those sorrowful truths, I were able to dissipate 
 the illusion, in which are so many clever persons, as to the real condition of 
 the navy of Erance, and to decide them to ask with me those salutary reforms 
 which alone can give our navy a new era of power and glory.' " f 
 
 The Prince de Joinville quotes a passage from a speech in the House of 
 Commons on the 29th of February, 1844, in which it was said that if steam- 
 ressels had been employed as at present, Napoleon might easily have landed 
 even fifteen or twenty thousand men on our shores ; and that although such 
 a debarkation would not have had much success, the efiect would have been 
 " to destroy that confidence which our insular situation now inspires." The 
 speaker, says the royal pamphleteer, adjured the legislature to take into 
 consideration the great use that might be made of steam navigation in 
 the event of a new war.J This is the text which the Prince takes for his 
 
 * Avtc— 'Note, p. 14. t "The Three Panics," p. 7. 
 
 t The siicaktr was Mr. Spring Rice, on the sulject of Harbours of Refuge. See Hansardj 
 vol. Ixxiii. col. -J 00.
 
 1844.] PRINCE DE JOINVILLE'S PAMPHLET. 523 
 
 exhortation. Let us build steam vessels of war as quickly as possible, to 
 maintain some approacb to equality with the hundred and twenty-five steam 
 vessels of war of Great Britain, of which number seventy-seven are armed. 
 No suggestion could have been more proper. But what are the definite 
 objects he proposes for a large addition to the Prench steam navy, beyond 
 the defence of the ports and arsenals of Erance, in the event of a war ? 
 " Our successes would not be brilliant, because we should take care at first 
 to avoid compromising all our resources in decisive encounters. But we 
 should carry on war with certainty, because we should attack two things 
 equally vulnerable — the confidence of the English people in the insular 
 position of their country, and its maritime commerce. Who can doubt that, 
 with a steam navy strongly organized, we should have the means of inflicting 
 upon the enemy's coasts losses and sufi'erings unknown to a nation which has 
 never felt all the miseries which war brings in its train ? As the comple- 
 ment of these sufferings would come the evil, equally new for that nation, — 
 that of confidence lost. The wealth accumulated on its coasts and in its 
 ports would cease to remain in security." 
 
 "We have given "a calm perusal to this tract," and we do wo< find it 
 " difficult to understand how it could have been pressed into the service of 
 the alarmists." Mr. Cobden quotes a remonstrance by sir William Moles- 
 worth to the " Spectator " in January, 1848, in which the philosophical 
 statesman asks " the editor of that staid and philosophical print " whether he 
 considered the French to be ruffians, Pindarees, freebooters, so that " you 
 believe it necessary to keep constant watch and ward against them, as our 
 Saxon forefathers did against the Danes and the Nordmen, lest they should 
 burn our towns, plunder our coasts, and put our queen to ransom." The 
 year 1847 — when Louis Philippe and his ministers were full of ambitious 
 projects not very different from those which Louis the Pourteenth had 
 cherished — was not so far removed from 1844, that the people of England 
 had forgotten that a son of the king of the Erench had published a pamphlet 
 which, to use Mr. Cobden's words " had sounded like a tocsin in our ears ;" 
 that a prince of the. blood royal had proposed to "burn our towns and 
 plunder our coasts ;" had, to repeat the honest language of our great soldier 
 which we have before quoted, issued "an invitation and provocative to war; 
 to be carried on in a manner such as had been disclaimed by the civilized 
 portions of mankind." * 
 
 * The pamphlet of the Pi-ince de Joinville, with its accompanying tables, is given in full iy 
 '' Annuaire Historique," 1844, Appendice, p. 372.
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Parliament opened — Improved state of the kingdom — Sir Robert Peel's New Tariff — Oppositio:: oi 
 the Country-Party — Mr. Cobdeu's motion for inquiring into Agricultural Distress — Grant 
 to Maynooth College — Queen's Colleges in Ireland — Jews admitted to Municipal Offices 
 — Prorogation — Apprehended failure of the Potato Crop in Ireland — Proposal of sir Robert 
 Peel to the Cabinet— Lord John Russell's Letter to the Electors of London — Dissensions in 
 the Cabinet — Sir R. Peel'resigns — Failure of lord John Russell to form a Ministry — Sir R. 
 Peel resumes power — Parliament opened by the Queen — Sir R. Peel asserts his determina- 
 tion to be unshackled as Minister — The New Tariff and the Corn-Law Bills introduced by 
 sir R. Peel — Debate of Twelve Nights in the Commons — The Bills passed in both Houses 
 — Bill for the Protection of Life in Ireland, rejected by a majority against the Govern- 
 ment — Resignation of sir R. Peel— The Russell Administration — The Oregon Question 
 settled — British Columbia — India — War -with the Sikhs — Battle of Moodkee — Sir Henry 
 Hardinge and Sir Hugh Gough — Battle of Ferozeshah — Battles of Alliwall and Sobraon — 
 Treaty of Peace — List of the Russell Ministry. 
 
 When Parliament was opened by tlie Queen on the 4tli of February, 1845, 
 "the improved condition of the country" was a fertile subject of her 
 Majesty's congratulation. "Increased activity pervades almost every branch 
 of manufacture ; trade and commerce have been extended at home and 
 abroad." At this period the Income Tax was about to expire. Why then, 
 with a certainty of improved revenue from imports, which had risen from 
 sixty-five millions in 1842 to eighty-five millions in 1845, was it necessary 
 for her Majesty to say, with reference to the Income Tax, that it might be 
 expedient to continue its operation for a further period ? The reason 
 alleged for this recommendation was, " thus to obtain the means of adequately 
 providing for the public service, and at the same time making a reduction in 
 other taxation." Simple as were these words they were full of significance. 
 The one object in 1842 of imposing an Income Tax was to repair the financial 
 disorder of the country. That object had been accomplished. On the 5th of 
 January, 1845, there had been an excess of income over expenditure of nearly 
 three millions and a half. The Income Tax had produced something above five 
 millions. It was in many respects an objectionable tax, and if not to be whoUy 
 abolished there was ample room to reduce the amount of the impost by one- 
 half. But the minister had a great policy to carry into efiect. His partial 
 experiment on Free Trade had prepared him to make a bolder experiment, upon 
 the doctrine that the surest way to improve the condition of the great body 
 of tlie people was to remove those taxes upon large branches of industry which 
 not only interfered with their extension, but placed many of the comforts and 
 conveniences of life beyond the reach of the humbler classes. M. Guizot has 
 truly as well as eloquently said — " tlie greatest happinesa of the greatest
 
 1845.] SIR ROBERT PEEL'S NEW TARIFF. 525 
 
 number of human beings as the supreme object of society and of government, 
 was the superior power of which sir Eobert Peel had made himself the minister, 
 and which swayed all his opponents; some of them governed like himself others 
 intimidated or paralyzed by this great idea, which was clearly or dimly present 
 to their minds, either as an incontestable right, or as an irresistible fact." * 
 
 The financial statement of sir Eobert Peel was made on the 14th of 
 Pebruary. Continuing the Income Tax, he estimated there would be a 
 surplus of 3,400,000Z. He said — ^laying down general principles which ought 
 ever to be kept in mind by a British linancial minister — " In the first place 
 you have to consider the claims which may be urged in favour of a reduction 
 of taxation on account of the heaviness with which certain imposts press 
 on articles of general consumption. Tou are bound also to consider what 
 taxes press on the raw materials which constitute the staple of the manu- 
 factures of the country. Tou are also bound to consider what taxes 
 cause a great increase in the establishments necessary for their collection 
 and what are those taxes the remission of which will enable us to diminish 
 those establishments, so as to reduce the expense of collection. You are 
 bound also to consider what are those taxes the removal of which will 
 give more scope to commercial enterprise, and occasion an increased de- 
 mand for labour." f Broadly to state the minister's plans for obtaining 
 such results as these, he proposed to abolish all duties on exports, 
 including the duty on coal ; he would abolish the import duties on four 
 hundred and thirty raw materials used in manufactures, which, although 
 yielding to the Treasury only 320,000Z., would still be a real and efiicient 
 relief; he would altogether remove the duties on cotton- wool, which yielded 
 680,000?. ; the reduction to be efi"ected on the sugar-duties would amount to 
 1,300,000?. More important, perhaps, than any of the imposts to be 
 abolished or reduced was the repeal of the duty upon glass. That duty, 
 lipon the value of the manufactured article, was not less than from 200 to 
 300 per cent. ; there was no duty which required such a system of perpetual 
 and vexatious interference with the manufacturer. In Prance, in Belgium 
 and in Bohemia, there was no excise duty on glass. In Bohemia, in par- 
 ticular, the manufacture had been brought to a state of admirable perfection. 
 "We had peculiar facilities for obtaining the same results, and yet we could 
 not compete with foreigners in the manufacture of glass. " If you permit," 
 said sir Eobert, " this article to be free of duty, it is difficult to foresee, in 
 the first place, to what perfection this beautiful fabric may not be brought, 
 and secondly, it is impossible to say to what new purposes glass, manu- 
 factured by our own skill and capital, may not be applied." Seven years 
 only had elapsed after the sagacious minister had made this confident antici- 
 pation, when we saw a wondrous fabric arise constructed almost wholly of 
 glass, in which the British manufacturer was not ashamed to exhibit his glass 
 wares by the side of his foreign rivals, not perhaps reaching the perfection of 
 some glass fabrics but very nearly approaching their beauty of form and 
 colour. Eleven more years elapsed, and then, in the more extended competi- 
 tion of a second International Exhibition, the British manufacture of glass 
 
 * Guizot, ''Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 232. 
 + Hansard, vol. Ixvii, col. 473.
 
 526 OPPOSITION OF THE COUNTRY-PARTY. [1845. 
 
 for domestic use stood at the head of every European production. But, more 
 than all this, it is only necessary to look with a rapid glance at the architec- 
 ture of our public buildings, of our shops, of our mansions and villas, and 
 even of our humblest cottages, to see how, in conjunction with the subsequent 
 repeal of the window tax, the removal of the duty on glass had enabled every 
 building to be erected with a regard to convenience and comfort, to health 
 and cleanliness, which the existence of those imposts to a great extent pre- 
 sented. It was the merit of sir Robert Peel rarely to forget the eflFect of 
 taxation upon the condition of the poor. He had in view the quarry of the 
 cottage window, rarely mended when broken, but patched with paper or 
 stuffed with rag, when he said — " If the House sanction the removal of the 
 duty upon glass, you will thereby confer on the poorer classes a most 
 extensive benefit." It is unnecessary now to follow the discussion upon sir 
 Eobert Peel's financial measures, beyond noticing a few points in which the 
 jealousy of free-trade principles occasionally broke out in objections almost 
 ludicrous. One member complained of the removal of the duty on grease, as 
 he judged it would lead to a great importation of foreign butter; another 
 moved the omission of lard from the list of articles to be admitted free. of 
 duty. Mr. Cobden, upon such objections, besought the landed interest not 
 to make a pitiable exhibition of themselves ; lord John Russell advised them 
 either to surrender the principle of protection to native industry altogether, 
 or resolutely to stand by it in and out of Parliament. Bolder than the 
 parliamentary free-traders was Mr. W. J. Pox. who, at one of the meetings of 
 the League in Covent Garden Theatre, said of those who were horrified at 
 the notion of repealing the duties on butter, bacon, and cheese, " they keep 
 a great chandler's shop, and they look to every minute article in their store, 
 how they can pervert the power of legislation to make the community pay 
 more for the benefit of the aristocracy. There w^as a time w^hen trading at all 
 was thought inconsistent with the possession of that dignity. Your feudal 
 baron did not mind robbing by the strong hand, but he turned away with 
 contempt from robbing by the short weight of a protective duty." The time 
 was approaching when as strong things would be said in and out of Parlia- 
 ment against the minister who had sufficiently manifested his indisposition to 
 support the chandler's shop. The course which sir Eobert Peel was pur- 
 suing, of asserting the principles of free-trade cautiously and yet successfully, 
 by enlisting the Opposition, for their support against the imperfectly concealed 
 hostility or indifference of his own supporters, was gradually preparing for 
 him an amount of rebellion and insubordination of which he was too 
 experienced a party leader not accurately to contemplate the final result — 
 his own deposition. 
 
 Upon the opening of parliament lord John Eussell endeavoured to pro- 
 duce some ministerial declaration on the subject of the Corn-Laws, by affirming 
 that Protection was the bane of agriculture. He obtained no contradiction 
 from sir Eobert Peel ; but he was asked by Mr. Miles, one of the most 
 sturdy of the Protectionists, whether he had found it convenient to make a 
 compact alliance with the Corn Law League ? Protectionists and Free- 
 traders equally sought support for their arguments at this time in the distress 
 which was said to exist amongst the agriculturists. On the 13th of March 
 Mr. Cobden moved for a Select Committee to inquire into the causes and
 
 ^845.] AGRICULTURAL DISTRESS— MR. COBDEN'S MOTION. 527 
 
 extent of this alleged agricultural distress, and into " the effects of legislative 
 protection upon the interests of land-owners, tenant-farmers, and farm 
 labourers." His motion was rejected by a majority of ninety-two. But his 
 speech produced a great impression upon the country ; and it has been said 
 that upon the prime minister himself it had a marked influence. On this 
 occasion Mr. Cobden came forth with a spirit-stirring and impassioned 
 eloquence which few had considered within the range of his oratorical 
 powers. To the Country party he said — " Tou live in a mercantile age, 
 when the whole wealth of the world is poured into your lap. Tou cannot 
 have the advantages of commercial rents and feudal privileges, but you may 
 be what you always have been, if you will identify yourselves with the spirit 
 of the age. The English people look to the gentry and the aristocracy of 
 this country as their leaders. I, who am not one of you, have no hesitation 
 in telling you, that there is a deep-rooted, an hereditary prejudice, if I may 
 so call it, in your favour in this country. Bat you never got it, and you will 
 not keep it, by obstructing the spirit of the age. If you are indifferent to 
 enlightened means of finding employment for your own peasantry ; if you 
 are found obstructing that advance which is calculated to knit nations more 
 together in the bonds of peace, by means of commercial intercourse ; if you 
 are found fighting against the discoveries which have almost given breath 
 and life to material nature, and setting up yourselves as obstructives of that 
 which destiny has decreed shall go on — why, then, you will be the gentry of 
 England no longer, and others will be found to take your place." 
 
 The speech of Mr. Cobden on his motion for a Committee was replied to 
 by Mr. Sidney Herbert ; but that reply was more damaging to the cause of 
 agricultural protection than the arguments of Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright, 
 or the agitation of the League. It was the incaution of a young man of 
 remarkable candour, and somewhat inexperienced in parliamentary tactics, 
 when he said, as the representative of an agricultural constituency, that it 
 would be distasteful to the agriculturists to come whining to parliament 
 at every period of temporary distress. Parliament had awarded to the 
 agriculturists a certain amount of protection ; with that they were content ; 
 and in adverse circumstances, such as failure of crop, they would meet 
 them manfully and put their shoulders to the wheel.* Agriculturists 
 were indignant at being represented as content with the protection 
 they enjoyed ; — the assumption (which was meant for advice) that they 
 would put their shoulders to the wheel, instead of crying out for help to 
 Hercules, was something different from the zealous friendship upon which 
 they had calculated so long and reposed so confidingly. Tlie rejection 
 of Mr. Cobden's motion did not calm their anger. On the 17th of March, 
 Mr. W. Miles moved, that in the reduction of taxation " due regard should 
 be had to the necessity of affording relief to the agricultural interest." It 
 was then that Mr. Disraeli pronounced unmistakeably that sentence of open 
 war against sir Robert Peel, which, whether in its skirmishes or pitched 
 battles, for a year or two was admired by many as the daring of a noble 
 courage in its insults to the first statesman of his time. 8ir Robert Peel 
 sometimes winced at these attacks, but in most cases he shook off the reck- 
 
 * Hansard vol. Ixxviii. col. 818.
 
 r,28 GRANT TO MAYXOOTH COLLEGE. [1S45. 
 
 less words, " like dew-drops from tlie lion's mane." " I remember," said 
 Mr. Disraeli, " to have beard the rigbt bonourable baronet at the head of the 
 government say, he would sooner be the leader of the gentlemen of England 
 than possess the confidence of sovereigns. . . . They were the right 
 honourable baronet's first love, and though he may not kneel to them now as 
 in the hour of passion, still they can recall the past. He does what he can 
 to keep them quiet; sometimes he takes refuge in arrogant silence, and 
 sometimes he treats them with haughty frigidity; and if they knew anything 
 of human nature, they would take the hint and shut their mouths. But they 
 won't. And what then happens? The right honourable baronet, being 
 compelled to interfere, sends down his valet, who says in the genteelest 
 manner. We can have no whining here." Describing sir Eobert Peel as 
 one who, by skilful parliamentary manoeuvres, had tampered with the generous 
 confidence of a great people, he addressed these words to the Treasury 
 bench — " Dissolve, if you please, the parliament you have betrayed, and 
 appeal to the people who I believe mistrust you ; for me there remains this 
 at least — the opportunity of expressing thus publicly my belief, that a Con- 
 servative government is an Organized Hypocrisy." 
 
 In this speech of Mr. Disraeli there was a skilful allusion to that former 
 desertion of the principle of ultra-Toryism which many yet remembered with 
 the bitterness of intolerance : " Protection appears to be in about the same 
 condition that Protestantism was in 1828. The country will draw its moral." 
 Protestantism was now to have a new cause of off"ence. On the 3rd of April sir 
 Eobert Peel brought forward the plans of the government respecting the 
 improvement of the College of Maynooth, proposing a grant of 30,000^. a 
 year, to be secured by act of parliament. On the 11th, when the Bill was to 
 be read a second time, the table of the House was covered with petitions. 
 There had been meetings throughout the country, in which Churchmen and 
 Dissenters had been equally conspicuous in denouncing the measure as a 
 renunciation of the Protestantism under which the empire had flourished. 
 An annual vote had been taken for many years for the E-oman Catholic 
 College of Maynooth. It was the object of the government, to use the 
 words of sir Robert Peel, " to adopt in a friendly and generous spirit the 
 institution provided for the education of the Roman Catholic priesthood — to 
 extend the parliamentary provision for that purpose, and to attempt, not by 
 interference with the doctrine or discipline of the Eoman Catholic Church, 
 but by a more liberal provision, to improve the system of education, 
 and to elevate the tone and character of that institution." During 
 six nights of debate in the Commons there was not a shaft in the 
 quiver of bigotry, still replenished however scantily, which was not then 
 discharged against the government, and especially against sir Robert Peel. 
 Sir Robert Inglis, the most moderate and rational of his theological oppo- 
 nents, declared that although shattered and torn the flag of Protestantism 
 still remained at the mast-head, and he would fight for it as unflinchingly as 
 when in better days it waved untorn and unbent over our empire. Mr. 
 Plumptre would not say that the religion of Rome was exclusively that of 
 Antichrist, but he believed that it was so, completely and prominently ; and 
 he was further of opinion that it would be a fearful and national sin to endow 
 such a religion. Mr. Perrand solemniv believed that if the government
 
 1845.] QUEEN'S COLLEGES IN IRELAND— PROROOATION, 529 
 
 could induce her Majesty to attacli her signature to t'his bill she would sign 
 away her title to the British crown. Colonel Sibthorp was the loudest in 
 the chorus, " Really, if I had not seen the First Lord of the Treasury take 
 the oaths at the table of this House, I should have doubted whether he were 
 a Protestant, a Eoman Catholic, or a Mahometan ; nor should I be sur- 
 prised if the time should yet come when we shall see him sitting cross-legged 
 as a Mahometan, or embracing a Pope. I must say that I have lost all 
 confidence in that man." Leaving the question of Maynooth untouched, Mr. 
 Disraeli embraced the occasion for another personal assault upon the Prime 
 Minister: "There is now no longer any constitutional opposition, because 
 there is no government formed on definite principles. Something has risen 
 up in this country as fatal in the political world as it has been in the landed 
 world in Ireland ; we have a great parliamentary middleman. It is well 
 known what a middleman is : he is a man who bamboozles one party and 
 plunders the other, till, having obtained a position to which he is not entitled, 
 he cries out, ' Let us have no party questions, but fixity of tenure.' " In 
 spite of the unmitigated opposition in both Houses the Maynooth Bill was 
 carried by considerable majorities. So also was the ministerial measure 
 introduced by sir James Q-raham for establishing three purely secular colleges 
 in Ireland, wholly independent of religious tests or creeds, for the education 
 of the middle classes. On the first debate on the measure sir Eobert Inglis 
 termed it a great scheme " of godless education." The measure was carried 
 by a large majority in the Commons upon the third reading, and was passed 
 without a division in the Lords. But the faint cry of " godless education" 
 raised by sir Robert Inglis was echoed with far greater vehemence by the 
 Roman Catholic clergy, whose prelates declared, through Mr. O'Connell, in 
 the House of Commons, that this was a bad scheme of education, and the 
 Bill a penal and revolting measure. The " godless colleges" of Cork, 
 Galway, and Belfast, nevertheless have flourished, unharmed under the con- 
 stant attempts of a bigoted priesthood to oppose in this case, as well as in the 
 National Schools of Ireland, that system of instruction without religious 
 teaching which the soundest statesmen have constantly regarded as one of 
 the best m.eans of softening the religious animosities and abating the inju- 
 rious jealousies between Catholic and Protestant. There was another mea- 
 sure carried this session in the spirit of religious liberality — that of the 
 admission of Jews to municipal offices. 
 
 The Session of Parliament was terminated by the prorogation by the Queen 
 on the 9th of August. In the usual Address to her Majesty the Speaker, in 
 addition to his notice of the great financial measures of the session ; the 
 endowment of Maynooth ; and the provision of the means of academical 
 instruction in Ireland ; adverted to two other labours in which the Commons 
 had been engaged. The Session had been rendered unusually laborious by 
 the rapid development of private enterprise in extending the railway commu- 
 nications of the kingdom ; anticipating the most beneficial results from the 
 facilities thus afi'orded to the internal trade of the country, they had devoted 
 much time and labour to the legislation requisite for the construction and 
 regulation of those important works. The condition of the destitute poor of 
 Scotland was the other subject of general legislation which the Speaker reca- 
 pitulated : " Assisted bv the information which your Majesty has directed tc 
 VOL. vin.— 258.
 
 5S0 APPREHENDI ^ FAILURE OF THE TOTATO CROP. [1845. 
 
 be laid before us, we have made sucb amendments in the law as will provide 
 for the more effectual relief of the poor, and for a better system of parochial 
 management, under the control of a general Board of Supervision." 
 
 Parliamentary warfare was for a season, at an end. The Queen and Prince 
 Albert, on the day of prorogation, embarked at "Woolwich on a visit to Ger- 
 many. The prime minister gladly sought the retreat of Drayton-Manor, 
 where the murmurs of his once devoted partizans could scarcely reach him. 
 An observer of London fashionable life at this time has written — " The 
 language of the Tory party is more bitter and violent against him [sir B. 
 Peel] than ever I heard in society of the olden time from disappointed "Whigs 
 against Mr. Pitt, But I do not imagine this to be traced to a no-popery cry. 
 If sir Eobert had left the Corn-Laws untouched, he would have carried the 
 Maynooth question by a triumphant majority without a schism. His inat- 
 tention to what the landed interest call their agricultural distress, their 
 apprehensions that he will ultimately repeal those laws, and also his notorious 
 neglect of those who, in good report and ill report, had stuck to his skirts till 
 they had brought him through the battle, and then found that his patronage 
 Tvas lavished on their opponents — all these things have so embittered their 
 minds that they have seized with readiness the first opportunity to stick their 
 teeth in his flanks, and have rallied all the sectarian interests to take part in 
 the curee."* 
 
 On the 31st of October, the Cabinet having been called together by sir 
 Eobert Peel, a meeting took place at his house, and on the following day the 
 Cabinet again assembled. The " Memoirs by Sir Eobert Peel," which were 
 published by his executors in 1857, enable us now to trace with a distinctness 
 which could not previously be derived from other sources, the beginning of 
 that train of events which led to the repeal of the Corn-Laws. The docu- 
 ments which these Memoirs contain, relate to the information received by sir 
 Eobert Peel on the probable failure of the potato crop, and exhibit his cor- 
 respondence on the subject with other members of the government. "With 
 something like an apology for giving these documents at length, he describes 
 them as " the materials from which the future historian will extract that which 
 is worthy of permanent record, and from which, with the aid of other contem- 
 porary evidence, he will pronounce his judgment on the motives and conduct 
 of public men."t 
 
 There were three members of the government who, from their official 
 station, were chiefly responsible at this time for instituting inquiries into the 
 probability of a sudden and extensive defalcation in the ordinary supply of 
 food, with a view to the adoption of measures calculated to mitigate the evil 
 consequences of such a defalcation. These ministers were, the First Lord of 
 the Treasury, the Secretary of State for the Home Department, and the Lord 
 Lieutenant of Ireland. The correspondence between sir Eobert Peel and sir 
 James Graham goes on from the 12th of August to the 15th of October 
 amidst alternations of hope and alarm. On the 15th, the oQJcial reports 
 having assumed a very serious aspect, sir liobert writes — " My letter on the 
 awful state of the potato crop in Ireland crossed yours tome In 
 
 * Baikes's "Diary," vol. iv. pp. 423-424. 
 f ■' Memoirs by Sir Robert Pec!," p. 107.
 
 1845.] PllOPOSAL OF SIR R. PEEL TO THE CABINET. SSI 
 
 terference with the due course of the laws respecting the supply of food is so 
 momentous and so lasting in its consequences, that we must not act without 
 the most accurate information, I fear the worst." To obtain the most accurate 
 information the prime minister dispatched to Ireland two men eminent in 
 their respective departments of science — Professor Lindley and Dr. Lyon 
 Playfair. The reports of the Botanist and the Chemist were not calculated to 
 mitigate the apprehensions of official and other observers in Ireland. The 
 secretary of the Irish Agricultural Improvement Society had obtained proofs 
 that the entire potato crop was more or less affected in every part of the 
 country ; and he says that a panic had seized all parties to a greater extent 
 than he ever remembered since the cholera. The alarm in Scotland was also 
 great and rapidly increasing. Sir James Graham clearly sees what is at hand. 
 "The Anti-Corn-Law pressure is about to commence, and it will be the most 
 formidable movement in modern times." 
 
 Such was the information which sir Eobert Peel had to lay before the 
 Cabinet on the 31st of October. He told his colleagues in a Cabinet memo- 
 randum that " inaction — the letting things take their own course — seems to 
 me impossible Inaction and indifference might involve the coun- 
 try in serious danger, and the government in the heaviest responsibility." 
 It is unnecessary here to go through the various suggestions of the memo- 
 randum. The prime minister found few inclined to deal boldly with the 
 danger : " It became evident that very serious differences of opinion exi?ited, 
 as to the necessity of adopting any extraordinary measures, and as to the 
 character of the measures which it might be advisable to adopt."* The 
 Cabinet separated, fixing another meeting for the 6th of November. The 
 accounts received in the interim were not of a nature to allay the apprehen- 
 sions of the week before. At that Cabinet sir Eobert Peel proposed to issue 
 immediately an Order in Council, remitting the duty on grain in bond to 
 one shilling ; opening the ports to the temporary admission of all grain at a 
 smaller rate of duty. He further proposed to call parliament together on th(i 
 27th to ask for indemnity, and to declare an intention of submitting imme- 
 diately after the recess a modification of the existing Corn-Laws. Three only 
 of his colleagues gave their support to the First Lord of the Treasury — the 
 earl of Aberdeen, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney Herbert. On the 2nd 
 of November lord Stanley wrote to sir Eobert Peel to express the regret with 
 which he saw how widely he differed in opinion with sir James Graham and 
 himself, as to the necessity of proposing to parliament a repeal of the Corn- 
 Laws. Sir Eobert Peel replied that he had not proposed to the Cabinet that 
 they should recommend to Parliament a repeal of the Corn-Laws ; still less 
 that they should offer their advice to the Queen that the Corn-Laws ought to 
 be abandoned. 
 
 On the 22nd of November lord John Eussell addressed a public letter to 
 the electors of the city of London, which began with stating precisely the same 
 truth which sir Eobert Peel had endeavoured to impress upon his Cabinet. 
 " The present state of the country in regard to its supply of food cannot be 
 viewed without apprehension. Forethought and bold precautions may avert 
 any serious evils—indecision and procrastination may produce a state of 
 
 * " Memoirs," p. 143
 
 o32 LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S LETTER TO ELECTORS OF LONDON. [1845. 
 
 Buffering which it is frightful to contemplate." He complains that the 
 queen's ministers had met and separated without affording any promise oE 
 seasonable relief. He points out that the duties on the importations of corn 
 were so contrived, that " the corn barometer points to fair while the ship is 
 bending under a storm." Then comes a declaration from the leader of the 
 Whig party which forbids all further advocacy of " fixed duty" in opposition 
 to " sliding scale." " I confess that on the general subject my views have 
 in the course of twenty years undergone a great alteration. I used to be 
 of opinion that corn was an exception to the general rules of political 
 economy ; but observation and experience have convinced me that we ought 
 to abstain from all interference with the supply of food. Neither a Govern- 
 ment nor a Legislature can ever regulate the corn market with the beneficial 
 effects which the entire freedom of sale and purchase are sure of themselves 
 to produce." It was no longer worth while, he said, to contend for a fixed 
 duty ; the imposition at present of any duty, without a provision for its 
 speedy extinction, would only prolong a contest already sufficiently fruitful 
 of animosity and discontent. " Let us then unite to put an end to a system 
 which has been proved to be the blight of commerce, the bane of agriculture, 
 the source of bitter division among classes, the cause of penury, fever, morta- 
 lity, and crime among the people." Sir Eobert Peel prints this letter in his 
 Memoirs with this observation : — " It was asserted by many who were 
 careless about the foundation of their assertions, that I had been influenced 
 in the advice which I oftered to the Cabinet by the appearance of this 
 letter. A simple reference to dates will prove that this could not have been 
 the case." * 
 
 On the 25th and 26th of November the Cabinet was occupied in the dis- 
 cussion of instructions to be given to the Commission which had been 
 appointed, for the consideration and adoption of such measures as might 
 tend to mitigate the evil consequences of the apprehended scarcity. These 
 instructions were unanimously approved of by the Cabinet, Sir Eobert Peel 
 felt that the danger to be apprehended was so fully admitted and was set 
 forth in such strong terms in the letter of the Secretary of State to the Lord 
 Lieutenant, tliat it was " difficult to reconcile the issue of this letter with 
 passivene.^s and inaction in respect to the means of increasing the supply of 
 food." Before the instructions, therefore, contained in the letter were finally 
 assented to by the Cabinet, he read to them a memorandum, of which the 
 opening sentence was quite sufficient to indicate the final tendency of his 
 opinions : " I cannot consent to the issue of these instructions, and under- 
 take at the same time to maintain the existing Corn-Laws." On the 29tli 
 of November he put in circulation amongst his colleagues a memorandum, 
 addressed in the first instance to the duke of Wellington, in which " are con- 
 tained the reasons which induce me to advise the suspension of the existing 
 Corn-Laws for a limited period." The answer of the duke of Wellington la 
 very characteristic. He was of opinion that the government should avoid to 
 break down the Corn-Laws till that measure should appear to be absolutely 
 necessary. " But of this I do not entertain a doubt — if it is necessary to 
 suspend the Corn-Laws to avoid real evils resulting from scarcity of food, we 
 
 * " Afemoirs," p. 179.
 
 1845.] DISSENSIONS IN THE CABINET— SIR E. PEEL RESIGNS. 53i 
 
 ought not to hesitate." The duke then comes to the Party View of the 
 question which sir Kobert Peel had not discussed — could he carry on a 
 government for the Queen, supposing that the support of the landed interest 
 were withdrawn from him ? The duke was afraid that sir Eobert Peel must 
 reckon upon its being withdrawn from him, unless he should be able to show 
 clearly the necessity of the measure in question. " In respect to my own 
 course, my only object in public life is to support sir Eobert Peel's adminis- 
 tration of the government for the Queen." The duke, if sir Eobert Peel 
 thought that his position in parliament and in the public view required that 
 the course should be taken which he recommended, had no hesitation in 
 saying, " I earnestly recommend that the Cabinet should support him, and I 
 for one declare that I will do so." Others of the Cabinet took a very dif- 
 ferent view. Mr. Goulburn writes to sir Eobert Peel, — " an abandonment of 
 your former opinions now would, I think, prejudice your and our characters 
 as public men, and would be fraught with fatal results to the country's best 
 interests. ... In my opinion the Party of which you are the head is 
 the only barrier which remains against the revolutionary effects of the 
 Eeform Bill.'" Lord "Wharncliffe was of opinion " that the Queen's speech, 
 if it should ultimately be decided to recommend any modification or a 
 temporary suspension of the Corn-Law, should do so in terms which would 
 show our decided intention to uphold the principle of protection in some 
 way or other." 
 
 The discussions in the Cabinet continued till the 2nd of December, when 
 sir Eobert Peel brought before his colleagues a specific measure for the pro- 
 posal of a new law which would be " founded upon the principle of the pre- 
 sent law, while it continues in operation, but will in the course of that 
 operation ensure the ultimate andnot remote extinction of protective duties." 
 He believed that some such measure as he had suggested might receive the 
 assent of all his colleagues. Lord Stanley and the duke of Buccleugh, how- 
 ever, each signified his inability to support a measure involving the ultimate 
 repeal of the Corn-Laws. Sir Eobert Peel, thinking that the public interest 
 would be very injuriously afi'ected by the failure of an attempt made by a 
 government to adjust the question of Corn-Laws, repaired to Osborne on the 
 5th of December, and humbly solicited the Queen to relieve him from duties 
 which he could no longer discharge with advantage to her Majesty's service. 
 The Queen then informed sir Eobert Peel that it was her intention to pro- 
 pose to lord John Eussell to undertake the formation of a government. In 
 a letter to the Queen, written after the audience, sir Eobert Peel stated 
 that if the opinions of his colleagues had been in concurrence with his own, 
 he had been fully prepared to take the responsibility of suspending the Corn- 
 Laws, and of entering upon a comprehensive review of restrictions on the 
 import of foreign grain and other articles of food, with a view to their 
 gradual diminution and ultimate removal. "With reference to the proposed 
 new administration he adds — " Sir Eobert Peel is prepared to support, in a 
 private capacity, measures which may be in general conformity with those 
 which he advised as a minister." 
 
 Lord John Eussell was at Edinburgh when a summons reached him to 
 attend the Queen. He went to her Majesty with the conviction that h« 
 could not accept the great trust now offered to him. He felt that his party
 
 53i FAILURE OF LOUD J. RUSSELL TO FORI! A MINISTRY. [1845, 
 
 being in a large minority in the Commons, he could not properly undertake 
 the formation of a government. But the ofier of sir Robert Peel, to give his 
 assistance in a private capacity tovrards the settlement of the Corn-Law 
 question, determined lord John Eussell to depart from this resolution. There 
 was a week of negotiation as to the specific nature of this limited offer. Sir 
 Robert Peel was " convinced that previous concert, or a previous pledge on 
 his part, to support a particular measure of adjustment would be distasteful 
 to the House of Commons, and embarrassing to all parties." With this view 
 lord John Russell expressed his concurrence ; but required at the same time 
 that sir Robert Peel should give assurances, that would have amounted sub- 
 stantially to a pledge, that he would support the immediate and total repeal 
 of the Corn-Laws. The ex-minister did not feel it to be consistent with his 
 duty to enter upon the consideration of this important question in Parlia- 
 ment, being fettered by a previous engagement of the nature of that required 
 from him. Nevertheless lord John Russell, in the afternoon of the 18th of 
 December, stated to her Majesty at Windsor Castle that he was ready to 
 undertake the formation of a government. In consequence sir Robert Peel 
 was invited by her Majesty to a parting interview on his relinquishment of 
 office. On entering the room at Windsor, on the 20th of December, her 
 Majesty said to him very graciously, " So far from taking leave of you, sir 
 Robert, I must require you to withdraw your resignation, and to remain in 
 my service." Lord John Russell had written to the Queen on the morning 
 of that day that he had found it impossible to form an administration. He 
 liad informed the Queen that he had had solely in view the settlement of the 
 question of Corn-Laws ; he admitted that sir Robert Peel had been willing, 
 from the commencement to the end, to diminish the difficulties of a new 
 government in attempting that settlement, although sir Robert Peel could 
 not of course rely upon the support of his political friends. It was therefore 
 necessary, he wrote, that all those who were prominent in the political party 
 to which lord John Russell was attached, should give their zealous aid, and 
 act in concert in the new administration. " Lord John Russell had in one 
 instance been unable to obtain this concert, and he must now consider that 
 task as hopeless which has been from the beginning hazardous." The one 
 instance was that of lord Grey ; he had objected to one proposed appoint- 
 ment, and lord John Russell had been unwilling to admit the force of the 
 objection. We can easily understand how the self-asserting inheritor of a great 
 name should have failed in substantiating his objection to a statesman with 
 the reputation of lord Palmerston. Lord John Russell having absolutely 
 relinquished the formation of a government, sir Robert Peel at once decided, 
 if such were her Majesty's pleasure, on the resumption of his office. He 
 wished, he said, to be able to announce to his late colleagues that he had not 
 hesitated to re-accept the appointment of First Minister. The Cabinet met at 
 Downing-street in the evening of the 20th, and he told them that, whether 
 supported or not, he was firmly resolved to meet parliament as her Majesty's 
 minister, and to propose such measures as the public exigencies required. 
 Lord Stanley declared that he must persevere in resigning. He thought the 
 Corn-Laws ought to be adhered to, and might have been maintained. The 
 duke of Buccleugh would not at once decide upon resigning. The other 
 members of the Cabinet declared their determination to support sir Robert
 
 1846.] SIR R. PEEL RESUMES POWER— PARLIAMENT OPENED. .^35 
 
 Peel in the course be bad announced to tbem. The duke of "Wellington was 
 tbe man to admire courage wbether civil or military. He told the House ot 
 Lords, on the ministerial explanations, " I applauded the conduct of my right 
 honourable friend ; I was delighted Avith it. It was exactly the course which 
 I should have followed myself under similar circumstances, and I therefore 
 determined to stand by him." The new Cabinet enlisted an able coadjutor 
 in lord Dalhousie ; and Mr. Gladstone, who had retired from of&ce some time 
 previous, succeeded lord Stanley as Secretary of State for the Colonial Depart- 
 ment. Lord WharnclifFe, the President of the Council, had died, during this 
 great crisis, on the 19th of December. 
 
 The biographer of sir Eobert Peel has described his hesitation, in the 
 session of 1845, to apply the strict principles of commercial freedom to the 
 trade in corn, as the " touching perplexity of a sincere and conscientious mind, 
 ■carried forward in the direction of its own inclination by a great flood ot 
 public opinion and passion, and struggling painfully against its adversaries, 
 its friends, and itself." * The " perplexity" was now over. The struggle ot 
 the "sincere and conscientious mind " against itself was passed. Six days 
 after sir Robert Peel had declared to tbe Cabinet that he was again her 
 Majesty's minister, he wrote to the princess- Lieven at Paris a short note, in 
 which he casts off" the reserve of the statesman to give unrestrained expres- 
 sion to his natural feelings : " However unexpected is the turn which affairs 
 have taken, it ia for the best. I resume power with greater means of render- 
 ing public service than I should have had if I had not relinquished it. But 
 it is a strange dream." t 
 
 It was the 22nd of January, 1846, when the Queen opened the Parliament 
 in person. The Eoyal Speech necessarily alluded to the failure of the 
 potato crops in Ireland, and to the means that had been adopted for 
 alleviating the sufferings caused by this calamity. Her Majesty had had 
 great satisfaction in giving her consent to the measures for the repeal 
 of prohibitory, and the relaxation of protective, duties. The prosperous 
 state of the revenue, the increased demand for labour, and the general 
 improvement which had taken place in the internal condition of the country, 
 were strong testimonies in favour of the course that had been pursued. " I re- 
 commend you," said the Queen, " to take into your early consideration, whether 
 the principles on which you have acted may not with advantage be yet more 
 extensively applied, and whether it may not be in your power, after a careful 
 review of the existing duties upon many articles, the produce or manufac- 
 ture of other countries, to make such further reductions and remissions ay 
 may tend to insure the continuance of the great benefits to which I have 
 adverted." There might have been some doubt as to the interpretation of the 
 •words "further reductions and remissions ;" but the ministerial explanations 
 of sir Robert Peel and of lord John Russell, in which the details of the 
 negotiations for the formation of a government were fully stated, left no 
 •doubt whatever that a free trade in corn, however gradually to be accomplished, 
 was now the great object of sir Robert Peel's administration. After the 
 mover and seconder of the Addresses in the House of Commons had delivered 
 
 * Guizot — " Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel," p. 
 t "Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," p. 2.t1.
 
 o36 SIR R. PEEL ASSERTS HIS DETERMINATION TO BE UNSHACKLED. [1846. 
 
 their speeches, sir Eobert Peel immediately rose. Having gone through the 
 explanatory details expected from the head of the government after a minis- 
 terial crisis, he did not wait for tlie attacks of those adversaries who were 
 once his submissive friends. He boldly proclaimed his determination to 
 stand free from the trammels of party. " Sir, believe me, to conduct the 
 government of this country is a most arduous duty ; I may say it without 
 irreverence, that these ancient institutions, like our physical frames, are 
 ' fearfully and wonderfully made.' It is no easy task to ensure the united 
 action of an ancient monarchy, a proud aristocracy, and a reformed con- 
 stituency. I have done everything I could do, — and have thought it consistent 
 with true conservative policy, — to reconcile these three branches of the state. 
 I have thought it consistent with true conservative policy to promote so 
 much of happiness among the people that the voice of disaffection should 
 be no longer heard, and that thoughts of the dissolution of our institutions 
 should be forgotten in the midst of physical enjoyment. These were my 
 attempts, and I thought them not inconsistent with true and enlarged con- 
 servative policy. These were my objects in accepting office — it is a burden 
 too great for my physical, and far beyond my intellectual, structure ; and to 
 be relieved from it with perfect honour would be the greatest favour that could 
 be conferred on me. But as a feeling of honour and a strong sense of duty 
 require me to undertake those responsible functions, I declare, sir, that I am 
 ready to incur these risks, to bear these burdens, and to front all these 
 honourable dangers. But, sir, I will not take the step with mutilated power 
 and shackled authority.. I will not stand at the helm during such tem- 
 pestuous nights as I have seen, if the vessel be not allowed fairly to pursue 
 the course which I think she ought to take. I will not, sir, undertake to 
 direct the course of the vessel by the observations taken in 1842. I will 
 reserve to myself the marking out of that course ; and I must, for the public 
 interest, claim for myself the unfettered power of judging of those measures 
 which I conceive will be better for the country to propose. Sir, I do not 
 wish to be the minister of England ; but while I have the high honour of 
 holding that office, I am determined to hold it by no servile tenure. I will 
 only hold that office upon the condition of being unshackled by any other 
 obligations than those of consulting the public interests, and of providing for 
 the public safety." * 
 
 This speech was of course accepted as a declaration of war by all those 
 who interpreted Conservative Policy as one almost exclusively directed to 
 the upholding of class interests and class prejudices. Mr. Disraeli, in 
 declaring his intention of adhering to the principles of protection which had 
 sent him into that House, did not attempt to defend those principles, but 
 confined himself, as he did for the greater part of the Session, to the bitterest 
 attacks on the minister who was about to give them their final and irre- 
 vocable blow. Sir Eobert Peel's conduct, he said, was that of tlie captain, 
 who liaving received the command of a fleet from the sultan to attack 
 Mchemet Ali, steered that fleet at once into the enemy's port. Sir Eobert 
 Peel, a great statesman, who was always marching after the events of his 
 age ! He was just as much a great statesman as he who got up behind a 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixxxiii. col. 94.
 
 1846.1 THE NEW TARIFF AND THE CORN-LA^y BILL. 537 
 
 carriage was a great wLip. There could be no mistake as to the intentions 
 of the so-called Conservative Party, whether they spoke in the " wild and 
 hurling words " of the brilliant orator, or in the bucolic accents of the lords 
 of many acres. By the mouth of Mr. Miles they gave notice that the 
 " strongest constitutional opposition would be given to the minister's plan, 
 and that every impediment would be made use of to prevent its passing into 
 law." The plan was not yet developed, but its scope and objects were pretty 
 correctly anticipated. 
 
 On the 27th of January tire avenues of the House of Commons were filled 
 with eager crowds : the seats below the bar were thronged with listeners, 
 amongst whom were prince Albert and the duke of Cambridge ; the strangers' 
 gallery was crammed to excess, whilst hundreds who had obtained tickets 
 were unable to get admission. His whole plan of financial and commercial 
 policy was developed by sir Eobert Peel in a speech of four hours. He 
 said, in the onset, that he was not about to apply the principle of relaxation 
 of protective duties to any one particular class : " lam not about to select 
 that great interest connected with the agriculture of the country, and call 
 upon the landowners to relinquish protection, unprepared at the same time to 
 call upon other protected classes to relinquish protection also. In the confi- 
 dence that the principle for which I contend is a just and a wise one, I ask 
 all protected interests to make the sacrifice, if it be a sacrifice, which the 
 application of that principle will render necessary."* The duties on tallow 
 and timber were to be extensively reduced ; these were the only raw materials 
 still subject to duty. The duties on foreign manufactured goods were to be 
 abolished or reduced. As the silk manufi^cture had increased in the ratio of 
 the removal of duties, there was now to be a further reduction. On cotton 
 and woollen fabrics duties were to be removed or lessened by one-half. 
 Articles of food were relieved from taxation either wholly or partially. The 
 difierential duties on free-labour sugar were abated about fifty per cent. 
 Animal food and vegetables were admitted duty free. One-half of the exist- 
 ing duties on butter, cheese, hops, and cured fish were removed. Live animals 
 were no longer to be subject to any import duty. Here was a tarifi" which a 
 few years before would have shaken the isle from its propriety ; but what a 
 clamour would have gone through the laud, echoed at every county meeting 
 and every market table, if a minister had proposed, as sir Robert Peel now 
 proposed, to admit buck-wheat and Indian corn duty free ; to submit colonial 
 grain to a merely nominal duty ; and altogether to remove protection from 
 every other species of grain at the end of three years. In the interval the 
 duties on grain were to be as follows. When wheat was under 48s. per 
 quarter the duty was to be 10*. ; at every rise of a shilling per quarter in the 
 market price the duty was to be a shilling lower ; till wheat should be at 54^. 
 and the duty at 4*. ; after which the duty should not further change. The 
 existing price of wheat being 54^. the duty would be at once reduced from 
 16s. to 4s. Some relief of the burthens upon agriculture, involved in an 
 alteration of the law of settlement, a consolidation of highway boards, the 
 removal of the cost of prisoners from the county rates — these and other minor 
 concessions, which were real benefits, were received only with ridicule, in the 
 
 • Hansard, vol. Isxxiii. col. 241.
 
 538 DEBATE OF TWELVE NIGHTS IN THE COMMONS. [ISia 
 
 face of tlie startling f;ict that the staff of protection, whicli had so long been 
 leant upon, would be utterly broken and cast away. The philosophical 
 reasoners knew well that the hale man would then be able to walk with* 
 out his crutch ; but the country party were not greatly addicted to phi- 
 losophical politics. Sir Eobert Peel concluded the speech, in which he 
 offered, on the part of the government, these proposals "for the ultimate 
 adjustment of this question by affirming that there had been a great change 
 in the opinion of the great mass of the community with respect to the Corn- 
 Laws." He recommended his plan as a whole to their calm and dispassionate 
 consideration, with no other feeling or interest in its ultimate issue than that 
 it might, to use the words of her Majesty's speech, conduce to promote 
 " friendly feelings between different classes of my subjects, to provide addi- 
 tional security for the continuance of peace, and to maintain contentment 
 and happiness at home, by increasing the comfort and bettering the condi- 
 tion of the great body of my people." 
 
 On the 9th of February a debate was begun, which continued twelve 
 nights, on the motion that the Speaker should leave the chair to go into 
 Committee on the Customs and Corn Importation Act. Mr. Miles had pro- 
 posed as an amendment, " that this House will, upon this day six months, 
 resolve itself into the said Committee." On the iifth night of the discussion, 
 the 16th of Pebruary, sir Eobert Peel, with even more than his ordinary 
 debating ability, reviewed every species of objection, whether from agricultu- 
 rists, or shipowners, or manufacturers, that had been raised to the various 
 details of his measure. Towards the conclusion of his speech he warmed into 
 an eloquence such as had been rarely equalled since the days of the great 
 orators of former generations. 
 
 " This night is to decide between the policy of continued relaxation of 
 restriction, or the return to restraint and prohibition. This night you will 
 select the motto which is to indicate the commercial policy of England. 
 Shall it be ' advance' or * recede ?' Which is the fitter motto for this great 
 empire ? Survey our position ; consider the advantage whicli Grod and 
 nature have given us, and the destiny for which we are intended. "We stand 
 on the confines of Western Europe, the chief connecting link between the 
 old world and the new. The discoveries of science, the improvement of navi- 
 gation, have brought us within ten days of St. Petersburg, and will soon 
 bring us within ten days of New Tork. We have an extent of coast greater 
 in proportion to our population and the area of our land than any other great 
 nation, securing to us maritime strength and superiority. Iron and coal, the 
 sinews of manufacture, give us advantages over every rival in the great com- 
 petition of industry. Our capital far exceeds that which they can command. 
 In ingenuity — in skill — in energy — we are inferior to none. Our national 
 character, the free institutions under which we live, the liberty of thought 
 and action, an unshackled press, spreading the knowledge of every discovery 
 and of every advance in science — combine with our natural and physical 
 advantages to place us at the head of those nations which profit by the free 
 interchange of their products. And is this the country to shrink from com- 
 petition ? Is this the country to adopt a retrograde policy ? Is this the 
 country which can only flourish in the sickly artificial atmosphere of prohibi-
 
 18-16.] THE BILLS PASSED IIS' BOTH HOUSES. ^^39 
 
 tion ? Is tliia the country to staud shivering on the brink of exposure to the 
 healthful breezes of competition?" * 
 
 Turning then from commercial freedom in manufactures to commercial 
 freedom in agriculture, he asked if in some future season, when " the years 
 of plenteousness shall have ended," and " the years of dearth may have come," 
 •would it be no satisfaction to you to reflect, that by your own act you have 
 been relieved from the grievous responsibility of regulating the supply of food? 
 ■" "When you are again exhorting a suffering people to fortitude under their 
 privations ; when you are telling them, * these are the chastenings of an all- 
 wise and merciful Providence, sent for some inscrutable but just and benefi- 
 cent purpose — it may be, to humble our pride, or to punish our unfaithful- 
 ness, or to impress us with a sense of our nothingness and dependence on His 
 mercy;' when you are thus addressing your suffering fellow subjects, and 
 encouraging them to bear without repining the dispensations of Providence, 
 may God grant that by your decision of this night, you may have laid in 
 store for yourselves the consolation of reflecting that such calamities are, in 
 truth, the dispensations of Providence — that they have not been caused, they 
 have not been aggravated, by the laws of man, restricting in the hour of 
 scarcity the supply offood!"t 
 
 On the 27th of February the debate on Mr. Miles's amendment on the 
 motion for going into Committee on the Customs and Corn Importation Act, 
 was brought to a conclusion. During the twelve nights of debate, forty-eight 
 members spoke in favour of Free Trade and fifty-five on the side of Protection. 
 To attempt the briefest analysis of the general arguments for the removal of 
 Protection, and of the anticipations of. commercial and agricultural ruin if 
 Protection were abolished — arguments now so perfectly understood, and fears 
 now so thoroughly exploded — would be as wearisome as useless. Upon a 
 ■division the numbers were, for Mr. Miles's amendment, 240 ; against it, 337, 
 being a majority for the government of 97. The House of Commons went 
 into Committee on the 2ud of March. The various clauses of the proposed 
 "Bill were debated with the same earnestness for four nights ; when the second 
 reading was carried by a majority of 88. On the third reading there was a 
 debate of three nights. On the 15th of May, at four in the morning, 327 
 members voted for the third reading ; and for an amendment of the marquis 
 of Granby, that the Bill be read that day six mouths, 229 voted, giving a 
 majority for the third reading of 98. In the House of Lords the Bill was 
 j)assed with less difficulty than might have been anticipated. The duke of 
 Wellington on the 18th moved the first reading of the Corn Importation Bill, 
 and on the 19th the duke of Buccleugh moved the first reading of the 
 Customs Duties Bill. It is as unnecessary to follow the course of debate in 
 the Lords as in the Commons. The second reading of the Corn Bill was 
 carried hj a majority of 47 ; 211 being for the second reading, against it 164. 
 The second reading of the Customs Duties Bill was carried without a division. 
 The various clauses of the Corn Bill having been debated in Committee, the 
 Bill on the 19th of June was reported without amendments. On the 25th of 
 June both Bills were read a third time and passed ; to which on the 26th the 
 
 * Hansard, vol. Ixxxiii. col. 1041. 
 + Ha'asarc], vol. Ixxiiii. col. 1044.
 
 640 BILL FOR THE PROTECTION" OF LIFE IX IRELAND. [IMS. 
 
 roval assent was given by commission. By the Corn Importation Act, that scale 
 of duties, as proposed by the p;overnment on the 27th January, was to continue 
 until the 1st of Februar\% 1849 ; after which day a duty upon grain of ens 
 shilling per quarter, and of fourpence-halfpenny per cwt. upon flour and meal, 
 was to be levied, for purely statistical purposes. A revolution, scarcely second 
 in importance to the Reform Bill, was thus accomplished. England entered 
 on a new course of commercial policy ; of whose beneficial results the expe- 
 rience of the succeeding sixteen years has left too strong an evidence to allow 
 any but a few devotees of an obsolete creed to abide in " their temples dim." 
 
 During the progress through the House of Commons of the measures of 
 commercial freedom, a Bill entitled, " For the Protection of Life in Ireland," 
 which had passed in the House of Lords, was brought under discussion in the 
 House of Commons. It was opposed with the utmost vehemence by the 
 Protectionists, who in the rejection of the measure hailed the prospect of 
 being revenged on sir Eobert Peel ; and by the majority of the Whigs, who, 
 consistently adhering to their often declared principles upon coercion bills 
 in Ireland, nevertheless saw in the defeat of the government the door 
 opened for their return to power after it had been closed against them for 
 five years. On the 21st of June sir Eobert Peel accurately calculated upon 
 the double event — the passing of the Corn-Law Eepeal Bill unmutilated in 
 the House of Lords, and the rejection of the Bill for the Protection of Life in 
 Ireland by the House of Commons. He took a decision at once dignified 
 and patriotic. He addressed a memorandum on the position of the govern- 
 ment to the Cabinet, in which he suggested to the deliberate and dispassionate 
 consideration of his colleagues, " to determine whether, after the passing of 
 the Corn and Customs Bills, it would be for the interest of the Crown, of the 
 country, and for the honour and character of the government, that they should 
 remain in office." He said, with an honesty worthy of all imitation, " a 
 government ought to have a natural support ; a conservative government 
 should be supported by a conservative party ; support from the compassion 
 of its enemies, or even from the personally friendly feelings of those who 
 ought on public principle to oppose a government, is a hollow and not a 
 creditable support. Depend upon it that we shall not pass the Irish Bill 
 into a law." He was decidedly, he told them, of opinion " that we should 
 not fall into the errors of the last Whig government^ — retain office after we 
 have lost power, or advise a Dissolution with little prospect of securing a 
 majority of members, honestly and cordially concurring with us on great 
 political principles." * The memorandum being communicated to the other 
 members of the government, there was not the slightest difierence of opinion 
 as to the course to be pursued. 
 
 There were six niglits of debate upon the Irish Bill. On the 25th of 
 June lord George Bentinck, who had for some time filled the office of the 
 aristocratic leader of the Protectionists, expressed himself with a violence 
 towards the Prime Minister that more than rivalled the attacks of his untitled 
 coadjutor. Mr. Cobden answered lord George Bentinck : " I have to say, in 
 contradiction to the noble lord, that if the right honourable baronet chooses 
 to retire from office in consequence of this vote, he carries with him the 
 
 ♦ " Memoirs bj Sir Robert Peel." pp. 288, 297.
 
 184(5]. RESIGNATION OF SIR R. PEEL— THE RUSSELL ADJIINISTRATIOX, 541 
 
 esteem and gratitude of a larger number of the population of this empire 
 than ever followed any minister that was ever hurled from power." 
 After Mr. Cobden had spoken the division took place ; for the second 
 reading, 219 ; against it, 292 ; majority against the government, 73. 
 On the 29th of June the resignation of ministers was announced by sir 
 Eobert Peel. He cast a retrospect over the reasons which had influenced 
 his conduct, and the results which had been obtained. " The name," he said, 
 *' which ought to be associated with the success of those measures, is not the 
 name of the noble lord, the organ of the party of which he is the leader, nor 
 is it mine. The name which ought to be, and will be, associated with the 
 success of those measures, is the name of one who, acting, as I believe, from 
 pure and disinterested motives, has, with untiring energy, made appeals to 
 our reason, and has enforced those appeals with an eloquence the more to be 
 admired because it was unaffected and unadorned : it is the name of Eichard 
 Cobden." He concluded his speech with those emphatic words which have 
 been inscribed upon the pedestal of more than one monumental tribute of a 
 nation's gratitude : — " It may be that I shall leave a name sometimes remem- 
 bered with expressions of good will in the abodes of those whose lot it is 
 to labour and to earn their daily bread by the sweat of their brow, when 
 they shall recruit their exhausted strength with abundant and untaxed food, 
 the sweeter because it is no longer leavened with a sense of injustice." 
 
 The House of Commons adjourned to the 3rd of July. On the 6th lord 
 John Russell, as First Lord of Treasury, and the other members of the 
 Administration were sworn into office. 
 
 Prom the 16th of July, when, after the change of government, the House 
 of Commons met again for the dispatch of business, to the 28th of August, when 
 parliament was prorogued by commission, the measures passed were various 
 and important. The impending distress in Ireland occupied much of the atten- 
 tion of the Legislature. Two measures of permanent social interest became law. 
 One enactment has worked a n)ost material and salutary change in the power 
 of the people to obtain cheap justice — the establishment of County Courts 
 for the Eecovery of Small Debts. The other, directed to important sanitary 
 objects, which received the royal assent on the 26th of August, declares 
 that "it is desirable for the health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants of 
 towns and populous districts, to encourage the establishment therein of 
 Public Baths and Washhouses, and open Bathing Places." To town councils 
 and parish vestries is given the power to establish such public conveniences, 
 the expenses of which, beyond the receipts, are to be paid as part of the 
 poor's-rate. 
 
 On the 4th July sir Eobert Peel wrote to lord Hardinge, "there is 
 nothing I would not have done to insure the carrying of the measures I had 
 proposed this Session. I pique myself on never having proposed anything 
 vvhich I have not carried ; but the moment their success was insured, and I 
 had the satisfaction of seeing two drowsy Masters in Chancery mumble out 
 at the table of the House of Commons that the Lords had passed the Corn 
 and Customs Bills I was satisfied. Two hours after this intelligence was 
 brought we were ejected from power ; and, by another coincideuce as mar- 
 vellous, on the day on which I had to announce in the House of Commons
 
 :j2 the OllEGOISr question— HISTUliY OF THE COKTROVEKSY. [1846 
 
 the dissolution of the Government, the new3 arrived that we had settled the 
 Oregon question, and that our proposals had been accepted by the United 
 States without the alteration of a word." * 
 
 The settlement of the Oregon question was announced to the House of 
 Lords on the 29th by the earl of Aberdeen. He made a brief statement of 
 what had occurred since the President of the United States, Mr. Polk, 
 bad sent his message to the Senate with a direct refusal of the repeated 
 proposals of the British Grovernment to submit the whole question to 
 arbitration. "When lord Aberdeen afterwards saw that the Senate and 
 House of Representatives had adopted Resolutions of a conciliatory and 
 friendly description, he at once put aside all idea of diplomatic etiquette, and 
 sent over to the British minister the draft of a convention to be proposed for 
 the acceptance of the United States' Government. The President having 
 submitted this draft for the opinion of the Senate, that body, by a majority of 
 thirtj^-eight votes to twelve, adopted a Resolution advising the President to 
 accept the terms proposed. Mr. Buchanan, the American Secretary of State, 
 accordingly informed our minister that the conditions offered were accepted, 
 "without the addition or alteration of a single word." f 
 
 This settlement of the Oregon question relieved the Britisb nation and 
 the government from a long-continued cause of anxiety. In 1845 Mr. Polk,, 
 in his inaugural address, affirmed that it was his duty " to assert and maintain 
 by all constitutional means, the right of the United States to that portion 
 of our territory which lies beyond the Rocky Mountains. Our title to the 
 country of the Oregon is clear and unquestionable ; and already are our 
 people preparing to perfect tlieir title by occupying it with their wives and 
 children." J The value of the Oregon territory was so little understood 
 when the treaty of peace was concluded in 1783, that no provision whatever 
 was made for its occupation. Forty years later the claims of the British 
 government and that of the United States to this region had become so 
 opposed, that lord Castlereagh said to Mr. Rush, the American minister, 
 that by holding up a finger a war regarding Oregon might be produced 
 between the two countries. During the foreign secretaryship of Mr. 
 Canning the apprehension of hostilities became greater. In 1818 a conven- 
 tion had been entered into, by which the whole territory was to be open tO' 
 the settlers of both countries for a period of ten years ; but the agreement 
 was not to be construed to the prejudice of any claim which either of the 
 contracting parties might have to any part of the country. In 1844 Mr, 
 Calhoun, Secretary of State at Washington, explained his reasons for de- 
 clining proposals made by the British government, in a state paper, in which 
 he contended that time so far from impairing the American claims had greatly 
 strengthened them, by the rapid advance of the population of the United 
 States towards that territory. An emigration, estimated at not less than a 
 thousand in 1843 and fifteen hundred in 1844, had flowed into it, and that the 
 current thus commenced would continue to flow with increased volume here- 
 after, " There can, then, be no doubt now, that the operation of the same 
 cause which impelled our population westward from the shores of the Atlantic 
 
 * " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," p. 309. 
 
 + Hansaid, vol. ixxxvii. col. 1033. 
 
 t "Annual Register for 1S45," p. 279.
 
 1846.] WAR AVERTED— BRITISH COLUMBIA. 543 
 
 across the Alleghany to the valley of the Mississippi, will impel them onward 
 with accumulating force across the Eocky Mountains into the valley of the 
 Columbia, and that the whole region drained by it is destined to be peopled 
 by us." * In 1845 the President, in a public address while negotiations 
 were pending, referred, contrary to all usage, to other contingencies than a 
 friendly and satisfectory termination of the differences between the two 
 governments. Upon this declaration sir Robert Peel expressed himself with 
 deep regret that such a reference should be made in a tone and temper 
 which was not likely to lead to an amicable and equitable settlement of the 
 differences. We have rights, he said, respecting this territory of Oregon 
 clear and unquestionable. " We trust still to arrive at an amicable adjust- 
 ment — we desire to effect an amicable adjustment of our claim — but having 
 exhausted every effort to effect that settlement, if our rights should be 
 invaded we are resolved — and we are prepared — to maintain them."t 
 
 We have thus briefly traced the course of those differences which were 
 happily concluded before the administration of affairs was handed over by the 
 Peel government to that of lord John Russell. The territory in dispute has 
 now become the rising colony of British Columbia. In looking to the 
 probable extensive emigration in a few years to this vast territory — in many 
 parts fertile, abundantly watered by numerous streams, and most attractive 
 in adding one more to our gold-productive colonies, — we are struck by an 
 eloquent prediction of the great modern orator of the United States, which 
 was made at Boston three months after the speech of sir Robert Peel on the 
 Oregon question. The anticipation of Mr. Webster carries us forward to the 
 consideration of a Puture of far greater significance than the disputes of the 
 Past. " I believe that it is in the course of Providence, and of human 
 destiny, that a great state is to arise, of English and American descent, 
 whose power will be established over the country on the shores of the 
 Pacific ; and that all those rights of natural and political liberty, all those 
 great principles that both nations have inherited from their fathers, will be 
 transmitted through us to them, so that there will exist at the mouth of 
 the Columbia, or more probably farther south, a great Pacific republic, a 
 nation where our- children may go for a residence, separating themselves from 
 this government, and forming an integral park of a new government, half-way 
 between England and China ; in the most healthful, fertile, and desirable 
 portion of the globe, and quite too far remote from Europe and from this 
 side of the American continent to be under the governmental influence of 
 either country. This state of things is by no means so far off as we may 
 imagine— by no means so remote from the present time as may be 
 supposed ; and, looking to this state of things, this question becomes one 
 upon which intelligent and well-disposed men might very readily come to an 
 agreement." J 
 
 In writing to lord Hardinge on the 4th of July, sir Robert Peel mentions 
 " our reception in England of your closing exploits on tlie Sutlej." In the 
 royal speech, on the prorogation, the Queen congratulated her parliament on 
 theyictorious course and happy conclusion of the war in India, and announced 
 
 * " Annual Register for 1845," p. 288. 
 
 + Hansard, vol. Ixxxi. col. 199. 
 
 :J: "Annual Register for 1845," p. 301.
 
 544 INDIA—THE SIKH WAR. [1845. 
 
 that perfect tranquillity prevailed throughout the whole of the British pos- 
 sessions in that quarter of the world. It was in December, 1845, when the 
 British occupied most of the southern bank of the Sutlej, that the Sikh army- 
 began to cross the river for the purpose of making an attack on the British 
 frontier, Runjeet Sing, the ruler of the Sikhs and the Punjaub, had, up to the 
 time of his death in 1839, always continued on terms of amity with the 
 British government. His son, Kurruck Sing, who died in 1840, was the 
 ruler of the country, his elder brother being imbecile. An illegitimate son 
 of Bunjeet Sing, who succeeded to the government, was assassinated in 1843. 
 His sou, being very young, the mother assumed the power, giving her fa- 
 vourite, Lall Sing, the appointment of Vizier. There was no strong hand, as 
 in the days of Eunjeet Sing, to restrain the army, and thus, having crossed to 
 the southern bank of the Sutlej, they took up an intrenched position at the 
 village of Perozeshah. In this camp the Sikhs had a force of more than 
 50,000 men, with 108 pieces of cannon. The British force, under the com- 
 mander-in-chief, sir Hugh Gough, was advancing from Umballah in order to 
 relieve Ferozepoor, held by sir J. Littler, which had been partially invested. 
 On the 18th of December the British army reached Moodkee, and that even- 
 ing repulsed an attack of the Sikhs. In this battle sir Robert Sale received 
 a wound, of which he died two months afterwards. The British army, con- 
 sisting of 16,700 men, and 69 guns, then marched towards Ferozepoor. Sir 
 Henry Hardinge accompanied the army. Up to the time of the Sikhs cross- 
 ing the Sutlej he had carefully avoided every demonstration which could be 
 construed into an act of hostility. It was now his clear duty to repel 
 aggression, and he put into the performance of that duty all that energy 
 of a chivalrous nature which had so illustrated his career in the Penin- 
 sular war. "Waving the claims of his rank as Governor-General, he 
 offered to sir Hugh Gough to serve under him as second in command. 
 On the 21st and 22nd of December was fought the great battle of 
 Ferozeshah. The British attacked the intrenched camp on the evening of 
 the 21st. The resistance of the Sikhs was most obstinate. Night closed 
 before the British had become masters of a part of the intrenched quadrangle. 
 Their situation was one of considerable peril. The British reserves had been 
 engaged to the last man ; the troops had fought a desperate battle after a long 
 march ; they were wearied, and had little food. A writer, who had access to 
 special information, has given an animated description of the night which fol- 
 lowed the attack on the intrenched camp. " Side by side, with the dying and 
 the dead, the living lay down. They strove to sleep ; some of them did sleep 
 in spite of cold, hunger, thirst, and, worse than all, the cries and groans of their 
 wounded comrades. And all around them and above, the horizon was illumi- 
 nated with the flames of burning huts, exploding shells, tumbrils, ammunition 
 carts, and occasionally a mine. Moreover, they suffered, even then, from a 
 constant fire of artillery, wliich became at one time so annoying — where the 
 Governor-General was in person — that he was forced to order two regiments, 
 the 80th and 1st Bengal Europeans, to charge with the bayonet. But sir 
 Henry Hardinge and sir Hugh Gough knew no rest at all ; they went about 
 from corps to corps, animating the men, and cheerfully demonstrating to the 
 oflicers that there was no alternative but victory or death." * 
 
 * " Quarterly Review," vol. Ixxviii. p. 203.
 
 1846.] THE SIKH -WAR. ^^5 
 
 " The long night wore away," wrote sir Hugh Goiigh, " and dawned the 
 morning of the 22nd." The line was again formed. All the artillery of the 
 British was brought up to the attack, but this arm of war was over-matched 
 by the heavy cannon of the Sikh batteries. Relying upon the unfailing 
 British weapon, the bayonet, the line advanced. The two commanders rode 
 in front. The inner works were carried; the troops entered the village. 
 But the day was not yet gained. The Sikh army of reserve had marched 
 from the camp above Ferozepoor early in the morning, and their advanced 
 guard became engaged with our cavalry. They however drew off, but soon 
 again appeared in tremendous force. Very touching are the words in which 
 the veteran commander-in-chief described his feelings: " The only time I felt 
 a doubt was towards the evening of the 22ud, when the fresh enemy 
 advanced with heavy columns of infantry, cavalry, and guns ; and our cavalry 
 horses were so thoroughly done up that they would not command even a trot, 
 For a moment then I felt regret (and I deeply deplore my want of confidence 
 in Him who never failed me nor forsook me) as each passing shot left me on 
 horseback : but it was oi>ly for a moment." The cavalry movement, with 
 jaded horses and exhausted men, decided the struggle. A panic seized the 
 Sikhs, who believed the British were going to fall on their flank in force. 
 They abandoned their guns, and retreated across the Sutlej. The British in 
 that terrible struggle, almost unmatched in Indian warfare, lost 2415 men, 
 with many distinguished officers. The European regiments were fearfully 
 thinned. Of these the 62nd left half its numbers on the field. 
 
 Having crossed the Sutlej the Sikhs again took up a fortified position. The 
 British army were so destitute of ammunition that they were unable to pre- 
 vent the Sikhs again establishing a portion of their army on the left bank 
 of the river. They intrenched themselves near the village of Alliwall to 
 prevent sir Harry Smith's communication with the main army. With 
 12,000 men and thirty-two guns he attacked them, carried their camp by 
 storm, captured the Avhole of their cannon and munitions of war, and drove 
 the entire force precipitately across the Sutlej. 
 
 On the 10th of February was fought the great battle of Sobraon. The 
 Sikhs had here intrenched themselves on the southern bank, having con- 
 structed a bridge of boats across the river. The victory of Alliwall had 
 enabled sir Harry Smith to unite with the main army. A siege train had 
 arrived from Delhi. Sir Hugh Gough was strong enough to attack the 
 Sikhs, at some moment when the accidents of climate would permit him 
 fairly to engage the enemy. He waited for a fall of rain to swell the 
 ford, or a thaw of snow upon the hills, which would deprive them of any 
 means of crossing except by their bridge of boats. A fall of rain came ; the 
 ford was impracticable. The Sikhs, dislodged from their iutrenchments, 
 retreated acros<s the bridge, which broke down with the weight of the 
 masses, having lost 18,000 men and sixty-seven guns. The British loss was 
 about 2000 killed and wounded. On the 20th of February Lahore, the 
 capital, was occupied ; Dhuleep Sing, the young Maharajah, was rein- 
 stated in the city ; and a treaty was signed by which he was continued in the 
 relation of a friendly sovereign with the British government. 
 
 VOL. vin. — 259.
 
 i'JS 
 
 THE MINISTRY AS FORMED BY LORD JOHN RUSSELL 
 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne 
 
 Lord Cottenham 
 
 Earl of Minto .... 
 
 Right Hon. Lord Jolin Russell 
 
 Right Hon. Charles Wood 
 
 Earl of Auckland 
 
 Right Hon. Sir George Grey 
 
 Right Hon. Viscount Palmerstou 
 Earl Grey .... 
 Right Hon. Sir John Cam Hobhov 
 Earl of Clarendon . 
 Right Hon. T. B. Macaulay 
 Marquis of Clanricarde 
 Lord Campbell . 
 Right Hon. Viscount Morpeth 
 Riwht Hon. H. Labouchere . 
 
 Lord President of the Council. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 Secretary of State for the Home Depart- 
 ment. 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affau-s. 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 President of the Board of Control. 
 President of the Board of Trade. 
 Paymaster of the Forces. 
 Postmaster-General. 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 Woods and Forests. 
 Chief Secretary for Ireland. 
 
 Not of the Cabinet. 
 
 Duke of Wellington , 
 
 Marquis of Anglesey . 
 Right Hon. Fox Maule . 
 Right Hon. T. M. Gibson 
 H. G. Ward, Esq. . 
 Right Hon. R. L. Shiel 
 J. Jervis, Esq. 
 David Dundas, Esq. 
 
 Commander-in-Chief. 
 Master-General of the Ordnance. 
 Secretary at War. 
 
 Vice-President of the Board of Tr&Ie, 
 Secretary of the Admii'alty. 
 Master of the Mint. 
 Attorney-General. 
 Solicitor-General. 
 
 Earl Fortescue 
 Earl Spencer 
 Duke of Norfolk 
 
 Great Officers of State. 
 
 Lord Steward. 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 Master of the Horse. 
 
 Earl of Bessborough 
 
 Right Hon. Maziere Brady . 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Lord Lieutenant. 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Sight Hon. Andrew Rutherford 
 Thomas Maitland, Esq. 
 
 Lord Advocate. 
 Solicitor-General.
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The great Irish Famine — The Potato-Rot of 1845 and 1846 — Modes of relief adopted by tho 
 Government— Mr. O'Connell's call upon England for help — His death — Munificent Sub- 
 scriptions — Irish Landlords and Cottier Tenants — Navigation Laws suspended — Ten Hours' 
 Factory Bill — Abundant Harvest in England — Monetary Pressure and Panic — Excitement 
 on the subject of National Defences — The Duke of Wellington's Letter — Proposed increase 
 of the Income Tax — The House of Commons on the night of the 24th of February — 
 News of the Abdication of Louis Philippe — Real causes of the overthrow of the French 
 Monarchy— The Revolution of 1848 — Provisional Government appointed — Chartism in 
 England revived by the Socialist Revolution — The tenth of April — Preparations of the 
 Government — Physical-force Chartism at an end — The attempt at InsuiTection in Ireland — 
 The French Republic established in bloodshed — Paris in a State of Siege — Prince Louis 
 Napoleon, President — Convulsions of the Continent — Progress of improvement in 
 England — The Public Health Bill — The impulse to social amelioration given by Prince 
 Albert — Free-Trade Banquet at Manchester to celebrate the final extinction of the Corn- 
 Laws — Meeting of Parliament the next day — Tranquillity and Loyalty of England 
 contrasted in the Royal Speech with the condition of the Continental Kingdoms. 
 
 Postscript, 
 
 Tables — Sovereigns — Population — Occupations of the People — Census of Education — Census 
 of Religious Worship — Revenue and Expenditure — Commerce. 
 
 One of the most intelligent and experienced of the ofl&cial men attached 
 to the "Whig Government thus wrote in the beginning of 1848 : " The time 
 has not yet arrived at which any man can with confidence say that he fully 
 appreciates the nature and the bearings of that great event which will long 
 be insepai-ably associated with the year just departed." That event was 
 " the great Irish Famine." This thoughtful writer adds, " Unless we are 
 much deceived, posterity will trace up to that famine the commencement of 
 a salutary revolution in the habits of a nation long singularly unfortunate, 
 and will acknowledge that on this, as on many other occasions, Supreme 
 Wisdom has educed permanent good out of transient evil." * 
 
 We have seen how the first appearances of the Potato-Eot, which was to 
 deprive the population of Ireland of their too-exclusive article of subsistence, 
 induced that alarm in 1845 which was the turning-point in the memorable 
 change of the policy of sir Robert Peel as to the supply of food for the popu- 
 lation of all this kingdom. The disease in the crop of 1845 was not so universal 
 as to prevent a considerable portion being saved ; but the quantity that was 
 
 * •' Edinburgh Review," vol. Ixxxvii. p. 229. Article " On the Irish Crisis," by Sit 
 Charles Trevelyan,
 
 o48 THE POTATO-ROT— GOVERNMENT MEASURES. [1846. 
 
 found unfit for food when the store-pits were opened in 1846, full/ testified 
 to the wisdom of the step which sir Hobert Peel took upon his own respon- 
 sibility before he quitted ofiice, of giving a commission to a great mercantile 
 house to purchase a hundred thousand pounds' worth of Indian corn in the 
 American markets. That supply was intrusted to Irish commissariat officers 
 in the spring of 1846, to sell from various depots at a moderate price, wherever 
 the ordinary supplies of food were found to be deficient. The necessity for 
 something more efi"ectual than even such a timely but partial supply was 
 soon apparent. In 1846 the fatal potato blight took place earlier, and was 
 much more destructive, than in 1845. Father Mathew, the great temperance 
 apostle of Ireland, has described how, on the 27th of July, he saw in a 
 journey from Cork to Dublin the doomed plant blooming in all the luxuri- 
 ance of an abundant harvest ; but how, on his return on the 3rd of August, 
 he beheld one wide waste of putrefying vegetation : " In many places the 
 wretched people were seated on the fences of their decaying gardens, wringing 
 their hands, and wailing bitterly the destruction that had left them foodless." 
 The experience of the partial failure of 1845 had not taught the people that 
 it was dangerous to depend upon one species of food alone. The great pro- 
 portion of the early culture of 1846 was that of potatoes. Towards the end 
 of July the potatoes began to show symptoms of the disease of the previous 
 year. There was first a little brown spot on the leaf; the spots gradually 
 increased in number and size, until the foliage withered, and the stem became 
 brittle. Then, although the stalks remained green, the leaves suddenly black- 
 ened; the growth of the root was arrested; the staple food of a nation had 
 perished. No potatoes were that year pitted. Those that were of any 
 value when dug up were immediately sold or consumed, in the natural appre- 
 hension that they would rot. The autumn came, and it was now found that 
 the potato crop had, with very few local exceptions, universally and entirely 
 failed. 
 
 Before the distress in Ireland had reached its height — before the word 
 "Famine" was the only term which could express the real state of human 
 beings who would die for want of food if help were not bestowed upon them — 
 the government of lord John Eussell had devised various modes for the relief 
 of sufferings and privations which were, even in their early stage, far more 
 extensive than those which had been caused by the failure of the potato crop 
 in various years during the previous quarter of a century. 
 
 On the 28th of August, 1846, the royal assent was given to three Acts 
 especially directed to meet the inevitable failure of the great Irish esculent. 
 They were Acts for the employment of the poor in the distressed districts for 
 a limited period ; for providing additional funds for provisional loans and 
 grants for public works ; and for authorizing a further issue of money in aid 
 of public works. The application of these measures was a tentative process. 
 The Labour Eate Act at the beginning of September was directed to be 
 applied to twenty-four districts, proclaimed to be in a state of distress. At 
 the beginning of October this measure was found ineffectual, and the Lord- 
 Lieutennnt issued a circular authorizing the undertaking of works of per- 
 manent utility. In the House of Commons, on the 20th of January, 1847, 
 lotd John Euasell described how the Labour Eate Act and other Acts of the 
 last session had worked. An immense staO' of servants, upwards of eleven-
 
 1847.] O'CONXELL'S CALL FOR HELP— HIS DEATH. 5iO 
 
 thousand, had been employed to furnish labour to half a million of adults, 
 representing two millions of souls, at an expense estimated for January of 
 800,000Z. It was difl&cult to find trustworthy servants, and to prevent the 
 improper employment upon the works of persons by no means destitute. 
 It was desirable for the government to adopt new measures; to form Eelief 
 Committees empowered to receive subscriptions and levy rates, and to be 
 intrusted with donations from the State. Out of the sums thus raised they 
 were to purchase food, and deliver rations to the famishing inhabitants. The 
 system of affording relief through public works had utterly broken down; 
 tLie payment of money was evidently liable to gross abuse ; and undrest food, 
 such as meal, might be exchanged for less needful articles by the impro- 
 vident. Eations of cooked food offered the most effectual mode of relieving 
 the lielpless and prostrate people. Then begau that beneficial system which 
 was limited by the Act to the 1st of October, and which reached its highest 
 point in July, 1847, when upwards of three millions of persons received separate 
 rations. The Famine was stayed. The harvest was approaching in which the 
 staple food was not affected by the disease. Impressively has it been said 
 by sir Charles Trevelyan — " This enterprise was in truth the grandest 
 attempt ever made to grapple with famine over a wliole country. Organ- 
 ized armies, amounting altogether to some hundreds of thousands, had been 
 rationed before; but neither ancient nor modern history can furnish a 
 parallel to the fact, that upwards of three millions of persons were fed every 
 day in the neighbourhood of their own homes, by admicistrative arrange- 
 ments emanating from and controlled by one central ofiice." * 
 
 The last time that the voice of Daniel O'Connell was heard in Parliament 
 was on the 8th of February, 1847. He called upon the House of Commons to 
 do something speedy and efficacious — some great act of national generosity, 
 calculated upon abroad and liberal scale. " Ireland is in your hands — in your 
 power. If you do not save her, she cannot save herself." The great dema- 
 gogue was dying. The wretched parodists of his system of agitation, which 
 was as powerful for good as for evil — the ranting and swaggering young 
 Irelanders, who, as Charles Lamb said of the early dramatists, used blood as 
 they would "the paint of the property-man in the theatre" — had separated 
 from him w^hen he declared against the employment of physical force to obtain 
 the Repeal of the Union. In the famine he perhaps clearly saw how social 
 evils had been neglected for the advocacy of purely political objects, very 
 uncertain in their possible benefits for the future, and deeply injurious in 
 their present tendency to put aside all real improvement. He died at Genoa 
 on the 15th of May. Had he lived he would have seen and acknowledged 
 how England had answered, not merely his call upon her generosity, but had 
 yielded at once and wholly to the cry that had gone up to Heaven from 
 the afflicted land, and had stretched forth her hand to succour and to save. 
 Distressing as it must be, even at this distance of time, to look back upon the 
 amount of human misery produced by this national calamity, there were cir- 
 cumstances connected with its relief that we can regard with pride and admi- 
 ration. The noble exertions of public officers and private individuals, the 
 unstinting employment of the pecuniary resources of the government, the 
 
 * " Edinburgh Review," s'ol. Ixxxvli. p. 269.
 
 550 MUNIFICENT SUBSCRIPTIONS. [1847. 
 
 munificence of tlie subscriptions sent to Ireland from the sister kingdom, tlie 
 tender sympathy with the sufferers of every true English heart — these 
 might be considered by a captious few as the mere payment of a debt from 
 the happier island ; but if so the payment was large and liberal, and such as 
 could scarcely have been anticipated, even by those who beat understood the 
 English character. Captain Mann, an officer of the Coast Gruard, who had seen 
 the whole course of this great affliction, and who, when the worst was over, said, 
 " I frequently look back upon it as a fearful and horrid dream," was of opinion 
 that " such sufierings, and such help, cannot be easily forgotten." The 
 Government in 1846 and 1847 advanced more than seven millions of money. 
 The British Association for the Relief of the Distress in Ireland and Scot- 
 land applied to Ireland half a million sterling of the subscriptions raised. 
 The Society of Eriends collected in addition 168,000Z. ; and many persons in 
 England contributed largely, independently of any association. Sir Robert 
 Peel, in his Cabinet Memorandum of November 1, 1845, thought there would 
 be no hope of contributions here for Irish relief. He apprehended that the 
 charitable would have Monster meetings and Repeal rent too present to their 
 minds to make any great exertions.* All such feelings quickly passed away. 
 England did her duty. " In the hour of her utmost need, Ireland became 
 sensible of an union of feeling and interest with the rest of the empire, 
 which would have moved hearts less susceptible of every generous and grateful 
 emotion than those of her sons and daughters." f It was during the eventful 
 years from 1846 to 1850 that the vast amount of Emigration took place which 
 has been called the Irish Exodus. Before the gold discoveries in Australia, 
 the emigrants from England and Scotland were comparatively few. " It is to 
 Ireland that we must chiefly ascribe the departure during those five years, of 
 a million and a quarter of emigrants from the ports of the United Kingdom, 
 three-fourths of whom went to the United States." J 
 
 Sir James Graham wrote to sir Robert Peel at the commencement of the 
 alarm with respect to the potato crop, " A great national risk is always 
 incurred when a population so dense as that of Ireland subsists on the 
 potato ; for it is the cheapest and the lowest food, and if it fail no substitute 
 can be found for starving multitudes." § Why was the population of Ire- 
 land driven to subsist on the cheapest and the lowest food ? Why was the 
 agriculture of the South and West in a neglected state, little wheat being 
 grown, with oats inferior for milling purposes, and green crops almost 
 unknown ? Why was the sole foundation for a sufficiency of food the rent- 
 ing of a bit of land on which a family could be located in a miserable cabin ; 
 the population rapidly increasing, inasmuch as land used for raising potatoes 
 will support three times the number as the same land laid down to corn will 
 support ? These small tenures paid the landlord a higher rent than could 
 have been obtained by letting to cultivators on a large scale. The rent of 
 the cottier tenantry was always forthcoming, either in money or in kind. 
 This certain payment, however delayed, was the absolute condition of tlieir 
 precarious existence upon the cheapest and the lowest food. Too often, even in 
 
 * " Memoirs liy Sir Robert Peel," p. 143. 
 
 •j" Sir Charles Trevelyan— " Edinburgh llcview," vol. Ixxxvii. p. 816. 
 
 Z See the Twenty-second Report of the Emigration Commissioners, 1862. Table, p. 65. 
 
 § " Memoirs by Sir Robert Peel," p. 114.
 
 1847.] IRISH LANDLORDS AND COTTIER TENANTS. 551 
 
 tlie best times, tliey were standing on tlie margin of absolute want, especially 
 when tbey were waiting for the ingathering of their crop. It was as truly 
 as boldly said, by a great political economist, soon after the Irish crisis — 
 "With individual exceptions (some of them very honourable ones), the 
 owners of Irish estates do nothing for the land but drain it of its produce." 
 He had previously said — " In no sound theory of private property was it 
 ever contemplated that the proprietor of land should be merely a sinecurist 
 quartered on it."* Mr. O'Connell, in the speech we have quoted, replied 
 to some such inference : — " It is asserted that the Irish landlords do not do 
 their duty. Several of them have done their duty ; others have not. . . . 
 But recollect how incumbered is the property of Ireland, how many of her 
 estates are in Chancery, how many in the hands of trustees." The legiaia- 
 lature did recollect this ; and in 1849 passed the Act by which a Commission 
 for the sale of Incumbered Estates was established. Prom the beneficial 
 operations of this Commission, and through a better spirit infused into the 
 proprietors of unincumbered estates, much of the land has come into the 
 hands of skilful cultivators ; and that race of cottier tenantry, of whose 
 family one or more of its members was supported by beggary, has in great 
 part vanished. Eeligiously end wisely did the Society of Priends in Ireland 
 regard the mysterious dispensation with which their country had been 
 visited in the blight of the potato, "as a means permitted by an AU- 
 wise Providence to exhibit more strikingly the unsound state of its social 
 condition." 
 
 The question of a probable scarcity of food, not only in Ireland and in 
 the Highlands and Isles of Scotland but in the kingdom generally, was very 
 early in the session brought before parliament ; upon a proposal of the 
 government for the total suspension of all import duties upon corn, and of 
 the Navigation Laws through which importation was restricted. There 
 was very little opposition to this measure. The Protectionists were paralyzed 
 by the fearful presence of the Irish famine, which forbad the consideration 
 of class interests whilst three millions of people were crying out for food. 
 Sir Bobert Peel has justly said, that if subsequent events could fairly be 
 taken into account, the various measures taken by parliament to mitigate 
 the sufferings of 1846 and 1847, and "the hurried suspension of the Navi- 
 gation Laws and of the remaining duties en articles of subsistence, would 
 exercise no unfavourable influence on the opinion which might be formed on 
 the precautionary measures of 1846." Unanimously as these measures were 
 passed, as an absolute and uncontrollable necessity, there was scarcely a 
 debate during the session in which the Repeal of the Corn-Laws, and the 
 abolition or reduction of Protective Duties, were not denounced as causes of 
 present injury and of future mischief. When the Budget was brought for- 
 ward, lord George Bentinck denied that free-trade had caused any increased 
 consumption, as afiirmed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, except in 
 slave-grown sugar and in foreign silks ; and he read an address from the 
 Spitalfields weavers to himself, which thus concluded : — " We entertain 
 the idea that had your lordship possessed the reins of government, the 
 people of Ireland would not have perished to the extent they have. 
 
 Jolin Stuart Mill — " Principles of Political Economy," book ii. cliap. ii. sect. 3.
 
 352 TEN HOURS' FACTORY BILL— PARLIAMENT PROROGUED. [1847. 
 
 because we conceive that your lordship would not have regarded the 
 fashionable principles of political economy, whereby the people might have 
 been saved." His lordship with great complacency affirmed that he agreed 
 with them. 
 
 It was during this session that the Ten Hours' Factory Bill was carried 
 upon the motion of Mr. Fielden ; the members of the government being 
 divided in opinion, not only upon the general question of this interference 
 with labour, but as to the probable benefit, or rather injury, of limiting 
 factory labour to ten hours or to eleven hours. Sir Robert Peel was strongly 
 opposed to restrictions of labour which might lessen the power of the opera- 
 tives to command the material necessaries and comforts of life. It had been 
 said that a diminution of the hours of labour would tend to the moral and 
 intellectual improvement of the great labouring class. " I firmly believe," 
 said sir Robert Peel, " that the source of the future peace, happiness, and 
 prosperity of this country, lies in the improvement, religious as weD as 
 moral, of the ditfereut classes of society ; but it is in thus advocating the 
 elevation of the people that I oppose tliese restrictions. I do not deny the 
 advantage of leisure ; but of this I am perfectly convinced, that the real 
 way to improve the condition of the labourer, and to elevate the character 
 of the working classes of this country, is to give them a command over the 
 necessaries of life." When the Bill went to the House of Lords, lord 
 Brougham laughed at the idea of passing the Bill for the sake of mental 
 improvement. After ten hours' work a man was too tired for the task of 
 self-cultivation. He had been trying to educate the peasantry for these 
 twenty-five years, and his constant competitor and antagonist, by which he 
 had always been defeated, was — Sleep. 
 
 On the 23rd of July Parliament was prorogued by the Queen. Her 
 Majesty, after announcing her intention immediately to dissolve the present 
 parliament, said — " I rely with confidence on the loyalty to the throne, and 
 attachment to the free institutions of this country, which animate the great 
 body of my people. I join with them in supplications to Almighty God that 
 the dearth by which we have been afflicted may, by the Divine blessing, be 
 converted into cheapness and plenty." 
 
 The prayer was heard. On the 17th of October thanksgivings were ofi'ered 
 up in all the churches of England for the abundant harvest. But in a 
 country of sucti large and complicated commercial relations as Great Britain, 
 the transition from dearth to plenty cannot produce that universal gladness 
 which is felt in simpler communities, when the garners are newly filled, and 
 the privations of the summer and the dread of the winter are removed in a 
 bounteous autumn. In September and October there had been such a pres- 
 sure upon the merchants and traders as had not been experienced since the 
 great panic of 1825. Mercantile houses in London of the highest eminence 
 suspended their payments. Corresponding disasters occurred at Manchester, 
 Liver|.ool, and Glasgow. All the usual accommodation in the Money Maiket 
 was at an end. In October the alarm swelled into a general panic ; the crash 
 of eminent houses went on in London ; in the country, not only mercantile 
 firms but banks were failing ; the funds fell rapidly ; exchequer bills were at 
 a high rate of discount. On the 19th of October a deputation from the 
 bankers, merchants, and shipowners of Liverpool addressed the Pirst Lord
 
 1847.] MONETARY PANIC— COMMERCIAL DISASTERS. S53 
 
 of the Treasury on the necessity for some remedial measures. On tlie 23rd 
 a deputation of London bankers urged upon the Government to grant relief 
 by a suspension of the Bank Charter Act of 1S44. On the 25th of October 
 a letter was addressed, signed by lord John Russell and the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, to the Governor and Deputy-Governor of the Bank of England, 
 in which it was announced that " her Majesty's Government have come tc 
 the conclusion that a time has arrived when they ought to attempt, by some 
 extraordinary and temporary measure, to restore confidence to the mercantile 
 and manufacturing community." They recommended, therefore, the Direc- 
 tors of the Bank of England to enlarge the amount of their discounts aud 
 advances upon approved security, charging a high rate of interest. The 
 letter added, " if this course should lead to any infringement of the existing 
 law, her Majesty's Government will be prepared to propose to Parliament on 
 its meeting a Bill of Indemnity." The recommendation was immediately 
 acceded to by the Bank of England. There was a partial restoration of con- 
 fidence ; but the ruin had been too widely spread not to make its effects long 
 felt by the mercantile and manufacturing classes, and thus, by abridgiug the 
 capital engaged in the employment of labour, extending the suffering to the 
 class least able to endure it. 
 
 The New Parliament was opened on the 18th of November. Mr. Charles 
 Shaw Lefevre was re-elected Speaker. On the 23rd the royal speech was 
 delivered by Commission. It announced that although the course recom- 
 mended by Ministers to the Bank of England might have led to an infringe- 
 ment of the law, the law had not been infringed. It went on to say that the 
 alarm had subsided ; that the pressure on the banking and commercial 
 interests had been mitigated ; aud that the abundant harvest with which the 
 country had been blessed had alleviated the evils which always accompany 
 a want of employment in the manufacturing districts. On the 30th of 
 November the Chancellor of the Exchequer, in a speech in which he defended 
 the government interference with the Bank Act of 1844, ascribed the recent 
 pressure to the continued drain of available capital for the purchase of foreign 
 corn and for the construction of railways. He moved the appointment of a 
 Select Committee " to inquire into the causes of the recent commercial dis- 
 tress, and how far it has been affected by the laws for regulating the issue of 
 Bank-notes payable on demand." After three nights of debate the motion 
 was agreed to. It is unnecessary to follow the course of that debate. A 
 law was passed for the Prevention of Crime and Outrage in Ireland ; and a 
 Bill to remove the Civil Disabilities of the Jews was read a first time, the 
 second reading being deferred to the 7th of February. The measure proposed 
 by lord John Russell was occasioned by the return at the general election of 
 the baron Rothschild as one of the members for the City of London. It was 
 first presented in the shape of a Resolution, affirming the eligibility of Jews 
 to all functions and ofiBces to which Roman Catholics were admissible by law. 
 The Prime Minister, who was the colleague of baron Rothschild, vindicated 
 his measure in a speech of great eloquence and historical research. He was 
 opposed by sir Robert Inglis and lord Ashley ; he was supported by Mr. 
 Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli. 
 
 On the 20th of December it was moved and carried in both Houses that 
 Parliament sliould be adjourned to the 3rd of February.
 
 554 EXCITEMENT ON THE SUBJECT OF NATIONAL DEFENCES. [1847 
 
 When Parliament met after the Recess, there was existing in the country 
 an unusual excitement on the subject of our national defences. Many may 
 remember how the enjoyment of the great domestic festival of Christmas waa 
 somewhat marred that season, by a letter of the earl of Ellesmere which 
 appeared in the " Times " of the 25th of December, 1847. From the 10th of 
 October, 1846, when the King of the Trench and M. Guizot, his minister, by 
 a stroke of policy intended to circumvent the supposed designs of the British 
 government, secretly prepared and hastily accomplished the double marriage 
 of the Queen of Spain with the Infante of Spain, the duke of Cadiz, and 
 of the Infanta with the duke de Montpensier, the son of Louis Philippe, it 
 was evident that between the two Courts of Prance and England there would 
 no longer be friendship. There had been too much bad faith on the part of 
 the King to permit the old relations to continue, which had existed during 
 the days of the entente cordiale at "Windsor Castle and at the Chateau d'Eu. 
 M. Guizot exaggerated the importance to Prance of the Spanish alliance. He 
 has said, that he had openly laid down the principle that the throne of Spain 
 should not pass from the House of Bourbon, and that he secured its triumph 
 when it was on the point of defeat.* The British government perhaps took an 
 equally exaggerated view of a new Pamily Compact, in being, as M. Guizot 
 infers, more influenced by memory and imagination than enlightened by 
 observation ; the Past casting its mighty shadows over their minds, and 
 leading them to waste their strength in the pursuit or avoidance of phantoms.f 
 Whether the apprehension of the mischief that was especially provided 
 against by the Allied Powers in 1814 were well-founded or unreasonable, the 
 correspondence between the two governments became altered in its character; 
 and the English people, with a natural hatred of trickery, and with peculiar 
 feelings of disgust at some circumstances connected with the marriage of 
 Queen Isabella to the Infante, from that time forth ceased to regard Louis 
 Philippe with the sentiments of respect and confidence which once prevailed. 
 When lord John Eussell, therefore, in making his financial statement for the 
 year exhibited a probable excess of expenditure beyond revenue, occasioned 
 by the Irish famine and by the commercial panic, he said it was obvious that 
 the deficiency must be met by taxation, or by great reductions in the army and 
 navy. He adverted to a Letter of tlie duke of Wellington on our National 
 Defences, which had been described by a foreign writer,^ animated by the most 
 friendly feelings towards England, as a pamphleteering reply to the Prince de 
 Joinville. Nothing, he continued, could be more foreign to the intentions of the 
 duke of Wellington, or could have given him greater pain, than the publica- 
 tion of sentiments which he had confidentially expressed to a brother officer. 
 The duke had communicated to the government what he considered to be a 
 deficiency in our defences ; but it was far from his wish to make any public 
 appeal, or to exasperate relations between England and other countries. It 
 was clear from the statements of lord John Russell that Prance waa the 
 country from which danger was apprehended. " Under a king," he said, 
 " who was a sincere lover of peace, since 1833 the active preparations and 
 
 * Guizot, " Memoirs of Sir R. Peel," p. 336. 
 -I- Ibid., )). S30. 
 X M. Chovallier.
 
 1848.] NEWS OF THE ABDICATIOX OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. 555 
 
 increase of the naval force of Prance liad been very extensive." The propo- 
 sition of the government was to increase the Military, Naval, and Ordnance 
 estimates by 358,000?. ; to lay the foundation of a Militia by a grant of 
 150,000?. ; and to meet the probable deficiency of revenue by increasing the 
 Income Tax to 5 per cent. The proposed armament was moderate, compared 
 with the public alarm on the subject of invasion ; but it was evident that a 
 reduction of expenditure would be strenuously demanded by the union of 
 two very opposite parties — the Free-traders and the country gentlemen. The 
 House of Commons was debating these subjects, when the question whether 
 we could look to the professed friendship of Louis Philippe as our security for 
 peace, or prepare for a rupture arising out of his bitter remembrance of our 
 dissatisfaction with his schemes for the aggrandizement of his house, sud- 
 denly received a solution most unexpected — pregnant with far higher conse- 
 quences than the success or the failure of an obsolete policy, totally out of 
 character with the altered condition of society in which a king could no 
 longer say — " I am the State." 
 
 Mr. Cobden, in his " Historical Episode," — which, however decided may 
 be the bias of his opinions, exhibits many of the qualifications of the histo- 
 rian, — has preserved the recollection of a scene of singular interest. " On the 
 evening of the 24th of February, 1848, whilst the House of Commons was in 
 session, a murmur of conversation suddenly arose at the door, and spread 
 throughout the House, when was witnessed — what never occurred before or 
 since, in the writer's experience — a suspension for a few minutes of all atten- 
 tion to the business of the House, whilst every member was engaged in close 
 and earnest conversation with his neighbour. The intelligence had arrived of 
 the abdication and flight of Louis Philippe, and of the proclamation of the 
 Republic." Mr. Cobden relates a curious anecdote of the impression which 
 this startling intelligence produced upon sir Robert Peel. Mr. Cobden and 
 Mr. Hume were sitting together when the news reached their bench. Mr. 
 Hume stepped across the floor to tell it to the ex-minister ; and on returning 
 to his place, repeated the following remarkable words as sir Robert's 
 commentary : " This comes of trying to carry on a government by means 
 of a mere majority of a Chamber, without regard to the opinion out of 
 doors." * 
 
 Before we proceed to narrate, with necessary brevity, the portentous 
 event which shook Europe to its centre, " witli fear of change perplexing 
 monarchs," we feel it due to M. Guizot, who has been accused of precipita- 
 ting the fall of his sovereign by his conduct in the Spanish marriages, to 
 exhibit his opinion upon this debateable matter : " It has sometimes been 
 said that the Spanish marriages, and the ill-humour which the English govern- 
 ment had felt on their account, were not without their influence in this 
 catastrophe. This is a frivolous mistake with regard to its nature and causes ; 
 thej were altogether internal. It was a social and moral crisis — an earth- 
 quake, Erench at first, and afterwards European, but with which the external 
 relations of States and their Governments had nothing to do." t 
 
 The real causes of the " social and moral crisis," by which the govern- 
 
 * "The Three Panics," p. 12. 
 
 t Guizot, " Memoirs of Sir R. Peel," p. 337.
 
 656 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY. [1848. 
 
 ment of France was overtlirown, were too deeply imbedded ia the feelings 
 and opinions of that large portion of the French people who were sluit out 
 from an active participation in public affairs, to be at first seen and under- 
 stood by political observers in England. The proximate causes were on the 
 surface. A very short time suiEced to reveal, what might have been conjectured 
 from the tendency of much of the current literature of the time, that the em- 
 ployers of labour and the receivers of wages had no bond of union or sympathy j 
 were suf-picious of each other ; were regarding each other as natural enemies, — 
 the one accustomed to view their almost exclusive possession of political power 
 as their exclusive and inalienable right ; the other, debarred from civil 
 privileges, hating the government much, but hating the middle class more, 
 upon whose afi'ections the government was founded. The Opposition in the 
 Chambers were ready to excite this uneasiness in the masses. They wielded 
 the double weapons of the Tribune and the Press ; dangerous as orators they 
 were more dangerous as journalists. Seeking for the attainment of power 
 whilst they strove to accomplish an electoral reform, they did not hesitate to 
 ally themselves with men of more extreme opinions, whose democratic 
 principles were directed rather towards the maintenance of the doctrine of 
 *' Equality" under a new form, than to the assertion of " Liberty," as understood 
 by the founders of the Revolution which had overthrown the ancient monarchy; 
 which was the cry of the indignant citizens who destroyed the monarchy of 
 the Restoration, to place upon the throne one who was proud to call himself 
 a Citizen King. The constitutional opposers of the government of Louis 
 Philippe in 1848 were ready enough to propitiate the assertors of Equality, 
 without perceiving that it had taken a practical shape in which was involved 
 the modification or destruction of all the conditions of society which rested 
 on the basis of individual property exchanging Capital for Labour, and which, 
 carrying out the principle of Competition, regarded the Consumer more than 
 the Producer. A profound thinker has said, " the passion for Equality has 
 never ceased to occupy that deep-seated place in the hearts of the French 
 people which it was the first to seize: it clings to the feelings they cherish 
 most fondly." * In 1848 the principle of Co-operation was regarded by the 
 workmen of France less as a means of benefiting their condition, than as 
 placing all men upon a level. Vain attempt to war against Nature, who, ia 
 making men unequal in bodily and mental vigour, has decreed that the most 
 skilful, the wisest, and the strongest shall be foremost in the race. 
 
 It is not compatible with the limits of our work to enter into any minute 
 detail of the Revolution of February. The legislative session had opened on 
 the 28th of December, 1847. The king's Speech contained an allusion to 
 the agitation for " electoral and parliamentary reform," — which words had 
 become a toast at several provincial banquets. Petitions for reform had been 
 presented to the Cliamber of Deputies. On the opening of the session there 
 liad been discussions in the Cliamber on the legality of peaceful and unarmed 
 political meetings. On the 22ad of February there was to have been a 
 reform banquet in the twelfth arrondissement of Paris — a quarter where the 
 materials for disorder were abundant. The Minister of the Interior forbad 
 the meeting, as the committee for the banquet had proposed a procession of 
 
 • De Tocoucville, " France before the Revolution of 1789," Mr. Reeve's translation, p. 383^
 
 1848.] EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION OF FEBRUARY. 557 
 
 National Guards in uniform, and of students. The uniform of the National 
 Guards had almost disappeared from public view. They were no longer 
 favoured and flattered by the government. The principal leaders of the par- 
 liamentary Opposition now announced that the banquet was a'ljourned, in 
 consequence of the declaration of the Minister of the Interior. This postpone- 
 ment was loudly murmured at by the democratic journalists. On the morning 
 of the 22nd the streets were crowded at an early hour. About noon a crowd 
 surrounded the Chamber of Deputies; and a cry was raised of " Down with 
 Guizot ;" but in the evening the city was quiet. Not so during the night. 
 The government was collecting troops, and the people were raising barri- 
 cades. The rappel was again heard calling out the National Guard at seven 
 in the morning of the 23rd. Some firing soon took place between the 
 populace and the Municipal Guards, But the National Guards had come to 
 an agreement amongst themselves to act the part of conciliators rather than 
 that of the opposers of the people; and their presence in cont'equence prevented 
 any attempt of the regular troops to disperse the multitudes assembled in 
 various quarters. Soon the cry of Vive laReforme was heard amongst groups 
 of the citizen soldiers. The royal occupants of the Tuileries began to be 
 seriously alarmed. A council was hastily summoned, when M. Guizot, finding 
 that the Cabinet could not rely upon the firmness of the king, expressed his 
 determination to retire. He himself announced his resignation to the 
 Cliamber of Deputies. There was joy that night in Paris, for it was thought 
 that the cause of Eeform had gained a victory. Houses were illuminated 
 as if the crisis were passed. But a band of republicans bearing a red fla:^ had 
 come forth, and gathering together before the Hotel of Foreign Affairs 
 occupied by M. Guizot, where a battalion of infantry was stationed, a shot 
 fired from the mob was answered by a volley from the soldiery, and fifty fell, 
 killed or wounded. A procession was immediately formed. The bodies of 
 the dead were carried by torchlight through the streets, amidst the frantic 
 cries of excited crowds demanding vengeance. The opportunity of restoring 
 tranquillity by the exercise of force had passed away. During the night 
 the king had reluctantly d'-cided for concession. He had sent for M. Thiers 
 and off'ered him the formation of a ministry. As the condition of his 
 acceptance M. Thiers stipulated that M. Odillon Barrot should be a member 
 of the Cabinet. This was entirely to yield upon the question of Eeform, 
 and wholly to change the policy of the government. But there was no 
 alternative for the perplexed king. The change of administration was 
 announced by placards in the morning. The command of the troops had 
 been given to Marshal Bugeaud during the night ; and it is probable that he 
 would have adopted no half measures to support the Crown. His command 
 was superseded by the new ministers, who judged that the danger of insur- 
 rection was passed. They were deceived. About noon the popuhice 
 attacked the Palais Royal, and sacked the apartments. The Tuileries was 
 next to be assailed. The king left the palace with his queen. The mob 
 broke in. The throne was carried along the Boulevards, and was burnt at 
 the foot of the column of July. 
 
 The Chamber of Deputies met at half-past twelve, when M. Dupiu 
 announced the abdic-ation of Louis Philippe. M. Dupin also announced 
 that the king had abdicated in favour of his grandson, the comte do Paris,
 
 558 PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT APPOINTED. [1848. 
 
 appointing the ducliess of Orleans regent. The duchess, leading her two 
 sons by the hand, entered the Chamber, accompanied by the duke de Nemours. 
 She said, " I have come here with all I have dear in the world." Some 
 repugnance was manifested at the presence of the royal strangers, but the 
 duchess appearing unwilling to retire, a stormy discussion began. By a law 
 of 1842 it was declared that during the minority of the comte de Paris, in the 
 event of the demise of the king, the duke de Nemours should be regent. The 
 debate turned upon this difficulty. It was soon interrupted by the rush of a 
 crowd that filled all the passages of the Chambers and swarmed into the Hall. 
 The mother and her children were surrounded by armed men ; but still she 
 resolved to remain. She heard the demand for a Provisional Government ; 
 she heard the assertion that a B-egency could not be created. Amidst clamours 
 and threats she was forced by her attendants out of the Hall. The Deputies 
 were scarcely free agents, as, with the applauses or the hisses of the fierce 
 Republicans who were now in command of the situation, the members of a 
 Provisional Government were nominated. Seven Deputies were finally 
 appointed to this responsibility. In the meantime another Provisional Go- 
 vernment had been formed at the Hotel de Ville. The members chosen by 
 the Chamber were Lamartine, Marie, Ledru-Eollin, Cremieux, Dupont de 
 I'Eure, Arago, and Garnier Pages. The Provisional Government of the Hotel 
 de Ville consisted of Marrast, Plocon, Louis Blanc, and Albert. The Seven 
 proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, and there, after violent altercation, came to 
 a compromise with the Four. Liberty and Equality shook hands. There was 
 to be a Republic ; but a Republic in which the principles of Socialism should 
 be the paramount element. At the top of the stairs of the Hotel de Ville, 
 Lamartine proclaimed the Republic to the populace below. The Provisional 
 Government of Eleven declared that the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved ; 
 that a National Assembly should be convoked, the members of the " ex- 
 Chamber of Peers" being forbidden to assemble. On the 25th "a Proclama- 
 tion," signed by Garnier Pages and Louis Blanc, declared that the Provi- 
 sional Government undertook to secure the existence of the workman by 
 labour ; to guarantee labour to all citizens. On the 26th the members pre- 
 sented themselves to the people assembled before the Hotel de Ville ; and 
 there Lamartine proclaimed the abolition of Royalty and the establishment of 
 the Republic, with the exercise of their political rights by the people. The 
 prospect of universal suffrage was made still more agreeable by the announce- 
 ment of the opening of National Workshops for the unemployed workmen. 
 
 Chartism had slumbered in England since the monster petition of 1839.* 
 The principles of Socialism, which had been diligently propagated in Prance 
 during the ten years which preceded the Revolution of 1848, gradually 
 made their way to a small extent in this country. Enthusiasts multiplied, 
 who believed that the evils of Competition were to be swept away by one 
 broad recognition of the blessings of Co-operation. Whilst Robert Owen, 
 the most benevolent of fanatics, still continued to predict that grass would 
 soon grow in the streets of London at the time when happy communities should 
 produce every necessary and every luxury of life for themselves in capacious 
 parallelograms, there were less harmless regenerators of society who asserted 
 
 • Ante, p. 417.
 
 1848.] REVIVAL OF CHARTISM— THE TENTH OF APRIL. 553 
 
 that universal felicity could not exist without the complete establishraont of 
 democratic principles which should know no distinctions of rank and wealth. 
 "Liberty and Property," wrote Voltaire, "is the cry of England. It is of 
 far higher worth than St. George and my right — than Saint Denis and Mount 
 Joy. It is the cry of Nature." The social regenerators of England in 1848, 
 when they had taken the government of the country into their own hands, 
 " would divide the land into small farms, and give every man an opportunity 
 of getting his living by the sweat of his brow." Such was one of the doctrines 
 propounded at "the Convention" held in the week which preceded the great 
 demonstration of the 10th of April. The organ of Chartism was the 
 '* Northern Star," of Mr. Feargus O'Connor, one of the members for Notting- 
 ham ; a brawling ignorant demagogue, who, not without an eye to his own 
 profit, had contrived to induce many hard-working people to subscribe their 
 money to his schemes for establishing " The National Land Company." This 
 association was, in truth, founded upon those rights of property which his dis- 
 ciples, with some inconsistency, were inclined to abolish for all landowners 
 except themselves. In the meantime, whilst the higher mysteries of Chartism 
 only now and then peeped out, the great business of the Chartists was to get 
 up a Petition to Parliament for their five points, which being completed, and 
 alleged to have received 5,706,000 signatures, was to be presented to the 
 House of Commons by Mr. Eeargus O'Connor on the 10th of April. 
 
 The preparations for this day would have been calculated to alarm any 
 other than an energetic government. A great convulsion might have shaken 
 all our institutions into temporary disorder, had not the avowed designs 
 of the physical-force Chartists been promptly met by such an organi- 
 zation as would have crushed mob-violence into annihilation at the moment 
 of its display. The ministry took the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
 He so judiciously arranged a plan for the presence of the military power at 
 every point where a contest might by possibility occur, that, without the 
 display of a single soldier, effectual resistance was impossible. " You have 
 left one point unprotected — one way in which they could escape," said a 
 member of the Cabinet to the great captain. " That was precisely what I 
 intended to do," replied the duke.* But, more than all the combinations of 
 military science was a display of strength which proclaimed to the Chartists, — 
 some of whom were young enthusiasts who had brooded over the evils of society 
 hopelessly and passionately ; many, desperate men, such as the proletaires of 
 Erance ; all, without any definite plan, at the command of ignorant and pre- 
 sumptuous leaders, — that they alone were not the People. On that morning, 
 a hundred and seventy thousand special constables stood shoulder to shoulder 
 in the streets of London, each armed only with a stalf which represented the 
 strength of the law — a band where a real equality of rights and duties placed 
 the peer side by side with the shopkeeper; where the merchant stood 
 amidst his clerks and the manufacturer with his workmen ; where the 
 humblest and the highest exchanged the resolves of good subjects, that, come 
 what might, the generation which had seen so many ameliorations of the state 
 of society peacefully accomplished, should not be disgraced by an attempt to 
 redress grievances by physical force, under the direction of empty-headed 
 
 * We state this from private information.
 
 560 ABORTIVE INSURRECTION IN IRELAND. [1848. 
 
 demagogues. The display of tlie national will, — the unostentatious prepara- 
 tions of the government, and their bold resolve not to prevent the proposed 
 meeting of the Chartists on Kennington Common, but steadily to oppose their 
 return over either of the bridges in processiou, — was enough for present safety 
 and future peace. This resistance to their return in multitudes at night-fall 
 was accomplished, not by the soldiery, who continued unseen to the last, but 
 by the police alone. The great Petition was iguobly carried to the House of 
 Commons in a cart, to be presented by Mr. Feargus O'Connor without his 
 legions. Physical-force Chartism was really at an end, although its revival 
 was several times attempted, to be put down by the same firmness. 
 
 Contemporaneous with the abortive proceedings of disaffection in London, 
 in Glasgow, and in a few provincial towns, was what at first appeared to 
 be a serious renewal of insurrectioa t'l Ireland. An association was in 
 1847 formed in Dublin, called "The Irish Confederation." Of this Con- 
 federation Mr. Smith O'Brien, with several others who attained to dis- 
 tinction as the utterers of the boldest sedition, and the announcers of the 
 bloodiest resolves, were leading authorities. The French Eevolution gave a 
 new impulse to their exertions. " Up with the barricades and invoke the 
 God of battles," cried Mr. Meagher, at a meeting held to congratulate tlie 
 Provisional Government of France. The uttering of seditious speeches was, 
 up to April, an ofi'ence which the law regarded as a misdemeanor ; but an 
 Act was then passed which rendered it felony to compass or imagine the 
 deposition of the Queen, or to give expression to any such intention. Under 
 this Act, Mr. Mitchell was tried and convicted ; and Mr. Dufiy was about to 
 be prosecuted. It was determined by Mr. O'Brien and his bold associates 
 in an act of treason, to rise in August to rescue Mr. Mitchell, and to prevent 
 the trial of Mr. Duffy. A "War Directory was appointed by the Confedera- 
 tion, and a mighty warrior, Mr. O'Brien, was to take the field in person and 
 lead his forces to the overthrow of the despotic government. On the 28th of 
 July the great rebel was in arms. He engaged the Police in a pitched battle 
 near Balliugarry, where he had seven of his army killed and several wounded. 
 On the 5th of August he was arrested at Thurles. The adventure of "the cab- 
 bage-garden" will be long remembered, inconnection with thewise mercy of the 
 government, which, after a few years, permitted his return to Ireland, to warn 
 political fanaticism of the probable danger of that public contempt which awaits 
 the anarchist who is too silly to be mischievous. The insurrection had soon 
 come to an end. There were trials for high treason, of which the ridicule 
 attached to the traitors could not prevent the people acknowledging that their 
 capital sentence was deserved ; rejoicing equally when, in the next year, after 
 the demand of a writ of error, the sentence was commuted to transportation. 
 Ireland was now free to apply herself to the amelioration of her social eviL^-, 
 inst ead of continuing a vain struggle for a separation from a country which 
 had saved her in the direst hour of her calamity, and which was now ready 
 to devote her capital and her skill, in a hearty endeavour to improve the 
 material resources of the neglected land. 
 
 The essential differences between the institutions of England and of France, 
 and the no less remarkable diversity in the political aspirations of the people 
 of each, may in some degree account for the contrast between the two coun- 
 tries which 1848 presented. The insurrectionary movements in the one
 
 1848.] FRENCH REPUBLIC— CONTINENTAL CONVULSIONS. 5H1 
 
 were suppressed -without bloodshed. In tlie other, within four months after 
 the proclamation of the Republic, sixteen thousand persons were killed or 
 wounded in the streets of Paris. The short career of the Provisional Gro- 
 vernment of France had been upheld by military force, amidst the increasing 
 animosities of the Socialists. When the National Assembly was opened and 
 had appointed an Executive Commission of five members, there was an 
 nttempt to form another Provisional Government of those who had now come 
 to be designated as Eed Eepublicans. This attempt was put down. The 
 election of prince Louis Napoleon to a seat in the National Assembly was 
 met by the proposition of a decree for his banishment. He was admitted to take 
 his seat by the vote of a great majority. Close upon this event came the terrible 
 crisis which, after four days' fighting, ended in the total rout of the insurgents ; 
 the appointment of general Cavaignac as Dictator ; and the declaration that 
 Paris was in a state of siege, that is, under martial law. This state endured 
 from the 24th of June till the 20th of October. On the 21st of December 
 prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte took the oath as President of the French 
 Sepublic, to continue in ofiice till May, 1852. 
 
 The year 1848 will be memorable, not only for the Eevolution of France, 
 and its great example of extreme democratic opinions terminating, after a 
 sanguinary struggle, in military despotism, but for the universal up-heaving 
 of the continental kingdoms in an earthquake of which the tremblings have 
 not yet subsided. To trace these events beyond this general reference to 
 them would be beyond the scope of our history. "We could not attempt to 
 narrate the convulsions of Italy; the war between Austria and Sardinia; 
 the insurrection of Hungary and the Hungarian war ; the violated promises 
 of sovereigns to their peoples ; the dead calm, which was not peace, that 
 ensued when Absolutism had triumphed ; without going into a view of cause 
 and effect, of the merit of contending principles, of the balance of good and 
 evil, in the absence of w hich a meagre narrative of occurrences would be 
 wholly unsatisfactory.* 
 
 Amidst the general disquiet of Europe, the Session of Parliament came 
 to a close on the 5th of September. It was in no boastful spirit that the 
 Queen said, that, surrounded by convulsions and wars between neighbouring 
 States, she had had the satisfaction of being able to preserve peace for her own 
 dominions, and to maintain cur domestic tranquillity. " The strength of our 
 institutions has been tried, and has not been found wanting." In these 
 troublous times the social improvement of the country steadily went 
 forward. The great measure of establishing a General Board of Health, and 
 to create Local Boards, was the timely work of this Session. It it! 
 unnecessary to point out how the condition of the cities and towns of this 
 kingdom has been essentially changed — how the amount of human suff'ering 
 has beon lessened, and the moral improvement and contentment of the 
 inhabitants in dense and populous districts promoted, by the Public Health 
 Act. The awakening had succeeded to a lethargic sleep. No one was more 
 strenuous in proclaiming how individual energy was to make legislative 
 
 * In the A ypendix, we do not profe.ss to present the occurrences there briefly noticed iu their 
 chronological succession with any attempt to digest them historically. We ofler those imperfect 
 Annals of nineteen years as some aid to the reader, if he should desire to trace the course of 
 very marked events from the close of this history. 
 VOL. vui.— 260.
 
 562 FREE-TRADE BANQUET— OPENING OF PARLIAMEXT, [1849, 
 
 provisions effectual than Prince Albert. At a meeting of the " Society for 
 Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes," he uttered words 
 ■which sank deep into the national mind : " Depend upon it, the interests of 
 classes too often contrasted are identical, and it is only ignorance which 
 prevents their uniting for each other's advantage. To dispel that ignorance, 
 to show how man can help mun notwitlistauding the complicated stale of 
 civilized society, ought to be the aim of every philanthropic person ; 
 but it is more peculiarly the duty of those who, under the blessing of 
 Divine Providence, enjoy station, wealth, and education." 
 
 On the 31st of January, 1849, there was a public banquet in the Free- 
 trade Hall at Manchester, to celebrate the triumph of that principle which 
 had so often been advocated in that vast room. Two thousand persons were 
 assembled. The renowned leaders of the League were the chief speakers. 
 Their special vocation was now at an end, but they were ready again to do 
 battle for political truth if a defeated party should attain power, and attempt 
 to undo the great work of seven years. The hand of the clock was approac-li- 
 ing the hour which was to begin anotlier day, when the band struck up the 
 inspiriting air of " A good time coming, boys." A chorus, very solemn in its 
 joyfulness, burst from those two thousand voices. As the clock struck twelve, 
 the chairman called for silence. " The good time has come," lie shouted. 
 Then that multitude stood up, and with the British huzza which has struck 
 terror into many an enemy proclaimed that one foe to the well-being of the 
 people was at last laid low. The first of February, so hopefully expected, 
 so patiently waited for, had arrived. The millions who earned their daily 
 bread by the sweat of their brow might at last eat " untaxed food." 
 
 When the Session of Parliament was opened by the Queen on the 1st of 
 February, the same newspaper contained the Speech of her Majesty, and 
 the Eeport of the great banquet at Manchester. The royal speech con- 
 trasted the tranquillity and loyalty of England with the condition of the 
 continent, convulsed by anarchy or trodden down by absolutism. "Who, 
 with any pretence to political philosophy, can now fail to trace this peace 
 and contentment, in a very material degree, to the extinction of that in- 
 justice which had been so long perpetrated by delusive legislation, for the 
 supposed interests of an exclusive class ? The great statesman who accom- 
 plished this work points, W'ith an honest exultation, to those who had been 
 loudest in condemnation of the measures of 1846, who, on the 10th of ^April, 
 1848, openly rejoiced that provision had been made for the total repeal of 
 the Corn-Laws. Yet, he says, these admissions were retracted, on the 
 removal of all danger from popular disaffection. " They were retracted 
 without due reflection on the causes which had interfered in the hour of 
 danger to promote loyalty to the throne, and confidence in the justice of 
 parliament." * 
 
 All these inconsistencies of party feeling have long since passed away. 
 "We have no pleasure in recalling the wearisome period of controversy that 
 preceded the common agreement of all, except a few who still pored over 
 tiieir obsolete statistics, to enter upon a new era of manly exertion, unim- 
 peded by class prejudices nnd unembittered by class animosities. We were 
 
 • " Alenioirs by Sir Robert PceJ," p. 319.
 
 1849.] FINAL EXTINCTION OF THE CORN-LAWS. 563 
 
 becoming an united people, even in that dawning of a brigliter day when the 
 Queen met her Parliament on the 1st of February, 1S49, and said — " 1 
 observe with satisfaction that this portion of the United Kingdom has 
 remained tranquil amidst the convulsions which have disturbed so many 
 parts of Europe. . . . It is with pride and thankfulness that I advert 
 to the loyal spirit of my people, and that attachment to our institutions 
 which has animated them during a period of commercial difficulty, deficient 
 production of food, and political revolution. I look to the protection of 
 Almighty God for favour in our continued progress ; and I trust you will 
 assist me in upholding the fabric of the Constitution, founded as it is upon 
 the principles of freedom and of justice." 
 
 END OF THE HISTORY.
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 1 HAVE thus completed a labour of seven years, in uriting the History 
 of my country from the Roman period to a remarkable epoch of the reign of 
 Queen "Victoria. With a reverent heart I thank the Supreme Controller of 
 all human designs that He has permitted me, in reaching a prolonged term of 
 the life of man, to carry forward my purpose to its close. 
 
 In referring from time to time to the irrevocable results of this long- 
 continued occupation — irrevocable, because this Histcry of four thousand 
 pages has been produced at periodical intervals, thus precluding the power 
 of revising it as a whole — I am conscious of errors that might have been 
 corrected under other circumstances. But 1 am not conscious of any 
 material want of harmony between tlie earlier and the later portions — 
 certainly of no essential discordance of principles and feelings. "Whatever 
 may be the defects of this narration, — stretching over nineteen hundred 
 years of recorded time, and comprehending a vast body of facts, of whose 
 quantity and varied character the Indexes, full as they are, will give an 
 inadequate conception — I am warranted in saying that it is the only complete 
 History of England — a Library History and not a School History — which is 
 the production of one writer. AVith the exception of three Chapters, the 
 " Popular History " has been wholly written by myself.* This unity of 
 thought, whatever may be the knowledge and ability of a historian, must 
 have a certain value beyond what may be attained by a division of labour, 
 lieing the production of one mind, the due proportions of the narrative, 
 from the first Chapter to the last, have, I trust, been maintained. 
 
 Having undertaken, perhaps somewhat rashly, to write a History of 
 England that, regarding only its chronological extent, involved a large range 
 
 * T}iose three chapters are Chap. xxix. of Vol. v. ; Cliap. iv. of Vol. vii. ; and Chap. viii. of 
 Vol. viii. Being confined to the subject of the Fine Arts, I felt that they required technical 
 knowledge and a j)eciiliar judgment to which I could not pretend. I therefore confided them 
 to iMr. Jaiue8 Thome, who has for suuic years coutriLuted many articles on Art to works iu 
 •.vhich I have been engaged.
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 565 
 
 of research, — more especially so as it was intended from the first to embrace 
 the Social as well as the Political History of many ages, — it is scarcely 
 necessary for me to apologize for not having plunged into the great ocean of 
 unpublished State Papers, which have, in very recent days, afforded most 
 valuable materials for the authors of special Histories of particular eras. 
 Such an employment would have rendered it impossible for me to have com- 
 pleted my undertaking in double or treble the years during which it has 
 been my continued occupation. At the same time I may conscientiously state 
 that I have not taken upon trust the facts or opinions of any previous 
 writers of the general history of our country or of tlie history of any 
 detached regnal periods. I have consulted no inconsiderable number of 
 books that are the essential foundations of the English Historical Library ; 
 and for modern times I have not neglected that vast field of Memoirs and 
 Letters, English and Foreign, in which there are always fruits to be gathered 
 by the writer who will diligently seek for them. 
 
 Of the spirit which has animated me during the progress of this work, 
 and has sustained me through the difiiculties of my task, I will venture to 
 say a few words. I had a fixed purpose in view when I commenced it. I 
 addressed myself, not exclusively, but with a steady regard, to those of 
 either sex who were entering upon the serious duties of life. Passing from 
 the elementary works that had been used in the course of ordinary education, 
 there were hundreds to whom a fuller History, — not dry, not didactic, not 
 written with the prejudices of party or sect — would be an acquisition. 
 Peeling my responsibilities to be increased by the fact that my duty was to 
 impart knowledge and not to battle for opinions, my desire has been to 
 cherish that love of Liberty which is best founded upon a sufficient acquaint- 
 ance with its gradual development and final establishment amongst us ; to 
 look with a tolerant judgment even upon those who have sought to govern 
 securely by governing absolutely ; to trace with calmness the efforts of those 
 who have imperilled our national independence by foreign assault or domestic 
 treason, but never to forget that a just love of country is consistent with 
 historical truth ; to carry forward, as far as within the power of one who 
 has watched joyfully and hopefully the great changes of a generation, that 
 spirit of improvement which has been more exte.nsively and permanently 
 called forth in the times of which this concluding Volume treats, than in the 
 whole previous period from the Revolution of 1688. I doubtless have failed 
 in many cases in the accomplishment of my leading purposes ; but the wish 
 to effect these objects has been al\v;i3's present.
 
 566 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 In the Introduction to my First Volume I have stated the circumstances 
 which led me to entertain the idea of writing a book that might be recom- 
 mended for purposes of instruction, " when a Young Man of Eighteen asks 
 for a History of England." "With a pardonable pride, I may presume to 
 mention that my desire to produce such a book has been welcomed in a 
 manner far beyond my hope — I fear beyond my desert. Whilst the Prince of 
 "Wales was pursuing his studies at the University of Cambridge, my History 
 was used as a text-book, and was quoted and recommended by the Reverend 
 Charles Kingsley, the Professor of Modern History, in the course of 
 Lectures which His Eoyal Highness attended. The exalted rank of the 
 Student — the literary eminence of the Professor — combine to render this 
 compliment most grateful to me. It affords me the consolation of believing 
 that, whatever may be the errors and deficiencies of my undertaking, it has 
 been recognized by one whose opinion is of no ordinary value, as a well-meant 
 endeavour to write the History of the Kingdom and of the People with a 
 due sense of my responsibility to be just and truthful, and with a catholicity 
 of mind that may be preserved without the suppression of honestly-formed 
 opinions. 
 
 I am writing the concluding sentences of this Postscript in my birth 
 place — in "Windsor. In solitary walks of my boyhood — by the windings of 
 the Thames, or looking from the gentle hills of the Eorest, — the " proud 
 keep" seldom rose to my view but I connected it with some historical 
 memory. To me those majestic towers were interpreters of Heaven's o'er-past 
 decrees. They formed my mind to look upon the History of my country 
 as the most interesting of studies ; to endeavour to draw from that study 
 a just guide to the public duties of a youth who had the happiness to be 
 born a Briton. If what I have written in these Volumes should inspire 
 similar feelings ; if this History should be found more calculated for truthful 
 instruction than the Histories which were accessible to me in my early 
 days, I have not written in vain. 
 
 In the " Paery Queen," — passages of which present themselves to my 
 memory as I ramble amongst the scenes where I first read that noble poem, 
 a man " of ripe and perfect age " unrols the ancient book of " Briton 
 Moniments" to two youthful champions, who burn with fervent fire to 
 attain a knowledge of "their country's ancestry." As the old man of 
 Spenser unfolded the " records from ancient times derived," to induce that 
 feeling of patriotism which would make his chivalrous visitors brave and 
 courteous maiutaincrs of England's honour, I would point to tlie earliest and
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 567 
 
 to tlie latest of our Annals, to exhort tlie rising generation to a grateful sense 
 of the blessings of •vvliich they are the heirs. To the young man who ia 
 passing into active life at a season in which his country has attained a position 
 of greatness unprecedented, and of security not easily to be shaken, whilst 
 I look back to early days of national danger and difficulty, but never- 
 theless days in which the true Englishman rarely lost heart or hope, — to 
 him especially I would say, in the words of the poet wlio now wears tha 
 Laurel which Spenser wore, 
 
 " Love thou thy land, with love far- brought 
 
 From out the storied Past, and used 
 
 Within the Present, but transfused 
 
 TJao' future time by power of thought." 
 
 CHAELE3 KNIGHT.
 
 568 
 
 
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 P0PU1.AT10N OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 COnNTIE.S OF 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Beilford 
 
 Berks 
 
 Buckingham 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Chester 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Derby 
 
 Devon 
 
 Dorset 
 
 Durham 
 
 Essex 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Hertford 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 Kent 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Jliddlesex 
 
 Monmouth .. , 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Northamiiton 
 
 Northumberland . 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Rutland 
 
 Salop — 
 
 Somerset , 
 
 Stafford 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Sussex 
 
 Warwick ... 
 
 Westmoreland ... 
 
 Wilts 
 
 Worcester 
 
 ^ ( East Riding 
 g < Morth Riding 
 r^ ( West Ridiue 
 
 Total. 
 
 PROVINCES OF 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Leinster ... 
 Munster... 
 Ulster ... 
 Connaught 
 
 Total 
 
 124,478 
 170,065 
 163,723 
 185,405 
 455,725 
 355,558 
 195,492 
 296,084 
 567,093 
 184.207 
 390,997 
 369,318 
 458,805 
 405,370 
 115,489 
 167,298 
 64,183 
 615,766 
 
 2,031,236 
 230,303 
 407,222 
 
 1,886,576 
 157,418 
 442,714 
 212,380 
 303,568 
 270,427 
 170,439 
 22,983 
 229,341 
 443,916 
 608,716 
 337,215 
 683,082 
 336,844 
 475,013 
 5S,2S7 
 254,221 
 276,926 
 257,286 
 215,214 
 
 1,325,495 
 
 1861, 
 
 16,921,888 
 
 1851. 
 
 1,672,591 
 1,857,412 
 2,011,756 
 1,010,211 
 
 6,551,970 
 
 135,287 
 176,256 
 167,993 
 176,016 
 50.% 428 
 369,390 
 205,276 
 339,327 
 584,373 
 188,789 
 508,666 
 404,551 
 485,770 
 481,815 
 123,712 
 173,280 
 64,250 
 733,887 
 
 2,429,440 
 237,412 
 412,246 
 
 2,206,485 
 174,633 
 
 . 434,798 
 227,704 
 343,025 
 293,867 
 170,944 
 21,861 
 240,959 
 44-1,873 
 746,943 
 337,070 
 831,093 
 363,735 
 561,855 
 68,817 
 24'.',311 
 307,397 
 280,660 
 245,154 
 
 1,507,796 
 
 18,954,444 
 
 18G1. 
 
 1,457,635 
 
 1,513,558 
 
 1,914,236 
 
 913,135 
 
 5,798,564 
 
 COUNTIES OF 
 WALES. 
 
 Anglesey .. 
 
 Brecon 
 
 Cardigan .. 
 Carmarthen 
 Carnarvon .. 
 
 Denbigh 
 
 Flint 
 
 Glamorgan.. 
 Merioneth .. 
 Montgomery 
 Pembroke .. 
 Radnor 
 
 Total.. 
 
 SHIRES OP 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Argyll 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Bute 
 
 Caithness 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Dumfries • 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Fife 
 
 Forf^ir 
 
 Haddington 
 
 Inverness 
 
 Kincardine 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 Lanark 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 Nairn 
 
 Orkney & Shetland 
 
 Peebles 
 
 Perth 
 
 Renfrevv 
 
 Roes and Cromarty 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Stirling 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 Wigton 
 
 1851. 
 
 57,327 
 61,474 
 70,796 
 
 110,632 
 87,870 
 92,583 
 68,156 
 
 231,849 
 38,843 
 67,335 
 94,140 
 24,716 
 
 1,005,721 
 
 1801. 
 
 54,609 
 61,627 
 72,245 
 
 111,796 
 95,ti94 
 
 100,778 
 69,737 
 
 317,752 
 38,963 
 66,919 
 96,278 
 25,3.^2 
 
 1,111,780 
 
 1851. 
 
 Total. 
 
 212,032 
 89,298 
 
 189.858 
 54,171 
 36,297 
 16,608 
 38,709 
 22,951 
 45,103 
 78,123 
 
 259,435 
 38,959 
 
 153,546 
 
 191,264 
 36,386 
 96,500 
 34,598 
 8,924 
 43,121 
 
 530,169 
 
 30,135 
 
 9,956 
 
 62,533 
 
 10,738 
 
 138,660 
 
 161,091 
 82,707 
 51,642 
 9,809 
 86,237 
 25,793 
 43,389 
 
 1861. 
 
 2,888,742 
 
 221,569 
 79,724 
 
 198,971 
 59,215 
 36,613 
 16,3yi 
 41,111 
 21,450 
 57,034 
 75,87! 
 
 273,997 
 42,695 
 
 154,770 
 
 204,425 
 37,6:54 
 8t<,8^8 
 34.46ti 
 7,977 
 42,495 
 
 631,566 
 38,645 
 10,065 
 04,065 
 11,408 
 
 133,500 
 
 177,5<il 
 81,406 
 54,119 
 10,449 
 91,2it6 
 25,246 
 42,095 
 
 3,062,294 
 
 1851. 
 
 Males. 
 
 England .. 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotlafid . 
 Ireland 
 
 Total 
 
 8,281,734 
 
 499,491 
 
 1,37.5,479 
 
 3,190,51)7 
 
 13,347,211 
 
 Females. 
 
 8,640,154 
 
 .506.230 
 
 1,513,263 
 
 3,361,463 
 
 14,021,110 
 
 Total. 
 
 16,921,888 
 1,005,721 
 2,888 742 
 6,551,970 
 
 27,368,321 
 
 1861. 
 
 Males. 
 
 9,224,244 
 
 55-2,015 
 
 1,449,848 
 
 2,830,977 
 
 14,063,084 
 
 Females. 
 
 9,730,200 
 
 559,765 
 
 1,012,446 
 
 2,961,587 
 
 14,803,998 
 
 Total. 
 
 18,954,444 
 1,111,780 
 3,062,2!)4 
 5,798,564 
 
 28,927,082
 
 571 
 
 OCCUPATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN, 
 
 And number of Persons engaged in tliem (arranged in the order of the Numbers) in 1851. 
 [This 'lasaitication was not called for in the Census for 1861.] 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Agricultural Labourer . . ) 
 
 1,460,896 
 
 Farm Servant, Shepherd . ^ 
 
 
 Doinestic Servant 
 
 1,038,791 
 
 Cotton, Calico, manufacture, print 
 
 
 ing and dyeing . . . . 
 
 501,465 
 
 Labourer (branch unde-fined) 
 
 376,551 
 
 Farmer, Grazier . . . . 
 
 306,767 
 
 Boot and Shoe maker . 
 
 274,451 
 
 IVIilliner, Dressmaker 
 
 267,791 
 
 Coal-miner 
 
 219,015 
 
 Carpenter, .Joiner . , . . 
 
 182,696 
 
 Army and Navy . 
 
 178,773 
 
 Tailor 
 
 152,672 
 
 Washerwomen, Mangier, Laundry 
 
 
 keeper .... 
 
 146,091 
 
 Woollen Cloth manufacture 
 
 137,814 
 
 Silk manufacture 
 
 114,570 
 
 Blacksmith .... 
 
 112,776 
 
 Worsted manufacture . 
 
 104,061 
 
 Mason, Pavior 
 
 101,442 
 
 Messenger, Porter, and Errand Coj 
 
 101,4-25 
 
 Linen, Flax manufacture 
 
 98,t60 
 
 Seamen (Merchant Sen-ice) on shor 
 
 
 or in British Ports . 
 
 89,206 
 
 Grocer ..... 
 
 85,913 
 
 Gardener .... 
 
 80,946 
 
 Iron manufacture, moulder, founde 
 
 r 80,032 
 
 Innkeeper, Licensed Victualler 
 
 
 Beer-shop keeper 
 
 75,721 
 
 Seamstress, Shirtmaker 
 
 73,008 
 
 Bricklayer .... 
 
 67,989 
 
 Butcher, Meat Salesman 
 
 67,691 
 
 Hose (Stocking) manufacture . 
 
 65,499 
 
 School, — master, mistress 
 
 65,376 
 
 Lace manufacture . 
 
 63,660 
 
 Plumber, Painter, Glazier . 
 
 62,808 
 
 Baker .... 
 
 62,472 
 
 Carman, Carrier, Carter, Drayma 
 
 a 56,981 
 
 Charwoman .... 
 
 65,423 
 
 Diaper (Linen and Woollen). 
 
 49,184 
 
 Engine and Machine maker 
 
 48,082 
 
 Commercial Clerk 
 
 43,760 
 
 Cabinet maker. Upholsterer . 
 
 40,897 
 
 Teacher ^various), Governess 
 
 40,575 
 
 Fisherman, Woman 
 
 38,294 
 
 Boat, Barge, Man, Woman 
 
 37,6.>3 
 
 Miller .... 
 
 37,268 
 
 Earthenware manufacture 
 
 36,512 
 
 Sawyer .... 
 
 35,443 
 
 Railway Labourer . . . . 
 
 34,306 
 
 Straw-plait manufacture 
 
 32,062 
 
 Brick-maker, dealer 
 
 31,108 
 
 Government Civil Service 
 
 30,963 
 
 Hawker, Pedlar 
 
 30,553 
 
 Wheelwright 
 
 30,244 
 
 Glover ..... 
 
 29,882 
 
 Shopkeeper (branch undefined) 
 
 29,800 
 
 Horsekeeper, Groom (not Domestic 
 
 
 Jockey .... 
 
 29,408 
 
 Kail manufacture . 
 
 28,533 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Iron-miner .... 
 
 28,088 
 
 Printer .... 
 
 26,024 
 
 Nurse (not Domestic Servant) 
 
 25,518 
 
 Shipwright, Shipbuilder . . , 
 
 25,201 
 
 Stone Quarrier . . . , 
 
 23,439 
 
 Lodging-house Keeper 
 
 23,089 
 
 Lead-miner . . . 
 
 22,5o0 
 
 Copper-miner 
 
 22,38(3 
 
 Straw Hat and Bonnet maker 
 
 21,902 
 
 Cooper ...... 
 
 20,245 
 
 Watch and Clock maker 
 
 19,159 
 
 Brewer ..... 
 
 18,620 
 
 Dock Labourer, Dock and Harboui 
 
 r 
 
 Service .... 
 
 18,462 
 
 Clergyman of Established Church 
 
 18,587 
 
 Protestant Dissenting Minister 
 
 9,644 
 
 Police .... 
 
 18,348 
 
 Plasterer .... 
 
 17,980 
 
 Warehouse, — Man, Woman . 
 
 17,861 
 
 Saddler, Harness-maker . 
 
 17,583 
 
 Hatter, Hat manufacture 
 
 16,975 
 
 Coachman (not Domestic Servant), 
 
 
 Guard, Postboy . 
 
 16,836 
 
 Law Clerk . . . . 
 
 16,626 
 
 Coachmaker .... 
 
 16,590 
 
 Cowkeeper, Milkseller 
 
 16,526 
 
 Ropemaker .... 
 
 15,965 
 
 Druggist .... 
 
 15,643 
 
 Surgeon, Apothecary 
 
 15,163 
 
 Tin-miner .... 
 
 15,050 
 
 Paper manufacture 
 
 14,501 
 
 Coalheaver, Coal Labourer . 
 
 14,426 
 
 Greengrocer, Fruiterer . 
 
 14,320 
 
 Muslin manufacture . 
 
 14,098 
 
 Confectioner .... 
 
 13,865 
 
 Tinman, Tinker, Tinplate v.'orke 
 
 13,770 
 
 Staymaker . . . . 
 
 13,699 
 
 Solicitor, Attorney, Writer to the 
 
 
 Signet .... 
 
 13,256 
 
 Dyer, Scourer, Calenderer _ . 
 
 12,964 
 
 Currier . . . .' 
 
 12,920 
 
 Builder . . . . . 
 
 12,818 
 
 Farm Bailiff . , . . 
 
 12,805 
 
 Hair-dresser, Wig-maker 
 
 12,173 
 
 Coal-merchant, dealer . 
 
 12,092 
 
 Glass manufacture . 
 
 12,005 
 
 Carpet and Rug manufacture 
 
 11 457 
 
 Goldsmith, Silversmith . 
 
 11,242 
 
 Brass founder, moulder, manufac 
 
 
 ture .... 
 
 11,2C0 
 
 Maltster 
 
 11,150 
 
 Railway Officer, Clerk, Station 
 
 
 Master . . . . . 
 
 10,948 
 
 Bookbinder . . . . . 
 
 10,953 
 
 Road Labourer 
 
 10,923 
 
 Wine and Spirit ^Merchant 
 
 10,467 
 
 Fishmtmger 
 
 10,439 
 
 Merchant . . . . . 
 
 10,256 
 
 Ribbon manufactui-e . 
 
 10,074 
 
 ' This is the Army and Navy of the United Kingdovi, exclusive of the Indian Army and Navy.-
 
 RELIGIOUS WORSHir. 
 
 From the Census, March SOth, 1851. 
 [This classification was not repeated in 1861.] 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 
 Total Xumber 
 
 Open in the 
 
 Sittings 
 
 Attendance 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Worship. 
 
 Morning. 
 
 (Morning). 
 
 (Morning). 
 
 Church of England . 
 
 14,077 
 
 11,794 
 
 4,852,645 
 
 2,541,244 
 
 Methodists ..... 
 
 11,974 
 
 5,566 
 
 1,538,612 
 
 808,752 
 
 Independents .... 
 
 3,244 
 
 2,261 
 
 901,352 
 
 524,612 
 
 Baptists ..... 
 
 2,789 
 
 2,055 
 
 636,864 
 
 360,806 
 
 Quakers ..... 
 
 371 
 
 362 
 
 94,805 
 
 14,364 
 
 Unitarians ..... 
 
 229 
 
 183 
 
 60,044 
 
 28,483 
 
 Presbyterians .... 
 
 161 
 
 149 
 
 86,535 
 
 47,582 
 
 Plymouth Brethren . . . 
 
 132 
 
 101 
 
 14,613 
 
 5,699 
 
 New Church (Swedenborgians) . 
 
 50 
 
 44 
 
 11,465 
 
 4,846 
 
 Sandemanians . . . . 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 956 
 
 439 
 
 Moravians .... 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 8,543 
 
 4,993 
 
 Isolated Congregations . . . 
 
 539 
 
 338 
 
 74,876 
 
 36,969 
 
 33,574 
 
 22,887 
 
 8,281,310 
 
 4,378,789 
 
 Foreign Protestants. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lutherans .... 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2,172 
 
 1,152 
 
 French Protestants . . . 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 530 
 
 225 
 
 Keformed Church, Netherlands . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S50 
 
 70 
 
 "German Protestant Reformers , 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 120 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 3,252 
 
 1,567 
 
 Other Christian CH!JRcnES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 570 
 
 542 
 
 175,309 
 
 252,783 
 
 Greek Church . . . . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 291 
 
 240 
 
 German Catholics 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 300 
 
 500 
 
 Italian Reformers . . . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Catholic and Apostolic (Irvingites) 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 6,545 
 
 3,176 
 
 Latter Day Saints 
 
 222 
 
 147 
 
 23,413 
 
 7,517 
 
 829 
 
 722 
 
 205,858- 
 
 264,216 
 
 Jews ..... 
 
 53 
 
 50 
 
 8,100 
 
 2,910 
 
 Total . . 
 
 34,467 
 
 23.669 
 
 8,498,520 
 
 4,647^482 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 i 
 
 Total Number 
 
 Open in the 
 
 Sittings, 
 
 Attendance 
 
 
 Worship. 
 
 Morning. 
 
 (jlorniug). 
 
 (Morning). 
 
 Established Church of Scotland . 
 
 1183 
 
 1022 
 
 713,567 
 
 351,454 
 
 <^ther Presbyterians 
 
 1431 
 
 1249 
 
 743,773 
 
 467,020 
 
 Episcoi>al Church . . . 
 
 134 
 
 116 
 
 35,769 
 
 26,966 
 
 Independents .... 
 
 192 
 
 169 
 
 70,851 
 
 26,392 
 
 Baptists . . . . . 
 
 119 
 
 98 
 
 24,330 
 
 9,208 
 
 Quakers .... 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2,153 
 
 196 
 
 Unitarians ..... 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2,438 
 
 863 
 
 Mctliodists .... 
 
 82 
 
 65 
 
 21,768 
 
 8,937 
 
 Evangelical Union . . . 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 10,589 
 
 3,895 
 
 Other Fiotestants 
 
 ]3 
 
 12 
 
 1,800 
 
 667 
 
 Isolated Coneregation.s . . . 
 
 60 
 
 41 
 
 9,321 
 
 2,871 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 117 
 
 101 
 
 48,771 
 
 43,878 
 
 Irvingites 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 675 
 
 272 
 
 Latter Day Saints 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 3,177 
 
 1,304 
 
 Jews ...... 
 
 Total .... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 C7 
 
 28 
 
 3395 
 
 2933 
 
 1,689,049 
 
 943,951
 
 ;73 
 
 SCHOOLS. ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 CEiXSUS OF EDUCATION, 1851. 
 Military, Na^al, Corporation, Workhouse, and Prison Schools . 
 
 Endowed Schools • — 
 
 Collegiate and Grammar Schools 
 
 Other endowed Schools . 
 
 Supported by Religious Bodies : — 
 
 Church of England .......... 
 
 Independents .......... 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists ......... 
 
 Roman Catholics .......... 
 
 Undenominational ......,.,, 
 
 Others ........... 
 
 12,703 1,188,785 
 
 Ragged, Orphan, Blind, Deaf and Dumb, Factory, Colliery, and Mechanics' 
 
 Institution Schools, Agricultural Schools, and other Public Schools . 1,081 109,214 
 
 Total of Public Day Schools, as above 15,411 1,413,170 
 
 Total of Private Day Schools . . 29,425 695,422 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 610 
 
 48,826 
 
 566 
 
 35,612 
 
 2,559 
 
 170,667 
 
 3,125 
 
 206,279 
 
 10,5.55 
 
 929,474 
 
 453 
 
 50,186 
 
 381 
 
 41,144 
 
 339 
 
 41,382 
 
 514 
 
 82,597 
 
 466 
 
 44,003 
 
 Total Day Schools 44,836 2,108,592 
 
 Evening Schools, from which returns were obtained in 1851, 1,545 ; Scholars, 39,783, of whom 
 70 per cent, were males. 
 
 Literary, Scientific, and Mechanics' Institutions: — Returns obtained in 1851 from 1,057 Institu- 
 tions, with 163,395 Members. 
 
 SCOTLAND. Day 
 
 Schools. Scholars. 
 
 Supported by General or Local Taxation ....... 1,039 88,900 
 
 ,, ,, Endowments 491 39,537 
 
 ,, ,, Religious Bodies 1,385 114,739 
 
 Other Public Schools 434 36,869 
 
 3,349 280,045 
 Pi ivate Day Schools 1,893 88,472 
 
 Sabbath Schools, 3,803 ; Scholars, 292,549 ; Teachers, 25,411. 
 
 Evening Schools for Adults, 438; Scholars, 15,071. 
 
 Literary and Mechanics' Institutions, 221; Members, 29,655. 
 
 5,242 369,517 
 
 The Census of 1P61 did not require the returns of Education in the above form, but the 
 B' ard of Education Returns, from the Reports of Inspectors, give the number of children attend- 
 ing the inspection of Primary Schools in England and Wales in 1861 as 879,884, and in 1867 as 
 1,210,301. In Scotland in 1S61 (exclusive of Roman Catholic Schools) the number inspected 
 was 148,806, and in 1867 it was 180,799.
 
 PUBLIC INCOME AXD EXPENDITUKE, 
 
 FROM 1815 TO 1850. 
 
 
 Iiicomc. 
 
 Expen 
 
 diture. 
 
 Net Receipts. 
 
 Interest on Debt 
 
 Total Amount 
 
 
 funded and unfunded. 
 
 expended in the Year. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1815 
 
 72,210,;512 
 
 31,576,074 
 
 92,280,180 
 
 1S16 
 
 62,264,546 
 
 32,938,751 
 
 65,169,771 
 
 1817 
 
 52,055,913 
 
 31,436,245 
 
 55,281,238 
 
 1818 
 
 53,747,795 
 
 30,880,244 
 
 53,348,578 
 
 1819 
 
 52,648,847 
 
 30,807,249 
 
 55,406,509 
 
 1820 
 
 54,282,958 
 
 31,157,846 
 
 54.4.)7,247 
 
 1821 
 
 55,834,192 
 
 81,955,304 
 
 57,130,586 
 
 1822 
 
 55,663,650 
 
 29,921,493 
 
 53 710,624 
 
 1823 
 
 57,672,999 
 
 29,215,905 
 
 56,223,740 
 
 1824 
 
 59,362,403 
 
 29,066,350 
 
 59,231,161 
 
 1825 
 
 57,273,869 
 
 28,0o0,237 
 
 61,520,753 
 
 1826 
 
 54,894,989 
 
 28,076,957 
 
 55,081,073 
 
 1827 
 
 54,932,518 
 
 28,230,847 
 
 5.5,823,321 
 
 1828 
 
 55,187,142 
 
 28,095,506 
 
 54,171,141 
 
 1829 
 
 50,786,682 
 
 29,155,612 
 
 51,835,137 
 
 1830 
 
 50,056,616 
 
 29,118,858 
 
 49,078,108 
 
 1831 
 
 46,424,440 
 
 28,341,416 
 
 49,797,156 
 
 1832 
 
 46,988,755 
 
 28,323,751 
 
 46,379,692 
 
 1833 
 
 46,271,326 
 
 28,522,507 
 
 45,782,026 
 
 1834 
 
 46,425.263 
 
 28,504,096 
 
 46,678,079 
 
 1835 
 
 45,893,369 
 
 28,514,610 
 
 45,669,309 
 
 1836 
 
 48,591,180 
 
 29,243,598 
 
 4S 093, 196 
 
 1837 
 
 46,^.75,194 
 
 29,489,571 
 
 49,116,839 
 
 1838 
 
 47,1-33,460 
 
 29,2(:;0,238 
 
 47,686,183 
 
 1839 
 
 47,844,890 
 
 29,454,062 
 
 49,357,691 
 
 1840 
 
 47,567,565 
 
 29,381,718 
 
 49,169,552 
 
 1841 
 
 48,084,360 
 
 29,450,145 
 
 50,185,729 
 
 1842 
 
 46,965,631 
 
 29,428,120 
 
 50,945,169 
 
 1843 
 
 52,532,817 
 
 29,260,160 
 
 51.148,254 
 
 1844 
 
 54,003,754 
 
 80,495,459 
 
 52,211,000 
 
 1845 
 
 53,060,354 
 
 28,253,872 
 
 53,386,603 
 
 1846 
 
 53,790,133 
 
 28,077,i'87 
 
 50,943,830 
 
 1847 
 
 51,546,265 
 
 28,141,531 
 
 54,502,947 
 
 1848 
 
 53,388,717 
 
 28,563,517 
 
 54,185,136 
 
 1849 
 
 52,951,749 
 
 28,323,961 
 
 60,874,696 
 
 1850 
 
 52,810,680 
 
 28,091,590 
 
 50,231,874 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT {continued from p. 384). 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Priucipal. 
 
 Interest. . 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Peace . . 
 
 
 r 1 & 2 
 
 1833 
 
 786,840,165 
 
 29,432,903 
 
 
 
 2& 3 
 
 1839 
 
 787,236,060 
 
 29,385,451 
 
 
 
 3& 4 
 
 1840 
 
 788,644,401 
 
 29.415.924 
 
 
 
 4 & 5 
 
 1841 
 
 792,209.685 
 
 29,462,030 
 
 
 
 5 & 6 
 
 1842 
 
 791.757,816 
 
 29,300,112 
 
 
 'u 
 
 6 & 7 
 
 1843 
 
 792,664,743 
 
 29,047,473 
 
 
 -g- 
 
 7& 8 
 
 1844 
 
 787,987.194 
 
 28,272,652 
 
 
 > 
 
 8& 9 
 
 1845 
 
 785,115,222 
 
 28,125,113 
 
 1 » 
 
 9&10 
 
 1846 
 
 782,977.684 
 
 28,025,253 
 
 
 
 10 & 11 
 
 1847 
 
 790,:^76,351 
 
 28,442,683 
 
 
 
 11 & 12 
 
 1818 
 
 791,817,338 
 
 28,307,343 
 
 
 
 12 & 13 
 
 1849 
 
 790,9-.^7,016 
 
 28,091,579 
 
 " 
 
 
 I 13 & 24 
 
 1S50 
 
 787,029,162 
 
 28,025,523 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... .. 
 
 L ^. ... ^ — 
 
 
 
 . - . „
 
 575 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 REAL OR DECLARED VALUE OP BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE AND 
 MANUFACTURES EXPORTED, 1S15 TO 1850. 
 
 
 £ • 
 
 
 X? 
 
 
 £ 
 
 1815 
 
 51,603.028 
 
 1S27 
 
 37,181,335 
 
 1839 . 
 
 53,233,580 
 
 1816 
 
 41,657,873 
 
 1828 
 
 36,812,756 
 
 1840 
 
 51,406,430 
 
 1817 
 
 41,761,132 
 
 1829 
 
 35,812,623 
 
 1841 
 
 51,634,623 
 
 1818 
 
 46,603,249 
 
 1830 
 
 . 38,271,597 
 
 1842 
 
 47,3'51,023 
 
 1819 
 
 35,203,321 
 
 1831 
 
 37,164,372 
 
 1843 
 
 52,278,449 
 
 1820 
 
 36,424,652 
 
 1832 
 
 36,450,594 
 
 1844 
 
 58,584,292 
 
 1821 
 
 36,6.''>9,630 
 
 1833 
 
 39,667,347 
 
 1845 
 
 60,111,081 
 
 1822 
 
 36,968,964 
 
 1834 
 
 41,649,191 
 
 1846 
 
 57,786,875 
 
 1823 
 
 35,458,048 
 
 1835 
 
 47,372,270 
 
 1847 
 
 58,842,377 
 
 1824 
 
 38,396,300 
 
 1836 
 
 53,368,571 
 
 1848 
 
 52,849,445 
 
 1825 
 
 38,877,388 
 
 1837 
 
 42,069,245 
 
 1849 
 
 63,596,025 
 
 1826 
 
 31,536,723 
 
 1838 
 
 50,060,970 
 
 1850 
 
 70,367,885 
 
 IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN GRAIN. 
 
 The framers of the law of 1829 intended it to prevent fluctuations in the price of English 
 grain, but in seven years, notwithstanding the provision, the price varied from 75s. 3(i. in 1829 to 
 36s. 8d. in 1835, descending regularly every year; while in the thne years, 1829, 1>30, aod 
 1831, there were imported 4.557,736 quarters. The total quantity imported during the next 
 ten years kept increasing, with occasional exceptions ; but in 1845, waiting the repeal of the 
 duty, the importation was only 1,142,700 quarters, of which only 315,615 were taken for home 
 con.sumption. In 1816, after the repeal, there were imported 1,437,944 quarters, and 1,995,852 
 were taken for home consumption. In 1847 there were imported 2,650,058 quarters ; besides 
 6,329,646 cwts. of wheat-m- al, 3,614,637 quarters of Indian corn, and 1,451,020 cwts. of 
 Indian corn-meal. In 1848 there were imported 2,594,013 quarters of wheat, 1,765,475 cwts. 
 of tlour, and 1,586,781 quarteis of Indian corn. In 1849 the imports were 3,872,134 quarters 
 of wheat, 3,371,301 cwts. of flour, 2,247,424 quarters of Indian corn, and 102,173 cwts. of 
 Indian corn-meal. In 1850 were imported 3,754,593 quarters of wheat, 3,855,050 cwts. of 
 flour, 1,286,264 quarters of Indian corn, and 11,401 cwts. of meal. 
 
 From 1851 the computation has been made in cwts., and the wheat and flour placed under 
 the head of wheat, 1 cwt. of flour being reckoned equal to 1| cwt. of grain. In 1851 there was 
 imported a total of 23,161,718 cwts. of wheat, and 7,747,011 cwts. of Indian corn. In 1852, 
 wheat 18,092,627 cwts., Indian corn 6,305,472 cwts. In 1853, wheat 27,077,079 cwts, 
 Indian corn 6,619,213 cwts. In 1854, wheat 19,426,731 cwts., Indian corn 5,784,420 cwts. 
 In 1855, wheat 13,940,322 cwts., Indian corn 5,208,570 cwts. In 1856, wheat 22,611,568 cwts., 
 Indian corn 7,619,199 cwts. In 1857, wheat 17,620,499 cwts., Indian corn 4,931,927 cwts. 
 In 1858, wheat 22,300,941 cwts., Indian corn 7,503,536 cwts. In 1859, wheat 21,497,734 
 cwts., Indian corn 5,632,727 cwts. In 1860, wheat 31,841,926 cwts., Indian corn 7,936,123 
 cwts. In 1861, wheat 37,646,705 cwts., Indian corn 13,244,366 cwts. In 1862, wheat 
 50,042,394 cwts., Indian corn 11,694,818 cwts. In 1863, wheat 30,887,892 c«ts., Indian 
 corn 12,736,594 cwts. In 1864, wheat 28,837,203 cwts., Indian corn 6,285,938 cwts. In 
 1865, wheat 25,843,552 cwts., Indian corn 7,096,033 cwts. In 1866, wheat 29,371,679 cwts., 
 Indian corn 14,322,863 cwts. In 1867, wheat 39,136,780 cwts., Indian corn 8,540,429 cwts. 
 
 AVERAGE GAZETTE PRICES OF BRITISH WHEAT, BARLEY, AND OATS, 
 PER IMPERIAL QUARTER. 
 
 ' 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1860. 
 
 1867. ! 
 
 VTheat . . . 
 ' Barley . . . 
 j Oats .... 
 
 s. d. 
 09 9 
 44 2 
 28 8 
 
 s. d. 
 50 6 
 31 6 
 20 6 
 
 s. d. 
 44 3 
 27 9 
 17 6 
 
 s. d. 
 40 3 
 23 5 
 16 5 
 
 s. d. 
 53 3 
 36 7 
 24 5 
 
 5. d. 
 64 5 
 
 40 1 
 26 1
 
 flTG 
 
 QUANTITIES OF BRITISH WHEAT, BARLEY, AND OATS SOLD IN THE 
 PRINCIPAL MARKET TOWNS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 The Returns were from 290 towns previous to 1865, since that date they have been from only 
 
 150 towns. 
 
 [In Quarters.] 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1860. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Wheat . . . 
 Barley. . . . 
 Oats .... 
 1 
 
 4,637,617 
 
 2,041,130 
 
 960, .334 
 
 5,399,834 
 2,401,130 
 1,022,875 
 
 4,45.3,983 
 
 2,099,821 
 
 851,080 
 
 4,688,247 
 
 2,235,271 
 
 866,082 
 
 4.623,457 
 
 1,787,056 
 
 495,880 
 
 2,724,673 
 1,575,733 
 
 284,776
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ANNALS, 1849-1867. 
 
 BKIEF CHEONOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC EVENTS, 
 
 SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION AND STATISTICS. 
 
 T<ji.. viii.— 261.
 
 ANNALS, 1849-1867. 
 
 1849. 
 
 India. — At tlie opening of Parliament on the 
 1st of February, the Rnyal Speech announced 
 the beginning of a war of a very serious nature : 
 "A rebellion of a formidable character has 
 broken out in the Punjaub, and the Governor- 
 General of ladia has been compelled for the 
 preservation of the peace of the country, to 
 assemble a considerable force, which is now 
 engaged in military operations against the in- 
 surgents." 
 
 [To make the narrative of Indian 
 Affairs in 1849 intelligible, we must 
 trace the orifrin and progress of the war 
 during 1848.] 
 
 On April 18, 1848, Mr. Van Agnew 
 find lieutenant Anderson, in company with 
 Khan Singh, the newly appointed governor 
 of Mooltan, had reached the town of llooltan, 
 and had been killed in a quarrel with the 
 troops of the old governor, Dewan Moolraj ; 
 ■who immediately broke out into open rebellion. 
 On June 18, lieutenant Edwardes, with a small 
 British force, having joined the forces of the 
 Rajah of Bhawalpoor, engaged and defeated 
 the army of Moolraj, who retreated to the 
 town. General Whish undertook to besiege it, 
 but was compelled, by the desertion of Shore 
 Singh with his troops, to raise the siege on 
 Sept. 22. He fell back a few miles, while 
 lord Gough with a relieving army assembled 
 at Ferozepoor, and another large force was con- 
 centrating at Roree. On Oct. 9, Shere Singh 
 separated himself from Moolraj, and skilfully 
 led his army to the country north-west of La- 
 hore, and south-west of Wuzeerabad. Hero he 
 was joined by Chuttur Singh. On Nov. 21, lord 
 Gou^'h found them entrenched on the left bank 
 of the Chenab, behind Eamnuggui', with nearly 
 40,000 men and 28 guns, and attacked them. 
 On the 2ord the Sikhs withdrew ; on Dec. 3, 
 major-general Thackwell crossed the Chenab 
 at Wuzeerabad, a fight took place, and on the 
 4th the rebels retreated to Jailam, a little 
 beyond which place they strongly entrenched 
 themselves. Lord Gough had also crossed the 
 Chfcwub. but Btopped all further fighting till 
 
 Mooltan should have been taken, which place 
 was then being besieged by general Whish. 
 On Dec. 21, the British troops with their 
 Indiarn allies advanced to the attack, they 
 cleared the suburbs, and established themselves 
 within 500 yards of the walls. The place was 
 hea^^ly cannonaded till the 29th, when several 
 breaches were made, a granary was set on fire, 
 and several small magazines exploded. On 
 the 30th the principal magazine containing 
 nearly 800,000 lbs. of powder blew up, killing 
 the Dewan's mother, many of his principal 
 officers, and destroying a great number of 
 houses, mosques, and other public buildings. 
 On the 31st the garrison made a sortie, but 
 the atack was repulsed with great loss to the 
 assailants. 
 
 [To connect the notices of Foreign 
 Affairs in 1849, we give the following 
 very brief abstract of events in 1848.] 
 
 Italy. — Insurrection in Sicily. January 12. 
 Provisional government proclaimed in Palermo. 
 March 18. Insurrection in ]\Iilan against the 
 Austrians. March 19. The Italian flag hoisted 
 in all towns of North Italy. I\farch 23. The 
 king of Sardinia espouses the cause of Italian 
 regeneration against Austria. May 15. Fight- 
 ing at Naples between the royal troops and the 
 National Guard ; the city given up to pilla'-'e 
 and massacre upon the defeat of the people. 
 May 29. The Austrians defeated at Goito by 
 the Sardinian army iinder king Charles Albert. 
 June 1-. The whole of the Venetian territory, 
 except the city of Venice, was in the hands of 
 the Austrians. July 27. Retreat of the Sar- 
 dinian army, after six days' fighting with tlie 
 Austrians. August 4. They capitulated to the 
 Austrian Field-Marshal Radelsky. Sept. 21. 
 Armistice between Sardinia and Austria. 
 
 Germany. — March 13. Revolution at Vienna 
 — Prince Metternich flies fiom the city— Con- 
 stitutional government to be established. 
 March 18. A week of commotion and fighting 
 at Berlin — A new ministry appointed — An 
 amnesty proclaimed. June 16. Renewed con- 
 flicts in Berlin. July 12. The archduke Joliann 
 of Austria installed at Frankfort as lieutenant- 
 general of Germany. Oct. 0. Insurrection in
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Vienna — Count Latour, the minister of war, 
 assassinated. Oct. 16. The emperor of 
 Austria issues a proclamation appointing prince 
 "Windischgratz commander-in-chief, and an- 
 nounces his determination to put dnwn by 
 force the party in rebellion. Oct. 28. Win- 
 dischgratz attacks Vienna with 75,000 men. 
 Nov. 7. The imperial troops in possession of 
 the city — Hungarian troops sent to assist the 
 insurgents are defeated. Dec. 2. Ferdinand 
 II., emperor of Austria, abdicates in favour of 
 his nephew. To the end of the year continued 
 fighting between the Hungarians and Austrians. 
 
 Jan. 5. Buda-Pesth taken by the Austrians, 
 and Kossuth the Hungarian President retires 
 to Debreczin. 
 
 Feb. 1. Parliament opened by the Queen in 
 person. She said in her speech that she hoped 
 the joint-intervention of England and France 
 would produce a permanent settlement of the 
 troubles in Sicily, and stop any further effusion 
 of blood. Feb. 6, the ministers brought in 
 a Bill to continue the suspension of the Habeas 
 Corpus Act in Ireland for six months, which was 
 opposed by 'Mr. J. O'Connell and some other 
 Irish members, but carried through all its stages 
 by large majorities, and received the royal 
 assent on the 27th. Feb. 7, the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer proposed a grant of 50,000^. for 
 the relief of the distress in Ireland, which 
 met with some opposition, but ultimately 
 passed the House of Lords on March 6. 
 
 Feb. 8. The Eoman National Asseml'ly 
 adopts a republican form of government, and 
 divests the Pope of all temporal jiower ; against 
 these decrees the Pope published a protest on 
 the 14th, and on the Ifcth appeals to the 
 Komaii Catholic powers for protection. 
 
 March 6. The emperor of Austria issues the 
 charter of a new constitution for the whole 
 empire. It contained many improvements, 
 but was only accepted by some of the states. 
 
 March 8. The Sardinian government recom- 
 mences hostilities against Austria, and on the 
 23rd. the Sardinian army was utterly routed 
 at Novara. On ihe 25tfa, Carlo Alberto re- 
 signed his crown in favour of his son Victor 
 Emmanuel. 
 
 March 12. The second reading of the Navi- 
 gation Bill was carried in the House of Com- 
 mons by -6(S against 210 ; it passed the House 
 of Lords with little opposition, and received 
 the royal assent on June 26. 
 
 March 30. Haynau, the Austrian commander, 
 takes Brescia, in Italy, with great slaughter of 
 the inhabitants, and nearly the total destruc- 
 tion of the city. 
 
 April 2. Trial of the Paris insurgents. 
 Barbes, Albert, Blac^iui, Sobrier, and Kaspail, 
 transported for various periods. 
 
 April 18. Prince Albert laid the first stone 
 of the Great Grimsby Docks. 
 
 April 24. The Austrians defeated at Gran by 
 the Hungarians, who likewise reoccupy Pesth. 
 
 April 26. Civita Vecchia occupied by Frtnch 
 troops under general Oudinot. 
 
 April' 29. The king of Prussia, who had 
 been elected hereditary emperor of Germany, 
 by the National Assembly at Frankfort, v.n. 
 this day declined by his plenipotentiary the 
 proffered dignity, and rejected the Frankfort 
 framed constitution. 
 
 May 1. Meeting of Protectionists held in 
 the Hall of Commerce, Threadneedle-street, 
 London, under the presidency of the duke of 
 Richmond, to form an association for the pur- 
 pose of "arresting the progress of Free-trade ;" 
 of opposing the repeal of the Navigation Lav.s ; 
 and of re-establishing Protection. 
 
 May 7. The second reading of the Parlia- 
 mentary Oaths Bill, relieving Jews and other 
 dissenters from certain parts of the existing 
 oath, was carried by 278 to 185. After p.ass- 
 ing the Commons, the Bill was thrown out by 
 the Lords on June 26, by a majority of 9.'> 
 to 70. 
 
 May 7. An insurrection having broken out 
 in Dresden on the 3rd, the city was on this 
 day bombarded by Prussian and Saxon troops, 
 and the insurgents were driven out of the tows. 
 
 May 11. On the appeal by writ of error to 
 the House of Lords by W. Smith O'Brien and 
 three others, the judgment was confirmed, ami 
 they were all sentenced to transportation. 
 
 May lo. Prince Albert addressed a puMiiJ 
 meeting nf the Servants' Provident and Bene- 
 volent Society, pointing out and recommending 
 the advantages of vesting savings in govern- 
 ment annuities. He told them that their 
 society was founded on the correct principle 
 "which requires every man by personal exer- 
 tions, and at his own choice, to work out his 
 own hapjiiness." 
 
 May ly. A large meeting held at Cape Town, 
 to express the indignation of the whole colony 
 against the attempt of the Colonial Ofiice to 
 make the Cape a penal colony. The same 
 feeling had been expressed at previous meet- 
 ings. Subsequently the inhabitants combined 
 to refuse supplies to the public departments ; 
 and at length the intention was abandoned. 
 
 Jlay 2?. The Legislative Assembly of the 
 French Kepublic holds its first sitting. 
 
 June 3. The French army, commanded by 
 general Oudmot, commences its attack on 
 Rome. After a brave defence it was sur- 
 rendered on July 3. 
 
 June 4. The Incumbered Estates, Ireland, 
 Bill passed the House of Commons alter a 
 slight opposition ; it received the royal assent 
 on July 28. 
 
 June 1 3. A red republican procession visit the 
 National Assembly in Paris, ostensibly to pre- 
 sent a petition, but in a threatening attitude. 
 They were dispersed by the troops without 
 violence ; but Paris is thereupon declared in 
 a state of siege by the Assembly ; and on the 
 14th several of the newspapers were ordered 
 to be suppressed, and Ledru Kollin and others 
 to be pro,secuted for conspiracy, and endeavour- 
 ing to excite a civil war. Several of the 
 leaders in the niovomeut succeeded in maLLng 
 their escape.
 
 sso 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 June 21. The Russians, wlio had entered 
 Hungary in aid of the Austrians, take Kron- 
 Ktadt, and having; joined the Austrian array 
 under general Wohlgemuth, defeat the Hun- 
 garians at Szered ; and on the 23rd defeat 
 them again at Eperies. On August 2 the 
 Russians captured Debreczin. 
 
 June 27. A public meeting held at the 
 London Tavern, London, to receive a deputa- 
 tion from Ireland, on the subject of the distress 
 in that country. 
 
 July G. The German army, which had been 
 sent to the aid of the Schleswig-Holstein insur- 
 gents, and was besieging Fredericia, defeated 
 by the Danes, who took 1800 prisoners. An 
 armistice for six months between Denmark and 
 Prussia, was concluded on the 10th. 
 
 July 12. Serious affray between the Orange- 
 men and the Roman Catholics at Dolly's Brae, 
 near Castlewellan, in Ireland. Several of the 
 Roman Catholics were killed, and some of 
 their houses wrecked and burnt. On Sept. 13, 
 a majority of the magistrates in petty sessions, 
 by their chairman, the earl of Roden, refused 
 to take informations against the Orangemen 
 accused of the offence. The refusal was re- 
 peated on Oct. 9, for which the earl of Roden 
 and two other justices were discharged from 
 the magistracy. 
 
 July 27. An insurrection broke out in 
 Cejihalonia and Corfu, which was suppressed, 
 and the instigators punished. 
 
 Aug. 9. The Hungarians after various alter- 
 nations of success and defeats were utterly 
 routed at Temeswar ; and on the 13th the 
 remains of the army and Gorgey surrendered 
 to the Russians at Grosswardein. 
 
 Aug. 22. Venice surrendered to the Austrians 
 after an energetic defence. 
 
 Sept. 8. Louis Napoleon, president of the 
 French Republic, publishes a letter to colonel 
 Ney, insisting on a general amnesty, a secular 
 administration, and other improvements for 
 the subjects of the Pope. 
 
 Sept. 16. Prayers offered up in all the 
 ehurches for the removal of the chnlera, which 
 was raging with great intensity. It continued 
 to prevail during the autumn, till on Nov. 15, 
 thanksgivings were offered on its cessation. 
 
 Oct. 30. The president of the French Re- 
 public dismisses his ministry. 
 
 Nov. 3. Sir James Ross returns from an 
 unsuccessful search after sir John Franklin. 
 
 Nov. 5. Russia and Austria require Turkey 
 to withdraw her protection from the Hun- 
 garian refugees who had fled into her territory ; 
 this is refused. Turkey appeals to England, 
 and on this day the British fleet entered the 
 Dardanelles ; where, however, it returned on 
 the 13th to Besika Bay. 
 
 Nov. 7. The inauguration of the Queen's 
 College at Cork took place on this day. 
 
 Dec. 1. The queen-dowager Adelaide died at 
 Bcntley Priory, Staiiin<ire, Middlesex, aged 57. 
 
 Dec. ](!. At Mullinahone, in Tipperary, a 
 vast assemblage of tenant-farmois and cottiers 
 Diet lo jictition in favour of tenant-right, 
 
 wliich included lower rents determined by a 
 valuation, compensation on quitting for per- 
 manent improvements, and a lea.se. This 
 meeting was followed by many others with the 
 same object. 
 
 Dec. 28. Letter appeared from sir Robert 
 Peel to his tenantry on "the Present State 
 and Prospects of Agriculture." 
 
 India. — On Jan. 2, 1849, a breach was 
 made near the Delhi gate, but the entrance 
 was not found practicable ; but the Bombay 
 column had forced an entrance on the oppo- 
 site side of the town, which was ultimately 
 taken possession of by the British troops ; the 
 fort having been captured on the following day, 
 while the citadel still remained in possession 
 of Moolraj. On Jan. 13, lord Gough having 
 advanced towards the Jhelum with 22,000 men 
 and 130 guns, found himself in front of the 
 Sikh army, which, under the comm'ind of 
 Shere Singh, occupied a long line from Moong to 
 Russool. Here the British troops were halted, 
 in order to give them a day's rest before at- 
 tacking the enemy. The Sikh batteries, how- 
 ever, some of which were within range, com- 
 menced firing on the British position, some of 
 the shot falling close to the commander-in- 
 chief. This occasioned him to change his plan, 
 and a cannonade was ordered on the enemy's 
 centre, which was kept up on both sides for 
 an hour or two. Lord Gough ordered a flank 
 movement of infantry to be made on the left, 
 but it was met by a concealed battery. The 
 repulse occasioned some confusion. A regi- 
 ment of light dragoons retreated in consequence 
 of a misunderstandiog of orders, and one ca- 
 valry regiment turned and fled. Night put an 
 end to the combat ; the British bivouacke<i 
 near the field of battle, and the Sikhs with- 
 drew. This was the battle of Chillianwallah, 
 in which the British lo.ss was 731 men killed, 
 and 1 446 wounded. That of the Sikhs was far 
 greater. On the 22nd, Moolraj, the citadel of 
 Mooltan having become untenable, surrendered 
 himself and his garrison unconditionally. 
 
 On Feb. 15, lord Gough having discovered 
 that Shere Singh, with the main body of his 
 army, instead of leaving, crossed the Jhelum, 
 was on his march to Lahore, advanced in pur- 
 suit. Genei-al Whish had in the meantime ar- 
 rived at Ramnuggur, with a brigade of his 
 force, and learning that Shere Singh was ap- 
 proaching Wuzeerabad, dispatched col. Byrne 
 with a detachment of men and guns to prevent 
 or delay his crossing the Chenab. This was 
 effected ; and the Sikh army encamped itself 
 near Goojerat. The British forces under ge- 
 neral Whish, and brigadiers Markhara and 
 Ilervey, were then enabled to cross the Chenab, 
 and co-operate with lord Gough, who conti- 
 nued to advance. On Feb. 21 took place the 
 battle of Goojerat. Lord Gough, with 25, 000 
 men and 100 guns, attacked the strongly posted 
 Sikh array of t!0,000 men and 59 guns. After 
 nine hours of obstinate fighting, the Sikhs v/ere 
 totally routed, and Shero Singh escaped to the
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 581 
 
 Salt Rauge Hills with only SOOO men. Ou 
 JIarch 8, he came to the British camp to pro- 
 pose a capitulation, but was told that nothing 
 hut an unconditional surrender would be ac- 
 cepted. On the 14th this was made, and the 
 Sikh forces laid down their arms. 
 
 The Afghans, under Dost Mahomed, had 
 taken a hostile part against the British during 
 this contest. They had taken the fort of At- 
 toek, and captured several British officers. Sir 
 \Ym. Gibert was sent against them, and, after 
 eome other successes, on March 21, Dost Ma- 
 homed and the remnant of his army reached 
 the Khyber Pass, through which they were 
 able to retreat unmolested. On March 29, the 
 Got ernor- General of India issued a proclamation 
 that the Punjaub was annexed to the British 
 dominions. In July, Moolraj was tried and 
 found guilty of the murder of Mr. Agnew and 
 lieut. Anderson, but was recommended to 
 mercy, and in September he was sentenced to 
 be transported for life. 
 
 LEGISLATIOIS'. Session 12 & 13 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 29. An Act to amend the Laws in force 
 for the Encouragement of British Shipping 
 and Navigation. 
 
 Gap. 77. Further to facilitate the State 
 and Transfer of Incumbered Estates in 
 Ireland. 
 
 Cap. 106. To amend and consolidate the 
 Laios relating to Banh-uptni. 
 
 Cap. 111. To amend the Nuisances Removal 
 and Diseases PrevoUion Act, ISiS. 
 
 Revenue, 52,951,749/. ; Expenditure — 
 Army and Ordnance, S,8S1,141Z. ; Navy, 
 6,942,397/.; for all objects, 50,853,623/.; 
 Debt, 790,927,017/. 
 
 Exports cf British and Irish Produce and 
 Manufactures, 63,596,025/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 41,307; to the United States, 219,450; to 
 the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 32,191; to all other ' places, 6490: total, 
 299,498. 
 
 Eailway Traffic : Miles open, 6031 ; number 
 of passengers, 63,841,539 ; traffic receijjts, 
 11,806,498/. 
 
 Number of Paupers iu England and Ireland, 
 on Jan. 1, 1,555,166. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Jan. 3. A proclamation issued by the Queen, 
 appointing a Commission for the Promotion of 
 the Works of Industry of all Nations, to be 
 holden in 1851, of which prince Albert became 
 the acting chief. In pursuance of this object a 
 numerous meeting was held at the Mansion- 
 house, London, on the 25th. 
 
 Jan. 10. The Enterprise and Investigator 
 leave Woolwich in search of sir John Fraidclin. 
 
 Jan. 17. A meeting of the Manchester Cham- 
 ber of Commerce took place, in order to con- 
 sider the important question of how best to 
 insure a more certain and steady supply of 
 cotton. Several suggestions were offered, but 
 no important mode of action was decided on. 
 
 Jan. ol. Parliament opened by commission. 
 The speech announced the happy continuance 
 of peace and amity with foreign powers; that 
 the differences which had arisen between Aus- 
 tria and Turkey respecting the reception of the 
 Hungarian refugees was peacefully terminated ; 
 that the United States and Sweden had granted 
 reciprocity to British ships; the speech then 
 referred to the cholera, and to the loyal recep- 
 tion of her majesty in Ireland ; it congratulated 
 the Houses on the improved condition of com- 
 merce and manufactures, and upon the freedom 
 of the kingdom from the wars and convulsions 
 which had prevailed during the last two years 
 on the continent of Europe. 
 
 Feb. 4. Social riots in Paris occasioned by 
 the orders for the police to cut down the trees 
 of liberty ; this continued for two days, but 
 the mobs were dispersed by the troops. 
 
 Feb. 6. The king of Prussia takes the oaths 
 t^ the new constitution agreed upon for that 
 kingdom. 
 
 March 15. The Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 made his financial statement. He showed that 
 there would be a surplus of revenue, with 
 which he proposed to remove the duty on 
 bricks, and to make loans for purposes of 
 drainage and agricultural improvement to En" 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 March 15. The king of Wiirtemberg opens 
 his States Assembly with a speech attacking 
 the insidious ambition of Russia, and announc- 
 ing the formation of a league, under the sanc- 
 tion of Austria, between Wiirtemberg, Bava- 
 ria, and Saxony. 
 
 March 21. A grand banquet was given at 
 the Mansion-house by the lord mayor of London 
 to the mayors of 188 towns, to the foreign am- 
 bassadors, the ministers and prince Albert, to 
 promote and forward the project of the Great 
 International Exhibition. In his speech to the 
 meeting, prince Albert said, " It must indeed 
 be most gratifying to me to find that a sugges- 
 tion which I had thrown out, as appearing to 
 me of importance at this time, should have 
 met with such universal concurrence and aji- 
 probatioii." 
 
 June 17. In the House of Lords, a resolution 
 was moved by lord Stanley condemnatory of 
 the foreign policy of ministers in relation to 
 the affairs of Greece, which was carried aftei 
 some debate by a majority of o7 against minis- 
 ters. On the 20th, Mr. Roebuck gave notice 
 iu the House of Commons of his intention to 
 move a resolution apjiroving the whole foreign 
 policy of the government. The debate on this 
 resolution commenced on the 2Jth, and was 
 continued on the 25th and the 2Sih, when 
 the House divided — For the resolution, 310 ; 
 against it, 264 ; majority in favour of minis- 
 ters, 46. 
 
 July 2. Sir Robert Peel died in consequence 
 of a fall from his horse on June 29, aged 62. 
 On July 4, lord John Russell pronounced a 
 panegyric on the deceased statesman, and sug- 
 gested a public funeral, which was decline<i, 
 ou the ground of his own expressed wish, "'to
 
 582 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 bo interred without ostentation or parable of 
 any kind." On .July 22, a numerous meeting 
 was held at Willis's llooms to consider of 
 means to perpetuate his memory. On the 10th 
 a meeting had been held at Bury to promote the 
 erection of a monument to his memory at his 
 native place ; and. on the 1 5th, one in the city 
 of London for a national testimonial. 
 
 July 4. A protocol, signed in London, on 
 the part of Great Britain, France, Prussia, and 
 Sweden, guaranteeing the integrity of the ter- 
 ritories of Denmark. A peace had been con- 
 cluded between Denmark and Prussia on 
 the 2nd respecting the duchies, but the 
 Schleswig-Holsteiners refused to submit. On 
 the 25th, the Danish army totally defeated the 
 insurgents at Idsted, and entered the town of 
 Schleswig. 
 
 July 22. Lord John Russell withdrew in 
 the House of Commons the Jews' Oath of Ab- 
 juration BilL On the 2Gth the Baron de 
 Rothschild presented himself at the table of 
 the House to take the oaths as member for the 
 City of London, but on saying that he desired 
 to be sworn on the Old Testament, a stormy 
 debate arose, which was aiijourned. It was 
 resumed on the 29th, and on the motion of 
 Mr. Hume that the clerk be directed to swear 
 the baron on the Old Testament, the House 
 divided after a debate— for the motion 113, 
 against it 59. 
 
 Aug. 18. The parliament was prorogued by 
 her i^Iajesty in person. 
 
 Aug. 28. The submarine telegraph wire was 
 Runk between Dover and Cape Grisuez, near 
 Calais. 
 
 Aug. 30. Prince Albert laid the foundation 
 stone of the National Gallery at Edinburgh. 
 In his address on the occasion he said — " Let 
 us hope that the impulse given to the culture 
 of the Fine Arts in this country, and the daily 
 increasing attention bestowed upon it by the 
 people at large, will not only tend to refine 
 and elevate the national tastes, but will al.so 
 tend to the production of woiks, which, if left 
 behind us as the memorials of the age, will 
 give to after generations an adequate idea of 
 our advanced state of civilization," 
 
 Sept. 1. The Elector of Hesse Cassel declares 
 his dominions in a state of siege in consequence 
 of the Chamber requiring to have a regular 
 budget laid before them, in concordance with 
 the constitution of 1831. An insurrection 
 takes place, and on the 13th the lilector fled 
 to Hanover. He is restored liy Austrian and 
 Bavarian troops, although Prussia declared 
 her intention of supporting the constitution 
 against the Elector, advanced troops, and even 
 took ])osses.sion of Cassel, but ultimately with- 
 drew them on Dec. 5; and on J)ec. 10 an 
 order was issued by the prime-miuister of 
 Heb.se, for the immediate jL-tyment of the 
 taxes refused by the Chamber under pain of 
 fine and imjirisonment. 
 
 Sept. 10. The Roman Catholic Synnd, which 
 liad met at Thurles in Ireland on Aug. 22, 
 closed its labours by condemning the establish- 
 
 ment of the Queen's Colleges, and prop (ijing 
 a Roman Catholic university. 
 
 Oct. 25. A return banquet for the purjjose 
 of promoting the great International Exhibi- 
 tion of 1851, was given by the Lord Mayor of 
 York to tlie Lord Mayor of London and the 
 mayors of the principal cities and boroughs of 
 the United Kingdom, at which prince Albert 
 was present. On his health being drunk, ho 
 pronounced a warm eulogium on the late sir 
 Robert Peel. In the course of it he said, "If 
 he has had so great an influence over this 
 country, it was from the nation recognizing in 
 his qualities tlie true type of the English 
 character, which is essentially practical. 
 Warmly attached to his institutions, and 
 revering the bequests left to him by the in- 
 dustry, wisdom, and piety of his forefathers, 
 the Englishman attaches little value to any 
 theoretical scheme. It will attract his atten- 
 tion only alter having been for some time 
 placed before him ; it must have been 
 thoroughly investigated and discussed before 
 he will eutertriin it. Should it be an empty 
 theory, it will fall to the ground during this 
 time of probation ; should it survive this trial, 
 it will be on account of the practical qualities 
 contained in it ; but its adoption in the end 
 will entirely depend upon its harmonizing with 
 the national feeling, the historical development 
 of the country, and the peculiar nature of its 
 institutions." 
 
 Dec. 0. Cardinal Wiseman was enthroned as 
 an archbishop. The act caused an extreme 
 agitation throughout the country. On the 
 loth various addresses were presented to her 
 IVIajesty on the subject of this aggression. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 13 & 14 Victoiii^, 
 
 Cap. 2. An Act to restrain Party Proces- 
 sions in Ireland. 
 
 Cap. 33. To maJce more effectual Provi- 
 sion for regulating the Police of 2'oivns 
 and populous Places in Scotland, and for 
 paling, draining, cleansing, lighting, and 
 improving the same. This is the first general 
 and comprehensive Act for the management of 
 towns in Scotland. 
 
 Cap. 52. To make belter Provision for the 
 Interment of the Dead in and near tlie 
 Metropolis. This gives power for the forma- 
 tion of extra-mural cemeteries, and forbid.s, 
 after certain orders have been issued, the 
 buiial in any of the parish churches or chotdi- 
 yaids within the metropolitan district. 
 
 Cap. 59. For the better Government of 
 her Majesty's Australian Colonies, forming 
 the colony of Victoria, giving a representative 
 c(jnstiti]tion, and empowering the legislative 
 body to levy customs, duties, and other taxes. 
 
 Cap. G5. For enabling Town CounciU to 
 establish Public Libraries and Museums. 
 
 Cap. 93. For improving the Conditions 
 of Masters, Mates, and Seamen, and 
 maintaining Discipline in the Merchant Ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Cap. 99. For the letter assessing and
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ■ooUecting the Ponr Fcl'^s and Jlir/hwaj/ 
 Fates in respect of small Tenemevts. Tlie Act 
 gives power to vestries to determine whether 
 tenements of a rateable value of ntjt more than 
 6^. shall be rated to the owners or the dcpupieis. 
 
 Kevenue, 52,810,680/. ; Expenditure- 
 Army and Ordnance, 8,955,0(51/. ; Navy, 
 6,437,883/. ; for all objects, 50/231,874/. ; 
 Debt, 787,029,162/. 
 
 Exports cf British and Irish Produce and 
 ]\IaMufactures, 71,367,S;5/. : total of exports, 
 73,300,951/. 
 
 Eiiiigration — to North American Colonies, 
 32,961 ; to the United States, 223,078 ; 
 to the Australian Colonies and New Zea- 
 land, 16,037 ; to all other places, 8,773: total, 
 280,849. 
 
 Hallway Traffic : Miles open, 6,221 ; nyniber 
 of passengers, 72,851,422 ; traffic receipts, 
 13,204,668/. 
 
 Number of Paupers in P^ngland and Ireland, 
 1,228,513. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Jan. 2. The French niiuistry resigned ; on 
 the 10th the Moniteur contained the official 
 list of the new ministry appointed by the 
 Prince President. The new ministers weie on 
 the evening of the 10th defeated in the Legis- 
 lative Assembly on a point of minor impor- 
 tance by 330 to 258. On the 18th the assem- 
 bly passed a vote of want of confideuce in tlie 
 ministry, by 417 to 278. On the 24th a mes- 
 sage from the Prince President was received. 
 Communicating the formation of a Cabinet 
 composed of persons not members of the 
 assembly. 
 
 Jan. 1 0. General Changarnier deprived of his 
 offices as commander of the National Guards 
 and of a division of the army. 
 
 Jan. 27. Earl Grey, the Secretary of State 
 for the Colonies, in a despatch to the Governor 
 of Canada, relinquished to the provincial legis- 
 lature the right of disposing absolutely of the 
 ■clergy reserves in Canada. 
 
 Feb. 4. Parliament opened by the Queen in 
 person, who in the royal speech intimated 
 that a bill in reference to ecclesiastical titles 
 would be introduced to Parliament in conse- 
 quence of the bull recently issued by the Pope, 
 appointing certain dioceses in England. 
 
 Feb. 20. Mr. Locke King obtained leave to 
 tring in a Bill to extend the 10/. franchise to 
 comities. This was carried against the 
 government by a majority of 100 to 52, which 
 circumstance, coupled with the smallness of 
 the majority (281 to 267) in favour of govern- 
 ment against a protectionist motion of i\lr. 
 l)israeli on the 13th, led to the resignation of 
 the ministry on the 22nd. Lord Stanley and 
 the earl of Aberdeen were e.ach reijuested to 
 form a government, but neither being able to 
 do so, the former ministers were, by the 
 advice of the duke of Wellington, reinstated 
 in office, and resumed their places on the ord 
 of March. 
 
 Mar. IC. Public meetings of English 
 
 Roman Catholics held in Freemasons' Hall, 
 London, to petition Parliament against the 
 Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. A meeting of Irish 
 Roman Catholics for the same object was held 
 iu Dublin on the 20th of April. 
 
 iMar. 13. Opening of Owen's College, Man- 
 chester, an educational institution founded iu 
 accordance with the will of Mr. John Owen, 
 who bequeathed 100,000/. for the purpose, 
 with the Condition that no religions test should 
 be applied in the admission of students. 
 
 Mar. 31. The decennial census of Great 
 Britain and Ireland taken this day. 
 
 i\Iay 1. The Great Exhibition of the In- 
 dustry of All Nations opened in Hyde Park 
 by the Queen. On the 9th of July a grand 
 entertainment was given at the Guildhall in 
 celebration of the Great E,\hibition, when the 
 Queen and prince Albert attended. The Ex- 
 hibition was clo.sed to the public on the 11th 
 of October. On the 15th the awards of the 
 Juries were announccil, and the closing cere- 
 mony took j)lace. The total number of ad- 
 missions to the Exhibition was 6,007,944, 
 being a daily average of upwards of 43, 500. 
 The largest attendance was on Tuesday the 7th 
 of October, when 109,915 persons were ad- 
 mitted. The gross rec.ipts were about 
 506,000/. ; the expenses al^out 330,000/. 
 The number of exhibitors was about If), 000. 
 
 May 3. Prince Albert, at the Koyal Aca- 
 demy dinner on this day, in responding to the 
 toast proposed by the president, remarked that 
 " We have now on the one hand the eager com- 
 petition of a vast array of artists of every 
 degree of talent and skill, and on the other as 
 judge, a great public, fir the greater part 
 wholly uneducated in art, and thus led by 
 professional writers, who often strive to impress 
 the public with a great idea of their own 
 artistic knowledge by the merciless manner iu 
 which tliey treat works, which cost those who 
 produced them the highest efforts of mind and 
 feeling." 
 
 May 22. Proclamation issued by the govern- 
 ment of New South Wales, claiming the 
 royalty of the newly-discovered gold-fields for 
 the Crown. The amount of g dd exported 
 from New South Wales to the end of 1851 was 
 468,336/. 
 
 June 17. Mr. Cobden moved an address to 
 the Crown, praying her majesty to direct the 
 foreign secretary to enter into communication 
 with the French Government to promote a 
 mutual reduction of armaments. Lord Palmer- 
 ston objected to the adoption of the address, 
 while he expressed the general concurrence of 
 the government in its principle and object. 
 The motion was withdrawn. 
 
 Aug. 1. The Lord Mayor of London, the 
 Commissioners of the (neat Exhibition, and 
 many other dist nguished persons, visited Paris 
 by invitation, and were entertained for several 
 days by tiie Municipality. 
 
 Aug. 18. Death of the king of Hanover in 
 his Slst year. He was succeedeil by his son 
 Gcrge V.
 
 fSJ 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Aug. 27. Submersion of the Great Cable 
 Telegraph between England and France. It 
 was opened for piiblic use on the 13th of 
 November. 
 
 Nov. i. Openingof the session of the French 
 Legislative Assembly, when the Prince Presi- 
 dent in bis message recommended the restora- 
 tion of universal suffrage. On the loth the 
 Assembly (by 353 votes against 347) threw 
 out the bill, which had been proposed by the 
 Ministry in accordance with the Pi-esident's 
 message, for the repeal of the existing electoral 
 law and the substitution of universal suffrage. 
 Dec. 2. The Prince President of the French 
 llepublic issued a decree dissolving the Legis- 
 lative Assembly, establishing universal suffrage, 
 proposing the election of a president for ten 
 years and the establishment of a second 
 (Jhamber ; also declaring Paris in a state of 
 siege. MM. Thiers, Cbangarnier, Bedeau, 
 (>.vaignac, Lamoriciere, and Charras, were 
 arrested, and placed in confinement in the 
 Castle of Vincennes. About 180 members 
 who attempted to constitute a meeting of the 
 Assembly, with M. Berryer at their head, were 
 likewise arrested. 
 
 Doc. 18. At this date thirty- four depart- 
 ments of France were under martial law. 
 
 Dec. 21. On this and the preceding day the 
 votes of the people were taken, on the principle 
 Kii universal suffrage, on the question of the 
 election of a President of the republic for ten 
 years. 
 
 Dec. 22. Viscount Palmerston quitted office. 
 [See parliamentary explanation, February 3, 
 1852.] 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 14 & 15 Victokijs. 
 
 Cap. 19. An Act for the better Prevention of 
 Offences, inflicting punishments for attempts 
 at crime, and authorizing the apprehension of 
 persons found in possession of house-breaking 
 instruments at night, and of suspected persons. 
 
 Cap. 28. For the well-ordering of Common 
 Lochnng-Jiouscs, regulating the number of 
 lodgers, and all other matters conducing to 
 clean'iness and health. 
 
 Cap. 61. For providing a Metropolitan 
 Market and Conveniences connected therewith 
 in lieu of the Cattle Market at Sm.ithji.eld. 
 The market is now held in the Caledonian-road, 
 Islington. 
 
 Cap. 79. To consolidate and amend the 
 Lmus relating to the Regulation of Steam 
 Navigation, and to Boats and Lights to he 
 carried by Seagoing Vessels. 
 
 Cap. 83. 2'o improve the Administration 
 of Justice in the Court of Chancery and in 
 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. 
 Tliis is the Act by which the Court of Appeal 
 in Chancery was established. 
 
 Cap. 99. To amend the Law of Evidence. 
 Paities to a suit enabled to give testimony, and 
 ducumentb to be produced in Courts of Common 
 Law. 
 
 Cap. 100. For further improving the Ad- 
 fi ill isi ration of Crirniinil Justice. Enabling 
 
 the judges to correct errors in the indictment 
 not material to the merits of the cause; re- 
 moving certain minute details from indictments, 
 and giving juries the power of convicting for a 
 crime though not precisely the one proved, as 
 in case of a charge for misdemeanor or embez- 
 zlement which may turn out to be a larceny, 
 the criminal may be found guilty in the form 
 charged. 
 
 Revenue, 52,233,006/.; Expenditure— Array 
 and Ordnance, 8,723,940/. ; Navy, 5,849,917/. ; 
 for all objects, 49,506,610/. ; Debt' 
 782,869,382/. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 74,448,722/ : total of exports, 115,821,092/. : 
 imports, 152,889,053/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 42,605 ; to the United States, 267,357 ; to 
 the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 21,532; to all other places, 4,472 : total, 
 33.^,966. 
 
 Railway TraflSc : Miles open, 6,890 ; num 
 I'cr of passengers, 8.5,391,095; trafSc receipts 
 14,997,459/. 
 
 Number of Paupers in England and Ireland, 
 1,070,080. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Jan. 1. Installation of prince Louis Napo- 
 leon as President of the French Republic for 
 ten years. On the 10th eighty three members 
 of the late Legislative Assembly were banished 
 from France, and 575 persons, arrested for 
 resistance to the coup d'etat of December 2nd, 
 were conveyed to Havre to be transported to 
 the penal settlement of Cayenne, in Guiana. 
 
 Jan. 9. The principal engineering firms of 
 London and Lancashire discharged their work- 
 men, and closed their works, rather than 
 submit to the demands of the Amalgamated 
 Society of Operative Engineers for the aboli- 
 tion of piece-work and overtime. This un- 
 happy dispute lasted several months, at great 
 cost both to masters and operatives, and 
 occasioned much distress among the families of 
 the workmen. 
 
 Feb. 3. Parliament opened by the Queen. 
 Tlie royal speech recommended the reconsidera- 
 tion of the Reform Act of the late reign, with a 
 view to its amendment on some points. In th? 
 House of Commons, in the debate on the 
 address lord John Russell, in answer to a ques- 
 tion, explained the circumstances under which 
 lord Palmerston had quitted office. Lord 
 Palmerston, as foreign secretai-y, had sent a 
 despatch of importance in which his colleague, 
 had not concurred, and he had hastily expresse i 
 his approbation of the proceedings of the Princts 
 President of the French Republic in the couj) 
 cVctat of December 2nd. 
 
 Feb. 9. New Reform Bill introduced into the 
 House of Commons by lord John Russell, by 
 which the franchise was proposed to be 5/. 
 rated yearly value in boroughs, ami 20/. 
 occu])atinn, nr 10/. copyhold rated yeaily valu* 
 in counties.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 SS/i 
 
 Feb. 20. Defeat of government on tlie Local 
 Militia Bill, an amendment by lord Palmerst^n 
 that the force should he general instead oi local 
 \>e\n^ carried by 13G votes to 125. In con- 
 sequence of this vote lord John Russell's 
 ministry resigned on the 21st. 
 
 Feb. 27. The earl of Derby, having accepted 
 the Premiership, explained in the House of 
 Lords the intended policy of his Cabinet. He 
 said that the question of protection to agricul- 
 ture was one to be solved only by a reference 
 to the well understood and clearly expressed 
 opinion of the people. The members of lord 
 Derby's Cabinet were as follows : — Earl of 
 Derby, First Lord of the Treasury ; earl of 
 Lonsdale, President of the Council ; lord St. 
 Leonards, Lord High Chancellor ; marquess of 
 Salisbur}', Lord Privy Seal ; Rt. Hon. B. Dis- 
 raeli, Chancellor of the Exchequer ; Rt. Hon. 
 S. H. Walpole, Secretary of State for Home 
 Affairs ; earl of Malmesbury, Foreign Secre- 
 tary ; Rt. Hon. sir J. S. Pakington, Colonial 
 Secretary ; duke of Northumberland, First 
 Lord of the Admiralty ; Rt. Hon. J. C. Herries, 
 President of the Board of Control ; Rt. Hon. 
 J. W. Henley, President of the Board of 
 Trade ; lord J. J. R. Manners, Commissioner 
 of Woods and Forests. 
 
 March 2. Re -organization of the Anti-Corn 
 League in consequence of the accession to power 
 of a protectionist ministry. 
 
 June 1. Electric Telegraph opened through- 
 out from London to Dublin. 
 
 July 1. Parliament closed by the Queen in 
 person, and dissolved by proclamation. A new 
 Parliament called. 
 
 July 14. Death of the duke of Wellington 
 at Walmer Castle, Dover, in his 84th year, 
 after a slight illness. His death took place as 
 if he had fallen asleep in his chair. On the 
 ISth of November his remains were interred in 
 St. Paul's Cathedral near those of Nelson, 
 being conveyed thither by military procession 
 along the streets of London. On the Gth of 
 December the House of Commons voted 
 SO.OUO^. for the expenses of the funeral. 
 
 Oct. 7. At a public dinner at Bordeaux the 
 Prince President of the French republic deli- 
 vered a speech, in which he made the declara- 
 tion that " The empire is peace." 
 
 Nov. 4. The French senate received a mes- 
 sage from the prince president recommending 
 the re-establishment of the empire. 
 
 Nov. 11. The Queen opened parliament in 
 person. The earl of Derby stated that he was 
 prepared to bow to the decision of the country 
 in favour of free-trade, as indicated by the 
 result of the elections lor the present parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Dec. 1. The French Corps Logislatif pro- 
 claimed the definitive result of the voting on 
 the plebiscite respecting the re-estal)li.-hment of 
 the empire, as follows: — Ayes, 7.864,189; 
 Noes, 253,145; Null, 63,3-6. The prince 
 president, in accepting the imperial dignity, 
 took the title of Napoleon III. 
 
 Dec. C. Ministers announced in both Houses 
 
 of Parliament tliat the government had recog- 
 nized the re-establishment of the empire m 
 France, and Napoleon III. as Emperor. 
 
 Dec. 16. On the debate on the ministerial 
 budget, which continued through four sittings 
 of the House of Commons, the government wa» 
 left in a minority of ID— tho voles in favour of 
 ministers being 286, against, 305. In con- 
 sequence of this vote, the earl of Derby's 
 ministry resigned office on the I7th, and the 
 earl of Aberdeen accepted the Premiership. 
 The new Cabinet was composed as follows : — 
 earl of Aberdeen, First Lord of the Treasury ; 
 earl Granville, President of the Council ; lord 
 Cranworth, Lord High Chancellor ; duke of 
 Argyll, Lord Privy Seal ; Rt. Hon. W. E. 
 Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer ;. 
 viscount Palmerston, Secretary of State for 
 Home Affairs ; earl of Clarendon, Foreign 
 Secretary ; duke of Newcastle, Colonial Secre- 
 t:iry ; sir James Graham, First Lord of the 
 Admiralty; sir Charles Wood, President of the 
 Board of Control ; Rt. Hon. Sidney Herbert, 
 Secretary at War ; sir W. Molesworth, Com- 
 missioner of Parks and Public Buildings ; 
 marquess of Lansdowne, and lord John Russell, 
 without office. 
 
 Dec. 20. Proclamation issued by the Go- 
 vernor-General of India, annexing Pegu as a 
 province to the British territory in India. 
 
 I'ec. 81. The amount of gold exported from 
 the Colony of New South Wales during 1852 
 was 2,660,946/. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 15 & 16 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 12. Copyriyht Amendment Act, for 
 carrying into effect a convention with France 
 on the subject of copyright, by which the right 
 of translation is mutually reserved on pub- 
 lishing a notice to that effect with the work. 
 
 Cap. 31. To legalise the formation of In- 
 dustrial and Provident Societies, — enabling 
 them to pay officers, sue for subscriptions, to 
 carry on trades, &c., on being registered. This 
 is the Act under which Co-operative Societies 
 are formed. 
 
 Cap. 51. Enfranchisement of Copyholds. 
 By this Act any lord of the manor or tenant 
 may compel or require enfranchisement on cer- 
 tain defined terms. 
 
 Cap. 56. For regidating the Qualifications of 
 Pharmaceutical Chemists, — enabling exami- 
 ners appointed by the Pharmaceutical Society 
 to grant certificates to persons who have satis- 
 factorily passed an examination, who may then 
 assume the title of Pharmaceutical Chemists ; — 
 a penalty of 51. is imposed on any one assuming 
 the title without having a certificate. 
 
 Cap. 76. To amend the Process, Practice, 
 and Mode of Pleading in the Superior Courts 
 of Common Law at Westminster, and in the 
 Superior Courts of the Counties Palatine of 
 Lancaster and Durham. An important Act, 
 making great alterations in and simplifying the 
 proceedings in the Common Law Courts. 
 
 Cap. 83. For amending the Law for grant- 
 ing Patents for Inventions. — Reducing the
 
 586 
 
 Al'PilNb.X. 
 
 payment of fees on the first grant of a patent, 
 !ind regulating the periods of payment for 
 •^ugtbened terms of years. 
 
 Revenue, gross receipts, 56,57C,840?. ; Ex- 
 penditure—Army and Ordnance, 9,v2'^,d40L ; 
 Navy, 5,849,'Jl7i. ; for all objects, 53,860, 445(!. ; 
 Debt, 780,869,382^. 
 
 ]<!xporU of British and Irish Produce, 
 78,07G,854L 
 
 Emigration— to North American Colonies, 
 32,873; to the United States, 244,261; 
 to the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 87.881; to all other places, 3,749: total, 
 368,764. 
 
 Railway TraflSc : Miles open, 7,336 ; num- 
 ber of passengers, 89,135,729 ; traffic receipts, 
 i5,710,554L 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,080,953. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Jan. 30. The emperor Napoleon III. mar- 
 ried to Mdlle. de Mcutijo, duchess of Teba. 
 
 Feb. 17. Tbe duke of Newcastle slated in 
 the House of Lords that tbe transportation of 
 convicts to the Australian Colonies would no 
 longer be resorted to, except in tbe case of 
 Western Australia. — Termination of tbe Kafir 
 War by the submission of the Chiefs Macomo, 
 Sandilli, and Kreili. 
 
 Mar. 4. Inauguration of general Pierce as 
 President of the United States of North 
 America. 
 
 Mar. 22. A Treasury ]\Iiuute issued au- 
 thorizing the establishment of mints iu Au- 
 stralia. 
 
 April 1. Manchester constituted a city by 
 royal charter. 
 
 April 8. Tbe Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 brought forward bis plans for a modification of 
 tbe form of tbe National Debt, tbe object being 
 to lay tbe foundation of a permanent irredeem- 
 able 24 percent, stock. Tbe resolutions em- 
 bodying this plan were adopted by the House 
 of Commons. 
 
 April 18. The Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 introduced his budget, in which he proposed to 
 repeal tbe duties leviable on 105 articles, of 
 ■which the principal item was soap ; and to 
 make important reductions iu the duties levi- 
 able on 126 articles, including tlie stamp duticis 
 on receipts and life assurance policies, and tbe 
 duties on advertisements and on tea. He pro- 
 posed also to extend the income-tax to Ireland, 
 and to widen its range, so as to include incouies 
 between lOQl. and 150Z., and to bring real 
 property within the operation of tbe legacy 
 duty. 
 
 May 12. The Great Exliibition of Industry 
 of Ireland opened in Dublin by tbe lord-lieu- 
 tenant. 
 
 .Tune 20. Peace with Birmah proclaimed by 
 the governor-general of India. 
 
 Nov. 7. Tliirty-tbree persons tried at Paris 
 for plotting to assassinate tbe einjieror Napo- 
 leou. Ttu received sentence of transportation 
 
 for life; the others were sentenced to variou.*! 
 terms of imprisonment. 
 
 Nov. 15. Death of Donna Maria II., queen 
 of Portugal. She was succeeded by her eldesi 
 son, Don Pedro VIII. 
 
 Dee. 31. The amount of gold exported from 
 New South Wales in 1853 was 1,781, 172Z. 
 
 The following events are preliminary 
 to the War with Russia in 1854-5 : — ■ 
 
 On the 3rd of May prince Menzikoff, the 
 Piussian ambassador to the Porte, presented 
 the idtimatmn of the Russian government ou 
 certain matters in dispute between the Czar 
 and the Sultan. Ou the 22nd prince Menzi- 
 koff left Constantinople. On the 4th of June 
 orders were transmitted by the English and 
 French governments to tbe commanders of 
 their Mediterranean fleets to approach the 
 Dardanelles without delay. • On tbe 16th of 
 June tbe Porte finally rejected the Russian 
 ultimatum. On the 26th the emperor of 
 Russia issued a manifesto against the Porte, in 
 which he announced tbe marching of Russian 
 armies upon the Danubian provinces of Tur- 
 key. Oil the 2nil of July the Russian army 
 crossed the Pruth, thus invading tbe Turkish 
 territory. On the 27th of Septeaiber the 
 Porte declared -war against Russia ; and oa 
 the 1st of October, appealed to France and 
 England for material aid in the war. The 
 English and French fleets entered the Bos- 
 ])horus on tbe 22nd October. Ou tbe 3rd of 
 November the Russians placed Moldavia and 
 Wallachia under martial law. On the 4th the 
 Turks were attacked at Oltenitza by general 
 Daunenberg, with 9000 Russians, whtn the 
 Russians were repulsed with a loss of 1200 
 men. On the 3Uth the Turkish fleet lying iu 
 tiie harbour of Sinope, with the citadel and 
 town of Siuope, were destroyed by the Russian 
 admiral, Nacbiraofi'. On the 3rd of December 
 the combined fleets of England and France 
 entered tbe Black Sea, on the demand of the 
 Porte, on which the Russian fleet retired 
 within the harbour of Sebastopol. On the 5th 
 a protocol was signed at Vienna by the repre- 
 sentatives of France, England, Austria, and 
 Prussia, for the re-establishment of peace 
 between Kussia and Turkey, and for the 
 maintenance of the integrity of the Ottoman 
 emi)ire as an essential condition of the balance- 
 of European power. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 16 & 17 VicTORiiE. 
 
 Cap. 15. An Act to limit the time of taking 
 the Foil in Counties at contested Elections for 
 Kniiihts of i/ie Shire to serve in Parliament 
 in Enyland and Wales to one day. 
 
 Cap. 51. For ijrantiwj to her Majesty 
 Duties oil Succession to Froperty, and for 
 altering certain Provisions of the Acts charg' 
 iiKj Unties on Legacies and Shares of Perso- 
 nal Estates. Succession duties are laid on real 
 estates by this Act, the rate varying according 
 to the nearness of consanguinity. 
 
 Cap. 73. For tlve Fstablishment of a Bod^
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 537 
 
 if Naval Coast Volti;itcers, and for the tem- 
 porary transfer to the Navy in case of need, 
 of seafaring men employed in other t^ervices. 
 Enables volunteers to enter for a iieriod of five 
 years, during which period they are to be 
 trained to the navy fur a time not exceeding '28 
 days in each year, and in case of imminent 
 danger to be called into actual soivice, but not 
 to be sent more than 100 leagues from the 
 Ciiast during exercise and actual service. They 
 are to receive the same allowances as able 
 seamen. While volunteers they are exempt 
 from serving in the navy or militia, and a regu- 
 lated bounty is given, which is not to exceed ijl. 
 
 Cap. ^.)9. To substitute, in certain Cases, 
 other PunishmeHt in lieu of Transportation. 
 — Penal imprisonment is substituted by this 
 Act. 
 
 Cap. 137, For the better Administration of 
 Charitable Trusts. Coinmissioners are ap- 
 pointed, with powers to investigate the affairs 
 of any charitable trusts, and authorize legal 
 proceedings to enforce the proper fulfilment 
 of the trust if it should be necessary. 
 
 Revenue, 57,535, 215Z. ; Expenditure — 
 Army and Ordnance, 9,876,902/. ; Kavy, 
 G,&25,9Ul. ; for all objects, 51,044,986/. ; 
 Debt, 770,923,001?. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 98,9^3,781/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 34,522; to the United States, 230,885; to 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 61,401 ; 
 to all other place.s, 3,129 : total, 629,937. 
 
 Kailway Traffic : Miles open, 7,686 ; num- 
 ber of passengers, 102,286,660; traffic receipts, 
 18,035,879/. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,016,031. 
 
 1854. 
 
 [The principal events of the AVar with 
 Eussia, which will HU so large a space in 
 tlie History of the years 1804 and 1853, 
 will be given separately from other events 
 in our Annals of those two years.] 
 
 Jan. 31. In opening parliament queen Vic- 
 toria, in the speech from the throne, expressed 
 Ltr regret that the endeavours made by her in 
 conjunction with the empe»-or of the French, 
 had failed to procure an amicable settlement 
 of the differences v/hich had arisen between 
 Eussia aud Turkey. On the 6th of February 
 the Russian ambassador withdrew from Paris, 
 and on the 8th baron Brunnow, the Russian 
 Mubassador at the British court, left England. 
 On the 20th the Grenadier and Cuklstream 
 ■Guards embarked at Houtliamptun for Turkey. 
 ■Other troops f<illowed in rapid succession. On 
 the 11th of March the Queen reviewed at Spit- 
 Lead the fleet under tlie command of admiral 
 sir Charles Napier, previous to its .sailing for 
 the Baltic On the 12ih a treaty of alliance 
 Vietween France, England, aud Turkey, was 
 «igned at Constantinople. JIarch 25. England 
 
 and France, having sent an ultimatum to the 
 Russian emperor, received an answer to the 
 effect that the Czar had no answer to send. 
 War against Russia declared on the 27th by 
 France, and on the 28tli by Great Britain. 
 On the 21st of April Ode.«sa was bombarded 
 by the French aud English fleets. On the 
 10th of May the " Tiger " war-steamer ran 
 ashore near Odessa in a dense fog ; in this 
 position sh3 was attacked by the Russians who 
 disabled her, and took her crew of two hundred 
 men prisoners. On the 17th Silistria was 
 invested by the Russians, who, after a siege of 
 forty days, abandoned their operations against 
 the place. Two British officers, captain Butlei 
 and lieutenant Nasmylh, encouraged aud di- 
 rected the Turks in their heroic defence. On 
 the 29th of May the allied troops disembarked 
 at Varna, where, during the period of their 
 encampment, they suffered greatly from disease 
 and insufficient accommodation. On the 29th 
 of June the Russian batteries at the Sulina 
 mouth of the Dauube were destroyed by two 
 British steamers. In the Baltic the iortress of 
 Gustafsvaern was bombarded by the British 
 fleet on the 22nd of May. The British force 
 was reinforced by ten thousand French trooj)S, 
 who left Boulogne on the 15th of July in Biitisli 
 ships of war. On the 16th of August the furt 
 of Bomarsund, with a garrison of 2000 men, 
 surrendered to the allied fleet, after three day.s' 
 bombardment. On the 15th of September the 
 Russians evacuated Moldavia, after which the 
 Danubian provinces were garrisoned by the 
 Austrians, On the 14th of September the 
 allied forces landed in the Crimea, on the 
 western shore, near 45° N. lat., without oppo- 
 sition. The army included '23,000 French, 
 25,000 British, and SUOO Turks. On the 
 20th the first conflict with the Russians in the 
 Crimea took place in the battle of the Alma, 
 in which the Russians were completely worsted. 
 On the 26th, after a forced march of fourteen 
 hours, the allied forces occupied Balaklava, 
 and subsequently eucamiied before Sebastopol. 
 On the 2yth marshal St. Arnaud, the com- 
 mander-in-chief of the French forces, fell a 
 victim to disease after having transferred his 
 command to general Canrobert. Ou the 17th 
 of October the bombardment of Sebastopol by 
 the allied armies and fleets commenced. Ou 
 the 25th the Ru.ssians attacked the allies at 
 Balaklava, but were repulsed with loss. By 
 an unhappy misreading of an order of lord 
 Raglan, the earl of Lucan directed the light 
 cavalry to charge the overwhelming Russian 
 force. Of 607 men who went into the action, 
 only 198 returned. On the 5th of November 
 the battle of Inkerman was fought, in which 
 the Russians, in imn:ense numbers, attempted 
 a surprise before daybreak, but were obliged 
 to retire with a loss of about 10,000 killed 
 and wounded. The struggle lasted the entire 
 day. On the 14th a violent storm occurred 
 in the Black Sea, which destroyed many store 
 ships, and caused great caLiniitics on shore. 
 This was follinvL-il by a season of iutinse suffer-
 
 588 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 iug amongst tlie troops ; the roads were im- 
 passable ; tbe weatlier was bitterly cold ; men 
 and horsos, ill supplied with food and shelter, 
 perished in large numbers, whilst medical 
 attention and hospital accommodation were 
 woefully deficient. This being known at home 
 from the reports of the correspondents of the 
 newspapers, gave rise to gi-eat dissatisfaction 
 t/iih the management of affairs, and private 
 subscriptions to a large amount were speedily 
 raised to mitigate the distress. Miss Nightin- 
 gale organised a numerous staflf of nurses, and 
 proceeded with them to Constantinople, to 
 superintend the hospitals, which were princi- 
 pally at Scutaii, and to attend the sick and 
 wounded, by which attention tbe lives of many 
 hundreds were saved. 
 
 June 1 0. Crystal Palace at Sydenham opened 
 by queen Victoria. 
 
 Sept. 1. The emperor Napoleon entertained 
 at Boulogne the king of the Belgians, the king 
 of Portugal, and the Prince Consort of England. 
 
 Sept. 9. The deaths from cholera in Loudon 
 for the week ending this day were 2050. In 
 three months, August, September, and Octo- 
 ber, 10,500 persons died of cholera in London. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 17 & 18 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 5. An Act to admit Foreign Ships to 
 the Coastlny Trade. Foreign vessels are ad- 
 mitted on paying the same duties as British 
 Bhips. 
 
 Cap. 38. For the Suppression of Gaming 
 Howies. 
 
 Cap. 74. To render Reformatory and In- 
 dustrial Schools in Scotland more availalle 
 for the benefit of Vagrant Children. Young 
 persons under fourteen found begging, and 
 without visible means of subsistence, may be 
 sent to these schools without being charged 
 with crime. 
 
 Cap. 114. To extend the Rights enjoyed ly 
 the Gradauies of the Universities of Oxford 
 and Cambridge, in respect to the Practice of 
 Physic, to the Graduates of the University of 
 London. Bachelors and doctors of medicuie 
 are privileged to practise as physicians in the 
 same manner as graduates of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, but this privilege does not extend to 
 surgery, pharmacy, or midwifery. 
 
 llevenue, 58,903,495^. ; Expenditure — 
 Army and Ordnance, 9,685,079/. ; Navy, 
 *ofi-M,rm\l. ; for all purposes, 55,647,991/. ; 
 Debt, 7? 1,335,801/.* 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 07,]84,72t)/. : total exports, 115,821,092/.; 
 imports, 1.^)2,389,0.03/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 43,761 ; to the United States, 193,005 ; to 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 83,237; 
 to other places, 3,366 : total, 323,429. 
 
 Railway Traffic: Miles open, 8,051; num- 
 ber of passengers, 111,206,707 ; traffic re- 
 ceipts, 20,215,724/. 
 
 Ntniber of Paupers, 1,004,068. 
 
 * Up to this date tlio financial year ondod on 
 Jan. 4 ; :ill alter end on March 61. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Jan. 2.'). Lord John Russell retired from 
 office in consequence of an approaching discus- 
 sion in the House of Commons, on a motion of 
 which Mr. Roebuck gave notice on the 23r(l 
 fi>r a select committee to inquire into the con- 
 dition of our army before Sebastopol, and into 
 the conduct of the commissariat and medical 
 departments of the army. 
 
 Jan. 31. Resignation of lord Aberdeen's- 
 cabinet, in consequence of the defeat of the 
 government on the 29tli, in the divi.sion on 
 Mr. Roebuck's motion; the votes being 305 
 against ministers and 148 in their favour. 
 The earl of Derby was invited by the Queea 
 to undertake the formation of a government, 
 but declined ; lord Palmerstou accepted . 
 the responsibility, and the members of his 
 cabinet were sworn into office on the 8tli 
 of February. The ministry stood thus : vis- 
 count Palmerston, First Lord of the Trea- 
 sury ; earl Granville, President of the Council ; 
 lord Cranworth, Lord High Chancellor ; duke 
 of Argyll, Loid Privy Seal ; Right Hon. W. E. 
 Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer ; sir 
 George Grey, Secretary of State for Home 
 Affairs ; earl of Clarendon, Foreign Secretary ; 
 Right Hon. Sidney Herbert, Colonial Secretary ; 
 lord Panmure, War Secretary ; Right Hon. sir 
 James Graham, First Lord of the Admiralty ; 
 Right Hon. Vernon Smith, President of the 
 Board of Control ; sir B. Hall, Commissioner 
 of Works and Public Buildings ; earl of Har- 
 rowby. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; 
 marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 
 
 Feb. 20. Lord John Russell left London to 
 attend the conferences of the representatives of 
 the great powers, on the terms of peace be- 
 tween Russia and Turkey, as the British 
 plenipotentiary. 
 
 Feb. 22. Withdrawal from office of Mr. 
 Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney 
 Herbert, on account of the House of Commons 
 insisting upon the appointment of a select 
 committee in terms of Mr. Roebuck's motion. 
 Their places in the cabinet were filled up by 
 the apipointment of sir G. C. Lewis, sir Charles 
 Wood, and lord John RusselL 
 
 April 17. Arrival of the emperor and empress 
 of the French at Windsor on a visit to the 
 Queen. On the 19th they were entertained by 
 the Lord Mayor at a sjilendid fete in the 
 Guildhall of London. They took leave on 
 their return home on the 21st. 
 
 April -..0. The Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 made his financial statement, in which he inti- 
 mated that the deficiency occasioned by the 
 Russian war was about twenty-three millions, 
 of which he proposed to raise sixteen millions 
 by loan, and the rest by a readjustment involv- 
 ing an increase of taxation. 
 
 June 13. The new Metropolitan Cattle Market 
 opened. Prince Albert attended the opening, and 
 in replying to the address read to him by the re- 
 corder, after remarking on the enormous growth 
 of J/ondou, said that this growth "imperatively
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 53S 
 
 requires that tliose establishments which are 
 to minister to the common wants of the whole 
 should keep pace with its growth and magni- 
 tude. This can only be undertaken by public 
 bodies, they can only be carried out by public 
 
 spirit I hail the spirit which is rising 
 
 among us." 
 
 July 1-3. Lord John Russell resigned his 
 •office of colonial secretary, in consequence of 
 discussions in the House of Commons in refer- 
 ence to the part taken by him in the Vienna 
 Conferences. He was succeeded by sir William 
 Molesworth. 
 
 Aug. 1. Viscount Canning was entertained 
 at a public banquet by the East India Compau/, 
 previous to his departure to assume the fuxic- 
 tions of governor-general of India. 
 
 Aug. 18. Queen Victoria and prince Albert 
 visited the emperor of the French in Paris, re- 
 maining till the 27th, when they embarked at 
 Boulogne on their return to England. 
 
 Nov. 22. The first stone of the Birmingham 
 and Midland Institute laid by prince Albert. 
 At the banquet afterwards, in the Town -hall 
 of Birmingham, in replying to the toast of his 
 health, he dwelt on the advantages to be de- 
 rived from the higher branches of education ; 
 he remarked on the error of considering scien- 
 tific knowledge as antagonistic ; and said, "Far 
 be it from me to undervalue the creative power 
 of genius, or to treat shrewd common sense as 
 worthless without knowledge. But nobody 
 will tell me that the same genius would not 
 take an incomparably higher flight, if supplied 
 with all the means which knowledge can impai t, 
 or that common sense does not become, in fact, 
 only truly powerful when in possession of the 
 materials upon which judgment is to be ex- 
 ercised." 
 
 Nov. 30. The king of Sardinia arrived at 
 Windsor on a visit to the Queen. 
 
 RcssiAN War. — On the 6th of January Con- 
 ferences were opened at Vienna between the pleni- 
 potentiaries of Great Britain, France, Austria 
 and Russia, with a view to the restoration of 
 peace. These conferences continued till the 21st 
 of April, when they were suspended without any 
 practical result. On the 10th of January Victor 
 Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, joined the Allies, 
 and undertook to send ] 5, 000 men to the Crimea 
 to aid in the war against Russia. On the 12th 
 of February an imperial ukase ordered the 
 organization and arming of the entire militia 
 of the Russian empire for the defence of the 
 "orthodox faith." On the 17th the Russians 
 attacked Eupatoria, but were repulsed by the 
 Turks who formed the garrison of the jjlace. 
 On the 2nd of March Nicholas, emperor of Russia, 
 died, and was succeeded by his son Alexander 
 11. The event was announced to the British 
 Houses of Parliament within five hours of the 
 emperor's decease, the intelligence being trans- 
 mitted by telegraph. On the 4th of April the 
 British fleet, under rear-admiral Dundas, 
 .sailed for the Baltic. The Baltic coast was 
 blockaded from the 19th of April. Tlie French 
 
 fleet in the Baltic was under the command of 
 admiral Penaud. On the 9th of April the 
 second bombardment of Sebastopol commenced, 
 and was continued, with little effect, till the 
 28th. On the 16th of May general Canrobert 
 resigned the chief command of the French 
 army in the Crimea to general Pelissier, but 
 continued to serve as a general cf division. On 
 the 24th of May Kertch was occupied by the 
 Allies, whose fleets swept the sea of Azoff, cap- 
 tured and garrisoned Yenikali, and bombarded 
 Taganrog, Mariapol, Gheisk, and other towns, 
 destroying public buildings, government maga- 
 z'ines and provision stores. On the 7th of June, 
 at Sebastopol, the French troops captured the 
 Mamelon, two redoubts, and 62 guns, and took 
 130 officers and 400 men prisoners. On the 
 18th the French attacked the Malakhoflf ar.d 
 the English the Redan, but were repulsed by 
 the Russians with considerable loss. On the 
 28th lord Raglan, the British commander-in- 
 chief in the Crimea, died of cholera, in his 
 6Sth year ; he was succeeded by general Simp- 
 son, as next in command. On the 11th of July, 
 in the Baltic, the fortifications of Sweaborg 
 were bombarded by the allied fleets of England 
 and France. On the 16th of August the battle 
 of the Tchernaya, near Sebastopol, took place, 
 in which the Russians were defeated by the 
 French and the Sardinians. On the .5th of 
 September the third bombardment of Sebas- 
 topol commenced, and on the 8th the French 
 took the Malakhoff ; the English who attempted 
 to take the Redan, were repulsed. The Rus- 
 sians, who had sufi'ered to a frightful extent 
 from the effects of the shot and shells which 
 had been poured upon the city and its defences 
 — about 17,000 ofiicers and privates having 
 been killed, wounded, and missing in three 
 da\ s — evacuated the south side of Sebastopol 
 at night, after sinking their ships and blowing 
 up the defences. On the 9th the Allies took 
 possession of the place, which they found in a 
 ruinous condition. On the 17th of October 
 Kinburn, at the mouth of the Dnieper, surren- 
 dered to the Allies. On the 18th the Russians 
 blew up the fortress of Oczakoif. On the 10th 
 of November the emperor Alexander visited his 
 army near Sebastopol. On the 11th of Novem- 
 ber general sir William Codrington assumed 
 the command of the British army in the Cri- 
 mea. On the 26th the fortress of Kars sur- 
 rendered to the Russians, after a protracted 
 and gallant defence, continued for several 
 months amidst severe privations ; general 
 Williams and the other English officers, his 
 companions, who became prisoneis of war, were 
 treated with great kindness by the Russian 
 general. On the 16th of December Austria 
 sent proposals for peace, the terms of which 
 had been sanctioned by the Allies, to the em- 
 peior Alexander at St. Petersburg. On the 
 19th the united kingdom of Sweden and Nor- 
 way joined the alliance of the Western Towers. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session IS & 19 Victouij!. 
 Caj'. 27. AuActto nmcndtheLaws relaling
 
 5G0 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 to the fj/amp Duties on Ncivspapen, and to 
 provide for the transmission hy post of printed 
 Periodteals and Publications. By this Act the 
 stamp duty was removed except for purposes of 
 transmission hy post. 
 
 Cap. 88. To facilitate the Erection of Divell- 
 ing-houscs for the Worhinj Classes in Scotland . 
 Granting powers under supervision for small 
 associations to hold land and build houses suit- 
 able for the v^orking classes. 
 
 Cap 116. For the better Prevention of 
 Diseases. In case of any endemic, epidemic, or 
 contajxious disease occurring in any pai-t of Eng- 
 land the Privy Council and the General Board 
 iif Health are empowered to issue rules and 
 directions for the removal of nuisances, the 
 speedy interment of the dead, for house to 
 house visitation, the dispensing of medicines, 
 &c., the expenses to he paid out of the rates or 
 funds administered by the local authorities. 
 
 Cap, 120. For the better Local Management 
 of the Metropolis. By this Act the construc- 
 tion of sewers, and such matters as cannot be 
 efiFected by parishes singly, are confided to a 
 board, the members of which are elected by the 
 various paribhes contained in the metropolitan 
 district. 
 
 Cap. 12G. For diminishing expense and 
 delay in tlie Administration of Criminal Jus- 
 tice in certain cases. Offenders charged with 
 simple felony where the thing stolen does not 
 exceed 5s. in value, may be dealt with sum- 
 marily by a police magistrate, if they consent ; 
 and if the value exceeds 5s. it may be so dealt 
 with on the offender pleading guilty ; if he does 
 not, the case must go for trial. 
 
 Cap. ] 32. For facilitating the Erection of 
 Dwelling-housi s for the Working Classes. This, 
 ■with some variation in detail, is for a similar 
 purpose to that fur Scotland, stated above. 
 
 Cap. 133. For Untiling the Liability of 
 Members of. certain Joint-Stuck Companies. 
 Enables Joint-Stock Companies to be formed, of 
 wliich the individual liabilities are limited, but 
 theymust be registered, and the word "limited," 
 must form the last word of the name of the 
 company, and must always appear where the 
 title is given. 
 
 Eevenue, (;2,,S1.';,9.?2/. ; Expenditure- 
 Army and Ordnance, 15,631, tit:)2^. ; Navy, 
 1-11!)0,1U5/. ; for all purposes, (35,721,755;/. 
 Dtbt, 801,978, 7H.')^. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 95,688,1)85/. : total exports, 116,601,300/. : 
 imports, 11.3,542,850/. 
 
 Emigration— to North American Colonies, 
 17,96(5 ; to the United States, 103,411 ; 
 to Australian Cohuiies and New Zealand, 
 52,3(i9 ; to all other places, 3,118 : total, 
 176,807. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 8,280 ; num- 
 ber of passengerB, 118,595,135; traffic re- 
 ceipts, 21,5()7,.';99/. 
 
 Numbti of l'auper.5, 1,018,075, 
 
 1856. 
 
 Jan. 31. The Queen, in opening parliament, 
 announced that Russia had accepted as a basia 
 for negotiation the proposals for a general peace 
 put forth by Austria, with the sanction of the 
 other allied powei'S. 
 
 Feb. 1. Protocol signed at Vienna by the 
 representatives of Russia, France, Great Bri- 
 tain, Aastria, and Turkey, accepting the Aus- 
 trian propositions as a basis for peace. 
 
 Feb. 1. Despatch from general Codrington 
 announcing that the destruction of the Sebas- 
 topol docks had been completely effected. 
 
 Feb. 5. A new Order of Merit, "The Vic- 
 toria Cross," instituted, the decoration of which 
 is to be confeiTed upon inferior officers and 
 privates in the army and navy for distinguished 
 gallantry. 
 
 Feb. 7. The governor-general of India an- 
 nounced by a proclamation the deposition of 
 the king of Oude, and the annexation of his 
 territory to the British po.ssessions in India. 
 The king was allowed a pension of 120,000/. a 
 year. 
 
 Feb. 25. The Peace Conferences opened at 
 Paris, attended by the representatives of 
 France, Austria, Great Britain, Russia, Sar- 
 dinia, and Turkey. Prussia was subsequently 
 admitted. 
 
 Feb. 29, Suspension of hostilities in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 March 16. Birth of the Prince Imperial of 
 France. On this occasion the emperor issued 
 an amnesty in favour of upwards of a thousand 
 political exiles. 
 
 April 25. The Queen reviewed a fleet of 
 more than 30O men-of-war at Portsmouth. At 
 the commencement of the review the fleet ex- 
 tended in an unbroken line of anchorage for 
 about five miles. 
 
 April 29. Peace with Russia officially pro- 
 claimed by a herald in the streets of London. 
 
 jMay 3. An amnesty granted to political 
 exiles, in virtue of which Frost, Williams, 
 Jones, and Smith O'Brien, were permitted to 
 return to England. On the 11th of Novembei 
 a fi ee pardon was granted by the queen to these 
 political offenders. 
 
 May 29. Public celebration of the conclusion 
 of peace. Magnificent fire- works in London, 
 Edinburgh, and Dublin, A general illumina- 
 tion took place. 
 
 Juno 1. Disastrous inundations in France. 
 For the relief of tiie sufferers subscriptions 
 were raised in England to the amount of 
 more than 40,000/. 
 
 July 12. Evacuation of the Ci-imea by the 
 allied troops. 
 
 Oct. b. Seizure by the Chinese authorities of 
 a lorcha, or small trading vessel, which bore 
 the l^ritish flag. This led to hostilities between 
 Great Britain and China. 
 
 Oct. i;'>. Surrender of the city of Herat to 
 the Persians, wbca the governor and his family 
 were put to death. The Persians having thus 
 violated a treaty io which Great Britain was a
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 591 
 
 party, war w;is proclaimed against Persia at 
 Calcutta on the 1st of November. 
 
 Oct. 24. Canton attacked by tlie British, 
 who bombarded it on the 3rd of November. 
 
 Oct. 27. Railway opened between Montreal 
 and Toronto. 
 
 Nov. 22. An insurrection in Sicily sup- 
 pressed by the military. 
 
 Dec. 9. Bushire, in the Persian Gulf, taken 
 by the British expedition. 
 
 Dec. ] 0. Mr. Sheepshanks presented to the 
 ration his collection of drawings and paintings. 
 The collection has been placed in the South 
 Kensington Museum. 
 
 Dec. 16. The Queen went to Spithead to 
 receive from the representative of the United 
 States government the Arctic discovery ship 
 Resolute, which having been abandoned in the 
 iee by its crew, was recovered by an American 
 ship, and having been completely repaired by 
 the American government, was now restored 
 to Great Britain. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 19 & 20 Yictop.t-e. 
 
 Cap. 47. An Act for (he Incorporation and 
 Regulation of Joint-Stock Companies and other 
 Associations. One of the most important 
 parts of this Act is that relating to the wind- 
 ing-up of companies. 
 
 Cap. 64. To Repeal certain Statutes not in 
 use. 112 statutes, most of them obsolete, but 
 hitherto unrepealed, are at once swept away. 
 
 Cap. 65. To encourar/e the 2'>i'oviding of 
 Improved Dwellings for the Labouring Classes 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Cap. G9. To render more efecfual the Po- 
 lice in Comities and Boroughs of England 
 and Wales. This empowers the justices as- 
 sembled in quarter sessions to adopt and en- 
 force a more general system than had hitherto 
 taken place ; the divisional police of a county 
 was to be consolidated, unless the secretary 
 of state authorizes a division ; and county con- 
 stables are empowered to act in any borough 
 within the county ; and boroughs may be con- 
 solidated with the county for the purposes of 
 police. 
 
 Cap. 83. To provide for the better Defence 
 of the Coasts of the Realm, and the more ready 
 Manning of the Navy, and to transfer to the 
 Admiralty the Management of the CoastGuard. 
 The coast guard men are to have the privi- 
 lege of making allotments of wages, and of 
 pensions, as seamen in the navy, and the 
 officers are to have the training of the Royal 
 Naval Coast Volunteers. 
 
 Cap. 98. To amend tlie Laws relating to the 
 Burial of the Dead in Ireland. This esta- 
 blishes burial boards in Ireland as in England. 
 
 Revenue, 70,262,S82Z. ; Expenditure- 
 Army, including Oidnance, 32, 006, 603^ ; Navy, 
 19,654,585/. : for all purposes, 88,453,385/.": 
 Debt, 829,579,798/. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 115 826,948/. : total exports, 139,220,353/. ; 
 imports, 172,544,154/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 16,378; to the United States, 111,837; t3 
 Australian Colonics and New Zealand, 44,584 ; 
 to all other places, 3,755 : total, 176,554. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 8,707 ; number 
 of passengers, 129,347,592; traffic receipts^ 
 23,165,491/. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,030,823. 
 
 1857. 
 
 [This rear was remarkable for the 
 Mutiny of the Native Army in British 
 India, which was not finally subdued till 
 1858. It may be convenient to give the 
 events connected with this alarming 
 outbreak under a separate head in each 
 of these years, after the general Chro- 
 nology.] 
 
 Feb. 3. Parliament opened by commission. 
 
 March 3. Amotion proposed by Mr. Cobden 
 censuring the government for the war with 
 Ciiina, was carried, after four nights' discus- 
 sion in the House of Commons, by 263 to 247 
 votes. 
 
 March 3. Treaty of peace between Great 
 Britain and Persia, signed at Paris by lord 
 Cowley and Ferukh-Khan. 
 
 March 3. Election of Mr. Buchanan as pre- 
 sident of the United States of North America. 
 
 March 13. The Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 brought forward his budget, which contained 
 proposals for the remission of taxation to the 
 extent of eleven millions. 
 
 March 14. Treaty signed at Copenhagen for 
 the abolition of the Sound dues. The sliare of 
 indemnity money payable by Great Britain 
 was 1,125, 20i7. 
 
 March 19. Prince Albert, accompanied by 
 the prince of Wales, opened new schools in 
 Golden Lane, Barbican. In the course of his 
 answer to the address presented to him, he 
 said, " Yoxi have not been content with the 
 bare attempt to force, perhaps upon unwilling 
 recipients, a boon, the value of which might 
 not be appreciated, but you have wisely sought 
 to work upon the con^dctions of the parents of 
 the children you wish to benefit by extending 
 your assistance only to those who, by a small con- 
 tribution out of their hardly-won eainiugs, have 
 proved that they are awake to a sense of the 
 vast importance it is to their offspring that the 
 means of being fitted to pass successfully 
 through life, and, by honest industry, to better 
 their condition, should be brought within their 
 reach.'' 
 
 March ?1. Parliament dissolved, and a new 
 parliament, summoned. 
 
 April 21. Departure of the earl of Elgin on 
 a special embassy to the emperor of China at 
 Pekin. 
 
 May 5. Prince Albert opened the Exhibition 
 of Art Treasures at Manchester. In adiiress- 
 ing the committee, he remarked on the "ge- 
 nerous feeling of mutual confidence and goo(?
 
 ■59i 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 will between tlie (.liffercnt classes of society, of 
 whicli it [the Exhibition] affords so gratifying 
 a proof." 
 
 May 7. Parliament opened by commission. 
 jVlr. J. pjvelyn Denison elected Speaker of the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 May 21. The House of Commons agreed to 
 gi-ant to the Princess Royal an annuity of 
 8000^. per annum, and a dower of 40,000^., 
 on occasion of her mari-iage with prince Fre- 
 derick William of Prussia. 
 
 June 1. A number of war -junks taken from 
 the Chinese in the Canton river. 
 
 June 22. Educational Conference in London, 
 at which prince Albert presided. In his 
 speech he detailed some of the statistics of the 
 state of education, but he said — "You will 
 probably trace the cause of our social condition 
 to a state of ignorance and lethargic indiffer- 
 ence on the subject among parents generally ; 
 but the root of the evil will, I suspect, be 
 found to extend into that field on which the 
 political economist exercises his activity — I 
 mean the labour market — demand and supply." 
 He pointed out how this acted. Of tbe la- 
 bourer he said — "His children are not only 
 his offspring, to be reared for a future inde- 
 pendent position, but they constitute part of 
 Lis productive power, and work with him for 
 the staff of life." He therefore exhorted the 
 meeting to work " upon the minds and hearts 
 of parents, to place before them the irreparable 
 mischief which they inflict," by keeping their 
 children from the "right of knowledge." 
 
 June 25. An order in Council conferred the 
 title of prince Consort on prince Albert. 
 
 July 11. Failure of the Atlantic Telegraph 
 Cable, the cable having snapped after 335 
 lailes length had been given out. 
 
 July 25. Public meeting at the Mansion 
 House, London, in aid of the sufferers from the 
 Indian mutiny. In the course of three montlis 
 upwards of 260,000/. was raised for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Nov. 12. In consequence of a severe com- 
 mercial panic, the government authorized the 
 Bank of England to extend its issues, which 
 had the effect of mitigating the pressure upon 
 the money market, and restoring confidence. 
 An estimate was made to the effect that the 
 aggregate liabilities of commercial houses, 
 which had fallen during the panic, amounted 
 to about forty-five millions sterling. At this 
 time there was great distress in the manufac- 
 turing di.stricts. 
 
 Nov. 18. Ambassadors from the two kings 
 cf Slam received by queen Victoria at a Court 
 held at Windsor. 
 
 Nov. 18. GreatdiatressinKafirland. About 
 30,000 destitute Kafirs brought in as servants 
 to the Cape Colonists. 
 
 Dec. 3. Parliament opened by the Queen in 
 person, having met at this season chiefly furtlie 
 purpose of passing a bill of indemnity, exone- 
 rating the government in regard to the permis- 
 sion given to the Dank of England to extend 
 its issues for tlie j urpose of mitigating the 
 
 pressure of the recent commercial panic. On 
 the 12th the royal assent was given to the bill 
 of indemnity, and the Houses adjourned. 
 
 Dec. 29. Canton taken by the British forces, 
 and Commissioner Yeh made prisoner. 
 
 India. — Jan. 24. A mutinous spirit began to 
 manifestitself among the Sepoys of the East India 
 Company's army at Barrackpoor, Berhampoor, 
 Lucknow, Meerut, and elsewhere. The origin 
 of the disaffection was said to be the use of 
 cartridges made up in paper, which had boe» 
 greased with a mixture of cow's fat and hog's 
 lard — a composition offensive to the Hindoo, 
 who regards the cow with religious veneration, 
 and also to the Maliommodan, who looks upon 
 the hog with abhorrence. On the 10th of 
 May the mutiny broke out at Meerut, from 
 which place the insurgents marched to Delhi, 
 where on the 11th being joined by several 
 native regiments they proclaimed the king of 
 Delhi as Emperor, and massacred many of the 
 English residents. Lieut. Willoughby blew up 
 the magazine, and made his escape. On the 
 20th general Anson arrived before Delhi with 
 a small force of British and native troops. 
 On the 27th general Anson died of cholera, 
 which also struck down his successor, sir H. 
 Barnard. General Reed, who took the command 
 on July 5th, was obliged, from ill-health, to 
 transfer it to general AYilson, on the 22Dd. 
 General Nicholson having arrived with rein- 
 forcements, Delhi was taken by assault on the 
 1 4th September, the fight being continued in 
 the city till the 20th. The British lost about 
 1,20(1 killed and wounded. General Nicholson 
 died on the 23rd. The native troops, at Luck- 
 now, broke out in mutiny on the 31st of May. 
 They were dispersed by the troops under sir 
 Henry Lawrence. On the 5th of June the 
 Europeans, at Allahabad, were besieged in the 
 fort by the mutineers. The small British foi-ce 
 in Cawnpore were in like manner hemmed in, 
 and were compelled to surrender to Nana Sahib 
 on the 2(Jth of June, general Wheeler having 
 died on the 21st from a wound received in 
 making a sally on the previous day. The 
 English were embarked in boats on the Ganges, 
 to be conveyed to Allahabad, in accordance 
 with the terms of surrender. They were fired 
 upon with cannon, many boats were sunk, and 
 those persons who got on shore were cut down. 
 Colonel Havelock, who had arrived at Cal- 
 cutta from the Persian Gulf on the 17th June, 
 was immediately despatched, with the rank of 
 brigadier-general, in command of the troops 
 intended for the relief of Cawnpore, On the 
 1st of July general Havelock left Allahabad 
 with a force of 2,000 Europeans; on the ICth 
 he defeated Nana Sahib before Cawnpore ; and 
 on the 17th entered the town. On the 19th 
 he again defeated Nana Sahib at Bitlioor. At 
 Lueknow, in a sortie against the Sepoy besiegers, 
 on the 2nd of July sir Henry Lawrence was 
 wounded, and died on the 4th — major Banks 
 took the command, and held possession of the 
 Residency and fort. On the 15 th general Neill
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 593 
 
 defeated the mutineers at the Pundoo Nuddee, 
 south of Cawnpore. On the 16th Nana Sahib 
 murdered the women and children who were in 
 his custody at Cawnpore, and flung their bodies 
 into a wide and deep well. On the same day 
 general Havelock gained his ninth victory, 
 between Cawnpore and Lucknow. On the 25th 
 of September he reached Lucknow with 2,500 
 troops, and relieved the Europeans besieged in 
 the Residency. On the 26th he forced the 
 mutineers to abandon their entrenchments. 
 On the 3rd of November sir Colin Campbell, 
 who had been appointed commander-in-chief 
 «f the army in India on the 11th of July, and 
 left London for Calcutta on the 12th, arrived 
 at Cawnpore. On the 17th of November he 
 delivered the Europeans from their confinement 
 in the Residency, which was evacuated by the 
 23rd. On the 25th of November sir Henry 
 Havelock died, eight days after he received the 
 tidings of his having been created a Knight 
 Commander of the Bath. On the 6th of De- 
 cember sir Colin Campbell defeated the Gwalior 
 Contingent, and on the 8th sir Hope Grant 
 also defeated them higher up the Ganges. 
 
 LEGISLATION, Session 20 & 21 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 3. An Act to Amend the Act of the 
 16 tfc 17 Victoria, cap. 95, to substitute in 
 certain Cases other Punishment in lieu <jf 
 Transportation. No offender in future to be 
 sentenced to transportation, but persons under 
 sentence of penal servitude may be sent to 
 places beyond sea, the PriTy Council appointing 
 the places ; and magistrates may commit con- 
 victs whose licences are revoked to penal ser- 
 vitude in any convict prison. 
 
 Cap. 14. An Act to amend the Joint Stock 
 Companies' Act, 1856. Much of this Act re- 
 lates to the duties of officials, but it also enacts 
 that where more than 20 persons are engaged 
 in partnership, and are not registered, each is 
 ■declared separately liable for the debts of the 
 firm. When a winding-up order has been ob- 
 tained against any company, the liquidator 
 may obtain a warrant for the arrest of any 
 shareholder whom he may have reason to sus- 
 pect of being about to abscond or to conceal 
 his property, and his l)ooks, papers, moneys, 
 and other prnperty may be seized. 
 
 Cap. 48. To make better Provision for the 
 Care and Education of Vagrant, Destitute 
 and Disorderly Children, and for the Exten- 
 sion of Industrial Schools. Parents may be 
 compelled to pay towards the support of their 
 child a sum of not more than 3s. per week. 
 
 Cap. 54. To mahe better Provision for the 
 Punishment of Frauds committed by Trustees, 
 £a/nkers, and other Persons intrusted with 
 Property. After detailing the various frauds 
 enacted against ; as appropriating property, 
 making false statements with intent to de- 
 ceive ; keeping fraudulent accounts, &c., the 
 offender is declared liable to penal imprison- 
 ment for three, or by imprisonment with or 
 without hard labour for two, years, or by fine 
 as the court shall direct. 
 
 VOL. VIII.— 262. 
 
 Cap. 71. For the RegulaXion of the Care 
 and Treatment of Lunatics, and for the Pro- 
 vision, Maintenance, and Regulation of Lu- 
 natic Asylums in Scotland. Private asylums 
 are to be licensed ; district asylums are to be 
 provided in the large towns, and Commissioners 
 to be appointed who are to inspect and make 
 an annual report. 
 
 Cap. 72. To render more effectual the Police 
 in Counties and Burghs in Scotland. This 
 Act in effect is for organizing a general police 
 in Scotland, which had previously been only 
 local. 
 
 Cap. 77. To amend the Laws relating to 
 Probate and Letters of Administration in 
 England. This important Act removes the 
 jurisdiction in all such matters, from the 
 Ecclesiastical Courts to a Special Court insti- 
 tuted by this Act ; cap. 79, was a similar Act 
 for Ireland. 
 
 Cap. 83. An Act for more effectually Pre- 
 venting the Sale of Obscene Books, Pictures, 
 Prints, and other Articles. On information 
 given upon oath, magistrates may issue search 
 warrants, authorizing the use of force in the 
 day time, in order to search the suspected pre- 
 mises. 
 
 Cap. 85. To amend the Law relating to 
 Divorce and Matrimonial Causes in England. 
 This, like cap. 77, removes all such matters 
 from the Ecclesiastical Courts to a Court espe- 
 cially appointed, of which the Judge holds the 
 same office in the Probate Court, the Lord 
 Chancellor, the Chief Judges, and the senioi 
 Puisne Judges of the Law Courts, may sit with 
 him ; and in suits for annulling marriage, 
 applications for new trials, &c., they must be 
 heard by three or more Judges, the Judge oi 
 the Probate Court being always one. 
 
 Revenue, 72,334,062/.; Expenditure — 
 Army, 20,811, 242/. ; Navv, 13,459,012/. ; lor 
 all objects, 71,371,53.3/. ; Debt, 834,722,96.3.:. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 122,066,107/. : total of exports, 146,174,301/., 
 imports, 187,844,441/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 21,001; to the United States, 126,905; to 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 61,248 ; 
 to all other places, 3,721 : total, 212,875. 
 
 Railway Traffic: Miles open, 9,094 ; numbe' 
 of passengers, 139,008,883; traffic receipts, 
 24,174,610/. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 979,117. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Jan. 14. An attempt was made to assassinate 
 the Emperor and Empress of the French by an 
 explosion of hand grenades. The Emperor aiul 
 Empress escaped unhurt, but five persons were 
 killed and about sixty wounded. For this 
 attempt five persons were tried and convicted, 
 of whom two, Orsini and Pieri, were guillotined 
 at Paris. 
 
 Jan. 25. Marriage of the Princess Royal of 
 England with prince Frederick William of 
 Prussia, in the Chapel of St. James's Pahice.
 
 594 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Jan. 31. Completion of the launch of the 
 Great Eastern steam-ship, the commencement 
 having been made about three months pre- 
 viously, 
 
 Feb. 10. The blockade of Canton raised. 
 
 Feb. 22. Lord Palmerston's Cabinet resigned, 
 in consequence of an adverse vote (234 to 215) 
 of the House of Commons, proposed by Mr. 
 MUner Gibson, expressing regret that her 
 Majesty's government, previously to inviting 
 the House to amend the law of conspiracy, had 
 not made some reply to the despatch received 
 from the French government dated Jan. 20th, 
 1858. On the retirement of viscount Palmer- 
 ston the earl of Derby was entrusted with 
 the formation of a Ministry. The new Cabinet 
 was constituted as follows : — Earl of Derby, 
 First Lord of the Treasury ; marquess of 
 Salisbury, President of the Council ; lord 
 Chelmsford, Lord High Chancellor ; earl of 
 Hardwicke, Lord Privy Seal ; Rt. Hon. B. 
 Disraeli, Chancellor of the Exchequer ; Rt. 
 Hon. Spencer Walpole, Secretary of State for 
 Home Affairs ; earl of Malmesbury, Foreign 
 Secretary ; Rt. Hon. sir E, B. Lytton, Colonial 
 Secretary ; major-general Peel, Secretary for 
 War ; earl of Ellenborough, President of the 
 Board of Control ; Rt. Hon. sir J. S. Paking- 
 ton, First Lord of the Admiralty ; Rt. Hon. 
 J. W. Henley, President of the Board of Trade ; 
 lord John Manners, President of the Board of 
 vVorks. 
 
 March 14. A proclamation was issued by 
 the Governor-General of India to the people of 
 Oude, threatening confiscation of the lands of 
 such talookdhars as do not submit to the 
 government. This proclamation was disap- 
 proved by lord Ellenborough, the President of 
 the Board of Control, and the publication in 
 this country of his despatch to the governoi'- 
 general upon the subject led to lord Ellen- 
 Corough's withdrawal from the Cabinet. 
 
 March 15. Lord Malmesbury, the Foreign 
 Secretary, laid on the table of the House of 
 Lords the correspondence that had taken place 
 'between her Majesty's government since its 
 accession to office and the French government, 
 ajid said that the correspondence had con- 
 cluded in all honour and good feeling on both 
 sides. 
 
 March 30. Conference at Shanghai of the re- 
 presentatives of Great Britain, France, Russia, 
 and the United States. The reply of the 
 Chinese government to the communications of 
 the ambassadors being considered unsatisfac- 
 tory, it was resolved to proceed to Tientsin. 
 
 May 15. Massacre of the English and French 
 Consuls, and about 20 other Europeans, at 
 Jeddah, the port of Mecca. 
 
 May 20. Arrival of the British and French 
 expedition at Tien-tsin, after having captured 
 the Pei-lio forts. 
 
 Ma-y 26. Treaty of Tien-tsin concluded be- 
 tween the Chinese government and Great 
 Britain, reprosented by the earl of Elgin. 
 Separate treaties with the Chinese were made 
 by France, Russia, and America. 
 
 July 23. Jeddah bombarded by the British 
 ship Cyclops, and again on the 5th of August. 
 
 Aug. 5. The Queen and Prince Consort 
 visited the emperor Napoleon at Cherbourg on 
 occasion of the opening of the Napoleon Docks. 
 
 Aug. 12. The earl of Elgin landed at Jeddo, 
 the capital of Japan, and negociated a favour- 
 able treaty with the Emperor, which was signed 
 on the 26th. 
 
 Aug. 22. Congratulatory message sent by 
 queen Victoria to president Buchanan by the 
 Atlantic Telegraph and responded to in a 
 friendly manner by the president. The tele- 
 graph soon ceased to transmit messages, and 
 the efforts made to effect a communication by 
 telegraph between the opposite shores of the 
 Atlantic have been unsuccessful. 
 
 Sept. 1. The East India Company's govern- 
 ment transferred to the Crown by Act of Par- 
 liament, which was announced throughout 
 India by a royal proclamation on the 1st of 
 November. 
 
 India. — On the 2nd of January, sir Colin 
 Campbell defeated the rebels at Futtehghur, and 
 established an artillery depot there, On the 9tli 
 the first party of ladies and children, and of 
 sick and wounded officers from Lucknow, 
 arrived at Calcutta. They landed under a 
 royal salute amid the cheering of several 
 hundreds of Europeans. On the 29th Saugor, 
 in Central India, which had been invested by 
 the rebels for upwards of six months, was re- 
 lieved by sir Hugh Rose. March 2. Sir Colin 
 Campbell commenced the siege of Lucknow, 
 taking possession of the Dilkoosha palace and 
 park. On the 19th Lucknow fell into the 
 hands of the British, the rebels, to the number 
 of 50,000, seeking safety in flight. On the 
 13th of April the garrison of Azimghur was 
 relieved by sir E. Lugard. On the 13th of 
 May sir Hope Grant defeated the rebels at 
 Nawabgunge, near Lucknow, and on the 23rd 
 the strung fortress of Calpee was taken by sir 
 Hugh Roge. On the 19th of June sir Hugh 
 Rose re-took Gwalior from the rebels, and re- 
 instated the Maharaja Sindia in his capital and 
 possessions. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 21 & 22 Victoria 
 Cap. 26. An Act to abolish the Propertij 
 Qualifications of Memhers of Parliament. 
 Repealing all the Acts requiring a property 
 qualification for a member of Parliament. 
 
 Cap. 48. To substitute one Oath for the 
 Oaths of Allegiance, Supremacy, and Abjwra- 
 tion ; and for the Relief of her Majesty's 
 Subjects professing the Jewish Reliyion. Pre- 
 serves the form of oath, allows Quakers to 
 "affirm" instead of "swear ;" and Jews to 
 omit the words, " on the faith of a Christian." 
 Cap. 49. To provide for the Relief of her 
 Majesty'' s Subjects professing the Jewish Reli- 
 gion. This Act admits Jews to sit in Parlia- 
 ment, but they are restricted from presenting 
 to any eccleeiastical benefice, and from holding 
 the offices of Lord Chancellor, Lord Lieutenant
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 505 
 
 of Ireland, or High Commissioner of the 
 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. 
 
 Cap. 90. To regulate the Qualifications of 
 Practitioners in Medicine and Surgery. 
 Councils are appointed to examine applicants 
 as to qualifications, and on approval they re- 
 ceive certificates entitling them to practise. 
 The Act also regulates the Royal College of 
 Physicians, and the College of Surgeons in 
 London, and other medical colleges. 
 
 Cap. 91. To enable Joint-Stock Banlcing 
 Companies to he formed on the Principle of 
 Limited Liability. Repeals so much of a 
 I'ormer Act as prevented the formation of such 
 Companies ; but only on condition of not 
 issuing notes in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Cap. 99. To provide for the Government of 
 British Columbia. By this Act British 
 Columbia was constituted a distinct colony. 
 
 Cap. 106. For the better Gorernment of 
 India. This Act transferred the Government 
 of India from the Board of Directors to her 
 Majesty with a new secretary of state for its 
 management. 
 
 Revenue, 67,881,513?. ; Expenditure— 
 Army,l4,405,850Z. ; Navy, 10,59O,000Z. ; for 
 all objects, 68, 128, 859?. ; Debt, 826,134,640^. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 116,608,756?. : total exports, 139,782,779?. ; 
 imports, 164,583,832?. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 9,704; to the United States, 59,716 ; to 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 39,295 ; 
 to all other places, 5,257 : total, 113,972. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 9,064,763?. ; total imported, 22,793,126?.* 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 9,542 ; number 
 of passengers, 139,193,699; traffic receipts, 
 23,956,749?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,037,967. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Jan. 9. The Governor- General of India pub- 
 lished decrees constituting the Punjaub a 
 lieutenant-governorship, and ordering the 
 general disarming of Upper India. 
 
 Jan. 25. At this date the entire pacification 
 of Oude was reported. 
 
 Jan. 30. Prince Napoleon, cousin of the 
 emperor, married at Turin to Princess Clo- 
 thilde, daughter of the king of Sardinia. 
 
 Feb. 3. Parliament opened by the Queen in 
 person. 
 
 Mar. 1. Mr. Walpole and Mr. Henley stated 
 to the House of Commons their reasons for 
 withdrawing from lord Derby's government on 
 account of some of the provisions of the Re- 
 form Bill proposed by the Government. 
 
 Mar. 31. The debate in the House of Com- 
 mons on the government Reform Bill, which 
 had continued for several days, terminated in 
 the defeat of ministers by a majority of 330 
 against 291 votes. 
 
 AprQ 18. Tantia Topee, one of the leaders 
 of the Indian Mutiny, executed at Seepree by 
 sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 * The imports of bullion were not registered at 
 the Custom House until Xov., 1857. 
 
 April 19. Parliament dissolved. 
 
 June 7. Queen Victoria opened Parliament 
 in person. On the address in answer to the 
 Queen's Speech the ministers were left in a 
 minority of 13— the votes being 323 to 310 — 
 and in consequence resigned the office. Viscount 
 Palmerston was entrusted with the formation 
 of a new Cabinet. The ministry, as arranged by 
 him, was as follows : — Viscount Palmerston, 
 First Lord of the Treasury ; earl Granville, 
 President of the Council ; lord Campbell, Lord 
 High Chancellor ; duke of Argyll, Lord Privy 
 Seal; right hon. W. E. Gladstone, Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer ; right hon. Sir G. C. Lewis, Sec- 
 retary of State for Home Affiiirs ; lord John 
 Russell, Foreign Secretary; duke of Newcastle, 
 Colonial Secretary ; right hon. Sidney Herbert., 
 Secretary for War ; right hon. sir C. Wood, 
 Secretary for India ; duke of Somerset, First 
 Lord of the Admiralty ; right hon. E. Card- 
 well, Chief Secretary for Ireland ; earl of 
 Elgin, Postmaster- General ; right hon. T. M. 
 Gibson, President of Board of Trade ; right 
 hon. C. P. Vniiers, President of Poor Law 
 Board ; right hoa. sir George Grey, Chancellor 
 of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 June 25. The allied foi-ces accompanying 
 the English and French ambassadors to the 
 Chinese court, being obstructed in their pas- 
 sage up the Pei-ho river, on their way to Pekin, 
 attempted to force their way, but were repulsed 
 with the loss of about 450 men. 
 
 Aug. 13. Parliament prorogued by commis- 
 sion. 
 
 Oct. 30. For several months a large propor- 
 tion of the workmen employed in the Building 
 trades of the metropolis continued on strike, 
 their demand being chiefly for the establish- 
 ment of nine hours as the time of a working 
 day : much distress prevailed in the families 
 of the workmen. Many of the employers 
 having adopted the rule of payment by ths 
 hour, the men gradually returned to work, 
 
 Italy. — On the 1st of January, the Empd.- 
 of the French at his new year's day reception o» 
 the foreign ambassadors, said to M. de Hubner, 
 the Austrian representative; — "I regret that 
 our relations with your government are not so 
 good as they were, but I request you to tell the 
 emperor that my personal feelings for him 
 have not changed." These words reported in 
 the newspapers caused a great sensation 
 throughout Europe. On the 10th the king of 
 Sardinia, in opening the Piedmontese Chambers 
 in Turin, said : "The horizon in which the new 
 year rises is not perfectly serene . . , While 
 we respect treaties, we are not insensible to 
 the cry of ^rief which reaches us from so many 
 parts of Italy." On the 11th of February, 
 Count Cavour, the Piedmontese Prime Minister, 
 in a speech to the Turin Chamber of Deputies, 
 charged Austria with assuming an offensive 
 attitude towards Sardinia by placing large 
 bodies of troops along the frontier. On th« 
 27th lord Cowley arrived at Vienna, as 
 an envoy from the British government, witl;
 
 596 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 a view to mediate between tbe Austrian 
 government on the one hand, and France and 
 Sardinia on the other. This mission was un- 
 successful. On the 1st of April the French 
 government decided to send an army of 60,000 
 men to the Sardinian frontier. On the 19th 
 the Austrian government sent an utiimatum 
 to the Court of Turin, requiring Sardinia to 
 disarm immediately, and to disband the Italian 
 volunteers. Three days were allowed for an 
 answer. Sardinia rejected this ultimatum, 
 and Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, pro- 
 tested against the conduct of Austria. France 
 proceeded to prepare for war. Peaceful revo- 
 lutions took place on the 27th in Tuscany, and 
 on the 31st at Parma, provisional governments 
 bebg formed in both cases. On the 29th the 
 Austrian army crossed the Ticino. On the 
 20th of May the French and Piedmontese, 
 tinder the command of the emperor Napoleon 
 and Victor-Emmanuel, defeated the Austrians 
 at Montebello. On the 27th Garibaldi, at the 
 head of the Italian Volunteers, took possession 
 of the city of Como, after defeating the Aus- 
 trians in several engagements. On the 30th the 
 emperor of Austria put himself at the head of 
 bis army at Verona. On the 31st the Austrian 
 army was defeated bythe Sardinians atPalestro. 
 On the 1st of June the French troops occupied 
 Novara. On the 4th was fought the battle of 
 Magenta, in which the Emperor of the French 
 commanded the Imperial Guard and the 
 Zouaves. The Austrians were defeated with 
 immense loss in killed, wounded, and pri- 
 soners. On the 5th, Milan and on the 7th 
 Pavia, were evacuated by the Austrians. On 
 the 8th the emperor Napoleon and Victor-Em- 
 manuel entered Milan in triumph. On the 
 22nd the Austrian army retreated across the 
 Mincio. On the 2^th the battle of Solferino 
 took place, in which the Austrians, 170,000 in 
 Dumber, were commanded by the emperor 
 Francis-Joseph, and the allied French and 
 Sardinians, numbering about 150,000, bythe 
 emperor Napoleon. The battle, whicli lasted 
 from five o'clock in the morning till eight at 
 night, was attended with enormous slaughter. 
 An armistice was agreed to on the 8th of July, 
 and on the 11th a personal interview took 
 place at Villafranca, between the emperors of 
 France and Austria, who came to an agreement 
 as to the terms of peace. The Treaty of 
 Peace was signed at Zurich, on the lltU 
 November, by the representatives of Austria, 
 France, and Sardinia. On the 18th of No- 
 Tember General Garibaldi published a procla- 
 mation to the Italians, intimating his with- 
 drawal from the Bcrvice in consequence of the 
 obstacles placed in his path by the demands of 
 a crafty policy, but exhorting the Itidians to 
 rally round Victor-Emmanuel. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 22 & 23 V1CTORI.E. 
 Cap. 27. An Act to facilitate Grants of 
 Land to he made near Popvlous Places for 
 (he Uae of rcrjrdated Jlecreation for Adults, 
 and as Play-ijroimds for Cliddren. Enabling 
 
 lands given for such purposes to be held by 
 trustees, empowering corporations and parishes 
 to grant lauds, for the purchase or main- 
 tenance of which personal property of not more 
 than lOOOZ. in value may be bequeathed. 
 
 Cap. 34. To amend and explain, the Act 
 of the 6 Geo. IV. cap. 129, to ?-epeal the 
 Laws relating to the Coinhination of Work- 
 men, and to make other Provision in lieic 
 thereof. Allows workmen to unite for the 
 purpose of regulating their wages or other 
 matters, peaceably and in a reasonable manner, 
 and without threat or intimidation, direct or 
 indirect, but not to break or to induce another 
 to break any contract. 
 
 Cap. 56. To amend the Act 5 d; 6 Wm. 
 IV. cap. 63, relating to Weights and Mea- 
 sures. Imperial standards are to be furnished, 
 and inspectors appointed in counties and 
 towns, who are to examine beams, scales, 
 weights, and measures ; false ones being sub- 
 ject to forfeiture and fine. Owners of markets 
 are to provide such articles for general use, 
 and to have their accuracy tested at least twice 
 a year. 
 
 Cap. 66. For regulating Measures used in 
 the Sale of Gas. A general Act by which 
 inspectors are appointed, and meters are to be 
 examined and stamped, and no meter to be 
 considered legal unless stamped. 
 
 Eevenue, 65,477,284^. ; Expenditure — 
 Army, 13,294,814^. ; Navv, 9,215, 487^. ; for 
 all objects, 60,147.914?. ; Debt, 823,934,880?. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 130,411,529?. : total exports, 155,692,795?. ; 
 imports, 179,182,355?. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonie.';, 
 6,689; to United States, 70,303 ; to Austra- 
 lian Colonies and New Zealand, 31,013 ; to 
 all other places, 12,427 : total, 120,432. 
 
 Amouat of Gold imported from Australia, 
 8,624,566?. : total imported, 22,297,698?. ; 
 exported, 18,081,130?. 
 
 Railway Trafiic : Miles open, 10,002 ; num- 
 ber of passengers, 149,807,148 j traffic re- 
 ceipts, 25,743,502?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 933,837. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Jan. 24. Parliament opened by the Queen 
 in person. The speech stated that a con- 
 ference of the great powers of Europe had 
 been proposed with reference to the affairs of 
 Italy, but the conference had been postponed ; 
 — whether in congress or in separate negotia- 
 tion, her majesty would " endeavour to obtain 
 for the people of Italy freedom from foreign 
 interference by force of arms in their internal 
 concerns." 
 
 Feb. 10. The chancellor of the exchequer 
 brought forward his budget, which included, 
 among other measures, an extension of the 
 licence system to refreshment houses for the 
 sale of wines, the abolition of the duties on 
 paper and numerous other ai-ticlos, with the 
 income-tax at hevoniience in the pound on 
 incomes between lOU?. and 150?., and ten-
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 597 
 
 pence in the pound on incomes above 150?. a 
 year. 
 
 March 1. Lord John Russell introduced 
 a bill to amend the representation of the 
 people of England and Wales. Similar Re- 
 form bills were introduced for Scotland and 
 Ireland. 
 
 Feb. 12. By votes recorded on the 11th and 
 12th, the people of Tuscany and the Romagna 
 decided on annexation to Sardinia. 
 
 Feb. 15. General rising of the people of 
 Sicily against tbe Neapolitan government. 
 
 Feb. 24. Treaty between France and Sar- 
 dinia signed at Turin, by which Savoy and 
 Nice were annexed to France. 
 
 May 1. War between the Maoris of New 
 Zealand and the British, in consequence of a 
 dispute about the sale of some lands. 
 
 May 3. Lord John Russell's Reform bill 
 was read a second time in the House of Com- 
 mons, after being debated for four nights. 
 
 May 16. Garibaldi's troops defeated those 
 of the king of Naples at Lioppo. On the 17th 
 Garibaldi issued a proclamation announcing 
 that he had assumed the responsibility of the 
 dictatorship of Sicily. 
 
 May 21. In the House of Lords, on the 
 motion of lord Monteagle, the Paper Duties 
 Repeal Bill was thrown out by 193 votes to 
 104. 
 
 May 22. Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan 
 forces, and on the 27th entered Palermo. On 
 the 29th the ministers of the king of Naples 
 resigned their functions. 
 
 June 1. Armistice agreed to between Gari- 
 baldi and the Neapolitan troops in Sicily. 
 
 June 11. Lord John Russell stated in the 
 House of Commons that, in consequence of the 
 large number of amendments on the proposed 
 Reform bill of which notice had been given, 
 and the lateness of the session, the govern- 
 ment had resolved to withdraw the bill. 
 
 June 23. The Queen reviewed 18,000 vo- 
 lunteers in Hyde Park. 
 
 July 5. The House of Commons, on the 
 motion of lord Palmerston, passed three re- 
 solutions in vindication of the privileges of 
 the House against the recent aggression of 
 tlje Lords, in throwing out tbe Paper Duties 
 Repeal Bill, the rejecting of which, being a 
 money bill, was not within the province of the 
 LoitIs. 
 
 July 9. The prince of Wales, accompanied 
 by the duke of Newcastle, Secretary of State 
 for the Colonies, embarked at Plymouth on a 
 visit to Canada and the United States. On 
 the 18th of August the prince was at Quebec. 
 On the 20th of September he entered the 
 United States on his way to Washington to 
 visit the president, travelling under the title 
 of baron Renfrew. On the 15th of November 
 he landed at Plymouth on his return home. 
 
 July 16. Opening of the fourth annual con- 
 gress of the International Statistical Congress 
 in London, when the Prince Consort, as presi- 
 dent, delivered an address. 
 
 July 21. England, France, and other Euro- 
 
 pean powers, united in sending an expedition 
 to Syria to protect the life and property ot 
 Europeans, and arrest the effusion of blood, 
 in the conflicts which might occur and were 
 still threatened between the Druses and the 
 Maronites. 
 
 Aug. 7. The Queen reviewed about 20,000 
 volunteers in the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. 
 
 Aug. 20. Fuad Pasha, the commissioner 
 sent to Syria by the sultan, caused 167 per- 
 sons implicated in the massacres in Syria to 
 be executed in Damascus, and many others to 
 be sent to Constantinople to be imprisoned and 
 put to hard labour. 
 
 Aug. 21. The Taku forts at the mouth of 
 the Pei-ho river taken by the British and 
 French troops, after a determined resistance 
 by the Tartars forming the garrison. The 
 allies proceeded to occupy Tien-tsin, the am- 
 bassadors and the main body of the army 
 going on towards Pekin. 
 
 Aug. 28. Parliament closed by commission. 
 
 Sept. 7. The king of Naples left his capital 
 in a Spanish ship for Gaeta. Garibaldi entered 
 Naples on the 8th, accompanied only by his 
 statf, and immediately organized a government. 
 On the 9th he proclaimed Victor-Emmanuel 
 king of Italy, and on the 11th handed over 
 the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral. 
 
 Sept. 29. Ancona capitulated to the Sardi- 
 nians. The papal army, with their commander, 
 general Lamoriciere, surrendered themselves 
 prisoners of war, 
 
 Oct. 1. Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitans 
 in the battle of the Volturno. 
 
 Oct. 24. Peace concluded between Great 
 Britain and France on the one hand, and 
 China on the other. The allies were repre- 
 sented by the earl of Elgin and baron Gros ; 
 China was represented by prince Kung, 
 brother of the emperor. On the 5th of 
 November the allied forces left Pekin. 
 
 Nov. 7. The king of Sardinia entered Naples, 
 and was received with general enthusiasm. 
 On the 9th Garibaldi retired to his small pro- 
 perty on the little island of Caprera. 
 
 Dec. 13. Death of the earl of Aberdeen, 
 aged 77. 
 
 Dec. 14. Message of president Buchanan to 
 the United States' congress, deprecating the 
 threatened secession of the Southern states. 
 
 Dec. 20. Secession of South Carolina from 
 the United States of North America. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 23 & 24 Victoria 
 Cap. 8. An Act to amend the Law relating 
 to the unlawful Administering of Poisons. 
 Administering poisons or noxious substances 
 with intent to injure, aggrieve, or annoy, is 
 made punishable as a misdemeanor for three 
 years, with or without hard labour ; if endan- 
 gering life or causing bodily harm, by penal 
 servitude for not more than ten nor less than 
 three years. Persons indicted for the felony 
 may be convicted of the misdemeanor. 
 
 Cap. 11. To amend the Law relating ta 
 Endowed Schools. Provides for the admis-
 
 593 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 siou of cliildren of parents not in communion 
 with the Church of England, where not ex- 
 pressly required by the endowment. 
 
 Cap. 27. For granting to Her Majesty 
 certain Duties on Wine Licences and Re- 
 freshment Houses, and for regulating the 
 licensing of Refreshment Houses, and the 
 granting of Wine Licences. Licences for the 
 retailing of foreign wine to be drunk on the 
 premises to be granted by the commissioners 
 of inland revenue, within certain limited 
 hours, and under certain regulations. 
 
 Cap. 78. To place the Employment of 
 Women, young Persons, and Children in 
 Bleaching Works and Dyeing Works, under 
 the Regulations of the Factory Acts. 
 
 Cap. 84. For 'preventing the Adulteration 
 of Articles of Food or Drink. Articles of 
 food adulterated with anything prejudicial to 
 health, subjects the sellei", if aware of it, to a 
 penalty of 5/. Chemical analysers are to be 
 appointed, and purchasers may have a sus- 
 pected article analysed on payment of a fee 
 varying from 2s. 6c/. to 10s. Qd. 
 
 Cap. 151. For the Regulation and Inspec- 
 tion of Mines. Forbids the employment of 
 boys under the age of twelve, or not under 
 ten, with a certificate of having attended 
 school for a certain period. Penalties are 
 imposed for giving false certificates, and in- 
 spectors are appointed. 
 
 Cap. 154. To consolidate and amend the 
 Law of Landlord and Tenant in Ireland. 
 Several acts are repealed, and fixtures of tiade 
 and agriculture erected by a tenant at his own 
 expense are made removeable, if not injuring 
 the freehold. Compensation is to be made 
 for the crops or manuring the land on the 
 removal of the tenant. 
 
 Revenue, 71,089,669Z. ; Expenditure- 
 Army, 14,915,243Z. ; Navy, 11,823,859/. ; for 
 all objects, 69,502,289/:. ; Debt, 819,079,310?. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 9,786 ; to United States, 87,500 ; to Austra- 
 lian Colonies and New Zealand, 24,302; to 
 all other places, 6,881 : total, 128,469, 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 6,719,000?. : total imported, 12,584,684/. ; 
 exported, 10,393,512?. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 10,433 ; num- 
 ber of passengers, 163,483,572 ; traffic re- 
 ceipts, 27,766,622?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 973,255, 
 
 1861. 
 
 Jan 1, The French government abolished 
 the passport system in respect of British sub- 
 jects travelling in France, 
 
 Jan. 3, President Buchanan received com- 
 missioners from South Carolina, who requested 
 that the troops should be removed from the forts 
 of the United States in Charleston Harbour. 
 The President, in accordance with the views of 
 the majority of his Cabinet, refused to with- 
 draw the troojjs. 
 
 Jan. 12. Famine in north-western India, 
 
 owing to want of rain. Besides money granted by 
 the government, and raised by subscription in 
 Calcutta, upwards of 100,000?. was transmitted 
 from London and Liverpool, the contributions 
 of the people of Great Britain for the relief of 
 the starving millions of the Indian rice country. 
 
 Feb. 4. The emperor Napoleon, in opening 
 the French Legislative Chambers, invited free 
 discussion on the topics submitted to their con- 
 sideration, and intimated that the newspaper.? 
 would now be permitted to publish the debates. 
 
 Feb. 5. Parliament opened by the Queen in 
 person, who, in the Royal speech, expressed 
 her concern at the unhappy differences which 
 had arisen between the States composing the 
 North American Union, and her heartfelt wish 
 that these differences might be susceptible of a 
 satisfactory adjustment. 
 
 Feb. 14. Gaeta surrendered to the Piedmon- 
 tese general, Cialdini, after suffering severely 
 from the prolonged siege and bombardment. 
 The ex-king and queen of Naples left the har- 
 bour on board the French ship Mouette. 
 
 Feb. 26. Mr. Bruce took up his residence at 
 Pekin as British plenipotentiary at the Chinese 
 Court. 
 
 April 8. The decennial census of Great Bri- 
 tain and Ireland taken this day. 
 
 1 England and Wales . . . 20,061,725 
 
 2 Scotland 3,061,329 
 
 3 Ireland 5,764,543 
 
 4 Islands in the British Seas 143,779 
 
 5 Army, Navy and Merchant 
 
 Seamen 303,412 
 
 Total .... 29,334,788 
 
 The males and females numbered in each case 
 as follows : (1) 9,758,852 males and 10,302,873 
 females; (2) 1,447,015 m. and 1,614,314 f. ; 
 (3) 2,804,961 m, and 2,959,582 f. ; and (4) 
 66,394 m. and 77,385 f. ; the total consists of 
 14,380,634 of the one sex, and 14,954,154 of 
 the other. 
 
 April 8. Disturbances in Warsaw, in which 
 in a few days about a thousand persons were 
 killed and wounded by the Russian troops. 
 
 April 15. The chancellor of the exchequer 
 brought forward his budget, in which he pro- 
 posed to reduce the rate of income-tax from 
 \0d. to 9c?. in the pound, to abolish the paper 
 duties, and to re-enact the existing duties on 
 tea and sugar for one year. 
 
 April 16. Proclamation of Mr. Lincoln, the 
 new president of tke United States, calling out 
 the militia of the several states, and summon 
 ing an early session of congress, to meet on 
 July 4th. 
 
 April 18. At Harper's Feri-y the commis- 
 sioners of the Federal government, being 
 pressed by a superior force, destroyed the 
 armoury, the arsenal, and 15,000 stand of 
 arms, and retired to Pennsylvania. 
 
 April 29. In the House of Lords it was 
 stated by lord Wodehouse that her majesty's 
 government had decided not to intrude advice 
 or counsel on the government of the United
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 599 
 
 States ; but that lord Lyons, the British am- 
 bassador at Washington, had been instructed 
 to express on every fitting occasion the earnest 
 desire of her majesty's government that the 
 differences between the North and the South 
 might be amicably arranged. 
 
 April 29. Jefferson Davis, president of the 
 Confederate States, sent a message to the Con- 
 federate congress respecting the war with the 
 Federal States. In this message he announced 
 that a permanent constitution of the Confede- 
 rate States had been ratified. 
 
 May 3. Messages from the Queen to both 
 Houses of Parliament intimated her majesty's 
 sanction to a marriage between the princess 
 Alice and prince Louis of Hesse. On the 6th, 
 Parliament voted to the princess Alice a dower 
 of 30,000Z., and an annuity of 6,000^. 
 
 June 1. Death of Count Cavour, prime mi- 
 nister of Victor-Emmanuel, king of Italy. 
 
 June 10. Repulse of the Federal American 
 troops by the Confederates at Great Bethel, 
 between James river and York river. 
 
 July 4. The Federal American Congress, in 
 extraordinary session, authorized the employ- 
 ment of 500, 000 Volunteers, and voted a supply 
 of 500 million dollars to carry on the war. 
 
 July 21. The Federal army beaten by the 
 Confederates at Bull's Run, near Manassas 
 Junction, after nine hours' severe fighting. 
 
 Aug. 6. Parliament prorogued. 
 
 Oct. 25. Death of sir James R. Gr. Graham, 
 Bart., aged 69. 
 
 Nov. 8. The " Trent," "West India mail 
 steamer, which left Havannah on the 7th, was 
 boarded by the "San Jacinto," United States 
 man-of-war, commanded by captain Wilkes, 
 and four passengers — Messrs. Slidell and 
 IMason, Confederate commissioners to London 
 and Paris, with their secretaries — were forcibly 
 abducted, the commander of the " Trent" and 
 the Admiralty a;ent in charge of the mail ener- 
 getically protesting against the outrage, which 
 they had no power to prevent. 
 
 Nov. 30. Earl Russell, secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs — having received information 
 on the 27th of the seizure of the Confederate 
 commissioners on board the "Trent," — de- 
 spatched instructions to lord Lyons to demand 
 the restoration of the four passengers taken 
 from the "Trent" by captain Wilkes. On the 
 13th of December the first draft of troops was 
 sent off from this country for Canada, followed 
 by several detachments in the next ten days. 
 On the 27th of December, Mr. Seward, the 
 American secretary of state, informed lord 
 Lyons that the four prisoners would be cheer- 
 fully given up by the United States government, 
 which had not authorized or sanctioned the act 
 ot captain Wilkes in capturing them. They 
 were accordingly given up to lord Lyons on the 
 2nd of January, 1S62, and sent by him imme- 
 diately to England. 
 
 Dec. 14. Death of the Prince Consort at 
 Windsor Castle, in his 43rd year. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 24 & 25 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 14. An Act to grant additional facili- 
 ties for depositing Small Savings at Interest, 
 with the security of the Government for the due 
 Repayment thereof. This Act enables a depo- 
 sitor of any amount not less than a shilling to 
 deposit his savings in any money-order office, 
 which he may withdraw from any other office, 
 and which, while it remains, receives an in- 
 terest of 2 1 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Cap. 47. To facilitate the Construction and 
 Improvement of Harbours, by authorizing 
 Loans to Harbour authorities, to abolish 
 Passing Tolls, and for other purposes. The 
 chief purposes are to abolish tolls, unless faci- 
 lities are afforded to equalize the dues on foreign 
 ships with those of British, and to abolish 
 passing tolls. 
 
 Cap. 55. To amend the Laws regarding the 
 Removal of the Poor, and the Contribution of 
 Parishes to the common Funds in Unions. 
 Reduces the power of removing poor persons 
 to a residence of three years without receiving 
 parish relief. The contribution of parishes to 
 the common fund is to be computed on the 
 rental, and not on the payment to its own poor. 
 A similar Act was passed for Ireland. (Cap. 76. ) 
 
 Cap. 109. To amend the Laws relating to 
 Fisheries of Salmon in England. This ensures 
 the presei-vation of salmon in English rivers by 
 many detailed precautions. 
 
 Cap. 117. To place the Employment of 
 Women, young Persons, Youths, and Children 
 ill Lace Factories under the Regulation of the 
 Factory Acts. 
 
 Cap. 133. To amend the Law relating to 
 Agricultural Drainage. Enables parties to 
 join in effecting drainage that could not be ac- 
 complished by individuals. 
 
 Cap. 134. To amend the Law relating to 
 Bankruptcy and Insolvency. Abolishes the 
 Courts of the Commissioners of Bankruptcy and 
 the Court of Insolvency, and enacts the course 
 of procedure before new judicatures. 
 
 Revenue, 70,283,674^. ; Expenditure- 
 Army, 18,013,896^. ; Navy, 13,331,668?. ; for 
 aU objects, 72,792,059?. ; Debt, 818,043,896?. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 125,102,814?. : total exports, 159,632,498?. ; 
 imports, 217,485,024?. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 12,707 ; to United States, 4'.i,764 ; to Austra- 
 lian Colonies and New Zealand, 23,738 ; to all 
 other places, 5,561 : total, 91,770. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 6,331,225?. : total imported, 12,163,937?. ; 
 exported, 11,238,372?. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 10,869 ; num« 
 ber of passengers, 173,773,218 ; traffic re- 
 ceipts, 28,565,355?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,019,539.
 
 coo 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Jan. 5, Garibaldi accepted the presidency of 
 the Rifle Association of Genoa, and advised the 
 members, in a letter, "to hasten to prepare 
 themselves to take up arms, for the moment 
 was approaching when they would have to give 
 fresh proofs of their valour." 
 
 Feb. 23. The Greek insurgents, who had for 
 some time held possession of Nauplia, capi- 
 tulated to the Greek Government. 
 
 March 1. The earl of Elgin arrived at Cal- 
 cutta to succeed earl Canning as Governor- 
 General of India. 
 
 March 4. President Lincoln, in a message to 
 the Federal Congress, proposed a plan for co- 
 operation with the Slave States for the gradual 
 emancipation of slaves by means of pecuniary 
 compensation. It was approved of by the 
 House of Representatives on March 10, by 88 
 votes to 31, and by the Senate, on April 3, 
 by 32 votes to 10. 
 
 March 8. The Merrimac, Confederate iron- 
 clad war-steamer, attacked the Federal fleet at 
 Newport News, and disabled and sunk several 
 vessels. The Monitor, Federal iron-clad steamer, 
 arrived in the evening, and on the following 
 day maintained a close fight with the Merrimac 
 for several hours, the contest ending in a 
 drawn battle. 
 
 March 9. A meeting of 300 Italian delegates 
 held at Genoa, at which Garibaldi presided. 
 On the 12th the Provisional Committee 
 received a warning from the Government to 
 be calmer in tone, or the authorities might 
 find it necessary to suppress the association. 
 
 March 21. Garibaldi received at Milan with 
 enthusiastic cries of " Rome and Venice." 
 
 March 25. The Pope pronounced an allo- 
 cution in favour of the temporal power of the 
 papacy. At the same time the canonization 
 commenced of twenty-three martyrs, who had 
 been put to death in the Philippine Islands 
 in the sixteenth century. It lasted till June 8, 
 and was attended by upwards of 200 prelates 
 and about 6000 other ecclesiastics. 
 
 March 25. The Italian Government ordered 
 the amalgamation of the southern army, con- 
 sisting principally of Garibaldi's volunteers, 
 with the regular troops. 
 
 March 27. The prince of Wales arrived at 
 Cairo. He subsequently visited Jerusalem and 
 other places in the Holy Land. 
 
 April 6. Battle between the Federals and 
 Confederates at Pittsburg Landing. 
 
 May 3. The Tae-ping rebels in China de- 
 feated with great loss. On the 21st Ningpo was 
 taken by the Imperialists. 
 
 May 25. The Federal American troops, under 
 general Banks, defeated at Winchester by the 
 Confederates, who, however, had to abandon 
 Corinth on the 29th. 
 
 June 19. The Federal House of Representa- 
 tives passed a bill confiscating the slaves of 
 rebels. 
 
 July 1. Marriage of the princess Alice to 
 prince Louis of liesse- Darmstadt. 
 
 July 10. Freedom of the city of London 
 presented to Mr. Peabody, for his munificent 
 gift of £150,000 for the benefit of the poor of 
 London. 
 
 August 3. A proclamation issued by Gari- 
 baldi, addressed to the young men in his army, 
 exhorted them to be ready for an approaching 
 combat against "arrogant foreign oppressors." 
 A proclamation from Victor Emmanuel fol- 
 lowed, warning the young men of Italy against 
 being led into a dangerous and disloyal course 
 of action by illusions, "forgetful of the duty of 
 gratitude due to our best allies." 
 
 August 20. Garibaldi took possession of the 
 town of Catania in Sicily. On the 21st the 
 Italian Government proclaimed Sicily in a state 
 of siege. 
 
 August 25. Garibaldi landed in Calabria. 
 The royal troops were marched against him, 
 and on the 29th, after a skirmish at Aspro- 
 monte, in which he and his son Menotti were 
 wounded, both were taken prisoners, and con- 
 veyed to Spezia. 
 
 August 30. The Federal American army 
 under general Pope defeated a second time at 
 Bull's Run by the Confederates. General Pope 
 retired, and took up a position on Arlington 
 Heights, near Washington. 
 
 Sept. 8. At this date, in 24 Poor-Law 
 Unions in the cotton districts, there were 
 140,165 persons receiving out-door relief, at; 
 a cost of 7922^. per week. The pauperism in 
 these districts amounted to 7 '3 per cent, of 
 the entire population. 
 
 Sept, 17. The Confederate army defeated 
 by General M'Clellan at Antietam, after several 
 previous encounters in which it had been 
 worsted, and forced to evacuate Maryland, into 
 which it had advanced. 
 
 Sept. 22. President Lincoln issued a pro- 
 clamation declaring all slaves to be free after 
 Jan. 1, 1863, whose owners may be in insur- 
 rection against the Federal Government at that 
 date. 
 
 Oct. 5. Riot in Hyde Park between th* 
 adherents of the Pope and the sympathisers 
 with Garibaldi. Several persons were severely 
 injured. 
 
 Oct. 6. The King of Italy publishes a decree 
 of amnesty for Garibaldi and his associates in 
 the recent rising, except such as had deserted 
 from the royal army. 
 
 Oct. 13. The Prussian Representative Cham- 
 ber closed by the king in consequence of its 
 refusal to vote a large estimate for military 
 expenditure proposed by the military. 
 
 Oct. 23. The Tae-pings, in China, driven 
 out of Kah-sing by the Imperialists. 
 
 Oct. 24. Peaceful revolution in Greece. King 
 Otho had to quit the kingdom, and a provi- 
 sional government was appointed. 
 
 Nov. 7. The financial estimates of Austria 
 for 1863 were laid before the Chamber of 
 Deputies, thus practically acknowledging the 
 right of the representatives of the people to 
 control the finances of the empire. 
 
 Nov. 9. An address sent to the Pope, signed
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 60] 
 
 by 8943 members of the Italian clergy, praying 
 liim to give up Eome as the capital of the new- 
 kingdom, and to restore peace to Italy. 
 
 Nov. 23. Prince Alfred proclaimed King of 
 Greece at Athens, but the choice declined by 
 the British Government, as all the protecting 
 powers had agreed that none of their families 
 should accept the crown. He received 230, 000 
 votes on Feb. 3, 1863. 
 
 Dec. 20. From this date the distress in the 
 cotton districts began slowly to decrease. Up 
 to this time 407,830^. had been raised for 
 its relief by the Central Kelief Fund, and 
 236,926^. by the London Mansion House Fund. 
 The number of persons on the relief books was 
 275,000 at the time. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 25 & 26 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 8. To 'prevent the Employment of 
 Women and Children during the night in cer- 
 tain operations connected with Bleaching by the 
 open-air process. They are not to be employed 
 in any of the operations of dyeing, bleaching, 
 or finishing, between eight in the evening and 
 six in the morning, of yarn or cotton cloth, 
 silk, wool, or flax, or any mixture of them, in 
 any building where steam, water, or other 
 mechanical power is used. 
 
 Cap. 18. To amend the Laic as to Whipping 
 of Juvenile or other Offenders. The number 
 of strokes is to be specified, and if the offender 
 he not more than fourteen years old, they are 
 not to exceed twelve, to be inflicted with a birch 
 rod. In Scotland no one above sixteen is to be 
 whippped for theft or offences against property. 
 
 Cap. 40. To carry into effect the treaty 
 "between her Majesty and the United States of 
 America for the Suppression of the African 
 Slave Trade. A mutual right of search is 
 given within certain limits, the slaves captured 
 are to be freed, mixed courts of justice are to be 
 appointed, the captains and crews of condemned 
 vessels are to be given up to the Government 
 to which they belong, as also any other subjects 
 found on boai'd. 
 
 Cap. 43. To provide for the Education and 
 Maintenance of Paxipers' Children in certain 
 Schools and Institutions. Guardians are em- 
 powered to send children from the Union to 
 any properly certified school, and to pay for 
 them ; but no child to be sent without the 
 consent of its parent, unless it has been deserted 
 cr is an orphan, and no child to be kept 
 against its will beyond the age of fourteen. 
 
 Cap. 63. To facilitate the proof of Title to, 
 and the Conveyance of. Real Estates. This 
 Act is almost entirely professional, but it esta- 
 blishes a registry, and the registration is a 
 ■warranty of the title, except in cases of fraud. 
 
 Cap. 61. For the better Management of 
 Highways in England. This long Act gives 
 permission to districts to form a Board for the 
 management of the road, and to levy a rate 
 on the occupiers. 
 
 Cap. 66. For the safe keeping of Petroleum. 
 Not more than forty gallons may be kept 
 within fifty yards of a dwelling-house without 
 
 a licence. The penalty for transgressing the 
 law is 20^. a day. 
 
 Cap. 68. For amending the law relating to 
 Copyright in Wm-ks of the Fine Arts, and fw 
 repressing the commission of Fraud in the 
 production and sale of such works. The Act 
 mainly aims at repressing the reproduction 
 of such works by means of photography, in 
 violation of the rights of the possessors of the 
 originals. 
 
 Cap. 79. To amend the laws relating to 
 Coal Mines. No new mine is to be opened 
 from the passing of this Act, and no existing 
 mine to be worked after Jan. 1, 1865, with 
 less than two shafts, well separated by natural 
 strata. 
 
 Cap. 86. To amend the law relating to 
 Fraudulent Marking of Merchandise. Every 
 person selling merchandise with forged trade 
 marks is liable to a penalty not exceeding 5^. 
 or less thanlO*. on each article so sold, besides 
 the value of the article itself. 
 
 Cap. 93. For Embanking the north side of 
 the river Thames from Westminster-bridge to 
 Blackfriars-bridge, and for making new 
 streets in and -near thereto. This marks the 
 commencement of the great improvements that 
 have been made and are making on the banks 
 of the Thames, 
 
 Cap. 114. For the Prevention of Poaching. 
 Constables or police officers are empowered 
 to search any person suspected of coming from 
 any land where he may have been in quest of 
 game, or of having game in his possession, or 
 of having a gun or nets for the taking of game. 
 If any such are found, the offender to be taken 
 before justices, where he may be fined 51., with 
 the forfeiture of the game or such instruments 
 for procuring game as may be found in his 
 possession. 
 
 Revenue, 69,674,479?. ; Expenditure, Army 
 (Including ordnance), 16,854,290?. ; Navy, 
 12,598,042Z. ; for all purposes, 72,792,059?. 
 In this year commenced an expenditure for 
 fortifications which is not included, as it was 
 provided for by the creation of terminable 
 annuities. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 123,992,264/. Total of Exports, 166,168,134?. 
 
 Imports, 225,716,976?. 
 
 Emigration— to North American Colonies, 
 15,622 ; to the United States, 58,706 ; to the 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 41,843 ; 
 to other places, 6146: total, 121,214. 
 
 Gold imported from Australia, 6,704,753?,; 
 total imported, 19,903,704?. ; exported 
 16,011,963?. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 11,551 ; number 
 of passengers, 180,48.5,727; traffic receipts, 
 29,128,558?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,084,651. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Jan. 9. The British Legation at Rio Janeiro 
 having demanded in vain an indemnity for the 
 plunder of a British vessel wrecked on the
 
 502 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 coast of Brazil, and also an apology for the iin- 
 prisonmeut of some naval officers who were 
 taken not in uniform, and accused of a riot, 
 caused five Brazilian merchant vessels to be 
 seized. They were given up on an undertaking 
 to pay the indemnity to be settled in London ; 
 the other question was referred to the arbitra- 
 tion of the King of the Belgians. 
 
 Jan. 14. The Prussian Chambers opened 
 their session at Berlin. The King's message 
 stated that their sanction would be asked for 
 expenses incurred without their previous sanc- 
 tion, and hoped that a mutual good under- 
 standing might be arrived at. On the 22nd 
 an address was prepared and carried after 
 several days' debate, complaining that "the 
 ministers had carried on the administration 
 against the constitution, and without a legal 
 budget." During the debate the Prime 
 Minister, count von Bismark, said, " the 
 Prussian ministry is quite different from the 
 English. The latter, call it what you will, 
 is only the ministry of the parliament, but we 
 are the ministers of the King." 
 
 Jan. 22. The insurrection in Poland com- 
 menced, in consequence, it is said, of its being 
 discovered that the conscription taking place 
 in Warsaw, instead of being carried out on the 
 usual plan, was used to remove all the young 
 men of education suspected of liberal tenden- 
 cies. The young men withdrew to the woods, 
 provided themselves with arms, and prepared 
 for resistance. The insurrection rapidly spread : 
 detached parties of Russian soldiers were killed; 
 the railways were broken up, the telegraph 
 wires cut ; and diriding themselves into small 
 parties, the insurgents were frequently success- 
 ful in defeating detachments of Russian troops 
 sent against them. 
 
 Feb. 3. The King of Prussia replied to the 
 address of the Lower Chamber, refusing to 
 acknowledge the right of the people to control 
 the financial expenditure through their repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 March 7. The princess Alexandra landed at 
 Gravesend, and was married to the prince of 
 Wales on the 10th. 
 
 March IS. Langiewicz, the principal leader 
 of the Polish insurgents, who had been pro- 
 claimed dictator on the 10th, after two success- 
 ful encounters with the Russians on the 16th 
 and 17th, was attacked by them at Zagoseie, 
 and defeated after a desperate contest. The 
 insurgent force was dispersed, but Langiewicz 
 and some of his adherents escaped across the 
 Austrian frontier into Galicia. They were 
 there disarmed and imprisoned at Cracow. 
 
 March 18. Prince William George of Den- 
 mark was elected King of Greece by the 
 National Assembly, and proclaimed under the 
 title of George the First, France and England 
 approving of the choice. 
 
 March 31. The French entered Puebla after 
 a bombardment of four days. The citadel, with 
 the whok' town, surrendered on May 17. 
 
 April 3. The Sultan of Turkey left Con- 
 Btautinople on a visit to Egypt. He arrived 
 
 at Alexandria on the 8tb, when he declarctl 
 that he came but as a guest, but he had pre- 
 viously declared his disapproval at the large 
 grant of land to the Suez Canal Company, and 
 had forbidden forced labour. 
 
 April 7. Great Britain, France, and Austria 
 sent separate notes to St. Petersburg, remon- 
 strating against the cruelties practised by 
 Russia in Poland. On the 14th Prince Gort- 
 schakoflf replied, ascribing the revolt to the 
 revolutionary principles with which Europe was 
 infested, and that in England was organized the 
 conspiracy which was armed abroad to keep up 
 disorder in the empire. 
 
 April 16. The German Federal Diet debated 
 on the ordinance of the King of Denmark of 
 March 30, by which he gave a constitution to 
 all bis European dominions exclusive of the 
 members of the Confederation, and by which 
 Holstein was to have an independent army, 
 and to share with the rest of the kingdom in 
 the general burdens. The Diet would not 
 recognize it, and protested against the assump- 
 tion of the King that the Diet had no right to 
 interfere in the question of the Duchies. 
 
 April 22. Prince Christian of Denmark an- 
 nounced that he accepted the crown of Greece 
 for his son George ; and the King of Denmark 
 informed the Rigsraad that the ordinance of 
 March 30 had been opposed by the Great 
 Powers of Germany, but that he should persist 
 in his adoption of it. 
 
 April 22. An earthquake at Rhodes by 
 which 2000 houses were destroyed, killing and 
 injuring some thousands of its inhabitants. 
 
 May 12. Radama, King of Madagascar, 
 assassinated, and his widow proclaimed Queen. 
 
 May 26. Herat captured by Dost Mohammed 
 Khan of Afghanistan, who died on June 9, 
 after which the succession was contested by 
 his sons. 
 
 June 10. General Forey with the Frencli 
 army entered the city of Mexico ; they were 
 received, as was stated, with great enthusiasm. 
 The President, Juarez, retired to San Juan 
 Potosi. 
 
 June 18. The King of the Belgians, by his 
 award in the case of the imprisonment of the 
 British naval officers, declared that there was 
 no intentional offence given by the Brazilians. 
 
 June 24. After a trial in the Court of Ex- 
 chequer lasting three days, the case of the 
 Alexandria, seized on behalf of the United 
 States for an infringement of the Foreign 
 Enlistment Acts, was decided in favour of the 
 defendants and against the seizure. 
 
 July 1, 2, and 3. Battle of Gettysburg, in 
 which the Confederates failed to defeat the 
 Federals, and were forced to retire on the 4th. 
 On the same day Fort Hudson, on the Missis- 
 sippi, after a long siege was surrendered to the 
 Federals. 
 
 July 15. An insurrection broke out in New 
 Zealand, near Auckland. On the 17th general 
 Cameron had an action with a large force of 
 the natives, who, availing themselves of rifle 
 pits, fought desperately, but were defeated with
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 603 
 
 great loss. On the 22nd the native settlement 
 of Kiri-Kiri was attacked, and taken after a 
 vigorous defence. From this time the natives 
 would not meet the British in the field, but 
 through July and August continued to ravage 
 the province. The colonists rose in their own 
 defence, and within a few weeks had 4000 
 volunteers and militia under arms. 
 
 July 20. Mexico proclaimed as an empire by 
 an Assembly of Notables, with the archduke 
 Maximilian as Emperor. A deputation was 
 appointed to wait on him and tender the 
 crown. 
 
 Aug. 15. In September, 1862, Mr. Richard- 
 son had been murdered in Japan by the at- 
 tendants of the prince of Satsuma, and as no 
 .satisfaction could be obtained from any of the 
 Japanese authorities, admiral Kuper had been 
 sent with a British squadron to reduce the 
 prince's fortified port of Kagosima. On this 
 day the bombardment commenced, which was 
 vigorously replied to ; but in two days the 
 fort, the palace, the arsenal, and a great part 
 of the town were reduced to ruins, and three 
 stCtim-vessels destroyed. The British loss was 
 two captains and eleven seamen killed, and 
 thirty-nine wounded. 
 
 Aug. 17. The Frankfort Congress of Princes 
 assembled at the desire of the emperor of 
 Austria to consider of a plan for the reforma- 
 tion of the federal constitution of Germany. 
 Prussia declined to appear. On Sept. 1 it was 
 terminated without any result, although the 
 emperor hoped that a second Congress would 
 be more satisfactory. 
 
 Sept. 3. A body of 700 Poles under Lelewel 
 attacked a much superior force of the Russian 
 army, who were compelled to retreat, although 
 the Poles had 100 men killed. On the 6th 
 another battle was fought, Lelewel was killed, 
 and the insurgents, after a gallant defence, had 
 to fly for refuge into Galicia. 
 
 Sept. 7. Prince Gortschakoff rejected the 
 proposal of France for a conference respecting 
 Poland, the welfare of which, be said, was, in 
 common with all his other dominions, the 
 object of the Czar's devoted solicitude. 
 
 Sept. 23. The Ionian Assembly voted in 
 favour of uniting themselves to Greece, thanked 
 Queen Victoria for surrendering the Protector- 
 ship and for the benefits conferred, and the 
 other Powers also for their ready concurrence 
 in the surrender, but declined the pecuniary 
 etipulations. 
 
 Oct. 30. The King of Greece, after having 
 visited France and England, arrived at Athens, 
 where he was enthusiastically received. 
 
 Nov. 4. The Emperor of the French ad- 
 dressed the Sovereigns of Europe, proposing a 
 general Congress for the purpose of regulating 
 the questions now agitating their peoples, and 
 thus avoiding war. It was declined on the 
 part of England by earl Russell as leading to 
 no practically good result ; and by Austria, 
 unless with a stipulation that there should be 
 no territorial alterations adopted. The project 
 was then abandoned. On the 5th the French 
 
 Chambers were opened by the emperor who 
 announced the sending of the proposal for a 
 Congress, congratulated them on the prosperity 
 of the country, and on the success of the armies 
 in Mexico and Cochin China, and alluded to 
 the distressing position of Poland. 
 
 Nov. 6. Czaschkowski, who had maintained 
 a desultory war against the Russians in the 
 government of Radom in Poland, was defeated 
 on this day, his force dispersed, and himself 
 taken prisoner, but he died of his wounds 
 within a few days. 
 
 Nov. 15. Frederic VI. King of Denmark, 
 died aged 55, and was succeeded by Christian 
 IX., the father of the princess of Wales and of 
 the King of Greece, in virtue of a treaty signed 
 in May, 1852, by which the princess Chris- 
 tiana and the prince of Holstein-Augustenburg 
 resigned their claims in his favour for a pecu- 
 niary consideration, in order to avoid a separa- 
 tion of the kingdom. The treaty was signed 
 on behalf of Great Britain, France, Prussia, 
 Austria, and Russia. On the 17th the young 
 duke of Holstein-Augustenburg claimed the 
 Duchy, announcing that his father, who was 
 still alive, could not sell his rights, and his 
 claim was admitted by the Frankfurt Diet, 
 but his representative was not admitted to 
 sit. 
 
 Dec. 8. At Santiago, in Chili, on the last even- 
 ing of a long festival, in honour of the Immacu- 
 late Conception, in the church de laCompania (a 
 Jesuit church) some of the muslin drapery of the 
 image of the Virgin caught fire. The interior 
 of the church, with the roof, was chiefly of 
 wood ; there was but one available exit, and 
 this was at once rendered impassable by the 
 rushing crowd who choked the passage, and in 
 fifteen minutes 2000 corpses, mostly females, 
 were all that remained of the congregation 
 inclosed within that fiery furnace. Some of 
 the priests subsequently preached that all who 
 there died were martyrs, but the government 
 forbade any building to be erected on the site. 
 
 Dec. 24. The Saxon and Hanoverian troops, 
 acting under the orders of the Frankfort Diet, 
 marched into Altona, and took possession of it 
 "without prejudice to the only temporarily 
 suspended rights of the sovereign." The Danish 
 forces withdrew without offering any opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 26 & 27 Victoria. 
 
 Cap. 13. For the Protection of certain 
 Gardens in Ornamental Growids in Cities and 
 Boroughs. "Where land has been set apart for 
 the use of the public, and where trustees or 
 other authorities neglect to keep it in proper 
 order, this Act enables the governing corpo- 
 rations of the place to take possession, and a 
 rate may be imposed for its due maintenance. 
 
 Cap. 14. To amend the Law relating to 
 Post-office Banlcs. This Act provides that 
 money deposited in the Post-office Savings 
 Bank at one place may be transferred at the 
 desire of the depositor, so as to be paid at any 
 other savings bank, and also for the trans-
 
 30i 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ference of the deposits of the former savings 
 banks to the Post- office Savings Banks. 
 
 Cap. 27. To amend the Law relating to 
 Marriages in Ireland. The details of the 
 forms to be observed in the civil celebration and 
 registration of Protestant marriages in Ireland. 
 Cap. 90 does the same for Roman Catholic mar- 
 riages ; and cap. 11 provides for the establish- 
 ment of a registrar-general and assistants, for 
 the registration of births and deaths in Ire- 
 land. 
 
 Cap. 41. To amend the Law respecting the 
 Liability of Innkeepers, and to prevent certain 
 Frauds upon them. No innkeeper is to be 
 liable to any guest for the loss of property, or 
 injury to goods (except horses or other live 
 animals, or carriages) to a greater amount than 
 30/., unless expressly deposited with the said 
 innkeeper. 
 
 Cap. 44. For the further security of the Per- 
 sons of her Majesty's Subjects from Personal 
 Violence. In awarding punishments for robbery 
 committed with violence, the Court may order 
 any convicted male offender, in addition to other 
 punishment, to be twice or thrice privately 
 whipped ; if under 16, a birch rod to be used, 
 and the strokes not to exceed twenty-five ; if 
 above that age, the strokes not to exceed fifty, 
 and the exact number, with the instrument to 
 be used, to be stated in the sentence. 
 
 Cap. 52. To further extend and malce com- 
 pulsory the practice of Vaccination in Ireland. 
 Within six months from the time of birth every 
 child is to be vaccinated, under a penalty of 
 10s. for neglect of the parent or guardian. 
 Registrars are appointed, and the vaccinator is 
 to be paid. A similar Act (cap. 108) was passed 
 for Scotland, but the penalty for neglect is here 
 20s. 
 
 Cap. 70. To facilitate the execution of 
 Public WorTcs in certain manufacturing dis- 
 tricts ; to authorise for that purpose Advances 
 of Public Money to a limited amount upon 
 Security of Local Rates ; and to shorten the 
 period for (he adoption of the Local Govern- 
 ment Act, 1858, in certain cases. Numbers of 
 the labouring and manufacturing classes still 
 remaining out of employment, the Loan Com- 
 missioners are authorised to advance sums not 
 amounting in thewholeto more than 1,200,000Z. 
 to such Local Boards as may wish thus to effect 
 sanitary or other works of public improvement. 
 No sum advanced to exceed one year's rateable 
 value of the district to be improved. 
 
 Cap. 124. For the more effectual condensa- 
 tion of Muriatic Acid Gas in Alkali Worlis. 
 All works for the manufacture of alkali are by 
 this Act compelled to take measures for con- 
 densing and preventing the diffusion of the 
 destructive, gas that might escape. Inspectors 
 •ire appointed to see that effective means are 
 used under penalties of not exceeding 50L for 
 a first offence, and lOOZ. for every subse- 
 quent offence. The owner to be proceeded 
 against in the first instance, but if it be proved 
 that the offence was committed, without his 
 knowledge, by a serrant, he may be proceeded 
 
 against. No alkali works are to be opened 
 until registered with the inspector. 
 
 Revenue, 70,003,501?. ; Expenditure — 
 Army, 16,204,790Z. ; Navy, 11,370,588?. ; for 
 all objects, 69,302,008?. ; Debt, 817,559,322?. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 146,602,342?. ; total of exports, 196,902, 409f. 
 
 Imports, 248,919,020?. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 18,083; to the United States, 146,813; to 
 the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 53.054 ; to other places, 5,808 : total, 223,758. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 5,995,368?. ; total imported, 19,142,665?. ; 
 exported, 15,303,279?. 
 
 Railway Traffic : miles open, 12,322; num- 
 ber of passengers, 204,699,466 ; traffic receipts, 
 31,156,397?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,329,136. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Jan. 8. The Princess of Wales gave birth tt 
 a son, who was baptized on March 10 as Albert 
 Victor Christian Edward. 
 
 Jan. 31. The proposal of Austria and Prussia 
 that the troops of the German Confederation 
 should be restricted to the occupation of Hol- 
 stein, and should not interfere with Schleswig, 
 having been rejected in the Diet at Frankfort 
 by ten votes to five, the two Powers announced 
 that they should take the matter into their 
 own hands, as parties to the treaty of 1852, 
 and they summoned Denmark to annul the 
 constitution by which Schleswig had been in- 
 corporated into the kingdom. Denmark applied 
 for time to obtain the sanction of the Rigsraad, 
 which was refused, and marshal Wrangel, at 
 the head of 70,000 men, summoned general de 
 Aleza to evacuate Schleswig, to which the reply 
 was that he was ordered to defend it. 
 
 Feb. 12. The King of Ashantee having made 
 war on the Fantees (an African territory under 
 the protection of the British at Cape Coast), 
 who had refused to give up two fugitives 
 claimed by him, governor Pine ordered a force 
 to be marched to repel and punish the Ashan- 
 tees. The wet season set in much earlier than 
 was anticipated, and, without seeing an enemy 
 or firing a shot, the force of above 1200 men, 
 chiefly coloured men officered by Europeans, 
 were prostrated by fever. The loss by death, 
 independent of the suffering, was fearful, and 
 the remains of the expedition were ordered to 
 return. The affair gave rise to a sharp discus- 
 sion in Parliament on June 17. 
 
 Feb. 25. The four Italians, who were ar- 
 rested on the previous Dec. 29, charged with an 
 intention of assassinating the Emperor of the 
 French, were this day tried in Paris. Their 
 names were Greco, Imperatori, Trabuco, and 
 Scaglioni. Greco and Trabuoo stated that the 
 money, the explosive bombs, and the weapons 
 had been furnished by Mazzini (who in Lon- 
 don denied it). The other two pleaded that 
 they had been drawn into the conspiracy. All
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 605 
 
 were found guilty. Greco and Trabuco were 
 Benteuced to transportation ; Imperaturi and 
 Sc.ij^lioni to twenty years' imprisonment. 
 
 March 10. Maximilian II., King of Bavaria, 
 died, and was succeeded by his son, Ludwig II. 
 
 March 11. At nearly midnight the town of 
 Sheffield and its neighbourhood was over- 
 whelmed by the bursting of the large water 
 reservoir at Bradford. Within the space of 
 two or three hours 250 human beings, from 
 the man of eighty to the baby in arms, were 
 drowned in their beds, or in the attempt to 
 escape, or crushed beneath the falling dwell- 
 ings. The destruction of property was im- 
 mense. 
 
 March 16. The King of Dahomey defeated in 
 au attack on Abeakutah, with a loss of 1000 
 killed and 2000 taken prisoners. 
 
 April 3. Garibaldi landed at Southampton, 
 where he was received with great enthusiasm. 
 On the 11th he made his entry into London, 
 amid an immense crowd, and took up his 
 abode with the duke of Sutherland at Stafford 
 House. 
 
 April 14. The Chincha islands, of which 
 the guano had been pledged for the security of 
 the Peruvian public debt, seized by a Spanish 
 squadron. 
 
 April 18. The Prussians captured Dybbol by 
 assault, after a siege of nearly two months. 
 The Danes in their resistance lost nearly 5000 
 men, killed, wounded, or taken prisoners ; but 
 they succeeded in removing the greater part of 
 their force to the neighbouring isle of Alsen, 
 after which the bridge Vr'as destroyed. The 
 loss of the Prussians was estimated at 2000 
 killed and wounded. 
 
 April 2'5. A conference on Danish affairs 
 commenced in London, attended by the repre- 
 sentatives of France, Russia, Austria, Prussia, 
 Denmark, Sweden, and the German Confedera- 
 tion. The representatives of Great Britain were 
 the earl of Clarendon and earl Russell. 
 
 April 27. Three tribes of Caucasians, having 
 been subdued by Russia, commenced leaving 
 the country to the number of 300,000, to take 
 refuge in Turkey. Through the want of means 
 of conveyance to Trebizond, numbers perished 
 on the shores of the Black Sea ; others arriving 
 at Trebizond in crowded ships, in greater 
 crowds than were expected, and insufficient 
 means having been provided for their trans- 
 port to places of permanent settlement, fever 
 and small-pox broke out, and occasioned an 
 enormous loss of life before their removal could 
 be effected. 
 
 May 6 to 10. General Grant having ad- 
 vanced to attack general Lee, preparatory to 
 the further advance upon Richmond, the fight- 
 ing was continued from the Friday till Tuesday, 
 the struggle on the last day having lasted for 
 fourteen hours. General Lee maintained his 
 position, but the loss on both sides was terrific. 
 On Thursday the 12th, the Federals again at- 
 tacked general Lee at Spottsylvania, where he 
 had taken up a strong position. Here the 
 Federals claimed the advantage, as they cap- 
 
 tured some cannon and took some prisoners, 
 but the loss of life was great, "the men on 
 both sides falling like grain." On the 20th, 
 having been strongly reinforced, finding he 
 could not dislodge general Lee from his posi- 
 tion, general Grant made a flank movement, 
 and gained a position south of the North Anna 
 river, where he was furiously attacked by the 
 Confederates, but maintained his ground. 
 
 June 19. The Alabama, a Confederate 
 steamer which had inflicted enormous loss on 
 the Federal commerce, was on this day met, 
 on leaving Cherbourg, by the Federal turret- 
 armed frigate, the Kearsage. After an en- 
 gagement lasting for about an hour, the 
 Alabama, in a sinking state, made for the 
 French coast, which she was unable to reach. 
 Captain Semmes, with a portion of the crew, 
 was picked up by an English steam-yacht, 
 and landed at Southampton. 
 
 June 25. William, King of Wurtemburg, died, 
 aged 83, and was succeeded by his son Charles. 
 
 June 25. The London Conference on Danish 
 affairs held its last sitting, Denmark and the 
 German Powers alike rejectiflg the proposals of 
 the neutral mediators. 
 
 June 26. The Prussians attacked and took 
 the isle of Alsen. 
 
 July 19. Nanking stormed and captured by 
 the Imperialists, aided by a disciplined force 
 under major Gordon. The two chief leaders 
 of the Taepings surrendered to major Gordon, 
 stipulating that their lives should be spared ; 
 but as soon as the Imperialists obtained pos- 
 session of them they were executed ; upon 
 which major Gordon withdrew from the ser- 
 vice. 
 
 July 31. At Petersburg, near Richmond, a 
 mine containing seven tons of gunpowder was 
 sprung, a breach was made, and about 500 of 
 the Confederate garrison killed. The Federals 
 then made an assault with 18,000 men, but 
 after a contest of some hours were forced to 
 retire. 
 
 Aug. 6. The Maori war in New Zealand 
 brought to a conclusion by the unconditional 
 submission of most of the tribes : the revolt 
 was punished only by the forfeiture of a small 
 portion of their lands. 
 
 Aug. 8. The statue of Daniel O'Connell in- 
 stalled in Dublin ; on the same day his effigy 
 was burnt by the Orangemen in Belfast, and 
 the ashes were buried with mock solemnity on 
 the following day. The Roman Catholics 
 assembled and attacked the procession, and 
 from this day to the 19th the rioting was 
 almost incessant. The two factions fought in 
 large bands. The police were powerless ; they 
 were pelted with stones and driven away. 
 Additional policemen and a military force were 
 sent for, but 3000 soldiers and 1000 policemen 
 were unable to suppress the rioting. Chapels 
 and houses were wrecked ; and the windows 
 were broken throughout whole streets. The 
 military had to tire on the crowd, and many 
 of the ringleaders on both sides were captured. 
 Before the riots wei'e ended there were nine
 
 606 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 persons killed, »nd 176 wounded were attended 
 to in the General Hospital, besides many who 
 received surgical assistance in their own houses. 
 
 Sept. 4. General Sherman, the commander 
 of the Federal army of the Potomac, having 
 beaten the Confederates in several encounters, 
 had at length cut off the communications of 
 general Hood with the South ; and on this day 
 teok possession of Atlanta in Georgia, which 
 general Hood had felt himself compelled to 
 abandon. This was a most serious loss to the 
 Confederates as it contained the arsenals, the 
 foundries, and the manufactories, which had 
 chiefly supplied the Confederate armies during 
 the contest. General Hood retreated towards 
 Virginia. 
 
 Sept. 15. A treaty concluded between France 
 and Italy, by which it was agreed that the 
 French troops should be withdrawn from Rome 
 within two years, the Italian government un- 
 dertaking to protect the Pope against any at- 
 tacks from without, and that Florence should 
 be the seat of the Italian government. On this 
 arrangement becoming known at Turin, a riot 
 broke out, which was promptly quelled by the 
 military, but an immediate change of ministry 
 was the consequence. 
 
 Oct. 30. A treaty of peace between Den- 
 mark, Prussia, and Austria, signed at Vienna, 
 by which Denmark consented to surrender the 
 Duchies to the two powers, to pay a large sum 
 of money, and to submit to a rectification of 
 the frontiers of Jutland. 
 
 Nov, 1. A violent cyclone in the Bay of 
 Bengal, which extended along the coast from 
 Calcutta to very near Madras. The waters of 
 the Ganges were driven back by the wind, and 
 submerged a large portion of the Sunderbunds ; 
 the island of Saugor was inundated, and 7000 
 persons out of a population of 8500 were 
 drowned. At Masulipatam the sea broke into 
 the land, along a distance of more than 80 
 miles, and in some instances penetrated inland 
 for 17 miles, destroying villages, their inhabi- 
 tants, crops, and cattle, and filling up the 
 wells. The total loss of life during this ter- 
 rible night was estimated at not less than 
 from 70,000 to 80,000 souls. On the flood 
 returning the number of bodies of men and 
 animals left behind was so great, that but for 
 the exertions of the English authorities in 
 burying and burning them, and providing food 
 and shelter for the unfortunate survivors, an 
 infectious fever would have followed close on 
 the previous calamity. 
 
 Dec. 6. Abraham Lincoln elected President 
 of the United States for a second time, and 
 Andrew Johnson elected Vice-President. 
 
 Dec. 21. General Sherman, having marched 
 from Atlanta in Georgia to Savannah in South 
 Carolina, took possession of that town without 
 any resistance being made, general Hardee, 
 the commander of the Confederates, retreating, 
 as not being strong enough to resist. 
 
 Dec. 24, 2.5. The Federal fleet attacked 
 WilmiuKton in North Carolina, which had 
 been the great depot for the blockade-running 
 
 vessels from the Bahamas. After having in- 
 effectually exploded on the 24th a vessel with 
 215 tons of gunpowder under the walls of Fort 
 Fisher, the outer fort which guarded the har- 
 bour, and bombarding it on the 25th, a party 
 of men were landed to storm it, but they were 
 repulsed with considerable loss, and the fleet 
 retired. 
 
 LEGISLATION, Session 27 & 28 Victoria:. 
 
 Cap. 44. To amend the Act relating to 
 Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, 20 <fc 21 
 Vict. cap. 85. Where a wife has obtained a 
 protecting order from one magistrate, and the 
 husband or a creditor may have applied for the 
 discharge of such order, the cause may be 
 heard, and the order discharged, by the suc- 
 cessor of the magistrate who made the order, 
 should he have died or been removed. 
 
 Cap. 47. To amend the Penal Servitude 
 Act. No convict to be sentenced to a less 
 period than five years, and where any previous 
 conviction has taken place, for not less than 
 seven years. Corporal punishment may be in- 
 flicted for offences within the prison. Licences 
 are to be granted in a prescribed form ; the 
 holder must report himself within three days 
 to the police of the locality where be intends to 
 reside, and once in every three months after- 
 wards the licence to be produced whenever 
 called for by a magistrate or police-officer. 
 Any constable or police-officer may apprehend, 
 without a warrant, any licensed holder reason- 
 ably suspected of a breach of the conditions 
 endorsed on the licence, and the breach forfeits 
 the licence. 
 
 Cap. 48. For the extension of the Factory 
 Acts. With some modifications, the provisions 
 of previous Acts are extended to the manufac- 
 ture of earthenware (except bricks and tiles, 
 not being ornamental tiles), lueifer matches, 
 percussion caps and cartridges, the employ- 
 ments of paper-staining and fustian-cutting. 
 
 Cap. 108. To explain the Statutes of her 
 present Majesty for amending the Laws re- 
 lating to the Removal of the Poor. The period 
 of settlement within which a person likely to 
 become chargeable to the parish or union may be 
 removed, is altered from five years to three. 
 
 Cap. 113. To amend the Laws relating to 
 the Conservancy of the River Thames, and for 
 the Purposes relating thereto. Six additional 
 conservators are to be elected. The right 
 of taking ballast from the Thames is taken 
 from the Trinity House, and given to the Con- 
 servators. The privileges of the Watermen's 
 Company are restricted, and certificates are 
 to be granted by the Conservators to persons 
 above twenty years of age, who upon examina- 
 tion are found capable of navigating lighters 
 or steam-boats. Barges navigated from abova 
 Teddington Lock, and not descending below 
 London Bridge, are exempt from having a 
 licensed waterman on board. The Conserva- 
 tors are empowered to regulate the tolls for 
 steam-boats, and to provide rules for fishing* 
 boats as to their nets and lines. No gravel.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 607 
 
 stones, mud, or earth, or oilier refuse may be 
 thrown, or so placed as to be carried by floods, 
 into the Thames, nor any substance produced 
 in making gas, nor any other offensive matter, 
 is to flow into the Thames, under a penalty not 
 exceeding 20?. for each offence. 
 
 Cap. 116. For making provision for distn- 
 luting the Charge of Relief of certain classes 
 of Poor Persons over the whole of the Metro- 
 polis. The expense of providing a refuge for 
 the houseless poor is by this Act ordered to be 
 divided iu certain proportions among all the 
 unions and parishes within the metropolitan 
 district ; and proper wards, or places of recep- 
 tion, are to be provided, to be approved of by 
 the Poor-Law Board, at the mutual expense. 
 
 Cap. 117. To render •permissive the use of 
 the Metric System of Weights and Measures. 
 Legalises contracts made under the French 
 decimal system. 
 
 Revenue, 70,20S,964Z. ; Expenditure — 
 Army, 14,723,976^. ; Navy, 10,821,596Z. ; 
 for all objects, 67,056,286/.; National Debt, 
 813,230,152/. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish Produce, 
 160,449,053/. ; total of exports, 212,619,614/. 
 
 Imports, 274,952,172/. 
 
 Emigration — to North American Colonies, 
 12,721; to United States, 147,042; to the 
 Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 40,942; 
 to all other places, 8,195: total, 208,900. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 2.656,971/. ; total imported, 16,900,951/. ; 
 exported, 13,279,739?. 
 
 Railway Traffic : Miles open, 12,789 ; num- 
 ber of passengers, 229,348,664 ; traffic re- 
 ceipts, 33,911,547/. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,198,129. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Jan. 13. On this day the attack on Fort 
 Fisher, the advanced fort of Wilmington Har- 
 bour, was renewed, and a bombardment con- 
 tinued until Sunday, the 15th, when the works 
 were stormed, and the ganison, amounting to 
 1200 men, were compelled to surrender. The 
 resistance was obstinate, and the Federal loss 
 severe. Within a day or two of the capture, 
 the powder magazine of the fort exploded, and 
 300 of the Federal troops perished. 
 
 Feb. 15. The emperor of the French opened 
 the session of the Legislature with a speech, in 
 ■which he congratulated them on the increased 
 probability of a continued peace, with its ac- 
 companying prosperity ; spoke of the with- 
 drawal of the French troops from Rome ; 
 promised further progress in free trade by a 
 removal of the French navigation laws ; an ex- 
 tension of the powers of communes and depart- 
 ments to manage their local affairs without the 
 intervention of the State ; to give the right of 
 provisional release, even in criminal cases, with 
 or without bail ; and to suppress altogether 
 personal ari'est in civil or commercial matters. 
 
 Feb. 17. The Confederates were forced to 
 
 evacuate Charleston. Preparations had been 
 made for several days preceding ; aU the 
 wealthy inhabitants had removed; the guns 
 were spiked, military stores destroyed, and the 
 troops, about 14,000, retreated northwards. 
 The Federals on entering the town found about 
 200 pieces of cannon, and the fortifications 
 uninjured. After they had obtained possession, 
 a fire broke out, which destroyed 5000 bales 
 of cotton, and the explosion of a dep6t occurred, 
 by which several hundred lives were lost. 
 
 March 11. A strike of the iron-workers in 
 North Staffordshire against a reduction of 
 wages, rendered necessary by a fall in the 
 price of iron, had taken place. An endeavour 
 was made to obtain the means of resistance by 
 those on strike by allowing the workers in 
 other districts to accept the terms of the 
 masters on condition of subscribing to their 
 support ; upon which the ironmasters through- 
 out the kingdom agreed to lock out all the men 
 unless those of North Staffordshire accepted the 
 offered terms. They were refused, and on this 
 day the lock-out commenced. It continued 
 till April 5, when the men of South StaflTord- 
 shire submitted to the condition of not sub- 
 scribing, and the works were opened. It was 
 calculated that the total weekly wages amounted 
 to 120,000/., the withdrawal of which occa- 
 sioned extreme general distress, while the 
 foreign trade was interrupted, and to some 
 extent thrown into other channels. 
 
 March 13. The president of Paraguay, F. S. 
 Lopez, addressing his council and deputies, 
 stated that Brazil and the Argentine Confe- 
 deration, by their armed interference in the 
 domestic affairs of Uruguay and their claims 
 as to the right of navigation on the Parana 
 and the Paraguay, justified the commencement 
 of hostilities against them. He had been pre- 
 paring an army and a fleet for some time, and 
 he had fortified HumayitS, on the Paraguay 
 river. Early in April he invaded the pro\'ince 
 of San Pedro in Brazil and Corrientes, a State 
 of the Argentine Confederation. As the attack 
 was unexpected, he carried all before him for a 
 time, 
 
 ]\Iarch 20. On the appeal of Dr. Colenso, 
 bishop of Natal, against the sentence of Dr. 
 Grey, the bishop of Cape Town, who had de- 
 posed him from his bishopric, the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council decided that 
 the bishop of Cape Town had no jurisdiction 
 over the bishop of Natal, and had, therefore, 
 no power to remove him from his oflace, and 
 that the proceedings against Dr. Colenso were 
 null and void in law. 
 
 April 2. The Federals under general Grant 
 having broken through the Confederate defences 
 around Petersburg, general Lee evacuated both 
 Petersburg and Richmond, retreating north- 
 wards towards Lynchburg. Thus ended a 
 siege which, with some interruptions, had 
 lasted for three years. On the 9th, generyl 
 Lee, with his army, surrendered to general 
 Grant. 
 
 AprilI4. President Lincoln was shot through
 
 COS 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the liead by an assassin -while sitting in his 
 private box in the theatre at Washington. The 
 raurderer leaped upon the stage, exclaiming, 
 " Sic semper tyrannis," and succeeded for the 
 time in making his escape. President Lincoln 
 died early on the following morning. Oa the 
 same evening a murderous attack was made on 
 Mr. Seward in his own house, the assassin 
 stabbing him in several places, killing one of 
 his servants, and fracturing the skull of Mr. 
 Frederic Seward, who endeavoured to save his 
 father. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, 
 succeeded to Mr. Lincoln's ofSce. 
 
 April 26. Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Pre- 
 sident Lincoln, having been tracked to a barn 
 near Port Royal, on the Rappahannock, Mary- 
 land, was summoned to surrender by a troop 
 of horse ; he refused, fired at the sergeant of 
 the troop, who returned the fire, and shot him 
 through the head, of which wound he died in 
 about three hours. His companion named 
 Harrold was taken prisoner. 
 
 May 1. Addresses of condolence for and of 
 horror at the crime of the assassination of 
 President Lincoln, voted in the Houses of Lords 
 and Commons. On the immediately following 
 days similar addresses were voted in public 
 meetings in every considerable town in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 May 10. Jefferson Davis, President of the 
 Confederate States, with his wife, sister, bro- 
 ther, and some members of his staff, captured 
 at Irwinsville, in Georgia, by a detachment of 
 Federal cavaliy. The troops were divided 
 into two parties, the more effectually to 
 surround the place, and prevent the escape of 
 Davis ; but when meeting they mistook each 
 other for hostile troops, and before the mis- 
 take was rectified two men were killed and 
 several wounded. Mr. Davis was placed in 
 close confinement. 
 
 May 22. President Johnson issued a pro- 
 clamation for opening the blockaded ports of 
 the United States from and after July 1, 
 except those in the State of Texas ; and on 
 June 2 earl Russell, in a letter to the Admiralty 
 Board, announced that the Confederates would 
 no longer be recognised as belligerents in British 
 ports. 
 
 June 11. War having been declared against 
 Paraguay by Brazil and the Argentine Con- 
 federation, an army and a fleet had been 
 dispatcHe'd to repel the attack of the Para- 
 guayans, and to carry the war into their own 
 country. The fleet ascended the Parana river, 
 and on this day were attacked by the Para- 
 guayan steamers. They were repulsed, five 
 out of eight were destroyed, and five heavily- 
 armed gnii-boats were taken. 
 
 June 17. Tlie Prussian Parliament was pro- 
 rogued. During the sitting the financial and 
 military pi oposals of the government had been 
 rejected, and in dismissing them, the minister, 
 Von Bismark, accused them of placing diflicul- 
 ties in tlie way of the ministry, which were 
 detrluienlal to the welfare of the country ; 
 told them tliat the government would be car- 
 
 ried on in the way indicated by itself, and 
 trusted that ultimately tbe house and the 
 nation would approve and thank the king for 
 the course pursued. The President of the 
 House, Von Grabow, addressing the assembled 
 representatives, said that the effort to trans- 
 form a constitutional government into an 
 absolute police and military despotism had 
 been carried to the utmost limit, and would be 
 wrecked on the loyalty of the people, mani- 
 fested by their choice of constitutional repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 July 7. Mrs. Surratt, Messrs. Payne, Azte- 
 roth, and Harrold, were hung at New York, 
 after a trial before a court-martial which lasted 
 for many days, as guilty accomplices and con- 
 spirators with Booth in the murder of the late 
 President Lincoln. 
 
 July 22. Instructions were issued by the 
 Privy Council for taking precautions against 
 the introduction of cholera at the seaports. 
 Hospitals were formed at several of them, to 
 which seamen suffering from the disorder 
 might be immediately removed on their 
 arrival. 
 
 August 2. An order was issued by the Privy 
 Council, including regulations for guarding 
 against the cattle plague, which had begun to 
 spread rapidly and fatally, in consequence of 
 which another order was issued on the lltb, 
 commanding the destruction of infected beasts, 
 and imposing a penalty of 20Z. for infractions 
 of the regulations. This was followed by 
 other orders appointing inspectors at the ports 
 to examine foreign cattle, and in country 
 districts, to insure the carrying out of the 
 orders in CounciL On Sept. 22, in conse- 
 quence of the plague having extended widely 
 to sheep, a new order was issued, by which the 
 previous orders were made to apply to all 
 infected animals, the word animal to include 
 "any cow, heifer, bull, buUock, ox, calf, 
 sheep, lamb, goat, or swine." In October a 
 Government Commission was appointed to in- 
 vestigate the cause and the means of repressing 
 the disease. 
 
 August 11. An insurrection of the negroes 
 in Jamaica broke out in the parish of St. 
 Thomas-in-the-East, near Morant Bay. The 
 outbreak was accompanied by some atrocious 
 mui-ders, burning of property, and plunder. 
 Military force was rapidly forwarded. Governor 
 Eyre took very decided steps for its repression, 
 and the insurrection was extinguished, but 
 accompanied by some circumstances that ex- 
 cited much discussion in England, The negro 
 troops behaved with great faithfulness and 
 courage. 
 
 August 16. A navigation treaty with Prussia 
 was signed. 
 
 August 26. Austria and Prussia communi- 
 cate to the Diet at Frankfort the results of tho 
 interview at Gastein : they were— that the 
 duke of Augustenburg-Holstein had no right 
 to the Duchies of Schleswig-Uolstein ; that tlifl 
 King of Denmark was the legal possessor; and 
 tb;it he had resigned his claim to the tw.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 609 
 
 Powers by the treaty of Vienna. They would 
 therefore hold them jointly for the present. 
 
 August 29. The French fleet arrived at 
 Portsmouth in return for the visit of the 
 English fleet to Cherbourg, and the officers 
 ■were magnificently entertained by the English 
 officers and the mayor and corporation of the 
 town, 
 
 Sept. 2. A deputation of upwards of 2000 
 inhabitants of Schleswig-Holstein visited Co- 
 penhagen, and were received with great en- 
 thusiasm by the Danes. 
 
 Sept 15. The Dublin police took possession 
 of the office of the Irish People newspaper, 
 and seized the persons found on the premises, 
 charged with being members of the Fenian 
 Brotherhood and engaged in treasonable at- 
 tempts against the Government. On the same 
 day numerous arrests were made in Cork, the 
 persons arrested being charged with the like 
 offence ; but in their cases bail was taken for 
 their appearance at a subsequent investigation, 
 while at Dublin the persons charged were 
 remanded to prison till another hearing. 
 Other arrests followed, and on Sept. 20 some 
 persons were apprehended in Manchester and 
 Sheffield and conveyed to Dublin charged with 
 complicity in the conspiracy. On Nov. 10, 
 Stephens, alias Power, the reputed Chief 
 Centre for Ireland, was apprehended, ex- 
 amined, and committed for trial. 
 
 Sept. 21. Valparaiso and other ports of 
 Chili blockaded by a Spanish fleet under Ad- 
 miral Pareja, upon the refusal of the Chilian 
 Government to consent to the claims of the 
 Spanish Government, on a summons of only 
 four days ; the said claims having been pre- 
 viously arranged by the Spanish ambassador, 
 but who had been withdrawn and his arrange- 
 ments repudiated. 
 
 Oct. 18. Viscount Palmerston, First Lord of 
 the Treasury, died, aged 81. His lordship 
 had been at the head of the Cabinet from 
 February, 1855, with the exception of the 
 short interval of the Derby-Disraeli Ministry 
 in 1858, until his death. He was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. Earl Russell was his 
 successor as chief of the Cabinet. 
 
 Nov. 6. The Shenandoah, Confederate fri- 
 gate, which had been active and successful 
 in inflicting damage on the commercial vessels 
 of the United States, arrived in the Mersey, 
 and was surrendered to the British Govern- 
 ment on the 9th. The captain and crew having 
 been set at large, the ship was delivered over 
 to the consul of the United States. 
 
 Nov. 9. The Irish International Exhibition, 
 which the prince of Wales had opened, was 
 closed on this day. 
 
 Nov. 23. Stevihens, the head-centre of the 
 Fenians, w-ho had been committed for trial to 
 lUchmond jail, made his escape. On the 2Sth, 
 the trial of the other conspirators commenced 
 in Dublin; and on Dec. 1, Luby, the first 
 tried, was convicted, and sentenced to twenty 
 years penal servitude. Other trials followed 
 witli similar results. 
 
 VOL. VIII, — 263. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 28 k 29 ViCToni.E. 
 
 Cap. 18. For amending the Law of Evidence 
 and Practice on Criminal Trials. In triala 
 for felony or misdemeanor, if evidence on the 
 part of the accused be not called, the accused 
 or his counsel have the right of addressing the 
 jury last. If witnesses are called, and are 
 adverse, it may be proved that they had made 
 other statements previously. 
 
 Cap. 75. For facilitating the more useful 
 application of Seicage in Great Britain and 
 Ireland. Enables places not governed under 
 the Public Health Act, or the Local Govern- 
 ment Act, to form themselves into districts, 
 levy rates, construct works for draining and 
 cleansing, prevent the pollution of streams 
 within their limits, and make contracts for 
 the use of the sewage. 
 
 Cap. 79. To irrovide for the better distribu- 
 tion of the Charge for the Belief of the Poor 
 in Unions. The burial of the poor by the 
 guardians, and all charges for vaccination and 
 registration fees, are to be charged on the 
 common fund of the union, and not on the 
 parish ; and the period of residence required 
 for a settlement is further reduced from three 
 years to one year. 
 
 Cap. 83. For further regulating the use of 
 Locomotives on Turnpike and other Roads for 
 agricultural and other purposes. When a 
 locomotive is passing along any road, one per- 
 son must precede it on foot, displaying a red 
 flag, to warn drivers of carriages of its ap- 
 proach ; it is not to go at a greater rate than 
 four miles an hour along a highway, or than 
 two miles through any town or village ; towns 
 of above 5000 inhabitants may regulate the 
 speed and the hours at which locomotives may 
 pass along the highways under their jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 Cap. 90. For the establishment of a Fire 
 Brigade within the Metropolis. Under the 
 Metropolitan Board of Works a Fire Brigade is 
 established, to be supported by a race, to which 
 the Fire Insurance offices also contribute. 
 
 Cap. 99. To confer on the County Courts a 
 limited jurisdiction in Equity. To the County 
 Courts are given the powers and jurisdiction of 
 the higher Chancery Courts in suits which do 
 not involve an amount in value above £500. 
 Evidence to be taken by word of mouth, and 
 plaints to be heard in open court. 
 
 Revenue, 70,313,437^. Expenditure — 
 Army, 14,382,672?.; Navy, 10,89S,253Z. ; 
 for all objects, 66,462,207/. ; National Debt, 
 808,289,398/. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish produce, 
 160,835,725/.; total exports, 218,831,576/. 
 
 Imports, 271,072,235/. 
 
 Emigration to North American Colonies, 
 17,211 ; to the United States, 147,258 ; to 
 the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 87,283; to all other places, 8,019: total, 
 209,801. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Anstrali-a,
 
 610 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 5,051,170?. ; total imported, 14,485,570?. ; 
 exported, 8,493,332?. 
 
 Kailway Traffic : Miles open, 13,289 ; 
 number of passengers, 251,959,862 j traffic 
 receipts, 35,751,655?. 
 
 Number of Paupers, 1,157,884. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Jan. 2. The Gazette appointment appeared 
 of sir H. E. Storks, and a Commission to in- 
 quire into the disturbances in Jamaica and the 
 means taken for their suppression. 
 
 Jan. 16. The county and city of Dublin, in 
 consequence of the discovery of quantities of 
 concealed arms, came under the operation of a 
 Government proclamation, by ■which no person 
 was allowed to appear with fire-arms, and 
 empowering the police to search for arms in 
 houses where they have reason to think they 
 are concealed. 
 
 Jan. 23. General Prim, who had headed an 
 abortive insurrection in Spain on the 3rd of 
 January, ou this day crossed the frontier into 
 Portugal. He had been pursued by several 
 columns of Spanish troops, but all failed either 
 to intercept him or bring him to action. 
 
 Jan. 29. Jlr. George Peabody, the American 
 merchant, in addition to the 150,000?. pre- 
 viously given, makes a second magnificent 
 donation of 100,000?. for the relief of the poor 
 in London. The trustees of the foi-mer gift had 
 expended 80,000?. in erecting dwellings for the 
 poor, in which very superior accommodation 
 was afforded at rents below what they usually 
 jjaid, but which gave an interest of 3 per cent, 
 on the capital sunk. In four blocks of build- 
 ings accommodation had been provided for 850 
 persons. The Queen wi-ote a letter of thanks 
 to Mr. Peabody, and regretted that he had not 
 deemed it compatible with his position as an 
 American citizen to accept the honours which 
 she would have been glad to bestow. 
 
 Feb. 2. The Special Commission appointed 
 to try the Fenian conspirators in Ireland 
 finished its task this day. Forty-one persons 
 had been tried, either in Dubliu or in Cork, 
 and of these, thirty-six had been convicted or 
 pleaded guilty, three were acquitted, and in 
 one case the jury disagreed and were dis- 
 charged. The sentences were for various terms 
 of penal imprisonment. 
 
 Feb. 20. Prince Couza, the Hospodar of the 
 Danubian Principalities, deposed, and the 
 throne offered to the Count of Flanders, who 
 at once declined. 
 
 March 31. The Spanish fleet, under admiral 
 Mendez Nunez, in sjiite of the remonstrances of 
 the European consuls and the comniandcrs of 
 the English, French, and United States ves- 
 sels, bombarded the unprotected Chilian port 
 of Valparaiso. For seven hours the sliips fired 
 upon the town without a shot in opjjosition. 
 At the end of that time they withdrew, leaving 
 the town in flames. The inhabitants, of whom 
 only three lost their lives, were then at liberty 
 to extinguish the fire, in which they were 
 
 assisted by the fire-engines and crews of the 
 foreign vessels. The damage done by this use- 
 less and barbarous attack was estimated at 
 20,000 dollars. 
 
 April 7. Mr. Johnson, the President of the 
 United States, having passed his veto on the 
 Civil Rights Bill, for conferring on the coloured 
 population equal rights with the whites, the 
 Senate by 33 votes to 15 overruled his veto. 
 
 April 16. Alexander IL, Emperor of Russia, 
 while entering his carriage at St. Petersburg, 
 was shot at by a Russian named Karakosofif. 
 The pistol was fortunately turned aside by a 
 workman named Kommisarofl^, who was en- 
 nobled for the act ; the assassin was seized, 
 and a military commission appointed to try the 
 criminal and investigate the cause of the attempt. 
 It was found that there was a secret society 
 who had been conspiring against the safety of 
 the state ; and numerous arrests were made. 
 Karakosofif was hung on the 16th of Sep- 
 tember; and 34 persons were convicted of 
 having belonged to the secret society, of whom 
 one was sentenced to be hung, and the others 
 to imprisonment for life or for definite periods; 
 but the emperor commuted the punishment of 
 death for that of imprisonment, and reduced 
 the terms of imprisonment of the rest. 
 
 May 10. The old-established discount house 
 of Gurney, Overend, and Co. (limited) sus- 
 pended payment, with liabilities to the amount 
 of 10,000,000?. This was followed on the 11th 
 by the suspension of several other great firms, 
 among them Peto, Betts, and Co., the railway 
 contractors, the English Joint-Stock Bank, and 
 a number of minor ones. This was what 
 became known as the Black Friday, and pro- 
 duced a panic which lasted (although the Bank 
 of England discounted securities to the amount 
 of 4,000,000?. at advanced rates of discount) 
 until the Bank was authorised by the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer to increase the issue 
 of bank-notes at a minimum rate of 10 per 
 cent, for discount. This to some extent 
 allayed the panic, but the consequences, im- 
 mediate and remote, were long felt in all the 
 commercial relations of the country. 
 
 May 31, An armed party of Fenians crossed 
 the Niagara river from near Buffalo, possessed 
 themselves of an empty mill called Fort Erie, 
 and cut the telegraph wires. As soon as the 
 fact became known, the Canadian volunteers 
 were marched against them, attacked them on 
 the 2nd of June, but were not successful in 
 capturing them. In the meantime, the 
 government of the United States had given 
 directions to general Grant to employ military 
 force to pi-cvent reinforcements crossing, as it 
 was known a large number of Fenians had 
 assembled on the United States frontier, and 
 tliis was effectually done. The Canadian fore/ 
 having been strengthened, again advanced on 
 Fort Erie, which the Fenians abandoned, 
 leaving 32 men as a piquet, who were captured, 
 and six of them were tried by drum-head court- 
 mnrtial and shot. The main-body, about 400, 
 in i-ecrossing the Niagara river, were seized by
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 611 
 
 the Federal gunboats, disarmed, and after a 
 few days' confinement, discharged on recog- 
 nizances to appear when called on. On the 
 7th of June President Johnson issued a pro- 
 clamation against the Fenians, forbidding any 
 assistance being given to them ; on the previous 
 day general Sweeney, the organizer of the raid, 
 had been arrested at St. Alban's ; on the 7th, 
 Roberts, the Fenian civil chief, was arrested in 
 New York ; and warrants were issued for the 
 arrest of some of the prominent members of the 
 party. 
 
 June 5. The proposed Conference at Paris 
 abandoned in consequence of the refusal of 
 Austria to assent to the programme for the 
 settlement of disputes without hostilities, she 
 demanding as a previous stipulation that no 
 territorial addition should be made to any of 
 the contending states. 
 
 June 15. The Prussian armies enter Saxony 
 and Hanover, after a proclamation of war 
 against Austria, and all states allied with her, 
 had been issued by the King of Prussia. On 
 the 17th, one division took possession of Stade, 
 in Hanover, and on the 18th, the other entered 
 Dresden. 
 
 June 1 S . Earl EusselFs ministry were beaten 
 by a majority of 315, against 304, on the rating 
 clause of the Franchise Bill. On the 2Gth it 
 was announced to the two Houses that they 
 had resigned, and that the Earl of Derby was 
 to form a new ministry. 
 
 June 22. A military insurrection broke out 
 in Madrid, but ■was repressed after 200 of the 
 insurgents had been killed. Order was not 
 restored until the next day with a total loss of 
 1000 lives, and 1750 prisoners thrown into 
 gaol, many of whom were subsequently exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 June 23. The Italian army numbering be- 
 tween 80,000 and 90,000 men, crossed the 
 Mincio, advancing against the Austrians ; they 
 were met at Custozza, defeated after a battle 
 of many hours, and forced to retreat across the 
 Mincio with great loss. 
 
 June 27 and 2S. The Austrians were de- 
 feated by the Prussians at Nachod, in Bohemia. 
 
 July 3. The main army of the Austrians de- 
 feated at Sadowa, near Koniggratz, with great 
 loss. On the 4th, the Emperor of Austria 
 applied to the Prussians for an armistice, 
 which was refused. He immediately ceded 
 Venice and the dependent Italian territory to 
 the Emperor of the French ; and desired his 
 mediation for the conclusion of a peace with all 
 the belligerents. 
 
 July 5. The princess Helena married to his 
 royal highness prince Christian of Schleswig- 
 Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenbivrg. 
 
 July 7. The shore end of the new Atlantic 
 Cable was fixed at Foilhummerum Bay, near 
 Valencia, and paid out for thirty miles to be 
 spliced on to the main cable on board the 
 Great Eastern, lying ready to receive it. Oa 
 the 15th it was successfully spliced, and the ' 
 steamer proceeded to deposit the main cable. 
 Oa the 27th. ^e shore end was safely landed 
 
 in Newfoundland, messages were sent, and the 
 cable to connect it with the American continent 
 about seventy miles, was at once commenced. 
 Messages passed between Queen Victoria and 
 President Johnson on the 29th and 30th. 
 
 July 23. A popular meeting in Hyde Park, 
 London, having been forbidden by sir R. Mayne, 
 an immense crowd gathered in the evening, 
 and, the gates being closed, the railings were 
 torn down and the crowd entered, greatly 
 damaging the flower-beds and shrubberies. 
 Some forty or fifty persons were captured for 
 rioting and assaults on the police, and on the 
 following days were fined or sentenced to short 
 terms of imprisonment by the police magistrate. 
 
 July 26. An armistice and preliminaries of 
 peace agreed upon between Austria and Prussia, 
 and on Aug. 2, an armistice between Prussia 
 and Bavaria. A truce was also agreed upon 
 between Austria and Italy on July 25. 
 
 Aug. 2. Peace signed at Prague between 
 Austria and Prussia ; it contained also a pro- 
 vision for the cession of Venetia to Italy. On 
 the 30th, the treaty was ratified. Austria 
 consented to be entirely excluded from the 
 German Confederation, and to pay 20,000,000 
 Prussian thalers towards the expenses of the 
 war. 
 
 Sept. 2. The sunken end of the Atlantic 
 Cable of 1865 recovered by the Great Eastern, 
 spliced, and found to be in good working order. 
 Communications were made to Valencia, and 
 eventually was continued on to Newfound- 
 laud. 
 
 Sept. 6. The King of Prussia announces to 
 the Legislature the annexation of Hanover, 
 Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, with a 
 part of Hesse-Darmstadt, which has also to 
 pay 300,000^. towards the expenses of the war. 
 Schleswig-Holstein had beeu previously appro- 
 priated. 
 
 Sept. 21. Treaty between Saxony and Prussia 
 signed, by which Saxony enters the Northern 
 Confederation. On the 26th, the king and 
 queen of Saxony returned to Pillnitz. 
 
 Oct. 21. After much opposition and a long 
 negotiation, prince Charles of Hohenzollem, 
 who had been elected Hospodar of the 
 Danubian Provinces, now united under the 
 name of Roumania, was received at Constanti- 
 nople by the Sultan on this day with distin- 
 guished honours ; a jKilace was assigned for 
 his residence, he paid homage, and received the 
 investiture. 
 
 Nov, 13. A remarkable shower of meteors 
 occurred, lasting from 11 p.m. to 3 or 4 Sum. 
 of the following morning. 
 
 Dec. 3. President Johnson, in his message to 
 Congress, recommended conciliation towards the 
 Southern states, and their re-admissiou into 
 the Union ; stated that the differences with 
 Great Britain respecting the Alabama were not 
 settled ; that he had caused the prosecution of 
 the Fenians to be abandoned, considering their 
 offence political ; adding that strict neutrality 
 must be preserved and raids prevented ; that 
 the French had consented to withdraw from
 
 612 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ^Mexico ; and that the finances were entirely 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Dec. 11. The French troops evacuated Rome 
 according to the convention of Sept. 18, and 
 the Papal standard replaced that of France on 
 the castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 LEGISLATION". Session 29 & 30 Victori.e. 
 
 Cap. 19. To amend the Law relating to 
 Parliamentary Oaths. The oath now pre- 
 scribed only contains a declaration of allegiance 
 to the reigning sovereign, with an engagement 
 to maintain the succession, and the rights and 
 liberties of the subject. 
 
 Cap. 28. To enable the Public Wor^s Loan 
 Commissioners to make advances towards the 
 erection of Dwellings for the Labouring 
 Classes. Loans may be made for this pur- 
 pose, with the approval of the Treasury Com- 
 missioners, to any local or other authority 
 invested with town or local government ; to 
 any Railway, Dock, or Harbour Company, or 
 to a society or association established for the 
 like purpose. Where such bodies are authorised 
 to purchase lands, if not already a corporate 
 body they are to be deemed such for the pur- 
 poses of this Act. A similar Act (cap. 44) was 
 passed for Ireland. 
 
 Cap. 32. To amend the Procedure and 
 Poioers of the Cowt for Divorce and Matri- 
 monial Causes. On a decree for dissolution 
 of marriage, if the husband has no property on 
 which a gross annual payment can be secured, 
 the Court may order a weekly or monthly 
 payment. 
 
 Cap. 37. ToamendanActoftJieSiGeo. III. 
 rap. 123, to prevent Frauds and Abuses in the 
 trade of Hops. Heavy fines are imposed for 
 not marking correctly the pockets or bags 
 with the name of the grower, the place where 
 grown, the date, and the weight ; for mixing 
 hops of different growths or dates ; for packing 
 foreign hops in British marked bags ; or for 
 wilfully defacing or altering the marks or 
 symbols on any packages. Vendors, if re- 
 quired, are to give full information from whom 
 the hops were received. 
 
 Cap. 65. To enable her Majesty to declare 
 Gold Coins to be issued from her Majesty''» 
 Colonial Branch Mints as legal tender for 
 payments. The title explains itself, and the 
 coinage of the Australian mints has been 
 declared a legal tender. A charge for coining 
 may be made. 
 
 Cap. 67. For the union of the colony of 
 Vancouver Island with the colony of British 
 Columbia. The separate government of Van- 
 couver Island is abolished, and it is to send 
 re])resentatives to the legislature of British 
 Columbia. 
 
 Cap. 69. For the amendment of the Law 
 with respect to the Carriage and Deposit of 
 Dangerous Ojods. Nitro-j^lyccrine or Glonoine 
 oil, and other substances as may be deteiniined 
 by an Ordtr in Council, are to be distinctly 
 marked " specially dangerous " on the outside 
 of each package, under lieavy penalties for 
 
 omission ; and no warehouse owner or carriei 
 is bound to receive any such package. 
 
 Cap. 85. To facilitate the establishment, 
 improvement, and maintenance of Oyster and 
 Mussel Fisheries in Great. Britain. Under 
 the sanction of the Board of Trade owners or 
 occupiers of the sea or river shores may lay 
 down an oyster-bed, within prescribed limits, 
 supply it with oysters or spawn from any 
 natural public oyster-bed, which are then to 
 become private property. Within the limits 
 no one to fish except with a line or a net fitted 
 to catch floating fish only. 
 
 Cap. 89. For vesting in the Conservators of 
 the River Thames the Conservancy of the 
 Thames and Iris, from iStaines in Middlesex 
 to Cricklade in Willsliire. This Act abolishes 
 the powers of the Upper Navigation Com- 
 missioners, transfers all their rights and pro- 
 perty in locks, canals, &c., to the Thames 
 Conservators, to whom five new members were 
 added, and to them is given the power to make 
 regulations for the navigation, to collect tolls, 
 to repair and maintain the banks, weirs, and 
 locks, to prevent the pollution of the water, and 
 to receive payment for water taken within 
 their limits for the supply of the public. 
 
 Cap. 90. To amend the Laiu relating to the 
 Public Health. This important Act is divided 
 into four parts. Part I. empowers the forma- 
 tion in any district of a committee for the 
 formation and due management of the sewers, 
 with power to levy a rate for that purpose ; to 
 compel persons to drain into the public sewer 
 or to form a cesspool ; to furnish the district 
 with water ; to take charge of all wells, pumj^s, 
 or fountains from which the public supply is 
 furnished ; and to dispose of the sewerage. 
 Part II. is for the prevention of nuisances 
 arising from over-crowded or ill-ventilated 
 houses ; to prevent nuisances from smoke ; ta 
 disinfect houses where contagious diseases have 
 prevailed ; to empower the local authorities to 
 provide a carriage for the conveyance of per- 
 sons suffering from contagious disease to the 
 hospital or elsewhere (who may not ride in a 
 public conveyance without notice to the driver). 
 Ships in harbour are subjected to the like 
 regulations. Part III. is miscellaneous, and 
 contains a number of regulations for the pur- 
 pose of securing or procuring cleanliness, a 
 supply of water, and other details. Part IV. 
 extends the Act to Ireland, with certain modi- 
 fications. 
 
 Cap. 114. To amend the Public Libraries 
 Act. A library or museum may now be 
 established in any town or parish, without 
 taking proceedings under the former Acts. A 
 majority of assents at a meeting duly called 
 being sufiicient. 
 
 Cap. 122. To make provision for the 
 Improvement, Protection, and 31anagement of 
 Commons near the Metropolis. All commons 
 witliin the Metropolitan District are no longer 
 liable to inclosure ; and, providing compensa- 
 tion for pecuniary rights, a scheme may be fur- 
 ni.shs'i to the Inclosure Commissioners for
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 613 
 
 transferring their care to the local authorities or 
 to the Metropolitan Board of Works. 
 
 Revenue, 67,812,202^; Expenditure — 
 Army, 14,569,279^.; Navy, 10,259,788^.; 
 for all objects, 65,914,357^. ; National Debt, 
 802,842,949^. 
 
 Exports of English and Irish produce, 
 188,017,536^.; total of exports, 238,905,082^. 
 
 Imports, 295,290, 274Z. 
 
 Emigration — to the North American Colo- 
 nies, 13,225; to the United States, 161,000; 
 to the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 24,097; to all other places, 6530: total, 
 204,882. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 6,839,674?. ; total imported, 23,509,641Z. ; 
 exported, 12,742,639Z. 
 
 Railways: Miles open, 13,854 ; number of 
 passengers, 274,403,895; traffic receipts, 
 38,164,354?. 
 
 Number of paupers, 1,111,009. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Feb. 11. Alarm of an attempt of the Fenians 
 to attack the Castle of Chester. The plot had 
 been disclosed by an accomplice, and prompt 
 measures were taken for its defeat, which were 
 ^eflectual. Some 1400 or 1500 suspected 
 persons assembled in the streets of Chester, 
 but the swearing in of special constables, and 
 the arrival of 500 of the Scotch Fusiliers, com- 
 pelled them to disperse in scattered groups, 
 •without disturbing the public peace. 
 
 Feb. 13. On this day another party of 
 Fenians, about 800 in number, assembled at 
 Cahirciveen, in the county of Kerry. They 
 sacked a coastguard station at Kells, seized the 
 arms, and shot a mounted policeman bearing 
 dispatches, robbing him of his horse and arms. 
 They then cut the telegraph wires, interrupting 
 the messages by the Atlantic cable for about 
 five hours, by which time they were restored. 
 Troops were immediately sent from Cork to 
 Killaruey, and on the 14th the insurgents 
 •withdrew into the Toomes mountains by the 
 Crap of Dunlo, whither they were pursued by 
 a strong military force on the 15th. A large 
 number of arrests was made in the next few 
 days, at Dublin and elsewhere, of persons 
 coming by sea, chiefly from the United States. 
 
 Feb. 17. The first ship, the Prime, a vessel 
 of eighty tons burthen, passed through the 
 Suez Canal, and by a temporary freshwater 
 canal from the IMediterranean into the Red Sea. 
 
 Feb. 24. The first Parliament of the North 
 German Confederation was opened at Berlin. 
 
 March 5. The Fenians again commenced a 
 rising in several parts of Ireland. The mail- 
 train from Cork to Dublin was sent off the 
 line, and the telegraph wires ■were cut, destroy- 
 ing the communication with all Monster. The 
 Government had been informed of the inten- 
 tion, and were fully prepared. At Tallaght, 
 near Dublin, a party of twelve policemen met 
 about 200 Fenians, and summoned them to 
 
 surrender, but they fired on the police, who 
 returned the fire, wounding five, and ulti- 
 mately capturing eighty-three. At Drogheda 
 1000 Fenians had a combat vnth the police for 
 the possession of the market-house, and here 
 forty prisoners were taken. At Kilmallock a 
 party .attacked the police-station, which was 
 defended ; three of the assailants were killed, 
 and fourteen taken prisoners. Dromore police- 
 barrack was burnt down, a coastguard station 
 near Kilrush was plundered of the arms, as also 
 were the police-barracks and several houses at 
 Holy Cross, by different parties of Fenians. 
 
 March 23. A secret treaty was laid before 
 the different legislatures, between Prussia and 
 the Southern States of Germany, by which the 
 military contingents of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
 Baden, &c., are placed at the disposal of 
 Prussia, thus, in fact, incorporating all Ger- 
 many into one entire empire for defensive 
 military purposes. The ti-eaty had been con- 
 cluded in the previous July. 
 
 April 1. The French great International 
 Exhibition opened in a very incomplete state. 
 By the early part of May it was most effec- 
 tively completed. 
 
 April 10. Commencement of the trial, at the 
 Central Criminal Court, of colonel Nelson 
 and lieutenant Braud for the murder of Mr. 
 Gordon, in Jamaica. The charge of the Lord 
 Chief Justice to the grand jury occupied six 
 hours, in which he laid it down as a jirinciple 
 tliat martial law could not override civU law. 
 The grand jury threw out both the bills of 
 indictment on the following day. 
 
 April 27. The trial of general Burke and 
 Patrick Doran, the first two of the Fenians 
 accused of being concerned in the late outbreak, 
 commenced at Dublin. Both were found guilty 
 of high treason on May 1, and sentenced to be 
 executed on the 29th. The sitting of the com- 
 mission terminated on May 24. A number of 
 prisoners had been found guilty of treason- 
 felony, and sentenced to various periods of im- 
 prisonment. Doran, after some delay, had his 
 sentence commuted to penal servitude ; Burke 
 was left for execution until the 27th, when, iu 
 compliance with numerous petitions, his sen- 
 tence was also commuted. 
 
 May 6. A popular demonstration in Hyde 
 Park in favour of reform, which had been at 
 first forbidden by the Government, but at the 
 last moment permitted, was held without the 
 slightest disturbance of the public peace. 
 
 June 6. Attempt made by a young Pole in 
 Paris to assassinate the Emperor of Russia, 
 while seated in a carriage with his two sons 
 and the Emperor of the French. The pistol 
 burst, blew off the hand of the assassin, with- 
 out damaging any of the persons in the carriage. 
 He was subsequently tried and sentenced to 
 death, but not executed, in compliance with a 
 desire of the Emperor of Russia. 
 
 June 7. The Conference for the settlement of 
 the Luxemburg question met in London ; it 
 consisted of the repi-esentatives of England, 
 Russia, Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, Bel-
 
 614 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ginm, France, and Prussia. On the 11th the 
 terms were agi'eed upon : Luxemburg to remain 
 subject to the King of the Netherlands ; the 
 fortress to be evacuated by Prussia, and to be 
 demolished as quickly as possible ; the neu- 
 trality of the whole territory to be guaranteed 
 by the subscribing powers. 
 
 June 8. The Emperor of Austria crowned 
 King of Hungary, with great ceremony, swear- 
 ing to preserve the old Hungarian constitution, 
 which had been a source of contest between the 
 nation and the sovereigns for many years. 
 
 June 13. Jefferson Davis, late President of 
 the Southern Cenfederacy, was admitted to bail 
 at Richmond, U.S., and took his departure a 
 few days afterwards, for Montreal, in Canada. 
 
 June 19. On this day the Commission sitting 
 to inquire into the outrages committed against 
 non-union men at Sheffield, were first able to 
 obtain any evidence directly implicating any 
 individual. A man named Hallam, who had 
 been committed to prison for refusing to answer, 
 declared himself willing to disclose all he knew. 
 He then acknowledged the crimes of having been 
 a party to the blowing-up of several places, aud 
 to the shooting, twice, at a man named Linley, 
 who died in consequence, and in whose case a 
 verdict of wilful murder had been found. His 
 evidence was coufirmed by a confederate named 
 Crookes, and they said they were hired and 
 paid by one Broadhead, the secretary of the 
 Saw Grinders' Uuiou, and the treasurer of the 
 Amalgamated Unions. On a subsequent day 
 this man acknowledged the truth of these 
 accusations, and stated that for nineteen years 
 he had been the instigator and the rewarder of 
 most of the offences of rattening and personal 
 outrage committed in Sheffield, but persisted in 
 saying that the unions knew nothing about 
 this ; they only knew they were committed, 
 and purposely left the whole management in 
 his hands, and never examined his accounts. 
 These discoveries were made after the an- 
 nouncement that truthful avowal would absolve 
 even the most guilty participators from all 
 personal punishment. On July 8 the investi- 
 gation closed, and certificates of indemnity were 
 granted to Broadhead, Crookes, and the other 
 witnesses who had made the disclosures. 
 
 July 6. The Viceroy of Egypt arrived in 
 London on a visit ; and on the 12th the Sultan 
 of Turkey. Both were received by the Queen, 
 and entertained with great hospitality by the 
 corporation of Loudon and other public bodies 
 and private persons. The Sultan was lodged 
 in Buckingham Palace, the Viceroy at Dudley 
 House, the residence of Lord Ward. 
 
 Jidy 10. On an invitation to attend the 
 rifle-shooting at Wimbledon, 2000 Belgian 
 volunteers were brought over in the Govern- 
 ment steamer Serapis, and were warmly wel- 
 comed by the British riflemen, the London 
 corporation, &:c. 
 
 July 17. A grand naval review at Spithead 
 took place, in the presence of the Sultan of 
 Turkey and Viceroy of Egypt, who were re- 
 ceived by the Queen on board lier yacht. She 
 
 decorated the Sultan with the Order of the 
 Garter, but the review was somewhat marred 
 by stormy weather 
 
 Aug. 17. An insurrection broke out io 
 Spain ; the provinces of Catalonia and Aragoc 
 were entered from France by a few armed men, 
 under generals Contreras and Pierrad, who 
 were immediately joined by others. General 
 Prim was expected to join them, but did not. 
 Madrid, and nearly the whole of Spain, were 
 in a few days declared to be under martial 
 law. It was suppressed with little difficulty. 
 
 Aug. 26. The first engine and train passed 
 over the Mont Cenis Railway, the summit 
 elevation being 6700 feet above the sea level. 
 The train was worked on the centre-rail sys- 
 tem, and the trip was completely successful. 
 
 Sept. 10. The sitting of the North German 
 parliament was opened with a speech from the 
 King of Prussia, in which a variety of mea- 
 sures were promised to be introduced, most of 
 them tending to a closer unity of the various 
 states. 
 
 Sept. 14. Some of the transports sailed from 
 London and Liverpool, conveying stores and 
 ammunition for the Abyssinian expedition, for 
 the purpose of coercing the Emperor Theodore 
 to deliver the British captives. The military 
 force was to be forwarded from India. 
 
 Sept. 18. A most daring attack made at 
 Manchester on the police van which was con- 
 veying to jaU two men, named Kelly and 
 Deasy, charged with being Fenians. Betweea 
 forty and fifty men had assembled, armed with 
 revolvers and other weapons. They intercepted 
 the van, shot the horses, knocked the driver 
 from his seat, dispersed the few policemen who 
 guarded it, with much difiiculty broke it open, 
 and shot the policeman inside, who refused to 
 give up the keys of the separate cells. Ulti- 
 mately the two Fenians were liberated, and 
 although handcuffed made their escape, with 
 fifteen other prisoners who were being con- 
 veyed to prison. This was about four p.m. 
 Before the following morning, William O'Meara 
 Allen, the man who shot the policeman in the 
 van, and IMichael Larkin, were in custody, 
 charged with wilful murder, and several others 
 charged with riot aud murder, who were ex- 
 amined before the magistrates, and remanded. 
 On the 26th the examination was resumed, 
 and on the 5th of October twenty-three were 
 committed for trial. On Oct. 29 a special 
 commission was opened at Manchester, before 
 which W. O'Meara Allen, M. Larkin, W. 
 Gould, T- Maguire, and E. Shore, were in- 
 dicted for the murder of Charles Brett. On 
 Nov. 1 they were all found guilty, and sen- 
 tenced to death. On Nov. 23, Allen, Gould, 
 aud Larkin were hung. Shore's punishment 
 was commuted, and ]\Iaguire was pardoned, as 
 there seemed to have been a mistake as to his 
 identity. 
 
 Sept. 23. General Garibaldi was arrested at 
 Sinigaglia, in order to prevent his heading an 
 intended insurrection at Rome, aud jjlacLd in 
 contiuemeut at Alessandria. A number of
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 615 
 
 persons were also apprehended at Home as 
 participators in the projected revolt. He was 
 Bent, a few days later, to liis island of Caprera 
 in a Government vessel. 
 
 Oct. 20. From the time of the arrest of 
 Garibakli to this date continual irruptions of 
 insurgents into the Papal States were made 
 with varying success ; anarchy was prevailing, 
 and it seemed that the Italian Government 
 could not prevent the hostilities. France 
 threatened to interfere, and troops were em- 
 barked at Toulon ; but on the 19th Kattazzi, 
 the Italian minister, resigned, and general 
 Cialdini was nominated in his place. He 
 announced that stringent measures would be 
 adopted. The insurgents, headed by Menotti 
 Garibaldi, withdrew from the Papal territories, 
 and the French preparations for intervention 
 were abandoned. 
 
 Oct. 28. General Garibaldi having escaped 
 from Caprera, joined the insurgents in attack- 
 ing the Papal troops, and closely approached 
 Rome ; the attempt of Victor Emmanuel to form 
 a ministry under Cialdini having likewise failed, 
 although another under general Menabrea had 
 been named, the Emperor of the French had 
 dispatched an expedition from Toulon to sup- 
 port the Pope, and on this day the first division 
 landed at Civita Vecchia. On Oct. 30 a portion 
 of the French troops entered Rome ; on the 
 same day a part of the Italian royal army 
 crossed the Papal frontier for the purpose of 
 preserving order ; and Garibaldi, with his 
 volunteers, retired from the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome to Monte Rotondo. 
 
 Nov. 1. Alter a trial at Dublin, colonel 
 John Warren, the first Fenian prisoner indicted 
 at this Commission, was found guilty. He had 
 come from the United States, and, with several 
 others, landed near Yougbal. He claimed to 
 be a citizen of the United States, but, born in 
 Ireland, the claim was disallowed ; and his 
 counsel by his direction, withdrew. He had 
 other counsel assigned, and was convicted 
 partly on the evidence of an accomplice. 
 
 Nov. 3. Garibaldi was attacked by the Papal 
 and French troops at Mentana. After a sbarp 
 fight, his band was scattered, and he fled to 
 Terni, within the Italian territory, where he 
 ■was arrested by the royal authorities, and, 
 with his two sons, who had also been taken, 
 ■was placed in confinement. 
 
 Nov. 4. A part of the expedition against 
 Abyssinia arrived at Suez from India. 
 
 Dec. 13. A daring attempt made to efi"oct 
 the escape of two prisoners, remanded on a 
 charge of having been parties to the murder of 
 Brett, the police-cou stable, at Manchester, by 
 blowing up the wall of the House of Detention, 
 in Clerkenwell, London. A barrel of gun- 
 powder was placed against the wall, and ex- 
 ploded. About 60 feet of the wall was thrown 
 down between 3 and 4 o'clock p.m., the usual 
 time for exercising the prisoners ; but the 
 hour had been changed, and the prisoners were 
 in their cells. The efitct, however, was ter- 
 rible. Six persons were killed, and nearly 
 
 50 men, women, and children, were more or 
 less injured. Several persons were apprebended 
 on suspicion of having been engaged in the 
 crime. Six were tried at the Criminal Court 
 in April, but only one, named Barrett, was 
 found guilty, and he was hung on Alay 2(3. 
 
 LEGISLATION. Session 30 & 31 Victori.e. 
 
 Cap. 3. For the Union of Canada, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the govern- 
 ment thereof, and for purposes connected there- 
 with. The governments are united into one, 
 under a Viceroy, with a general parliament 
 held at Ottawa, now the seat of government. 
 Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns- 
 wick, have each a Lieutenant-Governor, with a 
 Provincial Legislature. 
 
 Cap. 6. For the estahlisJiment in the Metro- 
 polis of Asylums for the Sick, Insane, and other 
 classes of the Poor, and of Dispensaries ; and 
 for the Distribution over the Metropolis of 
 portions of the Charge for Poor Relief ; and 
 for other purposes relating to the Poor Relief 
 in the Metropolis. 
 
 Cap. 29. To amend the Law in respect of 
 the Sale and Purchase of Shares in Joint 
 Stock Banking Companies, Contracts for sale 
 or purchase of such shares are declared to be 
 void, unless the shares to be sold are clearly 
 designated in writing, eitber by their number 
 or by the name of the holder. 
 
 Cap. 35. To remove some defects in the 
 A dministrat ion of the Criminal Law. Persons 
 acquitted, in certain cases may be allowed their 
 costs ; persons accused are allowed to summon 
 witnesses, who may have their expenses allowed 
 by the Court. Additional powers are given for 
 taking the depositions of persons dangerously 
 ill ; and jailers are to bring up persons indicted, 
 without a writ of habeas corpus, upon an order 
 of the Court. 
 
 Cap. 48. For amending the Law of Auction 
 of Estates. In sales of land by auction it is to 
 be stated in the conditions of sale whether it is 
 to be sold with or without reserve ; if it be sold 
 without reserve no one is allowed to bid on be- 
 half of the owner ; in sales under orders from 
 the Court of Chancery, the practice of opening 
 biddings after a sale is to be discontinued. 
 
 Cap. 75. To remove certain Religious 
 Disabilities affecting some of her Majesty^a 
 Subjects, and to amend the Law relating to 
 Oaths of Office. The restriction as to the 
 religion of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland is 
 removed ; judicial or corporate officers may 
 attend their places of worship in their official 
 robes without incurring any penalty ; and a 
 form of oath is provided to suyiersede the 
 former ones of allegiance, supremacy, and 
 abjuration. 
 
 Cap. 102. Further to amend the Laws 
 relating to the Representation of the People in 
 England and Wales. This is the Reform Act 
 of 1867. The Act is long, but its details have 
 been made widely known. 
 
 Cap. 103. For the Extension of the Factory 
 Ads. The provisions of previous Acts are
 
 616 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 extended to females and young persona em- 
 ployed in blast-furnaces, copper-mills, forges, 
 foundries, or in the manufacture of machinery, 
 or of any article of metal, or of India-rubber, 
 or gutta percha ; and to any premises in which 
 is carried on the manufacture of paper, glass, 
 tobacco, letter-press printing, bookbinding, and 
 any other premises in which fifty or more 
 persons are employed, with exceptions as to 
 nightwork in blast-furnaces, iron-mills, and 
 printing-offices ; but so as no one is to be 
 employed more than sixty hours in any one 
 week. 
 
 Cap. 105. To establish eqvitahle Councils 
 of Conciliation to adjust Differences between 
 Masters and Workmen. Masters and work- 
 men, in any locality, may call a meeting, and 
 agree to form a council of conciliation, and 
 petition the Secretary of State for a licence ; 
 the council may not consist of less than two 
 nor more than ten masters and workmen ; 
 they have power to determine questions sub- 
 mitted to them and to enforce their awards ; a 
 rate of wages or price of labour may not be 
 established by them ; no counsel or attorneys 
 to be heard before the courts unless by consent 
 of both parties. 
 
 Cap. 127. To amend the Law relating to 
 Mailway Companies, The rolling stock of a 
 railway is protected from seizure by creditors 
 by this Act ; the remedy is by petition to the 
 Court of Chancery, who may appoint a receiver 
 or manager of the railway. 
 
 Cap. 130. For the regulation of Agricul- 
 tural Gangs. No child under eight years of 
 age to be employed ; licences to gang-masters 
 are to be granted by magistrates ; no female to 
 be employed in the same gang with males, or 
 without a female licensed as gang-master 
 being present ; and the magistrates are to fix 
 the distances within which children are to be 
 allowed to travel to their work. 
 
 Cap. 134. For regulating the Traffic in the 
 Metropolis, and for making provision for the 
 greater security of persons passing through the 
 streets. This is the Act now in operation. 
 
 Cap. 141. To amend the Statute Law as 
 between Master and Servant. Compensation 
 for breach of contract may be awarded on either 
 side, which, with any fines imposed, are to be 
 recovered by distress, and in default of pay- 
 ment to be punished by imprisonment. 
 
 Cap. 146. For regulating the Hours of 
 Labour for Children, Young Persons and 
 Women employed in Workshops. No child 
 under eight is to be employed in any handi- 
 craft; no child to be employed more than six 
 hours and a half oa any one day, and such 
 employment to be between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. ; 
 no young person or female to be so employed 
 for more than twelve hours, with time for 
 meals ; no person to be employed in any 
 handicraft on Sunday or after two o'clock ou 
 Saturday afternoon. There are also regulations 
 for the children attending schools. 
 
 Revenue, 69,434,508Z. ; E.^penditure — 
 Army, 14,675,540Z. ; Navy, 10,G76,10H. ; for 
 all objects, 66, 780, 396Z. ; National Debt, 
 800,848,847^. 
 
 Exports of British and Irish produce and 
 manufactures, 181,183,971^. ; total exports, 
 226,057,136^. 
 
 Imports, 275,249,853Z. 
 
 Emigration — To the North American Colo- 
 nies, ir>,503 ; to the United States, 159,275 ; 
 to the Australian Colonies and New Zealand, 
 14,466; to all other places, 6,709 : total, 
 195,953. 
 
 Amount of Gold imported from Australia, 
 5,801,207^. ; total imported, 15,800, 159Z. ; 
 exported, 7,889,030Z. 
 
 Number of paupers, 1,148,643.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbott, Justice, presides in court at Hone's 
 first trial, 1817, viii. 86-88 ; and that of the 
 Cato-street conspii-ators, 1820, 161 
 
 Abbott, Charles. See Colchester, lord. 
 
 Aliercrombie fails in reducing Ticonderoga, 
 1758, vi. 237; genei'al of the Bengal army, 
 1790, vii. 258. 
 
 Abercromby, James, elected speaker of the 
 House of Commons, viii. 355 ; again elected, 
 1837, 405 ; his review of the session 1837-8, 
 411 ; raised to a peerage, 421 
 
 Abercromby, sir Kalph, commands the army in 
 Ireland, 1798, vii. 364; commands the Eri- 
 tish expedition to Holland, 1799, 385, 386 ; 
 superseded by the duke of York, 386 ; lands 
 his army at Aboukir Bav, 406 ; defeats the 
 French near Alexandria, Mar. 21, 1801, -107 ; 
 death of, from a wound, March 28, ib. 
 
 Aberdeen, earl of, negotiates for peace, 1814, vii. 
 569 ; approves of the declaration of Frank- 
 fort, viii. 24 ; foreign secretar}-, 1828, 234 
 
 Abjuration of James II., bill for, rejected 1690, 
 V. 104 
 
 Abjuration of the Pretender, bill for, passed 
 1702, V. 253, 254 
 
 Abo, peace of, 1743, \i. 120 
 
 Abolition of Slavery. See Slavery. 
 
 Aboukir, battle of, July 25, 1799, vii. 381 
 
 Abury, the Druidical temple at, i. 12 
 
 Academy of Ancient Concerts, established 1710, 
 v. 431 
 
 Academy, Eoyal ; attempts to establish an 
 academy of art, vii. 67, 68 ; scheme for a, 
 suggested by sir J. Thonihill, 68 ; the idea 
 revived; first exhibition of the works of living 
 artists, April 21, 1760, ib. ; second exhibition, 
 68, 69 ; George III. first patron ; Reynolds 
 first president, 70; foundation of the, Dec. 
 10, 1768, 70, 71 ; first exhibition and exhi- 
 bitors in 1769, 71 ; exhibition and exhibitors 
 in 17S0, 72 ; supplants all rivals ; souixes for 
 the history of the, ib. 
 
 Adand, gen., joins Wellington at Vimiero, vii. 
 602 
 
 Acre besieged unsuccessfully by Bonaparte, 
 1799, vii. 380, 381 
 
 Act of Grace, 1690 ; exceptions to, v. 104, 105 
 
 Act of Security passed by Scottish parliament ; 
 assent refused, 1703, v. 312 ; granted, 1705, 313 
 
 Act of Settlement, independence of judges de- 
 termined bj', V. 147 ; passed 1701 ; clauses 
 repealed, 246 ; copy of, 255, 256 
 
 Acton Burnel, statute of, passed in 1283, i. 385 
 
 Adam, James and Kobert, their architectural 
 ■works, vii. 80 
 
 Adam, remarks of, on the sentence of Muir and 
 Pabuer, vii. 299, 300 
 
 Adams, John, high-mindedness of, in defending 
 captain Preston at Boston in 1770, vi. 313 ; 
 his conference with lord Howe, the British 
 commissioner, 1776, 372 ; one of the commis- 
 sioners for settling the conditions of peace 
 between England and the United States; 
 signs the preliminaries, Nov. 20, 1783, 457 ; 
 interview with Geo. III. in 1785 as minister 
 plenipotentiary ; evidence against the charge 
 of the king's incivility towards Jeft'erson and, 
 461, 462 ; president of the United States, 
 1796-1800, vii. 575, viii. 3 
 
 Adams, J. Q., an American plenipotentiary for 
 concluding the peace of Ghent, viii. 19 ; pre- 
 sident of the United States, 1825-9, 268 
 
 Adams, Samuel, rouses the Americans, 1773, vi. 
 336 ; denies that the Americans have lost then- 
 good will towards England, 1774, 341 ; pro- 
 scribed by Gage, 355 
 
 Addington (afterwards lord Sidmouth), elected 
 speaker of the House of Commons, Nov. 1790, 
 vii. 189 ; anecdote of Burke and Pitt by, 
 207 ; his sanguine expectations of the duke 
 of Brunswick's campaign, 235; visits Dun- 
 can's fleet, 349; hopes roused by Nelson's 
 victory of the Nile, 358, 359 ; first lord of the 
 treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 
 Mar. 14, 1801, 400; remonstrates with Bo- 
 naparte for his encroachments, 417 ; his po- 
 licy towards France, 419 ; requires, through 
 lord Whitworth, Bonaparte to explain his 
 views towards Great Britain, 420 ; negotiates 
 for sharing the power with Pitt, 424 ; weak- 
 ness of his ministry, 430; resigns May 10, 
 1804, 431 ; joins Pitt, 437; viscount Sid- 
 mouth and president of the council, 1805, 
 437; resigns, July, 440; lord privv seal, 
 1806, 463 ; resigns, 1807, 479 ; home' secre- 
 tary, 543, 577, viii. 156 ; measures recom- 
 niended by, to put down the riots of 1812, 
 543 ; his employment of spies justified, 81^ 
 82 ; has no faith in a favourable change in 
 the internal condition of the country, 84- 
 states the difficulty of prosecuting for libel ' 
 his circular letter giving the judge increased 
 powers in cases of libel trials, ib. ; this pro- 
 ceeding considered unconstitutional, 84, 85 ;
 
 618 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 his opinion of the laws against reformers, 
 104 ; promises the Manchester magistrates 
 government support against the reformers, 
 106 ; thanks them for their measures for 
 preservinig tranquillity, 108 ; succeeded as 
 home secretary by sir Eobert Peel, 1822, 178 ; 
 resigns his seat in the cabinet, 184 
 
 Addison, Joseph, defends Steele against the 
 charge of libel imputed to him by the House 
 of Commons, 1713, v. 399; ■writes for the 
 "Tatler," 405 ; member of parliament; po- 
 pularity ; his influence and aims as an es- 
 Bayist, 406; with Steele he directs the popular 
 attention to Milton, Shakspere, and our old 
 English ballads, 408, 409; tlie precursor of 
 English novelists, the Spectator's Club de- 
 scribed by, 409-412; his works, with those of 
 other essayists, create a genei'al taste for read- 
 ing, 413 ; ridicules thepoUtical extravagances 
 of the ladies of his day, 417, 418 ; description of 
 contemporary female chai'acters by, 423 ; re- 
 marks on puppet plays and the opera, 424 ; 
 description of a masquerade. 425 ; remarks on 
 the superstition, 430, 431 ; the popular 
 music, 431 ; and the translations, from the 
 Latin and Greek, of his day, 434; rebukes 
 Pope for his controversial spirit, 436 ; ap- 
 pointed secretary of state, Apr. 1717, vi. 30; 
 supports the Peerage Bill, 1719, 38. 
 
 Adelaide, princess, of Saxe Meiningen, marries 
 the duke of Clarence (William IV.), July 13, 
 1818, viii. 97 ; character of, 378 
 
 Adjutators, organization of the, iv. 70 ; refusal 
 of, to allow the anny to be disbanded, ib. ; 
 seizure of Charles I. by, at Holmbj^ 71 
 
 Adminius, son of Cunobelin, instigates a Eo- 
 man invasion of Britain, i. 16 
 
 Adrianople, peace of, Sept. 14, 1829, viii. 383 
 
 Afghan War, 1838-1842, narrative of the, viii. 
 450, 461 
 
 African, The, Company, commenced operations 
 1530, V. 39 
 
 African and Indian Company, constituted 1695, 
 V. 216 ; projects the founding a colony at 
 Darien, 217 ; three vessels, with 1200 men, 
 sail from Leith,_July 26, 1698, 218 ; arrive at 
 Darien, Nov. 4, ib. ; the colonists quarrel with, 
 and declare war against the Spaniards, 219; food 
 grows scarce ; famine and pestilence prevail ; 
 they forsake Darien, 220 ; the company send 
 out 1300 more men, 221; the colony block- 
 aded by the Spaniards, 222 ; it capitulates ; 
 and abandons the settlement, ib. ; this failure 
 rouses the spirit of the Scotch, who inveigh 
 against William and the English, ib. ; it con- 
 tinues a source of irritation for several years 
 between the two nations, 223 ; but the diffi- 
 culties are smoothed over in the union, ib. ; 
 quarrels with the East India Company ; a 
 captain of one of their vessels is seized and 
 executed by the E. I. Company on a false 
 charge of murder, 313 
 
 Aghrim, battle of, July 12, 1691, v. 127, 128 
 
 Agincourt, description of, and its locality, ii. 
 ■^61 ; battle of, on 25 Oct. 1415, 62-64 
 
 Agnew, sir Andrew, presents petitions to parlia- 
 ment praying for the better observance of 
 the Sabbatli, viii. 322 
 
 Agra, battle of, 1803, vii. 456 
 
 Agiii ola, the grc.-it civiliser of Britain, i. 20 ; is 
 a]ipointed to tlio command of Britain, A.D. 
 (JO, 26; campaign 'of, 26, 27 ; attack on Gal- 
 gacus and the Caledonians by, 27; announces 
 
 the possession of "the very extremity of 
 Britain," 28; ascertains that Britain is an 
 island, 29 ; recalled by Doraitian, A.D. 84, 
 29 ; line of forts from the Clyde to the Forth 
 raised by, 29, 30 ; notice of the works of, in Bri- 
 tain, 36 ; caused the sciences and the Roman 
 language to be taught to the sons of British 
 chiefs, 40 ; established municipalities, 44 
 Agriculture in Britain, state of, under the Ro- 
 mans, i. 35 ; state of, in queen Anne's time, 
 V, 31 ; great intluence of the population of 
 London and Westminster upon, ib. ; state of, 
 in Norfolk, about 1770, vii. 5 ; Coke's efforts 
 for the improvement of, 6 ; state of, in Suf- 
 folk, 6, 7 ; manufacture of implements of, 8 ; 
 in Buckinghamshire ; its dairy farm produce, 
 9 ; in Oxfordshire and Northamptonshire, 10 ; 
 improvements iu Bedfordshire; the duke of 
 Bedford's exertions, 11 ; Bakewell's art of 
 fattening cattle and sheep ; improved breeds, 
 12; reclamation of the fens of Cambridge- 
 shire and Lincolnshire, 14, 15 ; of Lincoln 
 Heath, 15, 16, and the Wolds, 16 ; state of, 
 in Nottingham and Derby-shires, ib. ; SuiTey, 
 Middlesex, and Kent, 17 ; in Sussex, Hants, 
 and Berkshire, 18 ; in Wiltshire, 21 ; back- 
 ward state of farming in Wiltshire, 22 ; pro- 
 gress of, in Dorsetshire ; enclosure of lands 
 from 1734 to 1828, ib.\ in Devonshire smd 
 Somersetshire, 23 ; in Cornwall, 24 ; WaHes, 
 24, 25 ; and the west midland counties, 25 ; 
 system of under-drainage discovered, 1764 ; 
 uncultivated wastes of Staflbrdshire ; s'low 
 progress of, in Lancashire, 26 ; reclaiming of 
 the mosses in the Fylde district, 27 ; Che- 
 shhe ; progress of Yorkshire in, promoted by 
 the labours of the marquis of Rockingham, 
 ib. ; sir Digby Legard, 27, 28 ; and James 
 Croft, the agricultCTal collier, 28, 29; land 
 and cattle of Durham, 30 ; sheep and waste 
 land of Northumberland, ib. ; progress of, 
 stimulated by the example of the CuUeys, 
 31 ; Westmoreland and its lake district, 31, 
 32 ; the Lothians, Haddington, Roxburgh, 
 and Selkirk-shires, 33; Scotch sheep, 34; 
 in Ayrshire, 35 ; Lanarkshire and Renfrew- 
 shire, 36 ; progress of, in the north-western 
 district of Scotland, 36, 37 ; in Ireland, 38 ; 
 the potato cultivation, 39 ; bad harvests and 
 high prices from 1795 to 1800, 390-392 _ 
 
 Ahmedabad taken by general Goddard, vii. 129 
 
 Ahmednuggur captui'ed by the British, 1803, vii. 
 456 
 
 Aikeiihead, Thomas, hanged for blasphemy in 
 1696, V. 214 
 
 Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, bribed 
 by the directors of the South Sea Company, 
 vi. 44 ; accused of fraud ; expelled the House 
 of Commons, and committed to the Tower, 45 
 
 Aitkcn, alias John the painter, attempts to burn 
 the English dockyards; his trial and confes- 
 sion, vi. 373, 374 
 
 Aix-la-Chapcllc, peace of. May 2, 1968, T. 387; 
 treaty of, 1748, vi. 120, 180, 181 _ . 
 
 Aix Roiuls, lord Coclu'aue's enterprise in, April 
 11, 1809, vii. 510 
 
 Akbar Klian, his treachery towards, and murde? 
 of, MacNaghten, viii. 456 ; his conduct to- 
 wards the British army, 456-458 
 
 Akenside, M.irk, his "Pleasures of Imagina- 
 tion" published 1744, vii. 87 
 
 Akcrman, keeper of Newgate ; his house set on 
 liie by tlie Gordon rioters, 1780, vi. 408
 
 INDEX 
 
 619 
 
 Alba, duke of. See Philip of Spain 
 
 Alban, St., legend of the martyrdom of, as t»ld 
 by Bede, i. 51 
 
 Albemarle, A. J. von Keppel, earl of; he is 
 taken into "William lll.'s favour, which 
 causes the jealousy of Portland, v. 236 
 
 Albemarle, earl of, commands the land forces in 
 the Havannah expedition, 1762, vi. 255 
 
 Alberoni, cardinal Giiilio, prime minister of 
 Spain ; sends a million French livres to 
 Spaar, the Swedish envoy in Paris, to stir 
 Charles XII. 's soldiers, vi. 29 ; early career ; 
 instigates disputes ; and intrigues against 
 England and France, 31, 32; retaliates 
 Byng's destruction of the Spanish fleet by 
 seizing all British goods in Spanish ports, 
 34 ; leagues with the Pretender ; detected 
 plotting against the regent Orleans ; France 
 consequently declares war against Spain, 
 1718, 35 ; he organizes expeditions against 
 France, England, and Scotland, 36 ; dis- 
 missed his offices, and banished the country ; 
 returns to Italy, Dec. 1719, 37 
 
 Albert, archduke of Austria, commands the 
 Austrian army at the siege at LUle, 1792, vii. 
 236 
 
 Albert, prince, of Saxe Coburg, marriage of, to 
 queen Victoria, viii. 426 ; his high opinion of 
 William III., 472 ; speech of, proclaiming 
 the unity of interest in aU classes of society, 
 562 
 
 Albert Edward, prince of "Wales, bom Nov. 9, 
 1841, viii. 493 
 
 Albion, belief of its once having formed part of 
 the Continent, i. 1 
 
 Albuera, battle of. May 18, 1811, vii. 538 
 
 Alcuin, notice of, i. 76 
 
 Aldrich, dean Henrj', his architectural works, 
 V. 458 
 
 Alexander I. of Russia, defeat of his army at 
 Austerlitz ; forms a treaty of aUiance with 
 the king of Prussia, vii . 450 ; wars with 
 France, 1807j 487 ; concludes the peace of 
 Tilsit with Napoleon ; the inter\T.ew on the 
 Niemen raft with Napoleon, 488 ; tenns of 
 the treaty, patent and secret, 488, 489 ; of- 
 fends Bonaparte by relaxing the severity of 
 the llussiau commercial law; allies himself 
 •with Sweden ; Bonaparte wars against him, 
 1812, 556 ; concludes an alliance with Prus- 
 sia, 561 ; his meeting with Frederick William 
 in the great square of Leipzig, 565 ; succeeds 
 Paul I. as emperor of Eussia, 1801, 574; at- 
 tends the congress of Vienna, 1814, viii. 42 ; 
 obtains the sovereignty over Poland, 43, 44; 
 organizes the Holy Alliance, 45; succeeded 
 by Nicholas I. 182o, 268 
 
 Alexandria, Bonaparte lands at, July, 1798 ; 
 captured by the French, vii. 353 ; battle of. 
 Mar. 21, 1801, 407 ; capitulates to the Bri- 
 tish, Mar. 20, 1807, 485 
 
 Alexius, emperor of the East, receives the 
 Anglo-Saxons expelled by "William the Con- 
 queror, as his guards, i. 189, 190 
 
 Alfred, son of Ethelred, is induced to make a 
 descent on England, is betrayed by earl God- 
 win, and put to death, i. 161 
 
 Alfred the Great, birth of, in 849, i. 79 ; early 
 years of, 80, 81 ; improbability of his having 
 been taught to read by his step-mother, 82 ; 
 at Rome in 853 ; consecrated kimr by pope 
 Leo, at Rome, on the death of Iiithehvulf, S3 ; 
 probable impression made on the mind of, by 
 
 the sight of Rome, 84 ; makes no claim to 
 Wessex on the death of Ethelbald, 85 ; em- 
 ployment of, during the life of Ethelbert, ib. ; 
 description of his home at Wantage, 86; th< 
 translation of Boetius by, has original pas 
 sages descriptive of the state of England, 86, 
 87 ; state of the Church during the youth of, 
 87; constitution of the army, 88; state of 
 rui-al industry, 88, et. seq. ; provision for the 
 poor, 91; becomes " secundarius " on the ac- 
 cession of Ethelred in 866, 94 ; mames, ib. ; 
 defeats the Danes who had invaded Mercia,, 
 A.D. 868, 95 ; fights and gains the battle of 
 iEscesdun, in 871, 98, 99; is defeated at 
 Wilton, 100; first naval battle of, against 
 the Danes, in 875, 101 ; probable unpopula- 
 ritv of, 102 ; makes peace with Guthrum in 
 878, 103 ; retreat of, to Athelney, ib. ; heads 
 a band of outlaws in Somersetshire, 103; tra- 
 ditional stories of, during his concealment, 
 104; re-appears, and gains the battle of 
 Ethaudune, in 878, 105, 106 ; Guthrum sues 
 for peace and is baptised, 106 ; terms of the 
 treaty, 107 ; laws of Alfred, 108, 109 ; writings 
 and translations of, 110, 111, 112; repulses an 
 invasion of the Danes in Kent in 884, 111 ; 
 his care for the education of his family, 113 ; 
 defeats an invasion of the Danes under 
 tiastiug, 113, 114; creates a navy, 114; 
 death of, in 901, 114 ; character of, 115 ; 
 share of, in the subdivision of the kingdom 
 for administrative and judicial purposes, 116 ; 
 courts of justice in the time of, 118; tenure 
 of lands, 119 
 
 Alfric, earl of Mercia, treachery of, i. 154 
 
 Algarves. See Godoy. 
 
 Algiers, battle of, Aug. 27, 1816, viii. 49, 50 ; 
 see Exmouth, lord, 47-50 ; captured by tho 
 French, 1830, 249 
 
 Alibaud, attempts to take Loxiis Philippe's life, 
 1830, viii. 374 
 
 Alien Bill, passage of, through Parliament, vii, 
 244, 219 ; passed Jan. 4, 1793, 249 
 
 Ali-Ghur stormed by the British, Sept. 4, 1803, 
 vii. 456 
 
 Allectus assumes the government of Britain, 
 A.D. 292, i. 32 ; defeated, and Britain re -sub- 
 jected to the Romans, ib. 
 
 Arie2:iance, Oath of; many clerCTmen refuse to 
 take it, 1689, v. 70 
 
 Allan, Ethan, an American revolutionist, 1775 ; 
 captures Ticonderoga, vi. 350, 351 ; made 
 prisoner on his march against Montreal ; sent 
 to England, 362 
 
 Alliance, The Holy, a treaty so called concluded 
 at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815, viii. 45, 3S2; de- 
 nounced by the British parliament, 45 
 
 Almanacs, duty on, repealed, 1834, viii. 346, 347 
 
 Almanza, battle of, April 25, 1707, v. 330 
 
 Almeida, siege of; suiTeudered to the French, 
 Aug. 1810, vii. 531 
 
 Almenara, battle of, July 27, 1710, v. 366 
 
 Alompra, his conquests; ascends the Birman 
 throne, viii. 219 
 
 Althorp, viscount. Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 1830, viii. 267 ; his budget for 1831, 271 ; de- 
 scription of, by Francis Jetfrey, 279 ; inter- 
 view of Jeffrey with, just after the resignation 
 of the Grey ministry, 1831, 296 ; speech on 
 moving the second reading of the bill for the 
 suppression of disturbances in Ireland, 1833, 
 323; financial statement, 324, 325; his bill 
 for limiting the hours of labour in liictories
 
 620 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 passed, S53, 334 ; introduces the Poor-law 
 Amendment bill, 1834, 336, 341 ; moves the 
 adjournment of the debate on the Irish 
 Church question and the previous question, 
 344 ; resigns his chancellorship, 1834 ; rea- 
 sons for doing so, 344 345 ; resumes it again 
 in the Melbourne administration ; brings for- 
 ward a modified Coercion bill, 346 ; financial 
 statement and proposed reduction of taxes, 
 346, 347 ; his removal to the Lords (as carl 
 Spencer) the ostensible cause of the dismissal 
 of the Melbourne ministry, 350, 351 
 
 Alt Ranstadt, peace of, Sept. 24, 1706, v. 389 
 
 Alum Shah, Great Mogul ; seeks British pro- 
 tection, vi. 332 ; Hastings deprives him of the 
 money and district granted by Clive, vii. 124; 
 his power restored to him by general Lake, 
 456 
 
 Alvinzy, commands the Austrian army in Italy; 
 defeats Bonaparte at Caldiero, Nov. 12, 1796; 
 repulses Bonaparte's attempts to cross the 
 bridge of Arcole ; retreats to Yicenza, vii. 328 ; 
 compels Joubert to retreat to Rivoli, 1797, 
 342 ; where he is defeated by Bonaparte, Jan. 
 14, 343. 
 
 Amboyna acquired by the British, 1810, -siii. 
 214 
 
 Ameer Khan. See Khan Ameer. 
 
 Ameer Singh. See Ochterlony. 
 
 Amelia, princess, her illness affects George III.'s 
 mind, vii. 533 ; dies Nov. 2, 1810, 534 
 
 American affairs. British possessions in North 
 Ameiica, vi. 205, 206 ; war between the 
 British and French, 1754-63, 207, 208, 233, 
 236-239 ; government and prosperity of the 
 British colonies, 270, 271 ; the resistance to 
 the Stamp Act, 1764-66, 271-274, 278-284 ; 
 the passing of the Eevenue Act causes re- 
 newed disturbances, which are slightly abated 
 on the repeal of all the duties except that on 
 tea, 306-314; the destruction of the tea in 
 Boston harbour induces the home govern- 
 ment to adopt coercionary measures, which 
 still further embittered the American spirit, 
 336-348; hostilities commence April, 1775, 
 at Lexington, 348, 349 ; and the war con- 
 tinues till 1782, when the independence of 
 America is recognised by Great Britain, 349- 
 399, 411-416, 422-430, 457-463, 468; govern- 
 ment and condition of the United States, viii. 
 2, 3 ; party spirit, 3, 4 ; the United States 
 declare war against Great Britain, June, 1812, 
 chiefly on account of the right of search 
 being claimed by the latter country ; the war 
 was terminated by the peace of Ghent, 1815, 
 4-19 
 
 American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 
 1776, vi. 364, 365; copy of the declaration, 
 366-368 
 
 American Secession : threatened separation of 
 the North and South, viii. 13 
 
 American Stamp Act. See Stamp Act. 
 
 Amherst, sir Jeflcry : general, 1758 ; com- 
 mander of t]ie English troops in America ; 
 captures Louisbourg, vi. 233 ; succeeds Aber- 
 crombie; captures Ticonderoga, July, 1759; 
 237 ; co-operates with AVolfe against Quebec ; 
 embarks on Lake Champlain ; driven back by 
 storms, ib. ; removed from the governorship 
 of Virginia, 310 
 
 Amherst, lord, govern or- general of India, \^2'6, 
 viii. 218 ; unable to maintain ])eace ; war 
 with the Birnian empire, 1824-6, 218-221 ; 
 
 comparative freedom of the press in India 
 under his administration, 223 
 
 Amiens, peace of, negotiation for, vii. 409, 410 ; 
 concluded Mar. 27, 1802, 410, 413 ; terms of 
 the treaty, 410, 411 
 
 Anderson, William, a printer of libellous pam- 
 phlets against the government, indicted for 
 nigh treason, convicted and executed, v. 166 
 167^ 
 
 Andre, major: adjutant-general; carries on a 
 secret correspondence with Arnold on the part 
 of Clinton ; his interview with Arnold, 1780, 
 vi. 414 ; he is captured as a spy ; tried by 
 court-martial, and sentenced to death, 415 ; 
 execution, Oct. 2, 416 
 
 Andre, M. P. H., introduces lithography into 
 England, 1801, viii. 157 
 
 Anglesey, H. "W. Paget, marquis of, distin- 
 guishes himself in Moore's retreat, 1808, vii. 
 505; lord lieutenant of Ireland, viii. 235, 
 267 ; is convinced of the expediency of grant- 
 ing concessions to the Catholics, 235 
 
 Anglo-Saxon agriculture in Alfred's time, i. 88 
 et seq. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Church, ignorance of the priests 
 of, at the accession of Alfred, i. 87 ; state of, 
 at the time of Dunstan, 138; cathedrals and 
 churches of the, 139, 140 ; provisions for the 
 clergy, 140 ; parish priests of the, 141 ; learn- 
 ing o"f the, 142 
 
 Anglo-Saxon kings, authority of, i. 81 ; their 
 mansions, ib. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, state of, at the time of Ethel- 
 bert, i. 69-71 ; literature of, 74 ; social ranks 
 among, 87 ; love of feasting indicated in thc^ 
 Bayeux tapestry, 173 ; continued resistance 
 of, to William the Conqueror, 190; security 
 afibrded to, by the establishment of Norman 
 fiefs, 195 ; continued existence of, as a People, 
 196 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, prince of, his military inven- 
 tions, V. ISO 
 
 Anjou, duke of, renounces his claim to the 
 tlirone of France, v. 395 
 
 Ankerstroem. See Gustavus III. 
 
 Anne, the princess, and her husband, go over to 
 William III., iv. 439 ; Anne's marriage to 
 prince George of Denmark, 1689, v. 98 ; ap- 
 plies to parliament for an increased income, 
 and has it increased from 20,000/. to 60,000/. 
 per annum, 98, 99 ; friendship for ilrs. 
 Churchill (alias Mrs. Freeman), to. ; quan-els 
 with her sister, queen Mary, 145 ; Mrs. 
 Freeman is commanded to leave the royal 
 palace ; Anne goes with her, 146 ; her posi- 
 tion and character in 1695, 178 ; accession of. 
 Mar. 8, 1702, 257 ; declares to the privy 
 council her intention of carrying on the war- 
 like preparations against France commence.! 
 by William III., 258 ; her address to parlia- 
 ment, which continues to sit ; her fine voice, 
 ib. ; favours the Tory party, 258, 259 ; speech 
 at the close of the session, 1702, 260 ; meets 
 her first parliament, Oct. 20, 262; grant.-) 
 Marlborough a dukedom and 5000/. a year, 
 264 ; opens the session "of parliament, Nov. 9, 
 1703, 266, 267; announces the conclusion of 
 the Methuen treaty with Portugal, 267 ; en- 
 tertains Charles, archduke of Austria, at het 
 coui-t, acknowledging him as kingof Spain, ib. , 
 stops a contest between the Lords and Com- 
 mons by proroguing parliament, 269 ; queen 
 Anne's bounty restoring the first fruits and
 
 INDEX. 
 
 621 
 
 tenths to the Church, 271 ; revives the prac- 
 tice of touching for the king's evil, ib. ; pro- 
 T'ldes out of (he privy purse for fresh recruits, 
 273 ; grants Woodstock to Marlborough, 287 ; 
 prorogues parliament, Mar. 14, 1704, 289 ; 
 exhorts the Commons to follow up Peter- 
 horough's successes in Spain, 297 ; indignant 
 at the Tories for raising the question of the 
 succession, 306; revived tlie Order of the 
 Thistle, 1703; announces the ratification of 
 the Union treaty, 327 ; speech on giving her 
 assent to the Act of Union, 328 ; she deter- 
 mines to continue the war ; receives speedy 
 supplies from parliament, 329 ; ^larlborough 
 presents her letter to Charles XII., 331 ; dis- 
 misses Harley; she grows cold towards !Mrs. 
 Freeman, and makes Mrs. Masham her new 
 favourite, 336; death of her husband, George 
 of Denmark, Oct. 1708, 338; supposed to 
 have private audiences with Harley ; her 
 opiuioDS regarding a successor, 339 ; her 
 temper tries Marlborough's patience, 340 ; her 
 inteiwiews with Harley, 349 ; present at Dr. 
 Sacheverel's trial, ib. ; public addresses to, 
 358 ; advises the nation to be quiet, 358, 359 ; 
 dismissal of Whigs from office, 363 ; dissolves 
 her third and calls her fourth parliament, 
 364 ; announces her determination to support 
 the Church of England, ib. ; dismisses the 
 duchess of Marlborough from her service, the 
 " key" scenes, 365 ; her anger at the duchess's 
 revenge ; makes the duchess of Somerset her 
 lady of the wardrobe, and Mrs. Masham the 
 keeper of the privy purse, 366 ; parliament 
 addresses her on the subject of Haiiey's 
 narrow escape from assassination, 373; pro- 
 mises not to make peace with France unless 
 in concert with the Dutch, 374 ; opens par- 
 liament, Dec. 7, 377 ; dismisses Marlborough 
 from his offices, 379 ; creates twelve new peers, 
 contrary to lord Dartmouth's advice, 380 ; 
 announces to parliament the commencement 
 of negociations for peace at Utrecht, 381 ; the 
 terms upon which peace may he made, 394, 
 395 ; and the conclusion of the treaty, 397 ; 
 intriguing of the Jacobites, 398; calls upon 
 parliament to suppress seditious papers, 399 ; 
 her agitation at the contest between Oxford 
 and Bolingbroke brings on a sudden illness, 
 July, 27, and she dies Aug. 1, 1714, 400 
 
 Anson, George : commodore, 1741 ; his expe- 
 dition to Peru; difficulties encountered in 
 doubling Cape Horn ; half his crew killed by 
 scurvy ; takes refuge in Juan Fernandez ; 
 secures prizes ; attacks Paita, vi. 100 ; enters 
 Canton ; returns to Spithead, June, 1744, 101 ; 
 defeats the French off Cape FinisteiTO, May 3, 
 1747, 179; first lord of the admiralty, 1757, 
 227 ; commands an expedition against St. 
 Maloes, 1758 ; his partner, the duke of Jlarl- 
 horough, fails in taking St. Maloes ; Cher- 
 hourg taken, 232 
 
 Anti-Corn-Law League, the, viii. 436 
 
 "Anti- Jacobin," the, started by Canning, Nov. 
 20, 1797, vii. 345 _ 
 
 Antoninus, wall of, i. 29, 30 
 
 Antwerp surrenders to Marlborough, 1706, v. 
 310 ; taken by Dumouriez, Nov. 30, 1792, vii. 
 237, 271 
 
 Appeal of murder : case of Ashford and Thorn- 
 ton ; lord Eldon supports the bill for abolish- 
 ing the practice, viii. 101, 102 
 
 Appropriation, principle of, in granting sup- 
 plies, established 1689, v. 71, 72 
 
 Apsley, lord. See Bathurst, earl. 
 
 Arapiles. See Salamanca. 
 
 Arbuthnot, admiral, conveys Clinton and his 
 forces from New York to Charleston, vi. 
 411 
 
 Archer, Thomas, architect of St. John the Evan- 
 gelist, Westminster, v. 458 
 
 Architecture, state of, in Britain, at the close of 
 the third century, i. 48 ; as shown in English 
 abbeys and cathedrals, 257, 259 ; bishop 
 Swinfield's house in 1209, 401 ; London 
 markets and shops, 402 ; domestic, iu the 15th 
 century, ii. 118; large consumption of timber 
 in building dwelling houses, 119; furniture 
 used in the houses, 120 ; improvements in 
 building, temp. Henry VIII., 479 ; style of 
 architecture in the reign of Elizabeth, iii. 
 303 et scq. ; alterations by Wren, at Wind- 
 sor Castle, by Charles II. in 1680, iv. 355 ; 
 encouraged by William III., v. 447 ; Wren, 
 448 ; he commences the rebuilding of London, 
 ib. ; buildmg of St. Paul's, 450-452 ; Wren's 
 parish churches, 453 ; and miscellaneous 
 buildings, 454 ; Vanbrugh ; his late adoption 
 of the profession of an architect, 455 ; general 
 character of his works, 456 ; Hawksmoor ; 
 his St. Mary's Woolnoth, Limehouse church, 
 and St. George's, Bloomsbury, 457; Gibbs' 
 St. ^[artin's-in-the-Fields, ib. ; T. Archer's 
 St. John the Evangelist ; Talman's Chats- 
 worth; Flitcroft's Woburn Abbey; amateur 
 architects. Dean Aldrich ; Dr. Clarke; and 
 Burlington, 458 ; sir R. Taylor, vii. 80 ; 
 Dance ; the Woods ; and the .idaras, ib. ; sir 
 W. Chambers, the architect of Somerset 
 House, 80, 81 ; Stuart, Eevett, Smirke, 81 ; 
 AV'yatt, 81, 82 ; bridge building and builders, 
 82; low state of architectural taste, and imi- 
 tation of Greek models, viii. 139, 140; the 
 latter instanced in the case of St. Pancras 
 church, 140, 141, 146 ; James Wyatt, his 
 classic and gothic buildings, 141, 142; his 
 gothic restorations, 142 ; Samuel Wyatt, ib. ; 
 sir John Soane's buildings at the Bank of 
 England and elsewhere, 142-144; Holland 
 and Sir R. Smirke, 144 ; Wilkins, 144, 145 ; 
 Nash, the architect of Regent Street, 145, 
 146; and of the Regent's Park terraces and 
 canals, 146; St. Marj'leboiie church; extra- 
 ordinary revival of church building, ib. ; 
 Thomas Telford ; his bridges at Montford, 
 Buildwas, and at the Menai Straits ; his other 
 grand works, 147 ; Rennie ; his Waterloo 
 Bridge and engineering works at various 
 dockyards, 147, 148 
 
 Arcole, battle of, Nov. 1796, vii. 328 
 
 Arcos, duke of, invests Valcntia, v. 296 ; opposes 
 Peterborough's passage to Valencia; decamps; 
 Peterborough effects an entrance, 297 
 
 Arcot captured by CUve ; who is besieged in it 
 by Sahib's army, vi. 203 ; repulses all their 
 attacks and drives them off, 203, 204 
 
 Arden of Feversham, story of the murder of, 
 in 1551, ii. 485 
 
 Aremberg, duke of, commands the Austrians at 
 Dcttingen, 1743 ; vi. 110 
 
 Argy le, marquis of, defeated by Montrose, iv. 40 ; 
 opposes the project of sending Hamilton to 
 invade England, 94 ; is restored to power 
 after Hamilton's defeat, 95 ; trial and exe- 
 cution of, in 1661, 258
 
 622 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Argyle, the earl of, refuses to take, without 
 reserve, the test oath enacted by the Scot- 
 tish parliament in 1682, is arrested and con- 
 victed of high treason, but escapes to Holland, 
 iv. 366 ; lands in Scotland in 1685 to raise an 
 insurrection in favour of Monmouth, 388 ; its 
 failure, 389; and his execution, 390 
 
 Argyle, Archibald Campbell, earl of, tenders 
 the Coronation Oath to William III., v. 90 
 
 Argyle, Archibald Campbell, duke of, colonel; 
 commands the Highlanders at Falkirk, 1746, 
 vi. 161 ; his plantations at Inverary, vii. 37 
 
 Argyle, John Campbell, duke of, commander 
 of George I.'s army in Scotland, 1715, vi. 8 ; 
 commences operations against the insurgents, 
 10; marches against Mar; meets him at 
 Sheriifmuir, and there fights him, 13th of 
 Nov., 15, 16 ; compels the retreat of the 
 rebel army ; pur3»es it to Aberdeen, and dis- 
 perses the troops, 18 ; deserts Walpole ; is 
 deprived by him of all his employments, 1739, 
 96 ; desires to form a coalition ministry ; re- 
 tiies, 1742, 108 
 
 Aristocracy, manners and position of, 1689- 
 1714, V. 56-58 ; fear of their being destroyed 
 by the Reform Bill of 1831, viii. 2'72, 273 ; it 
 cannot be a caste in England, 273, 274:_ 
 
 Arkwi-ight, sir Eichard, establishes his first 
 cotton-naill at Cromford, near Matlock, vii. 
 16; activity of, and early career; exhibits 
 his new machine, 1768, at Preston ; mobbed ; 
 goes to Nottingham ; takes out his first patent, 
 1769, 47; description of his machine, 48; 
 difficulties overcome in establishing its com- 
 mercial value, 49 
 
 Aries, three British bishops present at the first 
 Council of, A.D. 314, i. 61 
 
 Armorica, foundation of a British colony in, 
 i. 00 ; independent government established 
 by, ib. 
 
 Armstrong, John, his "Art of Preserving 
 Health ;" appeared 1744, vii. 87 
 
 Army, establishing of a standing, as an integral 
 part of government, 1689, v. 75 ; strength of, 
 in 1692, 147; 1694, 170; reduced 1697, 201, 
 202 ; disbanded 1699, 233 ; number of sol- 
 diers voted in 1702, 253 ; standing armies de- 
 nounced by Pulteney, 1732, vi. 67 ; increased, 
 218; debate on the army estimates, 1790; 
 its increase opposed by Burke, vii. 186, 187 ; 
 armies of England and France, 417, 418 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, an American revolutionist, 
 1775, vi. 350 ; appears before Quebec ; attacks 
 the city, Dec. 31 ; and is severely wounded, 
 362 ; general ; commands an army of irregular 
 troops in conjunction with Gates, 379 ; attacks 
 Bm-gojTie's position, 380 ; Ms treachery ; in- 
 terview with Andre, 414 ; lands at James 
 Town; makes an incursion into Virginia; 
 burns Richmond, 424 
 
 Arnold, Dr., sermon of, at the time of the 
 cholera, 1831, viii. 290, 291 ; his History of 
 Rome, 474 
 
 Arnot, sent from India, and his paper, "The 
 Calcutta Journal," suppressed, viii. 223 
 
 Artevelde, James, revolt of, against the count 
 of Flanders, i. 454; is murdered, July, 1345, 
 tb. 
 
 Artliur, king, legend of, i. 63 
 
 Arthur of IJrittany, claims of, to the crown of 
 England, i. 333 ; U supported by Philip of 
 France, ib.; heads an invasion of Poitou, 
 and is captured, 335 ; mysterious deutli of, id. 
 
 Artois, count d'. See Charles X. of France. 
 
 Arts, Society of. See Societies. 
 
 Arts, state of, in Britain at the close of the 
 third century, i. 47, 48 ; sketch of the st;ite 
 of, in the seventeenth century, v. 61-63; 
 patronage of the, by Charles I. and his court, 
 446 ; low state of the, during the civil war, 
 447 ; William and Mary patronize architects, 
 but give little encouragement to painters and 
 sculptors, 447 ; architecture, 447-458 ; sculp- 
 ture, 459-461 ; painting, 461-464 ; revolution 
 in the, middle of the 18th century, vii. 40, 41 ; 
 the duke of Bridgewater's canal schemes 
 carried out by Gilbert, 41, 42 ; and Brindley, 
 41-43 ; invention of machines for manufac- 
 turing cotton, 44-55 ; Watt's improvements 
 in the steam engine, 61, 62; close connec- 
 tion between the fine and the industrial, 65, 
 66 ; artists stimulated by the Society of Arts, 
 66 ; low state of art temp. Geo. XL, 66, 67 ; 
 painting, 1760-83, 67-77 ; engraving, 77, 78 ; 
 sculpture, 79, 80; architecture, 80-82; re- 
 storation of the art specimens in the Louvre 
 to their original countries, viii. 42 
 
 Arundel, earl of, collection of statuary formed 
 by, iii. 424 
 
 Asaph ul Dowlah, nabob and vizier of Oude ; 
 consents to the seizure of his mother's and 
 grandmother's property in liquidation of 
 Hastings' demands upon him, vii. 133 
 
 Ashburton, A. Baring, lord, master of the mint, 
 president of the board of trade, vii. 354 ; 
 concludes the Boundary Treaty with the United 
 States, 498 
 
 Ashby, his proceedings against the returning 
 oflBcer of Aylesbury for refusing his vote, in 
 1703, leading to disputes between the houses 
 of Lords and Commons on their respective 
 prerogatives, v. 268, 269 
 
 Ashford and Thornton, case of, viii. 101 
 
 Ashley, lord, A. A. Cooper ; his maiden speech 
 in parliament on the Treason bill, v. 18-i 
 
 Ashmolean museum built by Wren, v. 454 
 
 Ashridge, Hertfordshire, built by James Wyatt : 
 character of its architecture, viii. 141, 143 
 
 Ashton, John, a Jacobite agent, tried for high 
 treason, and convicted, 1691, v. 125 
 
 Aske, Robert, leader of the Yorkshire insur- 
 gents in 1536, ii. 400 ; negotiations of with 
 the duke of Norfolk, 401 ; has an interview 
 with Henry VIII., and is pardoned, ib. ; tlie 
 king's promises to the insurgents are not 
 kept, and Aske again takes arms, 402 , is 
 taken prisoner and executed, 403 
 
 Aspern, battle of. May 21, 22, 1809, vii. 515 
 
 Assassination plot, 1696, against William 111., 
 V. 186-192 
 
 Assassins, notice of, i. 316 ; the scheik of, ab- 
 solves Richard I. from any share in the murder 
 of the marquis ot Montfcrrat, 317 
 
 Asseerghur, taken by colonel Stevenson, vii. 
 460 
 
 Asser, his account of the early years of Alfred, 
 i. 81, 82; interpolations in the history of, 102 
 
 Assignats circulated by the National assembly ; 
 their depreciated value drive the people to 
 plunder and rebel. 1793, vii. 274, 275 
 
 Assye, battle of, Sept. 23, 1803, vii. 458-460 
 
 Astley, printer, proceeded against for his con- 
 cern in publishing an account of lord Lovat'a 
 trial, 1747, vi. 178 
 
 Asturias, prince of. See Ferdinand VJI. of 
 Spain.
 
 INDEX, 
 
 C23 
 
 4.th -taken by Marlborough, Oct. 4, 1706, t. 
 310 
 
 Athelstan, accession of, in 924, i. 123 ; annexes 
 Northumbria, and rules over all Britain, 
 124 ; continental influence and alliances of, 
 125; attacked by the under-kings of Cumber- 
 land and Scotland, he wins the battle of 
 Brunanburgh, 126; code of laws of, 128; 
 death of, in 940, ib. 
 
 "Atheniaji Gazette," 1691-1696, published by 
 Dunton, v. 404 
 
 Atkins, aldennan, opposes the formation of a 
 gas company as being destructive of the whale 
 fishery, viii. 66 
 
 Athlone, earl of. See Ginkell. 
 
 Athlone, besieged and taken by Ginkell, June 
 30, 1691, V. 127, 128 
 
 Athol, duke of. See Tullibardine. 
 
 .A.thol, marquis of, his influence and dishonesty, 
 V. 88 ; supports the government, 1689 ; shut 
 out of Blair Castle, 93 
 
 Attainder, bill of, against sir John Fenwick, v. 
 196, 197 
 
 Atterbury, bishop of Rochester ; speaks against 
 granting indulgence to Quakers ; enthusiastic 
 in the Pretender's cause, vi. 47; one of the 
 editors of Clarendon's "History," 48; arrest 
 of, and committal to the Tower; causes a 
 ferment in his church party, ib. ; proceeded 
 against by bill enacting his punishment and 
 deprivation ; his trial, 1723, 49 ; and con- 
 demnation ; embarks for France, June 1723 ; 
 and dies at Paris, 1732, 50 
 
 Attwood, M.P. for Birmingham ; moves an in- 
 quiry into the effect of the monetary system 
 on the distress of the people, 1833, viii. 325 
 
 Auchmuty, sir S., takes Monte Video, 1807, vii. 
 483 ; his share in the attack on Buenos Ajtcs, 
 486 
 
 Auckland, lord, president of board of trade ; 
 master of the mint, viii. 267 ; first lord of 
 the admiralty, 1834, 344; governor-general 
 of India ; publishes a declaration of the causes 
 and objects of the Afghan war, 450 
 
 Auerstadt. See Jena, 
 
 Augereau, one of Bonaparte's generals, vii. 326 ; 
 arrests sixtv members of the Legislative Coun- 
 cils, 344 
 
 Augustin, sent by pope Gregory as Christian 
 missionary to England, A.D. 597, i. 66 ; lands 
 in the isle of Thanet, ib. ; converts Ethelbert, 
 68 ; conference and disagreement of, \\ith the 
 priests of the old British church, 68, 69 
 
 Augustina, the brave defendress of Zaragoza, 
 1808, vii. 501 
 
 Augustus II. of Poland ; elector of Saxony ; de- 
 posed by Charles XII., v. 330, 345 ; peace of 
 Alt Ranstadt with Charles XII., Sept. 24, 
 1706, 389; kiag of Poland, 1690-1704; re- 
 stored, 1 709, 476 ; succeeded by his son, Au- 
 gustus III., 1733, vi. 71 
 
 Augustas III. ofPoland enters into the coalition 
 against Pnissia, vi. 215; blockaded in his 
 camp at Pima ; his army surrenders uncon- 
 ditionally, 216 
 
 Aurungzebe refuses to give any protection to 
 
 the new East India Company, v. 204 
 Austen, Jane ; high character of her six novels, 
 
 viii. 127 
 Austerlitz, battle of, Dec. 2, 1805, vii. 450 
 Aulun, in Gaul, artificers brought from Britain 
 
 by Constantius to rebuild, i. 47 
 Auverquerque. See D'Auverquerque. 
 
 Ava, king of, his aggression on British India ; 
 threatens to overrun our territory, ttie Birman 
 war breaks out, viii. 219 ; his own territory is 
 invaded by sir A. Campbell, and he is com- 
 pelled to agree to the treaty of Yandaboo ; 
 terms of the treaty, 220 
 Aylesbury election case, 1703, v. 268, 269 
 Ayrshire, agriculture and peasantry of, vii. 35 
 
 Bacon, John (1740-1799), character of his sculp- 
 ture, vii. 79 ; riUevi on Trinity House, by, 
 viii. 142 
 
 Bacon, Friar Roger, notice of, i. 404 
 
 Bacon, sir Francis, speaks against a subsidy,, 
 and loses the Court favour, iii. 203 ; dissuades 
 Essex from undertaking the lord-lieutenanny 
 of Ireland, 282 ; ungrateful conduct of, in the 
 prosecution of the earl of Essex, 289 ; notice 
 of his Apology, ib. ; opposes the bill in the 
 Commons against monopolies, 292 ; maintains 
 the necessity of removing ancient abuses in 
 the first parliament of James I., 317 ; scheme 
 of, for the plantation of Ulster, 354 ; is em- 
 ployed to procure the sanction of sir Edward 
 Coke to the king's arbitrary measures, but 
 fails, 369 ; assures Raleigh that his appoint- 
 ment to command the expedition to Guiana 
 precluded the necessity of a general pardon, 
 374 ; is impeached by the Commons and fined 
 for bribery and corruption, 380; the king 
 remits his fine, and he retires to private life, 
 ib. 
 
 Bacon, sir Nicholas, appointed lord keeper, and 
 opens Elizabeth's first parliament, iii. 113 ; as 
 lord keeper, introduces to parliament a new 
 bill against papists in 1571, 171 
 
 Badajoz surrenders to Soult, March 11, 1811 ; 
 besieged by Bercsford; relieved by Soult, 
 Mav 15, vii. 538; siege and capture of by the 
 British under WeLliugton, April 7, 1812, 549, 
 550 
 
 Baden, margrave of, beseeches Marlborough for 
 aid against Tallard, v. 275 
 
 Baden, peace of, Sept. 7, 1714, v. 389 
 
 Bailly, J. S., mayor of Paris, 1789, vii. 174; 
 harangues the king, 180 ; attempts to put 
 down mob-dictation, 199; executed Nov. 
 1793, 293 
 
 Baines, Mr., of Leeds, detects the spy system, 
 1817, viii. 81 
 
 Baird, sir David ; general, vii. 40" ; joins Moore, 
 1808, 504; second in command at Corunna; 
 carried oil' from the battle, 506 
 
 Bakewell, Robert, great skill of, in fattening 
 sheep, vii. 12 
 
 Balcarres, earl of, a confidential agent of James 
 in Scotland, v. 88 ; with Dundee m-ges Gordon 
 not to leave Edinburgh Castle, ib. ; arrested, 
 90 
 
 Bales aids in bribing the duke of Leeds to pro- 
 cure a charter of confirmation for East India 
 Company, 1695, v. 178 
 
 Balfe found guilty of murdering Mr. Clarke ; 
 pardoned vi. 297 
 
 Ballads, the Robiu-Hood, endurance of, i. 324 ; 
 their detestation of oppression, and poetical 
 excellence, 325 ; popular amusements de- 
 scribed in, 327 
 
 Balliol, Edward, attempts to recover tho crown 
 of Scotland in 1332, i. 451 ; seeks the aid of 
 Edward III., and agrees to hold Scotland as a 
 fief, ib. ; continues the struggle for several
 
 624 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 years, but is expelled from Scctland in 1341, 
 452 
 
 EalUol, John, a claimant of the erown of Scot- 
 land in 1291, i. 414; agrees to do homage to 
 Edward I. , and is nominated king of Scotland, 
 416 ; summoned to Westminster for mal-ad- 
 ministration, is treated with indignity, and is 
 incited by his barons to assert his indepen- 
 dence, 417; renounces his fealty to Edward, 
 ib. ; is attacked by Edward, and resigns his 
 crown at Montrose, 418; imprisoned in the 
 Tower, 421 ; dies, 425 
 
 Ballot, the ; its supporters, viii. 335 
 
 Balmerino, lord, trial and execution of, 1746, vi. 
 173, 174 
 
 Bamford, Samuel, a radical : quotations from 
 his life illustrative of the acts, opinions, and 
 objects of the demagogme reformers of 1816-19, 
 viii. 73-75, 77, 78, 80, 104-107; leads the 
 Middleton men at the great Manchester re- 
 form meeting, 1819, 104; his description of 
 the massacre, 106, 107 ; tried for his concern 
 in the Manchester meeting, and sentenced to 
 imprisonment, 164 
 
 Bancroft, Dr., repudiates the scheme of burning 
 the British dockyards, vi. 374 
 
 Banda isles acquired by the British, 1810, viii. 
 214 
 
 Bandoola, Maha, commander of the Bimian 
 army, viii. 219 ; his unsuccessful attack on 
 Eangoon ; and defence of Donoopew ; killed 
 Mar. 1825, 220 
 
 Bangalore stormed by lord Cornwallis, Mar. 21, 
 1791, vii. 258 
 
 Bangor, massacre of the monks of, i. 69 
 
 Bank of England established 1694, v. 171 ; un- 
 able to pay its notes in specie, 194 ; competes 
 with the South Sea company in buying up 
 the ann\iities, 1720, vi. 40 ; attacked by a 
 mob, 1780, 409 ; heavy pressure upon the, 
 1797, vii. 333 ; ordered by government to stop 
 cash payments, 333, 334 ; pays all demands 
 in bank notes, which become the staple cur- 
 rency for years, 334 ; forged notes, and the 
 punishment for forging tliem, in 1816, 1820, 
 and 1823, viii. 64 ; secret committees ap- 
 pointed to inquire into the state of the, 1819, 
 100 ; Peel's Act for the gradual resumption of 
 cash payments, 100, 101 ; Soane enlarges and 
 remodels it, 142-144; run upon the, in con- 
 sequence of a money panic, 1825, 197 ; public 
 credit saved through the measures adopted by 
 the, 198 ; effects of the exclusive privilege of 
 the, on the currency circulation, 199, 200 ; 
 removed by the sanctioning of joint-stock 
 banks with any number of partners beyond 
 sixty-five miles of the branch banks of the, 
 established, 1826, 200; new charter granted 
 to the, 1833 ; the more important provisions 
 of it, 334 ; renewal of its charter, 514, 515 ; 
 government interference with the Bank Act 
 (luring the commercial panic of 1844, 553 
 
 Bankruptcy Court bill, lord Brougham's, viii. 
 271; it receives the royal assent, Oct. 20, 
 1831, 285 
 
 Banks, Thomas, his monument of Chatham, vi. 
 390 ; the first great English sculptor, born 
 1735, died 1805 ; character of his works, vii. 
 79 ; viii. 148 
 
 Banks, Joseph, accompanies captain Cook to 
 New South Wales as naturalist, vii. 262 
 
 Bannockbura, battle of, on June 24, 1314, i. 434 
 
 Barbcsieux, son of Louvois; French secretary 
 
 of state ; revives the project of shooting Wil- 
 liam III., v. 154 
 Barcelona besieged and taken by the earl of 
 Peterborough, 1705, v. 294-296; besieged bv 
 Philip v., 297 ; relieved by Peterborough, 29H 
 Barclay, sir George, one of the participators in 
 the plot to assassinate William III., 1696, v. 
 186 et seq. ; the plot discovered ; escape of, 190 
 Barere pronounces the doom of Lyon, vii. 285 ; 
 on his motion queen Marie Antoinette is sent 
 before the Revolutionary Tribunal, 292, 293 ; 
 his story of the Vengeur, 307 ; moves that no 
 quarter be given to the English and Hano- 
 verians, 308 
 Baring discerns a loss in our increased exports, 
 1815, viii. 55 ; foresees ruin as the result of 
 Huskisson's free trade measures, 190 
 Baring, F. T., a lord of the treasury, viii. 267 
 Baring, Alexander. See Ashburton. 
 Barlow, sir George, governor-general of India, 
 1805, vii. 461 ; recalled by the British minis- 
 try ; superseded by lord Minto, viii. 213 
 Barnard, sir WilUam, M.P. for London; favoiu'S 
 
 the repeal of the Septennial Act, vi. 73 
 Bamave, protects the French royal family from 
 
 the mob, 1791, vii. 202 
 Baruet, battle of, 14 April, 1471, ii. 164, 165 
 Baroach surrenders to the British, 1803, vii. 456 
 BaiTas sent to punish the Toulonese, vii. 291; 
 commands the municipal troops, 1794, 310 ; 
 general-in-chief of the army of the interior, 
 1795, 322 ; his share in the revolution of the 
 18th Fructidor, 1797, 344 ; a member of the 
 French Directory, 383 ; his conduct in the 
 revolution of the 18th Brumaii'e, 1799, 383, 
 384 ; resigns, 384 
 Barre, colonel, his speech against Pitt, 1761, vi. 
 253, 254 ; his remarks on the repeal of the 
 American duty, 311, 312; remonstrates 
 against the Massachusetts Bay Government 
 Bill, 1774, 339, 340; pension granted to, 
 1782,440; Pitt presents him with the Clerk- 
 ship of the Pells, vii. 140 
 Barrier, the, treaty, Nov. 15, 1715, v. 389 
 BaiTUigton, William, viscount, moves for 
 Wilkes' expulsion from the House of Com- 
 mons, 1768, vi. 291 ; Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, 1761, 321 
 Barrington, sir Jonah, his description of Dublin 
 anticipatmg an attack from the United Irish- 
 men, 1798, vii. 364; and of the passing the 
 Union Bill in the Irish House of Commons, 
 1800, 375, 376 
 Barossa, battle of. Mar. 5, 1811, vii. 538 
 Barry, James, his mural paintings on the walls 
 of the Society of Arts room ; his enthusiasm 
 and patriotic conduct connected with them ; 
 his attempt not quite successful, vii. 76 
 Bartells, a Belgian insurrectionist ; tried, found 
 
 guUty, banished, 1830, viii. 257, 258 
 Barthelemi, a member of the French Directory ; 
 
 arrested ; banished, 1797, vii. 344 
 Bartholomew, St., priory of, in Smithfield, 
 
 foundation of, i. 255 
 Barton, Andrew, the Scotch privateer, captured, 
 
 and slam by sir Thomas Howard, ii. 263 
 Basle, peace of, April 5, 1795, vii. 412 
 Bassein taken by general Goddard, vii. 129 
 Basscin, treaty of, Dec. 31, 1802, vii. 455 
 Bastia captined by Nelson, 1794, vii. 315 
 Bastille attacked by the mob,'July, 1789, vii. 171; 
 defence conducted by De Launay, 172; he 
 capitulates, 173 ; the prisoners released, 174
 
 INDEX. 
 
 625 
 
 Bataille, abbe j of, (Battle Abbey,) foundation of^ 
 i. 182 
 
 Bath, the great resort of pleasure seekers in the 
 time of queen Anne, y. 10 ; gaming at, vii. 
 101, 104 
 
 Bath, earl of. See Pulteney. 
 
 Bathianv, marshal, commands the Austrians at 
 Lauffeld, July, 1747, vi. 180 
 
 Baths and Washhouses, establishment of, and 
 benefits derived from, viii. 393, 394 ; encou- 
 raged by an Act of Parliament, 1846, 541 
 
 Bathurst, Allen, lord, progress of America du- 
 ring his lifetime described by Burke, vi. 347 
 
 Bathurst, earl ; foreign secretary in the Port- 
 land ministry, 1809, vii. 480, 577 ; secretary 
 for war and colonies, 1812, 577; viii. 158; 
 speech on the restraints put on Napoleon, 
 1821, 176; indignation caused by his circular 
 prohibiting the flogging of slaves, 194 ; re- 
 signs, 1827, 204 
 
 Bautzen, battle of. May 20, 21, 1813, vii. 561 
 
 Bavaria, elector of. See Charles VII. of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Bavaria, elector of, aids William in the war 
 with the Netherlands, 1695, v. 178-180 ; cap- 
 tures Namur, 180 ; joins France ; aids in the 
 campaign against Marlborough, 1703; sur- 
 prises Ulm, 266 ; refuses to quit France and 
 ioin the Allies, 1704, 278, 279; consequently 
 lis electorate is desolated by the Allies, 279 ; 
 joined by Tallard, 280; defeated at Blenheim, 
 280-284; his hard struggle with Eugene, 
 283 ; with Villeroy he thi-catens Holland, 
 302; defeated by Marlborough at Eamilies, 
 309 
 
 Bavaria, electoral prince of, his claim to the 
 Spanish throne, v. 225 ; appointed successor 
 to the throne by the Partition treaty, and 
 Charles II.'s will; dies Feb. 5, 1699, 229 
 
 Bavaria, elector of, an ally of France ; driven 
 from his capital bj' the Austrians, 1805, vii. 
 443; made kingof Bavaria by Bonaparte, 1805, 
 450 ; compelled to join the Allies, 1813, 564 ; 
 attends the Congress of Vienna, 1815, viii. 42 
 
 Bavaria, electorate of, devastated by the Allies, 
 1704, v. 279 
 
 Baxter, Richai-d, expelled from his ministry at 
 Kidderminster, iv. 6 ; joins the parliamentary 
 army, ib. ; his account of the battle at Edge- 
 hill, 7 ; statement of, as to the oppi'ession of 
 non-conformists by the royalists, 11 ; his ac- 
 count of the adoption of the Covenant by the 
 synod at Westminster and the House of 
 Commons, 28 ; visit of, to the battle-field of 
 Naseby, 45; description of the parliamentary 
 camp, 46 ; appointed chaplain to Charles II., 
 249 ; notices of the Plague of 1665 by, 273, 
 275 ; of the great Fire of London in 1666, 
 285; notice of the duke of Buckingham by, 
 303 ; account of the proposals for a union of 
 Protestants, which were rejected by parlia- 
 ment, 308 ; oppression experienced by, in 
 1675, 325 ; is tried, convicted, and imprisoned 
 for libel in 1685, 388 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry, illustrations of the History of 
 England afforded by, i. 171 et seq. 
 
 Baylen, battle of, July 21, 1808, vii. 500 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of, May 5, 1808, vii. 579 
 
 Beachy Head, battle oft", June 1690, v. Ill 
 
 Bean, J. W., his attempt on the Queen's life, 
 1842, viii. 497 
 
 Beaufort, cardinal Henry, feuds between, and 
 the duke of Gloucester, ii. 78 ; continued dis- 
 TOL. vm. — 264. 
 
 agreements with Gloucester, 92 ; burns here- 
 tics, 93 ; causes the duchess of Gloucester to 
 be tried for sorcery and conspiracy, ib ; is sus- 
 pected of having caused the death of Glouces- 
 ter, 96 ; dies, ib. 
 
 Beaulieu, an Austrian general; defeated and 
 beaten back by Bonaparte, 1796, vii. 326, 
 327 : superseded in his command by general 
 Wurmser, 328 
 
 Beaumarchais, author of Figaro ; introduces 
 Steuben to Silas Deane, vi. 376 ; lends him 
 money, and freights a ship for him, 377 
 
 Becket, Thomas a, romance in the marriage of 
 the father and mother of, i. 271 ; early edu- 
 cation of, 272 ; made chancellor to Henry II., 
 273 ; magnificence of, 274 ; is sent ambassador 
 to France, 275 ; his attendance with a nume- 
 rous force at the siege of Toulouse, 275, 279 ; 
 his preferments, 276 ; created archbishop of 
 Canterbury in 1162, 280, 282; character of, 
 281 ; deportment and magnificence of, in his 
 new office, 282 ; resigns the chancellorship 
 and claims the restoration of church property, 
 283; interferes to prevent the subjection of 
 the clergy to the secular laws, 285 ; consents 
 to the Constitutions of Clarendon, 286 ; th» 
 pope refuses to confirm them, 287 ; Becket 
 supports the pope's decision, is arraigned as a 
 traitor and found guilty, 288 ; flies from Eng- 
 land, 289 ; excommunicates all those whc 
 maintain the Constitutions of Clarendon, ib. , 
 meets Henry at Touraine in 1170, and a 
 temporary peace is efl'ected, 291 ; returns to 
 England, 292; is murdered, 293; conse- 
 quences of his mui-der, 294 ; canonisation of, 
 and miracles at the shrine of, 294, 295, 301 ; 
 Hemy does penance before the shrine, 
 301 
 
 Beckford, deskes to see the king his own 
 minister, vi. 245; opposes coercionary mea- 
 sures against America, 309 ; alderman ; lord 
 mayor of London, 1770; defends the London 
 remonsti-ance ; his speech to the king, vi. 315 ; 
 Chatham in raptures at his spiiited conduct ; 
 death of, 1770, 316 
 
 Beckwith, his shop plundered by a mob, 1816, 
 vui. 77 
 
 Bede's account of the passage of the Romans at 
 Coway stakes, i. 7 
 
 Bedfoi d, John, duke of, appointed by the parlia- 
 ment joint protector, with the duke of Glou- 
 cester, of Henry VI., ii. 76 ; wins the battle 
 of Verneuil in 1424, 77 ; defeated at Jlont- 
 argis in 1427, 81; undertakes the siege of 
 Orleans, 82 ; quarrels Avith the duke of Bur- 
 gundy, 83 ; Orleans is relieved by Joan of 
 Arc, 85 ; relinquishes the siege of Orleans, 
 87 ; deprives sir John Fastolf of the order 
 of tlie Garter for his behaviour at the battlt* 
 of Patay, 88; dies, 92 
 
 Bedford, Francis, duke of, his agricultural im- 
 provements, vii. 11; promotes the drainaga 
 of the Fens of Lincoln, 14, 15 
 
 Bedford, John Russell, duke of; secretary o! 
 state; turned out of that ofiice, 1752, vi. 190,- 
 president of tho council, 263 ; interview with 
 George III.; the king's indignation at hid 
 effrontery, 277 ; proposes that coercive mea- 
 sures be taken against America, 308 
 
 Bedfordshire, agricultural improvements of, riu 
 11 
 
 Beggars, statute of Richard II. in 1388, respect- 
 in?, ii. 14
 
 626 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Belgium, indei)endeiice of, rccoguizcd, Nov. 
 1830, viji. 258, 383 
 
 Belhaven, lord, a director of the African and 
 Indian company; found guilty, v. 216; 
 speech of, in the Scottish parliament, against 
 the Union, 1706, 319-321 
 
 Belle He, captured by the British, 1761, vi. 
 249 
 
 Belliard commands at Cairo ; capitulates to the 
 English, 1801, vii. 407 
 
 ^ellingham, John, assassinates Mr. Perceval, 
 May 11, 1812; trial and execution, vii. 540, 
 541 
 
 Belmore, earl of, his opinions of the willingness 
 of the freed slave to labour, viii. 330 
 
 Bennett moves for an inquiry into the state of 
 the London police, viii. 64, 65 
 
 Benningsen, general, commander of the Eus- 
 sian army ; engages Bernadotte at Pultusk ; 
 defeated at Eyiau, 1807, vii. 481, 482 
 
 Bentinck, lord William, his operations in Italy 
 disappoint Wellington, 1812, vii. 551, 552; 
 governor-general of India, viii. 224 
 
 Bentinck. See Portland, duke of. 
 
 Berar, Rajah of. See Bhoonsla. 
 
 Beresford, marshal, drills the Portuguese, vii. 
 531; besieges Badajoz, 1811, 538; Welling- 
 ton's advice to, 569, 570 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom surrendered to the French, 
 Sept. 1747, yi. ISO 
 
 Berkeley, admiral, describes the bad state of the 
 commissariat, 1809, vii. 523 
 
 Berkeley, admiral, entrusted with the reduc- 
 tion of Brest, 1694 ; Marlborough's treachery 
 causes his attempts to fail, v. 172 
 
 Berkeley, earl of, proposes to George I. to kid- 
 nap the Prince of Wales ; first Lord of the 
 Admiralty, 1718, vi. 33 
 
 Berkshire, agriculture of, vii. 18, 19 
 
 Berlin Decree issued by Napoleon, Nov. 20, 
 1806, vii. 477, 578; terms of, 494, 578 
 
 Berlin, treaty of, Aug. 5, 1796, vii. 412 ; con- 
 vention ot, hov. 5, 1808, 579 
 
 Bernadotte. See Charles XIV. 
 
 Bernard, sir Francis, governor of Massachu- 
 setts ; disputes with, the Assembly, vi. 307 ; 
 recalled home, 311 
 
 Bernard, sir John, his bill for regulating 
 theatres, vi. 89, 90 
 
 Berne invaded and spoliated by the French, 
 1798, vu. 351 
 
 Berry, color el, carries supplies to Enniskillen, 
 and aids in defeating Macarthy, 1689, v. 86 
 
 Berry, captain, his bravery at the battle of St. 
 Vincent, vii. 337 
 
 Berthier, Intendant of Paris, murdered by the 
 mob, 1789, vii. 175 
 
 Berthier, a general in the French a-rmj', vii. 
 326 ; .vithdraws Bonaparte from the Assem- 
 bly; 384 ; crosses the Alps at the head of a 
 division of the army, 395 
 
 Bertrand du Guesclin encounters the Black 
 Prince at the bittle of Najara, i. 484; captured 
 and released by the English, 485; activity 
 and success of, in the wars in Gascony, 486 
 
 Berwick, James Fitz James, duke of, defeated 
 at Hclturbet, 1690, v. 105 ; taken prisoner at 
 Neerwinden, 164 ; sent to luigland to rouse 
 the Jacobites, 186 ; secret visit lo England for 
 this purpose, 187 ; returns to France on the 
 failure of the assassination plot, 188; keeps 
 tlu! Allied armies in check, 1704, 290; joins 
 Philip of Spain, 298 ; compels the Allies to 
 
 evacuate Madrid, and establishes Philip oit. 
 his tlirone, 299, 330 ; commands the French 
 army against Spain, 1719, vi. 37; captures 
 Fuenterabia and St. Sebastian, ib. ; opposes 
 prince Eugene on the Rhine ; killed at the 
 siege of Philipsburg, 71 
 
 Bewick, Thomas, reviver of wood engraving^ 
 his principal works, viii. 157 
 
 Bhoonsla, rajah of IJerar, joins the Alliance 
 against the British, vii. 455 ; defeated at 
 Assye and Argaum, 458, 460 ; signs a treaty 
 of peace, 460 
 
 Bhurtpore. See Combermere. 
 
 Bidgegur surrendered to Popham, vii. 133 
 
 Bignor, Sussex, account of the remains ol ft. 
 Roman villa at, i. 48 
 
 Bill ot Rights. See Rights. 
 
 Birkbeck, Dr., inaugurates the London Me- 
 chanics' Institution, 1823, viii. 231 
 
 Binnese war, 1824—1826, viii. 218-221 
 
 Birmingham, state of, in 1636, iii. 419: long 
 noted for its hardware trade, v. 17 ; riots at, 
 against dissenters, 1791, 196-198; great re- 
 form meeting at, 1832, viii. 295 ; obtains 
 parliamentary representation, 307 ; popula- 
 tion of, in 1831, and 1861, 308 ; riots of 1839 
 in, 422 
 
 Biron aids in the campaign in the Netherlands, 
 1792, vii. 219 
 
 Bittern formerly existed in Lincolnshire, v. 21 ; 
 and Wiltshire, vii. 21 
 
 Blackbourn, John, a nonjuror, ejected from two 
 livings ; press corrector for Bowyer, v. 70 
 
 Blacktiiars-bridge opened 1760 ; constructed by 
 R. BIylne, vii. 82 
 
 Blackstone, Dr., queen's solicitor-general; his 
 opinion as to Wilkes' right to sit in parlia- 
 ment, vi. 293 
 
 Blackwood, captain of the Victory at Trafalgar, 
 vii. 447 
 
 Blackwood's JIagazine, its influence and cha- 
 racter, viii. 128 
 
 Blair, llugh, popularity of his sermons, viii. 
 124 
 
 Blake, admiral, inteiTupts the operations of 
 Rupert in the Irish seas, iv. 124; follows 
 Rupert to the mouth of the Tagus, 149 ; de- 
 man, is his expulsiim by the Portuguese, or 
 to be admitted into the harbour, is refused, 
 and has a slight skh-niish, 150 ; defeats Van 
 Tromp in the Downs, May 19, 1652, 150, 151; 
 character of, 153 ; battles with Van Tromp 
 and l)e liuyter in 1652, 154; defeats Van 
 Tromp off Cape La Hogue, Feb. 1653, and 
 compels him to retire to Holland, 154, 155; 
 with Jilonk and Dean defeats Van Tromp near 
 ^ the North Foreland, 162, 163; drives him 
 ' back again to Holland in 1653, 163 ; gains a 
 victory over the Dutch fleet, and Van Tromp 
 is killid, July, 1663, 181 ; Ms remark on the 
 dissiilution of parliament by Cromwell, 189; 
 subdues the African pirates, 196; conduct of, 
 at Malaga, ib. ; captures two Spanish gal- 
 leons oft' Cadi/, 203 ; gams a victory over tho 
 Spanish navy at Santa Cruz, 208; receives 
 insliuction to return home, ib.; dies in 1657, 
 wiihiii .-ight of Plymouth, ib.; his body is 
 di.sinterred fmra Westminster Abbey, and 
 buried in St. Margaret's churchyard after the 
 Restoration, 249 
 
 Blaki', William, an engraver: his designs, viii. 
 157 
 
 Blakcney, general, governor of Stirling Castle;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 6.>7 
 
 defends it against the Young Pretender, 1746, 
 Ti. 160; defends St. Philip's Castle, Minorca, 
 1756, 213 
 
 Blanc, Louis, his remarks on the September 
 massacres, 1792, vii. 230 
 
 Blansac, camp marshal, surrenders the French 
 army to the British, 1704, v. 285 
 
 Blanket meeting at Manchester, 1817, vii. 80 
 
 BIcnhfim or Plentheim, battle of, fought, Aug. 
 13, 1704, V. 281-285 
 
 Blenheim designed by Vanbi-ugh, v. 456 
 
 Bliiclier, marshal : routs the French at the battle 
 of the Katzliach, Aug. 26, 1813, vii. 563 ; the 
 Saxon cavalry desert to ; he places them in 
 the rear, 564 ; crosses the Rhine, 568 ; battles 
 ■with Napoleon at Brienne, Jan. 29, 1814, ib. ; 
 O.Kford degree conferred on, 572 ; concentrates 
 his army upon Sombref, vui. 29 ; maintains 
 his position against Napoleon at the battle of 
 Ligny, June 16, 1815, 29, 30; marches to 
 "VN'avre, 30 ; his share in the victory of Water- 
 loo, 35, 36 ; his late ariival at the battle with 
 Prussian troops, 36 ; Wellington remonstrates 
 against his desire to kill Bonaparte, 40 ; and 
 interferes with his blowing up the bridge of 
 Jena, 41, 42 
 
 Blunt, sir John, a South-sea director : the 
 ministry favour his projects, vi. 40 
 
 Boadicea, revolt led by, i. 22 et seq. ; destruc- 
 tion of Roman British cities during the revolt 
 by, 24 ; defeat, and death of, by poison, 25 
 
 Board of Health, a central, formed, 1831, viii. 
 292 
 
 Boat, ancient, found in the river Arun in 1834, 
 i. 9 
 
 Boats of the Britons, nature of, in which they 
 went to the assistance of the Veneti, i. 3 
 
 Bohun, Edmund, the press licencer ; his party 
 feeling; removed from his office, v. 158 
 
 Bois-Ie-Duc surrendered to the Dutch, 1794, vii. 
 313 
 
 Bolan Pass, passage of the, by the British army, 
 1839, vui. 452 
 
 Bole\n, Anne, birth and childhood of. ii. 312 ; 
 sent to the court of France with Maiy, the 
 sister of Henry VIII. in 1514, 313 ; the king's 
 attachment to, pubUcly shown at Hampton 
 Court, 314 ; incenses Henry against Wolsey, 
 320 ; writes to Cromwell in favour of Kiuhard 
 Herman, imprisoned for setting forth the 
 Bible in English, 326; again incites Henry 
 against Wolsey, 334 ; accompanies Henry to 
 France in 1532, to meet Francis I., 343 ; 
 manned to Henry, 344 ; description of her 
 coronation, 345 ; g^ives birth to Elizabeth, 
 Sept. 7, 1533, 349; the king becomes jealous 
 and sends her to the Tower, 372 ; her letter 
 to the king, 374 ; true bills found against her 
 and other-, 376 ; trial and execution of, on 
 May 19, 1536, 377; dying speech of, 378; 
 doubts as to the guilt or innocence of, 380, 
 381 ; letter from, to Henry VIU., 384 
 
 Bolingbroke. See St. John. 
 
 Bombay ceded to Charles II. ; by him assigned 
 to the Kast India Company, vi. 201 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph, commands the army sent 
 against Naples, vii. 472 ; enters Naples, Feb. 
 15, 1806, 473 ; proclaimed king. Mar. 30, ib. ; 
 joins Victor in Spain, 1809, 522; Mannont 
 establishes a communication wi;h, 552,553; 
 defeated at Vittoria by Wellington, 1813, 
 562 ; Napoleon declares him no longer king 
 of Spain, 1814 ; appointed Napoleon's lieu- 
 
 tenant, 568 ; king of Spain, 1808-1814, 574 ; 
 king of Naples, 1806-1808, 575 
 
 Bonaparte, Louis, proclaimed king of Holland, 
 June, 1806, vii. 473 ; surrenders his sove- 
 reignty, 1811, 535, 536 
 
 Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. 
 
 Bonaparte, Lucien, president of the Council of 
 Five Hundred, 1799, vii. 384 ; his condact 
 during the overthrow of the Council on Nov. 
 10 (19th Brumaire), ib. ; urges his brother's 
 claims to the gratitude of France, 1815, viii. 
 38 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon : bom at Ajaccio in Cor- 
 sica, vi. 323 ; early career, lieutenant-colonel 
 of artillerv, 1793 ; his opinion of Carteau.x, 
 vii. 288 ; " plan for reducing Toulon, 289 ; 
 appointed second in command to BaiTas, 1795, 
 322 ; suppresses the revolt of the sections of 
 Paris, Oct. 5, 322, 323 ; marries Josephine 
 Beauhamois, Mar. 179C; submits a plan for 
 the invasion of Italy to Camot ; appointed 
 chief of the army of Italy, 325 ; reception 
 by the army ; defeats D'Argenteau, Beaulieu, 
 and Colli ; gains possession of Piedmont ; 
 forces the passage of Lodi, 326 ; levies heavy 
 exactions from Slilan and Pavia, 327 ; his 
 plundering march to Leghorn, ib. ; where he 
 seizes all the English merchandize ; defeats 
 generals Quosnadowich and Wurmser ; de- 
 feated by Alvinzy at Caldiero, Nov. 12 ; 
 battle of Arcole, 328 ; compels Alvinzy to 
 retreat to Vicenza, ib. ; wins the battle of 
 Rivoli, Jan. 14, 1797 ; Provera surrenders, 
 Jan. 16 ; and Mantua capitulates, Feb. 2, 
 343 ; pursues the archduke Charles, and de- 
 feats him at Neumarkt, April 2 ; preliminaries 
 of peace signed at Leoben, April IS ; declares 
 war against the Venetian republic, May, 3, 
 ib. ; enters Venice on the 16th and over- 
 throws the republican government, 343, 344 ; 
 negotiates with Vienna, 346, 347 ; confers 
 with the Austrian negotiators at Udine, Oct. 
 16 ; cedes Venice to Austria, 347 ; peace of 
 Campo Foi-mio concluded Oct. 17, 348 ; ap- 
 pointed to the command of the " Army of 
 England," ib.\ arrives in Paris, Dec. 5; his 
 interest in the preparations for invading 
 England, 349 ; persuades the Directory to 
 send an expedition against Egypt, 350; ap- 
 pointed general-in-cliief of the army in the 
 East ; preparations at Toulon ; the expedition 
 leaves Toulon, May 19, 1798, 351 ; siezes 
 Malta, June, 352, 353 ; his anxiety at the 
 sight of a supposed Kuglish sail, 353 ; landing 
 of his army at .Alexandria, t^. ; proclamation 
 of, to the people of Egypt, 353, 354 ; marches 
 across the desert ; gains the battle of the 
 Pyramids, July 21 ; obtains possession of 
 Cairo, 354 ; receives the news of Bruey's 
 defeat with calmness, 358 ; his letter to 
 Tippoo Sultaun, 377 ; marches to Syria ; El- 
 Arish surrenders. Mar. 18, 1799 ; and Gaza 
 on the 25th, 379; captures J.affa, 379, 380; 
 siege of Acre, 380, 381 ; returns to Cairo ; 
 defeats the Turks at .\boukir, July 25, 381 ; 
 obtains the news of Europe for the past year, 
 ib.; posture of European affairs, July, 1799, 
 381-383; leaves Egypt, August 24; an-ives 
 at Frejus, Oct. 9; ami at Paris on the 16th, 
 383 ; revolution of the 18th Brumaire ; his 
 critical position at the Assembly on the 19th, 
 384; overthrows the Directory, 384, 385; 
 becomes consul in conjunction with Sieves and
 
 628 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ducos, 38.5; appointed First Consul for ten 
 years, Dec, 387 ; letter to George III. 387,388; 
 hostile answer retarned to it by lord Grenville, 
 388, 389 ; considers the answer a satisfactory 
 one, 392; hisciviladministration, 392, 393; as- 
 sumes the state of a sovereign, 393, 394 ; joLas 
 his army at Dijon, 394; crosses the Alps by the 
 pass of the Great St. Bernard, 394, 395; enters 
 Milan, May 30, 1800; gains the victory of 
 Marengo, June 14; again in Paris, July 2, 
 395 ; threatens an invasion of England, 1801, 
 408; his audience with marquis Comwallis, 
 410 ; and demand upon England, 1802, 416 ; 
 effects of his rule upon French society ; Con- 
 sul for life ; French encroachments, 417 ; his 
 military establishment, 417, 418; sends an 
 expedition to reduce St. Domingo, 418 ; re- 
 sult of the expedition ; capture and death of 
 the president, Toussaint L'Ouverture, 418, 
 419 ; publishes col. Sebastiani's report, 419 ; 
 his interview with lord Whitworth, the 
 English ambassador, 420; proceeds agaiast 
 Peltier for libel in an English court of law, 
 420, 421 ; verdict given in his favour, 421 ; 
 violence shown by, in his interview with lord 
 Whitworth, 422," 423; aiTests ten thousand 
 English travellers in France, 425 ; thus he 
 rouses the national spuit of Great Britain, ib.; 
 prepares for invading England, 426 ; exercises 
 his troops at Boulogne, 428 ; declared Emperor 
 of France by the French senate. May 18, 1804, 
 432 ; discovery of a conspiracy against ; fate 
 t)f the conspirators, ib. ; murder of the due 
 d'Enghien, March 20, 433 ; Napoleon aud his 
 army at Boulogne, 442; his anxiety, 442, 443; 
 persuaded by Decres to give up the scheme of 
 invading England, breaks up his Boulogne 
 camp, 443 ; liussia, Austria, and England 
 coalesce against ; marches across the Khine 
 and the Danube, ib. ; compels 30,000 Austrians 
 under gen. Mack to sun-ender at XJlm, Oct. 
 20, 444, 445 ; his invasion projects frustrated 
 by the battle of Trafalgar, 448 ; enters Vienna, 
 Nov. 13, 449 ; defeats the Russians and Aus- 
 trians at Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 450 ; his iahu- 
 manity towards the Bussians ; peace of 
 Presbin-g, 450 ; heads the Confederation of 
 the Rhine, 471; aggression of; murder of 
 Palm, 472; the French take possession of 
 Naples, of which Joseph is proclaimed king, 
 472, 473 ; defeat of the French at the battle 
 of Maida, 473 ; takes the field against Prussia, 
 475 ; position of the two armies, 476, 477 ; 
 defeats the enemy at Jena, Oct. 14, 1806, 477 ; 
 entry into Berlin ; issues the Berlin decree 
 against England, ib. ; entered Warsaw, Dec. 
 19 ; battle of Pultusk, Dec. 26, 481 ; battle 
 of Eylau, Feb. 8, 1807, 481, 482 ; defeats the 
 Russians at the battle of Friedlaud, June 14, 
 487 ; concludes the peace of Tilsit with 
 Alexander, July, 487, 488; tbe interview on 
 the raft on the Niemen, 488; terms of the 
 treaty, 488, 489 ; its secret articles, 489 ; they 
 become known to the British government, 
 488, 489 ; his rage on hearing the success of 
 the English at Copenhagen, 490 ; his conti- 
 nental system ; endeavours to smother the 
 British trade, 493, 495 ; secret treaty of Fon- 
 tainebleau, 495 ; schemes for possessing him- 
 self of the Peninsula, 495, 496 ; French 
 invasion of Portugal, 495 cf. scq. ; flight of the 
 rcgi^nt of Portugal to Brazil, 490 ; abdication 
 of Charles IV., March, 1808; entraps the king 
 
 and his son, 498 ; an insuiTection breaks out 
 in Madrid, 498, 499 ; general Dupont defeated 
 and baffled by the Spaniards, 500, 501 ; battle 
 of Baylen, July 21, 500; unsuccessful attempt 
 to take Zaragoza, 501 ; defeat of the French 
 at Vimiero, Aug. 21, 502; retreat of Torres 
 Vedras, 502, 503 ; convention of Cintra, 503, 
 arrives at Bayonne to take the command of 
 his army, Nov. 3, 504 ; pursuit of sir John 
 Moore by ; gives it up to Soult at Astorga, 505; 
 the battle of Corunna and death of Moore, 506 ; 
 destruction of the French squadron in the 
 Aix roads by captain lord Cochrane, 510 ; 
 Austria declares war against France, 511; 
 leaves Paris, April 13 ; reaches Donauwerth. 
 on the 17th, ib. ; sir A. "Wellesley compels 
 Soult to retreat from Oporto, 512; the nations 
 of Europe rise against France, 514, 515 ; 
 battle of Eckmiihl, April 22 ; entry of the 
 French into Vienna, May 12 ; battle of As- 
 pern, May 21 and 22 ; Napoleon shut up in 
 the island of Lobau, 515 ; insurrection of the 
 Tyrolese, 515, 516; battle of Wagram, July 
 5 ; determines upon divorcing Josephine, 516 ; 
 the peace of Vienna, 516, 517 ; return to 
 Paris, 517 ; the British expedition to Wal- 
 cheren, 519-521 ; defeat of marshal Vict*-, 
 at Talavera, July 28 ; chagrm of, 522, 523 ; 
 divorces Josephine ; and marries the arch- 
 duchess of Austria, 526 ; Wellington's lines 
 of Torres Vedras, 529, 530, 532 ; suiTcnder of 
 Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo to the French, 
 531 ; battle of Busaco, Sept. 27, 1810, 531, 
 532 ; Wellington retires within his lines ; 
 distress of Massena's army, 532; Louis Bona- 
 parte resigns the sovereignty of Holland, 
 which state is annexed to France, 1811, 535, 
 536 ; his power and aggrandising view on the 
 continent, 536 ; battles of Barrosa, Fuentes 
 de Onoro and Albuera, 538 ; withchaws troops 
 from Spain for his expedition agaiast Russia, 
 547; capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by Welling- 
 ton, 548; siege of Badajoz, 549, 550; Mar- 
 mont's manoeuvres, 552, 553 ; defeat of the 
 French at the battle of Salamanca, July 22, 
 1812, 553, 554 ; rage of, against Marmont, 
 554, 555 ; siege of Burgos, 555 ; Wellington's 
 retreat to Ciudad Rodrigo, 555, 556 ; he in- 
 vades Russia, June, 556, 557 ; gains the battle 
 of Smolensk, Aug. 16, and Borodino, Sept. 7 ; 
 and enters Moscow, Sept. 14, 557 ; conflagra- 
 tion of Moscow ; its evacuation, Oct. 19, 558 ; 
 destruction of his army in the retreat home, 
 558, 559 ; arrives at Paris, Dec. 18, 559 ; de- 
 feats the Russians and Prussians at Liitzen, 
 May 2, 1813; and at Bautzen, May 21, 22; 
 armistice concluded, 561 ; battle of Vittoria, 
 562 ; battles at Dresden ; death of Moreau, 
 563 ; the French annies sustain several de- 
 feats in Germany, 563, 564 ; battle of Leipzig, 
 Oct. 19, 564 ; his retreat ; wins the battle of 
 Hauau, 565 ; Wellington in the Pyrenees, ib.; 
 San Sebastian ; the British army in France, 
 566; battles of Wellington and Soult, 567; 
 preparations for a campaign in France; battle 
 of Brienne, Jan. 29, 1814, 568 ; battles witli 
 Blucher and Schwarzcnberg ; capitulation of 
 Paris; battle of Orthez, 569; Toulouse; he 
 abdicates, April 4, 570 ; his kingdom of Elba; 
 peace at Paris, 571 ; lands in the Gulf of St. 
 Juan near Cannes, Mar 1, 1815, viii. 20, 21 ; 
 the " Hundred Days" drama, 21 et scq. ; 
 retrospect of the restoration of the Bourbons,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 629 
 
 21-25 ; discontent of the people under Bour- 
 bon rule, 22, 23 ; desire of the aiTay for his 
 return to France, 23, 24; his independent 
 position at Elba ; visited by sir N. Campbell, 
 25 ; his escape ; attributed to English com- 
 plicity, 26 ; the powers assembled in congress 
 declare him liable to public vengeance ; his 
 advance ; joined by Labedoyere, ib. ; and 
 marshal Ney; arrives in Paris, Mar 21, 27; 
 his speech at the Champ de Mai, 27, 28 ; re- 
 organizes his army ; crosses the frontier, June 
 15, and joins his soldiers at Charleroi, 28 ; 
 "Wellington's knowledge of his movements, 
 28, 29 ; the battle of Ligny, 29, 30 ; his ma- 
 noeuvres and march to the British position 
 near Waterloo, 30 ; the field of Waterloo, 30, 
 31 ; the position of the two armies, 31, 32; 
 the struggle at Hougoumont, 32-34 ; discon- 
 certs his plans, 34 ; the arrival of the Prus- 
 sians ; rout and panic in his army ; his final 
 stand; and flight; the pursuit of the Frcncb, 
 36 ; he returns to Paris, June 21 ; the Cham- 
 ber of Representatives compel him to abdicate; 
 and requu'e him to go to America, 38 ; unable 
 to escape he yields himself to captain Mait- 
 land ; becomes an object of curiosity in 
 Plymouth Harbour ; portrait taken by sir C. 
 Eastlake ; St. Helena assigned him for his 
 future residence ; legal discussions concerning 
 him, 39 ; "Wellington remonstrates against 
 his being executed; Napoleon's hatred for 
 "Wellington, 40 ; history's errors regarding 
 the disposition of the Allies, and "Wellington's 
 conduct towards Napoleon, 40, 41 ; his opinion 
 of the "Holy Alliance," 45, 46; abolished 
 the slave traffic in France, 46 ; his death- 
 scene, May 5, 1821, 175, 176 ; parliamentary 
 complaints on the unnecessary strictures im- 
 posed upon him, ib. ; his expansive mind and 
 want of moral sense, 176; his public inter- 
 ment in the church of the Invalides, 1840, 
 435,6 
 Bonchamps, M. de, a Vcndean commander, 
 
 mortally woimded at Chollet, vii. 295 
 Bond, Oliver, a merchant; one of the United 
 
 Irish directors ; arrested 1797, vii. 363 
 Bonner, bishop of London, deprived of his see, 
 iii. 40; exertions of, in 1555, to suppress 
 heresj', 79 ; behaviour of, to Hawkes, 87 , 
 Bordeaux, duke of, Charles X. abdicates in his 
 favour. 1830, viii. 256 ; his mother, the 
 duchess of Berri, attempts to get up an insur- 
 rection for his benefit, 374 
 Borodino, battle of, Sept. 7, 1812, vii. 557 
 Boscawen, admiral, appointed to watch a French 
 fleet, 1755, vi. 208 ; commands the fleet sent 
 against Louisbourg, 1758, 233; arrives there 
 Jime 2 ; the place capitulates, July, ib. ; de- 
 feats the French fleet in Lagos bay, Aug. 17, 
 1759, 238. 
 Bosenden "'iN^ood tragedy. See Thorn. 
 Boston, opposition to tlie Eevenue Act in, 1768, 
 vi. 307, 308; destruction of tea in the har- 
 bour, 1773, 336-338; Boston port bill, 338, 
 339 ; its reception at, 344 ; state of parties in, 
 1775, 354 ; battle of Bunker's Hill, 356-358; 
 blockaded by Washington, 358, 359 ; eva- 
 cuated by the British, Mar. 17,1776, 302, 
 363 
 Boston port bill passed, 1774, vi. 339 
 Bos well, his visit to Boulton's works, vii. 63 
 Bosworth, battle of. on Aug. 22, 1485, ii. 206 
 Bothwell, earl of. See Mary of Scotland. 
 
 Both well Bridge, battle of. See Charles II., 
 and Covenanters. 
 
 Bouchain besieged by Marlborough ; surrenders, 
 1711, V. 375, 376 
 
 Boufllers, marshal ; present at the battle of 
 Steinkirk, 1692, v. 153 ; reinforces the gam- 
 son of Namur ; assumes the comriand of it, 
 1695, 179; surrenders, Aug. 26; detained a 
 prisoner, but soon released again, 180 ; nego- 
 tiates with Portland the points of thepeace of 
 Eyswick, July, 1697, 198 ; threatens Holland, 
 1703, 266 ; intrusted with the defence of 
 Lille, 1708 ; capitulates, Dec. 29, 340 
 
 Bouille, marquis de, engages to protect Louis 
 XVI. in his flight to Montmedy, 1791, vii. 
 200; the plan fails; the king is captured at 
 Varennes, and Bouille flies from France, 202 
 
 Boulogne, projected invasion of Britain from, 
 by Caligula, i. 17 ; lighthouse built at, by 
 Caligula, ib. 
 
 Boulton, Matthew ; Roebuck refuses him a 
 share in Watt's patent, vii. 61 ; becomes 
 Watt's partner, 62 ; Boswell's visit to hia 
 ■works, 63 
 
 Boundary treaty between England and United 
 States concluded, Aug. 1842, viii. 498, 499 
 
 Bounty, Queen Anne's, restoring the first fruits 
 and tenths to the church, 1703, v. 271 
 
 Bourbon, the constable, leads the emperor's 
 (Charles V.) forces against Rome in 1527, ii. 
 306; takes and sacks Rome, but is liimself 
 killed, 307 
 
 Bourbon isle, acquired by the British, 1810, viii. 
 214 
 
 Bourienne, Bonaparte's secretary; quotations 
 from, vii. 348, 383 ; withdraws Napoleon from 
 the Assembly, 1799, 384; charge d'aflairs at 
 Hamburg, 494, 495 ; instances of Napoleon's 
 infringements of the continental system siveri 
 by, 495 
 
 Boutetort, lord, succeeds Amherst as governor of 
 Virginia ; opens the session ; dissolves the 
 Assembly, vi. 310 
 
 Boydell, John, a skilful engraver; his large 
 business in engravings, vii. 78; his Shaks- 
 pere collection, 78, 79 
 
 Boyne, battle of the, July 1, 1690, v. 107-110 
 
 Braddock, gen.; his tmsuccessful campaign on 
 the Ohio, 1755; falls into an ambuscade, vi. 
 207 ; and is slain, 208 
 
 Brandenburg, elector of. See Frederick I. of 
 Prussia, 
 
 Brandreth, Jeremiah, captain of the Derbyshire 
 insurrectionists ; his conduct in the msur- 
 rection, 1817, viii. 82, 83 
 
 Brandywine, battle of the, Sept. 13, 1777, vi. 
 378 
 
 Brathwaite, sir J., captures Pondichcrry, vii. 
 260 
 
 Bray, Dr., founder of parochial libraries; and 
 one of the founders of the " Chi-istian Know- 
 ledge Society," and the " Society for Propa- 
 gating the Gospel in Foreign Parts," v. 206 
 
 Breadalbane, lord, submits to the English go- 
 vernment ; is employed by it to conciliate the 
 rebel Highland chiefs, v. 132 ; his plans not 
 successful ; under suspicion of appropriating 
 the secret money, ib. ; committed to Edin- 
 burgh Castle on a charge of high treason, 141; 
 subsequently obtains a pardon, and is released. 
 142 
 
 Breaking the line, whose invention was this i 
 discussed, vi. 437, 438
 
 630 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 lU'cda possessed by Dumouriez, 1793, vii. 271 
 
 Breed's hill. See Bunker's hill. 
 
 Brereton, col., attempts to quell the Bristol 
 riots, 1831, viii. 288, 289; tried by court 
 V martial ; shoots himself, 289 
 
 Brest, expedition against, 1694 ; its failure, v. 
 171, 172 
 ' Bridges and their designers, vii. 82; viii. 147, 148 
 
 Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, duke of; his 
 I canal schemes; carrieii out by Brimllcy, vii. 
 41-43; the father of British inl.ind navigation, 
 43; with his brother, the marouisof Siaftbrd, 
 the chief promoter of the Staffordshire canal, 
 ib. 
 
 Bridport, loi'd, mutiny in his fleet at Spithead, 
 1797, vii. 338; offers redress and pardon, 340 
 
 Brienne, Lomeuie de, arclibishop of Toulouse ; 
 controller general of France ; dismisses the 
 notables, vi. ] 62 ; his scheme of La Cour Ple- 
 niere, 163 ; dismissed his controllership, 164 
 
 Brienne, battle of, Jan. 29, 1814, vii. 568 
 
 Brigantes, revolt of, i. 30 ; joined by the Maeatse; 
 the revolt suppressed, 31 
 
 Brindley, James, a millwright, vii. 41 ; em- 
 ployed by the duke of Bi-idgcwater to con- 
 struct canals; his great works of the aqueduct 
 over the Irwell, 42 ; and the subterranean 
 canals at "Worsley, 42, 43; appearance of, 43 
 
 Brissot, a Paris deputy at the Assembly on the 
 left side, vii. 205 ; heads a faction, 218, 219 ; 
 quaiTcls with Claviere ; forces on a war with 
 Austria, 219 ; in prison, 277 
 
 Bristol formerly the famous port of the West, v. 
 7 ; slave trading pursued by the merchants 
 of; not discontinued till George III.'s reign ; 
 streets, ib. ; increase of population, 8 ; glass 
 manufactories in, 18; great riot at, Oct. 1831, 
 viii. 288-290 
 
 Bi'itain, civilization and population of, at the 
 time of Caesar's invasion, i. 4; first invasion 
 of, by Cassar, and his retreat, 6 ; second in- 
 vasion by, 7; condition of the country at 
 the time, 8 et acq. ; strength and prosperity 
 of, A.D. 296,32; panegyric of Eumenius on 
 the state of, tb. ; Roman provinces of, 33 ; 
 review of the domestic condition of, at the 
 close of the third century, 34 et seq. ; never 
 a secure possession to the liomans, 46 ; resist- 
 ance of, to the emperor Honorius, 55 ; close of 
 Eoman rule in Britain, a.d. 409, 55, 56; 
 mixed chai-acter of the population of, at the 
 time of the invasion of the Saxons, 57 
 
 British army under Maximus, refuse to return 
 from Armorica and found a colony in Brit- 
 tany, i. 64, 55 
 
 British art, ancient specimens of, i. 13 
 
 British captives, fight as gladiators before Clau- 
 dius, i. 22 
 
 British institution established, 1805, viii. 150, 151 
 
 British writers, chronological and analvtical 
 list of, v. 477-483 ; viii. 133-138,487-491 
 
 Britons, character of, by Diodorus Siculus, i. 5; 
 by Ptolemy, 6 ; resistance offered by, to the 
 invasion of Cxsar, ib. 
 
 Brittany, position of, and character of the early 
 inhabitants of, i. 2 ; assistance afforded to, by 
 the Britons, 3 ; probable foundation of a 
 British colony in, a.d. 388, 54; continued 
 connection of, with Cornwall and Wales, 55 ; 
 successfully resists the emperor Honorius, and 
 maintains its independence a.d. 409, ib. 
 
 Britten, Thomas, the musical coal-man, v. 432 
 
 Brock, major-general ; opposes Hull's invasion 
 
 of Canada, 1812; drives him across the liver 
 Detroit, and compels him to surrender, Aug. 
 16, viii. 8 ; praises tlie conduct of the Indiaus 
 employed in the British ai-my, ib. 
 
 Brodie, sir Benjamin, his remarks on Oxford's 
 insanity, viii. 428 
 
 Broglie, marshal de, minister of war ; com- 
 mander of the French troops, vii. 170; leaves 
 Paris for the frontiers, 174 
 
 Broke, captain of the "Shannon," challenges 
 the American frigate " Chesapeake '' to a 
 fight, and succeeds in capturing her, June 1, 
 1813, and restoring the prestige of the British, 
 navy, viii. 11 
 
 Broolciyn, battle of, Aug. 27, 1776, vi. 370 
 
 Brougham, lord ; his eulogy on Erskine, vii. 
 303 ; his description of llobespierre's cha- 
 racter, 310; account of Wellington's inter- 
 view with Pitt ; and of Pitt's death-bed, 451 ; 
 his efforts in bringing about the repeal of the 
 orders in council declaring France and her 
 allies in a state of blockade, 1812, 544 ; heads 
 the opposition in parliament to the renewal 
 of the income tax in 1816, viii. 52 ; defeat of 
 the bill, 53 ; his declamatory attack upon the 
 regent, 54 ; describes the state of the Ameri- 
 can trade in 1816, 56, 57 ; moves an inquiry 
 into the state of education among the London 
 poor; impulse given to the committee's pro- 
 ceedings by his energy, 69 ; queen Caroline's 
 chief legal adviser ; defends her title, 162 ; 
 queen's attorney-general, 1820, 165 ; an- 
 nounces tne queen's amval in England ; 
 oppo-es the appointment of a secret com- 
 mittee; defends his o\\Ti conduct, 166 ; takes 
 part in the conference for averting a public 
 proceeding, 167; conducts the queen's de- 
 fence at her trial, 170, 171; lays the case of 
 Mr. Smith, a missionary, before parliament, 
 1824, 194, 195 ; supports the Canning minis- 
 try, 205, 206 ; objects to the duke of Wel- 
 lington being prime minister ; states that the 
 schoolmaster is abroad, 229 ; originates the 
 "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge," 1826, 230 ; promotes the formation 
 of the London University, 231 ; speech on 
 law reform, 231, 232; obtains the appoint- 
 ment of two commissioners to inquire into 
 the state of the common law, and the laws 
 affecting real jiroperty, 232; fails in obtiiin- 
 ing the establishment of local jurisdiction, 
 1830 ; subsequent partial adoption of his 
 views, 243 ; protests against the lord 
 steward's treatment of the Commons; sub- 
 sequent exjilanation, 244, 245; his attack 
 upon the Wellmgton ministry, 245; apolo- 
 gises for his strong language, 246 ; gives 
 notice in parliament of his intention to intro- 
 duce the subject of reform, 263; on the re- 
 signation of the Wellington ministry he 
 postpones liis motion for a short time; lord 
 chancellor, 265, 267 ; reluctance to accept 
 this office, 265, 266; introduces a bill for 
 establishing a new court in bankruptcy, 1831, 
 271 ; boldness in urging the king to dissolve 
 parliament, 276, 277 ; speocii on the Kefoi ni 
 bill, 283; his Bankruptcy Court bill receives 
 the royal assent, 285 ; with lord Grey obtaina 
 the king's permission to create p(-era to in- 
 sure the passing of the licform bill, 299; 
 speech of, on moving the second reading of 
 the Poor Law Amendment bill, 1834, 342; 
 his hostility with lord Durham ; speeches at
 
 INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 Inverness, at the Grey baJiquet, Edinbursli, 
 and at Salisbury-, 347, 348 ; excluded from 
 the Melbourne ministry-, 1835 ; his inde- 
 fatigable energy, 359; sj)ecch on submitting 
 a series of education resolutions to the Loi'ds, 
 S5y, 360 ; his attack on the earl of Durham's 
 proceedings ; proposes and carries an ludeni- 
 nity Act, which causes the earl's resignation, 
 408 ; his speech on the euthusiasm mani- 
 fested towards the queen, 410 ; his " His- 
 torical Sketches of Statesmen " noticed, 473, 
 474 
 
 llrowne, marshal, commands an Austrian array ; 
 defeated at Losowitz, 1756, vi. 216 ; encamps 
 before Prague, 1757, 228 ; defeated by Fre- 
 derick at Prague, ilay 6, wlure he receives 
 his death wound, ib. 
 
 Browning, Mrs., poetical quotation from, viii. 
 192 ; her poetry, 480, 481 
 
 Bruce, Kobert, the elder, a claimant for the 
 crown of Scotland in 1291, i. 414; agrees to 
 do homage to Edward I., 416; sides with 
 Edward in liis invasion of Scotland, 417 
 
 Uriice, Kobert, the younger, stabs Comyn, i. 
 425; assumes the crown of Scotland in 
 1306, 426; is defeated by the earl of Pem- 
 broke, ib. ; obtains some successes in 1307, 
 and Edward I. assembles an army to 
 attack him, but dies, ib. ; is recocnised as 
 king in 1309, 430; successes of, 431, 432; 
 wins the battle of Bannockburn, on June 24, 
 1314, 434, 435 ; concludes a truce with 
 Edward II. in 1323, 439 ; invades England 
 in 1327, 444 ; dies in 1328, 445 
 
 •Bruce, David, succeeds his father in 1328, i. 
 445 ; is attacked by Edward Balliol, who 
 continues the struggle for some years, 451 ; 
 returns from France to his kingdom in 1341, 
 452 ; invades England in 1 346, is defeated by 
 Queen Philippa at NevUl's Cross, is taken 
 prisoner, 464 ; lodged in the Tower, 455 
 
 Bruej'S, French admiral; conveys Uonaparte 
 and his troops to Egypt, 17i)8, vii. 351 ; 
 defeated bv Nelson at the battle of the Nile, 
 Aug. 1, 355-357 ; killed in the battle, 357 
 
 Bruges surrenders to Marlborough, 1706, v. 310 
 
 Brunanburgh, ode on the battle of, from the 
 Anglo-Saxon chronicle, i. 126, 127 
 
 Brunswick, C. W. Ferdinand, duke of, his pro- 
 clamation, 1792, vii. 223 ; his advance info 
 France ; stopped by the battle of Valmy, 
 234 ; retreats, 235 ; lieutenant-general of the 
 Prussian army, 1806, 475 ; receives his ueath 
 ■wound at the battle of Jena ; dies Nov. 10, 
 1806, 477 
 
 Brunswick, W. Frederick, duke of, headed the 
 Gcnnan insuiTection, 1809, vii. 515 ; heads 
 the Brunswickers at "Waterloo, viii. 29 
 
 Brussels saved from a bombardment by William 
 III., V. 198 
 
 Brydon, Dr., the sole survivor of the British 
 ai-my retreating from Cabul, 1842, viii. 458 
 
 3uckingham, Stafibrd duke of, in conjunction 
 with the duke of Gloucester, arrests earl 
 Rivers, lord Grey, and sir Thomas Vaugliau, 
 and takes Edward V. into his charge, ii. 178 ; 
 rewards heaped upon, by Gloucester, 179; 
 Morton, bishop of Ely, committed as a pri- 
 soner to the custody of, 182 ; harangues the 
 citizens of Loncion in favour of Gloucester's 
 claim to the crown, 185 ; with a deputation 
 of citizens solicits Gloucest-er to become king, 
 186 ; receives the estates of the earldom of 
 
 Hereford from Bichard, 194 ; with Jlorton, 
 orgaui-ics an insurrection against Kicliard. 
 195, 196; unsatisfactory causes assigned for, 
 197 ; it is suppressed, and he is executed at 
 Salisbury, Nov. 2, 1483, 198 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, sudden 
 rise and promotion of, by J:im( s I., iii. 364 ; 
 procures the release of Italeigh from the 
 Tower, 374; accompanies prince Charles in 
 his incognito visit to Spain in 1623, 384; 
 they return home, 385 ; popularity of, on the 
 breaking off of the Spanish match, ib. ; is 
 impeached by the Commons in 1626, 390; is 
 elected chancellor of the University of Cam- 
 bridge by command of the king, 391 ; asserted 
 to have been the promoter of the war with 
 Fi'ance, 394 ; commands the expedition to 
 aid tlie Protestants in llochelle, ib. ; attempts 
 to take the Isle of Rhe, and fails, 395; is 
 denounced by Coke, in the House of Com- 
 mons, 398 ; character of, by Clarendon, 399 ; 
 is appointed to command a second expedition 
 to relieve llochelle, ib. ; is assassinated bv 
 Felton, Aug. 23, 1628, 400; execution of 
 Felton, 401 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, becomes 
 a member of the Cabal ministry, in 1667, iv. 
 302 ; seeks popularity, and advocates liberty 
 of conscience, 303 ; character of, by Dryden, 
 ib. ; complicity of, in Charles becoming a 
 pensioner of France, 306 ; retires from the 
 Cabal ministry, 323 ; committed to the Tower 
 for opinions expressed in the House of Lords 
 in 1677, 328 
 
 Buckingham, duke of, privy seal, v. 259 ; sup- 
 ports the motion for inviting the princess 
 Sophia to England, 306 ; a great art collector, 
 447 
 
 Buckingham, duke of, made duke, 1822, viii. 
 177 ; account of George IV. 's unreservedness, 
 206, 207 
 
 Buckingham, J. S., proprietor of " The Calcutta 
 Journal;" pi-occcdings against, for his stric- 
 tures on Indian affairs, viii. 222, 223 
 
 Buckinghamshire, low state of agriculture in ; 
 dairy farming ; produce of butter ; duck rear- 
 ing, and pillow-lace making, vii. 9 
 
 Buenos Ayres captured by sir Homo Popham, 
 1806, vii. 473, 474 ; regained by the French, 
 474; Whitelock's expedition against, 1S07, 
 485, 486 ; his failure, 486 
 
 Buller, Charles, proposes the adoption of a 
 sj'stematic colonization, viii. 501 
 
 Bunker's hill, battle of Breed's or, June 17, 
 1775, vi. 357, 358 
 
 Bunyan, John, release of, from prison, after 
 twelve years' confinement, iv. 319 
 
 Burdett, sir Francis, duel with Paull, 1807, 
 vii. 462 ; conduct of, in the proceedings 
 between Jones and parliament, and subse- 
 quent results, 1810, 527, 528 ; chainnan of 
 the London Hampden Club, viii. 75 ; revives 
 the question of parlianientarv retonn, 1818, 
 97; returned M.P. for Westminster, 98; 
 again agitates refonn, 1819, 102 ; found 
 guilty of seditious libel and punished, 
 164 
 
 Burgesses summoned to parliament, by Simon 
 de Montfori, in 1264, i. 375 
 
 Burgh Castle, Roman ruins of, i. 38, 39 
 
 Burghersh, lord, British minister at Florence; 
 announces Napoleon's escape from Elba, viii.
 
 ei2 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Burgos Castls invested without success by 
 WelliDgton, 1812, vii. 555, 556 
 
 Burgoync, general, moves for an inquiry into 
 the East India Company's affairs, vi. 332 ; 
 invades the United States ; recaptures Ticon- 
 deroga ; secures Fort Edward, 379 ; his diffi- 
 culties in procuring provisions, 379, 3S0 ; 
 retreats to Saratoga ; yields to Gates on 
 certain conditions ; the convention of Sara- 
 toga, 380 ; cold treatment of, by the British 
 government ; vindicates the convention of 
 Saratoga, 394 ; defends his conduct in em- 
 ploying Indians, 394, 395 
 
 Burbampoor taken by col. Stevenson, vii. 460 
 
 Burke, Edmund ; his speech on American 
 taxation, April 19, 1774, vi. 273, 340 ; first 
 speech in parliament, Jan. 1766, 279 ; said 
 to be the author of Junius' s writings, 296 ; 
 opposes Bedford's proposed coercionary mea- 
 sures towards America, 309 ; moves an in- 
 quiry into the American disorders, 313 ; his 
 pamphlet on American taxation, 340 ; urges 
 government to adopt conciliatory measures 
 towards America, 346 ; his bui'st of oratory 
 on America's rapid growth, 347 ; remarks on 
 the public opinion regarding the American 
 war, 385, 386 ; speech on economical reform, 
 Feb. 11, 1780, 402; his proposals, 403; bill 
 obstructed in its progress through committee, 
 404 ; rejection of the practical measures, 405 ; 
 rejected as M.P. for Bristol, 417 ; charges 
 against him; his defence, 418; returaed for 
 Malton ; brings forward his Civil List bill ; 
 it is rejected, 419 ; his speech denouncing 
 the American tax, 433 ; obtains office in the 
 Eockingham ministry, 436 ; compelled to 
 compromise his scheme of economical re- 
 form ; passing of his bill ; proposes a bill for 
 regulating the profits of the office of pay- 
 master of the forces, 440 ; resigns office on 
 the accession of the Shelbume ministry, 
 1782, 450; an agricultural improver, vii. 11 ; 
 draws up the ninth and eleventh report on 
 Indian affairs, 136, 137 ; commends Pitt's 
 speech on taxes, 150 ; passion displayed by, 
 in the debate on the Kegency bill, 154; his 
 opinion of the French revolution, 183 ; 
 opposes an increase of military power; 
 declares France to be ruined, 186 ; renounces 
 Sheridan's friendship and political opinions, 
 187 ; opposes Fox's motion for the repeal of 
 the Test act, ib. ; his " Reflections on the 
 Revolution," published; its remarkable popu- 
 larity ; his opinions on the revolution, 190, 
 191 ; his hatred towards the French revo- 
 lutionary doctrines causes him to break 
 friendship with Fox, 194 ; intensity of his 
 hatred exemplified, 195 ; raises the cry of 
 the church in danger, ib. ; anecdotes of, 207, 
 208 ; applauds the Polish revolution, 216 ; 
 remarks of, on the September massacres, 231 ; 
 indignation of, at the results of the duke of 
 Brunswick's campaign, 236 ; deprecates the 
 proceedings of the French against their royal 
 family, 243 ; oratorical dagger speech on the 
 Alien bill, 249; note on the dagger scene, 
 254, 255 ; speech of, on the expediency of 
 war, 266 ; his idea of the policy that ought 
 to be pursued towards France, 268, 269 ; 
 French opinion of, 269 ; shows the difficulty 
 of negotiating with France, 276, 277 ; regrets 
 Britain's treatment of the French fleet at 
 Toulon, 291, 292 ; objects to " a regicide 
 
 peace," 329; death of, July 9, 1797, 342; 
 description of the United Irishmen by, 362 ; 
 urges government not to abandon law, 363 ; 
 his remarks on scarcity, 390 
 
 Burke's opinion of the ancient Britons, i. 11, 
 12 
 
 Burnes, sir Alexander, his remarks on Russian 
 intrigues in Cabul, viii. 450, 451 ; his posi- 
 tion at Cabul, 453, 454 ; massacre of, by the 
 Afghans, 1841, 454, 455 
 
 Burnes, Charles, murdered by Afghans, viii. 
 454, 455 
 
 Burnet, Dr. Gilbert, preaches at William III.'s 
 coronation, v. 78; his "Pastoral Letter" 
 condemned and publicly burnt at Charing 
 Cross, 1693, 159 ; preaches at Whitehall, Dec. 
 2, 1697. 200 ; preceptor to Duke of Gloucester, 
 240 ; his system of education, tb. ; cames 
 the news of 'William III.'s death to Queen 
 Anne, 257 
 
 Burney, Fanny, writings of; description of 
 court life by, viii. 126 
 
 Burns, Robert ; his description of the AjTshire 
 farm labourer, vii. 35, 36 ; first volume of his 
 poems published, 1786; his rapid and exten- 
 sive popularity; character of his writings, 
 viii. 116 
 
 Burrard, sir Hany, appointed second in com- 
 mand in Portugal, 1808, vii. 500; amves 
 at Vimiero, 502; spoils Wellington's plans, 
 501, 502 
 
 Busaco, battle of, Sept. 27, 1810, vii. 531 
 
 Bussey, M. de, French minister in London, 
 1761, vi. 249 ; delivers the French ultimatum ; 
 is dismissed England by Pitt, 251 
 
 Bustard, formerly abundant in Wiltshire ; 
 boldness of ; its extinction in the county, vii. 
 21 
 
 Bute, John Stuart, earl of, groom of the stole 
 to the prince of Wales, 1756, vi. 217 ; instils 
 him with a knowledge of the constitution, 
 
 243 ; appointed a member of the council and 
 cabinet by the prince, now George HI. ; ani- 
 madversion against his influence ; Pitt's in- 
 dignation at the tone of the king's first 
 address to the Privy Council prepared by, 
 
 244 ; intrigues with Doddington against the 
 ministry ; proclaims the policy of the new 
 reign, 245; secretary of state, 1761, 246; 
 condemns Pitt's proposal of war against Spata 
 as rash, 251; rejoices at Pitt's fall, 252; 
 whom his party lampoon and caricature, ib. ; 
 alienates Frederick of Prussia by refusing to 
 grant his subsidy, 254 ; attempts to carry out 
 Pitt's plans, ib. ; in his anxiety to obtain peace 
 he oft'ers to give up Havannah and Manilla^ 
 256; prime minister, 1763, 259; attempts to 
 restore the influence of the prerogative, 260 ; 
 attacked by Wilkes and ChurcbiU, 260, 261 ; 
 popular dislike towards ; resigns his employ- 
 ments, April, 8, 1763, 261 ; negotiates for 
 Pitt's return to power, 263 
 
 Butler, col., commands the force which de- 
 stroyed Wyoming, 1778, vi. 396 
 
 Butler, Charles, anecdote of Burke, by, vii. 208 
 
 Buxton, T. F., his resolution for abolishing 
 slavery, 1823, viii. 193 
 
 Byng, admiral sir George, joins Leake off the 
 Spanish coast, 1706, v. 298; cruises in the 
 channel on the watch for the French fleet 
 conveying the Pretender and forces to Scot- 
 land ; it evades him, 1708, 335; he makea 
 pursuit, but does not follow it up when thev
 
 INDEX. 
 
 633 
 
 return to France, ib. ; sails for the Moditcr- 
 ranean June 4, 1718 ; anchors in the Bay of 
 Naples ; pursues and destro3'8 the Spanish 
 fleet, Aug. 11, Ti. 34 
 
 Byng, admiral John, despatched to the relief of 
 Port JIahon ; attacked by de la Galissoniere, 
 May 21, 1756, vi. 213 ; his timidity and pro- 
 posal to return to Gibraltar; superseded by 
 Hawke, ib. ; an-est; imprisonment in Green- 
 wich Hospital; popular fury against, 214; 
 trial at Portsmouth, 219; found guilty and 
 sentenced to be shot ; eflbrts made to save 
 him by Pitt and others ; execution of, Mar. 
 14, 1757 ; his demeanour, 220 
 
 BjTig-, sir John. See Strafford. 
 
 Byron, lord George, reproaches England with 
 the humiliation of Venice, vii. 346 ; his de- 
 scription of the Waterloo tield of battle, viii. 
 SO, 31 ; his poetic satire " English Bards and 
 Scotch Reviewers" published; describes the 
 character of the writings of Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, and Southey, 118; popularity; cha- 
 racter of his verse romances, and his " Don 
 Juan," 120; failure of his dramas, 125 
 
 Byron, John, commands an expedition to Ame- 
 rica, vi. 100 
 
 Cabal Mixistry. See Charles II., Bucking- 
 ham, and Shaftesbury. 
 
 Cabot, John, and his sons, small encourage- 
 ment given to, in 1496, by Henry VIZ., ii. 
 236 ; discovery of Newfoundland by, 249 
 
 Cabul taken by the British, viii. 453 ; residence 
 of the British army at, 453-456 ; its retreat 
 from, 456, 457 ; retaken by the British, 460 
 
 Cade, John, insurrection of, in 1450, ii. 132 ; 
 defeats sir Humphrey Statfbrd, 133; marches 
 to London, and beheads lord Say, ib. ; de- 
 feated by the citizens of London, and killed, 
 134 
 
 Cadiz burnt by the earl of Essex in 1596, iii. 
 266 ; unsuccessful expedition to, 1702, v. 
 261 
 
 Cadoudal, Georges, a royalist against Bona- 
 parte ; apprehended; executed, 1804, vii. 432 
 
 Caer-CaraJoc, notice of, i. 20 
 
 Caesar, history of England commences ■with, i. 
 2 ; his description of the Veneti, applicable 
 to the Britons, 3 ; first invasion of Britain, 
 6 ; battle with the men of Kent, ib. ; retreat 
 of, ib. ; second invasion of, ib. ; description 
 of "the inland people " by, ib. ; advance of, 
 into the interior, 7 ; opposed by Cassive- 
 launus, ib. ; crosses the Thames at Coway 
 Stakes, ib. ; advances to St. Alban's, ib. ; 
 enumeration by, of the tribes he encountered, 
 8 ; return of, to Gaul, taking hostages, ib. ; 
 did not conquer Britain, according to Tacitus, 
 ib. 
 
 Oaillemot, a Huguenot commander; killed at 
 the Boyne, 1690, v. 108 
 
 Oaii-o taken by Bonaparte, 1798, vii. 354 
 
 Calais, siege of, by Edward III., i. 465 ; Frois- 
 sart's story of the six burgesses, 466; an 
 English colony founded in it, 467 ; bombarded 
 by tbe English, 1694, v. 172, 173 
 
 Calcutta purcliased by the old E. I. Company, 
 V. 290; captured by Surajah Dowlah, 1736; 
 tragedy of the Black hole of, vii. 222, 223 ; 
 retaken by Clive, Jan. 2, 1757, 222, 224 
 
 Calder, sir Robert, engages the French and 
 Spanish fleets, and captures the Spanish 
 
 vessels, July 22, 1805 ; tried and reprimanded, 
 vii. 442; returas home just before the Tra- 
 falgar victory, 446 
 
 Calendar reform bill, 1751 ; its provisions, vi. 
 187, 188 
 
 Caligula, intended invasion of Britain bv, i. 
 16; pretended triumph of, 17; Napoleon 
 and, at Boulogne, compared, -^di. 436 
 
 Callcott, character of his paintings, viii. 154 
 
 Calonne, controller-general of finance, 1783; 
 convokes the notables, vii. 157 ; shows the 
 deficit in the finance ; proposes a land tax on 
 all classes; dismissed, 1787, 158 
 
 Camalodunum attacked and destroyed by Bo- 
 adicea, a.d. 61, i. 23, 24 
 
 Cambaceres, consul with Bonaparte, 1799, vii. 
 387 ; has charge of the judicial administra- 
 tion, 392 
 
 Cam bridge, dul-:e of, marries princess Louisa of 
 Hesse, 1 June, 1818, viii. 97 
 
 Cambridge university, James Pcchcll, the vice- 
 chancellor, deprived of office for refusing a 
 degree to a Benedictine monk, iv. 412 
 
 Cambridgeshire, land of, vii. 14 ; quantity un- 
 reclaimed in 1794, 1806, 1846, ib. ; drainage 
 and reclamation of the fens of, by the earl of 
 Bedford, and Rennie, 14, 15 
 
 Cambronne, gen., accompanies Napoleon in his 
 march to Paris, 1815, viii. 21 ; death of, at 
 Waterloo, 36 
 
 Camden, battles of, Aug. 16, 1780, vi. 412 ; and 
 April 25, 1781, 425 
 
 Camden, lord, sir Charles Pratt, lord chief jus- 
 tice; declares Wilkes as M.P. free from 
 arrest, vi. 262, 263 ; gives a verdict in favour 
 of a printer of the "North Briton," 265; 
 thanked by the common council for his judg- 
 ment on the general warrant question, 270 ; 
 opposes the taxation of Americans, 280 ; lord 
 chancellor, 1766, 285, 321 ; disclaims the 
 measures adopted by the ministrj^, 304 ; 
 dismissed his office, ib. ; suppoi-ts Pitt's mi- 
 nistry, 1784, vii. 140; and Fox's libel bilL, 
 1792, 213 
 
 Camden, earl, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1795, 
 vii. 362 ; recalled, 1798, 365 ; holds office in 
 the Portland ministr}-, 1807, 480 ; secretary 
 for war and the colonies, 1804, 577 
 
 Cameron, Dr. Archibald, executed 1753, vi. 182 
 
 Cameron of Lochiel joins the young Pretender, 
 1745, vi. 123; accompanies the prince in his 
 flight to France, Sept. 1746, 176 
 
 Cameronians ; they reject the dispensing of the 
 Test Act, V. 86 ; oppose the union of the two 
 kingdoms, 1706, 325; and bum the articles 
 at the market cross of Dumfries, Nov. 30, 
 326 ; ordered to return home bj' the duke of 
 Hamilton, ib. See Covenanters. 
 
 Cameronian regiment; it defeats the High- 
 landers at Dunkeld, 1690, v. 131 
 
 Camisards. See Cevcnncs ; Cavalier. 
 
 Camming, Thomas, a quaker, sent ag.ainst Fort 
 Louis, which he takes, 1758, vi. 232 ; Goree 
 surrenders to him, 233 
 
 Campan, Madame, conduct of, z\ the storming 
 of Versailles, 1789, vii. 179 
 
 Campbell, colonel. See Argyle, A. C, duke of. 
 
 Campbell of Finab, his exploits in Darien, v. 
 222 
 
 Campbell, A. See Argyle, carl of. 
 
 Campbell, sir Archibald, defends Rangoon 
 against the Birmese, viii. 219, 220 ; his cam- 
 paign of 1825 ■ takes Donoopew ; by re
 
 634 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 peatedlj' defeating the Birmese he compels 
 them to agree to the treaty of Yandaboo, 220 
 
 Campbell, sir Colin ; lieutenant, vii. 458 ; his 
 description of the battle of Assye, 459, 460 
 
 Campbell, John. See Argyle, duke of. 
 
 Campbell, John, lord, anecdotes of Georgre III., 
 vii. 303; of lord EUenborough and Hone's 
 trial by, viii. 90 ; his remarks on the appeal 
 of murder in ISIS, 101, 102; his opinion of 
 government's conduct towards the Cato-street 
 conspirators, 161, 162 ; his feelings at the 
 dissolution of parliament, 1831, 277, 278 
 
 Campbell, sir John, Attorney-General in the 
 Melbourne ministry, viii. 381 
 
 Campbell, sir Neil, appointed to watch over 
 Napoleon at Elba, rai. 25 
 
 Campbell, captain Ilobert, of Glcnlyou, his 
 share in the Glencoe massacre, 1692, v. 137- 
 139 ; not prosecuted, 141 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, quotation from, viii. 403; 
 wide reputation of his "Pleasures of Hope," 
 and lyrics; "Gertrude of Wyoming," pub- 
 lished" 1809, A-iii. 121 
 
 Camperdown, battle of, fought between De 
 Winter and Duncan, Oct. 11, 1797, vii. 348, 
 349 
 
 Campion, the Jesuit, trial and torture of, for a 
 conspiracy against Elizabeth in 1581, iii. 180 
 
 Campo Formio, peace of, Oct. 17, 1797, vii. 348, 
 413 
 
 Canada ceded by France, 1763, vi. 467 ; doubtful 
 loyalty of, towards England, 1793, vii. 263 ; 
 disputes with the mother country, viii. 406, 
 407 ; insurrection in, 407-409 ; lord Durham's 
 government, 407, 408 ; hi^ report on, 409 
 
 Canals, construction of, by Bridgewater, Brind- 
 ley, and others, vii. 41-43 ; increased sums 
 expended on navigation and, 335 ; constructed 
 by Telford, viii. 147 
 
 Canning, George ; one of Pitt's supporters, vii. 
 317 ; story of his proposed connection with 
 the Jacobins ; advocates a continuance of the 
 ■war, ib. ; defends Pitt's coercive policy, 324, 
 325; starts the " Anti-Jacobin," Nov 1797, 
 345; retires from office, 1801, 400; Foreign 
 Secretary, 1807, 480, 577 ; obtains a know- 
 ledge of the secret article of Tilsit, 489 ; in 
 favour of aiding the Spaniards, 499 ; remarks 
 on Moore's retreat in Sjiain, 1809, 507, 508 ; 
 duel with Castlereagh, 525, 526 ; resigns, 526 ; 
 j^ief at Perceval's death, 541 ; returns from 
 .1 iisbon, and takes his seat in parliament, viii. 
 78, 79 ; President of the Indian Board of 
 Control, 1816, 79, 158, 159 ; imprudent cx- 
 ■cression regarding Ogden's petition, 96 ; offers 
 duel to the author of an anonymous pam- 
 phlet, 96, 97 ; vindicates the government's 
 conduct towards queen Caroline, 166; refusing 
 to take part in the proceedings against the 
 queen he tenders his resignation ; but the 
 king insists on his retaining it, and following 
 his own conduct with respect to the queen, 
 168 ; his interest in the queen's trial, 172 ; 
 resigns his office, Dec. 12, 1820 ; the king re- 
 fuses to re-admit him into the Cabinet after 
 the queen's death, 174 ; his Koman Catholic 
 relief bill thrown out twice, 178, 179 ; ap- 
 pointed Governor-General of India, 179; but 
 Dcfore he has started lor India he is np- 
 Txointcd Secretary for Foreign Afl'airs; his 
 instructions to the duke ol Wellington, the 
 British representative at the Congress at 
 "Verona, 181 ; and to the British ambassador 
 
 at Paris; his declaration of neutrality, 182; 
 his declaration of April, 1823, 183 ; his policy 
 of the recognition of the Spanish provinces 
 in South xVmerica ; opposition towards it, 184 ; 
 the king fails in obtaining Canning's dis- 
 missal, ib. ; conditions upon which a state 
 which h.TS successfully asserted its indepen- 
 dence should be recognised by a neutral state, 
 185, 186; discussions with the United Statea 
 minister concerning the Spanish South Ame- 
 rican states, the Oregon territory, and the 
 right of search, 186-188 ; his warlike attitude 
 and promptitude prevents the war of Spain 
 against Portugal, 188 ; speech intimating 
 Spain's agg:-ession, and the conduct of the 
 British government, 188, 189 ; defends Hus- 
 kisson, 190, 191 ; progress and liberty, 191, 
 192; his resolutions for ameliorating the con- 
 dition of slaves agreed to, 193 ; his position 
 with regard to the Catholic question, 201 ; 
 dislike of lord Eldon and the duke of York 
 towards, 201, 202 ; anecdote of Canning axid 
 the chancellor at the funeral of the duke of 
 York, where the former catches a cold, 202 ; 
 opposite opinions of Peel and Canning on 
 Catholic Emancipation, 203, 204; the king 
 orders him to form a ministiy ; first Lord of 
 the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 1827, 204, 2"l0 ; his offers to cabinet ministers 
 rejected, 204, 205; his appearance and man- 
 ner on meeting parliament. May 1, 1827, 205; 
 opposition shown towards him, 205, 206 ; 
 attack of lord Grey, 206 ; charged with having 
 pledged himself not to press the Catholic 
 question, 206, 207 ; the charge probably a 
 calumny, 207, 211 ; assigned causes of the 
 hostility shown towards ; speaks for the last 
 time in parliament, June 18, on the Corn 
 trade ; unable to obtain relaxation ; the king 
 sends bis physician to attend him ; death of, 
 Aug. 8, and burial, Aug. 16, 1827 ; 208 ; con- 
 cludes the treaty on Grecian affairs, 208, 209 ; 
 principle of international law laid down by, 
 209, 210 ; statesmen composing his cabinet, 
 210 ; note, on the negotiations preceding his 
 premiership, 211 ; difficulties of carrying out 
 his Indian peace policy, 218 
 
 Canterbury burnt by the Danes, i. 154 
 
 Cantium (Kent) resistance offered by the people 
 of, to the invasions of Coesar, i. 6 
 
 Canterbury fanatics. See Riots. 
 
 Canton blockaded by the British, 1839, viii. 
 445 ; again attacked by them, 1841, 447, 448 
 
 Canute proclamied king of England on the 
 death of Sweyn in 1014, i. 155; becomes sole 
 king on the ieath of Edmund in 1017, 156; 
 exiles the sons of Edmund, ib. ; marries 
 Emma, the widow of Ethelred, l57 ; pro- 
 scriptions bj% and tyranny of, ib. ; introduc- 
 tion of Danish customs by, ib. ; reproval of 
 his flatterers by, ib. ; benefits effected by, 
 158 ; pilgrimage to Kome, in 1030, ib. ; death 
 of, in 1035, ib.; buried at Winchester, 159; 
 union of the Saxon and Danish races accele- 
 rated by, ib. 
 
 Canute, king of Denmark, invades England in 
 1069, and is forced to retire by WilHam the 
 Conqueror, i. 192, 193 
 
 Capital punishment, abolition of, for thefts, 
 viii. 63, 64, 101, 195; in the years before and 
 after the Queen's accession, 398 
 
 Caractacus, opposition offered by, to the inva- 
 sion of Plautius, i. 18 ; contuiued resistiinca
 
 INDEX. 
 
 635 
 
 of, to the Komans, 20 ; defeat of, 21 ; speech 
 of, at Rome while a prisoner there, probably 
 an historical embellishment, with a founda- 
 tion on facts, lb. ; allusion of, to the houses 
 of the Britons, 9 
 
 Caradoc. See Caractaeus. 
 
 Carausius, usurpation of, a.d. 286, i. 32 ; naval 
 power of Britain during the reign of, ib. ; 
 murdered by AUectus, ib. ; probably calcu- 
 lated on assistance of Germans in Britain 
 when he revolted, 44 
 
 Carisbrook Castle, Charles I. imprisoned in, iv. 
 88 ; he attempts to escape from, 92 
 
 Carleon, description of, by Giraldus Cambren- 
 sis, i. 42 
 
 Carleton, captain George, quotations from, il- 
 lustrative of Peterborou2:h's Spanish cam- 
 paign, 1705, 1706, V. 293-297 
 
 Carleton, a British general ; makes his way into 
 Quebec, defending it against Montgomery 
 and Arnold, 177-5, vi. 362 ; defeats the Ame- 
 ricans; retires from Quebec, 1776, 363 
 
 Carlisle invested by the Pretender's army, 1745, 
 vi. 141 ; and capture, Nov. 142; taken by the 
 duke of Cumberland, Dec. 30, 159 
 
 Carlisle, earl of, removed from the lord-lieu- 
 tenancy of Ireland, 1782, vi. 446 ; his exces- 
 sive gaming, vii. 104; tirst Commissioner of 
 "Woods and Forests, viii. 210; Lord Privy 
 Seal, 1834, 344 
 
 Carlos Don, duke of Parma. See Charles III. 
 of Naples. 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of, Aug. 1, 1819, viii. 382 
 
 Carlton House remodelled by Holland ; pulled 
 dowTi, 1826, viii. 144 
 
 Carlyle, his remarks on the negro question, viii. 
 331, 332 ; on the position of the agricultural 
 labourer in 1840, 397 ; on the ad^isability of 
 the labouring classes emigrating, 418 ; his 
 petition for the Copyright Bill, 464 ; character 
 of his historical works on Cromwell and the 
 French Eevolution, 472, 473 
 
 Carmarthen, marquis of. See Leeds, duke of. 
 
 Camac, druidical remains at, i. 3 
 
 Camot compels tlie duke of York to raise the 
 siege of Dunkirk, 1793, ■sii. 282 ; captures 
 Charleroi ; and wins the battle of Fleurus, 
 312; a member of the French Directory; 
 Bonaparte submit.s a plan for invading Italy 
 to, 325 ; escapes being arrested by, 344 
 
 Camutes, Caesar's notice of, i. 13 
 
 Camwath, Robert, earl of, impeached of high 
 treason, tried and found guilty, vi. 19 ; but 
 is reprieved, 20 ; released from prison by an 
 act of grace, 30 
 
 Caroline, queen, wife of George II. ; influences 
 her husband in retaining Walpole prime 
 minister in opposition to electing sirS. Comp- 
 ton, vi. 58 ; receives a jointure of 100,000^, 
 ib. ; her assistance to, and influence over her 
 husband, 59; appointed regent, 1735, during 
 the king's absence in Hanover, 77 ; regards 
 the Porteous riots of 1736 as an insult to her 
 authority, 83 ; taken ill, Nov. 9, 1737 ; dies 
 Nov. 20, 87 ; character of, 88 
 
 Caroline, Matilda, sister of George III., bom 
 1751, man-ied in 1766 to Christian VII. of 
 Denmark ; unhappy marriage ; charged with 
 infidelity, and imprisoned in Kronberg castle ; 
 rescued by the British government, vi. 329 ; 
 retires to the castle of Zell, Hanover, dving 
 in 1775, 330 
 
 'Caroline. See George IV. 
 
 Carteaux, general, suppresses a revolt at Mar- 
 seilles, vii. 286; marches against Toulon, 
 1793, 287, 289 ; replaced in his command by 
 general Dugommier, 2SS 
 
 Carter, rear-admiral of the blue; slain at 
 La Hogue, 1692, v. 149 
 
 Carteret, lord, secretary of state ; removed 
 from that office, 1724; appointed lord-lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland, vi. 50 ; offers 300/. for the 
 discovery of the author of the Drapier's 
 letters, 52 ; his motion for Walpole's removal 
 rejected, 103 ; becomes a favourite of Geo. II., 
 109; secretary of state, 1742-1744, 112, 320; 
 controls the cabinet; an object of attack to 
 the opposition, 112; created earl Granville, 
 ib. ; obtains the king's confidence, 1747; fails 
 in an attempt to obtain the administration of 
 affairs, 178; president of the council, 1761, 
 251 
 
 Carthagena, attack upon, 1741, vi. 98-100 
 
 Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes, betrays 
 Ciiractacus to the Romans, i. 21 
 
 Cartwright, Dr., invents the power loom ; liis 
 anxiety on account of it; parliamentary grant 
 to; number of looms employed in 1813, '33 
 and '56, vii. 54 
 
 Ca-ssano, battle of, 27 April, 1798, vii. 382 
 
 Cassivelaunus, or Caswallon, oi)poses the ad- 
 vance of Ctesar, i. 7 
 
 Castanos, general, compels the French to sur- 
 render at the battle of Baylen, 1808, vii. 500 
 
 Castle, John, betrays his fellow Spencean phi- 
 lanthropists, viii. 76-78 
 
 Castlereagh, lord, temporary Irish secretary, vii. 
 366; applies the secret service money to tha 
 making converts to the government measure 
 of the Union, 372, 373; description of ; moves 
 the third reading of the Union bill, 375 ; 
 war and colonial secretary, 1807, 480 ; chal- 
 lenges Canning to a duel", which takes place 
 on Wimbledon Common, Sept. 22, 1809, 525 ; 
 cause of the quarrel, 525, 526; resigns, 526; 
 foreign secretary, 1812, 539; viii. 158; one 
 of the plenipotentiaries at the Congress at 
 Vienna, 1814, viii. 42; his diplomacy with 
 regard to the annexation of Saxony to Prus- 
 sia, 43, 44 ; reception by the House of Com- 
 mons, 51 ; off"ensive declaration made by, 52 ; 
 \\ith Wellington he represents Great Britain 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818, 99; takes part in 
 the conferences for averting a public proceed- 
 ing in the case of queen Caroline, 167 ; com- 
 mits suicide, Aug. 12, 1822, 179; his foreign 
 ministry, 180 
 
 Catalonia'invested by the French, 1693, v. 166 
 
 Cathcart, lord, death of, on his way to Cartha- 
 gena, 1740, vi. 98 
 
 Cathcart, lord, commander of the land forces 
 sent against Denmark, 1807, vii. 490 ; present 
 at the battle of Dresden, 1813, 563 
 
 Cathelineau, Jaques, heads the Vcndean insur- 
 gents, 1793, vii. 293; killed, 294 
 
 Catherine of Aragon. See Henry VIII. an(} 
 Wolsey. 
 
 Catlierine II. of Russia, her influence procures 
 the Polish throne for Stanislaus, vi. 324 ; re- 
 fuses to aid the British against America, 359 ; 
 begins to reign, 1762, 465; agrees to raise an 
 army for Spain, vii. 217 ; death of, Nov. 10, 
 1796, 330, 574 
 
 Catholic Relief bills passed. Feb. 1782, vi. 445, 
 446, and April, 1829, viii! 240 
 
 Catholics, Roman, their ineligibility for civi'
 
 636 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 offices, V. 72 ; oppression of Protestants in 
 Ireland by, 1689, 81 et seq. ; struggle of the, 
 in Scotland, 87 et seq. ; Catholic sovereigns 
 represented at the Hague, 1691, 122 ; treaty 
 of Limerick allowing them certain religious 
 privileges, 128 ; penal laws against, 1699, 
 235 ; proceedings against Popish priests, 1745, 
 vi. 153, 154 ; certain laws iigainst, repealed, 
 1778, 405 ; fanaticism against, roused ; Pro- 
 testant Associations against, formed, 406 ; the 
 Gordon riots against, 406-410; the relief bill 
 passed, 1782, 445, 446; allowed to vote at 
 elections, 1793 ; bill introduced for repealing 
 all the civil disabilities of, vii. 362 ; govern- 
 ment's desire to emancipate them, 369, 370; 
 George III.'s opposition to the repeal of the 
 disqualiiication laws, 398, 399 ; he requires 
 Pitt never to support Catholic emancipation, 
 431, 479; opposes the enlistment of, 479; 
 Grattan's speech on the emancipation of, viii. 
 102, 103 ; partial success of the Catholic relief 
 measure, 1821-2, 178, 179; state of the 
 Catholic question ; rejection of the relief bill, 
 201 ; sensation caused by the duke of York's 
 speech on the bill, 201, 202 ; on lord Liver- 
 pool's illness the advocates for and against 
 Eoman Catholic relief marshal themselves 
 tmder the leaderships of Canning and Peel ; 
 the debate in parliament, 203, 204 ; charges 
 against Canning respecting the Catholic ques- 
 tion, 206, 207; first majority obtained (1826) 
 in favour of their claims, 234 ; this resolution 
 is not taken into consideration, 235 ; Roman 
 Catholic Association founded, 1823; dissolved 
 during the Canning ministry ; revived, 1828 ; 
 it secures the election of O'Connell for Clare, 
 235, 236 ; ministerial views on Catholic Eman- 
 cipation, 236, 237 ; George IV.'s unwilling- 
 ness to consent to his ministers attempting 
 to settle the question, 236 et seq. ; Emanci- 
 pation announced by government, 237, 238 ; 
 violent debates on the bill, 238-240 ; it receives 
 the royal assent, April 13, 1829, 240; O'Con- 
 nell obtains admission into parliament under 
 the terms of the new act, 241, 242 
 
 Cato Street Conspiracy; antecedents of the ring- 
 leader, Arthur Thistlewood, viii. 160; who 
 forms a plan of assassinating the members of 
 the Cabinet, 160, 161 ; plot divulged and 
 frustrated ; trial and execution of Thistlewood 
 and five accomplices, 161 
 
 Cavalier, leader of the Camisards, repels Mar- 
 shal de Montreuil, and concludes an amnesty 
 with Marshal Villars, 1703, v. 265; died 
 aged, a governor of Jersey, and major-general, 
 266 
 
 Cave, starts the Gentleman's Magazine, 1731, 
 vii. 84 ; deterred from publishing parliamen- 
 tary proceedings by being prosecuted for pub- 
 lishing lord Lovat's trial, 178 
 
 Cavendish, lord John, censures the ministers for 
 their conduct of the American war, vi. 435 ; 
 resigns office, 1782, 450 ; censures the terms 
 of peace, 459 ; chancellor of the exchequer, 
 March to July, 1782, 469 ; April to Dec, 
 1783, vii. 676 
 
 Cavendish, sir Henry, M.P. for Lostwithiel; 
 his reports of the debates of parliament, 
 1768-77, vi. 289, 290; his remarks on par- 
 liamentary privileges, 293 ; quotations from 
 his debates, 292, 293, 297, 309, 314, 317-9 
 
 Ca\ton, William, commences printing in Eng- 
 land, about 1474, ii. 128 ; prints carl lUvcrs' 
 
 " Dictes and Sayings of Philosophers," which 
 is presented to Edward IV., 171; notice of 
 other works printed by, ib. 
 
 Cecil, William, lord Burleigh, is arrested with 
 Somerset, to whom he was secretary, iii. 35 ; 
 caution of, during Northumberland's rebel- 
 lion, 51 ; intrigues in favour of queen Mary, 
 53; appointed to the Privy Council on the 
 accession of Elizabeth, 107 ; occupations of, 
 during the reign of Mary, 111 ; prepared 
 scheme for the restoration of Protestantism, 
 112 ; principle of, with regard to the rigtit of 
 national intervention, 118 ; skill displayed 
 by, in the treaty of Edinburgh in 1560, 121 ; 
 reasons of, for refusing Mary a safe conduct 
 from France to Scotland, 125 ; intrigues car- 
 ried on by, at the Scottish court, 137 et seq. ; 
 opinions of, as to the measures to be taken 
 with ]Mary of Scotland on her taking refuge 
 in England, 156 ; protest of, against the duke 
 of Norfolk being tried for high treason, 161 ; 
 opinion of, as to the inefficacy of penal laws 
 against religious beliefs, 181 ; advises the 
 Council to dispatch the waiTant for Mary's 
 execution, 200 ; complaint of, in 1569, of the 
 decay of obedience in the people, 261 ; opposes 
 the attack on Spain in 1596, but is overruled, 
 265 ; death of, in August 1598, 279 
 
 Cecil, Robei't, earl of Salisbury, the rival of 
 Essex and Ealeigh, iii. 232 ; announces to 
 the House of Commons in 1601 the queen's 
 intention to abate monopolies, 292 ; causes 
 James I. to be proclaimed on Elizabeth's 
 death, 307 ; entertains James at Theobald's, 
 and becomes prime minister, 308 ; remon- 
 strates against Coke's unfairness on Ealeigh's 
 trial, 311 ; compelled by James to negotiate 
 a treaty with Spain, 318 ; receives a com- 
 munication from lord Mounteagle, with a letter 
 that leads to the discovery of the Gunpowder 
 Plot, 324 ; lesson of, to James as to his lavish- 
 ness to Carr, 341 ; endeavours to procure from 
 parliament a fixed revenue for the king, 351 ; 
 death of, in May, 1612, 359 
 
 Cemeteries, want of, in England, 1842, viii. 
 394 
 
 Cerat heads the assassins of Sept. 1792, vii. 229 
 
 Cevennes, the revolt of 1702-4 in the, v. 265 
 
 Ceylon acquired by the British, viii. 217-8 
 
 Chadwick, Edwin, reports of, on the state of the 
 workhouse at St. Lawrence, Reading, viii. 
 339 ; on the sanitary condition of the labom'- 
 ing classes, 391-393 ; and on interment in 
 towns, 394 
 
 Chairs, extensive manufactoi-y of, in Bucking- 
 hamshii'e, vii. 9 
 
 Chalicr, a Piedmontese ; a Girondin leader ; es- 
 tablishes the Gironilin party at Lyon; hi* 
 atrocities ; defeated bj^ the sections, and 
 killed, 1793, vii. 284 
 
 Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, his oratorical powers; 
 popularity of his " Astronomical Discoui-ses " 
 published in 1816, viii. 124; character of his 
 political economy writings, 129 
 
 Chambers, Richard, resistance of, to the pay- 
 ment of illegal customs' duties, iii. 407;. 
 refuses to pay Ship-Money, and is imprisoned, 
 419 
 
 Chambers, sir W., one of the founders of the: 
 Royal Academy, vii. 70 ; his architectural de- 
 signs, 80, 81 ; death of, 1796, viii. 142 
 
 Champion, colonel, invades the Roliilla ccuntrj* 
 1774, vu. 124
 
 INDEX. 
 
 637 
 
 Championnet, a French g:eneral, enters Palmero ; 
 abolishes royalty ; establishes a republic, 1799, 
 vii- 382 
 
 Chandemagore surrendered to the English, 1757, 
 ri. 224 ; again captui-ed by the English, 177S, 
 vii. 129 
 
 Chandos, marquis of, opposes the Eeform bill, 
 viii. 274 ; his amendment of the bill, 280 
 
 Channing, Er., remarks of, on the abolition of 
 slavery, viii. 329, 330 
 
 Chantrey, style of his sculpture, viii. 149, 150 
 
 Chapelier, guillotined, 1794, vii. 298 
 
 Charette commands the Vendeaus, 1793, vii. 
 293 ; resumes arms on the occasion of the 
 Quiberon expedition, 1795, 320 
 
 Charlemagne, character of, i. 75 ; cai-eer of, 76 ; 
 benefits derived by Egbert from, 77 
 
 Charlemont, lord, panic of his troops at Bar- 
 celona, V. 295 
 
 Charlemont, earl of, commander-in-chief of the 
 Irish volunteers, 1782, vi. 446 
 
 Charleroi, siege and capture of, by the French, 
 June 25, 1794, vii. 311,312 
 
 Charleroy captured by the French, 1693, v. 
 166 
 
 Charles I., visit of, when Prince of "Wales to 
 the court of Spain in 1623, to see his pro- 
 posed bride, iii. 384; succeeds his father, 
 Alarch 27, 1625, 387; change in the manners 
 of the Court on his accession, ib. ; marriage 
 of, ■with Henrietta Maria of France, 388 ; 
 favour shouTi to the Roman Catholics by the 
 king, ib. ; the first parliament meets, and de- 
 mands redress of grievances, 389 ; it is dis- 
 solved, ib. ; writs issued under the privy seal, 
 demanding loans from private persons, ib. ; 
 failure of the naval expedition against Spain, 
 390 ; meeting of the second parliament, Feb. 
 6, 1626, ib. ; it impeaches Buckingham, ib. ; 
 Charles commits sir John Eliot to the Tower 
 for his speech in the House, but releases him 
 soon afterwards, ib. ; dissolves the parliament, 
 391 ; disputes of, -with the Lords as to infringe- 
 ments on their privileges, ib. ; subsidies ille- 
 gally levied, and harsh measures pursued 
 against such as resist, 392 ; dismisses the 
 queen's foreign attendants, 393; war with 
 France and its causes, 394 ; failure of the 
 expedition to aid the Protestants in Eochelle, 
 395; meeting of the third parliament on 
 March 17, 1628, 396 ; debates in, on the Peti- 
 tion of Kight, 397 ; gives his assent to the 
 Act, 398; prorogues parliament on its remon- 
 strating against his arbitrarily levying cus- 
 toms' duties, ib. ; prepares a second expedition 
 under Buckingham to relieve llochelle, 399 ; 
 Buckingham is assassinated, 400 ; the expe- 
 dition saUs, fails in affording relief, and 
 Eochelle surrenders, 402 ; parliament meets, 
 and makes fresh remonstrances against the 
 king's arbitrary conduct, ib.; progress of re- 
 ligious differences in the church, ib. ; a 
 remonstrance carried in the Commons against 
 popish innovations and arbitrary taxation, 
 403, 404 ; dissolves the parliament, and im- 
 prisons some of the members, 404; a force 
 raised in Scotland to assist Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, id. ; jurisdiction of the Star Chamber 
 extended, 406 ; continued exactions of, during 
 the cessation of parliaments, ib. ; spirited 
 resistance of individuals to them, 407 ; the 
 imprisoned members refuse to plead in the 
 King's Bench, and are recommitted, 409 ; 
 
 Wentworth appointed Lord President of the 
 North and Lord Deputy of Ireland, 410 ; pro- 
 secutions and severe punishments of the 
 Puritan writers Prynne and Leighton, 411, 
 413 ; republication "of the Book of Sports, 
 414; raises money by the sale of new mono- 
 polies, 415 ; issues a proclam.ation against the 
 increase of houses in London, and raises 
 money, in 1633, by extorting fines to avoid 
 their being pulled down, 416; other arbi- 
 trary proclamations, and hackney-coaches 
 forbidden, in 1635, to pass up and down 
 London streets, 417; first project of Ship 
 Monev, 418 ; the writs of Ship Money ex- 
 tended in 1636, 419; the judges give their 
 opinion in favour of the writ, ib. ; Hampden 
 and many others refuse to pay, 421 ; judg- 
 ment given against him in 1637, 422 ; in- 
 creased resistance to the payment after the 
 judgment, 423 ; prosecutions of Prynne, Bur- 
 ton, and Bastwick for their writings, ib. ; 
 patronage given by Charles to the Fine Arts, 
 424 ; despotic interference of, with private 
 property in London, but not productive of 
 any public improvement, 425 ; visit of Mary 
 de Medicis to, in 1638, 426 ; employs Inigo 
 Jones to build Whitehall, 427 ; note on the 
 portraits of, by Vandyck and Mytens, 428 ; 
 visit of, to Scotland in 1633, 429 ; with Laud 
 endeavours to impose episcopacy on Scotland ; 
 430 ; outbreak in 1637 against it, and adop- 
 tion of the National Covenant, 431 ; meeting 
 of the General Assembly, 433 ; the Covenan- 
 ters take up arms, and seize Edinburch and 
 other places, 434 ; he advances to Berwick 
 with an army, and on June 18, 1639, a pacifi- 
 cation is agreed to, 435 ; calls a parliament, 
 which insists on the discontinuance of arbi- 
 trary taxation, and the punishment of the 
 judges, 436 ; it is dissolved after sitting three 
 weeks, ib. ; the Convocation grants money, 
 and passes canons that render the church still 
 more unpopular, ib. ; the Covenanters assem- 
 ble fresh forces in 1640, and cross the Tweed, 
 437 ; he assembles an army at York, advances 
 to meet them, and is completely routed at 
 Newbum near Newcastle, ib. ; calls a Great 
 Council of Peers at York, 438 ; agrees to a 
 truce with the Scots, ib. ; summons a new 
 parliament (afterwards named the Long Par- 
 liament), which meets in November 1040, ib. ; 
 character of the House of Commons, 439 ; 
 difiiculty of relating its history, 441 ; opens 
 the sitting in a tone of conciliation, 443; 
 Strafford is impeached by the Commons, 445 ; 
 Laud arrested and impeached by the Com- 
 mons, 446 ; Finch, AVindebank, and the 
 Ship-Money judges impeached, 447 ; trial of 
 Strafford, 449 et acq. ; Charles consents to his 
 execution, 457 ; assents to the Act for prevent- 
 ing the dissolution of the parliament without 
 its own consent, 459 ; the two Houses remon- 
 strate against the queen quitting England, 
 and she agrees to remain, 460 ; the Star 
 Chamber and High Commission coiu-ts abo- 
 lished by Act of parliament, 461 ; visits 
 Scotland, and endeavours to conciliate the 
 nation, 462 ; breaking out of the Irish insur- 
 rection of 1641, 463; the rehels pretend to 
 have the king's commission, 465 ; he returns 
 to London, ib. ; Remonstrance of the Com- 
 mons, 466 ; magnificent entertainment given 
 te, by the corporation of the city, 467 ; for-
 
 633 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 mation of parties for the approachinjr struggle, 
 46S ; Hyde becomes the king's adviser, and 
 lord Falkland is made secretary of state, 469 ; 
 receives the Remonstrance from the Com- 
 mons, and publishes an answer to it, drawn 
 up by Hyde, ib. ; takes up his residence at 
 Whitehall for the Christmas of 164 1, 470 ; 
 popular tumults and cry against the bishops, 
 471 , twelve bishops protest against the force 
 used towards them, and are committed to the 
 Tower for treason, 472 ; the question of the 
 militia raised in Jan. 1642, 473 ; his rights 
 invaded by the claims of the Commons, 474 ; 
 refuses a guard to the Commons, and on Jan. 
 3, attempts to seize tlie Five Members, 475 ; 
 despondency at Whitehall, and tumults in the 
 city, occasioned by the attempt and its 
 failure, 478; leaves Whitehftll and goes to 
 Hampton Court, ib. ; refuses his assent to the 
 militia bill, but assents to that for excluding 
 the bishops from the House of Lords, 480 ; 
 the queen leaves England, ib. ; he is refused 
 entrance into Hull, 481 ; some peers and 
 commoners join him at York, ib. ; he receives 
 propositions from the parliament, 482 ; sets 
 up his Standard at Nottingham, 495 ; attempts 
 to negotiate %vitli the parliament, 496; but it 
 refuses unless the king's proclamations, de- 
 claring them traitors, are withdiawn, 497; 
 marches on Shrewsbury, and publishes a 
 " Protestation," iv. 2 ; the first encounter in 
 the civil war takes place at VVorcester, 3; 
 want of money of, ib. ; Battle of Edgehill, 
 Oct. 23, 1642, 4 ; marches upon London, 7 ; 
 Parliamentarians defeated by the royal army 
 at Brentford, Nov. 12, 1642, 8 ; the royalists 
 retire, 9 ; the Londoners march to Turnham 
 Green, and the royal army retires into winter 
 quarters at Oxford, 10; the war spreads 
 through England, 1 1 ; the queen lands with 
 an army, 12; sufferings of the royalists at 
 Oxford, 13 ; Reading surrenders to Essex, 15; 
 proceedings of the war in other quarters, ib. ; 
 Edmund W'aller's plot, 16 ; defeat of the par- 
 liamentarians at Chalgrove Field, and death 
 of Hampden, t'i. ; the queen joins herhusband, 
 18 ; various incidents of the war, 19 ; Rupert 
 takes Bristol, July 27, 1643, 20 ; Gloucester 
 besieged by Charles, August 10, 21 ; relieved 
 by Essex, Sept. 5, 22 ; battle of Newbury, 
 23; anecdote of the king trying his fortune 
 with lord Falkland, by the Sortcs VirgiliayicB, 
 26; the Scots invade England, 31 ; he with- 
 draws his troops from Ireland, who are after- 
 wards defeated at Nantwich, 32 ; convokes 
 a parliament at Oxford, Jan. 22nd, 1644, 33; 
 is besieged by Essex and Waller in Ox lord, 
 and quits the city on June 3rd, ib. ; defeats 
 Waller at Cropredy Bridge, 34 ; marches to 
 the relief of York, 35; but is defeated at 
 Marston Moor, July 2, ib. ; the queen leaves 
 England, 36 ; he is defeated at the second 
 battle of Newbury, 37 ; negotiates with the 
 parliament, 38; treaty of Uxbridge, 39 ; vic- 
 tories of Montrose, 40 ; battle of Naseby, 
 June 14.16t5, 43; the king's cabinet cantured 
 and opened, 45 ; surrender of Bristol, 47 ; 
 Basing House taken, 48 ; Montrose defeats 
 an army under Baillie, 52; Cliarles atlempts 
 to join him, but is defeated by Poyntz at 
 Rowton Heath, and retires to Wales, ib.; 
 Montrose dcl'ealcd at Philiphaugh, ib. ; de- 
 feat of Digby at Sherborne, his cabinet taken, 
 
 and its contents published, 53 ; the king setr 
 out for Oxford, ib.; desires his 6on to leave 
 England, 64 ; overtures for pacification, 55 ; 
 letter of, to the queen, ib. ; lord Hoptoa 
 accepts the command of the wfihtern armv. 
 56, but t!ie army is soon atler dissolved and 
 the war terminates in that quarter, ib. ; 
 Prince of Wales leaves for Scilly, 57 ; the 
 king's proposal to parliament being rejected, 
 he negotiates, through Montreuil, with the 
 Scots to take up his cause, 58 ; Fairfax 
 gradually draws his troops round Oxford, ib. ; 
 injunctions of the king to his wife, ib. ; ac- 
 count of his flight given by Hudson and 
 Ashburnham, 59; adventures on the way to 
 the Scottish army, 60; the Scots endeavour 
 to induce him to consent to the abolition of 
 Episcopacy, 62 ; is surrendered by the Scot* 
 to the English commissioners, 63 ; capitula- 
 tion of Oxford, 64 ; end of the first Civil 
 AVar, 65 ; confinement of, at Holmby House^ 
 66 ; is removed from Holmby by Joyce, 71 ; 
 treatment of, by the army, '73 ; proposals of 
 the Independents to, 75 ; he rejects tliem, 76;. 
 popular movement in Loudon in favour of the 
 king, 77 ; he is lodged at Hampton Court, 79 ; 
 the Independents still endeavour to come to 
 terms with, but he continues to treat with 
 both parties, 80 ; a letter of, intercepted by 
 Cromwell and Ireton, 81 ; escape of, from 
 Hampton Court, 82 ; narrative of the escape, 
 84 ; goes to the Isle of Wight, 85 ; Berkeley's 
 mission to the army. 87 ; Scotch and English 
 negotiations with, 88 ; is imprisoned in Caris- 
 brook Castle, ib. ; parliament declares against 
 any further treaty, 89 ; royalist reaction, 90 ; 
 and riots, fll ; his attempt to escape from 
 Carisbrook Castle, 92 ; lord Goring rises in 
 favour of, 93 ; Scotch army enters England 
 under the duke of Hamilton, in aid of, ih. ; 
 Cromwell marches from Wales, 94; and de- 
 feats them at the battle of Preston, 95; 
 Cromwell's victory disarranges the king's 
 schemes, 97 ; treaty of Newport, 98; skill 
 displayed by, in discussion, and appearance 
 of, at Newport, 98 ; concessions made by, at 
 Newport, 99 ; letter of, to his son, ib. ; is 
 carried to Hurst Castle, 102; is removed to 
 Windsor by Harri.soii, 104; treatment of, 105; 
 ordinance for his trial, ib. ; High Court of 
 Justice appointed, 106 ; the king before the 
 High Court, 107 ; trial of, Bradshaw presides, 
 ib.; is sentenced to be executed, 109; sen- 
 tence of condemnation, ib. ; behaviour of, 
 after condemnation, 110; his execution, Jan. 
 30, 1649, 111 ; remarks on, and his execution, 
 111 ; buried at Windsor Castle in St. George's 
 Chapel, 115 
 Charles II. leaves England for Scilly in 1640, iv. 
 57 ; goes first to Jersey, then to France, and 
 afterwards to Holland, ib. ; is an e\\\e at St. 
 Germain's, 120; is proclaimed King of Scot- 
 land at Edinburgh on Feb. 5tli, 1649, ib. ; 
 commissioners from Scotland to Cliarles at 
 the Hague, requesting him to return to his 
 kingdom, ib. ; he refuses their proposals, and 
 dismisses them, ib. ; urged by the marquis of 
 Onnond to show himself in Ireland, but only 
 goes as far as Jersey, in consequence of hear- 
 ing of the fall oi Urogbeda, 124; double- 
 dealing of, ill negotiations with the Scottish 
 Parliament, 128; gives Montrose a commis- 
 sion to wage war in S( otland, ib. ; w ho is de»
 
 INDEX. 
 
 639 
 
 featod at Craigclionicheu, by colonel Straclian, 
 129 ; consents to proposals of Scottish Com- 
 missioners, and goes to Scotland, 131 ; poli- 
 tical morality of, ib. ; supposed influence of 
 the preachers upon the character of, ib. ; 
 made to sign a declaration against Popery and 
 Heresy in the Scottish camp, 133; battle of 
 Dunbar, 135; crowned at Scone, 136 ; marches 
 into England at the head of a Scotch ai-my, 
 137 ; issues proclamations, ib. ; battle of Wor- 
 cester, m which he is totally defeated by 
 Cromwell, 138 ; escape and adventures ol', 140 ; 
 and return to France, 143 ; settles at Cologne, 
 and prepares for a landing in England, 190 ; 
 "Wiluiot organises a general insurrection 
 throughout England in favour of, ib. ; which 
 fails through Cromwell's politic measures, 
 191; dissoluteness of, at Cologne, 199; Sin- 
 dercomb's plot in favour of, discovered, 205 ; 
 meets hia bi-other James at Calais, intending 
 to proceed to England, 224 ; endeavours to 
 persuade Monk to join his cause, ib. ; court 
 of, at Breda, 232 ; the Presbyterians send a 
 deputation to him, to offer the crown on 
 conditions, 233 ; Monk gives in his adhesion 
 to his cause, ib. ; letter of Charles to the 
 new parliament in April, 1660, iind Declara- 
 tion from Breda, 235, 240 ; meeting of the 
 Convention Parliament on April 25, 1660, 
 236 ; debates in the House on the Bill of 
 Indemnity, ib. ; the regicides and others 
 excepted from it, 237 ; he embarks for Eng- 
 land, ib. ; and lands at Dover, 238 ; enters 
 London amidst the general joy of the people, 
 239 ; the Convention Parliament declares 
 the Long Parliament to be dissolved, and 
 abolish knight-service and purveyance, 242 ; 
 a large revenue settled on the Crown, 243; 
 money granted to enable him to disband the 
 army, 244 ; difficulties as to the Church and 
 Crown lands, 245 ; Act of Indemnity and 
 ObUvion passed, 246; number of exceptions 
 to it, 247 ; the regicides tried and executed, 
 248 ; insulting disintennent of Cromwell, 
 Ireton, Bradshaw, and Blake, ib. ; the king's 
 declaration respecting Episcopacy, 249 ; a 
 bill, founded on the declaration of Breda, 
 brought into the House, and rejected, 250; 
 the Convention Parliament dissolved, Dec. 
 29, 1660, ib. ; the Navigation Act, and a 
 Post-Office Act, re-enacted by the House 
 before its dissolution, ib. ; insurrection of 
 the Fifth-Monarchy men in April, 1661, 
 suppressed, 251 ; proclamation of, against 
 Quakers, Anabaptists, and other sectaries, 
 ib. ; the coronation, ib. ; a new parliament 
 meets on May 8, and ultra-royalism of its 
 character, 253 ; provisions of, for strengthen- 
 ing the prerogatives of the Crown, 255; 
 passing of the Corporation Act, ib. ; and of 
 the Act of Uniformity, 256 ; attempts to 
 force Episcopacy upon Scotland, 258 ; the 
 urgency of parliament for more punishments 
 of the Revolutiosiists resisted by Charles and 
 Clarendon, 259 ; Vane and Lambert tried 
 and condemned for high treason, 260 ; letter 
 of the king, approving of Vane being " put 
 out of the way," on account of his defence, 
 
 261 ; marriage of, to Catherine of Braganza, 
 
 262 ; presents his mistress, lady Castlemaine, 
 to the queen, 263 ; sells Dunkirk to the 
 French, 264 ; profligacy of the king and 
 Court, 265 ; a dispensing power to relax the 
 
 penal laws in ecclesiastical matters denied 
 him by the parliament, 266; the Triennial 
 Act repealed, ib. ; war with Holland com- 
 menced in 1665, ih. ; first appearance of the 
 great Plague in 1665, 269 ct scq. ; the Five- 
 Mile Act passed against the non-conformists, 
 275 ; the Settlement Act of 16G2 passed, 276 ; 
 naval fight of four days with the Dutch, 279 ; 
 the Licensing Act and restrictions on the 
 Press, 281 ; the Great Fire of London, 282 
 et seq. ; the king and duke of York set 
 examples of activity, 284 ; change in the 
 temper of parliament towards, 292 ; commis- 
 sioners appointed to examine the public 
 accoun's, ib. ; liis disgraceful state of in- 
 debtedness, 293 ; insurrection of the Cove- 
 nanters in Scotland, suppressed by Dakiel, 
 294 ; state of the navy in 1666, 295 ; insur- 
 rection of the sailors for want of pay, 297 ; 
 the Dutch attack and burn English ships in 
 the Medway, in 1667, 298 ; peace concluded 
 with Holland, 299 ; Clarendon deprived of 
 office, ib. ; formation of the Cabal ministry, 
 302 ; character of the ministry, 305 ; prin- 
 ciples of, and conduct of the king, ib. ; his 
 desu-e to imitate Louis XIV., 306; general 
 corruption of political parties, ib. ; consti- 
 tutional restraints against his becoming 
 despotic, 307 ; movements of the Cabal in 
 favour of toleration towards non-conformists, 
 ib. ; the House of Commons negative pro- 
 posals for a union of Protestants, 308 ; con- 
 clusion of the Triple Alliance between Eng- 
 land, Holland, and Sweden, in 1668, ib. ; the 
 duchess of Orleans visits England, 309 ; 
 secret treaty concluded with Louis XIV., on 
 jMay 22, 1670, for the conquest of Holland, 
 and the receipt of a pension, 310 ; the Com- 
 mons vote a grant for a war against France, 
 ib. ; the Conventicle Act renewed, ib. ; re- 
 newed persecution of non-conformists, 311; 
 the king's French concubine, 312 ; growing 
 discontent of the House of Commons at me 
 king's foreign policy, 313; mutilation of sir 
 John Coventry, and "passing of the Coventry 
 Act, ib. ; attempt of Blood to steal the regalia, 
 314; he is pardoned and pensioned by the 
 king, 315 ; the shutting up of the Exchequer, 
 ib.; public alliance with France, and war 
 with Holland, 316 ; Declaration of Indul- 
 gence in religion issued by, 319 ; unpopu- 
 larity of the measure, 320"; the parliament 
 declares that penal statutes cannot be sus- 
 pended but by Act of parliament, ib. ; the 
 Declaration is withdrawn, and the Test Act 
 passed, 321 ; the Commons address the king 
 against the marriage of the duke of York 
 with Maria Beatrix of Jlodena, and they 
 vote standing armies, the alliance with 
 France, and the ministry, to be grievances, 
 322 ; they are prorogued, the Cabal ministry 
 is broken up, and that of the earl of Dauby 
 foiined, 323 ; composition of the House of 
 Commons in 1673, ib. ; peace made with 
 Holland, 324; enormous sums lavished by 
 the king on the duchess of Portsmouth, 325 ; 
 receipt of a pension from France by, ib. ; tho 
 licences of coffee-houses withdrawn, in order 
 to suppress seditious discourse, in 1 675, 326 ; 
 they are re-opened, 327 ; parliament meets, 
 and Buckingham, Shaftesbury, and two. other 
 peers, are sent to the Tower for maintaining 
 that the long prorogation amounted to a dia-
 
 640 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 so.ution, 328 ; the king obtains a large grant 
 from the Commons by means of bribery, ib. ; 
 the prince of Orange arrives in England, in 
 1677, and marries the princess Mary, 329 ; 
 contentions between the parliament and the 
 ting, 330; the statute inflicting the punish- 
 ment of death for heresy repealed in 1678, 
 S31 ; personal popularity of the king, 332 ; 
 announcement of Titus Oates's Popish Plot, 
 ib. ; excitement produced, and progress of 
 the development, 333 ; murder of sir Ed- 
 mondbury Godfrey, 334 ; the Commons pass 
 an Act to exclude Catholics from both 
 Houses, 335 ; the king's notion of the Plot, 
 and his support of the queen against Oates's 
 accusation, 336 ; sweeping com.mittal of pri- 
 soners, and chief justice Scroggs's intempe- 
 rate behaviour on their trial, 337 ; convictions 
 obtained on doubtful or insufficient evidence, 
 ib. ; the ultimate effects of the plot, 338 ; 
 disclosure to the public of the secret treaty 
 between Charles and Louis XIV., 339 ; the 
 king's letters read in the House of Commons, 
 340 ; indignation of the House, and Danby 
 is impeached, 341 ; the parliament is dis- 
 solved, in 1679, and great excitement pro- 
 duced by the election of a new one, ib. ; the 
 king affirms the illegitimacy of the duke of 
 Monmouth, to satisfy his brother, before he 
 consents to leave England, 342 ; a Cabinet 
 government, on a scheme of sir W. Temple's, 
 appointed to succeed Danby, 343; the Ex- 
 clusion bill read twice in the House of Com- 
 mons, the Habeas Corpus Act passed, and the 
 House prorogued, 344 ; and dissolved, 345 ; 
 fresh prosecutions and convictions on account 
 of the Popish Plot, ib. ; persecutions of the 
 Covenanters in Scotland, 347 ; murder of 
 archbishop Sharpe, 349 ; insurrection in 
 Scotland, ib. ; Jlonmouth sent to quell it, 
 350 ; battle of Bothwell Bridge, ib. ; origin 
 of the terms Whig and Tory, ib. ; he is 
 attended by James and the duke of Mon- 
 mouth, rivals for the succession, on his illness 
 in 1679, 351 ; sends Monmouth to Flanders, 
 and James to Scotland, ib. ; alterations of, at 
 "Windsor Castle, 354 ; is urged by the duchess 
 of Portsmouth and others to name the duke 
 of Monmouth his successor, 356 ; the Bill of 
 Exclusion again brought into the House, ib. ; 
 it is passed, and carried to the House of 
 Lords by lord William Kussell, where it is 
 rejected, 357; the earl of Stafford convicted 
 and executed for participation in the Popish 
 Plot, 358 ; levity of the king's behaviour, 
 359 ; the parliament impeaches chief justice 
 Scroggs, ib. ; the parliament dissolved, and 
 another summoned to meet at Oxford, 360 ; 
 he concludes a new treaty with France, and 
 receives a fresh subsidy, ib. ; the Oxford 
 parliament again introduce the Bill of Ex- 
 clusion, 361 ; the House of Lords refuse to 
 receive the impeachment of Fitzharris, ib. ; 
 the House of Commons is suddenly dissolved, 
 after sitting seven days, on March 28, 1681, 
 362 ; the king's Declaration, and the Whig 
 Vindication, ib. ; trial of Plunket, the Roman 
 Catholic archbishop of Armagh, for a Popish 
 Plot, and of Stephen College for an attempt 
 to seize the king's person, ib. ; both are con- 
 victed and hanged, ib. ; Drydcn produces his 
 "Absalom and Acliitopliel," after Shaftes- 
 bury's arrest for high treason, 364 ; Shaftes- 
 
 bury is indicted, and the grand jury throw 
 out the bill, ib. ; manoeuvres of the Court to 
 obtain the nomination of a sheriff of London, 
 365 ; the army establishment, 369 ; a quo 
 warranto against the Corporation of London, 
 which submits to conditions, ib. ; other cor- 
 porations surrender their charters, 370 ; trial 
 and acquittal of Count Konigsmark for the 
 murder of Thomas Thynne, ib. ; satisfaction 
 of the king at the acquittal, 371 ; the Rye- 
 House Plot, ib. ; trials and executions of 
 lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney, 
 372-375 ; persecution of the Covenanters in 
 Scotland, 375 ; the University of Oxford pub- 
 lish a decree against seditious books, and its 
 members preach passive obedience, 376; 
 Evelyn's account of the king's amusements 
 on Sunday, Feb. 1, 1685, ib. ; he is struck 
 with apoplexy on Feb. 2, ib. ; receives the 
 rites of the Roman Catholic Church, and dies 
 on Feb. 6, 377 ; Chelsea Hospital, as founded 
 by, ib. 
 
 Charles V., the emperor, succeeds his grand- 
 father Ferdinand in 1516, ii. 275 ; is chosen 
 emperor in 1519, 281 ; meets Hem-y VIIL at 
 GraveUnes, and propitiates Wolse}', 286 ; 
 leagues with Henry VIIL against Francis I. 
 in 1521, 291; wins the battle of Pavia in 
 1525, and takes Francis prisoner, 301 ; re- 
 leases Francis on very hard terms, 305 ; war 
 of, against Pope Clement VII., ib. ; attack 
 and sack of Rome by the ti-oops of, under the 
 Constable de Bourbon, 306, 307 ; character 
 of the armies at Rome, 308 ; is crowned 
 emperor in 1530, 330 ; opposes the annulling 
 of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catheiine, 
 ib. ; objects to the removal of the divorce 
 suit from Rome, 337 ; caution of, in nego- 
 tiating the marriage of Philip with Mary, iii. 
 59 ; abdicates the cro^vn in Oct. 1555, 96 ; 
 dies, 106 
 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia succeeds to the 
 throne after Charles Felix, 1831, viii. 268 
 
 Charles of Lorraine commands the Austrians ; 
 checks the French in Bohemia, 1742, vi. 107 ; 
 expels the French from Germany, 111 ; com- 
 mands the Austrians at Leuthen, 1757, 231 
 
 Charles II., of Spain and Naples, represented 
 at the Hague, 1691, v. 122; his early life 
 and feebleness ; the question of his succes- 
 sion, 225, 226 ; tormented by intriguing 
 agents, 242 ; alters his will in favour of 
 France, and dies Nov. 1, 1700, 242, 243, 388 
 
 Charles III., of Spain and Naples ; as Don 
 Carlos, duke of Parma, he invades Lonibardy, 
 Naples, and Sicily ; crowned king of Naples 
 and Sicily, vi. 71 ; reigned in Spain, 1759-88, 
 465 ; «nd in Naples, 1734-59, 466 
 
 Chai-les, IV., of Spain, began to reign, 1788, vii. 
 465 ; concludes the treaty of Fontainebleau 
 with Napoleon, 495 ; abdicates the crown, 
 1808, 498, 575 
 
 Charles, archduke, of Austria ; emperor VI. of 
 Germany; his claim to the Spanish throne 
 supported by England ; his visit to Anne's 
 court, 1703, V. 267 ; lands at Lisbon, 290 ; 
 proclaimed as Charles III., of Spain, at 
 l)enia ; he presses for the siege of Barcelona, 
 294; his partial success in Catalonia, 296; 
 his incompetency ; besieged in Barcelona, 
 1706, 297, 298 ; his inactivity in marching 
 on Madrid, 298, 299 ; Peterborough's disgust 
 of, 299 ; his Spanish claims acknowledged by
 
 INDEX. 
 
 641 
 
 the Estates of Brabant, 310; sustains re- 
 verses, 1707, 330 ; obtains a few successes ; 
 enters Madrid, Sept. 1710, 366 ; discord 
 amongst his allies; defeat at Villa Viciosa; 
 cause hopeless, 367 ; elected emperor, Oct. 8, 
 1711, 376, 475; died Oct. 20, 1740, vi. 101, 
 465 
 
 Charles VII., emperor of Gemiany ; as elector 
 of Bavaria he disputes Maria Theresa's suc- 
 cession to the German throne, vi. 105; enters 
 Bohemia ; takes Prague ; cro\vned king of 
 Bohemia and emperor of Gemiany ; his 
 capital city, Munich, taken by his opponents, 
 107; died at Munich, 1745, 113 
 
 Charles X., of France; count D'Artoi?, brother 
 of Louis XVI. ; leaves France, 1789, vii. 174 ; 
 ready to return in arms, 200 ; urges the 
 emperor of Germany and king of Prussia to 
 rescue Louis, 207 ; prepares an expedition, 
 but abandons it, and returns to England, 
 1795, 320; signs a convention with the Allies 
 for the cessation of hostilities, 1814, 571; 
 ascends the throne, 1824, viii. 247, 268; 
 government, consecration, and inconsistency 
 of, 247, 248 ; his difl'erences with the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies, 249 ; promulgates the royal 
 ordinances, 1830, 250 ; the people are roused, 
 251-254 ; his wavering conduct, 254 ; loses 
 his crown, July, 1830, 255; his movements, 
 lb. ; abdicates in favour of his grandson ; 
 compelled to leave France ; takes refuge ia 
 England, 256 
 
 Charles XII., of Sweden ; his energy in warring 
 against Denmark, whose navy, with admiral 
 Eooke's assistance, he succeeds in driving 
 hack into Copenliagen, v. 237 ; concludes a 
 peace with England, ib. ; his career from 1700 
 to 1707, 330; visited by the duke of Marl- 
 borough, 331 ; account of the interview, ib. ; 
 invades Russia ; defeats the native army near 
 the Beresina ; and at Smolensko ; receives a 
 signal defeat from the Czar Peter the Great 
 at the battle of Pultowa, July 8, 1709, 345, 
 346 ; succeeds Charles XI. 475; reappears in 
 history, after a seclusion of five years, 1714, 
 vi. 27 ; defeated at Stralsund, 28 ; and slain 
 at Frederickshall, 1718, 35, 465 
 
 Charles XIV., of Sweden, J. J. J. Bemadotte; 
 serves in the army under Jourdan, vii. 312 ; 
 joins Bonapai-te with an army, 343 ; opposes 
 any change in the constitution of France, 1799, 
 383 ; commands the army of Hanover, 1805, 
 443; attacked by Benningsen at Pultusk, 
 Dec. 1807, 481 ; installed crown prince of 
 Sweden, Nov. 1, 1810, 536; alienates himself 
 from Bonaparte and joins Alexander of Rus- 
 sia, 556 ; defeated Oudinot at Gross Beeren, 
 Aug. 23, 1813, 563; and Ney at Dennewitz, 
 Sept. 6, 563, 564 ; his further opposition to 
 the French. 564; becomes king of Sweden, 
 1818, viii. 268 
 
 Charleston besieged by the British; capitulates. 
 May 12, 1780, vi. 411 
 
 Charlotte, Queen, princess of Mecklenberg ; 
 colonel Gramme's favourable report of her in- 
 duces George III. to choose her for his queen, 
 vi. 247 ; he marries her, Sept. 8, 1761 ; her 
 appearance and character, 248 ; coronation of 
 the king and queen, Sept. 22, 249 ; entrusted 
 with the care of the king, 1810, vii. 534; 
 death of, Nov. 17, 1818, viii. 98 
 
 Charlotte, princess ; public hopes of her mar- 
 riage with Leopold, which occurs May 2, 1816, 
 VOL. VIII. — 265. 
 
 viii. 53, 5i ; grief at her death, Nov. 6, 1817, 
 93, 94 ; admiration of her conduct, and sym- 
 pathy with her husband ; her dissension vdth 
 the prince Regent ; he causes an inuuirj' into 
 her conduct ; she refuses to marry tne prince 
 of Orange, 94 ; flies to the princess of Wales ; 
 her character, 95 
 Charnoik joins with Barclay and others in the 
 design against William's life, 1696, v. 187 ; 
 the plot is discovered and he is captured, Feb. 
 22; tried, 190; found guilty and executed, 
 191 
 Charter, the people's, piinciples of, viii. 418, 
 
 419 ; parliamentary debate on, 1842, 496 
 Charter house, trial and execution of the prior 
 and some of the monks of, for refusing to take 
 the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., ii. 
 358, 359; continued persecution of the re- 
 mainder, 360, 361 
 Chartism, its prevalence among the labouring 
 classes, viii. 417, 418 ; ]irinciples advocated 
 bv the Chartists, 418, 419; Cliartist riots, 
 1839, 422; revival of, 1848, 558, 559; Chartist 
 designs crushed by the government prepara- 
 tions, 559, 560 
 Chartreuse, Castle of, surrenders to Marlbo- 
 rough, 1702, V. 260 
 Chatham, William Pitt, earl of, speaks in par- 
 liament, 1736, vi. 85 ; gentleman of the bed- 
 chamber to the Prince of Wales, 1738, 92 ; de- 
 nounces the convention with Spain, 1739, 94; 
 supports the grant for continuing the war in 
 Flanders, 1744, 112; speaks against the 
 amendment for securing the independence of 
 the Commons, 138 ; obtains office under the 
 Pelham administration, 1747, 178 ; the king 
 refuses to nominate him secrctary-at-war ; 
 appointed vice-treasurer of Ireland ; then 
 paymaster geneial ; integrity in the dis- 
 charge of his office, 179; chagrined at not ob- 
 tainiuf the secretary of state seals in 1754 ; 
 man-ies lady Grenville, and retires to Hayes, 
 199 ; his outburst against the levity of the 
 House of Compions; deserted by Fox, 200; 
 Newcastle offers him a seat in the Cabinet, 
 and the probability of having the secretary 
 of state seals, to support the subsidies; re- 
 fuses the offer, 208 ; opposition speech, Nov. 
 13, 1755; dismi-sed from his paymaster office, 
 Nov. 20, 209 ; advocates an increased ai-my, 
 211 ; opposes the bringing over foreign troops 
 to England, 212 ; refuses to agree to a coali- 
 tion with Fox ; appomted secretary of state, 
 1756, 218 : adopts Duncan Forbes' suggestion 
 of enlisting Highlanders into the service, ib. ; 
 supports the Prussian subsidy, 219; endea- 
 vours to save adm. Byng ; dismissed from 
 office, 1757, 220 ; king's dislike to ; Cumber- 
 land urges the dismissal of; freedom of Lon- 
 don presented to; Newcastle refuses to hold 
 power with, 221 ; " Mr. Pitt's administra- 
 tion ;■' Newcastle made first lord of the trea- 
 sury, and Pitt secretary of state, having also 
 the ministerial power, 222; has the whole 
 conduct of the war iind of foreign affairs, 227 ; 
 energy in conducting the latter, 232, 233 ; 
 his lavishness and energy, 234 ; appoints Wolfe 
 to the command of the Quebec expedition ; 
 invites him to dinner ; Wolfe's declamatory 
 conduct, 235; moves that a public monument 
 be erected in honour of Wolfe, 239 ; his 
 vigorous prosecution of the war during the 
 conference for peace, 249 ; promises Fredeiick
 
 642 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of Prussia Ms assistance, 250 ; breaks off the 
 negotiations with France; advocates war 
 against Spain ; his measure defeated by the 
 court party, 261 ; resigns liis seals of secretary 
 of state, Oct. 5, 1761; his conduct in his in- 
 terview with the king ; receives a pension of 
 £3,000 ; and wife made a baroness ; stonn 
 of ridicule and abuse against ; joy at his fall ; 
 252 ; his popularity undiminished, 253 ; his 
 German policy attacked by Grenville, ib. ; his 
 calmness during the receipt of col. Barre's 
 insolent speech ; the new ministry adopt his 
 plans, 254 ; his patriotic outbreak in parlia- 
 ment; success of his projected expedition 
 against Martinique, 255, and Havannah, 256 ; 
 dissatisfied with the conditions of the peace of 
 Paris, 1763; states that "that spuit which 
 has made us what we are" compensates for 
 the increase in the national debt, 257 ; nego- 
 tiations for his return to power fail, 263 ; the 
 king again offers him the jireuiicrship ; his 
 terms, 276 ; earl Temple persuades him to 
 give up the negotiation; again applied to, but 
 declines the post, 277 ; speech in favour of 
 repealing the American Stamp Act, ai-guing 
 that a parliament has no right to impose a 
 tax on a colony not represented in it, 279 ; 
 his reply to Grenville's defence, 28^1 ; huzzaed 
 for his conduct in the Stamp Act Kepeal Bill, 
 284; forms a ministry; lord privy seal and 
 earl of Chatham, 1766 ; composition of his 
 ministry; his political plans, 285; defends 
 the order for laying an embargo on com ; 
 forces on a parliamentary inquiry into the 
 East India Company's aff .irs ; liis Cabinet 
 becomes disordered, 286 ; illness and incapa- 
 city for business ; stated to be a sham, 287 ; 
 loses his popularity ; helpless condition of 
 mind and body ; resigns his post : retu'cs to 
 Burton-Pyiisent ; the struggles of his minis- 
 trj', 288; his remarks upon the king's address 
 on opening parliament, 301 ; his reply to lord 
 MnnsHeld's speech, 301, 302; announces his 
 union with the Rockingham party ; his plan 
 of parliamentaiy refonn, 304; warns the Ame- 
 ricans not to carry their liberty notions too 
 far, 311 ; his strong approbation of Beckford's 
 speech, 316 : remarks on the publication of 
 the parliamentary debates, 319: advises go- 
 vernment to be moderate and prudent, 339 ; 
 his speech on America, 341 ; moves the with- 
 drawal of troops from Boston, 345 ; urges go- 
 vernment to adopt measures of conciliation, 
 346; his speech on Gage's conduct, 348; 
 withdraws his son from the British army, 
 362 ; his memorandum concerning America ; 
 recovers his health slightly after a two years' 
 illness, 1774, 375 ; occupies his seat in the 
 House of Lords ; sensation produced by his 
 re.ippearance ; his speech ; moves for an ad- 
 dress to the king advising that a stop be put 
 to the Amei'ican hostilities, 376 ; his speech 
 for moving an amendment upon the address ; 
 inveighs against calling in the aid of foreign 
 princes and Indians, 381, 382; lord Suffolk 
 replies defending the employment of Indians, 
 ib.; Chatham counter-replies in an invective 
 against their employment, 382; lord JSorth 
 presses the king to apply to, to aid in sup- 
 porting tlic administration ; the king's dislike 
 towards, 387 ; national feeling towards, 388 ; 
 description of his appearance, 1778 ; speaks 
 against the duke of llichmond's address, ib. ; 
 
 description or tliis his latt speech, 388, 3£9 ; 
 swoons while making an effort to aidie^s the 
 House a second time, 389 ; the accident throws 
 the House into coiifu>ion, ib.; death of, at 
 Hayes, Wav 11, 1778; funeral and monu- 
 ments, 390 " 
 
 Chatham, John, earl of, commands the expedi- 
 tion to the Scheldt, 1809, vii. 518, 519 ; his 
 indolence, 520 ; censured; succeeded by loid 
 Mulgrave, as master general of the ordnance, 
 627 
 
 Chaucer's descriptions of the social state of Eng- 
 gland, temp. I'.dward III., i. 479, 480; cos- 
 tume desirihed by, 480, 481 ; manners of the 
 people, 482; satire of, on the state of the 
 Church, 489 ; characteristics of, and his influ- 
 ence on English literature, ii. li, 12. 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of, March 1, 1814, vii. 581 ; 
 viii. 25 
 
 Chauvelin, French ambassador in England, 
 1792; himself and suite received with reserve 
 and coldness, vii. 209, 210 ; con-espondence 
 with lord Grenville, 215, 249, 250; returns to 
 Paris with mistaken notions of English dis- 
 affection, 204 ; ordered to retire from Eng- 
 land, 350 
 
 Chel.sea hospital built by "Wren, v. 454 
 
 Cherbourg taken by the British, Augusts, 1754, 
 vi. 232 
 
 Cheshire, its agricultural condition, vii. 27 
 
 Chesterfield, lord, his speech against the bill for 
 licensing jilays, 1737, vi. 90; lord lieutenant 
 of Ireland, 1 744 ; sent on a mission to the 
 Hague to obtain the duke of Cumberland's 
 appointment to the command of the confede- 
 rate armies, 113; opposes the bUJ making it 
 high treason to hold correspondence with the 
 Pretender's sons, 115 ; with lord Mansfield's 
 assistance he carries tlirough the bill for re- 
 foruiing the calendar, 1751, 187 ; secretary of 
 state, 1746-8, 320 
 
 Chevalier, P., account of Druidical remains in 
 Brittany by, i. 3 
 
 Chevalier St. George. See Stuart, James. 
 
 Chcyte Sing, rajah of Ben.ares ; unable to com- 
 ply with Hastings's extoitionate demands, he 
 is arrested, vii. 132; the native population 
 release him and compel Hastings to fly ; 
 routed and de])osed by Popham, 133 
 
 Chimney tax. See Hearth money. 
 
 China, war with, viii. 443-450 
 
 Cholera in England, 1831, viii. 290; precau- 
 tions taken against it, 292, 293 
 
 Christchurch gateway, Oxford, built by Wren, 
 
 V. 454 
 
 Choiseul, duke de, administrates the foreig-u 
 affahs of France ; his negotiations with Eng- 
 land, vi. 219; breaks them ofi", and si;:;ns tiie 
 Family Compact with Spain, 251 ; desires a 
 rupture with England ; sudden fall from 
 power, 323 
 Chollet, battle of, Sept. 1793, vii. 295 
 Christian Vll. of Denmark, marries Caroline of 
 England, 17GG ; his character; allows her and 
 his ministers to be arrested, vi. 329; ascemK 
 the throne, 1766, 466 ; succeeded by Fredencii 
 
 VI. 1808, vii. 575 
 
 Christian Church in Britain, doctrinal dissen- 
 sions in the, in the fourth century, i. 52; in- 
 fluence of, ill Uoman Britain, 53; disimiti'd 
 cliaracter of, 59 ; suppression of the i'l-higian 
 heresies.in, as related by Bede, 60; conferencf 
 and disagreement of, with Augiistiu, 68, 69
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 613 
 
 Christianity, first appearance and decadence of, 
 in Britain, i. 14 ; doubtful statement of the 
 introduction of, into Britain, by Lucius, who 
 reigned a.d. 180, 50 ; certainly established in 
 Britain as early as the beginning of the fourth 
 century, 51 ; persecution of, under Diocletian 
 and Maximian, ib,] 
 
 Chun Castle, an early British work, i. 9 
 
 Chunda Sahib attacks Mahomed All, vi. 203 ; 
 killed, 205 
 
 Church, corrupt state of, in the time of Heni-r 
 n., i. 280 ; state of, under Edward III., 4S8, 
 489; attempts of Wyclifle to reform, 489, 490; 
 ill effects produced by its privileges of " bene- 
 fit of clergy," and of sanctuary, temp. Henry 
 VII., ii. 243, 244 ; position o"f, in the early 
 part of the reign of Henry ■Vni.,276; the 
 immunities of the clergy offensive to the laity, 
 tb. ; persecution of Richard Hunne for heresy, 
 and for having Wyclifle' s books, 277 ; the 
 Londoners declared by the bishop to be in 
 " favour of heretical wickedness," ib. ; the 
 king maintains his prerogative against the 
 claims of the clergy, 278 ; the clergy in Con- 
 vocation, participate with the commons in 
 the resistance to Henry the VIII.'s demand 
 for a large subsidy, 297 ; archbishop Usher's 
 scheme for the reformation of, iii. 473 ; con- 
 ference of the bishops with the Puritan 
 divines at the Savoy, in 1661, iv. 252; earnest 
 desire of Clarendon to re-establish, in its 
 ancient splendour, 253 ; resistance offered by, 
 to the efibrts of James II. to introduce Roman 
 Catholics, 408 ; archbishop Bancroft and six 
 bishops petition to be excused compliance 
 with the king's order for the clergy to read in 
 churches the declaration for liberty of con- 
 science, 425 ; they are committed to the 
 Tower, 426; brought before the King's Bench 
 to plead, and are held to bail, 427 ; tried for 
 a seditious libel and acquitted, 428 ; ptiblic 
 rejoicings at their acquittal, ib. ; the bishops 
 refuse king James's request that thev would 
 sign a declaration of abhorrence against the 
 proceedings of WLUiam, prince of Orange, 438 ; 
 establishment of societies for religious instruc- 
 tion, v. 206 ; feud between the, and the dis- 
 senters, 1702, 262, 263 ; cry of " the church 
 in danger" raised, 1705, 305, 306; provision 
 made at the union of the two kingdoms 
 for the Scottish, 324; the leniency of Dr. 
 Sacheverel's sentence regarded as a triumph 
 of the high, 355 ; popular disposition in 
 favour of the, 358 ; Anne determines to up- 
 hold and encourage the established English, 
 1710, 364 ; schism in the Scotti-h Kirk ; they 
 resent the English government's interference 
 in tieir affairs, 1736, vi. 84 ; Burke raises the 
 cry of the church in danger, 1790, vii. 195 ; a 
 "more evangelical spirit" among cliurchmen, 
 viii. 123 ; chief details of the bill for the 
 reform of the Irish ; it is passed, 1833, 326 ; 
 the Irish church, 326, 327 ; appropriation of 
 the temporal possessions of the Irish protestant 
 church proposed, 1834,343, 344; lord Russell's 
 resolution to the same efl'ect, 1835, 357 ; the 
 " Disruption" in the Scotch church, 503, 504 ; 
 the Free General Assembly constituted; the 
 United Presbyterian Church formed, 504 ; 
 effects of the Act for mcreasing spiritual in- 
 struction in populous disticts, 504, 505 
 
 Church rates, proposal by government to abolish, 
 defeated, 1837, viii. 376 
 
 Churchill, Charles, assists "Wilkes in the "North 
 Briton," 1762, vi. 260 ; attacks Bute in his 
 "Prophecy of Famine," 1763, 261; defends 
 "Wilkes against Hogai-th, 266; Hogarth's 
 portrait of, 267 
 
 Churchill, Geoi-ge, as.'ists his brother the duke 
 of Marlborough at the battle of Blenheim, r. 
 284 
 
 Chusan Islands captured and evacuated by the 
 British, ^-iii. 446, 447 
 
 Cibber, sculpture executed by, v. 447, 459 
 
 Cider tax repealed, 1766, vi. 284 
 
 Cintra, convention of, 1808, vii. 503, 579 
 
 Cities and towns of England, condition of temp. 
 Richard I., i. 322 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo taken by the French, 1810, vii. 
 531 ; and recaptui-ed by "Wellington, Jan. 19, 
 1812, vii. 548 
 
 Clarence, George, brother of Edward IV., created 
 duke of, in 1461, ii. 150 ; marries Isabel, 
 daughter of the earl of Warwick, 157 ; >ins 
 Warwick in a rising against Edward, 158; 
 Edward taken prisoner, but escapes, ib. ; is 
 defeated at Stamford, and escapes to France 
 with Warwick, 159 ; is reconciled to liis 
 brother, 164; is accused of participating in 
 the murder of prince Edward, 167 ; endea- 
 vours to obtain in marriage the heiress of 
 Burgundy, but is opposed by Edward, 175 ; 
 is accused of treason, and convicted ; dies in 
 the tower, Feb. 1478, ib. ; no foundation for 
 the statements of his drowning, or that Glou- 
 cester was implicated in his death, ib. 
 
 Clarence, William, duke of. See William IV. 
 
 Clarendon, Constitutions of, passed in 1164, i. 
 286, 287 ; the pope refuses to confirm them, 
 ib. 
 
 Clarendon (sir Edward Hyde) earl of, becomes 
 the adviser of Charles I. in 1641, iii. 469 ; 
 draws up the answer to the Remonstrance of 
 the Commons, ib. ; the Presbyterian p^trty 
 endeavour to obtain his expulsion from office 
 as a condition of the restoration, iv. 233; the 
 Declaration from Breda written by, 235 ; 
 double dealing of, 245, 247 ; address of, as 
 chancellor, to the parliament, 246; earnest 
 desire to re-establish the Church of England, 
 253; maintains \he principle of the Act of 
 Oblivion and Indemnity, ib. ; maniage of 
 his duughter to the duke of York, and his 
 singular conduct, 254 ; opposes the desire of 
 p irliament for more punishments, 259 ; ad- 
 vises the sale of Dunkirk to the French, 261 ; 
 the populace accuse him of having been 
 bribed, 265 ; is deprived of office in 1667, 299; 
 character of, ib. ; he is impeached on Nov. 12, 
 leaves the country, and is banished by an Act, 
 Dec. 29, ib. : settles at Montpelier in France, 
 302 
 
 Claret. See Wine. 
 
 Clarke, Mrs., the duke of York's favourite ; al- 
 1 iwed to tamper with military matters, vii. 
 508-510 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas, liis zealous efforts to obtain 
 the abolition of the slave trade, vii. 466, 467 
 
 Claudius, invasion of Britain by, i. 17, 18 ; 
 joins Plautius, takes Camalodunum and re- 
 turns to Rome, 19 
 
 Clausel, gen., commands the French at Sala- 
 manca after Marmont's death, vii. 554 
 
 Claverhouso (John Graham, of) cruelties of, 
 towards the Covenanters, iv. 347 ; 1:3 defeated 
 by them at Drumclog in 1679, 349; behaviour
 
 6Ai 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 of, at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, 3,30; 
 causes Browu, "the Christian carrier" to be 
 shot, and insults his wife, 351 
 
 Clavering:, gen., a member of the council of 
 Calmtta, vii. 126 ; claims the governor-gene- 
 ralship, 127 ; and assumes its powers; he is 
 compelled to give it up ; death of, 128 
 
 Claviere, minister of finance, 1792, vii. 218; 
 quarrels with Brissot, 219; resumes his office, 
 226 
 
 Clay, Henry, an American plenipotentiary for 
 signing the peace of Ghent, viii. 19 
 
 Clement XIII., pope, 1758-1769, vi. 466; de- 
 fends the Jesuits, 327 
 
 Clement XIV. ; he suppresses the Jesuits, 1773, 
 vi. 327; pope 1769-1774, 466 
 
 Clergv, the position and condition of, in the 
 15th century, ii. 124 ; intercourse of, with the 
 laity, ib. ; payment of curates, 125 ; dislike of, 
 to the monastic orders, ib. ; influence of do- 
 mestic chaplains, ib. ; influence of, in the 
 making of wills, 126, 127; injurious effects 
 of the " benefit of c'ergy" upon the morals of 
 the peop'e, temp. Henry VII., 243 ; increased 
 dissatisfaction of the people with the oppres- 
 sions of, 324; statutes passed in the parlia- 
 ment of 1529 against ecclesiastical abuses, 325; 
 resistance offered by them to the passing of, 
 326; visited with heavy penalties for sub- 
 mitting to "Wolsey as legate, 337 ; Act abol- 
 ishing the payment of annates by, to (he see 
 tif Home, carried into effect in 1533, 338, 339; 
 ordered to preach at Paul's Cross that the 
 pope hath no authority in the realm, 350 ; 
 visitation of the monasteries ordered in 1535, 
 366; delinquencies of the monks, 367; disso- 
 luteness of the inmates of religious houses 
 exposed by the visitation commissioners, 410 ; 
 occasional exceptions, 412 ; character of the 
 parochial clergyman, 487 ; married clergy 
 expelled from their livings in 1554, iii. 73; 
 increased severity of the persecution against 
 married clergymen, 86 ; state of, at the com- 
 mencement of the Civil War in 1642, 486 ; 
 number ejected from iheir livings on the 
 adoption of the Presbyterian Covenant, in 
 1643, iv. 30; legal provision for, not inter- 
 fered with during the Civil War, 245; the 
 ejected ministers restored in 1660, ib.; income 
 of the clergy compared with that of other 
 grades of society, v. 68 ; their condition and 
 character, temp. Q. Anne, 59; exhorted by 
 Burnet to "labour more," ib. ; divisions among 
 the clergy regarding the Comprehension Bill 
 and the refoi ming the liturgy, 1689, 73 ; intro- 
 duction of the terms High and Low Church, 
 about 1689, 74; the episcopalian clergy of 
 Scotland " rabbled ;" and turned out of their 
 livings by the Covenanters, 87 ; protcstant 
 clergy of Ireland deprived of their benefices, 
 seek refuge in England, where they are aided 
 by public subscriptions, and appointed to 
 lectureships, &c. ; then' proj)erty in Ireland 
 is transferred to the Roman Catholics, 96: 
 division in the Church, 101 ; queen Anne 
 restores the "first fruits and tenths" of all 
 preferments, to the chmch for the benefit of 
 the; it is popularly known as " Queen Anne's 
 Bounty," 271 ; the English clergy, 1737-1783; 
 their disregard of morality ; neglect of their 
 sacred functions, vii. 109 ; their conviviality, 
 card-playing, and apathy, 110; Cowper's de- 
 Kcriptionof the clergyman of his time, viii. 113. 
 
 Clerk, John, of Eldin, his claim to the idea of 
 breaking the line of battle at sea considered, 
 vi. 438 
 
 Clinton, sir Henry, appointed commander of the 
 British army in America, 1778, vi. 390 ; sails 
 from New York ; invests Charleston, which 
 capitulates. May 12, 1780; returns to New 
 York leaving Comwallis in command, 411; 
 Washington's letter to, remonstrating against 
 Comwallis's severities, 412 ; his reply, 413: 
 accepts Arnold's treacherous overture ; and 
 opens a secret correspondence with him, 414; 
 demands Andre's release, 415 
 
 Clive, Kobert, lord ; general in the Indian 
 army, which he enters as ensign, vi. 202 • 
 captain ; attacks and takes Arcot ; besieged 
 therein by llajah Sahib, 203 ; who, how- 
 ever, is compelled to raise the siege, 204 ; 
 Clive takes Trichinopoly ; returns to England; 
 marries Hiss Maskelyne ; appointed governor 
 of Fort St. David, and lieutenant-colonel, 
 1755, 205 ; returns to Fort St. David, June; 
 appointed to the command of the expedition 
 against Surajah Dowlah ; retakes Calcutta, 
 Jan. 2, 1757; his successful night attack 
 frightens the subahdar into a peace ; entera 
 into an alliance with him; Chandernagore 
 taken from the French ; his unscrupulous 
 policy towards Omichund, 224 ; his own de- 
 fence of this conduct in 1773 ; defeats Surajah 
 Dowlah at Plassey, June 23, 225 ; installs 
 Meer JafEer into the subahdarship of Bengal ; 
 his character ; establishes the British ascen- 
 dency in India, 226 ; governor and comman- 
 der-in-chief of Bengal; establishes the British 
 power in India, 333 ; retm-ns to England, 
 1767, ib. 
 
 Closter-seven, convention of, Oct. 22, 1757, 
 agreed to by the duke of Cumberland, vi. 229, 
 467 ; the king refuses to ratify it, 231 
 
 Cloth. See AVool : Yorkshire : Leeds. 
 
 Clotliing, dearness and scarcity of, in the 15th 
 century, ii. 121 
 
 Club-life, picture of, early part of George Ill.'a 
 reign, vii. 103-105 
 
 Coal, practice of melting iron with coal intro- 
 duced by lord Dudley, 1619, v. 13 ; extensive 
 fields of, in South Wales, 14; Newcastle trade 
 in, and enonnous consumption of, by London, 
 in queen Anne's time, 28, 29; cruelties in- 
 flicted on women and children employed in 
 coal mines, viii. 395, 396 
 
 Coal-trade to France, and restrictions on expor- 
 tation, in the reign of Henry VIII., ii. 478. 
 
 Cobbett, William, his partiality for the Wilt- 
 shire Downs, vii. 21 ; attributes the panic of 
 1816 to the scarcity of com, viii. 68; advo- 
 cates parliamentary reform ; sudden influence 
 of his writings amongst the labouring classes 
 in 1816, 73, 74; flies to America, ami ceases 
 to publish his llegister for four months, 85 ; 
 personal appearance of ; takes his seat on the 
 Treasury bench in the Commons, 1833, 317, 
 318; his speech against appointing Mr. Sut- 
 ton speaker, 318 ; against Agnew's Sabbath 
 observance bill, 322 ; his intemperate motion 
 to dismiss Peel from the Privy Council as the 
 author of the cuiTcncy bill of 1819, rejected, 
 325 
 
 Cobden, Richard, insists upon the total repeal of 
 the corn duties, viii. 493; his speech laying 
 the responsibility for the country's distress on 
 Sir II. Peel. 500 ; his speech on moving for
 
 INDEX. 
 
 645 
 
 an inquiry into the extent of the agricultural 
 distress ; nis motion rejected, 526, 527 
 
 €'obentzel, Austrian plenipotentiarj', at Udiiie, 
 1797 ; Bonaparte's simile with his tea service, 
 Tii. 347, 348 
 
 Cobham, lord, captures Vigo, 1719, vi. 37 
 
 Coburg, prince of, commands the French at 
 Neerwinden, 1793, vii. 271 ; his contradictory- 
 proclamations, 272 ; commands the allied 
 army, 281 ; driven over the Sambre by Jour- 
 dan, 293 
 
 Cockbum, admiral, with general Boss, incite 
 the American negroes to revolt, 1814, vui. 14 
 
 Codrington, sir Edward, admiral in command of 
 the allied fleet ; interferes with Turkey's 
 conduct towards Greece, viii. 226 ; gains the 
 battle of Navarino, 227 
 
 Coercion Bill for Ireland, viii. 321-324 ; be- 
 comes law, April 2, 1833, 324 ; proposed re- 
 newal of, not carried, 1834, 34-5, 346 ; passed 
 in a modified form, 346 
 
 Coft'ee, tax on, 17th century, v. 38 
 
 Coffee-houses, vii. 95, 96 
 
 Cogidubnus, British legate at Chichester, under 
 the Eoman empire, i. 41 
 
 Cohorn, engineer of the States-general ; besieged 
 in Namur, 1692, v. 150, 151 ; wounded, 151 ; 
 aids in recapturing Namur, 1695, 181; aids 
 Marlborough in his campaign of 1702, 260; 
 with him plans the cajiture of Antwerp, 266 
 
 Ooifi, chief priest of the Northumbrian Saxons, 
 converted by Paulinas, destroys the idols, i. 
 73 
 
 Coinage. See Money. 
 
 Coins, ancient British, i. 15, note 
 
 Coke, Mr., his agricultural improvements of 
 Norfolk, vii. 5, 6 
 
 Coke, sir Edward, bitterness of his speech as 
 attoi-ney-general against the earl of Essex, 
 iii. 289 ; brutality of his conduct when pro- 
 secuting llaleigh, 312; as lord chief justice, 
 issues a warrant to apprehend the earl of 
 Somerset for the murder of Overbury, 365 ; 
 dissatisfaction of James with his conduct on 
 the trial, 368 ; opposes the arbitrary measures 
 of the king, and is dismissed, 369 ; draws up 
 a petition in the Commons, in 1621, against 
 the growth of popery, 382 ; assists in the de- 
 bate on the Petition of Right in 162S, 397 ; 
 denounces the duke of Buckingham in the 
 House of Commons, 398 
 
 Colchester, the ancient Camalodunum, i. 14; 
 description of the castle of, i. 19; supposed 
 teniple to Claudius at, ib. 
 
 Colchester, lord, his account of the battle of 
 Steinkirk, v. 154 
 
 Colchester, Charles Abbot, lord, his account of 
 the king's refusal to make concessions to 
 Catholics, vii. 399 ; quotations fi'om his diarv, 
 430, 431, 435, 436, 440, 441, 463, 466, 468, 
 479, 507, 509, 528, 533, 534, 535, 541 ; as 
 Speaker g^ves the casting vote for censiu-ing 
 lord Melville, 439 
 
 ■Colepepper; committed to the Gate House for 
 presenting the Kentish petition, 1701, v. 247, 
 248 
 
 'Coleridge, S. T., remarks of, on the French 
 Eevolution of 1789, vii. 182, 183; on Burke's 
 -'Reflections," 190 ; and on Robespierre, 310 ; 
 character of his poetic labours, viii. 118; 
 failure of his dramas, 125 
 
 College, old, of physicians, built by "Wren, v. 
 45^ 
 
 Colli commands the Austro-Sardinian army 
 against Bonaparte, 1796, vii. 326 
 
 Collier, Jeremy, castigates play writere, v. 207 
 
 CoUingwood, Cuthbert, commands the Excellent 
 at the battle of St. Vincent ; .supports Nelson 
 in the contest, vii. 33t ; watches the French 
 and Spanish fleet, 442 ; aids Nelson in gaining 
 the victory of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805, 416- 
 448 ; his grief for the loss of Nelson, 447, 
 448 ; his advice to Duckworth, 484 
 
 Collins, publication of his "Eclogues," 1742, 
 and "Odes," 1746, vii. 87 
 
 Collins, character of his paintings, viii. 155 
 
 Collot d'Herbois aids in destroying Lyon, 1793, 
 vii. 285 
 
 Colonization, systematic, plan of, proposed by 
 Cliarics Buller, viii. 501 
 
 Combermere, viscount, commander-in-chief of 
 India, viii. 221 ; bombards Bhurtpore, Nov. 
 23, 1825, and captures it, Jan. IS, 221, 222 
 
 Combination laws passed in the 18th century ; 
 repealed in the 19th, \-i. 184-186 
 
 Committee of PubUc Salvation instituted 1793, 
 vii. 273 
 
 Companies, mania for, 1689-1714, v. 41 
 
 Comprehension Bill introduced, not passed, 
 1689, V. 73 
 
 Corapton, Henry, bishop of London, preaches 
 the sermon at the opening of St. Paul's 
 cathedral, Dec. 2, 1797, v. 200 
 
 Compton, sir Spencer, treasurer of Prince of 
 Wales, 1727, vi. 57 ; speaker of the House of 
 Commons, ib. ; Walpole draws up the royal 
 speech for him ; disappointed at not obtain- 
 ing the premiership, 58; first lord of the 
 Treasury, 1742, 320 
 
 Conan, the leader of the British forces under 
 Maximus, founds a colony in Brittany, a.d. 
 388, i. 54, 00 
 
 Conde, Prince de, flies from Paris, 1789, vii. 
 174 
 
 Conde, surrendered to the Allies, July, 1793, 
 vii. 282 
 
 Condorcet, a republican, vii. 203, 204 ; a left 
 side member of the Legislative Assembly, 
 205 
 
 Conflans, a French admiral, defeated by Hawke, 
 1759, vi. 239, 240 
 
 Congress. See Hague, Verona, Vienna, Lay- 
 bach, Carlsbad, Troppau, Radstadt. 
 
 Congreve, his estimate of the femide character 
 of his day, v. 419 
 
 Coningsbv, lord, impeaches the earl of Oxford, 
 1715, vi. 5 
 
 Constable, character of his painting, viii. 
 154 
 
 Conslantine, accession of, to the government of 
 Britain, i. 32; glowing account of prospe- 
 rous state of Britain under, 33 
 
 Constantino, raised to the imperial throne by 
 the aid of the army in Britain, a.d. 306, i. 
 51 ; the civil government of Britain remodel- 
 led by, ib. ; death of, a.d. 337, 52 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of, July 8, 1S33, viii. 
 383 
 
 Constantius, the emperor, supports the authority 
 of I'aulus, and applauds his savage cruelties, 
 i. 53 
 
 Constitutional Charter issued by Louis XVIII. . 
 1814, viii. 21, 22 
 
 Contades, mareschal de, defeated by Ferdinand, 
 1759, vi. 235, 236 
 
 Contemporary sovereigns, tables of, i. 491, 492;
 
 8i8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ii. 500 ; iii. 499 ; iv. 451 ; v. 475, 476 ; vi. 
 465, 466 ; vii. 574, 575 ; viii. 568, 569 
 
 Convention, English, of 1689, declared a parlia- 
 ment, V. 69, 70 
 
 Convention, Scotch, of 1689, proceedings of, v. 
 87-91 
 
 Conversation, the, of the 18th centurv, vii. 106, 
 107 
 
 Conway, general, takes the citadel of Aix, 1757, 
 vi. 229 ; valour displayed in campaign of 1761, 
 250 ; votes against the ministry on the ques- 
 tion of the legality of general warrants, 268 ; 
 dismissed from his regiment and parliament 
 for so doing, 269; secretary of state, 1765, 
 278 ; introduces the repeal of the American 
 Stamp Act bill, 283 ; enthusiasm towards him 
 for being the mover, 283, 284 ; secretary of 
 state, 1765-1768, 285, 321 ; moves for the 
 cessation of war, 434; usas harsh language 
 towards Pitt, vii. 141 
 
 Conyngliam, marquis of, lord steward ; governor 
 of Windsor Castle ; delays swearing in the 
 members of parliament, viii. 244, 245 ; post- 
 master-general, 1834, 344 ; lord chambei-lain, 
 381 
 
 Cook, captaiTi, his voyages and discoveries ; 
 visits Otaheite, New Zealand, and New South 
 "Wales ; discovers the Society Islands, vii. 
 261, 262 
 
 Cook, Thomas, chairaian of E. I. Company ; 
 concerned in bribing members of parliameut, 
 V. 177 
 
 Cooke, Henry, restorer of the Raffaelle cartoons, 
 V. 463 
 
 Cooke, M.P. for Middlesex ; death of vi. 296 
 
 Cookham, its liigh parochial condition, vui. 
 337 
 
 Cooksworthy discovers a fine clay for porcelain, 
 vii. 58 
 
 Coote, sir Eyre, commander of the British forces 
 in India, vii. 130 ; defeats Hyder Ali, July 1, 
 and Aug: 27, 1781, 131 
 
 Coote, sir Eyre, conducts the siege of Flushing, 
 1809, vu. 520 
 
 Cope, sir John, commander-in-chief of Scot- 
 land, vi. 125 ; marches from Stii-ling in pur- 
 suit of the rebels, 1745 ; declines to encounter 
 the prince's anny amongst the mountains; 
 marches on to Inverness, 126; embarks at 
 Aberdeen; lands at Dunbar, Sept. 18 ; marches 
 towards Edinburgh, 128 ; takes up his position 
 at Preston to receive his opponent ; where his 
 troops are routed on the 22nd in the battle of 
 Preston Pans, 129, 130 
 
 Copenhagen, battle of, April 2, 1801, vii. 402- 
 404; bombarded by the British, 1807, 490, 
 491 
 
 Copley. See Lyndhurst. 
 
 Copley, J. S., "West's rival in painting ; example 
 of his style, viii. 151 
 
 Copper mines and smelting, v. 14, 29 
 
 Copyright Act passed, v. 413 ; service rendered 
 to literature by, 413, 414 ; passing of the new 
 Copyright Act, 1842 ; Macaulay's amend- 
 ments, viii. 463-465 ; beneficial application 
 of, to old copyrights about to expire, 465- 
 468 
 
 Coracles, small fishing boats, used by tlie 
 Britons, i. 9 
 
 Coram, captain. See Foundling. 
 
 Corday, Charlotte, cause of her assassinating 
 Marat ; the deed is done, July 13, 1793 ; she 
 is executed, vii. 278 
 
 Cork capitulates to Marlborough, Sept. 29, 1690,, 
 V. 118 
 
 Cornish, alderman, his attainder reversed, 1689, 
 V. 95 
 
 Corn-law, the first passed in England in 1463, 
 ii. 108; effects of that passed 1815, viii. 54, 
 55, 178 ; a new act passed 1822, 178 ; relaxa- 
 tion of the, resisted, 1826, 200, 201 ; fears of 
 tlieir being repealed, 310, 311 ; general oppo- 
 sition manifested towards the Corn-laws ; tho 
 Anti-Com-law League, 436, 437 ; sir Eobert 
 Peel refuses to propose any alteration in the 
 Corn-laws, 492, 493 ; after a prolonged de- 
 bate su- Robert Peel's Bill is adopted, 493, 
 494 ; a Corn-bill for Canada passed, 501 ; 
 debates on the, 513; proposed to be modified 
 by sir R. Peel, 531 ; their repeal advocated by 
 lord J. Russell, 532 ; different opinions of the 
 Cabinet members as to their repeal, 532, 533 ; 
 sir R. Peel's plan for a new Corn-law Bill, 
 537 ; debate on the bill, 538, 539 ; it is ulti- 
 mately passed, 539, and received the Royal 
 Assent, June, 1846, 540 ; banquet at Man- 
 chester to celebrate the repeal of the Corn- 
 laws, 562 
 
 Corn trade at the end of the 17th century, v. 
 31, 32 
 
 Cornwall, mineral products and condition of,. 
 temp. William and Anne, v. 13, 14 ; agricul- 
 ture of, vii. 24 
 
 Comwallis, Charles, sails from Cork with seren 
 regiments, Feb. 1776 ; present at the battle of 
 BrookljTi, vi. 370 ; follows Washington in his 
 retreat as far as Trenton, 371 ; routs the 
 Americans at the battle of the Brandysvino, 
 Sept. 13, 1777; occupies Philadelphia, 378; 
 left in command of Charleston, 411 ; his 
 severities towards deserters and prisoners, 
 412; defeats Gates at Camden, Aug. 16, 1780,. 
 ib. ; his maixh through Carolina ; crippled bj 
 the defeat of Tarleton at Cowpens, 1781, 423 ; 
 defeats general Greene at Guilford, Mar. 15 ; 
 recommends a vigorous attack upon Virginia, 
 424 ; marches into Virginia without orders ; 
 enters Charlottesville, and York Town, which 
 last he fortifies, 425 ; besieged, 427 ; loses 
 hope, and surrenders York Town, Gloucester, 
 and his army, Oct. 19, 428 ; his approbation 
 of the conduct of the French, 429 ; appointed 
 governor-general of India, 1786 ; lahours to 
 improve the administration and finance ; com- 
 plains of the insufiicient European troops, vii. 
 257 ; Tippoo forces him into a war ; Corn- 
 wallis takes Bangalore, Mar. 21, 1791 ; de- 
 feats Tippoo, May 15 ; compelled to retreat 
 by sickness and famine, 258 ; capture oi 
 Seringapatam, Feb. 1792 ; makes peace with 
 Tippoo, Mar., 259 ; describes France's ability 
 to carry on war in a state of anarchy, 310» 
 311 ; unwilling to accept the command of the 
 allied armies, 1794, 313; master-general of 
 the ordnance; advice as to volunteers, 360; 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland and commander- 
 in-chief, 1798 ; arrives in Dublin, June 2C» 
 366; he softens the ferocity of the troops, 
 3G6-367 ; marches against the French under 
 Humbert; and compels hiin to retreat to the 
 quarters of general Lake, by whom the French 
 are made to surrender, 368'; accused of being 
 too lenient, ib. ; advocates the emancipation 
 of the Catholics, 369-370 ; wishes to postpone 
 the introduction of the Union measure, 371" 
 372 ; his opinion of Grenville's answer to
 
 INDEX 
 
 6^ 
 
 Bonaparte, 1800, 389; remarks of, on the 
 infiuence of the king's narrow views on Irish 
 affairs, 400 • has no hopes of peace, 1801, 408 ; 
 conducts the negotiations for peace at Amiens, 
 1801, 409 ; his interview with Napoleon, 409- 
 410 ; difficulties in diplomacy, 410; peace of 
 Amiens concluded, ib. ; governor-general of 
 India, 1805 ; died Oct. 5, ISOo, 461 
 
 Coronation oath, dubious construction of, v. 77 ; 
 difficulties caused by this in George III.'s 
 time, vii. 398, 431, 479 ; and in George IV.'s 
 reign, viii. 236 et seq. 
 
 Corporation and Test Acts, attempts to obtain 
 the repeal of the, 1730, vi 62, 63 ; vii. IS? ; 
 repealed, 1828, viii. 232, 233 
 
 Corruption, parliamentary, 1693, 4, y. 177, 178, 
 vi. 44, 45 
 
 Corry, chancellor of Irish exchequer ; duels 
 with Grattan, vii. 373-374 
 
 Corsica ceded to France, 1768 ; Paoli's re- 
 sistance, vi. 322, 323 ; revolt of, 1794 ; an- 
 nexed to Great Britain ; restored to France, 
 vii. 315 
 
 Corunna, battle of, Jan. 16, 1809, vii. 506 
 
 Cossein, Meer, subahdar of Bengal ; quarrels 
 with the EngUsh ; war for deposing him ; 
 murders 150 prisoners ; defeated, vi. 332 
 
 Costume, extensive use of hoop jietticoats, v. 
 419; note on the Highland, vi. 134-136; 
 pride taken in dress bv the gentlemen, temp. 
 1737-1783, vii. 106 ; 'Prince of Wales's, on 
 his introduction to the house of peers, 1783, 
 137 
 
 Cotton, the first mill, established by Arkwright, 
 vii. 16, 49; trade in 1788, 44; John Kaye 
 introduces the i3y shuttle ; improvements in 
 machines for spinning, ib. ; demand for yarn ; 
 Hargreaves completes his spinning jenny, 
 1767, 45 ; domestic cotton spinning about to 
 eease, 46 ; Arkwright's invention of his 
 patent spinning machine, 47, 48 ; difficulties 
 of bringing it into general use overcome, 49 ; 
 invention of the spinning mule by Crompton; 
 the machine completed, 1779, 50 ; given to 
 the public, 51 ; I'ush to engage in spinning, 
 61, 52 ; commencement ot the system of 
 employing factory children, 52 ; employment 
 of steam engines in the manufacture of, ib. ; 
 the old spinning wheel and the modem spin- 
 ning mill contrasted, 53; Cartwright's in- 
 vention of the power loom, 53, 54 ; slow 
 introduction into general use; number used 
 in 1813, 1833, and 1856, 54; British import 
 of American, in 1785, 1791, 1801, 1811, 1812, 
 1813, and 1859, viii. 7 ; attempts to grow, in 
 India, 223, 224 
 
 Cotton, sir S. See Combermere, Tiscount. 
 
 Couthon shares in executing the Lvonnese, 
 1793, vii. 285; his cruelty, 309; and death, 
 1794,310 
 
 Countrv justices in the last century described, 
 vii. 108 
 
 Court Martial Bill rejected, 1757, vi. 220 
 
 Courteuay, sir W. iSce Thorn. 
 
 Courts oi' Lav, established by Henry II., L 
 283 
 
 Covenanters, under BaUlie, are defeated by 
 Montrose in 1645, iv. 52 ; obtain the rule in 
 Scotland, after the capture of Hamilton, in 
 1648, 95 , their exultation at the defeat and 
 capture of Montrose, in 1650, 129 ; insur- 
 rection of, in the West of Scotland, in 166G, 
 294 ; cruelties practised towards, ib. ; re- 
 
 sistance of, to the Black Indulgence, 347; 
 attemjit of Lauderdale to reduce, by military 
 force, 348 ; cruelties exercised towards, ib. ; 
 murder of archbishop Sharpe, 349; defeat 
 Clavcrhouse at Drumclog, to. ; are defeated 
 at Bothwell Bridge on June 22, 1679, ib.; 
 moderation of ilonmouth towards, 350 ; re- 
 ceive the name of Whig, ib. ; cruelties in- 
 flicted on, by the duke of York and Claver- 
 house, 351 ; a Test Act passed against the 
 Covenant in 1682, 366 ; fresh cruelties com- 
 mitted upon, 307 ; renewed and illegal per- 
 secutions of, in 1G83, 375; fresh laws obtained 
 against them by James II. in 1685, and the 
 soldiery let loose upon them, 384 
 
 Covent Garden Theatre built by Smirke, 1808, 
 1809, viii. 144 
 
 Covered ways, or roads, of the Britons, in 
 "Wiltshire, continued existence of, i. 11 
 
 Cox, David, character of his paintings, Tiii. 
 155 
 
 Cowpens, battle of, Jan. 1781, vi. 423 
 
 Cowper, William, earl, appointed lord keeper, 
 1705, v. 306; his faint hopes of peace with 
 France, 361 ; reads George l.'s first speech to 
 the English parliament, vi. 5 ; passes sen- 
 tence of death, as lord high steward, upon 
 the lords concerned in the rebellion of 1715, 
 19 ; his motion for the repeal of the pest 
 house laws rejected, 47 ; opposes the passing 
 of the bill of pains and penalties, 1723, 49 
 
 Cowper, William ; his description of the con- 
 versation of his time, vii. 106, 107 ; of the 
 apathv of the clerg}', 110, 111; quotations 
 from tis "Task," 171, 535; late appearance 
 as a writer, viii. 112, 113; first volume pub- 
 lished, 1784 ; and second in 1785 ; character 
 of his writings; died 1800, 113; manners of 
 his age as depicted by, 113, 114 
 
 Crabbe, George, quotations from, vii. 7, 109 ; a 
 poet of two periods, viii. 114; his early poems ; 
 those called "The Library" and "The News- 
 paper " noticed, 115; appearance of his 
 volume containing the "Parish Kegister," 
 1807; of "The Borough," in 1810; of 
 "Tales," in 1812; and of "Tales of the 
 Hall," in 1819, 121 ; delineations of manners 
 contained in his poems, 121, 122 ; died 1832, 
 467 
 
 Cracow made a free republic, 1846, viii. 383 
 
 Cradock, sir John, commands the British in 
 Portugal, vii. 510 ; removed to Gibraltar, 
 511 
 
 Craggs, postmaster-general, bribed, vi. 44 ; 
 commits suicide, 45 
 
 Craggs, James, appointed secretary at war, 
 1717, vi. 30 ; receives a bribe from the South 
 Sea Company directors, 44 ; dies of small po.x 
 during the inquiry into the bribes connected 
 with the South Sea Scheme, 1721, 45 
 
 Cranboume tried and executed for designingr to 
 kill Will. III. 1696, v. 191 
 
 Crannier, Thomas, sent with the ambassador to 
 the crowning of the emperor Charles V., in 
 1530, ii. 329 ; writes a book to prove th9 
 in;-alidity of the king's marriage to Catherine. 
 330 ; unfeeling remark of, concerning the 
 burning of Frith, 338 ; returns to England, 
 and is made archbishop of Canterbury, 344 ; 
 requests Henry's licence to pronounceon the 
 divorce, and obtains it, 345 ; holds a court at 
 Dunstable, Catherine refuses to appear, and 
 he pronounces sentence of divorce on May 23,
 
 648 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1533, ib. ; description of the coronation of 
 Anne BolejTi by, 346 ; endeavours ineffec- 
 tually to exempt sir Thomas More from taking 
 an oath as to the illegality of the king's first 
 marriage, 356 ; his letter to the king in 
 favour of Anne Boleyn, 375 ; dissuades the 
 kins from putting the princess Mary to 
 death, 382 ; servility of, 405 ; opposes the 
 Act of the Six Articles, but ultimately sub- 
 mits to it, 420 ; consents to the Act declaring 
 the marriage of Henry to Anne of Cleves 
 invalid, 427 ; his opinion of Cromwell, 429 ; 
 discovers to the king the profligacy of Cathe- 
 rine Howai'd, 432 ; accused of heresy, but 
 relieved by the king, 448 ; causes the Para- 
 phrase of the New Testament by Erasmus to 
 be translated into English, iii. 8 ; prepares 
 the Book of Common Prayer, 12 ; signs the 
 death-warrant of lord Thomas Seymour, 18 ; 
 ■writes to Warwick and the confederated 
 lords that Somerset is secured, 35 ; amount 
 of participation of, in the burning of Joan 
 Bocher, 39 ; book of Canon Laws issued by, 
 40 ; committed to the Tower on the accession 
 of Mary, Nov. 14, 1553, 57 ; pleads not guilty 
 to tlie charge of high treason, and withdraws 
 his pica, 59 ; condemned for heresy at Oxford, 
 73 ; he recants, 91 ; publicly withdraws his 
 recantation, and declares his repentance for 
 havinsr made it, 92 ; is burnt on March 21, 
 1556, 93 
 
 Cranston, lord, present at Rodney's victory 
 over De Grasse, 1782, vi. 438 
 
 Craufurd, general ; his bravery at the siege of 
 Ciudad Eodrigo, 1812 ; mortally wounded, 
 vii. 548 
 
 Craven dialect, specimens of the, vii. 29, 30 
 
 Crayford, chalk caves at, i. 9 
 
 Cressy, battle of, on Aug. 26, 1346, i. 460-462; 
 won by the steady bravery of the yeomen of 
 England, 463 
 
 Crillon, due de, besieges Gibraltar, 1782, vi. 
 454 
 
 Crime, prevalence of, 1692, v. 155 
 
 Criuiinal laws, extreme severity of, iemp. 
 Henry VII., ii. 252, 253, 340-342; statute 
 for the punishment of offences against pro- 
 pert}', passed in 1545, 471 ; reforms in the, 
 viii. 62-64 ; 101, 322, 323, 376 
 
 Cristall, sir Heniy, Froissart's account of his 
 captivity among the Irish, ii. 385 
 
 Croft, James, a collier and enthusiastic agri- 
 culturist ; his career and perseverance ; a 
 model of the modem British spirit, vii. 28, 
 29 
 
 Croker, J. "W., his intellectual powers ; his 
 steady opposition to the Reform bill, 1831, 
 279, 280 
 
 Cromai'tie, lord, trial of; found guilty; par- 
 doned, vi. 173, 174 
 
 Cromlcclis, supposed purpose of, i. 10 
 
 Cronipton, Samuel, inventor of the cotton mule, 
 vii. 46, 50 ; his character, 49 ; secretes his 
 machine from the riotei's of 1779; works at 
 it in secret, 50; he is ultimately compelled 
 to give it to the public for 67^. Os. Qd. ; 
 general employment of his machine, 51 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, first appearance of, in the 
 Hovise of Commons, in 1629, iii. 403; pre- 
 sents a petition from Lilburne, imprisoned 
 by the Star-Chaniber, to the Long Parlia- 
 ment, in 1610, 444; seizes the magazine at 
 Cambridge, and stops the transmission of the 
 
 University plate to the king, 492 ; letter of, 
 to the Commissioners at Cambridge, iv. 20 ; 
 character of, 29 ; hazardous situation of, at 
 the skii'mish of Winceby, ib. ; distinguished 
 services of, at the battle of Marston Moor, 
 35 ; letter of, to his brother, concerning the 
 battle, 36 ; brings a charge against the earl 
 of Manchester, 37 ; thinks the army ought 
 to be re-modelled, ib. ; great importance of 
 his military services, 41 ; active measures 
 of, against the royalists, 42 ; letter of, an- 
 nouncing the result of Naseby battle, to the 
 Speaker of the House of Commons, ib. ; 
 commands ths right wing at battle of Naseby, 
 43 ; his conduct in it, 44 ; letter of, to Fair- 
 fax, announcing that he had taken 300 club- 
 men, 47 ; invests Bristol in company with 
 Fairfax, ib. ; his account of the surrender, 
 48 ; Winchester surrenders to, ib. ; batters 
 down Basing House, 48 ; his discipline of 
 the Ironsides, 68 ; wishes to prevent the 
 army being disbanded, in opposition to the 
 Presbyterians, 69 ; organisation of the Adju- 
 tators, 70 ; leaves Loudon, and joins the 
 army, 71 ; waits on Charles at Royston, ib. ; 
 proposals of, and of the Independents, to 
 Charles, 75 ; the king rejects them, 76 ; 
 Cromwell and Ireton endeavour to serve the 
 king, 79 ; they intercept a letter of the king's, 
 81 ; he breaks off his intercourse with the 
 king, 82 ; conduct of, towards the Levellers, 
 87 ; suspicion that Charles made his escape 
 from Hampton Court at the instigation of, 
 ib. ; tries to effect a reconciliation between, 
 the Presbyterians and Independents, 89 ; 
 leaves London, to quell an outbreak in Wales, 
 91 ; takes Pembroke, 93 ; marches against 
 the dtike of Hamilton, 94 ; and defeats him 
 at Preston, 95 ; enters Scotland, ib. ; the 
 victory throws both king and parliament 
 into alarm, 97 ; returns from Scotland, 100 ; 
 letter to Hammond, 101 ; arrives in London, 
 104 ; extraordinary religious enthusiasm dis- 
 played by, 106; conduct of, at the trial of 
 the king, 110; speaks in favour of the peti- 
 tion of lord Capel, 116 ; puts down a mutiny 
 in Whalley's regiment, 118 ; in conjunction 
 with Fairfax suppresses the Levellers in the 
 army, tb. ; is presented with a service of 
 plate by the Corporation of London, for put- 
 ting down the Levellers, 119 ; leaves London 
 for Ireland as lord- lieutenant there, 121 ; 
 embarks at !Milford Haven, ib. ; arrives at 
 Dublin, ib. ; addresses the Irish, ib. ; issues 
 a proclamation, 122 ; takes Drogheda, Trim, 
 Dundalk, and Wexford, 123 ; his account of 
 the slaughters, ib. ; meets ^vith a stout re- 
 sistance at Waterford, 124 ; Cork surrenders 
 to him, 125; his policy in Ireland, 126; 
 returns to London, 127; leaves Ireton as 
 deputy in Ireland, ib. ; arrival, and enthu- 
 siastic reception of, in London, 132 ; is created 
 General of all the forces, ib. ; marches to 
 Scotland, ib. ; meets with a vigorous re- 
 sistance from Le4ey, 133; his danger at 
 Uunbar, ib. ; position of his army at Dunbar, 
 134; gains the battle of Dunbar, on Sept. 3, 
 1650, 135 ; his letter to parliament, ib. ; 
 lakes Perth, 136; letter of, to parliament, 
 announcing tlic probable invasion of Eng- 
 land by the Scotch army, 137 ; totally de- 
 feats it at Worcester, on Sept. 3, 1651, 138; 
 and compels Charles II. to fly to France, 143;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 649 
 
 I 
 
 description of his armj-, 144 ; returns to 
 London, 146 ; his refonuing policy, 147 ; 
 Urges the advancement of two great mea- 
 sures, — an Act of Amnesty, and a Law for 
 the Election of future Parliaments, ib. ; 
 attends a conference at Lenthall's liouse on 
 the settlement of the nation, 148 ; dialogue 
 between Whitelocke and, 156 ; opposes the 
 proposal for perpetuating the parliament, 
 157 ; conference at his residence at White- 
 hall, ib. ; dissolves the Long Parliament, 
 158 ; and the Council of State, ib. ; summons 
 a parliament, 161 ; receives a despatch from 
 Wake and Monk, announcing their victory 
 over the Dutch fleet, 162 ; his Little Parlia- 
 ment meets on July 4, 1653, 163; character 
 ■of the Little Parliament, ib. ; speech of, to 
 the Little Parliament, 164; its constitution 
 is provisional, 165 ; it abolishes the Court of 
 Chancery, 166 ; the Little Parliament re- 
 signs its authority into the hands of, 167 ; he 
 is declaimed protector, Dec. 16, 1653, 168 ; 
 remarks on, ib. ; is made chancellor of Ox- 
 ford, 171 ; patronises learning, 173; love for 
 music, ib. ; character of his government as 
 protector, 177 ; incentives to assassinate, 179; 
 sagacity and prudence of, ib. ; royalist plot 
 to assassinate, discovered and put down, 180 ; 
 two of the conspu-ators, John Gerard and 
 Peter Voweil, executed, ib. ; tact display ed 
 by, ib. ; foreign policy of, displayed in 
 promoting the union of the Protestant States 
 of Europe ; and in treaties and alUances with 
 Sweden, France, and Portugal, 181 ; causes 
 Don Panlaleon de Sa to be executed for 
 murder, ib. ; explains his policy to the first 
 parliament of the protectorate, 182 ; speech 
 of, on opening the session, 183 ; parliament 
 questions his authority, 184 ; upon which he 
 closes the door of the parliament house, 185 ; 
 find admits those members only who sign a 
 pledge to obey him, 186 ; is thrown from his 
 <!oach, 188 ; temper of his parliament, ib. ; 
 dissolves it, 189 ; puts down a royalist rising, 
 191 ; refusal to pay taxes to, tb. ; appoints 
 major-generals for collecting the taxes, 192 ; 
 conduct of the major-generals, t6 ; toleration 
 of, in religious matters, 193 ; greatness of, in 
 his foreign policy, 194; practical spirit of, 
 infused into his army, 195 ; increases the 
 strength of the navy, ib. ; disappointment of, 
 at Veuables not capturing Hispaniola, 196; 
 his abhorrence of vice in the army, 197 ; 
 interference of, in favour of the Vaudois, or 
 Waldenses, 198 ; attempts of, to procure a 
 settlement in England for the Jews, ib. ; 
 endeavours to obtain a pledge from the repub- 
 lican leaders not to oppose his government, 
 
 199 ; imprisons Vane, and other political op- 
 ponents, ib.; conference of, with Ludlow, 
 
 200 ; speech of, at the meeting of his second 
 parliament, 201 ; indications of a legislative 
 mind displayed in the speech, 202 ; Napoleon 
 compared with, ib. ; public indignation at, for 
 excluding members from the parliament, 203; 
 Acts passed for security of Ms person, ib. ; his 
 part in the case of James Nayler, the Quaker, 
 ib. ; Sindercomb's plot against, 204 ; the 
 trial, and death of, 205 ; his parliament con- 
 gratulate him on his escape from it, 205 ; Par- 
 liament vote his being made king, 206 ; con- 
 ferences on the subject, 207 ; declines to 
 accept the title, 208; pamphlet entitled 
 
 " Killing no Murder" published, threatenins; 
 death to, ib. ; is inaugurated as proteftor. and 
 invested with the kingly power, June 26, 
 1657, 209; re-admits the members he ex- 
 cluded from parliament, ib. ; his daughter 
 Mary is married to lord Falcoubridge, and 
 Frances to the earl of Warwick, ib. ; parlia- 
 ment meets, 210 ; a second house, ib. ; dis- 
 sensions between him and the parliament, 
 211; it is dissolved by, ib.\ puts down a 
 royalist rising ; several ringleaders are con- 
 demned and executed, 212; successes abroad, 
 ib. ; Dunkirk taken, 213 ; his family atHic- 
 tions, 214 ; death, 215 ; and burial, 219 ; dis- 
 interred from Westminster Abbey, and buried 
 at Tybum, 248; notice of Cromwell's free 
 trade policy towards Scotland, v. 215 
 Cromwell, llichard, proclaimed protector, Sept. 
 4, 1658, iv. 216 ; character of, 217; financial 
 difficulties of, ib. ; meeting of parliament, 
 218; bill passed for the recognition of his 
 title, 219 ; hostility of the army towards, ib. ; 
 his weak government, 220 ; compelled to dis- 
 solve the parliament, ib. ; his government 
 ends, 221 ; restoration of Long Parliament, 
 under the name of " The Rump," ib. ; leaves 
 Whitehall, ib. ; he and his family pass into 
 obscurity, ib. 
 
 Cromwell, Thomas, said to have been present at 
 the sack of Rome, ii. 308 ; adheres to Wolsey 
 on his fall, 322 ; defends him in parliament, 
 323 ; letter of, to Wolsey, 333 ; wites exhor- 
 tations to Frith and Tyudale, the reformers, 
 338; becomes %'icegerent, 365 ; issues a com- 
 mission for the visitation of the monasteries, 
 366 ; unworthy use made of their property 
 by, ib. ; official corruption of, 368 ; effects 
 a reconciliation between the princess Mary 
 and her father, 383 ; absolute power of, in 
 ecclesiastical affairs, 405 ; participation of, in 
 the plunder of the religious houses, 413 ; 
 measures taken by, to pack the parliament of 
 1539, 416; disgraceful conduct of, in pro- 
 curing the attainder and condemnation of the 
 aged countess of Salisbury, 423; promotes 
 the marriage of Henry with Anne of Cleves, 
 424 ; dissatisfaction of the king with the 
 match, 426 ; is arrested for treason, 428 ; de- 
 mands a trial by law, 429 ; is attainted and 
 executed, July 28, 1540, 430 ; injunctions of, 
 for the keeping of a parish register-book of 
 births, deaths, and marriages, 455 
 
 Crosbie, alias Clench, proposes to carry off Wil- 
 liam III., V. 187, 188 
 
 Crosby, Brass, lord mayor, 1771 ; decides a law- 
 suit against an officer of the House of Com- 
 mons, who had aiTcsted a printer for pub- 
 lishing the debates, vi. 317 ; ordered to attend 
 before the bar of the House ; committed to 
 the Tower, 318 ; released, 319 
 
 Crowle, parliamentary proceedings against, 
 1751, vi. 186 
 
 Crown Point surprised by the Americans, 1775, 
 vi. 350, 351 
 
 Crusades, the first preaching of, in 1095, i. 226 ; 
 incentives offered for prosecuting, 227 
 
 Crusaders, progress of the first, i. 228, 229 ; 
 rout of the b-idy under Peter the Hermit and 
 Walter the Penniless, 229 
 
 Cuesta, general, of the Spanish army, vii. 521 ; 
 his temerity, 522; forsakes the charge of 
 sick and wounded left him by Bonaparte, 
 523
 
 650 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Culloys, they reinvigorate the agriculture of 
 Northumberland, vii. 31 
 
 Culloden, description of the moor of, vi. 161 ; 
 battle of, April 16, 1746, 168; barbarous 
 treatment of the wounded after the battle, 170 
 
 CuUum, sir John, describes the agricultural 
 improvements of Suffolk, vii. 6, 7. 
 
 Cumberland, its population, products, and ma- 
 nufactures, V. 29, 30 
 
 Cumberland, Henry Frederick, duke of, George 
 III. 's brother; fined £10,000 on a charge of 
 criminal conversation brought by lord Gros- 
 veuor ; accompanies Mrs. Horton to Calais ; 
 there marries her ; the pair are forbidden the 
 Court; the king's disgust, vi. 330 ; from these 
 circumstances emanated the Eoyal Marriage 
 Act, 331 
 
 Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, second 
 son of George II. ; accompanies his father at 
 the battle of Dettingeu ; commands the Eng- 
 lish left, vi. Ill; commands the allied armies 
 in the campaign of 1745 ; attacks the French 
 at Fontenoy, May 11, 113 ; forms a column ; 
 its extraordinary march, and steady retreat, 
 114; marches after the rebels, 147 ; pursues 
 their retreating army, 157 ; invests Carlisle, 
 Dec. 21 ; it capitulates, Dec. 30 ; his hard 
 tarms to the garrison ; summoned to London 
 to command the forces against the threatened 
 French invasion, 159 ; sent back to Scotland 
 to retrieve the disasters of Falkirk, 162 ; ar- 
 rives at Edinburgh, Jan. 30, 1746, 163; the 
 sight of his army compels the Highlanders 
 to fly from Stii'ling, 164 ; anives at Aberdeen, 
 165 ; advances against the rebels, April 8 ; 
 the passage of the Spey ; reaches Nairn, 160; 
 a night attack is attempted upon his camp ; 
 advances against the prince on Culloden 
 Moor, 167; and gains a victory over him, 
 April 16, 168 ; his unpopularity, 169 ; his 
 view of the Rebellion, 170; anecdote of his 
 insolence, 172 ; commands the British at the 
 defeat at Laufi'eld, 1747, 180; George II. de- 
 sires him to be Ecgent, 189 ; urges that Pitt 
 and Temple be turned out of power, 221 ; 
 driven out of Hanover by Kichelieu ; and the 
 capitulation of Closter-Seven is agreed to be- 
 tween them ; his father's anger, by whom he 
 is insulted, 229 ; resigns his post of com- 
 mander-in-chief, lb. ; appointed to negotiate 
 with Pitt for his return to power, 276 
 
 Cumberland, duke of, Ernest Augustus, his 
 political opinions, vii. 542 ; becomes king of 
 Hanover, 1837, viii. 404 ; his intolerant and 
 despotic government, 404, 405 
 
 Cunningham, Ale.'^ander, description of the 
 Highlanders by, v 91 
 
 Cunobelin, state of Britain during the period of, 
 i. 8 ; power and dominion of, and slate of 
 civilisation in the reign of, 14, 15 
 
 Currency. See Money. 
 
 Curwen, M.P. for Carlisle; his account of 
 Burke's intense hatred to Frencli revolu- 
 tionary principles, vii. 194, 195 
 
 Curwen institutes an inquiry into the Poor 
 Laws, 1816, viii. 68 
 
 Custom House, London, built by "Wren, v. 454 
 
 Cutts, lord, his bravery before Namur, 1695, v. 
 180 ; captain of the Guards, 190 ; sent on be- 
 fore to commence tlio attack on the village of 
 Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704, v. 281 ; which order 
 Lc performs, 282 ; takes part in the final 
 struggle, 284 
 
 CjTnbeline. Sec Cunobelin. 
 
 DAOGEn-scF.xK in Burke's specjh, 1792, tiL 
 249, 254, 255 
 
 D'Alegre, his escape from the Bastille, 1756,. 
 vii. 171 
 
 D'Allegre, marquis, defeated by Marlborough,, 
 and taken prisoner, v. 303, 304 
 
 Dalrymple, sir Hew. ; mortification caused by 
 his being appointed to command the troops in- 
 Portugal, vii. 500 ; recalled home, 503 
 
 Dalr)'mple, sir John, one of the commissioners 
 who invested "William with the government, r, 
 90; master of Stair; secretary of state for Scot- 
 land ; orders of, to Hill and Livingstone, re- 
 garding the rebel chiefs, 132; grudge of, 
 against the Mac Donalds, of Glencoe, 133 ; 
 suspected of having a " black design " against 
 them, 134; letters of, connected with the 
 Glencoe massacre, 136, 139 ; is implicated, by 
 the commission of 1695, as the original cause 
 of the massacre, 140 ; William dismisses him 
 from his ofiie, 141 
 
 Dalton, John, author of the Atomic theory, viii. 
 130 
 
 Dammaree, Daniel, his share in the riots of 
 1710, V. 357 ; he is tried for high treason,, 
 found guilty, but subsequently pardoned, 335, 
 336 ; becomes master of queen Anne's barge, 
 357 
 
 Dampierre, general, commands the French re- 
 publican army, 1793, vii. 281 ; killed in an 
 attack on the allied forces. May 8, 281, 
 282 
 
 Dance, architect of the Mansion House and 
 Newgate, vii. SO 
 
 Dane-gelt, payments of, i. 152 ; abolished by 
 Edward the Confessor, 164 
 
 Danes, or Northmen, ravages of, i. 78 
 
 Danes invade Mcrcia, a.w. 868, i. 95 ; again in 
 870, and advance to East Anglia, 95, 96 ; ob- 
 tain possession of Mercia and Northumbria, 
 101 ; massacre of, in England in 1002, 153 
 
 Danton, G. J., a leader of the Cordeliers, vii. 
 205 ; calls the people to arms, Aug. 9, 1792|> 
 224; appointed minister of justice, 226; 
 encourages the September massacres, 230 ; 
 protects Dumouriez against the Jacobins, 271 r 
 supports the establishment of the revolu- 
 tionary Eepublic, 275 ; guillotined, 1794, 298 
 
 Dantzic, duke of, the Tyrolcse beat him back 
 from their temtory, vii. 516 
 
 D'Arco, count. Bavarian general ; defeated at 
 Schellonburg, 1704, v. 278 
 
 Dardanelles, Duckworth's expedition to the, 
 1807, vii. 484, 485 
 
 D'xYrgenteau defeated at Montenotte, 1796, by 
 Bonaparte, vii. 326 
 
 Darien Company. See African and Indian Com- 
 
 Darmstadt, prince of, assists sir G. Rooke in his 
 expedition against Cadiz, 1702, v. 261 ; and 
 at the capture of Gibraltar, 1704, 291 ; re- 
 mains there in command of the garrison, ib. ; 
 he is besieged by the Spaniards, and makes a 
 successful resistance, 292 ; joins Peterborough, 
 1705 ; urges the plan of besieging Barcelona; 
 quarrels with Pcterborougli, 294 ; assist? 
 Pc'tcrborough in surprising MontjuicL, but i» 
 killed in the attack, 295 
 
 Danilcy. See Mary of Scotland. 
 
 Dartmouth, William Legge, lord ; secretary o«
 
 INDEX. 
 
 651 
 
 Btatc, 1710, T. 3G3; dissuades, unsuccessfully, 
 Anne from making twelve new peers, 380 
 
 Dartmouth, lord ; colonial secretary, 1773, vi. 
 336; privy seal, 177o, 360 
 
 Darwin, Erasmus, curious character of his 
 poems, resulting from his combining science 
 wirh poetry, viii. 117 
 
 Das Minus, a Portuguese general, defotited at 
 Almanzar, 1707, v. 330 
 
 D'Aubach, general, abandons Treves and Saar- 
 bruch, 1705, r, 302 
 
 Daun, marshal, of the Austrian army ; ad- 
 vances to relieve Prague, vi. 2'2S ; co-operates 
 with Loudoun in surprising Frederick, 232 
 
 D'Auvei-querque, a friend of William 111., v. 
 68; his conduct at Steinkii-k, 153, 15-i; joins 
 Marlborough with his army, 1705, 302 ; 
 makes a feint attack on the weak portion of 
 the French lines, 303 ; leads the Dutch ca- 
 valry at the battle of Eaniilies, 1706, 309; 
 dies, 1708, 340, 341 
 
 Davies, Kowland, chaplain in the army ; a bet 
 of his illustrative of the gambling spirit of 
 the !ige, v. 105 ; quotations from, illustrative of 
 "William's campaign in Deland, 1690, 106, 
 108-110, 114-118 
 
 Davoust, L. N., enters Berlin, Dec. 25, 1806, vii. 
 477 
 
 Dawson, James, executed July, 1746, vi. 172 
 
 Daw, sir Humphry, invents the safety lamp, 
 1815, viii. 130 
 
 Dean Forest destroyed to make charcoal for 
 smelting iron, v. 12 
 
 Deane, iSilas, the American agent at Paris, 
 1776, vi. 363 ; appointed to make a treaty of 
 alliance with France, 372 ; his share in pro- 
 moting incendiarism in England, 373, 374 
 
 Decres, admiral, minister of murine ; persuades 
 Napoleon to postpone the invasion of England, 
 1805, vii. 443 
 
 Deccan, nizam of the, concludes an alliance 
 with Coruwallis, vii. 258 ; his contingent to 
 the English army, 378, 379 ; cedes his Mysore 
 territory for British aid and protection, 454 ; 
 his territories devastated by the I'indarees, 
 viii. 216 
 
 Declaratory bill passed, 17G6, vi. 282 
 
 Declaratory, Indian bill, passed, 1788, vii. 257 
 
 Declaration of Independence. See American 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Detlaration of Pilnitz. See Pilnitz. 
 
 Declaration of Itiglits, twice brought forward 
 by (Jrattan, v. 446 
 
 Dee, Dr. John, in trouble for casting the nati- 
 vities of queen Mary and the princess Eliza- 
 beth, iii. 97 
 
 Defoe's (Daniel) " Journal of the Plague Tear," 
 notice of, iv. 271 et seq. ; his account of the 
 effect of shutting up the exchequer in 1671, 
 315 ; reason given by, why the dissenters op- 
 posed the Declaration of Indulgence, 320 ; 
 statement of, that the persecution of the dis- 
 senter arose from political, not religious, mo- 
 tives, 325 ; his account of the excitement 
 produced by the popish plot in 1678, 335 ; 
 joins the insiu'i'ection of the duke of Mon- 
 mouth in 1685, 391 ; his opinion of the De- 
 claration of Indulgence, 419 ; remarks on 
 Bristol by, v. 7 ; opinion of, on the bills in 
 the northern counties of England, 9 ; descrip- 
 tion of Bath by, 10 ; Loudon glass-houses 
 used by vagrants for lodging in, supported by 
 the statement of his "Colonel Jack," 18; 
 
 stocking weaving noticed to be very exten- 
 sively practised by, 19 ; the Lincolnshire fens 
 noticed by, 21 ; account of Manchester by, 
 21; salmon referred to by, 30; account of 
 agricultural counties referred to by, 32 ; op- 
 poses the drama, 207 ; probably the author ot 
 the Legion Memorial, 248 ; stir caused by hi» 
 pamphlet on "The Shortest Way with Dis- 
 senters," 263 ; he is tried for writing seditious 
 pamphlets, found guilty, and pilloried at the 
 Koyal Exchange, Chcapside, and Temple Bar, 
 
 1703, 264; publishes his " Hymn to the Pil- 
 lory," ib. ; and an account of the great storm, 
 
 1704, 269 ; his prejudiced remarks against 
 maypoles, 272; Carleton's Alemoirs erro- 
 neously ascribed to, 233; his "Keview" ap- 
 peared, 1704 ; its character and aim, 404 ; his 
 honesty and independence, 414, 415 ; his 
 power of personifying his characters, 444 ; 
 the main principle of Ms writings, 445 
 
 De Grasse lands a large force at James Towti, vi. 
 425; his engagement with sir S. Hood, 1781, 
 426; defeated by Bodney, 1782; surrenders 
 himself a prisoner, 437-439 
 
 De la Place, captain, commanded the garrison 
 at Ticondcroga ; sun-enders the fort. May 10, 
 1775, vi. 350, 351 
 
 Delacroix, French minister for foreign affairs , 
 considers the Bhine the boundary of France, 
 vii. 330 
 
 De la Rue gives Portland warning of the assas- 
 sination plot, V. 190 
 
 De Laimay. See l.aunay. 
 
 Delaval, admiral, bis conduct in the battle of 
 La Hogue, v. 149, 150 
 
 Delhi taken by the British, vii. 456 
 
 l)emerai-a retaken from the French, vi. 434 
 
 Democrats, an American political party ; its 
 contests, leaders, and vicissitudes, viii. 3, 4, 
 13 
 
 Dendermonde surrendered to Marlborough, Sept. 
 5, 1706, V. 310 
 
 Dcnham, sir John, the poet ; surveyor general, 
 V. 448 
 
 Dcnia captured bv the English, 1705, v. 294 : 
 besieged, 1708, 293 
 
 Denman, sir Thomas, counsel for the Derby- 
 shire insurrectionists, 1817; his opinion "of 
 Brandreth, viii. 82 ; appointed queen's soli- 
 citor-general, 1820, 165; the conferences, in 
 which he took part, for averting public pro- 
 ceedings agiiiust the Queen, fail in their 
 object, 167, 168; boldness of his summing-up 
 speech at the queen's trial, 171 ; attomev- 
 gcncral in the Grey ministry, 267 ; sup- 
 ports the bill for allowing counsel to prisoners, 
 369 
 
 Denmark, George of. See George of Denmark 
 
 Dennewitz, battle of, Sept. 6, 1813, vii. 563, 
 564 
 
 Dennis, John, his rage at Pope's satire, v. 436 
 
 Deiionville persuades Blansac to smTendcr to 
 ^Marlborough, v. 285 
 
 De I'ontis, French admiral, inability of, totak* 
 Gibraltar, 1704, v. 292 
 
 De Precv, his defence of Lyon, and escaj o, 1793, 
 vii. 28"4, 285 
 
 Derby, earl of (E. G. S. Stanley), chief secre- 
 tary for Ireland, 1830, viii. 2G7 ; speaks in 
 favour of reibrm, 274 ; his hostile spee.'hes 
 against O'Connell, 1833, 319, 323, 324 ; his hos- 
 tility with the agitators becoming so personal, 
 he exchanges his liLh secretar3ship for that
 
 652 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of tlie colonies, 324 ; resists the appropriation 
 of funds to be sanctioned by the Irish Church 
 Eeform Bill, 326 ; resolutions proposed by, 
 for abolishing slavery in British colonies, 327, 
 328; debates on, and progress of the bill for 
 this purpose ; it becomes law, 328 ; resigns 
 his secretaryship, 1834,344; declines joining 
 Peel's ministry, 3o3 ; takes part in the debute 
 on the sugar duties, 438-439 
 
 Deri yshire, silk trade and lead mines of, v. 20, 
 21 
 
 Derbyshire, insuiTection of, 1817, viii. 82, 83 
 
 Derwentwater, J. Katcliflfe, earl of, joins the 
 pretender's army, 1715, vi. 11 ; impeached of 
 high treason by Mr. Lechmere ; he is tried 
 and found guilty, 19; his wife implores the 
 king to pardon him, ib. ; he is executed on 
 Tower Hill, Feb. 24, 1716, 20 
 
 Desaix present at the battle of the Pyramids, 
 1798, vii. 354; killed at Marengo, 1800, 
 395 
 
 Deseze, counsel for Louis XVI. ; conducts his 
 defence, vii. 250 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille, calls the Parisian mob to 
 arms, 1789, v. 170 
 
 Despard, colonel E. M., execution of, and ac- 
 complices, for treason against the king, Feb. 
 21, 1803, vii. 422 
 
 Desprez, his account of the destruction of the 
 French army, 1812, vii. 559 
 
 D'Estaing, admiral of the French fleet; his 
 campaign of 1778, vi. 391, 392 
 
 Detroit captured by the Americans, 1812, viii. 9 
 
 Dettingen, battle of, J\me 27, 1743, vi. Ill ; 
 note on, 119 
 
 Deuxponts, count de, present at Cornwallis's 
 surrender, 1781, vi. 428 
 
 Devonshire, Georgiana, duchess of, her interest 
 in Fox's election, vii. 144 
 
 Devonshire, agriculture in ; Dartmoor, vii. 23 
 
 De Winter, Dutch admiral ; defeated and taken 
 prisoner at the battle off Camperdown, Oct. 
 11, 1797, vii. 348, 349 
 
 De Witt, John, concludes the Triple Alliance 
 witb Temple in 1668, iv. 308; chief adminis- 
 trator of Holland on the French invasion in 
 1672, 317; he and his brother mui-dered by 
 the mob, 318 
 
 D'Harrach, count, Austrian ambassador at 
 Spain ; anecdote of, v. 243 
 
 Dhuleep Sing restored to power by the British, 
 viii. 545 
 
 Dickens, Charles, voluminousness and charac- 
 ter of his writings, viii. 469, 475, 478 
 
 Dickinson, John, opposes the Eevenue act, vi. 
 307 
 
 Dickson, sergeant, his capture of Manchester, 
 1745, vi. 145 
 
 Dieppe, bombarded, 1694, v. 172, 173 
 
 Dillon, panic of his troops, vii. 219 
 
 Dinners, stvle of, early part of the 18th century, 
 v. 421), 427 
 
 Diocletian, persecution of Christians in Britain 
 by, i. 51 
 
 Dion Cassius, relation of the discovery of Britain 
 being an island, i. 29 
 
 Di-racli, Benjamin, his acrimonious remarks on 
 sir K. Peel, viii. 517-527, 528, 529, 530, 537 
 
 Disruption, the, in the Scotch Church, 1843, 
 viii. 503, 604 
 
 BisHcction of murderers, law passed for the, 
 1752, vi. 190 ; subsequently repealed, 191 
 
 Jifieenters, the Bacrameutal test remains in force 
 
 against 1689, v. 73 ; Toleration act for, 
 passed, 73, 74 ; societies for the reformation ot 
 manners encournged by the, after the revo- 
 lution, 205 ; feud between the Church and, 
 1702, 262 ; Defoe's pamphlet on " the short- 
 est way with the," 263, 264; they join the 
 ■whig political party, 305 ; riots against, 1715, 
 vi. 6, 6 ; toleration measures for the relief of, 
 proposed, 1718, 35 ; they design a project for 
 obtaining the repeal of the Corporation and 
 Test acts ; Walpole by a manoeuvre makes 
 the attempt futile ; they obtain partial relief 
 occasionally from the Indemnity act; they 
 obtain the repeal they sought for, 1828, 62, 
 63 ; they agitate for the repeal of the Test 
 act, 1790, vii. 187 ; clamour raised against 
 the, 195 ; the Birmingham riots chiefly dii'ec- 
 ted against the, 195-198 ; bill for regulating 
 the maniage of, 1836, viii. 371, 372 
 
 Doddington, G. B., his share in the quarrel be- 
 tween the Prince of Wales and George II., 
 1736, vi. 85; treasurer of the navy; resigned, 
 188 ; promises of oflices from the Prince of 
 Wales, 188, 189 ; intrigues with Bute against 
 Pitt and his ministry, vi. 245 ; rejoices at 
 Pitt's fall, 252 
 
 Doehla, J. C., his account of the surrender of 
 the American army, 1781, vi. 428, 429 
 
 Dolben, M.P. for Liskeard, complains of the 
 dangerous nature of Sacheverel's sermons, 
 1710, V. 348 
 
 Domesday Bookof 1085,account of,i. 203 ; classes 
 of the people shown by, 204 ; industry of the 
 country, tenm-e of lands, and extent of 
 forests, showai by, 205 ; the New Forest, 206 ; 
 gardens and vineyard shown to exist by, 207 ; 
 mills, mines, salt-works, and fisheries noticed 
 by, 207, 208 ; condition of the people in cities 
 and burghs Aown by, 208, 209, 210 ; num- 
 ber of manors held by Normans in, 210, 211 ; 
 Norman castles enumerated by, 211, 212; 
 number of churches noticed by, 213 
 
 Domestic architecture of the fifteenth century, 
 ii. 118; consumption of timber in, 119 
 
 Dominica captured by the English, 1761, ri. 
 249; by the French, 1778, 392; restored to 
 the English, 1782, 458 
 
 Donawert. See Schellenberg. 
 
 Donington Castle built by Wilkins, viii. 145 
 
 Donoopew captiu'ed by sir A. Campbell, 1825, 
 viii. 220 
 
 Doric buildings, viii. 144 
 
 Dorset, Lionel Cranfield, earl of; Lord Cham- 
 berlain, V. 68 ; implicated in the Preston plot 
 of 1691, 126 
 
 Dorsetshire, agricultural improvements in ; land 
 enclosed ; wretched state of its peasantry, 
 vii. 22 ; and agricultural labourers, viii. 397- 
 398 
 
 D'OrvilUers, count; commands the French 
 fleet ; engages the English oflT Ushant, 1778, 
 vi. 393 
 
 Dost Mahomed Khan, the usurping ruler of 
 Afghanistan, viii. 450 ; estranges himself 
 from the British government, who (icclare 
 ■war against liim, 450,451; and drive him 
 from the kingdom ; gains a battle over British 
 troops; surrenders himself prisoner to the 
 British, 453 ; released and returned to bis 
 sovereignty, 460 
 
 Douay, surrender of, to the allies, 1710, v. 362 
 
 Douglas exposes the perils of sending a Scotck 
 colony to Darien, v. 217
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ess 
 
 Dover, Roman lighthouse at, i. 17 
 
 Dover Castle, ancient chapel in, doubtful state- 
 ment of its having been built b}' King Lucius, 
 i. 50 ; taken by the Normans, 186 
 
 Downie, captain, his gallantry at Plattsburg, 
 1814, viii. 16 
 
 Downing College, Cambridge, built by "Wilkins, 
 viii. 144, 145 
 
 Drake, sir Francis, naval successes of, in 1585, 
 iii. 185 ; successful expedition of, to Cadiz, to 
 foil the purposed invasion by Spain, 215; 
 Plymouth supplied with water by, 216 ; early 
 exploits of, 220 ; sails with the fleet from 
 Plymouth on July 19, to meet the Armada, 
 228 ; captures a valuable galleon, 230 ; attacks 
 the Spanish fleet with fire-ships in Calais 
 roads, 233 ; pursues the scattered ships after 
 the fight ofi" Gravelines, 234 ; bis despatch to 
 "W'alsiagham, ib. ; assists m the destruction of 
 the Armada in action and in its flight, 236 ; 
 with sir John Norris, heads an e.^pedition to 
 seat don Antonio on the throne of Portugal, 
 238, 239 ; takes Corunna, fails at Lisbon, but 
 takes and burns Vigo, 239; with sir John 
 Hawkins, sails in 159-5 to attack the Spaniards 
 in South America, but fails, and dies, 265 
 
 Drake, the English minister at Bavaria; in- 
 trigues with France, vii. 432 
 
 Drama, state of, in the time of Elizabeth, iii. 
 257 ; made an instrument of for attacking the 
 Puritans, 258 ; the early Elizabethan, 299 ; 
 Marlowe, Peele, Greene, &c., ib. ; charac- 
 teristics of Shakspere, 301; Prynne's " His- 
 trio-Mastix," a violent attack on Stage Plays, 
 411; support given to, by the four Inns of 
 Court, 413 ; character of the English drama, 
 temp. Charles I., 41-i ; deteriorated in morals 
 from that of Elizabeth, ib. ; the pla} houses 
 shut up at the commencement of the Civil 
 War in 1642, by the influence of the Puritans, 
 487 ; degraded condition of, during the time 
 of Charles II., iv. 296 ; licentiousness of, end 
 of 17th century ; an order issued in 1697 to 
 suppress it, v. 206 ; stage estimate of the 
 female character in the beginning of the 18th 
 century, 419, 420 ; Steele's relish for the 
 drama, 420 ; he notices several plays, ib. ; 
 popularity of puppet shows and Italian operas, 
 424; the stage becomes political, vi. 8y; the 
 act for licensing plays, by which the Lord 
 Chamberlain's interference with theatrical 
 representations was legalised, 90 ; improved 
 moral state of the theatre, 1774, 98, 99 ; 
 public taste directed by Garrick, 99 ; Garrick's 
 acting, 100 
 
 Drapier. See Swift, vi. 51-53 
 
 Dresden, peace of, Dec. 25, 1785, vi. 120 ; taken 
 bj' Frederick, 1756 ; he spares the art speci- 
 mens, 216 ; battles of, Aug. 24, 25, and 27, 
 1813, vu. 563 
 
 Dress. See Costume. 
 
 Drinking in the first half of the 18th century, 
 V. 426 
 
 Drouet aids the French royal family in at- 
 tempting to escape from France, 1791, vii. 
 202 
 
 Druidical sacrifices, i. 10; punishment of of- 
 fenders, 14 
 
 Druidism, Caesar's statement that it was origi- 
 nated in Britain, i. 3 ; the system of, as 
 described by Ca;sar, 4 
 
 Drummond, captain, his supposed murder, 1705, 
 T. 313 
 
 Drummond, Peel's private secretary; shot b; 
 mistake instead of sir R. Peel, viii. 500 
 
 Drummond, Andrew, a London banker ; sus- 
 pected of favouring the Pretender; examined 
 by government ; found innocent ; confidence 
 tii him restored ; becomes the royal banker, 
 vi. 1.52, 153 
 
 Drummond, George, urges a vigorous resistance 
 to the Pretender, 1745, vi. 127 
 
 Drummond, James, joins tbe Pretender's son ; 
 is by him created duke of Perth, 1745; vi. 
 126 ; has diff'erences with Lord Murray, 141; 
 escapes from Scotland, 1746 ; death of, 153 ; 
 skirmishes with the country people on the 
 retreat, 157 ; imwillingness to forsake his 
 men, 158 
 
 Drummond, lord John, fails in seizing Edin- 
 burgh castle, 1715, vi. 9 ; guards the passnge 
 of the Spey; falls back on Cumberland's 
 approach, 1746, 166 
 
 Drummond, William, viscount Strathallan, com- 
 mands the Stuart force at Perth, vi. 144; 
 created viscount, 1711; taken prisoner at 
 Sheriffmuir, 1715, 152; killed at Culloden^ 
 April 16, 1746, 153 ; commands the High- 
 landers at SheriflTmuir, 160 
 
 Drumossie. See CuUoden. 
 
 Dryden, John, produces liis "Absalom and 
 Achitophel," preparatory to the indictment of 
 Shaftesbury for higli treason, iv. 384 ; and his 
 poem of " "The Medal," af;er the bill had b^en 
 thro\vn out by the grand jury, ih. ; publishes 
 his " Hind and Panther," in 1687, 423; bust 
 of, by Sclieemakers, Westminster Abbey, V. 460 
 
 Dubois-Crance, supersedes Kellermann in his 
 command, vii. 2S5 
 
 Du Chaila, persecutor of the Cevennes Protest- 
 ants, V. 265 
 
 Duckworth, sir J. T. ; vice-admiral of the white; 
 knight of the Bath, vii. 483 ; failure of his 
 expeaition to the Dardanelles, 484 
 
 Dujos, a member of the French Directory, vii. 
 383; consul, 1799, 385 
 
 Dudley, lord, introduces the smelting of iron 
 with coal, V. 13 
 
 Dudley and Ward, viscount. Secretary of Stale 
 for Foreign Aft'airs in the Canning ministry, 
 viii. 210; one of the Wellington ministry, 
 1828, 228 ; resigns, being succeeded in his 
 secretaryship by the earl of Aberdeen, 231 ; 
 his speech on the Heform bill, 1831, 282 
 
 Duelling, prevalence of, first half of 18th cen- 
 tury, V. 427 
 
 Du?ouiniier, replaces Cartraux in the command 
 of the army before Toulon, 1793,_vu. 289 
 
 Dulwich gallery of pictures, viii. 151 
 
 Dumont, Anthony, his jiart in Grandval's plot 
 against William III., 1692, v. 152, 154 
 
 Dumont, his remarks on the Declaration of the 
 Rights of Man, and the abolition of feudiil 
 rights, -vM. 176; on Mirabeau, 192, 193; on 
 the French constitution of 1791, 204 ; his 
 visit to Ensland, 1791-1792, 209, 210; re- 
 marks on the September massacres, 1792, '2'IQ 
 
 Dumouriez, C. F. ; minister of foreign aflairs, 
 1792, vii. 218 ; advocates war against Austria; 
 plans the campaign, 219 ; advises the dis- 
 missal of Roland, 220 ; opposes the duke of 
 Brunswick, 234 ; concludes a secret agree- 
 ment with him, 235; the Austrians raise the 
 siege of Lille on liis approach; he gains the 
 battle of Jemappes, Nov. 6, 236; the Austrians 
 retreat before him ; enters Antwerp, Nov. 30,
 
 €54 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 237, 271 ; marches into Holland ; hatred of, 
 by the Jacobins ; takes Breda, Klundert, Ger- 
 tru3'denberg ; is defeated at Neerwinden, 
 Mar. 18, 1793, 271 ; deserts the Convention ; 
 makes overtures to join the prince of Coburg 
 in re-cstablishingthe constitutional monarchy ; 
 his anny forsakes him; lives an exile iu 
 England till 1823, 272 
 
 Duncan, Adam, admiral; deserted by several of 
 his ships in the blockade of the Texel, vii. 341 ; 
 stratagems for deceiving the Dutch, 348 ; 
 sights the enemy on Oct. 11, 1797, and gives 
 them a signal defeat in the battle of Camper- 
 down, 348, 349 
 
 Duncan, Rev. H., established a savings bank at 
 Euthwell, 1810, viii. 70 
 
 Duncannon, viscount, helps to prepare the Re- 
 form bill, viii. 270 ; lord privy seal ; first 
 commissioner of the land revenue, 381 
 
 Duncanson, major, his share in the Glencoe 
 massacres, V. 137 
 
 Duncombe, Thomas, his motion for hearing the 
 petitioners on presenting the People's Charter 
 rejected, viii. 496 
 
 Dundas. See Melville, lord. 
 
 Dundas, sir David, commands the allied troops 
 at Toulon, 1793, vii. 289 ; second in command 
 of the troops in Holland, 314 ; takes part in 
 the British expedition to Holland, 1799, 386 ; 
 commander-in-chief, Mar. 18, 1809, 517 ; 
 discourages the expedition to "Walcheren, ib. 
 
 Dundee, viscount, wishes to make a compromise 
 with "William III. v. 88 ; the king refuses to 
 do so, and upon the Convention giving an 
 order to arrest Dundee, he escapes, and raises 
 the clans, 92 ; meeting general Mackay, at 
 the pass of Killiecrankie, he there defeats him, 
 93 ; but falls in the hour of victory, July 27, 
 1689, and with him the cause of James II., 94 
 
 Dundonald, earl of, lord Cochrane ; his account 
 of the state of the navy, 1793, vii. 304, 305 ; 
 his opinion of Nelson, 357 ; M.P. for West- 
 minster, 1809 ; his enterprise in the Ais 
 roads, April 11, vii. 510 
 
 Dunkh-k taken by the French under Turenne 
 and the English under Lockhart, in 1658, and 
 delivered to the English, iv. 213; sold by 
 Charles II. to the French in 1662, 264; 
 failure of the English to take, 1793, vii. 282 
 
 Dunning holds aloof in the proceedings against 
 Wilkes, 1769, vi. 292 ; his motion on the in- 
 fluence of the crown, 404, 405 ; pension granted 
 to, 440 
 
 Dunstan, St., early life and rise of, i. 130; be- 
 comes the chief adviser of Edred, 132; en- 
 forces celibacy on the clergy, and renders the 
 national church more Romish, ib. ; outrage 
 of, at the coronation feast of Edwy, 133 ; 
 banishment of, 134 ; miracles attributed to, 
 137; chief minister during the reign of 
 Edgar, ib. ; state of the church at the time 
 of, 138, et seq. ; alterations effected in, by, 
 141; reforms effected by, 142; despotic but 
 vigorous government of, 145 ; arbitrary 
 power of, 146 ; disputation with bishop 
 JJeornhclm at Calne, and asserted miracle, 
 147; crowns and curses Ethelred, 149, 150; 
 dies in 988, 150 
 
 Duuwallo, king, formation of roads in Britain 
 by, i. 8 
 
 Dupinsignsthe protest against theroyal proceed- 
 ings against the French press, 1830, viii. 252 
 
 Dupleix, Joseph ; governor of Pondichcny, vi. 
 
 201 ; aids the nizam of the Deccan, 202 ; lie 
 is compelled to give way before Clive, 205 
 
 Dupont, a French general, defeated at Baylen 
 by Castanos, vii. 500 
 
 Durand, col., commands the garrison at Carlisle 
 Castle, vi. 142 
 
 Durham Cathedral, foundation of, i. 257 
 
 Durham, low state of agriculture in, 1750-1800; 
 famous for its breed of cattle, vii. 30 
 
 Durham, earl of; lord privy seal, 1830, viii. 
 267 ; helps to prepare the Reform bill, 270 ; 
 hostile speeches of, against lord Brougham, 
 1834, 347, 348 ; appointed lord high commis- 
 sioner for appeasing the Canadian grievances, 
 407 ; his government and policy, 408, 409 ; 
 lord Brougham's attack on ms measures 
 causes him to resign, 408 ; dies broken- 
 hearted ; his report on the affairs of British 
 North America, 409 
 
 D'Usson, a French general; surrenders Galway, 
 1691, V. 128 
 
 Dutch, differences of the, with the Long Par- 
 liament, iv. 150 ; war with England com- 
 menced, 151 ; battles of Van Tromp and 
 Ruyter with Blake, in 1652, 153-4 ; Van 
 Tromp again defeated in 1653, 163 ; Van 
 Tromp defeated and killed, 181 ; war of, with 
 Charles II. in 1665, 268 ; sea-tight off Lowes- 
 toffe, 268, 277 ; De Ruyter' s fight of four days 
 against Monk, 279 ; their coasts ravaged, 
 282 ; their fleet enters the Medway, bums the 
 ships there, and blockades London, in June 
 1667, 297 ; defeated in Southwold Bay by the 
 duke of York, 316 
 
 Dwyer reveals the Cato-street conspirary to the 
 home office, viii. 161 
 
 Dyer, John, las poem of the "Fleece" referred 
 to, giving an account of a weaver's labour.s, 
 V. 5 ; other quotations from, vii. 44, 45 
 
 Earthquake at Lisbon, 1755, Nov. 28, vi. 210 
 Earthenware ; the Staflbrdsliire potteries the 
 chief seat of the trade, v. IS; state of the 
 trade at the beginning of the 18th century, 
 1774, and 1857, vii. 57 ; cliieliy promoted by 
 Wedgwood and Cooksworthy, 57, 58 
 East India Company, charters granted for the 
 incorporation of, ui. 346; first English factory 
 at Surat founded in 1612, ib. ; a new company 
 is established, and called " The English Com- 
 pany," 1698, v. 203 ; the two are amalga- 
 mated four years afterwards, 204 ; seizes a 
 vessel belonging to the Darien (African ami 
 Indian) Company, 313 ; retrospect of their 
 affairs in India, 1745, vi. 201-205 ; the French 
 company becomes their rival, and attack 
 Madras, 1746, 201 ; and nearly undermine 
 the English power; Clive enters the army, 
 202 ; organizes an attack upon Arcot, whiv^i 
 he takes ; he is besieged by rajah Sahib, 203 ; 
 who relinquishes the siege, 204 ; Clive taliea 
 Trichinopoly in conjunction with major Law- 
 rence ; hostilities suspended, 205 ; Pitt insti- 
 tutes an inquiry into their affairs, 286 ; their 
 pecuniary affaii-s in disorder ; they jiotition 
 parliament for a loan of a million and a half; 
 a committee appointed to inquire into their 
 affairs, 332 ; the directors quarrel ; things go 
 ■to ruin ; matters mended by Clive's judicious 
 measures, 333 ; ihcir rotten financial position, 
 334; the Kegulation Act ; Warren Hustings, 
 first governor-general ; allowed to export teas
 
 INDEX. 
 
 655 
 
 free of duty to the American colonies, 335 ; 
 €lavering, Monsell, and Francis appointed 
 members of the council, 1774, vii. 125, 120; 
 Fox proposes that the authority of, be trans- 
 ferred to a board of commissioners, 137 ; they 
 refuse to bear the expenses of sending troops 
 to India ; they are compelled to do so by the 
 passing of Pitt's Declaratory bill, 257 ; in- 
 quiry made into their atlairs by the House of 
 Commons, 1813; which results in several im- 
 portant measures, 215 ; renewal of their 
 charter for twenty years, 1833 ; important 
 alterations in the charter provisions ; ceases 
 to be a commercial company, 1S34, 334 ; its 
 trade with China abolished; efi'ects of the 
 abolition, 443, 444 
 
 East ludia House designed by Holland, viii. 144 
 
 East Indies, Thomas Coryat's account of the 
 country, iii. 347 ; embassy of sir Thomas Iloe 
 to Agra, 1615-19, 348; his account of the 
 Mogul rulers of Hindostan, 349 ; contrasted 
 with the present state, 350 
 
 Eastlake, sirC, sketching Napoleon, 1815, viii. 
 39 
 
 Ebrington, M.P. for Devonshire, moves that the 
 principles of the rejected Reform bill be not 
 given up, viii. 284 ; moves that the king be 
 implored to call a reform ministry, 296 
 
 Ecclesiastical power, rapid growth of, in Eng- 
 land from the Conquest to the time of Ste- 
 phen, i. 254 ; numerous religious foundations 
 established, 254, 255 ; Cistereian abbeys 
 erected, 256; churches and cathedrals, 257, 
 258 ; such foundations a substitute for per- 
 sonal service in the crusades, and a commu- 
 tation for crimes, 259 
 
 Eckmuhl, battle of, April 22, 1809, vi. 515 
 
 Economical Eefonn bill brought forward by 
 Burke, 1780; his speech, vi. 402, 403; other 
 motions proposed, 403-405 ; practical mea- 
 sures of Burke's bill rejected, 405 ; the bill is 
 again introduced, 1782, 439 ; passed 440 
 
 Eddystone lighthouses, their fates and con- 
 structors, V. 10, 11 
 
 Eden, secretary for Ireland ; moves for the 
 repeal of the act asserting the independeuee 
 of Ireland, 1782, vi. 446 ; liis acuount of the 
 anarchy in France, 1789, vii. 177 
 
 Edgar, accession of in 760, i. 137 ; Dunstan the 
 chief minister during the reign of, ib. ; peace- 
 ful reign of, 142 ; licentiousness of, and story 
 of Eltrida, 144 ; rowed down the Dee by 
 kings, 145 ; arbitrary power of, 146 : death 
 of, in 975, 147 
 
 Edgar Atheling chosen king by the Londoners, 
 i. 186 ; submits to William the Conqueror, 
 and is treated with kindness, 187 ; tties to 
 Scotland, 192; invades England, with S«cvn, 
 192, 193 ; becomes a pensioner of William, 
 200 ; again flies to Scotland, 223 
 
 Edgehill, battle of, on Oct. 23, 16-)2, iv. 4 
 
 Edgeworth, abbe, attends Louis XVI. at his 
 execution, vii. 252 
 
 Edgeworth, Miss, her delineations of the Irish, 
 viii. 126, 127 
 
 Edinburgh, Charles Edward's entry into, 1745, 
 vi. 128 
 
 Edinburgh Castle held by the duke of Gordon 
 jor James II., 1689, v. 88-90; he siuTcnders 
 it, 93 
 
 Edinburgh Review started, 1802 ; its sei"vices to 
 literature, viii. 127 
 
 Edmund, St., king of East Anglia, defeated and 
 
 slain by the Danes, in 870, i. 97 ; buried at 
 St. Edmund's Bury, ib. 
 
 Edmund the Etheling, accession of, in 940, i. 
 129; murdered, 129, 130 
 
 Edmund Ironside, accession of in 1016, i. 155 ; 
 successes of, against Canute, 156 ; divides the 
 kingdom with Canute, and dies in 1016, ib. 
 
 Edred, accession of, in 940, i. 131 ; revolt in 
 Nfrthumbria subdued by, 132; degith of, in 
 956, ib. 
 
 Edric, treachery of, to Ethelred and Edmund 
 Ironside, i. 154, 155, 156 
 
 Education, low state of, among the people in 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, v. 
 407 ; and also among ladies in higher grades 
 of society, 418 ; Swift's remarks upon ladies' 
 education, 421 ; Sunday-schools originated 
 by Eaikes, vii. 120 ; inquiry into the state of, 
 moved for by Henry Brougham, 1816, viii. 
 69 ; the Education Commission, ib. ; it 
 merges into the Charity Commission ; extent 
 of instruction in 1816, 70 ; schoolmaster 
 abroad, 1828, 229 ; benefits derived from the 
 endowed grammar schools, 229, 230 ; schools 
 and scholars, 1818 and 1833 ; Sunday schools 
 and free schools, 230 ; diffusion of knowledge 
 by the establishment of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, a cheap and 
 sound literature, the London Mechanics' In- 
 stitution and others similar to it, the London 
 University and King's College, 230, 231 ; in- 
 creased popular desire for sound literature as 
 shown by the circulation of the " Penny Ma- 
 gazine," 311, 312; lord Brougham's educa- 
 tion resolutions, 359, 360 ; Walker's school, 
 in the Devil's acre, the origin of the London 
 ragged-schools; grants in aid of, 1834-1837, 
 399 ; the board of education constituted, 
 1839 ; general state of, in 1839, 400 ; increase 
 of schools and scholars, 1831-1841, 401 ; 
 neglect of, in the Boughton district, 415 ; sir 
 J. Graham compelled to withdraw his edu- 
 cation clauses in the Bill for regulating la- 
 bour in factories, 515 ; government grant to 
 Maynooth college ; establishment of the three 
 Irish secular colleges of Cork, Galway, and 
 Belfast, 529 
 
 Edward, succeeds his father Alfred in 901, i. 
 121 ; insun-ection of Ethelwold against, ib. ; 
 repels the Northmen and the Welsh, and sub- 
 dues East Anglia, 122 ; death of, in 924, ib. 
 
 Edward the Martyr,, accession of, in 975, i. 147 ; 
 assassination of, in 978, 148 
 
 Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred, brought 
 up in Normandy, i. 155, 160 ; brought over 
 to England by Hardicanute, 161 ; succeeds 
 Hardioanute in 1042, 162 ; marries earl God- 
 win's daughter and neglects her, 162, 163; 
 abolishes the Dane-gelt, 164 ; introduces 
 Norman adherents and customs, ib. ; is op- 
 posed by earl Godwin in his wish to punish 
 summarily the rioters against earl Eustace of 
 Boulogne, 166; banishes Harold and Godwin, 
 ih. ; imprisons his wife, 167 ; triumph of the 
 Norman party, ib. ; is forced to restore God- 
 win and Harold, 170; death of, in 1066, 176 
 
 Edward I., born in 1239, i. 362; swears to the 
 "Provisions of Oxford " in 1258, 372; re- 
 fuses to be absolved by the pope from observ- 
 ing his oath, ib. ; commands his father's 
 forces in the civil war against the barons, 
 373 ; is defeated at the battle of Lewes, 374 ; 
 wins tiie battle of Evesham, on Aug. 4, 1265,
 
 656 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 376; storm on the day of, 377 ; crusade un- 
 dertaken by, in 1269,379; attempted to be 
 assassinated at Jaffa, 381 ; his wife Eleanor 
 of Castile sucks the poison from the wound, 
 ib. ; concludes a truce with the sultan, and 
 returns to Europe in 1272, where he learns 
 that his father is dead, ib. ; succeeds " by the 
 unanimous assent of the nobles and great 
 men," and is crowned, Aug. 19, 1274, 382; 
 festivities at the coronation, 383 ; attacks 
 Llewellyn prince of Wales, who is forced to 
 submit to do homage, 384; various useful 
 statutes passed in the first parliament of, 385; 
 per^ecution and banishment of the Jews, 386; 
 visits king Philip of France, at Amiens, ib. ; 
 first statute of mortmain, ib. ; insurrection 
 of the Welch, 387 ; Llewellyn is slain, and 
 his brother executed, 388 ; final subjection of 
 the Welch, and birth of prince Edward at 
 Caernarvon, who is created prince of Wales 
 in 1284, 389 ; statute passed by, for the settle- 
 ment of Wales, 390 ; condition and manners 
 of the people in the tirne of, 391, et seq.; 
 negotiates a marriage for his son with the 
 heiress of the crown of Scotland, but she 
 dies, and the succession is disputed, 412; 
 commences his war against the inde- 
 pendence of Scotland, ib. ; Statute of Con- 
 firmation of the Charters, giving the sole 
 right of raising supplies to the people, on 
 October 10, 1297, 413; is appointed umpire 
 of the claimants to the Scottish crown, 
 414 ; demands an acknowledgment of his 
 superiority as liege lord, 415 ; it is not 
 given by the states, but assented to by Bruce 
 and Bailiol, and the crown is awarded to 
 Balliol, who does homage, 416 ; subdues an 
 insurrection in Wales, 417 ; invades Scot- 
 land, and compels Balliol to resign his ci-own 
 to him, 418 ; receives the homage of the 
 hisbops and peers of Scotland, 419; revolt of 
 Wallace against, 420; defeats the Scots at 
 Ealkirk, 421 ; the pope demands that the dis- 
 pute should bo left to his decision, and the 
 claim is indignantly rejected by the parlia- 
 ment of Lincoln, 423 ; constitution of the par- 
 liament of Lincoln, ib. ; again invades Scot- 
 land, and concludes a treaty excluding Wal- 
 lace, ib. ; besieges and takes Stirling, 424 ; 
 causes Wallace and Eraser to be executed, 
 425 ; Robert Bruce the younger heads another 
 revolt in 1305, ib. ; assembles an army to 
 attack Bruce, but dies before he reaches Scot- 
 land, on July 7, 1307, 426 
 Edward II. succeeds his father in 1307, i. 427; 
 conduct of, in his youth, 428; is crowned 
 Feb. 24, 1308, ib. ; recalls Gaveston, whom 
 his father had banished, and marries Isabella 
 of France, ib. ; appoints Gaveston governor of 
 Ireland, ib. ; discontent occasioned by the 
 favour shown to Gaveston, 429 ; Gaveston is 
 exiled, and again recalled, ib. ; is taken pri- 
 soner .and hung in 1312, 430 ; successes of 
 Piobert Bruce against, 431 ; reconciles him- 
 self to the barons and marches into Scotland, 
 433; battle of Bannoekbum on June 24, 1314, 
 434, 435; famine in England, 436; rise of the 
 Despensers and wealth of, ib. ; insurrection 
 of the barons, by whom the Despensers are 
 banished, 437 ; the sentence against the 
 Despensers annulled by a parluuncnt at 
 York, ib. ; overcomes the barons, and causes 
 the earl of Lancast?.r to be executed, 438 ; in- 
 
 vades Scotland, suffers from want of pro- 
 visions, is obliged to retreat, 439 ; concludes 
 a truce with Bruce, ib. ; order of Knights 
 Templars suppressed in England in 1308, ib,\ 
 the queen goes to France to conclude a treaty 
 with Philip in 1325, 441 ; Roger Mortimer 
 joins the queen at Paris, and returns with her 
 and prince Edward in arms against the king 
 in 1326, 442; Edward is deposed and im- 
 prisoned, and the Despensers are hung 443 ; 
 is murdered at Berkeley Castle in 1327, 444 ; 
 wretched state of England during the reign of, 
 447, 418 
 Edward III., son of Edward II., is invested 
 with the foreign possessions in 1325, and does 
 homage to the king of France, i. 441 ; joins 
 his mother and Roger Mortimer in an insur- 
 rection against his father, 442 ; is declared 
 guardian of the kingdom, 443 ; his father is 
 deposed, and he is crowned, Jan. 29, 1327, ib.; 
 first campaign of, against the Scots, 445 ; con- 
 cludes a peace, recognising the independence 
 of Scotland in 1328, ib. ; marries PhQippa of 
 Hainault, ib. ; seizure and execution of Mor- 
 timer, 446, 447 ; imprisonment of Isabella, 
 447 ; transition state of feudality in the time 
 of, 448 ; growth of independence among the 
 people, and the effect of the writings of 
 Wycliffe and Chaucer upon, 450; establish- 
 ment of the English language, ib. ; supports 
 Edward Balliol's claim to the Scottish crown, 
 and wins the battle of Halidon Hill, 451 ; 
 claims of, to the crown of France stated, 452 ; 
 naval victory of Sluys gained by, 453 ; com- 
 parison of the peoples of England, France, 
 and Flanders in the time of, ib. ; supports 
 James A'-'evcide in his revolt against the 
 count of Flanders, 454 ; relieves Jane de 
 Montfort, besieged in Hennebon by Philip of 
 France, 455 ; invades France with an army 
 in 1346, ib. ; the strength of his army con- 
 sisted in the superiority of the English yeo- 
 men over the feudal nobles, ib.; statute pro- 
 viding that England should not be subject to 
 France in case of his acquiring that kingdom, 
 456 ; early successes in the invasion, 457 ; 
 march to and passage of the Somme, 458, 459 ; 
 battle of Cressy, on Aug. 26, 1346, 460-462; 
 Cressy, the victory of the yeomen, 463 ; 
 battle of Neville's Cross, and capture of David 
 Bruce by Queen Philippa, 464 ; siege of 
 Calais, 465 ; surrender of and pardon of the 
 si.x burgesses at the intercession of the queen, 
 466; Edward founds an English colony at 
 Calais, 467; institution of the Order of the 
 Garter in 1349, 468 ; decoration and enlarge- 
 ment by, of his palaces of Westminster and 
 Windsor, 468, 469 ; great pestilence of the 
 Black Plague in 1349, 469 ; mortality and 
 misery occasioned by, 470 ; Statute of 
 Labourers passed to mitigate the effects of, 
 470, 471 ; injustice and inefficiency of the 
 statute, 472 ; he repels an invasion of the 
 Scots, and rivages the Lothians, 474; the 
 battle of Poitiers won by the Black Prince on 
 Sept. 19, 1356, and John, king of France, 
 taken prisoner, 475 ; chivalrous reception of 
 John in London, 476 ; miseries occasioned in 
 France by the invasion, and rise of the 
 Jacquerie, 477 ; renewed invasion of France 
 ill 1359, ib. ; peace of Bretigny concluded. 
 478 ; contrast of the state of the people of 
 England and France, ib. ; btipulationa in
 
 INDEX. 
 
 657 
 
 favour of freedom by the Commons of England, 
 479 ; statutes passed for the distinction of 
 ranks, ib. ; accession of Charles V. in France, 
 and resistance offered by, 483 ; war with 
 France renewed, 485 ; resumes the title of 
 king of France, 486 ; the French recover the 
 conquests of Edward, ib. ; his queen Philippa 
 dies in 1369, and his son Edward dies in 
 1376,487 ; Eichard is presented to parliament 
 as his successor, ib. ; rising influence of the 
 duke of Lancaster, and dotage of the king, ib. ; 
 dies on June 21, 1377, 488 
 
 Edward the Black Piince accompanies his father 
 in the invasion of France in 1346, i. 455 ; 
 conduct of, at the battle of Cressy, 462, 463 ; 
 ravages Gascony and Auvergne m 1355 and 
 1356, 474 ; cruelties of ancient war as com- 
 pared with modern, ib. ; wins the battle of 
 Poitiers on Sept. 19, 1356; and takes pri- 
 soner John, king of France, 475, 476 ; chival- 
 rous treatment of his captive, ib. ; appointed 
 prince of Aquitaine, 483 ; supports the cause 
 of Peter the Cruel in Spain, 484 ; wins the 
 battle of Najara in 1367, ib. ; captures and 
 releases Bertrand du Guesclin, 485 ; sum- 
 moned by Charles V. to answer complaints of 
 misgovemment, refuses, and war recom- 
 mences, ib. ; takes Limoges, concludes a 
 truce, and returns to England, 486 : dies in 
 1376, 487 
 
 Edward IV. (earl of March) escapes with. "War- 
 wick to Calais, after being declared traitors 
 by the parliament at Coventry, ii. 143 ; is 
 present at the battle of Northampton, ib. ; 
 succeeds his father as duke of York, on his 
 defeat and death at Wakefield, Dec. 31, 1460, 
 145 ; enters London, and is proclaimed as 
 king on March 4, 1461, 146 ; marches with 
 "Warwick to the North and wins the battle of 
 Towton, 147 ; crowned June 29, 1461, 150 ; 
 causes sir Baldwin Fulford to bo executed, 
 ib. ; other Lancastrians attainted in parlia- 
 ment, 151 ; renewed attempts to restore 
 Henry in 1462 and 1464, 152, 153 ; suppressed 
 by the battle of Hexham, 153 ; Somerset 
 beheaded, ib. ; concludes a truce with Scot- 
 land, ib. ; extravagance of, and debasement 
 of the coin by, ib. : injury to the industry of 
 the country, 154 ; arts of, to obtain popu- 
 larity, ib. ; maniage of, to Elizabeth Wood- 
 ville, 155 ; marries his sister to the heir of 
 the duke of Burgundy, 156 ; insurrection in 
 Yorkshire against an impost, 158 ; Clarence 
 and Warwick take Mm prisoner, ib. ; he 
 escapes, defeats them at Stamford, and they 
 fly to France, 159 ; queen Margaret, with 
 Warwick and Clarence, invade England, he 
 is deserted, and Henry is restored, 160 ; he 
 flies to Holland, 162 ; obtains some help from 
 the duke of Burgundy, ib. ; returns to Eng- 
 land, and lands at Eavenspur, 163 ; is recon- 
 ciled to Clarence, 164; wins the battle of 
 Barnet, 165 ; defeats queen Margaret at Tew- 
 kesbury, on May 4, 1471, 166; insuiTCction 
 of Falconbridge, suppressed by Eichard, duke 
 of Gloucester, 167 ; patronage of literature 
 and printing by, 171 ; invades France, is 
 cajoled by Lewis XI., and concludes the 
 treaty of Picquiny, 173, 174 ; opposes tlio 
 marnage of Clarence with the heiress of Bur- 
 gundy, 175 ; accuses Clarence of treason, who 
 is condemned, and dies in the Tower, ih. ; 
 war \vith Scotland in 1480, and the town of 
 VOL. Yui. — 266. 
 
 Berwick taken from the Scotch, 176 ; death 
 of, on April 9, 1483, ib. 
 
 Edward V., accession of, April 9, 1483, ii. 176 ; 
 provision for the education of, ib. ; dissen- 
 sions in the council of, 177; earl Elvers and 
 others of his council .arrested, 178 ; his mother 
 and brother take sanctuary in "NVcstminster, 
 ib. ; Gloucester appointed protector, 179 ; 
 time of coronation appointed, 180 ; the duke 
 of York removed to the Tower, 184 ; declared 
 illegitimate by parliament, 186, 187 ; deatli 
 of, with his brother, 188 ; evidence as to the 
 murder of, considered, 188-192 
 
 Edward VI., born Oct. 12, 1537, ii. 404 ; suc- 
 ceeds his father, Jan. 28, 1547, iii. 1 ; the 
 duke of Somerset chosen protector, 2 ; influ- 
 ence of the young king's character, and 
 journal of, 3 ; progress of the lleformatiou 
 under, 8 ; repeal of Henry VIII. 's various 
 statutes of treason, 9 ; dissatisfaction of, with, 
 the guardianship of Somerset, 17 ; insurrec- 
 tion in Cornwall and Devonshire against the 
 innovations on the old religion, 21 ; siege of 
 E.^eter by the insurgents, 22 ; defeat of the 
 insurgents at Clifl" Heath, and numerous 
 
 • executions, 23 ; John Ket's Norfolk rebellion 
 against inclosures, 23. ; the rebels encamp on 
 Mousehold heath, 24; their regular organi- 
 sation, 25 ; defeat a royal army in Norwich, 
 26 ; the earl of Warwick defeats the rebels, 
 on Aug. 27, 1549, 27 ; Ket and his brother 
 hung, 28 ; notice in Edward's Journal of the 
 confederacy of nobles against Somerset, 31 ; 
 who removes him to Windsor Castle, 34; 
 Somerset is arrested and sent to the Tower, 
 36 ; the protectorship revoked, ib. ; new lawa 
 agaiust the brealung of inclosures, 37 ; general 
 pardon granted, except to Anabaptists, 38; 
 persecution of that sect, and burning of Joan 
 Bocher, 38, 39 ; aversion of Edward to sign- 
 ing the warrant for her execution, 38 ; Arti- 
 cles of Belief issued by, 40; popish bishops 
 deprived of their sees, 41 ; remonstrates with 
 the priucess Mary against her use of the mass, 
 ib. ; Somerset restored to a place in the 
 council, 42; Somerset again arrested, con- 
 victed of felony, and executed in Jan. 1551, 
 43 ; peace with. France and restoration of 
 Boulogne, 46 ; Northumberland the actual 
 governor, ib. ; becomes ill, ib. ; makes a will 
 altering the succession in favour of ladj' Jaue 
 Grey, 47 ; dies on July 6, 1553, ib. ; charac- 
 ter of, 48 ; educational institutions of, ib. ; 
 table of the female heirs to the cro^^^l naiLiecl 
 in the will of Henry Ylll. and the devise of 
 Edward YI., 49 
 
 Edwin, king of Northumbria, receives Paulinus^ 
 i. 71 ; converted to Christianity by Paulinus, 
 72 
 
 Edwy, accession of, in 956, i. 133; outrage of 
 Dunstan during the coronation feast of, ib. ; 
 marriage of, with Elgiva, 134 ; revolt of Odo, 
 and appointment of Edgar as joint king, ib. ; 
 is separated from Elgiva, ib. ; death of in 
 960, 135 
 
 Egalite. See Orleans, due d'. 
 
 Egbert, early years of, at the court of Charle- 
 magne, i. 75 ; chosen king of Wessex in 800, 
 77 ; defeats Bcornwulf, of Mercia, in 823, at 
 EUendune, and consolidates England, ib. ; 
 dies, 837, 79 
 
 Eg-erton, colonel, unsuccessful results of his 
 31ahratta expedition, vii. 129
 
 658 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Egerton, lord ?., urges the importance of re- 
 ducing the paper duty, 1836, viii. 372 
 
 Eg-remont, lord, secretary of state, 1761-3. vi. 
 263, 321 ; again secretary of state, 1763, 261; 
 dies of apoplexy, 263 
 
 E ffvptians or gipsies, statute of Elizabeth against, 
 iii. 272 
 
 Ehrenbreitstein capitulates to the French, Jan. 
 1799, vii. 382 
 
 El Arish seized by Jezzar, 1799, vLi. 379 ; re- 
 covered by the Allies, 405 
 
 Elchingen, battle of, 1805, vii. 444 
 
 Eldon, John Scott, lord, his maiden speech on 
 Fox's India bill, 17S3, vii. 138; attorney- 
 general ; dra^vs up the Traitorous Correspond- 
 ence bill, 267 ; his prosecution speech against 
 Hardy, 301 ; chancellor, 1801-1806, 401, 577 ; 
 his opinion of the Volunteers, 429 ; against 
 an administration on a, viii. 158, 204; his 
 political opinions, vii. 542 ; opposes any repeal 
 of the laws, viii. 62 ; his opinion of broad 
 basis, 431 ; chancellor, 1807-1827, 481, 577 ; 
 the criminal code, 63 ; advocates the abolition 
 of the appeal of murder, 101, 102; considers 
 the Jlanchcster refonn men as guilt}' of trea- 
 son, 108 ; promotes the passing of the six acts, 
 1819, 109; recognises Caroline as queen of 
 England, 165 ; opposes any measures un- 
 favourable to the corn laws, 200, 201 ; his 
 test of official fitness ; anecdote of, at the duke 
 of York's funeral, 1827, 202 ; resigns his 
 chancelloi'ship on the accession of the Can- 
 ning ministry, 1827, 204 ; considers himself 
 ill-used on being omitted from the Welling- 
 ton ministry, 228 ; objects to the bill for the 
 repeal of the Corporation and Test acts, 233 ; 
 opposes the relief of Roman Catholics, 238 ; 
 endeavours to persuade the king to refuse his 
 assent to the measure, 240, 241 ; his fears for 
 the destruction of the aristocracy by the 
 Eeforni bill, 273; his speech against reform, 
 1831, 282, 283 ; against the repeal of the corn 
 laws, 1833, 310, 311 ; laments his inability to 
 obtain the rejection of the Municipal Reform 
 bill, 364, 365 
 
 Elections and election scenes, v. 305 ; vii. 144 ; 
 viii. 98, 235, 236, 301, 302 
 
 Elgin marbles purchased by government, 1816, 
 viii. 150 
 
 Elgiva, queen of Edwy, persecution of, by 
 Dustan and Odo, i. 134 
 
 Elie, his share in the attack on the Bastille, 
 1789, vii. 173 
 
 Eliot, sir John, committed to the Tower for his 
 speech in the House of Commons on the 
 impeachment of the duke of Buckingham, iii. 
 390 ; refuses to make any submission, and is 
 released, ib. ; assists in the debate on the Pe- 
 tition of Rights in 1628, 397 ; prepares pro- 
 testations against popery and arbitrary taxa- 
 tion, 403 ; the Speaker held in the chair 
 •while they are voted, 404; is sent to the 
 Tower, after the parliament had been dissolved 
 in 1629, ib. ; refuses to acknowledge the 
 jurisdiction of the King's Bench in matters 
 committed in the House of Commons, 409 ; is 
 recommitted to the Tower in March, 1629, 
 and dies on November 27, 1632, ib.; his em- 
 ployments while imprisoned, 410; the judg- 
 ment against him reversed after the Restora- 
 tion, ib. 
 Elizabctli, wife of Edward IV., takes sanctuary 
 in WestminBtcr with her second son the duke 
 
 of York, ii. 178 ; the duke of York taken 
 from under her care to join his brother in the 
 Towci-, 184 ; submits to Richard and leaves 
 the sanctuary, 202 ; alleged harsh treatment 
 of, by Henry VII. and confinement in the 
 nunnery of Bermondsey, 214; dies in 1492, 
 231 
 Elizabeth, queen, bom Sept. 7, 1533, ii. 349 ; 
 interview of, with Edward after Henry's 
 death, iii. 2 ; is courted by lord Thomas Sey- 
 mour, who is executed for treason, 16; joins 
 Mar}' in her progress to London, 54 ; is pre- 
 sent at the coronation of Mary, 57 ; is sent for 
 from Ashbi'idge to court by Mary, 68; accused 
 of a conspii-acy with Courtenay, earl of De- 
 vonshire, and committed to the Tower, 69 ; 
 letter of, to Mary, 70 ; is removed to Wood- 
 stock, 71 ; suspected of a knowledge of the 
 Dudley conspiracy, in 1556, 98 ; letter of, to 
 Mary, 99 ; declines a mamage with the duke 
 of Savoy, 101 ; the Spanish ambassador's ac- 
 count of her character, 105 ; succeeds to the 
 crown on Nov. 17, 1558, 107 ; refuses to at- 
 tend mass on Christmas Day, 108 ; the par- 
 liament press her to maiTy, and she replies, 
 109; coronation and popularity of, 110; 
 Mary's statutes in favour of popery repealed, 
 113; moderation of her proceedings, 114; 
 peace concluded with France, 115; becomes 
 the acknowledged head of the reformed reli- 
 gion, 116 ; lends assistance secretly to the Re- 
 formers of Scotland, 119; sends an army to 
 the assistance of the Lords of the Congregation 
 in Scotland, 1 20 ; concludes a peace with 
 Scotland, in which she provides for the safety 
 of the Reformers, 121 ; sends an ambassador 
 to condole with Mary on the death of Francis 
 II., 123; policy of, towards ilary, 124; re- 
 fuses her a safe-conduct for her return from 
 France to Scotland, ib. ; increased public 
 spirit of the people under, 129 ; restores the 
 coin to its standard purity, 130 ; processions 
 of, 131 ; sends aid to the French protestants, 
 in 1563, 132; act against papists passed, re- 
 quiring the oath of supremacy to be taken, 
 ib.; Edmund and Arthur Pole convicted of 
 conspiracy, and imprisoned for Life, 133 ; Act 
 against "fond and fantastical prophecies,"' 
 ib. ; continued refusal of, to declare Mary of 
 Scotland her successor, 134 et scq. ; recom- 
 mends lord Robert Dudley to queen Mary as a 
 husband, ib. ; refuses to consent to her mar- 
 riage with Damley, 135 ; secretly aids Llur- 
 ray and the reforming nobles in their revolt 
 against Mary, 138 ; becomes godmother to the 
 infant James of Scotland, 143 ; interferes to 
 procure an impartial trial of Bothwell, 147 ; 
 remonstrates with the Scottish nobles against 
 the imprisonment of Mary, 151 ; and more 
 strongly against her extorted abdication, 152; 
 embarrassment of the government of, on 
 Mary's taking refuge in England, 156 ; ques- 
 tion as to the justice of detaining Mary as a 
 prisoner, 157 ; refuses to see Mary during the 
 conference appointed to hear the charges 
 against her, 158 : anxiety of, for the safe cus- 
 tody of Mary, 160; commits the duke of Nor- 
 folk to the Tower for contracting to marry the 
 queen of Scots, 161 ; insuirection in the 
 North in favoin- of the Roman Catholic reli- 
 gion, ib. ; touching story of lady Catherine 
 Grey, 102; incorrectness of the statement 
 that she died in the Tower, 1G3 ; intrigues of
 
 INDEX. 
 
 659 
 
 Philip of Spain, and the Eoman Catholics 
 aijainst, 168 ; the earls of "Westmorland and 
 Northumberland head a Roman Catholic in- 
 surrection in the north, 169 ; suppressed by 
 the earl of Sussex, ib. ; papal bull of excom- 
 munication against her, 170 ; new statute 
 against papists, 171 ; she is urged to proceed 
 criminally against Mary, ib- ; trial of the 
 duke of Norfolk on the discovery of a fresh 
 intrigue, 173 ; reluctance of Elizabeth to 
 order his execution, 174 ; massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew's, 175; conduct of Elizabeth on 
 receiving the news, 176 ; insecurity felt by, 
 in consequence of the continued intrigues in 
 favour of Mary, 177, 178 ; plots of the Je- 
 suits in England against, 180 ; Campion and 
 others executed, ib. ; increased severities 
 against the papists, 181 ; affords assistance to 
 the Protestants in the Netherlands, ib. ; de- 
 clines the sovereignty of them offered to her, 
 181, 182; represses the ambitious views of 
 Leicester, 183 ; naval successes of Drake, in 
 1585, 185 ; "Walsingham's announcement of 
 new conspiracies, ib. ; conviction and execu- 
 tion of Parry, 186 ; Babington's conspiracy, 
 187 ; trial of the conspirators, 188 ; alleged 
 participation of Mary in the plot, 189 ; ]\lary 
 IS transferred to Fotheringay, 190 ; letter of 
 Elizabeth to James ^TE. , 191 ; association for 
 her protection, 194 ; statute for the protection 
 of the queen's person, ib. ; issues a commission 
 for the trial of JIary under this statute, ib. ; 
 judgment is pronounced against Mary, 197 ; 
 parliament urges the execution of the sen- 
 tence, and the queen's reply, 199 ; continued 
 hesitation of, 200 ; signs the warrant f u- 
 Mary's execution, ib. ; interview of, with Da- 
 vison, ib. ; endeavours to exonerate herself 
 from the charge of having caused Mary's 
 death, 203 ; slight grounds for the justifica- 
 tion, 204 ; examination of the charge, in Da- 
 vison's statement, that she desired that Mary 
 might be privately assassinated, 205 et seq. ; 
 threatened invasion of England by Spain, 
 214 ; suspicions of, that James of Scotland in- 
 tended to aid Spain, 216 ; fresh preparations 
 made by Philip, 217; an army assembled at 
 Tilbury, 219 ; measures taken for the defence 
 of the coast, 221 ; speech of, to the anny at 
 Tilbury, 222 ; loyalty of the Roman Catholics, 
 on the threatened invasion by Spain, 223 ; 
 libels published abroad against the queen, 
 224 ; the Armada is sent forth, 225 ; its force, 
 226 ; the English fleet at Plymouth, and its 
 force, 227 ; superiority of the mariners, ib. ; 
 notice of the commanders, 228 ; the fleet 
 leaves Plymouth on July 19, 1588, to en- 
 counter the Armada, ib. ; the successful fight 
 up Channel, 230 ; tactics of the English fleet, 
 231 ; several actions ofl" the Isle of Wight, 
 on. July 25, 232 ; the Armada attacked by 
 English fire-ships in Calais-roads, 233 ; the 
 last great fight, on July 29, 234 ; flight of the 
 scattered Ai-mada to the north, 235 ; destruc- 
 tive losses of the Armada in action and in its 
 flight, 236 ; triumphal procession of the queen 
 to St. Paul's, 237 ; expedition sent to Por- 
 tugal to assist Don Antonio, 238 ; Vigo taken 
 and burnt, 239 ; energy of the people showii 
 by their volunteering against Philip, by then- 
 discoveries, and in their literature, 239, 240 ; 
 religious sects in the second half of her reign, 
 241 ; progress of the Nonconformists, 242, 
 
 243 ; efforts of archbishop Whitgift to repress 
 Puritanism, 244; statutes against non-con- 
 forming protestants and popish recusants, in 
 1593, ib.; sends an expedition to aid Henry 
 ly. and the Protestants of France, 260 ; in- 
 dications of a contest with parliament for 
 prerogative against privilege, 261 ; contests 
 between the Crown and Commons, 262 ; Mo- 
 rice sent to prison for a speech in the House 
 of Commons, 263; extenuations of Eliza- 
 beth's conduct, ib. ; attempt of Philip to 
 procure her to be poisoned, 264 ; expeditions 
 against the West Indies and against Cadiz, 
 265 ;_ statute passed for the relief of the poor, 
 in 1597, 268 ; statute against vagabondage, 
 269 ; statute for regulating wages, 271 ; sta- 
 tute against Egyptians, or gipsies, 272 ; sta- 
 tutes against the increase of buildings in Lon- 
 don, 275 ; death of Burleigh, 278 ; and of 
 Philip, 279 ; continued war with Spain, ib. ; 
 state of L-eland, 280 et seq. ; Elizabeth quar- 
 rels with Essex, and appoiuts him lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland, to suppress the rebellion of 
 Tyrone, 282 ; he fails, and returns to Eng- 
 land, 283; interview of, with Essex, 283, 
 284 ; her exposition of her method of retaining 
 the affection of the people, 285 ; commits 
 Essex to " free custody," ib. ; Essex attempts 
 an insurrection, 287 ; it fails, and he surren- 
 ders, 288 ; is tried with the earl of South- 
 ampton, ib. ; and is executed, on Feb. 25, 
 1601, 290 ; the Commons remonstrate against 
 monopolies, 292 ; and she promises to abate 
 them, 293 ; she dies, March 24, 1603, 294 ; 
 note on Essex's ring, 295, 296 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of James I., married to the 
 elector palatine in 1613, iii. 362; her hus- 
 band chosen long of Bohemia, on the Pro- 
 testant interest, 377 ; the palatinate invaded 
 by the Catholic powers, ib. ; tardy and useless 
 assistance aftbrded by James, ib. ; the elector 
 defeated at Prague, and expelled from the 
 palatinate, 378 
 
 Elizabeth, princess, accompanies Louis in his 
 flight from Paris, 1791, vi. 200-202; guillo- 
 tined, 1794, vii. 298 
 
 Elizabetli, czarina of Russia, joins the coalition 
 against Prussia, vi. 215 ; reigned, 1741-1762, 
 465 
 
 Elkington, Joseph, discovers the system of 
 under drainage, vii. 26 
 
 EUenborough, lord ; lord chief justice, vii. 463 ; 
 determines to preside in court, and to convict 
 W. Hone, viii. 88 ; his harshness and perse- 
 cution of the prisoner, who obtains a verdict 
 of not guilty, ib. ; presides over another trial 
 with the same result, 89 ; conduct after the 
 trial ; contemplates resigning his office, 90 ; 
 president of the Board of Control, 354 ; go- 
 vernor-general of India, 459 ; his proclama- 
 tions to the people of India, 460, 461 ; makes 
 war on the Mahrattas ; recalled by the East 
 India Company, 511 
 
 Ellcsniere, lord, denies that Wellington was 
 surprised at Waterloo, viii. 28, 29 
 
 Elliott, captain, superintendent at Canton ; his 
 proceedings; blockades Canton; his arrival 
 at the Factory described, viii. 445 ; his futiUi 
 attempts at negotiation, 447 ; settles the diffi- 
 culties, 448 
 
 Elliot, general, governor of Gibraltar ; his de- 
 fence of the fort, 1782, vi. 451, 453, 454 
 
 Elliott, Mrs., quotation from, on the execution
 
 660 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of Louis XVI., Tii. 251, 252 ; anecdote by, of 
 tlie French feeling towards Fox and Pitt, 270 
 
 Elphinstone, major-general, appointed to com- 
 mand the British army in Cabul, viii. 453 ; 
 his conference with Akbar Khan, 457 ; died 
 April 23, 1842, 459 
 
 Emaun-Ghur, Napier's march to, and destruc- 
 tion of, viii. 508, 509 
 
 Emigration, extent of, 1815-1852, viii. 409 
 
 Emmanuel College chapel, Cambridge, built by 
 "Wren, v. 454 
 
 Emmett, Eobert, heads an insurrection in Dub- 
 lin, July 23, 1803, vii. 426; trial and execution 
 of, 427 
 
 Empson, sir Richard and Edmund Dudley, mi- 
 nisters of Henry VII. in his extortions, ii.210, 
 241 ; convicted, and executed for extortion, 
 on the accession of Henry VIII., 258 
 
 Enghien, duo d', arrest and murder of, 21 Mar., 
 1804, vii. 433 
 
 Engraving, state of, temp. 1760-83, vii. 77; 
 Strange and WooUett, ib. ; mezzotint en- 
 graving and engravers, 78 ; Boydell, his 
 large business in engravings, 78, 79 ; exten- 
 sion of the public taste for, viii. 156 ; Sharp, 
 and other line engravers, 156, 157 ; wood 
 engraving revived by Bewick ; his publica- 
 tions; lithography and its earliest cultivators, 
 
 157 
 
 Enniskillen, the Irish Protestants take refuge 
 in, 1689, V. 82; threatened siege of, 86 
 
 Ei)iscopalian clergy, of Scotland, not well fa- 
 voured towards the Test Act, v. 86 ; hatred of 
 the Scotch to the, 87 
 
 Ejiiscopalians, their strength in Scotland, v. 
 130 
 
 Erasmus's account of his pilgrimage to "Walsing- 
 ]iam and Canterbury, ii. 246 ; remarks of, on 
 the ill condition of the houses, and the in- 
 attention to diet in England, 254; his com- 
 pliment to the spirit of the people, ib. 
 
 Ercole, Renaldo, duke of Modena, vii. 326 ; buys 
 Bonaparte off his territories, 327 
 
 El-nest Augustus of Hanover. See Cumberland. 
 
 Erskine. See Mar, earl of. 
 
 Erskine, Thomas, lord, defends lord George 
 Gordon, 1781, vi. 410; his maiden speech, 
 1783; advocates Fox's India hill, vii. 138; 
 defends Paine, 1792, 248 ; opposes the Trai- 
 torous Correspondence bill, 267 ; counsel for 
 Thomas Hardy, 301 ; his reply to the attor- 
 ney-general's charge, 302; defends Tooke and 
 Thelwall, 303 ; passage from his speech for 
 Hardy, 304; lord chancellor, 1806, 464, 
 
 •577 
 
 Espremenil arrested and imprisoned for oppo- 
 sing the establishment of " La Coin- Pleniere,' ' 
 vii. 163 
 
 Es.sayists; the "Tatler," commenced by Richard 
 Steele, 1709, v. 402 ; its aim ; it becomes the 
 substitute of the old newspapers, 403 ; influ- 
 ence and objects of the, 406 ; their endeavours 
 in diffusing knowledge, 407, 408 ; they direct 
 the attention of the people to our old English 
 ballads, and our standard poets, 408, 409 ; and 
 create a general taste for reading, 413 ; their 
 description of the prude and the coquette, 423 
 of ))uppet shows and the masquerade, 424, 425 
 their reprobation of drinking in excess, 426 
 of giving luxurious dinners, and of duelling, 
 427 ; the " Rambler," commenced liy John- 
 mm, 1750; the "Idler," 1758; the " Adven- 
 turer," issued 1752; the "World," 1753; and 
 
 the "Connoisseur," 1754; Moore and Cam» 
 bridge ; Colman and Thornton, vii. 89 
 
 Essequibo retaken by the French, vi. 434 
 
 Essex, London supply of food from, vii. 8 ; ex- 
 tinction of saffron cultivation in, 9 
 
 Essex, Eobert Devereux, earl of, accompanies 
 Drake in the expedition to attack Spain, iii. 
 239 ; early career of, 260 ; commands the ex- 
 pedition sent to aid Henry IV., ib. ; defeats 
 the attempt of Philip to poison Elizabeth, 264, 
 265 ; is appointed to the command of an ex- 
 pedition to attack Spain, 265 ; takes and 
 burns Cadiz, in 1596, 266 ; commands another 
 expedition with Raleigh, with whom he dis- 
 agrees, ib. ; quan-els with the queen, and is 
 then appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, in 
 1599, 282 ; fails to suppress the rebellion of 
 Tyrone, and returns to England, 283 ; inter- 
 view of, with the queen, 284 ; is committed 
 to 'free custody,' 285 ; schemes of, in favour 
 of James, 286 ; attempts to raise an insurrec- 
 tion, 287 ; it fails, and he surrenders, 288 ; 
 trial of, with his accomplice the earl of South- 
 ampton, ib. ; conduct of Bacon, 289 ; the 
 execution of Essex, on Feb. 25, 1601, 290; 
 note on the story of the ring, 295, 296 
 
 Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, divorced from 
 his wife, iii. 361 ; proclaimed a traitor by 
 Charles I. as captain-general of the parlia- 
 mentary army, 483 ; marches from London 
 against the king on Sept. 9, 1642, 498 ; at 
 Northampton, iv. 2 ; moves his army to "Wor- 
 cester, and is defeated by Rupert, 3 ; engages 
 the royal forces at Edgehill, and marches to 
 London, 7 ; indecision of, 10 ; Reading sur- 
 renders to, 15 ; relieves Gloucester, 22 ; sur- 
 prises Cirencester, ib. ; engages the royal 
 forces at Newbury, 23 ; blockades Oxford, 33 ; 
 disagreements between "Waller and, 34; be- 
 sieges Exeter, ib. ; sad condition of, in Corn- 
 wall, 36 ; he leaves his troops, and his army 
 is dispersed, 37 ; meeting at the house of, ib. ; 
 death of, Sept. 16, 1647, 65 ; medal struck in 
 honour of, ib. 
 
 Essling. See Aspem. 
 
 Ethelbald, ravages in England by the Danes 
 during the reign of, i. 79 ; aids his father in 
 a battle against the Danes in 850, 80 ; had 
 obtained the kingdom of "Wessex from Ms 
 father during his lifetime, 85 ; death of, ib. 
 
 Ethclbert, king of Kent, power and dominions 
 of, i. 66 ; receives the Christian missionary 
 Augustin, 67 ; is converted, 68 ; account of 
 the code of laws published by, 69, 70 ; death 
 of, A.D. 616, 69 
 
 Ethelbcrt, succeeds Ethelwulf, as king of Kent, 
 i. 85 ; and his brother Ethelbald, as king of 
 "Wessex, in 860, ib. ; dies, 806, 94 
 
 Ethclfleda, daughter of Alfred, energetic cha- 
 racter, military successes, and death of, i. 
 122 
 
 Etheh-ed, succeeds Ethelbert, 966, i. 94 ; death 
 of, 100 
 
 Ethelred the Unready, accession of in 978, i. 149; 
 crowned and cursed by Dunstan, 149, 150 ; 
 attacked by the Danes, under Sweyn, in 980; 
 and following years, 151 ; pays tribute to 
 them first in 991, ib. ; continued in succeed- 
 ing attacks, 152 ; massacre of the Danes by 
 order of, in 1002, 153 ; is again attacked by 
 SwcjTi, and England is ravaged, ib. ; Canter- 
 bm-y burnt by the Danes, 154; attacked again 
 by SwevD. kiii^ of Denmark, who proclaims
 
 INDEX. 
 
 661 
 
 himself king of England, loo ; retires to 
 Normaridy, ib. ; recalled to England, ib. 
 death of, in 1016, ib. 
 
 Ethelwulf, ravages in England by the Danes 
 during the reign of, i. 79; journey of, to 
 Home, 82 ; death of in 8o8, 83 
 
 Eugene, prince, commands the Austrian army, 
 1701, V. 250; becomes a confidant of Marl- 
 borough's, V. 277; sent to cover the Rhine 
 in the campaign of 1704, ib. ; announces the 
 movements of the Gallo-Bavarian army to 
 Marlborough, 280 ; having united his force 
 ■with Marlborough's, they resolve to give the 
 enemy battle, 281 ; marches against them, 
 Aug. 13, and takes up his position on the 
 right, in front of the elector, with difficulty, 
 281 ; his attacks upon whom meet with but 
 slight success, 283 ; his troops are mistaken 
 for those of the enemy, 284 ; joins the duke 
 of Savoy's forces; defeats the French, and 
 drives them out of Italy, 1706, 300; plans 
 ■with Marlborough an attack upon France; 
 crosses the Alps and the Vai', and sets do\vn 
 before Toulon, July 25, 1707, 332 ; joins 
 Marlborough, 336 ; directs the siege of Lille, 
 I7O8, 340 ; encamps with Marlborough and 
 100,000 men before Lille, June 21, 1709; 
 Tournay surrenders, 343 ; aids in investing 
 Douay, 1710, 362 ; visits London, 391 ; con- 
 ducts the campaign of 1712, in co-operation 
 with the dulie of Ormond ; opens the siege of 
 Quesnoy ; it suiTenders, July 4, 392 ; he is 
 deserted by the duke of Ormond, and defeated 
 by Villars at Denain, July 24, 393 ; defeats 
 the Turks at Pcterwaradin, 1717, vi. 32 ; con- 
 ducts the war a2;aiiist marshal Berwick, 1734, 
 71 ; died 1736, «6. 
 
 Evans, sir De Lacy ; commands the British 
 Legion in Spain, viii. 373 
 
 Evelyn, John, his uncertainty as to James II.'s 
 whereabouts, v . 79 ; his grumble at Bun- 
 combe, 113 ; his house at Sayes Court is hired 
 by William for Peter the Great, 1698, 211 ; 
 notes on "Wren, and the rebuilding of St. 
 Paul's, 449 ; introduces Gibbons into notice, 
 459 
 
 Evertsen, Dutch admiral, engaged in the defeat 
 off Beachy Head, 1690, v. Ill 
 
 Evesham, battle of, Aug. 4, 1265, i. 376 
 
 Ewart introduces the Counsel for Prisoners' bill 
 twice, viii. 370 
 
 Excise scheme, by TValpole ; he fails in passing 
 the bill embodying this scheme, 1733, vi. 69, 
 71 
 
 Excommunication, small effect of, on the jieople, 
 temp. John, i. 339, 340 
 
 Exmouth, lord, concludes a treaty with Algiers ; 
 an outrage having been committed on the 
 British, he is sent out with an expedition, 
 ■viii. 48 ; his offered terms not being answered, 
 48, 49 ; he fights the battle of Algiers, Aug. 
 27, 1816, 49, 50 ; and on the following morn- 
 ing the Dey accepts the terms originally 
 offered, 50 
 
 Eylau, battle of, Feb. 9, 1807, vii. 481, 482 
 
 Fairfax, sir Thomas, presents the people's 
 petition to Charles I. at York, iii. 482 ; dis- 
 putes the supremacy of the north with lord 
 Newcastle, iv. 15 ; commands one of the par- 
 liamentarian armies, 33 ; bei^ieges Lathoui 
 house, 35 ; nominated general, 38 ; urges 
 
 that Cromwell should be chief commander of 
 the horse, 41 ; takes an active part in tiie 
 battle of Naseby, 42, &c. ; letter from Crom- 
 well to, 47 ; Bristol invested by him and 
 Cromwell, ib. ; advances upon Oxford, 57 ; 
 which surrenders to him, 64 ; secures the 
 Bodleian library from .spoliation, ib. ; influ- 
 ence of, in the army, not so great as that of 
 Cromwell's, 68 ; allows the king to have an 
 interview with his children, 75 ; advances 
 upon London, 77 ; it submits, 78 ; maruhes 
 thi^ough London in triumph, 79; he and 
 Cromwell put down the Levellers in the 
 army, 86 ; fights the insurgents at Maidstone, 
 and quells the insurrection, 93 ; invests Lon- 
 don, which surrenders to him, ib. ; orders sir 
 Charles Lucas and sir George Lisle to be shot, 
 ib. ; his lady's conduct at the trial of Charles 
 I., 109; supnresses the Levellers in the army, 
 118 ; unwilling to invade the Scots, 132 ; 
 resigns his office of general, ib. 
 
 Falczi, peace of, July 2, 1711, v. 389 
 
 Falkirk, battle of, Jan. 17, 1746, vi. 161, 162 
 
 Falkland, Lucius Cary, lord, charges of, against 
 the lord chancellor Fmch, iii. 442 ; becomes 
 secretary of state, in 1641, 469; his tole- 
 •rance and moderation the cause of his quit- 
 ting the parliamentary party, 473 ; prinoo 
 Rupert refuses to take directions through, iv. 
 3 ; death of, at b;Utle of Newbury, Sept. 20, 
 1643, 24 ; character of, and conduct at battle 
 of Newbury, ib. 
 
 Falkland Islands, vicissitudes of the, vi. 323 
 
 Family Compact, treat)' known as the, Aug. lo, 
 1761, vi. 251, 467 
 
 Famine in England, and terrible effects of in 
 1258, i. 371 
 
 Fancourt, colonel, slain, 1806, in attempting to 
 save his men from mutinied sepoys, vii. 462 
 
 Farnham, a great provincial corn market for- 
 merly, V. 32 
 
 Fastolf, sir John, wins the battle of Herrings, 
 ii. 83 ; degraded from the Order of the Garter 
 for cowardice at the battle of Patay, 88 
 
 Fearnev, William, his share in capturing the 
 San Josef, 1797, vii. 337 
 
 Federation fete at Paris, July 14, 1790, vii. 188, 
 189 
 
 Females, political zeal of, first half of 18th 
 century, v. 417, 418; employments and dress 
 of, 418, 419 ; estimate of their character, 419, 
 420 
 
 Fens, drainage of the Lincolnsliire, v. 21, 22 ; 
 vii. 14, 15 
 
 Fenwick, sir John, implicated by Goodman in 
 the Invasion plot, 1696, v. 196; there being 
 deficient legal evidence to convict him, he is 
 attainted and executed, Jan. 28, 1697, 197 
 
 Fcrand, a deputy in the French Convention ; 
 mm-dered, 1795, vii. 321 
 
 Ferdinand of Castile marries his daughter Ca- 
 therine to prince Arthur, the eldest son of 
 Henry VII., ii. 235 ; uses the English army 
 for the furtherance of his own plans, 264 ; 
 concludes a truce with France, 267 ; dies in 
 1516, and is succeeded by his grandson, 
 Charles v., 275 
 
 Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. See Ferdi- 
 nand IV. of Naples. 
 
 Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany; recog- 
 nises the French republic, vii. 326 
 
 Ferdinand IV. of Naples, 1759-1806, vi.46G ; vii. 
 575 , files to Palermo, 1799, vii. 382 ; IS06,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 473; reascends the throne, 1815; in 1816 he 
 assumed the title of Ferdinand I. of the Two 
 Sicilies, succeeded by Francis in 1825, 575 
 
 Ferdinand VII. of Spain, solicits Napoleon's 
 protection, 1808, vii. 497 ; Charles IV. abdi- 
 cates the crown in favour of, Mar. 19, 498 ; 
 falls into Napoleon's power, ib. ; proclaimed 
 king of Spain, 1808 ; war declared against 
 France, 499 ; recognised by Napoleon as king 
 of Spain, 1814, 568, 574 ; released by the 
 French, 1823, viii. 1&6; died 1833, 268, 
 373 
 
 Ferdinand, Don, duke of Parma, vii. 326; buys 
 Napoleon off his territories, 327 
 
 Ferguson, his march on Soliguac hindered, vii. 
 502, 503 
 
 Ferozeshah, battle of, Dec. 21 and 22, 1845, 
 viii. 544, 545 
 
 Fersen, count de, aids in contriving Louis's 
 flight from Paris, 1791, vii. 200, 201 
 
 Feudal system introduced into England by 
 AVilliam tlic Conqueror, i. 214 ; exactions im- 
 posed through it by William, 215 ; substitu- 
 tion of rent and wages for feudal services, ii. 
 108 ; death struggle of, temp. Henry VI. 129 
 
 Feudality, transition state of, temp. Edw. III. 
 i, 448 ; description of, as given by Froissart, 
 449; military spirit fostered by, ib. 
 
 Jeudal rights abolished in France, 1789, vii. 
 176 
 
 Feuillans, a French political part}', twice ob- 
 tains the administration of afiairs, 1792, vii. 
 217, 218, 220 
 
 Fielding, Henry, produces his "Pasquin," 
 1737, vi. 90 ; his ''Inquiry into the Causes of 
 the late Increase of Jobbers," 1750 ; places 
 of entertainment ; drunkenness, 191 ; gaming 
 among the vulgar; his account of the state of 
 London, 192; his "Adventures of Josepii 
 Andrews," published, 1742 ; its success ; John- 
 son's opinion of, vii. 88; "Jonathan Wild," 
 published, 1743; "Tom Jones," 1749, 89; 
 "Amelia," 1751; died 1764, :3, ; description 
 of contemporary manners by, 91-94, 107, 113, 
 114, 120 
 
 Ficschi. See Louis Philippe, viii. 374 
 
 Fire of London. See London. 
 
 Firmin, his scheme for employing the poor ; his 
 religious tenets ; his death puts a stop to the 
 printing of Socinian books, v. 205 
 
 Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester, is accused of 
 particiitatiou in the treason of the Holy Maid 
 of Kent, ii. 354; is sent to the Tower for 
 refusing to swear to the illegality of the mar- 
 riage of Henry VIII. with Catherine, 356; is 
 tried, convicted, and executed, 362-364 
 
 Fisher, captain, communicates to Portland a 
 design against Williani*s life, v. 189 
 
 Fitzgerald, lord Edward, brother of the duke of 
 Leinster, vii. 363 ; a member of the Irish 
 Directory ; on the arrest of the other mem- 
 bers he conceals himself; his house sur- 
 rounded by the military ; he resists, kills the 
 magistrate, and is himself shot, 364; died 
 June 5, 1798, ib. 
 
 Fitzgerald, captain Eobcrt, saves Dublin from 
 being iilundercd and burnt, 1690, v. 114 
 
 Fitzgerald, Vescy, president of the Board of 
 Trade, viii. 234; iiiHuence among the Clare 
 lloman Catholics, 235 
 
 Fitzhrirris, lord, description of Pitt's feelings 
 on lord Afel ville being censured bv parliament, 
 1805, vii. 439 
 
 Fitzherbcrt, Mrs., marries the Prince of Wales 
 (George IV.), Dec. 21, 1787, vii. 152 
 
 Fitz-Osbert, or William with the Long Beard, 
 complains to Richard I. in 1196, of civic cor- 
 ruptions and oppressions, raises an insurrec- 
 tion, is stabbed and hanged, i. 320, 321 
 
 Fitzwilliam, earl, lord lieutenant of Ireland; 
 recalled the same year, vii. 316, 362 ; dis- 
 missed his lord lieutenancy of the West 
 Riding, viii. 108 
 
 Flaxman, John, an eminent sculptor, vii. 79, 
 80 ; high character of his designs, viii. 149 
 
 Fleet prison, state of the, 1729, 1730, vi. 63, 
 64 
 
 Flesselles, mayor of Paris, shot, July 1789, vii- 
 174 
 
 Fletcher of Saltoun, his opinion on the relati'^i> 
 positions of England and Scotland, v. 214 
 
 Fletcher, lieutenant-colonel, helps Wellington 
 in constructing the lines of Torres Vedras, vii. 
 524 
 
 Fleurus, battle of, 1690, v. 120 ; May 29, 1794, 
 vii. 312 
 
 Fleury, cardinal, prime minister of Louis XV. ^ 
 vi. 54 ; his ofierS to the English, 96 
 
 Flitcroft, architect of Woburn House, v. 458 
 
 Flodden Field, battle of, on Sept. 9, 1513, ii. 271, 
 
 Florida ceded to Spain, 1782, vi. 458 ; to Great 
 Britain, 1763, 467; to the United States, 1820, 
 viii. 382 
 
 Flushing, failure of the British to take, 1809, 
 vii. 619, 520 
 
 Foley, captain, commander of the Goliath at the 
 battle of the Nile, 1798, vii. 356 ; present at 
 the battle of Copenhagen, 1801, 404 
 
 Foil)', the coft'ee-house ; its visitors, v. 57, 58 
 
 Fontainebleau, peace of, Sept. 2, 1679, v. 388 ; 
 treaty of, vii. 495 ; concordat at, Jan. 25, 1813» 
 580 
 
 Fontenoy, battle of. May 11, 1745, vi. 113, 114 
 
 Fonthill erected by Wyatt, viii. 141 
 
 Food, supply of London with, 19th centurv, viii. 
 387-389 
 
 Forbes, Duncan, lord advocate, 1736, vi. 83; 
 conducts the inquiry into the Poi-teoiis riots, 
 ib. ; proposed the enlisting of Scotch regi- 
 ments, 116, 117; MacDonald informs him of 
 Charles Edward's descent upon Scotland, 12-3 ; 
 considers it rash and desperate, 125 
 
 Forster commands the English in the Preten- 
 der's army, vi. 11 ; assumes the command of 
 the whole army on English ground, 12, 13 ; 
 his preparations for the enemy, 13, 14; tries 
 to obtain favourable terms of surrender, 14 ; 
 escapes from Newgate, 21, 22 
 
 Fort Augustus destroyed by the Highlanders, vi. 
 165 
 
 Fort Bnver captured by the British, Feb. 1815, 
 viii. 19 
 
 Fort Edvv-ard taken by Burgoj-ne, 1777, vi. 379 
 
 Fort St. George capitulates to the British, 1746, 
 vi. 201 
 
 Foster, speaker of Irish House of Commons ; 
 his passing the Union bill described, vii. 375, 
 376 
 
 Foster, John, his "Essays," viii. 129 
 
 Fouclie, his share in "the execution of the 
 Lyonncsp, 1793, vii. 285, 286; assists Bona- 
 parte's intrigues, 383 
 
 Foulon, iutcndant of marine, vii. 170 ; murdered 
 by th(^ mob, 175 ; LaFa\ette attempts to save 
 liim, ib.
 
 KvDEX. 
 
 663 
 
 Poundling Hospital established by captain 
 Coram ; it promotes, instead of repressing, 
 the great social evil, vii. 118, 119 
 
 Fourbin, admii-al, commands the fleet convey- 
 ing the pretender James and his force to 
 Scotland ; he fails in making a landing and 
 returns to Dunkirk, 1708, v. 335 
 
 Fox, Charles James, his first speech in parlia- 
 ment, 1769, vi. 293 ; indignation of, at govern- 
 ment's conduct towards Burgoyne, 382, 383 ; 
 leader of liis party ; character, 432 ; strong 
 language used by, in moving for an amend- 
 ment of the Iring's address ; motion lost, 433 ; 
 secretary of state, 1782, 436 ; his resolution 
 to carry'Burke's Economical lleform bill, 439, 
 440 ; moves the repeal of the statute assert- 
 ing Ireland's dependence, 447 ; has differences 
 ■with Shelburne in the negotiations with 
 Franklin for a treaty of peace, 450 ; resigns 
 his secretaryship, ib. ; mistake of, 451 ; com- 
 mencement of the party conflict between Pitt 
 and, 459 ; secretary of state, 1782, 469 ; ex- 
 cesses in gambling!| and remarkable elasticity 
 of mind, vii. 105; coalesces with lord North, 
 appointed secretary of state, 135 ; re-elected 
 for Westminster ; unpopularity, ih. ; his India 
 bill ; proposes to govern India by a board, 
 137 ; bill carried in the Commons, 138 ; re- 
 jected by the Lords, 138, 139 ; the king orders 
 nim to give up his office, 139 ; contests the 
 seat for Westminster; enthusiasm of the 
 duchess of Devonshire in his cause ; fails, but 
 takes his seat as a Scotch representative, 144 ; 
 considers France England's natural foe, 149 ; 
 denies that the prince of "Wales had married 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert, 152 ; renounces the prince's 
 acquaintance on hearing that such really was 
 the case, 153; supports the prince's claim to 
 the regency, ib. ; in raptures on hearing of 
 the fall of the Bastille, 183 ; opposes the army 
 estimates, 186; disputes with Burke, 186, 
 187 ; proposes the abolition of the Corpora- 
 tion and Test acts, 187 ; diflers with Burke 
 in his opinion on the new constitution of 
 France, 193, 194 ; which restiLts in a breach 
 of friendship, 194 ; emotion evinced by, ib. ; 
 favours the abolition of the slave trade, 212 ; 
 his Libel bill ; difiiculty of passing it through 
 the Lords, 212, 213 ; attempts made by lord 
 Loughborough to bring about a coalition be- 
 tween Pitt and, 213; his opinion of the Sep- 
 tember massacres, 1792, 231 ; joy of, at the 
 Prussian retreat, 236; anxiety for Louis's 
 fate ; proposes that the national sense against 
 his execution be made known to France, 243 ; 
 Portland and other whigs separate from Fox, 
 and join Pitt's party, 245; opposes Pitt's 
 Indian Declaratory bill, 1788, 257 ; opposes the 
 policy of warring with France, 265, 266 ; and 
 the "Traitorous Correspondence bill, 267 ; 
 popularity of, in France, 270 ; proposes that 
 peace be re-established with France, 276 ; 
 defends the duke of York and blames Pitt for 
 the Dimkirk failure, 1793, 283 ; speech of, on 
 the stability of the Jacobin government, 292 ; 
 his indignation at the project of assimilating 
 the English and Scottish laws on sedition and 
 leasing-making, 299 ; Ms indignation at Pitt's 
 coercive measures ; dreads the approach of 
 absolutism, 324 ; secedes from the whig party, 
 350 ; again appears in his place in parliament, 
 Jan. 1800, 390 ; desires peace, 418 ; his admi- 
 ration of Pitt's speech, 424; the king refuses 
 
 to admit him to his counsels, 1804, 431 ; 
 secretaiy of state for foreign affairs, 1806, 
 464 ; the king becomes reconciled to, 465 ; 
 declining health of, 466 ; died Sept. 13, 1806, 
 466, 470 ; his last speech in parliament, 468 ; 
 fails in obtaining peace, 468, 470; buried with 
 public honours, Oct. 10, 470; rivalry with 
 Pitt, 471 
 
 Fox, Henry, lord Holland, his opinion of the 
 rebellion of 1745, vi. 133 ; married the duke 
 of Eichmond's daughter clandestinely ; op- 
 poses the marriage act of 1753, 193 ; New- 
 castle oflers him the secretaryship of state 
 with the lead of the Commons ; refuses them, 
 198, 199 ; obtains a seat in the cabmet, de- 
 serting Pitt, 1754, 200 ; favours the bringing 
 over foreign troops for the defence of this 
 country, 212 ; secretary of state ; resigns this 
 office, Oct. 1756, 217 ; created lord Holland, 
 1763 ; retires from public aflairs ; retaining 
 his office of paymaster, 261 
 
 Fox, commodore, takes 40 French sliips, 1747, 
 vi. 179 
 
 France, rival factions of the Burgnndians and 
 Armagnacs, during the reign of Charles VI., 
 ii. 51 ; distress occasioned by, 67 ; a great 
 cause of the successes of Henry Y., ib. ; the 
 Armagnacs massacred and expelled from Paris 
 by the mob in 1418, 68; duke of Bm-gimdy 
 murdered at llontereau, 71 ; accession of 
 Charles YII. to the throne in 1422, 77; 
 Charles YII. is conducted to Eheims by Joan 
 of Arc, and crowned there in 1430, 89 ; in- 
 vaded by Edward lY. in 1475, 173 ; treaty of 
 peace with England agreed to at Picquiny, 
 ib. 
 
 Francis I. succeeds to the throne of France in 
 January 1515, ii. 275 ; commences war against 
 Charles Y. and takes Milan, ib. ; meets 
 Henry YIII. in the Field of the Cloth of 
 Gold, 282-2S5 ; is taken prisoner at the battle 
 of Pavia in 1525, 301 ; is released by Charles 
 Y. on agreeing to very severe tenns, 305; 
 project of, for invading England and march- 
 ing to London, 444 ; death of, in 1547, iii- 4 
 
 Francis I. of Austria. Sec Francis II. of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Francis II. of Germany, succeeds Leopold as 
 king of Hungary, 1792, vii. 217; rules Lom- 
 bardy, 326 ; welcomes the Pussians into 
 Moravia, 382 ; joins the coalition against 
 France, ib. ; joins his army at Austerlitz ; 
 interview with Napoleon ; his cessions by the 
 peace of Presburg, 450 ; emperor of Germany, 
 1792-1806; Francis I. of Austria, 1806-1S35, 
 574 ; viii. 268 
 
 Francis, John, his attempt on the Queen's life, 
 1842, viii. 497 
 
 Francis, sir Philip, said to be the author of 
 Junius' letters, vi. 295 ; reports the speeches 
 of Mansfield and Chatliam, 1770, 301 ; ap- 
 pointed a member of tlie Calcutta council ; 
 opposes Hastings ; brings charges of cor- 
 ruption against him, vii. 126; immoralities 
 of; assumes the governor-general's power on 
 hearing of Hastings's resignation, 127 ; duels 
 with Hastings ; wounded ; resigns office ; re- 
 turns to England, 130 ; his speech on our 
 alUance with France, 149 
 
 Eranklin, Benjamin, printer of the "Crafts- 
 man ; " convicted of libel for writing an 
 article therein, 1731, vi. 67 ; opposes the 
 passing of the Stamp Act, 1765, 272; recom-
 
 C61 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 mends the Americans to submit for a while, 
 ih. ; examined by the House of Commons on 
 the American Stamp Act; the condition of 
 the ]^orth American colonies, 280 ; the temper 
 of the colonists towards Great Britain before 
 1763 ; the American spirit and resolution 
 never to pay the stamp duty, 281 ; appears 
 before the lords of the council, as agent for 
 Massachusetts ; insulted by them ; dismissed 
 his post of deputy postmaster-general, 338 ; 
 returns to America ; deprecates attempting to 
 restore the interests between England and 
 America, 353 ; but still shrinks from war, 3o-l ; 
 his conference ^\^.th lord Howe ; despatched 
 to Paris to procure a treaty of alliance with 
 the French court ; lands in France, Dec. 8, 
 1776 ; presents a memorial to count de Ver- 
 gennes, 372; his reception in the Parisian 
 court circks ; his influence upon the national 
 thought, 373 ; besieged by applications to 
 recommend officers for the American service, 
 377 ; minister plenipotentiary of the United 
 States, May 1779 ; entrusts Paul Jones with 
 the command of an expedition against the 
 British coasts, 397 ; his predictions of the 
 future of America, 422 ; negotiates with 
 Shelbume and Fox for a trea-ty of peace, 449, 
 4.50 ; one of the commissioners for settling 
 the articles of peace between England and 
 America ; signs the preliminaries, Nov. 30, 
 1783, 457 ; recommends amity between Eng- 
 land and Amei-ica, 460 
 
 Frank-pledge, nature of, i. 117 
 
 Fraser, John. See Mac Iver. 
 
 Frazer, general, repulsed at Alexandria, 1807, 
 vii. 485 
 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales ; his income depen- 
 dent upon the will of his father, George II., 
 yi. 68, 59 ; his arrival in England, 1728 ; fails 
 in obtaining princess Wilhelmina of Prussia 
 in marriage, 61 ; his popularity ; marries the 
 princess of Saxe-Gotha, April 27, 1736, 84 ; 
 opposes his father ; applies to parliament for 
 an increase of income, 85 ; fails in obtaining 
 it, ib. ; will not allow his wife to be confined 
 at Hampton Court; hurries her to St. James's, 
 ib. ; where she gives bu'tli to a girl ; the king's 
 anger at his conduct; he is banished from St. 
 James's ; removes to Norfolk House, 1737, 
 86 ; his popularity increases, ib ; his mother 
 refuses to see him on her dying bed, ib. ; his 
 son George Augustus (afterwards George III.) 
 born, May 25, 1738, 91 ; his apparent recon- 
 ciliation with his father, 108 ; his death, 
 March 20, 1751, 188 ; receives but few honours 
 at his burial ; his son George created Prince 
 of Wales ; a revenue is assigned to his widow, 
 189 ; who dies Feb. 1772, 338 
 
 Frederick I. of Prussia ; elector of Branden- 
 burg ; fights against the French at Fleurus, 
 v. 120 ; present at the congress at the Hague, 
 122 ; invested with the Garter, 122, 123 ; his 
 character, 123 ; concludes a treaty with Marl- 
 borough, 1704, 287; reigns 1701-1713, 
 475 
 
 Frederick II., king of Prussia, succeeds Frede- 
 rick WilUam I., 1740, vi. 102, 465 ; lays claim 
 to Silesia, vi. 105 ; it not being recognised he 
 invades the country ; secures the greater part 
 of it ; defeats general Neipperg at Molwitz, 
 April 10, 1741 ;his conduct in the battle, 106; 
 again presses the cession of Silesia; his de- 
 mand refused ; and the Austrians receive a 
 
 second defeat from him, May 17, 1742 ; enters 
 into a ti-eaty with Great Britain and Hun- 
 gary, 107; overruns Bohemia, 112; treaty 
 between George II. and, concluded at West- 
 minster, Jan. 16, 1750, 215; his power as a 
 king ; suddenly commences war, ib. ; takes 
 Dresden, Sept. 10 ; blockades Pima ; spares 
 the picture gallery at Dresden ; obtains pos- 
 session of the State papers ; defeats the Aus- 
 trians at Losowitz, Oct. 1 ; Pirna surrenders ; 
 retires into winter quarters, 216 ; receives 
 200,000^. from the British government, 1757, 
 219 ; commences his second campaign, April ; 
 his character ; marches into Bohemia ; de- 
 feats the Austrians in the battle of Prague, 
 May 6 ; bombards Prague ; defeated by the 
 Austrian marshal Daun at the battle of Itolin, 
 June 17, 228; defeats prince de Soubise at 
 Eosbach, Nov. 5, and prince Charles de Lor- 
 raine at Leuthen, Dec. 5, 231 ; a subsidy of 
 670,000;. voted to, by the British government, 
 232 ; defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug. 
 25, 1758, 233 ; popularity of, among the Eng- 
 lish, ib. ; surprised by the Austrians ; his 
 presence of mind saves the troops, 234 ; de- 
 feated by the Eussians at Kunersdorf ; wins 
 the victories of Legnitz and Torgau, 240 ; his 
 unsuccessful campaign ; writes to Pitt, who 
 promises the king's support, 250 ; Bute re- 
 fuses him his subsidy, 254 ; succeeded by 
 Frederick William II., 1786, 465 
 
 Frederick IV. of Denmark, 1699-1730, v. 476, vi. 
 466 ; his conquests, and contest with Charles 
 XII. vi. 27 
 
 Frederick VI. of Denmark, crown prince ; re- 
 fuses the demands of the English envoy, vii. 
 490 ; declares war against Great Britain, 491 ; 
 ascends the throne, 1808, 575 ; present at the 
 Vienna congress, viii. 42 
 
 Frederick William I. of Prussia, 1713-1740, v. 
 475, vi. 465 ; wars against Charles XII., 1715, 
 vi. 27 ; died May 31, 1740, 102 
 
 Frederick William II. of Prussia, 1786-1797, vi. 
 465 ; vii. 574 ; succeeds Frederick the Great, 
 150 ; interviews with the emperor of Ger- 
 many ; they issue the declaration of Pilnitz, 
 207; surrender of Mayence to, 1793, 282; 
 obtains a subsidy from England, 311 ; his 
 Polish raid, 1794, 314, 315 
 
 Frederick William III. of Prussia succeeds 
 Frederick William II., 1797, vii. 574 , takes 
 the part of Orange agaiust France, 150, 151 ; 
 his wavering conduct ; joins France, 1805, 
 450 ; bribed into hostilities with Britain, 471 ; 
 uneasiness of his ties with France, 472 ; com- 
 mands the Prussian armies, 1806, 475; de- 
 feated at Jena, 476, 477 ; rejects Napoleon's 
 overtures for peace, 482 ; concludes an al- 
 liance with Eussia, 561 ; his meeting with 
 Alexander at Leipzig, 1813, 565; present at 
 the Vienna congress, 1815, viii. 42 
 
 Fremantle, captain, his account of and con- 
 duct at the battle of Copenhagen, 1801, vii. 
 403-405 
 
 Frere, J. H., \mter in the " Anti-Jacobin," vii. 
 345 ; British ambassador in Spain ; advises 
 Moore to advance on Madrid, vii. 505 
 
 Freron aids in massacring the Toulouese, 1793, 
 vii. 291 
 
 Friedland, battle of, June 14, 1807, vii. 487 
 
 Friend, sir John, trial of, v. 191 
 
 Frobishcr, sir Martin, expeditions of, to the 
 Polar seas, iii. 220 ; takes part in the ntUick
 
 INDEX. 
 
 665 
 
 on the Armada, 228 ; takes Brest from the 
 
 Spaniards in 1594, and is killed, 265 
 Froissart, sir John, picture of cliivalry by, i. 
 
 449 
 Froude, Mr., view of, as to state interference in 
 
 social affairs, ii. 15-18 
 Fuenterabia captured by the French, 1719, vi. 
 
 Fuentes, count de, ordered to leave London, 
 
 1762, vi. 254 
 Fuentes de Onoro, battle of. May 5, 1811, vii. 
 
 338 
 Furniture and utensils, notice of those in use 
 
 in the 15th century, ii. 120 
 FuseU, his paintings, viii. 151, 152 
 
 Gage, general, supersedes Hutchinson as go- 
 vernor of Massachusetts ; appointed the co- 
 lonial commander-in-chief, 1774, vi. 344; 
 coldly received at Boston; fortifies Boston 
 isthmus, ib. ; orders a detachment to destroy 
 the military stores at Concord, 348 ; offers 
 pardon to all on certain conditions, excepting 
 Hancock and S. Adams, 355 ; called home, 360 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas, exhibits at the Royal 
 Academy, 1769, vii. 71 ; portrait and land- 
 scape painter, 73; his merits and exceUen- 
 cies, 73, 74 
 
 Galgacus, resistance of, to the invasion of Agri- 
 cola, i. 27 ; doubtful speech, and defeat of, 
 27, 28 
 
 Galissoniere, admiral La ; engages Byng, 1756, 
 vi. 213 
 
 Gait, John, died 1839 ; his novels, viii. 467 
 
 Galway, lord ; he is defeated by the French and 
 Spaniards on the plains of Almanza, v. 330 ; 
 placed at the bar of the House of Lords to 
 give an account of his proceedings in Spain, 
 368 
 
 Galway surrenders to Ginkell, v. 128 
 
 Gambler, admiral lord, commands the expedi- 
 tion against Copenhagen, 1807, vii. 490 ; 
 commands the expedition against the French 
 in Aix roads, 1809 ; fails to assist heartily 
 his subordinate ofhcer, lord Cochrane ; tried 
 by court martial and acquitted, 510 ; British 
 commissioner for concluding the peace of 
 Ghent, viii. 19 
 
 Game laws, viii. 70, 71 
 
 Game in Anne's reign, v. 428, 429 ; in those of 
 George I. and II., vii. 103, 104-106 
 
 Gauganelli. See Clement XIV. 
 
 Gaols, inquiry into the state of the, 1729, 1730, 
 vi. 63 ; the fraud and extortion of the war- 
 dens of the Fleet ; shocking case of cruelty 
 towards captain Macpheadris bj- Bambridge, 
 64 ; the horrors of the Marshalsea prison, 
 65 ; public attention drawn to the state of 
 the, by Howard, vii. 117, 118; state of pri- 
 sons in England and Scotland, viii. 370, 371 
 
 Garat, his visit to England, 1791, 1792, vii. 209, 
 210 
 
 Gardiner, colonel, killed at Preston Pans, 1745, 
 vi. 130; Dr. Doddridge's account of his 
 death, ib. 
 
 Gardiner, Stephen, bishop of "Winchester sup- 
 ports the king's supremacy, but opposes the 
 Jleformation, ii. 446 ; becomes a great he- 
 retic liunter, ib. ; prepares articles for 
 queen Catherine Parr's impeachment, but 
 the king rejects them, 450 ; objects to the 
 printiug of a book of homilies, and of a trans- 
 
 lation of Erasmus's paraphrase of the New 
 Testament, iii. 8 ; continued resistance of, 
 to the Reformation, 14 ; deprived of his 
 bishopiic and committed to the Tower in 
 1550, in the reign of Edward VI., 41 ; con- 
 sents to use the Common Prayer, 43; re- 
 leased on the accession of Mary, 54 ; is made 
 lord chancellor, 57 ; sermon of, before Mary, 
 exhorting her to severity, 65 ; exertions of, 
 to suppress heresy, 79 ; colloquy of, with 
 Rogers, 82 ; increased severity of, against 
 the married clergy, 86 ; death of, 95 
 
 Garnet, Henrj', the Jesuit, tried for his com- 
 plicity in the Gunpowder Plot, iii. 336 ; his 
 doctrine of equivocation, 337 
 
 Garrick improves the tone of the stage, v. 420 ; 
 his Shaksperian acting, vii. 99, 100 
 
 Garter, the order of the, instituted by Edward 
 III. in 1349, i. 468 
 
 Gas, Pall Mall lighted by, 1807; its introduc- 
 tion has considerable influence in pre\-entmg 
 crime ; opposition shown to it by the par- 
 tizans of the persons employed in the whale 
 fisheries, viii. 66 
 
 Gascoigne, general, moves for a diminution In. 
 the number of parliamentary members, viii. 
 276 
 
 Gastanga, marquis of, governor of the Nether- 
 lands ; represents Charles of Spain at the 
 Hague congress, 1691, v. 122 
 
 Gates, general in the tnited States army, vi. 
 379 ; encamps on Behmus' heights ; compels 
 Burgoyne to yield with the honours of wai-, 
 1777, 380 
 
 Gaul, Druidism in, i. 3 ; Coesar's account of the 
 Druidical judges of, 13 
 
 Gauls, the, assisted by the Britons, i. 2 
 
 Gaveston, Piers. See Edward II. 
 
 GawUghur taken by the British, Dec. 15, 1803, 
 vii. 460 
 
 Gay, author of the Beggar's Opera, v. 424 
 
 Gaza surrendered to the French, March 25, 
 1799, vii. 379 
 
 Gazi Hassan resists the Russians ; capitan pa- 
 sha, vi. 326 
 
 General warrants, debates on the legality of; 
 officers dismissed for voting their illegalitv, 
 vi. 267-269, 272 
 
 Genoa, annexation of, to France, 1805, vii. 440, 
 441 
 
 Gentleman, countr}', character and desciiption 
 of, the temp. AVilliam and Anne, v. 353-356, 
 410, 411 ; tem2J. Geo. III. viii. 113 
 
 Gentleman's magazine started by Cave, 1731, 
 vii. 84 
 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, fables of, i. 2 
 
 George of Denmark marries queen Anne, 1689, 
 V. 98 ; votes for the Occasional Conformity 
 bill, 263 ; lord high admiral, 333 ; died Oc- 
 tober, 1708, 338 
 
 George I., elector of Hanover, 1698, v. 241 ; re- 
 fuses to co-operate with Marlborough, 307 ; 
 becomes hen-upparent on the death of his 
 mother, the princess Sophia ; born May 28, 
 1660, 399 ; proclaimed king on the death of 
 queen Anne, 1714 ; lands at Greenwich, Sept. 
 18, vi. 2 ; personal appearance and character, 
 ib. ; Sophia, princess of Zell, and the Ko- 
 nigsmark tragedy, 3 ; his account of an early 
 impression as kiiig of England, 4 ; coronation 
 of, October 20 ;_ opens his first parliament, 
 March 17, 1715, o ; speech on adjourning 
 parliament, 6 ; speech on opening parliament.
 
 666 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 I7I6, 19 ; refuses to sec lady NitLisdale's 
 petition ; appealed to for mercy towards the 
 rebel lords ; his power to pardon affirmed, 
 20 ; leaves for Germany ; his awkward posi- 
 tion as kiiig of England, 26, 27 ; his hostility 
 towai'ds Russia ; jealousy of his son, 28 ; 
 dismisses Townshend his secretaryship ; offers 
 him the lord lieutenancy of Ireland, ib. ; an- 
 nouncements on opening parliament, 1717, of 
 the triple alliance, and Gyllenberg's arrest, 
 29 ; quarrels with the prince of Wales, 32 ; 
 speech on opening parliament, 1718, 35 ; 
 recommends the settling of the peerage ques- 
 tion, 37, 38 ; recommends the consideration 
 of the national debte, 40 ; dissuaded from 
 going to Hanover, 1722, 48; James' proposal 
 to, 49 ; announces the treaty of Hanover, 
 1725, 55 ; speech at closing the session, 1727, 
 sets out for Hanover, June 3 ; dies on his 
 journey, June 10, 56 
 George II., his father's jealousy of him, 1716, 
 vi. 28 ; appointed guardian of the realm 
 during George I.'s absence in Hanover, ib. ; 
 quarrels with his father, 1717, 32,33; ba- 
 nished from the royal residence ; sets up an 
 opposition court at Leicester House ; the earl 
 of Berkeley makes a proposal to George I. to 
 seize him and can-y him to America, 33 ; 
 governor of a Welsh copper company, 41 ; 
 succeeds his father to the throne of England, 
 June, 1727, 57 ; 11- Walpole obtains a contir- 
 mation of his power through queen Caroline's 
 influence, and by bribing the king, 58 ; the 
 civil list revenue settled on him as income, 
 ib. ; his son, Frederick, prince of Wales, de- 
 pendent upon him for his income, 58, 69 ; 
 fought at Gudenarde and Dettingen ; influence 
 of the queen over, 59 ; conduct of, towards 
 the prince of Wales, 61 ; remarks on opening 
 parliament, 1732 ; strikes Pulteney's name 
 ofi' the privy council list, 66 ; determined to 
 stand by Walpole, 70; speech on opening 
 parliament, 1734, 71, 72; his warlike desires, 
 72 ; visits Hanover ; returns to England, 
 Oct. 22, 1735, 77 ; his unpopularity ; pasqui- 
 nade on, 84 ; returns to England, Dec. 1736; 
 quaiTcls with his son, 85 ; banishes him from 
 St. James' palace, 86 ; illness of the queen ; 
 and death, Nov. 20, 1737, 86-88 ; his grief, 87, 
 8S ; the birth of George III. excites in him a 
 stronger jealousy towards his son, 91 ; an- 
 nounces the convention with Spain on open- 
 ing parliament, 1739, 94; calls upon parlia- 
 ment for support against jSpain, 96 ; speech 
 to parliament, 1740, 101 ; goes to Hanover, 
 1741 ; concludes a treaty of neutrality with- 
 out his minister's knowledge, 103; exults at 
 the results of his mediation between Hun- 
 gary and Prussia, 107 ; ix'conciled to his son, 
 whom he admits to court, 108 ; national jea- 
 lousy roused by his taking Hanoverian 
 troops into English pay, 109 ; prorogues par- 
 liament; lends his army to Maria Theresa; 
 departs for Germany, 110 ; joins his army, 
 June, 19, 1743; commands the rear guard; 
 his gallantry ; gains the battle of Dettingen, 
 June 27 ; and expels the French from Ger- 
 many ; his enthusiastic reception in England, 
 111 ; restrained from leaving England, 1744, 
 112; returns from Hanover, Aug. 31, 1715, 
 137; Andrew Drummond becomes bis pri- 
 vate baiiker, 153; refuses to nominate I'ltt 
 liefjretary at war, 179; speech on opeuuig 
 
 parliament, 1747, 181 ; death of the prince 
 of Wales, March 20, 1751, 188; his grandsou 
 assumes the title ; desires the duke of Cum- 
 berland to be sole regent, 189 ; asks for in- 
 creased forces, 201 ; goes to Hanover; mi- 
 nisterial difficulties about sub.sidies, 208 ; his 
 address ; supported by Hamilton and Fox ; 
 opposed by Pitt, 210 ; introduces Hessiau 
 troops for England's defence, 212 ; speech of, 
 1756 ; fomis a treaty with Frederick of Prus- 
 sia, 214, 215; diflerent tone of speech, 1756 ; 
 his real opinions, 218 ; asks parliament for a. 
 subsidy to Prussia, 219 ; attempts made to 
 dupe, 220 ; his strong dislike to Pitt and 
 Temple ; fails to form a ministry, 221 ; fi- 
 nally compelled to accept the Pitt adminis- 
 tration, 222 ; his anger at the duke of Cum- 
 berland, 229 ; refuses to ratify the conven- 
 tion of Closter-Seven, 231 ; recommends a 
 Prussian subsidy, 232 ; death of, Oct. 25, 
 1760, 240 
 George III. horn May 24, 0. S. 1738, vi. 91 ; 
 attains his majority ; entreats not to be se- 
 parated from lus mother, 216 ; lord Bute is 
 made Ins groom of the stole, 217 ; succeeds 
 George II. as king, 1760 ; his conduct on 
 hearing of his father's death, 241 ; character 
 and education, 242, 243 ; Bute's influence 
 over, 244; opens parliament, Nov. 15, ?'6. ; 
 his speech ; the Commons vote him £800,000 ; 
 his enthTisiasuc reception by the people ; po- 
 licy of his reign, 245 ; recommends an act 
 • for securing the independence of judges, 246 ; 
 marriage projects; his choice falls upon 
 princess Charlotte of Meclclenburg-Strelitz, 
 247 ; whom he marries, Sept. 8, 1761 ; her 
 character and appearance, 248 ; coronation, 
 Sept._ 22, 249 ; gives Pitt a pension, 252 ; 
 promises a vigorous prosecution of the war, 
 253; resolves on war with Spain, 254; speech 
 of, 1762, 256 ; Bute attempts to uphold the 
 principle of prerogative, 260 ; speech on the 
 peace, 1763, and its advantages, 261, 262 ; 
 desires to govern and form a ministry of his 
 own, 264; his sensitiveness on the general 
 waiTants question, 268; orders Conway and 
 others voting against the ministry to be dis- 
 missed their offices, 269 ; illness of, 275 ; his 
 indignation at the conduct of his ministers in 
 the Kegency bill matter induces him to ofier 
 Pitt the premiership ; Pitt's tenns, 276 ; 
 1'emple persuades Pitt to break off the nego- 
 tiations ; his disgust at the conduct of Gren- 
 ville and Bedford, 277 ; orders the suppres- 
 sion of the American disturbances, 279 ; his 
 right to make laws for the colonies declared, 
 282 ; expresses himself as being now for and 
 now against the repeal of the Stamp act, 283 ; 
 seeks Pitt's advice as to a new ministry, 285 ; 
 urges Pitt's expulsion from parliament, 292; 
 Junius' address to ; speech on proroguinj: 
 parliament, 1769; his graziers' speech on 
 opening parliament, 1770, 300 ; offers 
 ISorth the lord commissionership of the trea- 
 sury, 305; speech, 1768, on North American 
 proceedings, 308 ; address and remonstrance 
 of the city of London to, 314, 315 ; Ids harsh 
 reply, 314 ; a second remonstrance presented 
 to, by Beckford, wth a speech ; no intima- 
 tion "having previously been given he is at a 
 lo-s what to do, 315 ; his indignation at the 
 liird mayor's charging a House of Commons' 
 ollicer with assault for arresting Jliller, 3
 
 INDEX. 
 
 667 
 
 j)riiiter, 317 ; speech on opening tiie session, 
 1770, 323; imprisonment of Ms sister the 
 queen of Denmaric ; obtains her release, 330 ; 
 requests parliament to amend the laws re- 
 specting royal marriages, 330, 331 ; message 
 to parliament on the Boston outrages, 338 ; 
 ais letter to North favouring military mea- 
 sures against America, 339 ; speech, 1774, 
 345 ; his answer to a remonstrance presented 
 by Wilkes, 348 ; lus estimate of the value of 
 addresses; speech, 177-5, on the American 
 war, 359 ; the petition of congress to, re- 
 jected, 360 ; his opinion of Chatham's speech 
 iidvising a cessation of hostilities with Ame- 
 rica, 376 ; speech, 1777, 380 ; announces a 
 treaty between France and America, and 
 ■withdrawal of the British minister from 
 Paris, 387 ; his surprise at Chatham's being 
 buried with public honours, 390 ; rejoices at 
 the rejection of Burke's Economical lleforin 
 bill, 405 ; takes measures for repressing the 
 riots of 1780, 408 ; holds a council to explain 
 tiie riot act; his opinion of the right con- 
 struction, 409 ; gives his claims on St. Eusta- 
 tius to the army and navy, 420 ; inconsis- 
 tency of his speech, 1781, 431, 432 ; his 
 hatred of Fox, 432, 433 ; his reply to the 
 address prajiug for a discontinuance of the 
 ■war, 434, 435 ; his dislike of having the op- 
 position for his ministers, 435 ; compelled to 
 change his ministers, 435, 436 ; recommends 
 economical reform, 440; expresses his con- 
 cern at the discontent in Ireland, 446 ; ap- 
 points Shelburne to the lordship of the 
 Treasury, 450 ; speech, 1782, announcing the 
 independence of America, 458 ; his alleged 
 incivility towards Jeli'erson and Adams, 460 ; 
 Jeflerson's testimony to this eflect, 461, and 
 that of Adams to the contrarj', 462 ; fond of 
 agricultural pursuits, vii. 18 ; chosen patron 
 of the Eoyal Academy, 70 ; patronizes West ; 
 his delight in West's pictures, 74, 75; re- 
 marks on India, 1782, 136, 137; his dislike 
 to Fox's India bill, 137, 138 ; dismisses the 
 coalition ministry, 1 39 ; his firmness in re- 
 taining the Pitt ministry, 141, 142 ; speech, 
 1786, 147; announces tiie commercial treaty 
 ■with France, 148; speech, 1787, 150, 151; 
 refuses to help the prince of Wales to pay 
 liis debts, 152 ; attacked bj' insanity ; the 
 prince of Wales appointed Pcgent, 153, 154; 
 reco\-er3 ; public rejoicing ; his gratitude to 
 Pitt for his firm attachment, 155 ; speech, 
 1788, 156; speech, 1790, 184, 185; his cold- 
 ness towards i'alleyrand, 209 ; pacific speech, 
 
 1792, 210 ; dismisses the lord chancellor, 
 Loughborough, 213 ; royal proclamation 
 against seditious ^vritings, 214; speech, 1792, 
 215; speech, Dec. 1792, 237; reconciled to 
 lord Loughborough, 246 ; his popularity ; 
 calibre of his mind, 248, 249 ; asks for in- 
 creased forces, 1793, 252 ; parliament's ad- 
 dress to, 252, 253 ; announces France's de- 
 claration of war against Britain, 264 ; speech, 
 
 1793, 281 ; anecdote of, and Loughborough's 
 constructive treason, 303; objects to his 
 son's removal from his military command, 
 312, 313 ; speech, 1794, 316, 317 ; cuts Wil- 
 berforce, 318 ; orders lord Malmesbury to de- 
 5!iand the princess Caroline for the prince of 
 Wales, 318, 319; speech, 1795, 319; as- 
 sailed by the mob ; his courage, 323 ; holds 
 a council to provide a remedy for the money 
 
 panic, 1797, 333; speech, 1797, 335 ; speech, 
 1798 ; congratulates the nation ou the victory 
 of the Nile, 358; speech, Nov. 1798; re- 
 marks on the volunteers and the Irish Union, 
 360 ; speech, 1799, 369 ; pernicious effects of 
 his resistance to the proposed union with 
 Ireland, 370 ; expresses his satisfaction at 
 the measure, 371 ; remarks on the comple- 
 tion of the Union, 376 ; speech, July, 1799, 
 382; speech, 1801, 398; opposes any conces- 
 sions to Catholics, 398, 399 ; again attacked 
 by insanit}', 400, 401 ; attributes its cause to 
 Pitt's conduct, 401 ; speech, 1802, alludes to 
 France's encroachments, 417 ; Uespard's con- 
 spiracy for killing ; message to parliament 
 for calling out the militia, 422 ; reviews the 
 volunteers, Oct. 1803, 429 ; another attack of 
 insanity, Feb. 12 to April, 1804, 430; re- 
 fuses Pitt's request for an administration on 
 a broad basis, but offers him the premiership 
 under certain prescribed limitations, which 
 Pitt accepts. May, 1804 ; opposes Catholic 
 emancipation, 431 ; curious incident in read- 
 ing his speech on proroguing parliament, 
 1804 ; indications of a new grand- alliance, 
 436; Napoleon's letter to, 437 ; deshes Gren- 
 ville to form a ministry, 463 ; requhes a 
 pledge of the Grenville ministry, which 
 causes them to resign, 478, 479 ; opposes the 
 lioman Catholic enlistment bill, 479 ; sym- 
 pathy of the people mth, on account of his 
 infirmities; nearly blind, 480, 481; speech, 
 1807, 487 ; speech, 1808, 492, 493 ; his high 
 opinion of Wellington, 525; celebration of 
 "The Jubilee," the fiftieth year of liis reign, 
 526; speech, 1810; alludes to the Penin- 
 sular war, 528 ; the distressing condition of 
 his daughter brings on his last attack of in- 
 sanitv, Oct. 1810, 533 ; death of, Jan. 19, 
 1820," viii. 110 
 
 George IV. born Aug. 12, 1762, vi. 276 ; intro- 
 duced to the House of Peers, 1783 ; Carlton 
 House assigned him as a residence, vii. 137 ; 
 
 ■ his income, 151 ; embarrassed by debts ; mar- 
 ries Mrs. Fitzherbert, 152 ; his claims to the 
 Eegency disputed, 153, 154 ; Pitt's propo- 
 sition for restricting his power as regent, 154 ; 
 his first speech in parliament, 214 ; the prin- 
 cess Caroline of Brunswick demanded in mar- 
 riage for him, 318, 319; her character, arrival 
 in England, and meeting with the prince ; 
 they are married, April 8, 1795, 319 ; Georgo 
 III. causes an inquiry to be made as to the 
 princess's conduct, 465; re-appointed Ecgcnt, 
 Feb. 5, 1811,534,535; restriction on, about 
 to expire ; his letter as to the choice of a 
 ministry, 539 ; liis character, 540 ; the for- 
 mation of the Liverpool ministry, 541, 542; 
 declaration of, on the American war, viii. 4, 
 5 ; speech, 1814, 15 ; message to parliament, 
 1815, 27; his unpopularity, 54; speech, 1817, 
 on the state of the country' ; outraged ; par- 
 liament addresses him on the subject, 78; 
 speech, 1817,84; serious illness of, 94; his 
 dissension with his daughter, 94, 95 ; causes 
 of his gloom ; opens parliament by commis- 
 sion, 95; dissolves parliament, "I8I8, 98; 
 speech, 1818, 99 ; speech, 1819, on the state 
 of the country, 103 ; his satisfaction ■with the 
 conduct of those who put down the Jlan- 
 chester reform meeting ; his reply to the 
 London address, 108 ; quiet transition from 
 one rcign to another, 110; patronises Nash
 
 •668 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 14.5 ; presents the Phigalcian marWes to the 
 nation, 150 ; speech, 1820, alludes to tlie 
 Cato-street consph-acj^, 159 ; the queen Caro- 
 line debate, 162, 163 ; the queen intimates 
 her intention to come to England, 163 ; his 
 desire for divorce, and to have the queen tried 
 for high treason ; his difterences with his 
 cabinet, 163, 164; the miuistei'ial propositions 
 agreed to, 164 ; prepares for his coronation, 
 .164, 165 ; opens parliament in person, and 
 leaves the settling of his revenues to its dis- 
 posal, 165; the queen's journey towards and 
 amval in England, 165, 166 ; message of, 
 to parliament, and the green bag containing 
 papers concerning the queen's conduct, which 
 is laid before parliament ; Canning (for 
 government) and Brougham vindicate their 
 respective conduct in the affair of queen 
 Caroline, 166, 167; conferences for averting 
 a public proceeding ; these negotiations fail, 
 167, 168 ; Canning sends in his resignation, 
 but the king insists on his retaining office ; 
 secret committee appointed, and the conse- 
 'qiience of their report is that a bill of Pains 
 and Penalties is brought against the queen ; 
 ^ her trial commenced Aug. 7, 1820, 168 ; swarm 
 of addresses presented to the queen, 168, 160 ; 
 Brougham's defence ; Denman's bold and un- 
 measured language, 170, 171; motions for the 
 second and third reading earned, and aban- 
 donment of the bill of Penalties, 172; the 
 national rejoicing thereat, ib. ; diseussions in 
 the next session on the queen's affairs ; 
 she accepts a 50,000^. annuity, and all 
 .general interest in her ceases, 173 ; the 
 king's coronation, July 19, 1821, 173, 174 ; 
 the queen vainly attempts to be present 
 at the ceremonial ; she dies Aug. 7 ; tlie king 
 ; sails for Dublin, Aug. 1 ; the passage of the 
 queen's remains through the city to Bruus- 
 ■wick causes a riot ; Canning having resigned, 
 the king refuses to allow of his re-admission 
 into the cabinet, 174; speech, 1822, on Irish 
 outrage and agricultural distress, 178 ; cni- 
 fcarks at Greenwich for Scotland, Aug. 10, 
 1822 ; lands at Leith, Aug. 18 ; his cordial 
 reception, 179 ; speech, 1824, 183 ; his mani- 
 festo, 184; fails to obtain Canning's dismissal; 
 foreign influence upon the king ; speech, 1825 ; 
 recognises the South American republics, 185 ; 
 • eneeches of, illustrative of the suddenness of 
 the money panic of 1825, 195 ; his difficulty 
 in choosing a new muiistry, 204 ; his unre- 
 servedness in talking of State affairs, 206, 
 
 207 ; his compassion for Canning's ill-health, 
 
 208 ; his share in the negotiations preceding 
 Canning's premiership, 211 ; desires Welling- 
 ton to form a ministry, 227 ; speech, 1828, 
 228, 229 ; refuses to acquiesce iii the eman- 
 cipation of lloman Catholics; gives a reluc- 
 tant consent to a passage to that efiect in his 
 speech ; speech, 1829, 237 ; dismisses the 
 Wellington ministry, but foreseeing the ditii- 
 culties of fonning another, he recalls it, 238 ; 
 his interviews with Eldon, 240, 241 ; speech, 
 1830, 242; illness of; his death, Juno 26, 
 1830 ; his position in life and character, 
 243 
 
 aennaine, lord George Sackville ; present at 
 Mindcn ; unable to understand prince Fer- 
 dinand's messages ; tried by court martial ; 
 declared unfit for any military post, vi. 236; 
 secretary of etate, 1775-1782.360,469; ap- 
 
 proves of Cornwallis's severity in America, 
 423 ; refuses to sign any treatj- giving inde- 
 pendence to America ; retires from office ; 
 created a peer, 434 
 
 Germanus, the arrival of, in Britain, about 449, 
 and his suppression of the Pelagian heresy, 
 i. 60 
 
 Gertruydenberg taken by Duraouriez, 1793, vii. 
 271 
 
 Ghent sun-enders to Marlborough, 1706, v. 310 ; 
 to the French, 1708, 335 ; retaken by the 
 Allies, 338; pacification of, Nov. 8, 1576, 385; 
 peace of, Dec. 24, 1814, vii. 581 ; viii. 1 ; it 
 concludes the war with America, 19 
 
 Ghorka war, 1814, 1815, viii. 215 
 
 Ghuznee, siege and capture of, by the British, 
 1839, viii. 452, 453 ; recapture, 459 
 
 Gibbon, inconsistencies of the account given by 
 Gildas of tlie Britons after the departure of 
 the llomans, pointed out by, 58 ; a member of 
 parliament, 1774, vi. 343 ; describes a scene 
 in the House of Commons, ib. ; his experienco 
 of club life in London, vii. 104 
 
 Gibbons, G., statue of Charles II. at Windsor 
 Castle by, iv. 355 
 
 Gibbs, architect of St. Martin's in the Fields, 
 V. 457 
 
 Gibbs, counsel for Hardy, 1794, vii. 301 
 
 Gibraltar taken by Kooke and Darmstadt, Aug. 
 3, 1704, V. 29i ; besieged by the Spaniards 
 ineffectuallv, 1727, vi. 55, 56 ; and again, 
 1779-82, 410, 451-4, 456; siege ended by the 
 peace, 457 
 
 Gibson, proceedings against, for obstructing a 
 scrutiny into an election, 1751, \i. 186 
 
 Gifford, William, supports the " Anti- Jacobin," 
 vii. 345; destroj's the Delia Cruscan school 
 by Ms "Bariad" and " Majviad," viii. 117; 
 edits the " Quarterly Eeview," 127, 128 
 
 Gilbert, John, aids in constructing the Bridge- 
 water Canal, vii. 41 
 
 Gildas the historian, inconsistencies in the 
 account of the Britons, given bj", i. 58 
 
 Gin act, 1736, vi. 78, 79 
 
 Ginkell, earl of Athlone ; captures Athlone, 
 June 30, 1691, v. 127; defeats the Irish, 
 under St. Euth, at the battle of Aghiim, July 
 12, 128; takes Limerick, and quells all 
 opposition to William's cause, ib. ; accom- 
 panies William in his campaign of 1695 ; 178 
 et scq. 
 
 Girondius, a French political party, vii. 205 ; 
 obtains the administration of affairs, 218; 
 dismissed from power, 220 ; they desire a 
 Eepublic, 224 ; their power and policy', 233, 
 234 ; they vote the abolition of royalty, 234 ; 
 and the death of the king, 251 ; insurrection 
 against them, 277, 278 ; its political existence 
 extinguished, 278 ; their triumph in the pro- 
 vinces, 284 
 
 Girtin, Thomas, Ms water-colour paintings, viii. 
 155 
 
 Gladsmuir. See Preston Pans. 
 
 Gladstone, W. E., remarks of, on the opium 
 war, viii. 445, 446; colonial secretary, 
 535 
 
 Glass, duty on ; glasshouses in Defoe's time, v. 
 18, 19 ; reduction of the duty on, 1831, viii. 
 271 ; and repeal, 1845 ; important results 
 consequent thereon, 525, 526 
 
 Glenuoc : dislike of lord Breadalbane towards 
 the Marl). maids of, v. 133 ; tardy subniissioa 
 of the cluef Macliui to William's jj'jt arument.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 60?' 
 
 134 ; letters of Dalryrnple concerning the ex- 
 tirpation of the tribe of, 136 ; captain Camp- 
 bell despatched to, with a troop of soldiers, 
 137 ; description of the glen ; treacherous 
 behaviour of Campbell, 138; perpetration of 
 the massacre, Feb. 13, 1G92, 139 ; inquiries 
 are made into the massacre, 140 ; but no one 
 is punished but Dalrymple, who is merely 
 dismissed from his secretaryship, and Breadal- 
 bane who is imprisoned for a short time, and 
 then pardoned, 141 
 
 Glendower, Owen, heads a revolt of the 'Welsh 
 against Henry IV. ii. 4'2 ; is declared prince 
 of Wales, lb. ; repulses the army of sir Ed- 
 mund Mortimer, ib. ; and that of the king, 
 43 ; concludes a treaty with, and receives 
 assistance from France, 50 ; successful resist- 
 ance of, ib. ; is exempted from the general 
 pardon of Henry IV. to the "Welsh in 1411, 
 ol ; uncertain time of the death of, ib. 
 
 Gloucester, Humphrey, duke of, appointed joint 
 protector of Henry VI. with the duke of 
 Bedford, ii. 76 ; marries Jacqueline of Hai- 
 nault and quarrels with the duke of Burgundy, 
 78 ; the pope declares the marriage void, ib. ; 
 marries Eleanor Cobham, ib. ; feuds between 
 Gloucester and Henry Beaufort, bishop of 
 Winchester, ib. ; continued struggle with 
 Beaufort for predominance in the council, 93 ; 
 Ms wife accused of sorcery, ib. ; trial of the 
 duchess with Bolingbroke and Southwell for 
 sorcery and conspiracy, in 1440, 94 ; they are 
 found guilty, the duchess imprisoned for life 
 and Bolingbroke executed, 95 ; is arrested for 
 high treason, and found dead in his bed on 
 Feb. 28, 1447, 96 
 
 Gloucester, duke of, son of princess Anne, died 
 at Windsor, July 30, 1700 ; system upon 
 which his education was pursued, v. 240 
 
 Gloucester, William, duke of; George III.'s 
 brother ; born 1743 ; married Lady Walde- 
 grave privately, 1766, vi. 330 
 
 Glvnn, Serjeant, counsel for Wilkes, 1763, vi. 
 262 ; elected M.P. for Middlesex, 1769, 296 
 
 Goddard, General, takes Ahmedabad and Bas- 
 sein, vii. 129 
 
 Goderich, F. J. Eobinson, viscount ; treasurer 
 of the navy and president of the board of 
 trade, viii. 158 ; chancellor of the exchequer ; 
 his sanguine views of the state of the country, 
 1825, 196 ; secretary of state for war and the 
 colonies, 210 ; placed at the head of the 
 government, 1827, 224 ; unable to reconcile 
 Mr. Hemes and Mr. Huskisson, he resigns, 
 Jan. 9, 1828, 227 ; colonial secretary, 267 ; 
 lord priv\- seal and carl of Eipon, 1833, 324 ; 
 resigns, 1834, 344 
 
 Gccliva of Coventry, story of, i. 175 
 
 Godolphin, lord, betrays the I3rest expedition to 
 James, v. 172 ; implicated by Fenwick with 
 holding treasonous correspondence with James 
 II., 197; made first commissioner of the 
 treasury, 1701, 244 ; obtains a high place 
 among queen Anne's councillors, 1702, 259 ; 
 lie calls the Whigs into public service, giving 
 them the places formerly possessed by the 
 Tories, 289 ; joins Marlborough in insisting on 
 Harlej'^s dismissal from office, 1708, 335 ; has 
 ■•o struggle for office in opposition to Hurlej', 
 349 ; Harley obtaining the upperhand, Godol- 
 phin is dismissed from office, 1710, 363 
 
 Godoj', prince of Algarves ; a favourite at the 
 Spanisli court, vii. 495 ; his scliemes against 
 
 the royal family, 497, 498; seized by the 
 French, 498 
 
 Godwin, earl, induces Alfred, son of Ethelred, 
 to land in England to oppose king Harold, 
 and betrays him, i. 161 ; importance of, in 
 the reign of Edward the Confessor, 162 ; his 
 daughter Edith is married to Edward, ib. ; 
 patriotism of, 163 ; origin and rise of, ib. ; re- 
 fuses to punish arbitrarily the men of Dover 
 for the riot against earl Eustace, 166 ; is 
 banished -vdih his sons, Swe}-n and Harold, 
 ib. ; is recalled, and the Anglo-Saxon party 
 ti-iumphs, 170; dies, ib.; his death a public 
 calamity, 171 
 
 Godwin, his improbable proposal to Canning,. 
 viii. 317 
 
 Goethe served in the Gennan army in the cam- 
 paign of 1792, vii. 235 
 
 Gohier, a member of the French Directory, vii. 
 383 ; imprisoned in the Luxembourg, 384 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, his history of England pub- 
 lished, 1771, "^a. r^ ; asserts that the Mar- 
 riage Act had impeded marriages, 194 
 
 Goodman, concerned in the Assassination plot, 
 V. 188; implicates Fenwick with plotting 
 against William, 196 ; tampered with, 197 
 
 Goodwin helps to suppress the Derbyslm-e in- 
 surrection, 1817, viii. 83 
 
 Gordon, duke of, holds Edinburgh castle in 
 favour of James II., v. 88 ; refuses to fire on 
 the town at the instigation of some partizans 
 of James II., 90 ; the castle is surrendered by 
 him, 93 
 
 Gordon, lord George, president of the Protest- 
 ant Association ; his fanaticism against the 
 Papists; assembles 60,000 of his adherents 
 at St. George' s-fields ; marches to Parliament, 
 and presents his petition to repeal the act 
 passed in favour of Eoman Catholics, 1780, 
 vi. 406, 407; from this resulted the "Gordon" 
 riots, 408-410 ; committed to the Tower ; 
 tried and acquitted, 410 
 
 Goree suiTendered to the British, 1758, vi. 232, 
 233 
 
 Gortz, baron, plans an insurrection in England, . 
 vi. 29 
 
 Gospel Propagation Society established 1701, v. 
 60 
 
 Gothic architecture and architects, 1784-1820, 
 viii. 141, 142, 145 
 
 Gough, su- Hugh, general ; commands the 
 British land forces in China, viii. 447 ; at- 
 tacks Canton, 447, 448 ; defeats the Mahrattaa 
 at the battle of Maharajpoor, 1843, 511 ; ad- 
 vances to relieve Ferozepoor, 544 ; with sir 
 H. Hardinge gains the battle of Ferozeshah, 
 544, 545 ; wins the battle of Sobraon, 545 
 
 Goulbum, Henry, a British commissioner fo' 
 concluding the peace of Ghent, viii. 19 ; 
 chancellor of the exchequer, 264 ; secretary of 
 state, 354 ; his motion on the London univer- 
 sity. 357 ; his free-trade financial proposi- 
 tions, 437 
 
 Cower, characteristics of his poetry, ii. 12 
 
 Gowcr, earl, British minister at Paris, vii. 183 ; 
 recalled Aug. 1792, 227 
 
 Gramme, colonel, employed to report on the mar- 
 riageable princesses for George III. vi. 247 
 Grafton, duke of, killed in attacking Cork, Oct. 
 
 9, 1690, V. 119 
 Grafton, A. H. Fitzroy, duke of, visits Wilkes 
 in the Tower, v. 262 ; secretary of state, 1765, 
 vi. 27s ; resigns his office on account of Kock—
 
 4570 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ingliam's weak administration, 1766, 284; 
 appointed first lord of the treasury in Cliat- 
 liam's ministry, 1766, 285 ; becomes the real 
 minister during Chatham's illness, 287; 
 agonizedby " Junius' " attacks, 296 ; divorced 
 from his wife; marries the duchess of Bed- 
 ford's niece, 299 ; resigns Jan. 28, 1770, 305 ; 
 accuses Hillsborough of suppressing some of 
 the council minutes, 309, 310; first loi-d of 
 the treasury, Aug. 2, 1766 to Sept. 12, 1767 ; 
 Dec. 1, 1767 to Feb. 1770, 321 ; resigns his 
 office of privy seal, 1775, 359 
 
 Graham, general, wins the battle of Barrosa, 
 1811, vii. 538 ; captures San Sebastian, 566 
 
 Graham, sir James, first lord of the admiralty, 
 1830, viii. 267 ; helps to prepare the parlia- 
 mentary reform bill, 270 ; resigns his office, 
 1834, 344 ; declines joining Peel's ministry in 
 1834, 353; his motion against the Queen's 
 advisers, 443, 445; introduces his bill for 
 regulating labour in factories ; compelled to 
 withdraw his education clauses, 515 ; debate 
 on the bill, 515, 516; ultimately passed, 
 516 
 
 Grammont, duke do, his conduct at Dettingcn, 
 1743, vi. Ill ; falls at Fontenoy, 1745, 114 
 
 Granada ceded to England, 1782, \-i. 458 
 
 Granby, marquis of, second in command at 
 Minden, 1759, vi. 236; commands the British 
 in the campaign of 1761, 250 ; commander- 
 in-chief; resigEE, 1770, 304 
 
 Grand Alliance formed by "William, v. 2.50 
 
 Grandval plans a design for assassinating "Wil- 
 liam, V. 151, 152; tried by court-martial; 
 executed, 154 
 
 Grant, CJiarles, secretary for Ireland, viii. 158 ; 
 joins the "Wellington ministrj^, 228; resigns, 
 1828, 234 ; president of the board of control, 
 267 
 
 Grant, R., moves for a regency, 1830, viii. 246 ; 
 judge advocate general, 267 
 
 Grantham, lord, secretary of state, 1782, vi. 450, 
 469 
 
 Granville, earl. See Carteret. 
 
 G rattan, Henrj'', champion of Irish liberty; his 
 character, vi. 444; claims free trade and 
 legislative independence as his country's 
 right; supports the Koman Catholic relief 
 bill, 445 ; fails twice in carrying his declara- 
 tion of rights, 446 ; congratulates Ireland in 
 having acquired her freedom ; repeal of statute 
 of George I. asserting the dependence of Ire- 
 land, 447 ; national acknowledgment to, 448 ; 
 speech on parliamentary reform, vii. 361, 
 362; brings in a bill for repealing catholic 
 disqualification, 362 ; states that he will not 
 attend the House of Commons, 364 ; returned 
 member for Wicklow, Jan. ISOO; his orations 
 against the Union, 373-375 ; duels with Mr. 
 Corry, 373, 374 ; his last speech in favour of 
 Catholic emancipation, viii. 102, 103 ; death 
 of. May 14, 1820, 103 
 
 Graves, admiral, his encounter with de Grasse, 
 1781, vi. 426 
 
 Gray, his account of the trial of the rebel lords, 
 1746, vi. 173j 174; his description of AVcst- 
 moreland, vii. 31 
 
 Giccn, captain, prosecuted and executed for the 
 supposed murder of captain Drummond, 1705, 
 v. 313 
 
 Green, attacked by rioters, 1768 ; tried for mur- 
 der ; acquitted, vi. 290, 291 
 
 Greene, president of an American judicial court ; 
 
 refuses to release or exchange Andre, vi. 
 416 
 
 Greene, general, commands the American army 
 in AVashington's absence, vi. 413; defeated 
 at Guilford, 1781 ; compels the Britishers to 
 fall back, 424 ; defeated at Camden, 425 
 
 Greenwich Hospital, "William determines to 
 erect, v. 174, 175 
 
 Gregg, a clerk of Harley's; he is detected in a 
 correspondence with the French secretary of 
 state; he is tried, convicted, and executed, 
 V. 335 
 
 Gregory, Pope, and the Anglo-Saxon slaves in 
 Rome, Bede's story of, i. 64 
 
 Grenada captured by the British, 1763, vi. 255 
 
 Grenville, George, opposes Pitt's proposal to 
 war with Spain, vi. 251 ; leader of the House 
 of Commons, and treasurer of the navy, 253 ; 
 opposes Pitt's German policy, ib. ; secretary 
 of state, 260 ; first lord of the treasury ; 
 chancellor of the exchequer, 1763 ; his minis- 
 try, 261 ; moves that duties be laid on articles 
 of American commerce; a stamp duty on 
 paper, and others, 271 ; his stamp act is 
 passed, 1765, 272; and rouses the American 
 spirit, 273, 274 ; refuses to put the princess 
 dowager's name in the Regency bill ; the 
 king contemplates dismissing him, 276 ; but 
 is obliged to retain him, 277; defends his 
 stamp act against Pitt's oratory, 279; mobbed, 
 284 ; opposes "Wilkes' expulsion from parlia- 
 ment; his emotion, 292, 293 ; his last speech 
 in parUament ; died Nov. 1770, 313 ; first 
 lord of the treasiuy and chancellor of the 
 exchequer, 1763-5 ; secretary of state, 1762, 
 321 
 
 Grenville, lady Hester. See Chatham, vi. 199, 
 252 
 
 Grenville, sir Richard, heroic conduct of, in a 
 naval fight with the Spaniards, iii. 261 
 
 Grenville, Thomas, sent to negotiate with 
 Franklin, 1782 ; returns from Paris, vi. 450 ; 
 negotiates at Vienna, 1794, vii. 311 ; first 
 lord of the admiralty, 1807, 483; plans an 
 expedition to the Dardanelles, ib. ; its failure, 
 484 
 
 Grenville, lord W. "W., secretary of state ; his 
 correspondence with Chauvelin, vii. 215, 249, 
 250 ; remonstrates against the aggressive 
 measures adopted by France, 239 ; brings for- 
 ward a Treasonable Attempts bill, 323 ; it is 
 passed, 324 ; his hostile reply to Bonaparte's 
 letter to the king, Jan. 1800, 388 ; opinion of 
 statesmen on it, 389 ; his speech against 
 Bonaparte, 390 ; succeeded as foreign secre- 
 tary by lord Hawkesbury, 1801, 401 ; admi- 
 nistration of Fox and, 1806, 463, 464 ; first lord 
 of the treasury, 464 ; ■weakness of his ministry 
 after Fox's death, 478 ; they deliver up the 
 seals of office, March 25, 1807, ib. ; retires to 
 Dvopmore, viii. 177 
 
 Grey, Charles, earl, his efforts in favour of re- 
 form in the representation of the people, 1792, 
 vii. 213, 214 ; moves an address to the king to 
 postpone the Irish Union, 374 ; first lord ot 
 the admiralty, 1806, 464 ; advocates resistance 
 against Napoleon, 478 ; his remarks on the 
 negotiations with France, 470; Dissenters' 
 enlistment bill ; the king opposes it, 479 ; 
 applied to to form a govcmment, 1812, 542; 
 foreign secretarj'-, 1806, 577 ; his speech 
 against lord Sidmouth's unconstitutional con- 
 duct in the case of trials for libel, viii. 84,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 671 
 
 So ; his attacks U]wn Canning ; he charges 
 him with having pledged himself not to press 
 the Catholic question, 206 ; approves of the 
 ready recognition of the New Orleans French 
 government by parliament, 255 ; declares the 
 necessity of reform in parliament, 262 ; for- 
 mation of his ministry, 265, 266 ; principles 
 of his government, 266 ; members of his 
 ministry, 267 ; with lord I3rougham he urges 
 the king to dissolve parliament on the defeat 
 of his ministry on the reform question, 276, 
 277 ; his speech explanatory of the proposed 
 reform bill, 1831, 281 ; his reply to the prin- 
 cipal arguments against the bill, 283 ; resists 
 the entreaties of his friends to obtain the 
 passage of the reform bill by the creation of 
 peers, 294 ; replies to lord Lyndhurst's speech, 
 295 ; upon the king refusing to create peers 
 his ministry resigns, 296; Wellington failing 
 to form an administration, he is recalled: 
 obtains the king's consent to the creation of 
 peers ; power not exercised, 299 ; passing of 
 the reform bills, 300 ; introduces the coercion 
 bill for Ireland, which is passed, 1833, 321, 
 323, 32-1 ; defends the commission for in- 
 quiring into the state of the Irish church 
 against unjust imputations, 344 ; overpowered 
 by his feelings in telling the Lords of his 
 resignation, 1834, 345 ; cause of his resigna- 
 tion, 345, 346; great banquet to, at Edin- 
 burgh, 347, 348 
 
 Grey, lady Jane, married to lord Guilford 
 Dudle3^, proclaimed queen by Northumber- 
 land, June 10, 1553, iii. 51; conversation of, 
 in prison respecting Northumberland's apos- 
 tacy, 55 ; with her husband, lord Guilford 
 Dudley, pleads guilty to the charge of high 
 treason, 59; execution of both, and her re- 
 markable fortitude, 66 ; memorial of, in the 
 Beauchamp tower, ib. 
 
 Griffiths, admiral, his accounts of the "La 
 Vengeur's" story, vii. 307 
 
 Srimaldi, marquis of; Spanish ambassador in 
 France ; signs the "Family compact," vi. 251 
 
 Groslev, Ms remarks on England and Londoners, 
 vii. 13 
 
 Gross-Beeren, battle of, Aug. 23, 1813, vii. 563 
 
 tjrote advocates the ballot principle, viii. 335 ; 
 supports the poor law amendment bill, 341, 
 342 ; and the Irish church appropriation 
 motion, 344 
 
 Grouchy appointed to watch Bliicher at "Water- 
 loo, viii. 30 
 
 Grumbkow, general, sent on a mission to Charles 
 of Sweden, to whom he gives an account of 
 Marlborough, v. 331 
 
 Guadaloupe capitulated to the English, 1759, 
 vi. 236 
 
 Guest, general, governor of Edinburgh castle, 
 1745 ; the young pretender prevents food 
 from going in ; the governor fires upon the 
 town ; the prince revokes his order, vi. 132 
 
 Guickwar, a Mahratta chieftain, takes no part 
 against the British, vii. 455 
 
 Guilds of trade, oppressions exercised by, i. 321 
 
 Guiscard, marquis de, his early career ; em- 
 ployed as a French spy in England; has a 
 meeting with the queen ; he is arrested 
 March 8, 1711, his correspondence with 
 France having been detected ; he is taken 
 before the council, where he stabs Harley 
 with a pen-knife ; he is killed by the coun- 
 cillors, v. 372 I 
 
 Guizot, M., opinion of, as to the applicati on of the 
 Britons for Roman aid against the I'icts and 
 Scots, i. 58 ; his remarks on Cannmg's fo- 
 reign policy, viii. 191 ; joins in protesting 
 against the royal decrees of 1830, 251, 252 : 
 description of the meeting of Lafayette and 
 the duke of Orleans ; made minister of the 
 interior, 255 ; at the head of the cabinet, 
 1832, 1836, 374 ; his official revelations re- 
 specting Louis Napoleon's enterprise, 375 ; 
 his picture of English society, 402, 403 ; 
 appointed to keep a watch over prince Napo- 
 leon's movements, 431 ; his return to Eng- 
 land ; satisfied of the goodwill of the natives 
 to France, 433; with Soult succeeds Thiers 
 in the ministry, 435 ; describes the difficulties 
 of Peel'sposition, 441 ; his description of a 
 visit to Westminster Abbey with Macaulay, 
 470, 471 ; his Spanish marriage plans, 554 ; 
 his conduct vindicated, 555 ; resigns his post 
 as minister, 557 
 
 Gunpowder plot. See James I. 
 
 Guntzburg, battle at, 1805, vii. 444 
 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden, succeeds Adolphus 
 Frederic, 1771, vi. 465 ; agrees to subsidize 
 an army to Spain, vii. 207 ; shot by Anker- 
 stroem, March 6, 1792, 217 
 
 Gu)', an M.P. and secretary to the treasury ; 
 sent to the Tower for being bribed, v. 177 
 
 Gwalior captured by the British, vii. 129 ; again 
 occupied by them, viii. 511 
 
 Gwyn, revives the idea of an academy of paint- 
 ing, vii. 68 ; his bridges, 82 
 
 Gyllenberg, count, the Swedish envoy in Lon- 
 don ; arrested for intriguing to raise a re- 
 bellion in England, vi. 29 
 
 Habeas Corpus act passed in 1679, iv. 344 ; 
 suspended, 1689, v. 76, 77 ; 1695, 185; 1722, 
 vi. 48 ; 1794, vii. 300 ; 1800, 391 ; 1817, viii. 
 80 ; a second time in 1817, 84 ; the suspen- 
 sion repealed, 1818, 96 
 
 Hadrian visits Britain, a.d. 120, and builds 
 Hadrian's wall, i. 29, 30 > character of, by 
 Gibbon, ib. 
 
 Hague, congress at the, 1691, v. 122-124 ; treaty 
 of the, May 21, 1659, 387 ; triple alliance of 
 the, January 4, 1717, 389 
 
 Haileybury college, built by "Wilkins, viii. 145 
 
 Halidon Efill, battle of, July 19, 1333, i. 451 
 
 Halifax, Charles Montague, earl of, forms part 
 of William's new ministry in, 1693 ; his elo- 
 quence, v. 169 ; chancellor of the exchequer, 
 184 ; insti-umental in establishing the stan- 
 dard of money, 1696, 196 ; first lord of the 
 treasury, 1697, 198 ; impeached for advising 
 a partition treaty, 246 ; loses his place in the 
 privy council on Anne's accession, 1702, 259 ; 
 votes an inquirj' into the alleged danger of 
 the Church, 306 ; patron of letters, 414, 415 
 
 Halifax, George Savile, earl of, parliament 
 endeavours to find some charge against him, 
 v. 98 
 
 Halifax, earl of, secretary of state, 1763-1765, 
 vi. 261, 321 ; proceedings against, for arrest- 
 ing Wilkes and Wood, 268 
 
 Hall, Robert, character of his preaching, viii. 
 124 
 
 Hallam, Henry, character of his historical 
 writings, viii. 472 
 
 Halle, treaty of, 1610, v. 385; taken ty tha 
 Bavarians, 1809, vii. 516
 
 672 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ilamliurg, jjcace of, May 22, 1762, vi. 467 
 Hamilton, duke of. See Long Parliament, and 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver. 
 Hamilton, lieutenant-colonel, his share in the 
 Glcncoe massacre, v. 137 
 
 Hamilton, duke of, president of the Scottish 
 convention of estates, v. 88 ; alleged Avith 
 others to have secreted soldiers in cellars and 
 other places, ib. ; causes the convention doors 
 to be locked, 89 ; authorised by William, in 
 1693, to investigate the massacre of Glcncoe, 
 but the duke dying, the inquiry was not pro- 
 ceeded with till 1695, 140 
 
 Hamilton, duke of; he disperses the Came- 
 ronians assembled to oppose the union, v. 
 3'27 ; killed iu a duel with lord Mohun, 1712, 
 427 
 
 Hamilton, Gerard, his speech in favour of the 
 subsidies, 1755 ; from which he is known as 
 single speech Hamilton, vi. 209 
 
 Hamilton, John, governor of Carlisle ; sur- 
 renders to the duke of Cumberland, 1745, vi. 
 159 
 
 Hamilton, lady, aids Nelson at Naples ; re- 
 commended to the national gratitude, vii. 
 355 
 
 Hamilton, Kichard, his baseness and treachery, 
 V. 80 ; his faithlessness causes the son of sir 
 W. Temple, who had pledged to his being 
 faithful, to drown himself in the Thames, 
 ■ib. ; placed at the head of troops for bringing 
 the Ulster protestants to subjection, 82 ; suc- 
 ceeds Maumont as commander of James 11. 's 
 forces, 84 ; is superseded by Eosen, ib. ; leads 
 the Irish cavaky at the battle of the Boyne, 
 108 ; is taken prisoner, 109 
 
 Hampden, John, refuses in 1636, to pay the 
 illegal assessment of Ship Money, ui. 421 ; 
 contests the right in the Exchequer Court, 
 422 ; ditference of the judges, but ultimate 
 decision against him, ib. ; increased im- 
 portance of, after the trial, 423 ; sent as 
 commissioner to attend the king on his visit 
 to Scotland in 1641, 462 ; attempted to be 
 seized by the king on Jan. 3, 1642, 475 ; is 
 recalled when about to attack the royal army, 
 iv. 10 ; takes an active part in the siege of 
 Heading, and urges Essex to attack Oxford, 
 15 ; and to concentrate his forces, 16 ; is 
 wounded at Chalgrove Field, ib. ; dies June, 
 1643, ib. ; character of, described by Claren- 
 don, 17 
 
 Hnmpden clubs for parliamentary reform, viii. 
 74,75 
 
 Hanau, battle of, 1813, vii. 565 
 
 Hancock, John, proscribed by Gage, vi. 355 
 
 Handel, statue of, by Eoubiliac, v. 461 
 
 Hanover, George, elector of. See George I. 
 
 Hanover, treaty of, September 3, 1725, v. 390 ; 
 vi. 55 
 
 Hansard and Stockdale, case of, viii. 427 
 
 llanway, Jonas, his philanthropy ; the first to 
 use an umbrella in London, vii. 119 
 
 Ilarcourt, sir S., conducts Sacheverel's defence, 
 1710, V. 353; lord chancellor, 368; his mo- 
 tions at Oxford's trial, vi. 30 
 
 Ilarcourt, colonel, commands the Madras army, 
 vii. 456 
 
 Hardicanute, accession of, in 1039, i. 161 ; 
 t3ranny, dissoluteness, and death of, in 1042, 
 ib. 
 
 llnnlinge, sir Henry, secretary- at war, 1828, 
 viii. 235; secretary for Ireland, 354; go- 
 
 vernor-general of India, 511, 544 ; his cour- 
 tesy towards sir H. Gough, 544 ; shares with 
 him the gaining of the Ferozeshah victorv, 
 544, 545 
 
 Hardware trade, tcmp.'^WWnm. and Anne, v. 17 
 
 Hardwick, architect of Marylebone church, viii. 
 146 
 
 Hardwicke, Philip York, earl of, chancellor 
 1737-1756, vi. 193, 320; introduces the Mar- 
 riage bill, 1753, vi. 193 ; retires from his 
 ofiice, 1756, 218 ; negotiates with Newcastle 
 and Pitt, 222 ; prepares George III.'s first 
 speech in parliament, 244 ; speech on the 
 independence of the judges, 1761, 246 
 
 Hardv, sir C, commands a fleet; tactics, vi. 
 396, 397 
 
 Hardy, captain, present at the battle of Copen- 
 hagen, vii. 403 ; and at Nelson's death at 
 Trafalgar, 1805, 448 
 
 Hardy, Thomas, trial of, for high treason, 
 October, 1794, vii. 301 ; Erskine's defence, 
 301, 302; acquittal of, 302 
 
 Hare, one of the conspu-ators against "William's 
 life, 1696, V. 187 
 
 Hargreaves, James, completes his spinning- 
 jenny, 1767, vii. 45 ; how he discovered it, 
 45, 46 ; mobbed and ill-used, 46 
 
 Harlay, president of the French parliament, 
 fails in obtaining peace from the Dutch, v. 
 176, 177 ; represents France at the Eyswick 
 congress, 198 
 
 Harlcy. See Oxford, earl of. 
 
 Harlow, his painting, viii. 152, 153 
 
 Harold succeeds Canute as king of Mercia and 
 Northumbria, in 1035, i. 160 ; seduces Alfred, 
 son of Ethelred, to land in England, and 
 puts him to death, 161 ; death of, in 
 1039, ib. 
 
 Harold, son of earl Godwin, banished with his 
 father, i. 166; they return, and are favour- 
 ably received by the inhabitants of London, 
 and South wark, 170 ; restored to their digni- 
 ties and possessions by the Witan, ib. ; con- 
 duct and character of, during the reign of 
 Edward, 172 ; sets out for Normandy, but is 
 wrecked, made a prisoner by the earl of 
 Ponthieu, but released by the interference of 
 William of NoiTnandy, 172, 173 ; assists 
 William in his war against the duke of Brit- 
 tany, ib. ; swears to suiiport William in his 
 claims to the throne of England, 174 ; returns 
 to England, and suppresses an insurrection 
 in Northumbria, 175 ; marries, 176 ; the 
 crown of England bestowed on him by the 
 Witan in Sept. 1066, ih. ; defeats his brother 
 Tostig and the Norwegians, 180 ; is himself 
 defeated and slain at Hastings in Oct. 1066, 
 181 ; bmied at Waltham Abbey, 183 
 
 Hanington, earl of, EngHsh ambassador at 
 Spain, \i. 31 
 
 Harris. See JIalmesbury, earl of. 
 
 Hanis conspired against William's life, 1696, 
 V. 187 
 
 Harris, general, commands an Indian army; 
 enters "the Mysore territory, vii. 378 
 
 Harrison improves the spinning wheel, vii. 
 45 
 
 Harrison arrested at a Ecfonn meeting, 1819, 
 A-iii. 104 
 
 Harrowbv, carl of, foreign secretary of state, 
 1804, vii. 577 ; president of the council, viii. 
 15S, 161 ; Cato-strcet conspiracy revealed to, 
 by llidou and Dwycr, 161 ; succeeded as pre-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 «73 
 
 «ident by the duke of Portland, 210 ; liis 
 partial advocacy of the llefonn bill of 1832, 
 294, 295 
 
 Harwich, a great port of the eastern coast ; vi- 
 cissitudes of its condition in the ISth century, 
 V. 33 
 
 Hastings, battle of, Oct. 13, 1066, i. 181 ; ob- 
 stinate resistance of the Saxons at, 181. 
 
 Hastings, marquis of. Sec Moka, lord. 
 
 Hastings, Warren, first govemor-gcneral of 
 India, vi. 335 ; vii. 124 ; previous career and 
 conduct as governor of Bengal ; nefarious 
 bargains with the nabob of Oude, 124, 125 ; 
 opposition towards, by the Indian council, 
 126 ; accused upon a charge of coiTuption by 
 Nuncomar and others, ib. ; disputes with 
 Francis ; Clavering illegally assumes the go- 
 vernor-generalship on the false announce- 
 ment of his having resigned, 127, 128 ; 
 reappointed at the expiration of his five years' 
 term, 128 ; makes war against the Mahrattas, 
 129 ; duels with Francis, and quarrels with 
 Impey, 130 ; pressed for money, 131 ; lays 
 €heyte Sing, the rajah of Benares, under 
 heavy contributions; an-ests him for neglect 
 of payment, 132 ; a native insurrection com- 
 pels him to release the rajah and quit the 
 city ; his heavy exactions from the nabobs 
 and begums of Oude, 133, 134 ; his defence 
 of his conduct in this case, 134 ; concludes 
 peace with Tippoo Saib ; his administration 
 ceases, 1785, io. ; acquitted of all the charges 
 brought against him, 1794, 318 ; examined 
 before a committee of the House of Commons 
 on Indian affairs, 1813, viii. 215 
 
 Haughton, .John, prior of the Charter House, 
 with his brethren, refuses to take the oath of 
 supremacy to Henry VIII., ii. 359 ; he is 
 tried and executed, ib. 
 
 Havannah, conquest of the, 1762, vi. 255, 256 
 
 Haversham, lord, moves for inviting the prin- 
 cess Sophia to England, v. 306 ; his remarks 
 on the Scotch, 314 ; denounces the naval 
 miscaniages of 1707, 333 
 
 Havre, bombarded by the British, 1694, v. 172, 
 173' 
 
 Hawke, admiral, sir E., defeats the French 
 fleet off Belle Isle, Oct.. 14, 1747, vi. 179 ; cap- 
 tures some French merchantmen, 175-5, 208; 
 supersedes Byng in the command of the 
 fleet sent against the French, 1756, 213 ; 
 sent out on an expedition against Rochefort ; 
 quarrels with Mordaunt, and nothing is done, 
 229 ; driven, by stormy weather, from before 
 Brest, 239 ; attacks the French fleet in Qui- 
 beron Bay, Sept. 20, 1759, and gains a vic- 
 tory ; intrepid conduct in the battle, 240 
 
 Hawkesburj-, lord. See Liverpool, carl of. 
 
 Hawkesmoor, his architectural works, v. 456, 
 457 
 
 Hawley, general, left in command of the 
 English troops in Scotland by the duke of 
 Cumberland, 1745, vi. 159 ; marches through 
 Linlithgow to Falkirk ; his contempt for the 
 ** undisciplined rabble," 160; he engages 
 with them at Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; and is 
 disgracefully defeated, 161 ; his retreat ; 
 causes several oSicers and soldiers to be 
 tried by court-martial ; two soldiers are shot, 
 162 
 
 Hay, James, earl of Carlisle, lavish extrava- 
 gance of king James towards, iii. 341 ; Cla- 
 rendon's character of, ib. 
 VOL. VIII. — 267. 
 
 Haydcn, count de, a Eussian rear-srlmiral ; 
 present .at the battle of Navarino. 1827, viii. 
 226, 227 
 
 Haydon, his paintings, viii. 152 
 
 Hazlitt, AVilUam, character of his essays, viii. 
 128, 129 
 
 Head, sir Fr.ancis, governor of Canada ; orders 
 the " Caroline " to be burnt; rcjiels the in- 
 surgents attacking Toronto, viii. 407 
 
 Healey, Joseph, a reformer ; tried and impri- 
 soned, 1820, viii. 164 
 
 Hearth monej-, v. 2, 3 
 
 Hemskerk, Dutch painter ; patronised by Wil- 
 liam III., v. 463 
 
 Hengist and Horsa, landing of, in England, 
 A.u. 449, i. 61 
 
 Henley. See Northington. 
 
 Henrietta Jlaria, advice of, to Charles, con- 
 ecraing Eupert, iv. 2 ; letter of, to Charles, 
 ib. ; lands at Burlington with an army, 12 ; 
 letter of, to Charles, ib. ; warning of, to her 
 husband, 14 ; joins him, 18 ; her character, 
 19 ; enters Stratford-upon-Avon, and sleeps 
 in Shakspere's house, ib. ; meets Charles on 
 his first battle-field, ib. ; conduct of, 27 ; goes 
 to Exeter, 33 ; gives birth to a princess there^ 
 while being besieged by Essex, 34 ; flies to 
 France, 36 ; condition of, at the Louvre, 
 142 
 
 Hcnriot, death of 1794, vii. 310 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon, his account of the inva- 
 sion of the Northmen or Danes, i. 78 
 
 Henrj-, sumamed Beau-Clerc, knighted in 
 1086, i. 217 ; is bequeathed 5000 pounds of 
 silver by his father, 218 ; assists his brother, 
 duke Eobert, at the siege of Eouen, and kills 
 Conan, 222 ; becomes possessed of Mount St. 
 Michael, and maintains a siege against is 
 two brothers, 223; hastens to England and 
 seizes on the cro\vii treasures on the death i f 
 his brother William in 1100, 233 ; is crown' d 
 234 ; publishes a charter of liberties, ib. ; 
 finds the necessity of English support against 
 the Norman barons, 235 ; reforms effected by, 
 ib. ; marriage of, with Matilda, the niece of 
 Edgar Atheling, 236 ; induces his brother 
 Eobert to relinquish his claim to the crown, 
 to establish which he had invaded England, 
 
 237 ; subdues many of the disaffected barons, 
 
 238 ; quaiTcls with his brother for protect- 
 ing Eobert de Belesme, ib. ; fosters the dis- 
 affection of the barons in Normandy against 
 Eobert, 239 ; invades Normandy in 1105, ib. ; 
 wins the battle of Tenchebrai, and takes 
 Eobert prisoner, 240 ; the son of Eobert is 
 patronised by Louis of France, a war takes 
 place, and the battle of Noyon is fought in 
 1119, 241; devastation of Normandy, 242; 
 death of Matilda in 1118, ib. ; marriage of lu'> 
 son WUIiam the Atheling, ib. ; inhumani'.,f 
 of, towards the children of his naturii 
 daughter Juliana, wife of Eustace de Bre- 
 teuil, 243 ; wreck of the Blanche-Kef, and the 
 death of his son William, ib. ; second mar- 
 riage of Henry in 1121 with Adelaide, 244; 
 declares his daughter Matilda, the widow of 
 the emperor of Germanv, his heir, in 1126, 
 ib. ; dies on Nov. 30, 1135,246 
 
 Henry II., born in 1133, i. 245, 268; early 
 career and marriage of, 268 ; is acknowledged 
 successor to Stephen, 269 ; crowned on Dec. 
 19, 1154, 270; beneficial vigour of, in the 
 establishment of order, 271 ; makes Thomas
 
 674 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 a Becket chancellor and his chief adviser in 
 1157, 273 ; character of, 274 ; sends Becket 
 js ambassador to Prance, to contract a mar- 
 riage between his eldest son and a daughter 
 of the French king, 275; declines to sur- 
 render Maine and Anjou to his brother Geof- 
 frey, and gives him a pension instead, 276 ; 
 compels Malcolm of Scotland to surrender 
 Cumberland and Northumberland, ib. ; in- 
 vades Wales, and is unsuccessful, 277 ; con- 
 tinental wars of, 279 ; creates Becket arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, 280; quan-elswith him 
 as to liis claim for the resumption of church 
 property, 283 ; state of secular law and es- 
 tablisliment of law courts, 283, 28-1 ; evils of 
 the clerical exemption from the secular law, 
 285 ; Constitutions of Clarendon passed to 
 enforce the secular law, 286, 287 ; the pope 
 refuses to confirm them, 287; Becket sup- 
 ports the pope's decision, is arraigned as a 
 trait'T, is found guilty, 288 ; and tiies from 
 Ensjland, 289; Henry convenes a synod at 
 Oxford in 1166, which orders the persecution 
 of heretics, 290 ; meets Becket at Touraine 
 in 1170, and a hollow peace is effected, 291 ; 
 Becket returns to England and is murdered, 
 292, 293 ; contrast of the characters of Henry 
 and Becket, 294 ; first landing of the Anglo- 
 Normans in Ireland in 1169,296; commands 
 Strongbow to return to England, who obeys, 
 297; goes himself to Ireland, and receives 
 homage as feudal superior, 298 ; swears his 
 innocence of Becket' s murder .before the 
 pope's legate, and is absolved, ib. ; facts of 
 the story of Eosamund Cliflbrd, 299 ; rebel- 
 lion of his sons, ib. ; imprisons his wife 
 Eleanor, ib. ; insurrection in England re- 
 pressed, 300 ; William king of Scotland in- 
 vades England, ib. ; and is taken prisoner, 
 301 ; is liberated on doing homage to Henry, 
 ib. ; Henry does penance at the tomb of 
 Becket, ib. ; is reconciled to his eldest son, 
 ib. ; important reforms in the administration 
 of justice effected by, 302 ; mission from Je- 
 rusalem in 1185 to urge him to undertake 
 its relief, 303 ; resolves to take the cross in 
 1188, 304 ; his sons Kichard and John join 
 the king of France in a war against him, ib. ; 
 dies on July 6th, 1189, ib. 
 Henry III. succeeds his father John on Oct. 
 18, 1216, when only ten years old, and is 
 crowned at Gloucester, Oct. 28, i. 350 ; the 
 battle of Lincoln gained against the French 
 anny of prince Louis, 357 ; the regent Pem- 
 broke dies in 1219, and is succeeded by 
 Hubert de Burgh, 358 ; redress of grievances 
 obtained by the right preserved by the 
 people to grant supplies, 359 ; the Charters 
 confirmed for a third time in 1225 in order to 
 obtain supplies, ib. ; declares himself of age 
 in 1227, and asserts his right to govern of his 
 " own free will," ib. ; denial of this doctrine 
 by one of his judges, 360 ; quarrels with De 
 Burgh, but together with the pope con- 
 tinues his exactions on the people, 361 ; 
 Batirical and political songs, 362 ; marries 
 Eleanor, daughter of the count of Provence, 
 ill 1236, ib. ; extortions of, 302, 363 ; tyran- 
 nical exercise of the privilege of purveyance, 
 363; R'lle of justice by, ib. ; o])])ressions on 
 the J.oiidoners by, 364 ; disaili'ction occa- 
 eioued, ;Ui5 ; repeated violation of tlie Char- 
 ters by, 366 ; swears aguiu to observe them, 
 
 367 ; ill success of his foreign enterprises, 
 ib. ; condition of the nation under, 368 ; value 
 of money, and fluctuating prices of provisions 
 in the reign of, 369 ; taxation of the industry 
 of the people by, and resistance made to by 
 the clergy, 370 ; famine in 1258, 371 ; par- 
 liament meets at Westminster, and demauds 
 the appointment of a commission, ib. ; the 
 ' Provisions of Oxford,' 372 ; obtains a dis- 
 pensation from the pope to violate them, ib. ; 
 a civil war takes place headed by Simon de 
 Montford, 373 ; prince Edward commands for 
 his father against the barons, ib. ; taken pri- 
 soner at the battle of Lewes, 374 ; the queen 
 collects troops abroad, but does not attempt 
 to land in England, 375 ; burgesses sum- 
 moned to parliament in 1264, by Simon de 
 Montford, ib. ; released by the issue of the 
 battle of Evesham, in which De Montford is 
 slain, 376; Award of Kenilworth, and efibrts 
 of tlie parliament to restore tranquillity, 378; 
 continued resistance of Simon de Montford 
 the younger, ib. ; dies, Nov. 16, 1272, 381 
 
 Henrj' IV. [see Hereford, duke of] ascends the 
 throne, Sept. 30, 1399, ii. 37 ; confederacy of 
 nobles against, 41 ; revolt of the Welsh 
 under Owen Glen dower agamst, 42; is re- 
 pulsed by Glendower, 43 ; accused of the 
 murder of Eichard IL, ib. ; persecutes the 
 followers of Wycliffe, 44 ; statute ' de here- 
 tico comburendo ' passed for the suppression 
 of the Lollards, 45; burning William Salter, 
 ib. ; the Commons pray for repeal of the 
 statute, and he rejects the prayer, 46 ; signs 
 a warrant for burning John Badby, ib. ; 
 France and Scotland refuse to acknowledge 
 him as king, ib. ; war with Scotland, and 
 battle of Homildon HiU on Sept. 14, 1402, 47 ; 
 revolt of the Percies against, and its probable 
 causes, 48 ; battle of Hateley Field at Shrews- 
 bury, 48, 49 ; politic clemency of Henry, 
 ib. ; hostilities with France, 50 ; revolt of 
 Archbishop Scrope and others, ib. ; sup- 
 pression of the revolt, and execution of 
 Serope and Nottingham, ib. ; continued strug- 
 gle of the Wel>h under Owen Glendower, 
 i.b. ; invades France, 51 ; dies, March 20, 
 1413, 52 
 
 Henry V. knighted by Richard II. in 1399, 
 when eleven yeai-s old, ii. 34 ; commands in 
 Wales against the insurgents in 1402, 42; 
 joins his father to oppose the revolt of the 
 Percies, 48 ; is wounded at the battle of 
 Shrewsbury, 49 ; obtains a victory over the 
 Welsh in 1405, 50 ; early character of, 51 ; 
 made captain of Calais, 52 ; proclaimed king, 
 March 21, 1413, 53 ; clemency of, ib. ; al- 
 leged conspiracy of the Lollards, headed by 
 sii- John Oldcastle in 1414 agamst, 64 ; sup- 
 pressed, and all the conspirators pardoned ex- 
 cept Oldcastle and eleven others, 55 ; claims 
 the crown of France and the restoration of 
 the old English possessions, ib. ; injustice of 
 the demands, 56 ; preparations for the inva- 
 sion of France, ib. ; conspiracy of the earl of 
 Cambridge, lord Scrope, and others against, 
 57 ; lands near Harfleur, Aug. 14, 1415, ib. ; 
 nature of the forces, ib. ; siege of Harfleur, 
 68 ; sickness of the English array, ib. ; march 
 from Harfleur, 59; passage of the Somme, 
 60 ; description of Agincourt and its locality, 
 61 ; battle of Agincourt on Oct. 25, 1415, 62- 
 64; rejoicings in London on arrival of th&
 
 INDEX 
 
 C75 
 
 news, 65 ; iriumphant entry of, into London, 
 CG ; the factions in France a cause of his 
 success, 67 ; second expedition against France 
 in 1417, ib. ; takes Caen, ib. ; besieges 
 Kouen, 69; it smrenders after severe famine, 
 70 ; ineffectual conferences at Meulan, ib. ; 
 the duke of Burgundy murdered at an inter- 
 view with the Dauphin at Montereau, 71 ; con- 
 cludes a treaty with Philip, the young duke of 
 Burgundy, ib. ; and the treaty of Troyes with 
 Charles Vl. on May 21, 1420, by which he 
 was to marry Katherine and be recognised as 
 heir to the crown on the death of Charles, 
 ib. ; Henry and his queen return to England, 
 72 ; ill eflects of liis con(iuosts on the condi- 
 tion of England, ib. ; the duke of Clarence 
 killed, 73 ; releases James I. of Scotland, who 
 accompanies him in liis expedition to France 
 in 1421, ib. ; besieges and takes Meaux, 74 ; 
 dies, Aug. 31, 1422, 75 ; estimate of the cha- 
 racter of, ib. 
 Benry YL, bom Dec. 6, 1421, ii. 74 ; succeeds 
 his father, Sept. 1, 1422, and the dukes of 
 Bedford and Gloucester are appointed Pro- 
 tectors by the parliament, 76 ; Charles YI. of 
 France dies, and Henry is proclaimed king, 
 77 ; victory of YerneuU gained by the duke of 
 Bedford, ib. ; tutelage of, under tlie earl of 
 "War\rick, 79 ; apparent severity of Warwick's 
 discipline, 79, 80; siege of Orleans com- 
 menced, 82 ; Orleans is relieved by Joiin of 
 Arc, 85 ; is cro^Tied king of France, at Paris, 
 on Dec. 17, 1430, 91 ; death of the duke of 
 Bedford, 92 ; continued disgraces and losses in 
 France, ib. ; marries Jlargaret of Anjou, and 
 surrenders or loses all the possessions in 
 France, 93 ; the duke of Sufi'olk takes the 
 side of cardinal Beaufort against the duke of 
 Gloucester, 95 ; Gloucester and Beaufort die, 
 96 ; rise of the house of York, 130 ; power of 
 the duke of Sufi'olk, 131 ; impeachment and 
 banishment of Suflblk, ib. ; his murder, 132 ; 
 insurrection of Jack Cade in 1450, ib. ; other 
 revolts in England, 134 ; unpopularity of 
 Somerset, on account of his losses in France, 
 ib. ; Henry becomes imbecile, 135 ; intrigues 
 of tho queen and Somerset to secure their 
 power, 136 , the duke of York elected Protec- 
 tor by the peers, ib. ; the king recovers his 
 faculties, 137 ; selfishness of the barons, ib. ; 
 Somerset is released from arrest, and York 
 Bupcrsoded, ib. ; York marches towards Lon- 
 don, ib. ; first battle of St. Albans, on May 
 22, 1455, and death of Somerset, 138 ; is con- 
 ducted to London by York, 139; a parliament 
 summoned, and York made Protector a second 
 time, ib. ; the parliament not revolutionary, 
 but influenced by a desire to remove oppres- 
 sive taxation, 140; the Protectorate super- 
 seded in 1456, 141 ; attempts to reconcile the 
 Lancastrian and York factions, ib. ; com- 
 mencement of the Civil "War, in 1459, 142; 
 battle of Blore Heath, ib. ; is taken prisoner 
 at the battle of Northamptcn, in 1460, 143; 
 a parliament assembled at Westminster, and 
 York claims the crown, 144 ; the peers eftect 
 a compromise that York should succeed on 
 Hem-y's death, ib. ; tlie queen resists the 
 compromise, and assembles an army, ib. ; 
 battle of Wakefield, and death of York, Dec. 
 31, 1460, 145 ; Margaret advances to London, 
 ib. ; defeats Warwick in the second battle of 
 St. Albans, and re-^aptures the king, 146 ; 
 
 Henry is deposed bv parliament, and Edward 
 IV. proclaimed, March 4, 1461, 146 ; battle of 
 Towtou, 147, 14S ; attainted in parliament 
 for the death of Kichard, duke of York, 151 ; 
 renewed attempt of queen Margaret, in 1462, 
 repulsed, 152 ; story of her throwing herself 
 and son on the protection of an outlaw, ib. ; 
 renewed attempt against Edward, and loss of 
 the battle of Hexham, 153 ; the king is re- 
 captured, and committed to the Tower, and 
 Margaret retu-ts to the Continent, 157 ; Mar- 
 garet is reconciled to Warwick, 159 ; invades 
 England with Warwick and Clarence, Edward 
 is deserted, and Henry restored, 160 ; War- 
 wick and Clarence apiiointcd I'rotectors, 162 ; 
 is taken jjrisoner at the battle of Bamet, and 
 re-committed to the Tower, 165 ; queen Alai-- 
 garet lands at Weymouth, assembles forces, 
 and is defeated at the battle of Tewkesbury, 
 166; she is taken prisoner, 167; death of 
 Henry, in May, 1471, and doubts as to the duke 
 of Gloucester having been his murderer, 168 
 Henry YII. (earl of Kichmond) taken by his 
 uncle, the eail of Pembroke, to Brittany, after 
 the battle of Tewkesbury, ii. 169 ; the dul^e 
 of Buckingham and bishop Morton put them- 
 selves in communication with, previous to 
 their revolt against liichard III., 196 ; as- 
 sembles soldiers for a landing in England, 197; 
 is prevented by a storm, 198; leaves Brittany 
 to avoid being delivered up to Richard, 202"; 
 i-eceives some forces from the king of France, 
 and lands at Milford Haven, Aug. 7, 1485, 
 204 ; battle of Bosworth, Aug. 22, 206 ; 
 crowned on the field of Bosworth, 208 ; par- 
 liamentary title to the crown given him, 209 ; 
 marries Elizabeth of York, 210 ; suitablenesa 
 of the character of, for his tunes, 211 ; aver- 
 sion of, to the House of York, ib. ; imprisons 
 the earl of Warwick, son of George, duke of 
 Clarence, 212 ; insurrection against, headed 
 by Lambert Simncl, who pretended to be earl 
 of Warwick, ib. ; suppression of the insurrec*- 
 tion at the battle of Stoke, on June 4, 1487, 
 213, alleged harsh treatment of the dowaget 
 qa<;en Elizabeth, 214 ; exhibits the real earl 
 of Warmck to the people, 215 ; timid foreign 
 policy of, 216 ; allows France to annex Brit- 
 tany, 217; insurrection in the northern coun- 
 ties on account of oppressive taxation, ib. ; 
 the earl of Northumberland killed, but th?" 
 insurrection suppressed by tho earl of SuiTey, 
 ib.; invades 1 ranee, in 1492, and tnvesta 
 Boulogne, 213; concludes a hurried peace on 
 receiving a large sum of money from Ciiarles 
 YIIL, tb. ; probable motives for the peace, 
 219 ; demands the surrender of Perkin War- 
 beck from the duke of Burgundj-, but com- 
 pliance is evaded, 223 ; execution of sir Wil- 
 liam Stanley, and others, for coiTCsponding 
 ■with Warbeck, 224 ; concludes a treaty with 
 the duke of Burgundy, by which Warbeck ia 
 compelled to go to Scotland, 225; statute of 
 treason passed pro^'iding that subjects are 
 bound to serve the king de facto, ib. ; employ- 
 ment of spies by, 226 ; letters of Bothwell to, 
 describing the ])osition of Warbeck in Scot- 
 land in 1496, 227 ; is attacked by Warbeck 
 and James IV., but they are compelled to 
 retreat, 229 ; insurrection in Cornwall against 
 renewed taxation, ib. ; suppressed, 230 ; con- 
 cludes a truce with James IV., by which 
 Warbeck is forced to leave Scotland, ib. ;
 
 676 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Warbeck lands in Cornwall, attacks Exeter, 
 and is repulsed, 230 ; is deserted, and flies to 
 sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey, ib. ; his treat- 
 ment of Warbeck after his surrender, 231 ; 
 Warbeck attempts to escape, is retaken, and 
 confined in the Tower, 231 ; exhibited to the 
 public, and reads his confession, 232; the 
 earl of Warwick accused of treason, and of 
 joining in conspiracy with Warbeck, ib. ; they 
 are both executed, in Nov. 1499, 233 ; com- 
 mits Edward de la Pole, eai-1 of Suffolk, to 
 the Tower, 234 ; marries his eldest son, 
 Arthur, to the princess Catherine of Arragon, 
 in 1501, 235; account of the royal court, ib., 
 his fondness for jewels, 236; erection of his 
 palace at Eichmond, and chapel at Westmin- 
 ster, ib. ; encouragement by, of Cabot and his 
 sons, ib. ; passion of, for wealth, 237 ; con- 
 cludes a treaty wAtla. Scotland, and gives 
 ^Margaret, his daughter, in marriage to James 
 IV., in 1502, 238 ; his son Arthur dies, ib. ; 
 marries Arthur's widow to his next son, 
 Henry, after obtaining the pope's dispensa- 
 tion, ib. ; his queen Elizabeth dies, 239 ; 
 seelcs for an advantageous maiTiage for him- 
 Bclf, ib. ; dies on April 21, 1509, 240 ; extor- 
 tions of Henry through the agency of Empson 
 and Dudlej-, 240, 241 ; depression of the aris- 
 tocracy by, 241 ; originates the Star-chamber 
 court, 242 ; few parliaments held during his 
 reign, 243 ; progress of maritime discovery 
 in his reign, 249 
 Henry Vllt. succeeds his father, April 22, 1509, 
 ii, 257 ; Empson and Dudley convicted and 
 executed for extortion, 258 ; marriage of, to 
 Catherine of An-agon, 259 ; remarkable modi- 
 fication of the coronation oath by, ib. ; skill 
 of, in music, 260, 261 ; interferes in favour of 
 pope Julius II. in a war against France, 262 ; 
 revives the claim to the crown of France, 263 ; 
 claims a feudal superiority over Scotland, ib.; 
 retains his sister's legacy, in order to compel 
 her husband, James IV. of Scotland, to aban- 
 don the French alliance, 264 ; an army sent 
 to Spain to invade Guienne, ib. ; Wolsey, the 
 almoner, acts as war-minister, ib. ; rise of 
 Wolsey, 265; the army returns from Spain 
 without efi'ecting its object, ib. ; naval war- 
 fare, and mutual ravages on the coasts of 
 France and England, 266 ; despotic measures 
 of, for the security of the coast, 267 ; expedi- 
 tion of, to France, in 1513, ib. ; ostentatious 
 display of magnificence, ib. ; the emperor 
 Maximilian takes military service under him, 
 268 ; wins the Battle of "the Spurs, ib. ; Te- 
 rouenne and Toumay surrender, ib. ; war 
 with Scotland, 270 ; battle of Flodden Field, 
 on Sept. 9, 1513, and death of James IV. of 
 Scotland, 271, 272; ravages on both sides of 
 the Scottish border, 274 ; attack by the French 
 on Brighton, ib. ; peace with France, and 
 waniage of the princess Mary to Louis XII., 
 ih. ; death of Louis, and accession of Francis, 
 275 ; Henry asserts the rights of the crown 
 against the claims of the clergy, 278 ; de- 
 sires to be chosen emperor, and sends Pace 
 on a mission to Germany, 280 ; Henry and 
 Francis meet in the Field of the Cloth of 
 Gold, 282-258 ; meets Charles V. at Grave- 
 lines, 286 ; conviction and execution of John 
 Stafford, dukeof Buckingham, 287 ; increasing 
 dcspotisTn and cruelty of, 288 ; writes a book 
 againat Luther, " On the Seven Sacrameiits," 
 
 290 ; Leo X. bestows on him, in 1521, the 
 title of " Defender of the Faith," ib.; con- 
 cludes a league Avith Charles V. again.st 
 Francis I., 291; arbitrary measures of, to 
 raise money, 292 ; riot of the Londoners on 
 " Evil May Day " against the Flemish traders, 
 293, 294 ; parliament summoned, in 1523, and 
 earnest debate on the granting of a subsidy, 
 295, 296 ; opposes the endeavour of his sister 
 Margaret to obtain a divorce, 298 ; Scotland 
 is invaded to enforce the removal of the dulce 
 of Albany from the regency, 299 ; the eail of 
 Surrey destroys Jedburgh, and ravages the 
 borders, ib. ; the duke of Sufl^olk sent with an 
 army to France, in 1523, which devastates the 
 country, but has no other success, 300 ; resist- 
 ance of the people to taxes levied without the 
 authority of parliament, 301,302; insuiTection 
 in Suffolk occasioned by, 302 ; the levy revoked, 
 and the insurgents pardoned, 303 ; Ms opinion 
 as to the war between the emperor and the 
 pope, in 1527, 308 ; first agitation of the ques- 
 tion of divorce from queen Catherine, 309 ; 
 sends supplies to the pope while in confine- 
 ment, 311 ; growing attachment of, to Anne 
 Boleyn, 313,314; war declared against th? 
 emperor, 314 ; the pope sends a commissioi'. 
 for Wolsey and cardinal Campegius to inquire 
 into the validity of his marriage, 315; inter- 
 view of the legates with Catherine, 317 ; un- 
 popularitj' of the divorce with the people, 318; 
 opening of the legatine commission, on June 
 18, 1529, ib. ; Catherine refuses to acknow- 
 ledge its jurisdiction, 319 ; is declared contu- 
 macious, ib. ; Wolsey is deprived of the Great 
 Seal, on Oct. 17, 1529, 320; creates sir Tho- 
 mas More chancellor, 323 ; the parliament 
 passes statutes against ecclesiastical abuses, 
 325 ; opposition of the clergy to the reading of 
 the scriptures, 326 ; the lung is released from 
 his debts by act of parliament, 328 ; Christmas 
 amusements of, and large sums lost by, at 
 gambling, 329 ; sends the earl of Wiltshire 
 and Craumer to obtain the pope's consent to 
 the dissolution of his marriage, 330 ; opinions 
 of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
 in favour of the divorce, 331 ; hypocrisy of the 
 plea of conscience for desmng a divorce, ib. ; 
 grants a general pardon to Wolsej-, who retires 
 to his see, 332 ; causes him to be aiTested for 
 high treason, 334 ; unfeeling conduct of, on 
 hearing of Wolsey' s death, 335 ; commence- 
 ment of the Reformation in England, 336 ; 
 prosecutes the clergy for having submitted to 
 Wolsey as legate, 337 ; fears being cited to 
 Rome on the divorce cause, ib. ; threatens 
 the pope with the loss of his power in England, 
 but persecutes reformers, 338 ; requires Frith 
 and TjTidale to renounce their errors and to 
 return from the Netherlands to England, ib. ; 
 the payment of annates to the see of Eome 
 abolished by, in 1533, 339 ; mcrcased cruelty 
 and t3'ranny of, after the death of Wolsey, ib.; 
 severe laws passed against poisoners, gipsies, 
 vagabonds, and for punishing wanderers by 
 death on a third offence, 340-342; goes with 
 Anne Bolej-n to France in 1532, to meet 
 F'rancis, 343 ; marries Anne Boleyn, 344 ; 
 Cranmer pronounces sentence of divorce, on 
 May 23, 1533, 345 ; description of the corona- 
 tion of Anne Boleyn, by Cranmer, 346 ; Ca- 
 tlu'riiie steadily refuses to renounce the title 
 of qiiecn, 348 ; princess Elizabeth born, Sept,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 677 
 
 7, 1533, 349 ; statute forbidding appeals to 
 Home passed, 350; statute for the punish- 
 ment of heresy, 351 ; Frith burnt, 352 ; sta- 
 tute Testing the succession in the issue of 
 queen Anne, ib. ; the Holy Maid of Kent and 
 her visions, 353 ; she is tried and executed for 
 treason, 354 ; Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and 
 sir Thomas More, included in the charge, ib. ; 
 they are sent to the Tower for refusing to 
 swear to the illegality of the king's tirst 
 marriage, 356 ; Act of Supremacy passed, 
 357 ; Act of Succession passed, with new 
 definitions of treason, ib. ; execution of the 
 monks of the Charterhouse for refusing to 
 take the oath of supremacy, 359 ; Hollanders 
 burnt for heresy, 361 ; the act allowing the 
 free importation of books repealed, ib. ; Fisher 
 and More tried for treason, convicted, and 
 executed, 362-364; Cromwell appointed vice- 
 gerent, 365 ; visitation of the monasteries, in 
 1535, 366 ; statute for the dissolution of the 
 smaller monasteries, 369 ; statutes passed for 
 the regulation of trade and prices, 370 ; death 
 of Catheiine on Jan. 7, 1536, ib.; AnneBole}Ti 
 suspected of heresy, 371 ; May-day at Green- 
 wich, 1536,372; Anne Boleyn sent to the Tower, 
 373; her letter to the king, 374, 384; Cranmer's 
 letter to the king, 375 ; true bills found against 
 Anne Boleyn and others, 376 ; her trial and ex- 
 ecution onMay 19, 1536, 377; her dying speech, 
 378 ; marriage of Henry to Jane Seymour, on 
 May 20, ib. ; doubts as to the guilt of Anne, 380, 
 381 ; new law of succession passed, 382 ; state 
 of Ireland, 385-388 ; rebellion of the Fitz- 
 geralds in Ireland in 1534, 388; it is sup- 
 pressed, and the Fitzgeralds executed, iu 
 violation of a promise given, 393 ; assumes 
 the title of king of Ireland, 394 ; proclama- 
 tion of, against holidays, 398 ; insurrection 
 in Lincolnshire in 1536, occasioned by the 
 proclamation, and the suppression of monastic 
 establishments, 399 ; rude answer of, to the 
 Lincolnshire petitioners, ib. ; the insurrection 
 suppressed, 400 ; insurrection in Yorkshire, 
 headed by Eobert Aske, ib. ; crafty instruc- 
 tions of, to the duke of Norfolk, as to treating 
 with the insurgents, 401 ; dissatisfaction of, 
 with Norfolk, for granting a free pardon on 
 their dispersion, ib. ; renewal of the insurrec- 
 tion in Yorkshire in 1537, 402 ; the insur- 
 gents repulsed from Carlisle and Hull, mar- 
 tial law proclaimed, and many hung, ib. ; 
 execution of many of the leaders in London, 
 403 ; orders martial law to be pi'oclaimed, 
 which is to apply to monks and canons that 
 be faulty, ib. ; executions at Windsor for 
 sympathy with the insurgents of the North, 
 ib. ; birth of Edward YL, and death of queen 
 Jane SejTnour, 404 ; negotiations abroad for 
 a new wife, ib. ; sanctions the printing of 
 Coverdale's Bible, 405 ; disputes in West- 
 minster Hall with John Lambert on the 
 ?uchaiist, 407 ; Lambert is burnt, 408 ; Act 
 of 1539, for the dissolution of abbeys, ib. ; 
 assigns pensions to the abbots, monks, and 
 others who surrender, 412 ; wasteful dis- 
 posal of the possessions of the religious houses, 
 413 ; destraction of the buildings, 414 ; sub- 
 serviency of the parliament summoned in 
 1539, 416 ; Acts passed for the dissolution of 
 abbeys, and to enable Henry to found and 
 endow bishoprics, 417 ; projected appropri- 
 ations of the monastic revenues, and their 
 
 subsequent misapplication, 418 ; suppresses 
 the hospital of the Knights of St. John, 419 ; 
 passing of the intolerant and atrocious statute 
 of the Six Articles, in 1539, ib. ; persecutions 
 and executions under this statute, 421 ; pre- 
 posterous claim of, to unlimited obedience, 
 embodied in this statute, 422; causes the 
 De la Pole family to be arrested, on Reginald 
 Pole having written against his divorce, ib. ; 
 the aged countess of Salisbury, Pole's mother, 
 executed in 1541, 423; manies Anne of 
 Cleves, 425 ; dislikes her, 426 ; the maniage 
 declared invalid, 427 ; causes Cromwell to be 
 arrested, 428; and attainted of high treason, 
 429 ; Cromwell is executed, July 28, 1540, and 
 on the same day Henry marries Catherine 
 Howard, 430 ; heretics burnt for affirming 
 the legality of his marriage with Catherine of 
 Arragon, and for denying his supremacy, 432 ; 
 the profligacy of Catherine Howard revealed 
 to him by Cranmer, ib. ; promises her life on 
 confession, but breaks the promise, 433 ; she 
 is attainted and executed, Feb. 12, 1541, ib. ; 
 another new treason declared by the Act of 
 attainder, 434; marries Catherine Pan-, in 
 July, 1543, ib. ; endeavours to efl'ect a mar- 
 riage between his son Edward and Mary of 
 Scotland, 436 ; sends the earl of Hertford to 
 Scotland, who ravages it, bums Leith, and 
 other places, 437-439 ; is opposed by cardinal 
 Beaton in his claims to supremacy, and in his 
 attempt on the independence of Scotland, 440 ; 
 sanctions a proposal to assassinate Beaton, ib. ; 
 invades France with great pomp, having 
 obtained a subsidy and a second extinction of 
 his debts from parliament, in 1544, 442 ; 
 besieges and takes Boulogne, 443 ; wants 
 funds for providing land defences against a 
 projected invasion by France, 444 ; peace 
 concluded with France and Scotland, 445 ; 
 continued persecution for heresies under Act 
 of the Six Articles, 446, 447 ; relieves Cran- 
 mer from an accusation of heres)', 448 ; Anne 
 Askew and others burnt, 449 ; queen Catherine 
 Parr suspected of heresy, 450 ; the duke of 
 Norfolk and earl of SuiTey arrested on charges 
 of high treason, 451 ; Surrey beheaded, and 
 Norfolk remitted for execution, but escapes 
 owing to the king's death, 452; death of 
 Henry on Jan. 28, 1547, 453 
 
 Henry IV., of France, succeeds to the throne in 
 August, 1589, iii. 259; English expedition 
 sent in aid of, 260 ; abjures the Protestant 
 religion, 265 ; concludes a separate treaty 
 with Spain, 279 ; sends Sully to congratulate 
 James I. on his accession, 309 ; is assassinated 
 iu 1610, 351 ; scheme of, for an European 
 confederacy, ib. 
 
 Henry, Patrick, his early career, tI. 272; his 
 eloquence in opposing the Stamp act, 1765, 
 273 
 
 Heptarchy, little interest afforded by the events 
 of the, i. 71 ; incessant wars during the, 73 
 
 Hereford, Henry duke of (afterwards Henry 
 IV.), quarrel of, with the duke of Norfolk, ii. 
 31 ; is banished, 32 ; his patrimony seized by 
 Richard II., 33 ; lauds at Raveuspur July 4, 
 1399, 34 ; interview of, with Richard II., 35 ; 
 entry of, with the captive Richard, into Lon- 
 don, 36 ; claims the crown, 38 ; his liereditary 
 pretensions, 39 ; superior right of Edmund 
 INIortimer, the progenitor of the House of 
 York, 40. See Ueury IV.
 
 C7S 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ilerowaid heads nn insurrection in 1072, in the 
 
 Jale of EI3', i. 198 ; successes of, ib. ; is coin- 
 
 l"'llcfl to submit to William I., 199 ; fate 
 
 of; ib. 
 
 ilenuann, general, defeated by the French and 
 
 Dutch, 1799, vii. 386 
 Hero-worship, ancient tumuli, probable memo- 
 rials of, i. 13 
 Herries, J. C, chancellor of the exchequer, viii. 
 225; quarrels with Huslcisson, 227 ; secretary 
 at war, 35-1 
 Herschell, sir William, discovered Uranus, 1781, 
 viii. 129, 130 ; his g-reat telescope erected at 
 Slou-h, Aug. 28, 1798, ISO 
 Hertford, Edward Seymour earl of, commands 
 the forces in the invasion of Scotland, and 
 burns Leith, ii. 437 ; ravages the southern 
 counties, 438 ; conceals for a time the will of 
 Henry VIII., iii. 2; raised to the office of 
 Protector by the executors of the will, and 
 created duke of Somerset, ib. ; endeavours to 
 enforce the treaty for the marriage of Edward 
 VI. with the queen of Scotland, 4; invades 
 Scotland and proposes terms for an Union, 5, 
 6 ; wins the battle of Pinkie and returns to 
 London, 7 ; causes Henry VIII 's statutes of 
 treason and other arbitraiy laws to be re- 
 pealed, 9 ; difficulties of the government of, 
 arising from the circumstances of the times 
 and his own character, 14 ; causes his brother, 
 lord Thomas Seymour, to be attainted for 
 treason, and signs the waiTant for his exe- 
 cution, 16 ; probable guilt of Seymour, ami 
 justification of Somerset, 17 ; evidence of 
 Sharrington against Seymour, 17, 18 ; inef- 
 fectual endeavours of Somerset to redress 
 grievances, 19; proclamations agamst un- 
 reasonable prices and against in closures, 20 ; 
 insurrection in Cornwall and Devonshire 
 against innovations in religion, 21 ; suppressed 
 at the battle of Cliff, near Exeter, 23 ; insur- 
 rection of Ket the tanner in Norfolk, against 
 inclosures, 24 ; suppressed by the earl of 
 Warwick at Mousehold-heath, 27 ; marriage 
 of Mary of Scotland to the dauphin of France, 
 and war declared with both those countries, 
 28; successes of the Scolch, 29; becomes 
 obnoxious to the nobility from his protection 
 of the rights of the poor, 30, 31 ; confederacy 
 of the nobles, headed by Warwick against, 32 ; 
 issues a proclamation inviting the king's 
 subjects to repair to Hampton Court, where 
 Edward was, for the king's protection, 33 ; 
 fails to get the support of the anny or to 
 move the people to rise in his favour, id. ; re- 
 moves Edward to Windsor, 34; lord llussell 
 and the army join Warwick, ib. ; is arrested, 
 35 ; conveyed to the Tower, 36 ; articles ex- 
 hibited against, 37 ; the Protectorship is 
 revoked, he is imprisoned till Feb. 6, 15.50, 
 and fined, ib. ; attempts of, to re-establish his 
 power, 42; is arrested and tried for high 
 treason, 43: acquitted of treason and found 
 guilty of felony, ib. ; is beheaded January 22, 
 1551, 43 ; character of, and his influence on 
 the progress of the Picforraation, 44 
 
 Hertford, lord, English ambassador at Paris, vi. 
 268 
 
 Hervey, lord, vice-chamberlain, 1730, vi. 62; 
 duels with Pulteney ; character of, 67 ; con- 
 versation of, with Walpole on Caroline's 
 death, 87 
 
 Hervey, colonel, advises Wellington to ceaso 
 
 pursuing the enemy at Waterloo, viii. 
 36 
 
 Hesse, elector of, subsidied by England, vi. 
 208 
 
 Hewlet, lady, her bequest ; discussion as to the 
 claimants thereof, viii. 519, 520 
 
 Hexham, battle of, May 15, 1464, ii. 153 
 
 Hicks, Mrs., hanged for witchcraft, 1716, v. 
 430 
 
 Hickson, an agent of the young Pretender ; ap- 
 prehended, vi. 132 
 
 Hickson, his description of the evils of the poor- 
 law system, viii. 339 
 
 Hidon, Thomas, reveals the Cato-street con- 
 spiracy, viii. IGl 
 
 High and Low Church, introduction of the dis- 
 tinction of, V. 74 
 
 Highlanders, description of the, by Cunning- 
 ham, V. 91 ; government proceedings against 
 the, 131, (t seq. ; their share in the rebellion 
 of 1715, vi. 6-26 ; description of the ; the 
 Black Watch, or 42nd liegiment, 116, 117 ; 
 aid the rebellion of 1745, 123-133; costume 
 of, early part of 18th century, 134-136 ; their 
 further operations in the rebellion of 1/45, 
 1746, 140-149, 155-178; drafted into the 
 British army by Chatham, 218 
 
 Highs, Thomas, invents a machine shnilar to 
 the "jenny," vii. 46, 47 
 
 Highwaymen, 18th century, vii. 91, 92 
 
 Hill, colonel, commands the gaiTison at Fort 
 William, 1690, v. 131 ; his share in the Glen- 
 coe massacre, 132, 133, 137 ; declared not 
 guilty by the Scotch parliament, 141 
 
 Hill, captam, murders Moimtford, the player, 
 V. 160 
 
 Hill, general, his struggle with Soult, Dec. 
 1813, vii. 567 
 
 Hill, Frederic, first inspector of Scotch pri- 
 sons ; their state according to his reports, viii. 
 371 
 
 Hill, sir G. F., vice-treasurer of Ireland, viii. 
 158 
 
 Hill, M. D., MP. for Hull; description of Ag- 
 new's Sabbath Observance bill, viii. 322; 
 history of public opinion on the question of 
 counsel for prisoners by, 369, 370 
 
 Hill, Rowland, revolutionises the routine of the 
 Post Office, viii. 390 ; his proposed penny 
 postage plan; opposition to it; it is tried and 
 found compk'telj' successful, 424, 425 
 
 Hill, T. W., his remarks on Worcestershire 
 potato cultivation, vii. 25, 26 ; engaged in 
 the Birmingham riots, 1791, 196, 197 
 
 Hillsborough, lord, secretary for the colonies, 
 1768-1772, vi. 306, 321, 469; orders Bernard 
 to rescind the resolution adopted by the Mas- 
 sachusetts Assembly, to oppose the Revenue 
 act, 307 ; accused of garbling the council 
 minutes ; appoints lord Boutetort governor of 
 Vh-ginia, in room of sir J. Amherst, 310 ; 
 secretary of state, 1779-1782, 469 
 
 Hislop, sir Thomas, commands the army of the 
 Deccan, viii. 216 
 
 Hispaniola. See San Domingo. 
 
 Historian, province of the, i. introd. It. ; duties 
 of, introd. v. 
 
 History, specimens of the false statements of, 
 viii. 40, 41 ; dillerently treated by our leading 
 historians, Macaulay, Hallam, and Cariyle, 
 470-473 
 
 Uoadlcy, Dr. Benjamin ; his treatises burnt by 
 the mob, v. 355 ; bishop of SaUsbury ; urgea
 
 INDEX. 
 
 670 
 
 Walpolo to give the Dissenters promise of 
 future relief, vi. 623 
 
 •Hobhouse, his objection to the income tax, vii. 
 360 
 
 Hobhouse, sir J. C, secretary of state, viii. 324 ; 
 president of the board of control, 381 ; his 
 speech, moving a vote of thanks to the Indian 
 army, 451 
 
 iloche, sergeant, commands a detachment of 
 French guards in the riots, 1789, vii. 179; his 
 exploits at Quiberon, 1795,320 ; appointed to 
 command the expedition to Ireland, 1796, 
 331 
 
 Hofer, Andrew, leader of the Tyrolcse insurrec- 
 tionists, 1809, vii. 515 ; his exploits, 516 ; 
 capture and death, Feb. 20, 1810, 517 
 
 Holland, a river scenery painter, viii. 155 
 
 Hogarth, William, the regenerator of modern 
 English painting, v. 463, vii. 67 ; his cha- 
 racter as a painter, V. 464; liis pictures a 
 delineation of cotemporary manners, 465, 466 ; 
 dramatic character of his paintings and prints, 
 ib. ; the life of the streets as shown in his 
 works, 446, 448 ; profligacy among the high 
 and low ranks of society, 468 ; manners of the 
 time as delineated in his pictures of the 
 scene at the cockpit and at the gaming house, 
 469 ; that of the rake's levee, 470 ; marriage- 
 a-la-mode, 471 ; in his election prints, 472 ; 
 in his pictures of " The Sleeping Congre- 
 gation," 473; and " Credulit}', Superstition, 
 and Fanaticism, a medley," 474 ; attacked by 
 AVilkes in the "North Briton," vi. 265; his 
 caricature portrait of Wilkes; attacked by 
 Churchill, 266 ; whose portrait he publishes, 
 267 
 
 Hohenlinden, battle of, Dec. 3, 1800, vii. 
 396 
 
 Hohenlohe, prince of, commands the Prussians 
 at Jena, vii. 477 
 
 Holbein, Hans, productions of, under Heniy 
 VIII., ii. 499 
 
 Holbomne, admiral, shrinks from attacking the 
 French, vi. 230 
 
 Holcroft, Thomas, remarks on Hardy's trial, vii. 
 301 
 
 Holderness, earl of, secretary of state, 1751- 
 1761, vi. 221, 237, 320; removed from this 
 otSce, 1761, 246 
 
 Holkar, a Mahratta chief, vii. 455 ; war de- 
 clared against, 1804 ; subdued by the British, 
 461 
 
 Holkar the younger aids the Pindarees in their 
 war with the British, viii. 216; defeated Dec. 
 21, 1817, at the battle of Meehudpore; peace 
 concluded with the British, Jan. 6, 1818, 
 217 
 
 Holland, Henry, hia architectural designs, viii. 
 144 
 
 Holland, lord. See Fox, Henry. 
 
 Holland, lord, remarks on lord North's conduct, 
 1781, vi. 432; his account of Noi-th's an- 
 nouncement of his resignation, 1782, 435; 
 remarks on the income tax, vii. 360 ; a mem- 
 ber of the Grenville ministry, 478 ; defends 
 himself for defending lord Grey, 1827, viii. 
 206; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 
 267, 381 
 
 Holland annexed to France, 1810, vii. 536 
 
 Holmes, major, concerned in the assassination 
 plot, 1696, V. 187, et seq. 
 
 Holstein Beck, prince of, takes an active part 
 in the battle of Blenheim, 1704, v. 283 
 
 Ilolwell, his account of the tragedy of the Black 
 Hole, vi. 222, 223 
 
 Holy Alliance. See Alliance. 
 
 Home, John, his estimate of the Highland 
 forces, 1745, vi. 128 ; his description of the 
 battle of Falkirk, 160, 161 
 
 Homildon-Hill, battle of, 14 Sept. 1402, u. 47 
 
 Hompesch, general, pursues the Gallo-Bavarian 
 army after their defeat at Blenheim, v. 283 
 
 Hone, William, prosecuted for libel, viii. 85, 
 86 ; his first, 86-88 ; second, 88 ; and third 
 trials, 88, 89 ; in all he is found not guilty 
 
 Hood, captain, present at the battle of the Nile, 
 1798, vii. 356 
 
 Hood, sir Samuel, unable to hinder De Grasse's 
 operations, 1781, vi. 421, 426; joined by 
 liodney, 1782, 436 ; compels the " Ville do 
 Paris" to strike, 438 ; captures four French 
 vessels, 439 ; sails against Toulon ; negotiates 
 with the inhabitants, vii. 286 ; the fleet and 
 port are surrendered on his agreeing to sup- 
 port them in the restoration of peace and 
 monarchy, 286, 287 ; compelled to evacuate 
 the place by the French, 289, 290 
 
 Hood, Thomas, his poetry, viii. 481, 482 
 
 Hook, Theodore, his novels, viii. 467, 468 
 
 llooke, colonel, a Jacobite agent ; offers Fi-ench 
 assistance to the Cameronians, and other 
 Scots disaffected towards the government, v. 
 334 
 
 Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, martyrdom of, iii. 
 S3 
 
 Hope, sir John, retreats through Spain, 1808, 
 vii. 504, 506 ; succeeds to the command of 
 the army on Moore's death ; embarks his 
 troops, 606 ; captures Balitz and the South 
 Beveland, 1809, 519; battles against Soult, 
 1813, 567 
 
 Horner, Francis, remarks of, on the reduction of 
 the circulating medium, 1816, viii. 58 ; died 
 Feb. 6, 1817, 91 
 
 Horton, Mrs., her connection and marriage with 
 the duke of Cumberland, vi. 330 
 
 Hosier, admii'al, blockades Porto Bello, vi. 55 
 
 Hospitals, London medical, dates of the opening 
 of the, vii. 120 
 
 Houchard, general in the French army ; defeats 
 the Austrians near Hondscoote, Sept. 8, 1793, 
 vii. 282 ; the convention puts him to death 
 for not stopping the English in their retreat 
 from Dunkii-k, 283 
 
 Howard, Mrs. See Suffolk, lady. 
 
 Howard, John, high sheriff of Bedfordshire ; 
 his philanthropical ettbrt to remedy the state 
 of prisoners ; publication of his book " on 
 prisons," 1777, vii. 117, 118 
 
 Ilowe, Richard, earl ; captain ; captures two 
 French vessels, 1755, vi. 208 ; takes Aix, 
 1757, 229 ; reinforces the troops in America ; 
 appointed one of the British commissioners, 
 364 ; employs conciliatory measures towards 
 the Americans, 369 ; his negotiations with 
 Franklin and others, 372 ; sails to Newport ; 
 hindered from engaging the enemy oy a 
 storm, 391 ; admiral ; gives chase to the Brest 
 fleet, vii. 306 ; gains a victory over it, June 
 1, 1794, 307; his personal visit to the fleet 
 quells the mutiny at Spithcad, 340 
 
 Howe, major-general sir William, engaged ia 
 the battle of Breed's, or Bunker's hill, 1775, 
 vi. 357 ; leads an attack against the Ameri- 
 cans, 358; left in command of the British 
 American army, 300 ; leaves Halifax ; landa
 
 680 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 in Staten Island, 1776, 364; his letter to 
 George AVashington, Esq. refused, 369; gains 
 the battle of Brooklyn, 370 ; his further opera- 
 tions against "Washington, 1776, 370, 371 , 
 evacuates Jersey ; hia strategic movements, 
 1777, 378 
 
 Howe, lord, slain at the head of his regiment in 
 America, 1758, vi. 233 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company, chartered 1670, v. 39 
 
 lluggins, John, reprimanded for selling the 
 ■wardenship of the Fleet, vi. 6-1 
 
 Hull, port of, and trades, v. 28 ; whale fishery 
 carried on by the vessels of, ib. ; obtains par- 
 liamentary representation, 1832, viii. 307 
 
 Hull, general, capitulates to Brock, 1812, viii. 
 8, 9 
 
 IluUin aids in attacking the Bastille, 1789, vii. 
 173 
 
 Humbert, general, commands the Frencli force 
 sent to Ireland, vii. 367 ; which surrenders to 
 general Lake, Sept. 8, 1799, 368 
 
 Hume, erroneous statement of, as to the con- 
 dition of Britain in the third century,_i. 33 
 
 Hume, M.P. for Montrose; his complaints on 
 behalf of queen Caroline, viii. 162; moves 
 the issuing of a proclamation for her coi'ona- 
 tion, 173; his eti'orts to promote the recogni- 
 tion of true principles of financial economy, 
 232 ; votes for Littleton as speaker, 318 ; 
 reviews the work of the session of 1836, 367 
 
 " Hundred Days," account of the crisis called 
 the, viii. 21 ; 26-37 
 
 Hunne, llichard, persecution of, for heresy and 
 being possessed of Wyclitf'e's books, ii. 277; 
 violent death of, ib. ; the bishop of London's 
 chancellor accused of his murder, ib. 
 
 Hunt, Henry, attends a meeting of the Hamp- 
 den club in London, viii. 75 ; and also the 
 Spa-field meeting, 76, 77 ; fails in being re- 
 turned M.P. for Westminster, 98 ; presides 
 over a reform meeting in Smithfield, 103, 104 ; 
 takes the chair at the great reform meeting 
 at Manchester, 1819, 105 ; he is arrested and 
 tried, 108; found guilty and punished, 164 
 Hunt, Leigh, his " Story of Rimini " published, 
 1816, viii. 121 ; charm and pleasantness of his 
 essays, 129 
 Hunt, Robert, his evidence of the assassination 
 
 plot, 1696, V. 187, 188 
 Huskisson, William, present at the taking of 
 the Bastille ; defends his conduct in the 
 French revolution, vii. 183 ; praises Louis's 
 firmness in the insurrection of the 20th of 
 June, 1792, 221 ; first commissioner of Woods 
 and Forests and Land revenues, viii. 158; 
 president of the board of trade, Jan. 1823; 
 obtains a seat in the Cabinet, 1825 ; develops 
 a system of commercial policy on a broad and 
 liberal basis; his reciprocity of duties bill 
 passed, July 4, 1823, 189 ; clamour against 
 his proposal to abolish the prohibitory duties 
 on silk ; vindicates his motives for advocating 
 free trade, 190 ; he is eloquently defended by 
 Canning, 190, 191 ; colonial secretary in the 
 (ioderich ministry, 1827, 225; his diiiferences 
 with Mr. Herries causes lord Goderich to 
 resign, 227; joins the Wellington adminis- 
 fratiou, 228 ; opposes the repeal of the Cor- 
 poration and Test Acts, 233; compelled, for 
 eoiisistcncy's sake, to vote against the govern- 
 ment, he retkes from the ministry, 1828, 235 ; 
 his sijcech on the power of steam; returned 
 M. v. for Liverpool, 201 ; present at the 
 
 opening of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway, 201, 262 ; killed by an accident, 
 Sept. 15, 1830, 262 
 
 Huss, John, adopts the tenets of Wyclifie, iL 
 53 ; is summoned to Constance and ther* 
 burnt in 1415, 54 
 
 Hussey, Dr., remarks of, on the state of Ireland, 
 1796, vii. 362, 363 
 
 Hutchinson, colonel, studies the state of publia 
 affairs, iii. 448; conference of, with lord 
 Newai-k, 483 ; defends Nottingham Castlo 
 ■with bravery, iv. 19 ; returned as member of 
 parliament, 54 ; presents a petition in favour 
 of sir John Owen, 116, 117 ; goes to London, 
 and submits like others, to Cromwell's govern- 
 ment, 160 ; eflects of the Civil War described 
 by Mrs. Hutchinson, 170; she cites the 
 colonel as a good example of an accomplished 
 gentleman of the Independent party, 172; 
 kind of life led by, after his retirement from 
 public aftairs, 173 ; reveals Lambert's plot to 
 Oliver Cromwell, 212 
 
 Hutchinson, governor of Massachusetts, vi. 311; 
 removes all the troops from Boston, 313 ; 
 superseded in his post by general Gage, 344 
 
 Hutchinson, general, engages the French at 
 Castlebar, vii. 367 ; succeeds to the command 
 of the army in Egypt ; invests Cairo, 407 
 
 Hutchinson, lord, appointed to otfer queen 
 Caroline an annuity under certain conditions, 
 viii. 165, 166 
 
 Hutton, AVilliam, established a circulating 
 library at Birmingham, 1751, vii. 84; re- 
 marks on a handbill celebrating the fall of 
 the Bastille, 1791, 166 ; his warehouse plun- 
 dered by the Birmingham mob, 197 
 
 Huv taken by Marlborough, 1703, v. 266 ; by 
 \illeroy, 1705, 302 
 
 Hyde, sir Edward. See Clarendon, earl of. 
 
 H3der-Ali defeats the English in Madras and 
 obtains possession of the country, vi. 334 ; 
 his inroad upon the Carnatic, vii. 130, 131 ; 
 defeated by Coote, 131 ; death of, 1782, 134 
 
 Ibrahim Bet evacuates Cairo, 1798, vii. 354 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha, proceedings of, at Navarino 
 and the Morea, 1827, viii. 226 
 
 Imholf, Mrs., married Warren Hastings, vii. 
 127 
 
 Impej^, sir Elijah, chief justice of the Supreme 
 Court at Calcutta ; causes Nuncomar to be 
 tried for forgery, vii. 126 ; who is found 
 guilty and executed, 127 ; quarrels with 
 Hastings, 130 ; collects evidence against the 
 begums of Oude, 133 
 
 Impressment, systenr of, established by law, 
 1704, V. 274; evils of impressment exagge- 
 rated, viii. 5 
 
 luclosuro bills passed, 1760-1779, vii. 4 ; 1789- 
 1797, 335 
 
 Income, Gregory King's scheme of the, of the 
 various grades of society in 1688, v. 35, 36, 
 64 ; of clergy compared with that of other 
 classes temp, queen Anne, 58 
 
 Income-tax, first proposed by Pitt, 1798 ; ob- 
 jections to it, vii. 359, 360 ; proposed con- 
 tinuance of, 1816; opposition to it ; the pro- 
 posal rejected, viii. 61-53 ; renewal of, pro- 
 posed by sir R. Peel, and resolved upon by 
 parliament, notwithstanding great opposi- 
 tion, 495 ; re-imposition of, proposed by sii- 1{. 
 Peel, 524, 525
 
 INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 Iiulomnity Acts for Dissenters passed, 1727- 
 
 1828, vi. 63 
 
 ludemnity Act passed, 1766, to exonerate those 
 who had advised an embargo on corn, vi. 
 286 
 
 Indemnity bill introduced, 1689, v. 77 
 
 ludemnity bill, 1818, viii. 96 
 
 Independents. See Nonconformists. 
 
 India bill, Fox's, brought forward, Nov. 18, 
 1783 ; the plan of government proposed, vii. 
 1.37 ; opposition to it ; carried in the House 
 of Commons, Dec. 9, 138 ; rejected in the 
 Lords, 139 ; Pitt introduces his, Jan. 14, 
 1784; thrown out, and Fox's re-introduced, 
 141; Pitt's India bills passed; plan of go- 
 vernment laid down by them, 145, 146 
 
 Indian affairs, history of, 1744-1754, vi. 201- 
 205; 1756-1757, 222-226; 1760-1773, 332- 
 335; 1773-1784, vii. 123-134; India bills of 
 Fox and Pitt, 136-139, 141, 145, 146; his- 
 tory, from 1785 to 1793, 256-260; 1798, 1799, 
 377, 379 ; 1799-1806, 453-463 ; 1807-1826, 
 viu. 212-224; 1836-1842, 450-461; 1842- 
 1844, 507-511; 1845, 1846, 544,545 
 
 Indian Trade Eeform bill suffered to drop, 1692, 
 v. 146 
 
 Indians employed by the Americans, 1759, vi. 
 237 ; by the British, 1777, 379 ; Chatham 
 denounces the practice as a national stain, 
 381, 382 ; Burgoyne defends his conduct in 
 eniploying them, 394, 395 ; destruction of 
 Wyoming by, 1778, 395, 396 ; again em- 
 ployed by the British, 1812, viii. 8 ; their 
 .steadiness and order praised by Brock, 
 8,9 
 
 Industrious classes, state of the, temp. Eiehard 
 I. i. 324-326 ; sports, games, and amusements 
 of, 327, 328. 
 
 Industry; variety of employments among the 
 western counties of England, v. 14 ; the hard- 
 ware trade of Birmingham, 17 ; earthenware 
 trade, 18 ; glass manufacture, id. ; stocking 
 trade, 19 ; progress and vicissitudes of the 
 lace trade, ib. ; Lombe's silk mill completed 
 in 1717, 20 ; progress of the silk trade, ib. ; 
 rapid development of the cotton trade between 
 1700 and 1850, 23 ; linen trade at Warring- 
 ton, and discom-agement given to it, 25 ; 
 most prosperous when guided by natural 
 laws, 26 ; of the Yorkshiremen in queen 
 Anne's time, ib.; of Leeds, 27; cutlery trade 
 of Sheffield, 23 ; imports, exports, and trade 
 of Hull, ib.; the coal trade, 28, 29; the 
 salmon trade, 30 ; of Scotland, very limited 
 before the Union, in 1707, ib. , of the inha- 
 bitants in the Norwich district, 32; curious 
 evidence of this, 33 ; great difficulty of pass- 
 ing from one occupation to another about the 
 time of queen Aime, 48, 49 ; jealousy of the 
 great formerly shown towai'ds the rise of the 
 lower classes, 49 ; progress of the national, 
 in agriculture, vii. 4-39 ; and the arts, 40- 
 64 ; general depression of, 1812, 543 ; and 
 again in 1816, from the exhaustion of war, viii. 
 55, et seq. ; and the heavy poor rates levied, 
 68 
 
 In.u;li3, sir E. K., returned M.P. for Oxford, 
 
 1829, viii. 238; his speech against the Ee- 
 furm bill, 1831, 272, 273 ; opposes the grant- 
 ing a charter to the University of London, 
 357 
 
 liigalphus, abbot of Croyland, account of the 
 invasion of the Danes in 870 by, i. 96 ; his 
 
 behaviour to his predecessor, i96 ; account 
 bv, of the resistance of Hereward, 198, 
 199 
 
 Innocent XII., his pacific turn, v. 122; his de- 
 cision as to the Spanish succession, 242 ; 
 pope, 1691-1700, 476 
 
 Inns as described by the poets and novelists of 
 the 18th century, vii. 93, 94 
 
 lunspruck sun-endered to the Bavarians, 1809, 
 vii. 516 
 
 Insurance offices, date of the establishment of the 
 earlier, v. 41 
 
 Interregnum, period of, in 1688-9, iv. 443 
 
 Inverness taken by the young Pretender, 1746^ 
 vi. 165 
 
 Inwoods, the architects of St. Pancras church, 
 viii. 146 
 
 lona, religion and learning fostered at, by Co- 
 lumba, in the 8th century, i. 74 
 
 Ipswich loses its colliery and cloth trade ; 
 takes the lead in the manufacture of agri- 
 cultural implements, v. 33 ; mutiny at, 1689, 
 75 
 
 Ireton, Hemy, commands the left wing at 
 Naseby, iv. 43 ; intercepts a letter of the 
 king's in 1647, 81 ; saves the life of sir John 
 Owen, seconded by col. Hutchinson, 117 ; 
 left in Ireland by Cromwell as Ids deputy, 
 127 ; dies there iu Nov. 1651, 161 ; his body 
 disinterred from Westminster Abbey after the 
 Ecstoration, and buried at Tybuni, 248 
 
 Irish Church Eeform bill. See Church. 
 
 Iron ; England before and after the iron era,, 
 contrasted, v. 11; Forest of Dean formerly 
 the seat of the manufacture of, 12 ; evidences 
 of the Eomans having smelted, ib. ; coal first 
 used for smelting ; state of the iron trade in 
 1740 and 1851 compared, 13 ; hardware 
 ti-ade at Bii'mtngham, 17; extensive manu- 
 facture of steel at Sheffield, 26 ; improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of; Carrou iron' 
 works founded by Dr. Eoebuck, 1759, vii. 55 ; 
 coal used for smelting, ib. ; invention of the 
 art of converting cast-iron into malleable- 
 iron ; modern and ancient iron structures 
 compared, 56 
 
 Isabel of Spain, her claim to the throne dis- 
 puted by Don Carlos, viii. 373 
 
 Isabella, queen of Edward II. See Edward II. 
 and Edward III. 
 
 Ismail, siege of, 1790 ; stormed by the Eussians ; 
 massacre of the besieged, vii. 191 
 
 Jackson, capt. Andrew, organises the opposi- 
 tion to sir E. Pakcnham's advance upon New 
 Orleans, Dec. 1814 and Jan. 1815, viii. 18 ; 
 president of the United States, 1829-1837^ 
 208 
 
 Jacobins, a French political party ; Eobcspierre 
 its head, vii. 205 ; they attempt to impeach 
 La Fayette, 222 ; suspend their hostility 
 towards Duraouriez, 271 ; theu- measm-es for 
 governing France, 272-275 ; energy, their 
 cliaracteristic, 276 ; their vigour in meeting 
 the Toulon revolt, 287 ; their energy and 
 atrocities, 292, 293 ; they recognise the ex- 
 istence of the Supreme Being, 308, 309 ; 
 fall of Eobespierre and his adherents, 309, 
 310 
 
 Jacquerie, in France, the consequence of tb* 
 miseries occasioned by the ravages of th* 
 English, i. 477
 
 682 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jalla taken ]-y the French, 1799, vii. 379; mas- 
 sacre of iti! inhabitants, 379, 380 
 
 Jatiier, Meer, Surajah Dowlah's general; con- 
 spires, with Clive's assistance, to obtain 
 supreme power, vi. 224 ; Olive's treaty with, 
 225 ; becomes subahdar of Benj^^al, 226 ; the 
 English make war on Cossein to dethrone 
 him, and restore Jaflfier, 332 
 
 Jamaica, critical state of affairs in, viii. 419 
 
 James I. of Scotland is released from his cap- 
 tivity at Windsor, and accompanies Henry 
 V. in his expedition to France in 1421, ii. 
 73 
 
 James IV. of Scotland receives and protects 
 Perkin Warbcck in 1495, ii. 225 ; invades 
 England on his behalf, but retreats, 229 ; 
 concludes a truce, and sends Warbeck from 
 Scotland, 230 ; marries Margaret, daughter 
 of Henry VII. in 1502, 238; concludes a 
 treaty with France in May, 1512, 264 ; in- 
 vades England, 270 ; valour displayed by, at 
 Flodden Field, Sept. 9, 1513, 271 ; slain, 271, 
 272 
 
 James I. of England (VI. of Scotland), born 
 June 19, 1566, iii. 143 ; is ci-owned in Sect- 
 laud, July 29, 1567, on his mother's abdica- 
 tion, 151 ; writes to Elizabeth in favour of 
 his mother on her condemnation, 200 ; sus- 
 pected of joining in the projects of Spain 
 against England, 216 ; he represses the in- 
 surrection fostered by Spain, 264 ; attempts 
 to obtain a subsidy to enable him to assert 
 his claim to the succession of the crown of 
 England, 290 ; the Gowrie conspiracy, 291 ; 
 proclaimed king of England, March 24, 1603, 
 as James 1., 307 ; quits Scotland with his 
 queen, Anne of Denmark, 308 ; absurd dis- 
 pensations of knighthood by, ib. ; expecta- 
 tions of the Roman Catholics from, 309 ; 
 coronation of, 309; the two plots, the 
 " Main" and the " Bye," 311 ; Raleigh, Cob- 
 ham, and Grey, indicted for endeavouring to 
 advance Arabella Stuart to the throne, ib. ; 
 Raleigh is confined in the Tower, 312; he 
 presides at a conference at Hampton Court 
 between tlie heads of the Church and the 
 leaders of the Puritans, 314; anew version 
 of the Holy Scriptures, ordered by, ib. ; meet- 
 ing of his first parliament, and dispute with 
 it respecting its privileges, 315; assertion of 
 their rights by the Commons, in their 
 " Apology," ib. ; they remonstrate against 
 some innovations on the canons, aiming at 
 excluding nonconformists from civil rights, 
 .316 ; recommends an Union with Scotland, 
 ib. ; tlie Commons complain of the grievances 
 of purveyance and wardship, 317 ; he con- 
 cludes a treaty of peace with Spain ui Aug. 
 1604, 318; unpopulai-ity of, ib.; cliaracter 
 of, 319,320; Cecil communicates the letter 
 of Mounteagle respecting the Gunpowder Plot 
 to the king, 325; the vaults under the Par- 
 liament House searched, and Guido Fawkes 
 is taken, 326; dispersion of the conspirators, 
 ib. ; examination and torture of Fawkes, 
 327 ; confession of Winter, and details of the 
 plot, 328-330 ; the conspirators attempt to 
 raise a revolt, 331 ; resist their arrest, 332; 
 are killed or taken prisoners, 333 ; employ- 
 ment of IJen Jonson as a spy, ib. ; trial of the 
 odnspu-ators, 334, 335 ; trial of Garnet the 
 Jesuit and unfair means taken to procure 
 hb conviction, 330; Garnet's doctrine of 
 
 equivocation, 337; now statute against pa- 
 pists, imposing an oath of allegiance, 338 ; 
 statutes against poaching and drunkenness, 
 339 ; addiction of James to tield sports, 340 ; 
 lavishness of, to favourites, 341 ; levies a 
 feudal aid on his eldest son being knighted, 
 342 ; imposes taxes on merchandise, and the 
 Commons remonstrate against their illegality, 
 ib. ; the colonisation of North America com- 
 menced in 1606, 343 ; New England colo- 
 nised by the Pilgrim Fathers in 1620, 345 ; 
 charters granted to the East India Company, 
 346 ; sir Thomas Roe sent ambassador to the 
 East Indies, 348 ; the Commons continue to 
 remonstrate against the king's arbitrary mea- 
 sures, and are dissolved, 351 ; the cowardly 
 and selfish policy of James in matters of reli- 
 gion, ib. ; forces episcopacy on Scotland and 
 burns an Arian in London, 352; dedication 
 to, of the authorised translation of the Bible 
 in 1611, 352 ; judicious measures for the plan- 
 tation of Ulster in 1013, 354 ; raises money 
 by the sale of the new title of baronet, 355 ; 
 assists Middleton in bringing the New River 
 to London, ib. ; attempts to repress the 
 growth of London, 356 ; threatens to i-emove 
 his court from, and is requested to leave tlie 
 Thames, 357 ; story and death of Arabella 
 Stuart, 358 ; death of Cecil, and Can* as- 
 sumes the government, 359 ; death and cha- 
 racter of prince Henry, 361 ; marriage of the 
 princess Elizabeth to the elector palatine in 
 1613, 362 ; a parliament called in 1614, they 
 pass a vote against the king's right of im- 
 posing customs duties, and are dissolved 
 without passing a single bill, 363; commits 
 five of the members to the Tower, ib. ; levies 
 a Benevolence, to which Oliver St. John 
 refuses to contribute, and is fined 5000/., ib. ; 
 sales of public offices \>\, 364 ; rise of the new 
 favourite, George Villiers, ib. ; trial of the 
 earl and countess of Somerset for the murder 
 of sir Thomas Overbury, 365 ; deceitful con- 
 duct of James towards the earl, ib. ; they are 
 convicted and pardoned, 367 ; mysteries of 
 the causes for the murder of Overbury, and 
 for the king's pardon to the murderers, 368 ; 
 letters of James in reference to the affair, 
 371 ; he is opposed in his arbitrary measures 
 by lord chief justice Coke, whom he dismisses, 
 369 ; issues a proclamation for sports on 
 Sundays after divine service, 370 ; releases 
 Raleigh from the Tower, in 1616, and allows 
 him to undertake an expedition to Guiana, 
 374; causes him to be executed under his 
 previous sentence on his return unsuccessful 
 in 1618, at the instigation of the Spanish 
 ambassador, 376 ; the elector palatine chosen 
 king of Bohemia in the Protestant interest, 
 377 ; protection to papists given by the 
 Spanish ambassador, and anger of the popu- 
 lace caused by it, 378 ; calls a parliament and 
 solicits money, 379 ; the Commons reply by 
 impeaching monopolists, ib. ; lord Bacon is 
 also impeached for and convicted of bribery 
 and corruption, 380 ; conduct of the parlia- 
 ment iir punishing Floyd, 381 ; strong feeling 
 evinced by the Commons in favour of the 
 elector palatine, ib. ; negotiates for a mar- 
 riage of Charles with an infanta of Spain, 
 382 ; the king and the Commons at issue on 
 a question of privilege, ib. ; he dissolves the 
 parliament, 383; journey of prince Charles
 
 INDEX. 
 
 6S3 
 
 and Villiers to the court of Spain, 381 ; the 
 Spanish match broken off, 385 ; statute passed 
 declaring all monopolies to be contrary to 
 law, lb. ; the earl of Middlesex impeached 
 for bribery, ib. ; war commenced in favour of 
 the elector palatine, 386 ; death of James, 
 March 27, 1625, ib. 
 James II. when duke of York marries Ann 
 Hyde, the daughter of Clarendon, in 1661, 
 iv". 254 ; gains a victory over the Dutch off 
 Lowestofl'e in 1665, 277 ; takes the command 
 of the English fleet in 1672, and tights an 
 obstinate battle with the Dutch in South- 
 wold Bay, 316 ; refuses to take the oath 
 prescribed by the Test Act, and resigns his 
 post of lord high admiral, 321 ; the House of 
 Commons address the king against the duke's 
 maniage with Maria Beatrix of Modena, 
 322 ; Ins daughter Mary mames the prince 
 of Orange, 329 ; leaves England in 1679, 3il ; 
 the Bill for the Exclusion of, read twice in 
 the House of Commons, 314 ; returns to 
 England in disguise on learning the sickness 
 of Charles, 351 ; is sent to Scotland and 
 cruelly persecutes the Covenanters, ib. ; as- 
 sumes a more active share in the government 
 of England, 355 ; is presented before the 
 Grand Jury at Westminster as a popish 
 recusant by Shaftesbury and others, ib. ; 
 returns to Scotland, 356 ; he procures a Test 
 Act against the Covenanters to be passed by 
 the Scottish parliament, 366 ; fresh persecu- 
 tion of the Covenanters hy, 367 ; he returns 
 to England, ib. ; prosecution of alderman 
 Pilkiugton for a libel, who is fined 100,000^., 
 370 ; and of Titus Gates for a libel, who is 
 also fined 100,000/., 375; marriage of his 
 daughter Anne to prince George of Denmark, 
 ib. ; succeeds to the throne, Feb. 6, 1665, 
 381 ; his address to the Council promising to 
 preserve the established religion, 382 ; alte- 
 ration in the ritual of the coronation by, 
 383 ; issues a proclamation for the levying of 
 customs duties, ib. ; selection of ministers b)', 
 ib. ; releases Papists and Quakers from im- 
 prisonment, but no other dissenters, 384 ; 
 requires and obtains new laws against the 
 Covenanters, ib. ; outrageous attempts to 
 secure the elections for the new House of 
 Commons, and large increase of the number 
 of Peers, 385 ; servile spirit of the Commons, 
 •who vote a revenue for life, 386 ; they 
 address him praying that the laws may be 
 enforced against" all dissenters, 387 ; Titus 
 Oates convicted and punished for perjury, ib. ; 
 iuid Richard Baxter for libel, 388 ; insurrec- 
 tion in Scotland, headed hy the earl of 
 Argyle, ib. ; its failure, and Argyle's execu- 
 tion, 389 ; landing of the duke of Monmouth 
 at Lyme, 390 ; the House of Commons pass a 
 Bill of Attainder against him, 391 ; the in- 
 surgents defeated at the battle of Sedgcmoor, 
 395; iuten'iew of, with Monmouth, 397? 
 Monmouth executed, 398 ; military execu- 
 tions in the AVest, under Kirke and others, 
 ib. ; and judicial atrocities committed by 
 Jellreys on the insurgents, 399 ; scandalous 
 traffic in the prisoners sanctioned by the king, 
 ib. ; tendencies of, to absolutism, 401 ; dis- 
 missal of Halifax, 402 ; opens parliament, 
 announces his employment of Popish officers, 
 and of having dispensed with the Test Act, 
 403 ; the Commons timidly address him in 
 
 favour of Protestantism, 404 ; opposition in 
 the dispensing power shown in the House o( 
 Lords, ib. ; fresh trials and convictions for 
 political ofiences, 405 ; parliament, after two 
 prorogations, is dissolved, ib. ; Sunderland 
 becomes a Eoman Catholic and chief mi- 
 nister, ib. ; the Jesuits paramount in the 
 government, 406 ; sends an embassy to 
 Kome, ib. ; obtains the sanction of the King's 
 Bench as to his power of dispensing with the 
 Test Laws, 407 ; appoints Roman Catholics 
 to benefices, 408 ; an Ecclesiastical Commis- 
 sion constituted, ib. ; monastic establishments 
 opened in London in 1686, 409 ; Ruv. Samuel 
 Johnson tried and convicted of a libellous 
 publication concerning the army, 410; and 
 he is degraded from the ecclesiastical office, 
 and publicly whipped, 411 ; recommends 
 Anthony Farmer, a suspected papist, to be 
 elected president of Magdalen college, 413 ; 
 the Fellows are expelled by the Ecclesiastical 
 Commission on their electing Dr. John 
 Hough, 414; Tyi-connel is appointed the 
 lord-deputy of Ireland, 415; publishes a 
 declaration for liberty of conscience in Scot- 
 land, 417, and in England, ib. ; camp formed 
 on Hounslow Heath, 420 ; receives the Papal 
 nuncio publicly at Windsor, 421 ; makes a 
 progress through the country, 422 ; orders 
 the declaration for liberty of conscience to 
 be read in churches, 424 ; the seven bishops 
 petition against compliance, 425 ; the bishops 
 are committed to the Tower, 426 ; brought 
 before the King's Bench to plead, and held to 
 bail, 427 ; tried for a libel, and acquitted, 
 428 ; public rejoicings on their acquittal, 
 ib. ; birth of a son announced, 429 ; his le- 
 gifimacy violently disputed, ib. ; James so- 
 licits advice of the bishops, 435 ; he adopts 
 measures of concession, ib. ; restores the 
 Charter of London, ib. ; reinstates the Pre- 
 sident and Fellows of Magdalen College, ib. ; 
 dissolves the Ecclesiastical Commission, ib. ; 
 joins the main body of his army at Salisbury, 
 438 ; lord Cornbury and other officers desert 
 his cause, ib. ; the duke of Grafton, lord 
 Churchill, and other commanders, go over to 
 William, 438 ; prince of Denmark, and prin- 
 cess Anne, join William, 439 ; returns to 
 London, ib. ; publishes a proclamation ap- 
 pointing Parliament to meet, and nominates 
 Commissioners to bring about an agreement 
 with the prince of Orange, 440 ; issues a pro- 
 clamation for a general amncstj', ib. ; his 
 queen, with the infant prince, flies from 
 Whitehall on Dec. 10, and goes to France, 
 ib.; he quits Whitehall Dec. 11, 441; 
 throws the Great Seal into the Thames, ib. ; 
 being discovered at Sheemesa, is brought 
 back to London, 442 ; quits the kingdom, ib. ; 
 lands at Kinsale, Mar. 12, 1689, v. 79 ; Tyr- 
 connel secures Ireland in favoiu: of, 80 ; 
 enters Dublin, Mar. 24,82 ; his wavering con- 
 duct, ib. ; displeased at Rosen's cruel order, 85 ; 
 takes a personal share in the besieging of 
 Jjondondeny, and the defeat of Macarthy, 
 viscount Mountcashel, at the battle of New- 
 ton Butler, 86 ; his letter to the Scotch con- 
 vention, 89 ; his cause falls on the death of 
 Dundee at the pass of Killiecrankie, 94 ; opens 
 a parliament at Dublin, May 7, 96 ; its se- 
 verity towards protestants; issues a coinage 
 of money, ib. ; Shi-ewsbury resigns his seala
 
 €84 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ■by order of, 103 ; meets with disappointment 
 from Louis XIV. of France, 106; effects of 
 his bad administration of public affairs in 
 Ii'eland, ib. \ prepares to oppose William ; 
 leaves Dublin, June 16, 1690 ; retires before 
 his opponent, and comes to a stand on the 
 banks of the Bojiie, 106; on the 1st of July 
 the battle takes place ; he is defeated ; and 
 retreats to Dublin, 108, et seq. ; his speech to 
 the magistrates and resolve to forsake the 
 Irish, 110; quits Dublin, July 3, 113; em- 
 barks at Passage, and arrives at Brest on the 
 4th ; his project of invading England is coldly 
 received by Louis, 114; his courtiers per- 
 suade the French that he was deserted by the 
 Irish; Irish refugees in France are on that 
 account harshly dealt Avith by them, ib. ; sends 
 Tyrconnel over to Ireland as his viceroy 
 there, 127 ; issues a declaration to the English, 
 147 ; induces Louis to aid him in an invasion 
 of England, 148 ; joins his camp at Norman- 
 dy, April, 1692, ib.\ commiserates the slaughter 
 of his " poor English " at the battle of Stein- 
 kirk, 152 ; his petty revenge on "William's 
 relations on the decease of queen Mary, 17-5 ; 
 contemplates the invasion of England, 1696, 
 186 ; sends Berwick to head the Jacobites if 
 they sliould rise, ib. ; issues protestations 
 against William, 1697, 200 ; dies at St. Ger- 
 mains, Sept. 16,1701,250; he opposed Wren's 
 first design for St. Paul's, 450 
 
 James, John, his architectural works, v. 458 
 
 Jameson, col., commands the American militia, 
 vi. 414, 415 
 
 Java, conquered by the British, 1810 ; lost at 
 the peace, viii. 214 
 
 Jedburgh, burnt by the earl of Hertford, in 1545, 
 ii. 438 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, his admiration of Henry's 
 eloquence, vi. 272, 273 ; makes the draught of 
 the declaration of independence, 364 ; go- 
 vernor of Virginia, 424 ; defends himself 
 against charges of neglect, ib. ; naiTow 
 escape from being made prisoner, 425 ; suc- 
 ceeds Franklin as minister at Paris ; accuses 
 George III. of incivility towards himself, 461 ; 
 heads the democratic party, vii. 330 ; pre- 
 sident of United States, 1801-1809, 575; viii. 
 3 ; considers his election as a pacific revolu- 
 tion, 3, 4 ; dreads going to war, 6 ; his extra- 
 vagant hopes of success in the war with Great 
 Britain, 1812, ib. ; his prophetic fears of the 
 separation of the Union, 13, 14; his opinion 
 of Bonaparte, 176 ; and cordiality with Great 
 Britam, 187 
 
 Jeffrey, Francis, despairs of British success in 
 Spain, 1808, vii. 505 ; remarks on Words- 
 worth's poetry, viii. 119; and Scott's, 120; 
 his reviews, 127; description of a steamboat 
 on Loch Lomond, 131, 132 ; lord advocate, 
 267 ; description of early morning after the 
 rejection of the reform bill, 276 ; his anxiety 
 for the prevention of i-iots, 278 ; his descrip- 
 tion of lord Althorp, 279 ; his interview with 
 Althorp on the resignation of the Grey 
 ministry, 1831, 296 ; his remarks on the bail 
 working of the new parliamentary system, 
 321 
 
 Jefl'reys, George, as recorder of London, fines 
 and imprisons a jury for having found a 
 verdict in favour of Penn and Mead, indicted 
 for attending a conventicle, iv. 312; exer- 
 tions (if, to procure the return of Dudley 
 
 North as sheriff of London, 365 ; services of, 
 while lord chief justice, in making towns sur- 
 render their charters in 1683, 370 ; brutal 
 behaviour of, on the trial of Sidney in 1683, 
 374 ; and on that of Itichard Baxter for libel 
 in 1685, 388 ; atrocious cruelty of, in punish- 
 ing the followers of Monmouth, 398 ; con- 
 demnation of lady Alice Lisle, 399 ; is 
 rewarded with the Great Seal for his conduct, 
 400 ; the insolence of, repressed in the House 
 of Lords, 404 ; he fails to procure the con- 
 viction of lord Delamere for treason, 405, is 
 discovered in disguise at Wapping in London, 
 and committed to the Tower, 441 
 
 Jekyll, sir Joseph, regards Sacheverel's sentence 
 as a triumph, v. 354^, returned a member of 
 the parliament, 1710, 364 
 
 Jellalabad, Sale's defence of, viii. 458, 459 
 
 Jemappes, battle of, Nov. 6, 1792, vii. 236 
 
 Jena, or Auerstadt, battle of, Oct. 14, 1806, vii. 
 477 
 
 Jenkins, Eev. H., notice of his account of Col- 
 chester Castle, i. 20, note 
 
 Jenkins, Capt. K., ordered to appear before the 
 House of Commons ; states the barbarities he 
 had received from the Spaniards to the duke 
 of Newcastle, but obtains no redress ; he ap- 
 pears before the House, and there exhibits the 
 ear that had been cut off, vi. 93, 94 
 
 Jenkinson. See Liverpool, earl of. 
 
 Jeuner, Edward, benefit to the world resulting 
 from his discovery of vaccination, viii. 130, 
 131 
 
 Jenyns, Soame, describes his visit to sir J. 
 Jolly, vii. 107, 108 
 
 Jerdan, WiUiam, his account of Perceval's death, 
 1812, vii. 540, 541 
 
 Jersey, French attack upon, 1781, vi. 419 
 
 Jerusalem, mission from the Idngdom of, to 
 England in 1185, i. 303; capture of, by 
 Saladin, in 1187, 304 
 
 Jervas, Charles, his paintings, v. 462 
 
 Jervis, sir John, sails in command of a fleet 
 against the Spaniards, vii. 336 ; considerablj- 
 aided by commodore Nelson in gaining the 
 battle of St. Vincent, Feb. 14, 1797, 336, 
 337 ; rewarded with an earldom, 338 ; pro- 
 vides Nelson with a fleet to go against Bona- 
 parte, 352 
 
 Jesuits, suppression of the, 1773; their beneficial 
 aid in advancing literature and science, vi. 
 327, 328 
 
 Jews, massacre of, at the coronation of Eichard 
 I., i. 306 ; plundered by John in 1211, 339 ; 
 persecution and banishment of, temp. Edw. 
 I., 386; attempt of Cromwell tore-introduce 
 into England, iv. 198 ; the mines chiefly 
 worked by them in John's reign, v. 13; bill 
 passed, 1753, for the naturalization of; po- 
 pular clamour against the bill, vi. 193 ; bill 
 for their relief from civil disabilities passed 
 the Commons ; thrown out in the Lords, 1833, 
 viii. 325 ; another introduced by lord Kussell, 
 but not passed, 553 
 
 Jczzar, pasha of Acre, seizes El Arish, vii. 379; 
 his defence of Acre, 380 
 
 Joan of Arc, first appearance of, ii. 83; account 
 of her youth, and introduction to the king of 
 France, 84 ; relieves Orleans, 85 ; terrors in- 
 spired in the English troops by, 86 ; the 
 siege of Orleans raised by, 87 ; her enthusiasm 
 a sufficient cause for lier success, without 
 assigning miraculous powers, ib. ; wins the
 
 INDEX. 
 
 685 
 
 battle of Patay, 88 ; conducts Charles VII. to 
 Eheims, where he is crowned in 1430, 89 ; 
 attacks Paris, and is repulsed, ib. ; is taken 
 prisoner at Compicgue by the Burgundians, 
 ib. ; is ti'ied for sorcery at Rouen before the 
 bishop of Bcauvais, 90 ; is burnt on May 30, 
 1431, 91 
 
 John, son of Uenry II., joins Philip of France 
 in a war against his father, i. 304 ; intrigues 
 against his brother Richard, 314 ; deposes 
 the chancellor William Longchamp, 315 ; 
 surrenders some of liis brother's continental 
 tei-ritories to Philip, and does homage for the 
 rest, 319, 320 ; gives out that Richard has 
 died in prison, 320 ; attempts to bribe the 
 emperor of Germany to keep his brother a 
 prisoner, ib. ; crowned May 27, 1199, 332 ; 
 the claim of Arthur of Brittany supported by 
 Philip of France, 333 ; war with Philip, 
 truce, and war renewed, 334 ; captures Arthur 
 at Tours, 335 ; suspicions of having caused 
 him to be murdered, ib. ; is driven out of 
 Normandy by Philip, 336 ; quarrels with 
 pope Innocent III. in 1207, respecting the 
 appointment of an archbishop of Canterbury, 
 337 ; the kingdom placed under an interdict, 
 337, 338 ; leads an army into Ireland in 1210, 
 and effects some useful reforms, 338 ; re- 
 presses the incursions of the Welsh, 338, 339 ; 
 plunders the Jews to raise money for his ex- 
 peditions, ib. ; small effect of the interdict on 
 the industry of the people, 339, 340; the 
 kiugdom excommunicated and the king de- 
 posed by the pope in 1212, and the crown 
 promised to Philip, 341 ; he anticipates 
 Philip's warUke measures, by sending a fleet 
 which burnt Dieppe, and destroyed many 
 French ships, ib. ; he submits, and swears 
 fealty to the pope, 342 ; France prepares to 
 invade England, and a naval victory is gained 
 by the English, 343 ; admits Langton to the 
 see of Canterbury, ib. ; invades France in 
 1214, and is defeated at Bouvines, 344 ; the 
 clergy and barons enter into a league against 
 him at St. Edmundsbury, 345 ; he solicits 
 the aid of the pope, 346 ; the army of God and 
 Holy Church (the army of the barons) march 
 to London, ib. ; signs Magna Charta on June 
 15, 1215, at Runnj-mede, 347 ; provisions of 
 the Great Charter, 348, 349 ; effects of, upon 
 the nation, 350, 351 ; rapid movements of 
 John, after signing the charter, and fallacy of 
 the tradition as to his retii-ement, 353 ; with 
 an army of mercenaries he ravages England, 
 and the pope annuls the charter and excom- 
 municates the barons, ib. ; the crown offered 
 by the barons to Louis of France, 354 ; re- 
 sistance of the fortresses to the French, ib. ; 
 suspected treacherv of Louis, 355 ; death of 
 John on Oct. 18, 1^16 ; buried at Worcester, 
 356 
 
 John, archduke, of Austria, commands the 
 Austrian anny ; his campaign witli Moreau ; 
 concludes an armistice with him, vii. 396 
 
 Johnson, Joseph, tried and imprisoned for being 
 concerned in the Manchester reform meeting, 
 viii. 164 
 
 Johnson, Eev. Sam., tried and imprisoned in 
 1683 for writing Julian the Apostate, iv. 375 ; 
 tried and convicted for a libellous publication 
 concerning the army, 410 ; degraded from 
 the ecclesiastical office and publicly whipped, 
 
 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, he is touched for the 
 king's evil by Queen Anne, v. 272 ; Ids grati- 
 tude to Gen. "Oglethorpe, vi. 63 ; does penance 
 at a book-stall at Uttoxeter, vii. 83, 84 ; forms 
 a link between two periods of literature, 84, 
 85; goes to London, 1737, 84 ; liis vicissitudes 
 and employments for half a century ; dies, 
 1784; his delight in Crabbe's poem "the 
 Village," 85 ; his " London," published 1738 ; 
 " Vanity of Human Wishes," 1749, 87 ; brings 
 out the "Rambler," 1750, and the "Idler," 
 1758 ; writes for the " Adventurer," 89 ; his 
 partiality for tavern life, 95 ; his prejudice 
 against tradesmen, 113 
 
 Johnstone, sir James, his remarks on Fox's Lidia 
 declaratory bill, vii. 257 
 
 Join^ille, Prince de, his pamphlet on the naval 
 forces of France, viii. 522, 523 
 
 Jolliffe, sir WilUam, his account of the Man- 
 chester reform meeting of 1819, viii. 105, 106, 
 107 
 
 Jones, col., describes the British system of tak- 
 ing towns, vii. 547, 548 ; and the capture of 
 Badajoz, 549 
 
 Jones, Inigo, the first to imitate Grecian temples 
 in British churches, v. 453 
 
 Jones, John Gale, proceeding between parlia- 
 ment and, on a question of privilege, 1810, vii. 
 527, 528 
 
 Jones, Jolm Paul, employed by Franklin in an 
 expedition against Great Britain, 1779, vi. 
 397 ; attempts to capture Leith and Edin- 
 burgh, but is diiven back by a gale : attacks 
 some ships convoyed by the Serapis and Scar- 
 borough ; takes the former ; a native of Scot- 
 land, 398 
 
 Jones, Rev. Richard, aids in establishing the 
 principle of the Tithe Commutation Act, viii. 
 369 
 
 Jordan, Mrs., her happy connection with the 
 duke of Clarence, vui. 378 
 
 Joseph II. of Germany, 1765-1790, vi. 465; vii. 
 574 ; attempts to coerce Holland, vii. 147 
 
 Josephine Beauharnois. See Bonaparte, vii. 
 325; 510; 526 
 
 Joubert, Alvinzy compels him to retreat, vii. 
 342 ; joined by Bonaparte, 343 
 
 Jourdan, J. B., rises from a packman to com- 
 mand a French army, vii. 267 ; driven by the 
 prince of Cobourg over the Sambre, Oct. 1793, 
 293 ; marshal ; appointed to the command of 
 the army of the Moselle, 1794, 312 ; defeats the 
 Austrians at Arlon ; captures Charleroi ; wins 
 the battle of Fleurus, June 29 ; and compels the 
 duke of York to retreat, ib. ; appointed to the 
 command of the Sambre and Meuse, 1796, 325; 
 failure of the campaign, 328, 329 ; his cam- 
 paign with the archduke Charles, 1799, 382 ; 
 major-general ; defeated by Wellington at 
 Vittoria, June 21, 1813, 562 
 
 Joyce, Rev. Jeremiah ; Stanhope's private 
 seci-etary ; charged with high treason, vu. 
 300 
 
 Joyeuse, Villaret, admiral of the Brest fleet; 
 defeated by Howe, June 1, 1794, vii. 
 306 
 
 Judges, independence of, v. 147 
 
 Julian, the emperor, builds warehouses for the 
 reception of British com, i. 35 ; large quan- 
 tity furnished to the continent, ib. ; com- 
 mands Paulus, governor of Britain, to be burnt 
 53 
 
 Juliana, Maria, Christian VII.'s step-mother;
 
 C3-: 
 
 IITDEX. 
 
 hoads a court party nc:ainst the queen, Struen- 
 see and Brandt, vi. S'29 
 
 Junius, his letters, vi. 293, 294 ; characteristics 
 of his writings; abuses Wilkes, 294; a master 
 of personal invective, 29-5; attempts made to 
 jrive the credit of his productions to sir P. 
 Francis, lord Temple, and Burke ; lord Lyt- 
 tleton probably the wiiter, 295, 296 ; per- 
 sonality of his libels; his attacks upon the 
 duke of Grafton, whose administration he 
 wished to destroy, 297 ; his private letters ; 
 his character; iialtry-minded, ambitious, 
 A-ain, cowardly, 298 ; assaults the duke of 
 Ledford, 299 ; his address to the king ; pro- 
 secution of the publisher, Mr. Woodfall, who 
 escapes punishment, 300 
 
 Jiinot, A., crosses the Bidassoa; captures the 
 Spanish capital, 1808, ^di. 496; defeated by 
 sir A. Wellesloy at Vimiero, Aug. 21, 1808, 
 602 ; retreats to Torres Vedras, 503 
 
 Eal'endae, note on the French Revolutionary, 
 vii. 279, 280 
 
 Kandy, king of, acquiesces in the British pos- 
 sessing t"he maritime provinces of Ceylon, viii. 
 217; deposed for his cruelties, 218 
 
 Katzbach, battle of the, Au?. 26, 1813, vii. 
 563 
 
 Kay, John, introduces the use of the fly-shuttle 
 about 1760, vii. 44 
 
 Keane, sir John, general, has temporary com- 
 mand of the army in America ; commands a 
 division ; advances against New Orleans, viii. 
 17 ; wounded, 19 ; commands the Bombay 
 division of the Indian army, 451 ; his passage 
 through the Bolan Pass ; besieges Ghuznee, 
 ^ 552 
 
 Keate, Thomas, surgeon-general of the army; 
 ijot consulted about the Walcheren expedition, 
 \809, vii. 518 
 
 Keith joins his brother in an expedition to col- 
 lect the Jacobites in Scotland, vi. 35, 30 
 
 Keith, marshal, slain at Hochkirchen, Oct. 1758, 
 vi. 234 
 
 Keith, Eev. Alexander, his cheap marriage trade; 
 damaged by the new marriage act, 1753, vi. 
 194 
 
 Keith, lord, announces to Napoleon that St. 
 Helena is to be his future residence, 1815, viii. 
 39 
 
 Kcllermann, gains the battle of Valmy, Sept. 20, 
 1792, vii. 234, 235; besieges Lyon, 1793,284; 
 superseded in his command by Dubois-Crance, 
 285 
 
 Kelso burnt by the earl of Hertford, in 1545, ii. 
 438 
 
 Kempenfcldt, admiral, his unsuccessful cruise, 
 1782, vi. 434 ; perishes at the sinking of the 
 lioyal George, Aug. 29, 1782, 455 
 
 Kendal, duchess of, bribed by the South Sea 
 Directors, vi. 44; caricatures of, 45; bribed 
 to promote "Wood's patent, 50 ; accompanies 
 George I. on his last visit to Hanover, 1727, 56 
 
 Kcimune, viscount, commands the Pretender's 
 (Scotch forces, 1715, vi. 11; sentenced to death 
 for his concern in the rebellion, 19 ; executed 
 on Tower Hill, Feb. 24, 1716, 20 
 
 Kinit, duchess of, marries the duke of Kent, 
 July 13, 1818, viii.97; birth of their daughter, 
 the future queen, Victoria, May 24, 1819, ?V>.; 
 dfath of th(! duke of Kent, Jan. 23, 1820, 111 ; 
 uppointcd Bole regent should the king die 
 
 before tie 18th year oi the princess Viotona, 
 247 ; present at Queen Victoria's audience 
 with the privy council, 379 
 
 Kent, his painting, &c., v. 458, 459 
 
 Kent, agriculture of, vii. 17, 18 
 
 Kentish petition ; its purport, v. 247, 248 ; fer- 
 ment caused by the imprisonment of the pre- 
 senters, 248 
 
 Kcppel, admiral ; appointed to the command of 
 tlie channel fleet ; sails from St. Helens, 
 June 17, 1778; captures the Lecorne ; sails 
 to Portsmouth, vi. 392 ; again puts to sea, 
 July 9; engages D'Orvilliers off'Ushant ; his 
 second in command, sir H. Palliser, unable to 
 renew the conflict ; debates on their conduct ; 
 Palliser charges Keppel with misconduct and 
 incapacity; court-martial on, and acquittal of, 
 393 ; created a viscount, and appointed first 
 lord of the admiralty, 454 
 
 Ker, John, of Kerslaud, his account of the 
 Cameronian demonstration in 1706; he joins 
 them, acting as a spy to watch their proceed- 
 ings, V. 325 ; performs the same part in the 
 Jacobite plots of 1707 ; offers the services of 
 5000 men to colonel Hooke, 334 
 
 Key, John, lord mayor, 1830 ; warns the duke 
 of Wellington to come guarded to his banquet, 
 viii. 263 
 
 Keves, an assassination plotter; tried, 1696, v. 
 190 
 
 Klian, Araeer, joins the Pindarees against the 
 British, viii. 216 
 
 Kiel, treaty of, Jan. 14, 1814, vii. 581 
 
 KilUecrankie, battle of, July 27, 1689, v. 93, 94 
 
 Kllligrew, admiral, fails in keeping back the 
 French fleet, v. 166 
 
 Kilmarnock, lord, joins the rebel ranks, 1745, 
 vi. 127 ; fails in raising his tenants to fight 
 for the Stuart cause, 140 ; trial of, July 28, 
 1746; pleads guilty; description of his ap- 
 pearance, 173 ; executed on Tower Hill, Aug. 
 18, 174 
 
 Kilwarden, lord ; lord chief justice, mui-dered 
 by the Emmett insurrectionists, 1803, vii. 426, 
 427 
 
 Kimbolton, lord. See Manchester, earl of. 
 
 King, Gregory, estimates the population from 
 the hearth tax returns, v. 2, 3 ; his " scheme 
 of the income and expense of the several 
 families in England," analysed, 35-37, 48-50, 
 52, 53, 58-60 
 
 King tried for taking part in the assassination 
 plot, V. 190 
 
 King, lord, extract from his diary on a petition 
 for lord George Murray, vi. 21, 22 ; lord 
 chancellor ; causes a bill to be introduced 
 enacting that all law proceedings be in the 
 English language, 66 
 
 King, Dr., his interview with Charles Edward 
 in 1750 in London, vi. 181, 182 
 
 King's Weston, built by Vanbrugh, y. 455 
 
 Kingsley, Charles, his novel entitled " Alton 
 Locke ; " quotation from, descriptive of tlie 
 enlightened behaviour of class towards class 
 in 1862, viii. 478, 479 
 
 Kinsale capitulates to Marlborough, 1690, v. 
 119 
 
 Kirchdenkern, battle of, July 15, 1761, vi. 250 
 
 Kit's Coty House, description of, i. 10 
 
 Klcber, J. B., defeated by the Vendeans at 
 Chollet, Sept. 1793, vii. 295; serves in Jour- 
 dan's army, 312 ; surrender of Macstriclit to, 
 1794, 313; his struggle against a Mussulman
 
 INDEX. 
 
 687 
 
 flmiy, 380 ; assassinated, June 14, 1500, 
 405 
 
 Klundert taVen by Dumouriez, vii. 271 
 
 Xneller, Godfrey, a German ; patronised by the 
 duke of Monmouth ; and becomes the fashion- 
 able portrait painter in England, v. 461 ; list 
 of his more famous likenesses, and then- gene- 
 ral characteristics, 462 ; president of a private 
 academy of painting, vii. 67 
 
 Knight, Miss C, quotations from her " Auto- 
 biography," illustrative of the relations be- 
 tween the prince liegent and princess Char- 
 lotte, viii. 64, G5 
 
 Knight, sir John, complains of the exportation 
 of corn, V. 182 
 
 Knight, Jolm, imprisoned for being concerned 
 in the Manchester reform meeting, 1819. viii. 
 164 
 
 Knight, cashier of the South Sea Company ; 
 flies to Brabant ; his tamperings with the 
 cash books, vi. 45 
 
 Knight service instituted by WilUam the Con- 
 queror, i. 214, et scq. ; finally abolished in 
 1660, iv. 242 
 
 Knights Templars. See Templars. 
 
 Knox, John, preaches at Perth, and the monas- 
 tic houses are destroyed, iii. 118; preaches 
 against the seizure of the Church patrimony 
 by the nobles, 122 ; attacks of, upon Mary, 
 and her avowed hatred of him, 125, 126 ; 
 preaches against the marriage of Mary with a 
 lloman Catholic prince, 133; returns to Scot- 
 land in 1567, and preaches violently against 
 Mary, 151 
 
 Ka-nig invents the steam printing machine, viii. 
 132 
 
 KoHn, battle of, June 17, 1757, vi. 228, 229 
 
 Konigsmai-k, count Philip, tragedy of his death, 
 vi. 3 
 
 Kosciusko, engages in the American cause, 1777, 
 vi. 377 ; appointed leader of the Polish army, 
 1794, vii. 314 ; defeats the Russians, April '4, 
 ih. ; compelled to retreat by tlie Prussian and 
 Austrian forces, wounded in battle, Oct. 10, 
 315 
 
 Kuchuk Kanarji, peace of, 1774; its terms, vi. 
 326, 467 
 
 Kunersdorf, battle of, 1759, vi. 240 
 
 Kyrle, John, "the JIan of Eoss," a descendant 
 from a serf of bishop Swinfield, i. 397 
 
 LABEDOviKE, coIoncl in the Grenoble garrison; 
 joins Iv'apoleon, 1815, viii. 26; tried by court 
 nuirtial on Louis' restoration, and shot, 47 
 
 Labelve, the builder of "Westminster liridge, 
 vii. "82 
 
 Laborde engaged in the battle of Vimiero, vii. 
 502 
 
 iabouchere, Henry, master of the mint ; vice 
 president of the board of trade, viii. 381 
 
 La Bom-donnais, governor of the Isle de France ; 
 Fort St. George capitulates to, 1746, vi. 201 
 
 Labourers, wages of, in 1288, i. 398 ; statute for 
 regulating the wages of, 471 ; statute for pre- 
 venting their removal, 472 ; gradual emanci- 
 pation of, from serfdom, ii. 13 ; statute of 
 1388 against their changing their professions, 
 ib. ; in husbandry, not sufficient for the de- 
 mand, 14; the \vives of, subjected to the sta- 
 tute for the regulation of apparel, 102; statute 
 for regulating the hours of labour of, 113; 
 scale of wages for, 114; injury done to, by 
 parliamentary interference with, 115; com- 
 
 binations among, and statute against, in 1423, 
 116 ; distress occasioned among, by the fluc- 
 tuation in the price of wheat, and the statutes 
 fixing a rate of wages, 252 ; the effects of in- 
 closures upon , 466 ; sulferings of, in the reign 
 of Henry VIII., from the Statute of Wages in 
 1515, and the debasement of the coin, 475 ; 
 love of old ceremonies among, iii. 11 ; the 
 Protector Somerset's efforts in behalf of, 20; 
 insurrection of, against inclosui-es, in 1549, 21, 
 23 ; festivals and sports of, temp. Eliz., 254, 
 255 ; severities exercised upon, by the Law 
 of Settlement, 270 ; statute against the able- 
 bodied, wlio refuse to work at ibe usual wages, 
 271 ; the legislature declare, in 1563, that the 
 statutes for the regulation of wages cannot be 
 enforced, on account of the high price of pro- 
 visions, 276 ; other causes of sutfering, 277 ; 
 healthful influence of the Puritan gentr}- 
 upon, temp. Charles I. iv. 171 ; their repul- 
 sion of strict Puritanism, 172 ; condition of 
 an agricultural labourer, regno of queen Anne 
 as compared with one of the present day, v. 
 50, 51 ; character of the agricultural, temp. 
 queen Anne, 51 ; hardship and distress am ong^ 
 caused bj- the corrupt state of the silver coin- 
 age, 182; labour question bet ween master and, 
 from the reign of Edward III. to the present 
 time, vi. 184-186 ; the laws against the com- 
 bination of, 185 ; number of agricultural, in 
 1770 and 1851, vii. 4 ; condition of the farm, 
 of Siiflblk, 7; the Luddite riots and destruc- 
 tion of maciiinery, 1812, 543; desire and at- 
 tempts to level all distinction between, and 
 artizans, viii. 287 ; incendiary fires and ma- 
 chine breaking, ih. ; riots at Derby, Notting- 
 ham, and Bristol, 1831, 288-290; admonition 
 to, 290 ; limitation of labour in factories, 333, 
 334 ; pauperised condition of, 1834 ; injustice 
 done to the independent, by tlie old parocliial 
 system, 33,'-340; sanitary condition of; state, 
 of their dwellings ; evil efl'ccts of bad drain- 
 age on thi.il- health, 391-393 ; cleanliness 
 amongst town labourers, promoted by public 
 baths and washhouscs, 393, 394 ; condition of 
 the factory workers, 395; cruelties inflicted 
 on the cliildren atid women employed in 
 the coal mines, 395, 396 ; condition of 
 agricultural, 396-398; condition of, during 
 the prevalence of Chartism in 1839, 417, 418 ; 
 popularitj- of Chartist principles amongst, 419; 
 sir J. Graham's bill for limiting the hours of 
 labour in factories to twelve ; debate and 
 amendments on it, 515, 516 ; the bill passed, 
 516 ; Fielden's bill, for Kmitiug the number 
 of working hours in factories to ten, passed, 
 552 
 Lace trade, reigns of William and Anne, v. 19, 20 
 La Fayette, G. JL, appointed major-general in 
 the United States anny, 1777, vi. 377 ; pre- 
 sent at Comwallis's surrender, 1781, 428 ; 
 elected commander of the French national 
 guard, 1789, vii. 174; attempts to saveToulon, 
 175; ordered to march to Versailles, 178: 
 conducts the royal family to Paris, 180 ; takes 
 the oath at the lederation fete, 189; keeps 
 watch over the roynl family in the Tuileries, 
 200; they escape, 201 ; causes tbem to be cap- 
 tured and cniulucted back to Paris, 202 ; com- 
 mands the centre army sent against Austria, 
 1792, 219; denounces the instigators of the 
 insurrection of June 20 ; the mob compel hiit 
 to liy from Paris, 222 ; opposes the orders of
 
 «ss 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 the assembly ; is declared a traitor ; quits his 
 ar;iiy ; is arrested by the Austrians, and im- 
 prisoned, 228 ; commands the national guard 
 of Paris, July 1830 ; obtains possession of the 
 Hotel de Ville, viii. 254 ; where he receives 
 the duke of Orleans, 255 
 
 La Feuillade, French general, besieges Turin, v. 
 300 
 
 Lafitte heads a deputation requesting Marmont 
 to suspend hostilities, viii. 253 ; obtains the 
 premiership of France, 1830, 374 
 
 Laguerre, patronised by Charles II. and his 
 court, V. 447 
 
 Lahar reduced by captain Popham, vii. 129 
 
 La Hogue, battle of, May 19, 1692, v. 149, 150 
 
 Lake school of poetry, viii. 118 
 
 Lake, general Gerard, his campaign against the 
 Irish rebels, 1798, vii. 365 ; surrender of the 
 French under Humbert to, 368 ; commands 
 the troops in Hindostan ; compels the French 
 to retreat ; his triumphant campaign com- 
 pleted in the victory of Laswarree, Nov. 1, 
 1803, 456 
 
 Lake district, farmers of the, \Ti. 31 ; the home 
 of poetry, ib. ; cultivation in the ; changes in 
 the social condition of its inhabitants; turnips 
 first gro^vn as a field crop, 1793, 32 
 
 liamartLue, remarks of, on the September mas- 
 sacres, 1792, vii. 230, 231 
 
 Lamb, sir C. M., his account of Burke's dagger 
 speech, vii. 255 ^ 
 
 Lamb, Charles, character of his essays, viii. 128 
 
 Lamb, William. See Melbourne. 
 
 Lamballe, princesse de, a friend of Marie An- 
 toinette ; her death scene, Aug. 10, 1792, vii. 
 229, 230 
 
 Lambert, John, trial of, for denying the real 
 presence in the eucharist, ii. 406 ; disputation 
 of, with Henry VIII., 407 ; is burnt, 408 
 
 Lambert, General, engaged in the attack on 
 New Orleans, 1815, viii. 18, 19 
 
 Lambesc, prince, attempts to quell the Paris 
 riots, 1789, vii. 170 
 
 Lancashii-e before the cotton era, v. 23 ; formerly 
 an agricultural county, vii. 26 ; the hill farmers 
 of, now and eighty years ago, 26, 27 ; Fylde 
 moss converted into productive land, 27 ; 
 double occupation of fanner and weaver in, 
 46 ; rapid increase of Bolton, Bury, Birming- 
 ham, and Manchester, 52 
 
 Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of, apprehen- 
 sions entertained of the ambitious designs of, 
 ii. 3, 19 ; is accused of treason, 20 ; demands a 
 trial, but the witness against him dies, 21 ; 
 leaves England to assert his claim to the 
 crown of Castile, 22 ; returns to England in 
 1389, 26; dies in 1398, and his possessions 
 are seized by Richard II., 32 
 
 Lancastrian party, defeat of the, at the battle of 
 Towtou, ii. 147 ; extreme distress of, in e.^ile, 
 151 ; total depression of, after the battle of 
 Tewkesbury, 169 
 
 Landau, siege of; capitulates to the allies, 1704, 
 V. 287 
 
 Landen, or Neerwinden, battle of, July 29, 1693, 
 V. 164-166 
 
 Laiidseer, sir Edwin, succeeds "Ward as an 
 animal painter, viii. 155 
 
 Langara, admiral of the Spanish fleet ; taken 
 
 i)risoner by the British ; surprise at William 
 •V.'s obedience as a midshipman, vi. 552 
 Langdalc, destruction of his distillery by the 
 Gordon rioters, 1780, vi. 409, 410 
 
 Langton, Stephen, elected archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, in 1207 ; but John refuses him ad- 
 mission, and banishes the monks, i. 337 ; takes 
 possession of his see, in 1213, 343 ; opposes 
 the despotism of John, ib. ; joins the barona 
 at Saint Edmundsbury, in their league against 
 John, 345 ; conveys the provisions of Magna 
 Charta to John at Oxford, who rejects them, 
 346 ; refuses to excommunicate the barons on 
 the order of the pope, 354 ; excommunicates 
 " all violators of the liberties of the Church," 
 366, 367 
 Lansdown, lord, Henry Petty ; chancellor of the 
 exchequer, 1806, vii. 464, 577 ; his financial 
 propositions, 478; lord president of the council, 
 viii. 267, 381 
 Lanusse leads the French infantry at the battle 
 of Alexandria; slain. Mar. 21, 1801, vii. 
 407 
 Las Torres, count of, besieges San Mateo, 1705 ; 
 is compelled to raise the siege by Peter- 
 borough, who follows his retreating anny, v. 
 296 
 Laswan-ee, battle of, Nov. 1, 1803, vii. 456 
 Latimer, Hugh, offer of a bribe by, to Crom- 
 well, ii. 368 ; pai'ticipation of, in the burn- 
 ing of heretics, 408 ; preaches against images 
 and relics, 409 ; resigns his bishopric on the 
 passing of the Six Articles Act in 1539, and 
 is committed to prison, 420 ; commendation 
 of archery by, 460 ; advice of, to pay suffi- 
 cient salaries to officials, and prevent their 
 taking bribes, 462; description of a farmer's 
 life by, 468 ; accused of speaking seditiously 
 against the debasement of the coinage, 474 ; 
 remonstrance of, against burials in towns, 
 482 ; sermon of, on the execution of lord 
 Thomas Seymour, iii. 18 ; committed to the 
 Tower, after the accession of Mary, on Nov. 
 13, 1553, 57 ; condemned, with Kidley and 
 Cranmer, for heresy, at Oxford, 73 ; burning 
 of, with Eidliey, at Oxford, in Sept. 1555, 90, 
 91 
 Latin language, probable prevalence of, in Eng- 
 land, under the Eomans, i. 47 ; opinion of 
 lord Macaulay as to its non-prevalence, ib. ; 
 incorporation of much Latin in the Anglo- 
 Saxon and Welsh languages, ib. 
 Latour, an Austrian general ; defeated by Mo- 
 
 reau, 1796, vii. 328, 329 
 Latude, his escape from the Bastille, 1756, vii. 
 
 171 
 Laud, archbishop, introduction of ceremonial 
 observances into the Church service by, iii. 
 403 ; persecution of William Prynne, 412 ; 
 and of Dr. Alexander Leighton, 413; approves 
 of Straff"ord's principle oi thorough, 416 ; urges 
 on the establishment of episcopacy in Scot- 
 land, 429 ; which occasions, in 1637, the 
 revolt of Scotland, and the adoption of the 
 National Covenant, 430, et seq.'; his palace, 
 at Lambeth, attacked by the populace, on 
 May 11, 1640, 436; his fears of the parlia- 
 ment of 1640, and his superstitious forebo- 
 dings, 439 ; opinion of, as to infringements of 
 law, 440 ; is arrested, and impeached by the 
 Commons, 446 ; Parliament resumes proceed- 
 ings against, iv. 38 ; defends himself witli 
 skill and courage, but is condemned for high 
 treason, and is beheaded on Jan. 10, 1645, ib. 
 Lauderdale, carl of, visits Paris, Aug. 1792, vii. 
 223, 224; his doubts of British operations in 
 Holland, 1793, 270 ; sent to Paris to negotiate
 
 INDEX. 
 
 «89 
 
 for peace, 469, 470 ; opposes the gas company, 
 1816, viii. 66 
 
 Launay, De, governor of the Bastille, vii. 171 ; 
 defends it against the mob, July 14, 1789, 
 172 ; capitulates on condition of having a free 
 pass ; he is seized and murdered by the mob, 
 173 
 
 Lam-ens, Henry, president of congress ; foresees 
 more war, May, 1778, vi. 390 ; a commissioner 
 for acquiring peace, 1782, 457 
 
 Lauriston, general, enthusiastic reception of, in 
 London, as the bearer of peace, 1801, vii. 408, 
 409 ; his despatch to Bonaparte, 180.5, 443 
 
 Lauzim, general, his conduct at the Boj-ne, 1690, 
 V. 108 ; considers Limerick untenable, 116 
 
 Lavalette tried by court martial for aiding Bona- 
 parte ; condemned to death ; escapes, viii. 47 
 
 La Vendee, the war in, 1793, vii. 292-296 
 
 Law, proceedings of, ordered to be transacted in 
 the English language, 1731, vi. 6o, 66 
 
 Law, John, his Mississippi scheme, vi. 43, 44 
 
 Law of Settlement. See Settlement. 
 
 Law reform. See Brougham. 
 
 Lawrence, captain of the " Chesapeake," his 
 corab.at with Broke ; died 1813, viii. 11 
 
 Lawrence, his conference with Akbar Khan ; 
 suspects liis good faith ; placed as a hostage 
 in his hands, viii. 456 
 
 Lawrence, major, commands the forces blockad- 
 ing Triehinopoly, 1752, vi. 205 
 
 Lawrence, sir Thomas, popnlarity of, as a por- 
 trait painter, died 1830, viii. 152 
 
 Laybach, congress at; circular issued by, 1821, 
 viii. 176, 177, 382 
 
 Layer, Christopher, executed for being con- 
 cerned in a conspiracy against George I., 
 1722, vi. 49 
 
 Leach, sir John, vice-chancellor, viii. 158 ; the 
 king's adviser in the matter of the queen, 
 163 
 
 Lead mines of Derbyshire, v. 21 
 
 Lead, black, mine of BoiTowdale, v. 29 
 
 Leake, admiral sir John, attacks De Pontis, and 
 destroys his fleet, March, 1704, v. 292 ; as 
 admiral sails with reinforcements for the 
 relief of Barcelona, 1706, 298 ; captures Sar- 
 dinia; carries Port Mahon, 1708, 338 
 
 Lear, legend of, given by Geofft-ey of Mon- 
 mouth, i. 2 
 
 Lebas guillotined, 1794, vii. 310 
 
 Le Brun imprisoned, vii. 277 ; associated with 
 Bonaparte as consul, 387 ; has the control of 
 the finances, 392 
 
 Leclimere returned M.P. 1710, v. 364; im- 
 peaches the earl of Derwentwater of high 
 treason, 1716, vi. 19; brings in a bill to 
 strengthen the Protestant interest, 24 ; his 
 amendment of the Septennial bill, 25 
 
 Lcclerc aids in expelling the Assemblv from 
 their hall, 1799, vii. 384, 385 
 
 Lode, marquis di, lands in Sicily with an army ; 
 his operations, 1718, vi. 34 
 
 Lee, Arthur, appointed a commissioner to take 
 charge of American affairs in Europe ; his 
 negotiations, vi. 372 
 
 Leeds, description of its cloth market, and the 
 clothiers attending it, v. 27 ; obtains parlia- 
 mentary representation, 1832, viii. 307 ; popu- 
 lation of, in 1831 and 1861, 308 
 
 Leeds, Thomas Osborne, duke of, urges "William 
 not to abandon England, v. 99, 100; autho- 
 rised by William to present an Act of Grace 
 for political offences to the peers, 104 ; pre- 
 voL. VIII.— 268. 
 
 sides at Jfohun's trial, 160 ; impeached for 
 bribery, but on the prorogation of parliament, 
 the impeachment fell to the ground, 177 
 
 Leefdale, baron de, a partner in Grandval's plot 
 to assassinate William, 1692, v. 152, 154 
 
 Lee Priory, Kent, built by Wyatt, viii. 141 
 
 Lefebvre, general, taken prisoner by the British, 
 1808, vii. 505 
 
 Legard, sir Digby, his agricultural improve- 
 ments, vii. 27, 28 
 
 Legendre, his petition to Louis, 1792, vii. 221 
 
 Legends, early British, i. 1, 2 
 
 Legge, H. B., chancellor of the exchequer, vi. 
 208, 320 ; refuses his signature to the sub- 
 sidy warrants, 1755, 208 ; he is dismissed his 
 oflBce, 209 ; reappointed to it, 1756, 218, 320 ; 
 again dismissed, 1757, 220 ; receives the free- 
 dom of London, 221 ; again reappointed, 1757, 
 227, 321 ; again removed, 1761, 246 
 
 Legion Memorial, the, 1701, v. 248, 249 
 
 Legislative Assembly established, 1791 ; its con- 
 stitution and parties, vii. 205 
 
 Legnitz, battle of, 1760, vi. 240 
 
 Leicester, Simon de Montfort, earl of. See 
 ISIontfort. 
 
 Leicester, earl of, recommended as a husband to 
 Mary of Scotland in 1564, iii. 134 ; is ap- 
 pointed to the command of the army in the 
 Netherlands, 182; ambitions views of, 183; 
 repulsed at the battle of Zutphen, 184 ; death 
 of, 237 
 
 Leicestershire, its trades and manufactures, v. 
 19 
 
 Leipzig, alliance of, April, 1631, v. 386; battles 
 of, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813, vu. 564 
 
 Leith burnt by the earl of Hertford, in 1545, ii. 
 437 
 
 Lelv, extensive employment of, by the coiurt of 
 Charles II., v. 447, 461 
 
 Lennox, lady Sarah, George IIL's love for, vi. 
 247 
 
 Lcoben, preliminaries of peace of, signed April 
 18, 1797, vii. 343, 412 
 
 Leopold I., of Germany, represented at the 
 Hague congress, 1691 ; his interests, v. 122 ; 
 desires the prolongation of war, 1697, 198; 
 married one of Charles II. of Spain's sisters, 
 225 ; delays signing the Partition treaty, 
 1700, 242 ; joins the Grand Alliance against 
 France, 1701, 250; succeeded by Joseph I., 
 1705, 475 
 
 Leopold II. of Germany ; meets the king of 
 Prussia at Pilnitz ; they issue the declaration 
 of Pilnitz, 1791, vii. 207; died. Mar. 1, 1792, 
 217 ; the French declare war against him, 
 
 1792, 412; emperor, 1790-1792, 674 
 Leopold of Belgium, prince of Saxe Coburg ; 
 
 man'ies princess Charlotte, May 2, 1816 ; 
 national acquiescence in the marriage, viii. 
 53, 51; national sj-mpathy at his loss of the 
 princess, 1818, 94; chosen king, 1831 ; manies 
 Louis Philippe's eldest daughter, vii. 373 
 
 Lepavix, president of the French Directory, hi.-' 
 proclamation, 1797, vii. 335 
 
 Lescure, a Vendean leader, vii. 294 ; his huma- 
 nity saves 5000 Vendcans ; his horror on 
 hearing of the queen's death, 295 ; death of, 
 
 1793, 296 
 
 Lesley, general David (afterwards earl of Leven), 
 a military leader of the Covenanters 8ui-})risea 
 Edinburgh castle in 1639, iii. 434 ; commands 
 an army which marches to oppose Charles I. 
 at Berwick, 435 ; conmiards the forces, ia
 
 690 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1640, sent ■with a petition to Enjrland, 437 ; 
 routs the king's troops at Newbum, near 
 Newcastle, on Aug. 28, ih. ; enters England 
 at the head of the Scottish army, iv. 31 ; de- 
 feats Montrose at Philiphaugh, 52 ; re-esta- 
 blishes the Covenanting power in the Low- 
 lands, ib. ; letter of, to the Committee of both 
 kingdoms, concerning the king's arrival at 
 Newark, May 6, 1646 ; Charles I. returns to 
 Scotland with the Scotch army, ib. ; Cromwell 
 meets with a vigorous resistance from, in his 
 advance into Scotland in 1650, 133; position 
 of his army at Dunbar, 134 ; where he is de- 
 feated, 135; makes another stand at Stirling, 
 136 ; invades England as lieutenant-general 
 Tinder Charles, ib, ; defeated at Worcester, 
 139 
 
 L'Estrange, sirEoger, establishment of the Lon- 
 don Gazette by, in 1665, iv. 281 ; is made 
 licenser of the press, ib. 
 
 L'Estrange, colonel, commands the hussars at 
 the Manchester massacre, 1819; ^dii. 107, 108 
 
 Lethbridge, sir Thomas, his motion against 
 Burdett, vii. 527 
 
 Letters, difficulties of transmission of, in the 
 15th century, ii. 127 
 
 Letters opened by the secretary of state ; agitated 
 state of the country thereat ; inquiry into the 
 extent of the practice, viii. 518 ; reports of 
 the committees ; they tranquillize the public, 
 519 
 
 Leuthen, or Lissa, battle of, Dec. 5, 1757, vi. 
 231 
 
 Levellers, rise of, in the army, iv. 86 ; the mu- 
 tiny of, suppressed by Cromwell, in 1647, 87 ; 
 character of, 117 ; a mutiny of, in 1649, again 
 suppressed by Ci-omwell and Fairfax, 118 
 
 Leven, earl of. See Lesley, general Da%ad. 
 
 Lewes, battle of, on May 13, 1264, i. 374 
 
 Ley coster, moves for Mehdlle's impeachment, 
 i805, vii. 440 
 
 Libel bill fails in being passed, 1791, but is 
 can-ied, June 11, 1792, vii. 212, 213 
 
 Libraries, parochial, founded bj'' Dr. Bi'ay, v. 
 206 ; and established by act of parliament in 
 1708, «i. 
 
 Licensing act, expiration of the, 1693, v. 158 ; 
 proposed renewal of, rejected, 1695, 177 
 
 Licensing plays, the act for, 1737, vi. 90 
 
 Licentiousness of society at various periods in 
 the 17th and 18th centuries, v. 57, 58, 206, 
 207; vii. 103, 111, 112 
 
 Liege, captured by Marlborough, Oct. 23, 1702, 
 V. 260 ; investc'd by Villeroy, 1705, 302 
 
 Ligny, battle of, June 16, 1815, viii. 29, 30 
 
 Ligoiiicr, sir John, commander of the English 
 cavalry at Lauffeld ; taken prisoner, vi. 180 
 
 Lilbumc, John, talcen prisoner at Brentford, but 
 is released, iv. 8 ; publishes, in 1647, bitter 
 denunciations against the betraj-ers of the 
 people, 79; permitted to ride out for his 
 health, having been sent to the Tower, 86 ; 
 goes to the rendezvous of the Adjutators, 
 ib. ; conduct of his regiment there, 87 ; pub- 
 lishes several pamphlets, for which he is 
 committed to the Tower, 117; sends out 
 another pamphlet, 118; sends forth more 
 pamjjhlets, 119 ; in consequence of which lie 
 IS tried in 1019, but is acquitted, ib. ; speech 
 of, at his trial, ib. ; rejoicings throughout 
 London at his acquittal, ib. 
 
 Lille, besieged by the Allies, 1708, v. S38, 340 ; 
 BuiTcnder Dec. 29, 346; bombarded unsuc- 
 
 cessfully by the Auatrians, Oct. 1792, viL 
 236 
 
 Limbourg taken by Marlborough, 1703, v. 266 
 
 Limehouse church, built by Hawksmoor. v. 457 
 
 Limerick, the Jacobites take refuge in, v. 115 ; 
 description of the to-wn and surrounding 
 countiy in a military point of view, 116; in- 
 vested by William III., Aug. 9, 1630, 117; 
 Sarsfield, the commander of the g-arrison, 
 with 500 horse, makes a successful attick 
 upon William's supplies and artillery, ib. ; 
 several attempts to take the to^vn by assault 
 failed, and the siege raised on the 29th, 118 ; 
 capitulates to general Ginkell, 1691, 128 ; 
 treaty of, 129 
 
 Lincoln, general, commands the forces in Char- 
 leston; capitulates May 12, 1780, vi. 411 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, president of the United 
 States ; his message proposing a gi-adual eman- 
 cipation of the slaves, 1862, viii. 330 
 
 Lincolnshire, population of; reclaiming the land 
 in, V. 21 ; fens of, drained and reclaimed by 
 Kennie, vii. 14, 15 ; reclamation of the heath 
 and wolds of, 15, 16 ; 22 persons to every 100 
 acres in 1841, 24 
 
 Lind, captain of the Edinburgh city guard ; his 
 evidence as to the Porteous riot, vi. 81 
 
 Lindsay, Lieutenant, his share in the Glencoe 
 massacre, 1692, v. 138, 139, 141 
 
 Line engraving and engravers, 1784-1820, viii. 
 156 
 
 Linen trade, the, temp. William and Anne, v. 
 25 
 
 Lingard, Dr., character of his " History of Eng- 
 land," viii. 473 
 
 Linieres, general, commands the troops in 
 Buenos AjTes, 1817 ; obtains favourable terms 
 from general Whitelock, vii. 486 
 
 Lisbon, peace of, Feb. 13, 1608, v. 387 ; earth- 
 quake at, 1755, vi. 210 
 
 Lisle, lady AUce, execution of, for harbouring 
 a traitor, iv. 399 
 
 Lisle, negotiations at, for peace, 1797, vii, 
 342 
 
 Lissa. See Leuthen. 
 
 Literature, view of the, teynp. William and 
 Anne, v. 60; sketch of the. from 1709 to 
 1742 ; the essayists ; general literal capa- 
 city of the period; the legislature connected 
 with, and the poets, 401-416; manners of 
 the same period illustrated by its, 417-432; 
 rise of a reading public, 433 ; spread of know- 
 ledge of ancient, 434; popular element in 
 controversy, 435; "battle of the books," by 
 Swift, published 1704, ib. ; Pope's essay on 
 criticism, 436; banter upon antiquaries, 436, 
 437 ; his " Dunciad," 437-441 ; character 
 of Swift's -writings, 442 ; his " Tale of the 
 Tub," 443 ; " Gulliver's Travels," 443, 444 ; 
 Defoe, 445; "The Craftsman," the party 
 organ for Walpole's opponents, Pulteney and 
 others, printed by Benjamin Franklin, who 
 is convicted of a libel, 1731, vi. 67 ; the pro- 
 ceedings of Parliament not published for 
 several )^ears subsequent to 1747, 178 ; Henry 
 Fielding's "Inquiry into the Causes of the 
 I.ate increase of llobbers, 1750," 191; Gold- 
 smith's "History of England," 1771, 193; 
 Wilkes and Churchill start the " North 
 Briton," June, 1762, 260; Churchill's "Pro- 
 phecy of Famine," Jan. 1703, 201 ; Dicken- 
 son's " Letters from a Farmer in Pcnnsvl- 
 vania," 307 ; arrest of printers for publisliing
 
 INDEX. 
 
 69i 
 
 the debates of parliament, 317 ; after much 
 agitation and rioting, the affair blows over, 
 and the printers and others are released from 
 prison, 318, 319; advanced by Jesuitical 
 efforts, 327 ; Yorkshire dialect 60 years 
 since, vii. 29 ; changes in the commerce of, 
 83^ 8-1 ; the age of magazines, 84 ; Johnson 
 the link between the two periods, 1737-1783, 
 85 ; state of, time of George II., 86, 87 ; 
 Eichardson, 87, 88 ; Fielding, 88 ; Smollett, 
 Sterne, Goldsmith, 89; the writers from 
 1760-1783, 89, 90; publication of Burke's 
 " Keflections on the French Ecvolution," 
 1790, 190 ; " Anti-Jacobin," started by Can- 
 ning ; tirst number appeared Nov. 20, 1797, 
 345; immense intluenco of Cobbett's "Two- 
 penny Register" upon the labouring classes, 
 1816, viii. 73, 74; sketch of English, 178i- 
 1820, 112-138; Cowper, 112-114; Crabbe, 
 114, 115; Burns, 116; Darwin, 117; Bella 
 Cruscau school, ib. ; the Lake school, 117, 
 118; Southey, Coleridge, 118; and Words- 
 ■worth, 118, 119; Scott, 119, 120; Byron, 
 120 ; Shelley and Keats ; the narrative 
 poems of Campbell, Rogers, Byron, Hunt, 
 Moore, 121 ; and Crabbe ; delineation of 
 manners contained in his works, 121, 122; 
 a more Evangelical spirit is revived amongst 
 the people, 122, 123 ; the theological litera- 
 ture, 123, 124; sermons of Chalmers, Blair, 
 and llall, 124; hatred of the stage, 124, 
 12o ; pla}'S written by Byron, Coleridge, and 
 Milman, 125 ; the smaller novelists, 125, 
 126 ; the Waverley novels, 126, 127 ; and 
 Jane Austen's writings; the Edinbui'gh 
 Review, 127, and the Quarterly ; Blackwood's 
 Magazine ; the essayists ; Lamb, 128 ; 
 Hazlitt, 128, 129; Hunt and Foster; the 
 political economists — Malthus, Mill, Ricardo, 
 and Chalmers, 129 ; coarseness of the jour- 
 nalism of 1820, 169 ; the press and its regu- 
 lation in India, 222, 223; "Penny l^Iaga- 
 zine" started, March 31, 1832, 311 ; its large 
 circulation a proof of the increased desire of 
 the people for knowledge, 312; the new law 
 of copyright of 1842, aud its application to 
 copyrights about to expire, 462-467 ; the 
 novelists— Gait, 467 ; Hook. 467, 468 ; ephe- 
 meral critics and superficially informed writers, 
 468, 469 ; utilitarianism, 469, 470 ; changes 
 in the character of literature, 470 ; the his- 
 torians — Macaulay, 470-472; Hallam, 472 ; 
 Carlyle, 472, 473 ; Lingard, Tytler, Forstcr, 
 Mahon, 473; Brougham, 473, 474; Napier, 
 Mitford, Thirlwall, Grote, 474; the no- 
 velists — Lytton, Dickens, Ainsworth, Thack- 
 eray, and others, 475 ; prevalence of serials 
 and works of fiction, 475, 476 ; Miss Marti- 
 neau's political economy tales, 477i 478 ; 
 the novels of Dickens, Gaskell, 478 ; Kings- 
 "ey, 478, 479 ; Thackeray, 479 ; the poets — 
 Tennyson, Browning, 4S0, 481 ; Hood, 481, 
 482; Punch; Theological writers, 482; the 
 political economy and statistical writers ; 
 the scientific writers, 483 ; the essayists and 
 critics, 483, 484 ; antiquarian publication ; 
 travels, the book trade, 484 ; newspapers, 
 484, 485 ; analysis of the literature issued, 
 1816-1851, 486; chronological table of the 
 British writers of the present century, 487- 
 491 
 Lithography, invention of; introduced into 
 Ea^land ; early prints and lithographs, Yiii.157 
 
 Littleton contests the speakership of the Com- 
 mons with Harley, 1/01, v. 252 
 Liturgy, bill for the reform of, rejected, 1689, 
 
 V. 73 
 Liverpool, communication between the trading 
 towns and, very imperfect before the Mersey, 
 Irwell, and Weaver were made navigable, v. 
 24 ; rapid progress of, 25 ; formerly engaged 
 in the slave trade, ib. 
 Li^'erpool, earl of, Robert Jenkinson ; lord 
 Hawkcsbury ; makes his first speech on the 
 side of government, 1794, vii. 317 ; foreign 
 secretary, 1801-1804, 401, 577; his frequent 
 interviews with Otto ; signs the prelimina- 
 ries of peace with France, 1801, 408 ; com- 
 plains of Napoleon's conduct, 410 ; his cor- 
 respondence with Talleyrand, 1804, 432, 
 433 ; declines the premiership ; lord warden 
 of the Cinque Ports, 1806, 463; home secre- 
 tary, 1807, 480; unable to send "Wellington 
 fresh troops, 521 ; his fears for the safety of 
 the British army in Portugal, 1809, 524 ; 
 war and colonial secretary of state, 1809- 
 1812, 526, 577 ; declares linglaud unable to 
 continue operations long in the Peninsula, 
 537 ; prime minister ; first commissioner of 
 the treasury, June, 1812, 542, 543 ; home 
 secretary, 1804-1806, 577 ; congratulates 
 "Wellington on his victory at Salamanca, 
 555 ; proposes a bill of pains and penalties 
 against queen Caroline, viii. 168 ; but sub- 
 sequently abandons it, 172 ; presses for the 
 re-admission of Canning into the Cabinet, 
 174 ; tries a second time in vain, 181 ; his 
 answer to the king's question as to what 
 political principles were to be followed, 184, 
 185 ; measures proposed for insuring the 
 stability of the public credit, 199, 200 ; he is 
 against granting relief to Roman Catholics, 
 201 ; taken with a fit of apoplexy, Feb. IS, 
 1827, which incapacitates him for business ; 
 his long friendship with Canning, 203 
 
 Livingstone, sir Thomas, commander of the 
 forces in Scotland, v. 132 ; instructions to, 
 as to Highland rebels, 132, 135; considered 
 not guilty of the Glencoe massacre, 141 
 
 Local Jurisdiction Courts bill rejected, 1833, 
 viii. 325, 326 
 
 Lochiel. See Cameron of Lochiel. 
 
 Locke opposes the depreciated currency theory, 
 T. 184 
 
 Locker, E. H., note on ; quotation from his 
 memoir on major Andre, vi. 416 
 
 Lollards, rise and increase of the, ii. 11 ; the 
 doctrines of, enforced by Piers Ploughman, 
 ib. ; the statute de heretico comburendo, the 
 first in England for punishing heresy with 
 death, passed in 1400 fur the suppression of, 
 45; burning of William Salter, a London 
 clergyman, ib. ; alleged conspiracy of, against 
 the State, on the conviction of Oldcastle for 
 heresy, 54 ; suppressed, and some of the con- 
 spirators executed, 55 ; new statute against, 
 ib. ; the spirit of, not wholly trodden out in 
 time of Henry VIII., 276 
 
 Londinium, sacked and destroyed by Boadicea, 
 A.D. 61, i. 23; Roman antiquities of, dis- 
 covered in 1784, 25 
 
 London, state of, under the Romans, i. 42; 
 Roman remains found at, 42, 43 ; power and 
 population of, in the time of Stephen. 263 ; 
 amusements and exercises of the inhabitants, 
 264 ; they assist ia the " Rout of Wii.'
 
 692 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chester," aud capture the earl of Gloucester, 
 265 ; oppression on the industry ot, by 
 Henry III., 364 ; riots in, in consfquence, 
 365 ; unpopularity of Queen Eleanor, ib. ; 
 notice of bishop Swinfield's house in Old 
 Fish-street, in 1289, 401 ; markets and shops, 
 402 ; state of the streets and highways, 402, 
 403 ; construction of the houses, 403 ; coal 
 not then generally used, ib. ; state of, in 
 1458, ii. 141 ; sanitary regulations for, 253 ; 
 riot in, on Evil Jlay Day, 1517, against the 
 Flemings, 293 ; buildings of, temp. Henry 
 VIII., 478 ; state of the highways and 
 streets, 479 ; statute of sewers passed for, in 
 1427, 480 ; Act for supplying, with water 
 from Hanipslead and other places, 481 ; pro- 
 vision for lighting, ib. ; statute for regu- 
 lating watermen's fares, 482 ; unwholcsome- 
 ness of the churchyai-ds in, ib. ; wealth of the 
 traders, in ib. ; Henry Machyn's Diary of the 
 sights and events in, during the tirst yenv of 
 the J\Iarian persecution, iii. 94, et scq. ; 
 villanies practised in, temp. Eliz., 2/3 ; 
 increase of London and Westminster, 274 ; 
 statutes against the increase of buildings, 
 275 ; hospitals and almshouses, 276 ; jdague 
 of 1603 in, 309 ; New Eiver brought to, by 
 sir Hugh Myddleton in 1613, 355; con- 
 tinued increase of, 356 ; ravages of the 
 plague in 1625, 388, 389; proclamation by 
 Charles I. against the increase of houses in, 
 and fines extorted in 1633 to prevent their 
 being pulled down, 416 ; hackney-coaclies 
 forbidden, in 1635, to pass up and down the 
 streets, 417 ; despotic order of Charles I. to 
 pull down houses and shut up i-liops, but 
 ■without any aim at public improxement, 
 425 ; reception given by, to ]\Iary de Meilieis 
 in 1638, 426 ; apprentices of, tumults raised 
 hy, in favour of the parliament, 472; skir- 
 mishes of, with Lunsford and the cavaliers, 
 473 ; shutting up of the playhouses in, 487 ; 
 described by Milton at the commencement of 
 the Civil War, ib. ; character of the volun- 
 teers and militia of, at the time of the Civil 
 War, 488 ; active exertions of the women of, 
 in favour of the parliamentary party, ib. ; 
 character of the apprentices, 489 ; ordered to 
 be fortified, and plan of foriifications, 498; 
 inhabitants of, march to Turnham Green, iv. 
 10 ; anxious for peace, ib. ; plot to arm the 
 ro}alists in, discovered, 15, 16; unusual 
 agitation of, 20 ; prowess of the trained bands 
 of, at the battle of Newbury, 24 ; consterna- 
 tion of, at the approach of the army, 73 ; 
 tumults in, 77 ; royalists re-action and riots 
 in, 90 ; popular demonstration in, in conse- 
 quence of Cromwell's departure, 91 ; bon- 
 fires lighted throughout, on account of Jolin 
 Lilburne's acquittal, 119; tumult of the 
 Fifth Monarchy men, in 1657, 206 ; rising of 
 apprentices in, against Oliver Cromwell, 
 212; anger of people of, at the expensive 
 pageantry at Oliver Croinwell's burial, 218 ; 
 burning of the Rump in 1660, 229 ; the 
 Great I'lague of 1665, 269 et scq. ; deficient 
 B\ipply of water, bad drainage, and crowded 
 dwellings, great promoters of its fatality, 
 270 : Defoe's narrative of it, 271 ; departure 
 of the Court, and of such of the inhabitants 
 as were able, 273 ; some of the clergy and the 
 nonconforming ministers remain, 275; Great 
 Fire of, 282 et seq. ; accounts of, by Pepys 
 
 and Evelyn, 283, 284; by iiaxter, 285; 
 estimated loss occasioned by, 287 ; Wren's 
 plan for rebuilding the city, 289; panic of, 
 on the Dutch burnmg the English ships in 
 the Medway, 297; cut off from their supply 
 of coal by tlie Dutch fleet, 298 ; panic of the 
 inhabitants at the revelations of Oates'B Popish 
 Plot ill 1678, 336; excitement in, on the 
 occasion of the Court manauvring to cause 
 Dudley North to be appointed sheriff, 365> 
 366; !i quo warranto against the city for 
 Uiisdemeanors, whicli submits to conditions, 
 369 ; monastic establishments opened in 
 1686, 409 ; great rejoicinirs in, on the ac- 
 quittal of the seven bi.-hops in 1687, 428; 
 riots in, on James il. quilting Whitehall^ 
 441 ; influence of the large population of, 
 upon agiicuUure, v. 31 ; population in 1688 
 and IbOl, 37; vessels belonging to the 
 port of, in 1702, ib. ; extensive commerce 
 of, at the commencement of the 18th cen- 
 tury, 38; the various trading companies of, 
 39 ; the banking system commenced in, temp. 
 Charles II., ib. ; mania for companies in, ?.t 
 the beginning of the 18ih century, 41 ; lot- 
 teries, lb. ; the trade:;men of, in queen Anne's 
 reign, 42 ; the rebuilding of, by sir C. 
 Wren, after the fire, 43 ; the progress of the 
 fashionable world ot, to the we-t, 43, 44 ; its 
 streets ; their state, passengers, and police, 
 45, 46; desire of. nobility and gentry to 
 gather in, 57 ; the manners and customs of, 
 as influenced by this desire, ib.; large amount 
 of pauperism in, temp, queen Anne, 60 ; 
 club life of, 427, 428 ; Wren's improvemente 
 in, 450; ISt. Paul's cathedral, 450-452; the 
 parish churches of, built by Wren, 452-454; 
 street lite of, temp. Anne and George I., 466- 
 468 ; the Londoners prepare to resist the 
 Highlanders, 1745, vi. 149 ; public feeling 
 in, during the rebellion, 149, 150 ; preva- 
 lence of robberies, and scarcity of police in, 
 temp. George IL, 192 ; riots of Spitalfields 
 weavers in 1765, 276; the Wilkite mob, 
 1768, l90 ; riots among the sailors and coal- 
 heavers, ib. ; address and remonstrance of 
 the city of, denying the Jegality of the par- 
 liament, 314, 315 ; contests between the 
 house of commons and the corporation of, 
 317 ; addre.-s and remonstrance ot the city of, 
 to the king, dinouncing the government 
 measures respecting America, 348 ; monument 
 in memory of W. I'itt, earl of Chatham, 
 erected in the Guildhall by the corporation 
 of, 390; Gordon riots in, 1780, 406-410; 
 supply of animal food for, from Essex, vii. 8 ; 
 butter and ducks from Bucks, 9; sale oi 
 cattle and sheep at Smithfield in 1732, 1770 
 and 1859, 12; eating, coflee, and chop- 
 houses ; and other public refreshment places 
 in, 94-96 ; Highbury barn ; the Devil tavern ; 
 the Mitre; the White conduit house; the 
 Globe; Garraway's aud White's, 95; the 
 Chapter cotiee-house, 96 ; Ranelagh gardens 
 opened, 1742, ib.; the company at the 
 lianelagh and Vauxhall gardens, 96-98 ; the 
 Pantheon opened, 1772, 98; club-life and 
 gambling in : Almack's, Boodle's, White's, 
 &c., 104, 105; the citizens and tradesmen of; 
 their gluttony and ignorance, 113; manners 
 and characters of tlie lower orders, 113, 114; 
 rabbles and mobs in, 115, 116 ; the police and 
 watchmen of, 116, 117; thanksgivLig in, ou
 
 INDEX. 
 
 693 
 
 the king's recoverj-, 17S8, 155 ; assault on 
 the kmg by a mob of, 1795, 323 ; the declu- 
 ration of the inhabitants of, that they will 
 defend the British kingdom, 1S03, 425 ; the 
 corporation of, opposes the renewal of the 
 Income tax in 1S16, viii. 52 ; its crime en- 
 couraged by its poUce ; extenJ^-e prevalence 
 of crime and vi' e, 65 ; state of, before and 
 after the passing of the Westminster Paving 
 and Lighting Act in 1762, 65, 60 ; the intro- 
 duction of gas in Pall Mall in 1807 consider- 
 ably influenced the prevention of crime, 66 ; 
 mendicity, vagrancy, and destitutio.n in, 66, 
 67 ; evils produced by the law of settlement, 
 67 ; inquiry into the state of education of 
 the poorer classes of, 69 ; saving banks m, 
 70 ; the Hampden club of, 75 ; the Spen- 
 ceans, 75, 76 ; the meeting in the Spa fields, 
 and the riot in the city, which latter is put 
 down by the mayor, 76-78 ; architecture and 
 architects of, 140-148; Waterloo bridge com- 
 menced 1811, completed 1817, built by 
 Eennie ; Southwark and Vauxhall bridges, 
 147, 148 ; docks of, and London bridge built 
 by Eennie, 148; the sculpture of, 148-150; 
 the Townley, Phigaleian, and Elgin marbles, 
 150 ; enthusiastic sympathy of its mechanics 
 with queen Caroline, 168, 169 ; mechanics' 
 institution of, inaugurated by Dr. Birkbeek, 
 1823; university of, opened, 1828, 231; 
 dread of the proposed new police for, 1828, 
 232 ; increased representation of, eftected by 
 the Keforui Act of 1832 ; condition of the four 
 new boroughs — iiarylebone, Finsbury, the 
 Tower Hamlets, and Lambeth, 300, 307 ; 
 population and houses in, 1841, 386, 387; 
 supply of food to, 387-391 ; sanitary condi- 
 tion of its labouring classes, 391-394 ; evils 
 arising from intermeni in, 394 ; Wilker's 
 usefulness in reclaiming the Devil's Acre, o'if'J 
 
 London bridge, building of, in 1209, i. 339 ; 
 new bridge, viii. 148 
 
 London Gazette, establishment of, by sir Eoger 
 L'Estrange, in 1665, iv. 281 
 
 Londonderry, siege of, and gallant defence by 
 "Walker and Baker, 1689, v. 82-86 ; invested 
 April 20, 83 ; miseries, stiu'vation, and agoni- 
 sing despair endured by the besieged, 84 ; the 
 relief, 85; the siege is raised, Aug. 1, 86 
 
 Londonderry, marquis of. See Castlereagh, 
 lord. 
 
 Londonderry, marquis of, anger of, in parlia- 
 ment, 1831, viii. 277; being considered in- 
 competent to act as ambassador to Eussia he 
 declines the post, 1835, 356 
 
 Long Parliament, the meeting of, on Nov. 3, 
 1640, iii. 438, 439, 442 ; its character, 439 ; 
 opened by Charles I., 443 ; Lcnthall chosen 
 speaker, 444 ; votes the release of the persons 
 imprisoned by the Star Chamber, ib. ; Pym's 
 speech in, impeaching Stratlbrd, 415 ; Straf- 
 ford and Laud impeached by, 446 ; Finch, 
 Windebank, and the Ship-Money judges im- 
 peached by, 446, '147 ; orders issued by, for 
 destroying crucitixes, images, superstitious 
 pictures, &c., ib. ; a bill ot attainder passed 
 against Stratibrd, 456 ; act passed against the 
 vntimely adjourning or dissolving of the par- 
 liament without its own consent, 457 ; it 
 proceeds in its reforms, and abolislies tlie 
 Star-Chamber Court, the Court of High Com- 
 mission, and other arbitrary courts, 460, 461 ; 
 act for the pacitication of Scotland passed, 
 
 461 ; the Irish insurrection of 1641 break 
 out, 463; requested by the king to take 
 measures for the suppression of the rebellion, 
 ib. ; debate on the Eeraonstrance, and its 
 adoption, 466; formation of parties for the 
 approaching struggle, 468 ; the earls of Hol- 
 land, Leicester, and Essex, join the parlia- 
 mentary party, 469 ; the Eemoustrance pre- 
 sented to the king, ib. ; popular tumults, 
 increase of petitioning, and cry against ihe 
 bishops, 471 ; rise of the terms of EoundheAd 
 and Cavalier, 472 ; twelve bishops protest 
 against the force used towards them, and are 
 committed to the Tower for treason, ib. ; the 
 question of the militia ordered to be taken 
 into consideration, on Jan. 3, 1642, 473 ; the 
 claims of the Commons an invasion of the 
 rights of the Crowii, 474 ; the king attempts 
 to seize the five members, PjTn, Hollis, 
 Hampden, Haslerig, and Strode, on Jan. 3, 
 475 ; sir 11. Veniey's account of the proceed- 
 ings on the occasion, 476 ; the members retire 
 to the city, and the king demands them at 
 Guildhall, 478 ; they are brought back in 
 tiiumph to the House, 479 ; the governors 
 of Portsmouth and Hull, are directed by 
 ordinance to hold those places for " the king 
 and parliament," ib. ; the bill for excluding 
 bishops from the House of Lords agreed to, 
 and the Militia bill refused, by the king, 480 ; 
 the House approves of Hotham having re- 
 fused the king entrance into Hull, 481 ; the 
 leaders prepare for war, but send propositions 
 to the king at York, 482 ; the king sets up 
 his standard at Nottingham, 495 ; attempts 
 to negotiate, 496; but his propositions are 
 rejected, 497; issues a declaration of war, 
 and Essex marches from London, 498 ; sends 
 proposals to Charles, after the battle of Edge- 
 hill, to negotiate, iv. 7 ; sends commissioners 
 to Charles at Oxford, in March, 1043, to nego- 
 tiate for peace, 14 ; establishes a Great Seal, 
 and provides for the due administration of 
 justice, ib. ; Edmund Waller's plot against, 
 15; Waller's arrest, and execution of Chal- 
 loner and Tomkins, 10 ; negotiations of, for 
 an alliance with Scotland, 27; its members 
 swear to the " solemn League and Covenant," 
 28 ; conformity to Presbyteriauism enforced 
 by, 30 ; resolves to fill up the vacancies in 
 the House, and increased strength of the In- 
 dependents in consequence, 54 ; receives over- 
 tures of pacification from the king, and rejects 
 them, 55 ; negotiation with the Scots for the 
 surrender of the king, 02 ; state of parties 
 in, ib. ; the treaty concluded, and the king 
 surrendered, 03; end of the first Civil W^ar, 
 05 ; struggle of the Presbyterian members to 
 repress the Independents, who are strong iu 
 the array, and are headed by Cromwell, 68 ; 
 vote passed for disbanding the army, 69 ; pe- 
 tition against, presented by the officers, ib. ; 
 proceedings of Adjutatcrs, 70 ; private resolu- 
 tion of the members of, to arrest Cromwell, 
 71 ; the amiy renioves the king from Holmby, 
 ib. ; the army advances to London and de- 
 mands the impeachment of eleven of the 
 I'resbyterian members, 73 ; tliey withdraw, 
 ami the House votes the adeiition of the 
 army's proceedings, ib. ; tumults in London, 
 and the mob forces the House to rescind a 
 vote passed on the day before, 77 ; the speaker 
 and many of the members prcieed to the ai-my,
 
 cdi 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 and the Presbyterian party resumes its pre- 
 dominance, 78 ; Fairfax and the army restore 
 ifhe speaker aud tlie Independent members, 
 79 ; declares against any further treaty with 
 the king, 89 ; reaction of the people against, 
 in favour of the king, 90 ; treaty of Newport 
 commenced, 98 ; a Remonstrance sent by the 
 army to, 100 ; the army is marched into Lon- 
 don, 102; the House purged by colonel Pride, 
 103; ordinance for the king's trial, 105; the 
 High Court of Justice appointed, 106 ; the 
 king sentenced to death, 1U9 ; issues a procla- 
 mation that no new king be pi'oclaimed witli- 
 out its authority, 113 ; Icon Basilike printed, 
 114; the House of Lords voted useless, and 
 the office of king abolished, 115 ; Council of 
 State appointed, ib. ; trial and execution of 
 the royalists, duke of Hamilton, earl of Hol- 
 land, and lord Capel, 116, 117 ; public indig- 
 nation occasioned by, 117 ; the Levellers are 
 suppressed, 118; a thanksgiving day ap- 
 pointed on account of the suppression of the 
 Levellers, 119; trial of John Lilburne, il>.; 
 appoints Cromwell lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 
 121 ; Rupert driven from the Irish coast, 124 ; 
 Cromwell honourably received by, on his re- 
 turn from Ireland, 132 ; prepares forces for a 
 war with Scotland, tb. ; Cromwell constituted 
 general by act of, ib. ; despatch of Cromwell 
 to, announcing the victory of Dunbar, 135; 
 gives Cromwell liberty to return home, 136 ; 
 letter of Cromwell to, announcing the inva- 
 sion of England, 137 ; defeat of the royalist 
 army at Worcester, 138, 139 ; Charles and his 
 adherents declared rebels and traitors to the 
 commonwealth, 139 ; courts martial held upon 
 nine prisoners taken at "Worcester, and three 
 executed, of whom one was the earl of Derby, 
 139 ; reward of 1000/. otfered by, to any one 
 who would capture Charles II., 140 ; law for 
 the election of future parliaments passed, the 
 House voting not to sit beyond Nov. 3, 165i, 
 147; conference on the settlement of the 
 nation, 148 ; foreign relations of the common- 
 wealth, 149 ; difterences with the united pro- 
 vinces, 150 ; Navigation Act passed, ib. ; war 
 declared against the Dutch, 151 ; general 
 thanksgiving appointed on account of the 
 successes of Blake over Van Tromp, 155 ; pe- 
 tition of the army to, ib. ; the question of 
 future parliamentary representation, 157 ; dis- 
 solution of, 158 ; public opinion on dissolu- 
 tion of, 159 ; restored under the name of " tlie 
 Rump," 221 ; resolves that the military shall 
 be under the civil power, 222 ; discussions as 
 to form of government, 223 ; the Rota Club, 
 ib. ; royalist insurrection breaks out, 224 ; 
 council of officers, ib. ; committee of safety, 
 ib. ; the parliament is ejected, ib. ; is restored 
 by the council of officers, 226 ; disaffection of 
 the city towards it, 228 ; Monk emploj'ed to 
 quell tlio disaffection, 229 ; burning of the 
 Rump in Jan. 1660, ib.; the secluded mem- 
 bers are restored by Monk's intervention, 230 ; 
 renewal of the Presbyterian measures on their 
 restoration , ib. ; final dissolution of, on March 
 16, 1600, 232 
 
 Longchamp, William, appointed chancellor of 
 England by Richard, is deposed by prince 
 John, in 1 li)l, i. 315 ; retires to Flanders, and 
 writes to Richard, 316 
 
 Longwy taken by the Prussians, Aug. 22, 1792, 
 vii. 228, 234 
 
 Losowitz, battle of, Oct. 1, 1756, t. 216 
 
 Lotteries, multitudinosity of; temp. Williata III., 
 
 V. 41, 170; suppressed 1698, 41 
 Loudon, earl of, commands the British troops 
 in America, vi. 218 ; shrinks from attacking 
 Louisbourg, 230 ; censured and recalled, 233 ; 
 surprises Frederick in his camp, 234 
 Loughborough, A. Wedderburn, lord, solicitor- 
 general, 1771 ; reproves Fox's expression of 
 "criminals," vi. 318 ; insults Franklin, 338; 
 attorney-general ; his opinion on the employ- 
 ment of the military in suppressing riots, 409 ; 
 supports Fox's Libel bill, 1792, vii. 213; at- 
 tempts to promote a union between Fox and 
 Pitt, hoping thereby to obtain the lord chan- 
 cellorship, 216 ; his further intrigues for the 
 same object are successful ; he obtains the 
 great seal, Jan. 28, 1793, 244, 245 ; his " Trai- 
 torous Correspondence" bill passed in a mo- 
 dified form, 267 ; his extravagant idea of the 
 success of the British arms i)i Holland, 270, 
 271 ; principal adviser of the trials of Hardy 
 and others ; anecdote of George III. and, 303 ; 
 his opinion on the order forbidding the Bank 
 to pay in cash, 333, 334; one of "the king's 
 friends." 398, 399 ; opposes the concessions to 
 Catholics, 399 ; resigns his chancellorship, 
 1801, 401 ; lord chancellor, 1783, 576 
 Louis, prince, of Baden, commands the allied 
 armies in 1704, alternately with Marlborough, 
 V. 277 ; aids him in gaining the battle of the 
 Schellenberg or Donawert, July 2, 278 ; des- 
 patched by Marlborough to carry on the siege 
 of Ingoldstadt, 280 ; conducts the siege of 
 Landau, which capitulates in Dec. 287 
 Louis of France offered the crown of England, 
 in 1215, i. 354 ; arrives in England, and re- 
 ceives the homage of the barons in London, 
 ib. ; suspected treachery, and decline of the 
 popularity of, 355 ; his forces are defeated at 
 Lincoln by the earl of Pembroke, 357 ; and 
 a fleet with reinforcements destroyed near 
 Dover, 358 ; makes a treaty -with Henry III., 
 and withdraws, ib. 
 Louis XI., of France, meets Edward IV., and 
 cajoles him into a disgraceful treaty, ii. 174 ; 
 breaks off the contract for the marriage of the 
 dauphin with Edward's daughter, 176 
 Louis XIV. ; extent of his aid to king James, 
 1690, V. 106 ; receives James' project of in- 
 vading England, with coldness, v. 114 ; his 
 power and kingdom, 120 ; himself, not the 
 French, the real enemy of England, 121 ; be- 
 sieges Mons and compels it to surrender, 124; 
 on the death of his minister Louvois he oflers 
 his assistance to James in invading England, 
 148 ; conducts the siege of Namur, 150 ; which, 
 surrenders to him, 151 ; his position and 
 opinions, 162 ; the routine of his daj% 163 ; 
 prepares for a campaign, 1693, ib. ; suddenly 
 leaves his army and returns to Versailles, 164 ; 
 promises to aid James in invading England, 
 if the Jacobites rise, 186 ; ne!::otiates for peace 
 with William III., 1697, 198; the treaty of 
 Ryswick is concluded, 199 ; his reception of 
 the English ambassador, Portland, 1698, 208; 
 sends count Tallard as his ambassador at the 
 court of William, 209; William's dread o( 
 Spain and the Indies being acquired by, 226 ; 
 seizes the Spanish crown for his grandson 
 William in o])position to tlie terms of the two 
 partition treaties, 230 ; suspected of bribing 
 the English, 232; his ostentatious extrava-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 695 
 
 ^ance and that of his court bring about the 
 poverty of the nation, 237 ; his poliej', 238 ; 
 attempts to influence Charles of Spain to 
 place the succession in the Bourbon family, 
 242 ; he accepts the will of Charles, 243 ; his 
 grandson succeeds to the Spanish dominions, 
 ib. ; on the death of James II., in 1701, he 
 proclaims his son the prince of Wales, as 
 James III., king of England, 251 ; concen- 
 trates the military of France upon Germany, 
 274 ; receives news of the defeat of his armies 
 at Blenheim, 28G ; feels his losses in the Low 
 Countries ; invited to invade Scotland, 310 ; 
 pride roused by Marlborough's demands; his 
 example, and appeal to his subjects, fires the 
 spirit of the nation, 343 ; anguish at the 
 exhausted state of the kingdom and inability 
 to obtain peace, 362 ; secretly promotes the 
 election of Charles of Austria to the German 
 empu-e, 1711, 375; makes viscount Boling- 
 broKe a present of a ring worth 4000^. during 
 his embassage at Paris, 1713, 396; his con- 
 cessions in the peace of Utrecht, 397; died 
 Sept. 1, 1715, vi. S 
 
 Louis XV., of France, is declared of age ; takes 
 upon himself the government of France ; ap- 
 points duke de Bourbon his minister, vi. 54 ; 
 refuses to many the infanta of Spam to whom 
 he was betrothed, ib.; joins his army at 
 Fontenoy, 1745 ; urged to retire from the 
 battle by marshal Saxe, but he spiritedly 
 remains to see the battle out, 114; sends an 
 army to invade Brabant, 1747 ; present at the 
 battle of Laufll'ld, 180 ; sensitiveness to 
 Frederick the Great's ridicule, 215 ; sides 
 with Maria Theresa in the Seven Years' war, 
 1756, ib. ; his nervousness caused by an 
 attempt on his life by Damiens, 1757 ; misery 
 of the country and extravagance of the court, 
 249 ; died, May 10, 1774, 341 ; reigned, 1715- 
 1774, 465 
 
 Louis XVI. quarrels with his parliament, vii. 
 163; attends the meeting of the states- 
 general, 1789, 165, 166 ; his views on the 
 union of the three orders, 168, 169 ; agrees to 
 the formation of the national assembly, 169 ; 
 refuses to withdraw the troops stationed be- 
 tween Paris and Versailles, 170 ; yields to his 
 people's demands, 174; revived loyalty of the 
 the national guard towards, 177 ; his audience 
 with the Parisian women, 179 ; besieged in 
 the Versailles palace by the mob, 179, 180; 
 himself and family removed to Paris, 180 ; 
 his speech at the sitting of the national as- 
 sembly, Feb. 4, 1790, 185 ; attends the fede- 
 ration fete, 188, 189 ; his deposition demanded 
 by the mob, 199 ; himself and family vigi- 
 lantly watched ; he escapes with it from 
 Paris, July 21, 1791, 200, 201 ; is captured at 
 Varenncs, and conducted back to Paris, 202 ; 
 the people's hatred of roj'alty, 203 ; the for- 
 mation of the legislative assembly agreed to 
 by, 205 ; confidence in, i-evived, 207 ; desires 
 emigrants to disarm ; ajiplies his veto to the 
 decrees against the emigrants, 208 ; opposed 
 to declaring war with Austria; his powers 
 as king, 219 ; insulted by Roland whom he 
 dismisses ; agrees to the formation of a camp 
 near Paris, but not to the deportation of 
 priests, 220 ; his firmness in the interview 
 ■with the insurrectionists of June, 1792, 221 ; 
 his deposition again demanded, 224 ; block- 
 aded in the Tiuleries by the mob; places 
 
 himself and family under the assembly's pro- 
 tection, 225 ; removal of the royal family to 
 the Temple, 227 ; all the members of which 
 are there hanshiy treated, 241, 242; he is 
 impeached at the bar of the convention, 242 ; 
 anxiety for his fate sho\vn in the British par- 
 liament, 243; his trial, 250, 251 ; condemna- 
 tion, 251; and execution, Jan. 21, 1793, 252; 
 proceedings of the British parliament, 252, 
 253 
 Louis XVII., of France, presented to the people 
 at the federation fete, 1790, vii. 189 ; un- 
 harmed by the people at the opera, 206 ; pre- 
 sent at Louis XVI. 's interview with the 
 insurrectionists of June 20, 1792, 221 ; impri- 
 soned in the Temple, Aug. 1792, 241; death 
 of, in the Temple, Paris, June 8, 1795 ; 
 shameful treatment of, 320, 321 
 Louis XVIII., of France, enters Paris, May 3, 
 1814, vii. 571 ; reception of, on his entry into 
 London, 572; retrospect of his restoration, 
 viii. 21-25 ; promulgation of the constitutional 
 charter. 21, 22 ; its provisions, ib. ; partly his 
 own work, 22 ; discontent showTi under his 
 government, 22-24 ; deserted by marshal Ney, 
 dissolves the chambers and removes his court 
 from Paris to Ghent, 27 ; public entry into 
 Paris, July 8, 1815, 41 ; execution of Labe- 
 doyere and marshal Ney, 47 ; evacuation of 
 France by the allied troops, 1818, 99; declares 
 war against Spain, 1823, 182 ; the campaign; 
 occupation of Madrid and overthrow of Spain, 
 183 ; death of, Sept. 6, 1824 ; his good sense 
 ])reserves his kingdom from convulsions, 247 ; 
 anecdote of, 249 ; reigned from 1814 to 1824, 
 vii. 574 ; viii. 268 
 
 Louis Philippe (France) present at the battle of 
 Valmy, 1792, vii. 235 ; and at that of Jemap- 
 pes, 1792, 237 ; appointed lieutenant-general 
 of France, 1830, viii. 255; opens the legis- 
 lative session ; accepts the throne of France, 
 Aug. 9, 256 ; his daughter married to king 
 Leopold of Belgium, 1832 ; death of the duke 
 of Eeichstadt, 373 ; his government and fre- 
 quent changes of ministry ; attempts to assas- 
 sinate him by Fieschi (1835), Alibaud and 
 JNIeunier (1836), 374 ; his fears of Louis 
 Napoleon, 374, 375 ; the king's perplexity 
 caused by Louis Napoleon's enterprise at 
 Strasbourg, 375, 376 ; the king sends him to 
 America ; compels his extradition from Swit- 
 zerland, 376; his visit to the Queen, 522; 
 his Spanish marriage plans, 554 ; doubts as 
 to his friendliness towards England, 654, 
 555 ; his abdication 555, 557 ; stormed in 
 his palace by the mob, and compelled to fly, 
 557 
 
 Louisbourg capitulates to the British, 1758, vi. 
 233 
 
 Louvain given up to Marlborough, 1/06, v. 309, 
 310 
 
 L'Uuverture, Toussalnt, accomplishes the free- 
 dom of the St. Domingo slaves ; commander- 
 in-chief of tlieir armies, 1796, vii. 418; pre- 
 sident and governor for life, 1801 ; Bonaparte 
 sends an expedition against him, ib. ; resists, 
 but is compelled to submit; arrested and im- 
 prisoned ; died April 27, 1803, 419 
 
 Louvois, chief minister of France ; suspected to 
 have been poisoned, 1792, v. 148; favours Du- 
 mont's plot against William III., 154 
 
 Lovat, Simon Eraser, lord, takes possession of 
 Inverness for government, vi. 15 ; his perfidy
 
 696 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 and wavering conduct during the rebellion of 
 1745, 163 ; he is impeached by the House of 
 CommonB, Dec. 1746 ; trial of, 174 ; and death, 
 175 
 
 Lowe, sir Hudson, governor of St. Helena; 
 complained of as being harsh to Napoleon, 
 viii. 176 
 
 Lowick tried for conspiring against ■William 
 III. ; and executed, V. 191 
 
 Lowry, his engraving machine, viii. 156 
 
 Lucerne, prince de, present at Cornwallis's 
 surrender, vi. 428 
 
 Lucius, or Lever Maur, " who reigned in 
 Britain, A.d. 180," doubtful statement of his 
 having become a Christian under pope Eleu- 
 therius, and having built the chapel in Dover 
 Castle, i. 60 
 
 Luddism active in 1812, vii. 543; in 1816, 
 viii. 61 ; in 1817, 81 ; in 1830, 258 ; and in 
 1831, 287 
 
 Ludlam, Isaac, executed for insurrectioning, 
 viii. 83 
 
 Ludlow. Edmund, parliament wishes to appre- 
 hend him, 1689, on hearing of his being in 
 London; he returned to Vevay, v. 98 
 
 Lundy appointed governor of Londonderry by 
 "William, v. 82 ; but being suspected of an 
 intention to surrender he is turned out by the 
 townspeople, 83 
 
 Luneville, peace of ; preliminaries signed July 
 28, 1800, vii. 395 ; and completed on Feb. 9, 
 1801, 396, 413 
 
 Luther, Martin, denouncement of the sale of 
 indulgences by, ii. 276 ; attends the Diet at 
 "Worms, 290 ; 'intrepid behaviour of, before 
 the Diet, ib.; Henry VIII. writes a book 
 against, ib. ; Luther's works burnt at Paul's 
 Cross, 291 ; spread of the doctrines of, in 
 Germany, 306 
 
 Luttrell, col., his motion against "Wilkes, vi. 
 291 ; opposes Wilkes as a candidate for Mid- 
 dlesex ; defeated ; but is declared to be the 
 legal representative, 1769, 292 
 
 Luttrell, Temple, proposes a measure for man- 
 ning the navy, 1777, vi. 374 
 
 Lutzen, battle of. May 2, 1813, vii. 561 
 
 Luxemburg, French general, gains the battle of 
 Fleurus, 1690, v. 120; helps Louis in be- 
 sieging Namur, 150, 151; defeats "William 
 III. at Steinkirk, 152, 153; campaign of 
 1693, 163 et seq. ; again defeats "William at 
 Landen, 164, 165 
 
 Lyndhurst, J. S. Copley, lord ; advocates tlie 
 allowance of counsel to prisoners, v- 270 ; 
 Bergeant; Watson's counsel, 1817, viii. 78 ; 
 lord chancellor, 1827, 205, 210 ; resigned 
 1830, 265 ; moves that the disfranchising 
 clauses of the Reform bill be postponed, 295 ; 
 negotiates for the formation of a ministry 
 willing to carry out an extensive parliamen- 
 tary reform, 1832, 298 ; his temporary govern- 
 ment with the duke of Wellington, 1835, 353; 
 lord chancellor in the Peel ministry, 354; op- 
 poses the Municipal Ecforin bill, 364; his 
 hostile speech against the Melbourne govern- 
 ment, 1836, 366. 367; approves of the bill for 
 allowing counsel to prisoners, 369, 370 
 
 Lyndsay, Patrick, M.P. for Edinburgh; his 
 sjieech on the Portcous riots, vi. 80 ; evidence 
 of, on these riots, 82, 83 
 
 iyon, siege of, by, and surrender to, the Jacobins, 
 ] 793, vii. 284, 285 ; massacre of the Lyonnese, 
 285, 286 
 
 Lyttelton, sir George, opposes the convention! 
 with Spain, vi. 94 ; speaks against an amend- 
 ment of the address for preventing parlia- 
 mentary corruption, 138; chancellor of the 
 exchequer, 1755, 320 
 
 Lyttleton, Thomas, lord, his claims to the 
 authorship of Junius's Letters, vi. 296 
 
 Maas, Dirk, a Dutch battle painter, v. 463 
 
 Macarthy, viscount Mountcashel ; commands a 
 force advancing against Enniskillen ; defeated 
 1689, V. 86 
 
 Macaulay, lord, low estimate ol ancient Britain 
 by, i. 3, 4 ; his remarks on Pitt's policy in 
 1793, vii. 292; M.P. for Calne, 1830; his first 
 speech in parliament, viii. 246 ; speaks in 
 favour of reform, 274, 275 ; 278, 279 ; dangers 
 feared by, on the rejection of the Reform bill, 
 297 ; M.P. for Edinburgh ; his speech on dis- 
 loyal Tories, 421 ; his influence in causing 
 the rejection of Serjeant Talfourd's copyright 
 bill, 464; his plan, 464, 465 ; eloquence and 
 powerful memory evinced by, as Guizot'3 
 cicerone in Westminster Abbey, 470, 471 ; his 
 mode of treating history, 471 ; his estimate of 
 Hallam's " Constitutional History," 472 ; his 
 speech on "the people's charter" presented 
 by Ducombe, 496 
 
 MacCallum Mhor. See Argyle, J. Campbell, 
 duke of. 
 
 Macclesfield, Thomas Parker, earl of, lord chan- 
 cellor, impeached, 1725, for malversation in 
 that office ; he is found guilty, excluded from 
 his office, and fined 30,000/. vi. 63 ; helps 
 Chesterfield in carrying the bill for reform- 
 in a; the calendar through the Lords, 1751, 
 187 
 
 MacDonald of Boisdale, advises Charles Stuart 
 to forego his insurrection designs, 1745, \i, 
 122 
 
 MacDonald of Glencoe. See Glencoe. 
 
 Macdonald of Keppoch, raises his clan, and joins 
 Dundee in defeating Mackay at Killiecrankie, 
 V. 92, 93; letters of fire and sword issued 
 against, v. 143 ; slain at CuUoden, 168 
 
 MacDonald of Kinloch Moidart, argues against 
 the Pretender's plans, vi. 122 ; joins his cause, 
 123 
 
 MacDonald, lady Margaret, aids the young Pre- 
 tender in his escape from Skye, vi. 175 
 
 Macdonald, general, defeated at Trebbia, 1799, 
 vii. 382 ; and at Katzbach, 1813 
 
 MacDonald, Flora, aids prince Charles dui-ing 
 his wanderings in the Highlands, 1746, vi. 
 175 
 
 Macdonnell, colonel, his exploit at Waterloo, 
 viii. 34 
 
 MachjTi's "Diary of a Resident in London," 
 notices from, iii. 94 et seq. 
 
 Macintosh, brigadier ; commands a detachment 
 sent to aid the southern insurgents ; his march 
 to Seton House, 1715, vi. 10 ; commands the 
 rebels at Preston, 14 ; escapes from Newgate, 
 21, 22 
 
 Maclver survives the massacres after Culloden, 
 vi. 170, 171 
 
 Mack, general, communicates secretly with Du- 
 mouriez, vii. 272 ; Austrian connnander ; sur- 
 renders 30,000 troops to Napoleon at Ulm, 
 Oct. 20, 1805, 445 
 
 Mackay, general, appointed to the command of 
 the army in Scotland, v. 93 ; his chai-acter,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 607 
 
 ib. ; marches upon Blair castle ; is met by 
 Dundee while advancing through the pass of 
 Xilliecrankie, and sustains a defeat, July 27, 
 1689, 93, 94; takes an active part in the 
 capture of Athlone, June 30, 1691, 127 ; builds 
 Fort William and fixes a garrison there under 
 colonel Hill, 131 ; slain in the conflict at 
 Steiukirk, Aug. 3, 1692, 153 
 
 Mackintosh, sir James, liis remarks on Burke's 
 opinions, vii. 190 ; his speech in defence of 
 Peltier, 1803, 421, 422 ; wrote the declaration 
 for the Londoners, 42o ; takes up the advo- 
 cacy of amendment in the criminal laws on 
 the death of sir S. Eomilly; moves for a 
 select committee to consider this subject, viii. 
 101 ; opinion of, on the emancipation of the 
 slaves, 194, 195 ; results of his eftbrts for the 
 repeal of capital punishments, 195 ; supports 
 the bill for allowing counsel to prisoners, 369 
 
 Maclean, colonel, repulses Arnold ; saves Quebec, 
 1775, vi. 362; tenders Hastings's resignation 
 of his governorship, vii. 127 
 
 MacNaghten, sir William, directs the affairs 
 at Cabul, viii. 453 ; appointed governor of 
 Bombay, 454 ; his conference with Akbar 
 Khan, by whom he is massacred, 456 
 
 Macpheadris, captaia John, his ill-treatment in 
 the Fleet prison, vi. 64 
 
 MacPherson, Cluny, demand of, on joining the 
 Pretender, 1745, vi. 12-J ; his dashing bravery 
 at Clifton, 158 ; keeps up a correspondence 
 with Charles Edward, 182 
 
 Macquirk tried, and found guilty of murdering 
 Mr. Clarke ; pardoned, vi. 297 
 
 Madison, James, president of the United States, 
 1809-1817, vii. 575 ; viii. 268 ; his hostile 
 message against England, 4 ; proposes a re- 
 peal of the Embargo acts, 1814, 13; depre- 
 cates the destruction of the Washington pub- 
 lic buildings by the British, 15 
 
 Madras attacked and taken by the French, 1746, 
 vi. 201 ; restored to Britain, 202 
 
 Madrid, taken by the duke of Berwick, v. 330 ; 
 entered by the allies, 1710, 3G6; and the 
 French, 367 ; taken by the French, 1808, vii. 
 504; entered by Wellingcon, Aug. 1812, 555 ; 
 occupied by the French, 1823, viii. 183 
 
 JIaeatse, revolt of, i. 31 ; suppressed, tb. 
 
 Maestricht, surrendered to Kleber, 1794, vii. 313 
 
 Magdalen bridge, Oxlbrd, built by Gwyn, vii. 82 
 
 Magdalen College. See Oxford. 
 
 Magna Charta, proposed to John at Oxford by 
 archbishop Langton and the earl of Pembroke, 
 who rejects it, i. 346 ; signed by John at Kun- 
 nymede, on June 15, 1215, 347 ; provisions of, 
 348, 349 ; effects of, upon the nation, 350, 351; 
 provisions for the observance of, 352 
 
 Magnentius, revolt of, a.d. 350, i. 53 
 
 Maharajpoor, battle of, Dec. 29, 1843, viii. 511 
 
 Mahomed Ali, flies to Trichinopoly, vi. 202; 
 struggles against Chunda Sahib, 203 
 
 Mahon, lord, his plan for amendmg the copy- 
 right law, viii. 461; characteristics of his 
 History of England, 473 
 
 Mahoni commands at Murviedro ; deceived by 
 Peterborough ; arrested v. 297 
 
 Mahratta wars, history of the, 1778-1782, vii. 
 129-131; and 1802-1805, 455-461 
 
 Mahrattas, peishwa of, concludes an alliance 
 with CornwalUs, vii. 258 ; prepares to invade 
 the British territories, viii. 216 ; surrenders 
 to the British ; abdicates his throne ; becomes 
 a pensioner of the East India Company, 217 
 
 Maida, battle of, July 4, 1806, vii. 473 
 
 Mail coaches, introduction of, 1784, vii. 93 
 
 Alaillard leads the Parisian mob of 1789, vii. 
 178; president of the Assembly ; his sentence 
 of death on prisoners, 229 
 
 Maine, due de, receives an important command 
 in the French army, v. 178 ; incompetent 
 and cowardly, 179 
 
 Maitland, captain, Bonaparte surrendering to 
 him, he conveys the ex-emperor to Plymouth, 
 viii. 39 
 
 Malacca ceded to the British, 1824, viii. 218 
 
 Malaga, sea fight off', 1704, v. 291 
 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, receives Edgar 
 Atheling, i. 192 ; invades England, in 1070, 
 and marriage of, with Margaret, sister of 
 Edgar, 196 ; civilization of Scotland pro- 
 moted by Margaret, 200 ; unsuccessfully 
 attacks William XL, 224 ; killed, ib. 
 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, compelled to sur- 
 render Cumberland and Northumberland to 
 Henry II. in 1157, i. 276 
 
 Malesherbes, counsel for Louis XVI., 1792, vii. 
 250; guillotined, 1794, 298 
 
 ilalines submits to Marlborough, 1706, v. 310 
 
 Malmesbury, Harris, lord, British charge des 
 affaires at Madrid, 1770, vi. 323; minister at 
 Berlin ; his correspondence with the home 
 government, 325 ; recommends that the pro- 
 ceedings against Portland be postponed, vii. 
 245 ; sent on an especial mission to Berlin to 
 purchase assistance by subsidy, 1793, 311; 
 appointed a negotiator to demand the prin- 
 cess Caroline of Brunswick for the prince of 
 Wales, 318, 319; negotiates unsuccessfully 
 for peace with France, 1796, 330 ; leaves 
 Paris, Dec. 19 ; gives warning of a French 
 expedition against Ireland, 331 ; appointed to 
 negotiate for peace at Lisle, 1797, 342; the 
 negotiations are put an end to by the revolu- 
 tion of the 18th Fructidor, 344, 345; quota- 
 tion from his diary, 432; remarks on the 
 effect of the news of the Uhn surrender oii 
 Pitt, 445 
 
 Malplaquet, battle of, Sept. 11, 1709, v. 343, 
 314 
 
 Malta taken by Bonaparte, 1798, vii. 352, 353 ; 
 surrenders to the Britisli after a two years' 
 blockade, Sept. 1800, 395, 396 ; retained by 
 thj British, 423 
 
 Mai thus advocates the adoption of savings' 
 banks, viii. 70 
 
 Manchester, its population in Charles XL's 
 reign, and fifty years later, v. 24 ; its men 
 and manufactures, ib. ; the Blanket meeting 
 at, 1817, viii. 80; the great reform meeting, 
 105, and massacre at, 105-108; obtains par- 
 liamentary representition, 1832, 307 ; popu- 
 lation of, with Salford, in 1831, and 186 i, 308 
 
 Manchester, earl of, as lord Kimbolton, accused 
 with the five members, of sedition by Charles 
 I., iii. 475; commands at the second battle of 
 Newbury, iv. 37 ; is accused of indecision and 
 delay by Cromwell in parliament, ib. 
 Mandat prepares to resist the insurrectionists of 
 
 the 10th Aug. 1792; murdered, vii. 225 
 Manners, illustration of, 1709-1742, from Ho- 
 garth, V. 466-474; 1737-1783, vii. 90-122; 
 1784-1820. viii. 113, 114, 122, 126, 401-403 
 Mansfield, William Murray, earl of, attorney- 
 general; his interview with lord Kilmarnock, 
 vi. 173; becomeschief justice and lord Mans- 
 field, 1756, 217 ; declares Wilkes's outlawry
 
 698 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 null and void, 291 ; presides at Woodfall's 
 prosecution, 300 ; chancellor of the exchequer, 
 1767, 321 ; his house sacked, and its contents, 
 including his valuable library, burnt by the 
 Gordon rioters, 1780, 408, 409 ; opposes the 
 "contractors" and *' revenue officers" bills, 
 440 
 
 Mantua besieged by the French, vii. 342, 343 ; 
 capitulates, Feb. 2, 1797, 343 
 
 Manufactures, list of articles with which 
 foreigners were not allowed to compete, ii. 123 
 
 Mapcs, Walter, satii-es of, on the state of the 
 Church in the time of Henry II., i. 280 
 
 Mar, James Erskine, earl of, appointed secretary 
 of state for Scotland, 1706, vi. 6 ; deprived of 
 his office ; marries the duke of Ivingston's 
 daughter ; organises an insurrection in Scot- 
 land ; inaugurates it by I'aising the Preten- 
 der's standard at Braemar, September 6, 1715, 
 7 ; his want of energy and action ; debilitates 
 the powers of the insurrectionists, 9 ; his 
 movements cramped by the duke of Argyle ; 
 detaches a part of his aiTay under Macintosh ; 
 ■withdraws Argyle' s attention from Macintosh 
 by a feint, 10 ; his indecisive march ; halts 
 at Sherift'muu- ; receives a severe reverse in 
 the conflict with Argyle, Nov. 13, 15, 16; 
 accompanies Charles in his flight to France, 
 18 
 
 M.irat harangues the populace of Paris, 1789, 
 vii. 174 ; desires to erect 800 gibbets, 191 ; 
 advises that the royal palace be well watched, 
 200 ; aids in bringing about the September 
 massacres, 1792, 230 ; denounces the modera- 
 tion of Dumouriez, 271 ; excites the people 
 to plunder the shops, 274 ; represents the 
 executive power of France, 276; hates Eobes- 
 pierre, 277 ; assassinated by Charlotte Corday, 
 July 13, 1793, 278 
 
 Marcus Aiatoninus sends a number of Germans 
 into Britain, i. 43 
 
 Marengo, battle of, June 14, 1800, vii. 395 
 
 Margaret, the heiress of Alexander III., of 
 Scotland, dies in 1290, and leaves the succes- 
 sion to the crown in dispute, i. 412 
 
 Margaret of Anjou. See Henry VI. 
 
 Margaret of Burgundy, sister to Edward TV., 
 married in 1468, ii. 156 ; supports the preten- 
 sions of Lambert Sininel against Henry VII., 
 212; in 1492 protects Perkin Warbeck, 220; 
 visited by Henry VIII. in 1513, 268 
 
 Maria Josepha of Austria, married Augustus III. 
 of Poland ; compelled by force to give up his 
 state papers, vi. 216 
 
 Maria Louisa, archduchess of Austria, marries 
 Bonaparte, vii. 526; gives birth to a son, 
 March, 1811, 535; appointed regent of France, 
 568 
 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VT. ; heiress 
 of his states, vi. 101 ; the English parliament 
 grants a subsidy to, 103; marries Francis, 
 grand duke of Tuscany ; her claim disputed, 
 105; flies to Hungary ; throws herself on the 
 eupport of the Hungarians ; the fortunes of 
 her armies, 107 ; restores her conquests in 
 Bavfiria, 113; grieves at the loss of Silesia; 
 joined by Louis XV., 215 ; opposed to the par- 
 tition of Poland, 324 ; empress of Germany, 
 1745-1702, 465 
 
 Marie Antoinette escapes from the mob, 1789, 
 vii. 179; removed to Paris, 180 ; presents the 
 dauphin to the people, 1790,189; interview 
 with Mirabcau, 192; accompanies Louis XVI. 
 
 in his flight from Paris and capture, 200-202 ; 
 her apparent calmness at the opera, 206 ; 
 present at Louis's audience with the 20th 
 June insurrectionists, 221 ; description of, at 
 the attack on the Tuileries, August, 1792, 
 226, 227 ; imprisoned in the Temple, 227 ; 
 treatment pursued towards, 241, 242 ; guil- 
 lotined, Oct. 16, 1793, 292, 293 
 
 Marlborough, S. Churchill, duchess of, lady of 
 the bedchamber to the princess Anne; her 
 friendship for and large influence over the 
 princess, v. 98 ; urges her to obtain her in- 
 creased income from the parliament, and not 
 fronr the king, il>. ; she is dismissed the royal 
 palace, 146 ; she loses her influence over the 
 queen, 336 ; her account of the queen's poli- 
 tical intrigues with Harley at private audi- 
 ences, 339 ; her income 9,500^. per annum, 
 340 ; lier description of Sacheverel's charac- 
 ter, 359, 360 ; she is hated and given up by 
 Mrs. Morley (Anne), 363 ; her dismissal from 
 Anne's service, 1711, 365 ; her revenge, 366 ; 
 her meanness towards Vanbrugh, 456 
 
 Marlborough, duke of, John Churchill ; an ex- 
 pedition against Ireland sails under his com- 
 mand, which disembarks near Cork, Septem- 
 ber, 22, 1690 ; takes Cork on the 29th, v. 118; 
 and Kinsale, 119; he is entrusted with the 
 command of the English troops in Flanders, 
 127 ; ofi'ers to go over to James, ib. ; is dis- 
 missed from ofiice by William, 145 ; in con- 
 sequence of plotting for James's recall to the 
 throne, 146 ; treachery of, in the Brest aifair 
 of, 1694; offers William his senices, which 
 are refused, 172; implicated by Fen wick with 
 holding treacherous correspondence with 
 James II., 197 ; governor of the duke of 
 Gloucester, 240; receives the order of the 
 garter, and is made captain-general of Anne's 
 forces, 1702, 258; he is sent as envoy extra- 
 ordinary to the States-general ; his prepara- 
 tions for war, 259; appointed generalissimo 
 of the allied forces by the States ; takes 
 Venloo, September 18 ; Ruremonde, Stevens- 
 wart, Liege, October 23, and the castle of 
 Chartreuse, 260 ; an adventure, escape, and 
 return to London, ib. ; he is made duke of 
 Marlborough, 1702, 264; desii-es to assist the 
 Camisards, 265; takes Ulm, Bonn, Huy, 1703; 
 proposes a grand design, but is thwarted by 
 the States ; takes Limbourg, 266 ; his diffi- 
 culty in recruiting the army, 273 ; Louis 
 XIV. concentrates his forces upon Germany, 
 1704, 274 ; Marlborough plans a series of 
 operations for opposing him, which he carriea 
 out in secrecy ; marches to the Moselle, there 
 gives Villeroy the slip, and pushes on to the 
 Danube, 275 ; his march along the Ehine ; 
 his attention to detail ; tlie high spirits of hia 
 army, 276 ; passes the Neckar, June 3, ib. ; 
 meets prince Eugene on the 10th, and prince 
 Louis of Baden, on the 13th, 277; encamps 
 at Giengen ; receives intelligence of the 
 vicinity of the Bavarian and French army ; 
 description of the Schellenberg, ib.; stonns 
 the Schellenberg in conjunction with prince 
 Louis, July 2, 278 ; lays waste many villages 
 in Bavaria, 279 ; encamps at I riedberg, 
 August 3 ; at Schonefeldt on the 10th ; joins 
 prince Eugene on the 11th, 280 ; they resolve 
 to attack tlie enemy who are encamped five 
 miles off, 281 ; marches upon their position, 
 ib. ; attacks Tallard's head-quailcrs at Blen-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 699 
 
 heim, 282 ; which leads to a general conflict, 
 283 ; he gains the victory, August 13, 284 ; 
 his anxiety to obtain sufficient food for his 
 troops and prisoners, 286 ; sets down before 
 Ulm, Aug. 20 ; it capitulates September 12 ; 
 sets down before Landau, -which also capitu- 
 lates, December; concludes treaties with 
 Bavaria and Prussia ; receives honours ; 
 arrives at the Hague, Dec. 16 ; embarks at 
 Eotterdam on the 22nd and amves at St. 
 James's by the 26th, 287; honours bestowed 
 on, 287,288; enthusiastic reception ; opposes 
 the Conformity bill, 288, 289 ; embarks at 
 Harwich, March 31, 1705, 301 ; his plans are 
 opposed by the Dutch ; crosses the Moselle 
 and Saar, June 3, ib. ; scarcity of food, and 
 other disappointments, cause him to despond; 
 rouses his spirits, joins d'Auverquerque, and 
 regains possession of Huy, July, 11, 302; 
 forces the French lines, July 17, 303 ; Ville- 
 roy retreats beyond the Dyle ; he follows, but 
 h.is plans are thwarted by the Dutch generals, 
 304 ; the first stone of his palace at Woodstock 
 laid, ib. ; opposes jobbery ; arrives at the 
 Hague, April 27, 1706, 307 ; his confidence of 
 victory ; advances to give battle to the French, 
 308 ; the battle commences ; he is nearly 
 made prisoner ; the village of llamilies is 
 seized by his forces ; gains the victory of 
 Eamilies, 309 ; Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, and 
 Oudenarde surrender ; Ostend is besieged; 
 capitulates July 7 ; Menin captured, August 
 22; Dendermonde surrenders, Sept. 5; Ath 
 falls October 4 ; he returns to England, 310 ; 
 his pension of 5,000/. per annum settled upon 
 his posterity, 329 ; visits Charles XII. at Alt 
 Ranstadt, April 27, 1707 ; and diplomatises 
 with him, 331 ; accomplishes little in his 
 campaign in the Netherlands ; plans an 
 attack upon France, 332 ; prepares to attack 
 the French before Oudenarde ; is joined by 
 prince Eugene ; and attacked by fever brought 
 on by long marches and disappointments, 
 
 1708, 336 ; defeats the French at Oudenarde, 
 July 11 ; his description of the battle, 337 ; 
 besieges Lille, 338; his disgust at the queen's 
 temper; he is on the point of retiring from 
 business, 339; his yearly income nearly 
 55,000/. ; covers the siege of Lille; his mean- 
 ness towards Webb, 340 ; urges upon Godol- 
 
 Ehin the necessity of another campaign, 342 ; 
 is desire and attempt to reduce France to 
 accept unmHitary terms; rouses the French 
 national spirit ; surrender of Tournay, 343 ; 
 gains a victory at Malplaquet, September 11, 
 
 1709, 344; represents England at the con- 
 ferences of Gertruydenberg, 1710, 361 ; his 
 despondency at the state of afiairs, 362 ; 
 mortified at the dismissal of his Whig friends 
 and relations from office, 363 ; returns to 
 L;ndon, December; coldness of the queen, 
 364 ; and opposition of Haiiey and St. John 
 towards him, 365 ; sinister motives imputed 
 to him ; his wife dismissed from Anne's 
 service, ib. ; hostility shown towards, 368 ; 
 leaves London, M;irch 4, 1711, to assume his 
 command in the Netherlands, 374 ; his tenor 
 of the press, ib. ; forces the French lines with 
 an inferior force, 375 ; invests and takes 
 Bouchain, 376 ; his successes disparaged by 
 the press ; he writhes under their attacks, 
 ib. ; lands at Greenwich on his return home, 
 Nov. 17, 377 ; his answer to the queen's speech 
 
 insinuating his desire for prolonging war, 
 377, 378 ; he is still opposed by Harley and 
 the ministry ; is turned out of all his offices 
 by the queen, Dec. 31, 379 ; his avaricious- 
 ness ; charged with illegally taking public 
 moneys ; his defence thereof, 379, 380 ; his 
 resignation in adversity; 391 ; his name 
 omitted in the regency list, vi. 2, 4 ; retains 
 his office of captain-general and master of the 
 ordnance, 4 ; death of, 1722, 47 
 
 Marlborough, duke of, resigns his military 
 commission, 1743, vi. Ill; commands ths 
 troops sent against Cherbourg and St. Maloes, 
 1758, 232 
 
 Marlborough House built by Wrea, v. 454 
 
 Marmont, marshal, appointed to command 
 20,000 men to be sent against England, 1805, 
 vii. 442; commands the army of Holland, 
 443 ; weakens the garrison of Ciudad Rodrigo, 
 advances to its relief, 548 ; commander of 
 the French army in Spain, 1811 ; his manoeu- 
 vres near Salamanca, 552, 553 ; a fault he 
 commits is taken advantage of by Wellington, 
 which results in the battle of Salamanca, July 
 22, in which he iss wounded and defeated, 553, 
 554 ; Napoleon's rage against, 554 ; commands 
 the forces in Paris, 1830, viii. 252; ordered to 
 act against the July revolutionists ; the strug- 
 gle of July 28, 253 ; he is besieged in the 
 Tuileries and compelled to give in, 254 
 
 Man-iage act, 1753, vi. 193-195 
 
 MaiTiage act, Eoyal, vi. 330-332 
 
 Man-iages bill, regulation of Dissenters', 1836, 
 viii. 371 
 
 Marsellais, their arrival in Paris, July SO, 1792, 
 vii. 222 ; they assemble before Danton's club, 
 224 ; theii- contest at the Tuileries, 225, 226 
 
 Marshalsea prison, the horrors of the, vi. 65 
 
 Marsiglia, defeat of the duke of Savoy at, 1693, 
 V. 166 
 
 Marsin, general, commands a division of the 
 French army at the battle of Blenheim, v. 
 280-283 ; joins his army with that of Yillars, 
 1705,301 
 
 Marston Moor, battle of, July 2, 1644, iv. 35 
 
 Martignac, M. de, French minister ; chai'acter 
 of his policy, viii. 248 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, success and objects of her 
 political-economy tales, viii. 477, 478 
 
 Martinique surrendered to the British, 1762, vi. 
 255 
 
 Mary, queen of England, bom 1516, refuses to 
 acknowledge the validity of her mother's di- 
 vorce, ii. 382 ; refuses to accede to Edward's re- 
 quest to forbear the use of the mass, iii. 41 ; bold 
 letter of, to Edward VI., 42 ; addresses a letter 
 to the council on the death of her brother, 
 and claims the crown, 51 ; is joined at Ken- 
 ninghall by numerous adherents, ib. ; is pro- 
 claimed in Loudon, 53 ; triumphant arrival 
 of, in London, 54 ; Northumberland is tried 
 and executed fir treason, ib. ; causes of her 
 being so joyfully received by the people, 56 ; 
 the coronation of, 57 ; description of her per- 
 son, ib. ; meets her fb-st parliament, and 
 passes an Act for repealing certain treasons, 
 and the penalties for denying the king's supre- 
 macy, ib. ; repeal of Acts of Edward VI. 
 relating to religion, 58 ; projected mamage 
 of, to Philip of Spain, and dissatisfaction of 
 the people, 59 ; arrival of ambassadors to 
 arrange terms, 60 ; insurrection of sir Thomas 
 Wyat against the marriage, 61 ; courage and
 
 700 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 address shown by Mary on the occasion, 61 ; 
 the population ol London aim in her behalf, 
 62; Wyat is defeated, 64; lord Guilford 
 Dudley and lady Jane Grey beheaded, 66 ; 
 execution of Suffolk and numerous others, 
 67 ; trial and acquittal of sir Nicholas Throck- 
 morton, ib. ; the jury committed to prison, 
 68 ; execution of Wyat, ib. ; the princess 
 Elizabeth tent for to court, ib. ; is committed 
 to tlie TowtT, 69 ; letter of Elizabeth to, 70 ; 
 the Spanish a.nbassador urges her trial and 
 execution, 71 ; unquiet condition of the 
 country, 72 ; fiery zeal of Gardiner to sup- 
 press the lieformation, ib. ; the married 
 clergy expelled from their livings, 73; Cran- 
 mer, Latimer, and Ridley condemned as 
 heretics at Oxford, ib. ; anival of Philip of 
 Spain, 74 ; marriage of, with Philip, and 
 pageantry on the occasion, 75 ; bribery ex- 
 ercised by Philip, 76 ; arrival in England of 
 cardinal Pole, ib. ; he absolves the realm, 
 77 ; submission of the parliament to the papal 
 see, ib. ; the statutes against heretics revived, 
 78; the Marian persecution, 79; list of Pro- 
 testant victims, 80 ; cardinal Pole exhorts to 
 gentleness, but gives a commission to Gar- 
 diner, Bonner, and others, to deal with 
 heretics then in prison, 81 ; encouragement of 
 the spy-system for the discovery of heresy, 
 89 ; PhUip leaves England, 95 ; discontent of 
 Mary at his not returning, 96 ; opposition of 
 the parliament to pope Paul IV. 's claims of 
 supremacy, 97 ; Dr. Dee in trouble for cast- 
 ing the nativities of the queen and the prin- 
 cess Elizabeth, ib. ; the Dudley conspiracy 
 for robbing the exchequer, and placing Eliz- 
 abeth on the throne, 98 ; its discovery, and 
 execution of the conspirators, ib. ; Elizabeth 
 suspected of participation, and her letter to 
 the queen, 99 ; cardinal Pole created arch- 
 bishop of Canterbur}', ib. ; his moderation not 
 satisfactory to the Pope, ib. ; Philip returns 
 to England, March, 1557, 100 ; war declared 
 against France at Philip's instigation, 101 ; 
 the English forces assist in winning the 
 battle of St. Quentin, ib. ; Calais besieged 
 and taken by the Fi-tnch, on Jan. 7, 1558, 
 103 ; Guisnes and Hammes taken, and the 
 English wholly expelled from France, 104 ; 
 lier last illness and death, on Nov. 17, 1558, 
 105 
 Mary, daughter of James II., marries the prince 
 of Orange, in 1677, iv. 329 ; proclaimed queen 
 with WUliam, iii. 445 ; coronation of, with 
 her husband, April 11, 1689, v. 78 ; asks the 
 princess Anne what she means by applying to 
 parliament to increase her income, 98; ap- 
 pointed regent in William's absence, 105 ; 
 her energetic conduct in retrieving the dis- 
 aster of Beachey Head, June, 1090, 112; 
 quarrels with ber sister Anne, 145 ; addresses 
 a dispatch to the commanders of the fleet; 
 enthusiasm caused on its being read, 149 ; 
 joins in the national gratitude by making a 
 gift of the royal palace of Greenwich as an 
 asylum for thie disabled mariners of England, 
 150; issues proclamations for tlie discovery 
 of seditious libellers, and for the apprehen- 
 sion of highwaymen, 155; her reply to the 
 deputation requcsiing an inquiry into the 
 naval miscarriages, 166 ; she is taken dan- 
 gerou.sly ill at Kensington, 173; her ('onduct 
 highly praised by William ; her fortitude and 
 
 resignation in illness, 174 ; dies of the small 
 pox, Dec. 28, 1694, in her 33rd year; her 
 character and burial, ib. 
 Mary, queen of Scotland, born Dec. 7, 1542, ii. 
 436 ; Henry VIII. negotiates a marriage 
 between her and his son Edward, ib. ; the 
 project defeated by the queen-mother and 
 cardmal Beaton, 437 ; the duke of Somerset 
 endeavours to enforce the treaty, iii. 4 ; is 
 contracted in marriage to the Dauphin of 
 France, 28 ; the marriage solemnised in 
 Paris, in 1558, 102 ; becomes queen of France 
 on the accession of her husband Francis II., 
 in 1559, 115; assumes the royal arms of 
 England, ib. ; refuses to ratify the treaty of 
 Edinburgh in 1560, 121 ; answer of, to Throck- 
 morton on being urged to sign it, 122 ; her 
 husband, Francis II., dies, Dec. 6, 1560, 123: 
 lord James Murray sent as ambassador to 
 request her return to Scotland, ib. ; policy of, 
 tow.ards Elizabeth, 124; indignation of, at 
 being refused a safe-conduct, 125 ; imprudent 
 avowal of her hatred of John Knox, ib.; fare- 
 well of, to France, 126 ; arrival and recep- 
 tion of, in Scotland, Aug. 19, 1561, 127 ; 
 contrasted with Elizabeth, 127, 128; sum- 
 mons Knox before her for preaching against 
 her marriage with a papist prince, 133; 
 writes to the Council of Trent, that if she 
 succeeded to the throne of England she 
 would bring both kingdoms under the apos- 
 tolic see, ib. ; lord Kobert Dudley recom- 
 mended as a husband by Elizabeth, 134 ; 
 continued efibrts of, to be declared successor 
 to the crown of England, ib. , et seq ; mar- 
 ries Henry, lord Damley, July 29, 1565, 
 135 ; Murray revolts unsuccessfully, and 
 takes refuge in England, 135, 137 ; discon- 
 tent of the reforming nobles at the marriage, 
 137, 138 ; suppresses the revolt, and banishes 
 the insurgent lords, 138 ; rise of Riccio, ib. ; 
 joins the league of Catherine de Medici and 
 the duke of Alva for the extermination of 
 Protestantism in Europe, 139; jealousy of 
 Darnley, ib. ; Darnley quarrels with the 
 queen, and unites with the Reformers, 140; 
 murder of Riccio, 141 ; described by the 
 English ambassadors, 142 ; gives bnth to a 
 son, June 19, 1566, 143 ; amicable relations 
 with England established, and Elizabeth be- 
 comes godmother to James, ib. ; Bothwell be- 
 comes Mary's adviser, 144; she visits Darnley 
 when sick, and has him removed to Kirk of 
 Field, near Edinburgh, 145 ; the house is 
 blown up, and Darnley nnu'dered, ib. ; un- 
 doubted guilt of Bothwell, 146 ; his mock- 
 trial, and acquittal, 147 ; is carried off by 
 pretended force by Bothwell, ib. ; and is 
 married to him, 148; the nobles revolt 
 against the marriage, and she surrenders to 
 them at Carberry Hill, on June 18, 1567, 
 149 ; carried prisoner to Loehleven, ib. ; 
 is compelled to abdicate on July 24, in favour 
 of her son, James VI., 151 ; Murray is pro- 
 claimed regent, 152; question as to the 
 authenticity of the letters to Bothwell attri- 
 buted to her, 153; escapes from Loehleven, 
 ib. ; romantic circumstances of, 154 ; assem- 
 bles forces, fights, and loses, the battle of 
 Langsyde, May 16, 1568, 155; takes refuge 
 in England, 150 ; question as to the justice of 
 her detention, 157 ; is removed to Bolton 
 Cuatle, and is indignant at being considered
 
 INDEX. 
 
 701 
 
 a prisoner, 157 ; conference appointed to hear 
 the charges against her, ib. ; proceedings of 
 the conferences at York and London, 158; 
 placed under the care of the earl of Shrews- 
 bury, 159 ; project for the man'iage of to the 
 duke of Norfolk, 161 ; is removed from Tut- 
 bury Castle to Coventry, 162 ; intrigues of 
 Philip of Spain and the Roman Catholics in 
 favour of, 168 ; plan for giving her up to 
 her own subjects to be punished, 176 ; inse- 
 curity of, 177 ; alleged complicity of, in 
 Babington's conspiracy, 189 ; is transferred 
 to Potheringay, and her papers are seized, 
 190 ; a commission issued for her trial at 
 Potheringay, 194 ; proceedings on the trial, 
 195, 196 ; and judgment against, 197 ; con- 
 flicting opinions on the judgment, 198 ; pro- 
 clamation is made of the judgment, and she 
 is excluded from all claim to the crown of 
 England, 199; the warrant of execution is 
 issued, 200 ; is refused a confessor, 201 ; is 
 beheaded at Potheringay, on Feb. 8, 1587, 203 
 
 Marylebone church built by Hardwick, viii. 146 
 
 Masham, Mrs., becomes a favourite of queen 
 Anne's, 1708, v. 336 ; contrives a secret cor- 
 respondence between Anne and Mr. Harley, 
 339 ; obtains the ascendancy in queen Anne's 
 confidence, 363; keeper of the privy purse, 
 1711, 366 
 
 Massachusetts Bay government regulation bill 
 passed, 1774, vi. 339 
 
 Massacres of September, 1792, in Paris, vii. 
 228-232 
 
 Massena, Andrew, barbarity of, v. 280 ; a 
 general in Bonaparte's army, vii. 326 ; com- 
 mands the Prench sent to pillage Berne, 
 1798 ; obtains a large share of the booty, 
 351 ; baffled in driving the English out of 
 Portugal, 1810, 530, 532; Almeida sur- 
 renders to, Aug. 16, 531 ; loses the battle of 
 Busaco, Sept. 27, 531, 532 ; sufferings of his 
 army, 532 ; retreats into Spain, 538 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I., married in 1114 
 to the emperor of Germany, i. 242 ; becomes 
 a widow in 1124, 244; named successor to 
 the crown of England in 1 1 26, ib. ; marries 
 Pulk, earl of Anjou, in 1127, 245; her son 
 Henry born in 1133, ib. ; arrives in England 
 to assert her claim to the crown, 260 ; is be- 
 sieged in Arundel Castle, but allowed by 
 Stephen to join the earl of Gloucester at 
 Bristol, 261 ; after the battle of Lincoln is 
 proclaimed queen in 1141, 263 ; revolt of the 
 Londoners against, ib. ; escapes to Devizes, 
 265; besieged in O.xford, and escapes, 266, 
 267 ; leaves England, 268 
 
 Mauritius acquired by the English, 1810, viii. 
 214 
 
 Maury, abbe, advocates for the proprietary 
 rights of the clergy, vii. 185 
 
 Maximilian, the emperor, concludes a treaty 
 with Henry VIII. against Louis XII. of 
 Prance, ii. 267 ; takes military service under 
 Henry, 268 ; leads the charge at the Battle 
 of Spurs, ib. ; dies 1519, 275 
 
 Maximus, assists Theodosius in repulsing the 
 Picts and Scots in their invasion of Britain, 
 i. 54 ; proclaimed emperor of Britain, ib. ; 
 leads a British army into Gaul, is defeated, 
 and put to death, a.d. 388, ib. 
 
 Mayence surrenders to the king of Prussia, 
 July 22, 1793, vii. 282 
 
 Maynooth College, grant to, propoaod, viii. 528 ; 
 
 stormy debate on the measure, 528, 529 ; 
 finally carried, 529 
 
 Meadows, general, commands the British army 
 in the Camatic, vii. 258 ; takes Sevemdroog 
 and Octradroog, 259 
 
 Meanee, battle of, 1 eb. 17, 1843, viii. 509, 510 
 
 Mechanics' Institution of Lonc'on inaugurated 
 by Dr. Birkbeck, 1823, viii. 231 
 
 Meehudpore, battle of, Dec. 21, 1817, viii. 
 217 
 
 Meer Cossein. See Cossein. 
 
 Meer JafSer. See JafBer. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, invades Syria, 
 thereby involving himself in war with Mah- 
 moud; his successes and aggrandizing views, 
 viii. 429 ; compelled to submit to the temi.s 
 proposed by Britain, 435 
 
 Melas, general, drives back Moreau, vii. 382 ; 
 drives the Prench from Nice ; prepares to 
 battle Bonaparte ; defeated at Marengo, June, 
 1800 ; concludes an armistice, 395 
 
 Melbourne, W. Lamb, \'iscount, chief secretarv 
 for Ireland, 1828, viii. 228; resigned the 
 same year, 234 ; home secretary, 267 ; speecli 
 in the debate on secondary punishments, 
 322 ; his difficulty in forming a ministr;- 
 according to the king's plan ; ultimate for- 
 mation of his ministry, 1834, 346 ; sudden 
 dismissal, 349 ; ostensible cause of his dis- 
 missal, 350, 351 ; not brought about by any 
 act of the ministry, 351, 352 ; his amendment 
 on the address, 355 ; first lord of the treasury, 
 1835, 359, 381 ; exclusion of lord Brougham 
 from his ministry, 359 ; his reply to lord 
 Lyndhurst's hostile speech, 367 ; denies 
 having made a compact with the O'Connell 
 party, 368; his eulogy on William IV., 377 ; 
 first lord of the treasury, 405 ; proposes the 
 suspension of the Jamaica constitution for five 
 years; his proposition canied, 419; his 
 ministry resigns, but again returns to power, 
 419, 420; adopts free-trade opinions, 437 
 
 Melcombe. See Doddington. 
 
 Melfort, earl of, his letters to Balcarres inter- 
 cepted and read before the Convention, v. 
 90 
 
 Melrose Abbey, foundation of, i. 256 
 
 Melville, Henry Dundas, lord ; lord advocate 
 of Scotland; supports the opposition party, 
 vi. 434 ; declares that lord Chatham never 
 advocated reform, 441 ; supports Pitt, vii. 
 140 ; opposes the hostile motion against the 
 ministry, 1784, 141 ; recalls earl Gower, the 
 ambassador at Paris, 227 ; urges Lough- 
 borough to decide as to taking the great seal, 
 245 ; secretary of state ; delivers the king's 
 message about seditious practices to the 
 Commons, 300 ; praises the British humanity 
 shown at Howe's victory, 1794, 308 ; his con- 
 ference with the king on the Catholic ques- 
 tion, and the Coronation oath, 399 ; succeeded 
 in Ms secretaryship by lord Hobart, 401 ; 
 first lord of the admiralty, 439 ; viii. 158 ; 
 implicated on a charge of tampering with the 
 public money ; vote of censure passed against 
 him ; resigns, 1805, vii. 439 ; progress of the 
 motion for impeaching him, 439, 440 ; his 
 acquittal, June 12, 1806, 464; home secre- 
 tary, 1791-1794; war and colonial secretary, 
 1794-1801, 576; retires from the admiralty, 
 viii. 205 
 
 Menai suspension bridge built by Telford, viii. 
 147
 
 702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mendicity of LonJon in 1815, 1816, viii. 66 
 
 Menin taken by Marlborough, Aug. 22, 1706, v. 
 310 
 
 Meuou, general-in-chief of the interior ; unable 
 to suppress the Lepelletier section revolt, 
 1795, vii. 321, 322 ; superseded by Barras, 
 322 ; succeeds Kleber in the command of the 
 French army in Egypt, 405 ; his charge at 
 the British, 1801 ; beaten back by the High- 
 landers, 407 
 
 Methodism, rise of; its professors produce a 
 reformation in the English manners, vii. 121 ; 
 characters of its leaders and originators ; 
 "Whitefield and "Wesley, 121, 122; Wes- 
 leyism, 121 : the Cambuslang conversions, 
 122 
 
 Methuen, British ambassador at the Portuguese 
 court, concludes the Methuen treaty, t. 
 267 ; his account of the battle of Alman/a, 
 330 ; secretary of state, 1716, vi. 29 ; resigns, 
 30 
 
 Methuen treaty, terms of the, ■with Portugal, 
 1703, vi. 267, 389 ; annulled, 1835, viii. 
 383 
 
 Milan entered by the French, 1796, vii. 326 
 
 Milan decreed issued by Bonaparte, Dec. 1807, 
 vii. 494, 579 
 
 Militia bill passed, 1756, vi. 218 
 
 Miller, J., a printer. See Onslow, colonel. 
 
 Milton, John, embodiment of early English 
 legends by, i. 2 ; his description of London at 
 the commencement of the Civil "War, iii. 487; 
 publishes his "Iconoclastes," in reply to the 
 "Icon Basilike," iv. 114; appointed Latin 
 secretary to the Council of State, 115 ; his 
 death, and warning of, against slavery, 327. 
 See Addison, v. 408, 409 
 
 Minden, battle of, Aug. 1, 1759, vi. 239, 240 
 
 Mines. See copper, coal, lead, tin, &c. 
 
 Mines in Britain, under the Eomans, notice of, 
 i. 35; remains of ii-on works yet existing, 
 36 
 
 Minorca taken by the EngUsh, 1708, v. 338 ; 
 surrendered to the French, 1756, vi. 213, 214 ; 
 restored to England, 1763, 257, 434; sur- 
 rendered to the French, 1782, 434 ; ceded to 
 Spain by Great Britain, 458. 
 
 Minto. lord, governor-general of India, viii. 
 213; quells the mutiny at Madras and other 
 places, 213, 214; acquisition of the eastern 
 archipelago ; other acts of his administration, 
 214; resigns, 1813, 214-215; first lord of the 
 admiralty, 381 
 
 Mii'abeau, comte de, bold speech of, at a meeting 
 of the National Assembly, 1789, vii. 169 ; 
 moves for an address to the king for the re- 
 moval of the troops, 170; prevents the 
 National Assembly from assuming the power 
 to declare war, 188 ; named president of the 
 National Assembly, Jan. 1791, endeavours to 
 eecure order, and curb violent measures, 191 ; 
 negotiates with Marie Antoinette ; his ser- 
 vices paid for by Louis, 192 ; his character 
 and unwearied energy, 191, 192 ; death of, 
 April 2, 1791 ; burial at the Pantheon ; dis- 
 interred, 1793, 193; advocates the king's veto, 
 208 
 
 Moira, lord, his severe measures towards de- 
 serters, vi. 413 ; gains a battle near Camden, 
 425 • sets out to aid the Vendeans, but arrives 
 too late, vii. 296 ; governor-general of India, 
 Oct. 4, 1813, viii. 215; obtains permission to 
 ■war against the Pindarces on a large scale, 
 
 216; the campaign, 216, 217 ; breaks up the 
 Mahraita confederacy, 217 ; rules issued by, 
 for regulating the newspaper press in India, 
 222 
 
 Molesworth, sir "William, remarks of, on Cana- 
 dian affairs, viii. 406 
 
 Molwitz, battle of, AprU 10, 1741, vi. 106 
 
 Mona (Anglesey), the isle of, taken by Suetonius, 
 i. 22 
 
 Monastic establishments, magnificence and 
 riches of, temp. Hen. VII., ii. 244 
 
 Money, value of, in the reigns of Henry III. 
 and Edward I., i. 369 ; scarcity of, during the 
 wars of the Roses, ii. 109 ; labourers to be paid 
 in, and truck forbidden by statute in 1465, 
 114; money prices of clothing in 1450-1485, 
 121 ; debasement of the coin in 1464, 153 ; 
 altered value of, in 1547, 457 ; debasement of 
 coin by Henry VIII. and Edward VI., 474 ; 
 rise of prices, occasioned by the influx of the 
 precious metals, iii. 276; a debased brass 
 coinage issued by James II. in 1689, v. 96; 
 depreciated state of coinage in 1695, 182 ; 
 guineas rise to thirty shillings apiece, ib. ; 
 extensive circulation of clipped, 183 ; a new 
 coinage issued, and the old collected by 
 government in payment of taxes, 184 ; re- 
 markable scarcity of, 1696, 194 ; the govern- 
 ment refuses to reduce the proper standard of ; 
 the currency of the new coinage established, 
 196 ; want of, caused by the South Sea 
 scheme, vi. 44 ; "Wood's copper coinage for 
 Ireland; Swift's letters causes the patent to 
 be withdrawn, 50-52 ; depreciation of the 
 American currency, 1779, 399 ; suspension of 
 cash payments by the Bank of England, Feb. 
 1797, vii. 333, 334 ; currency of cash almost 
 superseded by that of paper, 334 ; the 
 panic in 1797 ; funds fall to 47, 341, 342 ; 
 reduction in the circulating medium, and rise 
 in the value of, viii. 58 ; state of the currency, 
 1816, 100, 101 ; the panic of 1825, 196-200 ; 
 the panic of 1847, 552, 553 
 
 Monk, George (duke of Albemarle), left by 
 Cromwell to manage afi\iirs in Scotland, iv. 
 137 ; conduct of, in Scotland, 224 ; Charles 
 endeavours to engage hitn on Ms side, ib. ; 
 resolves to restore the parliament, 225 ; sends 
 commissioners to London to negotiate with 
 the army, ib. ; marches to London, 227 ; is 
 employed by the parliament to quell the 
 disafl'ection in the city, 229; causes the 
 secluded members to be restored, 230 ; pro- 
 mises sir A. Haslerig to oppose the setting-up 
 of Charles Stuart as king, ib.; agrees to act for 
 Charles, 233 ; suppresses the insuiTCction of 
 Lambert, 234; receives the king on his land- 
 ing at Dover, 238 ; produces private letters 
 from the marquis of Argyle to procure his 
 conviction, 258 ; appointed to the command 
 of the fleet against the Dutch with prince 
 Rupert, 279 ; meets their superior fleet unex- 
 pectedly, but fights obstinately for four 
 days, 280 ; ravages the Dutch coast, 282 ; 
 commands the forces sent against the duke of 
 Monmouth in 1685, but is forced to retreat, 
 392 
 
 Monkton, general, faUs in attacking Quebec^ 
 vi. 238, 239 
 
 Monmouth, duke of, connives at the mutilation 
 of sir John Coventry, iv. 313 ; pretensions of, 
 to legitimacy, 341 ; marriage of, to the 
 duchess of Buccleugh, 342 ; the king
 
 INDEX. 
 
 703 
 
 Bolemnly affirms his legitimacy, ib. ; is sent 
 to take the command of the army against the 
 Covenanters, 3i9 ; defeats them at Bothwell 
 Bridge on June 22, 1679, 350 ; returns sud- 
 denly to England to attend the sick-bed of 
 Charles, and is considered as a rival for the 
 succession, 351 ; is sent to Flanders, ib. ; re- 
 turns to England, and is received mth great 
 joy, 352 ; is made by the Whigs the Protest- 
 aat candidate for the crown, 356 ; his triumph- 
 ant progressin the West of England, 357 ; dis- 
 eatisfaction of, at the acquittal of Count 
 Xonigsmark for the murder of Thynne, 371 ; 
 accused of a participation in the Kye House 
 Plot in 1683, ib. ; he escapes, 372 ; is par- 
 doned, 375; lands at Lyme in 1685, 390 ; pub- 
 lishes a declaration against James II., 391 ; is 
 very favourably received at Taunton, 392 ; 
 proclaims himself king, ib. ; marches to 
 Bristol, 393 ; fails in receiving support, and 
 retreats, ib. ; skirmish at Philip' s-Nort on, 
 39i; battle of Sedgemoor, 395 ; the flight and 
 capture of, 396 ; abject behaviour of, in his 
 interview with James, 397 ; execution of, 
 398 ; considered by the people as a mai'tyrfor 
 the Protestant religion, ib. 
 
 Monnet, gen., commander of Flushing; cuts 
 dykes to drive away the British, 1809, vii. 519 
 
 Mous besieged and taken by the French, 1691. 
 V. 124 
 
 ilonson, col., a member of the council at Cal- 
 cutta, opposes Hastings, ■\di. 126; his death, 127 
 
 Montague, Charles. See Halifax, earl of. 
 
 ilontcaim, marquis de, commander of the 
 French troops in Canada, 1759, vi. 237 ; 
 attacks Wolfe on the heights of Abraham, 
 Sept. 13 ; defeated, 238 ; and mortally 
 wounded ; died Sept. 14, 239 
 
 Monteiiotte, battle of, April 12, 1796, vii. 326 
 
 Monte Video. See Auclimuty, vii. 483 
 
 Montfort, Jane de, heroic defence of the castle 
 of Hennebon, i. 454; is relieved by sir 
 Walter Manny, 455 
 
 Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, attends 
 the parliament at Westminster in 1258, i. 
 371 ; nominated head of the councU, 372 ; 
 is forced to withdraw to France, ib. ; cha- 
 racter of, 373 ; returns to England, and 
 a civil war takes place, ib.; wias the 
 battle of Lewes, and takes Henry III. pri- 
 soner, 374 ; burgesses summoned to parlia- 
 ment in 1264 by, 375 ; is defeated and slain 
 at the battle of Evesham, 376 ; prohibition jf 
 holding him for a saint, 378 ; continued re- 
 sistance offered by his sons, who murder the 
 nephew of H^nry, ib. 
 
 Montgomery, Kichard, general in the American 
 army, invades Canada, 1775 ; killed in an 
 attack upon Quebec, Dec. 31, vi. 362 
 
 Montjuich. See Peterborough. 
 
 Montrevel, marshal de, unable to subdue the 
 Camisards, 1703 ; superseded by marshal Yil- 
 lars, V. 265 
 
 Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, victories 
 of, in Scotland in 1645, iv. 40 ; influence of 
 his letter containing an account of these vic- 
 tories upon Charles I., ib. ; advice of, to 
 Charles I., 41 ; defeats the Covenanting 
 army under BailUe, 52 ; defeated at PhUip- 
 haugh by Lesley, ib. ; counsels Charles II. 
 to win his kingdom by battle, 120; who 
 gives him a commission to do so, 118 ; lauds 
 in the Orkneys, March 1650, 129 ; defeated 
 
 by colonel Strachan at Craigohonichen, ib.; 
 wanders among the Highlands, and is taken 
 on May 3, ib. ; exultation of the Covenanters 
 at his capture, ib. ; sentenced to death, ib. ; 
 ill-treatment of, at Edinburgh, ib. ; conduct 
 of, before jjarliament and at his execution, 
 130 ; character of, by Clarendon, 131 
 
 Montserrat taken by the French, vi. 434 ; re- 
 stored to England, 458 
 
 Moore, sir Jolui, takes Wexford, June 21, 1798, 
 vii. 365; appointed to command 11,000 men 
 in the Peninsula ; his mortification at being 
 made subordinate to sir H. Dahymple, and 
 sti- H. Burrard, 500; commences his march 
 into Spain, Oct. 1808 ; his progress through 
 the country to Sahagun ; commences a re- 
 treat ; pursued by Napoleon, Dec. 24, 504 
 halts at Lugo, 505; marches to Corunna 
 defeat of the French there, Jan. 16, 1809 
 death of, 506 ; his burial, 506, 507 ; opinions 
 on his retreat, 507, 508 ; sufl'eriugs of his 
 army, 508 
 
 Morcar and Edwin, insurrection of, suppressed 
 by William the Conqueror, i. 192 ; join Here- 
 ward, and death of Edwio, 198 ; imprisonment 
 of aiorcar, 199 
 
 Mordaunt, sir John, has joint command of the 
 Eochefort expedition, 1757; acquitted by 
 court martial, vi. 229 
 
 More, Hannah, rejoices at the fall of the Bas- 
 tille, vii. 183 ; her wi-itings, viii. 123 
 
 More, sir Thomas, unsuccessfully attempts to 
 prevent the riot on "Evil May-Day," in 
 1517, ii. 294 ; is chosen speaker of the 
 House of Commons, in 1523, 295 ; is created 
 lord chancellor in 1529, and speaks harshly 
 against Wolsey, 323 ; opposes the doctrines 
 of the Reformers, 324 ; lays before parliament 
 the opinion of the universities in favour of 
 Henry's divorce, but is himself against it, 
 331; retires from the chancellorship, 339; 
 doubts whether he sanctioned the burning of 
 John Bayuhara in May, 1532, 340; official 
 character of, ib. ; implicated in the charge of 
 conspiracy against the king with the Holy 
 Maid of Kent, 354 ; is committed to the 
 Tower with Fisher, bishop of Kocliester, for 
 refusing to swear to the illegality of the 
 king's first maniage, 356 ; tried for treason, 
 convicted, and executed on July 6, 1535, 
 362-364 
 
 Moreau, J. V., serves in Jourdan's army, vii, 
 310 ; appointed to command the arniv of the 
 Ehine and the Moselle, 1796, 325 ; failure of 
 his campaign, 328, 329 ; his retreat through 
 the Black Forest to Strasbourg, 329 ; beaten 
 back by gen. Melas; defeated, 1799, 382; 
 campaign of, in Germany, 1800, 395, 396 ; 
 victory of Hohenlinden gained by, Dec. 3, 
 396; conspues against Bonaparte, 1S04 ; 
 exiled, 432 ; takes part in the battle of Dres- 
 den against Napoleon, in which he is wounded; 
 death of, 563 
 
 Morgan, gen., defeats Tarleton at Cowpens, 
 Jan. 17, 1781, vii. 423 ; joins hia forces with 
 Greene's, 424 
 
 Morland, George, the representative of his day 
 in animal painting, viii. 155 
 
 Mornington, earl of. See Wellesley, marquess 
 of. 
 
 Morpeth, lord, hig eulogy on Francis Horner, 
 1817, viii. 91-92 ; vote's for Sutton as speaker 
 of the House of Commons, 1833, 318 ; moves
 
 704 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ar amendment for refonn in the address, 
 
 1835, 355; secretary for Ireland, 381 
 Mortemart, duke de, his audience with Charles 
 
 I. ; promises extorted by, from the king, 
 1830, viii. 255 
 
 Mortimer, Eoger, See Edward II. and Edward 
 III. 
 
 Mortmain, statute of, passed, 7 Edwd. I., i. 386 
 
 Moscow, entry of the French into, Sept. 14, 
 1812, vii. 557 ; the conflagration of; eva- 
 cuated by the French, Oct. 19, 658 
 
 Mounier, president of the French Assembly, vii. 
 178 ; obtains the king's consent to the articles 
 of the constitution, 179 
 
 Mountcashel, viscount. See Macarthy. 
 
 Mountfort, William, a player, murder of, by 
 Hill, V. 159, 160. 
 
 Mountjoy, lord, sent by Tyrconnel on a mission 
 to James II. at St. Germains ; on his arrival 
 there he was put into the Bastille, v. 80 
 
 Mourad Bey heads the Mamlooks ; defeated by 
 the French at the battle of the Pyramids, 
 1798, vii. 354 
 
 Muir, Thomas, sentenced to transportation for 
 advocating a reform in the representation of 
 the people, 1794, vii. 299 
 
 Municipal corporation reform, viii. 360-365; 
 report of the commission of inquiry showing 
 the generally corrupt state of the corporations, 
 360-362 ; passing of lord Kussell's reform bill 
 through parliament, 363, 364 ; it receives the 
 royal assent, Sept. 9, 1835, 364; departing 
 glories of municipal pomp, 365 ; bill for cor- 
 poration reform in Ireland; opposed by the 
 Lords ; passed by the Commons, Mar. 28, 
 
 1836, 367 
 
 Municipalities, character of those established by 
 the Romans in Britain, i. 45, 46 ; form of 
 government in, i. 45 
 
 Munro, sir Hector, major; defeats an Indian 
 army, vi. 332 ; compelled to retreat before 
 Hyder AH, vii. 131 
 
 Murat, Joachim, helps Bonaparte in suppress- 
 ing the revolt of the sections in Paris, May, 
 1795, vii. 322 ; assists Kleber against a Mus- 
 sulman army, 1799, 380; with Leclerc clears 
 the Assembly, Nov. 384, 385 ; seizes Godoy, 
 and sends him to Bonaparte, 1803, 498 ; king 
 of Naples, 536 ; deserts Napoleon for the 
 allies, viii. 45 ; his entering into a correspon- 
 dence withtheex-emperor hastens hisf all, ib. 
 
 MuiTay, lord George, obtains the king's pardon 
 for joining the rebellion of 1715, vi. 21, 22 ; 
 joins Charles Edward, 1745, 126 ; takes part 
 in the battle at Preston-Pans, Sept. 22, 129 ; 
 quarrels with the duke of Perth, 144 ; his 
 tactics in approaching Derby, 146 ; he con- 
 vinces Charles of the uselessness of advancing 
 farther into England ; persuades him to re- 
 treat to Scotland, 148; his able and credit- 
 able management of the retreat from Derby, 
 155, 156 ; halts at Clifton, 157 ; securing the 
 army's retreat by stemming the tide of the 
 pursuing enemy ; reaches Carlisle ; represents 
 to Charles that Ids troops could not hold the 
 place, 158 ; signs an address to the prince 
 showing the desertions in tlie Highland army, 
 163; leads the Highlanders to the attack of 
 Cumberland's camp ; but finds a surprise im- 
 practicable, 167 
 
 Murray, James, earl of, sent as ambassador to 
 France to rcciuest the return of queen Mary, 
 jii- 123 ; with other reformers revolts against 
 
 Mary's marriage with Darnley, 135, 137 ; is 
 forced to fly to England, 135, 138 ; returns to 
 Edinburgh on the death of Riccio, 143; is 
 proclaimed regent after Mary's abdication, 
 152; defeats Mary at the battle of Iiangsyde, 
 155 ; accuses Mary of the murder of Darnley 
 at the conference in London, 158 ; favours 
 Norfollc's project of marrying Mary, 161 ; ia 
 assassinated in Jan. 1570, 174 
 
 Murray, William. See Mansfield, earl of. 
 
 Musgrave, sir Christopher ; a leader of the op- 
 position party, 1693 ; bribes received by, v- 
 162 
 
 Mutiny bill, an important part of the govern* 
 ment : first passed 1689, v. 75, 76 
 
 Mutiny at Ipswich, 1689, v. 75; at Spithead, 
 1797, vii. 338-340 ; at the Nore, 340, 341 ; at 
 Vellore, 1806, 462 ; and at Madras, 1809, viii. 
 213, 214 
 
 Muttra, battle of, 1803, vii. 456 
 
 Mylne, Richard, architect of Blackfriars bridge, 
 vii. 82 
 
 Nadin, unable to apprehend the leaders of tlio 
 reform meeting at Manchester, 1819, viii. lOii 
 
 Nagpore, rajah of, joins the Mahratta confede- 
 racy against the British, viii. 216; defeated 
 by the British, 217 
 
 Nairn, William, lord, impeached of high trea- 
 son, tried and sentenced to death, 1716, vi. 
 19 ; reprieved, 20 ; released from prison by an 
 act of grace passed, 1717, 30 
 
 Namur, siege and capture of, by the Frencli, 
 June 30, 1692, v. 150-151 ; besieged by the 
 allies, 1695, 178-180; and taken Aug. 26, 180 
 
 Nankin, treaty of, Aug. 29, 1842, viii. 388, 449 
 
 Nantes, revocation of the edict of, iv. 402 ; effect 
 of, in France, as described by Burnet, 403 
 
 Napier, sir C. James, major, taken prisoner at 
 Corunna, 1809, vii. 506 ; a benefactor of his 
 race, viii. 507 ; his march on, and destruction 
 of, Emaun-Ghur, 508, 509 ; gains the battle 
 of Meanee, 509, 510 ; Hyderabad surrenders 
 to him ; he defeats and quells Shore Maho- 
 med, and becomes the governor of Scinde, 
 510 
 
 Napier, sir C. John, his services under admiral 
 Stopford in the campaign in Egypt and Syria, 
 1840, viii. 434, 435 
 
 Napoleon, comparison of his intended invasion 
 of Britain, with that of Caligula, i. 17 
 
 Napoleon III. of France, eon of Louis Bona- 
 parte, king of Holland; Louis Philippe's fear 
 of him, viii. 374, 375 ; his futile revolution- 
 ary attempt at Strasbourg, 1836, 373; sent 
 to America by Louis Philippe ; escapes to 
 Switzerland ; Louis compelling his extradi- 
 tion from thence, he withdraws to England, 
 376 ; crosses the Channel to Boulogne, 431 ; 
 fails to produce an insurrection, 431, 432; 
 suiTcnders ; is imprisoned, 432 ; tried, 432, 
 433 ; sentenced to imprisonment for life in 
 Ham fortress ; but escapes, 433 ; elected Pro 
 sident of the French Republic, 1848, 561 
 
 Naseby, battle of, 14 June, 1645, iv. 44 
 
 Nash, Beau, master of the ceremonies at Bath , 
 his rule, vii. 100, 101 ; suppresses duelling at 
 Bath, 104 
 
 Nash, John, his architectural works, Regent 
 Street, Park, and Canal, viii. 145, 146 
 
 Nasmyth, his landscape painting, viii. 154. \6f: 
 
 National Debt, coramcncemcnt of the, lf*i?3, t. 
 156; its growth, 156, 157, vi. 39,40; reiJac-
 
 1^^DEX. 
 
 705 
 
 tion of the interest on the, 184 ; increase of 
 the, 1755-1763.2.57; table showinj; its growth, 
 1691-1792, 470, 472, viii. 384 ; fears of ruin 
 from its increase, vii. 2 ; fjrowth of, 1793- 
 1815, 582, viii. 384, 1816-1837, viii. 384 
 
 Navarino, news of the battle of, received in 
 London, -^-iii. 225 ; it occurred, Oct. 20, 1827, 
 226, 227 
 
 Navigation act obstructs the Scottish trade, v. 
 215; suspension of the navigation laws, viii. 
 551 
 
 Navy, difficulty of manning the, vi. 374, 375 ; 
 corruption prevalent in the, vii. 112; the 
 British and French na^nes, 1793, 263, 264 ; 
 state of the, 1793, 304, 305; discontents and 
 mutinies in the, 1797, 338-341 ; nunibor of 
 men voted for the, 1802, 417 ; the British 
 navy of 1812, viii. 9; its glory departed, 9, 
 10 ; restored again by the Shannon and Chesa- 
 peake conflict, 11 
 
 Neeker, James, controller-general of finance, vii. 
 157; dismissed the post, May, 1781, ib.; re- 
 called to it agam, 1789, 164 ; again dismissed, 
 July, 1789, 170 
 
 Neerwinden. See Landen. 
 
 Neerwinden, battle of, Jlar. 18, 1793, vii. 271 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, post-captain, 1793; present at 
 the suiTender of Toulon to lord Hood, vii. 
 287 ; his daring achievement of the capture 
 of Bastia, Corsica, 1794, 315 ; commodore ; 
 joins admiral Jervis's fleet; disobeys his su- 
 perior officer ; engages, with the assistance of 
 Troubridge and ColUngwood, several of the 
 enemy's vessels at the battle of St. Vincent, 
 Feb. 14, 1797, 336; his desperate condition; 
 gallantry shown in boarding and taking the 
 San Nicolas and San Josef; his name not 
 noticed in Jervis's despatches, 337 ; made fc 
 knight of the bath, 338 ; watches the move- 
 ments of the Toulon fleet, 351 ; appointed to 
 command a Mediterranean fleet, 1798, 352; 
 he misses the French fleet, sails to Alexandria, 
 and returns to Sicily, 353 ; refused supplies 
 by the Neapolitans ; obtains them through 
 his interview witli lady Hamilton ; again sets 
 out for Alexandria, 355 ; position of the French 
 fleet, Aug. 1 ; Nelson's mananivres, 355, 356; 
 the conflict ; Nelson wounded ; his heroism, 
 356; the French flag ship, L'Orient, on fire; 
 the awful silence succeeding the explosion ; 
 returns to Naples ; his injunctions for figlit- 
 ing, 357 ; vice-admiral under sir Hyde Parker, 
 1801, 402; opposes his admiral's arguments 
 for delay ; his approach to Copenhagen, 402, 
 403 ; the battle of Copenhagen, April 2, 403, 
 404; disregards Parker's signals to stop fight- 
 ing, ib. ; concludes an armistice, 404, 405 ; 
 fails in cutting the armed fiotilla out of Bou- 
 logne harbour, 408 ; appointed to cotniuand 
 tlie Mediterranean fleet ; his letter to the lord 
 mayor, 441 ; his chase after the combined 
 fleet, 441, 442; worn out with anxiety he re- 
 • turns home, 442 ; ofl'ers his services against 
 Villeneuve ; preparations, 445 ; enthusiastic 
 reception at Portsmouth, 445, 446 ; his last 
 farewell to England ; sets down before Cadiz ; 
 his system of breaking the line ; the enemy 
 in siglit, 446; his preparations lor battle, 446, 
 447; his victory, Oct. 21, 1805; his duith, 
 447, 448; the nation's grief; the fuueral, 448, 
 449 
 
 Nepaul, war with, 1813-1816; its results, viii. 
 21.5 
 VOL. vni.— 269. 
 
 Nero, attempts of, to reconcile the revolted 
 tribes after the defeat of Boadicea, i. 25 
 
 Nevill's Cross, battle of, won by queen PhiHppa, 
 in 1346, and David Bruce taken prisoner, i. 
 464, 465 
 
 Newbum, battle of, on Aug. 27, 1640, iv. 437 
 
 Newbury, battle of, on Sept. 19, 1643, iv. 24; 
 second battle of, on Oct. 27. 1644, 37 
 
 New England, foundation of the colony of, in 
 1620, by the Pilgrim Fathers, iii. 345, 346 
 
 Newcastle, duke of, entertains William III. at 
 "Welbeck, 1695, v. 181 ; made lord privy seal, 
 1705, 305 ; captain Jenkins reports to him his 
 ill-treatment by the Spaniards, but receives no 
 redress, vi. 93 ; his jealousy of Walpole, 97 ; 
 helps his brother, Mr. Pelham, in the admi- 
 nistration ; his talent for electioneering busi- 
 ness, 178 ; becomes jealous of the duke of 
 Bedford, 189 ; gets him turned out of the 
 office of secretary of state, 190 ; becomes first 
 lord of the t-reasury at liis brother's death, 
 1754; his claims to the post, 197; character 
 of ; oflTers Fox the seals of secretary of state, 
 who refuses them, 198, 199; Pitt's and Fox's 
 opposition ; tlie latter obtains a seat in the 
 Cabinet, 200 ; becomes tenified at the opposi- 
 tion to the subsidies ; applies to Pitt for help, 
 who refuses it, 208 ; opposing the ministry in 
 a speech in parliament ; Pitt is dismissed his 
 office of paymaster, 209 ; placed at the head 
 of the mimstr}', ib. ; Fox resigns his seals, 
 and Newcastle, having no support, 217 ; also 
 resigns, 218 ; George again offers him the ad- 
 ministration of afl'airs; refuses to act with 
 Pitt, 221 ; but ultimately consents ; first lord 
 of the treasury, 222 ; supports Bute, 251 ; 
 retires from tlie treasmy, June, 1762, 255; 
 becomes privy seal, 1765, 278 ; secretary of 
 state, 1746-1754; first lord of the treasury, 
 1754-1756, 320; 1757-1762, 321 
 
 Newcastle, duke of, his interference with the 
 Newark election complained of, viii. 242; 
 proceedings against, 242, 243 ; his remarlcs on 
 the Eeform bill, 300 
 
 Newfoundland ceded to Great Britain, 1713, v. 
 397 
 
 Newmarket, races held at, temp. WUliam III., 
 V. 33 
 
 New Orleans, attack on, by the British, 1814, 
 1815, viii. 17-19 
 
 Newspapers ; first beginning of the newspaper 
 pi-ess, v. 60, 61 ; the newspapers, 1709, 1742, 
 402-405; eagerness for, 1745, vi. 142, 143; 
 provincial papers badly conducted about 1757, 
 230; the newspapers, 1737-1783, vii. 84; 
 number of American, 1775, and 1810, viii. 6; 
 of London in Crabbe's time; The Times first 
 assumed the name, 1788, 115 ; The Times of 
 Nov. 28, 1818, the first sheet of paper printed 
 by steam, 132; increased circulation of, due 
 to the steam-printinsr machine, ib. ; violence 
 and ribaldry of, during queen Caroline's trial 
 in 1820, 169; the newspapers of India; their 
 regulation by government, 222; case of Mr. 
 Buckingham, proprietor of Tlie Calcutta Jour- 
 nal, 222, 223; roval ordinance against the 
 liberty of the French press, 1830, 250, 251 ; 
 the protest of the newspaper conductors, 251 ; 
 f-tamp on, reduced, 1836, 372, 390 ; altered 
 character of, 1842, 484, 485 
 
 Newton, sir Laac, as master of the mint he 
 succeeds in establishing an adequate supply 
 of cLrculating medium, v. 184 ; statue of, l>y
 
 •06 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Roubiliac, 461 ; declares Wood's Irish coinage 
 satisfactory, vi. 50 
 
 Newton-Butler, battle of, 1689, v. 86 
 
 New York evacuated by the Americans, Sept. 
 15, 1776, vi. 370 
 
 Ney, Michael, marshal, serves in Jourdan's 
 army, vii. 312 ; defeats the Austrians at El- 
 chingen and Guntzburg, 1805, 444 ; defeated 
 at Dennewitz, 1813, 563, 564; deserts Louis 
 XVIII. for Napoleon, 1815, viii. 27 ; executed 
 on the return of Louis to power, 47 
 
 NichoUs, sir George ; his letters on the Poor 
 Laws ; his poor law reforms at Southwell, viii. 
 338 ; appointed a poor law commissioner, 1834, 
 342 ; and to initiate the working of the poor 
 law in Ireland, 411 
 
 Nile, battle of the, Aug. 1, 1798, vii. 355-357 
 
 Niuieguen, peace of, Aug. 11, 1678, v. 388; sur- 
 rendered to the French, 1794, vii. 313 
 
 Nipchoo, treaty of, ratified June 14, 1728, v. 
 390 
 
 Nithisdale, William, earl of, impeached of high 
 treason, 1716; tried and found guilt}', vi. 19; 
 his wife vainly petitions the king to pai-don 
 him ; she effects his escape to France, 20, 
 21 
 
 Nizam. See Deccan. 
 
 Nollekens, Joseph, his sculpturing, vii. 80 ; 
 viii. 149 
 
 Nonconformists, rise and'growth of, in the second 
 half of the roign of Elizabeth, iii. 241, et 
 scq. ; notice of the Marprelate tracts, 243 ; 
 objections of, to the ceremonies of the church, 
 ib. ; preaching in private houses prohibited, 
 244 ; statutes against Puritans and Popish 
 recusants in 1593, ib. ; the nonconformist 
 ministers preach resistance, ib. ; severities 
 directed against the Brownists or Independ- 
 ents, 245 ; opposition of the nonconformists 
 to the habits and amusements of society, ib. ; 
 music and dancing held to be corrupting by, 
 250; offensiveness of Sabbath sports and 
 games to, 251 ; denunciations of gaming by, 
 256; aversion of, to stage plays, 257; peti- 
 tion James I. for a conference with the English 
 clergy, which is held at Hampton Court, 314; 
 James insults and decides against them, ib. ; 
 a new code of canons, tending to exclude them 
 from civil rights, established in Convocation, 
 316 ; settlement of Nbw England in 1620 by 
 the Pilgrim Fathers, 345 ; increase in the 
 numbers of, from disgust at the principles and 
 conduct of James and his courtiers, 360 ; 
 offence given to \>y the proclamation in 1618, 
 for the practice of sports on Sundays, 370; 
 consternation of, at the defeat of the elector 
 palatine and the triumph of Roman Catholi- 
 cism, in Germany, 378 ; offence given to by 
 Laud's introduction, in 1628, of new cere- 
 monies into the church service, 403 ; tJie 
 religious opinions of, identified with the 
 assertion of civil rights, 404; excessive punish- 
 ment of tlio Puritan Prynne, for writing 
 against stage-plays, 411 ; and of Dr. A. 
 Leighton for writing against prelacy, 413; 
 aversion of the Puritans to all dramatic ex- 
 hibitions, 414; conviction and excessive 
 punishments of Prynne, Burton, and Bast- 
 wick, in 1()37, for tfiuir anti-prelatical writ- 
 ings, 423 ; triumpli of the principles rf, on 
 the meeting of the Long I'arliament in 1640, 
 447 ; grcal induetice of tlic Puritans at the 
 commencement of the Civil War, 485 • tho 
 
 shutting-up of the playhouses and discourage- 
 ment of popular amusements a consequence of, 
 487 ; Baxter's statement of the oppressions of 
 the, by the royalists, iv. 11; increased bitterness 
 of feeling between them and the Cavaliers, 19 ; 
 the Presbyterian Covenant adopted by the 
 synod at Westminster, and by parliament, 28 ; 
 growing dissensions between Presbyterians 
 and Independents, 29 ; struggles between, in 
 the House of Commons, 62 ; power of the 
 Independents in the army, 68 ; opinions of the 
 Independents, 69; the position of the Pres- 
 byterians and Independents compared with 
 the Gironde and Mountain parties of the 
 French revolution, 69 ; negotiations of the 
 Independents with the king, 75 ; the king's 
 deceptive conduct towards them, 76; Crom- 
 well tries to effect a reconciliation between 
 the Presbyterians and Independents, 89 ; de- 
 pression of, after the Restoration, 249, et scq. ; 
 insurrection of the Anabaptists in London in 
 April 1661, 251 ; ineffective conference at the 
 Savoy between the bishops and the Puritan 
 divines, 252 ; the Corporation Act and Act of 
 Uniformity passed against, 255, 256; Con- 
 venticle Act passed against in 1664, 266 ; the 
 Five-Mile Act passed against, 275 ; the penal- 
 ties of, not enforced against for a short time 
 after the Fire of London, 307 ; propositions 
 made by, for a union of Protestants, 308 ; re- 
 jected by the parliament, ib. ; declaration of 
 indulgence by Charles II. in 1672, 319 ; re- 
 lease of John Bunyan from prison, ib. ; the 
 Indulgence unpopular among, 320 ; in 1665 
 the House of Commons prays James II. to put 
 in execution the laws against all dissenters 
 from the Church of England, 387 ; the prin- 
 ciple of resistance not extinguished in, as 
 shown by their joining Monmouth at Taun- 
 ton, 392 ; they generally consider the decla- 
 ration of James II. in 1687, for liberty of 
 conscience, as a snare, 419 
 
 Nonjurors, origin of the, v. 70; bill against, 
 passed, 73 ; libellous pamphlets issued by, in 
 1692, 155 
 
 Nore, mutiny at the, 1797, vii. 340, 341 
 
 Norfolk, soil of, vii. 5 ; agricultural improve- 
 ments in, promoted by Coke, 5, 6 ; a seat 
 of the husbandry implement trade, 8 ; num- 
 ber of persons to every 100 acres in, in 1841, 
 24 
 
 Norman clergy, character of, at the time of 
 William I., i. 196, 197 ; nobles, various cha- 
 racters of, and beneficial exertions of some, 
 197 ; barons, description of their modes of 
 life in their castles in the time of Stephen, 
 251 
 
 Normanby, marquis of. See Buckingham. 
 
 Norris, sir William, sent to desire of Aurung- 
 zebe his favour for the new East India Com- 
 pany, 1698, V. 203; mission failed; dies on 
 his way home, 204 
 
 North, Dudley, nominated sheriff by the lord 
 mayor of London in ir.82, in order that he 
 might return partisan jurjnnen, iv. 365 ; is re- 
 jected by tbf Common Hall, but ultimately 
 sworn in, 366 
 
 North, Frederick, lord, chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, 1767-1782, vi. 288, 290, 321, 469 ; 
 moves the repeal of the American duty on all 
 articles but tea, 31) ; his proposition carried, 
 312; nearly demolished by the mob, 1771, 
 318; his apology for retain'ng oiKcc, 31S,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 707 
 
 319 ; first lord of the treasury, 1770-1782, 
 321, 469 ; brings in the Boston port bill, 
 1774, 339; and the Massachusetts bay go- 
 vernment regulation bill, ib. ; his conciUatory 
 measure, 346 ; his Prohibitory bill, 362 ; 
 exults at the display of public spirit, 1778 ; 
 introduces two bills, one on American taxa- 
 tion, the other appointing commissioners to 
 treat with America, 386 ; fear and astonish- 
 ment of the House at his submissions and 
 concessions, 387 ; wishes to resign his pre- 
 miership on hearing of the peace between 
 France and America, ib. ; his speech on the 
 address to the king, 397 ; his amendment on 
 Burke's Economical Reform bill, 404 ; his 
 consternation and distress at the news of 
 Cornwallis's surrender, 1781, 430 ; announces 
 the resignation of his premiership, Mar. 20, 
 1782; the scene in parliament on tliis occa- 
 sion, 435 ; consents to the proposed free trade 
 measures towards Ireland, 443 ; coalesces with 
 Fox, appointed secretary of state, 1783, vii. 
 135 ; ordered to give up his seals by the king, 
 139 ; home secretary of state, 1783, 576 
 
 Northampton, battle of, the Lancastrians de- 
 feated, 10 July, 1460, ii. 143 
 
 Northamptonshire, the county of, vii. 10; low 
 state of farming, ib. ; farmers and labourers, 
 11 
 
 Northmen, or Danes, ravages of, i. 78 
 
 Northumberland, its wretched breed of sheep, 
 and large districts of waste land, 1760-1783, 
 vii. 30 ; unsettled state of its inhabitants 
 long after the Union ; agriculture stimulated 
 by the Culleys and othei-s, 31 
 
 Northumberland, Dudley, duke of. See "War- 
 wick, earl of. 
 
 North- West Company for trading in furs; 
 ultimately united with the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, v. 39 
 
 Norwich Cathedral, foundation of, in 1094, i. 
 2.38 
 
 Nottingham, earl of. See "Winchelsea. 
 
 Nottinghamsbire, the oak of Sherwood forest 
 succeeded by tiimip and wheat fields, vii. 16 ; 
 " the cars " reclaimed, ib. 
 
 Novels, careless and inaccurate style of, Tiii. 
 4G9 ; prevalence of ; largo numbers published 
 in a serial form, 475-477 ; changed manner in 
 conducting prose fictions as sho-ttTi in the 
 works of the novel writers, 477-479 
 
 Nugent, lord, moves for a list of persons holding 
 crown places and pensions, vi. 404 ; his Irish 
 free trade motions, 443 
 
 Nuncomar, an intriguing Hindoo, executed by 
 the British for forgci-y, vii. 126, 127 
 
 Gates, Titus, first revelation of the Popish Plot 
 by, in 1678, iv'. 332 ; is brought before the 
 Council, 333 ; is examined by the House of 
 Commons, 335 ; increasing boldness of his 
 accusations, and assertion of the queen having 
 concerted the king's murder, 336 ; has a pen- 
 sion assigned him by the Commons, 337 ; fresh 
 convictions on tlie evidence of, in 1679, 345 ; 
 payments to and to other witnesses, 346; is a 
 witness against lord SUifford, who is convicted, 
 in 1684,358 ; contradicts Dugdaleon tiie trial 
 of Stephen College, the " Protestant joiner," 
 and his pension is stepped, 363 ; is prosecuted 
 for a libel on the duke of York in 1683, and 
 100,000/. damages r rarded, 375 ; is convicted 
 
 of perjury, and sentenced to be imprisoned, 
 pilloried, and whipped, in 1685, 387 ; re- 
 leased from prison, pardoned, and pensioned, 
 16S9, V. 95 
 
 O'Brien, Smith, a member of the Irish Confede- 
 ration ; his share in the insurrection of 1848, 
 viii. 560 
 
 Occasional Conformity, bill against ; its objects ; 
 discussion on ; rejected 1702, v. 262, 263 ; u 
 new bill introduced, 1703; again rejected, 
 268 ; thrown out a third time, 1704, 289 ; its 
 repeal desired by Stanhope, 1718, vi. 35 
 
 Ochterlony, sir David, compels the Ghorka com- 
 mander. Ameer Singh, to capitulate, 1815, 
 viii. 215; engages to support the rajah of 
 ^Bhurtpore, 221 
 
 O'Coigley, arrested and executed, 1797, for con- 
 spiring against government, vii. 363 
 
 O'Counell, Daniel, returned M.P. for Clare, 
 who as a Roman CathoUc was disqualified 
 from sitting there, 1828, viii. 235 ; his great 
 influence over the Irish peasantry, 235, 236 ; 
 upon taking his seat, 1829, refuses to take the 
 oath of supremacy, claiming that set forth in 
 the Relief act ; returned a second time for 
 Clare, and takes his seat, 241 ; moves an 
 amendment in the king's speech; coarseness 
 of his language; Stanley's I'eply to; the 
 amendment rejected, 319 ; again attacked by 
 Mr. Stanley, 323, 324 ; condemns the appro- 
 priation of funds to be sanctioned by the 
 Irish church reform bill, 326 ; his speech on 
 the repeal of the Union question, 1834, 343 ; 
 Ms amendment on the Irish tithe bill, 347 ; 
 his alleged compact with the Melbourne Whig 
 government, 368 , his eiforts to bring about a 
 repeal of the Union, 502, 503 ; arrested for 
 conspiring, 503 ; tried, 511, 512 ; fotmd guilty 
 and punished, 512 ; appeals for a reversal o< 
 his sentence, whi(th he obtains; Ireland cele- 
 brates his triumph, 520 ; loss of his demagogic 
 power, 521 ; his last parliamentary speech ; 
 died May 15, 1847, 549 
 
 O'Connor, Arthur, a member of the Irish Direc- 
 tory ; tried for high treason. May, 1797 ; ac- 
 quitted, vii. 363 
 
 O'Connor, Feargus, insists upon parliament's 
 testing the repeal question, 1834, viii. 343 ; 
 attempts to rouse the people to rebel, 413, 
 414,417; heads the chai-tist movements of 
 1848, 559 
 
 Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, revolts against 
 Edwy, and separates him from his wife, i. 
 134. 
 
 Oglethorpe, general, promotes the state of pri- 
 sons inquiry, 1729, 1730, vi. 63, 64; pursuea 
 the retreating army of the rebels, 1745, 157 
 
 O'Hara, general, commands the Toulon gar- 
 rison ; wounded ; taken prisoner, 1793, vii. 
 289, 290 
 
 Oldcastle, sir John, condemned as a heretic, ii. 
 54 ; respited by the king, and escapes, ib. ; 
 joins in a conspiracy with the Lollards, and 
 13 retaken in 141S, and burnt, ib. 
 
 Oliver, alderman, his sliaro in tlie arrest of a 
 House of Commons officer, 1771 ; imprisoned 
 in the Tower, vi. 317-319 
 
 Oliver the Spy acts as government epy against 
 reformers, 1817, viii. 80-82 
 
 Omichund, engages in a conspiracy to deposo 
 Surajah Dowlah; C live' s treachery towards, 
 vi. 224, 225 ; causes him to die an idiot, 
 220
 
 708 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Onslow, sir Richaid ; chosen speaker of the 
 House of Commons, 1708, v. 341 ; retires 
 from the speakership ; 1761 ; pensioned, vi. 
 246 
 
 Onslow, colonel, his proceedings against printers 
 for publishing parliamentary debates, 1771, 
 vi. 317 
 
 Opium trade, circumstances connected with 
 the, viiich led to the war with China, viii. 
 443-445 
 
 Oporto tiiken possession of by Soult, Mar. 29, 
 1809, vii. 510 
 
 Oppian, description of the dogs of Britain by, 
 i. 9 
 
 Orange, prince of. See "William III. 
 
 Orange, prince of, relieves Charleroi, 1794, vii. 
 311 ; engaged at Waterloo, viii. 29, 31 
 
 Orange, princess of, arrested ; her cause espoused 
 by the king of Prussia, vii. 150, 151 
 
 Oreiron question, settlement of the, viii. 542, 
 543 
 
 Orford, earl of. See "Walpole, Eobert ; Eussell, 
 Adm. Edward. 
 
 Orleans, duke of, regent of France ; refuses to 
 aid the Pretender against England, 1715, vi. 
 9 ; desii'es England to support his claim to the 
 throne, 27 ; his lenity tuwards Alberoni, 35 ; 
 informs the British government of the pro- 
 posed Jacobite expedition to Scotland, 1719, 
 36 ; and the Jacobite plot of 1722, 48 ; died, 
 1723, 64 
 
 Orleans, duke of, banished Paris for taking part 
 in a discussion against the court, 1788, vii. 
 163 ; assumes the name of Egalite ; votes for 
 Louis XVI.' s death, 251, 252 ; his defence for 
 80 doing, 252 ; imprisoned at Marseilles, 277 ; 
 executed, Nov. 1793, 293 
 
 Orleans, duke of. See Louis XVIII. of France. 
 
 Ormond, marquis of, assembles a force in Ireland 
 in favour of Charles II., iv. 120 ; besieges 
 Dublin, and is defeated by the garrison, 121 ; 
 vi'sits London to forward a jilot against Crom- 
 well, from wliom he receives a hint that he is 
 known, and returns to Bruges, 212 ; attempt 
 of Blood, Dec. 7, 1670, to seize and hang, 313, 
 the king desires that he should pardon Blood, 
 315 
 
 Orraond, duke of, makes, in conjunction with 
 sir George Ilonke, an unsuccessful expedition 
 to Cadiz, V. 261 ; put in command of the 
 British fori^es, 1712; receives secret instruc- 
 tions from the ministry not to hazard a battle, 
 while there was a chance of negotiating peace; 
 besieges Quesnoy ; it surrenders, July 4, 392 ; 
 proclaims an armistice with France ; with- 
 draws his forces from the allied army, 393 ; 
 his march from Ghent to Bruges, 396 ; im- 
 peached of high treason ; tiies to France ; an 
 act of attainder passed against him, 1715, vi. 
 6 ; passes from Franco into Spain, 35 ; ap- 
 pointed to command a proposed expedition 
 against Engbind, 36 
 
 Orrel, captain, liia interest at the riots of 1710, 
 v. 356 
 
 Orrery, earl of, arrested, and sent to the Tower, 
 1722, for consjiiring, vi. 48 
 
 Orthez, battle of, Feb. 27, 1M4, vii. 569 
 
 Osbonie, lord S. G., draws attention to the con- 
 dition of the Dorsetshire labourers, viii. 397, 
 398 
 
 Oslorius Scapula, defeat of Caractacus by, i. 20; 
 triumph decreed to, 21 ; defeat and death of, 
 22 
 
 Otaheite discovered, 1767; visited by Captarn 
 Cook, and Bougainville, vii. 261 ; dispute 
 between France and England as to the national 
 rights over, viii. 521, 522 
 
 Otterboume, or Chevy Chase, battle of, on Aug, 
 10, 1388, ii. 24, 25 
 
 Otto, M., negotiates the preliminaries of peace, 
 1801, vii. 407, 408 ; remonstrates against the 
 newspaper remai'ks on Bonaparte, 416 
 
 Oudenarde, battle of, July 11, 1708, v. 337, 338 
 
 Outram, ^lajor, British resident at Hyderabad ; 
 attacked by the Beloochees, viii. 509 
 
 Oxford, state of, in 1289, i. 404 ; parliamcnta 
 held at. See Charles I. and Charles II. 
 
 Oxford university, the members of, preach pas- 
 sive obedience in 1664, iv. 376 ; Walker, the 
 master of University College, becomes a 
 Roman Catholic, 408 ; mass celebrated in 
 University College, 410; John Massey in- 
 stalled dean of Christchurch, 411 ; the king 
 recommends Anthony Farmer, a suspected 
 papist, to be elected president of Magdalen 
 College, 413 ; the Fellows elect Dr. John 
 Hough, ib. ; they are cited before the Ecclesi- 
 astical Commissioners, and are expelled, 414 
 
 Oxford, his attempt upon the queen's life : ac- 
 quitted on the ground of insanity ; remarks 
 on this acquittal, viii. 428, 429 
 
 Oxford, Robert Harley, earl of; a Tory leader; 
 moves for the disbanding of the troops, Dec. 
 1798, V. 231 ; chosen speaker by the fifth par- 
 liament of William III., 1701, 244 ; speaker 
 of Anne's first parliament, 1702, 262; he is 
 turned out of the ministry by Marlborough 
 and the Whigs, 1708, 333, 335 ; has private 
 audiences with the queen ; commences a 
 system of political intrigue with her, 339; 
 the impeachment of Sacheverel brings him in 
 opposition wth Godolphin, 349 ; his intrigues 
 are successful ; Godolphin is dismissed, and 
 himself is made chancellor of the exchequer, 
 1710, 363 ; is seriously opposed by the Tories; 
 stabbed by Guiscard, Mar. 8, 1711, at a privy 
 council sitting, 371 ; which leads to his being 
 made earl of Oxford, and lord high treasurer, 
 and to the establishment of his ministerial 
 influence, 372, 373 ; can'ies on a secret nego- 
 tiation with France for peace, 377; invites 
 Eugene to dinner, 391 ; quai-rels with Boling- 
 broke ; he is dismissed from office. 1714, 400; 
 lord Coningsby imjieaches him of high treason, 
 1715 ; he is committed to the Tower, vi. 5 ; 
 upon petitioning for release in 1717 he is put 
 upon trial, and acquitted, but not included in 
 the act of grace passed soon after, 30 ; his 
 national debt proposal, 40 
 
 Oxfordshire, agricultural condition of, vii. 10 
 
 Oyster dredging by the ancient Britons, i 9 
 
 Paget, sir William, appointed by Henry'swill 
 one of the 16 counsellors to Edward VI., iii. 
 1 ; warns Somerset that the people desire 
 liberty, and urges repressive measures, 20 ; 
 reproaches Somerset for his too great lenity, 
 30 ; despotic principles of, 31 ; writes to the 
 confederated lords, that Somerset is secured. 
 35; opposes a bill for the punisliment of 
 heresy with death, which is thrown out by 
 the peers, 72 
 
 Paget, lord. See Anglesea. 
 
 Paine.Thomas, author of ' The Rights of Man," 
 his early career, vii. 203 ; invites the Parisians
 
 INDEX. 
 
 709 
 
 ■to establish a republic, 20-1 ; found guilty of 
 libel in publishing his book, 248 ; a member 
 of the National Convention of France, ib. ; 
 votes that Louis XVI. be imprisoned and 
 banished, 252 
 
 Painb and Penalties bill passed against two Irish 
 priests, 1723, vi. 49; and against Atterbury, 
 bishop of Rochester, 49, 50 ; against Queen 
 Cai-oluie introduced, 1820; examination into 
 the evidence ; trial of the queen ; abandon- 
 ment of the bill, viii. 168-172 
 
 Painters in "Water Colours, Society of, started 
 1805, viii. 155 
 
 Painting ; celebrated painters in England from 
 Henry VIII.'s time to William III. v. 4G1 ; 
 general decline of portrait painting from Lely 
 to Eeynolds, by whom it was restored, 4C2 ; 
 low state of the art of, temjJ. George II. vii. 
 67 ; formation of the English school of, ini- 
 tiated by Hogarth : idea of a royal academy 
 started by Thornhill previous to 1724 ; revived 
 in 1749 ; public exliibition of paintings in 
 1760, and 1761, the first practical embodiment 
 of the idea, 68 ; exhibition of designs for sign- 
 boards, 69 ; sign painters, 69, 70 ; foundation 
 of the lloyal Academy, Dec. 10, 1768, 70, 71 ; 
 the British Institution established, viii. 150, 
 151 ; the National and Dulwich galleries, 151; 
 rise of water colour painting; Society of 
 Painters in Water Colom-s formed 1805, 
 155 
 
 Pakenham, sir Edward, commands the British 
 army in America, 1814, viii. 17; his aj)pcar- 
 ance raises the conhdence of the army, 18 ; 
 his advance upon New Orleans, and struggle 
 with general Jackson ; organises an attack 
 upon the enemy, Jan. 7, ib. ; in which he is 
 mortally wounded, 19 
 
 Palej', his high intellectual position among 
 English churchmen, viii. 124 
 
 Palliser, sir Hugh, accuses admiral Keppel of 
 misconduct and incapacit)', vi. 393 ; tried by 
 court-martial ; acquitted, 394 
 
 Falm, German minister in London ; disavows 
 the secret articles of the treaty of Vienna ; 
 ordered to leave England, vi. 55 
 
 Palm, J. P., executed by the French for publish- 
 ing a certain book, Aug. 26, 1806, vii. 472 
 
 Palmer, Thomas Fysshe, sentenced to trans- 
 portation for advocating a reform in the re- 
 presentation of the people, vii. 299 
 
 Palmerston, lord, secretary at war, 1809, vii. 526 ; 
 1820, viii. 158 ; in the "Canning cabinet, 210 ; 
 joins the Wellington ministry, 1828, 228 ; 
 opposes lord Russell's motion for the repeal of 
 the Corporation and Test acts, 233 ; resigns 
 office with Mr. Huskisson and the other Can- 
 ningites, 234 ; secretary of state for foreign 
 afi'airs, 267, 381 ; advocates reform, 1831, 275; 
 success of his policy towards France, 430; 
 denies having visited Louis Napoleon for two 
 years previous to 1840; his conversation with 
 <juizot on the fleets of England and France, 
 433 ; absurdly suspected of being in the pay 
 of Russia, 434 ; advocates free trade in the 
 debate on the sugar duties, 438 
 
 Pamplona surrendered to the British, Oct. 31, 
 1813, vii. 566 
 
 PaoLi, the Corsican patriot ; defends the island 
 against the French, 1768, vi. 322 ; becoming 
 an exile, he seeks refuge in England, 323 ; 
 organises a rerclt against the French, 1/94, 
 ▼ii. 215 
 
 Paris, enhwof the allies and Lcuis XVIII. intc, 
 July, lSi5, viii. 41 
 
 Paris, peace of, signed Feb. 10, 1763 ; its terms, 
 vi. 256, 257, 467; treaty of. May 15, 1796; 
 vii. 412 ; peace of, July 20, 1806, 578 ; peace 
 of, Jan. 6, 1810,580; treaty of, ratified bv 
 Napoleon and the allies, April 11, 1814, 581, 
 between France and the allies, Mav 30, 1815, 
 581, viii. 24; peace of, Nov. 20, 1815, 42, 382 
 
 Parker, Hyde, admiral ; engages the Dutch off 
 the Dogger Bank, 1781, vi. 421 ; commands 
 the fleet against the Danes, 1801, vii. 402; 
 allows Nelson to fight and win the naval 
 battle of Copenhagen, 402, 403 
 
 Parker, Richard, chosen president of the dele- 
 gates of the mutineers at the Nore, May, 
 1797 ; trial, and early career ; executed at 
 Sandwich, June 30, vii. 341 
 
 Parkyns, sir William, concerned in a conspiracy 
 against William III. 1696, v. 187, et seq. ; is 
 executed, 191 
 
 Parliamentary reform ; two attempts at reform- 
 ing parliament made, v. 159; Chatham re- 
 commends, vi. 304, 305 ; agitates the public 
 mind, 1780, 401 ; Pitt's scheme of, pi'oposed, 
 441, and rejected, 442; his second bill for, 
 produced, vii. 136 ; rejection of his third bill 
 for, 146; in Ireland, 361, 362 ; taken up by 
 ignorant and uneducated persons, viii. 72, 73 ; 
 Cobbett advocates it, 73 ; the Hampden club 
 reformers, 74, 75 ; Burdett twice revives the 
 question of, 97, 102; lord Russell becomes a 
 reformer and obtains the disfranchisement 
 of Grampound, 102 ; cases of borough cor- 
 ruption, 233, 234 ; preparation of the Reform 
 bill, 270 ; lord John Russell introduces the 
 bill before a full house, 271 ; purport of the 
 bill, 271, 272 ; its reception by the opposition. 
 272; sir R. Inglis's reply, 272, 273; debate 
 on the bill, 274-276 ; Macaulay's speech, 274, 
 275 ; speeches of Palmerston and Peel, 275 ; 
 defeat of the ministers in committee, 276 ; 
 introduction of separate reform bills for 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, 278 ; Macau- 
 lay's speech on the English reform bill, 278, 
 279 ; the bill is read a second time and passed 
 into committee ; Mr. Croker's steady opposi- 
 tion to it, 279 ; his fears as to the results of 
 its passing, 279, 280 ; the bill passes from thu 
 Commons to the Lords, 280 ; tlie five nights' 
 debate ; speeches of earl Gi'ey, 281, 283 ; of th« 
 duke of Wellington, 281, 282 ; of lords Dudley, 
 282 ; Eldon, 282, 283 ; and Brougham, 283 ; 
 the bill thrown out by the Lords, 283, 284 ; 
 resolutions of the Commons, 284 ; the king's 
 speech again recommends reform ; new biy 
 introduced by lord John Russell; alterations 
 contained in it ; secend reading of bill in 
 Commons ; passed by them ; introduced into 
 the Lords, 294 ; scene at the second reading ; 
 defeat of the ministers in committee, 295 _: 
 the king refuses to create peers to insure the 
 passing of the bill ; the ministers resign; the 
 Commons implore the king to call another 
 refonn ministry, 296 ; the king consents to the 
 creation of peers; abatement of the opposition 
 of the anti-reform peers, 299, 300 ; passing of 
 the Reform bills for Great Britain and Ireland, 
 June and July, 1832, 300; changes effected 
 by the working of the reform acts, 301-310 ; 
 fears of anti-reformers, 310, 311 
 
 Partition Treaty, negotiations between England 
 and France for a, v. 226; the partition scheme
 
 710 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 originated with. France, ib. ; the negotiations 
 are carried on, 227 ; correspondence and pro- 
 ceedings of William in connection with the 
 first, 228; it is signed Oct. 11, 1698, by 
 Portland and sir J. Williamson, 229, 388; 
 stipulations of the first, ib. ; the second signed 
 in 1700, 230, 388 
 Paston Letters, curious illustrations of the 
 manners of the time, aflbrded by, ii. 102, 105, 
 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 119, 120, 121, 
 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 157, 170 ; instance 
 from, of the endeavour to influence a county 
 election, 139 
 Pastons, defence of Caister Castle by, against 
 
 the duke of Norfolk, ii. 107 
 Paterson, William, proposes the scheme of a 
 great national bank, 1691, which is carried 
 out by the establishment of the Bank of 
 England, in 1694, v. 171 ; obtains a 300,000;. 
 subscription for forming a company fortradiiig 
 to Africa and the Indies, 215, 216 ; sails with 
 the colony for Darien, July 26, 1698 ; quarrels 
 with the ship's officers and the council, 218; 
 he is attacked by fever, June, 1699, 221 
 3*aul, Lewis, his cotton machine, vii. 44, 45 
 Paul I. of Eussia, succeeds Catheiine, favours 
 the French interests, vii. 330 ; joins the 
 coalition against France, 382 ; won back to 
 the French side, 393 ; assassinated, 1801, 405 ; 
 emperor, 1796-1801, 574 
 Paulinus, conversion of Edwin, king of North- 
 
 xunbria, by, i. 72 
 Paull, James, brings charges against the mar- 
 quis of Wellesley, vii. 453, 454, 461 ; duel 
 with Burdett ; commits suicide, 1807, 462 
 Paulus, the notary, suppresses the revolt of 
 Magnentius, i. 53 ; despotism of, in Britain, 
 ib. ; burnt aKve by order of the emperor 
 Julian, ib. 
 Paving and Lighting Act, passed, 1762, viii. 
 
 65,66 
 Pearls found in Britain, i. 9 
 Pearson, captain, his naval engagement with 
 
 Paul Jones ; defeated, vi. 398 
 Peel, sir Eobert, first returned to Parliament, 
 1809 ; chosen chairman of the currency com- 
 mittee ; declares himself open to conviction, 
 viii. 100; modifications of his views regard- 
 ing the currenc)' question, 100, 101 ; passing 
 of the act called Peel's act, 101 ; appointed 
 home secretary, 1822, 178, 195 ; objects to the 
 extent of Mackintosh's measures for abolisli- 
 ing capital punishment, 195 ; his high posi- 
 tion as an anti-Catholic partisan, 201 ; debate 
 •with Canning, the head of the Catholic 
 party, on the Catholic question, 203, 204 ; 
 resigns his office on Canning becoming minis- 
 ter, 1827, 204, 205 ; freedom from acrimony in 
 his opposition to Canning, 205 ; his testimony 
 in favour of Canning's political integrity, 
 207 ; his share in the negotiations for tlie 
 premiership, 211; home secretary in the 
 Wellington administration, 227 ; consulted 
 by Wellington in the formation of the new 
 cabinet, 227, 228 ; gradual advocacy of liberal 
 principles, 228 ; adoption of his motion for 
 inquiry into the public income and expendi- 
 ture, and the state of the metropolitan po- 
 lice, 232 ; proposes a compromise of the bill 
 for repealing the test and corporation acts, 
 233 ; refuses to acquiesce in the government's 
 bringing forward the relief bill, 236 ; con- 
 sents to continue in office on Wellington 
 
 earnestly soliciting him to do so, 237 ; va- 
 cates his seat for Oxford, ib. ; fails to be re- 
 elected ; but obtains the seat for Westbury, 
 238 ; speech explanatory of the bill for the 
 relief of Koman Catholics, 239; solemnly 
 affirms that his conduct with respect to this 
 question was regulated by honest motives, 
 240 ; compels Mr. Brougham to apologise for 
 his strong language against the Wellington i 
 ministry, 245, 246; his retirement from 
 office, 1830, 264, 265; his emotion at the ' 
 introduction of the Reform bill, March, 1831, 
 272 ; his reply to lord Palmerston's speech, 
 275 ; refuses to advocate reform upon any 
 terms, 1832, 298; his declaration as to re- 
 form, 1833, 320 ; speech of, supporting go- 
 vernment in the Irish Coercion bill, 324 ; 
 Cobbett's motion to have him dismissed the 
 privy council, 325 ; his naiTative of his ap- 
 pointment to the premiership, 351, 352; first 
 lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
 exchequer, 1834, 353 ; formation of his 
 ministry, 353, 354 ; list of his cabinet ; his 
 Tamworth manifesto, 354 ; general prin- 
 ciples of his government, 355, 356; minis- 
 terial defeats, 355-357 ; supports the amend- 
 ment on the motion for a London university 
 charter, 357 ; speech of, on explaining the 
 cause of his resignation, 357, 358 ; acts the 
 part of moderator in the dispute between the 
 two houses, 364 ; eulogises William IV., 377 ; 
 his solicitude as to the condition of the 
 labouring classes, 418; fails in forming a 
 new ministry on account of the Queen's re- 
 fusing to dismiss the ladies of the bed- 
 chamber, 420 ; speaks against free-trade 
 principles, 438; moves that the ministry 
 have not the confidence of the House of 
 Commons, 439 ; his speech on the address, 
 440 ; difficulties of his position, 441 ; pro- 
 claims the necessity of the war with China, 
 446 ; supports Macaulay's amendments t» 
 the copyright bill, 465 ; his reserve as to his 
 policy, and of the intended course to be pur- 
 sued in the corn-law question, 492, 493 ; 
 his opinions on this question, 494, 495; 
 introduces a bill for better protecting the 
 queen's person, 497; his debate with lord 
 Palmcrston as to his policy towards France,. 
 497, 498 ; considers the Ashburton treaty 
 decisive of the boundary question, 498 ; re- 
 solves to maintain the union with Ireland, 
 502 ; his speech on the state of Ireland, 512; 
 considers the prosperous state of the country 
 a justification of his financial policy of 1842, . 
 512, 513 ; advocates protection to agricul- 
 ture, 513 ; his position reviewed, 513, 514 ; 
 his bank act passed, 514 ; its advantages and 
 disadvantages, 514, 515; objects to lord 
 Ashley's ten-hour clause in sir J. Graham's 
 bill for regulating factory labour, 515, 516 ; 
 conduct of, in the sugar-duty debate ; Mr. 
 Disraeli's hostility towards, 517; remarks 
 of, on the Tahiti affair, 521 ; his financial 
 statement for 1845, 525, 526 ; opposition to 
 his proposals, 526 ; again attacked by Mr. 
 Disraeli, 527, 528 ; introduces the govern- 
 ment plans for a grant to Maynooth_ college, 
 528; denunciations poured upon him, 528, 
 529 ; his measure carried, 529 ; Tory bitter- 
 ness towards, 530 ; apjjrehends a failure of 
 the potato crop, 530, 531 ; proposes a modi- 
 fication of the coni-laws, 531 ; dissensions in
 
 INDEX. 
 
 711 
 
 his cabinet as to suspending the corn-laws, 
 632, 533; he resigns his premiership, 533; 
 refuses to pledge himself to support the 
 repeal of the corn-laws, 533, 534 ; his part- 
 ing interview with the queen, 534 ; reas- 
 suraes his office, 534, 53c; the Duke of Wel- 
 lington's admiration of his courage, 535 ; 
 ministerial explanation of; determines to 
 hold his power unshackled, 536; again at- 
 tacked by Mr. Disraeli, 536, 537 ; his new 
 tariff and corn-law bill, 537, 538 ; debate on 
 his plans, 538 ; his speech in supnort of his 
 measures, 538, 539 ; adoption of his bills, 
 539, 540 ; the bill for the protection of life in 
 Ireland, rejected ; violent attack on, by lord 
 Eentinck ; defended by Mr. Cobden, 540, 
 541 ; vindicates his own conduct ; resigns 
 office, 541 ; opposed to limiting the hours of 
 factory labour, 552 
 Peerage bill introduced; rejected, 1719, vi. 37, 
 
 38 
 Pelham, Henry, speaks against the motion for 
 repealing the Septennial act, 1734, vi. 74; 
 appointed first lord of the treasury, Aug. 
 1743, 111, 112, 320; succeeds Walpole in 
 his command of the House of Commons, 
 112 ; turned out of office for 48 hours ; con- 
 ducts the financial part of the administra- 
 tion, 178; regarded the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapdle as a necessity ; his despondency at 
 the weakness of the nation, 183; proposes 
 the reduction of the national debt interest, 
 184 ; death of, March 6, 1754, 197 ; first lord 
 of the treasury and chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, 1743-1704, 320 
 Pellegrini, Antonio, a ceiling painter, v. 
 
 463 
 Peltier, trial of, for libelling Bonaparte, 1803, 
 vi. 420, 421 ; Mackintosh's speech in defence 
 of, 421, 422 
 Pembroke, William, earl of, one of the leaders 
 of the barons who obtained Magna Charta, i. 
 345 ; is appointed regent to Henry III. in 
 1217, 357 ; succeeds in expelling the French 
 under Louis, 358 ; death of, in 1219, ib. 
 Pembroke, Thomas Herbert, earl of, represents 
 England at the conferences at Eyswick, 1697, 
 V. 198 
 Pendergrass. See Portland, carl of, v. 189 
 Penn, Kichard, governor of Pennsylvania ; en- 
 trusted with the presentation of a petition to 
 the king, 1775, vi. 360 ; examined in the 
 House of Lords, 361 
 Penn, W^illiam, arrested on March 5, 1682, with 
 Mead, for attending a Quaker's meeting, iv. 
 311; behaviour of Jeffreys, ti. ; is acquitted, 
 312 ; obtains a grant of land in America in 
 lieu of money owing to him by the crown, 
 378 ; resolves to found a colony for the 
 Quakers there out of the reach of the penal 
 laws, ib. ; obtains a charter from the king, 
 who names the settlement Pennsylvania, ib. ; 
 ■with the assistance of Algernon Sidney, 
 frames a constitution for it, ib. ; lands at 
 Newcastle on the Delaware, Oct. 27, 1682, 
 379 ; founds Philadelphia, and enters into a 
 treaty with the Indians, ib. ; influence of, in 
 procuring the release from prison of 1400 
 Quakers on the accession of James I., 384 
 Penny Magazine started, 1832 ; large circula- 
 tion of, proof of the increased desu'e for know- 
 ledge, viu. 311,312 
 Penny Postage. See Post. 
 
 People, histoiy of the, desirableness of, i. pre- 
 face, vii. 
 
 Perceval, Sperwer, opens the case for the crown 
 in the trial of Peltier, 1803, vii. 421 ; opposes 
 the bill for promoting the enlistment of 
 Koman Catholics, 479 ; chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, 1807, vii. 480 ; moves tliat the duke 
 of York is innocent of the charge brought 
 against him, 509 ; premier, 1809 ; constitution 
 of his ministry, 526 ; his ministry retained on 
 the prince of Wales becoming Hegent, Feb. 
 
 1811, 535; assassinated in the lobby of the 
 House of Commons by Belliugham, May 11, 
 
 1812, 540-541 
 
 Perron commands the Scindia's army, Til. 455 ; 
 defeated by general Lake ; puts himseli" 
 under British protection, 45G 
 
 Persigny, M. de, aids Louis Napoleon in his 
 enterprise at Strasbourg, 1837 ; effects his 
 escape, vLii. 375 
 
 Perth, duke of. See Drummond, James. 
 
 Pestilence in 1479, notice of, ii. 175 
 
 Peter the Great, czar of Muscovy, visits England 
 in 1698 ; EvehTi's house is hired for him ; he 
 engages liimself as a ship carpenter ; descrip- 
 tion of, vi. 211 ; career of, from 1698 to 1709, 
 345 ; when his empire is invaded by Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, whom he defeats atPultowa, . 
 July 8, 1709, 346 ; enters Meckleuberg and 
 threatens Denmark, 1716, vi. 28 
 
 Peter the Hermit, first preaching of the Cru- 
 sade by, i. 226 ; first crusade led by, 228 ; 
 rout of, 229 
 
 Peterborough, Charles Mordaxint, earl of, im- 
 peached, 1689, V. 98 ; his early career, 292 ; 
 and character, 293 ; he is sent on an expedi- 
 tion to Spain, ib. ; opposes the prince of 
 Darmstadt's and the arcUduke Charles' plan 
 of besieging Barcelona ; but finalh' agrees to 
 it, 294 ; quarrels with the prince of Darm- 
 stadt, ib. ; attacks Montjuich ; his men are 
 repulsed, he rallies them, and finally reduces 
 the post ; Barcelona soon after suirenders, 
 1702, 295; raises the siege of San Mateo; 
 pursues Las Torres and his army ; com- 
 mences operations for the defence of Valencia, 
 296 ; removes the besieging army under Arcos 
 out of his path, and obtains admission into 
 Valencia by a stratagem, 1706, 297 ; defeats 
 Philip's troops, ib. ; relieves Barcelona, 298 ; 
 goes to Madrid ; his gaiety of temper as 
 shown by a letter, ib. ; his disgust at Charles ; 
 leaves him ; returns to Spain, 1707; re- 
 called by government, 299 ; his subsequent 
 occupation, 300; receives tlie thanks of par- 
 liament for his services in Spain, 368 
 Peters, Hugh, idea afforded by, of the havoc of 
 the Civil W^ar, iv. 50 ; execution of, as a 
 regicide, 248 
 Petion, Villeneuve, sent by the National As- 
 sembly to conduct Louis XYl. bade to France, 
 
 1791, vii. 202 ; chosen mayor of Paris, 205 ; 
 his conduct in the insurrection of June 20, 
 
 1792, 221 ; popularity of, 222 ; heads a de- 
 putation demanding the king's deposition, 
 224 
 
 Petition of Right passed in 1628, iii. 398 
 Petticoat costume, 18th century, v. 419 
 Pett)', lord Henry. See Lansdowu, lord. 
 Phigaleian marbles, viii. 150 
 Philadelphia occupied by the British, 1777, vi. 
 
 378 
 Philip of Spain contracted in maniage to queen
 
 712 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mary, iii. 60 ; marriage of, to Mary, 75 ; 
 bribeiy of the English parliament by, 76 ; 
 leaves England, 95 ; continued interference 
 of, in its affairs, 96 ; return of, to England, 
 100 ; war of, with the Pope and France, ib. ; 
 engages England to join in the war against 
 France, 101; quits England, ib.; his ambas- 
 sador's account of Elizabeth's character, 105 ; 
 proposes himself as a husband to Elizabetli, 
 108 ; effiirts of, to suppress Protestantism in 
 the Netherlands, 167 ; cruelties of the duke 
 of Alva in carrying his desires into efiect, ib. ; 
 intrigues of, against Elizabeth, 168 ; schemes 
 of, for invading England, 181 ; his fleet in 
 Cadiz destroyed by Drake, 215 ; fresh prti)a- 
 rations for the invasion, 217 ; the Armada 
 sets sail from the Tagus, May 28, 1588, 225 ; 
 ill-success and defeat of the Armada, 230, et 
 seq. ; fresh preparations made by, 2oS ; 
 Corunna and Vigo taken and burnt by the 
 English fleet, 239; intrigues of, in Scot- 
 land against England, 261 ; endeavours to 
 have Elizabeth poisoned, 265 ; death of, in 
 1598, 279 
 
 JPhilip V. of Spain succeeds to the throne, 
 1700, V. 243; enters Catalonia, 1706; be- 
 sieges Charles in Barcelona, 297 ; Peter- 
 borough compels him to raise the siege; 
 retires to iladrid ; but is driven hence by the 
 allies, 298 ; the national enthusiasm rises in 
 his favour, 299 ; the duke of Berwick com- 
 pels the allies to evacuate j\Iadrid, ib. ; re- 
 seated on his throne, 1707, 330; he is op- 
 posed by Charles and assisted by Staremberg 
 and Stanhope, 1710 ; is defeated at Alraenara 
 and Saragossa, 366 ; the duke of Vcndome 
 takes command of his army and retrieves his 
 cause, and establishes his family on the 
 throne, 367 ; stipulations granted to, by the 
 treaty of Utrecht, 397 ; the French invade 
 his territory ; they compel him to dismiss 
 his minister, Alberoni ; accedes to the Quad- 
 ruple Alliance, Jan. 1720, vi. 37; succeeded 
 by Ferdinand VI. 1746, 465 
 
 Philippa, general, commands the French at 
 the siege of Badajoz, 1812; his defence, vii. 
 549 ; capitulates to the British, 550 
 
 Phillips, sir Thomas, aids in quelling the Frost 
 insurrection at Ne\v])ort, viii. 422-423 
 
 Pliilpot, the martyr and persecutor, iii. 88 
 
 Physicians' College, founded in 1518, ii. 497 
 
 Pichegru, Charles, defeated by the duke of 
 York, May, 1794, vii. 311 ; compels the 
 British under Dundas to abandon Holland, 
 313-314 ; suppresses an insurrection in Paris, 
 April Ij 1795, 321 ; banished France, 1797, 
 344 ; implicated in a conspiracy against 
 Bonaparte, 1804; he is found strangled in 
 prison, 432 
 
 Picton, sir Thomas, takes part in capturing 
 Ciudad Eodrigo, 1812, vii. 548, 550 ; his arri- 
 val at Quatre Bras interferes with Ney's 
 movements, viii. 29 ; slain at the battle of 
 Waterloo, June 18, 1815, 35 
 
 Picts and Scots, irruption of into Britain, i. 54 ; 
 opinions of Dr. Lingard and Dr. Xappcnberg 
 that they were tlie same people, ib. ; driven 
 back by Theodosius, ib. 
 
 Piedmont, annexed to France, Sept. 1802, vii. 417 
 
 Pierson, major, defeats the French under 
 Rullecourt on Jersey Island, 1781 ; killed ; 
 vi. 419 
 
 Pilgrimages to holy places, popularity of, in Iha 
 
 15th century, ii. 126; to shrines, prevalence 
 of, temp. Henry MI., 245 ; Erasmus' account 
 of his pilgrimages to Walsingham and Canter- 
 bury, ii. 246 
 
 Pilgrim Fathers, settlement of, in Massachu- 
 setts, in 1620, iii. 346 
 
 Pilnitz, declaration of, vii. 207 ; 412 
 
 Pindarees, war with the, 1817-1818, viii. 216, 
 217; results in the breaking up of the 
 IVlahratta confederacy, which had aided tha 
 Pindarees, 217 
 
 Pinkie, battle of, Oct. 10, 1547, iii. 7 
 
 Pitt. See Chath.im. 
 
 Pitt, William, unsuccessful candidate asM.P. for 
 Cambridge University ; returned for Appleby, 
 1780 ; first speech in support of Burke's Civil 
 list Bill ; \\ ilberforce's prophecy of, vi. 419; 
 his hostile speech towards the ministry, 433, 
 434; his motion for the Reform of Parlia- 
 ment proposed, 1782, 441; rejected, 442; 
 becomes chancellor of the exchequer, 450 ; 
 469 ; commencement of the party conflict 
 between Fox and, 459 ; his argument in 
 favour of a commercial treaty with France, 
 vii. 58 ; introduces his second reform bill; i: 
 is rejected; as also another bill for prevent- 
 ing abuses in public offices, 136 ; appointed 
 first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 
 the exchequer, Dec. 19, 1783, 139; his 
 anxiety and disinterestedness, 139, 140; his 
 India bill thrown out ; his struggle against 
 a majority in the Commons, 141 ; addresses to 
 the king for the removal of the Pitt ministry; 
 his popularity ; and final triumph, 142 ; 
 general character of; re-elected for the 
 University of Cambridge, 143 ; squibs against, 
 144, 145 ; considered a safer minister than 
 Fox, 145 ; his financial measures, ib. ; intro- 
 duces his bill for promoting commerce between 
 Great Britain and Ireland ; withdrawn ; his 
 reform bill is rejected a third time, 146 ; Ms 
 scheme of the sinking fund ; its futility, 147 ; 
 his speech in favour of the commercial treaty 
 Avith France, 148, 149 ; consolidates the 
 taxes; Burke's tribute of thanks to; Pitt's 
 increase of popularitj', 150 ; endeavours to 
 restrict the prince of Wales' power as regent, 
 153, 154; the king's gratitude to, for liis 
 conduct during his illness, 154, 155 ; his 
 popularity still further increased, 155 ; hopes 
 for an improved state of France ; visits 
 France, 1783, 156, 157 ; his spirited conduct 
 averts the war with Spain, 188 ; his calmness 
 and confidence in the stability of the British 
 power, 207 ; keeps aloof from the declaration 
 of Pilnitz, 207, 208; displays the flourishing 
 condition of Great Britain, 211 ; his eloquent 
 speech in favour of abolishing the slave trade 
 innnediately, 212 ; supports Fox's libel bill, 
 ib. ; attempts made to bring about a coalition 
 between Fox and Pitt, 213; his opinions on 
 p.uliamentary reform, 213, 214 ; lord warden 
 of the Cinque Ports, 238 ; his strong desire to 
 remain neutral with France, 238-40; his 
 opinion of the French proceedings against 
 Louis XVI., 243 ; his interview with lord 
 Loughborougli ; is induced by him to favour 
 a war policy, 2i5, 246; his address to the 
 king on the execution of Louis XVI., 252, 253; 
 his Indian dechn-atory bill passed, 1788, 257; 
 defends his abandonment of the cause of p:ir- 
 liamentary reform, 266; opinions of, on the 
 French war, 2(J7, 268 ; measures adopted by,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 713 
 
 towards France, 2G8, 269 ; they arc opposed 
 by Burke, ib. ; Fox, 269, 270 ; Sheridan, 
 Grey, and Erskine, 270 ; points out the diffi- 
 culty of conducting a negotiation with the 
 French, 276 ; Fox lays the blame of the war 
 miscarriages in the campaign of 1793 upon, 
 283 ; Canning becomes his supporter, 317 ; 
 opposition of Wilberforce to the address, 
 1794, 318 ; brings before the House of Com- 
 mons a seditious meetings bill, 1795, 323 ; 
 tenour of the bill ; disputes with Fox ; the 
 bill is passed, 324 ; in consequence of a heavy 
 pressure on the Bank of England he is 
 unable to obtain financial assistance, 1797, 
 333 ; his difficulty got over, 333, 334 ; intro- 
 duces bills for suppressing mutiny in the 
 navj', 1797; the mutiny at the Nore is 
 thereby quelled, 341 ; advocates peace with 
 France, 342 ; proposes an income tax ; his 
 estimate of its amount, Dec. 3, 1798, 359 ; 
 the measure passed, 360; anxious to promote 
 the relief of the Irish Catholics, 369, 370 ; his 
 resolutions on the Union agreed to, 371, 374 ; 
 endeavours to persuade the king not to openly 
 oppose the Catholic emancipation question, 
 398 ; the king i-efusing to do so, Mr. Pitt re- 
 signs, March 14, 1801, 399, 400; the kmg's 
 insanity imputed to the hasty resignation of, 
 400, 401 ; negotiations for his return to 
 power, 1803 ; stipulates for more than Ad- 
 dington will grant, 424 ; his speech advocat- 
 ing war with France, 424, 425 ; conunands the 
 volunteers at W aimer, 428, 429 ; presses for 
 an administration on a broad basis ; obtains 
 tlie premiership on certain prescribed condi- 
 tions, 431 ; his government opposed by the 
 Addington, Grenville, and Fox parties, 435 ; 
 efl'ects a reconciliation with Mr. Addington, 
 437 ; caiTies the question of war against 
 Spain, 438 ; his mortification on the charges 
 of corruption being brought against lord 
 Melville ; fm'ther increased on the passing of 
 the vote of censure, 439; eflfect of the news of 
 Mack's surrender at Ulm on, 445 ; his feel- 
 ings on hearing of the battle of Trafalgar and 
 death of Nelson, 448 ; Napoleon's triumph at 
 AusterUtz completes the ruin of his health, 
 450 ; last daj's of Pitt ; story of the desertion of 
 his death-bed, 451 ; died January 23, 1806, 
 451-452 ; public honours conferred on, 463 
 
 Pius VI., feebleness of his government, vii. 
 326 ; buys Napoleon off from invading his 
 territories, 327 
 
 Pius VII., compelled to officiate at Napoleon's 
 coronation, 1804, vii. 437 ; imprisoned at 
 Savoua, 535 ; released, 508 
 
 Plague, the great, of 1665, first appearance of, 
 iv. 269 ; the condition of London, such as 
 to promote it, 270; Defoe's narrative of it 
 in London, 271, et seq. ; superstitious fears 
 of the people respecting it, 272; notices of, 
 by Pepys and others, 273, 275 
 
 Plassey, battle of, June 23, 1757, vi. 225, 226 
 
 Platiere, R. de. See Roland. 
 
 Plattsburg, the British fail to take, 1814, 
 viii. 16 
 
 Plautius, sent from Gaul by Claudius to invade 
 Britain, i. 17, 18 ; attacks Togodumnus and 
 Caractacus with indifferent success, ib. ; applies 
 for succour to Claudius, ib. ; triumph bestowed 
 on, 20 
 
 Plentheim. See Blenheim. 
 
 Plymouth, not a great naval station at the end 
 
 of the 17th eentaiT, v. 10 ; its prosperity 
 caused by the erection of the breakwater by 
 Telford, 11 
 Pocock, sir George, admiral ; reduces Havannah 
 in conjunction with the earl of Albemarle, vi. 
 256 
 Poitiers, battle of, won by the Black Prince, 19 
 Sept. 1356, i. 475 
 
 Poland, incorporated with Russia, viii. 383 
 
 Pole, cardinal Reginald, publishes a book against 
 the divorce of Henry VIII., ii. 422 ; his 
 family in England are arrested, in 1539, and 
 his mother, the aged countess of Salisbury, 
 executed, in 1541, 423 ; he arrives in Engl-ind, 
 in 1554, as legate, ui. 76 ; the parliament sub- 
 mits to the pope, and he absolves the realm, 
 77 ; moderation of, during the Marian perse- 
 cution, 81 ; success of his efforts towards a 
 reconciliation defeated by the zealotry of 
 pope Paul IV., 96; is made archbishop of 
 Canterbury, 99 ; his proceedings against 
 the bodies of dead heretics, 100 ; his death, 
 106 
 
 Police, state of London, 18th century, vii. 116, 
 117 ; inquiry into the state of the, made 
 1816, 1817, viii. 64, 65; the new Metropolitan 
 formed, 1829, 232 
 
 Polignac, prince Jules de, president of the 
 French council, 1829, viii. 248 ;_ his minis- 
 tiy sends out an expedition against Algiers, 
 249 ; informs the king of the unsettled state 
 of the kingdom, 250 ; refuses to recall the 
 royal ordinances; the king is compelled to 
 dismiss the ministry of, 254 
 
 Political Unions, extensive formation of, 1832, 
 viii. 294, 295 
 
 Pollock, gen., his Indian campaign, 1842, viii. 
 458-460 
 
 Pondicherry, siege of, raised by the English, 
 vi. 202 ; surrenders to the English, 249 ; vii. 
 129 ; taken by sir John Braithwaite, 260 
 
 Poniatowski, prince, heads the Poles in their 
 claim for independence ; leaves Poland, vii. 
 314 
 
 Ponsonby, G., proposes several reform measures, 
 vii. 364; moves an amendment in the address 
 claiming independence for Ireland, 371 ; his 
 sorrow at Perceval's death, 541 ; a lord of the 
 treasurj', viii. 267 
 
 Pome-corvo, prince of. See Charles XIV. of 
 Sweden 
 
 Poor, condition of the Anglo-Saxon, i. 91 ; pro- 
 gress of legislation for the relief of, iii. 267 ; 
 statute ]iassed for, 39 EUz., the foundation of 
 the English Poor Law, 268 
 
 Poor Laws, administi-ation of, 1816, viii. 68, 69 
 the poor law amendment bill brought in by 
 lord Althorp, April 17, 1834, 336 ; the report 
 of the poor law commissioners, 336-341 ; 
 debates on, opposition to, and passing of, the 
 bill, 341, 342 ; it receives the royal assent, 
 Aug. 14 ; first report of the commissioners, 
 342 ; introduction of the poor laws into 
 Ireland proposed, 1837, 376; working of 
 the new poor law, 397, 398, 413, 414; in- 
 troduction of the, into Ireland by Mr. NichoUa, 
 411 
 
 Pope, Alexander, essays by, in the " Spectator" 
 and " Guardian," V. 413; sketch of his life, 
 415 ; and traits of his character, 416 ; his 
 "Rape of the Lock," 421-423: highly remu- 
 nerated for his translations of the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, 434; his essay on criticism and
 
 714 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 attack on Dennis, 436; his satire upon anti- 
 quaries, 437 ; the Dunciad, 437, 438 ; vii. 86 ; 
 remarks on tlie commentators, public scliools, 
 V. 439 ; the universities and the traveller, 
 440 ; entomologists and florists, 441 ; con- 
 demns Vanbrugh's architecture, 456 ; his libel 
 on lord Hervey, vi. 67; died 1744, vii. 86 
 
 ropham. "sir Home, captures Buenos Ayres, vii. 
 473, 474 
 
 Popish Plot of 1668. See Charles II., and Gates, 
 Titus. 
 
 Population of England, at the end of the third 
 century, a very mixed one, i. 43, 44 ; intro- 
 duction of large bodies of Germans, Burgun- 
 dians, and Vandals, by the Koman emperors, 
 43 ; mixed character of, at the departure of 
 the Romans, 57 ; cowardice and effeminacy of, 
 as described by Gildas, not credible, 58 
 
 Popular amusements and games, ii. 14, 236, 237, 
 255-260 ; 492, 494 ; iii. 131, 246-255 ; iv. 
 251 
 
 Popular sports, temp. Richard I., i. 328, 329 
 
 Port. See Wine. 
 
 Porteous, John, captain of the Edinburgh city 
 guard; fires on a mob, killing several per- 
 sons ; convicted of murder ; sentenced to 
 death ; reprieved, vi. 81 ; murdered by the 
 mob, 82 
 
 Porteous riots in Edinburgh, vi. 79-84 
 
 Porter, George, his share in the assassination 
 plot, 1696, V. 188, 190; gives evidence against 
 Fen wick, 196 
 
 Portland, WUliam Bentinck, earl of; example 
 of his integrity, v. 178; accompanies William 
 to the siege of Namur, 1695, 179 ; summons 
 JBoufflers to surrender the place, 180 ; William 
 orders a grant of an estate to him, which is 
 recalled, on the Commons showing it to be 
 unconstitutional, 185 ; is infoiTaed of the as- 
 sassination plot by Fisher, Pendergrass, 189 ; 
 and De la llue, 190 ; arranges with marshal 
 Boufflers the preKminaries of the peace of 
 Eyswick, 1607, 198 ; is sent on a mission to 
 France by William, 1698, 207 ; description of 
 his entree and private audience, 208, 209 ; 
 his reception by Louis and the French court, 
 208 ; con-espondence of, in connection with 
 the first Partition Treaty, 227 ; signed by him 
 as commissioner, Oct. 11, 229 ; jealousy of, 
 towards Albemarle ; he retires from court 
 and gives up all his offices ; but is persuaded 
 by William to continue the negotiations for 
 the second Partition Treaty, 236 ; he is im- 
 peached by the Commons "for h s concern in 
 the Partition Treaties, 246 ; attends William 
 on his death bed, 254 
 
 Portland, duke of, appointed viceroy of Ireland, 
 
 1782, vi. 446 ; first lord of the treasury, 
 
 1783, vii. 135, 576; supports the Alien bill, 
 244 ; opposes lord Loughboi'ough being chan- 
 cellor ; after considerable hesitation gives his 
 adherence to the war party, 244, 245 ; ap- 
 pointed third secretary of stat , 1794, 316 ; 
 requested to aid the bribery for accomplishing 
 the Irish Union, 372, 373 ; nominal head of 
 the administration, 1807 ; resigns the pre- 
 miership, 1809 ; died October 29, 1809, 480 ; 
 home secretary of state, 1794-1801, 576, 
 577 
 
 Portrnore, lord, governor of Gibraltar ; hastens 
 to defend it in his 80tb year, vi. 56 
 
 torto Bcllo, taken by admiral Ycmon, y\. 97, 
 98 
 
 Porto Carcro, cardinal, his practisings on 
 Charles II. of Spain, to induce him to give 
 the Spanish ijiheritance to France, v. ^2 ; 
 his purpose accomplished ; chief of the 
 Spanish council, 243 
 
 Portugal, prince regent of. See John cf Por- 
 tugal. 
 
 Post, insecurity and tardiness of the, 18th cen- 
 tury, vii. 92, 93 ; introduction of mail coaches, 
 1784, 93 ; rapid increase and celerity of com- 
 munication by, viii. 389, 390 ; insufficiency 
 of postal accommodation, 390 ; public opinion 
 on Rowland Hill's penny postage plan, 424, 
 425; the system is tried, found successful, and 
 finally adopted, 425, 426 ; variety of stamps 
 in use, 426 
 
 Pottinger, sir HeRr}', the British plenipotentiary 
 at Canton ; his proceedings as such, viii. 448; 
 concludes the treaty of Nanking, 449 
 
 Pounds, John, his benevolent career ; died 1839, 
 viii. 399 
 
 Power loom, invented by Dr. Cartwiight, vii. 54 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction published by Charles VI., 
 April 17, 1713, V. 389 
 
 Prague, peace of. May 30, 1635, v. 386 ; taken 
 by the elector of Bavaria, Nov. 25, 1741, vi. 
 167 ; besieged by Frederick of Prussia, 1758, 
 unavailingly, 228, 229 
 
 Pratt, sir C. See Camden, Lord. 
 
 Presburg, peace of, signed, Dec. 26, 1805, vii. 
 446-448 
 
 Presbyterians. See Nonconformists. 
 
 Press, the. See Newspapers. 
 
 Preston, lord, plots against William ; tried ; 
 and convicted, v. 125; implicates several 
 eminent persons with being concerned in the 
 plot, 126 
 
 Preston, captain, tried for abetting the murder 
 of a mulatto ; defended by John Adams ; 
 found 'not guilty,' vi. 313 
 
 Preston-Pans, battle of, Sept. 1745, vi. 129- 
 131 
 
 Prevost, sir George, governor-in-chief of the 
 British North American provinces, viii. 8 ; 
 his failm-e in an attack on Plattsburg ; out- 
 cry raised against him ; resigns ; demands a 
 court martial, but dies before it commences, 
 viii. 16 
 
 Priestley, Dr. Joseph, accused of being opposed 
 to the church of England, vii. 195 ; becomes 
 a Unitarian minister at Birmingham, 1780, 
 ib. ; his character, 195, 196 ; his " Familiar 
 Letters to the Inhabitants of Birmingham," 
 published, 1791; the riots of 1791; the 
 rioters burn his chapel, house, and books, and 
 compel him to flee the town, 196 
 
 Piintiug, begun in England by Caxton about 
 1474,^ii. 128 
 
 Printing and the importation of books, en- 
 couragement afforded to by Richard III. ii. 
 200, 201 
 
 Prior, Matthew, accompanies St. John, viscount 
 Bolingbroke, on his embassy to France, 1712, 
 V. 396 ; excluded from the act of grace, 1717, 
 vi. 30 
 
 Prisons. See Gaols. 
 
 Pritchard, British consul at Tahiti ; the French 
 outrage on that island compels him to quit it, 
 viii. 521 
 
 Privateering, prevalence of, 1781 ; abolition o^ 
 recommended, 1856, vi. 420, 42i 
 
 Probus, cmjieror, sends Burgiuidiaus and Yanc 
 dais into Britain, i. 43
 
 INDEX. 
 
 715 
 
 troliibitory bill passed, vi. 362 
 
 I'rome occupied by the British, April 182-5, viii. 
 220 
 
 Property qualification bill, passed 1711, v. 370, 
 371 
 
 Pro vera marches to relieve Mantuu ; suiTenders 
 himself and army to Bcnaparte, Jan. 16, 1797, 
 vii. 343 
 
 Provisions, prices of, in the reigns of Henry 
 111. and Edward 1., i. 369 ; prices of, in 1495 
 and 1497, ii. 252 ; proclamation bj' the Pro- 
 tector Somerset against the unreasonable 
 prices of, iii. 20 ; scarcity of, and fluctuations 
 in the prices of, in 1573, 1586, 1587, and 1596, 
 276 
 
 Prynne, "William, excessive punishment of, in 
 1633, for publishing the" Histrio-SIastix," iii. 
 411 ; renewed severe sentence on, in 1637, for 
 anti-prelatical wilting, 423 ; is released with 
 Burton and Bastwick, on the meeting of the 
 Long Parliament in 1640, 444 ; triumphant 
 entry of, into London, ib. ; prosecution of 
 Laud by, in 1645, iv. 38 
 
 Ptolemy, list of towns in Britain by, i. 44 
 
 Public health, state of the, more especially that 
 of the labouring classes, viii. 391, 392 ; causes 
 of the bad, 392, 393 ; arrangements for better- 
 ing the, 393, 394 ; general and local boai'ds 
 of health established : public health act passed, 
 561 
 
 Pulteney, "William, opposes "Walpole ; his name 
 struck off the Privy Council list, vi. 66 ; his 
 spiteful quarrel with "Walpole ; and duel with 
 lord Hervey ; opposes the bill for proposing 
 standing armies, 67 ; and the resolution to 
 publish the parliamentary debates, 68 ; shows 
 the fallacy of the arguments in favour of re- 
 imposing the duty on salt, ib. ; argues that it 
 is a step towards a general excise, 69 ; favour.s 
 the motion for repealing the Septennial act, 
 74 ; opposes the Gin act, 1736, 78 ; created 
 eari of Bath, 104 
 
 Pultowa, invested by the Swedish, v. 345, 346 ; 
 battle of, July 8, 1709, 346 
 
 Purchase, George, charged with high treason 
 for taking part in a riot, 1710, v. 355 ; tried, 
 convicted, pardoned, 356 ; his share in the 
 riot, 357, 358 
 
 Puritans. See Nonconformists. 
 
 Putnam, Israel, a farmer and tavern-keeper ; 
 heads his neighbom-s in the revolution ; 
 becomes a general, vi. 354; commands the 
 Americans at the battle of Brooklyn, 1776, 
 370 
 
 Pym, John, joins in the protestation of the 
 House of Commons in 1621, agiiinst the king's 
 interference with their liberty of speech, iii. 
 382 ; assists in the debate on the Petition of 
 Eight, in 1628, 397; prophetic threat of, to 
 "Wentwcilh, on his becoming minister to 
 Charles I., 409 ; speech of, impeaching Straf- 
 ford, 445; conducts the proceedings on the 
 
 . trial of Straflbrd, 450 ; moves in the Com- 
 mons, that the form be changed to a bill of 
 attainder, 451 ; produces the notes of the 
 Privy Council furnished by Henry Vane, 
 against Straflbrd, 452 ; his vehement reply 
 to Strafi'ord's defence, 454 ; attempted to bo 
 seized by the king, on Jan. 3, 1642, 475 ; ad- 
 dresses the Londoners, iv. 11 ; death of, Dec. 
 Sth, 1643, 30 ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 
 ib. 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the, Nov. 7, 1659, v. 387 ; 
 
 battles of the, 1813 ; vii. 522. 523 ; view from 
 the, at sunrise, described, 565 
 
 Qu.\DRUPLE alliance signed Aug. 2, 1718 ; 
 joined by the duke of Savoy and Soain, v. 
 389 
 
 Quakers, interview between George Fox and 
 Cromwell, iv. 193 ; case of James Naylor, a 
 Quaker, 204 ; George Fox lays before Crom- 
 well the suflerings of the, 214 ; proclamation 
 against holding conventicles, and passive re- 
 sistance ofl'ered to, 251 ; stubborn resistanco 
 of, to the p^o^'isions of the Conventicle act in 
 1664, 267 ; Penn and Mead arrested and tried 
 for attending a Conventicle, 311 ; they are 
 acquitted, and Jefi'reys fines and imprisons 
 the jury, who are liberated by the judges of 
 the Common Pleas, 312 ; founding of Penn- 
 sylvania by Penn in 1682, 378 ; foui-teen 
 hundred released from prison on the accession 
 of James II., 384 ; exempted from the Tolera- 
 tion act on certain terms, v. 74 ; bill for 
 the relief of, passed, 1722, vi. 47 ; endea- 
 vour to obtain the abolition of the slave trade, 
 vii. 466 
 
 Quarterly Keview started, 1809, in opposition to 
 the Edinburgh Eeview ; its editor, partisans, 
 and criticism, viii. 127, 128 
 
 Quebec. See "Wolfe, vi. 237, 238 ; capitulates 
 to the English, Sept. 18, 1759, 239 ; besieged 
 by the Americans, 1760, 240 ; blockaded by 
 them, 1775, 362 
 
 Queensbmy, duke of, character and amusements 
 of the, vii. 102, 103 
 
 Queensbmy, James Douglas, duke of, high com- 
 missioner to queen Anne ; quells the riots 
 made in opposition to the union, 1706, v. 324; 
 he is threatened with assapsiuation, ib. ; 
 induces Ker to try to thwart the Cameroniau 
 schemes, 325 ; lie is advised of the pro- 
 ceedings of the Jacobite plotters by John Ker- 
 334 
 
 Quesnoy, sun-endered to Ormond and Eugene, 
 Julv"4, 1712, T. 392; taken by the Austrians, 
 1793, vii. 282 
 
 Quiberon Bay. See Hawke, vi. 239, 240 
 
 Quilieron, the British expedition to, 1/95, vii. 
 320 
 
 E-VDSTADT, peace of, Mar. 6, 1714, v. 389 ; con- 
 gress at, 1797-1799, vii. 381, 382 ; 413 
 
 Eaeburn, his portrait painting, viii. 152 
 
 iLiifiies, sir Stamford, lieutenant-governor of 
 Java, viii. 214; established a factory in 
 Singapore, 1819, 218 
 
 Eagged schools. See Education, viii. 399 
 
 Eagusa, duke of. See Marmont. 
 
 Eaikes, Eobert, ordered to attend the bar of the 
 House of Commons for printing the debates, 
 1729, vi. 67; Sunday schools originated by, 
 1781, vii. 120; changes in English society 
 noticed by, viii. 401, 402 
 
 Eajah of Nagpoor. See Bhoonsla. 
 
 Eajah Sahib, his contests with Clive ; put to 
 death by the .Mahrattas, vi. 204, 205 
 
 Ealeigh, sir "Walter, failure of his first attempt 
 to found a colony in North America, iii. 220 ; 
 commands the land forces at Plymouth, on the 
 approach of the Armada, 228 ; goes on board 
 the fleet, 230 ; assists Essex in his attack on 
 Cadiz in 1596, 265 ; commands another cv pe-
 
 716 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 dition with Essex, with whom he disagrees, 
 266 ; is deprived of his oflBces by James I., 
 310 ; indicted in 1603, for projecting to dis- 
 possess James in favour of Arabella Stuart, 
 SU ; brutality of Coke, and calm bearing of 
 Ealeigh, during the trial, 312; he is con- 
 victed, reprieved, and confined in the Tower, 
 313 ; his employments during his confine- 
 ment, 314, 373; opposition of, to the treaty 
 with Spain in 1604, 318 ; is released from the 
 Tower in 1616,374; undertakes an expe- 
 dition to Guiana, to discover a gold mine, ib. ; 
 is attacked, da-iven back, and returns to 
 England, 375 ; arrested at Plymouth, ih. ; 
 and executed under his former sentence on 
 Oct. 29, 1618, 376 ; popular indignation occa- 
 sioned by his execution, 377 
 
 Eamilies, battle of, May 23, 1706, v. 308, 309 
 
 Kanelagh gardens, its company and amuse- 
 ments, vii. 96, 97 
 
 Eangoon, taken by the British, 1823; defended 
 by sir A. Campbell, viii. 219 
 
 Rawdon, lord. See Moira. 
 
 Rebecca riots. See Riots. 
 
 Rebellion of 1715, vi. 6-22 
 
 Rebellion of 1745, vi. 121-176 
 
 Reciprocity of Duties bill passed July 4, 1823, 
 viii. 189 
 
 Re-coinage bill passed, 1695, v. 184, 185 
 
 Recognition act passed, 1690, v. 104 
 
 Reform, Irish church. See Church, viii. 326, 
 327 ; 343, 344 ; 357. 
 
 Reform, law. See Brougham, viii. 231, 232. 
 
 Reform, parliamentary. See Parliamentary 
 Reform. 
 
 Reformation, commencement of, in England, in 
 1531, ii. 336 ; Henry VIII. obtains from Con- 
 vocation a recognition of his being supreme 
 head of the church in England. " as far as 
 the law of Chiist will allow," 337 ; payment 
 of annates to the see of Rome abolished in 
 1533, 339 ; statute forbidding appeals to Rome 
 passed, 350 ; act of supremacy pas-^ed, 357 ; 
 visitation of the monasteries in 1535, and 
 statute for their dissolution, 366 ; English 
 bibles ordered to be set up in churches in 
 1638, 406 ; act of 1539 passed for the dissolu- 
 tion of abbeys, 408, 417 ; exposure of impos- 
 tures connected with images and relics, 409 ; 
 destruction of the religious houses, 413 ; act 
 passed in 1539 for enabling the king to make 
 hishops, 417 ; projected applications of the 
 monastic revenues, and their non-fulfilment, 
 418 ; the intolerant statute of the Six Articles 
 passed, 419 ; refomiors executed or driven out 
 of the country by this act, 421 ; continued 
 burnings for heresies in Emjland, under the 
 Six Articles act, 446, 447 ; Anne Askew and 
 others burnt, 449 ; beneficial effect of the act 
 of 1548, allowing of the maniage of priests, 
 488 ; various forms of church service before 
 the establisliment of the Book of Common 
 I'rayer in 1548, 489 ; dissensions regarding 
 the keeping of holidays, 490 ; the reading of 
 the Bible forbidden " to the lower sort," 492 ; 
 progress of, under Edward VI., iii. 8; the 
 Paraphrase of the New Testament published 
 in English, and the Book of Homilies, ib. ; 
 ecclesiastical visitation to inquire as to the 
 existence of Roman Catholic abuses, and the 
 leading of the Bible in English in churches, 
 8, 9 ; R'li for administering the Sacrament in 
 bcth kinds, 10 ; act for the suppression of 
 
 chauntries, ih. ; proclamation against religioua 
 processions, 11 ; the abolition of them not 
 popular, ib. ; act for the uniformity of service, 
 12; publication of the Book of Common 
 Prayer, 12, 13 ; persecution of Anabaptists, 
 and burning of Joan Bocher, 39 ; Articles of 
 Belief set forth by Edward VI., 40 ; book of 
 Canon laws issued by Cranmer, ib. ; Roman 
 Catholic bishops deprived of their sees, 40, 
 41 ; execution of Somerset, and account of 
 his promotion of the doctrines of the Refor- 
 mation, 44 ; sweeping chiinges effected by 
 Mary on her accession, 57, et seq. ; Cranmer, 
 Latimer, and Ridley condemned for heresy at 
 Oxford, 73 ; the statutes against heretics re- 
 vived, 77 ; the Marian persecution, 79, et seq. ; 
 list of Protestant victims, 80 ; martyrdom of 
 Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, 83 ; of Rowland 
 Taylor, at Iladleish, 85; prevalence of in- 
 tolerance in both Refoi-mers and Papists, 88 ; 
 Cranmer burnt, March 21, 1556, 93 ; the 
 church services ordered to be performed in 
 English on the accession of queen Elizabeth, 
 108 ; Mary's statutes in favour of popery re- 
 pealed, 113 ; dissensions among the Reformers, 
 and progress of Protestantism on the con- 
 tinent, 116; persecution on the continent of 
 Protestants in the Netherlands and France 
 occasions the settlement of a great number of 
 Calvinists in England, 167 ; a new statute 
 against Papists passed in 1571, 171 ; growth 
 of the Puritanical party, 172; plots of the 
 Jesuits against Elizabeth and the Reforma- 
 tion, 180 ; increased severities enacted against 
 Papists, priests being ordered to quit the 
 country, 181 ; the pope excommunicates Eng- 
 land, and publishes a crusade against, 
 217 _ _ 
 
 Reformation in Scotland, progress of, ii. 435 ; 
 Patrick Hamilton, the first Protestant martjT 
 in Scotland, burnt at St. Andrews, in 1528, 
 ib. ; James V. opposes himself to it, ib. ; he 
 refuses Henry VIII.'s proposal to make him- 
 self supreme head of the church, ib. ; "\Vis- 
 hart burnt, March 26, 1546, 441 ; cai-dinal 
 Beaton assassinated, May 29, ib. ; hostility of 
 the queen regent to the Reformers, iii. 118 ; 
 the Lords of the Congregation remonstrate, 
 ib. ; John Knox arrives from the continent, 
 preaches at Perth, and the Reformers destroy 
 the monastic houses, ib. ; Elizabeth lends 
 secret assistance to the Reformers, 1 19 ; the 
 Congregation has recourse to arms, ib. ; Eliza- 
 beth assists them openly with an army, and 
 they besiege and take Leith, 120 ; a Confes- 
 sion of Faith drawn up by a parliament in 
 1560, 121 ; other acts passed establishing the 
 reformed religion, 122 ; Knox preaches against 
 the abstraction of the church patrimony, ib. ; 
 Knox's attacks upon Mar}', and her avowal of 
 her hatred of him, 125, 126 ; essential dif- 
 ferences of, from that of the Reformation in 
 England, 136; danger of the establishment 
 of, from the opposition of Mary, 137; the 
 pope's autliority abolished, and the Confes- 
 sion of Faith of 1500 sanctioned, by the par- 
 liament in December, 1567, 153 
 
 Regency bill passed, v. 306 ; difl'erences between 
 George III. and his ministers on the, 1765 ; a 
 regency bill passed, vi. 276 ; another passed, 
 1788, for appointing the prince of Wales re- 
 gent, vii. 154 
 
 Register Book of births, death«, and marriages,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 717 
 
 order for the l:eopin,c; of, in every church, by 
 Thomiw Cromwell, ii. 455 
 
 Registration bill passed, 1836, viii. 371, 372 
 
 Eegner Lodbrok, first invasion of England by, 
 i. 79 ; second invasion and death, 93 
 
 fiemonstrarice of London, 1770, vi. 314, 315 ; 
 of the Massachusetts state against war with 
 Britain, 1812, viii. 5, 7, 8 
 
 Rennie, John, aids in draining the Lincolnshire 
 fens, vii. 15 ; his early career ; and engineer- 
 ing works of "Waterloo bridge, and at the 
 Docks, viii. 147, 148 
 
 Ilents, rise of, in the reign of Henry 'V'TII., ii. 
 475 
 
 Resumption bUl passed, 1699, v. 234, 235 
 
 Revenue, the amount of, in 1547, ii- 457 ; 
 sources of, 458 ; of the crown, as settled on 
 Charles II., iv. 243 
 
 Revenue act, opposition to the, by the Ameri- 
 cans, 1768, vi. 307 
 
 Revolution of 1688, the commencement of a new 
 era of English history, iv. 448, et seq. 
 
 Kevolution in Scotland, v. 90 
 
 Revolution, French, vii. 156-185; 188, 189; 
 191-193; 199-210; 214, 215; 217-243; 250- 
 253 ; 260 ; 271-296 ; 298 ; 306-311 ; 320-323 ; 
 325-334 ; 342-344 ; 346-353 ; 379-385 ; 387- 
 389 ; 392-396 ; 405 ; 407-411 
 
 Eevolution, French, of 1830. See Charles X., 
 viii. 250-256 
 
 Eevolution, French, narrative of the, of 1848, 
 viii. 555-558 ; 560-561 
 
 Reynolds, sir Joshua a leading portrait Dainter, 
 vii. 67 ; first president of the royal academy; 
 knighted, 70 ; contributes to the royal acade- 
 my's first exhibition, 71 ; critique on his 
 works; the true founder of the English 
 school of painting, 73 ; died in 1792, viii. 
 151 
 
 Ricci, Lorenzo, chief of the Jesuits ; opposes 
 the suppression of the company, vi. 327 
 
 Ricci, Sebastian, a ceiling painter, v. 463 
 
 Ricci, Marco, a ceiling painter, v. 463 
 
 Richard of Cirencester, record by, of "a pro- 
 found peace," from a.d. 211-'iS6, i. 31 ; list 
 of cities in Roman Britain given by, 39 
 
 Richard I., behaviour of, on the death of his 
 father, i. 304; crowned Sept. 3, 1189, 305; 
 massacre of the Jews at the coronation of, 
 306 ; engages in the third crusade, 307 ; mis- 
 taken sjTiipathy for the character of, ib. ; 
 quarrels with Philip of France, and marries 
 Berengaria of Navarre, 308 ; conquers Cyprus, 
 309 ; besieges Acre, ib. ; which surrenders, 
 310 ; Philip returns to France in anger, 311 ; 
 Richard orders the massacre of the Turkish 
 hostages, because the Holy Cross had not 
 been delivered, 312 ; marches towards Jerusa- 
 lem, ib.; defeats Saladin in 1191, 313; is 
 forced to retreat after reaching Jaffa, 314 ; 
 hears of disturbances in England occasioned 
 by the intrigues of his brother John, ib. ; 
 
 , Longchamp his chancellor in England de- 
 posed, 315 ; Richard is falsely accused of the 
 • murder of the marquis of Montferrat, 316; 
 last Eastern campaign of, 317 ; approaches 
 Jerusalem, but again retreats, 318; attempts 
 in vain to retake Jaffa, agrees to a truce, and 
 sails from Acre on Oct. 9, 1192, 319; is cap- 
 tured on his return, and imprisoned by the 
 emperor of Germany, ib. ; is ransomed, 320; 
 lands at Sandwich, March 12, 1194, oL'2 ; 
 leaves England on May 9, lands at llai-fleur. 
 
 and pardons John, 329 ; drives Philip out of 
 Normandy, 330 ; besieges Chaluz, is wounded, 
 and dies April 6, 1199, 330, 331, 332 
 
 Richard II., coronation of, on July 16, 1377, ii- 
 3 ; appointment by parliament of a council of 
 regency, ib. ; ill-success of his foreign wars, 
 and increase of taxation, 4 ; insurrection 
 against the poll-tax, headed by Wat Tyler, 
 in 1381, 5 ; the demands of the insurgents 
 granted by, at Mile End, tJ ; "Wat Tyler killed 
 in Smithfield during a parley with the king, 
 who then heads the insurgents himself, and 
 at length dismisses them to their homes, 7 ; 
 the grants revoked, ib. ; proposes to abolish 
 slavery, but parliament refuses, ib. ; statute 
 against the preachers of heresies, 9 ; contest 
 with the pope as to the bestowal of benefices, 
 10 ; is supported in it by the parliament, 11 ; 
 rise of _ the Lollards, ib. ; unnecessary and 
 oppressive interference of the government 
 of, in social affairs, 15-18; marries Anne of 
 Bohemia, 19 ; intrigues of his uncles and 
 ministers, 20 ; war with France to support 
 the Flemmgs in 1383, and truce in 1384, ib. ; 
 becomes suspicious of the duke of Lancaster, 
 20, 21 ; invades and ravages Scotland, 21 ; 
 rise of Michael de la Pole, ib. ; projected in- 
 vasion by the French, and destruction of the 
 French and Flemish fleets, 22 ; extravagance 
 of, and appointment of a commission of re- 
 gency, 23 ; impeachment and dismissal of De 
 la Pole, earl of Suffolk, ib. ; tampers with the 
 judges, and obtains an opinion that the com- 
 mission is illegal, 24 ; goes to London, the 
 Lords assemble in arms, and defeat his ad- 
 herents, ib. ; for about a year the government 
 in the hands of a parliamentary council, ib. ; 
 battle of Otterboume fought in 1388, ib. ; dis- 
 misses his guardians and assumes the govern- 
 ment in 1389, 26 ; his queen, Anne, dies, '27; 
 goes to Ireland in 1394 with a large army, 
 ib. ; marries Isabella of France, 28 ; parlia- 
 ment repeals the commission of regencj', and 
 the king becomes despotic, 29 ; duke of Glou- 
 cester arrested and murdered, 30 ; submission 
 of the barons, ib. ; quarrel of the duke of 
 Hereford with the duke of Norfolk, 31 ; he 
 banishes them both, 32; seizes the posses- 
 sions of the duke of Lancaster on his death 
 in 1398, 33 ; goes to Ireland with an armj-, 
 but has little success, 34 ; leanis that Henry 
 of Lancaster has landed in England, and re- 
 turns to Conway, ib. ; is captured by the earl 
 of Northumberland, 35 ; carried to London, 
 36 ; is deposed, and resigns his royalty, crown, 
 and heritage, 37 ; is imprisoned m the Tower, 
 38 ; death of, at Pontefrart, in 1400, 41 ; 
 Henry IV. accused of being his murderer, 43 ; 
 doubts as to the death of, and statement of 
 his escape from Pontefract, and death of, at 
 Stirling, in 1419, 44 
 
 Richard III. created duke of Gloucester in 1461, 
 ii. 150; flies with Edward to the duke of 
 Burgundy on the restoration of Henry VI., 
 162 ; lands with Edward at Ravenspur, 163 ; 
 successfully attacks Warwick at the battle of 
 Barnet, 165; distinguishes himself at the 
 battle of Tewkesbury, 166 ; different accounts 
 of the personal appearance of, ib. ; accused of 
 the murder of prince Edward, 167 ; suppresses 
 the insiu-rection of Falconbridge, ib. ; doubts 
 as to his guilt of the murder of Ileniy VI., 
 16S; quarrels with Clarence, 172; marries
 
 718 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 
 •widow of prince Edward, ib. ; popularity of, 
 in the North, ib. ; opposes the ti-eaty of 
 Picquiny, 174 ; no foundation for the state- 
 ment of his causing Clarence's death, 175; 
 takes Berwick, 176 ; swears fealty to Edward 
 Y., 177 ; arrests earl Elvers and the members 
 of Edward's council, 178; is appointed Pro- 
 tector, 179 ; accuses Hasting-s of treason, and 
 causes him to be executed, 181, 182 ; proclaims 
 his life ia danger, 183 ; accuses Jane Shore 
 of sorcery and conspiracy, 183, 184 ; Shaw 
 preaches ia favour of his claim to the crown, 
 185 ; and the duke of Buckingham harangues 
 the citizens on the same subject, ib. ; parlia- 
 ment assign him the crown on the ground of 
 the illegitimacy of Edward V., 186, 187; 
 causes earl Elvers and others of Edwai'd's 
 council to be beheaded, 187 ; he is crowned 
 at Westminster, July 6, 1483, 188 ; death of 
 the two princes in the Tower, ib. ; evidence 
 as to their murder considered, 188-192 ; 
 ready submission of the people to, and its 
 causes, 194 ; mixed character of Eichavd, 
 ib. ; acts of clemency and restitution by, ib. ; 
 revolt of Buclcingham, 195 ; which is sup- 
 pressed, and Buckingham executed, in 1483, 
 198 ; merits of Eichard as a legislator, ib. ; 
 sahitary laws passed by the parliament of, 
 199 ; causes the statutes to be first printed, 
 and in English, 200 ; encourages printing and 
 the inrportation of books, 201; death of his 
 son, 202 ; negotiates with the duke of Brit- 
 tany, for the delivery of Henry of Eichmond, 
 ib. ; death of Anne, his queen, 203 ; publicly 
 disavows any intention of marrying Eliza- 
 beth, his brother Edward's daughter, ib. ; 
 mistaken estimate by, of Henry of Eichmond, 
 as an adversary, ib. ; insulEcient precautions 
 against treason taken by, 204 ; Eichmond 
 lands at Milford Haven, ib. ; inadequate pre- 
 parations to resist, 205 ; battle of Bosworth, 
 Aug. 22, 1485, 206 ; his death, 207 
 
 Eicliardson, Samuel, his novel of "Pamela" 
 published 1740, 1741 ; its extraordinary popu- 
 larity, vii. 87, 88 ; liis " Clarissa " appears 
 1748 ; and " Sir C. Grandison" in 1751, 88 
 
 Pdchborough, Koman colony at, i. 37 ; notice of 
 the ruins of, 38 
 
 Eichelieu, due de, advises that a battery be 
 directed on the duke of Cumberland's column, 
 at Fontenoy, 1745, which is forced to retreat, 
 vi. 114 ; drives the duke of Cumberland out 
 of Hanover, 1757 ; convention of Closter 
 Seven, 229 
 
 Eichmond, duke of, secretary of state, 1766, vi. 
 321 ; moves for Penn's examination, 361 ; for 
 an addrpss to the king on the state of the 
 nation, 1778, 388 ; proposes a bill for extend- 
 ing the right of vote, and other parliamentary 
 reforms, 407 
 
 Eight of search, disputes between England and 
 America on the, vii. 544 ; viii. 4 
 
 Eights, bill of, passed 1689, v. 97 
 
 Kiot act passed 1715, vi. 6 
 
 liiots, the Porteus, of Edinburgh, 1736, vi. 78, 
 79; the Wilkite, London, 1768, 290, 291; 
 and 1771, 318; the Gordon, 1780, 406-410; 
 the Birmingham, 1791, vii. 196-198; in 
 London, 1795, 323; throughout the country, 
 1800-1801, .391, 392 ; on the occasion of Bur- 
 dott's committal to the tower, 1810, 52S ; in 
 1312,643; in 1816, viii. 59-01; the reform. 
 
 in the city, 1816, 77, 78 ; at Queen Caroline's 
 funeral procession, 1820, 174 ; in 1826, 200 ; 
 the Bristol, 1831, 287-290 ; raised by John 
 Thom amongst the Canterbury fanatics, 411- 
 417; the Chartist, of 1839, 422; the Frost 
 insurrection at Newport, 422, 423 ; rioting in 
 1842, 499 ; the Eebecca riots in Wales, 605, 506 
 
 Eipon. See Goderich. 
 
 Eipperda, due de, sent on a secret mission to 
 Vienna, to negotiate a treaty, vi. 54 ; dis- 
 graced ; sent to prison ; reveals the secret 
 articles of the treaty of Vienna, bo 
 
 Elvers, earl, patronage of printing by, ii. 171 ; 
 appointed of the council of Edward V., 176 ; 
 arrested with the other members of the coun- 
 cil by order of Gloucester, 178 ; beheaded, 
 187 ; poetic composition bv, 188 
 
 Eivoli, battle of, Jan. 14, 1797, vii. 342, 343 
 
 Eoads, British and Eoman, difi'erent character 
 of, i. 8, 10, 11 
 
 Eobert succeeds William the Conqueror, as duke 
 of Normandy, i. 218 ; state of Normandy 
 under, 222; denounces his brother AVilliara 
 as perjured, and prepares for war, 224 ; 
 mortgages his dukedom in 1096 to Williamj 
 225 ; becomes one of the leaders of the Cru- 
 sade, 226 ; returns to Europe, and marries, 
 234 ; invades England, but is reconciled to 
 his brother Henry, to whom he cedes his 
 claims to the crown of England, 237 ; rebel- 
 lion of Eobert de Belesme against, who is 
 however pardoned and restored to his estates, 
 238; disaffection of the Norman barona 
 against, fostered by Henry, 239 ; is attacked 
 by Henr}', and taken prisoner, at the battle 
 of Tenchebrai in 1105, 240; dies a prisoner 
 in 1135, 241 
 
 Eobert, earl of Gloucester, becomes an adherent 
 of Matilda against Stephen, i. 251 ; encour- 
 ages the people of Bristol in their attacks on 
 Stephen's partisans, 252 ; maintains posses- 
 sion of Bristol and Leeds, 254 ; lands in 
 England with Matilda in 1139, 260; wins 
 the battle of Lincoln and takes Stephen pri- 
 soner, 262, 263 ; captured at Winchester, and 
 exchanged for Stephen, 265; character of^ 
 ib. ; death of, in 1147, 268 
 
 Eobertson, a smuggler, condemned to death for 
 robbing an excise collector, but escapee, vi. 80 
 
 Eobespierre, Augustin, commissioned by the 
 French convention to punish the Touloneso, 
 vii. 291 ; death scene of, July, 1794, 310 
 
 Eobespierre, M. S., leader of the Jacobins; 
 mover of the s&lf-denying ordinance of the 
 national assembly, vii. 205 ; his hatred of 
 ISIarat, 277; rouses the mob against the Giron- 
 dins, 277, 278; maintains the system of terror, 
 308 ; officiates at the festival of the Supreme 
 Being, 309 ; his speech in the hall of the Con- 
 vention, ib. ; his arrest ; attempts to commit 
 suicide ; is guillotined, July 28, 1 794, 310 ; un- 
 certainty as to what was his real character, ib. 
 
 Eobin Hood, first mention of, i. 323 ; thecrioi 
 as to the reality of, 323, 324 ; the representa- 
 tive of resistance to aristocratic tyranny, 324 ; 
 detestation of oppression, and poetical excel- 
 lence shown in the Eobin Hood ballads, 325 ; 
 theory of the adventures connected with, being 
 founded on those of the defeated adherents of 
 Simon de Montfort, 376 
 
 Eobinson, F. J. See Goderich. 
 
 Eochambcau, comte do, comii;ands the French 
 unuamcui sent to reinforce the Americans,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 719 
 
 1780, vi. 413 ; present at Cornwallis's surren- 
 der, 428 ; a cotnmaiider in the French army 
 sent against Austria, 1792, vii. 219 
 
 ftochefort, failure of the British expedition 
 against, 1757, vi. 229 
 
 Rochejaquelein, Hemi de la, a Vendcan leader, 
 ■\ii. 294: ; obtains the chief command of their 
 army, 295; death of, 1793, 296 
 
 Rochester, earl of, lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
 V. 244, 259 ; supports the motion for inviting 
 Sophia of Hanover to England, 306 
 
 Eockingliam, Charles "Wentworth, marquess of 
 named first lord of the treasury, 1765, vi. 278, 
 321 ; difficulty of his position arising from the 
 disturbances in America, ib. ; weakness of 
 his administration, 284 ; again becomes first 
 lord of the treasury, 1782 ; the king's aver- 
 sion to ; composition of his ministry, 436, 
 469 ; notices the power of revenue officers at 
 elections, 441 ; died, July 1, 1782, 450 ; his 
 success as a cultivator, vii. 27 
 
 Rodney, admiral sir George, destroys the gun- 
 boats in Havre, vi. 236 ; commands the fleet 
 sent against Martinique, 255 ; his victory 
 over the Spaniards ofl' Cape St. Vincent, Jan. 
 16, 1780, 410 ; captures St. Eustatius, Feb. 
 
 1781, 420 ; defends his conduct against certain 
 charges, 421 ; arrives at the Barbadoes, Feb. 
 19, 1782 ; effects a junction \\ith Hood's 
 squadron, 436 ; chases de Grasse ; gives him 
 a signal defeat, April 12; first employs the 
 manoju^Te of " breaking the line," 437 ; ques- 
 tion whether he was entitled to the merit of 
 the idea, discussed, 438 ; capture of tlie Ville 
 de Paris, ib. ; and other French vessels, 439 
 
 Roebuck, Dr., originator of modem improve- 
 ments in manufacturing iron, aud founder of 
 the Carron iron works, vii., 55, 56 ; becomes 
 embarrassed, 57 ; refuses to allow IBoulton a 
 share in Watt's patent, 61 ; ultimately agrees 
 to sell his share to Boulton, 62 
 
 Rogers, Samuel, hia "Jacqueline" published, 
 1814, and " Italy," 1822, viii. 121 
 
 Rohilla war, 1774, vii. 124, 125 
 
 Roland, appointed minister of the interior, 1792, 
 vii. 218; his wife; her enthusiastic republi- 
 canism, ib. ; his dismissal, 220 ; resumes 
 office, 226; execution of his wife, 1793, 293 
 
 Roliqa, battle of, Aug. 17, 1808, vii. 502 
 
 Roman dominion in Britain, civilising effects of, 
 i. 34, et scq. ; roads in Britain, notice of, 34 ; 
 policy in employing natives in their armies, 
 36 ; the army an insti-imient of civilisation, 
 ib. ; fortresses in Britain, notice of, 37 ; colo- 
 nies in Britain, list of, ib. ; ancient remains 
 of, 37, 38 ; cities of, 39 ; administration in 
 Britain, 44 ; municipal establishments of, 45 ; 
 customs, existing remains of, 48, 49 ; munici- 
 palities, rise of separate sovereignties in 
 Britain, from, 59 
 
 Romans, progress of the conquests of, in Britain, 
 i. 20 ; encouraged the settlement of foreigners 
 in Britain, 44 ; municipal institutions estab- 
 lished by the, 45 ; evidence of British iron 
 manufacturing, tin and lead mixiing by the, 
 V. 12, 13 
 
 Rome, intercourse of Britain with, i. 14 ; taken 
 by the Goths, 56 ; occupied and spoliated by 
 the French, 1798, vii. 351 ; annexed to 
 France, 1811, 535 
 
 Romilly, sir Samuel, present at a dinner with 
 Wilkes and Mirabeau; Wilkes defends the 
 severity of the criminal law, vii. 115; rejoices 
 
 at the occurrence of the French revolution, 
 183, 184 ; remarks of, on the September mas- 
 sacres, 1792^ 231 ; describes the various par- 
 ties in 1794, 303 ; remarks on the bread riots, 
 1800, 1801, 391 ; description of French despot- 
 ism, 1802, 417 ; praises Pitt's speech, 1803, 
 424; solicitor-general, 463 ; sums up the 
 evidence for Melville's impeachment, 1806, 
 464 ; engaged in the inquiry into the princess 
 of Wales's conduct, 465; eloquent speech on 
 the abolition of the slave trade, 478 ; remark 
 of, on Mrs. Clarke's intei'ference in military 
 promotions, 509 ; his eulogy on Mr. Perceval, 
 541 ; his remarks on Brougham's speech 
 against the regent, viii. 54 ; one of the leaders 
 in bringing about an amelioration of the 
 nation's social condition, 62; his efibrts in 
 reforming the criminal laws lead to the aboli- 
 tion of capital punishment for several cases or 
 kinds of thefts, 63, 64; returned M.P, for 
 "Westminster ; the death of his wife a proxi- 
 mate cause of his suicide, Nov. 2, 1818, 98 
 
 Rooke, sir George, present at the battle of La 
 Hogue, V. 149 ; drives Tourville out of hia 
 shelter in the bay of La Hogue, destroying' 
 nearly all the French ships, 150 ; defeated at 
 the battle of St. Vincent, and loses a large 
 number of merchant ships he was convoj'ing, 
 166 ; commands the armament against Den- 
 mark, whose navy he drives to the walls of 
 Copenhagen, 1699, 237; commands the fleet 
 sent against Cadiz, 1702, 261 ; fails in taking 
 it, but captures some Spanish galleons, ib. ; 
 commands the expeditionary fleet against 
 Catalonia, 1704, 290; lands at Barcelona, but 
 re-embarks, and effects a junction with sir C. 
 Shovel ; the two admirals, with the prince of 
 Darmstadt, attack and capture the rock of 
 Gibraltar, Aug. 2, 291 ; fights a drawn battle 
 with the French fleet, oS' Malaga, ib. 
 
 Rosbach, battle of, Nov. 5, 1757, vi. 231 
 
 Rose, George, secretary of the treasury ; does not 
 acquiesce in Pitt's bill for reform, vii. 146, 
 147 ; account of the national assembly's con- 
 duct by, 1791,201 ; urges Pitt to include Fox 
 and Grenville and their friends in his admin- 
 istration, 431 ; his account of Pitt's last ill- 
 ness, 461 ; introduces a bill for regulating 
 savings' banks, 1816, viii. 70 
 
 Rosen supersedes Hamilton as commander of 
 the forces besieging Londonderry, v. 84 ; hia 
 inhuman conduct, ib. ; he fails in taking the 
 place ; raises the siege, Aug. 1, 1689, 86 
 
 Ross, gen., himself and adm. Cockbum incite 
 the slaves of America to rebellion, 1814, viii. 
 14 ; defeats the Americans and bums several 
 buildings in Washington, 14, 15 ; mortally 
 ■wounded in battle, Sept. 11, 1814, 16 
 
 Roubiliac, L. F., his sculptures, v. 460 
 
 Royal Society incorporated by charter in 1662, 
 v. 62 
 
 Rubens, his paintings ; employed bj' Charles I. 
 V. 463 
 
 Rullecourt, baron de. See Pierson, major. 
 
 Rupert, prince, appointed to the command of 
 the horse in the royal army at Nottingham, 
 iii. 495 ; early career, iv. 2 ; first encounter 
 between his cavalry and the parliamentarian 
 forces, 3 ; insolence displ.ayed by, ib. ; con- 
 duct at the battle of Edguhill, '4, 5 ; gains 
 the battle at Brentford, 8 ; and that of Chal- 
 grove Field, 16 ; takes Bristol, 20 ; relieves 
 Lathoni Ucuse, 34 ; possesses himself of
 
 720 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 York, 3o ; is defeated at the battle of Mai- 
 Bton Moor, 36 ; retreats to Chester, ib. ; is de- 
 feated at Naaebv, 43, 44 ; his impetuosity, 
 44 ; surrenders Bristol, 47, 48 ; is dismissed 
 from his command by Charles I., 48 ; meet- 
 ing of, with Charles, at Newark, and final 
 parting, 53 ; appears in St. George's channel 
 with a formidable fleet, 121 ; admiral 
 Blake interrupts the operations of, 124; 
 takes refuge in Kinsale, ib. ; compelled to 
 leave the Irish coast, ib. ; sails to the coast of 
 Portugal, and is followed to the Tagus by 
 Blake, 149 ; escapes to Spain, 150 ; ap- 
 pointed to the command of the fleet against 
 the Dutch in 1666, with Monk, 279 ; is sus- 
 pected of not having aided Monk with sufii- 
 cient promptitude in his battle with the 
 Dutch fleet, 280 ; assists in ravaging the 
 Dutch coasts, 282 ; is appointed to the com- 
 mand of the fleet on the resignation of the 
 duke ofTork, in 1673, 321 
 
 Rural industry of the Anglo-Saxons, i. 88, et 
 seq. 
 
 Rush, Richard, the United States plenipoten- 
 tiary in London; his description of queen 
 Charlotte, viii. 98, 99 ; his despatch to Monro 
 ©n Canning's letter to himself, 186 ; his dis- 
 cussions with Londonden-y and Canning, 187, 
 188 
 
 Russell, admiral Edward, allows himself to be 
 tampered with by James II., but is disgusted 
 at that king's declaration, v. 148; commands 
 tbe English fleet at the naval victory of La 
 Hogue, 149 ; removed from the command of 
 the fleet, 1693, 161 ; restored again shortly 
 after, 169 ; appointed to look after Tourville 
 in 1694, 171 ; implicated by Fen wick with 
 having held treasonous correspondence with 
 James II., 197 ; created earl of Orford, 1697, 
 198 ; impeached for his concern in the Par- 
 tition treaties, 246, 247 ; struck og' the privy 
 council list on Anne's succession, 259 
 
 Russell, lord. See Bedford. 
 
 Hussell, lord John, takes up the cause of par- 
 liamentary reform, 1819 ; obtains the disfran- 
 chisement of Grampoimd, viii. 102 ; pro- 
 poses a partial repeal of the corporation and 
 test acts, so as to admit dissenters to public 
 ofiices ; his measure adopted in a compromised 
 form, 232, 233 ; paymaster of the forces, 267 ; 
 the government refoi-m bill introduced by 
 him ; his speech explanatory of its purpose, 
 1831, 271, 272; moves the second readuig of 
 tbe bill, 275; it having been thrown out 
 he again brings it forward in the new parlia- 
 ment, 278 ; carries it in the House of Lords, 
 280, 281 ; re-introduces it into the commons, 
 Dec. 12, 1831, 293; his resolution on the 
 surplus funds of the Irish church, 1835, 357; 
 its adoption by tlie commons leads to the 
 resignation of the Peel ministry, ib. ; his 
 municipal corporation refonn bill, 360, et 
 scq. ; his measure for commuting tithes, 368, 
 369; brings forward bills for a general regis- 
 tration, and for regulating the marriage of 
 dissenters, 371 ; his bills for introducing 
 poor law into Ireland, and amending the 
 criminal law, 1836,376; eulogises William 
 IV., 377 ; home secretary, 381 ; government 
 adopts his resolutions condemnatory of the 
 condnct of tlie Canadian legislature, 406; 
 his bill for inquiring into and redressing the 
 Canadian grievances, 407 ; grants the release 
 
 of Thom, 412, 413; condemned for hie le- 
 niency towards Frost, 422 ; proposes a fixed 
 duty on the impoitation of corn, 436, 437 ; 
 advocates the principle of a free trade in 
 com, 438, 439; his speech on the address, 
 440 ; his letter to the city of Loudon electors 
 advocating a repeal of the com laws, 531, 
 532; the premiership off'ered him by the 
 queen, 533 ; which he accepts ; but is unable 
 to form a government, 534 ; first lord of the 
 treasury, July, 1846, 541 ; his financial 
 statement ; apprehends a large expenditure ; 
 his plans for meeting it, 554, 555 
 
 Russell, lord Wm., moves a resolution in the 
 House of Commons to take into consideration 
 how to suppress popery and prevent a popish 
 succession, iv. 356 ; carries up the Exclusion 
 bill to the House of Lords, 357 ; accused of a 
 participation in the Rye House plot in 1683, 
 371 ; is arrested and brought to trial on July 
 13, 372 ; noble behaviour of his wife, 373'; 
 is convicted, and beheaded on July 21, 374 
 
 Ryder, Richard, his bill for punishing stocking 
 or lace frame destroyers passed, 1812, vii. 
 543 ; home secretary, 1809-1812, 677 
 
 Rysbrack, J. M., his sculptures, v. 460 
 
 Ryswick, treaty of, concluded, Sept. 22, 1697, 
 V. 198, 199, 388 
 
 Ryland, his house burnt do\vn by the Birming- 
 ham rioters, 1791, vii. 197 
 
 SachevereI/, Dr., enraged at Defoe for his 
 pamphlet on the dissenters, v. 264 ; preaches 
 before the lord mayor, Nov. 5, 1709, 347 ; he is 
 ordered to attend at the bar of the House of 
 Commons, and is impeached, 348 ; proceed- 
 ings of parliament agninst, 350 ; the articles 
 of impeachment, 350-354 ; popular manifes- 
 tations in favour of, 353 ; the parliament 
 sentences him to thi-ee j'ears' suspension from 
 preaching, and his sermons to be burnt, 354 ; 
 this lenient sentence is celebrated as a 
 triumph by the high church party, 355 ; his 
 ovation and progress through the country, 
 359 ; characteristic description of him, as 
 given by the duchess of Marlborough, 359, 
 363 ; preaches before the Commons on the 
 thanksgiving day for peace, July 7, 1713, 
 398 
 
 Safety Lamp. See Davy; Stephenson. 
 
 St. Alban's, first battle of, on May 22, 1455, ii. 
 138 ; "Warwick defeated by Queen Margaret 
 in the second battle of, in 1461, 146 
 
 St. Aubyn, sir John, remonstrates against the 
 king's preferring Hanoverian to English in- 
 terests, vi. 109 
 
 St. Bartholomew's, massacre of, iii. 175, 176 
 
 St. Christopher's given to Great Britain, 1714, 
 v. 397 ; taken by the French, 1782, vi. 434, 
 436 ; restored to "Britain, 1783, 458 
 
 St. Domingo, French expedition to ; resistance 
 opposed by Toussaint, vii. 418, 419 
 
 St. Eustatius, ca])ture of, by Rodney, 1781 ; the 
 king surrenders his interest in it to the army 
 and navy, ^i. 420 ; retaken by the French, 
 434 
 
 St. Germain, count de, French secretary at war ; 
 his interview with stcubcn, vi. 376 
 
 St. Jean d'Acre, bombardment aud capture of, 
 1840, viii. 435 
 
 St. John, viscount Bolingbroke ; he is taken 
 into IVlarlborough's confidence, v. 275; re-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 721 
 
 eigns his place in the ministry, 1707, 333 ; 
 his connection witli Swift and the party 
 press, 370 ; envies Harlcy for being stabbed ; 
 insinuates that the blow was intended for 
 himself; has a misunderstanding with Harley 
 f n this point of honour, 373 ; congratulates 
 Marlborough on his successes, 1714, 376 ; 
 secretly negotiates with France for peace, 
 377 ; his letter to Orniond, 392 ; double-deal- 
 ing of, 393; created viscount Bolingbroke, 
 1712, but is dissatisfied at not having received 
 an earldom ; is despatched on an embassy to 
 the French court ; he secures the interest of 
 the duke of Savoy, 396 ; obtains private in- 
 terviews with the che\'alier St. George, ib. ; 
 Louis XIV. presents him with a ring 4000/. 
 in value, ib. ; urges the chevalier to turn 
 Protestant ; introduces his Schism bill, 399 ; 
 •quarrels with Oxford, and gains the mastery 
 over him, obtaining the supremacy in the 
 ministry, 400 ; is disappointed at George I. 
 being proclaimed king, vi. 2 ; loses his secre- 
 tary of statcship, 4 ; escapes to France ; 
 becomes the Pretender's secretary of state ; 
 is impeached by AValpole, June 9, 5 ; meets 
 the Pretender at Paris, 23 ; is dismissed from 
 his service, 24 ; obtains leave to return to 
 England ; obtains an interview Avith his 
 sovereign, 1727, 56 ; actively opposes Wal- 
 pole, 1734, 73 ; his character described by 
 Walpole, 74-76 ; he quits England, 76 
 
 St. Julien, admiral, his contest with the British 
 at Toulon, 1793, -s-ii. 286, 287 
 
 St. Just, cruelty of, vii. 309 ; decreed and led 
 to the guillotine, 1794, 310 
 
 St. Lucia taken by the British, 1762, vi. 2oo ; 
 again, 1778, 392 ; ceded to the French, 1783, 
 458 
 
 St. Pancras church, solecism and unadapta- 
 bility of its design, viii. 140, 141 ; designed 
 by the Inwoods ; its cost, 146 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, burning of the steeple of, 
 in 1561, iii. 130 ; opening of "Wren's new 
 building, Dec. 2, 1697, v. 200 , plan of, 201 ; 
 proposals to repair the old edifice ; it is burnt 
 down, 1666, 449 ; Wren's first design for a 
 new cathedi-al, 450, 451 ; first stone laid, 
 1675 ; the last, 1710, 451 ; criticism on, 
 452 
 
 St. Petersburg founded by Peter the Great, 
 1703, V. 345 
 
 St. Philip, Byng neglects to try the relief of, 
 vi. 213 ; it surrenders to French arms, June 
 27, 1756, 214 
 
 Saint Kuth, commander-in-chief of James II. 's 
 Irish army, v. 127 ; defeated by the English 
 under Gmkell at Aghrim, Jiily 12, 1691, 
 ib. 
 
 St. Sebastian captured by the French, 1719, vi. 
 37 ; taken by the British under general Gra- 
 ham, 1813, vii. 566 
 
 St. Vincent taken by the British, 1762, vi. 255 ; 
 regained 1783, 458 
 
 St. Vincent, battle of, Feb. 14, 1797, vii. 336, 
 337 
 
 St. Vincent, earl. See Jer\ds. 
 
 Saladin, extent of the power of, i. 303 ; takes 
 Jerusalem, 304 ; fails to relieve Acre, 310 ; 
 neglecting to restore the Holy Cross, the 
 hostages at Acre are massacred, 311, 312 ; be- 
 heads the Christian captives in retaliation for 
 Kichard's massacre of the hostages, 312 ; 
 defeated by lUchard in 1191, 313; com- 
 VOL. VIII.— 270. 
 
 pels Richard to retreat to Ascalon, but in- 
 terchanges courtesies with him, 314 ; cap- 
 tures Jaffa, 318; agrees to a truce with 
 ixichard for three years in 1192, and dies in 
 1193, 319 
 
 Salamanca, or Arapiles, battle of, July 22, 1812, 
 vii. .553, 554 
 
 Sale, sir Ilobert, general, leaves Cabul, viii. 
 454 ; harassed by the enemy, 455 ; takes 
 Jellalabad, 458; his heroic d'efence of the 
 place, 458 et seq. ; marches to the relief of 
 Cabul, 460 ; mortally wounded at the battle 
 of Ferozeshah, 1845,544 
 
 Salt, first bed of rock salt discovered in Cheshire 
 in 1670, V. 22; heavy duties levied upon; 
 abolished in 1823, ib. ; consumption of, in 
 1839, 23; duty on, revived 1732, vi. 68; 
 which has the effect of preventing the use of 
 the refuse salt as manure, vii. 27 
 
 Bancroft, William, archbishop ; refuses to take 
 the oath of allegiance to William III., v. 70 ; 
 absent at the coronation of William III., 78 ; 
 deprived of his archbishopric, 1691, 124 
 
 Sanctuar)-, enormous abuse of, temp. Henry 
 VIL ii. 244 
 
 Sanderson, sir Thomas, raises a war-cry against 
 Spain, 1739, vi. 94, 95 
 
 San Domingo, trade of, 1789 ; slave revolt in, 
 1791, vii. 260 
 
 Sandwich, lord, sent to watch over the duke of 
 Cumberland, vi. 180 ; secretiuy of state, 1763, 
 vi. 263 ; he resolves to prosecute Wilkes ; 
 sets spies on Wilkes's movements and steals 
 his papers ; complains of him in Parliament, 
 267 ; secretary of state, 1763-1765, 321 ; aids 
 in cross-examining Penn on the feeling of 
 America towards England, 361 ; replies to 
 Chatham's proposed amendment on the ad- 
 dress, 1777, 381 
 
 Sandys, moves for Walpole' s dismissal from the 
 king's councils, 1741, vi. 102; his motioc 
 rejected, 103 
 
 San Mateo besieged b\' count of Las Torres ; re- 
 lieved by Peterborough, v. 296 
 
 Saratoga, convention of, signed Oct. 17, 1777, 
 vi. 380 
 
 Sardinia taken by admiral sir J. Leake, 1708, 
 V. 338 
 
 Sarsfield, general, commander of the garrison 
 at Limerick ; makes a sortie during tlie siege 
 of 1690 upon the guns and stores of William's 
 army, destroymg or rendering them useless, 
 V. 117 ; inactive part taken bv, at the battle 
 of Aghrim, July, 1691, 128 
 
 Sarum, town and liill-fort in the time of the 
 Roman dominion, i. 13 
 
 Saunders, admiral, supersedes West in his 
 command, 1756, vi. 213, 214; conveys Wolfe 
 and bis army to Quebec, 237 
 
 Savannah taken by the British, vi. 399 
 
 Saverv, Thomas, steam-engine invented bv, v. 
 39 " 
 
 Savilo, sir George, M.P. for Torksliu-e ; pre- 
 sents the county petition for redress of 
 grievances, 1780, vi. 401 ; moves for a list of 
 crown places, 403 ; his house gutted by the 
 Gordon rioters, 408 
 
 Savings Banks, establishment of, at Tottenham 
 in 1798 and 1804 ; at Bath in 1808 ; at Ruth- 
 well in 1810; and in. Lonl^n, 1816, viii. 
 70 
 
 Savoy annexed to France, 1792, vii. 23"; re« 
 stored to Piedmont, viii. 43
 
 722 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Saxe, marshal, appointed to command tlie 
 troops foi- the projected invasion of England, 
 1743 ; that expedition failing he takes the 
 command of an army in the Low Countries, 
 ■^i. 110; commands the French at Fontenoy, 
 1745, 113 ; persuades Louis XV. to retire 
 from the battle, 114; gains the victory over 
 the allies at Lauffeld, July 2, 1747, 180 
 Saxe Gotha, princess of. See Frederick of 
 
 Wales, vii. 84-86; 189,338 
 Saxon shore, " Litus Saxonicum," opinions of 
 Dr. Lappenberg, Sir F. Falgrave, and Mr. 
 Kemble as to its meaning a settlement of 
 Saxons, i. 44 
 Saxon invasion of Britain, obscurity of the 
 events of, i. 61 ; rapid succession of Saxon 
 kings or chiefs, 62 ; gradual extension of the 
 dominions of, 63 ; native seats of, ib. ; 
 heathendom, account of, 65 ; period, close of, 
 184 ; influence of, on the national character, 
 ib. 
 Saxons, probable settlement of large numbers 
 of, in England, before the Saxon invasion, 
 i. 44, 47 ; principle of personal freedom pro- 
 bably derived from, 46; obscure interval 
 between their supremacy in Britain, and that 
 of the Eomans, i. 56 
 ScheUenberg, or Donawert, battle of the, July 
 
 2, 1704, V. 278 
 Schism bill, passed 1714, v. 400 ; Stanhope 
 
 desires the repeal of the, vi. 35 
 Schomberg, marshal, lands in Ireland with an 
 army, Aug. 13, 1689, v. 86 ; unable to do 
 anything from the neglected condition of the 
 army, which suffered from want of clothes, 
 medicine, and even necessaries, 100 ; re- 
 inforced, 105 ; leads the centre at the battle 
 of the I3oyne, 108 ; rallies the retreating 
 Protestants and is slain, July 1, 1690, ib. 
 Schools. See Education. 
 
 Sciences, sketch of the state of the, /e«?^;. 
 William and Anne, t. 61-63 ; knowledge of 
 the, spread and increased by the Jesuits, vi. 
 327 ; scientific labours and discoveries of 
 Herschell, Davy, Dalton, WoUastou, and 
 Jenner, viii. 129-131; scientific writers in 
 1842,483 
 Scinde, conquest and wise administration of, by 
 
 sir e. J. Napier, 1843, viii. 507-511 
 Scindia wars with Holkar ; tlien allies with 
 him against the British, vii. 455; defeated 
 at Assye by Wellington, 458 et seq. ; and 
 again Nov.' 29, 1803 ; signs a treaty with the 
 British, Dec. 30, 460 ; joins the Mahratta 
 confederacy agamst the British, viii. 216; 
 agrees to aid the British against the Pin- 
 darees ; his faithlessness, 217 
 Scott, John. See Eldon. 
 
 Scott, sir Walter, prejudices of, against the 
 union, v. 317 ; liis verse romances ; publica- 
 tion of " The Lav of the Last Minstrel," 
 1805; "Mannion,"" 1808; and the "Mm- 
 strelsy of the Scottish Border," viii. 119 ; 
 two critiques, 120 ; his immense popularity, 
 ib. ; failure of Ms dramas, 125 ; high success 
 of his Waverley novels, 126, 127 ; his com- 
 mercial failure an example of the danger of 
 drawiufj upon future wealth, 199 ; his ho- 
 nourable efforts to discharge his obligations, 
 ib. ; urges the Scotch to treat Charles X. 
 respectfully, 256; benefits conferi-ed on his 
 family by the copyright act, 465, 466 
 Sebastiani, general, his report on the practi- 
 
 cability of France reconquering Egypt, viiv 
 419, 420 ; the French ambassador at Constan- 
 tinople ; his offers to sultan Selim, 484 ; 
 joins Victor in the Peninsula, 522 
 Secession. See American Secession. 
 Secular law, state of, temp. Heni-y II., i. 283 
 Sedgemoor, battle of, July 5, 1685, iv. 395 
 Seditious meetings bill brought in by Pitt, 
 vii. 323 ; opposition to it, 323, 324 ; passed 
 1795, 324 ; another passed Mar. 29, 1817, viii. 
 79, 80 
 
 Selden, John, joins in the protestation of the 
 House of Commons, in 1621, against the 
 king's interference with their liberty of 
 speech, iii. 382 ; assists in the debate on the 
 Petition of Eight, in 1628, 397 ; committed 
 to the Tower after parliament had been dis- 
 solved, in 1629, 404 
 
 Selwyn, major, denounces British interference 
 in continental affairs, vi. 138 
 
 Senlac, original name of the spot where the 
 battle of Hastings was fought, i. 180 ct 
 seq. 
 
 Septennial act, debates and remarks on the ; 
 passed 1716 ; vi. 24, 25 ; its repeal agitated, 
 73 
 
 Seringapatam, besieged and taken by the Bri- 
 tish, 1791, vii. 259 ; and again in, 1799, 378, 
 379 
 
 Seton, Mr., of Pitmedden, one of the commis- 
 sioners for establishing the union, 1706, v. 
 322 ; his arguments in favour of the scheme, 
 323 
 
 Settlement, early establishment of the law of, 
 iii. 269 ; ill etiects of, and severities exercised 
 under, 270 ; its severity on the poor, v. 48, 
 49 ; vii. 11 ; viii. 67 ; slightly alleviated, 
 1861,67,68 
 
 Seven years' war, history of the, vi. 215, 216 ; 
 228-236 ; 249-251 ; 254-257 ; 467 
 
 Severus, wall of, i. 29, 30 ; suppresses the re- 
 volt of the Brigantes and Mieatoe, 31 ; death 
 of, A.D. 211, ib. 
 
 Seville, peace of, Nov. 9, 1729, v. 390; vi. 
 60 
 
 Seymour, sir Edward, his remarks on the want 
 of good British generals, v. 153 ; his contempt 
 of Scotland's poverty, 215 ; comptroller, 1702, 
 259 
 
 Seymour, lord Thomas, brother of Somerset, 
 marries Catherine, widow of Henry VIII., 
 iii. 15 ; quarrels with his brother, ib. ; ad- 
 dresses the princess Elizabeth after the death 
 of his wife, 16 ; is accused of treason, con- 
 victed, and executed, ib. ; charge against, of 
 defrauding the Mint in conjunction with sir 
 J. Sharrington, 19 ; letters of, to the piin- 
 cessos Mary and Elizabeth, 18 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, 
 becomes a member of the Cabal ministry, iu 
 1667, iv. 302; character of, by Butler and 
 Dryden, 304; complicity of, in Charles be- 
 coming a pensioner of France, 306 ; shifting 
 policy of, ib. ; is created earl of Shaftesbury, 
 and made lord chancellor, 318 ; character of, 
 319 ; declares the Declaration of Indulgence 
 illegal, 321 ; is dismissed from his office of 
 chancellor, and becomes the leader of the op- 
 position, 323; letter attributed to, descriptivo 
 of the composition of the House of Commons, 
 ib. ; committed to the Tower for opinions ex- 
 pressed in the House of Lords, in 1677, 328 ; 
 is suspected of having fomented the Popish
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Plot in 1678, 333 ; is named president of the 
 co'uicil in 1679, and continues to lead the op- 
 position, 344; is dismissed from the presi- 
 dency, 352 ; presents the duke of York as a 
 popish recusant to the Grand Jury at West- 
 minster, ib. ; supports the Exclusion Bill in 
 the House of Lords, which is rejected, 357 ; 
 is indicted for high treason in 1681, and the 
 grand jury throw out the bill, 364 ; he flies 
 to Holland, 366; death of, in 1683, ib. 
 
 Shah Alum. See Alum, Shah. 
 
 Shah Soojah, an expelled sovereign, and pen- 
 sioner of the East India Company, viii. 450 ; 
 the British undertake the Aft'ghan war to re- 
 enthrone him, 451 ; restored to his sove- 
 reignty, 453 ; complains of his position, 453, 
 454 ; assassinated, 460 
 
 Shakspere, William, characteristics of his 
 dramas, iii. 301 ; nationality of, ib. ; know- 
 ledge of, and taste for, disseminated by Steele, 
 v_. 408 ; Eoubiliac's statue of, 461 ; impulse 
 given to Shaksperean criticism, viii. 483, 
 484 
 
 Shannon, fight between the, and the Chesa- 
 peake, June 1, 1813, viii. 11 
 
 Sharpe, Granville, aids in promoting the aboli- 
 tion of slavery, vLi. 466 
 
 Sharp, WilUam ; his engravings, viii. 156 
 
 Shaw, sir James ; his courage in quelling the 
 riots of 1816, vii. 77 
 
 Sheffield, trades of, v. 28 ; obtains parliamen- 
 tary representation, 1832, viii. 307 ; popula- 
 tion in 1831 and 1861, 308 
 
 Shelbume, earl of, dismissed his offices, and 
 treated with coldness by the king for voting 
 against government on the general waiTant 
 question, 1764, vi. 269 ; secretary of state, 
 1766-1768, 285, 321 ; praises the king's noble- 
 ness of mind, 432 ; secretary of state, 1782, 
 436, 469 ; his remarks on contractors, 441 ; 
 circular issued by, on the volunteer question, 
 442, 443 ; his Irish trade motion rejected, 
 444 ; commences overtures of peace with 
 Franklin, 449 ; Fox obtains a share in the ne- 
 gotiations ; ditferences arise between the two ; 
 Shelborne appointed first lord of the trea- 
 sury, 1782, 450 ; resigns his premiership, 
 Feb. 24, 1783, 460; advocates for free 
 trade, ib. « 
 
 Shelley, P. B. ; "Queen Mab " published, 1812 ; 
 drowned, 1821 ; high character of his poetry, 
 A'iii. 121 
 
 Shepherd, sir Samuel, attorney-general ; pro- 
 secutes Hone for libel, viii. 86, 87 
 
 Sheridan, K. B., elected M.P. for Stafford, vi. 
 419; resigns office, 1782, 450; defends the 
 proceedings of the National Assembly ; Burke 
 renounces him, vii. 187 ; condemns, with 
 others, the proceedings of the National Con- 
 vention against Louis XVI. 243 ; opposes the 
 " Traitorous Correspondence " bill, 267 ; 
 patriotically supports the mutiny bills of 
 1797, 341 ; his speech on the projected French 
 invasion of England, 1^8, 350; moves an 
 amendment to the address, 1799, 371 ; advo- 
 cates a hearty co-operation with Spain against 
 France, 499 
 
 Sheriffmuir, battle of, Nov. 13, 1715, vi. 15, 
 16 
 
 Shippen ; his remarks on the king's speech, 
 1717, vi. 33, 34 ; sent to the Tower in conse- 
 quence, 34 
 
 Shore, sif John. See Teignmouth, lord. 
 
 Shovel, sir Cloudesloy, joins with sir G. Rooke 
 and the prince of Darmstadt in the capture of 
 Gibraltar, 1704, r. 291 ; commands the fleet 
 can-ving troops to Barcelona, 294 ; commands 
 the English and Dutch fleet employed in the 
 attack upon France, 1707 ; bombards Toulon ; 
 '^^Tecked on his return home, Oct. 22, 332 ; 
 supposed to have been murdered by an old 
 Avoman ; description of the wreck, 333 
 
 Shrewsbury (or Hateley Field), battle of, Julv 
 21, 1403, when Hotspur fell, ii. 49 
 
 Shrewsbury, duke of, negotiates with Anne as to 
 her revenue, v. 98, 99 ; William III.'s 
 favourite minister; resigns his secretary of 
 stateship at the command of James II., to 
 whom he deserts, 1690, 102, 103; again 
 offered the office of secretary of state, which 
 he accepts along wikh a dukedom, 170 ; re- 
 commends Marlborough to William's favour, 
 172; correspondence between William and, 
 1696, 194, 195; accused of having com- 
 municated with James II., 197 ; the Queen 
 appoints him lord high treasurer, 400 ; vi. 1 
 
 Sidmouth, viscount. See Addington. 
 
 Sidney, Algernon, opposes the trial of the king, 
 iv. 106; is accused of participation in the 
 Rye-House Plot, in 1683, 372 ; his defence, 
 and conviction, 374 ; is beheaded on Dec. 7, 
 375 
 
 Sidney, sir Philip, serves in the army sent to 
 assist the Netherlands, iii. 183 ; death ef, at 
 Zutphen, 184 ; funeral of, 213 
 
 Sieyes, abbe, proposes that the Tiers lEtats be 
 called the "National Assembly," vii. 168; 
 his plans for a constitution accepted by the 
 people, 321 ; a member of the French direc- 
 tory, 383, appointed one of the three consuls 
 1799,385 
 
 Sicjn paintings. See Painting. 
 
 Sikh war, 1845, 1846, viii. 544, 545 
 
 Silbury Hill, the largest artificial mound in 
 Europe, i. 12 
 
 Silchester, i. 13 ; account of the Roman city of, 
 i. 39, 40, 41 
 
 Silk; Lombe's mill at Derby ; trade of; state 
 of manufacture, v, 20, 21 : prohibition of 
 Indian silks, 38 
 
 Silures, unsubdued during the reign of Claudius, 
 i. 22 
 
 Simnel, Lambwrt, imposture of, ii. 212 ; repre- 
 sents himself as son of the duke of Clarence, 
 ib. ; his pretensions supported by the duchess 
 of IJurgundy, ib. ; proclaimed king in Dublin. 
 213 ; lauds in England with a force under 
 Martin Swartz, is defeated at Stoke, on June 
 4, 1487, and taken prisoner, ib. ; appointed to 
 a mean office in Henry's kitchen, 214 
 
 Sindercorab, Miles, plot of, against Cromwell, iv. 
 205 ; its failure, ib. 
 
 Sing, Cheyte. See Cheyte Sing. 
 
 Singapore, ceded to tlie British, viii. 218 
 
 Singh, Ammer. See Ochtcrlonj-, 
 
 Sinking fund scheme, Pitt's, vii. 147, 148 
 
 Siward, earl of Northumbria (the Siward of 
 Shakcspere's Macbeth), notice of, i. 163 
 
 Skippon, major, his speech to the Londoners, iv. 
 10 ; takes the place of Essex as commander, 
 37 ; commands the centre with Fairfax at 
 battle of Naseby, 43 ; escorts the payment of 
 monev to the Scots for the surrender of Charles 
 I., 63" 
 
 Slave trade carried on by Bristol traders, 17th 
 and ISth centuries, v. 7 ; by the merchants of
 
 71s 1 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Liverpool and Lyme, 25 ; Assiento contract 
 for the supply of slaves renounced by England 
 1750, vi. 467; debate on, 1792; parliament 
 resolves on its abolition, vii. 212; slaves 
 emancipated by France, 1792, 418 ; she 
 desires to re-establish the trade, 419 ; debates 
 on, 1806 ; progress of the cause of abolition ; 
 parliament resolves to abolish, 466-468; 
 slave trade abolition bill passed ; receives the 
 royal assent, March 25, 1807, 478; Eng- 
 land and America agree to put down, 19 ; 
 abolished bv Bonaparte; persisted in by 
 Portugal and Spam, 46 ; debates on, 1823, 1824 
 
 Slavery, existence of, in England under the 
 Eomans, i. 46 ; imposed by statute as a pun- 
 ishment for vagrancy in 1547, ii. 470 ; the 
 statute repealed in 1549, iii. 38 
 
 Slavery, colonial ; Canning's resolutions for 
 ameliorating the condition of slaves with a 
 view to their ultimate emancipation agreed to, 
 viii. 193 ; slavery laws, 194 ; case of Mr. Smith 
 the missionary, 194, 195 ; resume of parlia- 
 mentary eflorts towards abolishing, 327 ; re- 
 solutions in Mr. Stanley's bill for the aboli- 
 tion of, in the British colonies, 327, 328 ; pro- 
 gress of the bill through parliament, 1833, 328 ; 
 the first dav of emancipation in America, Aug. 
 1, 1834, 329 ; Dr. Channing's address on the 
 abolition of, 329, 330 ; proposition of president 
 Lincoln in 1862 to emancipate slaves, 330; 
 efl'ects of the abolition, 330, 333 ; treaty with 
 Brazil for abolition of, Oct. 18, 1825, 383 ; 
 emancipation of the slaves in Jamaica, 419 
 
 Smirke, sir R., his architectural warks, vii. 81 ; 
 viii. 144 
 
 Smith, John, a missionary, tried on a charge of 
 inciting the Demerara negroes to revolt ; 
 sentenced to death ; dies in consequence of 
 imprisonment whUe in ill-health ; his ease 
 brought before the British parliament, viii. 
 194, 195 
 
 Smith, sir Sidney, conducts the blowing up of 
 the French fleet and arsenals on the evacua- 
 tion of Toulon, Dec. 1793, vii. 290; defends 
 Acre, 1799, 380, 381 ; commands the English j 
 fleet assisting the 'Turks, 1801, 405 ; com- 
 mands a squadron at Palermo, 1806, 473 
 
 Smith, Sydnev, desires the continuance of peace, 
 1823, viii. 183; "Mrs. Partington's" speech 
 on the reform bill, 1831, 284, 285 ; urges lord 
 Grey to create peers to secure the passing of 
 the reform bill, 294 ; describes the cruelty of 
 not allowing counsel to prisoners, 369, 370 ; 
 his idea of the queen's first duty, 399 
 
 Smolensk, battle before, 1812; evacuated by 
 tlie Russians, vii. 557 
 
 Smollett, Tobias, his vivid description of the 
 attack upon Carthagena, vi. 98, 99 ; publica- 
 tion of his "Roderick Random," 1748; 
 " Peregrine Pickle," 1751; and " Ferdinand, 
 Count Fathom," 1753, vii. 89; manners of 
 18th century illustrated from his works, 91, 
 92,94,95,112 
 
 Smuggling, extensive practice of, vi. 78-80; vii. 
 145 
 
 Soane, sir John, buUt the Bank of England, the 
 Trcasurj' front, and some other edifices, viii. 
 143, 144 
 
 Soap, duties formerly laid upon, and consump- 
 tion of, V. 23 
 
 Soliraon, battle of, Feb. 10, 1846, viii. 545 
 
 Social evils, temp. William and Anne, v. 60 
 
 Societies, for reforming manners, first adopted 
 
 by the Puritans, v. 205 ; Society for Promot- 
 ing Christian Knowledge established about 
 1698, 206; Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel established about 1698, ib. ; an older 
 one was established in 1649, but it died out 
 soon after the Restoration, ib. ; artists stimu- 
 lated by the Society of Arts, vii. 66 ; Society 
 of Sign Painters, and exhibitionof paintings 
 by them, 69 ; meetings of the London Corre- 
 sponding, the Constitutional Information, and 
 the Friends of the People Societies, denounc- 
 ing the French revolutionary doctrines, 247 ; 
 Hampden Clubs, viii. 73 et seq. ; Society of 
 Spencean Philanthropists, 75, 76 ; British 
 Institution, 151 ; Society of Painters in 
 Water-colours fomied 1805, 155 ; Society for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge originated 
 by lord Brougham, 1826, 230 ; good and cheap 
 literature issued by it, 230, 231 
 
 Socinians, statute against, 1698, v. 204 
 
 Soda, manufacture of, promoted by the aboli- 
 tion of the tax on salt, v. 22 
 
 Solmes, count, leads the Dutch guards at the 
 battle of the Boyne, v. 108 ; his charge on the 
 Irish, 109, 110; commands the English at 
 Steinkirk ; his conduct at the battle blamed, 
 153, 154 ; slain, 1693, 154 
 
 Somers, lord, named solicitor-general, 1689, v. 
 68 ; made lord keeper, 1693, 161 ; is the leader 
 of his party, 169 ; promoted to the lord chan- 
 cellorship, 1697; and made a peer, 198; sends 
 William a blank commission for appointing 
 commissioners, 228 ; removed from his lord 
 chancellorship, 1700, 235 ; impeached in 
 1701 for his concern in the Partition treaties, 
 246 ; conferred with by William on the state 
 of English politics, 251 ; loses his place in the 
 privy council on the accession of queen Anne, 
 1702, 2o9 ; his weariness of factions, 270 ; has 
 a great influence in bringing about the union 
 of the two kingdoms, 315 ; his opinion on the 
 Septennial Act ; died, 1716, vi. 25 
 
 Somerset, Edward SejTnour, duke of. See Hert- 
 ford, earl of. 
 
 Somerset House, notice of the building- erected 
 bj' the duke of Somerset, iii. 36 
 
 Somerset, Robert CaiT, earl of, rapid ride of, 
 from London to Edinburgh to inform James 
 of Elizabeth's death, iii. 308; lavishness ot 
 James towards, 341 ; assumes the government 
 of the kingdom after Cecil's death, 360 ; mar- 
 riage of, to the divorced lady Essex, 361 ; 
 trial of, with the countess, for the murder of 
 Sir Thomas Overbury, 365, 366; deceitful 
 conduct of the king towards, 365 ; they are 
 convicted, and pardoned, 367 
 
 Somersetshire, a specimen of its dialect, v. 15; 
 agricultural progress of; King's Sedgmoor 
 and the Quantock hills, vii. 23 ; Exmoor, ita 
 black-cocks and stags, 23, 24 ; forty-one per- 
 sons to every 100 acres, 24 
 
 Sophia, princess, of Hanover; her parentage, 
 husband, and chil4 ; description of ; becomes 
 heir to the English crown, v. 241 ; death of, 
 :\[ay 14, 1728, 399 
 
 Sophia, princess of Zell, wife of George I., from 
 whom she was divorced and confined in 
 Aldhen Castle on account of a supposed con- 
 nection with count Konigsmark, vi. 3 ; died 
 November 13, 1726, 56 
 
 Soubisc, prince de, encamps near Mucheln, vi. 
 2.30; defeated at Rosbach by Frederick, 231 
 
 Soult, marshal, serves in Jourdan's army, vii
 
 INDEX. 
 
 r25 
 
 312; defeated by Moore atConinna, Jan.1809, 
 606; his testimony to INloore's merits, 507; 
 takes possession of Oporto, Jlarch 29, 510 ; 
 obliges Wellington to retreat, 1809, 523; de- 
 feated at the battle of Albuera, May, 1811, 
 538; retreats to Seville, 538, 539 ; and joins 
 forces with Marmont, 539; commands the 
 French army in Spain, 1813, 562; tights the 
 battles of the Pyrenees, 562, 563 ; his engage- 
 ment with "Wellington and Hill, 567 ; de- 
 feated by Wellington at Orthez, Feb. 27, 
 1814, 569 ; retreats to Toulouse, where he 
 again tights with Wellington, April 10, 570 ; 
 his enthusiastic reception at the queen's coro- 
 nation, viii. 410 ; succeeds to the ministry on 
 Thiers' resignation, 435 
 
 South Sea Company, its proposed scheme ; eager- 
 ness of the public to obtain shares, 1720, vi. 
 40 ; various other contemporary schemes, 41 ; 
 the company endeavours to obtain a monopoly 
 by repressing other companies, which brings 
 about its own downfall ; the rapid sinking of 
 the stock, 42 ; and final bursting of the 
 bubble ; Walpole appointed to restore the 
 national credit, 43 ; the South Sea scheme 
 compared with the Jlississipi scheme of John 
 Law, 43, 44 ; bribery complaints from various 
 trades, showing their deplorable state and the 
 universal want of money, 44 ; Walpole's plan 
 for sustaining the national credit ; committee 
 of inquiry appointed ; flight of Knight, the 
 •cashier of the company ; the various fates of 
 earl Stanhope, earl of Sunderland, Aislabie, 
 James Craggs, and the postmaster-general, 
 45 ; the directors' estates are confiscated, and 
 themselves declared incapable of holding any 
 government office, 46 
 
 Southey, Kobert, character of the ancient 
 Britons by, i. 11 ; he condemns the inquisi- 
 torial character of the property tax, viii. 53 ; 
 his style described by Byron, viii. 118; his 
 mental decay, 467 
 
 Southwell, poor law reforms earned out at, prior 
 to 1834, vii. 338 
 
 Sovereigns, Table of. See Tables. 
 
 Spafields meeting of reformers and riot, 1816, 
 viii. 76-78 
 
 Spencean philanthropists, the, theu* origin and 
 objects, viii. 75, 76 
 
 Spencer, earl. First Lord of the Admiralty, 
 1794, vii. 316; secretary of state for home 
 department, 1806, 464 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, embodiment of early English 
 legends by, i. 2 ; characteristics of his poetrv, 
 iii. 300 
 
 Spenser, Hugh. See Edward II. 
 
 Spithead, the mutiny at, 1797, vii. 338-340 
 
 Sports and Games. See England. 
 
 Stael, Madame de, her remarks on Pitt and Fox, 
 vii. 270 ; her description of the tirst days of 
 the consulate, 393, 394 
 
 Stage. See Drama, 
 
 Stage coaches in the 18th century ; manners as 
 connected with, vii. 91, 92 
 
 Stair, earl of, commands the British troops in 
 Flanders, 1743, vi. 110 ; cut ofl'from his sup- 
 plies; advises George ll. to make some peril- 
 ous adventure ; his advice not being adopted, 
 he resigns his commission. 111 
 
 Stamp Act passed 1711 ; duties imposed by it; 
 effects produced by, v. 394 ; for taxing 
 America, 1765, vi 271, 272 ; opposition to it 
 in America, 272, 273; debates aud remarks 
 
 on the, 272-274 ; further opposition in Ame- 
 rica, 278 ; petition of London merthants 
 against it, 278, 280 ; Pitt urges its repeal, 279, 
 280; examination of Dr. Franklin on the 
 American temper respecting the, 280, 281 ; 
 repeal of the, 283, 284 
 
 Standard, battle of the, i. 253 
 
 Stanhope, James, earl of, general, sent with 
 reinforcements for the relief of Barcelona, 
 1706, V. 298 ; carries Port Mahon in conjunc 
 tion with admiral Leake, 1708, 338; applies 
 the question of Sacheverel's impeachment to 
 the high church doctrines, 352 ; persuades 
 Charles to take the field against Philip V. ; 
 gains the battle of Almenara, July 20, 1710 ; 
 and that near Saragossa, Aug. 20 ; enters 
 Madrid, Sept. 21, 366 ; retreats to Brihuega ; 
 is surprised by the French under Vendiime ; 
 fights with him, and suiTcnders himself and 
 army, Dec. 9, 367 ; becomes a secretary of 
 state, vi. 5 ; inti'oduces a law excluding crown 
 pensioners from parliament, 25 ; negotiates, 
 for a French alliance, with the abbe Dubois, 
 27 ; discountenances violent measures against 
 Eussia, 28; reverses Gyllenburg's intrigues 
 to the council ; disagrees with Townshend, ib. ; 
 obtains the chief administration of affairs, 30 ; 
 raised to the peerage, 1717, 32 ; desires to 
 avert the war with Spain, 1718, 34; obtains 
 the repeal of the occasional Conformity and 
 Schism acts ; desires also that of the Test act ; 
 and the mitigation of the penal laws against 
 Koman Catholics, 35 ; his death, caused by a 
 rush of blood into his head during a fit of 
 anger, 1721, 46 
 
 Stanhope, earl, his experiments on the con- 
 struction of steam-ships, 1794, vii. 305 
 
 Stanhope, Charles, cletired of the charge of 
 bribery brought against hiai, vi. 45 
 
 Stanislaus Leczinsky, set up as king of Poland 
 by Charies XII. v. 330 ; began to reign, 1704; 
 Augustus restored in 1709, 476 ; his claim to 
 the throne supported by France on the death 
 of Augustus, vi. 71 
 
 Stanley, E. G. S. See Derby, earl of. 
 
 Star-Chamber court instituted by Henry VII. 
 in 1488, ii. 242 ; extended jurisdiction given 
 to, by Charles I., iii. 406 ; severe sentence of, 
 on Prynne, in 1633, for publishing the " His- 
 trio-mastix," 411 ; and on Dr. Leighton for 
 writing against Prelacy, 413; convicts and 
 inflicts heavy punishments, in 1637, on 
 Pr3nne, Burton, and Bastwick, for their 
 anti-prelatical writings, 423 ; fines the city of 
 London 70,000/. for an infringement of the 
 conditions on which they held their lands in 
 Ulster, 420; its prisonera released on the 
 opening ofthe Long Parliament, in Nov. 1640, 
 444 ; abolished by statute, 460 
 
 Staremberg, general, joins general Stanhope in 
 a campaign against Philip of Spain, 1710, v. 
 306 ; engages Vendume at Villa Viciosa, Dec. 
 10 ; retreats to Barcelona, 367 
 
 Statute of Winchester, 1285, provisions of, i. 
 385, 386 
 
 Statutes of Labourers, passed in 1349 and 1351, 
 in order to fix their residence, and to esta- 
 blish a scale of wages, i. 470, 471 ; injustice 
 and inefficiency of, 472 
 
 Steam-boats, Stanhope's experiments in the 
 construction of, vii. 305 ; introduction of, on 
 the Clyde, the Thaiues, and Loch Lomond, 
 viii. 131, 132 ; first employed by the navy in
 
 726 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ihd Birmese war, 221 ; improvements in, 409 ; 
 war steamers first emploj'ed in battle at the 
 siege of St. Jean d'Acre, 1840, 435 
 
 Steam-engine; Savery's invention; bill for 
 encouraging the, v. 29 ; employed in the cot- 
 ton manufacture, vii. 52 ; thirty-three mil- 
 lion spindles driven in 1856 by, 53, vast im- 
 provements in the, made by Watt, 61 ; "Watt 
 and Boulton's Soho works, 62 ; final establish- 
 ment of the, and its amazing influence upon 
 the afi"airs of the world, 63, 64 ; the sword's 
 antagonist, ib. ; applied to navigation pur- 
 poses, 305, vui. 131, 132 
 
 Steam printing machine ; its influence in 
 promoting a spread of knowledge, viii. 132 
 
 Steele, Richard, Swift's intimacy with, v. 369 ; 
 turned out of his employment for satirising 
 Harley, 370; expelled the House of Com- 
 mons for writing a pamphlet entitled the 
 "Crisis," 1713; ably defended by Addison 
 and "Walpole, 399 ; starts the " Tatler," April 
 12, 1709, 402; character and aim of this 
 work, 403 ; his influence and objects as an 
 essayist, 406; with Addison directs the at- 
 tention of the people to Shakspere and Milton, 
 408 ; his creation of Sir A. Freeport, Captain 
 Sentry, and Will Honeycomb, 409, 410 ; the 
 Spectator's club, 410, 411 ; his notice of three 
 plays, 420; description of the prude and 
 coquette by, 423 ; denounces luxurious dining 
 and the fashion of duelling, 427 ; endeavours 
 to repress gaming, 429 ; advocates for mercy 
 towai-ds the rebel lords, vi. 20 ; opposed the 
 Peerage bill, 1719, 38 
 
 Steinkirk, battle of, Aug. 3, 1692, v. 152, 153; 
 debate on the, 153, 154 
 
 Stephen, earl of Boulogne, swears to the succes- 
 sion of Matilda, i. 244 ; departs for England 
 on the death of Henry I. 249 ; cro^vned king 
 of England on Dec. "26, 1135, 250 ; remark- 
 able outbreak of the people against the Forest 
 Laws, and general confusion, ib. ; preferred 
 by the people to a female sovereign, 251 ; 
 evU efiects of the feudal system under, ib. ; 
 early reaction of the nobles in favour of 
 Matilda, ib. ; is attacked by David, king of 
 Scotland, who supports the claim of Matilda, 
 252 ; the Scots defeated by the bishop of 
 Durham, with the aid of the Saxons, in the 
 battle of the Standard, 253 ; reduces some 
 of the disalfected barons, 254 ; quarrels with 
 the clergy, and arrests the bishops of Salis- 
 bury and Lincoln, 260 ; his brother, the bishop 
 of Winchester, denounces him at a synod, 
 and he is threatened with excommunication, 
 ib. ; Matilda lands in England to support her 
 claim, and is besieged in Arundel castle, 261 ; 
 is allowed to pass to Bristol to join the earl of 
 Gloucester, ib. ; evils of the destructive par- 
 tisan war, ib. ; battle of Lincoln, 262 ; taken 
 prisoner and confined in Bristol castle, 263 ; 
 his wife expels Matilda from London with 
 the aid of the inhabitants, 263 ; is exchanged 
 for the earl of Gloucester, who had been cap- 
 tured at Winchester, 265 ; synipatliy of the 
 people for, ib. ; besieges Matilda in Oxford, 266 ; 
 tunnoil and desolation in the kingdom in 
 1142,267; is attacked by Henry II., whom 
 he accepts as his successor, 268 ; dies Oct. 25, 
 1154, 209 
 
 Stephenson, George, his rise from the position 
 of engine foreman ; his patent safety lamp ; 
 constructs a locomotive, 1814, viii. 259 ; con- 
 
 structs the Darlington and Stockton, and tho 
 Liverpool and Manchester railways, 259, 260 ; 
 his ''Rocket" engine; railway works by 
 himself and his son, Robert, 260, 261 
 Sterne, Lawrence, his " Tristram Shandy " pub- 
 lished, 1759-1767, vii. 89 
 Steuben, aide-de-camp to Frederick of Prussia, 
 vi. 376; volunteers into the American ser- 
 vice, 377 ; condition of the American army 
 according to, 383 ; he drills and re-organises 
 it, 383, 384; one of the court appointed to 
 try Andre ; his concern for Andre, 415 ; ren- 
 ders valuable assistance at the siege of York 
 Town, 1781, 427; his remarks on the siege, 
 427, 428 
 Stevenson, colonel, pursues the Scindia's army, 
 vii. 457 ; unable to join Wellington in time 
 to take part in the battle of Assye, 458 ; takes 
 Asseerghiu- and Burhampoor, 460 
 Stewart, General, sent to take Rosetta ; com- 
 pelled to retreat, 1807, vii. 485 
 Stockdale and Hansard, case ofi". See Hansard. 
 Stockholm, treaty of. Mar. 24, 1724, v. 389 ; 
 
 Mar. 3, 1813, vii. 580 
 Stockings, manufacture of, in the 16th, 17th, 
 
 18th and 19th centuries, v. 19 
 Stoke, battle of, in support of Lambert Simnel, 
 
 on June 4, 1487, ii. 213 
 Stonehenge, notice of, i. 13 
 Stopford, sir R. admiral; his naval successes 
 
 against Mehemet Ali, viii. 434, 435 
 Storm, great, of 1703 ; Eddvstone lighthouSe 
 
 destroyed by it, v. 10, 11, 269 
 Stormont, lord, maltreated by the Gordon 
 rioters, 1780, vi. 408 ; secretary of state, 1779- 
 1782, 469 
 Stothard, his paintings ; vignettes, viii. 152 
 Strabo, statement of, relating to the peaceful 
 communication of the Britons with the 
 Romans, after Csesar's invasion, i. 8 
 Strafibrd, earl of (sir Thomas Wentworth), sup- 
 ports the Petition of Right in 1628, iii. 397 ; 
 becomes chief minister of Charles I. after the 
 death of Buckingham, 409 ; is created a 
 viscount, made Lord President of the North, 
 and Lord Deputy of Ireland, 410; explains to 
 Laud the piinciple of thorough, on which 
 England and Ireland were to be governed, 
 411 ; proposes to the king a monopoly of salt, 
 416 ; strong expressions in favour of the 
 levy of Ship Money, 421 ; prevented by ill- 
 ness from taking the command of the English 
 forces against the Scots at Newbum, 437 ; 
 wishes to return to Ireland, but the king 
 pledges himself for his safety, and he remains 
 m London, 439; is impeached by the House 
 of Commons in 1641, 444, 445; is arrested 
 and committed to the Tower, 446 ; charges 
 brought against, 448 ; preparation of West- 
 minster Hall for the trial of, 449 ; conduct of 
 during the trial, 450 ; his defence, 451 ; 
 papers of the Privy Council furnished against, 
 452 ; his eloquent speech on, during his 
 defence, 453; a bill of attainder passed 
 against, by both Houses, 456 ; firm de- 
 meanour of, at his execution, on May 12, 
 1641, 458 
 Straflbrd, lord, sir John BjTig, accusation against 
 respecting Oliver the spy, quite unfounded, 
 viii. 81, 82 
 Strange, sir Robert, an engraver ; his diligence 
 
 and skill, viii. 77 
 Strathallau, viscount. See Drummond, AVm.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 727 
 
 Struensee. a favourite of the king of Denmark ; 
 a conspiracy organised against by the queen 
 dowager ; tried and beheaded, vi. 329 
 
 Strutt, Jedediah, obtains a share in Ark Wright's 
 spinning machine, vii. 47 
 
 Stuart family, note on the three last members 
 of the, vi."l97 
 
 Stuart, Charles Edward Louis Casimir (The 
 Young Pretender) ; bom 1720, vi. 47 ; called 
 from Kome to Paris to aid in an invasion of 
 Great Britain, 1743; the expedition failing 
 he retires to Gravelines, 110 ; Jacobitism of 
 England and Scotland, 114-117; determines 
 upon restoring the fortunes of his house, 117 ; 
 ■writes to his father of his intentions, 118 ; 
 anives atEriska, July 23, 1745, 121 ; his voy- 
 age from Belleisle ; takes shelter in Mac- 
 Donald's house ; his cold reception, 122 ; per- 
 suades Clanranald and two other chiefs to 
 join him ; lands at Borodale, July 25 ; com- 
 municates with the clan chiefs ; persuades 
 Cameron of Lochiel to aid in his enterprise, 
 1^3; the Glentinnan gathering, Aug. 19; his 
 standard is raised and the Stuart proclama- 
 tion read, 124 ; his own resources and the 
 crippled state of the government's army, 125 ; 
 inarches southwards ; reaches Perth, Sept. 4, 
 having passed Cope marching northwards ; 
 enters Perth ; his cause gains ground ; he is 
 joined by Drummond and Murray, 126; 
 crosses the Forth ; joined by lord Kilmarnock ; 
 reaches Corstorjihine ; preparations for defence 
 at Edinburgh, 127; obtains possession of the 
 town, Sept. 17; enters Holyrood house ; James 
 VIII. proclaimed king ; Cope embarks his 
 troops at Aberdeen ; lands at Dunbar, and 
 marches towards Edinburgh, 128 ; battle of 
 Preston-Pans, Sept. 21, in wliich Cope re- 
 ceives a signal defeat, 129, 130; sleeps at 
 Pinkie house ; and returns to Edinburgh, 
 131; blockade of Edinburgh Castle; intends 
 crossing the border, 132; English opinions 
 of the rebellion, 132, 133; enters Cum- 
 berland, Nov. 8 ; expects a great insur- 
 rectionaiy movement among the English; 
 the inhabitants of Kilmarnock refuse to 
 rise, 140 ; cause of the non-resistance to 
 his advance; Carlisle is invested, Nov. 10, 
 141 ; and taken thi-ee days after, 142 ; 
 the dubiousness of his cause ; he continues his 
 march into England, 144 ; Manchester recruits ; 
 the town is taken by a sergeant, a drum, and 
 a woman ; Johnstone's narrative thereof, 145; 
 the lukewarmness of Manchester, 146; 
 inarches on to JIacclesfield ; crosses the Mer- 
 sey ; reaches Derby, Dec. 5, ib. ; they plun- 
 der the town of the collected taxes ; the duke 
 of Cumberland pursues him, and gen. Wade 
 advances upon him from the north, 147 ; the 
 enthusiasm of his Highlanders ; their eager- 
 ness to fight Cumberland ; a retreat is resolved 
 upon, 148 ; Johnstone's fictitious narrative of 
 the panic in London, 148, 149 ; the Londoners 
 prepare for defence, 150 ; his cause receives 
 no encouragement from the commercial or in- 
 dustrious public, 151, 152; he retreats from 
 Derby, 155 ; loses confidence ; his mistaken 
 notions and weakness of character, 156 ; he is 
 pursued bj' Cumberland and Oglethorpe, 157 ; 
 the retreat is delayed by bad roads : lord 
 ituiTay takes up a position near Clifton 
 to wait the attack of the pursuing army, lb. ; 
 tias a skirmish with the foremost dragoons, 
 
 whom he beats back ; arrives at Carlisle ; the 
 prince leaves that city in the hands of a few 
 followers ; his callous inditterence as to their 
 fate, 158 ; Carlisle is invested by the Duke of 
 Cumberland ; it capitulates, Dec. 30 ; the High- 
 land army recrosses the border, Dec. 20 ; reaches 
 Glasgow ; makes heavy levies on the citizens ; 
 i;en. Hawley's contempt for the Highlanders, 
 160; the battle of Falkirk, 161 ; Hawley's 
 retreat, 162 ; lord Lovat's double dealing, 
 163; the prince's rage at hearing of the 
 desertions in his army, 164; anival at Inver- 
 ness, 165; encamps "at Culloden Moor, 166 ; 
 liis confidence of gaining a victory, 167; he 
 is met by Cumberland and receives a thorough 
 defeat. May 16, 1746; his conduct in the 
 liattle, 168; the barbarities after the battle, 
 170; his wanderings in the highlands ; gains 
 shelter in South Uist island ; escapes to 
 Skye ; is befriended by Flora MacDonald, 
 175 ; eseapes to France, Sept. 20, 176 ; refuses 
 to quit Paris when ordered ; is imprisoned at 
 Vincennes ; turned loose in Savoy ; visits 
 England in 1750, 181 ; Canova's bust of him 
 at Kome ; takes the title of count of Albany ; 
 died, Jan. 31, 1788, 196 
 
 Stuart, James Francis Edward (the Pretender^ 
 makes an attempt to land in Scotland, but 
 fails and returns to Dunkirk, 1708, v. 335 ; 
 Ms private interviews with BoUngbroke, 1712, 
 396 ; adheres firmlv to the church of Rome in 
 spite of the Jacobites ui-giug him to turn 
 Protestant, 399; issues a manifesto on the 
 death of Queen Anne, asserting liis right to 
 the vacant throne, vi. 4; the earl of Mar 
 raises his standai-d at Braemar, Sept. 6, 1715; 
 and proclaims liim James VIII. of Scotland, 
 and James III. of England, 7 ; lands at 
 Peterhead, and joins the camp at Perth, Jan. 
 16, 1716 ; his spiritless appearance ; assumes 
 the royal state, 17; retreats before Argyle; 
 takes flight to France, Feb. ; his compassion 
 for the villagers whose homes had been burnt 
 down, 18; anives at Paris; meets Boling- 
 broke there, 23 ; and dismisses him from his 
 service, 24 ; forms an alliance with Spain, 
 1718; arrives at Madrid, 35; failure of the 
 expedition against Scotland, 36; birth of his 
 son, the Young Pretender, 1720, 47 ; declara- 
 tion i&iued, Sept. 22, 1722, proposing that 
 George I. should yield up the British throne 
 to James III., 49 ; it is burnt as a libel by 
 order of parliament, ib. ; hopelessness of his 
 cause, 1727, 60, 61 ; bill agaiust his two 
 sons, 1744, 115; note on the Stuart family; 
 Canova's tomb of, and his sons, Charles 
 Edward, and Ileniy, Cardinal York ; died at 
 Home, 1765, 196 
 
 Stuart James, liis Athenian antiquarian in- 
 quiries, vii. 81 
 
 Stuart, sir John, commander of the British anny; 
 defeats the French general licynier at the 
 battle of Maida, July 4, 1806, vii. 473 
 
 Stubbs, Pliilip, picture of the times afl'orded by 
 his " Anatomic of A'-Juses," iii. 246 et scq. 
 
 Suetonius, account b)", of the expedition of 
 Caligula to invade Britain, i. 17 
 
 Suetonius Paulinus assumes the command of 
 the Eonians in Britain, a.d. 58, attacks and 
 takes ^lona (Anglesey), the cliief seat of 
 the Druids, i. 22 ; returns to repress the re- 
 volt of Boadicea, 24 ; obtains a conquest over 
 her, 25
 
 728 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Suffolk, agricultural condition of, vii. 6; the 
 labourers, farmers, and housewives of, 7 ; a 
 seat of the husbandry implement trade, 8 
 
 Safiblk, de la Poles, dukes of. See llichard II. 
 and Henry VI. 
 
 Suffolk, Howai-d, lady, George II. 's mistress; 
 Walpole devotes himself to queen Caroline, 
 not lady Suffolk, vi. 58 
 
 Suffolk, lord, a secretary of state, 1771-1779, vi. 
 381 , 469 ; his reply to Chatham's speech on 
 the address, 381, 382 
 
 Sugar duties, alterations of a free trade tendency 
 in the, proposed by lord John Kussell, 1841, 
 viii. 437^ debates on them, 437-439 ; rejection 
 of the ministerial propositions, 439 ; further 
 debates on the, 1844, 516, 517 
 
 Sunday schools. See education. 
 
 Sujah Dowlah, vizier of Oude ; Shah Alum's 
 landed property sold to ; hires an army from 
 the English ; invades the Eohilla country, 
 vii. 124 ; died, 126 
 
 Sullivan, general, in the American army ; taken 
 prisoner at Brooklyn, vi. 370 ; employed by 
 Howe as his agent to the congress, 372 
 
 Sunderland, Charles Spencer, earl of Marl- 
 borough's son-in-law ; dismissed his secre- 
 taryship of state, 1710, v. 363 ; secretary of 
 state, 1717, vi. 30; accused of being con- 
 cerned in the South Sea scheme fraud ; 
 acquitted ; resigns his post of first com- 
 missioner of the Treasury, 45; his death, 
 1722, 47 
 
 Sunderland, Kobert Spencer, earl of, one of 
 William's confidential advisers, v. 168; his 
 character and principles, 169 ; entertains 
 William at Al thorp, 1695, 181; lord cham- 
 berlain ; issues an order to prevent stage 
 licentiousness, 206 ; attempts to obtain the 
 lord chancellorship for Somers, 239 ; William's 
 correspondence with, on the state of English 
 artairsin 1701, 251 
 
 Surajah Dowlah succeeds his grandfather, April, 
 17o6 ; in hopes of booty he storms and takes 
 Calcutta ; tragedy of the black hole, June 20, 
 vi. 222 ; sufferings of the prisoners, 223 ; 
 marches from Moorshedabad ; encamps near 
 Fort William ; signs a treaty of alliance with 
 Clive ; goes over to the French, 224 ; de- 
 feated by Clive at Plassey, June 23, 1757, 225 ; 
 seeks protection from the French at Patna ; 
 murder of, 226 
 
 Surrey, earl of. See Henry VIII. 
 
 Sutton, Manners, re-elected speaker of the 
 House of Commons, 1819, viii. 99 ; again in 
 1830, 262; chosen for the sixth time, 1831, 
 278 • agam, with Mr. Littleton as candidate, 
 1833. 318; fails in being elected, 1835, 
 355 
 
 Suwarroff, a Russian general ; captures Ismail ; 
 cruelties perpetrated, vii. 191 ; defeats the 
 Poles, Oct. 10, 1794; captures Warsaw ; bar- 
 barities inflicted on the inhabitants, 315 ; 
 commands the Russo-Austrian army, 1799 ; 
 gains the battle of Trebbia, 382; returns 
 home, 393 
 
 Sweyii, with a Danish fleet, ravages England in 
 980, i. 151 ; returns to avenge the massacre 
 of the Danes, 153 ; lands again in 1012, and 
 proclafms himself king of England, 155; 
 London surrenders to, ib. ; death of, in 1014, 
 ih. 
 
 Swift, Jonathan, ])oiiits out to parliament mon 
 the dangers of quarrelling, v. 246 ; a satirical 
 
 party writer ; his character as a partisan, v 
 369 ; his dealings with Harley and St. John, 
 who make him their tool, 370; his opinion on 
 Marlborough's dismissal from office, 379 ; tho 
 operation of the stamp duty according to, 394 ; 
 author of the pamphlet" The Public Spirit of 
 the Whigs ; " is presented with £100 by tho 
 earl of Oxford, 399 ; his contributions to the 
 " Tatler," 413 ; meanness in asking for place, 
 414 ; his remarks upon the education of 
 ladies, 421 ; his " Battle of the Books," 435 ; 
 character of his writings, 442 ; marvellous 
 power of preserving the circumstantiality of 
 his tales, and the complete personification of 
 his characters, 443 ; his " Tale of a Tub," ib.; 
 and "Gulliver's 'Travels," 443, 444; con- 
 demns Vanbrugh's architecture, 456 ; author 
 of the Drapier's letters inveighing against 
 AVood's patent for a copper coinage, 1724, vi, 
 51 ; a reward of £300 offered for the dis- 
 covery of the author of the letters ; with- 
 drawal of the patent, 52 ; died, 1745, vii. 86 ; 
 application of his story of the " Spider and 
 the Bee," viii. 468 
 Swinfield, bishop of Hereford, account of the 
 Household Roll of, for 1289 and 1290, i. 392 ; 
 domestic life and duties of the bishop, 393 ; 
 manor houses of, and modes of living at, 393, 
 394 ; Christmas feast of, 395 ; prices of arti- 
 cles used by, 396 ; state of doniestica, 
 labourers, and serfs under, 396, 397 ; journey 
 of, to London, 399 ; lodging and provision on 
 the road, 400 ; arrival of, in London, 401 ; 
 notice of London markets and shops, 402; 
 departs from London, 404; visitations of, 
 405 ; gardens, orchard, and vineyard, of, at 
 I5osbury, 406 ; building operations of, at 
 Wom ens would, in Kent, 407 ; furniture pro- 
 vided for, 408 ; dresses provided by, and the 
 prices, 409. 
 
 Tables, of treaties, 1326-1731, v. 382-390 ; of 
 contemporary sovereigns from 1689-1714, 475, 
 476 ; of British writers arranged chi'onolo- 
 gically, 477-483 ; chronological list of trea- 
 ties from 1732-1748, vi. 120 ; principal oificers 
 of state, 1741-1770, 320, 321 ; contemporary 
 sovereigns, 1714-1788, 465, 466; treaty list, 
 1750-1784, 467, 468; principal officers of 
 state, 1768-1782, 469; the growth of the 
 national debt, 470-472; treaties from 1787 to 
 1802, vii. 412, 413; population of Great 
 Britain ; of England in 1700, 1750, and 1801 ; 
 of Scotland and Wales in 1801, all arranged 
 by counties, 414 ; contemporary sovereigns 
 and rulers, 1789-1814, 574, 575; principal 
 officers of state, 1783-1815, 576, 577; chro- 
 nological table of treaties, 1802-1814, 578- 
 581 ; the national debt, 1793-1815, 582 ; po- 
 pulation of Great Britain in 1811, ib. ; table 
 of deceased British writers of the 19th cen- 
 tury, viii. 133-138; list of George IV.'s 
 ministers, June, 1820, 158 ; lists of the Can- 
 ning cabinet, 1827, 210; and the Grey 
 ministry, Dec. 1830, 267; contemporary 
 sovereigns and rulers, 1815-1837, 268 ; popu- 
 lation of the United Kingdom, 1821 and 1831, 
 269 ; lists of the Peel cabinet, 354 ; and of 
 the Melbourne ministry, 1837, 381 ; table of 
 treaties, 1815-1850, 382, 383; and of the 
 national debt, 1815-1837; growth of the 
 debt, 384 ; chronological table of Britiab
 
 INDEX. 
 
 729 
 
 writers of the IDtli century, 487-491 ; table of 
 contemporary sovereigns, 568, 569 ; of the 
 population, 1841-1851, 570; occupations of 
 the people, 1851, 571, 572 ; census of religious 
 worships, 572; and education, 1851, 573; 
 public income and expenditure, 1815-1850, 
 574 ; commerce, 575 
 
 Tacitus, statement of, that Caesar did not con- 
 quer Britain, i. 8 ; his account of the Britons 
 affords an early indication of the national 
 character, 20 ; the speeches attributed by, to 
 Caractacus, Eoadicea, and Galgacus, pro- 
 bably fictitious, but affordin-g a true repre- 
 sentation of the facts and feelings of the 
 period, 21 
 
 Talavera, battle of, 28 July, 1809, vii. 522, 
 523 
 
 Talbot, lord, defied by Joan of Arc, ii. 85 ; taken 
 prisoner at the battle of Pata_v, 88 ; the pos- 
 sessions of the duke of Burgundy, ravaged bv, 
 92 ; death of, at Castillon in 14o8, 93 
 
 Talfourd, T. N., his eloquent speech at Reading-, 
 viii. 108 ; principles of his copyright bill, 463, 
 464 ; the bill rejected, 464 
 
 Taliesin, notice by, of the massacre of the monks 
 of Bangor, i. 69 
 
 Tallard sent as ambassador to the English court, 
 1698 ; his remarks upon the state of political 
 parties, v. 209 ; negotiates with "William III. 
 the tenns of the Partition treaty, 226, 227 ; 
 ordered to leave the Rhine and advance into 
 Suabia at the head of his array, 1704, 274 ; 
 joins the Elector of Bavaria, Aug. 8, 280 ; 
 they encamp near the Nebel, 281 ; takes up 
 his head quarters at the village of Blenheim, 
 ib. ; faults in the disposition of his troops, 
 282 ; he leads the main body of the French 
 army ; is opposed by Marlborough, defeated, 
 and compelled to retreat to Sonderheim, where 
 he surrenders himself, 283 ; carried to Eng- 
 land by Marlborough, 287 
 
 Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun ; considers church 
 property to belong to the nation, vii. 185 ; 
 visits London as the agent of the French 
 government; received with coldness and 
 reserve ; returns to Paris ; again returns to 
 England on an embassy, 209 ; which also had 
 a bad reception, 210 ; assists Bonaparte's in- 
 trigues for power, 383 ; his correspondence 
 with Grenville, 387-389 ; Fox's negotiations 
 with, for peace, 1806, 469 ; end of the nego- 
 tiations, 470; suspected of having revealed 
 the secret articles of Tilsit to the English, 490 ; 
 one of the plenipotentiaries at the Congress of 
 Vienna, viii. 42 et scq. ; secretly negotiates 
 with Castlereagh and Mettemich, 44 ; re- 
 signs his Presidentship of the Council, 46 ; 
 •uixious to prevent capital punishment, 46, 
 47 
 
 T.Timash commands some troops sent against 
 Brest, V. 17^ ; unable to land his men ; mor- 
 tally wounded in the attempt, 1G94, 172 
 
 Taller, objects, plan, and character of Steele's ; 
 started, 1709, v. 402, 403 
 
 Taylor, Rowland, behaviour of, in prison, iii. 
 84 ; martyrdom at Hadleigh in 1555, 85 
 
 Tea, formerly taxed ; prices of, early part of 
 18th century, v. 38, 39 
 
 Teignmouth, sacked by the French under Tour- 
 ville, July 1690, v. 115 ; a subscription raised 
 in behalf of the inhabitants of, 116 
 
 Teignmouth, lord, as sir John Shore, he succeeds 
 earl Comwallis as governor-general of India, 
 
 vii. 377 , succeeded by lord Momiugton, 1798, 
 378 
 
 Telford, Thomas, his career and great engineer- 
 ing works, viii. 147 ; opinion in 1830 of the 
 capabilities of the locomotive engine, 259 
 
 Templars (Knights), mission from the kingdom 
 of Jerusalem to, in 1185, i. 303; dissolution 
 of the order of the, in France, in 1307, 439 ; 
 and suppression of, in England, in 1308, ib. ; 
 their house in London given to the students 
 of the law, 440 
 
 Temple, earl, moves an amendment in tlie ad- 
 dress, 1755, vi. 209; first lord of the admiralty, 
 1756, 218 ; desires to save Byng under cover 
 of the king's name ; dismissed his office, 220; 
 lord privy seal, 227 ; fails in obtaining the 
 garter, 240 ; siqiports Pitt's war policy, 1761, 
 251 ; resigns office, 252 ;' Wilkes' friend ; dis- 
 approves of "The North Briton's" attack on 
 the Scotch, 261 ; visits Wilkes in the Tower, 
 262 ; dismissed his lord-lieutenancy of Buck- 
 inghamshire ; struck off the privy council list, 
 263 ; his share in the negotiations for Pitt's 
 return to power, 1765, 277, 278 ; declines the 
 king's offer of the first lord of the treasuryship, 
 285 ; sugsested to be the author of " Junius," 
 295,296,298; lord- lieutenant of Ireland, 1782, 
 450; secretary of state, 1783; differs with 
 Pitt; resigns, vii. 139 
 
 Temple, sir William, concludes the Triple Alli- 
 ance in 1668, iv. 308 ; it is repudiated in 1671, 
 and he retires to private life, 315; notice of 
 the prince of Orange by, 329 ; suggests a 
 scheme of government bv a cabinet, 343 
 
 Tenchebrai, battle of, in li05, i. 240 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred, his poetry, viii. 480, 481 
 
 Tesse, marshal, joins Philip V. ; with him 
 invades Catalonia, 1706, v. 297 ; raises the 
 siege of Barcelona, 298 
 
 Test Act, AVilliam proposes, without avail, the 
 repeal of the, 1689, v. 73 ; repeal of, suggested, 
 1730, vi. 62, 63 ; again in 1772, 328 ; in 1790, 
 vii. 187 ; repealed, 1828, viii. 232, 233 
 
 Tewkesbury, the Lancastrians totally defeated 
 at the battle of, on May 4, 1471, ii. 166 
 
 Teynham, Henry Francis, lord, his reform plans 
 and suggestions, viii. 311 
 
 Thackeray, W. M., voluminousness and charac- 
 ter of his novels, viii. 475, 479 
 
 Thanet, complete insulation of, in the time of 
 the Romans, i. 37 
 
 Theatre. See Drama. 
 
 Thelwall, John, arrrested on a charge of liigh 
 treason, vii. 300; trial of; defended by 
 Erskine, and acquitted, 303 
 
 Theodosius, repels the invasion of the Picts and 
 Scots into Britain, i. 54 
 
 Thiers, M., his account of the intended invasion 
 of Britain by Napoleon, i. 17 ; his remarks on 
 Wellington, vii. 529; president of the French 
 council, viii. 430 ; his warlike tone towards 
 England, 430, 434, 435 ; the king refusing to 
 acquiesce in his hostile speech to be delivered 
 to the chambers, he resigns, 435 
 
 Thistle, order of the, revived by queen Anne, 
 1703; statutes of the, broken by Georges!, 
 and IV., V. 327 
 
 Thistlewood, Arthur, a Spencean fanatic, viii. 
 75 ; one of the leaders of the Spafields re- 
 formers, 76 ; antecedents of, viii. 160 ; con- 
 spires to assassinate the cabinet ministers ; 
 ms plot discovered, and himself tried and 
 executed, 1820, 160, 161
 
 730 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Thom, J. N., h-is earlier career ; imprisoned, 
 viii. 412 ; released by lord John Russell, 412, 
 413 ; proclaims himself the Messiah at Bough- 
 ton, 413 ; rouses the people, 413, 414 ; his 
 three daj's' march, 414-416 ; the tragedy of 
 Bosenden Wood, 415, 417; slain in the en- 
 counter, 416 
 
 Thomson, James, his "Castle of Indolence," 
 published, 1748; died same year, vii. 87 
 
 Thomson, C. P., vice-president of the board of 
 trade, and treasurer of the navj', 1830, viii. 
 267 ; his remarks on Peel's repeal of the house 
 tax. 1834, 347 ; president of the board of 
 trade, 347, 381 
 
 Thomhill, sir J ., his roof paintings, v. 463 ; opens 
 an academy of painting, 1724, vii. 67 ; sug- 
 gests a plan for a Royal. Academy, 68 
 
 ■Thurlow, Edward, a'ttorney-general, vi. 339 ; 
 lord chancellor, 1778-1792, 388,469 ; vii. 576 ; 
 opposes Burke's Economical Reform bill, vi. 
 439 ; and the contractors' and revenue officers' 
 bills, 440 ; opposes Fox's Libel bill in the 
 House of Lords, vii. 212, 213 ; becoming ob- 
 noxious to the ministry, he is compelled to 
 give up the great seal, 1792, 213 
 
 Ticonderoga, British attack on, 1758, repulsed, 
 vi. 233; surprised by the Americans, 1775, 
 350, 351 ; re-captured by Burgoyne, 1777, 
 379 
 
 Tielmans, tried for conspiriag against the Ne- 
 therlands government; found guilty; ban- 
 ished, 1830, viii. 257 
 
 Tierney, George, opposes Pitt's income tax 
 scheme, 1798, vii. 359, 360; his conduct in 
 the Caroline debate of, 1820, viii. 162, 165; 
 master of the Mint, 210 
 
 Tilsit, treaty of, July, 1807, vii. 488, 489, 579 
 
 Tin mines and manufactories, v. 13 
 
 Tintem Abbey, foundation of, i. 256 
 
 Tinville, Fouquier, furious zeal shown by, as 
 public accuser, vii. 2/2, 273 ; executed, 1795, 
 321 
 
 Tippoo Saib, son of Hj'der Ali ; concludes a 
 peace with the British, vii. 134; wars against 
 the British under Cornwallis, 1790, 1791 ; 
 defeated May 15, 1791 ; surrenders Seiinga- 
 patam, Feb. 1792, and concludes a peace, 
 Mar. 19, 258, 259; Bonaparte's letter to, 
 1799, 377 ; he relies upon assistance from the 
 French ; general Harris enters his territory 
 of Mysore, Mar. 5, 1799, 378 ; Seringapatam 
 stormed and Tippoo slain. May 4, 379 ; divi- 
 sion of his territory, ib. 
 
 Titus, allusion of, to the security afforded to 
 the Britons by the sea, i. 3 
 
 Tocqucville, his remarks on the public opinion 
 respecting the French revolution, vii. 182; 
 and the French national character, 288 
 
 Tolcntino, treaty of, Feb. 19, 1797, vii. 412 
 
 Toleration Act, passed, 16'89, v. 73 ; an imper- 
 fect bo.m, 73, 74 
 
 Tone, Wolfe, captured ; sentenced to death ; 
 commits suicide ; died Nov. 19, 1798, vii. 3G8 
 
 Tomlinc, bishop. See Pretyman. 
 
 Tooke, Home, arrested on a charge of high 
 treason, vii. 300 ; trial of, 302 ; defended by 
 Erskine and acquitted, 303 
 
 Torgau, battle of, 1760, vi. 210 
 
 Torres Vcdras, construction of, and events con- 
 nected with Wellington's lines of, vii. 529-532 
 
 ToiTington, carl of, sent out to fight the French, 
 defeated off Beachy Head, June, 1G90; his 
 baecucBS and hesitating conduct, v. Ill 
 
 Postig, brother of Harold, succeeds Siwaid aa 
 earl of Northumbria, i. 171 ; oppression ex- 
 ercised by, occasions an insurrection, 175 ; is 
 banished, 176 ; invades England with a force 
 of Norvvegians, is defeated and slain at Stam- 
 ford Bridge in 1066, 180 
 
 Toulon, besieged by the allies, 1707, v. 332; 
 negotiations of the royalists of, with lord 
 Hood, vii. 286 ; the fleet and harbour surren- 
 dered to the British, 287 ; political opinions 
 of its inhabitants, 287, 288 ; besieged by the 
 republicans, 287-290 ; the British compelled 
 to evacuate the place, 290; republican bar- 
 barities, 290-292 
 
 Tournay, surrendered to the allies, 1709, v. 343; 
 invested by the French, 1745, vi. 213 
 
 Tourville, count de, a French admu-al ; defeats 
 Torrington off Beachy Head, June 30, 1690, 
 v. Ill ; anchors off Torbay, July 22, lands his 
 troops at Teignniouth and devastates the vil- 
 lage, 115; sails for France, 116; defeated by 
 Russell off La Hogue, May 19, 1692, 149 ; his 
 fleet, having assembled, is again dispersed on 
 the 23rd by admu-al Rooke, 150; joins the 
 Toulon fleet, 166; sails iato the Mediterra- 
 nean, 171 
 
 ToNvnley, colonel in the Pretender's army; 
 tried, vi. 172 ; executed, 1746, 173 
 
 Townley, Charles, his collection of sculpture; 
 bought for the British Museum, 1805, viii. 
 150 
 
 Towns, manufacturing condition of, in 1636, iii. 
 499 
 
 Townshend, lord Charles, his fear that France 
 will render aid to the Pretender, vi. 17; dis- 
 agrees with Stanhope ; dismissed from his 
 office of secretary of state ; offered the lord 
 lieutenancy of Ireland, 28 ; which he reluc- 
 tantly accepts, 29 ; but is dismissed from it, 
 April 3, 1717, 30 ; appointed secretary of state 
 in room of earl Staiuiope, 1721, 46; accom- 
 panies George I. to Hanover, 1727, 56, 57 ; 
 quarrels with Walpole ; resigns office, 61 ; 
 and retires to the country, 62 
 
 Townshend, brigadier-general, completesWolfe's 
 %-ictory before Quebec, 1759, vi. 238, 239 
 
 Townshend, Charles, chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, 1766, vi. 285, 321 ; his atonishment at 
 l^itt's political schemes, 285, 286 ; dies of 
 fever, 1768, 288 
 
 Townshend, Thomas, draws attention to the 
 tardiness of action by the nav)' authoi-ities, 
 1778, vi. 392 ; secretary of state, 1782, 450, 469 
 
 Towton, the battle of, on March 29, 1461, and 
 victory of the Yorkists, ii. 147, 148 ; consti- 
 tution of the contendmg armies of the Roses, 
 147 
 
 Trafalgar, battle of, Oct. 21, 1805, vi. 446-448 
 
 Traitorous correspondence bill passed, 1744; 
 debate on it, vi. 115, 116; another introduced, 
 1793, and passed in a modified form, vii. 267 ; 
 debate on, 267, 270 
 
 Travancore, rajah of, attacked by Tippoo, vii. 
 258 ; wars against Britain, 1807-1809, viii. 
 212, 213 
 
 Travelling, means for, as shown in bishop Swiu- 
 ficld's journeys between Prestbury and Lon- 
 don, i. 399, 404 ; another journey from Oxford 
 to Canterbury in 1289, 401 ; travelling in 
 London, 1289, 402; as sliown in his visita- 
 tions, in 1290, 405 ; mode of, as exhibited by 
 a Scotch army in 1312,431; dangers of, ic 
 the latter half of the 15th century, ii. 127;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 731 
 
 dangerous condition of the London streets, 
 temp. Henry VIII. , 479 ; statute passed for 
 repairing the highways, 1555, 480 ; means 
 for, on the Thames, temp. Henry VIII., 481 ; 
 insecurity of, illustrated in tne murder of 
 Arden ot Feversham, in 1551, 485; custom 
 of resorting to the seaside for pleasure a 
 modem one, v. 8 ; horror of, in a hilly 
 country, ib. ; partly caused by the bad roads, 
 temp, queen Anne, 9 ; Bath and Tunbridge 
 Wells, the principle resorts of pleasure seek- 
 ers, 9, 10 ; in Yorkshire, temp. Q. Anne, 26 ; 
 bad state of the road between London and 
 Kensington, 1736, vi. 84 ; stage coaches, inns, 
 and travelling accommodation about 1737, 
 vii. 91 ; dangers from highwajonen, drunken 
 drivers, and rapid coaching, 92 ; first mail 
 coach started (1784) by Mr. Palmer, 93 
 
 Treasonable Attempts bill passed 1795; its ob- 
 jects ; debate on it, vii. 323, 324 
 
 Treason, bills for regulating ti'ials in cases of 
 high, brought forward ; not passed, 1692, v. 
 146 ; passed 1695 ; lord Ashley's speech on, 
 
 Treaties, chronological table of, and the wars 
 connected with them, from 1326 to 1731, v. 
 382-390 ; from 1732 to 1748, vi. 120 ; from 
 1750 to 1784, 467, 468; from 1787 to June 
 25, 1802, vii. 412, 413; from 1802 to 
 1814, 578-581 ; from 1815 to 1850, viii. 382 
 383 
 
 Trevor, sir John, master of the rolls ; parlia- 
 mentary coiTuption commenced by, v. 102; 
 receives a thousand guinea bribe for assisting 
 in passing the Orphans act ; he is discovered, 
 found guUty, and expelled the House of Com- 
 mons, of which he was the speaker, 177 
 
 Tribute, not paid by Britain for some time after 
 the invasion of Ca;sar, i. 16 
 
 Trichinopoly defended by Mahomed Ali, vi. 203; 
 the siege raised by the British, 205 
 
 Triennial bill introduced and passed by both 
 Houses, 1693 ; but vetoed by the king ; be- 
 comes law, 1694, V. 159, 173 
 
 Trinobantes, the kings of the, i. 14 
 
 Triple Alliance, the, concluded, Jan. 4, 1717, 
 vi. 29 
 
 Trogoff, admiral, commands the Toulon fleet, 
 17:J3 ; an anti-revolutionist, vii. 286 
 
 Troppau, Congress of, Oct. 20, 1820, viii. 382 
 
 Trotter, the navy paymaster; his evidence 
 against lord Melville, 1805, vii. 439 
 
 Trumbull, sir "William ; ambassador and secre- 
 tary of state ; first encourager of Pope's poeti- 
 cal talents, v. 416 
 
 Tuileries, attack on the, Aug. 1792, vii. 225, 
 226 
 
 TulUbardine, marquis, joins the Scotch insur- 
 rection of 1715, vi. 8 ; and the earl Maris- 
 chal's expedition, 1719, 36 ; accompanies 
 Charles Edward in his descent upon Scotland, 
 
 ' 121 ; raises the Pretender's standard, Aug. 19, 
 1745, 124 
 
 Turin invested by the French, 1706; prince 
 Eugene compels them to raise the siege, v. 
 300 
 
 Turner, bishop of Ely, enters into Jacobitical 
 intrigues, v, 124 ; implicated by Preston in 
 his plot, 126 
 
 Turner, J. "W. M. ; character of his principal 
 pictui-es, viii. 153, 154 ; his early popularity, 
 154 ; style of his earlier water colour pamt- 
 ings, 155 
 
 Turnpikes, laws relating to, amended and con- 
 solidated, in consequence of the Rebecca riots, 
 viii. 506 
 
 Tyrawley, lord, placed at the bar of the House 
 of Commons to give evidence on the Spanish 
 war, V. 368 
 
 Tyrconnel ; his schemes in favour of James II., 
 V. 80 ; puts Ireland into a state of defence, 
 ib. ; domineers over the Irish protestants, and 
 places the power of the kingdom in the hands 
 of the papists, 81 ; assumes the \'iceroyship of 
 Ireland under James, 1691, 127 
 
 Ulfus, lands given by, to the chapter of 
 York, with a horn as the symbol of the title, 
 i. 120 • 
 
 Ulm capitulated to the allies, Sept. 12, 1704, v. 
 287 ; peace of, July 3, 1620, 386 ; besieged by 
 Napoleon ; to whom it is surrendered bv 
 Mack, Oct. 20, 1805, vii. 444, 445 
 
 Union, Anne empowered by parliament to nego- 
 tiate for a, with Scotland, 1702, v. 259, 260 ; 
 jirogress of the negotiations ; debates and 
 speeches ; national feelings elicited, 311-328 ; 
 the act of union received the royal assent, 
 March 6, 1787, 328 
 
 Union with Ireland proposed in George III.'s 
 message to parliament, Jan. 22, 1799, ■vii. 
 360 ; progress of the bill for ; debates, &c., 
 369-376; completed, 1800, 376 
 
 United Irishmen, the, organised ; they scheme 
 a rebellion, vii. 362, 363 ; narrative of the re- 
 bellion, 363-369 
 
 University of London opened, 1828, viii. 231 ; 
 debate on the motion for granting a charter to 
 the ; the motion carried, 1835 ; various names 
 applied to the institution, 357 
 
 Utretcht, commencement of negotiations at, 
 1711, V. 381 ; union of, Jan. 22, 1579, 385 ; 
 terms of the peace announced to parliament, 
 394, 395 ; treaty of, signed by Great Britain, 
 France, Savoy, Portugal, Prussia, and the 
 States-General, April 11, and by Spain, 
 July 13, 1713 ; conditions of the treaty, 389- 
 397 
 
 Uxbridge, lord, leads the English cavalry at 
 Quatre Bras, viii. 30 ; his legs shot off at 
 Waterloo, 36 
 
 Vaccination discovered by E. Jenner; the 
 great good that has resulted from its practice, 
 viii. 130, 131 
 
 Vagrancy, statute to repress, in 1504, ii. 252 ; 
 atrocious severity of one in 1536, 342 ; re- 
 newed statute in 1547, imposing slavery as a 
 punishment, 470; repealed, 1549, iii. 38; 
 statute of Elizabeth against, 269 ; inefficiency 
 of tlie laws against, 270 ; hardships of the 
 vagrancy laws on the poor, viii. 67 
 
 Valenqa,v, treaty of, 8 Dec. 1813, vii. 580 
 
 Valencia besieged by PMlip, v. 296 ; stratagems 
 employed bv Peterborough in accomplishing 
 its relief, 296, 297 
 
 Valenciennes, siege of; and capitulation to the 
 allies, July 28, 1793^ vii. 282 
 
 Valmv, due de. See Kellerniann. 
 
 Valmy, battle of, Sept. 20, 1792, vii. 234 
 
 Vanbrugli, sir Juhn, commences the Blenheim 
 palace, 1705, v. 304 ; begins his practice as 
 architect in his 36th year, with Castle Howard, 
 455; his chief works; their character con«
 
 732 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 demned by the wits and essayists, but pro- 
 perly appreciated by sir J. Reynolds, 456 
 
 Vandamnie, general, repulsed by Abercromby 
 in Holland, 1799, vii. 386; defeated and taken 
 prisoner at the battle of the Katzbach, 1813, 
 563 
 
 Yandeveldes, their sea paintings ; they found a 
 school of painting, v. 463 
 
 Vane, su- Henry, the younger, produces the 
 papers of the Privy Council to prove the guilt 
 of Strafford, iii. 452; chief negotiator with 
 Scotland for an alliance with the parliament, 
 iv. 27 ; his modifications of the treaty in 
 favour of toleration, 28 ; a leading Indepen- 
 dent statesman, 57 ; wishes to keep the army 
 intact, 69 ; one of the chief disputants with 
 the king at the treaty of Newport, 98 ; bears 
 testimony to the talent of Charles, 99 ; retires 
 into tiie country after the ejection of mem- 
 bers by the army, till after the king's exe- 
 cution, 104 ; remarks of Mrs. Hutchinson on 
 his conduct at this period, ib. ; becomes an 
 active member of the Council of State, 115; 
 President of the Committee for the Navy, 149 ; 
 conduct of, at the dissolution of the Long 
 Parliament by Oliver Cromwell, 158 ; pub- 
 lishes a pamphlet describing a new form of 
 government, 199 ; Cromwell in vain endea- 
 vours to persuade him not to act in opposition 
 to his government ; and he is imprisoned, 199 ; 
 is excepted from the Act of Indemnity in 1660, 
 but his life recommended to be spared, 248 ; 
 is tried for high treason in 1662, 260 ; able 
 defence of, and the king's letter recommend- 
 ing him to be put out of the way on account 
 of it, 261; his execution, on June 14, 1662, 
 262 
 
 Vansittart, Nicholas, as British envoy attempts 
 to avert a war with Denmark, 1801, vii. 402 ; 
 chancellor of the exchequer, 1812-1820, 577, 
 viii. 158 ; unwilling to believe that the an- 
 nexation of Saxony to Prussia had been con- 
 sented to by British ministers, viii. 43 
 
 Varangians, the Anglo-Saxons driven from 
 England, become the emperor's guard at 
 Constantinople, i. 189 ; valour displayed by, 
 190 
 
 Yauxhall gardens, company and amusement of, 
 18th century, contrasted with those of Rane- 
 lagh, vii. 96-98 
 
 Vellore, mutiny at, 1806, vii. 462, 463 
 
 Yend6me, duke of, commands the French army 
 in the Nctlierlands, 1707, v. 332 ; and the one 
 sent against Brabant, 1708, 335 ; his incre- 
 dulity regarding Marlborough's quick march 
 of July 11, 1708 ; he is defeated by him the 
 same day, 337 ; commands Pliilip V.'s 
 army ; defeats Stanhope and Staremberg, 
 367 
 
 Veneti, inhabitants of Brittany, character of, i. 
 2 ; intimate relations of, with England, ib. ; 
 resistance offered by, to Ctes.ar, 3 ; assistance 
 afforded to, by the Britons, ib. ; conquest of, 
 by Ca3sar, ib. 
 
 Yenice entered by the French, May 16, 1797, 
 vii. 343 ; cession of, to Austria, 1797, 346, 347 
 
 Yenloo carried by storm by the English, Sept. 
 18, 1702, v. 260 
 
 Vcnncr, Thomas, futile attempt at insurrection 
 of, in 1657, in favour of the Fifth Monarchy, 
 iv. 206 
 
 Verdun capitulated to the Prussians, Sept. 2, 
 1792, vii. 234 
 
 Vergennes, count de, French minister for foreign 
 affairs ; his interview with Franklin and 
 Lee, 1776; vi. 372; with Steuben, 1777,376, 
 377 ; and with Mr. Oswald, Shelbum's agent, 
 1782, 450; offended at the United States 
 signing a peace without obtaining the consent 
 of France, 457, 458 
 
 Yergniaud, an eloquent Girondin, vii. 205 ; ob- 
 tains a draft of a decree for forming the 
 national convention, 226 ; his war cry against 
 the Prussians, 1792, 228 ; proposes to obtain 
 the people's judgment on the sentence passed 
 against Louis XVI. ; votes the king's death, 
 251 ; as president of the convention declares 
 the sentence of death against Louis, 252 ; 
 interferes in behalf of Mrs. Elliott, on her 
 being arrested, 1793, 270 ; executed, Oct. 31, 
 1793, 293 
 
 Yeraon, Edward, vice-admiral ; takes Porto 
 Bello ; despatched against the Spanish- Ame- 
 rican possessions ; advises the capture of 
 Carthagena, vi. 98 ; renders no assistance to 
 general Wentworth, 99 ; boasts of having 
 destroyed all the enemy's castles, 100 
 
 Verona, congress of, Aug. 25, 1822, viii. 382 
 
 Verrio, employment of, to ornament Windsor 
 Castle, iv. 355 ; his ceiling paintings, v. 447, 
 463 
 
 Verulam, attacked and destroyed by Boadicea, 
 A.D. 61, i. 23, 24 
 
 Vespasian, conquests of, in Britain, i. 20 ; tri- 
 umph bestowed on, ib. 
 
 Victor, marshal, with Macdonald, defeated by 
 Suwarroff at Trebbia, 1799, vii. 382 ; defeated 
 by Melas, 1800, 395 ; retreats from Talavera 
 to Torrijos ; joined by Sebastiani and king 
 Joseph, 1809, 522, 523 
 
 Victor Amadous II. of Savoy joins the con- 
 federacy against France ; his war with the 
 French, v. 123; his despair at the devastation 
 of his country by the French ; Schomberg 
 sent to cheer him, 127 ; defeated at Mar- 
 siglia, 166; makes peace with France, 195; 
 thus losing his chance to the English crown ; 
 marries Anne Marie of Orleans, a descendant 
 of Charles I. of England, 241 ; Anne requests 
 subsidies for him, 267 ; besieged in Turin by 
 the French, 1706, 300; joins the allies in a 
 campaign against France, 1707 ; ineffectually 
 bombards Toulon, 332 ; signs the treaty of 
 Utrecht ; Sicily, and a claim to the Spanish 
 succession, yielded to, 397; reigned as king of 
 Sardinia, 1720-1730, vi. 466 
 
 Victoria, queen, daughter of the duke and 
 duchess of Kent, bom May 24, 1819, viii. 
 97 ; she succeeds to the throne on the 
 death of her uncle, William IV., June 20, 
 1837 ; her demeanour and appearance at 
 the audience with the privy council, 379, 
 380; meets her parliament; enthusiasti- 
 cally received ; her speech ; general feeling 
 of loyalty towards, and attachment to ; opens 
 her new parliament, 405 ; her speech, 404, 
 405 ; her coronation, 409, 410 ; opens parlia- 
 ment, 1839; speech, 417; refuses to accede 
 to sir R. Peel's request to dismiss her ladies 
 of the bedchamber, 420 ; approbation of her 
 conduct manifested by some, 420, 421 ; and 
 aspersions thrown on her beliaviour by 
 others, 421 ; marries prince Albert, 426; her 
 life attempted by Oxford, 428; speech on 
 proroguing parliament, 429 ; speech on 
 opening parliament by commission, 439 ; her
 
 INDEX. 
 
 733 
 
 enswer to the an.endment of the address, 
 440, 441 ; birth of her first child ; and of the 
 prince of Wales ; speech on opening the par- 
 liamentary session, 1842, 493 ; two attempts 
 on her life by Francis and Bean ; bill passed 
 for better protecting her person ; speech on 
 proroguing parliament, 497 ; speech, 1844, 
 511 ; visited by Louis Philippe, 522 ; speech, 
 1845, 524 ; with prince Albert visits Ger- 
 many, 530; offers the premiership to lord J. 
 Russell, 533, 534 ; her parting interview with 
 sir R. Peel, 534 ; speech, 1846, 535 ; pro- 
 rogues parliament ; speech, 552 ; speech, 
 1849, 562, 563 
 
 Vienna entered bv the French, 1805, vii. 449, 
 450; and May, "1809, 515 
 
 Vienna, congress of, 1815, 42-44 
 
 Vienna, treaty of, April 30, 1725, v. 389, 390; 
 the treaty of alliance of, March 16, 1731, 
 390; vi. 60; peace of, Nov. 18, 1738, 77, 
 78, 120 ; peace of, Oct. 14, 1809, vii. 516, 
 517, 579 ; treaty of, March 23, 1815 ; federa- 
 tive constitution signed at, June, 1815 ; 
 convention entered into at, Aug. 1815, viii. 
 382 
 
 Vikings, notice of the, i. 78 
 
 Villadaria, marquis of, captain-general of An- 
 dalusia ; opposes sir George Kooke and duke 
 of Ormond, 1702, v. 261 ; sent to recapture 
 Gibraltar, meets with no success, and is su- 
 perseded by De Pontis, 292 
 
 Viilars, marshal, concludes a negotiation with 
 Cavalier, the leader of the Camisards, or re- 
 volted Protestants of the Cevennes, 1704, v. 
 265 ; unites his army with Marsin's, 1705, 
 301 ; opposes himself between the allies and 
 France, 1709; follows them after the siege 
 of Toumay ; encamps at Malplaquet, 343 ; 
 defeated by Marlborough at that place, 344 ; 
 constructs a series of fortified lines, which are 
 forced by Marlborough, 1711, notwithstand- 
 ing the superiority of his French army, 376 ; 
 opposes the allied anny, 1712 ; corresponds 
 secretly with Ormond, 392 ; defeats prince 
 Eugene at Denain, July 24, 393 
 
 Yilleneuve, admiral of the Toulon fleet ; chased 
 by Nelson to the West Indies, and back to 
 Europe, vii. 441 ; where he engages with sir 
 R. Calder, July 22, 1805, 442 ; ordered by 
 Napoleon to enter the Mediterranean and 
 proceed to Toulon ; in executing which he is 
 defeated by Nelson at Trafalgar, 446-448 
 
 Villeroy succeeds Luxemburg as general of the 
 French army, v. 178; takes Dixmuyde and 
 Deynse, and attacks William before Namur, 
 179 ; retires, 180 ; attacks prince Eugene, but 
 is repulsed, 1700, 250; appointed to com- 
 mand a detachment of the French army in 
 the campaign of 1704, 274; ordered to 
 follow Marlborough, who gives hiiu the slip 
 near the Moselle, 275 ; threatens Marlborough 
 before Landau, 287 ; takes Huy and invests 
 Liege, 1705, 302; retreats before Marlborough 
 within the French lines, ih. ; Marlborough 
 follows and forces the lines ; Villeroy then 
 retreats beyond the Dvlc, 304 ; his position, 
 May 23, 1706, 308 ; defeated by Marlborough 
 at the battle of liamillies, 309 ; retreats to 
 Louvain, ib. 
 
 Vimiero, battle of, Aug. 21, 1808, vii. 502 
 
 Vinegar Hill, battle of, near Enniscorthy, 1798, 
 vii. 365 
 
 Virginia, first attempts to found a colony in, iii. 
 
 220 ; founding of the colony )f, under James 
 Smith, in 1606, 343 ; suflerings of the first 
 colonists, and subsequent progress of the 
 colony, 344, 345 
 
 Vittoria, battle of, June 21, 1813, vii. 562 
 
 Volunteers ; earl of Shelburne's circular pro- 
 posing the raising of, 1782, vii. 442, 443 ; 
 spontaneously raised by the Irish, 1779, 444; 
 strength of, in Ireland, 1782, 446; formation 
 of corps of, encouraged by government, 1794, 
 304 ; imperfectly aided by the government, 
 1798, 360; rapid enrolment of, in July and 
 August 1808, 427 ; total number in No- 
 vember, 428 ; Pitt and the volunteers at 
 Walmer, ib. ; general organization of, 
 throughout England and Scotland ; reviewed 
 by the king at Hyde Park and elsewhere, 
 429 ; debate on the volunteer system ; it is 
 supported by Pitt, 429, 430 ; feebly aided by 
 the ministers, 430 ; abstract of a list of 
 yeomanry and volunteer corps, Dec. 1803, 
 434 
 
 Vortigern, legend of, i. 61 
 
 Vyvyan, sir Richard, moves for the rejection of 
 the Reform bill, 1831, viii. 275; speech 
 of, on the Municipal Reform bill, 1835, 363 
 
 Wade, general, carries off Gyllenberg's papers, 
 vi. 29 ; quells a riot at Glasgow, 1725, 53 ; 
 evidence of, on the Porteous riots, 1736, 83; 
 sends troops under Oglethorpe to pursue the 
 rebels of 1745, 157 ; ordered to return to New- 
 castle, 159 
 Wagers, act to prevent, passed 1708, v. 341 
 Wages of labourers in 1288, i. 398 ; of artifi- 
 cers, 408 ; statutes for the regulation of 
 the scale of, for labourers, 471 ; statutes for 
 the regulation of, and for the hours of 
 labour, in 1495, ii. 113, 114 ; truck forbidden, 
 114; new statute for the regulation of, in 
 
 1495, 252 ; found ineffectual, and repealed in 
 
 1496, /i5. ; new statute for the regulation of, 
 in 1515, 475 ; the legislature declare iu 1563 
 that the statutes cannot be enforced on ac- 
 count of the high price of provisions, iu. 276; 
 income and wages of various classes in the 
 time of queen Anne, v. 49, 50 ; of the out- 
 docr agricultural labourer, 50 ; combinations 
 of labourers to demand a rise in, in Edward 
 III.'s reign, vi. 184, 185; the relation 
 between master and man in the question of, 
 185, 186 
 
 Wagram, battle of, July 5, 1809, vii. 516 
 
 Wakefield, battle of, defeat of the Yorkists, and 
 death of the duke of York, Dec. 31, 1460, ii. 
 145 
 
 Walcheren, narrative of the expedition against, 
 1809, vii. 517-521 
 
 Waldeck, prince of, conduct of, at the battle of 
 Fontenoy, 1745, vi. 114 
 
 Waldegravc, lord, character of George IIL as 
 pourtrayed by, vi. 241, 242 
 
 Waldegravc, ladv, marries the duke of Glouces- 
 ter, vi. 330 ; "letter of, to her father, sir E. 
 Walpole, on her position as duchess of 
 Gloucester, 331, 332 
 
 Wale, a sign painter; his portrait of Shak- 
 spere, vii. 70 
 
 Wales, state of, as described by Giraldus in 
 1188, i. 277, 278 ; Llewellyn, prince of, is 
 summoned to do homage to Edward I., and 
 refuses, 383 ; is attacked by Edward and
 
 734 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 forced to submit, in 1277, 384 ; his attend- 
 ants in London dislike their food and their 
 treatment there, ib. ; renewed revolt of, in 
 1282, 387 ; is slain, and his brother executed, 
 388; piince Edward, bom at Caernarvon, 
 April 25, 1284, created prince of "Wales, 389 ; 
 statute passed for the settlement of, by Ed- 
 ward I., 390 ; insurrection in 1287 sup- 
 pressed, 411 ; another insurrection in 1295 
 subdued, 417 ; popularity of Richard II. in, 
 ii. 41 ; revolt of, against Henry IV. under 
 Owen Glendower, 42 ; severe measures taken 
 for the repression of, ib. ; Henry IV. and his 
 array repulsed, in 1402, 43 ; successful re- 
 sistance of, during the life of Glendower, 
 50,51 
 
 Walker, Andrew, weeds the Devil's Acre; 
 founder of the London ragged schools, viii. 399 
 
 Walker, George, a Presbyterian minister, one 
 of the principal defenders of Londonderry, v. 
 82, et seq. ; appointed, with Baker, to succeed 
 Lundy as governor of Londonderry, during 
 the siege, 83 ; slain at the battle of the 
 Boyne, July 1, 1690, 108 
 
 Walker, James, Vauxhall bridge designed and 
 executed by, viii. 148 
 
 Wallace, William, heads a revolt in Scotland 
 in 1297, against Edward I., i. 420 ; defeats 
 the English at Stirling, 420, 421 ; created 
 guardian of the kingdom, 421 ; is defeated at 
 Falldrk, 422 ; continued warfare of, ib. ; is 
 betrayed, and taken prisoner, 424 ; is taken 
 to London, where he arrives Aug. 22, 1305, 
 425 ; is executed, ib. 
 
 Waller, Edmund, the royalist plot of, discovered, 
 iv. 15 ; saves his life by bribing the House of 
 Commons, 16 
 
 Waller, sir William, successful against the 
 royalists, iv. 15 ; defeated at Lansdown, 19 ; 
 blockades Oxford, in companj' with Essex, 
 33 ; jealousies between him and Essex, 34 ; 
 pursues the king iuto Worcestershii-e, and is 
 defeated by him, ib. ; called out for the de- 
 fence of London, 37 
 
 Walloon weavers, introduction of, into England 
 by the protector Somerset, iii. 45 ; driven 
 from England by Mary, 46 
 
 Walmoden, count, commands the English army 
 in Hanover, 1794, vii. 313; defeated by 
 Pichegrn, 314 
 
 Walpole, Robert, succeeds St. John as secretary 
 at war, 1708, v. 335; his argument in ap- 
 plying the principle of resistance to the 
 general doctiine of the subjects' obedience, 
 351 ; he is elected a member of queen Anne's 
 third parliament, which met Nov. 25, 1710, 
 364 ; defends Steele in the House of Com- 
 mons, 399 ; his contempt for literature, 414 ; 
 condemns Vanbrugh's architecture, 456 ; im- 
 peaches Bolingbroke of high treason, June 9, 
 1715, vi. 5 ; moves the adjournment of the 
 House to prevent the appeal for mercy 
 towards the rebel lords, 20 ; character of his 
 ministerial government, 26, 27 ; resigns the 
 chancellorship of exchequer, 30 ; opposes an 
 address of thanks, 1718, 35 ; opposed the 
 Peerage bill, 1719, 38 ; his prudence during 
 the South Sea scheme, 42 ; called upon to 
 retrieve the national credit, 43 ; again be- 
 comes chancellor of the exchequer, 1721, 46 ; 
 cancels Wood's patent for a copper coinage, 
 52 ; his interview with George II. an- 
 nouncing George I.'s death, 57 ; prepares the 
 
 royal speech for sir S. Compton, t5ie minister 
 elect ; is confirmed in power by bribing the 
 king, 58; quarrels with Townshend; be- 
 comes supreme in the administration, 61 ; 
 successfully repulses the attempts of the 
 Dissenter, to obtain a repeal of the Cor- 
 poration and Test Acts, 62, 63 ; revives 
 the salt duty, 1732, 68; his warehousing 
 system for the prevention of smuggling ; hi* 
 excise scheme, 69 ; naiTOwly escapes being 
 mobbed, 70 ; debate upon the excise scheme ; 
 it fails in passing, 71 ; maintains the policy 
 of neutrality in the wars of 1734, 72 ; advan- 
 tages obtained thereby, ib. ; his character as 
 given by Wyndham, 73, 74 ; his character of 
 Bolingbroke, 74-76 ; attends the queen during 
 her last illness, 86 ; fears the loss of power in 
 consequence of her death, 87 ; not a patron 
 of letters, 89 ; proposes to enlarge the lord 
 chamberlain's powers in reference to plays, 
 ib. ; brings forward his bill for licensing 
 plays, 90 ; driven into a war with Spain ; 
 persists in keeping office, 92 ; reproves sir W . 
 Wyndham, 95 ; his straggle to retain power ; 
 he is deserted by the Duke of Agyle, whom 
 he dismisses from all his employments, 96 ; 
 regarded with jealousy by the duke of New- 
 castle, 97 ; endeavours to prevent the war 
 with Spain, 101 ; Mr. Sandys persuades the 
 king to remove him from office ; Walpole' s 
 defence, i02 ; the motion is negatived ; his 
 unpopularity increases ; he resigns, Feo. 1, 
 1742 ; created earl of Orford, 103 ; a parliamen- 
 tary inquiry is made into his administration ; 
 he passes through the ordeal, ib. ; he is carried 
 about in effigy by the mob, 107 ; anecdote of, 
 108 ; died March, 1745, 113 
 
 Walsingham, sir Francis. See Elizabeth. 
 
 Waltheof, earl, submits to William the Con- 
 queror, i. 188 ; joins Canute and Edgar 
 Atheling on then- invasion in _ 1070, 193 ; 
 refuses to take an active part in the con- 
 spiracy against William in 1073, 201 ; is 
 betrayed by his wife (daughter of William 
 the Conqueror), and executed, ib. 
 
 Walton, captain, his conduct in the battle with 
 the Spanish fleet, 1718, and model despatch 
 to his admiral, vi. 34 
 
 Wansdyke, notice of, i. 10 
 
 Wantage, description of Alfred's home at, i. 85, 
 86 
 
 Warbeck, Perkin, lands in Ireland in 1492, and 
 amiounces himself as second son of Edward 
 IV., ii. 220 ; claims and receives the protec- 
 tion of the duchess of Burgundy, ib. ; doubt- 
 ful ex parte accounts of, and pretended con- 
 fession, 221 ; letter of, to Isabella of Spain, 
 222 ; attempts a landing at Deal, and is re- 
 pulsed, 225 ; is expelled from Bui-gundy, and 
 finds refuge with James IV. of Scotland, ib. ; 
 marries Catherine Gordon, 226 ; his position 
 in Scotland in 1496 described by one of the 
 spies of Henry VII., 227 ; difficulties of sup- 
 posing him an impostor, 228 ; invades Eng- 
 land, supported by James IV., but is com- 
 pelled to retreat, 229 ; unpopularity of, 
 occasioned by the foreign assistance, ib.% 
 leaves Scotland, and lands in Cornwall, 230 ; 
 attacks Exeter, but is repulsed, ib. ; is de- 
 serted by his foi-ces, and flies to sanctuary at 
 Beaulieu Abbey, where he is taken prisoner, 
 230, 231 ; attempts to escape, is retaken, and 
 imprisoned in the Tower, 231 ; exhibited to
 
 IJfDEX. 
 
 735 
 
 the public, and reads his confession, 232 ; is 
 executed at Tyburn, Nov. 23, 1499, 233 
 
 War-chariots, Southey's notice of, i. 11 ; Cirsar's 
 description of, i. 12 
 
 Ward, James, an animal painter, viii. loo 
 
 Ward, M.P. for St. Alb;in's ; his intended Irish 
 church motions, viii. 343 
 
 Wardle, colonel, causes an inquiry to be made 
 into the duke of York's conduct as com- 
 mander-in-chief, 1809, vii. 508 ; popularity ; 
 subsequent contempt for, 510 
 
 Warner, Rev. Dr., manners of; as evidence of 
 those of the clergy of his day, vii. 110 
 
 Warren, sir J. B., commands the squadron sent 
 •igainst Quiberon, 1795, vii. 320 ; engages the 
 French off Ireland, Oct. 1798, 368 
 
 Warsaw, alliance of, Mar. 31, 1683, v. 388; 
 treaty of, Feb. 24, 1768, vi. 467 ; defended by 
 Kosciusko, 1794, vii. 315; entered by the 
 French, 1807, 481 
 
 Warwick, Neville, earl of, supports the claims 
 of Richard duke of York, ii. 136 ; important 
 assistance of, at the first battle of St. Alban's, 
 138 ; returns from Calais to attend an at- 
 tempted reconciliation of the Y'ork and Lan- 
 castrian factions, 141 ; attempt on his life and 
 his escape to Calais, 142 ; is declared a traitor, 
 by the parliament at Coventry, 143 ; lands in 
 Kent, enters London, wins the battle of North- 
 ampton, and takes Heniy prisoner, in 1460, 
 ib. ; defeated by queen Margaret at the second 
 battle of St. Alban's in 1461, 146 ; joms Ed- 
 ward, duke of York, and enters London, ib. ; 
 marches with Edward to the North, and wins 
 the battle of Towtou, 147 ; the representative 
 of populai- opinion, 150 ; becomes estranged 
 from Edward, 156 ; wealth and power of, 157 ; 
 joins with Clarence in an attempt to dethrone 
 Edward, who is taken prisoner, but escapes, 
 158 ; is defeated by Edward at Stamford, 159 ; 
 is reconciled to queen Margaret, ib. ; invades 
 England, and restores Henry without a battle, 
 160 ; is slain at the battle of Barnet, Apiil 14, 
 1471, 165 
 
 Warwick, Dudley, earl of, nearly made prisoner 
 at the battle of Pinkie, iii. 7 ; is sent to sub- 
 due the Norfolk rebels under Ket, 26 ; de- 
 feats them at Dussm-dale, 27 ; recommends 
 clemency, 28 ; acquires political power, 30 ; 
 heads the confederacy of nobles against So- 
 merset, 32 ; obtains possession of the Tower, 
 33 ; is joined by lord Russell and the army, 
 34 ; is created duke of Northumberland, 43 ; 
 becomes the actual governor of the king, 46 ; 
 mariics his son to the lady Jane Grey, 47 ; 
 causes lady Jane to be proclaimed queen, June 
 10, 1553, 51 ; leaves London to oppose the 
 advance of Mary, 52 ; is arrested, 54 ; tried 
 for treason, convicted, and executed, ib. ; 
 apostatises before his death, 55 
 
 Washington, George, bom 1732, vi. 207 ; his 
 earl)' career ; becomes adjutant-general; un- 
 successfully defends the British posts on the 
 Ohio ; serves under general Braddock, 1755, 
 ib.; his opinion of American affairs, 1774, 
 342 ; his view of civil war, 351 ; appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the United States 
 army, 1775, 355 ; his character ; refuses all 
 pay but the discharge of expenses, 356 ; com- 
 position of his army; an-ives at Boston, July 
 3, ib. ; blockades the town, 359 ; his impa- 
 tience ; makes preparations for an attack, 
 362; the British evacuate the place, Mar. 17, 
 
 1776, 363 ; refuses Howe's letter to him, 1776, 
 369, 370 ; retreats before Comwallis ; crosses- 
 the Delaware and destroys the boats, thus 
 hindering his pursuer's passage; surprises- 
 the Hessians at Trenton ; retreats to Prince- 
 towa, 371 ; there defeats a body of British 
 troops ; his high military qualities displayed 
 in the campaign, 372 ; perplexed at Howe's 
 conduct ; marches to oppose him at Philadel- 
 phia, 378 ; goes into winter quarters at Valley 
 Forge ; sufferings of his army from want of 
 food and clothing, 383 ; augurs new diflBcul- 
 ties and greater struggles, 399 ; remonstrates 
 against Comwallis's proceedings, 412 ; re- 
 ceives a commission of lieutenant-general iu 
 the French service, 1780, 413; Clinton de- 
 mands Andre's release from, 415; confinns- 
 the sentence passed upon Andre by a court 
 martial ; defence of his conduct for so doing, 
 416 ; his difficulties in sustaining his army,. 
 422; anxiety for the arrival of De Grasse's 
 fleet; on hearing that it had gone to the 
 Chesapeake he changes his plan of operations 
 and also marches thither ; his able manage- 
 ment of the march, 426 ; siege, 427 ; and 
 capitulation of Comwallis, 428; bequeaths 
 his swords to his sons, 462 ; bids farewell to 
 his army, 462, 463 ; and retires into private- 
 life ; resigned his commission, Dec. 20, 1782, 
 463 ; retires from the presidency of the United 
 States, Dec. 1796 ; alarmed at the party spirit 
 rising in the states, vii. 330, 331 ; president 
 of the United States, 1789-1797, 575 
 
 Washington, British attack on, Aug. 1814, viii. 
 14,15 
 
 Wat Tyler. See Richard II. 
 
 Watchmen. See Police, v. 46. 
 
 Waterford capitulates to AYilUam III., July 21. 
 1690, V. 115 
 
 Waterloo, battle of, June 18, 1815, viii. 30-37 
 
 Watson, admiral, co-operates with Clive in de- 
 stroying the pirates of Gheriah, and in the 
 re-capture of Calcutta, 1757, vi. 224 ; refuses 
 to sigu Clive' s false treaty, 225 
 
 Watson, bishop, opposes a free trade between 
 England and France, fearing the latter's 
 pre-eminence in a commercial contest, vii. 
 59 
 
 Watson, sen., a Spa-fields meeting leader, viii. 
 76 ; addi'csses the meeting, 77 ; tried for high 
 treason ; found not guilty, 78 
 
 Watson, jun., a Spa-fields meeting leader, viii. 
 76 ; impels the mob to riot ; his prominent 
 part in the riot ; taken, 77 ; escapes, 78 
 
 Watt, James, his career as philosophical instru- 
 ment maker at Glasgow, vii. 59, 60 ; turns 
 his attention to the improvement of the steam 
 engine, 60, 61 ; gradual maturing of his 
 thoughts and final success, May, 1768, 61 ; 
 connects himself first with Dr. Roebuck, ib. ; 
 but subsequently with Boulton, 62 ; the two 
 become the proprietors of the Soho works, 
 ib. ; vast influence of his invention on the 
 aflaii's of the world, 63, 64 
 
 Weaver, description of the Labours of a, v. 5 ; 
 double occupation of fanner and, in Lanca- 
 shire and Ireland, vii. 46 
 
 Webb, general, present at Blenheim, 1704, v. 
 285 ; conducts a convoy to Lille ; attacked by 
 a large French force ; succeeds in defeating 
 them, and arrives before Lille with his army ; 
 his success the main cause of the sm-reuder of 
 Lille; receives the thanks of parliament;
 
 736 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 meanness of Marlboroug;h towards, causes Lim 
 to leave the army, 1708, 340 
 
 Webb, John, inspector of hospitals ; his report 
 on the unhealthiness of Zealand, vii. 520, 
 521 
 
 Wedderburn. See Loughboroufch, lord. 
 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, improves tlie manufacture 
 of earthen and china-ware, vii. 57, 58 
 
 Wellesley, marquess of, his speech on the French 
 revolution, vii. 297 ; despairs of British suc- 
 cess in Holland, 1794, 312; fears a French 
 invasion of Ireland, 1796, 331 ; succeeds lord 
 Teignmouth as governor-general of India, 
 1798, 378; negotiates with Tippoo Sahib, 
 ib. ; attacked in parliament, 453, 454, 461 ; 
 adopts the subsidiary system policy, 454 ; re- 
 signs the government of India, July, 1805, 
 461 ; secretarj' for foreign affairs, 1809, 526 ; 
 resigns the seals, Feb. 19, 1812, 539; ap- 
 pointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, viii. 178 ; 
 lord steward, 267 
 
 Wellington, duke of, Arthur Wellesley; con- 
 demns Massena's conduct in his retreat of 1811 
 as barbarous, v. 280 ; colonel ; assists his bro- 
 ther lord Jlornington in governing India, vii. 
 378 ; appointed to the command of the Nizam 
 of the l)eccan's army, 1799 ; his wonder at 
 the size of the army, ib. ; congratulates his 
 brother on the success of the British arms in 
 India, 379; returns to England, Sept. 1805, 
 454 ; reinstates the Peishwa in his capital of 
 Poonali, 455 ; appointed to the command of 
 17,000 men, June 26th, 1803; his letter to 
 Scindia, 456 ; crosses the Godavery, 457 ; how 
 lie formed his plan of the battle of Assye, 
 458, 459 ; the battle, Sept. 23, 459, 460 ; battle 
 of Argaum, Nov. 29 ; obtains possession of 
 Fort Gawilghur, Doc. 15, thus ending the 
 Mahratta war, 400 ; receives the order of the 
 Bath ; returns to England ; account of the 
 famine in India by, 461 ; principal secretary 
 in Ireland, 1807, 480 ; his advice on the 
 Buenos Ayres affairs, 485 ; commands the 
 reserve forces in the Copenhagen expedition, 
 1807, 490 ; sent with troops to Portugal ; sails 
 from Cork, July 12, 1808, 499; placed under 
 Dairy mple and Burrard, 500; lands at Fi- 
 guiera, Aug. 1 ; defeats the French at Roliqa, 
 Aug. 17, 501 ; gains the victory at Vimiero, 
 Aug. 21, 502 ; his future actions clogged by 
 Burrard's command, 502, 503; convention of 
 Cintra; recalled home; examined before a 
 court, 503; opinion of, on Mrs. Clarke's 
 briberies, 509, 510 ; ordered to replace sir 
 John Cradock in Portugal ; lands at Lisbon, 
 AprU 22, 1809, 511 ; passage of the Douro ; 
 compels Soult to retreat from Oporto, 512; 
 enters Spain ; makes a junction with Cuesta, 
 521 ; gains the battle of Talavera, July 28, 
 522-524 ; created viscount Wellington, 524 ; 
 arranges for the defence of Portugal, ib. ; 
 worried by the ministers, 524,525; sagacity 
 and penetrating judgment of, 529 ; construc- 
 tion of the lines of Torres Vedras, 530; they 
 stop Massena's course, 530, 531 ; unable to 
 relieve Ciudad Rodrigo, 531 ; battle of Busaco, 
 Sept. 27, 1810, 531, 532; evacuates Coimbra 
 and retires within his lines, 532 ; his argu- 
 ments with the ministry for continuing the 
 war in the Peninsula, 537, 538 ; pursues Mas- 
 eena on his evacuating Portugal, and defeats 
 him at Fuentes d' Onoro, May 5, 1811, and at 
 Albuera, May 16, 538; preparations for the 
 
 campaign of 1812, 547; insuflBcient artilleiy 
 and means of transport; capture of Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, Jan. 19, 1812, 548; siege of Badajoz, 
 Mar. 16 to April 7, 549 ; the assault ana sur- 
 render, April 7, 549, 550 ; unable to restrain 
 the excesses of his soldiers, 550, 551 ; diffi- 
 culties in obtaining supplies and reinforce- 
 ments ; his perseverance under the obstacles 
 created by government, 551, 552 ; advances 
 into Spain, June 13 ; capture of the Sala- 
 manca forts, June 29, 552 ; follows general 
 Marmont's movements 552, 553; wins the 
 battle of Salamanca, July 22, 553, 554 ; his 
 conduct before the battle, 553; and after, 
 554 ; effects of the victory, 554, 555 ; enteri 
 Madrid, Aug. 12; the siege of Burgos fails, 
 555; the retreat, 555, 556; his candour, ib. ; 
 commander-in-chief of all the forces in the 
 Peninsula ; gains the battle of Vittoria, June 
 21, 1813,562; obtains possession of the passes 
 of the Pyrenees, 565 ; his remonstrance to the 
 admiralt)-, 566 ; passes into France, ib. ; after 
 some struggling he effects the passage of the 
 Nivelle, 566, 567 ; gains the battle of Orthez, 
 Feb. 27, 1814, 569 ; crosses the Garonne, and 
 defeats Soult at Toulouse, April 10, 570 ; 
 lands at Dover, June 28, 572 ; receives the 
 thanks of parliament for his services, 572, 
 573 ; his respect for private property and de- 
 fenceless places, viii. 14; succeeds lord Castle- 
 reagh as British minister at Vienna, 25 ; his 
 opinion of Bonaparte's escape from Elba, 26 ; 
 prepares to defend the Netherlands, 26, 28 ; 
 his accurate knowledge of Napoleon's ad- 
 vance, 28, 29 ; attends the ball at Brussels, 
 ib. ; his sudden departure from it, and march 
 to Quatre-Bras, 29 ; the battle of Ligny, 29, 
 30 ; takes up his position on the field of 
 Waterloo ; Byron's description of the field of 
 Waterloo, 30, 31 ; his position and that of the 
 French, 31 ; the character and condition of 
 the two armies, 31, 32 ; the struggle at Hou- 
 goumont, 32-34 ; the battle as described by 
 Wellington, 34, 35; British firmness and 
 endurance, ib. ; Wellington's fortitude, 35 ; 
 Wellington's and Blucher's share in the vic- 
 tory, 35, 36 ; arrival of Blucher and the 
 Prussians, 36 ; the crisis ; the victor}' won, 
 June 18 ; joins in pursuing the French, ib. ; 
 his emotions at the loss of his soldiers, 37 ; 
 refuses to acquiesce in Bonaparte's going to 
 America, and declines having anything to do 
 with his execution should that be resolved 
 on, 39, 40 ; signs the declaration of the allies, 
 40 ; erroneous views concerning Wellington's 
 conduct entertained by M. Thiers, 41 ; his 
 firm moderation preserves Paris from imne- 
 cessary humiliation, 41, 42; representative 
 of Great Britain at Aix-la-Chapelle, where 
 the evacuation of France by the allied troops 
 is agreed upon, 99 ; master-general of the 
 ordnance, 158; a member of the conference 
 for averting public proceedings against queen 
 Caroline, 167 ; induces George IV. to consent 
 to Canning being secretary for foreign afliairs ; 
 represents Great Britain at the Verona congress; 
 Canning's instructions to him, 181 ; resigns 
 both his seat in the cabinet and his office of 
 commander-in-chief on the accession of Can- 
 ning's ministry, 1827, 204, 205; his share in 
 the negotiations for a new premier, 21 1 ; his in- 
 terest in the Jladras mutiny, 214 ; accepts the 
 command in chiefof the army, 1827.225; on the
 
 INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 resignation of Lord Godcrich tlie king requests 
 him to form a government, 227 ; formation of 
 his administration, 227, 228 ; defends the ex- 
 l)ression "untoward event" in the roval 
 speech, 228, 229; Brougham objects to "his 
 being at the head of the government, 229 ; 
 his severe attitude towards Mr. Huskisson 
 leads to the other four Canningite ministers 
 resigning, 234 ; his views on the Catholic 
 question, 236; his ditficulty in obtaining the 
 king's sanction to allow this question to be 
 brought forward by government, 237 ; an- 
 nounces the intention to the Lords, 237, 238 ; 
 the king dismisses his ministry, but recalls 
 it. 238 ; speech of, on the Catholic Belief bill, 
 239, 240; duel with the earl of "Wmchelsea 
 on his refusing to withdraw a calumny against 
 him, 240; character of George IV. as given 
 by, 243; Brougham's harsh opinion of his 
 ministry, 24-5 ; his proposed policy towards 
 the new French government of 1830, 257 ; 
 present at the opening of the London and 
 Manchester railway, 262 ; his declaration 
 against parliamentary reform, 262, 263 ; the 
 lord mayor elect advises him to enter London 
 with a strong guard, 264 ; advises the king 
 not to go to London, and is himself, from ap- 
 prehension of bloodshed, deterred from going, 
 265 ; resigns liis premiership, 265 ; his rece])- 
 tion of the news of the proposed Keform Bill 
 of 1S31, 272 ; his speech against it, 281, 282 ; 
 popular speculations as to his putting down 
 public excitement, 297 ; attempts to form a 
 government, 297, 298 ; his account of the 
 cause of his failure, 298, 299 ; withdraws from 
 opposing the reform bill, 300 ; supports the 
 Poor Law Amendment bill, 342 ; his conside- 
 ration in enabling earl Grey to recover him- 
 self in parliament, 345 ; negotiations for the 
 Peel ministry, 351, 352; his dictatorship, 
 as first lord of the treasury and sole secretary 
 of state, with lord Lyndhurst, 1834, 353; 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs, 354 ; an- 
 nounces the resignation of the Peel ministry 
 to the lords, 357 ; his eulogy of "William IV., 
 377 ; his enthusiastic reception at the queen's 
 coronation, 410 ; recommends sir 11. Peel to 
 the queen for her minister, 420 ; opposed to 
 the proposed system of a penny postage, 424 ; 
 deprecates a war with France, 430 ; praises 
 the conduct and achievements of the Indian 
 army, 453 ; his reply to sir K. Peel's memo- 
 randum vindicating his conduct in the corn 
 law question ; determines to support Peel's 
 administration, 532, 533 ; his admiration of 
 Peel's courage in re-accepting the premier- 
 ship, 535 ; his successful plan for repressing a 
 Chartist insurrection, 559 
 
 Wentworth, sir Thomas. See Stratford, earl of. 
 ' Wentworth, general, commands the land forces 
 against Cai-thagena, 1741, vi. 98 ; attacks 
 Fort San Lazaro ; fails in taking it, 99 
 
 Wesley, John, with "Whitefield, the founder of 
 Methodism ; his character, vii. 121, 122 
 
 West, Benjamin, a favourite of George Ill's ; 
 one of the founders of the Eoyal Academy, 
 vii. 70 ; exhibits at the first lloyal Academy 
 exhibition, 71; succeeds Eeynolds as presi- 
 dent, 74 ; early career, ib. ; patronised by tlie 
 king, 74, 75 ; critique on his picture of " The 
 Death of Wolfe," 75; nominally head of the 
 British school of pamting, 1792-1820, viii. 
 151 
 VOL. VIII.— 271.CA) 
 
 West, rear-admiral ; his attack upon the French 
 fleet unsupported by Byng, 1756, vi. 213 ; 
 superseded by admiral Saunders, 213, 214; 
 received with favour at court, 214 
 
 Westmacott, his sculptures, viii. 150 
 
 Westminster, Edward the Confessor's palace of, 
 i. 176 
 
 Westminster bridge opened 1750; constructed 
 by Labelye, vii. 82 
 
 Westmoreland, population and ti-ade of, v. 29 
 
 Wetherell, sir Charles, counsel at the trial of 
 Watson, 1817, viii. 78 ; recorder of Bristol ; 
 an opponent of the Picform Bill , his conduct 
 rouses the Bristolians into a riot, 288 ; his 
 irritating address in behalf of municipal cor- 
 porations, 1835, 364 
 
 Weymouth, Thomas, viscount, secretary of 
 state, 1768-1770, vi. 291, 321 ; complains of 
 Wilkes' libelling him, 291 ; opposes the duke 
 of Richmond's motion for an address, 1778, 
 388 ; secretary of state, 1775-1779, 409 
 
 WhamclifTe, lord, gives notice of liis motion to 
 request the king not to dissolve parliament, 
 1831, viii. 276 ; makes his motion, 277 ; 
 moves for the rejection of the reform bill, 281 ; 
 said to have been requested to moderate his- 
 opposition to the reform bill by the king, 294; 
 his modified opposition, 294, 295 ; lordprivy 
 seal, 354 ; died Dec. 19, 1846, 535 
 
 Wharton, Philip, duke of, makes a furious 
 attack upon the earl of Stanhope, which so 
 roused the earl's anger as to cause his death, 
 1721, vi. 46 
 
 Whateley, rev. Thomas, important poor law 
 reforms carried out bv, at Cookham, Berkshire, 
 viii. 337, 338 
 
 Whitbrcad, Samuel, presides at a meeting of 
 the Society of "the Friends of the People," 
 vii. 247 ; moves for a vote of censure against 
 lord Melville, 439 ; and his impeachment, 
 1805. 439, 440; his grief for Mr. Perceval, 
 1812, 541 ; declaims against the destruction 
 of military buildings at AVashington, 1814, 
 viii. 15, 16 ; his peace motion rejected, 1815, 
 27 ; protests against the annexing Saxonv to 
 Prussia, 43 ; his poor law reform plan, 1^07, 
 69, 70 ; savings banks recommended by, 70 
 
 Whitefield, George, character of, one" of the 
 founders of Methodism, vii. 121, 122 
 
 Whitehall burnt down in 1698; the banqueting 
 house the only portion saved, v. 207 
 
 Whitelock, gen., appointed to command the 
 British troops at Plata, 1807, vii. 483; lands 
 with 7,800 men near Buenos Ayres, June 28, 
 485 ; failure of his expedition ; tried by court 
 martial and disgraced, 486 
 
 Whitworth, lord, English ambassador at Paris ; 
 his interview with Bonaparte for the purpose 
 of obtaining an explanation of his views to- 
 wards Great Britain, Februar}-, 1803, vii. 420 ; 
 violence shown by Bonaparte at a second 
 interview with, March, 422, 423 
 
 Widdrington, William, lord, impeached of high 
 treason, 1716, vi. 19; tried and found guilty, 
 ib. ; is reprieved, 20 ; an act of grace, passed 
 1717, releases him from prison, 30 
 
 Wight, Isle of, conquered by Vespasian, i. 20 ; 
 untruth of the tradition that John retired to, 
 after the signing of Magna Charta, 353 ; 
 Charles I. escapes to, iv. 87 
 
 Wilberforce, AVilliam, returned M.P. for Hull, 
 1780, vi. 418 ; his experience of club life, vii. 
 105, 106 ; and the licentiousness among Cam-
 
 738 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 bridge students, 111, 112; returned M.P. for 
 Yorkshire in the parliament of 1784, 144 ; 
 draws the attention of the House to the Afri- 
 can slave trade ; the committee appointed 
 decide that it shall be gradually abolished, 
 212 ; his tirst open opposition to Pitt, 1794, 
 318 ; his opinion of lord Grenville's hostile 
 answer to Napoleon, 1800, 389 ; fears the 
 defeat of the Austrians, by Bonaparte, 1805, 
 444 ; indefatigable efforts* of, to obtain the 
 abolition of the slave trade, 467, 468 ; the two 
 great objects of his life ; Ms " Practical Chi'is- 
 tianity" published, viii. 123; his vain at- 
 tempts to end the struggle between George 
 IV. and queen Caroline, 167, 168; lastspeecli 
 in parliament, 1824, 194; his thankfulness 
 for having lived to see England's willingness 
 to abolish slavery ; died July 29, 1833 
 
 Wilkes, John, publishes the "North Briton," 
 1762, vi. 260; attacks the king and Bute, 260, 
 261 ; his comments on the king's speech in the 
 "North Briton," No. 45; arrested and im- 
 prisoned ; he is released, being protected as a 
 member of parliament from arrest, 262 ; de- 
 prived of his colonelcy of militia, 263 ; suji- 
 ported and encouraged by earl Temple, 265 ; 
 caricatured by Hogarth ; defended by Chur- 
 chill, 266 ; Sandwich proposes to prosecute 
 him ; sets spies on his motions, and obtains 
 clandestinely some of his papers ; wounded 
 in a duel with Mr. Martin ; 'takes flight to 
 France ; is expelled the House of Commons, 
 ■267 ; his proceedings against Halifax and 
 Egremont fail ; but he obtains 1000^. from 
 Mr. Wood for false imprisonment, 268; pro- 
 secuted for libels, found guilty, and outlawed, 
 Nov. 1, 1764, 270 ; elected member for Mid- 
 dlesex ; surrenders himself at the King' s 
 Bench prison as an outlaw ; the mob ends a- 
 vours to rescue him, 290 ; legal proceedings 
 against him for libel ; he is sentenced to two 
 years' imprisonment and two fines of 500/. ; 
 lord Weymouth prosecutes Mm for libel, and 
 "Wilkes is expelled the house, 291 ; his birth- 
 day celebrated by the Londoners, ib. ; Ms ex- 
 pulsions from parliament and re-elections ; 
 agitations and debates about the legality of 
 Ms re-elections, 292 ; attacked by Junius, 
 294 ; released fi-om prison ; becomes an alder- 
 man and city agitator, 316 ; concerned in the 
 printer's affair, 1771; tlie House and the king 
 afraid to prosecute him, 318 ; obtains a seat 
 in parliament without opposition, 1774, 345 ; 
 lord mayor of London, 1775 ; presents the 
 address and remonstrance to the king, de- 
 nouncing the government measures towards 
 America, 348 ; chamberlain of London ; Ids 
 address to Pitt, 1784, vii. 142; Ms parlia- 
 mentary reform motion, 1776, viii. 306 
 
 Wilkie, sir David, style and popularity of Ma 
 paintings, viii. 153 
 
 Wnkins, William, Ms avcMtectural works, viii. 
 144, 145 
 
 Wilkinson, Catherine, the originator of public 
 baths and washhouses, 1832, viii. 393 
 
 William of Normandy, descent and position of, i. 
 169 ; visits Edward, and observes the position 
 of affairs, and the state of parties at his cotirt, 
 ib. ; releases Harold from his imprisonment 
 by the count of Ponthieu, 173; exacts an 
 oath from Harold to support liis claim to the 
 throne of England, 174 ; rage of, at the news 
 of Harold having been chosen king, 177; pre- 
 
 pares for the invasion, 178 ; lands at Peven- 
 scy, 179; fights and wins the battle of Senlac, 
 or Hastings, 181 ; founds the "Abbey of Ba- 
 taille," 182 ; elected king of England, 185 ; 
 subdues London, 186; crowned on Dec. 25, 
 1066, ib. ; tumult on the occasion, and pro- 
 bable cause of, 186, 187 ; Edgar Atheling sub- 
 mits to, 187 ; conciliatory policy of, ib. ; builds 
 fortresses and creates fiefs, ib. ; visits Nor- 
 mandy, 188; oppressions of the Nomian chief- 
 tains in England while away, 189 ; Anglo- 
 Saxon insurrections against, 190 ; returns to 
 England, and promises to maintain the laws 
 of Edward the Confessor, ib. ; violates his 
 promise, and becomes tjTannical, 191 ; re- 
 markable energy of, ib. ; insurrection in the 
 North suppressed by, 192 ; repulses the inva- 
 sion of Canute, king of Denmark, and devas- 
 tates Northumbria, 193 ; scarcity and famine 
 in consequence, ib. ; confiscation of Saxon 
 estates by, 194 ; gradual restoration of secu- 
 rity by the establishment of Norman fiefs, 
 195 ; numerical preponderance of the Saxons 
 in the time of, 196 ; marches to Chester in 
 1070,_ and suppresses the insurrection in 
 Mercia, ib. ; blockades Hereward in the Isle 
 of Ely, and compels him to submit, 198, 199; 
 insuiTcction in Maine suppressed by, with an 
 army of Normans and English, 201 "; revolt of 
 nobles in England suppressed, and execution 
 of Waltheof, ib. ; continental wars and family 
 quarrels of, 202 ; oath of fealty taken to, 203; 
 Domesday Book compiled by order of, in 1085, 
 ib. ; Forest Laws enacted by, and misery oc- 
 casioned by the enclosure of the New Forest, 
 206 ; knight ser-vice instituted by, 214, etseq.; 
 feudal exactions imposed by, 215 ; besieges 
 Mantes in 1087, is hurt, and dies on Sept. 9, 
 218; character of, 219 
 
 William II., Kufus, coronation of, as king of 
 England, on Sept. 26, 1087, i. 219; early 
 severities of, and insurrection of the Norman 
 nobles against, 220 ; insurrection suppressed 
 by the assistance of the English, 221 ; oppres- 
 sive proceedings of, ib. ; description of the 
 court of, 221, 222 ; repulses Malcolni of Scot- 
 land, and buUds Carlisle castle, 224 ; Ms 
 brother Eobert challenges Mm, and declares 
 war, ib. ; taxes England to pay the mortgage 
 money for Normandy to duke Robert, 225; 
 sufferings of England from the oppressions of, 
 ib. ; seizes Normandy in 1095, 230 ; West- 
 minster Hall built bv, ib. ; killed by Walter 
 Tyrrel on August 1, I'lOO, 231 
 
 William, prince of Orange, called to the com- 
 mand of the forces of Holland on the invasion 
 in 1672, by Louis XIV., iv. 318 ; after the 
 murder of the De Witts, he succeeds in expel- 
 ling the French, ib. ; marries the princess 
 Mary, 329 ; concludes the peace of Nimeguen, 
 331 ; is invited to interfere in the afiairs of 
 England, 433 ; publishes a declaration an- 
 nouncing his design to come to the assistance 
 of the Euglish people, 434 ; sails from Hel- 
 voetsluys, and lands at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, 
 436 ; marches to Exeter, 437 ; his first recep- 
 tion not encouraging, ib. ; is joined by the 
 duke of Grafton and Churchill, and other 
 commanders, 438 ; and by the prince of Den- 
 mark and the princess Anne, 439 ; advances 
 to llungerford, 440 ; his Dutch guards march 
 to AVestminster, 442 ; sends a message to 
 James, wMch induces liim to leave London,
 
 IX.DEX. 
 
 73& 
 
 and proceed to Rochester, ib. ; arrives at St. 
 James's, Dec. 19, and is met by peers, mem- 
 bers of former parliaments, the lord mayor 
 and citizens, 443 ; is requested to call a Con- 
 vention, and in the meanwhile undertake the 
 administration of ailairs, 444 ; parliament 
 meets in 1689, ib. ; their proceedings, ib. ; 
 their final resolutions, 445 ; princess of Orange 
 arrives at "Whitehall, ib. ; Declaration of 
 Eights, ib. ; AVilUani and Maiy proclaimed 
 king and queen, 447 
 William III., the preservation of England due 
 to his resolution and conduct, v. 65 ; weak 
 health, character and appearance, 65-67 ; 
 Avishes to govern by a balance of parties ; his 
 own secretary for foreign atiaii-s, 67 ; twelve 
 judges appointed by; jealousy of the English 
 towards his Dutch friends, Beutinck, Auver- 
 querqiTe, and Zuylistein, 68 ; speech on open- 
 ing parliament, Feb. IS, 1689, 69 ; desires 
 large supplies, the abolition of the hearth 
 tax, 71, and religious toleration, 72 , desires 
 to make all Protestants eligible to govern- 
 ment emplopuent, 73 ; suspected of being 
 adverse to the Anglican church, 74 ; quells 
 the mutiny at Ipswich, 75 ; apprehends seve- 
 ral persons disafl'ected towards him, 76 ; 
 opposition tov.'ards, shoAvu, by the Whigs, in 
 the postponing of the ludenmity bill, 77 ; 
 coronation of William and Mary^ April 11 ; 
 the Commons promise to support him in a 
 war with France, 78 ; negotiates with Tyr- 
 connel, who fiaithlesslj' schemes in James's 
 favour, 80 ; refuses to proscribe Claverhouse, 
 88 ; his letter to the Scotch convention, sug- 
 gesting a union, 89 ; the throne of Scotland 
 settled upon liinrself and Mary, 90 ; speech of, 
 en meeting parliament, Oct. 19, 16S9, asking 
 for supplies to carry on the war \\-ith Ireland 
 and France, 97 ; annoyed by the misunder- 
 standings as to the princess Anne's position, 
 
 98 ; his disgust at the contest between the 
 "Whigs and Tories ; resolves to go to Holland, 
 leaving the kingdom in the queen's hands, 
 
 99 ; changes his design, and resolves to go to 
 Ireland ; dissolves parliament, 100 ; refuses 
 to inform the Commons who recommended 
 Shales to be commissary of stores, 101 ; 
 applies himself to remedy the abuses of the 
 government departments, and to prepare for 
 an Irish campaign, 101, 102; his dislike to 
 bribery ; deserted by his favourite minister, 
 Shrew.sbm-y, ib. ; jealousy of parliament in 
 settling the revenue, 103 ; act of recognition, 
 104 ; authorises Carmarthen to present an act 
 of grace for political oflences, which was 
 passed, ib. ; prorogues parliament, places the 
 government in the queen's hands, and leaves 
 i^ondon for Ireland, June 14, 1690, 105 ; his 
 energetic conduct and vigilance in reorganis- 
 ing the army, ib. ; absurd reports of him in 
 Ireland previous to his landing at Belfast on 
 the 14th of June, 106 ; his march to the 
 Boyne ; considerate conduct of his troops, ib. ; 
 encamps on the Boj-ne'sbank, opposite to that 
 on which James II. was ; while reconnoitring 
 he is wounded; his death is reported, and 
 triumphantly proclaimed in Paris, 107 ; ar- 
 rangements for the battle; position of the 
 army ; Schomberg commands the centre, his 
 son the right, and William himself the left ; 
 courage and perseverance of ; gains the battle, 
 July 1; his departure for Ireland the signal 
 
 lor the French to attack the Jinglish coast ; 
 the queen's energetic conduct, 112; William's 
 movements from place to place ; enters 
 Dublin, July 6, 114; captures Waterford on 
 the 21st, 115 ; determines to invest Limerick, 
 ib. ; William encamps before Limerick, 
 August 8th, 116; commences the siege on the 
 19tli ; but raises it on the 29th, 118 ; leaves 
 Ireland and lands at Bristol, Sept 6, ib. ; 
 speech on opening the second session of par- 
 liament, Oct 2, 119; large war supply granted 
 him ; his position with regard to English and 
 foreign politics, 119 et seq. ; his mental 
 quaUties a security against England's degra- 
 dation, 121 ; closes his second parliamentar}- 
 session, Jan 5, 1691 ; and leaves for Hol- 
 land, where he is enthusiastically i-eceived, 
 ib. ; congress at the Hague ; stipulates for the 
 religious toleration of the Waldenses ; a secret 
 article to that efl'ect is introduced into a 
 treaty signed Feb. 8, 1691, 124; he breaks 
 up the congress ; arrives in England, 
 April 13, and leaves again for Holland, 
 May 1, ib. ; vacancies filled up, ib. ; plot of 
 Preston and Ashton against William ; his 
 clemency and conduct with regard to this 
 and other plots, 125 ; sends Marlborough into 
 Flanders, 127 ; plots against his government 
 iu Scotland, 130 ; his lenient disposition to- 
 wards the Highlanders, 131 ; examination of 
 the question as to William's share iu the 
 Glencoe massacre, 135, 136 ; causes an inquiry 
 into the massacre, 140, 141 ; his leniency 
 towards Stair, 141 ; character of, unjustly 
 assailed, 142-144; Marlborough is dismissed 
 from office ; court quarrels, 145 ; bill for esta- 
 blishing the independence of the judges 
 vetoed by ; sets out for Holland, ilarch 5, 
 1692, 147 ; Grandval's plot to assassinate 
 William discovered, 151 ; defeat of William 
 by Luxemburg at the battle of Steinkirk, 
 Aug. 3, 152 ; his conceni for his soldiers at 
 this battle, 153 ; William returns to England, 
 Oct. 18, 154; speech on meeting parliament, 
 Nov. 4, 155 ; vetoes a parliamentary reform 
 bill, 159; closes the session of parliament; 
 changes some of the ministry, 161 ; makes 
 preparations for a campaign, 163 ; Kensington 
 and Versailles, ib. ; leaves London to join his 
 army on the continent, Mar. 24, 1693 ; pre- 
 pares for battle ; defeated at Landen, Jul}- 
 29, 164-166; his conduct in battle, and ad- 
 mirable skill in covering his retreat, 165 ; 
 thankful that the result was not worse, 166 ; 
 returns to Kensington, Nov. 167 ; forms a 
 new ministry, 167, vt acq. ; adopts the princi- 
 ple of government by party, 167, 168 ; proro- 
 gues parliament and sets out for the conti- 
 nent. May, 1694, 171 ; his vexation at the 
 failure of the Brest expedition, 172; returns 
 from the continent, N ov. 9 ; opens parlia- 
 ment on the 12tli ; his unhappiness at the 
 illness of the queen, 173 ; slie dies, Dec. 28, 
 1694 ; his grief at her loss, 174 ; ho abstains 
 from business for weeks after, 176 ; proro- 
 gues pai'liament, becomes reconciled to Anne, 
 and departs for the continent, 178; sits down 
 before Namur, 179 ; obtains possession of the 
 town, July 28, ib. ; and of the citadel, Aug. 
 2G, 1695, 180; returns to Kensington, Oct. 
 10; his enthusiastic reception in England; 
 makes a progress through the country, 181 ; 
 opens a new parliament, Nov. 22, 183 ; orders
 
 740 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 a grant of an estate in Denbighsliire to the 
 earl of Portland, but on the commons show- 
 ing it to be unconstitutional he recalls it, 
 185 ; informs the parliament of a design to 
 assassinate him, and of a threatened invasion 
 of England, ib. \ assassination plot against, 
 Feb. 1696, 186, et scq. ; leaves England for 
 the Netherlands, May, 193 ; his financial 
 difficulties in caiTj-ing on the campaign nearly 
 compel liim to forsalce his Icingdom and go to 
 the Indies, 194, 195 ; closes parliament, 197 ; 
 embarks for Holland, April, 1697 ; saves 
 Brussels, 198; negotiations for peace are 
 carried on at Eyswick, ib. ; the treaty of 
 Kyswick concluded, Sept. 22, 199 ; returns to 
 England, Nov. 26 ; makes an entry into Lon- 
 don, and is enthusiastically received, ib. ; his 
 speech on opening parliament, Dec. 3, 1697, 
 201 ; and in 1698, "204; sends Portland on an 
 embassy to France, the chief point for nego- 
 tiation "being that of the Spanish succession, 
 .207, 208 ; his vexation at the defenceless state 
 of the kingdom, 210; hires Evelyn's house 
 for Peter the Great ; his interview with the 
 •czar, 211 ; grants the Commons' petition to 
 discourage the woollen and encourage the 
 linen trade of Ireland, 213 ; his answer to 
 the petition against the African and Indian 
 company, 216; his conduct with regard to the 
 company's Darien scheme, 218 ; its failure 
 rouses the Scotch against, 222 ; he proposes 
 the union of the two kingdoms, 223 ; his 
 .anxiety for a partition treaty before the death 
 of Charles II., king of Spain, 226 ; the parti- 
 tion treaties, ib. ; goes to Loo, and carries on 
 a negotiation for a partition treaty, 227 ; cor- 
 respondence of, with his ministers, 228 ; 
 obtains a blank commission from his lord 
 chancellor, Somers, ib. ; the first partition 
 treaty signed, October 11, 1698, 229; the 
 second is signed in 1700, but Louis dupes 
 William, and seizes the Spanish crown for his 
 own grandson, 230 ; speech on opening the 
 new parliament, ib. ; notwithstanding his 
 anxious desire to retain his troops, they are 
 disbanded by parliament, Dec, ib. ; he is de- 
 prived of his Dutch guards, 231 ; Ids mortifi- 
 cation, and resolve to abandon England, ib. ; 
 the speech be intended to deliver to parlia- 
 ment announcing this resolution, 232 ; but 
 Ms judgment gets the better of his rash 
 resolve, ib. ; the dismissal of his Dutch guards, 
 233 ; discussion and inquiry into the extent 
 of Irish forfeitures of estates, 234 ; a bill of 
 resumption is brought in, to which the king 
 reluctantly gave his assent, proroguing the 
 parliament immediately after, 235 ; Albe- 
 marle, a new favourite of, 236 ; persuades 
 Portland not to discontinue the negotiations 
 for a second partition treaty, ib. ; he sends an 
 armament to protect Sweden ; Denmark is 
 diiven back, and signs a treaty of peace, 237 ; 
 his difficulty in governing caused by the party 
 factions, 239 ; Ids anxiety on the Spanish suc- 
 cession question, 242; Charles's will is 
 accepted by Louis, and his grandson Philip 
 succeeds to the Spanish throne, 243 ; conduct 
 of, 244 ; tho new parliament ; changes in the 
 nunistry, ib. ; lie asks assistance for the 
 States-Oeneral, 245 ; the act of settlement, 
 246 ; impeaclunent of Somers and others for 
 their share in the partition treaties, ib. ; the 
 popular feeling against the House of Com- 
 
 mons, which is presented with the Kentish 
 petition, 247 ; and the Legion memorial, 
 248 ; after long discussions about the parti- 
 tion treaty, the Lords and Commons at length 
 encouraged the king to enter into a league 
 with the States- General against France ; he 
 prorogues parliament, June 24 ; and shortly 
 after embarks for Holland, 249 ; forms the 
 great alliance, 250 ; the treaty is signed at 
 the Hague, Sept, 7 ; the death of James II., 
 ib. ; Louis proclaims the prince of "Wales 
 king of England, by the title of James III. ; 
 William confers with Sunderland on the 
 state of affairs in England, 251 ; returns from 
 Holland, Nov. 4 ; and dissolves parliament 
 on the 11th, 252 ; he opens his last parlia- 
 ment, Dec. 30 ; and delivers his last speech, 
 Dee. 31, ib. ; the Commons vote him a liberal 
 supply ; fractures his collar bone by a fall 
 from his horse ; desires the Commons to take 
 steps for the union of England and Scotland, 
 253 ; death of, Mar. 8, 1702, 254 ; discon- 
 tinued the practice of touching for the king's 
 evU, 272 ; an encourager of the taste for 
 architecture, 447 ; prince Albert's high opinion 
 of, viii. 472 
 
 William IV., admiral Langara's astonishment 
 at his obedience to orders as midshipman, vi. 
 452 ; marries the princess Adelaide of Saxe- 
 Meiningen, July 13, 1818, viii. 97 ; lord high 
 admiral, 1827, 205 ; accident to, at the lord 
 mayor's banquet, 225; succeeds to the throne 
 on "the death of George IV., June 26, 1830, 
 244 ; addresses to, on the expediency of pro- 
 viding a regency in case of his decease, 246 ; 
 speech on proroguing parliament, July 1830, 
 247 ; opens parliament, Nov. 2 ; declares that 
 no refonn will be sanctioned by the govern- 
 ment, 262; owing to a statement that the duke 
 of Wellington would be attacked, he declines 
 dining with the lord mayor, and postpones 
 his visit to the city, 263, 264 ; requested to 
 dissolve parliament bj' lords Grey and 
 Brougham ; description of the interview, 276, 
 277 ; his excitement ; dissolves parliament, 
 277 ; opens parliament, 1831 ; recommends 
 the consideration of the reform question, 278 ; 
 his constancy; prorogues parliament, 285; 
 again recommends refonn, Dec. 1831, 293; 
 desires the lords to give a less decided oppo- 
 sition to the reform bill, 294 ; petitions to, to 
 create peers if necessarj', 295; refuses to 
 create peers at the request of the Cabinet, 
 296 ; but ultimately gives a reluctant consent 
 to this measure ; uses his personal influence 
 with the opposition peers, 299; and thus 
 secures the passing of the reform bill, 300 ; 
 his speech on opening parliament, 318, 319 ; 
 compliments parliament lor their exertions 
 bestowed upon public business, 343 ; desires 
 to effect the union of difl'erent party leaders 
 in tlie same miidstry in the hope of settling 
 the Irish church question, 346 ; dismisses the 
 Melbourne ministry, 349-352 ; unprecedented- 
 ness of this act, 352, 353 ; his speech, 1835, 
 355 ; speech on opening parliament by com- 
 mission, 1837, 376 ; his illness and death, 
 June 20, 1837, 376, 377; character of, 377 
 378 ; his funeral, 405 
 
 Williamson, su- Joseph. See Partition Treatj-, 
 V. 229 
 
 Wilmington, Spencer, earl of. See Compton, 
 sir S.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 741 
 
 Wilson, a smuggler ; robs an excise collector ; 
 is apprehended, tried, and found guilty ; 
 attempts to escape from prison: heroism dis- 
 played iu saving his comrade Robertson ; 
 executed April 14, 1736, vi. 80 
 
 "Wilson, John, his writings in " Blackwood's 
 Magazine," viii. 12S 
 
 "Wilson, Richard, contributes to the first Royal 
 Academy exhibition, vii. 71 ; classic land- 
 scape painter, 73 ; his works compared with 
 those of Gainsborough, 74 
 
 "Wiltshire, a pastoral country ; agricultural im- 
 provemcuts ; bustards formerly abounded in ; 
 boldness of this bii'd ; the last specimen pro- 
 bably seen in, in 1805, vii. 21, 22; backward 
 state of farming in, 22 
 
 Wiltshire Downs, ancient British monuments 
 on, i. 12, 13 
 
 Winchelsea, Daniel Finch, earl of, introduces, 
 as earl of Nottingham, the comprehension bill 
 into the House of Lords, v. 73 ; his despatch 
 to the naval officers, 1692, 149 ; his differ- 
 ences with Russell, 161, 162 ; appointed sec- 
 retary of state, 1702, 259 ; urges prosecution 
 of the Whigs, 1711,371 
 
 Winchelsea, eai-1 of, his calumnious letter to the 
 duke of "Wellington ; refusing to withdraw it, 
 a duel takes place in Battersea Fields, Mar. 
 21, 1829, and an apology tendered at its con- 
 clusion, viii. 240 
 
 Winchester, the ancient city of, i. 13 
 
 Winchester, Henry, bishop of, influences the 
 election of his brother Stephen in 1135, i. 250; 
 denounces him at a synod for offences against 
 the clergy, 260 ; supports Matilda, 263 ; re- 
 joins his brother arid supports his cause by 
 the authority " of the holy see," 266 ; super- 
 seded as leg-ate, 268 
 
 Windham, William, approves of parliament's 
 conduct in expressing its feeling on the situa- 
 tion of theFrench royal family, 1792, vii. 243 ; 
 sent to Holland to smooth the difficulties as 
 to the command of the allied army, 312, 313 ; 
 appointed secretary at war, 1794, 316 ; ma- 
 nages the Quiberou expedition, 320 ; super- 
 seded by Charles Yorke, 1801, 401; opposes 
 Yorke's motion for an army of reserve; 
 advice as to volunteers, 427 ; secretary of 
 state for war, 1806, 464 ; his treatment of the 
 volunteers renders him unpopular, ib. ; sec- 
 retary of state, 1806, 577 
 
 Wine, effects of the Methueu treat}- upon the 
 ■wine trade, v. 267 ; claret the general wine 
 of England prior to 1703 ; port since that 
 date, ib. ; restrictions on the importation of 
 French, removed by the Scottish parliament, 
 312 
 
 Winstanley, his lighthouse at Eddystone; 
 perishes with it, 1703, v. 10, 1 1 
 
 Winton, George, earl of, impeached of high 
 treason ; tried and found guilty, 1716, vi. 19 ; 
 makes liis escape, 21, 22 
 
 Witchcraft, instances of the belief in, 18th cen- 
 tury, V. 430, 431 
 
 Wolfe, James, colonel, 1757 ; volunteers to take 
 Rochefort with the assistance of 500 men, vi. 
 229 ; serves under Amherst in the expedition 
 against Louisbourg ; his gallantry, 233 ; 
 made major-general and commander of the 
 Quebec expedition ; his dinner with Pitt, 
 235 ; his passage of the St. Lawrence ; lands 
 near Quebec, 237 ; his night voyage ; takes 
 possession of the heights of Abraham; 
 
 battle with Montcalm ; death, Sept. 13, 1759, 
 238 
 
 Wolseley, colonel, with colonel Barry, conveys 
 supplies to Enniskillen, and defeats the duke 
 of Berwick, 1689, v. 86 
 
 Wolsey, cardinal Thomas, bu'th, and rise of, 
 under Henry VIII., ii. 265; acts as war 
 minister to Henry VIII. while almoner, 264 ; 
 accompanies the expedition to France, and 
 is made bishop of Toumay, 268 ; made chan- 
 cellor, cardinal, and papal legate, 275 ; and 
 archbishop of "York, ib. ; magnificence of, 
 276 ; the pope secures his support against the 
 doctrines of Luther, ib. ; mamtains the papal 
 supremacy in England, ib. ; the ostentation 
 of Wolsey the result of policy, 278 ; his labour 
 and difficulties as a minister, 279 ; propitiated 
 by Charles V. in his meeting with Henry 
 at Gravelines, 286 ; asserted promotion by, of 
 the conviction and execution of the duke of 
 Buckingham in 1521, 287 ; appointed to me- 
 diate between Francis I. and Charles V. 291 ; 
 aspires to the papal chair, and fails, ib. ; he 
 endeavours to overawe the Commons into 
 the granting of a large subsidy, 296 ; fosters 
 dissensions in the court of Scotland, 297 ; 
 takes the blame on himself of having levied 
 taxes without the consent of parliament, 303 ; 
 sent ambassador to France, 309 ; difficulties of, 
 arising from the question of the king's divorce 
 from Catherine, 310; concludes an alliance 
 with France, 311 ; first troubles of, from the 
 king's attachment to Anne Boleyn, 312, 313 ; 
 receives the French embassy at Hampton 
 Court, 313 ; is authorised by the pope to 
 inquire into Henry's marriage, 315; is asso- 
 ciated with cardinal Campegius for the pur- 
 pose, ib. ; arrival of Campegius in England, 
 316 ; interview of Catherine with the legates, 
 317 ; dissatisfaction of Henry with, 319 ; is 
 deprived of the great seal, 320 ; leaves York 
 Place, 321; rejoicings at his fall, 322; desti- 
 tution of at Esher, ib. ; is defended in par- 
 liament by Thomas Cromwell, 323 ; is accused 
 of slandermg the church of England in the 
 court of Rome, 324 ; continued interest of, in 
 his colleges, 332 ; receives a general pardon, 
 and resides in his see of York, ib. ; his great 
 'popularity there, 333 ; is arrested for high 
 treason, 334 ; dies at Leicester, on Nov. 29, 
 1531, on his journey to London, ib. 
 
 Wood, alderman, his conduct in the riots of 
 1816, viii. 77 ; moves a vote of censure against 
 government for employing Edwards, 161 ; 
 entertains queen Caroline at his house, 1820, 
 166 
 
 Wood, William. Sec iloney, vi. 50-52 
 
 AVoodfall, H. S., printer and conductor of the 
 " Public Advertiser," containing Junius's 
 letters, vi. 293 ; publishes a collected edition 
 of the letters, 294 ; prosecuted for publishing 
 AVilkes's address to the king, 300 
 
 Wool, act passed iu 1689, for the prevention of 
 the exportation of, and encouraging the 
 woollen manufactiu'e of this kingdom, v. 4 ; 
 considered to be the basis of England's wealth, 
 ib. ; manufacture of, chiefly in the western 
 counties from time of Edward YL., ib. ; 
 annual value of wool, and the woollen manu- 
 factures at the end of the 17th century, ib. ; 
 Bristol formerly the seat of the commerce of, 
 and the woollen manufactures, 7, 8 ; exten- 
 sively employed in making stockings, 19;
 
 r42 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 •woollen manufacture of Yorkshire 150 j-ears 
 ago, 26 ; Kendal green cloth, 29 ; Ireland 
 applies herself to tho woollen manufacture ; 
 "\Villiam is implored to discourage it, 212 ; 
 Ireland prohibited fi-om exporting, 1782, vi. 
 443 
 
 "Woollett, William, a skilful engraver of land- 
 scape paintings, vii. 77, 78 
 
 Wordsworth, William, quotations from his 
 poem on the French revolution, vii. 182 ; and 
 his sonnets, 416 ; his writings described by 
 B}Ton ; first appears as a poet in 1793, viii. 
 118; character of his ^sTitings, 118, 119; 
 advantages derived bj', from the copyright 
 act of 1842, 465, 466 
 
 Wren, su- Christopher, plan of, for rehuildiug 
 the city of London, iv. 289; alterations of, at 
 Windsor Castle, 355 ; he is extensively patro- 
 nised by William, v. 447 ; description of his 
 mind ; becomes assistant surveyor-general, 
 448 ; studies the architectm-e of Jrance, 449 ; 
 his plan of rebuilding London, 450 ; com- 
 mences the erection of St. Paul's, 1675, ib. ; 
 his first plan; the cathedral finished, 1710, 
 451 ; criticism on the building, 452 ; his skill 
 sho's\Ti in the London parish churches, such 
 as St. Stephen's, Walbrook, 452, 453; other 
 buildings erected by, 454 ; retu-es from public 
 life, ib. ; dies at the age of 90, and is buried 
 in the chou- of St. PauPs, 455 
 
 Wunnser, Austrian general ; succeeds Beaulieu 
 in the command of the anny in Italy, 1796, 
 vii. 328 ; defeated by Bonaparte, ib. ; defends 
 iBIantua ; capitulates ; chivalrous treatment 
 of, by Bonaparte, 343 
 
 Wurtemburg, duke of, joins Jilarlborough ; 
 shares the alternate command with him, v. 
 118; his part in the battle of Steinldi-k, 
 152 
 
 Wyat, sir Thomas, insurrection of, against the 
 marriage of queen Mary with Philip of Spain, 
 iii. 61 ; he marches to London, 63 ; and is 
 defeated, 64 ; is executed, 68 
 
 Wyatt, James, his architectural designs, vii. 81, 
 82 ; viii. 141, 142 
 
 Wyatt, Samuel, architect of Trinity House, 
 Tower Hill, viii. 142 
 
 Wyattville, sir Jeffrey, his earlier architectural 
 works, viii. 142 
 
 WycUfie, prosecuted for his opinions, i. 487 ; 
 supported by the duke of Lancaster, 488 ; 
 resistance of, to Peter's pence, 489; translates 
 the New Testament, ib. ; the precursor of the 
 Reformation, 490 ; the religious opinions of, 
 not the cause of the insurrection in 1381, ii. 
 7, 8 ; many of his opinions declared heretical 
 by a sjTiod of divines, 8 ; petitions againat 
 the Act for the punishment of preachers of 
 heresies, 9 ; it is repealed, ib. ; his translation 
 of the Scriptures is proscribed, 10 ; his death 
 in 1384, ib. ; endiuing effects of his labours, 
 ib. ; the council of Constance orders his body 
 to be disinterred and burnt, 54 
 
 Wykeham, William of, deprived of his tem- 
 poralities and dismissed from court, i. 487 ; 
 notice of his constructions and institutions, 
 488 
 
 Wjnidham, sir William, a Tory leader ; attacks 
 Walpole, 1734, vi. 73; his portrait of Wal- 
 pole, ib. ; secedes from the House of Com- 
 mons ; his adieu ; and reproof from Walpole, 
 95 ; died, 1740, 90 
 
 Wyoming, description and state of, vi. 395 ; de- 
 
 struction of the forts, and massacre of th«- 
 inhabitants, 1778, 396 
 
 Yaxdaboo, treaty of, signed Feb. 24, 1820, viii. 
 220 
 
 Yarmouth, lord, empowered to negotiate for 
 peace, 1806, vii. 469 
 
 York Town taken possession of by lord Corn- 
 wallis, 1781, vi. 425 
 
 York, rise of the House of, ii. 130 ; character of 
 Eichard, duke of, ib. ; popularity of, 134 ; 
 takes up aims against Somerset, 135; ia 
 arrested, ib. ; is elected Protector by the 
 peers, 136; is superseded, 137; marches to- 
 wards London, ib. ; wins the first battle of 
 St. Alban's, on May 22, 1455, 138 ; conducts 
 Henry to London, 139 ; is appointed Pro- 
 tector a second time, ib. ; is again superseded, 
 141 ; absents himself from the king's coun- 
 cils, ib. ; attends in London, in 1458, an 
 attempted reconciliation of the York and 
 Lancastrian factions, ib. ; commencement of 
 the Civil War of the Eoses, in 1459, 142 : 
 is declared a traitor by the parliament at 
 Coventry, 143 ; flies to Ireland, ib. ; returns 
 from Ireland, after the battle of Northampton, 
 in 1460, ib. ; claims the crown in a parliament 
 at Westminster, 144 ; the peers compromise 
 the claim by enacting that York should suc- 
 ceed on Henry's death, ib. ; queen Margaret 
 resists the compromise, and assembles an 
 ai-my, ib. ; battle of Wakefield, and death of 
 York, on Dec. 31, 1460, 145 
 
 York, the duchess of, takes refuge, in 1460, in 
 the chambers of Jolm Paston, in the Temple, 
 ii. 143 ; notice of her family there with her, 
 144 
 
 York, Frederick, duke of, son of George III., 
 born Aug. 16, 1763, vi. 276 ; leads the English 
 guards against the French, vii. 281, 282 ; 
 besieges Valeneiennes ; the garrison capitu- 
 lates, July 28, 1793 ; advances against l)un- 
 kii-k; compelled to raise the siege, 282; his 
 forbearance and generosity, 283 ; announces 
 the French decree of no quarter to the British, 
 308 ; defeats Pichegru, May 10, 1794,311; he 
 is recalled on accomit of incompetency for his- 
 position, 312, 313 ; loses Holland, 313, 314 ; 
 supersedes sir E. Abercromby in the command 
 of the British and Russian aimiesin Holland, 
 1799, 386 ; his reverses and incompetency, 
 386, 387 ; charges brought agauist him for 
 misrule at the Horse Guards, 508 ; parlia- 
 mentary inquu-y into his conduct ; his dis- 
 graceful connection with Mrs. Clarke, 508, 
 510 ; his acquittal ; resigns his oflice of com- 
 mander-in-chief, Mar. 20, 1809, 509; ap- 
 pointed the ktmi's custos, with an allowance 
 of 10,000/., viii. 99, 100 ; commander-in-chief, 
 158 ; his speech on the Roman Catholic Relief 
 bill, 1825; sensation caused by it, 201,202; 
 his death, Jan. 5, 1827, and burial, Jan. 20, 
 202 
 
 York, James, duke of. See James II. 
 
 Yorke, Charles, secretary of war, 1801, vii. 401 ; 
 proposes to raise an army of resen-e of 
 50,000 ; and subsequently to enrol every 
 fighting man, 1803, 42/ ; home secretary, 1803, 
 577 
 
 Yorkshire, population of, in 18th centmy, v. 26; 
 tlie five great clothing towns in, ib. ; travel- 
 ling in, terni^). queen Anne; industry of, temp.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 743 
 
 queen Anne, ib. ; the marquis of Eockiiig- 
 nam's example to the farmers of, vii. 27; 
 cultivation of the East Eiding wolds ; rapid 
 agricultural progress promoted by Legard's 
 experiments, 27, 28; moors of; improvers, 
 28 ; James Croft, the collier, 28, 29 ; dialect 
 of Craven in, 29, 30 
 Young, Arthur, quotations from, illustrative of 
 the agriculture of Enijland, vii. 4-12; 16-18 ; 
 22, 23 ; 27-30 ; and that of Ireland, 38, 39 ; 
 notices the prevalence of farming and weav- 
 ing being the employment of one man in 
 Ireland, 46; quotations from his "Travels 
 in France," illustrating the opinions and 
 
 state of society in, and agricultural condition 
 of, France, vii, 149, 150; 158-160: 162-167; 
 175-177; 184 
 Young, Edward, his description of ladies' em- 
 ployment, V. 426; his "Night Thoughts" 
 published, 1741, vii. 86, 87 
 
 Zaragoza, victory of the allies won near, 1710, 
 
 V. 366 ; siege of, 1808, vii. 501 
 Zonaras, account by, of the speech of Caractacus, 
 
 i. 9 
 Zomdorf, battle of, 25 Aug. 1758, vi. 233 
 
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