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 itf^i
 
 KARAKORAM 
 
 AND 
 
 WESTERN HIMALAYA 
 
 1909.
 
 TUT INTO ENGLISH BY CAROLINTi; DE KlLll'lM «- FIT/CKIIAI,!) 
 
 ANll H. T. PORTER. 
 
 THE ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAI'IIS TAKKX HV 
 VITTORIO SELLA, iMKMHEU OK THE EXPEDITION.
 
 KARAKORAM 
 
 AND 
 
 WESTERN HIMALAYA 
 
 1909 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OV THE EXPEDITION 
 
 H.R.H. 
 FRINCIi LU1(,I AMKDliCJ ()!• SAV()\" 
 
 miKK Ol' TIIK AllHRUZ/.I 
 
 FILIPPO DE,FILIP1'I, F.R.G.S. 
 
 Willi A Prekack i;\ 
 
 II.R.II. 
 
 THE DUKK OF THE ABRUZZI 
 
 NEW YORK 
 H. v. DUTTON AND COMPANY 
 
 j;i West Twc'iUy-Thinl Strciei. 
 1912
 
 HARRISON AND SONS, 
 
 Printer© in Ordinary to His Majesty, 
 
 45-47, St. Martins Lane, W.C. 
 
 r ^ .•'^,
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFOBNjA SAN PjEGO 
 
 ,,,,„JllilliliiiliiiliiliiiillXU;i!ji^ 
 3 1822 01659 5423 
 
 
 
 TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. 
 
 The thanks of the translator are due and are here gratefully expressed to 
 Cesare Foligno, M.A., J. S. Gamble, C.I.E., F.E.S., F.L.S., and Capt. Howard Knox, 
 who have been so kind as to read various parts of the translation. 
 
 H. T. P. 
 
 497()ir> 
 
 GSOCHCAFirr
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Preface. By H.R.H. The Duke ol tho Abiuzzi xi 
 
 INTRODUCTION. Origin and Nature o£ the ExiM'dit ioii xv 
 
 Chapter I. — The Himalaya 1 
 
 Chapter II. — From Marseilles to Srinaoar 14 
 
 Chapter III. — Kashmir -51 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Sind Valley -ty 
 
 Chapter V. — Zoji La 63 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Dras Valley "2 
 
 Chapter VII. — The Indus Valley 92 
 
 Chapter VIII. — From Olthingthakg to Sk.\rdu 112 
 
 Chapter IX. — From Skardu to Askoley. The Shioar and Braldoh Valleys ... i:!2 
 
 Chapter X. From .•Xskoley to Rdok.vss. The Bl\i'0 and Baltoro (Glaciers 101 
 
 Chapter XI. — Rdokass 189 
 
 Chapter XII — From Rdok.\ss to the Concordia Amphitheatre 204 
 
 Chapter XIII. — From Concordia to the Foot ok K=. Prelimin.vry Investigations 
 
 and First Attempt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21!) 
 
 Chapter XIV. — The Savoia Gl.vcier j\nd Pass 241 
 
 Chapter XV. — The Upper Godwin Austen (Jlacier and the Eastern Slopes ok K =... :2'>;5 
 
 Chapter XVI. — From the B.vse of K= to the Foot ok Bride Peak. The Upper 
 
 BjVltoro (1l.\cier 277 
 
 Ch.vpter XVII.— Bride Peak 3o:{ 
 
 Ch.\pter XVIII. — Titk Return to Srinagar 325 
 
 Chapter XIX. — Supplementary Notes and Consider.\tions 351 
 
 Appendix A. — Plidtdgrainnntric Survey ... ... ... ... ••• -.• •■• 375 
 
 Appendi.>c B. — Meteorological Report and .Mliiiietrie Calculations ... ... ... ... 'i'J'S 
 
 .Appendix C. — Geological Results ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42'.i 
 
 Appendix D. — Botanical Report ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ■•. 455 
 
 Indices.
 
 PREFACE.
 
 Once mai-e I entrust to 
 Cav. Filifpo De Filippi, my 
 travelling companion, the complete 
 account of my late expedition. 
 I am grateful to him for under- 
 taking the task, and I hope 
 that his revived memories of 
 our journey may have rendered his labour less burdensome. 
 
 The detailed history of our wanderings will explain better than I was 
 able to do in my short lectures before the Italian Alpine Club and the 
 Italian Geographical Society, the difficulties and obstacles which the 
 expedition encountered. The map of the Baltoro glacier which accompanies 
 this volume was planned arid executed at the Military Geographical 
 Institute of Florence from photogrammetric panoramas assisted by 
 tacheometer observations taken during the campaign by Ship's Lieutenant 
 Marchese Federico Negrotto Cambiaso. I am glad of this opportunity to 
 express my warm thanks to Ing. Comm. Pio Paganini, the inventor of the 
 photogrammetric method, who has been at all times most generous with aid 
 and advice ; to Major-General Ernesto Gliamas, Director of the Military 
 Geographical Institute of Florence ; to Lieut.-Colonel Prospero Baglione ; 
 to Captain Nicola Vacchelli ; to the topographers FoHunaio Senno and 
 Giuseppe Galli ; and to all others u>ho co-operated in the construction of 
 the inap.
 
 xii Preface. 
 
 Professor Domenico Omodei has once more taken upon himself the 
 wearisome task of calculating and collating the statistics gathered from my 
 meteorological observations, thus increasing the debt of gratitude already 
 incurred by me for his help in former expeditions. 
 
 I am likewise most grateful to Ing. Vittorio Novarese, of the Regie 
 Ufficio Geologico, for the geological survey he has witten, based upon the 
 observations made by tJie expedition ; and to Professor Romualdo Pirotta 
 and to Dr. Fabrizio Cortesi for tJieir botanical notes upon the plants 
 collected by Dr. De Filippi. 
 
 I hope tliat this book, together with the beautiful photographs taken 
 by Gav. Uff. Vittorio Sella, will succeed in conveying to the reader some 
 portion of the profound impression made upon us by our months of sojourn 
 in the Karakoram. Our work will not have been in vain if it prove to be 
 of assistance to future explorers of that distant and majestic regioti. 
 
 (yjyiyiA^.'iS^ '~ Sk " s$C^t^^ 
 
 ^y^-^!^
 
 INTRODUCTION.
 
 NOTE. 
 
 'I'llK iMirnrnclaluic ami fjconiiipliiciil sprlliiij; mlcipd-d in (liis liunk ;vii- tliusc <>l the Indian Survey 
 Mid ol tlic Knglisli Royal (iiojiiapliical iSocicty. As a inattcr of fact llie native names have 
 not always been tiansorihed with lixed rules of transliteration, owing to tlu^ impossibility of 
 liiuling in the European alpliabet signs whicli correspond to the Indian vowels. .Short e is 
 sometimes transcribed by ii and sometimes by a. whereas u is transcribed at times as oo and 
 at times as u. Thus we find written indifferently JheUim and Jhelum. Jammoii and Jammii, etc. 
 
 Despite these and a few other uncertainties, it is better to preserve the more usual names as 
 lliey are spelt on all Kuro|iean maps. By writing, as some authors do. ]).irlicliim, for Jlnlum, 
 Sellcdnrh for tlulhj, Dschemmn for Jniniiuu/, and so, we can only succeed in prrplexini: the riailcr 
 even by the brst-known names. Colonel Jiurrard. the well-known Director of the Indian Trigono- 
 metrical Survey, rightly observes that for geographers, uniformity of spelling is more important 
 than accuracy. 
 
 With a few exceptions, vowels have the same sound as in the Latin languages. 
 
 The words right and left, with reference to rivers and valleys, are to be taken in the I rue 
 geogra|)liieal sense, independent of the direction of march ; wher<'as upon cols autl passes the)- 
 are given with reference to the position of the observer.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE EXPEDITION. 
 
 His i{oyal Highness Prince Luigi 
 Aiuedeo of Savoy, J3uke of the 
 Abiuzzi, was induced to set out 
 upon this new expedition chiefly by 
 his desire to contribute to the 
 solution of the problem as to the 
 greatest height to which man may 
 attain in momitain cUmbing. 
 
 Physiologists have long given 
 their attention to a study of the 
 eii'ects of reduced atmosjiheric 
 pressure upon the human system, 
 whether in baUoon ascents to great 
 heights or by confinemeut in rooms 
 contrived for the artificial diminution of the pressure of the air. The 
 result of these experiments appears to show that hfe is possible under 
 atmospheric pressure reduced far below the limit marked by the 
 barometer on the highest summits of the earth. 
 
 The very nature of the scientific experiment, how^ever, which is to 
 reduce each phenomenon to i1^ simplest terms, deprives this conclusion 
 of all possible value as a forecast of the solution of the problem which 
 interests the mountaineer and the geographer. 
 
 For this problem is complicated for us I^y the length of the sojourn 
 at low atmospheric pressure ; by the severe physical exertion ineAatable 
 in high ascents, and often protracted for days or weeks ; by extremes
 
 XVI 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 of temperature and other special conditions of climate, whose action 
 upon the organism is still obscure. And all these are factors which 
 influence the physical and mental condition of the explorer in varying 
 degrees. The solution cannot, therefore, be based upon scientific 
 reasoning, but only on direct experience. Up to the present time the 
 result of experiment has been a slow but uninterrupted progress toward 
 the attainment of the greater heights ; and there is nothing to show 
 that we are reaching a final limit. From the first ascent of Mont Blanc 
 (15,780 feet above the sea level) at the end of the eighteenth century 
 up to the present day we have gained 8,820 feet. It is not much ; but 
 we must remember that most of the expeditions in question had for their 
 object rather the exploration of distant and unknown regions than 
 the ascent of the high peaks which those regions might contain. Again, 
 such undertakings are possible to very few men. They require profoimd 
 technical experience of geographical exploration and long and costly 
 preparations, since they are made in uncivilized or uninhabited regions 
 where it is necessary to carry a complicated and heavy equipment to 
 a great distance ; where it is not possible to find natives who are exj^ert 
 in glacier and rock work ; and where, on account of these drawbacks, 
 it is very difficult, even impossible, to transport camp material and 
 the necessaries of life above a certain height. 
 
 The residt is that explorers often deprive themselves of comforts 
 needful to ensure due rest from fatigue, to protect themselves from 
 cold, or even sometimes to furnish sufficient or suitable bodily nourish- 
 ment. Thus they reach the spot where the maximum effort is required 
 of them with their forces already diminished by overstrain and suffering 
 from the lack of everything beyond the mere necessities to which they 
 have reduced their equipment. In the end the highest peaks may turn 
 out to be very difficult to cHmb, or even entirely inaccessible, because 
 of the condition of the rock or glacier. All these material obstacles, 
 combined with bad weather and the shortness of the seasons, have up 
 to now done far more than diminished atmospheric pressure to hmit 
 the activity of mountaineers in this special field of great altitudes. 
 
 The giant ranges into which His Royal Highness the Duke of the 
 Abruzzi led his expedition were not kind to him, nor was the weather 
 favom'able. Nevertheless, he succeeded in making a step forward 
 toward the conquest of the greatest heights after siich a struggle as is 
 perhaps unexampled in the history of mountaineering. This was.
 
 Introduction. xvii 
 
 however, but the hist stage of a campaign which was rich in moun- 
 taineering and exploring work for the purpose of collecting data for 
 the more accurate knowledge of a system of ranges that, taken all 
 together, is perhaps the grandest in the world. The expedition lived 
 for over two months on the Karakoram glaciers. It brought back 
 a large number of photographs of the group, a topographical survey of 
 a portion of the high glacier basins, many new altimetric measurements 
 and meteorological data systematically collected, and new glaciological 
 and geological observations, as well as the experience of a long sojourn 
 at low atmospheric pressure on the part of both Europeans and natives. 
 
 To reach the Karakoram the expedition had to cross the vast 
 mountainous region which hes between Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan, 
 taking a different route each way. The country through which they 
 passed is known only in its general outhnes, and its ethnological, chmatic 
 and geological characteristics are peculiar to itself. In the course of 
 my narrative I shall mention the principal problems which this strange 
 region propounds to the traveller. 
 
 Let me close my brief account of the objects of the expedition by 
 a word of thanks in my own name and that of my companions to His 
 Royal Highness the Duke of the Abruzzi, to whose energy, will, decision 
 and power of organization we are indebted for the rich memories of 
 new experiences we have brought back with us from our journey. 
 
 FiLIPPO De FlLlPPI. 
 
 Eome. October, 1911. 
 
 (9221)
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HIMALAYA. 
 
 Dimensions and Geographical Limits. — Inhabitants. — Work of the Trigonometrical Survey of 
 India. — Statistics of Peaks. — The Sikkim Himalaya. — Kabru and Kinchinjunga. — 
 The Expeditions of Rubenson and Monrad Aas and of Freshfield. — The Nepaul Himalaya. 
 — Mount Everest. — The Himalaya of Kumaun and Clahrwal. — The Nun Kun Peaks. — 
 The Expedition of the Workmans. — -Nanga Parbat and the Mummery Catastrophe. — ■ 
 The Karakoram and the Hindu Kush. — The Five Glacial Basins of the Karakoram. — 
 Previous Explorations of the Karakoram : Vigne, Falconer, Thomson, Schlagintweit, 
 Conway and the Workmans. — The Baltoro Glacier. — From Godwin Austen to Ecken- 
 stein-Pfannl-Guillarmod. — K ^. — Nomenclature. 
 
 It is difficult without a certain 
 degree of acquaintance with 
 geography to form a clear idea of 
 the relative sizes of different regions 
 of the globe. This is especially 
 true as regards those remote 
 countries known to most of us 
 through the atlas only, in which 
 they are rendered on a far smaller 
 scale than the famihar countries of 
 our own civihzation. Probably few 
 people guess how vast and how 
 varied is the portion of the earth 
 to which we assign the name 
 Himalaya. 
 
 I suppose that to most minds 
 this word suggests the image of a lofty mountain range, rearing up to 
 the sky a series of peaks covered with everlasting snow, which overlook 
 the torrid plains of India. 
 
 But the name Himalaya denotes no mere chain of mountains, 
 however high and however long we may imagine it. It denotes a 
 complex system of ranges, of immense table-lands, of intricate valleys 
 
 (9221) A
 
 2 Chapter 1. 
 
 and of mighty rivers, that has no rival upon the face of the earth. Put 
 together all the mountain ranges of Europe, great and small, including 
 the Caucasus, and the result is not even comparable in size to the giant 
 backbone of the Asiatic continent. 
 
 Most modern geographers include in the term Himalaya the whole 
 of the mountainous region about 500 miles wide, which forms a barrier 
 between the Indian peninsula and Central Asia from Afghanistan to 
 Burma, — a distance of over 1,500 miles, equivalent to that between 
 Naples and St. Petersburg. This barrier is formed by a series of 
 approximately parallel ranges running mainly from north-west to south- 
 east, and increasing in height northward up to the giant peaks which 
 bound the table-land of Central Asia. Here the mighty rivers of India 
 spring from the feet of mountains as famed in legend as the streams 
 whose sources they shelter — worshipped like them, and hke them objects 
 of pilgrimages on so vast a scale as to seem like migrations of entire 
 peoples. 
 
 The western end of this group of ranges reaches about the same 
 latitude as the south coast of Sicily, while the eastern end runs down 
 as far as the Red Sea. Thus the valleys gradually rising towards the 
 north-west along an oblique Une present every conceivable variety of 
 climate, vegetation and produce. They contain whole nations with 
 various pohtical organizations, tribes of diverse races and origins : 
 Aryans, Turanians, primitive aborigines, at every stage of civilization, 
 speaking an endless number of different tongues, professing every 
 reUgion of Asia — Hindu, Mohammedan, Buddhist and Animist — and 
 exemplifying social customs which range from polygamy to polyandry. 
 The future undoubtedly has historical evolutions in store for this region 
 which cannot fail to exert an influence upon the nations of Europe. 
 
 There will be work enough for many generations of geographers, 
 geologists, ethnologists and naturahsts before we come to know the 
 Himalaya in its details. And what of the mountaineer ? It scarcely 
 seems possible that man should ever succeed in completely exploring 
 that forest of peaks. Thousands of them probably reach up to 
 20,000 feet ; hundreds of them are over 23,000 feet. In the glacier 
 basin explored by the Duke of the Abruzzi's expedition there are more 
 than twenty-five peaks above 23,000 feet. 
 
 A great part of the Himalaya is shut in by territories which are 
 closed to the European. Other parts of the highest chains are at a
 
 The Himalaya. 3 
 
 great distance from human habitation, secluded in a wilderness where 
 no assistance or supplies are to be had. Many of the valleys are nearly 
 desert for hundreds of miles, with sparse and squahd villages, where 
 a scanty pojJulation just contrives to wrest a bare living from the arid 
 stony waste. The topographical work of the Trigonometrical Survey 
 of India was carried out in the face of these obstacles. The history 
 of privations endured, dangers faced and difficulties daily encountered 
 and surmounted in sohtude by the brave officers who carried out this 
 work has never been written. The work itself was not and could not be 
 definitive or complete. The vast region is only known to us in its main 
 outlines, nor is there one single mountain group where the mountaineer, 
 if possessed of the knowledge befitting an explorer, may not fill up blank 
 spaces in the map, complete it with fresh data and correct its approxi- 
 mate outhne. 
 
 Colonel S. G. Burrard and H. H. Hayden, the Directors of the 
 Trigonometrical and the Geological Surveys of India, have published 
 in recent years a brief summary of the geographical and geological 
 knowledge which we now possess with regard to the Himalaya.^ Here 
 we find a list of mountains whose position and height have been 
 accurately fixed by triangulation. Seventy-five of them are above 
 24,000 feet, forty-eight are above 25,000 feet, sixteen are above 
 26,000 feet, five are above 27,000 feet and three above 28,000 feet. 
 
 We are not likely to discover a higher peak than Mount Everest, 
 but there certainly exist in the Himalaya a great many peaks which 
 have not yet been measured and which are between 25,000 and 
 27,000 feet in height. Every exploring party brings a new one under 
 our notice. The expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi took the 
 altitude of a mountain which reached to over 27,000 feet, in addition 
 to fifteen peaks, now measured for the first time, all above 23,000 feet 
 and all included in the upper basin of the Baltoro and Godwin Austen 
 glaciers. - 
 
 The principal peaks, those of 27,000 feet and over, are not grouped 
 together in one range, but are dispersed along the whole system of the 
 
 ' Col. S. G. Burrard and H. H. Hayden, A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the 
 Himalaya Mountains and Tibet. Calcutta 1907-1909. 
 
 * In the same summer Dr. T. G. Longstaff discovered an imposing peak at the head of the 
 Siachen glacier, then explored for the first time. He reckoned it to bo over 27,000 feet high ; 
 but later measurements made by the Trigonometrical Survey in 1911 prove it to be only 24,489 feet 
 ( ± 100 feet). 
 
 (9221) A 2
 
 4 Chai)t(.'r I. 
 
 Himalaya. Thus the three highest mountains on the globe are placed 
 one in the central, one in the western and one in the eastern Himalaya. 
 A brief survey of the various ranges will give me an opportunity 
 to enumerate the chief mountaineering and exploring expeditions which 
 have been undertaken in the Himalaya, and will make clear the reasons 
 which guided His Royal Highness the Duke of the Abruzzi in his 
 selection of the field for his expedition.^ 
 
 DARJILING AND KINCHrNJUNOA. 
 
 Kinchinjunga, the third highest peak on the earth (28,150 feet), 
 rises upon the borders between Nepaul and Sikkim, where the central 
 and eastern Himalaya meet. It is fairly easy to reach the glaciers, 
 wliich are only about 45 miles from DarjiUng, the well-known climatic 
 station where numerous English officers and ci\aHans seek health and 
 rest from the burning plains in summer. The vallejs wliich slope up 
 from Darjihng into the mountains are covered with luxuriant forests, 
 whose aspect is tropical even at a great height and where Alpine jilants 
 
 ' In the following pages I liave not taken note of several ascents to great heights which 
 were made at various points by the topographers of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. I 
 shall have occasion to quote them further on in the course of this work in a critical analysis of 
 the statistics of the ascents to exceptional heights.
 
 The Himalaya. 5 
 
 reach dimensions undreamed of in Europe — tlieir marvellous beauty 
 lias been described by many a traveller. This wonderful vegetation is 
 due to the special climate of the region, where torrents of rain fall 
 throughout the very months of summer which would otherwise be 
 suitable for mountaineering. The fine weather begins only in October, 
 when the intense cold and the shortness of the days present serious 
 obstacles to any attempt at an ascent above 23,000 feet. 
 
 THE KABRII, SEEN FROM NEAR JONGRI, SIKKIM (ABOUT 15,(XK) FEET). 
 
 Nevertheless, it was upon a peak of this chain, the Kabru, that the 
 greatest height on record had been reached before the Duke of the 
 Abruzzi's expedition. In October, 1907, two Norwegians, C. W. 
 Eubenson and Monrad Aas, chmbed this mountain nearly to the summit, 
 attaining a height of almost 24,000 feet.^ This exploit put an end to 
 the long controversy among mountaineers as to the credibihty of the 
 assertion of W. W. Graham to the effect that he had chmbed the Kabru 
 to within a few feet of the summit in 1883. 
 
 Kinchinjunga itself was explored on all its slopes in the year 1899 
 by an expedition led by D. W. Freshfield. - 
 
 ' C. W. RrBENSON, An Ascent of Knhru. Alpine Jourmd 24, 1908. p. 63. 
 * D. W. Freshfield, Round Kangchenjunga. London 1903. Illustrated by Vittorio Sella. 
 (9221) A 3
 
 6 Chajjter I. 
 
 In this expedition Yittorio Sella took part and has given us photo- 
 graphs of the whole of that beautiful group. Although Freshfield 
 abstains from any absolute declaration of the impossibility of ascending 
 Kinchinjunga, and although he even went so far as to plan a route by 
 which an attempt might be made, still he does not hazard any forecast 
 as to the probabilities of success. As seen in Sella's photographs, 
 Kinchinjunga certainly does not appear to offer any very obvious route 
 for an easy ascent — an essential condition to the attainment of the 
 greatest heights. 
 
 Thus we see that the Sikkim Himalaya does not hold out good 
 chances for such an ascent. Neither does it offer many opportunities 
 of geographical discovery in the event of unsuccess in mountaineering, 
 should an expedition ever follow on the track of so competent and 
 observant an explorer as Freshfield. 
 
 Westward of Sikkim lies the Central Himalaya, between Nepaul to 
 the south and Tibet to the north. These states have long been for- 
 bidden country to the European, by the desire of their own rulers as 
 well as by the conventions and mutual undertakings of England and 
 Russia. This portion of the Himalaya comprises Mount Everest, the 
 highest ])eak in the world, whose altitude (29,002 feet) was calculated 
 by triangulation in 1852. Since that date active exploration on either 
 side of the ranges has revealed no other momitain of equal or greater 
 height, and as time goes on the discovery of such a one becomes less 
 and less probable. 
 
 Although no topograj^her has been able to get within 80 miles of 
 the Nepaul range, nevertheless Burrard's list gives the measurements 
 of twenty-five peaks above 24,000 feet, nineteen of which are above 
 25,000 feet, eight above 26,000 feet and two above 27,000 feet, beside 
 Mount Everest, which is above 29,000 feet.^ 
 
 This is indubitably the part of the Himalaya where the most 
 important geographical discoveries still remain to be made. So long, 
 however, as the poUtical conditions remain unchanged there is no hope 
 for the explorer in that direction. 
 
 1 Among the panoramas reproduced for the present work there is one (Panorama A) of the 
 Nepaulese Himalaya taken by Sella when he was on the borders of Sikkim and Nepaul with Fresh- 
 field's expedition. Beside giving a picture, however dimmed by distance, of the highest mountain 
 range in the world, this panorama permits the mountaineer to compare the general outline and 
 features of the eastern Himalaya with those of the Karakoram.
 
 The Himalaya. 7 
 
 Further to the west, in the corner between Nepaul, Kashmir and 
 Tibet, lies the Himalaya of Kumaun and Gahrwal. This important 
 group is easy of access from the plain, and not far from good base-stations 
 for supphes. Hence its pleasant and well-wooded valleys are frequently 
 sought out by travellers and mountaineers. It is said that the name 
 Himalaya, or Himaleh, " abode of the snow," or " abode of winter,'"' 
 
 THE EVEREST OROPP, FROM CHOONJERMA LA, NEPAUL (14,770 FEET). TAKEN BY 
 
 TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 had its origin among the snow-capped ranges of Gahrwal. Around 
 the twin peaks of Nanda Devi, which are between 25,000 and 26,000 feet, 
 cluster lower peaks, upon one of which. Mount Kamet, the brothers 
 H. and R. Schlagintweit reached a height of 22,260 feet in the year 
 1855.1 jj^ 1383 ■\Y \y Graham made several ascents in this group, 
 reaching 23,185 feet on Dunagiri^ ; and in 1907 Dr. T. G. Longstaf! 
 reached the summit of Trisul, 23,406 feet.* 
 
 ' Hermann von ScHXAOlNTWErr-SAKUNLCNSKl, Reisen in Indien und Hochasien. Jena 
 1869-1880. 4 vols. 
 
 ' W. W. Graham, Travel and Ascents in the Himalaya. Proc. Soy. Geog. Soc. VI, 1884, p. 429. 
 
 • T. G. LoNGSTAFF, A Mountaineering Expedition to the Himalaya of Gahncal. Geog. Jour. 
 31, 1908, p. 361 ; and Mountaineering in Gahnval. Alp. Jour. 24, 1908, p. 107. 
 
 (9221) A 4
 
 8 Cliaj)tc'r I. 
 
 To the west of GahrwaJ the range assumes the name of the Punjab 
 Himalaya, and rises toward the centre to a dominant group of peaks 
 known as the Nun Kun, with twin peaks of about 23,400 feet. In 1906 
 Dr. Hunter Workman and Mrs. Bullock Workman made an expedition 
 in this range, in the course of which Mrs. Workman reached an altitude 
 of 23,300 feet. ' 
 
 Beyond Nun Kun the Himalaya skirts the north side of the plateau 
 of Kashmir, then seems suddenly to come to an end, as if in one last 
 magnificent effort, in the great peak of Djamirai, better known as 
 Nanga Parbat (26,620 feet). This superb mountain gains in grandeur 
 by its splendid isolation, as there is no rival in the surrounding region. 
 It can be seen from many points in Kashmir and in Afghanistan, and 
 even as far off as near Peshawar ; and after Kiuchinjuuga, at the other 
 extremity of the Himalaya, is probably the most familiar peak in 
 India. 
 
 The name of Nanga Parbat will always be associated with that of 
 A. F. Mummery, one of the finest mountaineers of our day, who lost 
 his life on this mountain in 1895. He had reached about 20,000 feet 
 on the north-west slope of the mountain, and had given up all idea of 
 attempting to continue the ascent by that route, which proved too 
 difficult. He was killed by an avalanche while endeavouring to reach 
 the northern slopes of the mountain. 
 
 All those who have seen Nanga Parbat from near speak of it as 
 apparently almost inaccessible, owing to the forbidding rock precipices 
 from which hang steep and dangerous glaciers.- In the event of a 
 failure upon Nanga Parbat there are no other peaks of great altitude 
 to fall back upon in the neighbourhood, nor would important geo- 
 graphical discoveries reward research in that region. 
 
 The Punjab Himalaya, as we have seen, contains few peaks of great 
 height, but to the north of it stretches a huge system of mountains 
 known as the Karakoram. Of all the Himalayan regions not absolutely 
 closed to European enterprise, this is certainly the one that offers the 
 greatest hope of useful work to the geographer, the naturalist and the 
 mountaineer. 
 
 utl^k Lib - ^ W. HtJNTER and F. Bullock Workman, Peaks and Glaciers oj the Nun Kun. London 1909. 
 ' See J. Norman Collie, Climbing on the Himalaya etc. Edinburgh 1902, where the story 
 of the Mummery catastrophe is told ; also C. G. Bruce, Twenty Years in the Himalaya. London 
 1910.
 
 The Himalaya. 9 
 
 It is separated from the Himalaya proper by the upper course of 
 the Indus, and lies nearly 200 miles from the capital of Kashmir. Thus 
 it is accessible only to expeditions organized for distant exploration, 
 and on this account it has been seldom ^^sited — the greater number 
 of the higher valleys and glaciers are to this day unexplored. 
 
 Karakoram in Tibetan means " black gravel." The name was noted 
 and introduced by AV. Moorcroft, the first European explorer to cross 
 the chain, about 1820.^ The word Mustagh, or "ice moimtain," was 
 subsequently suggested as more appropriate. The suggestion, however, 
 was not adopted, because in Chinese Turkestan aU snow peaks are called 
 Mustagh. 
 
 I will barely hint at the discussion as to whether the Karakoram 
 should be included, geographically speaking, in the Himalaya, or 
 whether it should be treated as a separate mountain system. The 
 latter is the opinion of the Schlagintweits, of Cunningham, of the 
 Workmans, etc.- Burrard would include in the Karakoram system 
 all the mountains to the north of the Indus. The Karakoram is usually 
 distinguished from the Hindu Kush, which is its prolongation to the 
 westward.^ In this direction the sources of the Gilgit, an affluent of 
 the Indus, mark the boundary between the two chains. Eastward the 
 Karakoram range is bounded by the sources of the Shyok, an important 
 stream which, after a long and winding course through the greater 
 part of Baltistan, flows like the Gilgit into the Indus. Between 
 these boundaries the Karakoram chain stretches for about 450 miles. 
 
 Some of the greatest glaciers of the world are contained in the 
 Karakoram range. In no part of the Himalaya do we find such a 
 number of very high peaks in so hmited a space. Burrard counts forty- 
 two peaks of and above 24,000 feet in the whole of the Himalaya proper 
 from Sikkim to Kashmir, and thirty-three in the Karakoram system 
 alone (twenty-nine if we do not include in this system the peaks farther 
 to the north). These mountains are grouped around four great glaciers 
 — the Chogo Lungma, the Hispar, the Biafo and the Baltoro. A fifth 
 and still larger glacier basin, the Siachen, was explored for the first 
 
 ' W. Moorcroft and G. Trebeck, TraveU in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan, etc. 
 Ed. by H. Hayman Wilson. London 1841. 2 vols. 
 
 * ScHLAGLNTNVEiT, Op. cit. / SiR A. Ctnxisgham, LaJtilc and Surrounding Countries. London 
 1854 ; VV. Hunter and F. Bullock Workjian, In the Ice WorUl of Himalaya. London 1901. 
 
 ' This is the opinion of Col. Godwin Austen (Proc. Poy. Geog. Soc. y.S. 5, 1883, p. 610) ; and 
 it is the division adopted by the Trigonometrical Survey of India (BrBRARD, op. cit.).
 
 10 Chapter I. 
 
 time by Dr. Loiigstaff during the same summer in which the Duke of 
 the Abruzzi went to the Karakoram. The Chogo Lungma and the Hispar 
 form the centre of the mountain groups of Kunjut and Hunza, with 
 seven peaks between 24,000 and 25,500 feet. This is the part of the 
 Karakoram which was first known and has most often been explored 
 since — by G. T. Vigne in 1835, by Dr. Falconer in 1841, by Dr. Thomson 
 in 1847-48 and by A. Schlagintweit in 1856. ^ In 1892 Sir Martin 
 Conway traversed for the first time and surveyed in their entire length 
 the Hispar and Biafo glaciers.- The Chogo Lungma basin was the 
 field of several of the expeditions of Dr. and Mrs. Workman, whom 
 I have already mentioned. With remarkable perseverance thev 
 returned to the same region in four different summers — in 1899, 1902, 
 1903 and 1908. In the course of these expeditions Dr. Workman 
 reached a height of about 23,400 feet on the ridge of a peak at the head 
 of the Chogo Lungma glacier. ^ 
 
 Eastward of the mountains of Hunza lies the Karakoram proper, 
 which includes the Baltoro glacier, and contains eight peaks between 
 25,110 and 28,250 feet known before the Duke's expedition. Along 
 the single gigantic valley down which flow the Baltoro and its affluents, 
 tower a series of peaks comprising K-, the second highest mountain 
 in the world (28,250 feet) ; the four Gasherbrums, between 26,000 and 
 26,470 feet ; the two Masherbrums, over 26,500 feet ; the Bride Peak, 
 25,110 feet ; and the three summits of the Broad Peak, whose altitudes 
 (27,132, 26,188 and 26,022 feet) have been ascertained for the first time 
 by the Duke's exj^edition. I speak of the higher peaks only. 
 
 The Baltoro glacier was first discovered and its lower portion 
 explored by Colonel Godwin Austen in the course of his topographical 
 campaign in the Karakoram (1860-61), which yielded such important 
 geographical results.^ The glacier was again visited in 1886 by Colonel 
 
 ' G. T. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir, L'lilak, Iskardo. etc. London 1842. 2 vols. ; 
 H. Falconer, cited by I. MtjRCHisoN, Joiir. Roy. Geog. Soc. 28, 1858, p. clxxxviii ; T. Thomson. 
 Western Himalaya and Thibet. London 1852, and various notes in Jour. Roy. Oeog. Soc. 23, 1853, 
 pp. 232, 318 ; Schlagintweit, op. cit. 
 
 " Sir W. M. Conway, Climbing in the Himalayas. London 1894. 2 vols. 
 
 ' In addition to their numerous articles in the Geographical Journal, Alpine Journal and other 
 periodicals of geography and mountaineering, W. Hunter Workm^vn and F. Bullock Workman 
 have given an account of their expeditions in the following works : In the Ice-Worhl of Himalaya. 
 London 1901 ; Ice-bound Heights of the Mustagh. London 1908 ; Peaks and Glaciers of the 
 Nun Kun. London 1909 ; The Call of the Srwwy Hispar. London 1910. 
 
 ■* Lieut. -Col. Godwin Austen, The Glaciers of the Mustagh Range. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. 8, 
 1863, p. 34 : and Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 34, 1864, p. 19.
 
 The Himalaya. 
 
 11 
 
 Sir Francis Younghusband. ^ It was not, liowever, until the memorable 
 expedition of Sir Martin Conway in 1892 that it was traversed in its 
 whole length and surveyed, as well as its rivals, the Hispar and Biafo 
 glaciers.^ The Baltoro glacier is divided into two branches in its upper 
 
 k' from the south. 
 
 course. The south-eastern branch preserves the name Baltoro, and 
 this part alone had been explored by Sir Martin Conway. The other 
 arm, known as the Godwin Austen glacier, flows round the base of the 
 south face of K-, and had been visited in 1902 by an expedition led 
 by the Enghsh mountaineer 0. Eckenstein, accompanied by two 
 Enghshmen, A. E. Crowley and G. Knowles, two Austrians, Drs. H. 
 Pfaiml and V. Wessely, and the Swiss doctor, .J. J. Guillarmod, who 
 
 ' Sm V. E. YouNOHUSBAND, A Journey across Central Asia, from Manchuria and Peking to 
 Kashmir, ox-er the Mustagh Pass. Proc. Boy. Geog. Soc. K.S. 10, 1S88, p. 485. 
 * Sib V\'. M. (Conway, op. cit.
 
 12 Chapter I. 
 
 wrote an account of the undertaking.^ This was tlic only expedition 
 which had had a near view of K- before the Duke of the Abruzzi. Of 
 all the numerous peaks which crowd along the sides of the Baltoro, 
 two alone had been climbed, and both by Sir Martin Conway, in 1892 — 
 Cr)'stal Peak, 19,400 feet, on the right-hand side of the glacier, and a 
 minor peak of the Golden Throne group, situated near the upper end 
 of the Baltoro and 26,200 feet high, which Conway named Pioneer 
 Peak. 
 
 The basin of the Baltoro glacier appeared by all accounts to be the 
 most suited to a mountaineering and exploring expedition which 
 proposed as its aim the investigation of the problem concerning the 
 possibility of ascending the highest peaks. Here we have K-, the 
 highest mountain at present open to Europeans to attempt, only 
 750 feet lower than Moimt Everest.- The only expedition which had 
 ever had a near view of it was of opinion that there were chances of 
 success, and Guillarmod expressed himself as decidedly inclined to 
 consider the ascent a feasible one. Furthermore, K- is surrounded by 
 numerous peaks ranging from 26,000 to 27,000 feet, far above the highest 
 point yet reached upon any mountain ; and there seemed a reasonable 
 probability that some one of these might be fairly accessible. Last 
 but not least, the region had been visited by but a single expedition, 
 and that not specially equipped for topographical work. The greater 
 part of the valleys and glaciers were as yet untrodden by man. Whole 
 mountain ranges were still indicated on the map by a few points only, 
 and it was permissible for the geographer to hope to fill up these gaps. 
 
 I may add a few words to explain the strange designation of the 
 second highest peak in the world, K'-, for the benefit of those who are 
 not acquainted with the system of nomenclature of the Trigonometrical 
 Survey of India. When the latter began its labours in the Himalaya 
 it was confronted with the problem of how to designate individually 
 
 * Dr. J. Jacot Guillakmod, Six mots dans V Hinmlaya. Neuchatel, no date. Guillarmod 
 puts K' and the Baltoro basin in the Hindu Kush, though the chain usually designated by this 
 name is situated, as we have seen, about 250 miles farther to the west. We have also two excellent 
 shorter accounts of the expedition by Pfannl, Von meiner Reise ziim K ' in den Bergen Baltistans, 
 Mitt, der Geogr. Ges. Wien, 47, 1904, p. 247, and Zeit. d. Deut. ii. Oest. Alpenvereins, 35, 1904, 
 p. 88. 
 
 ' The designation of K - as the second highest mountain in the world must not be taken too 
 literally. As a matter of fact, it is less than a hundred feet higher than Kinchinjunga, and the 
 calculations cannot yet be made with such exactness as to eliminate all chances of error. There 
 is still the possibility that Kinchinjunga may prove to be the higher of the two.
 
 The Himalaya. 13 
 
 the thousands of important peaks which had no name. Few and far 
 between are those upon which the natives living at the foot of the ranges 
 have felt the necessity of bestowing a name. Of the seventy-five peaks 
 given in Burrard's Ust, only nineteen have native names. Further- 
 more, the tribes on the different sides of the great chains belong to 
 different races and speak different languages, and have httle intercourse 
 with one another. Hence the few names which do exist are different 
 on the north and on the south side of the same mountain. 
 
 Colonel Montgomerie, under whose direction the work of triangula- 
 tion of the Himalaya began, invented an ingenious scheme of nomen- 
 clature which resembles the ancient system of designating the heavenly 
 bodies, based upon the grouping of them into constellations. He 
 designated the Karakoram region by the letter K, and each peak by 
 the names K^, K^, K^, etc. The advantages of this method as to 
 clearness and simplicity are obvious, had it only been adopted through- 
 out the Himalaya. Unfortunately, other topographers proceeded to give 
 the initial letters of their own names to the peaks which they subsequently 
 measured, and hence arose great confusion owing to different observers 
 ha\dng the same initial letter or name. 
 
 Burrard's view is that it is better for the present to designate the 
 peaks simply by their altitude ; and, as a matter of fact, many of them 
 are indicated in this manner only. This system has been followed by 
 the Duke in his map of the region he explored, with regard to the peaks 
 measured by his expedition. 
 
 The only non-indigenous name adopted by the Trigonometrical 
 Bureau of India is that of Everest for the highest peak, which was at 
 first indicated as Peak XV; but in the case of K^ the name Godwin 
 Austen, proposed in 1888 by General Wallcer in recognition of the merits 
 of the great Himalayan topographer, has been rejected. Nor is it lilcely 
 that a better fate awaits any of the numerous names which travellers 
 have collected from among the natives of Baltistan.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM MARSEILLES TO SRINAGAR. 
 
 Preparations for the Expedition. — Alpine Guides and Porters. — The Most Favourable Season. 
 
 — Equipment. — From Marseilles to Bombay. — The Railway Journey. — Rawal Pindi. 
 
 — Ekkas and Tongas. — The Road to Kashmir. — The Jhclum Valley. — The Kashmir 
 Custom House. — Uri. • — The Gorge of Basmagul. — Baramula. — Kashmir. — Lacustrian 
 Theories and Legends. — Disagreements among Geologists. — Arrival at Srinagar. 
 
 His Royal Highness the Duke 
 of the Abruzzi prepared his ex- 
 pedition between February and 
 March, 1909. He invited to take 
 part in it his aide -de - camp, 
 Marchese Federico Negrotto, Ship's 
 Lieutenant R.I.N. , whom he 
 entrusted with the topograjjhical 
 work of the expedition ; Vittorio 
 Sella, whose task was to illus- 
 trate by photography the scenes 
 through which the expedition 
 should pass ; and myself as 
 physician and to collect natural 
 history specimens so far as might 
 be possible on so rapid a march. The number of members of the 
 expedition was limited by the great distance which would have to be 
 traversed beyond the limits of civilized means of communication, the 
 difficulties of transport to be expected in the mountains, and the 
 importance of light marching order to make the most of the brief 
 season during which mountaineering would be possible. On the other 
 hand, it seemed advisable to bring a fair number of European guides 
 and porters, as the Duke's African experience warned him not to count
 
 P^roni Marseilles to Srina":ar. ]5 
 
 *->' 
 
 over much upon native portage in the high mountain region — all the 
 more as the distances to be crossed upon the ice were infinitely longer 
 in the Karakoram than in the Ruwenzori range. 
 
 For these reasons seven Italian guides and porters were chosen 
 from Courmayeur, in the valley of Aosta. First, Joseph Petigax, the 
 devoted and faithful companion of the Duke of the Abruzzi upon all 
 his expeditions, together with his son, Laurent, who had abeady been 
 tried with his father in the Ruwenzori expedition. Both father and 
 son had been guides to Dr. and Mrs. Workman in their exploration of 
 the Chogo Lungma glacier of the Karakoram in 1903. The two other 
 guides, the brothers Alexis and Henri Brocherel, were also famihar 
 with Himalayan travel, as they had been on two expeditions in the 
 Kumaun-Gahrwal with Dr. Longstaff, exploring in 1905 the Nanda 
 Devi group and the Gurla Mandhata, and in 1907 acting as guides to 
 LongstafE in his fine ascent of Trisul (23,406 feet). To these we must 
 add three sturdy porters, thoroughly acquainted with the glaciers of 
 Mont Blanc — Emil Brocherel, Albert Savoie and Ernest Bareux. As on 
 former occasions. Sella again brought with him Erminio Botta, at once 
 assistant-photographer, guide and porter, and deeply versed in camp 
 life and in foreign mountaineering. 
 
 The most important consideration for any Alpine expedition, 
 especially in remote countries, is the choice of the right season. The 
 Karakoram is so remote from the plains of India and is divided from 
 them by such wide and high mountain ranges, that the climatic seasons 
 of tropical regions, if felt at all, must be felt in greatly modified form. 
 •Iiidging from the experience of the few explorers who had preceded us, 
 it was to be feared that the chief hindrance to mountaineering in 
 the Karakoram would come from the extreme instability of the 
 weather. 
 
 In 1892 Sir Martin Conway, exploring the three main glaciers of the 
 Karakoram between May and the beginning of September, experienced 
 hopelessly bad weather, never having more than four consecutive fine 
 days. It was not until September that the weather became fair, and 
 this improvement was attended by intense cold, high wind and short 
 days. 
 
 During their repeated expeditions to the western Karakoram and 
 up the Chogo Lungma, Hispar and Biafo glaciers, the Workmans 
 experienced steady bad weather throughout July and August, with the
 
 ic Chapter II. 
 
 exception of their last journey in 1908, when the weather was excep- 
 tionally favourable, fine and warm. 
 
 The expedition of Eckenstein, Pfannl and Guillarmod in 1902 found 
 their greatest obstacle in the extremely bad weather from June to 
 August. In June only they had a few short intervals of fair weather. 
 
 The conclusion apparently to be drawn from these data was that 
 the best chance would be to get upon the spot very early, quite at the 
 beginning of June. At that season the mountains would not be free 
 from the winter and spring snow, but we could at least hope for longer 
 periods of fine weather, and in any case take advantage of the entire 
 summer season. This was the plan which the Duke adopted. 
 
 Time was short to make the necessary preparations for so early a 
 start. However, thanks to the Duke's forethought and order, his great 
 experience gained in former expeditions, his careful study of local 
 conditions and his methodical system of work, everything was actually 
 ready in time. The following narrative will show how perfectly suited 
 his ecjuipment was to the end in view, and how great a part this fact 
 played in assuring our substantial comfort and health in exceptional 
 circumstances of surroundings and climate. 
 
 As on his former expeditions, the Duke carried out all his equipment 
 from Europe — camp material, personal effects and supplies for the 
 glacier regions, as well as to supplement the slender resources of the 
 valleys. This system allows of a far more careful selection of each 
 object, greater attention in putting them together and the avoidance 
 of all waste of time in order to procure necessaries along the way. 
 
 I need not go into details regarding the careful preparation of the 
 Alpine equipment, including personal outfit, as well as ropes, ice-axes, 
 crampons, nails, cobbler's tools, etc. The expedition was well suppHed 
 with meteorological instruments selected and corrected with great care. 
 Among these were the fragile Fortin mercury barometers, a perpetual 
 source of anxiety, causing elaborate precautions at every step. The 
 Duke had decided to adopt Paganini's photogrammetrical system for 
 the topographical work. This method had already been used in 
 important surveys, both in Italy and in other countries. 
 
 So a photogrammetric camera with a stock of plates was added 
 to Sella's photographic materials. The expedition was even provided 
 with a cinematograph so as to apply the most modern method of illus- 
 tration.
 
 From ^larsc'illc's to Srinagar. 17 
 
 Medical supplies had to be brought to minister to the needs of the 
 natives, who seldom see a European doctor and are quite out of reach 
 of civihzed means of treatment. On the other hand the expedition 
 possessed only two guns, and these were brought rather on the chance 
 of getting some specimens of zoological interest than with any intention 
 of sport. 
 
 It takes at least two months to get from Europe to the Karakoram. 
 Therefore, the whole expedition, inchiding guides and porters, sailed 
 from Marseilles on March 26th by the P. and 0. steamer Oceana. Such 
 of the supphes as had been purchased in England had already been 
 put on board at Tilbury. 
 
 The voyage was a delightful period of rest after the several weeks 
 of hard work at equipment and other preparations. The Mediterranean 
 was kind to us for the four days of our crossing. The steamer followed 
 a course to the west of Sicily in order not to pass the ill-starred Straits 
 of Messina, at that time avoided by traffic as if the cataclvsm of 
 December still brooded like a dark menace over the scene of devastation. 
 Then came the lazy voyage down the Suez Canal, where you gaze from 
 the deck over the boundless desert stretching from either bank ; and 
 the hot Red Sea, like a sudden summer, languid and enervating; and, 
 last of all, the Indian Ocean, whose blue waters were so dark as to be 
 almost black and perfectly calm — not a ripple to foretell the monsoon 
 which would rage over them a month later. 
 
 AVe entered Bombay Harbour at daybreak on April 9th (Good 
 Friday). The lazy mood of the long voyage gave way suddenly to an 
 impatient desire to get on. A few hours were employed in superin- 
 tending the unlading of our goods, getting them through the Customs 
 and removing them to the station, and in making arrangements with banks 
 and agents. This done, we set out by railway early in the afternoon. 
 
 The journey to Rawal Pindi takes two days, crossing towards the 
 north of the Punjab, with a wide detour so as to leave Rajputana to the 
 cast. Notwithstanding special contrivances to protect the carriages 
 from the heat, we felt them to be Mke furnaces. Fleeting visions were 
 vouchsafed us of dusty districts parched by the first breath of summer ; 
 villages of mud and rubble huts, with threshing floors of beaten 
 earth where hump-backed cattle were treading out the ripe harvest, 
 driven round and round by folk clad in white or red cotton, the men 
 wearing the big turban of India, and surrounded by tiny naked children 
 
 (9221) B
 
 18 Chapter II. 
 
 playing in the dust. Beside the great herds and flocks scattered in the 
 wide fields, we would see here and there antelopes fleeing from the train, 
 and jackals ; and the whole country is full of birds of all sorts and many 
 colours — splendid peacocks, crows, biilliant jays, doves, pigeons, parrots, 
 vultures, hawks, kingfishers, and many others impossible to distinguish 
 from an express train in motion. The trees give you no suggestion 
 as to a season. One is covered with leaves, another full of blossoms 
 without foliage, another shows bare branches, while others again are 
 bursting into full leaf. Temples and shrines, old forts and ruins, pass 
 rapidly before our eyes, especially near Guahor and Delhi, names which 
 evoke such memories. But of them, alas ! we see but the railway 
 stations, crowded with natives of every conceivable tribe, wearing every 
 conceivable sort of dress. 
 
 Now we cross the Jhelum, a wide river where many herds come to 
 the watering-place ; and the way winds up over a succession of terraces 
 of chalk and clay, and far ofi against the clear sky to the northward 
 we make out the outline of the snowy mountains which bound the huge 
 plain of India. This is the Pir Panjal range, a branch of the Himalaya, 
 which forms the southern barrier of the table-land of Kashmir. Farther 
 on this range is hidden by nearer and lower hills, which form the Siwalik 
 chain. Not far from this latter our railway journey ends at Rawal 
 Pindi, on the evening of Easter Sunday, April 11th. The train rolls 
 off, carrying with it Major Lockhart, of the Guides, a kind English officer 
 who had interpreted for us in several small difficulties, and our party 
 finds itself stranded on the platform beside a huge pile of cases, crates 
 and bales, which had filled a whole van and whicli contained our entire 
 equipment. There are 132 pieces, weighing 166 mannds of 80 lbs. each, 
 giving a total of about 13,280 lbs. 
 
 The whole of this luggage had to be got up to Srinagar by the carriage 
 road, which was finished some twenty years ago. This road is about 
 200 miles long, and goes from Rawal Pindi (1,700 feet above sea level) 
 along the Jhelum Valley to the high plateau of Kashmir (5,200 feet 
 above sea level), crossing in its course one of the lower spurs at a height 
 of 7,467 feet.i 
 
 Next morning at 6 o'clock we all met at the station, where the Duke 
 had made an appointment with the agents, porters and transport 
 vehicles. Pimctuality, however, is extremely relative in the East. 
 
 ' See map with the itinerary of the expedition.
 
 From Marseilles to Srinagar. 19 
 
 The agent did not get there until lialf-past six. About half-an-hour 
 later turned up the representative of Dhanjiboy, a Parsee who has 
 a monopoly of the postal service and of carriages, carts and horses 
 between Pindi and Srinagar. Presently the ekkas came slowly dribbhng 
 in. Ekkas are strange vehicles. The body is in the shape of an obverse 
 pyramid, which stands upon an axle wnthout any springs, between two 
 high wheels. The shafts diverge so that their farther ends are about 
 two yards apart. All ekkas appear to be centuries old, tumble-down and 
 decayed, patched up here and there and everyw^here with bits of rotten 
 string, so that their holding together at all appears a miracle. And 
 yet they usually carry some ten or eleven maunds each (between 800 
 
 EKKAS. 
 
 and 900 lbs.). Only three or fom- rather small packages can find room 
 in the actual body of the ekka ; but on top of these are placed two long 
 poles, upon which is piled up a load considerably higher than the top 
 of the wheels, giving to the whole a most extraordinary aspect of in- 
 stabihty. The elcka is drawn by a single horse, and does the whole 
 distance in about eight days. Carts of a more famihar shape are also 
 to be had, and are stronger and hold a good deal more. These are 
 drawn by oxen, and it takes them over a fortnight to get to Srinagar. 
 
 It took us the whole morning under a broiling sun to count all of the 
 luggage and ascertain that nothing was missing, and then to proceed 
 to its distribution among the ekkas, surrounded the whole time by troops 
 of coolies shouting and arguing and quarrelling without a moment's 
 respite. The division of the luggage into loads is a very long and toilsome 
 
 (9221) B 2
 
 20 Chapter II. 
 
 job, and is made about four times as long as it need be by endless 
 trying and trying over again. Every time you get up a single piece 
 of luggage on to the ekka you have it pulled down again ; then you 
 try another in the same place, and then a third, and so on. At last, 
 between 1 and 2 o'clock in the afternoon, the whole lot of ekkas, with 
 their shapeless loads tied and roped together, were driven out of the 
 station and assembled in the courtyard of Dhanjibo}-, ready to start 
 at night. 
 
 We now had a few hours to purchase some articles at Pindi. The 
 town is uninteresting — a typical cantonment with wide roads, well 
 
 ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF RAWAL PINDI. 
 
 kept and lined with bungalows and gardens. Nearly every afternoon 
 a ^'^olent wind blows in hot gusts for a few hours, raising'a stifling cloud 
 of dust and sand, which penetrates through every crack of door or 
 window. 
 
 By daybreak on the following day we left Pindi in two landaus, 
 which were drawn at a sharp trot by small wirj^ horses. On the outskirts 
 of the town in front of the verandahs which run along the low native 
 houses the greater part of the population were sound asleep in the 
 street upon their charjwys, a sort of bed consisting of a rectangular 
 framework, across which is passed to and fro and interwoven a narrow 
 band of coarsely woven hemp, thus forming a couch which combines 
 the qiiaUties of simpUcity, elasticity and strength. The general
 
 From Marseilles to Sriiiagar. 
 
 21 
 
 impression given by the population asleep on these stretchers along the 
 street is that some epidemic is raging or that they have been driven from 
 their homes by an earthquake. 
 
 Our personal luggage was sent on ahead upon two-wheeled vehicles 
 of the native variety known as toiujas. Tongas are two-horse vehicles 
 with a curved, dome-shajjed roof, underneath which is one seat parallel 
 to the axle. Upon this four people can find room, two sitting in front 
 facing the horses and two facing backwards. As much baggage as 
 possible is arranged under this seat, on the mudguards and on the sides 
 of the roof, tying it on as best may be. 
 
 A TONGA. 
 
 Sir Martin Conway observes that the tonga resembles the carpentKm 
 of the ancient Romans and Gauls, as shown on a bas-rehef at Treves. 
 In spite of their primitive appearance, tongas are in many ways better 
 suited to the mountain roads than the heavy carriages Dhanjiboy 
 provided for us. 
 
 The ancient road to Kashmir, which was followed for centuries by 
 the Mogol emperors and their retinues, of whose pomp and splendour 
 such a living picture has been handed down to us by Bermer,^ the 
 French physician at the Court of Aurengzebe, ran to the east of the 
 modern route, direct to Kashmir from the plain of Jammu, across a 
 pass of the Pir Panjal range. The new road, which was opened in 
 1890, reaches the Jhelum valley just above the narrow gorge through 
 
 ' FRASr90is Bernikr, Travels in the Mogul Empire (A.D. 1656-1668). London. A. Constable, 
 
 1891. 
 
 (9221) 
 
 B 3
 
 22 
 
 Clia])tc'r II. 
 
 which the latter descends from the plain of Kashmir, and crosses the 
 spur of mountains which form the western barrier of this gorge. Near 
 the top of the pass (7,467 feet high) stands Murree, a hill station which 
 is crowded in summer, but was quite peaceful and empty when we 
 
 passed through. We reached 
 Murree in the pouring rain and 
 shivering with cold, owing to the 
 sudden transition from the hot 
 suffocating air of the plain to the 
 high mountain breezes. The 
 whole of the descent into the 
 Jhelum valley crosses bands of 
 forest, where the pale green of 
 the budding deciduous trees 
 contrasts with the dark conifers 
 and with the lively colouring of 
 the flowering bushes. We pro- 
 ceeded rapidly at a quick trot or 
 gallop even at the steepest points, 
 thanks to the relays of horses 
 which awaited us every four or six 
 miles, according to the steepness 
 of the road. Little time was lost 
 system of harness is extremely 
 simple. There are no buckles, no straps and no traces. There is only a 
 bar which crosses the pole and fits into two uprights fixed into the 
 saddles of the harness. 
 
 The ragged and dirty postilion sits beside the driver and with the 
 harsh and strident notes of his horn clears the way of the carts, ekkas 
 and tongas which we keep meeting and passing. 
 
 The weather had cleared by the time we reached Kohala, our first 
 stage, at the bottom of the valley, at a distance of a little over 64 miles. 
 Kohala stands about 300 feet above Pindi, and is a village of a few 
 houses, which rise on terraces one above another on the steep right 
 bank of the Jhelum at the inlet of the narrow gorge through which 
 the river forces its way out from the mountains. The water rushes 
 fiercely at the bottom of the gorge, whirling on its muddy and foaming 
 waves the numberless tree tiiinks which are sent down from the 
 
 THE ROAD TO KASHMIR. 
 
 in changing them, because the
 
 From Marseilles to Srinaji-ar. 23 
 
 t-.' 
 
 mountains to Jhelum, the city of the Punjab plain, which has given 
 its name to the river. 
 
 But in the mountains which shelter its hallowed sources and 
 throughout Kashmir the name of the river is Vehut, a corruption of the 
 Sanscrit Vitasta, " one who hastens," from which may also be derived 
 the Hydaspes of the Greek historians. This river formed the eastern 
 limit of the conquests of Alexander, and according to legend the 
 Macedonian navigated its downward course to the Indus. 
 
 At Kohala we made our first acquaintance with the dak bungalows 
 or guest-houses which are found at every stage on the main roads and 
 on many of the principal bridle paths. They are all built on the same 
 plan, and consist of a ground floor only, with a wide verandah on to 
 which all the bedrooms open. Behind each bedroom there is usually 
 a small bathroom. The furniture is simple but clean. On the high 
 road from Piiidi to Kashmir the dak bungalows are real inns, provided 
 with a cook and with supplies and servants, so that travellers need not 
 bring a large amount of luggage. Little equipment is needed beyond 
 the sleeping-bag or the valise which holds a thin mattress, pillow, 
 blanket and sheets, all of which are equally indispensable for railway 
 travelling in India. The bedrooms contaiji charpoys, upon which you 
 spread your own bedding. 
 
 Immediately outside of Kohala the road crosses the Jhelum upon 
 the bridge which marks the boundary between British territory and the 
 Protectorate of Jammu and Kashmir. Here an official dignitary met 
 us to bid the Duke of the Abruzzi welcome in the name of the Maharajah. 
 The road now follows the left slope of the valley at a height of from 
 600 to 1,000 feet above the river. Upon either side of the valley are 
 traces of alluvial terraces rising one above another to a great height 
 and indicating successive upheavals of the whole mass, while the river 
 kept on its way at its original level by progressive erosion of its bed. ^ 
 
 Some 20 miles above Kohala two large tributary valleys, that of 
 Kunhar or Naim Suk and that of Kishen Ganga, open out on the right 
 bank of the Jhelum, divided one from another by a range of hills capped 
 with snow peaks. At this point, before the high road was built, another 
 path came into the Jhelum valley from Abbottabad in the Punjab. At 
 
 ' K. Oestreich, Die Tdler des nordwestlichen Himalaya. Pelermann's Mitt, Ergdnzungsheft 
 155, 1906. An interesting geological monograph, tlie fruit of observations made by the autlior 
 while accompanying the Workman expedition of 1902. 
 
 (9221) B 4
 
 24 Chapter II. 
 
 its point of confluence with the Kishcn Ganga the Jhelum valley 
 suddenly changes its course, doubhng back at a sharp angle round the 
 end of the spur of hills on its left side and rising south-eastward with 
 an increasing deflection towards the east. The valley of the Kishen 
 Ganga goes on in the direction in which we had hitherto followed up 
 the Jhelum, towards the north, so that at this junction you feel as if the 
 road had left the main valley to follow up an affluent. As a matter of 
 fact Oestreich questions whether it would not be more correct to regard 
 the Jhehim as a tributary of the Kishen Ganga rather than the latter 
 as a tributary of the former, notwithstanding that the Jhelum has the 
 greater volume of water and a longer course above the point of junction. 
 The Kishen Ganga is also a very considerable river, and in its long course 
 flows round the whole northern boundary of Kashmir. We were to 
 meet this river again in its upper valley on our way back to Srinagar from 
 the Baltoro. 
 
 Not far from this remarkable bend of the river stands Domel, the 
 Kashmiri custom-house. It consists of a dirty little bazar which 
 purveys to the needs of a crowd of drivers and carters, who busy them- 
 selves with deafening shouts among the oxen and horses which stray 
 loose among the vehicles of every possible type laden with goods Uable 
 to custom. Sir Francis Younghusband, the British Resident in Kashmir, 
 had obtained from the Maharajah a free pass for the Duke's equipment, 
 which saved us trouble and delay. 
 
 From now on the valley lies between the Kaj Nag to the north and 
 a spur of the Pir Panjal to the south, and the scenery is completely 
 changed. The features due to erosion are less marked, whereas there 
 is a great increase in the alluvial deposits, which often reach a thickness 
 of a few hundred feet and form a series of terraces at the bottom of the 
 valley, which lie with such regularity on either side of the deep channel 
 which the river has cut in the sedimentary mass as to suggest the 
 hypothesis of a lacustrian origin.^ 
 
 The level surfaces of the terraces are carefully irrigated and covered 
 with crops, especially rice plantations, made in narrow terraces rising 
 one above another, each with a raised margin to regulate the flow of 
 water from the top to the bottom. 
 
 ' Lieut. -Col. Godwin Austen, Geological Notes on Part of the North-Western Himalaya 
 Qitart. Jour. Geol. Soc. xx ; and Sir Maktin Conway, op. cit.
 
 From Marseilles tf) Srinajxai 
 
 (-■' 
 
 Where the lie of the land does not lend itself to rice plantations there 
 are fields of corn and orchards in full blossom. The whole countryside 
 is alive with the song of all sorts of birds. The cultivated land reaches 
 up the slopes to the edge of the pine woods and pasture land. Above 
 these, again, are rocks sprinkled with snow and cut by couloirs full of 
 neves. 
 
 As far as possible the road runs over the flat allu\aal terraces ; but at 
 many points it has been necessary to cut it out along the precipitous 
 cliffs beneath steep slopes of shingle and detritus of all sizes in perpetual 
 course of disaggregation. Every now and then we come upon the 
 debris of former or recent landslides, and meet squads of coolies busily 
 engaged in clearing the road from the fallen earth and stones. During 
 the rainy season it is a hazardous journey, and the road may be cut for 
 days together. 
 
 The day's journey was of 69 miles, and we halted for the night at 
 Uri, 4,420 feet above the sea level, where the valley widens out. At 
 this point the scenery is very beautifixl. The valley is dotted with 
 ruins of ancient temples, and there are the remains of a fortified city 
 opposite the cliffs of Kaj Nag, which is still crowned with snow. The 
 level is formed by fluvial-glacial deposits, and near at hand are some 
 big granite boulders, whose origin has been a source of much con- 
 troversy among geologists. The absence of glacier marks in the valley 
 below and above Uri makes it difficult to explain how these boulders 
 came there, and whence the origin of the moraine remnants which are 
 found at this point. Of all the different hypotheses the most probable, 
 perhaps, is that of Godwin Austen, which has been further amplified 
 by Oestreich^ — namely, that of glaciers from the lateral valleys which 
 may at one time have overflowed into the main valley, leaving the traces 
 in question. 
 
 Immediately above the plain of Uri the valley narrows again into 
 the famous gorge of Basmagul, one of the grandest in the world, some 
 20 miles long and running between walls more than 7,000 feet high. 
 The river rages with fierce anger against the rocky sides of its narrow 
 bed. The slopes above are covered with forests famed from of old for 
 their majestic deodars. Now and again we still found the remains of 
 a spring avalanche of snow along the margin of the road. Next we 
 
 ' Godwin Austsst, Oestreich, opp. citt.
 
 20 Chapter II. 
 
 pass the hydraulic station of electric jjower, a characteristic symptom 
 of European invasion. Soon we reach Baramula, the real gate of the 
 high valley plain of Kashmir. The torrent which thundered through 
 the canon of Basmagul is now transformed into a wide imposing stream, 
 which flows slowly and noiselessly between low and level banks along 
 which are moored endless lines of boats and barges. 
 
 Many travellers and the greater part of the freight proceed by water 
 from Baramula to Srinagar, taking two days to navigate up the Jhelum 
 and cross the Wular lake, into wliich it widens above. This traffic 
 has given rise to the typical httle Kashmiri town of Baramula, with 
 houses of sun-baked brick, windows and doors of wood, often well car\^ed. 
 
 THE BUNGALOW AT BARAMUL\. 
 
 and narrow lanes crowded with handsome, dirty people, and with 
 women who are not so quick to cover their faces at the sight of the 
 stranger but that he can get a ghmpse of regular features and fine eyes. 
 
 The distance by road to Srinagar is about 34 miles, a few hours by 
 carriage. The road which cuts across the plain is quite straight, and 
 runs between two regular hues of tall poplars, set close to one another, 
 as on certain French roads. On either side are httle lakes and swamps 
 and rice plantations, where the peasants are busy turning over the 
 mud in the flooded fields with primitive ploughs drawn by oxen. Behind 
 the rows of poplars around the scattered farms are to be seen a great 
 variety of fruit trees in flower and gigantic chenars standing alone or in
 
 From jVlarseilles to Srinagar. 27 
 
 clumps. The chenar, or Oriental plane, which was brought into the 
 country by the Mogol emperors, is a splendid tree which reaches an 
 immense size, with a wonderfully graceful growth of branches and with 
 dense foliage giving a deep, cool shade. 
 
 On either side extends the great green plain of Kashmir, circled 
 round on every side and appearing absolutely shut in by a continuous 
 girdle of mountains, at this season all still covered with snow. The 
 
 POPLAR AVENUE BETWEEN BjlRAMULA AND SRINAGAE. 
 
 valley stands at a mean height of a little over 5,000 feet, and is oval, 
 with its greatest axis running north-west to south-east, about 90 miles 
 long and from 20 to 25 miles wide, enclosed by the Pir Panjal range 
 to the south, whose peaks rise over 15,500 feet ; and by the Himalaya 
 proper to the north, ending in the lofty summit of Nanga Parbat 
 (26,620 feet), whose peaks are visible from many points in Kashmir, 
 although they do not directly command the valley. 
 
 The sight of this vast basin enclosed by high mountain walls infallibly 
 suggests the notion that it has been the bed of a lake. No wonder that 
 nearly all those who have travelled there in the past sought for and
 
 28 Cliai)ter II. 
 
 thought to have found clear tokens of a lake which at some recent 
 geological period presumably filled the valley to a considerable height 
 above the present level of the plain, where all that remains of these 
 supposed mighty waters are the three small lakes Wular, Dal and 
 Manasbal. According to this hypothesis, the great alluvial deposits 
 which form the characteristic terraces called kareiva, usually situated 
 on the verge of the valley at the foot of the ranges and rising about 
 200 to 300 feet above the plain, would be mere lacustrian deposits. In 
 the middle of the valley they would have been gradually worn down 
 and swept away by the river current which was formed when the lake 
 broke an outlet through the mountains at Baramula. How this lake 
 came to be and how it came to be emptied has given rise to numerous 
 hypotheses, of which Oestreich has given a clear summary. 
 
 There is no doubt that the legends interwoven with mythology 
 which are still current in Kashmir, and which are given in a Sanscrit 
 work by Kalhana, the Kashmiri historian of the twelfth century, 
 translated by Stein, appear to corroborate at every point the geological 
 hypothesis of a former submersion of the valley. From Bernier onwards 
 all those who have written on Kashmir — Thomson, Vigne, the brothers 
 Schlagintweit, Montgomerie, Godwin Austen, Purdon, Lydekker, 
 Knight, etc. ^ — were unhesitatingly of the opinion that this was the true 
 explanation. It is plain, however, that the supposed lake must have 
 had its existence and emptied itself at a geological epoch far earher 
 than the first appearance of man on the earth. The legend therefore 
 can by no means be connected with direct human observation, and 
 loses all value as a proof. Drew and Stein are thus forced to the con- 
 clusion that the earliest inhabitants of Kashmir were competent to 
 read and interpret the geological records of the valley. - 
 
 Marchese Roero di Cortanze, a Piedmontese who lived in Kashmir 
 from 1853 to 1875, and who travelled in Ladakh and Baltistan, even 
 crossing the Karakoram into Turkestan, has given us in three interesting 
 httle volumes his views upon the country. The book is now rare and 
 
 ' W. H. Purdon, On the Trigonometrical Survey and Physical Configuration of the Valley of 
 Kashmir. Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 31, 1861, p. 14 ; Lydekker, The Geology of Kashmir and Chamha 
 Territories. Mem. of the Geol. Surv. of India, 22, 1883, p. 186 ; E. F. Knight, Where Three 
 Empires Meet. London 1905. The other authors as already cited. 
 
 ' F. Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories. London, ed. 1875 and 1877 ; M. A. Stein, 
 Memoir and Maps Illustrating the Ancient Geography of Kashmir. Calcutta 1899.
 
 From Marseilles to Srinay-ar. 29 
 
 fe' 
 
 difficult to get. 1 He is the only one of the early writers who shows a 
 cautious reserve as to the authority of the legend, suggesting, not 
 unreasonably, that it might owe its origin to some exceptionally heavy 
 spring flood. The latter have frequently proved a fearful disaster to 
 the whole region. Beside the melting of snows, they might have been 
 provoked by some obstacle to the free flow of the river. Kalhana's 
 old history, which we have just quoted, relates that in the second half 
 of the eleventh century an obstruction of the gorge below Baranuda 
 caused a partial inundation of the valley. It would seem that this 
 obstacle was removed by contriving to collect the waters of the river 
 behind a temporary dam constructed for the purpose, and then opening 
 it and letting them rush through, a truly colossal work for that period. 
 
 Modern geologists are inclined to give up the lake hypothesis 
 altogether. Ellsworth Huntington is of opinion that the sedimentary 
 deposits were the work of rivers and torrents in the basin during its 
 formation, while the Jhelum was gradually eating away the outlet of 
 Baramula, so that there would never have been occasion for a great 
 accumulation of waters. ^ Oestreich has an intermediary hypothesis 
 which does not altogether exclude the possibility of the temporary 
 existence of a lake, but he is of opinion that the present lakes are even 
 now in process of formation, and by no means remnants of a greater 
 ancient lake^ ; while R. D. Oldham, from studies carried out in 1903, 
 came to the conclusion that the deposits are of fluvial and not of 
 lacustrian origin, and that there is no proof that there ever were any 
 lakes larger than those actualh' existing.^ 
 
 ^^^latever may have been the geological past of Kashmir, its present 
 state is one of such beauty as to kindle the imagination of all who have 
 attempted to describe it. From the earliest traveller to the latest 
 book of Sir Francis Younghusband '' there is a unanimous chorus of 
 enthusiasm and admiration. To our party, who had left Italy barely 
 
 1 OswALDO RoERO DEI Marchesi di Cortaxze, Coshemir, Piccolo e Medio Thibet e Turkestan. 
 Turin, 1881. 3 vols. 
 
 2 E. Huntington, The V(ile of Kashmir. Bull. Amer. Geog. Sac, 38, 1906, p. 657. 
 
 ' Vigne, Stein and Huntington liavc, however, found certain indications that the Wular 
 lake was at one time larger than it is now. The village of Bandipur, which formerly stood on 
 the shore of the lake, is now nearly a mile away from it. 
 
 * R. D. Oldham, Note ore the Glaciation and History of the Sind Valley, Kashmir. Records 
 Geolog. Sun: of India, 31, 1904, p. 142. 
 
 ° Sir F. E. Younghusb.vnd, Kashmir. London 1909.
 
 so Chai)ter II. 
 
 twenty days before, the first impression was one of slight disappointment. 
 The long high road, the Hnes of poplars across the great uniform plain 
 with the rice plantations, the famihar European trees and the far-off 
 snowy ranges sUghtly veiled in the soft mist of the atmosphere, combined 
 to produce a scene so hke our own Lombard plain in its beauty, that we 
 felt baulked of the East of our dreams which we had come so far to 
 seek. But to travellers \Vho come to Kashmir after months or years 
 spent in the parched and burning plains of India, or after wearying 
 journeys across the barren waste of Central Asia, it must seem a paradise 
 indeed. 
 
 About half way between Baramula and Srinagar our carriages 
 began to emit squeaking and groaning sounds to such a degree as 
 to cause grave anxiety, as they appeared to be on the point of going 
 to pieces altogether. The spokes of the wheels looked as if they 
 were coming off, the connection between springs and body went 
 wrong, and to the European mind it really looked as if it would be 
 scarcely possible to proceed. But the drivers, by means of cunning 
 knots, contrived to remedy the more serious disasters, and we were able 
 to pursue our way, though at a diminished pace. The primitive tonga 
 is decidedly preferable to the European carriage for this journey. It 
 is very probable that in a few years both will be superseded by the 
 motor-car, not to speak of the possibility of a railwa}', which has long 
 been projected and which would at once destroy the pleasant remoteness 
 of this beautiful valley. 
 
 Nine miles from Srinagar the Duke was met by a carriage sent from 
 the Residency. Soon we reached the suburbs of Srinagar, surrounded 
 by wide fields which were thronged with people. We crossed the 
 Jhelum on a wide wooden bridge to the right bank, where lies the 
 European quarter. Around the great grassy maidan, surrounded by 
 roads shaded with poplars, stand the Residencj^ the bungalows of the 
 officials and others, the post-office, the agencies and the hotel. The 
 Duke and Negrotto were hospitably entertained by Sir J'rancis and 
 Lady Younghusband. We have now reached the limits of civilized 
 means of communication. 
 
 Botta and one of the guides had travelled with us. The other six, 
 who left Pindi the day after us, were to arrive the next day. The 
 limited number of horses at the stages makes it impossible for a great 
 number of carriages to proceed simultaneously.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 KASHMIR. 
 
 Antiquity of the History of Kashmir. — The Sanscrit Chronicle of its Kings. — The First 
 Mohammedan Conquest. — The Mogol Emperors. — Afghans and Sikhs. — The Inhabitants 
 — Srinagar. — Life on the Jhelum. — The Hanji Caste. — The City. — The Mogol Gardens. 
 —The European Quarter. — Takt-i-Suliman and Hari Parbat. — The Dal. — Lake 
 Vegetation. — The Kashmiri Spring. — Itinerary of the Expedition. — Departure from 
 Srinagar. — The Marshes of Anchar. — Mount Haramuk. — The First Discovery and 
 Mensuration of K -. — The River Sind. — The State Camp at Gunderbal. 
 
 Srinagar is now the summer 
 residence of His Highness the 
 Maharajah of Jammu and 
 Kashmir, one of the great 
 Protectorates of the British 
 Empire. The States of the 
 Maharajah include Buddhist 
 Ladakh, which by race, 
 customs and rehgion, geo- 
 graphical situation and oro- 
 hydrographic features, is really 
 a portion of Tibet ; Baltistan, 
 whose inliabitants are Shiite 
 and the minor districts of Astor-Gilgit, Hunza-Nagar, 
 the whole of the territory lying between Afghanistan, 
 Chinese Turkestan and Tibet proper. The population of Kashmir 
 is Sunnite Mohammedan, whereas Jammu (a vast plain district 
 bordering the Punjab) is entirely Hindu. 
 
 The whole kingdom, formed of elements so diverse, was but recently 
 united under the domination of Hindu rulers of the Dogra Rajput race. 
 Kashmir had been for some twenty yeare subject to the Sikhs of the 
 Punjab when Gulab Singh was sent thither in 1841 to put down a rising. 
 
 Mohammedans ; 
 etc. — in a word
 
 82 Chapter III. 
 
 Ill the course of the following fifteen years his army, little by little, 
 conquered Ladakh and Baltistan. Meantime the Punjab had been 
 conquered by the British, between 1845 and 1856, and the Imperial 
 Government recognized the sovei-eignty over Jammu and Kashmir 
 of Gulab Singh, upon whom they conferred the title of Maharajah, and 
 who became the founder of the present dynasty. It would seem as if 
 the peculiar position of Kashmir, surrounded as it is by mountains 
 which are difficult to cross, and passes which before the construction of 
 the carriage road were quite closed by snow for several months every 
 year, ought to have sheltered it from outside influences and put it in a 
 position to follow the lines of its own development undisturbed, favoured 
 by its temperate climate and the marvellous fertihty of its soil. This 
 happy isolation, however, only lasted till the twelfth century. Putting 
 aside the many notices of Kashmir which have come down to us from 
 the remotest antiquity, from Herodotus to Marco Polo, we have the 
 story of the country throughout its autonomous Hindu period in an 
 ancient Sanscrit chronicle, the work of several authors, which was put 
 together about the middle of the thirteenth century. This work gives 
 us minute information concerning the great prosperity of the coixntry, 
 the high level of its civilization, the development of its arts and the 
 splendour of its temples. 
 
 The first Mohammedan conquest took place in 1341, and thence- 
 forward the country never threw o& the yoke of foreign domination. 
 The independent Mohammedan kings were followed by Mogol emperors, 
 under whom it became an integral part of the empire of Delhi, and was 
 adorned with sumptuous palaces and gardens. Next came the Afghan 
 conquest, and not until 1819 was Kashmir once more governed by 
 Hindus — the Sikhs of the Punjab. During the five centuries of 
 Mohammedan domination the old Hindu faith had been almost entirely 
 superseded by Islam. 
 
 The Kashmiris of to-day appear to differ little from the Kashmiris 
 of thirteen centuries ago, when the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Tsiang 
 described them as " light and frivolous, and of a weak, pusillanimous 
 disposition, handsome in appearance, given to cunning, fond of learning 
 and well instructed " (Stein). 
 
 It is nevertheless indubitable that the long foreign domination has 
 contributed to the formation of their character, which is judged by 
 universal consent to be lacking in manly quahties and inclined to deceit.
 
 Kasl 
 
 unir. 
 
 33 
 
 Tliey give proof, however, of alert intelligence, of marked artistic talents, 
 and of considerable ingenionsness and dexterity in the various handi- 
 crafts for which they are distinguished throughout India. 
 
 They are a handsome people and well built, with regular features ; 
 and the foreigner would be more inclined to admire them if he were not 
 unremittingly persecuted by the insistent importunity of their offers 
 of service or of wares, which reaches such a point that frequently only 
 the threat of personal cliastisement avails to get rid of them. 
 
 SRINACAR KHDM THE SI.OI'E ol' IlAKl I'AEtBAl 
 
 Kashmii' seems to be now at last freed from the secular oppression 
 of her invaders, to which was added the calamity of earthquakes, w^hich 
 time after time decimated her po]Milation and laid low their habitations, 
 not to speak of the floods, epidemics and famines with which her history 
 abounds in the past as well as in recent times. The general appearance 
 of the population is now faiily prosperous. The people look healthy 
 and well fed, with fine chubby children ; nor did we often see persons 
 who were diseased or crippled or rachitic, or any other signs of 
 extreme misery.
 
 34 
 
 Chai)ter III. 
 
 During the long period of Mohammedan domination the eajjital 
 city was known as Kashmir, but when it fell into the power of the Sikhs 
 it resumed its ancient Hindu name of Srinagar. ^ It has a population 
 of about 130,000, and stands almost in the centre of the plain at a height 
 of 5,303 feet, upon the banks of the Jhelum, which flows through it in 
 a sweeping curve. The river is the main thoroughfare of the city, and 
 is always crowded with boats of various sorts. The light, swift shikara, 
 the dunga, a big fiat-bottomed boat with a shelter amidships roofed 
 
 SRDJAGAR FROM TAKT-I-SULIMAN. THE EUROPEAN QUARTER. 
 
 ovei- with matting ; the heavy barges loaded with wood, grain, oil or 
 vegetables — all come and go continually up and down the river or lie 
 tied along the banks. The boatmen form a large population, and with 
 their women and children pass their whole life on the water. They 
 belong to a special caste known as Hanji. They are well built and 
 handsome, but are looked down upon, not without good reason, by 
 both Mohammedans and Hindus. 
 
 ' According to Knight and Younghusband (opp. citt.) Srinagar signifies "City of the sun"; 
 according to Ujfalvy, " City of healing," from the Sanscrit ^ri-nSgara (Ch. de Ujfalvy, Les 
 Arijens ati nord et au Slid de V Hindu Kouch. Paris 1896).
 
 Srinagai"
 
 p
 
 Kashmir. 
 
 35 
 
 The principal houses of Srinagar stand along the liver. The 
 Maharajah's palace is quite modern. The few old palaces which are still 
 standing are in the hands of wealthy merchants. Over a solid basement 
 wall, built like a bastion to withstand the freshets of the river, rises a 
 facade adorned with several tiers of wooden balconies one above another, 
 elaborately carved with effective and ancient designs. Alongside of 
 these similar great foundations of stone blocks, which must have 
 supported other palaces in the past, now serve to sustain wretched 
 
 THE NATIVE CITY, FROM TAKT-I-SUI.IMAN. 
 
 tumble-down hovels. The whole river bank to the water's edge is taken 
 up with houses, except where at intervals long flights of steps give 
 access to the river. Here crowds of men, women and children come and 
 go incessantly, wash their clothes, their persons and their pots and 
 pans, or sit chatting in rows to enjoy the cool of the evening. The two 
 banks are joined by seven bridges resting upon piers solidly built out 
 of the interlocked trunks of trees, with the interstices filled up with 
 stones. Numerous canals branch off from the river, and intersect the 
 city in every direction, giving rise to the title of " Venice of the East," 
 
 (9221) c 2
 
 36 Chapter 111. 
 
 but I must say that the comparison is due rather to a lively imagination 
 than to any actual resemblance between the two cities. 
 
 The narrow streets on the land are, as is usual in the East, mainly 
 bazars, and are crowded with natives clothed in the native woollen 
 home-spun, usually brown or dirty white in colour, and known as pnttoo. 
 You meet few women, and those few evidently belong to the lower 
 castes. The city is full of temples and mosques, but of these only two 
 or three offer any antiquarian or artistic interest. Little trace remains 
 of the ancient civiUzation described in the old chronicles. This may 
 
 STREET IX SRISAOAR. 
 
 be due to earthquakes, which have several times laid Srinagar low, to 
 the iconoclastic rage of the Mohammedan conquerors or to Eastern 
 carelessness, made up of fatahsm, sloth and indifference to the past. 
 The few monuments of which any trace exists in the neighbourhood 
 of Srinagar are remains of Buddhist temples. Next to these the most 
 interesting buildings are without doubt the sumptuous country houses 
 of the Mogol emperors. Here the splendid old gardens, with their 
 artificial cascades, their great tanks and elaborate fountains, their 
 splendid alleys of huge chenars, the design, still recognizable, of their 
 formal plan, and the architectural detail of their little pleasure-houses, 
 although not to be compared with the marvels of Delhi and Agra,
 
 KasJunir. 
 
 37 
 
 nevertheless hear witness to the luxury, taste and refinement which the 
 world of Islam brought with it to the scene of its conquests, from Spain 
 to India. Defeated and thrust back from the west by the victorious 
 cross, after conquering nearly one-half of the world, it was here that 
 Islam displayed its last splendours. 
 
 One of the most characteristic features of Srinagar are the roots of 
 the houses and even of the temples, which are covered with earth and 
 planted with grass and flowers. In spring they are gay with blue iris 
 and scarlet tulips, around which hover butterflies and birds. The latter 
 
 AT SRISAGAR. 
 
 pervade and haunt every nook of the city, streets, verandahs, .shops 
 in the bazar and temples with their joyous notes, their twittering and 
 their chirping, and seem to live on excellent terms with the whole 
 population. 
 
 The European quarter consists of a few dozen bungalows in addition 
 to the Residency. It stands upstream from the native town, and is 
 built chiefly round a great open space like a huge village green. It is 
 enclosed on one side by the river and on the other by the wide canal 
 which comes into the river from the AVular lake ; and it is protected 
 from floods by high dykes, along which run roads lined with magnificent 
 ancient chenar trees. On the lower portion of this bank, known as the 
 Bund, next to the native town, stand the rows of European shops kept 
 
 (9221) c 3
 
 38 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 by Parsees or Euiasians. We must not pass over the mission hospital, 
 which was founded and is kept up by the two Doctors Neve, who have 
 done well-known and excellent exploring and Alpine expeditions in 
 the surrounding ranges during the brief holidays permitted by their 
 arduous missionary labours. 
 
 The crowds of European visitors who seek out Kashmir in the spring 
 and summer live mostlv in house-boats of from four to six rooms, built 
 
 HOUSE AND INDIAN TEMPLE ON THE CANAL. 
 
 upon flat-bottomed barges. These are tied up at the pleasantest spots 
 along the banks of the Jhelum or on the canals or lakes. After the 
 middle of June the European colony, both residents and tourists, move 
 up into the hills, either to Gulmarg, where there is a hotel and bungalows, 
 or to the higher valleys, where they camp out under canvas. 
 
 Eastward and northward of the town of Srinagar rise two hilLs, 
 which play a great part in the beauty of the scenery. The one to the 
 east terminates the spur which runs out from the ranges to the north- 
 east into the plain, and rises to a height of about 1,000 feet just above 
 the European quarter. Upon the top of this hill stands an ancient
 
 Ka.sl 
 
 iimr. 
 
 39 
 
 temple known as the Takt-i-Suliman, one of the numerous " thrones of 
 Solomon," a name often given by Mohammedans to any striking i>solated 
 peak in the countries subject to their laws and traditions. According 
 to Fergusson, this temple is of relatively recent date, but built upon a 
 much older foundation.^ The Takt-i-Suliman is a favourite walk or 
 ride of about an hour, and offers a marvellous view of the plain and 
 of the lakes and hills which surround it. 
 
 BRIDGE AND HOrSE-BOAT OX THE JHEI.UM. 
 
 The other of the two hills is an isolated and precipitous rock to the 
 north of the city, known as Hari Parbat, on top of which stands an 
 ancient fort now used as a prison. 
 
 The expedition remained in Srinagar seven days, from April 16th 
 to April 23rd, partly to wait for the heavy luggage which was slowly 
 toihng up the road we had travelled so quickly, and partly to complete 
 our equipment at all points. The chief job which we had to do in 
 Srinagar was to get a certain number of Jciltas made. These are strong 
 light panniers made of wickerwork, either rectangular or barrel-shaped, 
 
 ' James Fergussok, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. 2nd ed. I>ondon 1910 
 2 vols. 
 
 (9221) c 4
 
 40 
 
 Chai)tcT III. 
 
 and are covered with rough slieepfskiii. the hd being fastened witli chains 
 and a padlock. The more fragile portions of the equipment, when not 
 otherwise protected, were to be put into these kiltas. 
 
 Arrangements for our journey had already been made by the courtesy 
 of the Resident, upon suggestions communicated by the Duke from 
 Europe. Sir Francis Younghusband had entrusted Mr. A. C. Baines 
 with the organization of the caravan, the recruiting of horses and coolies, 
 and the making of deposits of stores at certain points on our march. 
 
 rjJDER THE CHENAR TREES. 
 
 Mr. Baines had left Srinagar a couple of weeks before oui' arrival, and 
 was waiting for us in the Dras Valley. In this way we had leisure to 
 enjoy the kind hospitality of Sir Francis and Lady Younghusband and 
 the other courteous English officials, and to do a httle sight-.seeing in 
 the city and neighbourhood. Little by little the strong local colour 
 of the place took possession of our minds, and dispelled the first fleeting 
 im2:»ression of vague disappointment. Every stroke of the oar on the 
 river or in the canals revealed fresh details of native life, wonderful 
 groups and charming scenes of Oriental manners and castoms. 
 
 By far the most fascinating point in the surroundings of Srinagar is 
 the Dal lake, a beautiful sheet of water lying at the feet of the encircling
 
 Kashmir. 
 
 41 
 
 hills which form the spur terminating in Takt-i-Suliman. This lake is 
 joined to the Jhelum by an artificial canal, which is provided with locks 
 ingeniously constructed so as to prevent automatically the river inunda- 
 tions from flowing back into the lake. Upon the shores of the Dal lie 
 the pleasant old Mogol gardens, all blossoming with lilacs and roses, 
 and full of the buds of iris, lilies and narcissus. Under the lofty chenar 
 trees groups of natives stroll in the shade or sit in groups with their 
 children, who seem as serious and solemn as their elders. 
 
 CANAL AT SKINAOAR. 
 
 An afternoon on the Dal lake leaves the memory of one of the 
 fairest scenes of nature which we have l)een piivileged to behold. The 
 shikara boat flies swiftly before the strokes of a dozen oarsmen, who 
 use short paddles with a wide flat blade shaped like a heart. They 
 chant as they low, following the rhythm with the stroke of theii' oars ; 
 and now and again the head boatman, who gives the time, changes 
 the measure abruptly from quick to slow or from slow to quick, so as to 
 rest the rowers by a change of motion. The strange vegetation of the 
 lake bottom shows like a miniature forest gently swaying in the currents 
 of the limpid, bluish-green water. It seems like navigating in a canal, 
 because, with the exception of. the ways channeled out by the current.
 
 42 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 the whole surface of the lake is clothed with a uniform mantle of 
 vegetation, through which the water is hardly visible. There are wide 
 fields of soft green lotos leaves, above which will rise later on the 
 
 exquisite milky - white blossoms 
 
 %, 
 
 k«*'A^A'^-^'- 
 
 A LONELY CANAL. 
 
 detached from the lake bottom 
 
 with their delicately-shaded pink 
 tips. Between the lotos float the 
 liuge round flat leaves of the 
 AnncsJeya horrida, whose level 
 surface of velvety green gives no 
 warning of the cruel hooked spines 
 which clothe the under side of the 
 leaf and stem. The long filaments 
 of the Singara, or ed>ible water- 
 chestnut, twist and tangle round 
 innumerable other varieties of 
 aquatic vegetation. Many parts 
 of the lake are dotted with floating 
 gardens, like islands. These have 
 been often described. They consist 
 of tangled masses of water plants, 
 and floating freely. Upon the 
 
 surface thus obtained mud is spread, upon which grow beans, pumpkins, 
 water-melons, melons, cucumbers, and in fact every species of vegetable, 
 in great abundance. 
 
 Here you meet great barges full of natives seated in a circle round 
 the narghile, poled slowly along by a bargeman squatting on the stern. 
 Again, towards evening slender barks glide upon the water, where a 
 fisherman standing in the bows gazes intently into the water ahead, 
 armed with a trident which he is ready to hurl down at sight of a trout. 
 The shores are white with blossoming orchards of j^each, cherry, apple, 
 pear and plum ; and the mulberries, poplars and willows are festooned 
 with luxuriant vines. Here we have every European variety of fruit- 
 tree, with the exception of those which are strictly confined to the 
 Mediterranean region — the orange, lemon, fig and olive. Flocks and 
 herds with their lambs and calves graze in the pleasant shade, and the 
 air is alive with the song of the lively bulbuls, dear to the Persian poets, 
 with the cooing of doves, the strident notes of the mina bird and the 
 crow, and the pleasant call of the hoopoe. It was still too early for the
 
 Ki 
 
 isiiiuir. 
 
 43 
 
 Tiiigratorv biids from the plain, the orioles, the kingfishers and herons, 
 and the great flights of ducks and geese. 
 
 Nearly every afternoon the sky clouds over and becomes threatening. 
 Here the winds blowing hot from the Indian plain meet the cold mountain 
 barrier, and hence frequent storms. In the sky, the air and the 
 mountains follow in rapid succession an infinite variety of colours with 
 a wonderful play of light and shade, azure i-ents opening on every side 
 
 THE BASKS OF THE DAL. 
 
 in the livid indigo of the storm-cloud. As a rule, the sky clears up after 
 a couple of hours, sometimes with a shower of rain, sometimes without. 
 Then follow marvellous evenings, and the far-off snows are kindled 
 by the flaming sunset. 
 
 Lack of space foibids my dwelling longer upon the beauties of the 
 vale of Kashmir. The reader who may wish to know more of this 
 garden of the Himalaya will perhaps find a more spontaneous, lively 
 and picturesque account of the region, as well as greater observation 
 and detail, in the books of the ancient traveller than in those of our own
 
 44 
 
 (1iai)tor III. 
 
 day. Kashmir has not so changed in the hist fifty to seventy years as 
 no longer to resemble the descriptions of its earlier visitors. ^ 
 
 On the morning of April 22n(l the long line of ekkas loaded with 
 luggage entered the garden of the Residency. We worked all day long 
 with the Duke at going over and rearranging the whole equipment. 
 It was loaded on to six dunga boats the same evening, and left Siinagar 
 to cross the plain by river and canal to the foot of the mountains. 
 
 ON THE DAL. 
 
 The itinerary of the expedition from Srinagar to the Karakoram 
 may be indicated in a few words.'- As I have already pointed out, 
 the mountains which enclose Kashmir to the north form part of the 
 main range of the Himalaya proper, running from south-east to north- 
 west as far as Astor, where they terminate with Nanga Parbat. This 
 
 ' Among the best are: B.VKON C. von HCgel, Kashmir iind tlus Reich ikr Hick. Vienna 
 1840 ; VV. MooRCROFT and G. Trebeck, Travels in the Himalnyan Provinces of Hindustan, etc. 
 (ed. by H. Haynian Wilson). London 1841. 2 vols.; (;. T. Vigse, Travels in Kashmir, etc. 
 London 1842. 2 vols.; Th. Thomson, Western Himal/iya and Thibet. London 18r)2 ; Sir A. 
 Cunningham, Ladnlc arul Surrouruling Countries. London 1854; the voliiminou.s works of 
 H. VON ScHLAGiNTWEiT and the volume of F. Drev*' already cited. Among more recent books, 
 Kashmir by Sir Francis Younghusband is very valuable, the author being qualified not only 
 by his long career as Resident but also by his travels in the most remote parts of the kingdom. 
 
 ' See the itinerary map, From Kawal Pindi to the Baltoro Glacier.
 
 Kaslniiir. 
 
 45 
 
 range divides Kashmir from the Indus valley, beyond wliich lies the 
 Karakoram lange.^ Therefore, in order to reach the latter from 
 Srinagar the Himalaya must first be crossed. The lowest pass in the 
 whole of this end of the chain is the Zoji La (11,230 feet), at the head 
 of the Sind valley, north-east of Srinagar. Beyond the pass the Dras 
 valley leads down to the Indus. Next the Indus valley is followed 
 northward as far as Skardu. tlie capital of Baltistan. From Skardu the 
 
 SUSSKT OX THE DAI.. 
 
 route crosses the Indus and penetrates directly into the Karakoram. 
 This is the main route, which is open all the year round, with the 
 exception of occasional short interruptions. 
 
 Another route, about 50 miles shorter, crosses the Rajdiangan Pass 
 directly north of Srinagar, and by the valley of the Kishen Ganga reaches 
 the vast table-land of the Deosai, which is more than 30 miles wide, with 
 a mean altitude of about 14,000 feet. Hence the route descends directly 
 
 • OuiLHRMOD is mistaken when he says (Sir nwis dans VUivuilaya, etc., p. 47) that the 
 tableland of Ka.shmir is comprised between the Himalaya to the south and the Karakoram to 
 the north. Nor doe-s the Karakoram separate Kashmir from Tibet, as he seems to think, but in 
 reality lies between Baltistan and Chinese Turkestan.
 
 46 (Miapter III. 
 
 to Skaidu. The Deosai plains, however, are not practicable until after 
 the middle of July. In April we should have found them covered with 
 deep snow and subject to dangerous storms, and with our large caravan 
 and equipment it was an attempt not to be thought of. Even the Zoji 
 La is not quite without danger for a large party encumbered with heavy 
 luggage. 1 
 
 On April 23rd, in the early afternoon, we started from Srinagar 
 with Sir Francis and Lady Younghusband, who accompanied the Duke 
 to the first stage. We took our places in two splendid state shikaras, 
 each with a crew of fifteen rowers dressed in tunics and turbans of 
 flaming red and commanded by the Jemadar Sedik, a dry, little old 
 man, tightly clothed in a gorgeous uniform covered with gold braid, 
 the " admiral " of the Maharajah's fleet. 
 
 We went almost directly north, first tlirough a narrow canal, little 
 better than a ditch, betw^een the houses of a series of villages. Out of 
 the muddy water on every side start naked children, dark and chubby, 
 like beautiful little bronzes, and rush to hide behind their elders, while 
 the bigger ones, surprised in their bath, hasten to cover themselves with 
 extremely dirty shirts upon our approach. With some difficulty we 
 pass numerous great grain barges in the narrow canal. Now and again 
 we glide under some arched bridge plainly of ancient date, and we notice 
 here and there foundations and bits of walls which certainly must have 
 supported more worthy buildings than the hovels which crown them 
 at present. 
 
 Next we drift between banks green with willows, through a fi'esh 
 smiling country of rice plantations and fields of cereals of every descrip- 
 tion, and at last we come out of the narrow canals into a vast sheet 
 of water known as Anchar, a shallow lagoon where the flat bottoms 
 of our boats keep touching and even running aground on the least 
 deviation from the narrow channel, for the passage is not free from 
 sandbanks. On every side the aquatic vegetation is so dense that it 
 would seem like a field were it not for the light skiffs gliding hither and 
 thither over the surface, rowed by women who are busily gathering 
 masses of vegetation to form their floating gardens. Over the whole 
 swamp fly flocks of water birds. 
 
 • W. Moorcroft was the first European to give us any precise information about the Dras 
 route. Both the Dras and the Deosai routes between Srinagar and Skaidu are described in detail 
 by Vigne and Thomson in the books already cited.
 
 Kashmir. 
 
 47 
 
 The Sind river, the biggest confluent of the Jheknn, flows with its 
 undivided stream into this lagoon. Its lower course is winding and 
 s\vift, hermned in between low earth-banks, portions of which are 
 constantly falling into the water, which eats them away. The river, 
 now at low water, was about the size of the Tiber in moderate flood. 
 When we entered the channel our rowers got out on the shore and 
 placed themselves in a file, each putting around him a loop of a long 
 
 THE SISD. 
 
 rope, by which they towed the boats at a run with the assistance of a 
 crowd of handsome, half-naked lads, who had apparently been on the 
 look-out for our arrival. Oui' course now turns eastward toward the 
 snowy mountains, and we make straight for the Sind valley, whose 
 gate is guarded by the mighty peak of Haramuk, which rears its crown 
 of glaciers to a height of nearly 12,000 feet above the plain (16,903 feet 
 above sea level). This is the largest of the mountains which encircle 
 the vale of Kashmir. Dr. E. F. Neve, with G. Millais, ascended it for 
 the first time in 1899. ^ It was once more cHmbed in 1907 by A. L. 
 Mumm and Major Bruce.- From one of the western peaks of Haramuk. 
 known as Station Peak, about 16,000 feet high, Colonel Moutgomerie 
 
 1 E. F. Neve, The Aicenl of Haramuk. Alp. Jour. 20, 1900, p. 122. 
 » A. L. JIlMM. In and About Kashmir. Alp. Jour. 24, 1898, p. 195.
 
 48 Chapter III. 
 
 in 1858 saw K- for the first time, at a distance of 137 miles across the 
 Deosai plains, and measured it by triangulation. ^ 
 
 We reached Gundei'bal, at the mouth of the Sind valley, about 
 5 o'clock in the afternoon. The Maharajah, Sir Pratab Singh, who was 
 then still in Jammu, had made arrangements to show hospitality to the. 
 Duke, notwithstanding his absence. A dozen state tents had been set 
 up on the bank under the shade of the splendid chenar trees, and four 
 state house-boats were tied up on the bank, so that there was room for 
 a far more numerous expedition than ours. 
 
 Beyond the river bank the vast rice-fields stretched to the foot of the 
 mountains. Not far from the camp are the ruins of an ancient bridge 
 which once crossed the Sind. Three arches and two or three broken 
 piles are still standing. No road leads to it now. The horses that are 
 to carry our luggage to-morrow, as well as four fine saddle ponies which 
 the Maharajah has placed at our disposal to take us up to tlie first snows 
 of the Sind valley, are grazing in the surrounding fields. 
 
 The dungas with our luggage and guides arrived a few hours after us. 
 The loaded boats drew more water, and had therefore been sent around 
 by the Jhelum and along a canal which connects it with tlie Sind river, 
 spending a night on the way. 
 
 We went to bed eai'ly on the charpoys of the house-boats. The 
 murmur of the river, the lapping of water round the sides of the house- 
 boat, the sound of an oar dipping in the stream, called up images remote 
 indeed from the Himalaya. Every now and then a dull thud shakes 
 our floating house — it has been struck by one of the numerous tree trunks 
 which the river carries down. 
 
 ' Si/m>psi>! nf Re-siiUx 0. T. S. VII. Dehra Dun IS7!t, p. xxx.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SIND VALLEY. 
 
 Formation of the Caravan. — Distribution of the Forests. — Glaciers of the Sind Valley, Past 
 and Present. — (Jund. — Ka.shmiri Coolies. — Officials and Functionaries. — AbduUah the 
 Shikari. — The Official Escort. — Coolies' Pay. — The Engagement of New Coohes. — 
 The (iorge of Gagangir. — Sonamarg. — Post, Telegraph and Meteorology. — Post Runners. 
 — Baltal. — The First Baltis. — Avalanches and Landslides. 
 
 The whole of our baggage had 
 been sent off from Europe aheady 
 divided into packages of the right 
 weight for coohes, and formed aho- 
 gether 262 loads of about 50 lbs. 
 each. This made it possible to 
 arrange the caravan quite easily 
 and without any waste of time from 
 the very outset, in the early morning 
 of April 24th. Each of our ninety- 
 five ponies carried two or three of 
 these loads, and in a short time all 
 were on the road. AVe did not 
 follow until 9 o'clock, after taking 
 leave of our courteous hosts, Sir 
 Francis and Lady Younghusband. 
 
 Now at last the real journey had begun — the camp hfe that brings 
 one into the close communion with nature so good for body and mind. 
 Walking is really the only kind of locomotion that puts us on equal 
 terms with the world about us. Our modern mechanical methods of 
 transportation tend to make us lose sight of our relative importance. 
 The first stage of our journey was only 12 miles, and ran along the nearly 
 level bottom of the Sind valley, over a wide path between blossoming 
 
 (9221) D
 
 50 (Miapter TV. 
 
 trees and cultivated fields. Near the mouth of the valley, on the left 
 side, runs for some distance a high ledge, similar to those we had noticed 
 in the Jhelum valley, but in this case formed by fluvio-glacial deposits. 
 The opposite side of the valley is formed by the southern spurs of 
 Haramuk. 
 
 The main trend of the Sind valley is from west to east. The left 
 side, which faces north, is steep and almost entirely clothed with forests. 
 The other side, wliich the path mainly follows, slopes somewhat more 
 gently, and is treeless, except for the strip of cultivation at the bottom, 
 above which pastures reach up to the foot of the rocks. The limitation 
 of the forests to the slopes which face the north is universal throughout 
 
 TlIK (AMI- AT KANCAN. 
 
 the region, and has been noticed by many travellers. It is probably 
 due to the fact that the snows lie longer on the northern slopes, and thus 
 give a greater degree of moisture. This holds good even on the sides 
 of the wide plateau of Kashmir, where the slopes of the Pir Panjal range 
 which face northwards are clothed with forests, whereas the slopes of 
 the Himalaya which bound the plain to the north are nearly treeless. 
 
 Soon after midday we made our stage at a place called Kaugan. 
 Here we found the equipment already deposited in a level field surrounded 
 by large walnut trees, where our tents were not long in setting up. We 
 were still on the Kashmir side of the water-shed, so, as usual in the 
 afternoon, a storm blew up, and it rained until nightfall. 
 
 After Kangan the path began to climb more rapidly, and the scenery 
 assumed a more Alpine aspect. The ground on the left side of the valley 
 was covered with snow, which sliowed between the firs and pines, and,
 
 The Sind Vallev 
 
 51 
 
 as our way ascended, reached down nearer and nearer to the bottom of 
 the valley. There were no more chenars, but their place was taken 
 by splendid walnut trees, with parasitic orchids growing on the branches. 
 The commonest tree is the willow. 
 
 All this part of the valley shows clear traces of glacial action.^ The 
 whole of the Sind valley was at one time filled by a glacier more than 
 30 miles long, about the size of the present great glaciers of the Kara- 
 
 THE CAMP AT CJrSD. 
 
 koram. To-day there are only a number of small shrunken glaciei^s 
 in the upper reaches of the tiibutary valleys. Oestreich has counted 
 thirty-three of them. 
 
 Our next stage brought us to Gund, a village standing rather high 
 on the right bank of the Sind river, 13 miles from Kangan. Here we 
 left our ponies behind, as a little farther up the valley was still full of 
 snow, and everything would have to be carried by coolies. These 
 
 ' See R. D. Oldham, Note on the Glacintion and History of the Sind Valley, Kashmir. Rec. 
 Geol. Surv. of India, 31, 1904, p. 142. 
 
 (0221) I) 2
 
 52 (Mia))tc'r IV'. 
 
 coolies had gathered at Gmul from all the villages in the valley — in 
 fact, during the moDiing's march we had passed numbers of them on 
 their way up. There were over 250 of them, squatting or lying in 
 groups on the ground or wandering around the camp, which they greatly 
 enlivened by their presence. They were all Kashmiris, with bronzed 
 faces and European features, now and then markedly Semitic in type. 
 They had black hair and flowing beards, and wore garments of puttoo, 
 the coarse country home-spun, with short wide breeches and a sort 
 of coat with ample sleeves that reaches down to a little above the knee. 
 Over the coat they wear a woollen blanket shawl like a shepherd's 
 plaid, wound round the waist or over the back. Their headgear consists 
 of a sort of skull cap, round which is twisted turbanwise a narrow strip 
 of white cotton cloth which has attained an indefinable shade between 
 dirty white and grey. Their feet are clad in sandals of plaited straw, 
 which they make for themselves in spare moments and throw away 
 by the roadside when worn out. Their legs are either bare or covered 
 with puttees. 
 
 All the coolies were incessantly interfered with, worried and kept 
 in a state of perpetual excitement l)y the numerous official escort which 
 was directing the management of the caravan. I will here devote a 
 few words to this official escort, its relative importance and usual 
 relations with the traveller. 
 
 All strangers travelHng in the domains of the Maharajah, whether 
 for exploration, for sport or for mere pleasure, must be provided with 
 an official permit or perwanna, which is supplied by the administrative 
 authorities of each district. This paper autliorizes the traveller to 
 demand from the village headmen, with or without the intervention 
 of higher officials, the necessary supplies of coolies, saddles, luggage 
 ponies, provisions, wood, etc., at the legal tariff prices, which are always 
 specified upon a list posted up at the dak-bungalows. 
 
 At the top of the official tree stands the Tehsildar, who is a real 
 prefect, with fiscal functions, and who superintends the whole district 
 or tehsil. He is usually selected from the official employes who have 
 been trained in the Government schools of India and possess a certain 
 degree of culture and at least a slight acquaintance with the EngUsh 
 language. Under him there may be a Naib-Tehsildar, ruling sub- 
 districts. Tehsildars and Naib-Tehsildars, like all the employes of 
 the Central Government of Kashmir, are invariably Hindu. The heads
 
 TIk- Siiul \';illey. 53 
 
 of the villages arc the Zaildans or Lambardars. The police service is 
 managed by the Jemadars and their subordinates the C'huprassis, 
 whose duty it is also to enforce the observation of the forest and game 
 laws. 
 
 Some districts are still under a Rajah, who is seldom, however, a 
 descendant of the families that ruled the country before the conquest, 
 these having been nearly all deprived of their power. The office is 
 hereditary. They govern through a AVazir or minister, but they are 
 subject to the suzerainty of the Maharajah, and in fiscal matters are 
 answerable to the Tehsildar. 
 
 The traveller usually brings with him a Shikari, who treats on his 
 behalf with the Jemadar and with the Zaildar or Lambardar, and 
 notifies these officials of the requirements of the party. The Shikari 
 is likewise responsible for discipline and order among the coolies, pony 
 drivers, etc., and upon him depend mainly the relations between the 
 traveller and the natives. The majority of the Europeans who travel 
 in the dominions of Kashmir come purely for sport, so the Shikari is 
 usually a man famiUar with the country from the point of view of game. 
 He knows the best nullahs and the habits of the bears, leopards, ibexes, 
 markhor, oris poli and other wild animals which inhabit the western 
 Himalaya. Our Shikari Abdullah had gone on before, and was already 
 at Dras with Mr. Baines, so we did the first part of the journey without 
 him. We did not miss him, as the expedition was accompanied the 
 whole way up the Sind valley by the escort, which comprised all the 
 categories of functionaries I have just mentioned. There was a general 
 superintendent, Baboo Fagir Mohamed, who was inteUigent, silent and 
 had verv great authority. There was the Naib-Tehsildar Munshi 
 Ghullam Haider Khan, a sort of ferocious-looking Othello in a fanciful 
 jacket of olive-green with cuffs and collar of fur, which made him look 
 rather like a lion tamer at a fair. The interpreter was a fat giant with 
 bloodshot eyes and an apoplectic face with a fringe of beard dyed with 
 henna. There was a Jemadar or police official, and under his orders 
 were five Chuprassis, in addition to the Zaildar of Gunderbal and the 
 Lambardars of the villages from which the coolies came. 
 
 The chief officials took their orders from the Duke and transmitted 
 them in regular hierarchical order. In spite of these complicated 
 arrangements the functions of the caravan were carried out with great 
 regularity and precision and perfect discipline. 
 
 (9221) n .3
 
 .14 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 The day was cloudy and cool, with a few intervals of hot sunshine. 
 The afternoon was laborious. We had to pay and dismiss the pony 
 drivers who had come fiom Gunderbal — two stages at half a rupee 
 per stage and per horse. The intermediaries are so numerous that 
 the best policy is to pay the coolies direct in person and one by one. 
 This system is being generally adopted by European travellers, who 
 
 THE MONEY KILTAS, AND PAYING THE COOLIES. 
 
 used to trust to the Tehsildar or Lambardar to divide the sum between 
 the men. The Duke had decided to follow the method adopted by the 
 Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition, of giving each coolie a numbered 
 metal counter, which he has to hand in against his wages. This enabled 
 the payments to proceed rapidly, and made the supervision simple and 
 easy. The chief drawback was the necessity of carrying an immense 
 weight of money divided into single rupees and fractions of rupees. Our 
 small change occupied nine kiltas and weighed over 450 lbs.
 
 TIr' Siiul \'alley. 55 
 
 The Duke always superintended the arranging and counting of the 
 higgage : 171 packages were distributed among the same number of 
 coolies, who left at once so as to divide the party and make its move- 
 ments quicker. As each coolie passes with his load he receives his 
 numbered counter. All round us stands the crowd of those who are 
 waiting for their turn. Some of them seem to be about seventy years 
 old, and some who really look too old for work we are obliged to set 
 aside. And yet these men, in addition to their 50 or 55 lb. load, carry 
 in a skin bag their own food for the whole journey from here to Dras 
 and back — at least another 22 lbs. of rice or flour. This makes a total 
 of 75 or 80 lbs. to be carried through the snow over the Zoji La. 
 
 The great number of volunteers who rushed to the spot is to be 
 explained by the extraordinary wages of a whole rupee a day, which 
 the Kashmir Government allows coolies for crossing the Zoji La in the 
 winter or spring, a wage intended as a compensation for the danger of 
 avalanches and the fatigue of walking through the deep snow instead 
 of on an easy path as in summer. The usual tariff is from 4 to 6 annas 
 a day — from 4d. to 6(1. — without food. 
 
 The loads, kiltas, boxes of provisions, sleeping-bags, bundles of 
 tents, camp-beds, etc., are placed upon primitive carrying devices, which 
 consist of four upright poles fixed to the corners of a narrow rectangular 
 base. Two ropes serve to fasten it over the shoulders. Tlio coohe's 
 step is elastic and quick, even up-hill. He makes short halts to get his 
 breath, more or less often according to the difficulties of the road. 
 During these brief halts he lifts his load off his back, resting it on a sort 
 of crutch formed by a short pole, furnished at the toj) with a wide flat 
 support and at the bottom with a broad wooden foot, in order that it 
 may not sink in the soil. 
 
 After the daily storm comes the usual clear eveniiig. By half-past 
 eight the whole camp is at rest. Near the kiltas which contain the 
 treasury of small change the chuprassi on guard watches in solitude, 
 squatting on his heels before a few smouldering sticks and well wrapped 
 up in his woollen plaid. The roar of the torrent comes uj) from far 
 below. Eastward the valley rises steep and straight, then suddenly 
 disappears from sight behind a spur. The slopes above us glitter with 
 snow. We feel that we are at the gates of the mountain. 
 
 The following days were an interlude of high mountain life between 
 the green garden of Kashmir and the parched and torrid valleys of the 
 
 (9221) D 4
 
 56 
 
 Chapter TA' 
 
 Indus basin. From Gund onward the caravan coasisted of over 270 
 persons, counting the officials, coolies and servants. 171 coolies had 
 left Gund on the day of our arrival, and 100 remained with us. 
 
 For a few hours the path led as before between willows and fruit 
 trees, mingled with fir and pine. But now, httle by little, the ascent 
 becomes steeper, and the mountains draw near and become more 
 precipitous. The springlike aspect of the valley disappears to make 
 
 THE SIND VALLEY BEYOND OUND. 
 
 way for a winter scene. At the foot of each lateral gully or ravine the 
 accumulations of snow become wider and more fiequent. Next the 
 valley is cut across by a great step at the gorge of Gagangir, which is 
 piled up with boulders. Here the torrent dashes wildly to the bottom 
 of the gorge, where it is hidden by vast snow avalanches, which bridge 
 it over often 10 or 20 feet deep, and which here and there are covered 
 with fresh avalanches fallen, a few days before, and not yet flattened 
 by melting or blackened with dust. The road now passes high up on 
 the right flank of the valley, through a little wood of deciduous trees, 
 whose buds are just beginning to swell, though the path is quite hidden 
 away under snow. On our march we are surprised at passing some of
 
 The Sind Valley, 
 
 57 
 
 the coolies whom we had thought it our duty to reject on the preceding 
 day because they looked to be about 100 years old. The poor old 
 fellows must have bought back the engagement from the younger men 
 we had selected in their places, and thus thwarted our intentions. 
 
 From the gorge of Gagangir we come out upon a small level and 
 cross the Sind valley to the left bank. We then climb over the ridge 
 of a moraine formation clothed with conifers and reach the wide plateau 
 
 THE GORGE OF GAGANGIR. 
 
 of Sonamarg, which is treeless and covered with a layer of haid .snow 
 about three feet deep. ^ The plateau is nearly two miles broad, and at the 
 upper end stands the Sonamarg bungalow, about 142 niiles from Gund. 
 We have now reached a height of 8,763 feet. The sky had been over- 
 clouded all day, and it now began to rain. The temperature was only 
 41° F. Little glaciers were jixst visible through the mist on the left 
 of the valley, the lower part of which was clothed with pine woods. 
 
 ■ Thorc must be great variation from one year to another in ti»e .snowfall of this region. 
 When the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition travelled by the same road at about the same 
 season in 1902 there was far less snow in the Sind valley, on the Zoji I^i and in the (lumber 
 valley. See the illustrations of Guillarmod's book as compared with our own.
 
 58 
 
 Chapter IV^ 
 
 It was a characteristic Alpine winter scene, sad, monotonous and 
 grey, with a rainy atmosphere melting into the snow of the plain. It 
 seemed incredible that before many weeks passed the place would turn 
 into a great green meadow starred with golden crocus, and with the 
 fringe of the surrounding forest dotted with the camps of English people, 
 whom the heat of the Kashmir summer drives up into the cooler air. 
 
 We took refuge in the bungalow, consisting of a square courtyard 
 full of trampled snow and mud, on three sides of which runs a verandah. 
 
 THE SrMD VALLEY BETWEEN" SOVAMARG AND BALTAI_ 
 
 on which open the doors of the sleeping rooms. Two of these are empty 
 and reserved for Europeans, and here we spread our camp-beds. The 
 others are filthy barracks for the use of the coolies. 
 
 Shortly after our arrival the 171 coolies who formed the first 
 detachment began to pass through. They had spent the night half- 
 way between Gund and Sonamarg, and were now going on to Baltal. 
 Next came dropping in in small detachments the coolies who marched 
 with us. The courtyard and verandah were soon filled with them. 
 They formed groups around the fires which they hghted here and there 
 in the mud, under kettles where the tea was boiling., in which they soak
 
 The Sincl Valley. 59 
 
 their small loaves or chupattis. They are wonderfully dirty and very 
 good-natured looking, and they smile at us in a friendly way. 
 
 The Sonamarg bungalow lies on the left bank of the Sind River. 
 On the right bank beyond the bridge stands the tiny village, the highest 
 in the whole valley. There is a small house for the post and one for the 
 telegraph. Close by is the meteorological station, which is supplied 
 with a few instruments. There are also thi'ee or four huts built of 
 tree tnmks, all crooked and apparently on the jjoint of tumbling to 
 pieces. The place seems almost deserted, and it is a surprise to us to 
 find plenty of fresh milk, sheep, fowls, and eggs, which provisions we 
 shall continue to find, with but few exceptions, at each stage of our 
 march through the valleys. This fiesh food forms the basis of our 
 diet, which is completed by our provision tins, containing ship's biscuit, 
 butter, soups, vegetables, fruits, coffee, tea, sugar, condiments, etc. 
 
 The meteorological office in these remote stations is usually entrusted 
 to the telegraph clerk, who takes the observations twice a day. AVe 
 were greatly interested in collecting the data of these Httle Alpine 
 stations, they being necessary to calculate the observations to be taken 
 by the expedition later on, in the high mountains. It was very desirable 
 to have the observations taken three times a day, so as to get a greater 
 probabihty of their being at the same time as ours. The Duke therefore 
 arranged with the telegraph official to read the meteorological instruments 
 daily at 8 and 10 o'clock in the morning and at 4 o'clock in the afternoon 
 from that day to the end of Augast. Similar arrangements were made 
 at the meteorological stations of Srinagar, Gilgit, Leh and Skardu. 
 
 On the morning of April 27th we accomplished the short stage f'om 
 Sonamarg to Baltal, which is at the foot of the Zoji La, in a melancholy 
 fine rain with a low mist, which completely shut out the slopes and peaks. 
 This stage is only 9 miles over a good track, well beaten in the snow. 
 The path leads now high on the right side of the Sind valley, where 
 the orange-yellow crocuses (ColcJmnim Ivteiim Bak.) have akeady come 
 pluckily into blossom wherever a bit of land is bare of snow ; and 
 again, along the bottom of the valley through httle groves of pine, fir 
 and birch. We keep overtaking and passing groups of coohes who 
 left Sonamarg before us ; but we ourselves are caught up with and left 
 behind by the dak-wallah, who runs up-hill over the snow, carrying the 
 postbag and his own blankets and food, with his Avhole body and mind 
 bent on the exertion, so great a one that it hardly seems possible he
 
 6U 
 
 Cluipter I\ . 
 
 can go on for more than a few minutes. He is armed witli a spear with 
 a shrill-tongued bell tied to the shaft, to frighten away wild animals. 
 By relays of these dak runners the weekly post goes all the way from 
 Srinagar to Leh and Skardu, covering on an average some 30 miles a day. 
 
 Excejit for this lonely 
 wayfarer our expedition w'as 
 quite alone in the high valley 
 of the Sind. Once the snow is 
 gone, there is a ceaseless 
 coming and going of caravans 
 of Baltis, Ladakhis, Tartars 
 from Chinese Turkestan and 
 Tibetans, often accompanied 
 by tlieir wives, their flocks 
 and their herds, and leading 
 horses or yaks laden with 
 merchandise, crossing and 
 recrossing the Himalaya over 
 this, the only trade route 
 between Tibet and Kashgar 
 on one side and Kashmir, 
 Afghanistan and Persia on the 
 other. 
 
 Baltal stands 9,258 feet 
 above the sea leveP at the 
 foot of a perpendicular spur 
 of the Kanipatri group, which 
 dominates the Zoji La to 
 the south. Here the Sind valley bifurcates. The greater branch, 
 through which the Panjtarni torrent flows, runs south-east ; the other 
 is a short, steep gorge, which leads to the pass and carries on the general 
 trend of the Sind valley towards the east. Both are deep gorges with 
 precipitous sides much broken up by landslides. In the angle formed 
 by the meeting-place of the Panjtarni torrent with the stream that comes 
 down from the Zoji La. is a small plateau with a grove of sycamores, 
 birches, poplar and willow trees, mingled with several sorts of conifers. 
 
 NEAR BALTAL. 
 
 ' Hypsometric measurement calculated with tour stations of reference. 
 Baltal a height of 9,321 feet ; Oestreich 9,350 feet. 
 
 Schlagintweit gives
 
 The Sind \'alley. ci 
 
 Here stands a new, roomy bungalow, where caravans can dwell at ease, 
 to give time to the new-fallen snow either to be hardened by frost or to 
 fall in avalanches, before attempting the dangerous pass. 
 
 Mr. Baines had sent thirty Balti coolies from Dras to meet us, under 
 the guidance of the head Shikari Abdullah, so as to beat the path over 
 the snow on the hills and to help our Kashmiris with the loads. Thus 
 there were over 300 coolies gathered at Baltal and lodged partly in 
 
 THE BUNGALOW AT BALTAL. 
 
 huts around the bungalow and partly in the old bungalow on the other 
 bank of the torrent. They were all very busy plaiting themselves 
 straw shoes. From Sonamarg onward the Duke had smoked spectacles 
 distributed among those of the coolies who appeared to suffer from the 
 reverberation of the snow. We reviewed them again one by one, and 
 about half of them were provided with dark glasses for the journey of the 
 morrow. 
 
 All through the afternoon showers of fine snow kejit falling like 
 waterfalls off the rocky spur of Kanipatri in the rear of the bungalow. 
 In the clear evening light we could distinguish the deep walls of the 
 valleys furrowed with gulUes and chinmeys between sharp ridges ending 
 in spires, aiguilles and peaks, covered with virgin snow. From the 
 Panjtarni valley a dizzy ridge leads up to the fine peak of Ambarnath, 
 above 17,000 feet in height. It all seemed quite inaccessible, but it
 
 62 
 
 CMuipter IV. 
 
 must look very different in the summertime. Later in the evening 
 a great landsHde fell from a considerable height from the wall of the 
 Zoji La valley, and hurled itself down with a thundering sound, rolling 
 down earth, stones and snow, which spread out in a gigantic fan, covering 
 the path up to the pass for a long distance. The mountain wall above 
 is left scarred by a wide gash that stands out conspicuous amid the 
 spotless snows surrounding it. 
 
 THE MOUTH OI' THE ZOJI LA, FROM BALTAL. 
 
 We went to bed for a few hours only, for the ascent must be made 
 before the sun rises to melt the bonds of frost which hold the snow fast 
 upon the slopes.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ZOJI LA. 
 
 Ethnological and Commercial Importance. — The Gorge of Baltal. — The Pass in Summer. — 
 Geology. — The Gumber Valley. — The Metjuhoy (Glacier. — Minimurg. — The Plateau 
 of Mutajun. — Pandras. — The Last Gorges of the Valley. — The Dras Basin. — Fort and 
 Bungalow. — Population. — Farewell to Kashmir. 
 
 Zoji La is the Tibetan name 
 of a pass wMch has the greatest 
 historical and commercial im- 
 portance. It is 11,230 feet above 
 sea level, ^ and is the lowest point 
 in the Himalayan ridge between 
 the Indus valley and the vale of 
 Kashmir. From time immemorial 
 it has been the great trade route 
 between Chinese Turkestan and 
 Tibet on one hand, and India on 
 the other. It was by this gate 
 that the Sikhs invaded and con- 
 quered Ladakh and Baltistan in 
 the first half of the nineteenth 
 century. The telegraph connect- 
 ing Srinagar with Leh, the capital 
 of Ladakh, and Skardu, the capital of Baltistan, crosses the Zoji La. 
 Once a week all the year round the post rumier crosses it with his bag ; 
 but for five months at least it is quite blocked to beasts of burden, 
 horses or yaks, and it is often extremely dangerous, even if not absolutely 
 impracticable, for parties of coolies. Many a caravan has perished 
 there of cold and exhaustion, lost in the bewildering tunmlts of snow 
 
 • According to Burrard the height is 11,300 feet. Oestreich gives 11,319. Guillarmod, 
 owing evidently to a scribal error, calls it " au de.s.sus des WOO metres"' (about 17,000 feet) 
 (op. cit. pp. 75-80, and at foot of illustration on p. 79).
 
 (;4 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 which are common in winter and spring. Still more immerous are the 
 victims of the avalanches which pile up vast deposits of snow in the 
 gorge of Baltal. This snow often remains until late in the summer, 
 and occasionally does not entirely melt before the following autumn. 
 
 The crossing of the pass in April with a party of over 300 coolies was 
 an undertaking by no means free from anxiety. We left Baltal bungalow 
 on the 28th before dawn. The night was dark, the sky clouded, and 
 a fine rain was falling. The air was heavy and warmish, just the 
 
 ,4^ • -»^ 
 
 }m 
 
 >W»ll«M»H»»' 
 
 THE ZOJI LA. 
 
 weathei' for avalanches. We stopped for a few minutes at the old 
 bungalow beyond the torrent to see the last of the coolies ofT ; then 
 we started up the narrow gorge which leads to the pass. 
 
 On the short level at the foot of the steep ascent we got ahead of 
 nearly all the coolies, who were toihng through the soft snow, stopping 
 for breath every 200 yards. The sight was an indescribable one, weird 
 and fantastic as a scene in the wildest legend. As w-e plodded along the 
 track at the even gait of the mountaineer, our lanterns threw an unearthly 
 hght on the features of the coohes resting in long files, with the shape- 
 less loads upon the crutch at their backs, transforming them into strange
 
 Zdii La. 
 
 Co 
 
 hump-backed dwarfs. An immense length of black shadow stretched 
 behind them on the snow. The ceaseless murmur of voices and confused 
 shouting came to our ears from the farther groups, who moved restlessly 
 and dimly in the feeble light frorn the lanterns, like men lost and astray 
 in some dreadful gulf shut off on every side by towering cliffs. As for 
 the surroundings, we could hardly distinguish the faint glimmer of the 
 snow on the lower rocks. Higher up it melted altogether into the 
 sombre atmosphere, beneath the unrelieved blackness of the inky sky. 
 
 THE TOP OF THE PASS. 
 
 The way ascended straight up the gorge over the fallen av:ilanches, 
 with which it was filled up. The Shikari Abdullah led the way along 
 the steep track, which ran in zig-zags across the snow slope, and kept 
 urging us to quicken our steps, especially at points where big stones 
 and tell-tale lumps of hardened snow marked fresh falls from the over- 
 hanging cliffs. We followed in silence, breathing hard from the quick 
 measure of the pace, which was c[uite out of proportion to the gradient 
 of the climb, and keeping close together to make the most of the scanty 
 light of our two lanterns. 
 
 (9221) E
 
 66 
 
 (Uiaptor V. 
 
 This account must be difficult of belief to those who have crossed 
 the col in the summer months, when it is a pleasant trip to ride over 
 on the easy, clean-cut path which traverses the side of the valley well 
 above the rocks which overhang the right side of the gorge. 
 
 In two hours we reached the top. The steep ascent suddenly 
 stopped, and we entered a sort of corridor about 500 yards wide, full 
 of snow and walled in by mountains from 14,000 to 17,000 feet high — so 
 level, that we went on for about half a mile without noticing where the 
 
 THE rPPER CUMBER VALLEY. 
 
 water-shed came. When the snows are gone there are pleasant meadows 
 here, and in the middle a little lake fed by springs, which swell so high 
 during the melting of the snows as to overflow on both slopes (Roero 
 di Cortanze) ; but at low water in summer it has only one outlet, which 
 runs northward to form the source of the Gumber torrent. 
 
 These curious features have drawn the attention of geologists to 
 the Zoji La. Burrard and Hayden are of opinion that the indentation 
 was cut through the ridge by a prehistoric river. Oestreich finds in it 
 a proof of the progressive erosion of the Baltal gorge, accompanied 
 by the gradual withdrawal of the water-shed line. The Zoji La is, in 
 fact, often quoted as a conspicuous example of the type of erosion
 
 Zoji La. 07 
 
 known as " back-cutting." a process which may ultimately result in the 
 complete cutting through of a range, and concerning which I shall have 
 a few words to say farther on. 
 
 We reached the pass at dawn. Here the rain was replaced by sleet, 
 which during the night had deposited a layer of some four inches of ice 
 crystals on top of the old snow. The misty and hesitating dawTi was 
 followed by a glorious day, and the outhnes of the mountains grew clear 
 and hard against the perfect limpidity of the sky. 
 
 GOING DOWN TO Ml'TAJUX. 
 
 The level passage at the top of the pass runs some mile and a half 
 northward almost without a slope. Then it bends gently eastward 
 and widens out into the real Gumber valley, which is ample and level, 
 a perfect specimen of a round-bottomed valley. Full of snow as it now 
 was and altogether treeless, it had the appearance of a glacial valley. 
 A little lower down the thick floor of snow was broken through here 
 and there, leaving short reaches of the torrent exposed. The descent 
 is broken into low steps dividing level terraces, and the whole drop 
 is very small. Some four miles from the pass we cross under the foot of 
 the Metjuhoy glacier, which falls from the Kanipatri and ends not far 
 fi'om the path at an altitude of about 10,800 feet. A httle farther on, 
 on the ridge of the spur, is the bungalow of Minimurg. the highest in 
 
 (9221) r. -2
 
 68 ("hiipti'i- V. 
 
 the valley. Here we found nulk and eggs which Mr. Baines had 
 thoughtfully sent up for us. We rested about an hour, admiring the 
 northern glaciers of the Kanipatri group ; then we proceeded leisurely on 
 our way to the Mutajun bungalow, about four niiles farther down, which 
 makes a better division of the distance between Baltal and Dras. The 
 Duke prudently lost no time on the way, and kept far ahead of us all. 
 AVe paid for our lazy and intermittent march by having to go through 
 the soft snow exposed to the intense reverberation of the sun. which 
 gave a sense of unendurable heat, though the actual temperature was 
 about 24° F. 
 
 A succession of level bits and short descents brought us to a vast flat 
 reach of valley shrouded in a sheet of snow, and crossed by the telegraph 
 wire stretched on a straight line of posts which the track follows. ^ 
 
 The path led past the middle of the plain to a group of hovels, so low 
 that a cow had climbed on to the roof of one of them and stood gazing 
 disconsolately from her vantage point upon the heavy cloak of snow 
 covering the pastures. In the muddy square between the hovels 
 other cows and a pony, all extremely thin, wandered aimlessly. 
 A dozen natives, men and children, wretched, ragged and mud-covered, 
 watched our passage with indifference. Such is the village of Mutajun, 
 over 10,000 feet in altitude. A hundred yards farther on, beyond a 
 small torrent, stands the bungalow, which we reached with joy towards 
 2 o'clock, and found the Duke had got there two hours before us. Upon 
 a ridge 1,500 feet above us stands a little group of stunted birches. 
 These are the only trees in sight. The sharp eyes of the Shikari discovered 
 on the rocks of the nearer hills several ibexes, the chamois of the 
 Himalaya. We looked at them with interest. 
 
 All through the afternoon the coolies kept dropping in, weary with 
 the laborious day's march, and coming in numbers to ask for medicine 
 for headache, sUght sun-blindness and other trivial complaints. We all 
 agreed in estimating the march at 18 miles at least, notwithstanding 
 guides and route books, which give it as 15 miles. Owing to the deep 
 snow we left again before dawn on the following day, April 29th, so 
 
 ' III the wliole of the Guraber valley the telegraph line has been set up aecordinj; to the 
 usual rules with telegraph posts, insulators, etc., and must have been entirely rebuilt since 1902, 
 when Guillarmod found the wire " accroche a n'importe quoi, un tronc mort, une branche 
 d'arbre(?) — souvent mcme . . . pose sur la neige, ou reconvert par ello " (op. cit. p. 78). Only 
 at certain points of the Dras and Indus valleys did we find the wire merely tied to the posts 
 without insulators.
 
 Zoji La. 
 
 u9 
 
 as to make the most of the colder hours. We crossed the rest of the 
 
 plain of Mutajun and entered a long, winding narrow part of the valley, 
 
 where at several points at the foot of the rocks which reflect the heat 
 
 of the sun were bits of path quite free from snow. Again the valley grew 
 
 wider, and we passed the village 
 
 of Pandras, which appeared 
 
 to be uninhabited with the 
 
 exception of one young yak, 
 
 wandering in the empty alleys 
 
 between the houses. A little 
 
 hay from the preceding year 
 
 was still piled on the flat roofs 
 
 of the houses. 
 
 Next comes another long 
 defile, a series of narrow 
 gorges which mark the end 
 of the Gumber valley. The 
 
 snow grew gradually less. As we turned a corner we saw before us a 
 group of saddle-ponies, which had been brought by Mr. Baines to meet 
 the expedition. We mounted, and soon entered the great basin of Dras, a 
 wade plain surrounded by rocky mountains covered with snow to the very 
 foot, which gave it the imposing appearance of a high Alpine valley. 
 
 Torrents flow down on every side, cutting deep channels in the 
 
 alluvial soil of the plain, where they meet to form the river Dras. The 
 
 plain is dotted with springs and fountains. Along the foot of the 
 
 mountains stretch great alluvial banks, which rise to a great height 
 
 over the valley, reminding us of the karewas of the Kashmir plain. In 
 
 the very midst of the valley, conspicuous from all sides, stands an 
 
 isolated square fort, with towers at the corners. This is a relic of the 
 
 Sikh conquest. Only the outer waUs still stand, though partly 
 
 dilapidated, built out of round pebbles embedded in mud. The plain 
 
 is scattered with groups of houses, and other villages perch hke the 
 
 rocche of the Roman campagna upon the margins of the alluvial banks. 
 
 The houses are all flat-roofed, with thick stone walls the colour of the 
 
 soil and small windows like loopholes, few and far between. The 
 
 alluvial terraces with their level tops and their steep regular flanks, like 
 
 an escarpment, give the impression of huge earthworks and bastions. 
 
 The whole has the look of a gigantic fortification. 
 
 (9221) K :j
 
 70 
 
 C'lia])ter V. 
 
 The country is arid and treeless. A few hundred feet from the fort 
 stands a little group of poplar trees with a wall around it. Close by 
 are some half-dozen huts, among them the post and telegraph office 
 and the meteorological station. 
 
 The dak bungalow reminds one of a Swiss chalet, with the chimneys 
 in its roof and no verandah, obAnously built to protect rather from the 
 cold than from the heat. It stands a little way up on the left side of 
 
 
 THE FORT AT DKAS. 
 
 the valley, on a level open space. We reached it at about 10 o'clock 
 with appetites worthy of the excellent breakfast Mr. Baines had had 
 prepared for us. 
 
 After breakfast we came out to the open space before the bungalow 
 to wait for our coolies. Our arrival had been the signal for the gathering 
 together of all the natives of the place, and we were immediately struck 
 by the variety of types. The fact is that the population of Dras is a 
 mixture of Kashmiris, Baltis and Brokpas of the Dard stock, with 
 Ladakhis, who are Mongolians. Their chief occupation consists in acting 
 as porters to caravans which cross the Zoji La, as the resources of the 
 country are too scanty to maintain them. The crops are wretched, 
 in spite of the abundant natural irrigation of the valley, because the 
 altitude — 10,060 feet above sea level — causes extreme excesses of 
 climate : long, cold winters and summers with burning days and chilly
 
 Zoji I.,ji. 
 
 71 
 
 nights. The greatest source of wealth are the cattle, which flourish owing 
 to the abundance of fodder, consisting of a plant called prangos, that 
 grows for a great distance up the mountain sides and in sufficient 
 cjuantity to feed the cattle throughout the winter. 
 
 A couple of hours after our arrival the coolies began to come in. 
 The loads were now sorted out and once more counted. Then we 
 proceeded to the payment. Every cooHe got four rupees and four annas for 
 
 THE BUXGAIXJW. 
 
 his services from Crund, and had to return the metal counter and smoked 
 spectacles. A caravan of ponies was next formed and loaded with 
 120 of the packages, which were sent straight on, on the Skardu route. 
 A wintry wind blew all day. Only a few crows and magpies hopped 
 around the bungalow. 
 
 We were kept busy until late in the evening writing cits for the 
 officials, great and small, who had accompanied us hither. They all 
 wanted one, and begged for it with such insistence that we were finallv 
 obliged to establish hierarchical limits, beyond which we refused to 
 satisfy their greed, in order not to spend the night writing cits. This 
 was our final farewell to Kashmir. 
 
 (9221) 
 
 E 4
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE DRAS VALLEY. 
 
 The Contrast between the Kiishiiiir and tlie Trans-Hiniahiyan Region. — Padre Ippolito Desideri. 
 — Climate. — The Himalaya not a Water-shed. — Geological Theories. — Baltistan, 
 Ladakh, Astor and (Jilgit. — Character of the Dras Valley. — Karbu. — The Mongols of 
 the High Valley. — The Poverty of the People. — The Karal Bridge. — The Sand-Btorm.- 
 Confluence of the River Suru. — Olthingthang. ^ — Dispensary Work. — Anthropology of 
 the Baltis. — Current Tlieories and the Observations of K. von Ujfalvy. — Religion and 
 Lansruaffi'. — The Brokpas. — The Isolation of the Tribes. 
 
 Four days' maicli through valleys 
 and over mountain.s still buried in 
 winter snow had brought us to the 
 bare and arid basin of the river 
 Dras. The wintry interlude had 
 almost made us forget the fascinating 
 spectacle of the vale of Kashmir 
 in its spring blossom, and thus the 
 edge was taken oft" from the sur- 
 prising contrast between two regions 
 so wholly diverse from each other. 
 They feel this contrast more keenly 
 who cross the Zoji La in summer, 
 gazing to the very top of the pass 
 upon the green forests and rich pastures of the Sind valley, and then 
 loolving down on the other side upon the stony desert of Baltistan. There 
 is probably no other range of mountains upon the face of the earth whose 
 two slopes reveal features so absolutely opposed to one another. The 
 traveller has crossed the great northern barrier of India, and has 
 suddenly entered a country which is physically identical with Tibet and 
 Central Asia. 
 
 Padre Ippolito Desideri, an Italian missionary who crossed the Zoji 
 La on May 30th, 1715, describes the trans-Himalayan region in the 
 following words : " From the foot of this pass throughout the whole 
 extent of the nine months' march that it takes to get from here to China,
 
 The Dras \'allfv. 73 
 
 there is no fertility, no greenness or pleasantness in the land, nothing 
 but the absolute and horrible desolation of the Caucasian mountains, 
 which stretch all that way and which the geographers call dorsum orbis."^ 
 Padre Desideri went no farther than Leh, which is only fourteen or 
 fifteen marches from Zoji La ; but the " horrible desolation " of the 
 mountains stretches over the whole of Baltistan and the neighbouring 
 countries of Gilgit and Astor to the west and Ladakh to the south-east 
 — in other words, the whole of the region lying to the north of the western 
 Himalaya. 
 
 It is an enormous strip, over 300 miles broad, all of it above 
 7,000 feet high, and it seems distorted by a fearfid convulsion of the earth's 
 surface. It is covered by a complicated system of mountain ranges, 
 with peaks from 26,000 to 28,000 feet high, and includes immense 
 plateaus from 46 to 60 miles wide and from 15,000 to 17,000 feet above 
 sea level, as well as innumerable valleys and countless glaciers, some 
 of which are over 40 miles long. 
 
 The whole of this vast region is quite bare and without vegetation. 
 Few and far between are the groups of trees or bushes, the little grassy 
 hollows hidden away in the high valleys, or the small oases laboriously 
 created by the diligence of the natives. They are all too diminutive 
 to appear as more than dots in the iUimitable desert of rock, gravel 
 and sand. No doubt the lack of moisture in the atmosphere is the 
 cause of this extraordinary barrenness. The wall of the Himalayan 
 range stops and condenses on its southern side nearly the whole of the 
 moisture which the monsoon brings from the south-west, thus giving 
 rise to the startling contrast between the atmospheric precipitation of 
 the two slopes. Hence the singular phenomenon of the far lower snow- 
 level and the far lower point reached by the glaciers on the southern 
 slopes of the chain than on the northern slopes, notwithstanding the 
 higher temperature and the greater rapidity of melting brought about 
 by the southern exposure.- And not only is there such a contrast 
 
 ' See C. PuDfl, II Tibet, secondo la relazione del viaggio del Padre Ippolilo Desideri {1115- 
 1721). Mem. of the Ital. Geog. Soc. 1904. 
 
 ' R. Strachey (On the Physical Geography of the Provinces of Kutnaon and Gahrtcal, etc.. 
 Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 21, 1851, p. 57) has observed a ditferenco of more tlian 3,000 feet in the 
 lowest level of the snows, and one of more than 4,500 feet in the lowest limit reached by the 
 glaciers, between the southern and northern slopes of the Himalaya of Kumaun and Gahrwal. 
 F. Drew (op. cit.) found corresponding differences in the Western Himalaya ; S. J. Bi'KR.akd 
 (op. cit.) says that the snow line in the Punjab Himalaya is some 2,000 feet lower on the southern 
 than on the northern side.
 
 74 CliapttT \'l. 
 
 between the southern and noithern exposure on the main I'idge, })ut the 
 further you go behind the Himahiya the higher is the Hmit of the 
 glaciers. 1 The dryness of the climate is such that in the whole of the 
 trans-Himalayan region there are barely six inches of rainfall in the year. 
 Were it a plain it would be like the Sahara. Fortunately, however, the 
 highest ridges condense into snow whatever moisture escapes being 
 caught upon the Himalaya, so that, whenever the exposure and the 
 slope of the mountains allow it, neves and glaciers are formed which 
 permit the scanty population to support life in spite of their inhuman 
 surroundings. 
 
 The climate is always extreme. The winter is so severe that torrents 
 and rivers are covered with a thick layer of ice and form excellent roads, 
 far better than the primitive jiaths which wind along the mountain 
 sides. In summer the sun blazes with intolerable violence through the 
 dry atmosphere, though the temperature is by no means excessive. 
 The nights are very cool. 
 
 A single valley of vast length winds in deep serpentine curves through 
 the ranges and forms a connecting link among the chaos^ of valleys — 
 the high valley of the Indus, which runs through the whole region, with 
 a main trend from South-west to north-east, at a height of from 7,000 
 to 10,000 feet gathering every torrent, every brook, every river that 
 flows down from the springs, the snows and the glaciers throughout the 
 whole vast extent of the region. 
 
 Thus we have the singular fact that the chain of the Himalaya is 
 not a water-shed. Kashmir to the south-west. Baltistan and its 
 neighbouring provinces to the north-east, all belong to the same hydro- 
 graphic basin, that of the Indus. This lack of relation between the 
 orographic and the hydrographic scheme is a feature common to the 
 whole Himalaya. In other words, the Indus, the Bramaputra, and. in 
 fact, most of the great rivers of India, have their sources north of the 
 great chains, through which they cut their way in gorges which are the 
 grandest in the world. Between one range and another they flow through 
 long stretches of the intervening longitudinal vallevs, descending 
 gradually from one to the next until they reach the plain of India. The 
 Indus, between its sources in Tibet and its outlet into the Indian plain, 
 
 ' Sir J. D. Hooker, Hinmhynl Juiirnoh. etc. London li)05. Drew and Uunard also 
 mention tlie fact, which is plainly manifested by the total absence of glaciers throughout the vast 
 regions of Tibet, which reach or exceed a height of 17,000 or 18,000 fei't above sea level.
 
 Tlic Dras Valley. 75 
 
 flows some 1,100 miles between range and range of the western 
 Himalaya, with a total drop of 16,000 feet and an average drop of less 
 than three per 1,000. 
 
 Geologists have laboured to find an explanation of this seemingly 
 paradoxical phenomenon — namely, that the course of the rivers is not 
 determined by the mountain ranges. They usually base their theories 
 upon the geological fact that the chain of the Himalaya is a comparatively 
 recent formation. Tlie whole formidable upheaval which has created 
 the most gigantic bastion on the face of the eai'th appears to have 
 commenced only in the latter part of the tertiary period, and many 
 are of opinion that it is still going on. This upheaval has been neither 
 so swift nor so violent as to alter the main Unes of surface drainage 
 which were already in existence. The Himalayan rivers of our time 
 may therefore represent the ancient hydrogi-aphic system, which flowed 
 from north to south, having preserved their course by a process of gradual 
 erosion of their beds progressing contemporaneously with the upheaval 
 of the ranges between their sources and the Indian plain. In this way 
 the valleys would have grown gradually deeper while their side-walls 
 were rearing themselves up to the immense height which they have 
 attained. This is the theory of H. B. MedUcott and of Richthofeu.^ 
 The upheaval would have taken place in a series of long parallel folds, 
 giving rise to the longitudinal valleys. 
 
 R. D. Oldham has further suggested another special form of erosion 
 to explain the formation of certain cross valleys. He is of opinion 
 that a torrent by progressive erosion of its bed can eat away the bottom 
 of the gorge in which it runs to such a depth as gradually to cut actually 
 through the chain.- This process would go on with greater activity in 
 the gorges of the southern slopes of the mountains than in those on 
 the northern slopes, on account of the greater volume of water, owing 
 to the higher degree of atmospheric precipitation. Once the chain was 
 quite cut through the waters of the valley lying to the north of the 
 chain, at right angles to the newly-formed channel, would flow down 
 
 • Medlicott and Blasford, Gfohgy of India. 2iicl ed. Edited by R. D. Oldlinin. London 
 1893. 
 
 * See R. 1). Oldham's standaixl work. A Manual of the Geology of India. London 1901 ; 
 and, upon the specific problem of " back-cuttinc," The Rifer Vallei/s of the Himalayas. Jour. 
 Manchester Geog. Soc. 9, 1893. p. 112 ; and The Valleys of the HinuiUiyas. Geog. Jour. 30, 1907, 
 p. .512 ; also the work of K. Oestreich previously cittd, which dots not agree with Oldham's 
 theory.
 
 76 Cluiptev VI. 
 
 into the southern valley, which is always the lower of the two. In 
 this way the southern water courses would have gradually captured 
 the northern water's. 
 
 This brief account will suffice to show that the whole system of 
 Himalayan orohydrography is not a single conception subdivided into 
 two branches depending one upon the other, as is the case in the other 
 mountainous regions known to us. On the contrary, it consists of two 
 absolutely different systems. Hence any description of this region or 
 classification of its features, or even cartography, may, as has been 
 clearly demonstrated by Burrard, be done according to either of two 
 alternative plans, starting either from the hydrographic or the orographic 
 system. This duaUsm has caused considerable uncertainty and con- 
 fusion, because most of those who have described this region h;n'e based 
 their description indiscriminately now upon the orographic and again 
 upon the hydrographic data, without any definite plan. Burrard, on 
 the contrary, begins with a description of the orographic morphology, 
 giving the scheme of the ranges without taking into account the water- 
 courses ; and then he begins over again to describe the same region 
 according to the hydrographic basins and the river courses. 
 
 In this state of uncertainty of the whole question it is possible that 
 in the future geology may give the key to a rational classification of 
 the mountains. The observations made by the Italian expedition and 
 by the Longstaff expedition in the same summer certainly showed that 
 the geological structure of the high ranges is far less uniform and simple 
 than has been beheved up till now. 
 
 The region to the north of the western Himalaya comprises districts 
 which are quite distinct from one another, not merely owing to pohtical 
 frontiers, but because of differences in the anthropological types, 
 reUgions and customs of their inhabitants. South-westward, 
 wedged between Baltistan, Tibet and Kashmir, hes Ladakh, which 
 is in no wise distinguishable from Tibet, of which it was a proAdnce 
 prior to the Sikh conquest. Its inhabitants, like the rest of the 
 Tibetans, are Mongols, professing Llamaism and practising polyandry. 
 Bordering upon Ladakh to the north-east lies Baltistan or Little Tibet, 
 situated, roughly speaking, between 34° to 36° N. Lat. and 75° to 77° 
 E. Long., and inhabited by Mohammedans of the Shiite sect. 
 
 Baltistan and Ladakh are both administered by a high functionary 
 of Kashmir, the Wazir-i-Wazarat, who is resident at Leh, and upon
 
 TIk- Dras Vallev. 
 
 77 
 
 whom depend two Tehsildars, one at Kargil and the other at Skardii. 
 The British Government is represented in two districts by an EngUsh 
 official, whose headquarters are at Leh, and who is subordinate to the 
 Resident of Kashmir. To the west of Baltistan are the districts of 
 Astor and Gilgit, which march with Afghanistan and are inhabited^by 
 Dards. 
 
 THE DRAS VALLEY. 
 
 Our route now descends the Dras valley to its meeting with the 
 Indus, which latter it follows across Baltistan as far as Skardu. The 
 Dras and the Indus together form a semi-circle giving a diameter of 
 about 30 miles around a gigantic centre of upheaval, the table-land 
 of Deosai, 14,000 feet in altitude. The distance from the village 
 of Dras to the Indus is about 48 miles, with a drop of less than 
 1,500 feet. For the first 33 miles the route to Skardu is identical with 
 the route to Leh, capital of Ladakh. 
 
 We left Dras early in the morning of April 30th. The great basin 
 which feeds the river is closed at the lower end by a sort of natural 
 dam, through which the water has cut an outlet. This obstruction 
 crossed, we enter the Dras vaUey proper, which is at fii-st wide and open,
 
 78 C'liaptcr VI. 
 
 with a round and level bottom, but lower down becomes narrower and 
 gradually puts on the \'-shape. In fact, the valleys of the western 
 Himalaya are characteristically much narrower and more shut in in 
 their lower than their upper course. This feature was very clearly 
 marked in the Gumber valley, which we had just come down. Perhaps 
 the round bottom of the upper part is a sign that the high valley was 
 occupied by glaciers in the past, while the pointed bottom of the lower 
 part suggests the outlet cut by erosion of the river. This hypothesis 
 ought, however, to be supported by geological data, which would require 
 a search for specific glacier marks. 
 
 Throughout its whole length the valley is encumbered by huge fan- 
 shaped alluvial deposits or cones of detritus, which mark the mouth of 
 every tributary gorge, and in the intervals between these by immense 
 masses of detritus, which fill the valley bottom and come down in steep 
 falls from a considerable height on the mountain side. There is detritus 
 of every size, from fine sand to blocks of several cubic yards, composed 
 of granite of varying texture and of colour ranging from light grey to 
 nearly l)lack. Although still at low water the stream runs fiercely, 
 and its muddy ashen-grey wat(Ms rage in foaming eddies through the 
 generally deep and narrow bed which it has eaten out through a layer 
 of detritus often many yards deep. All these phenomena we shall see 
 repeated on a far greater scale in the Indus valley. 
 
 The whole country is barren, without a ])lade of grass. Only among 
 the stones along the river grow a few very thorny brambles not yet 
 beginning to bud. and a few isolated juniper bushes — Juniperus excelsa 
 — the only woody growth of all these desolate shores except where there 
 is artificial cultivation. It assumes such a twisted, stunted and 
 contorted aspect as scarcely to deserve the name of tree, even when 
 it has a thick tiuiik of many years' standing and numerous branches. 
 
 The valley runs eastward at first for 7 or 8 miles, and then turns 
 north-eastward. Some 14 miles from Dras the path leaves the left 
 side of the valley and crosses the river over a bridge built in two sections, 
 resting on a big boulder in the middle of the stream, and not in.spiring 
 great confidence by its appearance. We crossed it leading our ponies 
 over the beams, which shook and groaned under the weight. 
 
 The long day's march ended at Karbu bungalow, 21 miles from 
 Dras, in a narrow gorge of the valley. Beyond the brawhng torrent, 
 on the rocks of the steep left side of the valley, were a troop of ibexes,
 
 Tlic Dras Valley below Kartil
 
 IiniiH wof.od ('jUeV aBiG jil
 
 Tho Dras Vallev 
 
 79 
 
 which the Shikari Abdullah followed with hungry eyes, pointing them 
 out to us for several hours. All this upper part of the Dras valley, as 
 far as the place where the road to Leh branches off, is inhabited by a 
 mixed population. Among the coolies engaged at Dra.s and the people 
 we met on the road and in the villages and fields, the marked Mongol 
 types were numerous and perhaps in the majority, with their slanting 
 eyes, projecting cheek bones and hairless faces or thin, brLstly beards. 
 
 CANTII.KVKH BRIDCK OVF.R THE DRAS. 
 
 They had not the long pigtails of the Ladakhi, but they had preserved 
 many of his special forms of dress — the long coats open at the sides, 
 the caps with their large brim cut away on the foi-ehead and turned 
 up at the temples ; the socks of thick cloth or white felt, into which 
 are gathered the ends of the wide trousers ; and even here and there 
 a l)luo quilted coat. No doubt the cold of the high valley has influenced 
 these descendants of Tibetans to preserve the garments which are 
 suited to their freezing plateaus, whereas the mixture with the Baltis 
 and Kashmiris has made them forego other ethnological traits of purely 
 ornamental value, such as the pigtail.
 
 80 Chapter Vl. 
 
 The haste of our journey, our incomplete preparation and our 
 ignorance of the language prevented us from gathering more detailed 
 particulars. It is certain, as we shall see presently, that the real Baltis 
 show very different anthropological features. I have no doubt that 
 this predominance of Ladakhi traits in the upper Dras valley, forming 
 as it does the first impression of the traveller who comes from Kashmir 
 to Baltistan, has had its weight in the growth of the widely-spread 
 opinion that the Baltis are httle, if at all, different from the Ladakhis. 
 
 K,\RBU BUNGALOW. 
 
 As for the villages through which we pass after leaving Dras, they 
 are not only not to be compared with the prosperous and solidly-built 
 habitations of the Ladakhis, but not even to the inferior villages of 
 lower Baltistan. These Dras valley dwellings were tumble-down 
 hovels some six feet high, with walls built of stones ill put together, and 
 a flat roof of beaten earth, upon which four flat stones are placed with 
 their edges leaning one upon the next around the hole which serves as 
 a chimney. There are no windows, and only a low hole for a door. 
 Inside there is barely room to stand upright. The wretched appearance 
 of the inhabitants matches the squalor of their dwelUng-houses, and is 
 increased by their dirtiness, which is absolutely unimaginable. The 
 domestic animals are small in size hke the people, and share in the 
 general misery. The jionies have long shaggy hair, and are as thin as 
 skeletons, with hydropic paunches and knotty legs. The full-grown 
 sheep and goats seem only half developed. The cattle are partly of
 
 'I"^ 
 
 The Dias Valley. 81 
 
 the humped Indian kind, and partly hybrids between these and the yak, 
 known as zho. The cows are small, lean and ill-shaped ; the calves are 
 pitiful. The hard Hindu law enforced upon these Mohammedans forbids 
 under severe penalties the slaughter of cattle. Therefore the calves 
 are weaned before their time so as to continue to profit by the milk 
 of the cow. and they may be seen trying to browse upon the lean vegeta- 
 tion, pitifully staggering upon httle legs as yet scarcely strong enough 
 to carry them. 
 
 In the fields around the villages ragged peasants follow primitive 
 ploughs drawn by oxen. Behind comes the woman, breaking up the 
 clods with a small mattock. She is covered with a pile of luispeakable 
 rags, her face is hidden under a veritable layer of dirt, her head is 
 covered with a cloth, and she wears great earrings in her ears. None 
 of tlicm wears the characteristic headgear set with turquoises and silver 
 ornaments which adorns the head and falls down upon the back of the 
 women of Ladakh. They seem more careless of the presence of the 
 stranger than the women of the Indus. 
 
 Not far from Karbu the Dras receives ivoxn the left an important 
 confluent, the Shigar, not to be confounded with the other river of the 
 same name which falls into the Indus near Skardu. ' This tributary 
 of the Dras comes down from the Deosai plain. On the return jourBey 
 we crossed its sources. 
 
 Little by little the last traces of snow, which higher up occasionallv 
 lay along the road on the fringe of the avalanches, disappear altogether 
 and the scene becomes even more barren and desolate, for the snow 
 had seemed like a justification of the absence of vegetation. The right 
 bank of the valley, which the path follows, is absolutely bare and 
 parched. On the other side we saw several little cultivated oases. As 
 we descend further the ploughing gives way to the sowing, and the 
 fruit trees are putting forth their first blossom. Here and there shape- 
 less holes hollowed out in the alluvial deposit mark the passage of gold- 
 seekers, whose labours must have been unrewarded, for the works are 
 utterly abandoned. Near the path we observe primitive shelters — 
 
 ' The geographical noiiu'nclaturi' of Baltistan is still somewhat uncertain and irregular. 
 Not only arc there many homonyms, as in the case of the Shigar. l.-ut in many places the names 
 of rivers change witli each important confluent , or even at every bend of the .«ame valley. Further- 
 more, countries and places change their names without any obvious reason, which has occasionally 
 given rise to unfair charges of inaccuracy against the map of the Trigonometrical Survey of 
 India. 
 
 (9221) F
 
 82 
 
 CliJiDtor VI. 
 
 plain rough roofs, covering over some natural hollow of the earth and 
 forming a sort of den, neither high enough to stand nor wide enough 
 to lie in. They suffice, however, for the Baltis, who are in the habit 
 of sleeping in a squatting posture, with the head resting on the 
 knees. 
 
 About eight miles from Karbu, at the outlet of a narrow gorge of the 
 valley, we see before us to our great surprise the incredible apparition 
 of a real suspension bridge, built according to rule, with high pillars 
 of masonry supporting the sustaining cables, over 200 feet long and 
 10 feet wide. This piece of modern engineering stands in singular 
 contrast to the stony desert and the primitive roadway. 
 
 PLOUGHING UJ BALTISTAN. 
 
 The bridge marks an important bifurcation of the road. To go to 
 Skardu you cross the bridge. The other path continues along the right 
 hand of the Dras to its meeting with the Suru not far off, and then 
 proceeds along the latter river to Kargil, whence, after crossing various 
 ridges, it reaches the Indus valley at a higher point, and follows it up 
 to Leh, the capital of Ladakli. 
 
 Immediately beyond the bridge, on a sandy alluvial level encircled 
 in a wide bend of the river, stands the bungalow of Karal, very primitive 
 and too small to house the expedition. We therefore set up our tents 
 around it, tjang the ropes to big stones, for the pickets would not hold
 
 The Dras Vallev. 
 
 83 
 
 in the deep sand. The great tent of the Tehsildar of Kargil, Pandit 
 Sri, who escorted the Duke from Dras onward, seemed hke a palace 
 in comparison with ours. It consisted of a big square central chamber, 
 over which was stretched a fly, a sort of immense second roof, which 
 came down to the ground, forming two other little rooms on each side 
 of the centre one. Inside the ground was covered with rugs, and there 
 
 AN OASIS IN THE DBAS VALLEY. 
 
 were tables, chairs, etc., a simple but convenient outfit. Hardly had 
 we set up our camp when a violent wind arose, whirling clouds of sand, 
 which filled our noses, mouths and eyes, and lay in a thick layer over 
 everything. The tents flapped furiously in the wind, and offered no 
 protection against the fine dust, which penetrated our clothes, beds 
 and boxes. This was the first of a whole series of dry storms which 
 raged nearly ever}' afternoon. They generally lasted three or four 
 
 hours and ceased toward evening. 
 
 (9221) 
 
 F 2
 
 84 
 
 Chai)tc'r y\. 
 
 Almost opposite the camp the Dras was joined by the Sum, a large 
 river which flows from the south, bringing the waters produced l)y the 
 melting of the glaciers of the Nun Kun. Oestreich rightly observes 
 that it would be more correct to regard the Dras as a confluent of the 
 Suru. 
 
 A ragged, wretched, sickly-looking crowd was gathered upon the 
 rocks, and gazing at us quite motionless. Perhaps they came from 
 
 OUR CAMP UNDER THE APRICOTS AT OLTHIN-(lTHAN(;. 
 
 some village nestled high up among the neighbouring rocks, or possibly 
 from Karkitchu, the big village on the opposite bank of the Dras. We 
 paid and dismissed the ponies which we had brought from Dras ; and 
 fifty-eight others, come we knew not whence, were immediately loaded 
 and sent on before. 
 
 All through the night we heard our coolies coughing as they squatted 
 round the camp, ill-protected by their wretched woollens from the 
 cold, which went down to 42° F. Next morning we found them still 
 squatting in a circle at a respectful distance from the tents, in the same 
 posture in which we had left them the evening before. Perhaps they 
 had spent the whole night without moving. We had to enlist thirty- 
 eight extra coolies, as only twenty-one ponies were available.
 
 At Olthingthang
 
 i;(ij^ni(hl' I »/
 
 The Dras Vallev. 
 
 85 
 
 The valley, as it approaches its end, grows so narrow that there 
 is no room for the path at the bottom, and it has to wind up and down 
 the steep spurs. The temperature had risen considerably, and the sun 
 was hot even early in the morning, so that our third stage in the Dras 
 valley, though only 14 miles long, Avas fatiguing enough. The path 
 followed the left and steeper bank of the valley, where there is no level 
 ground suitable for cultivation. The opposite bank was dotted with 
 villages and gardens. 
 
 (;ROrP OF BOYS AT OI.THIXtJTriAXC. 
 
 A short distance fioin the outlet of the valley, sloping down the sides 
 of a spur 800 to 1,000 feet above the river, hes the big village of 
 Olthingthang. We passed through it up the steep stony path which 
 winds through the oasis. The houses have no upper story, and are 
 built in the usual way with stones and mud. They stand in groups 
 among trees and fields, and distributed one behind another up the 
 slope, in such a way that the flat roof of the house below forms the 
 terrace on the ground level of the one above. These roof terraces were 
 crowded with swarms of children and their elders, who watched the 
 passing of the expedition with lively comments. 
 
 The dak bungalow stood at the top of the village — dirty and 
 primitive, and only fit for coolies. But immediately above it was a 
 semi-circular terrace, shaded by the biaiuhes of two huge apricot trees 
 
 (0221) F 3
 
 8C 
 
 Chapter \'l. 
 
 in full bloom, beneath which ran a cool brook. We set up our tents 
 
 in the niidst of this scene of blossoming spring. 
 
 In the course of the afternoon we proceeded to hold a 
 
 dispensary and distribute medical advice. The whole population of 
 
 Olthingthang crowded thither, 
 
 more to enjoy the sight than to 
 
 be healed. The crowd gathered 
 
 in a sort of courtyard, perhaps a 
 
 house that had lost its roof, below 
 
 the camp ; and we liad the sick 
 
 brought up one by one to the 
 
 open space before the tents 
 
 after a first summary inquiry 
 
 into their complaints. Mr. Baines 
 
 translated my questions into 
 
 ^^ Trtlu for the Shikari, and he 
 
 fir" WU ^H / i .^s.JHH >^'^P6^^^<1 them in the Balti dialect 
 ^ *^ ^^ filfW^^^^ ^Q |.|^g patient. The answers 
 
 came back by the same devious 
 course, so that I was obliged to 
 put more trust in the objective 
 than the subjective symptoms of 
 disease. I was finally consulted 
 bv the Rajah of Karmang — Aman 
 Ali Shah — wlio was afflicted by a chronic dermatitis of the hands, and 
 who had come hither to pay his respects to the Duke. 
 
 This medical review gave us our first opportunity of studying at 
 close quarters a great number of natives. The population was entirely 
 Balti, and appeared to us all to be indubitably and markedly Aryan in 
 type. The Mongol types were the exception, and could be distinguished 
 at once by the marked contrast of their featui-es with those of the 
 majority. This first impression was confirmed throughout the journey, 
 in the course of which we came into close contact with thousands of 
 Baltis in the process of engaging and paying off the cooHes, in the 
 medical consultations, or among the crowds at the polo games and the 
 receptions given us by the Rajahs. I am unable to agree with the 
 unanimoas opinion to the opposite effect on the part of all the English 
 travellers who have written about Baltistan. 
 
 NATIVES OF OLTHINOTHAXC:.
 
 The Dras \'i 
 
 ilk'v 
 
 87 
 
 Roero di Cortanze is the only one among the older writers who 
 describes the Baltis as " of the Caucasian or white race, in contra- 
 distinction to the Ladakhis, who are Mongols and copper-coloured." 
 Vigne, one of the earliest visitors to the region, puts them down as a 
 mixed race, combining Mongol characteristics with the nobler featiu-es 
 of the Indian or Persian. Cunningham states explicitly that they are 
 a branch of the Mongol race, possessing its characteristics to a marked 
 
 OROrP OF SATnES FROM SHICAR. 
 
 degree, although shghtly modified by climatic conditions and by mixture 
 with the Indo-Caucasians of India. Drew likewise assimilates them 
 with the Ladakhis, shghtly modified by climatic influences ; while 
 Biddulph modifies the assertion of their Tartar type by admitting a 
 strong element of Aryan blood, owing to mixture with the Dards. In 
 the last edition of the Gazetteer of India the Baltis are described as of 
 common stock with the Ladakhis, and as Mongol in feature. Even 
 Dr. A. Neve, who Hves in Kashmir and has been many times in Baltistan, 
 confirms the Tibetan origin of the inhabitants. ^ 
 
 • O. Roero di Cort.inze, (;. T. Vigne, Sir A. Cuxxingham, F. Drew, opp. citt. ; Major J. 
 BlDDULrH, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh. Calcutta 1880; Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. \"I. 
 Kashmir. Calcutta 1908 ; A. Xeve, Picturesque Kashmir. London 1900. 
 
 (9221) F 4
 
 88 
 
 Cliaptor \'I. 
 
 All these opinions are based solely upon ocular impression. Not 
 one of these authors has rollected anthropological data to prove the 
 asserted kinship of the Baltis with the Ladakhis. If the reader will 
 compare Cuiniingham's description with the comparative study of the 
 
 Dards, Baltis and Ladakhis made 
 by T^jfalvy, the Hungarian anthro- 
 pologist, at a more recent date and 
 based upon scientific methods of 
 anthropomorphic investigation, he 
 will be able to draw his own con- 
 clusions as to the uncertainty of a 
 mere description of the features as 
 a basis for racial classification. 
 Cunningham asserts that, exce])t for 
 a few individual cases in the upper 
 classes, the Balti type is character- 
 isticallv Tartaro-Mongol. low in 
 stature, face wide, flat and squ;ue, 
 with projecting cheekbones, narrow 
 forehead, small, obUqiie, slit-like 
 eyes, broad flat nose with wide 
 nostrils, large, thick, projecting ears 
 with long lobes, large mouth, and 
 black, thick, usually curly haii-. I'jfalvy, on the other hand, describes 
 thom as clearly Aryan in type, of medium stature, low forehead, thick 
 and only slightly curved eyebrows, eyes set straight and close together, 
 cheekbones not projecting, nose long and straight, ears small and flat, 
 mouth of middle size with thick lips, chin oval, hair black, curly and 
 abundant, beard full, etc.^ 
 
 The important point, however, is that Ujfalvy corroborates his 
 statements with anthropometric measurements. He collected his 
 observations in Skardu, Shigar, Parkutta, Kharmang, Olthingthang, 
 Karkitchu and Dras, measuring also Baltis from other places. He 
 found that the Baltis had an average cephaUc index of 72 "35, which 
 is much nearer that of the Dards (73 62) than that of the Ladakhis (77). 
 I will not enter into any long repetition of figures, as I think the photo- 
 
 ' K. K. VON Ujfalvy. ,4h« ilem wesilirhf-n Hinmhiyn. I^ipsic 1884 ; and Les Aryens au 
 nord ei au sud de VHindon-Knitrh. Paris 1890. 
 
 A CHUPRASSI FROM ASKOLEY IN THE 
 
 BKAI.IIOII VALLEY.
 
 The Dras Vallev. 
 
 H'J 
 
 graphs of natives reproduced in this voKime and taken by Sella from 
 the purely artistic point of view, without any specific selection of types, 
 are sufficient to prove that the great majority of the Baltis correspond 
 more to Ujfalvy's description than to Cunningham's.^ 
 
 As to their origin, Ujfalvy considers them to be descendants of the 
 ancient Saci, who came from the north of the Tien Shan and mingled 
 later with the aborigines of Northern India, the Dards and tlie Tibetans. 
 Biddulph quotes a tradition which is still current in Skaidu and Rondu, 
 
 GROUP FROM 1"\KKI TTA IX TlIK INDUS VALI.EY. 
 
 to the effect that Baltistan was first inhabited by Dards of Aryan race, 
 and later invaded by Mongols, who l)ecame fused with tlie original 
 population. 
 
 The Balti dialect is Tibetan, and this is their only common grouiul 
 with the Ladakhis. The difference in customs is fundamental. 1 have 
 already mentioned that the Ladakhis, like all Tibetans, are Llamaists 
 and practice polyandry, while the Baltis are Mohannnedans and 
 polygamous. There can be no doubt as to the radical difference in 
 racial customs, ethics, family life and political institutions springing 
 from points of departure so diametrically opposed. 
 
 ' See also the groups of Baltis shown mi ]i]i. lOfi, 107^ IIS. 164, 192, etc.
 
 90 
 
 Cliapter \ I. 
 
 A very interesting ])oint is the circumstance that the Baltis belong 
 to the sect of Shiite Mohammedans, whereas all the neighbouring peoples 
 of Chinese Turkestan, Kashmir and Dardistan belong to the Sunnite 
 sect, like the rest of Islam in India. The Baltis thus form a little island 
 of Shiites surrounded on every side by Sunnites, Hindus and Buddhists. 
 Little is known as to the origin of their religious traditions. Cunningham 
 supposes that Islamism was introduced among them in the first half 
 
 BAI.TI FAMILY FROM SHICAR. 
 
 of the thirteenth century. Drew is of opinion that the four missionary 
 brothers of Kurasan, to whom legend attributes the conversion of 
 Baltistan, must have been Shiites. The Brahminic bas-reliefs carved 
 upon great slabs of stone near Dras, as well as the rehgious inscriptions 
 and Buddhist symbols inscribed here and there upon the rocks along 
 the path, certainly prove that the Baltis have passed through the same 
 rehgious phases as the rest of northern India. 
 
 In addition to the Baltis proper, who form the bulk of the population, 
 there are in Baltistan small settlements of a people known as Brokpas, 
 of Dard descent and Buddhist rehgion, whose idiom, customs and caste 
 are peculiar to then^selves. They are less civihzed than the Baltis, 
 who hold them in sHght regard ; and they lead a primitive hfe, mainly
 
 The Dras VallcN" 
 
 •ji 
 
 as shepherds of the high valleys, where the greater degree of moisture 
 allows of a small extent of pasture. We did not come into contact 
 with any of them. 
 
 The indulgence of the reader will forgive this long digression, whose 
 object has been to make clear how little we know, and how uncertain 
 is even that little, as to the origin, history, tradition, legend and even 
 ethnographical classification of a population so interesting, and showing 
 
 NATIVES OF ASKOLEY IN THE BRALDOH VALLEV. 
 
 such clear signs of strong external influence in the past, despite a geo- 
 graphical position so secluded, in a country so wild and inhospitable 
 that whole groups of villages are cut off from all communion with the 
 rest of the world during ten months of the year. The Balti race deserve 
 a high degree of esteem and goodwill. They are scrupidously honest, 
 mild of manners, gentle and good-tempered, naturally amenable to 
 discipline, capable of the hardest labour, incredibly temperate, happy 
 with very Uttle and invariably good-humoured.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE INDUS VALLEY. 
 
 Character. — (li'ological Chaos. — Stone-falls, Landslips. Dei)Osits and Erosions. — Alluvial 
 Cones. — Signs of Climatic Change. — The Tenipoi'ary Damming of the Valleys. — Great 
 Historical Floods. — Oases. — Irrigation Canal.s. — The Skardii Route. — The Formation 
 ot the Caravan. — The Order of thr Marches. — Saddle-ponies. — Coolies. — The Escort. — 
 Climate. — The Cam)). — Kashmiri Servants. — Camp Work. ConU and Kunsniiiah. 
 
 'I' HE striking peculiarities of the 
 Dras valley had made a stioiig 
 im])i'ession upon us. But not until 
 we reached the Indus valley did we 
 realize to the full the nature of this 
 land of desolation and sterility. The 
 gigantic scale of all the features does not grow upon one until after days 
 and days of sojourn in this strange scenery, because the perfect propor- 
 tions of the valleys and their enclosing hilLs keep the traveller under an 
 illusion as to their actual dimensions.
 
 'V\)v Indus \';illey. 03 
 
 111 the Alps one has the impression that everything has been moulded 
 ill a remote past, and reached once and for all a settled state. The 
 ancient gashes and scars are cloaked with a mantle of verdure which 
 hides the great wounds and mutilations left by prehistoric landshdes. 
 The rocks have been polished by the hand of time ; they are overgrown 
 with moss and hchens ; no ledge, no crevice, is without its plant life. 
 A rock-fall here, a landslip there, seems to matter as little as grains of 
 sand that slide down the dunes. 
 
 But in Baltistan the colossal forces of nature may be seen in active 
 operation. Geological evolution is proceeding with such o})vious plain- 
 ness that the traveller feels as though he were beholding a countrv in 
 a state of formation and witnessing the modelling of the earth's crust. 
 CHffs fall and mountains are disintegrated. The slow work of the 
 waters hollows out gorges and hews their walls into new shapes, almost 
 under one's eyes, with such activity and on such a scale that nothing 
 elsewhere can be compared with it. 
 
 The impressiveness of these geological forces is so great that the 
 barrenness of the earth seems on the whole quite justified, as if the 
 vegetation were only waiting for the earth to acquire a settled shape 
 before clothing it. Animal hfe appears to be Hmited to a few insects 
 and lizards, which are still in their winter sleep. The few species of 
 timid mammals remain in the high nullahs or valleys. Now and then 
 a brilliant jay or a few crows fly about the oases, and sometimes we see 
 a great vulture or hawk soaring high above the valley. 
 
 The whole land is one vast labyrinth of high, barren, desolate 
 mountain chains, of chffs spht and shattered in every direction, usually 
 precipitous ; overhanging valleys full of rocks and stones, pebbles and 
 sand ; detritus of all shapes and sizes hurled down in avalanches and 
 mingled with vast accumulations of alluvial deposit. The disintegration 
 is so continual and on so vast a scale that the general aspect of the 
 valleys must perforce change at many points every few years. Traces 
 of avalanches are everywhere visible, signs of ancient or recent cata- 
 clysms, boulders polished to a shining red-brown surface by time and 
 the action of water, lying alongside of huge blocks, whose clear-cut 
 fractures seem of yesterday, at the feet of rock walls torn with fresh 
 gashes. 
 
 Sir Martin Conway attiibutes this remarkable decay of the rocks 
 solely to climatic causes — drought and swift and extreme changes of
 
 94 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 temperature. But surely a great part must be played by the absolute 
 lack of any layer of vegetation which would protect the live rock from 
 the direct action of excessive heat or frost, and by absorbing the waters 
 to hinder them from bursting in sudden torrents down into the valleys. 
 
 The bed of the valleys alters its shape incessantly. T Unremittingly 
 the river gnaws, wears down and digs out its bed, and shifts, rolls and 
 
 THE IXDUS JUST BELOW THE MOUTH OF THE DKAS. 
 
 di'ags down millions of tons of mattei', which it deposits wherever the 
 current slackens above a narrow gorge or pile of boulders, only to move 
 them again once the obstacle is removed or cut thiough. 
 
 The lavers of detritus and sediment sometimes attain a thickness 
 of 1,000 feet or more. The sedimentary deposits are of every species 
 and variety : banks of the finest and purest clay, pebbles, agglomerates 
 of every variety and period. They usually take the form of terraces 
 cut steep down to the river. They are not, however, invariably at the 
 bottom of the vallev, the remains of ancient sedimentary deposits 
 sometimes cUnging to the walls up to a great height. Thomson found 
 cla)' deposits between 1,000 and 2,000 feet above the stream, as high 
 up as the brow of the chffs along the valley ; and Schlagintweit found
 
 TIr' Indus Valk'v. 
 
 95 
 
 deposits of pebbles and sand from 3,000 to 4,000 foet above the actual 
 level of the water. ^ Such deposits, as well as the places where the 
 rock walls have been gnawed away, hollowed out and cut by the water 
 into spherical cavities, afford clear proof that at one time the Indus 
 
 ALLUVIAL TERRACE AND STRETCH OF PATH BETWEEX KARMAXli AND TOLTI. 
 
 I'au at a far higher level than at present ; or rather, they point to an 
 uplifting of the whole region, while the river went on cutting its valley 
 by erosion and maintaining more or less the same level throughout. 
 
 The various levels of the alluvial deposits along the cliffs show that 
 the upheaval was not continuous, uninterrupted and regular. Oestreich 
 
 ' Tn. Thomson, Journey to the Karakoram Pux-t. Jour. lioy. (leog. Sac. 19, 1849, p. 25 ; 
 ScHLAGiNTWEiT, Joiir. Asiut. Sor. of Bengal 26, 1857 (cited by Burraixl).
 
 96 
 
 Chapter \'ll. 
 
 holds tliat the whole valley between Dras and Skardu was first cut 
 through, then filled up with detritus to about 600 feet above the present 
 level, and then once more dug out.^ According to him the present 
 valley would be a recent formation, and the river would be still actively 
 cutting its way. However this may be, the immense geological forces 
 have made of the upper Indus one of the longest and wildest valleys 
 on the face of the earth. 
 
 THE INDUS VAIJ.EY ABOVE KARMANO. 
 
 At first sight the huge sedimentary deposits, often divided into 
 strata, seem to indicate that the valley was once filled with a series of 
 lake basins. Sir A. Cunningham and Sir Martin Conway are of opinion 
 that such gigantic sedimentary formations can be explained in no other 
 way. Thomson had, however, already noted that this simple theory 
 would explain neither the extraordinary extension of the sediments — 
 which are to be found with unvarying characteristics throughout the 
 whole of the Indus valley — nor their immense thickness at various points, 
 
 (Godwin Austen also mentions this succession of phenomena. See Qeog. Jour. 26, 1905, 
 
 p. 245.
 
 The Indus Vallev. 
 
 97 
 
 nor their frequent appearance at the mouth of tributary valleys, 
 where they often take the form of deltas. Drew beUeves the origin 
 of the deposits to be fluvial, and very ingeniously explains the stratifica- 
 tion of the clay as caused by the periodic muddiiiess of the waters and 
 the increase in their volume during the melting of the snows, which 
 together give rise to deposits of fresh sand and mud upon the banks. 
 
 VIEW IN THE INDUS VALLEY — A SMALL OASIS. 
 
 Another objection to the lake hypothesis in the Indus valley Ues in 
 the fact that lakes are extremely rare throughout the Himalayan system. 
 Not only is there a complete absence of those lakes at the foot of the 
 mountains which are so typical a feature of our own Alps, but even in 
 the liigh valleys no considerable lakes are to be found. The frequent 
 stoppage of the river waters through temporary damming up of their 
 course has always been, in historic times, of short duration, a few months 
 at most, and could not have brought about any permanent modification 
 of the aspect of the valley. 
 
 The largest and thickest sedimentary terraces usually lie at the 
 mouth of tributary valleys and lateral gorges, and spread out in the 
 shape of alluvial fans. They range between a few hundred yards and 
 
 (9221) O
 
 98 Chaj)ter \'1I. 
 
 a few miles across, and form symmetrical cones, whose apex is frec^uently 
 a great height above the valley bottom, while the base towards the river 
 is cut vertically. They are usually bisected by the tributary water- 
 course. ^ 
 
 The formation of these huge deltas is certainly hard to explain by 
 the present climatic conditions of the region. The torrents which flow 
 down the valleys and lateral gorges are usually little more than rivulets, 
 and in many cases no longer flow across the delta, but between the latter 
 and the valley wall, on their way to the main stream. Furthermore, 
 the surface of the cones is usually sprinkled with numerous blocks and 
 rocks which have fallen from tlie mountain sides, often at a remote 
 period, since when it is e\adent that no new material has been deposited 
 so as even partially to cover up their bases. Lastly, nearly all the 
 deltas of any size are covered with cultivation, being, in fact, the only 
 inhabited parts of the valley, and the aspect of the villages and the 
 dimensions of the trees prove that from time immemorial there have been 
 no floods. 
 
 These facts seem to me to justify the hypothesis that the present 
 extreme lack of moisture was preceded by a period during which the 
 streams which flow through the tributary valleys were, at least during 
 a portion of the year, powerful torrents capable of carrying down great 
 masses of rock, earth, etc., in amount sufficient to form these great 
 alluvial cones. After all, it is not improbable that this belt between the 
 Himalaya and Central Asia may at one time have enjoyed a moister 
 climate than it does now, considering that a similar state of things 
 obtained in Central Asia itself, as the evidence gathered by all explorers 
 there goes to show. 
 
 I have already alluded to the temporary damming up of the vallevs. 
 Their depth and their trough-shaped bottom between the steep cUffs, 
 from which landslides and stone avalanches fall continually, make 
 them especially liable to this accident. But the strangest form of dam 
 is, W'ithout doubt, that produced by a glacier coming down out of a 
 tributary valley and projecting until it forms a dyke straight across the 
 main valley. The river, hemmed in by any one of these causes, 
 
 1 Sir M. Conway thinks that the angle of the slope of these fans proves that they are formed 
 by landslides and not by matter brought dowTi by the streams. His obser^'ations were made in 
 a portion of the Bunji valley between Astor and Gilgit, but I do not think the theory would 
 apply to the Indus valley, where the deltas show the typical characteristics of alluvial cones.
 
 The Iiuliis \'alk'v. 
 
 •M 
 
 naturally forms a temporary reservoir or lake. Sooner or later the 
 pressure of the water succeeds in undoing the dam and a devastating 
 flood bursts down into the valley, sweeping before it every trace of 
 villages or cultivated oases, and bringing niin down to the far-off plains 
 of India. 
 
 In 1841 a landslide in the deep 
 gorge of the Indus to the west of 
 Nanga Parbat almost entirely 
 dammed up the course of the river, 
 forming a lake about 40 miles long. 
 Six months later the dam gave way, 
 and the huge reservoir was emptied 
 in a single day, obliterating every 
 trace of hfe for 800 miles of valley. 
 At Attock, where the valley opens 
 into the Punjab plain, Gulab Singh's 
 Sikh army was encamped. The 
 fearful flood swept it away, destroy- 
 ing 500 men. 1 These catastrophes 
 are not confined to the Indus. 
 History records several similar 
 disasters proceeding from the same 
 causes in the other valleys of the 
 western Himalaya. - 
 
 In the midst of this geological 
 chaos, lost in the vast stony desert. 
 are himible human dwelhngs hidden 
 away in the recesses between the 
 ridges, sometimes so deeply secluded 
 among the tremendous precipices of 
 the gorge that the sun reaches them for one hour only in the twenty-four. 
 With ant-hke industrv the inhabitants have succeeded in wresting their 
 
 
 THE IXDUS BELOW T.VKKVTTA. 
 
 ' This disaster was for a long time attributed to the damming up of the Shyok valley, a 
 tributary of the Indus above Skardu (Sir A. Cunxln"CH.\m, op. cit.). Years subsequently Drew- 
 discovered the real cause. Beside Drew, D. Fraser has described this fearful inundation (see 
 The Marches of Hurulustan. London 1907) ; also Burrard, op. cit. 
 
 - One of the greatest was the destruction of the city of Bilaspur in 1762, through the sudden 
 giving way of a dam which had been formed in the river Sutlej by a landslide and had held up 
 against the water for forty days. ,,.,;. 
 
 (9221) o 2
 
 100 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 nurture from the terrific nature round them. They have caught every 
 trickle of water, every rivulet fed by high neve or glacier, and have 
 led it for miles through carefully constructed conduits to a point where 
 a little sloping ledge, or more often the surface of an alluvial delta, 
 permitted of irrigation and culture. All along the march down the 
 valley you can follow with your eye the tiny far-off water-course, 
 
 m. 
 
 THE INDUS VALLEY BELOW TOLTI. 
 
 gfadually and evenly descending along the rocky cliffs, always clearly 
 outUned by the thin green line of shrubs and herbs which follows its 
 precious course, and sometimes as it descends by veritable avenues of 
 willows or poplars which line its margins until it ends at the oasis. The 
 line of the little conduit never deviates as it crosses the steep side of 
 old landslides, precipitous chffs or transverse gorges. However small 
 the scale it is a true aqueduct, constructed with consummate skill 
 and needing ceaseless labour for its upkeep, frail and undefended as it is 
 among the mighty powers of ruin and destruction.
 
 Tlie Indus Vallev. 
 
 101 
 
 The oases are always cultivated in terraces, each of which contains 
 its little field surrounded with groups and rows of trees, among which 
 nestle the little reddish-brown cottages. In the midst of the appalling 
 desert, imder the scorching rays of the sun, the blossoming oasis with 
 its green shade seems like a miracle, a delight to the eyes of which it is 
 impossible to render the faintest idea in words. The pink and white 
 
 A t'ULTIVATEU ALIA'VIAL DELTA BELuW TAUKII'IA. 
 
 blossoms of the apricots gleam in the faint hght of dawn as if they were 
 covered with hoar-frost. Over them rise tender green willows and 
 slender poplars, just in their first bud and showing all tlie delicate 
 design of their branches. Between the trees are set hke emeralds small 
 fields where the green corn is now a few inches high. The soil is too 
 valuable to use for anything except corn. Only at the edge of the 
 meadows and on the brinks of the irrigation canals grows a little grass 
 mingled with tufts of pale iris leaves, whose buds do not yet show. The 
 skirts of the oasis end in a perfectly clean line, beyond which lies the 
 inimitable waste of stone. 
 
 (9221) o 3
 
 102 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 A povei'ty-strickoii people live upon the verge of starvation in these 
 gardens. Their neighbours in Ladakh have received from their religion 
 customs and social laws which prevent the increase of the population, 
 hence their agricultural resources suffice to give them relative plenty. 
 The Baltis, on the other hand, have increased through polygamy and 
 concubinage in number beyond all pioportion to the resources of the 
 
 BETWEEN KARMASG AND TOLTI. 
 
 country, for cultivation is strictly limited to the land which can be 
 brought under irrigation, and this area is not capable of extension. 
 Thus thev are obliged to emigrate in large numbers to Kashmir, Simla 
 and the Punjab in search of work and the means of subsistence. 
 
 From the meeting of the Dras and the Indus to Skardu is about 
 86 miles down the left bank of the river Indus, with a drop of about 
 1,500 feet. We covered the distance in six stages. The path was 
 everywhere in good condition, evidently lately repaired, so that it was 
 possible to ride the whole way. The Baltis are the best road-builders 
 in the western Himalaya, and have done a good share of the important
 
 The Tiuliis Vallev. 
 
 103 
 
 military roads which lead from Kashmir to the frontier posts of Chitral 
 and Afghanistan. 
 
 The path follows the winding course of the valley, now crossing 
 stretches of alluvial deposit or flats of fine sand in a wide part of the 
 valley bed, again creeping across the steep inclines formed by the fall 
 of detritus from the cliffs. At points where the valley narrows to a 
 
 THE I'ATII ACKOSS THE CLIFFS, BELOW GOL. 
 
 gorge between granite precipices it cHmbs to a great height to cross the 
 ridges or parri, as they call them here. At other times, to save the 
 wearying ups and downs, a path is made straight across the face of the 
 precipice. Beams are fixed in the ledges of the rocks and cross-beams 
 laid over and covered with stones and beaten earth. The bridge thus 
 formed is supported from beneath by slanting props between the rock 
 and the edge of the path. The whole forms a sort of ledge hung across 
 the precipitous rock wall above the swift waves of the Indus, which 
 hurries far below through its narrow bed. 
 
 (9221) o 4
 
 104 Chapter \'II. 
 
 In some places the sides of the valley are so steep that their crests 
 are not visible from our path in the bottom of the gorge. Huge pre- 
 cipitous ridges run down on each side and overlap each other, apparently 
 blocking the way before us. We have but rare and fleeting glimpses 
 of the higher chains whose rocky spurs enclose vis on every side. Only 
 as we toil across occasional openings of the valley, sinking at each step 
 into the fine sand, do we get a sight of the far-off snow-peaks. 
 
 In all this distance we do not find a single large confluent on the 
 left side of the valley. AVe miss the fresh springs, the little waterfalls 
 and torrents of our Alps. The torpid stream of the Indus, laden with 
 sand and nmd, rolls its grey waters lazily through open spaces and 
 around curves, where it spreads into a wide bed with beaches of snow- 
 white sand. Only in the narrow gorges does it flow rapidly with foaming 
 waves ; and it never forms real waterfalls except at one point a little 
 below Karmang, where it leaps down a step some 15 or 20 feet high. 
 This waterfall, which was discovered by Conway, is worthy of remark, 
 because it is such a rare phenomenon in either the small or the great 
 rivers of the Himalaya. The Indus is a great river, even now when the 
 melting of the snows has scarcely begun ; but it seems small in proportion 
 to the vast size of the basin from which it is fed — 103,823 square miles, 
 about the size of the whole of Italy, including her islands. The fact 
 helps us to realize the extreme dryness of the climate. 
 
 Our life in the Indus valley was systematically arranged. We were 
 called between five and half-past in the morning, and immediately 
 began our struggle with the coolies to prevent their snatching our beds 
 and baggage before they had been rolled up, closed and got ready. In 
 the great variety of packages formed by our complicated luggage there 
 were some which the coolies preferred to others, for though the weight 
 of all was approximately the same, the shape and dimensions of some 
 pieces made them handier for the back of the coolie or the pony. The 
 men would very nearly snatch the ecjuipment from our hands, so great 
 was their impatience, and we had to defend our possessions energetically. 
 Next, while the guides with the help of our Kashmiri bearers struck 
 and rolled up the tents, we would get a good English breakfast, prepared 
 by Mr. Baines' kansamah. 
 
 Soon after six everything was ready for the start. Negrotto was 
 paymaster of the caravan, and he would stand on the road with Mr. 
 Baines and Alexis Brocherel and deal out numbered counters to the
 
 ff^ 
 
 riie Indus Valley. 105 
 
 coolies and ponymen as they passed before him. It was necessary to 
 engage fresh coohes and ponies at nearly every stage, as they could not 
 leave the field labour of their villages for more than two or three days. 
 As soon as the last porter was off we would set out ourselves. Sella 
 usually left the camp before breakfast with his assistant Botta and 
 the coolies to carry the photographic and cinematographic apparatus. 
 In this way he got more time to photograph the scenery, and was able 
 to stop on the way with the cinematograph and catch the expedition 
 on the march at picturesque points of the road. 
 
 Part of the way we walked and part of the way we rode the forlorn- 
 looking ponies of the district, all dirty and covered with long shaggy 
 hair, but plucky and willing like their masters. The primitive saddles 
 were so uncomfortable that we usually preferred to walk, riding only 
 across long reaches of sand, or here and there for a rest on the march. 
 Between these impossible saddles and the pony's back goes the thick 
 folded namdah (a species of soft felt manufactured in Kashgar and 
 used throughout both sides of the Karakoram region), which had a 
 tendency to sUp out and drag saddle and rider with it. Anyone in- 
 tending to take a long journey through Baltistan should provide himself 
 with a good leather saddle in Srinagar. 
 
 The first half-hour of our march was always tiresome, until we had 
 passed and left behind the whole lot of coolies. The smell of these 
 natives is \mbearable, even in the open air, and if you get to leeward 
 of them will simply take your breath away, even at a distance of a 
 dozen or so yards. They do not, however, look sickly like the people 
 of the upper Dras valley, but seem robust, healthy and well fed. They 
 are born porters. Their step is nimble and short, even at the worst 
 parts of the path, and their halts are frequent and brief. They shave 
 a large strip in the middle of the head, from the forehead to beyond the 
 crown. The rest of the hair is allowed to grow long, and falls in curls 
 around the circular Balti cap. Those of a Semitic type remind one 
 of Polish rabbis ; those whose features are pure Aryan look Uke Florentine 
 pages of the Renaissance. Their clothes are of puttoo, originally 
 white, with wide trousers cut short above the knee, and a coat of the 
 same length, and each is provided with a blanket shawl of the same 
 wool, which he carries twisted round his waist or spread on his back 
 to relieve the pressure of the load. The latter is fixed to the shoulders 
 bv strong twisted cords of black and white goat's hair. All our parcels
 
 IOC 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 were so arranged that they could be tied on to the shoulders direct, 
 but when they carry their own goods the Baltis use conical baskets 
 of woven withes, very like those in use among our peasants of the 
 province of Biella. As on liis other expeditions, the Duke had brought 
 
 from Italy a number of the load- 
 carriers designed by the Sellas for 
 mountain portage, to carry the more 
 fragile part of the baggage, such 
 as the meteorological instruments, 
 photographic materials, etc. The 
 Baltis, however, were quite as firmly 
 set against innovations as our own 
 peasants, and insisted on tying both 
 load and load-carrier on to their 
 backs with cord in the usual 
 manner, instead of passing their 
 arms through the wide straps which 
 are so much easier for the shoulders 
 and collar-bones of the porter. 
 Before the end of the campaign, 
 however, Sella did manage to persuade a number of the coolies who 
 remained longer in our service of the advantage of the load-carriers, 
 and quite converted them to the system. 
 
 One by one we would pass ahead of the cooUes on the narrow path, 
 where they stood on one side to let us go by. At the least encourage- 
 ment gathered from our looks their faces would expand in a broad and 
 jovial grin. Bowed down with their heavy loads, streaming with sweat 
 under the burning sun, they are always ready for a laugh, and never look 
 hostile or ill-tempered. They were always scattered in Uttle groups over 
 very long stretches of the road, but the coolies who carried the treasure 
 kept together under the escort of a chuprassi. 
 
 They are a mild and timid people, quite incapable of any sort of 
 violence, noisy and talkative but not at all quarreLsome, even when 
 they are squabbling over the coveted pieces of luggage. You never 
 see them maltreat or beat their ponies. They encourage them with the 
 voice, they shove them or haul them in the worst bits of the road, but 
 they never beat them, even hghtly. When they have any request to 
 make they join their hands in a suppUant attitude or even kneel, yet 
 
 OROUP OF BALTIS.
 
 Tlic Indus Valley 
 
 107 
 
 they have none of the crawling seivility of the Kashmiri, and their 
 timidity does not seem Hke cowardice. 
 
 Our guides marched in a group, sometimes at the head of the 
 caravan, sometimes behind. To their care were entrusted the precious 
 mercury barometers, which were too fragile to be put into the hands of 
 such primitive people as the coolies. 
 
 COOIJES AT KARMAXC. 
 
 In less than an hour we would leave all the porters behind us and 
 find ourselves alone in the desolate valley. The foreguard of the 
 expedition was rather numerous. The Duke was invariably escorted 
 by the Shikari Abdullah, the Tehsildar of the district, and usually 
 by the local Rajah, who would bring with him one or two Jemadars 
 and Lambardars, a few chuprassis, and usually his minister or Wazir. 
 The high officials wear turbans of white muslin, the Lambardars 
 turbans of pashmitta, a goat's hair tissue which varies in quality and 
 is sometimes marvellously soft. We were also accompanied by the
 
 IDS Cliaj)tt'r VII. 
 
 tiffin-coolie, who carried the hiiuheon basket and who was selected for 
 liis running qualities, so that he could follow our ponies even when they 
 trotted. 
 
 The sun was very hot and the radiation so intense that we were forced 
 to wear our pith helmets, although the temperature was not above 
 60° to 68° F. The air was very dry, nearly always breezy, and with 
 a slight haze rather of dust than of moisture.* Nearly every afternoon 
 towards three o'clock a strong wind arose, blowing usually from the west 
 or south-west, and raising such clouds of fine sand that the atmosphere 
 would grow dark hke fog up to a very considerable height. 
 
 About ten o'clock we would stop for luncheon in some garden under 
 the shade of blossoming apricots, or else in one of the tiny groves of 
 poplar and willow enclosed in a square of wall, which you see now and 
 then on the way, and which are probably resting-places for the caravans 
 or to shelter the flocks and herds during the hot hours. I must here 
 mention the existence of a few great sohtary trees which you meet in 
 the very midst of the desert and which appear to be centuries old, usually 
 dead except for a branch or two, with the trunk half buried in the sand, 
 but far bigger than any of the trees to be seen in the cultivated oases. 
 Are they, perhaps, a solitary relic of some ancient settlement, driven 
 hence by the drying up of the water supply or buried by a flood or 
 crushed by a landslide ? 
 
 We usually came to the end of a stage before two o'clock, and set up 
 our camp. AVe had six tents in all, of the usual hght tropical type, 
 made of Willesden green canvas. These were for the four of us and 
 for our eight European guides and porters. Mr. Baines had another 
 tent. The Tehsiklar used to make his own arrangements apart. 
 Another group was formed by the kitchen and the little cotton tents 
 of the bearers. 
 
 Throughout India domestic service is divided among a large number 
 of servants whose functions are strictly specified and limited by caste 
 exigencies. We had four bearers — two for our tents, one for our guides 
 and one for the kitchen. They helped the coohes to set up and strike 
 
 ' See in the scientific appendix the tables of meteorological observations put together by 
 Professor Omodei from the data collected by the Duke. The relative humidity of the air, which 
 in the Sind valley had been -44, -88 and -89, came down to -"O, -71, -63 and -64 in the Dras 
 valley, and -07, -0.5, -0, -04, -22 and -16 in the Indus valley, with a tension of aqueous vapour 
 almost invariably below the unit.
 
 The- Tiiclus Yalk'V. 
 
 109 
 
 camp ; they waited on us at meals and brought us water to wash. 
 During the march they were seldom in sight or caUing distance, though 
 they carried the water flasks. But the moment we reached the stage 
 and sat down they would rush to our feet and proceed to massage our 
 legs energetically, a most excellent practice, which any cooUe can apply 
 if there is no bearer at hand. It is wise to prevent your private servants 
 
 PAYING THE COOLIES. 
 
 from interfering with your relations with the natives, for whenever 
 the Kashmiri can he takes advantage of the ignorance and timidity of 
 the Balti. 
 
 As soon as camp was set up every one would go about his own work. 
 The Duke would take the daily meteorological data and make com- 
 parative readings of the instruments, which were to be used later to 
 prove that the latter had not shown variations in the course of the 
 journey. He also gave daily attention to the general ordering of the 
 •expedition, checking the baggage, organizing the parties to be sent on 
 ahead, and supervising the hundred odd businesses of a caravan on
 
 110 Chaptor \'II. 
 
 the marcli. Vittorio Sella, when he had not .stopi)etl behhicl attiaeted 
 by some special beauty of landscape, would wander round the outskirts 
 of the camp seeking subjects for photography. Negrotto presided 
 over the payment of the coolies if it was one of the days when the old 
 ones had to be paid off and new engaged. 
 
 Shortly after our arrival sick people would begin to troop in from 
 the villages. The most common diseases were forms of chronic 
 dermatitis, mange and tinea. It is possibly from the prevalence of this 
 last that the custom has grown up of cauterizing babies' lieads on the 
 top and above the ears, which Ujfalvy observed and attributed to a 
 belief in the healing action of fire. Conjunctivitis is very common, as 
 well as chronic bronchial affections, all forms of disease due to dirt and 
 ))auperism. 1 The sick people were frequently brought to me by the 
 Rajah himself or his Wazir, with a certain degree of affectionate concern. 
 They ask for medical relief with anxious hope, and take the little tabloids 
 given them with superstitious reverence and the ingenuous trust of a 
 primitive people in the wisdom and power of the European. It is, 
 however, almost impossible to l)e of much assistance to them in so short 
 a sojourn. 
 
 Tea would gather us together again, and we would discuss witli the 
 Duke the future organization of the expedition when we should have 
 left the last village, and would depend on ourselves, our coolies and 
 our equipment for our only resources. 
 
 Meantime fowls, eggs, sheep and milk have been brought from the 
 village. The cook of the party is Ernesto Bareux, who is full of good- 
 will, attentive and painstaking. But no European can compete with 
 the Indian or Kashmiri cooks for camp cooking. They know how to 
 use their primitive utensils and to make the most of the monotonous 
 provisions to be found in the villages, cooking them in an attractive 
 and varied way. 
 
 Mr. Baines' Kashmiri kansaniah used to get luncheon for us all and 
 Bareux the dinner, so that our supplies and those of Mr. Baines were 
 more or less in common. This gave rise to an acute rivalry between 
 his native servants and ours. Not a pinch of salt lent by one culinary 
 
 ' In Tarkutta alone I have noted do\ni one case of old dislocation of the thigh, one of double 
 cataract, pterigion,gastro-intestinal helmcnthiasis with uncontrollable vomiting, Bright's disease, 
 two cases of heart disease, one of infantile paralysis — of which last disease I observed victims in 
 s?veral villages.
 
 The Tiidus Valley. ill 
 
 establishinont to the other but became a source of internal l)ickeiing, 
 and heaven knows what complications might have arisen between the 
 two camps had not our guides kept order through their prestige as 
 Europeans. 
 
 By nine o'clock we were all in bed. The temperature used to go down 
 to 41°-45° F. The Baltis squatted around fires on the outskirts of 
 the camp, and apparently remained awake the whole night. They 
 certainly chatted up to a very late hour, and many coughed without 
 interruption. We were roused of a morning by hearing the ponies 
 being got ready for a start, and greeting each addition to their own 
 company by noisy, gay and shrill neighing.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FROM OLTHINGTHANG TO SKARDU. 
 
 The Meeting of the Dras and the Indus. — Tarkutta. — The Castle of Karmang. — The First 
 Jhula Bridge. — Tolti. — Exchange of Tehsildars. — Parkutta. — Polo. — The Shyok 
 River. — Glacier Marks in the Indus Valley. — Gol. — The Skardu Basin. — Lacustrian and 
 Glacial Theories. — We enter the Balti Capital. — Official Visits. — The Forts of Skardu. 
 — The Polo Ground. — Arrangements and Contracts for the Expedition. 
 
 Ix the foregoing chapter I have 
 given a general account of the 
 IndiLs valley, which I will now 
 .supplement with a few notes of the 
 journey, so as to call attention to 
 the more interesting details of each 
 place and give a clearer idea of the 
 part of the valley through which 
 the expedition marched. 
 
 We entered the Indus valley on 
 the morning of May 3rd, after an 
 hour's march from Olthingthang. 
 The meeting of the rivers takes 
 place at the bottom of a precipitous 
 gorge, where the path has to cross a spur of granite 1 ,000 feet above the 
 level of the rivers. Beyond this spur it descends to the bank of the 
 Indus, which it follows for a short distance. Then it is again forced 
 to climb a high ridge of sedimentary deposit, from the top of which 
 a precipitous way leads to Tarkutta, a village built on an alluvial terrace 
 some 300 feet above the stream. We passed through the whole village, 
 which is shaded with walnut and apricot trees, and set up our camp at 
 the foot of the oasis, near a wide beach of very fine dove-coloured sand 
 on the bank of the Indus. It was so hot that we were tempted to bathe, 
 and to our great surprise found the water icy cold.
 
 Confluence of the Dras with the Indus
 
 . lil.iii idl ilJiv/ aiiiU uri)
 
 From ()ltliin<ithaii<i- to Skanlu. 
 
 113 
 
 On the following day we proceeded down the valley northward, 
 following the path up and down over ridges or across the face of pre- 
 cipices or over reaches of sand scattered with granite boulders. At one 
 point there is a veritable torrent of huge snow-white blocks, whose origin 
 is seen on glancing at the great white scar newly left exposed at the top 
 of the overhanging precipice. 
 
 KAKMANt; : TllK CASTLE AM) THE KAJAII S HOUSE. 
 
 Around a bend of the river we catch sight of a picturesque castle 
 standing high up on the opposite bank. The architecture is complex, 
 and although a part of the roof is gone, the building is not in ruins. This 
 is the old fort of Karmang, now no longer inhabited by the Rajah, w'ho 
 lives in a little house at the foot of the same rock, near the river. Around 
 his house is a garden containing other huts inhabited by his family and 
 dependents, while a little farther on is the village of Karmang, or Kartash, 
 with about 500 inhabitants. 
 
 (9221) H
 
 114 
 
 Chapter \'11I. 
 
 On our side of the river, nearly opposite the viUage, stands on a 
 sandy level the little dak bungalow, exactly like that of Karal in the 
 Dras valley. Upon the table in its single room were arranged plates 
 containing lilac blossoms and chupattis, the small round cakes which 
 are the bread of the region. This was an attention of the Rajah, who 
 had come as far as Olthingthang to meet us. Later he came over to 
 pay his official visit, accompanied by a ragged Wazir and bringing his 
 two little boys, whose features were so fine as to be almost effeminate. 
 
 THE BUNfJAUnV AT KAU.MAXG. 
 
 The village of Karmang communicates with the left bank of the 
 Indus and thence with the Skardu and Kashmir road by means of a 
 long rope bridge across the Indus. This was our first experience of 
 these strange bridges known as jhiila. They are to be found in every 
 part of the Himalaya, and are made either of canes fastened together 
 in bundles, or of cords, or of plaited grasses as in Sikkim, or of wathes 
 of willow or birch twisted into ropes, as in Baltistan and Tibet. While 
 the camp was being set up near the bungalow two of our party, impatient 
 to experience the sensations we had so often read of in books of Himalayan 
 travel, climbed up on the big pile of heavy stones which holds the ends
 
 From Oltliinjithan^- to Skarclu. 
 
 115 
 
 of the cables forming the treadway and balustrades of the bridge. 
 These three cables stretch across the river in parallel curves. One, 
 which is thicker than the others, hangs somewhat lower, and upon this 
 you walk, while the smaller cable.s are higher up and are arranged one 
 on each side to hold by with your hands. At intervals of about two yards 
 thin bands join the footway cable to the side-ropes, so that the whole 
 thing takes the shape of a sort of skeleton trough with a pointed bottom. 
 The two ropes which form the handrails are kept a certain distance 
 
 JHCLA BRIDUE AT K-UISLOJU. 
 
 apart by cross-bars fitted into them at intervals of 10 or 12 yards. The 
 only difficulty of crossing consists in climbing over these cross-bars, 
 and the greatest danger is of scratching your hands on the sharp points 
 of the birch twigs which project everywhere from the rough cables. 
 
 On the whole jhula bridges are simple, strong and cheap, and the 
 system might do good service in some of our own mountain valleys. 
 The crossing is really perfectly simple, and offers no difficulty as long 
 as the bridge is properly kept up and the cables taut. But when half 
 of the cross-bars are broken and the bridge sags in the middle owing 
 to the relaxing of the cables, the crossing may become most disagreeable, 
 
 (9221) n 2
 
 116 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 especially when the wind blows the whole thing about like a swing. 
 None of us ever suffered from giddiness even when the bridges were 
 hung very high over swift torrents. But you have a feeling as though 
 the bridge were being carried upstream and you with it. As a rule 
 from four to six people are able to cross at a time, but if the condition 
 of the cables is doubtful only two should try it at once. It is related 
 of the Greek hermitages among the high cliffs of Thessaly that the rope 
 which is used to pull people up to the threshold in a basket is never 
 
 BALTI BRIDUE MADE OF TWISTED BRANCHES. 
 
 changed until it breaks, and every one takes his chance. The same 
 tale is, of course, told of the jhula bridges, and Oriental inertia and 
 fataUsm may give it a semblance of truth. It is, however, somewhat 
 difficult to prove. 
 
 Near Karmang the valley narrows into a gorge, which Thomson 
 gives as the end of the basin of a great lake which, in his opinion, used 
 to reach from here as far as Rondu, a little below Skardu. From here 
 the valley slopes north-eastward in a wide curve round the foot of the 
 Deosai table-land, and now grows a little wider, notwithstanding a 
 number of narrow twists and bends into which it is forced by a series
 
 From ( )lthiiigtliang to Skardii. 
 
 ii; 
 
 of very steep rocky spurs. Just beyond one of these, which forms a 
 precipice overlianging the river, lies the great oasis of Tolti, which fills 
 the whole width of the tributary valley of Kusuro Cho. The green 
 glade thus shut in by steep mountain walls is covered with luxuriant 
 
 THE CAMP AT TOLTI. 
 
 vegetation, among which, in addition to the usual apricots, poplars 
 and willows, we noted walnut, pear, plane and mulberry trees, the last 
 festooned with fronds of grape-vine. 
 
 Our way led uphill through the large and prosperous village, and 
 we passed beyond the dak bungalow to the polo ground, which is about 
 
 (9221) I. 3
 
 118 
 
 Chapter VIIT. 
 
 300 feet long and 100 feet wide, running across the little valley and 
 surrounded by shady trees, quite at the top of the oasis. Here the 
 Duke was welcomed by the Rajah of the district, who resides at Parkutta, 
 our stage for the next day. He was a man in the prime of life, wearing 
 a round beard dved with henna, and swathed in white muslin with a big 
 
 ..2tnw^.<<BlkB»««SU^ju. 
 
 THE CROWD ON THE POLO CiKOUND AT TOLTI. 
 
 white turban on his head, like a Mullah. The Tehsildar of Skardu also 
 came to Tolti to meet the Duke, and the Kargil Tehsildar took his leave, 
 as we had reached the confines of his jurisdiction. 
 
 At the polo ground was gathered a crowd of several hundred people, 
 kept in bounds with unwonted severity by chuprassis. Throughout the 
 last two stages the wliole of the luggage had been carried on the backs 
 of coolies, but at Tolti we were again able to hire ponies. It was the 
 first place where the coolies seemed unwilling to enter into an engage- 
 ment. The Rajah and his high officials marched about in the crowd, 
 seized hold of the more refractory subjects and practically dragged
 
 From ()ltliiiij;tliaiig" to Skarclu. 
 
 119 
 
 them into our presence. Perhaps on some former occasion they had 
 been defrauded of their pay, because throughout our journey we always 
 found the natives rather anxious to be engaged. Some of the horses, 
 too, were recalcitrant, refused to be loaded, kicked and rolled. These 
 were, no doubt, polo ponies, who objected to the degradation of carrying 
 loads. 
 
 The afternoon was windy as usual, but the little valley was sheltered 
 by the hills and so green that we had neither sand nor dust, and enjoyed 
 
 A MOSQUE OF THE lllllH IXDUS VALLEY. 
 
 to the utmost the cool shade of the trees. Little rivulets ran all round 
 our camp, and their murmur mingled with the rusthng of the leaves 
 in the breeze. 
 
 The next stage was of about five and a half hours, and was more 
 diverse and entertaining than the preceding ones. During the second 
 half the way runs through several villages whose gardens join, forming 
 wide belts of vegetation, where the path is all in the shade. The houses 
 are better built, some of sun-baked bricks, and the occupants even 
 indulge in the luxury of a verandah. Now and again the windows 
 have carved wooden frames. There were a few mosques with flat roofs, 
 formed by long transverse beams resting upon uprights and outer walls 
 of masonry, now and then strengthened by incorporating the trunks 
 of trees, as in the houses of Srinagar. The eastern facade was adorned 
 with a portico. '' ' 
 
 (9221) II 4
 
 120 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 
 Parkutta is a big village standing over 300 feet above the river, built 
 upon both sides of a deep ravine cut through the thick alluvial deposit 
 by a torrent. As in Karmang the old palace of the Rajah stands upon 
 a high rock dominating the town. At the entrance of the village the 
 Duke was greeted by a musical band that marched before the caravan 
 as far as the polo ground, which is much larger than the one at Tolti. 
 The players squatted on their heels in the middle of the polo ground. 
 
 CEMETERY AT PARKUTTA. 
 
 Their instruments were drums, tambourines, horns and a gigantic 
 straight trumpet. A big crowd had gathered round, presenting a lively 
 spectacle. The front rows sqiiatted upon their heels, those behind 
 them stood up, and behind these others perched upon the wall enclosing 
 the ground. Some of the young children and boys wore crowns 
 of leaves. Later on they adorn themselves with flowers. We saw some 
 Baltis with black or dark hair and a fair beard or moustache. The whole 
 population spent a great part of the afternoon on the polo ground, 
 grouped around three sides of the square at a distance of some 50 yards 
 from us. They seemed to be naturally polite, respectful and orderly.
 
 From Oltliin^^thang to Skardu. 
 
 121 
 
 Hardly liad our tents been set up when the Duke received the official 
 visit of the Rajah, who was followed by a servant carrying his son and 
 heir, a child of four or five years old, dressed in bright colours and with 
 a turban cjuite out of proportion to his slender little neck. He was 
 very serious, and saluted us with amusing gravity, lifting his little hand 
 to his forehead. Servants brought dishes of cakes and two huge copper 
 teapots full of Balti tea, a sweetish greasy beverage, pale pink in 
 
 A l)AN( EK AT KVKKITTA. 
 
 colour. The orchestra then began to play again, and four dancers 
 whirled slowly round and round on their own axis, following the cadence 
 with the rliytlimic motions of the arms and head common to all Oriental 
 dancing. 
 
 At four o'clock in the afternoon a game of polo was organized in honour 
 of the Duke. Twelve players took part. In the excitement of the 
 game horses and men totally changed their aspect. It seems strange 
 that a game which requires so much pluck, strength and dexterity 
 should have been evolved among a people of timid disposition, and 
 in so many ways rough and primitive. It is, however, improbable
 
 122 
 
 Chapter \'I1I. 
 
 that polo was, as Ujfalvv would have us beheve, inveuted in Baltistan, 
 a country so rough that, with few exceptions, there is no place for 
 galloping outside the polo grounds themselves, which are levelled and 
 beaten on purpose. The origin of the game is certainly remote. It 
 seems to have been common at the court of the Mogols. Then the 
 tradition was lost in India, and only kept up at Manipur (on the con- 
 fines of Burma), in Baltistan, Ladakh and Gilgit. ^ The English of 
 
 A BAI.TI I'OLO CAME. 
 
 Calcutta learned the game in Manipur, and were so attracted by its 
 fine and manly quahties that they made it their own and have diffused 
 it throughout the world. 
 
 About eight miles below Parkutta the Indus meets one of its greatest 
 confluents, the river Shyok, which comes down from the Dapsang 
 table-land, gathering in its course of nearly 400 miles the waters of the 
 numberless glaciers which flow down the southern slopes of half the 
 Karakoram. As at Dras, the meeting of the waters takes place at the 
 
 ' Drew quotes an extract from the history of the Kiiiperor Manuel Coninenus, by Johannes 
 Cinnanuis, which was communicated to The Times of June 12th, 1874. by an anonymous 
 correspondent, showing that polo was played at Constantinople in the middle of the thirt<'enth 
 century and that the emperors themselves took part in it. Th. Thom.son (Jonr. lioij. Geog. Sor. 19, 
 1849, p. 25) says that the native name of the game is changan. Roero di Cortanze (op. cit.) 
 calls it atka ; while according to Ujfalvy poh means ball. Vigne has given us one of the best 
 descriptions of the game, while Drew goes minutely into the rules, (lie dimensions of the ground, 
 the arrangement of the teams, etc.
 
 From Olthingtluuig- to Skardu. 123 
 
 bottom of a narrow gorge. Oestreich has identified at a height of from 
 700 to 1,000 feet above the present level, on the walls of both valleys, 
 what he considers the remains of level terraces which marked the con- 
 fluence of these two rivers at an earUer period. 
 
 There are signs which indicate that the Shyok was at one time filled 
 up by a glacier which projected into the Indus valley, where it formed 
 a barrier some 1,000 feet in height, but did not, however, dam the 
 course of the river. This phenomenon can be seen to-day in the upper 
 Nubra valley, and we shall find a most clearly marked example in the 
 case of the Biafo glacier. 
 
 The whole of this region is still very Httle known, and the data we 
 possess regarding its glacial history, as well as all other questions 
 concerning the Indus basin, are so incomplete as to be hopelessly insufficient 
 to support any general theory. As early as 1847 Thomson ol)served 
 that the he of the loose rocks and detritus at the mouth of the gorges 
 and lateral valleys suggested a glacial origin. Conway identified them 
 more explicitly as loose boulders and moraine residuum. Oestreich 
 beheves that the Indus valley itself was never occupied by a glacier, 
 but only the tributary valleys.^ 
 
 In fact, geologists in general seem to hold that the Himalayan region 
 has ]iever been the scene of periods of " Inlandeis " (hke Greenland, 
 Europe and North America), nor of large " pedemontane " glaciers 
 (such as the Malaspina glacier in Alaska, and the former glaciers on the 
 northern slopes of the Alps) ; but has merely witnessed periods of very 
 considerable expansion of the glaciers in the mountains themselves, 
 such as took place in the valley of the Po, where only the largest glaciers 
 succeeded in emerging from the valleys as far as the edge of the plain. 
 Godwin Austen is of this opinion, and cites indications of two distinct 
 glacial periods, separated by an interval of milder chmate. Strachey 
 and MedUcott hold similar views. ^ Ellsworth Huntingdon counts five 
 periods of moist and cold climate, separated by interglacial epochs of 
 dry and warm climate, succeeding each other up to a recent period ; but 
 he calls the former periods -fluvial instead of glacial, because they are 
 distinguished by increase in the rivers rather than by any extensive 
 
 1 T. Thomson, Western Himalaya and Tibet. London 1852 ; 8ik W. .M. Conwav. op. cit. : 
 Oestreich, op. cit. 
 
 ' Lieut. -Col. Godwin Austen, Proc. of the Geog. Section uf the British Assoc, {in Proc. Hoy. 
 Oeog. Soc. N.S. 5, 1883, p. 610) : Sir John Strachey, India. London 1888; Medlicott and 
 Blanford. op. cit.
 
 124 Chapter \'III. 
 
 filling up of the valleys by glaciers. ^ R. D. Oldham mentions only 
 three periods of "glacial extension."- I might mention here that 
 Schlagintweit attributes the diminution of the glaciers to the deep 
 cutting of the valleys and the consequent formation of wide surfaces, 
 which, when heated by the sun, would give rise to ascending currents 
 of hot air. * 
 
 The volume of the river Indus is nearly doubled by its meeting 
 with the Shyok, yet owing to the narrowing of the main valley below 
 the meeting-point it seems hardly increased, as it cannot expand in the 
 narrow gorge, but only runs deeper. Colonel Montgomerie observed 
 the same lack of apparent increase in the Indus at its juncture both 
 with the Dras and with the Zaskar near Leh. It was in this portion 
 of the valley that we found the largest deposits of clay, quite pure or 
 mingled with a few stones. '^ No fossils were found by which it would 
 be possible to date the deposits. 
 
 In the wide bit of valley which follows after the gorges of Shyok 
 lies the oasis of Gol. We reached it by a long avenue of big willow 
 trees buried half-way up their trunks in sand. Immediately behind 
 the lines of trees crops had been sown in the midst of the sand. It 
 seems as though the sprouting wheat must be buried at the first gust 
 of wind, and one wonders how it can ever reach maturity. This is 
 possibly a means of winning new soil for cultivation, but it gives the 
 impression rather of gradual encroachment of the desert on the oasis, 
 such as occurs in many places in central India. 
 
 On May 8th a stage of 21 miles brought us to Skardu. We struck 
 camp at Gol at half-past three in the morning by moonlight, and were 
 soon on the road. Little by little the valley grew wider and more open. 
 The path ran along the bottom in deep sand, where the ponies were a 
 great resource. 
 
 ' Ellsworth Huntingdon, The Vale of Kashmir. Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc. 38, 1896. p. 657 ; 
 and The Pulse of Asia. London 1897. 
 
 * R. D. Oldham, Note on the Glariation and History of the Sind Valley, Kashmir. Her. Oeol 
 Sun: of India, 31, 1904, p. 142. 
 
 ' Schlagintweit, Jour. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, 26, 1857. 
 
 * At many points, especially near the river and on expanses of clay recently abandoned by 
 the water, I have noticed that the sand was quite covered with a white eflSorescence like hoar- 
 frost. This phenomenon seems widely diffused throughout the region. I met with it in the 
 Shigar and Braldoh valleys. Chemical analysis proves it to be merely carbonate of lime (calcite). 
 Thomson (op. cit.) collected apparently similar efflorescences in Tibet, on the margins of springs, 
 but there the substance was sesqui -carbonate of soda.
 
 Polo at raikutta
 
 From 01tliin<j:thaii<>; to Skardii. 
 
 125 
 
 About half-way, some 10 miles below Gol, the valley takes a sharp 
 turn to the south and then bears to the west, becoming wider and wider 
 until it forms a great plain. This is the table-land of Skardu, about 
 20 miles long by 5 miles wide, and covered with sand, which hes in long 
 parallel waves or low dunes as in great deserts. The Indus winds its 
 tortuous course through the plain between high banks of sand [and 
 deposit. 
 
 MHBV/.'^ . .jr.< d<71 T" JM VBH 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 SastMWy 
 
 
 1 '«l«a,i: uses 1 
 
 "^ A 
 
 i_. ' 
 
 MOSQUE IX THE INDUS VALLEY. 
 
 The view over the plain to the far-off chains of mountains on the 
 horizon appears vast indeed after the long journey between narrow 
 valley walls. Northward above the spur which divides us from the 
 Shigar valley we catch a glimpse of the snowy peaks of the Mango Gusor 
 range, 20,633 feet high. Westward and southward the level sand seems 
 to run to the feet of a great chain of snow peaks which rise 10,000 feet 
 above the plain. 
 
 It is in this plain that the Shigar river, fed by some of the greatest 
 glaciers in the world, beside numberless smaller ones, meets the Indus. 
 There is much to interest both geographer and geologist. Oestreich 
 claims that the origin of the plain is techtonic, and not to be attributed
 
 11' t; 
 
 duipter Vlir. 
 
 to erosion. On this hypothesis the basin would be primitive, and by 
 its formation would have determined the course and the meeting of 
 the Indus and the Shigar. 
 
 In the middle of the plain rises a huge round-backed rock, over 
 1,000 feet high, which looks Uke some strange monster crouching upon 
 the sand. On top of it Colonel Godwin Austen thought that he could 
 detect stratified lake deposits, which, together with other indications, 
 would go to prove that before the glacial period the basin was occupied 
 
 THE LSDIS ABOVE SKARDU, WITH MAN-GO OUSOR IN THE BACKGROUND. 
 
 by a lake up to a great height. Schlagintweit was also of opinion that 
 the sedimentary deposits which are found at a great height throughout 
 the valley had been formed by an ancient lake.^ As in the case of the 
 Kashmir basin and other parts of the Indus valley, so also in the case 
 of the Skardu plain the lacustrian theory has gradually lost groimd. 
 On the other hand, Godwin Austen's observations as to the undoubted 
 traces of glacier action over this plain in the remote past have been 
 strengthened and amphfied by all subsequent geologists. 
 
 The displacements and steep angles noticed in the sedimentary 
 strata (Drew), as well as the rounded surfaces of the rocks protruding 
 
 ' Lieut. -Col. Godwin Austen, The Glaciers of the Mustagh Range. Jour, of the Roy. Geog. 
 Soc. 34, 1864, p. 19 ; H. von Sciy.AGiNTw-Err, op. cit.
 
 Fi-om Dltliiiij'-tlianir to Skardu. 
 
 127 
 
 above their level, are attributed to the pressure and friction of glaciers, 
 while the deposits on the rock of Skardu have been recognized as 
 morenic in character. The early hypothesis which placed the sources 
 of these glaciers in the mountains to the south of the plain has been 
 replaced by Lydekker's theory, derived from the glacier traces in the 
 Shigar valley and accepted by Conway and Oestreich, to the effect 
 that a gigantic glacier projected from the mouth of the Shigar valley 
 so as to cover the whole plain. 
 
 THE BASIX AND ROCK OF SK-VBDU. 
 
 Five miles above Skardu, at a point where a projecting spur runs 
 down to the river, a little fort stands across the path, and we pass 
 through a vaulted corridor of it, so low as to oblige us to dismount. 
 A little farther on a bend of the river Indus quite cuts off the way. 
 We have to go down the steep alluvial bank to the level of the stream, 
 and follow its curve along an avenue of gnarled and twisted old willows, 
 whence we ascend again to the plain. Here at the top of the ascent 
 the Duke was received by the Rajah of Skardu and his brothers, accom- 
 panied by a suite of dignitaries, a numerous orchestra and a great 
 crowd. Salaams were exchanged, and we formed into a long procession, 
 preceded by the band. With all this pomp we walked for over a mile,
 
 1>S 
 
 Chapter \III. 
 
 flanked by the crowd on either hand, and at about half-past eleven we 
 reached the bungalow of the civil engineer, who had put it at the 
 disposal of the Duke in his absence. The guides were lodged in one of 
 the numerous buildings of the dak bungalow, a huge place with separate 
 buildings for servants, kitchens, etc. 
 
 THE OLD AND THE NEW lORT AT SKARDU. 
 
 The wide verandah of the bungalow was quickly turned into a 
 rece])tion room. The Rajah, the Tehsildar and the chief merchants 
 of Skardu paid ceremonious visits to the Duke, followed by servants 
 bringing all sorts of delicacies, such as sweet almonds, dried apricots, 
 raisins, cakes and, above all, a wealth of fresh vegetables such as we 
 had not seen since we left Srinagar. 
 
 Our own quarters and the neighbouring group of dak bungalows 
 stand to the east of the town, which stretches between the rock of 
 Skardu and the base of the mountains, with straggling suburbs scattered 
 through the plain as far as the villages which lie at the very foot of 
 the mountains. 
 
 To the south of Skardu we observed a curious wall stretching across 
 the mouth of a tributary valley, so perfectly regular as to give the 
 impression of an artificial dam. It is really a moraine, which closes the 
 entrance into the Sutpa valley, thus forming a lake three-quarters of a
 
 Knmi Oltliiiijitlumji- to Skardu. 129 
 
 mile long, which Ocstreich notes as the only example in the whole i-egion 
 of a lake of glacial formation. 
 
 Upon the detached rock between Skardu and the Indus stands an 
 ancient fort built about 1610 by All Sher, the first of the dynasty of 
 independent Mohammedan chiefs which came to an end when Ahmed 
 Shah was conquered and dethroned by the Sikhs in 1840. The fort 
 is now abandoned, and another was built by the Sikhs at the foot of 
 the rock, on the verge of the plain. 
 
 The legend of Alexander the Great, which is so living throughout 
 central Asia, has penetrated even to this remote spot, and tells us that 
 Skardu is a mere corruption of Iskandaria, or city of Alexander. The 
 tradition is, however, quite baseless. It is true that early traveller's 
 called the town Iskardo. but according to Thomson the real Tibetan 
 name is Skardo or Kardo. The Baltis are unable to pronounce the 
 hard .■>■ followed by a consonant at the beginning of a word, and 
 always prefix an i in the case of English words beginning in this 
 manner. 
 
 The place seenLS to have been far more prosperous and civilized 
 in the past than at the present day. Thomson, who made a long stay 
 there, spending the whole winter in 1874, found ruins of buildings 
 constructed of cjuarried stone, marble fountains, hanging gardens, 
 aqueducts, etc. Ujfalvy collected ancient household utensils worked 
 with the finest art. To-day the whole town, with the exception of a 
 small nucleus, which includes the wretched bazar, lies straggling over 
 the plain in small groups of huts, forming Uttle islands of cultivation 
 dotted at random over the desert. There is a great variety of fruit 
 trees, now already past blossom and covered with leaves, and all sorts 
 of cereals and vegetables. 
 
 The houses are, for the most part, two stories high. The lower story 
 is built of rough stones and mud, about nine feet high, and is used for 
 stabling and to live in during the long severe winter. The upper floor 
 is of rough basket-work plastered over with mud, or even of wood, and 
 is usually smaller than the ground floor, so as to leave part of the roof 
 of the latter for a terrace, which is used as a threshing-floor and granary. 
 Skardu has also a small number of houses inhabited by the upper class, 
 constructed as in other Oriental cities with walls plastered with lime. 
 They have no windows, and but one door, which leads into the iimer 
 court, upon which the roonLs and verandahs open. 
 
 (9221) I
 
 130 
 
 Chapter \'I1I. 
 
 The lialf-day we spent at Skardu passed very quickly, for we had 
 hard work to do. First, there was the usual inspection and sorting 
 of baggage, cooUes to pay oft' and new ones to engage. Next the Duke 
 sent ahead 147 loads to Shigar. Then we laid in supplies in the bazar 
 — tea and sugar, salt and tobacco, needles and thread and coloured 
 cotton handkerchiefs, all to be kept for the coohes who were to be with 
 us in the high region. In the bazar we saw a few stray dogs. In the 
 other towns of Baltistan we had found none at all, W'hether from the 
 
 TYPICAL BALTI HOUSE. 
 
 Mohammedan dishke of dogs or because the earth supphes food in so 
 niggardly a measure to man we were unable to make out. 
 
 The Duke made the necessary arrangements to have the meteoro- 
 logical observations taken in Skardu three times a day through the 
 period of the expedition, and also organized our postal service. The 
 Government telegraph and post runners do not go beyond Skardu, but 
 we were to remain in communication with our homes through special 
 runners engaged by the Duke ; they performed their service with 
 marvellous exactitude up to our very farthest post on the Karakoram 
 glaciers. 
 
 At five o'clock we went to see the polo match got up in honour of the 
 Duke. The polo ground is very large, and Ues on a flat natural terrace
 
 From Olthingthanj:^ to Skardu. 
 
 131 
 
 to the west of the city, overlooking the great sandy plain and the 
 splendid amphitheatre of snowy ranges, between which the great Shigar 
 valley cuts a wide trench northward. On one side is a high covered 
 stand, at the foot of which the orchestra played incessantly. All round 
 was the festive crowd, diversified by the khaki uniforms of the soldiers 
 and the white, pink or blue turbans of the important personages of 
 the place. The polo players were sixteen in number, all dressed in 
 white. The Rajah was a first-rate horseman, following and hitting the 
 ball very cleverly with his polo mallet, supported by his own side, with 
 
 THE RAJAH S POLO TEAM AT SKARDU. 
 
 their great white cloaks fluttering in the sunshine. It was really a fine 
 sight. After the match we went back to our work, and the polo giound 
 was invaded by boys, who continued the game on foot, practising hand 
 and eve for the difficult art. 
 
 The Duke deposited with a Skardu merchant the portion of our 
 provisions which would be needed for the return journey, also a con- 
 siderable bulk of money. It is a long, tiresome business to count all 
 this small change. In our few free minutes we wrote letters and 
 telegrams. At about eleven o'clock, after a long hea\^' day of more than 
 eighteen hours, we went to bed tired out, but glad to have got through 
 the first big stage of our journey. We had covered about 225 miles 
 in eleven days among the chains of the western Himalaya. 
 
 (9221) 1 2
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 FROM SKARDU TO ASKOLEY. 
 THE SHIGAR AND BRALDOH VALLEYS. 
 
 Crossing tin- Indus. — The Oasis of Shigar. — The Mo.sque and the Village. — Presents, Polo, 
 Concerts and Dancing. — The Shigar Valley. — The Meeting of the Basha and the Bialdoli. 
 
 — Glacial History. — The Chain of Mango (lusor and Koser (Iiinge. — The B"' Chain. — 
 The Skoro Lumba Pas.s. — Crossing the Braldoh on Zlmks. — Dusso. — The Braldoh 
 Valley. — Cioniboro. — Mud Streams.- — Rope Bridges. — Chongo. — Balti Graveyards. 
 
 — The Hot Springs of Chongo. — Askoley. — Rearrangement of Baggage. — Provisions 
 for the Coolies. — Isolation of Askoley. — Raids from Hunza and Xagar. — The Ram 
 Chikor. — The Lamhai'dar of .\skolev. 
 
 On Sunday, May 9th, at half- 
 past six in the morning, we 
 left Skarrlu witli 111 cooHes 
 and eight .saddle-ponies to 
 cross the Indus and pene- 
 trate into the Karakorani 
 ranges. Fifteen coolies and 
 fortv-eight horses had been 
 sent ahead the day before. 
 
 There is a way to get 
 from the Indus into the 
 Shigar valley without going 
 through Skardu. by crossing 
 the Indus at Gol and follow- 
 ing its right bank up to the 
 spur between the two valleys, 
 then crossing this over a pass 
 that leads directly to Shigar. 
 A glance at the map will show that this route is by far the shorter. 
 The difficulty is that at Gol there is no means of crossing the Indus 
 except on small native rafts, and it would have taken the whole day to 
 get a party like ours across. Besides, we had too many important 
 things to do at Skardu to think of leaving it out.
 
 From Skardii to Askolev. 
 
 133 
 
 We retiated our route of the day before to a point where the path 
 comes down from the alluvial terrace into the river bed. Some way 
 up the bank above the meeting of the Indus and the Shigar a couple 
 of great barges were awaiting us, upon which we embarked with 
 baggage, coolies and ponies. Each boat was handled by a dozen 
 powerful oiii'snion. who put the whole expedition across in half an hour, 
 
 CR0SS1>G THE INDUS. 
 
 landing on the right bank nearly opposite the starting-point, in spite 
 of the strong current and the breadth of the stream, which here is about 
 300 yards. 
 
 We mounted our ponies, and rode a couple of hours up the right bank 
 parallel to our course of the day before on the left, and along the foot 
 of the spur which separates the Indus from the Shigar valley. This 
 spur was once the bottom of the basin, and its upheaval at a recent 
 I)eriod between the two valleys has forced both rivers to bend westward 
 before meeting. The spur slopes down into the vast sandy delta formed 
 by the meeting of tlie rivers, and ends in a descending series of huge 
 blocks, rising singly out of the plain, separated from each other by 
 stretches of the delta sand. I fancy that in times of exceptional flood 
 
 (9221) , 3
 
 134 
 
 Cliaptcr IX. 
 
 the Shigar nuiy overflow into the Indits valley through these gaps. 
 There are six of these great rocks quite distinct from one another, and the 
 last but one is 1,300 feet high. Between it and the last, which is none 
 other than the citadel rock of Skardu, flows the river Indus. On 
 either side of the spur lies a vast extent of sand drifted into clearly 
 marked dunes, witli a general trend from north to south and the steepest 
 slope turned to the east. They make marching heavy foi' ponies and 
 cooUes. There is no trace of vegetation. 
 
 THK PATH ON THK RKJUT BANK OF THE INDUS. 
 
 In this way we covered some three miles along the bank of the Indus, 
 and then made for the ridge, following up a very narrow and tortuous 
 rocky ravine, where a few eu])horl)iH were growing, and which, after a 
 short ascent, led us to a wide rounded saddle known as Strongdokmo. 
 Here the vast Shigar valley opened before us, stretching north-east 
 as far as the eye could see. On both sides of the saddle boulders have 
 been observed which, if taken together with the polished round-backed 
 rocks {ruches moiitonnees) , prove that the great Shigar glacier must have 
 flowed over this spur. We now cut diagonally down the north slope 
 of the ridge, and soon reach the bottom and green cultivated land.
 
 From Skartlu to Askolev. 
 
 135 
 
 The map of this district shows all along the left bank of the river 
 a series of villages below and above Shigar. In reahty there is one 
 single belt of cultivation several miles long, dotted with houses which 
 are here and there grouped around a mosque. The only group of any 
 size is the village of Shigar. The path is all shaded with trees, and runs 
 between rice plantations and fields of various crops. Between these 
 and along the way run ditches and irrigation canals full of yellow water, 
 so loaded with deposit that, in order to make it drinkable, it must first 
 
 SAND-DUNES OF THE SniGAR-IS'DFS DELTA. 
 
 be gathered into cisterns to deposit its sediment. The Workmans 
 attributed to this wealth of sediment the extreme fertility of the soil, 
 which permits the Baltis to gather abundant harvests on the same land 
 year in and year out without rotation of crops. As a matter of fact, 
 however, they manure their fields abundantly (Moorcroft, Godwin 
 Austen). 
 
 About two miles below Shigar the Duke was met by the llajah with the 
 usual cortege and an orchestra, neither less important nor less noisy than 
 that of Skardu. They all escorted us to the polo ground, said to be 
 the largest in Baltistan, around which grow trees of exceptional size. 
 A walnut, a poplar (whose ancient trunk is hollowed into a huge 
 cavity) and an immense plane remind us of the giants we had admired 
 in Kashmir, having, like them, all the grace of trees w^hich have been 
 left to grow naturally and never mutilated by pruning. Near the polo 
 
 (9221) , 4
 
 186 
 
 C'liapter IX. 
 
 ground, in the shade of the chenars, stands a large mosque with lic lily 
 carved windows and doors. Inside, the columns which support the 
 roof are arranged round a central square, from the ceiling of which 
 depends a hanging lamp. The arrangement is similar to that in the 
 Srinagar mosques, and according to Conway is characteristic of the 
 Shigar valley, whereas in the Indus the centre of the mosque is usually 
 occupied by an ornamental column. 
 
 THE I'OLO GROIND AT SHIGAR. KOSER OUNliE IN THE DISTANCE. 
 
 Of all the villages through which we had passed, Shigar gave us the 
 impression of the greatest prosperity. The increase in well-being dei-ived 
 from the wide extent of the irrigated fields showed itself in the cleaner 
 clothing of the people and in the houses. Some of these were built 
 of sun-baked bricks, with verandah and roof terraces protected 
 by a light awning of wood. Here and there in little open places between 
 the houses great slabs of stone are set up against the wall and carved 
 in rough bas-relief into concentric circles, which seem to be targets for 
 archery. 
 
 The people look happy, and when the grain is sown they seem to 
 have nothing to do but lie in the pleasant shade and wait for the crops. 
 Nevertheless, they must have hard and continuous work regulating the
 
 From Skardu to Askoley. 137 
 
 irrigation water, l)uildiiig and keeping up tlie canals, preparing the 
 terraced fields (which often need strong retaining walls), removing 
 stones and bringing large quantities of earth. At all events, they 
 celebrated our arrival by a cessation of all work, and the whole popula- 
 tion had a holiday to observe with intense interest every visible detail 
 of our life. They kept, however, at a respectful distance, not so much 
 out of fear of the slender rods of the chuprassis, which could hardly 
 inflict much pain through heavy woollen clothing, as owing to a natural 
 sense of modesty and respect. 
 
 In addition to the usual gifts of flowers, fruit and bread, they offered 
 numerous elaborate cakes, so adorned with white sugar that they would 
 have done honour to any confectioner. We were now beginning to get 
 accustomed to the native tea, which was frequently flavoured with 
 rosewater, and always cleared with a salt which precipitates the tannin 
 and colouring substances. Among other things they brought us cups, 
 tumblers and pipes carved in soft green soapstone, which is taken from 
 a quarry in the valley behind Shigar. 
 
 Among those who came to pay their respects to the Duke we 
 recognized a man who had joined our escort at Tolti, whom we had 
 confounded with the Lambardars and chuprassis, but who now turned 
 out to be the Wazir of Shigar. He had accompanied the Eckenstein- 
 Pfannl-Guillarmod ex])edition on the Baltoro glacier, and when he 
 heard of our coming he met us, wishing to join the Duke's caravan. 
 He accompanied tlie expedition throughout the campaign, and was 
 always quiet, silent and discreet, and of great use owing to his power 
 over the coolies. 
 
 A young English officer back from shooting ibex and markhor 
 encamped near us and showed us his trophies. The afternoon was spent 
 pleasantly in watching a lively match of polo and in listening to the 
 orchestra, which played for dancing. The crowd stood, as usual, in a 
 semi-circle behind the musicians, and here and there from the rows of 
 spectators peered the little heads of ponies, who seemed to enjoy the 
 game as much as any one. We agreed with Ujfalvy and Biddxdph in 
 finding the Aryan type {)urer and more universal here than in the Indus 
 valley.^ Cunningham, however, considered Mongol characteristics 
 especially prominent among the Baltis of Shigar. The women seemed 
 to be kept less carefully secluded here than in the Indus valley. One 
 
 ' Si't' tlio illustrations on pp. 87, !H1, etc.
 
 138 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 met them frequently a})out the villages, and when they are alone they 
 expose their faces with no great amount of backwardness. They often 
 wore violet-colom-ed clothing, and the faces of the younger ones were 
 regular and pleasing, and surmounted by luxuriant black hair. 
 
 Throughout the Shigar valley, and farther up in the Braldoh, I 
 observed a number of goitres, frequently accompanied by characteristic 
 signs of cretinism, both among the people and our own foolies. 
 
 POLO AT SHIUAB. 
 
 The wide Shigar valley, with its level bed open on every side, makes 
 a marked contrast to the gloomy valley of the Indus, so deeply imprisoned 
 between its high and precipitous walls. It begins at the meeting of the 
 Basha and Braldoh valleys, whose rivers flow together and form the 
 Shigar. Both valleys are narrow and trough-shaped, with features 
 common to the other valleys of the region. The Basha valley continues 
 in the same direction as the Shigar toward the north-west, and gathers 
 the waters of the numerous glaciers of the southern slopes of the 
 western Karakoram, which has been the scene of the frequent expedi- 
 tions of the Workmans. The Braldoh valley turns eastward and rises 
 to the Biafo and Baltoro glaciers. 
 
 Between its source and the point where it alters its course to wind 
 round the spur which divides it at the lower end from the Indus, the
 
 Range to the left of the Shigar Valley (from near Sildi) 
 
 ^
 
 From Skardu to Askolev. 
 
 139 
 
 Shigar valley runs from north-west to south-east for about 25 niiles, 
 maintaining a width of about three miles and \vith a drop of some 350 
 feet.^ The sand has obhterated nearly every trace of glacial action. 
 Only in sheltered corners and on the lee side of lateral spurs are to be 
 found moraine remnants, - which bear witness to the past occupation of 
 the valley up to a great height by a gigantic glacier, which included the 
 
 CHADf ON THE RICHT OF THE SHIGAR VALLEY. WITH B". 
 
 volumes of the Chogo Lungma, the Biafo, the Punmah and the Baltoro, 
 all of which glaciers even now, confined as they are to their own valleys, 
 inspire amazement by their vast dimensions. 
 
 Of the two mountain ranges which stand right and left of the Shigar 
 valley, the greater and more important is beyond doubt that to the 
 
 ' The official altitude of Skardu is 7,503 feet. Tlie height of the village of Shigar, calculated 
 on the basis of the Duke's observations, is 7,517 feet, and that of Dusso, at the entrance of the 
 Braldoh valley, 7,874 feet. 
 
 ' According to tk)DWDf Austen {Jour. Boy. Geog. Soc. 34, 1864, p. 19) the village of Shigar 
 is itself built upon a thick deposit of earth and angjilar, not stratified, detritus of morenic origin.
 
 140 
 
 Clia})tc'r IX. 
 
 east, wliicli separates it from the Braldoh valley and contains Mango 
 Gusor (20,633 feet) and Koser Gunge (21,000 feet)^. The valleys of this 
 range are, however, so deep and so long that only the peak of Koser 
 Gunge is visible from Shigar, standing at the north end of the chain and 
 covered with great glaciers. Farther north the Shigar valley appears 
 to be closed by a group of snowy mountains, the Ganchen, 21,204 feet 
 
 THE SKORO LUMBA, ON THE LEFT OF THE SIIICAR VALLEY. 
 
 high, which it seems the Shigar people call Simbilla. The western side 
 of the valley is formed by a steep range, which is all in sight from top 
 to bottom. It is furrowed by ravines and precipitous gorges, full of small 
 hanging glaciers, and dominated by a fine snow peak in the centre, the 
 B^^ of our maps. 
 
 The path ascends the Shigar valley on the left or western side. 
 From Mango Gusor runs down into the Shigar valley the first side 
 valley, the Baiimaharel, which comes out just behind Shigar, with a 
 
 ' According to the Workmans, who ascended it in 1899.
 
 From Ska 1(1 u to Askoley. 
 
 141 
 
 mouth like a gate, only a few yards wide, between cliffs of gneiss. 
 Immediately beyond this opening the valley grows wider, and is cut 
 across by an ancient moraine. Five miles above Shigar the second 
 great tributary valley, the Skoro Lumba, opens out.^ This valley 
 leads up to a pass of the chain, the Skoro La, 16,716 feet high, which 
 is the direct route to Askoley. The journey from Shigar to Askoley 
 is done in three stages, but at this season the pass was still blocked with 
 
 MEETIXG OF THE BASHA AND THE BRAI.DOH, AXD HEAD OF THE SHIGAR VALLEY. 
 
 snow, and we had to go all the way around the chain and ascend first 
 the Shigar valley up to its bifurcation, and then the Braldoh valley 
 from its mouth to Askole}', more than twice the distance but all along 
 the valley beds. 
 
 The Shigar valley is usually taken in three stages, stopping at the 
 villages of Alchori and Yuno ; but we did tlio 29 oi' 30 miles in two 
 days. After Shigar, for about six miles, we went along a shady road, 
 unbroken even by the wide stony beds of the torrents which flow down 
 from the mountains on our right. Little by little, however, increasing 
 reaches of desert intervene between the villages, and the cultivated land 
 again takes the form of oases. 
 
 • Lvmbri. or hmm^ia. moans valley.
 
 142 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 The Shigar river, divided into a network of rivulets, fills the whole 
 of the flat valley bottom, so that the path is forced to skirt the foot of 
 the range, whose high peaks are hidden by projecting spurs. As we 
 approach the peak of Koser Gunge it too disappears with its glaciers, 
 and is no longer visible except now and again through some valley 
 opening. Torrents flow down from these openings, fortunately sub- 
 divided into small streams quite easy to cross by jumping or to ford 
 on the ponies. We stopped for the night at Kushimul, in a field 
 
 THK SHIKARI ABDULLAII, AND THE (HAN'T VINE OF KUSHIMUL. 
 
 enclosed with a little hedge, under a cherry, a pear and an apricot tree 
 and an old mulberry, the last festooned with a gigantic vine whose 
 trunk had grown almost as great as its support. 
 
 The second half of our route took us round by the projecting spur 
 of Busper, which runs northward from Koser Gunge, and whose ridge, 
 running down in the opposite direction to the Ganchen, bounds the 
 opening of the Braldoh valley. The mountain spurs have shoved back 
 the path to the sand and pebbles of the valley bottom, save for an 
 occasional brief space where the river flows to their very bases. Between 
 the ends of these spurs we crossed considerable reaches of sand, which 
 appear to be a few hundred yards wide, and are sometimes as much 
 as a mile. Several tributary streams obliged us to mount our ponies
 
 From Skiirdu to Askolev. 
 
 113 
 
 so as to ford them. The water grew thicker and muddier, as if to 
 prepare us for the mud streams of the Brakloh valley. It must certainly 
 ferry down immense quantities of clay yearly. 
 
 We now began to turn eastward little by little round Koser Gunge, 
 and hardly noticed that the mouth of the Brakloh valley had l)cen 
 entered until we found ourselves opposite Dusso, its first village, standing 
 on the other bank. Two primitive native rafts, known as zhals, 
 composed of interwoven branches tied by cords to inflated skins, weie 
 
 THE GANCHEN (iROUP FROM THE MDl'TH OF THE BRALDOH VALLEY. 
 
 waiting for us on the bank. Each raft was piloted by two men, and 
 driven out into the stream with long poles as soon as we had taken 
 our places on the boughs, whose interstices were so large that we felt 
 as if we were sitting in the water. The Brakloh is at this point about 
 100 feet wide and very swift. As the current caught us we began to 
 whirl round and round, seeing the whole of the panorama about us five 
 or six times in the space of a minute. A little farther downstream, at 
 a narrow point of the river, a liglit bridge had been thrown across the 
 stream, made of two tree trunks with cro.ss-bars and branches laid over 
 them ; and by this route our guides and coolies reached the opposite 
 bank. Once on the other side, we went up as far as the trees of Dusso 
 and set up our camp.
 
 144 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 We were now again .shut in between steep mountain walls, and coukl 
 see none of the high peaks around us. Only westward, througli the 
 narrow mouth of the valley, could we catch sight of a bit of tlie chain 
 to the right of the Shigar valley. A httle farther upstream two long 
 spurs of the Koser Gunge and Ganchen run down opposite one another, 
 and seem quite to cut ofi" the valley. On the ridge of the second, just 
 over the camp, rises the strange monolith indicated on the map by the 
 name of Shamasir Pir Gombar. According to the local legend, as given 
 
 CROSSING THE BRAI.DOH ON A ZHAK. 
 
 by Godwin Austen, it is inhabited by a snow-white bird which guards 
 a lump of pure gold placed on a cushion of embroidered velvet. Any 
 object which cannot be found in the morning is supposed to have been 
 stolen by the Pir. Luckily this thievish fowl paid no attention to us. 
 
 The Tehsildar of Skardu took leave of the Duke, and retired to his 
 home, carrying our mails with him. The ponies had been left on the 
 other side of the river, and henceforward our journey was all on foot.
 
 From Skardu to Askoley, 
 
 146 
 
 The Brakloh valley is of the same type as the Indus, only its smaller 
 dimensions make it seem even more narrow, and its walls more pre- 
 cipitous. It makes sharper turns, too, round the foot of the spurs which 
 run down on either side and cross each other. The masses of detritus 
 and sedimentary deposit which cling to the precipices up to a consider- 
 able height are extremely insecure, and the path must, without doubt, 
 be frequently destroyed or cut off by landslides. 
 
 THE IXJWER BRALDOn, WITH THE CANCHEN IN THE BACKGROUND. 
 
 The distance up the valley fiom Dusso to Askoley, the highest 
 village, is about 22 miles, with a ]ise of 2,140 feet — from 7,874 to 
 10,013 feet. But the path is several miles longer than the distance as 
 the crow flies, and there must be several thousand feet of up and 
 down involved in crossing the numerous lidges which lie in its wav. 
 The first and one of the very steepest is the long spur which runs 
 down just above Dusso, and which the path crosses about 1. 000 feet 
 above the river. At the top of the laborious climb we halted a little 
 to take breath, and to gaze upon the great glaciers of Ganchen. The 
 coolies made a little fire in the shelter of a big projecting rock, ;ind 
 
 (9221) K
 
 I4(j Chapter IX. 
 
 prepared their usual early breakfast by crumbling their chupattis 
 into hot water with a little salt. Others were inhahng, turn and turn 
 about, a few mouthfuls of smoke from the pipes which they construct 
 in the clay soil. A thin stick is buried in the earth with the two bent 
 ends projecting. Around one end they mould the earth into a funncl- 
 shajjcd pipe bowl, and then pull out the stick, leaving a little tunnel 
 under the earth through which they inhale through their hands. The 
 tobacco, which is extremely evil-smelhng, will only burn when kept in 
 contact with a live coal. There is generally some coolie in the caravan 
 who has brought his primitive narghile, made out of a little gourd or 
 hollow bit of wood, into which are stuck the clay pipe bowl and stem, 
 through which they smoke in turn, grasping the end of the stem 
 with their fist and inhahng through it. This is also their ingenious 
 method of smoking cigarettes. Notwithstanding their heavy loads, 
 they reached the top of the ridge without panting or signs of 
 fatigue. Those among them to whose lot the easier loads had fallen 
 carried the flour and provisions of their more heavily burdened 
 companions. 
 
 Once over the top of the ridge, the path skirts down along the barren 
 slopes till it reaches a narrow ravine cut by the water through a terrace 
 of detritus. Down this we descended to the river, whose bank we then 
 followed around the base of high perpendicular cliffs of friable con- 
 glomerates, with notched upper edges which represented the section 
 of the terraces they support. Southward we could see the whole of the 
 Koser Gunge, with the great radiating buttresses which run down from 
 it ; while northward, between the Ganchen and the Mushun, opens the 
 tributary valley of Hoh Lumba, which, with the glaciers at its head, was 
 explored by the A\'orkmans in 1903. A httle beyond the mouth of 
 this valley we set up our camp, near the village of Gomboro. Here the 
 apricots were still in blossom, and germination barely beginning. The 
 sown fields were still quite bare. 
 
 On the morning of May 13th we pursued our march up the valley, 
 everywhere hemmed in between steep mountain spm-s coming nearer 
 and nearer to one another and forcing the river into a winding course. 
 The whole valley must at one time have been filled with inmiense masses 
 of detritus mingled with, clay to a height of 700 or 1,000 feet, which 
 were then cut through by the torrent, forming extremely steep if 
 not absolutely vertical sections. Above the level of detritus the rock
 
 From Skanlu t<> Askolev. 
 
 147 
 
 walls are in even more active process of disintegration than in the Indus 
 valley. Lydekker has obsei-ved traces of glacial action as high as 
 nearly 2,000 feet above the bed of the valley — ^vestiges of the glacier 
 which was once formed by the conjunction of the Baltoro, the Punmah 
 and the Biafo. ^ The path, which often becomes a mere track, runs 
 nearly the whole way along the bottom of the valley, and is exposed 
 to landsUdes, which must be common even when the weather is dry, 
 
 KOSER CirNGE, AND THE ALLUVIAL TERRACES OF THE BKALDOH. 
 
 so frequent are the projections of the detritus wall and so ill held 
 in place by the loose clay. Wherever the walls looked unusually 
 threatening we would find ourselves unconsciously quickening oui' 
 steps. 
 
 We frequently came across places where the path had disappeared 
 under streams of mud, which had formed into fan-shape and then dried 
 and hardened, leaving deep indentations on the brow of the overhanging 
 cliff. At other points, where side ravines joined the main valley, we 
 would go down to the bottom of deep torrential beds covered with a 
 
 ' Lydekker, The Geology of Kashmir and Chamba Territories. Mem. oj the Geol. Surv. of 
 India, 22, 1883, p. 18G. 
 
 (9221) K 2
 
 148 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 thick layer of hardened mud, through the middle of which oozed a thin 
 trickle of muddy water. These were plainly the beds of nmdstreams. 
 We found none in active progress, but these traces sufficed to show the 
 great difficulty they must present when they flow across the road many 
 yards wide and deep, carrying down with them heavy masses of rock. 
 They are a characteristic feature of all upper Baltistan, where they are 
 known as shwa. Many a traveller has been surprised by one of these 
 
 THE noH LIMBA AXD THE MUSHUM CiROUP. 
 
 movnig masses — half avalanche, half flood — and has run grave danger 
 of seeing some of his caravan carried off by them. All our predecessors, 
 Godwin Austen, Conway, tlie Workmans and the Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
 Guillarmod expedition, witnessed the strange phenomenon on u smaller 
 or greater scale. ^ 
 
 The origin of the streams has never been fully explained. Very 
 difterent forms of alluvial action have, in fact, been included under the 
 
 ' In addition to the works of the above-named authors, already quoted, see Col. H. C. B. 
 Tanner. Our Present Knowledge of the Hinuilayas. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. N.S. 13. 1891, p. 4ri.3 ; 
 and the article of Ch. Rabot, Glacial Reservoirs and their Outbursts. Geog. Jour. 2n, 1905, p. .54.').
 
 From Skardu to Askoley. 149 
 
 name shwa — as, for instance, gi-eat floods caused by the breaking of a 
 temporary dam formed by a landslide or by the protrusion of a lateral 
 glacier, to which I have alluded in my description of the Indus valley, 
 or the sudden inundations produced by the breaking of a glacier 
 reservoir. These are uniisual disasters, and purely casual, as are the 
 causes which bring them about, and they happen with the violence of 
 the true cataclysm. They have certainly nothing in common with the 
 mudstreams which may be seen every year towards the end of ApriP 
 oozing down the tributary ravines of the high valleys. One strange 
 characteristic which has been several times observed in them is their 
 intermittent nature. A volume of half-liquid mud rolls down like a 
 wave, mingled with big stones and pieces of rock of all sizes. Then 
 there will be an interval, long or short, of which the traveller takes 
 advantage to cross the bed with all speed. Then comes another great 
 gush and another interval, and so on. The mud gradually grows less 
 thick, and ends by being simply muddy water. 
 
 The volume of matter thus brought to the bottom of the valleys 
 must be enormous, a fact which suggested to Conway the somewhat 
 hazardous hypothesis that to these mud avalanches may be due the 
 filling up of the valleys with detritus to the depth of hundreds of yards, 
 or even in some places absolutely up to the crests, so as to form great 
 table-lands such as those of Tibet and Pamir. - There is no doubt that 
 the mud streams come from the huge banks of clay which hang upon the 
 walls of the valleys. These are little by little saturated with water 
 from the spring melting of the snows, until they reach such a point of 
 semi-fluidity as to sUde upon the steep slopes and finally descend by 
 their natural paths, the gullies and ravines. Temporary obstructions 
 caused by some great boulder and by the viscosity of the mass itself 
 explain the intermittency and oscillation of the flow, which is similar 
 to that of the lava streams on the slope of a volcano during eruption. 
 As I have said, we did not come across any active mud streams. The 
 mud in the beds was dry and hard, and looked as though it had been 
 long sohdified, whether through an unusual delay in the melting of the 
 snows in this particular year or for some other reason. 
 
 ' According to Conway the shwa arc active in thi- hot days of June and thi- early part of 
 July. 
 
 ' The hypothesis of Conway ainonfj other thinjjs fails to explain the origin of the gigantic 
 clay deposits necessary to feed such torrents of mud. 
 
 (9221) K .1
 
 150 
 
 Chai)tcr IX. 
 
 We observed at frequent intervals, especially along the banks of 
 streams, reaches of sand covered with a white efflorescence similar to 
 that I have described in the Indus and Shigar valleys. The oases 
 were few and lean. The region is poor, like the upper Dras valley. 
 Outside of the oases the sole vegetation consists of a few thorny thickets 
 of roses and barberries, clumps of wormwood with a scent between 
 thyme and camphor, wild currant bushes and a few gnarled junipers. 
 Insects and lizards were still in their winter sleep. We were nearly 
 10,000 feet up, and spring had hardly begun. 
 
 TEMPORARY BRIDGE OVER THE BRALDOH BELOW CHOXGO. 
 
 Presently our path was cut by a spur which ran down into the river, 
 and we were forced to cross to the left bank. A temporary bridge of 
 beams supported on big rocks projecting out of the torrent saved us 
 from crossing on the rope bridge, which was hanging loose and in a very 
 dilapidated condition. A little over half a mile farther on we returned 
 to the right bank of the Braldoh over a sohd rope bridge, well kept up. 
 But here, too, the coolies hastily set uj) a little bridge in sections across 
 the river, greatly facilitating the crossing of our large party. We went 
 up the bank as far as a wide terrace upon which stands the little village 
 of Chongo, where we encamped.^ 
 
 • Caravans usually make their stage on the left bank of the Braldoh, between the two 
 bridges, in the oasis of Pakora. There is a mistake in the itinerary map which puts Chongo in 
 the place of Pakora. Chongo is on the right bank of the Braldoh and a little farther upstream.
 
 From Skardii to Askolev. 
 
 151 
 
 The valley now seemed to open out, but heavy mists rested upon the 
 mountains, and we scarcely caught brief glimpses of Mango Gusor, an 
 extraordinary rocky tooth which falls sheer to the valley, forming a 
 huge smooth black wall cut across by a few long straight white lines 
 marking crevices and chimneys filled with snow. The day was windy 
 and cold. 
 
 ROl'E BRIDCE BETWEEX I'AKORA AND CHOXtiO. 
 
 A little below the village are three cemeteries, standing one above 
 anothei' along the slope, so large as to seem quite out of proportion to the 
 number of the living, as if they had served for a much larger village 
 than the Chongo of to-day. Children's graves are in the great majority 
 in all three. In fact, the lowest of them, through which runs the valley 
 path, is entirely made up of the tombs of infants. We had already 
 noticed burying places in the Shigar valley, entirely filled with these 
 tiny graves, which speak volumes of the cruel process of selection 
 inflicted upon this people by the hard climate, their poverty and the 
 unhygienic conditions of their life from infancy upwards. 
 
 (9221) K 4
 
 152 
 
 Chapter TX. 
 
 In the Indus and Shigar valleys the tombs, large and small, con- 
 sisted of slabs of stone planted in the ground or of a low wall enclosing a 
 rectangular plot.^ They showed no sign of being regarded with anv 
 special reverence- — indeed, so little is this the case that we would find 
 here and there one of the older and larger graves turned into a diminu- 
 tive kitchen garden. These tombs were scattered haphazard over any 
 open space, mostly under the trees, and not within any enclosure. 
 The tombs at Chongo are quite different. The low wall is replaced 
 
 CHILDREN S CRAVES AT CHONOO. 
 
 by a rectangular fence of little wooden beams fitted into four square 
 corner posts, whose tops are cut in the shape of a die or a diamond. 
 The most interesting of the three cemeteries is the highest. It is now 
 plainly abandoned, the wall which once enclosed it partly in ruins, and 
 of the door only the wooden frame is left. Within this enclosure are 
 a dozen tombs surrounded by the small wooden railing just described 
 and a few others, so much larger as to seem monumental by comparison, 
 these latter consisting of clay brick walls strengthened at the corners 
 
 • See illustration of the Parkutta cemetery, p. 120. 
 
 * We occasionally met with an isolated tomb adorned with one or tv\-o upright poles hung 
 about with rags ; the grave of some saint, but held in far less veneration than similar burying 
 places in Central Asia.
 
 Chongo
 
 ognojl'J
 
 4
 
 From Skardu to Askoley, 
 
 153 
 
 by beams incorporated in the masonry. The strange thing is that 
 constructions so elaborate are to be found in the Indus valley only in 
 the most prosperous villages, whereas the habitations of Chongo are 
 rudely built of rough stones and mud. Upon the corners of these 
 walled enclosures are placed four or more big round stones. The ground 
 within had in several cases broken through, showing that under the 
 enclosure the earth was hollowed out into a chamber with a roof made 
 of beams and beaten earth. There was no trace of funeral objects or 
 any fragments of skeletons. 
 
 ^ . .. 
 
 ' /? A ' Jt 
 
 A CEMETERY AT CHONGO. 
 
 The stage from Chongo to Askoley is only about six miles, and we 
 had time to stop and enjoy a warm bath in a hot spring by the way. 
 We came across it a little above the small torrent which supplies the 
 Chongo oasis, on the west side and nearly at the top of a conical hillock 
 some 150 or 200 feet high, with a base perhaps some 650 feet in 
 diameter. The ground sounded hollow to the tread or the blow of a 
 stick, and was quite covered^ — possibly entirely composed — of saline 
 encrustations, white where new, yellowish where old. The conical 
 formation is incomplete, because it is cut off on one side by the slope 
 of the mountain. At the top it is split by a long, deep fissure, about 
 18 inches wide, through which apparently no gas issues.
 
 164 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 The basin is perfectly round, from 50 to 60 feet in diameter and 
 about three feet deep in the middle — a veritable little pond, full of the 
 most limpid water having a slight odour of sulphurous anhydride, and 
 an exquisite emerald hue due to the algse which cover the bottom. 
 The water bubbles up through five or six openings in two groups, one 
 near the edge of the fountain, the other in the centre. It overflows the 
 furrowed lip of the basin, which is formed by yellowish-white saline 
 
 THE noT SPRING. 
 
 conglomerates. This formation likewise covers the whole of one side 
 of the cone with regular layers. The temperature of the water, taken 
 at the biggest opening near the edge, was 120° F. (thermometer Hicks, 
 N. 449,310).^ All round this opening was a flourishing growth of long 
 weeds. Among them or scattered over the bottom of the basin were 
 bundles of filaments encrusted with calcite. Guillarmod made the 
 interesting discovery that these bundles are composed of hairs, but it 
 seems improbable that they could accumulate in such large quantities 
 
 ' In 1902, according to (iuillaiinoil, the temperature was 100-7^ F. Godwin Austen found 
 in the various hot springs of this region temperatures of 104-5°, 137°, 122°, 117° and 110° F.
 
 From Skiinlu to Askolcv, 
 
 155 
 
 merely from the occasional falling of hair of the natives when bathing 
 there. ^ 
 
 From the opposite or east side of the fountain the cone slopes down 
 in a series of small terraces, where a stratification is occasionally visible. 
 Many of these terraces are fringed with a close series of small stalactites, 
 which makes them look hke |)etrified cascades.^ 
 
 THE STALACTITES OF THE HOT SPRING. 
 
 After a good half-hour's bath we started on with a lighter step, and 
 after crossing two more torrents reached Askoley before nine o'clock. 
 Near the village is an open space divided into little fields and shaded by 
 willows and poplars. The Duke had the camp set up in one of these 
 fields, and the guides' tents and kitchen in another. 
 
 ^ Professor R. Pirotta kindly examined for me the specimens collected at this fountain. He 
 found tlu'in to be composed of a thick tangle of colonies of schizophytes and green filamentous 
 weeds, encrusted with calcareous deposit and mixed with crystals of calcite and higher vegetable 
 forms wliieh must have come into the fountain from outside. Other sj)eciniens proved actually 
 to consist of bundles of human hair, so tliiekly eiicru.stcd with calcareous .salts as to resemble 
 vegetable tangles not unlike the bundles of rnnirea- found in thermal springs. All the samples of 
 encrustations collected from around the fountain were proved by analysis to be simple specimens 
 of carbonate of lime, or calcite (Novarese). 
 
 ' Beside this spring (lodwin .Austen mentions three others lower down mar the bank of the 
 Braldoh. These were still there in 1902, when the Eckenstein-l'fannl(;uillarmod expetlition 
 saw them ; but we found no trace of them, and the natives told us tliat the bank out of which 
 they sprang had been carried away l>y the river.
 
 156 
 
 Cha|)tt'r IX. 
 
 We had now icachod the last inhabited spot on thi.s side of the 
 Kajakoram. Twenty-two days' march had brought us 295 miles with 
 all oui- luggage, without any interruption and without a single mishap. 
 Notwithstanding the extremely complicated nature of the equipment 
 and the thousands of hands it had passed through, we had not only 
 not lost a single piece out of over 200 packages, but we had not even 
 lost a single small article. What better proof could there be of the 
 
 
 THE CARAVAN AT ASKOLEY. 
 
 honesty of the Baltis ? We were all in splendid condition, and our 
 well-divided stages had brought us almost imperceptibly up to a pitch 
 of training for the far greater demands which were now to be made 
 upon our strength. 
 
 Askoley stands 10,013 feet above the sea level, at the very gate of 
 the high mountains.^ We had now come up out of the stuffy heat 
 of the valleys. A little farther on all trace of path ceases and the great 
 frozen basins of the Karakoram begin. We had now to change our 
 
 ' .Sir iLvRTix Coxway gives Askoley a height of 10,360 feet, hut this must he a misprint , 
 for he gives the same height to Korophon, farther up, beyond the Biafo glacier (op. cit. pp. 412 
 and 419). According to the Workmans the fort of Askoley (half a mile to the east of the 
 village) is 10,300 feet.
 
 From Skanlu to Askoley. 157 
 
 personal equipment, put aside whatever we no longer needed and make 
 a thorough and careful selection of what it would pay to take with us. 
 Furthermore, from this point on we should have to provide for our coolies. 
 The grasping Kashmiri and Sikh merchants of Skardu had made us 
 beheve that Askoley would be unable to furnish us sufficient flour, so 
 we had bought it all at Skardu and sent it on to Askoley before us. 
 
 The Duke organized an advance caravan that afternoon. Ninety- 
 three coolies carried as many maunds (80 lbs.) of flour sewn in skins. 
 Thirty-five more were loaded with cases of provisions for the high 
 regions, and ten carried the flour which this advance party would need 
 on the way. A huge crowd of natives from Askoley and the lower 
 villages assembled, hoping to be enlisted. They were of all ages and 
 appearances, from mere boys to feeble old men, and even some who 
 were crippled. For the present we engaged them as they came. Later 
 on we would make a careful choice of the strongest and fittest to take 
 with us to the high camps. 
 
 Askoley is a poor village indeed, and certainly one of the dirtiest 
 in all BaltLstan. Numbers of the houses are empty and in ruins, as if 
 some of the population had abandoned the country. "We were surprised 
 to find stray dogs about, a rare sight in a Balti village. They were 
 as large as wolves and looked like them, yellow and grey in colour. Thev 
 wandered hungrily around the camp, only kept off by the missiles and 
 threats of the angry servants. Possibly they are descendants of the 
 dogs which Godwin Austen mentions as having been kept by the people 
 of Askoley for hunting and trained to drive the ibex toward the 
 huntsman. That was in 1861. Nowadays the natives are no longer 
 permitted to have firearms. 
 
 There are only a few fruit trees, but plenty of willows and poplars. 
 The cultivated fields are very extensive, sloping down from the \'illage 
 to the river, while at a Httle distance above the river the mountain 
 side is covered with very fair pasture. The place is Uable to earthquake. 
 In 1902 the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition felt two per- 
 ceptible shocks on May 30th and 31st. 
 
 Few conmninities are so cut off from the world as this httle popula- 
 tion of Askoley. Before them lies an infinite extent of glaciers, shut 
 in by the most gigantic mountain ramparts in the whole world ; behhid 
 them a desert valley, which for eight months in the year is absolutelv 
 blocked by the snows, the avalanches and the Arctic temperature. The
 
 158 
 
 CluiptcT 1\. 
 
 two small panoramas here leproduced show far better than words the 
 appearance of the country round Askoley. They display the utter 
 barrenness of the slopes, the cliffs of detritus reaching half way up the 
 mountain walls, the cones formed by the falls of disintegrating rock, 
 
 the deep gorges hollowed out by 
 tlie rivers and torrents in the thick 
 alluvial deposits, and the little oases 
 of cultivation around the last three 
 villages at the mouth of the 
 tributary ravines of the valley. 
 They include, too, the fine chain of 
 Mango Gusor, opposite Askoley, 
 with the valley of the Skoro La, 
 opening on the very face of the 
 mountain wall at least 1,000 feet 
 above the Braldoh ; and to the 
 west of it a great snowy peak, 
 whose glaciers come to a sudden 
 end at the top of steep couloirs, 
 and every now and then fill the 
 vallev with the roar of their 
 
 MAXIH) (irSOK FROM ASKOT.KV. 
 
 avalanches. 
 
 In spite of these formidable natural protections, Askoley was for 
 a long time wasted by raids of robbers from Hunza and Nagar. These 
 were only brought to an end with the concjuest of the latter territories 
 by an EngUsh mihtary expedition and their annexation to the kingdom 
 of Kashmir. Incredible as it may seem, these marauding bands used 
 to traverse the whole length of the Hispar glacier, cross the col and 
 descend the Biafo, more than 65 miles of ice, for the purpose of raiding 
 Askoley. The last raid was in 1840. A band of 700 or 800 men, led 
 by the Wazir Hollo, reached Askoley in the autumn, and seems to have 
 departed with rich booty, obtained either by violence — as Godwin 
 Austen was told in 1861 — or according to Conway in the form of a ransom 
 paid by the village. But the season was too far advanced, and the 
 whole baud is supposed to have been lost among the glaciers and snow- 
 storms on the way back, only the leader escaping with his hfe.^ I will 
 
 ' Guiu.AHMOD (op. cit. p. 146) gives a wholly different version of this raid, confusing the 
 Nagar tribes with the Tibetans, the Hispar with the Mustagh pass, etc.
 
 Mango Gasor 
 
 Skoro-La 
 
 Range ou the left hand side of the Braldoh Valk7 (from a height to the North of Askoley, about 13.000 ft.) 
 
 Mango Gusor 
 
 Askoley 
 
 The Braldoh valley above Askoley 
 
 o 
 
 r^
 
 From Skardu to Askoley 
 
 159 
 
 speak later on of two other routes — across the Puiimah glacier and 
 across the Baltoro — which at one time connected Askoley with the 
 country north of the Karakoram, Chinese Turkestan. 
 
 We had a great deal of work to get through, which kept us at 
 Askoley for the whole of the day following our arrival. Sella, who 
 had worked late into the previous night to set the photographic 
 equipment in order, took advantage of the halt to climb with his gun 
 and camera on to the rock wall which overhangs Askoley. He was 
 
 GETTING SUPPLIES AT ASKOLEY. 
 
 rewarded by a panorama of the Mango Gusor range, a collection of 
 specimens of garnets and a fine ram chikor (tetraogcdlus Tibetanus), the 
 giant partridge of the Himalaya. According to Thomson the people 
 of Askoley hunt these partridges by forming a ring around them in 
 great numbers, and beating them from side to side with shouts and sticks 
 until they are so exhausted that they can be caught with the hand. 
 In spite of the remaikable barreimess of the slopes, big herils of ibex 
 and markhor, and innumerable nuirmots, partridges and otlier wild 
 creatures, manage to live on the scanty grass growing on the high slopes 
 in corners and crevices known to them only.
 
 itju Chapter TX. 
 
 We had a little flock of sheep and goats put together to keep us 
 supplied with niilk and meat. Tliey were to be kept on one of the 
 southern spurs of the Baltoro glacier, where there would be pasturage 
 throughout the summer months. They were at once sent ahead with 
 their shepherds. We carried with us also a fair mmiber of fowls and 
 several dozen eggs. In this way we managed to keep supplied with 
 fresh provisions even on the high glaciers, and these, taken alternately 
 with tinned food, rendered our nourishment more palatable and less 
 monotonous. Our Kashmiri servants were not to accompany us any 
 farther, but to await our return at Askoley. 
 
 During the two days we spent at Askoley the weather was change- 
 able, sometimes cloudy with heavy and stagnant atmosphere, sometimes 
 gusty with a little sleet. The evenings were calm and clear. The 
 temperature went down to 28° F. in the night. 
 
 The Lambardar of Askoley, who, like his people, looked extremely 
 wretched, took charge of and placed in a tolerably dry and sheltered 
 room the part of the equipment which we had decided to leave here 
 and the cases of provision for the return journey to Skardu. We hoped 
 we should not meet with the ill-luck of the Guillarmod expedition, 
 which was prevented from returning to Askoley by an outbreak of 
 cholera.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FROM ASKOLEY TO RDOKASS. 
 THE BIAFO AND BALTORO GLACIERS. 
 
 The Vallfv Wallod across Ijy the Biafo. — Crossing the (ilacier. — The Boulder of Korophon. — 
 Oscillations in the Volume of the Biafo (ilacier from 1861 onwards. — Inundation of the 
 Braldoh Valley. — Present Condition of the Glaciers in the Western Himalaya. — The 
 Biaho Valley. — Mango Ousor. — The Ford of the Punmah. — • The New Mustagh. — 
 Deserted Passes. — Bardunial. — First Sight of the Baltoro. — The Trout of the Biaho. — 
 Paiju. — The Snout of the Baltoro. — Striking Absence of Frontal Moiaine. — Olaciological 
 Xotes. — (letting on the < Uacier. — The Layer of Moraine. — Appearance of the Baltoro. — 
 <;iacier Lakes and Torrents. — Walls of the Lower Baltoro. — Paiju Peak. — Machichand 
 Camp. — Marginal Lakes. — Liligo Glacier. — The Mustagh Tower. — Second and Third 
 Southern Confluents of the Baltoro. — The Gasherbrum Range. — The Buttress of Rdokass. 
 
 We set out from Askoley a little 
 before six o'clock on the morning 
 of May 16th, very impatient to 
 get at last within sight of the 
 goal we had come so far to seek. 
 At Srinagar we had taken leave 
 of civilization, and at Skardu of 
 its slender and far-reaching ten- 
 tacle, the telegraph wire ; but at 
 Askoley we were cutting ourselves 
 off from human society altogether, 
 at the entrance of the ice deserts 
 of the Karakoram. 
 
 A little above Askoley, where 
 
 a broad squat tower bears witness 
 
 to the ancient strife against the 
 
 Hunza raiders, we came down into 
 
 the alluvial bed left dry by the stream now at low water. Farther on, 
 
 however, the river flows close round the foot of a rocky spur, which we 
 
 were thus forced to cross by a short climb. The Biafo glacier, lying in 
 
 (9221) " L
 
 1G2 
 
 Chapter X. 
 
 its deep valley, was not yet visible, but beyond it sti'etched the range 
 of icy peaks which form the eastern wall of the Punmah valley, 
 dominated by a magnificent mountain known to the natives as Paiju, 
 because its other slope overlooks a camping ground of this name at the 
 foot of the Baltoro glacier. 
 
 We now once more made our way across the shingle and pebbles of 
 the valley bottom, no longer the narrow gorge it was below Askoley, 
 but over a mile wide and quite level. In less than an hour we stood 
 
 ■I'ltK FdKT VT ASKOLEV. 
 
 before the marvellous spectacle of the Biafo ice stream, over 300 feet 
 high, which, coming down out of a tributary valley on the right, breaks 
 into the Braldoh valley and appears to cut it off for its whole width 
 as far as the rocks at the foot of Mango Gusor. The glacier is covered 
 with a black layer of shingle, showing the clear ice only in vertical 
 breaks and cracks. In its invasion of the Braldoh valley it has pushed 
 the river up against the left wall of the valley, while its own emissary, 
 the Biafo torrent, escapes from its side near the right bank of the valley 
 and meets the Braldoh farther down. The two rivers and the side of 
 the glacier thus enclose an irregular sandy delta on the level valley 
 l)ed, which is dotted with brushwood, dwarf junipers and willows.^ 
 
 ' The tciininal snout of thi' Biafo and the delta betwiin tlic two rivers are clearly \nsil)le in 
 the panorama reproduced opposite p. 158.
 
 From Askolev lo IJdokass. 
 
 163 
 
 We had no difficulty in fording the various branches by which the 
 Biafo torrent leaves the glacier, to whose immense proportions the 
 
 VIEW OF THE BALTORO OUCIER AND PAIJU. 
 
 volume of water so httle corresponds as to lead us to suspect that its 
 main output nuist still be through its snout, where the waters mingle 
 with those of the Braldoh. The side of the Biafo, which is tinged at 
 
 (9221) L 2
 
 164 
 
 (MiJiptor X. 
 
 intervals of a few yards with small and low moraine deposits, is com- 
 pletely covered with stones, in spite of its steepness. From the top 
 of this lateral wall the surface still rises gradually until al)out the middle 
 of the glacier, where it must be some 400 or 500 feet thick. No longer 
 compressed witliin tlie naiiow walls of its native valley, the glacier 
 spreads out in the shape of a fan, some two miles in width. Our way 
 across, however, was about twice as long, because the surface was extremely 
 irregidar, covered with fiagments of all sorts of rock — granite, quartz, 
 
 COOLIES BESTING. 
 
 schist, and occasionally limestone — and we had to take a very winding 
 route. There were few great boulders and few open crevasses, but there 
 were frequent splits, where one of the margins has sunk below the other, 
 forming perpendicular steps from a few inches to several yards in height. 
 The surface melting had not as yet gone very far. There were only a 
 few pools on the right side of the glacier, a few riAiilets and occasional 
 glacial tables which had not reached any great height. As you look 
 across the valley from the centre you get the impression that the glacier 
 actually reaches the rocks of the left valley wall. This w^as, however, 
 a mile off, and we could not be certain. A couple of hours brought us
 
 From Askoley to Hdokass. 1G5 
 
 to the left side of the glacier, which is higher and steeper than the right, 
 and descending which we reached the bottom of the valley. From this 
 point onwards it is known as the Biaho. 
 
 A few hundred yards above the glacier lies a gigantic boulder called 
 Korophon, at whose foot shepherds are accustomed to shelter at night. 
 Here we halted to examine the snout of the Biafo. From this point it 
 still seems to close the valley completely, and its thickness appeared to 
 be uniform as far as the eye could reach. A projection of the glacier, 
 however, prevented our seeing whether any space is left for the Biaho 
 between the end of the snout and the side of the valley, or whether the 
 water passes through a tunnel under the glacier. On our return journey 
 Sella tried to reach the snout of the glacier to make sure whether the 
 valley is completely cut off or no, but he was prevented by the lateral 
 torrents, swollen from the summer melting. It was only when, on our 
 return journey, we ascended the left side of the Braldoh valley on the 
 Skoro La road that we clearly saw the river flowing under the open sky 
 through a narrow gap between the valley wall and the steep front of 
 the glacier. The latter showed no trace of frontal moraine. It is, 
 however, possible that at some point of the left half of the glacier the 
 ice may bridge over the river and actually reach the rock. 
 
 I have described in detail the position of the Biafo in the summer 
 of 1909, becaiise it has passed through considerable changes during 
 the last fifty years. Godwin Austen foimd it in 1861 fiUing the valley 
 from one side to the other, resting its snout on the rocks of Mango Gusor 
 and entirely covering the river. In 1892 Sir Martin Conway found the 
 snout a quarter of a mile away fi'om the wall of the valley, and noted 
 that during August it lost another quarter of a mile. As it withdrew, 
 it left before it a wide moraine covered with earth and vegetation. This 
 diminution in volume lasted and its rate increased during the following 
 years, for in 1899 the Workmans found the Biafo so shrunk as barely to 
 reach the outlet into the Braldoh valley at all. Then a period of increase 
 must have followed. In 1902, according to Guillarmod. the glacier had 
 again advanced as far as the right bank of the Braldoh river, dri\dng 
 before it a low frontal moraine.^ The Workmans, however, on their 
 
 ' Dr. Pfan.n'l does not mention this frontal moraine, and describes tlie Biafn as a mass of 
 ice 600 or 700 feet thick, protruding across the valley, squeezing the Braldoh into a narrow bed 
 and ending with a steep snout 400 feet above the river. This description agrees with our observa- 
 tions made in 1909 (see 3titl. d. Oetig. Ges. Wien, 47, 1904, p. 255). 
 
 (0221) L 3
 
 166 Chapter X. 
 
 return to the region in 1908, noted the Biafo as practically in the 
 same position in which they had found it in 1899. Therefore, between 
 their two expeditions it must have grown and shrunk again. Finally, 
 in the year between the last \Tsit of the Workmans and the Duke's 
 expedition it must evidently have increased again considerably. 
 
 It would be strange if during such constant oscillations the Biafo 
 had not at some time quite dammed up the Biaho river so as to form 
 a lake. As a matter of fact Godwin Austen found cuirent among the 
 natives of Askoley the legend of such an accident, occurring perhaps 
 some two centuries earher. When the pent-up waters forced their way 
 the devouring flood swept off a village of the Braldoh valley and carried 
 its mosque entire down to the Shigar river. The sacred edifice which 
 had performed so miraculous a voyage was rebuilt, piece bv piece, in 
 another village of the Braldoh valley, where it was still to be seen in 
 1861. 
 
 The alternate growth and shrinkage of glaciers at short intervals 
 has been observed at many other points in this region. For instance, 
 the caravan route from Leh to Kashgar over the Karakoram pass was 
 obliged to abandon the upper Shyok valley, which was too often 
 blocked by the glaciers flowing down the confluent gorges, and to follow 
 a much longer and less direct route. Dr. Longstaff has collected and 
 compared the existing data and local traditions on the oscillations of 
 these glaciers, which have more than once dammed the stream of the 
 Shyok and caused vast disasters. 
 
 Observations made on glacial changes are of real practical import- 
 ance, because they afford the only possible way of determining changes 
 of climate too slow and gradual to be studied directly. To establish, 
 however, the behaviour of the glaciers of any region it is necessarj^ to 
 keep a good number under observation throughout a period of years, 
 so as to get general results rather than isolated cases. If we consider 
 the single observations made by travellers, we can only conclude that 
 in the Himalaya in general and the Karakoram in particular every 
 glacier appears to obey laws of its own, as we read of some which show 
 all the signs of rapid shrinkage, others undoubtedly stationary for 
 long periods, and others which, on equally unexceptionable testimony, 
 are in a period of actual increase, occasionally so rapid as to sweep away 
 and bury in their irresistible progress whole fields and cultivated tracts, 
 and to threaten neighbouring villages with ruin. Behaviour .so capricious
 
 From Askoley to Rdokass. i67 
 
 on the part of phenomena which must presumably depend upon local 
 conditions common to all, might possibly be explained by periodic 
 changes of climate following each other at short intervals, as the time 
 required for masses of snow precipitated in the upper basins to produce 
 changes in the position of the glacier snouts may vary very con- 
 siderably, according to the shape of the basins and the length and 
 slope of the valleys. 
 
 The Geological Office of India undertook in 1905 a series of 
 observations on the conditions of the glaciers of the western Himalaya, 
 to be repeated at regular intervals. There is hope that in a few years 
 the work thus done may lead to some exact conclusions.^ Meantime 
 we may refer to the opinion of Dr. Arthur Neve, who, after observing 
 a great numbei" of glacieis in the regions round Kashmir at varying 
 intervals of time, is of opinion that they are, on the whole, in a period 
 of growth.- LongstafE also found many glaciers in process of increase 
 in tlie valleys of the eastern Karakoram, while the writings of Godwin 
 Austen, Conway and the Workraans abound in confirmatory examples. 
 It is, nevertheless, wise to take into account the cases which go to show 
 the contrary- — they are not few in number, and have been observed by 
 the same travellers in the same regions — and to reserve judgment, 
 contenting ourselves with careful observations of the appearance and 
 position of the glaciers when occasion offers. 
 
 The Biaho valley, wide and with a level bottom, rises gradually 
 and without sudden breaks eastward to the foot of the Baltoro, about 
 820 feet higher up. On lea\4ug Korophon we marched along the bottom 
 of the valley on the right bank of the stream, admiring as we went the 
 tremendous rock wall of Mango Gusor, formed of great slabs of absolutely 
 smooth stone which seemed from in fi'ont to be nearly vertical.* An 
 hour's march brought us to the opening of the tributary valley of Punmah, 
 and we crossed the sandy delta to the river, some 200 feet wide and two 
 feet deep, flowing swiftly over a pebbly bed. Our Shikari Abdullah 
 and two strong coolies saved us from a wetting by carrying us across 
 on their shoulders. Later in the season the river becomes so much 
 
 ' Sfc H. H. HAVDEy, Notes on Certain Glaciers in N.W. Kashmir ; and Survey of Glaciers in 
 A'.ir. Hiimluya. Sec. Geol. Sun: of India. ."5.5. 1007, p. 123 ; T. H. Holl-VXD. Glacier Movements 
 in the Uimnlayas. Geog. Jour. 31, 1908, p. 315. 
 
 * A. Neve, Rapid Glacial Advance in the Hindu Kush. Alp. Jour. 23, 1907, p. 400. 
 
 ' On till' northern slope of Mango Ousor. more than 3,000 feet ahove the bottom of the valley, 
 Sir W. JI. Conway found the imprint of a colossal glacier which must at one time have filled it. 
 (9221) L 4
 
 ms 
 
 r'li;i])tor X. 
 
 higher as to be no longer fordable, and the traveller is obliged to ascend 
 the valley to the jhula bridge suspended across a narrow gorge three miles 
 higher up. We set up our camp on the alluvial deposit dotted with 
 big stones which fills the angle between the Punmah and Biaho valleys. 
 Here grows a poor and sparse vegetation of dwarf juniper, wormwood 
 and astragalus. Mango Gusor from this point looks hke a horn 
 strangely twisted and bossed, covered with snow and ice, rising from 
 
 MANGO GUSOR. TAKEX KKOM THE C'OXFUE.Vf E OK TIIE rlNM \H WITH THE BIAHO. 
 
 a wide base of black rock. The sky was clouded over and the dark 
 atmosphere hid the upper valley from our view. Luckily the air was 
 calm; wind would have been extremely obnoxious in this crotch of 
 the valleys where we had raised our tents. 
 
 The Punmah valley, which ran up northward in our rear, leads to 
 a vast and complicated glacier system, across which the peoples on either 
 side of the Karakoram contrived to find a route by a pass of some 
 19,000 feet, known as the New Mustagh, because it was intended to 
 take the place of the old pass of the same name situated in the northern
 
 From Askolev to IMokass. 
 
 169 
 
 range of the Baltoro when that became impassable owing to changes 
 in the glaciers. Now, however, the New Mustagh has also been given 
 up, either because the raids of the Hunza robbers have given it ill fame, 
 or else because its glaciers too have become harder to cross. 
 
 No European has ever crossed the New Mustagh. In 1856 Rudolf 
 Schlagintweit tried the ascent from Askoley, but was driven back by 
 a snowstorm. Godwin Austen had the same experience in 1861. He 
 
 AX ALLrVIAI. DELTA OK THE BIAHO. 
 
 met on the glacier four Baltis, who came from Yarkand, and he says 
 that it would be quite easy to trace a convenient and safe route across 
 the pass, which is approached on itoth sides by so easy a slope that it 
 was formerly iised for horses and yaks. Drew gives quite a different 
 account, stating that the horses had to be hauled up by ropes, and that 
 it took several men to hoist and support them, so that the pass fell into 
 disuse, and between 1863 and 1870 all communication ceased between 
 Baltistan and Turkestan. The last to try to reach the New Mustagh 
 was Sir Francis Younghusband, who had reached Askoley by the older
 
 170 Chapter X. 
 
 pass of the same name in 1887. His ascent was stopped by falls of 
 seracs, which seems to prove the truth of the story that the glaciers 
 liad changed. In fact, twenty years previously Godwin Austen had 
 noted that the Punmah glacier had so far progressed as to cover the 
 path for some distance, and even the site which had been used for a 
 camping-ground. He also mentions another important symptom of 
 change in the climate of the region — namely, that at Shigar from 1849 
 onward it became impossible to ripen two crops in a season, as had 
 always been done in the past. 
 
 In addition to the two Mustaghs, a number of other passes which 
 used to join Baltistan with the Hunza-Nagar district, Yarkand, etc., 
 have been so utterly abandoned that in some cases it is no longer 
 known where they were. The only pass which still remains open is 
 the Karakoram, much further eastward and coming under the influence 
 of the arid climate of Tibet, thanks to which it is free from ice and snow, 
 though nearly 19,000 feet in altitude. 
 
 The next day, May 17th, we started off early, because the Duke 
 wanted to camp that very evening at the foot of the Baltoro. \Vc still 
 had the advantage of the season of low water, and could march in a 
 straight Hne over the sand and pebbles of the river bed, thus saving the 
 long ups and downs of the path which skirts the flank. ^ 
 
 From Bardumal, a halting-place marked by a boulder considerably 
 smaller than that of Korophon, we enjoyed a fine view up the Shingkan 
 valley, a tributary on the left crowned by a group of high snow peaks. 
 Here the Biaho valley, still running eastward, takes a shght trend to 
 the north, and the river flows around the foot of the northern wall, so 
 that we had to climb up on the alluvial terraces. Once we had rounded 
 this barrier, we returned to the bottom of the valley. 
 
 A little farther on our way was cut across by a wide terrace which 
 has driven the river to the left. This terrace forms a sort of table-land 
 with a rolling surface, whose transversal ridges are very slightly marked 
 and dotted wdth medium-sized boulders mainly composed of granite 
 
 ' Guiliarmod relates that ho and the rest of tlie expedition of wliieli he was a ineinber began 
 between Korophon and Bardumal to note the first symptoms of fatigue due to altitude, although 
 they had stopped at Askoley for eight days in order to rest and accustom themselves to the 
 thin air of 10,000 feet. Our own experience was quite different. Not one of us thirteen Europ<'ans 
 was conscious of the least indisposition, and we reached the Baltoro glacier with a sense of absolute 
 well-being and in full enjoyment of our strength, which had been developed by gradual and 
 continuous training. We had not the slightest need or wish to interrupt our march.
 
 From Askoley to Rdokass. 
 
 171 
 
 in various stages of disintegration and rounded at the comers, mingled 
 with blocks and pebbles of Umestone. The material appears, indeed, 
 to be alluvial deposit ; but the aspect and shape of the whole formation, 
 running so characteristically across the valley, is such as to suggest 
 an ancient frontal moraine of the Baltoro, which now ends five or six 
 miles farther up the valley. Between this terrace, however, and the 
 glacier hes a long stretch of valley without the smallest trace of moraine 
 
 
 THE BIAHO JUST BELOW THE BAI.TORO. 
 
 detritus ; and so sudden and complete an interruption of the deposits 
 would be hard to explain. From a httle lateral valley, the upper part 
 of which is filled with a glacier, there runs down to the centre of the 
 terrace a delta of white stones, probably Hmestone, standing out clearly 
 against the grey of the granites. The entire formation might be just the 
 ancient alluvial delta of this tributary. 
 
 Half way across this terrace we suddenly saw before us the snout 
 of the great Baltoro glacier, hke a huge black monster crouching with 
 flattened back in the bottom of the valley. Here and there we could 
 discern the gleam of bare ice showing through some rift in the dark 
 layer of detritus that covers it. There is no accumulation of moraine
 
 172 Chapter X. 
 
 before it. only a little moraine ridge clings to the valley wall, cutting 
 off our view of the right side of the glacier. From this point Godwin 
 Austen beheld the peak of K- and Guillarmod the Mustagh Tower. 
 But thick mists filled the high valleys, and we saw no peaks. 
 
 Keeping our way along the steep right wall, we now traversed the 
 last stretch of valley, which here grew wader still, level, sandy and 
 sprinkled with pebbles. The .sand is intersected by a network of rivulets, 
 which bubble up everwhere in the plain from absolutely pure and 
 limpid springs, delightful to see and dehghtful to drink after weeks of 
 filtered or boiled water or tea. In the cold crystal-clear water swim 
 little mountain trout seven or eight inches long.^ Sella, who was some 
 distance behind, managed to catch a good many of them without net 
 or hook bv striking heavy blows with stones on the rocks under 
 which they lurk and thus stunning them. 
 
 Sheltered at the foot of the last spur which divides it from the 
 Baltoro and protects it from the icy winds, nesthng against the steep 
 right wall of the valley, lies a little islet of vegetation, a strip of earth 
 covered with long grass, thick bushes and Httle willow and rose trees. 
 This is the stage known as Paiju. There was a time when the Baltis 
 used to come here for a few weeks in summer to dredge the valley sands 
 for gold which comes, according to Godwin Austen, from the granites 
 of the Masherbrum. The place was abandoned because the river 
 changed its course and came to flow along this side of the valley. Ferber 
 found that the sand does contain gold, but not in sufficient quantity 
 to make the process remunerative. - 
 
 For the last time we set up our camp under the trees, not far 
 from a rough construction of stones which the Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
 Guillarmod expedition had used as a deposit for provisions. The Baltoro 
 valley opened wide before us. Against a purple-grey backgi'ound of 
 relentless mists which concealed the upper part of the valley stood out 
 upon its right side three groups of rocky peaks, ending in a host of 
 turrets, pinnacles and needles, strangely wild and menacing to behold. 
 On the other side is a .short chain simpler in form, which just above 
 
 • This species of trout (T. Himalayana) appears to be the sole inhabitant of the streams 
 of the U|)per Himalaya. Cunningham caught some that were over 15 inches long in the torrents 
 of Ladakh, about 15,000 feet high. Vigne, too, says it is the only fish inhabiting the Indus at 
 Skardu. 
 
 - A. C. Ferber. .-In Exploration o/ the Mvslagh Pans in the Karahmim Himalayas. Geog. 
 Jour. 30, 1907, p. 630.
 
 From Askoley to Kdolcass. 173 
 
 the termination of the Baltoro glacier rises into a peak bristling with 
 sharp teeth, out of a base covered with snow. This and Paiju Peak — 
 far more important but invisible from our camp, over which it 
 towers — are the two gate-posts at the entrance of the fantastic world 
 into which we were about to penetrate. From the tributary valleys 
 round about us on both sides of the Biaho run down glaciers 
 broken into icefaUs, and black with moraine throughout the lower 
 portion, all of them terminating at about the same height as the 
 Baltoro. 
 
 On the rocks above our camp, which are covered with clay, woiii 
 out and furrowed by water-courses, we counted thirty ibexes. 
 Partridges nest in the bushes just above the camp. The whole caravan 
 was now united, as the coolies sent ahead from Askoley had taken three 
 days to do the journey. We formed a community of nearly 400 persons. 
 As night fell the air grew suddenly cold, and soon the whole place 
 sparkled with little fires, about which moved the dim shadows of the 
 coolies. 
 
 May 18th da\\nied with the usual doubtfid and cloudy weather, 
 which seemed to mock our impatience for a glimpse of the new world 
 before us. The sun rose wearily through the thick veils of cloud and 
 dense vapour which hung heavily upon the ^^pper Baltoro. We 
 marched hastily round the foot of the last spur, which was clothed witli 
 moraine up to some 300 feet high. The ice wall of the Baltoro glacier 
 lies some 300 yards farther on, and in the corner between it and the 
 spur is a little remnant of moraine about 50 yards away from the 
 glacier. 
 
 The river issues from the glacier not in the middle of the front but 
 nearer the right margin, and out of a tunnel so low^ that the stream 
 seems to spring between the glacier and the stony bed of the valley. 
 At the point of issue the front of the glacier has a deep indentation 
 which divides it into two unequal parts, that to the right forming a 
 steep wall 300 or 400 feet high, at whose foot we have just arrived ; 
 and a greater lobe to the left," comprising at least three-quarters of the 
 whole frontage. This main part runs about half a mile farther down 
 the valley than the right portion, and terminates in a tongue of ice 
 less steep and less thick, which is divided only by a httle moraine 
 from the snout of another glacier running out towards it from a small 
 tributary valley on the left.
 
 174 
 
 Chapter X. 
 
 Godwin Austen and Conway found the snout of the Baltoio in much 
 the same condition. Both, however, describe the river as issuing from 
 a veritable tunnel with a high roof, from the edge of which ice blocks 
 were constantly falling. In Conway's time the front was divided into 
 three lobes instead of two. Godwin Austen furthermore mentions a 
 large boulder lying in the middle of the river at a certain distance from 
 the glacier. This boulder is recognizable in the illustration in Conway's 
 book as well as in one of the photographs taken by Sella, which woidd 
 
 THE SXOUT OF THE BALTORO. 
 
 lead MS to suppose that from 1861 to the present day the snout of the 
 Baltoro has remained stationary or undergone changes of small import. 
 I must, however, note that Godwin Austen had the impression from 
 Conway's photographs that the glacier came down farther in 1892 than 
 in 186P; while H. F. Montagnier in June, 1903, found the Baltoro 
 pressing with its right edge against the moraine ridge which I have 
 described, on the wall of the valley. The latter was rapidly disintegrating 
 and rolling its pebbles down upon the glacier.- If so the snout must 
 
 ^ See report of discussion after the lecture of Sir W. M. Conway at the Roy. Geog. Soc, in 
 Oeog. Jour. 2, 1893, p. 301. 
 
 - Verbal communication made to me by M. Montagnier in London, Dec. 1910.
 
 From Askoley to Rdokass. 
 
 17') 
 
 have retreated about 300 yards between 1903 and 1909, an insignificant 
 shrinkage in an ice-stream about 36 miles long. ^ 
 
 The front throughout its whole extent is formed of live ice down 
 to the bottom, without any fringe of moraine. At the foot of the wall 
 there are merely a few scattered blocks of medium size, and a httle 
 farther down no tiace of moraine detritus is to be found on the level 
 alluvial vallev bottom. This entire absence of frontal moraine in a 
 
 THK ENU OF THE (.L.U lER AND THE SOVRCE OF THE BIAHO TORRENT. 
 
 glaciey so vast and so entirely covered by a thick layer of moraine 
 material, whose snout seems to have remained about in the same place 
 for the last fifty years, is certainly amazing. The AN'orkmans have 
 observed the same absence of frontal moraine in several of the great 
 glaciers explored by them, while sometimes othere quite close to them 
 would have their whole frontage covered with high and thick moraines. 
 
 • Guillarmod's book does not give any exact data as to the look of the front of the Baltoio 
 in 1902. The article of Dr. Pfaitsl in Zeit. d. dent. «. oeat. Alpenver. 35, 1904, p. 96, contains 
 an illustration showing the mouth of the Biafo river and the snout of the slaeier. where they seem 
 to have the same aijpearance and cliaracter as tliat noted by us in 1909.
 
 176 Cha))tt'r X. 
 
 Our theoiies as to the formation of fioutal moraines afford no con- 
 vincing explanation of this strange phenomenon.^ We are thus obliged 
 to fall back upon other considerations suggested by the condition of the 
 particular glacier basins where the phenomenon in question is displayed. 
 
 The chaiacteristic absence of frontal moraine has been most 
 especially observed in the largest glaciers, such as the Siachen, Biafo, 
 HLspar, Baltoro and Chogo Lungma, which, with the exception of the 
 last, are all over 30 miles long and occupy wide valleys with very slight 
 inclination, so that their progress must be determined rather by pressure 
 of the ice masses coming down from the upper basins than by their 
 own plasticity and weight. The absence of frontal moraine can be 
 explained only by the immobihty of the terminal portion of these 
 glaciers, which has turned into dead or stagnant ice, and may be con- 
 sidered, geologically speaking, in every respect as rock. The snouts 
 of these huge ice rivers would thus stand for an ancient phase of 
 development. They are, as it were, the fossils of a previous glacial 
 period. To this a period of suspended advance must have succeeded, 
 or even a shrinlcage of the upper portion of the glacier, leaving this 
 extreme end where it stood. This presumable immobility of the snout 
 by no means excludes the possibiUty of a fresh period of activity 
 following after, such as may possibly to-day be found going on in the 
 upper part of the Baltoro. The glacier in its new acti\'ity might flow 
 for a longer or shorter distance over the dead ice, which forms its bed 
 just as the bottom of the valley would. If the pressure became sufficient 
 it might even revive the whole mass and drive it farther down the 
 valley. Such would seem to have been the case in the recent oscillations 
 of the snout of the Biafo which I have mentioned above. 
 
 The recent sUght displacements in the snout of the Baltoro, which 
 seem quite estabhshed when we compare our own observations with 
 the descriptions of our predecessors, do not actually contradict this 
 theory. It is quite conceivable that the bulk of dead ice may have 
 been pushed forward by pressure from the rear without changing its 
 condition of intrinsic immobility — that is to sa}', without any flow of 
 ice caused bv its own plasticity, the only form of motion which could 
 
 ' See on this point the discussion which took place at the Enghsh Royal Geog. Soc. after 
 the lecture of Dr. Workman : From Srinagar to the Sources of the Chogo Lungma. Geog. Jour. 25, 
 1905, p. 245 ; and the comments of the same author in Exphraiion of the Nun Kttn Mountain 
 Group, etc. Geog. Jour. 31, 1908, pp. 34^35.
 
 From Askoley to Rdokass. 177 
 
 cause an active and continuous carriage of material from the high valley 
 to the front of the glacier. It may be that the Baltoro is again 
 preparing for a period of activity in the more or less remote future. 
 As a matter of fact, especially on our return journey in the beginning 
 of August, we noted for some miles through the lower portion of the 
 glacier great waves rather deeply marked, whose direction was mainly 
 transversal, whereas higher up the ridges and hoUows ran lengthwise. 
 This traiLsversal imdulation of the glacier might be the result of immense 
 pressure exercised by the volume of confluent glaciers in a state of active 
 increase. 
 
 The formation of dead ice either separate fi'om or else more or less 
 closely related to the original glacier is a phenomenon long famiUar 
 to students of glaciology. Examples of it on a much smaller scale 
 may be found in our own Alps. The above considerations, which have 
 been suggested to me by Ingegnere Vittorio Novarese, of the Eegio 
 Ufficio Geologico, I have dwelt upon at some length in the hope of 
 drawing the attention of travellers to a state of things which, if con- 
 firmed by further observations, would bring about results of real 
 importance to the study of glaciology. ^ 
 
 The end of the Baltoro is about 11,000 feet above sea level, some 
 820 feet above the end of the Biafo. Of the other great glaciers of the 
 Karakoram, the Siachen ends at an altitude of 11.600 feet (Longstafi, 
 1909), the Hispar at 10,803 feet (Workman, 1908), and the Chogo 
 Lungma, the lowest of all, at 9,519 feet (Workman, 1902). 
 
 The wall of the glacier facing us was cut obHquely by a sort of narrow 
 ledge, overhvmg by big blocks of rock poised — it would be hard to say 
 how — upon the declivity. This ledge forms the way of access to the 
 top of the glacier. On the previous evening at Paiju it had seemed 
 settled, after endless discussion, that the coolies would cover in two 
 days instead of three the whole of the distance to Rdokass, the southern 
 spur of the Baltoro, which, judging from Guillarmod's account, seemed 
 to be the most suitable position for our base camp. This morning, 
 however, the rimaour was afloat that the cooUes were making pretexts 
 for delay in order to force us to set up camp at Liligo, a third of the 
 whole distance. The Duke met this by waiting at the foot of the glacier 
 
 • These considei-ations, based upon the glaciological obsen'ations of the expedition, were the 
 subject of a communication by Ing. Xovarese to the Ital. Geolog. Soc. (summer meeting, 
 Sept. 1911). 
 
 (9221) _^
 
 178 Chapter X. 
 
 until nearly all of the 260 coolies had started off; it took about an 
 hour. Twenty minutes after we were on the Baltoro. 
 
 The top of the slope was covered by big blocks of granite, so hght 
 in colour as hardly to be distinguishable from the pieces of marble 
 mingled with them. We turned toward the left or southern side of the 
 valley, cutting across the glacier in an oblique line just above the outlet 
 of the stream. Here the layer of moraine was without any trace of 
 arrangement into stripes, and composed of widely-contrasted materials 
 — granites of every conceivable quaUty, quartzites, schists, slates, 
 marbles, many-coloured conglomerates and sihcacious rocks of dark red 
 and purple shades. Nearer the left bank the moraine was almost entirely 
 composed of dark grey granite, liroken up into irregular fragments. 
 The biggest blocks measured some 15 or 20 feet in their largest measure- 
 ment, grading down from these to the smallest gravel. Real sand 
 was rare. The surface is irregular ; we could n\ake out no ridges or 
 troughs arranged according to any general orientation. Yet this lower 
 portion of the glacier is less unequal and broken than the Biafo. We 
 found it much harder to traverse on our return journey two months 
 later. There were occasional little plants here and there among the 
 stones, and even a few small shrubs : init the vegetation was so rare 
 and isolated that it seemed impossible it could give rise to real thickets 
 on the moraine later in the season. As we went higher, close to the left 
 bank of the glacier, the inequalities of the surface became more pro- 
 nounced, until the whole looked as though it had suffered some huge 
 convulsion. It was distorted into deep valleys and irregular holes 
 among hills and ridges and steep slopes running in every direction. 
 Wherever the surface was not absolutely vertical these were covered 
 with sharp and insecure detritus stones that threatened sprains and 
 bruises at every step. The Duke walked ahead with our two guides 
 who determined our route through the labyrinth. They set up cairns 
 on the larger rocks to indicate the tortuous path to us coming after. 
 
 Before we had gone far on our way up and down across the ridges, 
 skirting the big hummocks and deep hollows, we began to feel the 
 weariness well-known to all those who have marched on moraines. 
 And this was the very outset of a long journey. On every side our view 
 was cut off by steeps of ice and stony slopes, the guides naturally 
 preferring to follow the valleys and skirt the base of the ridges. When- 
 ever the caprice of our obstacles obliged us to cUmb over some higher
 
 From Askolev to Rdokass. 
 
 179 
 
 ridge the gigantic bulk of the Baltoro offered us the same uniform Aaew, 
 of an unbounded desert covered with masses of detritus, Avith here and 
 there a gleam of black or bluish ice laid bare by a fissure. 
 
 The air was heavy and close, though here, as on the Biafo, the 
 melting had scarcely begun. Onlv here and there did we encounter 
 a small livulet or glacial pool; yet the water has no channel through the 
 
 SURFACE LAKE OX THE LOWER BALTORO. 
 
 depth of the glacier, there are no open crevasses and none of the glacier 
 moulins, those characteristic wells so common in our own glaciers below 
 the snow line, by which the water produced by surface melting dis- 
 appears into the depths. We found signs of running waters, however, 
 in the shape of round worn pebbles of typical allu\'ial appearance, 
 mingled in small numbei-s with the sharp-cornered moraine fragments. 
 The glacier fills the valley from side to side, forming a V-shaped trough 
 between its steep side and the rocks of the valley wall. On the maps 
 
 (9221) M -2
 
 180 
 
 duiptor X. 
 
 of Conway and Guillarmod a torrent runs through this deep trough, 
 but it did not appear to be flowing as yet. No tributary glacier flows 
 into the Baltoro from the south side, by which we were ascending it, 
 for the first four miles of the lower course. ^ But on the other side of the 
 valley there flows into the Baltoro a few hundred yards above its end 
 a large confluent bare of moi'aine, which, hke a stream in flood over- 
 
 TRE ri.I niAIIil i:l,ACIF,R JOINIX<: THE BAI.TOKCJ. 
 
 flowing the surface of the river it enters, overrides the Baltoro for a 
 long distance with its dazzUng white torrent of seracs. Between two and 
 three miles farther up a second tributary valley opens on the same side, 
 as deep and level as the first in its lower course, but much wider. Out 
 of this, too, flows a glacier with a wide medial moraine, and overtops 
 the margin of the Baltoro with a high front of seracs. These valleys 
 
 • The map of tin- Baltoro contained in tliis volume shows only the upper two-thirds of the 
 glacier, which the reader must imagine to be prolonged for 10 miles more toward the west. The 
 little panorama which is here reproduced, together with the left half of panorama B, must maki' 
 up for the lack of the map.
 
 Fiolu Askolev to Rdokass. 
 
 181 
 
 are separated from each other by the rocky spurs which we had ah-eady 
 admired from Paiju, and which from near at hand appear even more 
 inaccessible. They form a wild architecture of their own, a maze of 
 turrets, pinnacles, needles, reaching up to a height of some 1,000 feet 
 and so precipitous that they scarcely leave the perpendicular from top 
 to bottom. They remind one of the dolomite towers, but it was difficult 
 
 THE STONY WASTE Of THE LOWER BALTORO, SHOWING THE NORTHERV WALL. 
 
 from this distance to recognize the true nature of the formation. To 
 the west of these we saw Paiju Peak, a pile of triangular rock pyramids 
 rising one above another, cleai-ly outlined by their ice ridges and lifting 
 up a symmetrical pointed summit completely covered with snow. 
 
 About half-past nine we reached a point opposite a little gorge 
 opening out in the left wall of the valley, in such a way as to leave free 
 a small space at the bottom of the gully between the glacier and the 
 rock. This was the stage known as Liligo. Here the coolies crowded 
 round us, trying to induce us to stop, though it w^as still quite early. 
 We had no great difficulty in persuading them to go on for another hour, 
 when we reached another couloir in the wall almost exactly similar 
 to the first. Here the guides quickly cut steps in the steep side of the 
 
 (9221) M 3
 
 182 
 
 Clia])ter X. 
 
 glacier, which was some 200 feet higli, and we descended to a sort of oval 
 well, quite level, some 60 yards wide by 150 or 200 yards long, and 
 strewn with stones. 
 
 This place is known to the Baltis as Machichand. There was nothing 
 to show that the little hollow had ever been occupied by a lake. 
 Numerous smooth pebbles pointed rather to its being occa.sionalIy the 
 
 PAUr PEAK. TAKEN" BY TELEPHOTOORAPHl' FROM THE LOWER BALTORO. 
 
 bed of a torrent. On one side it is bounded by the flank of the Baltoro. 
 an ice wall black with detritus, down which ran a thousand small 
 streams, ceaselessly whirling along stones to the gully below, where 
 the ice met the bottom of the valley and a little brook flowed. On 
 the other side the valley wall rises steeply, cut in the centre by a ravine. 
 It is a great wall of loose conglomerate, from 400 to 500 feet high, with 
 a clayey top eaten out and carved by the waters into deep vertical 
 furrows and fringes, forming a long row of tall pillars, each of which is 
 crowned by a rock or boulder resting on it like a mushroom on its stalk.
 
 Paiju and the Towers on tlie north nf tlic Haltoro
 
 
 Dill biiii uiif.H
 
 From Askok'v to Hdokass. 183 
 
 They looked extremely unstable, and if it had come on to rain om- 
 camping ground would have proved very undesirable. At either end this 
 oval space was blocked by the meeting of the glacier with the wall. 
 At the upper end a narrow corridor remains free at the bottom of the 
 gorge ; at the lower the glacier abuts on the rock. The section of the 
 glacier seen thus from the side shows plainly in its whole length the 
 
 V: 
 
 ^^ 
 
 "^■^yy-^ — T-wT-.V ^, ^* 
 
 W-^ 
 
 THE CAMP AT MACHICHAKD, LOOKING VV THE VALLEY. 
 
 arrangement of the ice in two horizontal strata of nearly equal thick- 
 ness, coming together along a regular line, separated only by a thin 
 layer of detritus which makes the formation c[uite evident.^ If we 
 admit the hypothesis of the immobihty of the snout of the Baltoro, 
 the uj^per layer may be supposed to represent the active glacier and 
 the lower the motionless mass. 
 
 We cleared away the detritus a Uttle in the centre of the oval space 
 and set up our tents. The coohes arrived in camp not by twos and 
 threes as usual, but in numerous bands, after a very cautious descent 
 down the steps in the ice. The fact is they are afraid of the glacier, 
 especially of being alone upon it, to avoid which they had finished their 
 
 ' Tills arrangement is plainly visible in the illustrations here given. 
 (9221) M 4
 
 184 
 
 Chapter X. 
 
 short l)ut hard stage at unaccustomed speed. They laid down tlieir 
 loads and scattered up the valley slope to hunt for firewood. They 
 found a few gnarled trunks of dead juniper, and these they rolled down 
 to tlie camping place. ^ A great rock lolled down into the bargain, 
 and it was a real miracle that it did not crush any of the coolies below. 
 They lighted their fires along the wall, where they made their bivouac 
 at the greatest possible distance from the glacier. Down the latter at 
 very brief intervals stones and boulders came crashing with loud reports, 
 
 '^. 
 
 ^: 
 
 
 THE CAMP, LOOKIXC! DOWN THE VALLEY. 
 
 followed by a trail of small detritus that slitl down the ice with a pro- 
 longed crackling sound. All this fell at the foot of the slope without 
 danger to us, but the coolies were uneasy and kept looking at the glacier 
 as though they had an obscure consciousness of the life animating 
 the huge mass. It is so seemingly inert, yet within so full of motion 
 and ceaseless transformation, that one gets an impression as of some- 
 thing furtive and insidious, like a monster crouching. One single raven 
 kept watch over our camp the whole day, perched on a near-by 
 projection and following all our movements with the closest attention. 
 
 ' Guillarmod noticed similar trunks of old juniper uj)on the sIoj)es above Liligo, and the 
 VVorkmans saw along the sides of the Chogo Lungma valley dead tree trunks considerably 
 larger than any of the living trees. These too are symptomatic of a change of climate.
 
 From Askok'v to IMoksiss. 
 
 185 
 
 With the cool of the evening the atmosphere gradually cleared, but 
 from the bottom of the hole where we were we could only get glimpses 
 through the openings between ice and mountain side. Night came 
 swiftly, almost without twilight. The stones fell at longer intervals 
 from the glacier ; the rivulets froze over and stopped flowing. Soon the 
 silence was unbroken, except by the coolies, who scjuatted and murmured 
 as usual round the fires that lighted with strange gleams the walls of our 
 prison. 
 
 A GLACLVL LAKE OF THE LOWER BALTORO. 
 
 On the following morning Abdullah, instead of bringing us up to the 
 glacier again, took us along the nari-ow ravine between it and the valley 
 wall, which is exposed in many places to danger from falling stones. 
 Wherever the glacier abutted against the rock we climbed over it, always 
 redescending as soon as possible into tJie ditch. In this way we had 
 but brief ghmpses of the valley or of its clear little lakes, whose limpid 
 emerald-green waters are never clouded by the continually dropping 
 stones. They are surrounded by high ice-banks hanging down in 
 dazzling white stalactites and undermined by melting. The turrets 
 of the northern vallev wall made a wonderful background for the scene.
 
 l.stj 
 
 CliH|)tL'r \. 
 
 After over an hour's march we reached a marginal hike some 
 200 yards long and from 5 to 10 yards wide, which fills up the gap 
 between the glacier and the rock. It appeared to be confined by an 
 ice-dam of no great thickness or strength. If this slight barrier had 
 given way before the pressure of the waters or the motion of the glacier 
 
 THE LILIliO GLVCIER 
 
 our camping ground of the night before would have proved a dangerous 
 one indeed. It is certainly far more prudent to encamp upon the glacier 
 rather than in these lateral ravines. The Workmans upon the Hispar 
 witnessed more than one vast and violent flood caused by the breaking 
 of glacial reservoirs ; and LongstafE came near losing his camp by the 
 same cause on the margin of the Rgyong glacier.
 
 I'irst Camp on tlic Baltdro, between Liligo and Rhobufsr
 
 From Askoley to IMokass. is? 
 
 Another half-hour's march brought us to the mouth of the fiist 
 tributary valley on the southern side, smaller than those which open on 
 the northern side and filled up by the Liligo glacier. The latter is very 
 broken, without surface moraine, and barely occupies the centre of its 
 valley. It stops about a third of a mile from the edge of the Baltoro, 
 with a steep front about 300 feet high, without any detritus at its foot. 
 Without counting the little hanging glaciers of the smaller gulhes, the 
 Liligo and one other glacier near the junction of the Baltoro with the 
 Godwin Austen are the only tributaries which do not actually flow into 
 the mass of the Baltoro. The LiHgo valley slopes up gently from the 
 Baltoro to the foot of a rocky height, whose structure in tiers of pyramids 
 reminds us of Paiju Peak, though it is far less imposing. The valley 
 then bends eastward and is lost to view. The space between the snout 
 of the LiUgo and the side wall of the Baltoro is partly taken up by a 
 little lake, above which is a second and smaller one. Later in the season 
 the two lakes flow into one and fill up the whole mouth of the tributary 
 valley. Near them a small level was pointed out to us beside the 
 Baltoro as the camping ground called Rhobutse. 
 
 We were now marching upon the glacier again, but so near to the 
 left margin that we were able to see nothing of the high valley, partly 
 because it changes its north-easterly direction a httle farther up and 
 takes a turn due east. At this point our attention was chiefly con- 
 centrated upon a group of rocky peaks of the northern chain. Among 
 them, as we knew, is the Mustagh Tower, but it was as yet still hidden 
 among the minor peaks, and only much later were its noble outlines 
 revealed to us. 
 
 The distance between the Liligo glacier and the second confluent 
 on the left is certainly greater than appears on the maps of Conway and 
 Guillarmod (just over one mile). At least we took more than an houi- 
 and a half to cover it. This second tributary is nameless, although 
 its dimensions are by no means insignificant. It flows down from a 
 peak of dazzling whiteness, loaded with snow despite the steepness of the 
 slope, and it flows for a long way on top of the Baltoro, so that our route 
 cut straight across it. It is almost level, without crevasses, and dotted 
 with single blocks and a little small detritus. Here and there were 
 groups of ice-tables and numerous ice-cones, the pedestals of old fallen 
 tables. There were none of these upon the lower Baltoro, where the 
 uninterrupted layer of detritus causes uniform fusion of the whole surface.
 
 188 Chapter \. 
 
 We now (U'ossed the next .s])ur, skirting its slope iilong a stretch of 
 track, which was a real rest after the long march across the moraine. 
 Thence we reached the third tributary on this side of the valley, which, 
 like the last, has no name, and flows over the surface of the Baltoro 
 for a considerable distance. We had nearly reached the centre of this 
 glacier when the upper part of the Baltoro valley finally unfolded itself 
 to our view, as far as the distant chain containing the marvellous and 
 symmetrical peak of Grasherbrum '^ , 26,000 feet high. To its right a 
 slender and more distant peak is just visible, quite covered with snow. 
 This must be Gasherbruin '". just a little higher than Gasheibrum'^ 
 (26,090 feet). 
 
 This third southern confluent opens into the valley op])osite the s])ur 
 which separates the third fiom the fourth northci'n confluent, or the 
 Dunge glacier from the Biale glacier, to use Guillarmod's nomenclature. 
 But on Guillarmod's as well as on Conway's maj) the valley mouth is 
 placed a little below that of the Dunge glacier, in such a position that 
 it would be impossible to see from this point the chain of the Gasher- 
 brums. In reality the mouth of the valley lies much nearer the point 
 where the Baltoro valley turns eastward, and to the promontory of 
 Rdokass, which one reaches from it in only three-quarters of an houi-, 
 with a short crossing under the mountain side and skirting a recess 
 filled with a large neve, from which one passes directly on to the spur 
 of Rdokass. 1 Our feet were bruised and sore from tlie long march 
 over hard moraine, and it was a great ]elief to walk on the soft earth 
 covered with elastic grass. The cooKes were not far behind, and were 
 nearly all in camp an hour after our ariival. They did not appear to 
 be tired, and were quite in their usual good humour, which turned to 
 noisy joy when the Duke added to the usual daily ration of me.il a 
 present of tobacco, tea and sugar. 
 
 * In Conway's and Guillarmod's maps the distance Ijotween Rdokass and tlic third left-hand 
 tributary is over three miles, which on such a surface as that of the Baltoro would certainly take 
 at least two hours' march. Ferber had already (op. cit.) noted this discrepancy between the 
 southern and northern sides of the Baltoro in Conway's map. For the rest it is a fairly accurate 
 map, and a truly remarkable piece of work to have been produced by a short month's work on 
 the Baltoro, and considering that it represents only a part of the vast glacial system explored 
 by Conway in a single campaign.
 
 TliL' Halloro
 
 <)ii>llj;H oil!"
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 RDOKASS. 
 
 Rdokass as a Base Camp. — The Tiinljir Limit. — The Permanent Coolies. — How Chupatti.s 
 are made. — Equipment of the Expedition. — The Meteorological Station at Rdokass. — 
 Panorama of the Baltoro from above Rtlokas.'!. — Size and Appearance of the (Jlacier. — 
 Its Triljutaries. — Various Sj'stems of Nomenclature. — Mustagh tilacier and Pa.ss. — The 
 Younghusband and Ferber Expedition.^. — Two Days of Bad Weather. — Goats, Sheep and 
 Coolies. — The Fauna of Rdokass. — Measurements of the Rate of Flow of the Baltoro. — 
 Preparations for the Start. 
 
 The Duke's plan, which he 
 had worked out to the 
 smallest detail, was to leave 
 a base camp at Rdokass, 
 with supplies of food and 
 other stores, and to form an 
 advanced base camp on the 
 Godwin Austen glacier at the 
 foot of K-. Mr. Baines was 
 left in charge of the Rdokass 
 station, with the important 
 duties of provisioning the 
 high camp and communicat- 
 ing with Askoloy when needful. It was, therefore, necessary for him 
 to have at his disposal enough coolies to keep him constantly in touch 
 with the expedition. The t;isk involved both responsibility and 
 sacrifice, and Mr. Baines showed great ability and punctuality in the 
 performance of it. 
 
 Rdokass lies on the western slope of a great spur belonging to the 
 southern chain of the Baltoro, about 300 feet above the glacier and 
 some 10 miles from its end. It is a place which lends itself wonderfully 
 to a long stay with a sufficient number of coolies. The camping ground 
 was covered with dry grass from the previous year, through which new
 
 1»U 
 
 riiiipkT XI. 
 
 blades were pusliing their way, as well as here and there the first tiny 
 blue stars of the early primula. A heavy landsUde had at some past 
 time covered the slope with gigantic blocks of granite, some of them 
 as big as houses, which were piled up in confusion, leaning at all possible 
 angles, and forming in their interstices nooks and cavei-ns large enough 
 to afford shelter to hundreds of coolies. 
 
 THE CAMT AT KDOKASS. 
 
 Our tents were set up on a narrow level space, while a similar ledge 
 farther down held those of the guides and the Idtclien. A stream ran 
 close by through a little vale covered with tliick underbrush which 
 yielded us abundant fuel. It consisted of a species of lonicera, which 
 only grows six or eight feet high and is apparently the shrub found at 
 the greatest height in the Baltoro basin. The grass runs up about 
 1,000 feet higher, and later on we found saxifrage and potentilla in 
 blossom at about 18,000 feet. But the woody growth apparently stops 
 at about 13,200 feet, though Conway and the Workmans found speci- 
 mens at from 14,500 to 15,000 feet on the slopes of the Hispar in the 
 shape of dwarf willows, not much more than a foot high.
 
 Kdokass. lit] 
 
 The Duke liacl planned to stop only one day at Rdokass to make 
 the arrangements for supplies, etc., and then to start ahead with 
 a small party to select the best place for the high camp, the rest of the 
 expedition following the next day with the heavy baggage and supplies. 
 About half of the coolies who came with us to Askoley were to help 
 carry the luggage to the upper camp ; they were then to be sent back 
 with the exception of thirty-five- — ten for the use of the expedition on 
 the high glaciers and twenty-five to remain under Mr. Baines' orders 
 at the Rdokass base camp. 
 
 Our first task, therefore, was to select thirty-five volunteers among 
 the yoimger and stronger coolies, who should remain with us until our 
 return to Askoley. We had no difficulty in finding them, for they 
 were all equally anxious to stay. We next proceeded to equip the 
 ten who were to be with us in the high mountains. First, we made 
 sure that each of them was provided with the usual native garments 
 in good condition — tunic, trousers, blanket and puttees. To these 
 we added heavy woollen socks, nailed boots, snow spectacles and sheep- 
 skin sleeping-bags, and three tents were allotted to the party of ten. 
 Later on we distributed puttoo mittens, roughly made but very sei-vice- 
 able. The mere sight of all this wealth filled the coolies with joy, 
 particularly the Euroi)ean boots, which were looked upon enviously 
 by those not among the fortunate ten. The coolies who formed the 
 Rdokass contingent were furnished with the native sheepskin boots 
 known as pabboos, which are excellent for walking over rocks and 
 moraine. The Duke had had several hundred pairs of these made, for 
 they do not last long in the wear and tear of moraine work. We 
 carried also a supply of skins, awls and cobbler's thread to mend them 
 with. 
 
 Meantime the coolies had built little fires along the stream, and were 
 busily preparing and baking a supply of chupattis large enough to last 
 for the next few days. The meal is coarse and grey. It is simply 
 kneaded with water without leaven, and shaped into flat cakes. Some 
 of these, intended for immediate consumption, were baked by wrapping 
 them around a red-hot pebble and then rolhng the pebble over a slab 
 of hot stone. The rest, which were to be carried as supplies, were baked 
 on big iron plates. The daily ration of a Balti is one seer (about two lbs.) 
 of coarse meal, counting a good deal of bran, and a Httle salt, nothing 
 more. Now and again as a special reward a little tea, sugar or tobacco
 
 192 
 
 (IliipttT XI. 
 
 was served out to them. 1 know of no otlier human race capable of an 
 equal amount of work in such a severe climate, upon nourishment so 
 poor in quality and meagre in quantity. 
 
 We next paid off and sent back the 200 coolies who were no longer 
 needed. Each of them was entitled to 21 rupees, beside two seers of 
 meal for the return journey ; and tliey were told that the meal would 
 
 COOKING CHUPATTIS. 
 
 be served out to them as soon as they had been paid. But finding 
 themselves in possession of so vast a sum they were so eager to get 
 home that they all rushed off joyously without stopping for the meal 
 before w^e were aware of their going, busy as we were in paying out the 
 wages. The result was that the 800 lbs. of meal went to swell our stock. 
 We still had more than 150 coolies to carry our equipment and 
 supplies to the foot of K-. The baggage was first gathered together: 
 the Alpine equipment, consisting of extra ice-axes, a large supply of 
 mountaineering rope, crampons, snow-shoes and iron spikes for the 
 rocks ; the topographical instruments — photogranunetric camera and 
 plates, and compasses ; the meteorological instruments — mercury 
 barometers, aneroids, hypsometers and thermometers ; lastly, Sella 's
 
 Rdokass. 193 
 
 photogi'a2:)hic equipment, except the cinematograph, which was left 
 behind at Rdokass. We also left our camp-beds, and from now on 
 spread om' sleeping-bags on the floor of the tent. Few people know 
 that it is warmer to lie directly on the waterproof bottom of the tent, 
 even when it is set up on snow or ice, than on a camp bedstead which 
 leaves a perpetually chilly void between you and the groimd. Our 
 sleeping-bags, which had been specially planned by the Duke, were 
 admirably fitted for a journey on which every variety of chmate was 
 to be encountered. They consisted of four bags, wliich could be used 
 separately or one inside the other. One was of light soft camel's hair, 
 one of eiderdown, one of thick goatskin with a woollen covering, and 
 one of waterproof canvas, to be put outside the other three. 
 
 Our cooking apparatus was aluminium, and we used Primus paraffin 
 stoves.^ The food and stores were soldered up in tins, each one 
 weighing about 46 lbs. and containing all the necessaries of life for a 
 single day.- A Ught wooden case protected these tins from blows, and 
 the coolies carried them with such care that they all reached Rdokass 
 intact. 
 
 We carried to the high camp the same tropical tents we had used 
 up till now, of green Edgington canvas, small size. The Duke had also 
 provided two Whymper tents and two extra Hght Mimimery tents for 
 the camps in the high glacial basins and on the slopes of the mountains. 
 Our stores were completed by a box of medical and surgical necessaries 
 and two big tarpaulins to protect our supplies from the weather. 
 
 We levelled the ground under a projecting rock and arranged in 
 systematic order all the suppHes that were to be left at Rdokass. 
 Around the whole the cooHes built a wall. They worked quickly and 
 ingeniously, forming a chain between the rock and the nearest point 
 where suitable stones were to be had, and passing material from hand 
 to hand, so that there was no pause in the building operations, and 
 the wall was soon finished. 
 
 Lastly, the Duke set up a meteorological station in the shelter of a 
 rock flanked by a wall on either side, and supphed it with a mercury 
 barometer, thermometer and psichrometer. Readings were taken by 
 
 ' At altitudes o£ 17,000 feet and over the low temperature and the rarefaction of the air 
 prevents the easy combustion of ordinary spirits of wine. It is necessary to have absolute alcohol, 
 or at least 96 per cent., to start the Primus lamps and the little lamp of the hypsometer. 
 
 ' In Chapter XIX I give a detailed account of the composition of the daily ration. 
 (!Ji>i'l) s
 
 194 
 
 diaptcT XI. 
 
 Mr. Bailies three times a day from May 29tli to July loth, and ;it the 
 same hours observations were made at Leh, Skaidu, Gilgit and Siinagai-. 
 The calculations based on these data give Rdokass an altitude of 
 13,205 feet.^ It thus became a station of reference for the calculation 
 of the Duke's observations in the high mountains during this period. 
 
 We had now reached more than 13,000 feet above sea level, without 
 experiencing any symptom of suffering from altitude. We all slept 
 
 
 [^.•'' 
 
 r.VIJU PEAK AND THE LOWER BALTORO FROM RDOK^VSS. 
 
 soundly, and our appetites were excellent. Some of us, however, noted 
 even at this early period that when we stooped down to tie our shoes 
 or wind oui: puttees, for instance, we would be caught by a slight sense 
 of oppression on standing up again, and obliged to take four or five deep 
 breaths. It is, of course, impossible to walk uphill as fast as in the 
 lower regions without some shortness of breath, but I can hardly count 
 this as a symptom of mountain sickness. 
 
 The grassy slope of Rdokass ends some 300 feet above the camping 
 place with a little level terrace, from which springs the real wall of the 
 
 ' The meteorological appendix by Professor D. Omodei gives the results of these observations 
 and the data for the altimctric calculations. This makes it supei-fluous for me to discuss the 
 altitude of 13,904 feet attributed by Guillarmod to Rdokass.
 
 Tramgo GL*) 
 
 • After GuilUriDod 
 
 Lower end of the Baltoro Glacier 
 
 3 
 
 O
 
 IJdokass. 195 
 
 valley, all of rock still covered with ice and .snow. This terrace gives 
 a fine outlook over the whole lower course of the Baltoro which we have 
 just traversed. But, like the camp, it lies on the western side of the 
 spur behind a big ridge, which cuts oft' tlie view of the upper Baltoro. 
 To obtain a sight of the whole marvellous valley in its incomparable 
 grandeur you must cHmb much higher behind Edokass, to the corniced 
 ridge of snow which terminates the wall about 3,000 feet above the 
 glacier. It was from this point, on our return, that Sella made 
 panorama B, which shows 25 miles of the Baltoro glacier, from the foot 
 of the Gasherbrum down to a point quite close to the snout. 
 
 The Baltoro is the fifth of the great glaciers of the world outside 
 the Arctic regions. The distance from its snout to the foot of Hidden 
 Peak is 36 miles. The Siachen (or Saichar) glacier is 45 miles long 
 (Longstaff), the Inylchek (of the Tian Shan range, north of the Kara- 
 koram) is 44 miles (Merzbacher), and the Biafo is nearly 37 miles 
 (Workman). The Hispar is about the same length as the Baltoro — just 
 above 36 miles (Workman). No other known glacier reaches 30 miles. 
 In fact, the largest glacier of the Himalaya proper — the Zemu, of the 
 Kinchinjunga group — is only 16 miles long (Freshfield) ; but the Nepaul 
 Himalaya and the Everest group may have surprises in store. 
 
 The Baltoro ascends as far as the foot of the Gasherbrum in an 
 almost straight line, with an even regular slope fi'om 11,000 to 
 15,700 feet, giving a grade of barely 3 J per cent., and a uniform width 
 of about two miles, which makes it look from a distance like an immense 
 highroad. Godwin Austen wrote that it is as if a great glacier filled up 
 the Val d'Aosta from Mont Blanc to Chatillon, or flowed down from 
 the Simplon to Lago Maggiore through the Valle del Toce. But even if 
 we could imagine such a sight, it would not much resemble the Baltoro. 
 No Alpine valley has the elements of anything even remotely similar 
 to this vast roadway of ice between its precipitous walls. It is beyond 
 all comparison ; it differs from all Alpine scenery not merely in the 
 scale, but in the actual form and features. 
 
 Our attention was drawn from the Baltoro to fix itself upon the wild 
 rampart to the north, dominated by a forest of unnumbered peaks that 
 are between 20,000 and 23,000 feet high and show a fanta.stic variety 
 of form and structure. Not until the clouds descended and lay motionless 
 over the high peaks did we return to the observation of the valley and its 
 tributaries. 
 
 (;)221) N 2
 
 196 Chapter XI. 
 
 The Baltoro seen from above is chiefly of a uiiifoim grey colour, due 
 to the detritus which covers it. Only higher up do the moraines become 
 separated and distinct. The centre is marked, however, by a tall 
 moraine ridge running lengthwise and shghtly sinuous, which lends the 
 semblance of organic structure to the glacier, making it look like some 
 monstrous vertebrate crouching at the bottom of the valley, whose 
 outUne it follows with its full and rounded flanks. Here and there 
 pale streaks of limestone in the moraine, or a gleam of ice like the glint 
 upon shining scales, completes the imaginary likeness to a dragon of 
 fable. Unlike the Hispar and the Biafo, which are shnmk within the 
 walls of their valleys, not even extending to their own ancient marginal 
 moraines, the Baltoro fills its bed completely, as may be seen fi'om 
 panorama B. But what gives it its most characteristic feature and 
 makes it absolutely unlike our own valleys is the appearance of the side 
 spurs, which do not slope down to the valley with ridges and diminishing 
 buttresses, but come to an end suddenly, as if they had been cut off, 
 with Avide and high perpendicular walls. Between these spurs open at 
 regular intervals tributary valleys five or six miles long, also deeply set 
 between vertical walls and forming almost a right angle with the main 
 valley, like streets opening between blocks of buildings on either side 
 of the main thoroughfare of a city. The glaciers of all these tributary 
 valleys flow out on top of the Baltoro with a high front and without 
 any trace of terminal moraine. They certainly give the impression of 
 being in a state of active growth. 
 
 Conway gathered names from the natives for most of these tributary 
 glaciers. Guillarmod made further inquiry, and changed the names 
 about from one glacier to another, adding new ones. Ferber kept these 
 names for the glaciers, but added others for the valleys down which 
 they run. The Workmans, too, rearranged or changed the names given 
 by Conway to the confluents of the Hispar glacier. Probably every 
 voyager to these regions at intervals of a few years could collect data 
 for fiirther changes. It is evidently not alone in the inhabited jiortions 
 of Baltistan that the names of valleys and rivers change. It is to the 
 interest of the geographer to estabhsh a fixed nomenclature — he cannot 
 be expected to conform with capricious changes. The Duke has adopted 
 in his map the nomenclatm'e of Guillarmod, as being simpler than that 
 of Ferber. The followaug comparative table shows the names given 
 by different travellers to the same places, and at the same time gives
 
 Rdokass. 
 
 197 
 
 a list of the confluents of the Baltoro in their order from the snout to 
 the Concordia basin. The northern tributaries are all shown in 
 panorama B except the lowest, the Uli Biaho of Guillarmod. 
 
 Tributary Glaciers of the Baltoro from its Lower Exd 
 TO the Coxcordia Amphitheatre. 
 
 List of glaciers going 
 up the valley. 
 
 Conway 1892. 
 
 Guillarmod 1902. 
 
 Ferber 1903. 
 
 
 Right or Northern Side. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 Uli Biaho 
 
 Dunge 
 
 Durni 
 
 Piale 
 
 Uli Biaho 
 
 — Valley Uli Biaho 
 GL Uh Biaho. „ Tranhonge 
 „ Dunge ... „ Talve 
 ,, Durni ... „ Piale 
 „ Piale , Mustagh 
 
 Tramo^o 
 
 
 Biale 
 
 Mustagh 
 
 Next follow three small secondary valleys between the southern spurs of the Mustagh 
 Tower. Only the middle one has a glacier that runs down as far as the Baltoro. 
 
 6 
 
 Younghusband ...1 Younghusband ...| 
 
 Five more small secondary affluents. 
 
 
 Left or Southern Side. 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 :j 
 
 4 
 
 Liligua 
 
 Mundu 
 
 Stachikyunt^'me 
 
 Liligo 
 
 Gl. Liligua. Valley Chober Zechen 
 
 — „ Chober Zechen 
 
 Germi 
 
 — „ Choblak 
 
 
 YprmnnpiHln. 
 
 (Jroup of sec 
 
 ondary affluents. 
 
 6&7 
 
 1 Two very large unnamed affluents. 
 
 Rdokass stands opposite the Biale, the fomth confluent on the right 
 bank, a secondary glacier filling a steep gorge carved out on the face 
 of a spur (see panorama B). A little beyond is the mouth of an 
 important valley filled by the Mustagh glacier, which runs deep up into 
 the chain to the ancient pass of the same name, 19,000 feet high, over 
 which Askoley used to communicate vnth Yarkand. The pass seems 
 to have been in use in early times — Ujfalvy states that the Portuguese 
 Jesuit, D'Espiuaha, crossed it in 1760. According to Vigne, it was still 
 open mider Ahmed Shah, the last independent Rajah of Skardu in the 
 first half of the last century. But when Godwin Austen went to Askoley 
 and the Baltoro in 1861 it was said to have become impracticable, owing 
 to great accumulations of snow and ice. 
 
 o 
 (9221) 
 
 N 3
 
 I'.m 
 
 ('li;il)tfr \I. 
 
 We owe our first detailed account of the route across the pass to 
 Colonel Sir Francis Younghusband, who traversed it at the end of 1887.' 
 He was on his way from Kashgar, which he had reached aftei- crossing 
 the whole of China ; and he started over the Karakoram with a few 
 coolies, no tent, a single sleeping-bag, a fur coat apiece, and a scanty 
 su})ply of dried provisions. He ascended to the top of the pass by the 
 
 Ml'STACiH PASS. 
 
 MUSTACH TOWKK. 
 
 MUSTAtiH TOWKR AN'D PASS FROM THK KOCKS ABOVE RDOKASS. 
 
 gentle slope of the Sarpo Laggo glacier, which was deep in soft snow, 
 and descended on the Baltoro side by a steep and broken ice wall, a 
 proceeding both difficult and dangerous for a party lacking the simplest 
 mountaineering equipment. The condition of the glaciers more than 
 justified the abandonment of this pass. A. C. F. Ferber climbed 
 up to the Mustagh col with E. Honigmann in (September, 1903, and 
 collected some interesting indications of active coining and going across 
 
 ' Col. Sir F. Youxohusband. A Journey rirross Centrul Asia, etc. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. N.S. 
 10, 1888, p. 485 : and The Heart of a Conlinenl. etc. London 1904. 4th ed.
 
 Rdokass. 199 
 
 it in the past. ^ Upon a grassy slope near the Mustagli glacier he found 
 a village of twenty-two huts, abandoned and in ruins, one of which 
 contained a tomb. There were clear traces of camping grounds, and 
 even an artificially levelled spot called Sharagan, 800 feet long by 
 160 feet wide, which had once been used for polo matches, presumably 
 on foot, between the Baltis and Yarkandis.- Ferber also brought back 
 from his expedition a topographical sketch of the Mustagh glacier and 
 pass, whose position had heretofore been only vaguely noted on the 
 map. 
 
 Oil the day following oui' arrival at Rdokass, after a brilHant 
 morning, the sky clouded over little by little — at fijst with only a thin 
 veil ; then sleet began to fall, growing thicker and thicker, until it 
 settled down into a heavy snowfall. The aspect of the glacier changed 
 utterly. The tall central moraine ridge, with its notched crest, remained 
 c[uite black, owing to radiation from the thick strata of detritus ; but 
 on both sides the glacier grew white as far as the marginal moraines, 
 where again the snow melted as it fell. A clear distinction was thus 
 drawn between principal and secondary moraines. 
 
 It was useless to think of starting on May 21st, with fresh snow 
 lying a hand's-breadth deep on the Baltoro. Even had it been possible 
 to induce the coolies to move, we could not have gone far over ground 
 so treacherous, even when uncovered, that you risk a fall with every 
 step. The snow continued to fall, but no longer so heavily ; and later 
 on the sun showed for a few hours, feeble and veiled Init sufficiently 
 powerful to melt most of the fresh snow. 
 
 During the day Botta was taken with chills and fever. It was a 
 passing illness, and gave way to salicylic treatment within twenty-four 
 hours. The sheep and goats were now straggling into camp, worn out 
 with lieing driven for three days without food. They greedily began 
 
 ' A. C. F. Fekber (bi-sido tlic article cited from tin- Oeotj. Jour.), sec Die Krhindung des 
 Miistaghpusses, etc., in Zeit. d. dent. %i. oest. Alpenver. vol. 3(i. 1!K)5, and Boll, del Club Alp. Hal. 
 vol. 38, 1906, p. 319. 
 
 " These discoveries of Ferber are interesting because they seem to pi-ove that the Mustagh 
 was once a familiar and regularly used route, despite the fear of the glaciers displa}'cd by the 
 natives who live at their foot. Stein tliinks that only troublous times of war and danger from 
 enemies could have induced them to risk their lives on the glaciers (see the diseu.s.-iion after 
 Longstaft's lecture. The Baltoro Bass, printed in Alp. Jour. 25, 1911, p. 670). Longstaff agrees 
 with Stein that the glacier routes were more probably used by war refugees and messengers, 
 in times of hostile invasion, instead of for trade purposes, and were abandoned with the return 
 of peace. 
 
 (9-2-21) N 4
 
 200 
 
 Chapter XL 
 
 to nibble the dry grass that stuck out here and there through the snow. 
 During the day we finished all our arrangements for the base camp. 
 
 The coolies enjoyed the unexpected rest, huddled in their dens as 
 thick as rabbits in a warren. They swarmed in every chink and hollow 
 among the rocks. We discovered that they made as many separate 
 little camps as there were villages from which they came, but evidently 
 
 THE SHIKARI ABDULLAH (ON THE LEFT), THE WAZIR OF SHICAR (cEXTRE) AND THREE 
 
 CHUPRASSIS 
 
 not owing to any hostiUty between these communities, for their relations 
 were unbroken and seemed very cordial. The variety of anthropo- 
 logical tvpes is striking. By far the gi'eater number are dark, but a 
 few are blond, occasionally even red-haired. Some are absolutely 
 smooth-faced, others have thick beards. One would say that the Italic 
 types prevailed — characteristic Lombard heads, the full and somewhat 
 hea^'7 features of certain portrait busts of Roman anticj^uity, and most 
 marked of all, the type, by no means uncommon, of the Florentine j^age 
 of the trecento, with a face that agrees very well with the fringe of long 
 hair hanging all round the head. One sees sometimes a group positively
 
 Sunset. Taken from the rocks above Kdokass
 
 i'.i'.trAi>l>'/l avo'lii H/lxn -jdl rnoit ti'j^lnT .Joannrl
 
 r '■
 
 Rdokass. 201 
 
 Biblical in appearance — figures draped in white blankets, with the head 
 swathed in a narrow piece of the same stuff, the ends hanging down the 
 back, and faces of a Semitic cast. Again, one notices a plainly Mongol 
 type, with the characteristic oblique eyes and prominent cheekbones. 
 Many of them while busy baking the chupattis took off nearly all their 
 clothes, with complete indifference to the snow which fell on their backs. 
 They almost always go about barefoot. 
 
 Rdokass has abundant animal life, notwithstanding its altitude of 
 over 13,000 feet and its situation among the glaciers. Small rodents 
 about the size of guinea-pigs, with long light grey hair and round erect 
 ears, start up in every direction and hide away under the stones.^ 
 Small birds hop about the tents, and flights of ash-grey pigeons with 
 black heads pass above us. Not far from the camp flocks of some bird 
 of the genus fosser chirp about on the turf. They are the size of 
 blackbirds, grey and dark green in colour with a black throat. From 
 the near-by bushes we hear the call of the giant partridge or ram chikor, 
 and every level spot on the mountain side is full of the prints of ibexes. 
 The arrival of so large a party and the smell of smoke had frightened 
 them all off to a distance. Along the margins of the glacier nearly 
 up to the Concordia we found remains of ibexes which had fallen victim 
 to avalanches or to the snow leopard. ^ 
 
 The brief interval of simshine proved a deceiving prophecy. The 
 snow came on again in the night, so heavily that by the morning of 
 May 22nd the whole scene had become absolutely wintry, and the Duke 
 was obliged to give up another day. It did not turn out to be altogether 
 lost time, for Sella, with the guides and a few cooUes, went down to 
 the Baltoro and crossed it to the central moraine ridge, where they 
 set up a large stone pyramid. Meantime Negrotto with his graduated 
 staff and tacheometer had measured out along the slojje an accurate 
 base line of about 300 feet, from either end of which he took the 
 angles to the apex of the pyramid. When we got back to Rdokass on 
 July 23rd he repeated these observations. The pyramid had somewhat 
 gone to pieces, but was still easily recognizable, and from his data 
 Negrotto ascertained that it had moved 361 feet down the glacier during 
 
 ' They are probably little animals of the genus ocholona, and have been obsen"cd iu other 
 places. Longstaff sajs the natives call thcni shippi, or whisperers. 
 
 ' Pbof. Camerano has published a monograph on the ibex horns brought back by the 
 expedition {Osservazioni suUo slanibecco del Baltoro, etc. Aiti R. Ace. deUe Scienze di Torino, 
 vol. 46, Feb. 1911).
 
 202 Chapter XI. 
 
 the interval of sixty-two days. Thi.s gives a notable average daily 
 speed of nearly 5 feet 10 inches for the central stream of the Baltoro 
 10 miles from its snout. If tliis rate were kept up, it would result in a 
 progress of 2,124 feet a year ; but in reality it mast be less, for we know- 
 that the current is slower in winter than in summer. Observations on 
 the speed of the current in Himalayan glaciers have been very scanty 
 up to the present. R. Strachey gives some measurements taken in the 
 Kumaun-Gahrwal group, where the glaciers are nearer those of our 
 own Alps in size. They move much more slowly than the Baltoro. At 
 the centre of the glacier which forms the source of the Pindi — a con- 
 fluent of the Ganges — an average advance of 9h inches in twenty-four 
 hours was observed in May, and from May 21st to October loth the 
 same glacier moved 98 "57 feet, giving an average of 8 inches a day. 
 It flows down to 11,900 feet. Another glacier, the Gori, which flows 
 down to 11,500 feet, covered 37*92 feet between August 2nd and 
 September 30th, an average of 14^ inches a day.^ Mr. Hewett, nii 
 English topographer who was with the Workmans on the Chogo Lungma, 
 took various measurements of the rate of the latter at two points 15 
 and 18 miles from the snout, by observing various points of the surface 
 at different distances from the two stations. His resiilts varied con- 
 siderably for the different points. However, the highest speeds which 
 he observed — namely, 3 "08, 3 "16 and 3 "29 feet in twenty-four hours — 
 may be compared with Negrotto's results on the Baltoro, taking into 
 account the difference in volume between the two glaciers. On the 
 other hand, on the Hoh Luml)a, a much smaller glacier, which runs 
 down to the north of the Braldoh valley, the Workmans found a mean 
 velocity of about "26 feet in twenty-foui' hours, at a point where the 
 inclination is barely 2° 32'. It looks as though the giant glaciers of the 
 Karakoram flowed at a much higher speed than the ordinary Alpine 
 glacier, and, of course, it would be reasonable to expect that, other 
 conditions being equal, a certain relation should exist between mass 
 and velocity.- Let us hope that these observations may soon be taken 
 on the other great glaciers of the region. 
 
 * R. Strachey, On the Physical Oeography of the Provinces of Kumaun and Gahrwal, etc. 
 Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 21, 1851, p. 57. 
 
 ' In the Grumhiige der Phtjsischen Erdkumk {A. SrPAN", Loi])sic 1011, 5th ed., p. 197) the 
 author says " The giant glaciers of the Himalaya move much more rapidly (than the Alpine ones), 
 with a speed which in the summer reaches 2-3 up to 7 metres," etc.
 
 lidokass. 203 
 
 Toward evening the weather showed symptoms of clearing, and 
 the Duke had everything prepared for a start on the following morning 
 — not in two parties, according to the original plan, but all together. 
 Mr. Baines, who was anxious to get a glimpse of K- before shutting 
 himself up in his Edokass hermitage, accompanied us as far as the 
 meeting of the Baltoro with the Godwin Austen, whence he returned 
 to the base camp with the coolies.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 FROM RDOKASS TO THE CONCORDIA AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 Map and Panoramas of the Expedition. — We leave Rdokass. — Glacier Tables. — ■ The Median 
 Moraine of the Baltoro. • — The Workman Theory of Glacial Ridges. — Changes of Nomen- 
 clature. — Ice -cones and Pyramids. — Their Origin.- — Glacier Lakes and Reservoirs. — 
 Camping on the (Uacier. — Conway's Crystal Peak. — The Doksam Glacier. ■ — The Marble 
 Peak. — Godwin Austen Glacier. — In Sight of K '. 
 
 From this point forward the 
 narrative may be supplemented 
 by the map of the expedition 
 comprising the two upper thirds 
 of the Baltoro and its formation 
 basin, drawn to the scale of 
 1 : 100,000. But no description, 
 even with the assistance of 
 photography, can succeed, I fear, 
 in giving a just conception, even 
 if a faint one, of this extra- 
 ordinary region. To compose 
 the picture as far as may be, 
 the reader must tax his patience 
 to make a careful study of 
 Sella 's panoramas, which were 
 taken from many points, and 
 compare them with one another and with the maj). It is in order to 
 make this possible that not only the topographical stations, but also 
 the points from which the photographs were taken, are marked upon 
 the triangulation map, and the panoramas provided with the nomen- 
 clature and altitudes of the different peaks. In addition, the points 
 from wluch other panoramas were taken are marked with a small cross
 
 From Rdokass to the Concordia Amphitheatre. 205 
 
 so as to make comparison easy. The illustrations in the text and the 
 plates are intended to give special details from the panoramas. I hope 
 that the frequently recurring references to the latter may be justified 
 by this explanation. 
 
 On the morning of May 23rd at about eight o'clock, after a little 
 hesitation owing to the uncertain look of the weather, we placed our 
 trust in the stability of the barometer and in the wind, which seemed 
 to be veering from south-west to north-east, and we all set out from 
 Rdokass, leaving only the shepherds, a couple of chuprassis and a few 
 coolies in Mi". Baines' service. The Duke's plan was to follow the 
 return route of the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition — that is, 
 to cut across the Baltoro toward a camping ground at the foot of the 
 northern slope, a httle above Younghusband glacier, where Conway 
 had made his Storage Camp. We skirted the Rdokass ridge downward, 
 and crossed the left hand moraine, which consists of good-sized granite 
 blocks, and comes from the united marginal moraines of the Yermanendu 
 and Mundu glaciers, two affluents much larger than any on the northern 
 side, which flow down from the Masherbrum group, separated by a long 
 and low spur. We then went a long way up the Baltoro between the 
 central and the left-hand lateral moraine. Here the surface was com- 
 paratively smooth and the detritus of granite and schist rather fine, 
 so that the marching was not very fatiguing. This part of the glacier 
 is dotted with ice-tables, none of them very large or liigh, and mingled, 
 as usual, with cones and broken columns of former tables. The tops 
 of these latter had fallen off, and were lying on the surface of the glacier, 
 where, by sheltering another small extent of ice from the rays of the 
 sun while the smToundiug level sunk by melting, they would in time 
 form new tables, the process repeating itself indefinitely. After an 
 hour's march we stopped to distribute smoked spectacles to the coolies, 
 for there was a great deal of fresh snow among the stones, and the 
 reverberation was trying, in spite of the cloudy sky. 
 
 We were now drawing nearer the median moraine, which rises 
 abruptly to a height of 100 to 200 feet, or even more, above the level 
 of the glacier. We finally climbed on top of it, and found ourselves 
 amid rugged and broken ice covered with all sorts of minerals, mainly 
 limestones and polychrome conglomerates. The extraordinary irregu- 
 larity of the surface contrasts curiously with the gentle slopes and the 
 structural lines of the valley. We were, above all, struck by the absence
 
 20C Chapter .\II. 
 
 of crevasses, a state of things to be explained only by a level valley 
 bottom, unbroken by abrupt falls or projections. But what can then 
 be the origin of this labyrinth of heights and hollows ? What are the 
 forces which have heaved uj) the glacier into high cones, into curving 
 waves or vertical steps, with every appearance of a surface shaped by 
 fracture ? Freshfield attributes the irregidarity of surface in the Zemu 
 glacier of the Kinchinjunga group to the action of the surface streams, 
 which have furrowed and carved out the glacier in every direction. At 
 first sight, it does not seem possible that confusion and irregularity on 
 such a vast scale as here could be jiroduced by the action of such simple 
 forces, even taken together with mievenness of surface melting, which 
 would be brought about more actively where the layer of detritus was 
 thin, and more slowly where it lay thick enough to protect the ice from 
 the sun. The Workmans noticed that the ridges and valleys on the 
 Hispar were most pronounced where some big confluent joined the 
 glacier and pressed upon it fiom above with the enormous weight of its 
 own moving mass, in some cases even driving the main stream toward 
 the other side of the valley. They advanced the hypothesis that the 
 surface upheavals are caused by this pressure, which thus forms veritable 
 folds in the plastic mass of the glacier. The theory is ingenious, and 
 appears the more probable in that many indications in the Baltoro 
 glacier seem at first sight to confirm it. Upon this hypothesis the 
 long high spinal vertebra? of the Baltoro would be formed by the 
 pressure in opposite directions exerted by the Godwin Austen and the 
 upper Baltoro, where they meet in the Concordia amphitheatre, a 
 pressure increased by the confinement of their united mass within the 
 limits of the Baltoro valley, and still further by the force of confluent 
 glaciers running into it perpendicidar to its axis from the high mountains 
 on either side. 
 
 Panorama Q gives a long stretch of this central upheaval of the 
 Baltoro, showing how it starts abruptly from the surface of the glacier 
 and how its walls are cut into vertical sections, apparently due to 
 fracture produced by pressure too great for the elasticity of the glacier. 
 The look of the ice recalls, though on a smaller scale, the great dykes 
 caused by pressure in the polar ice-pack, where an analogous piocess 
 goes on. Conway, too, attributes the long undulations of the Baltoro 
 to pressure brought about by its confinement in the narrow parts of 
 the vallev.
 
 From liclokass to tlic Concordia Aiupliitlieatrf. I'or 
 
 XotTOthstanding all this, when two mouths later we again traversed 
 the glacier on our return and saw the extraordinary changes a few weeks 
 had been able to effect in digging out fresh valleys and vastly increasing 
 the differences of level, we were forced to own that uneven surface 
 melting, due to the varying thickness of the moraine layer, is without 
 doubt the main factor in the irregularity of the glacier surface. It is 
 also possible that the pressure of the glaciers against each other does 
 bring about some upheavals and projections of the mass, and that 
 these, in their turn, by determining certain falls and dLsplacements of 
 detritus, add to the iiTegularity of the melting process and so contribute 
 to the general result. 
 
 We had now nearly reached the mouth of the Younghusband glacier, 
 at about the point attained by Godwin Austen in 1861. ^ Although 
 we had passed the spot where we had intended to camp, Abdullah and 
 the native guides kept on up the glacier instead of crossing it direct 
 to the northern side. After long explanations we succeeded in making 
 out that the coolies put the stage of Crore above the confluence of the 
 Younghusband glacier, where Guillarmod's map has Biange, a mere 
 inversion of names. It was obviously wise to profit by the goodwill 
 of the porters and make the camp as far up as possible. We therefore 
 allowed ourselves to be led without further discussion. The coolies 
 were being paid per stage (parao) at the exceptional tariff of seven annas, 
 and not by the day, so it was to their interest to march quickly and 
 cover two or more stages in a day. 
 
 Inconsistencies in nomenclature are, to my mind, far less surprising 
 in this region than the fact that there are any names at all, implying 
 a certain familiarity with places which the natives must never have 
 visited voluntarily, if one judged by their violent aversion to the glacier, 
 which is certainly strong enough to counterbalance any natural 
 curiosity. Yet there are other indications which seem to show that 
 they have some degree of acquaintance with these ice-bound solitudes. 
 As early as 1892, at the time of Conway's visit, a Balti of Askoley made 
 on the sand a rough sketch of the district in order to show Eckenstein 
 the position of the Mustagh passes, the Baltoro, the Mustagh Tower, 
 Masherbrum, Gasherbnim and K-.- 
 
 • From here Godw-in Austen climbed part way up one of the spurs of the southern chain of 
 the Baltoro in order to get a view of K '. 
 
 - See the letter of Sm W. M. Conway, in Proc. Boy. Geog. Soc. 14, 1892, p. 857.
 
 208 
 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 From Rdokass on we obsen^ecl, as did our predecessors, some higher 
 hummocks or pointed cones far too hirge and broad-based to be 
 identified with the pedestals of fallen glacier tables. Little by little 
 as we went up these strange formations became more numerous, and 
 increased in height up to from 30 to 70 feet or more. They are in shape 
 either cones with an oval base or flattened pyramids, whose greatest 
 
 ICE PYRAJIID ON THE BALTOBO. 
 
 diameter runs parallel to the direction of the valley. They usually 
 terminate in a sharp point. On the right side of the glacier, to which 
 we had now crossed, we found them large and imposing and arranged 
 in rows running in the direction of the moraine. As you go farther 
 down they get farther apart, but remain between the same moraine 
 lines. The glacier marked with these snow-white pinnacles over a 
 dark background of moraine presents an odd appearance — like a grave- 
 yard with rows of tombstones, or a river dotted with fleets of white 
 lateen sails.
 
 From Rdokass to the Concordia Aiupliitlieatre. 20'j 
 
 The first observer to call attention to these ice pyramids was God\vin 
 Austen, whom nothing noteworthy escaped. Giiillarmod supposes them 
 to be seracs fallen from overhanging side glaciers, and reduced to this 
 shape by melting. Ferber notes the phenomenon without attempting 
 an explanation. They seem to be peculiar to the Baltoro — at least, the 
 ice cones and pyramids seen by the Workmans on the Hispar and by 
 Longstaff on the Siachen, and the glaciers which cut into the upper 
 
 ICE l'YRA.MIDS. 
 
 Shyok valley, appear to be merely supports of fallen tables. In any 
 case, we have no detailed descriptions which would suffice to identify 
 them with the pyramids of the Baltoro. 
 
 These formations we observed only as far as the entrance to the 
 Concordia basin. We saw iione of them on the higher portion of the 
 glacier, where the action of melting is equally intense. But in the 
 Concordia amphitheatre and on the upper Baltoro we saw formations 
 which might account for the origin of the pyramids. I mean the long 
 high dykes of ice which rise between the dark moiaine ridges hoUowed 
 by melting. They are generally bare of detritus, possibly owing to the 
 
 (9221) o
 
 210 
 
 ('Ii;i])ter XII. 
 
 steepness of their sides, and stand out sliarply from tlio moraine-coveicd 
 surface as if the live ice had violently thrust itself up through the shroud 
 of detritus. Panoramas K and N show some of these icy crests. Heie 
 and there they appear already divided into segments and sejiarated 
 blocks, in consequence of the melting of the intermediate parts due to 
 
 EMPTY BASIN OF GLACIAL LAKE. 
 
 patches of detritus. Godwin Austen observed on the Baltoro itself, 
 in addition to the pyramids, certain oblong blocks with a sharp ridge 
 on top, which must have been larger sections of one of these ice dykes. 
 
 In this part of the Baltoro, between the ranks of pyramids, are 
 numerous exquisite little lakes, mere collections of water in hollows, 
 not fed by streams or provided with outlets. Some of them are covered 
 with ice vaults, recalling similar formations on the Agassiz glacier in
 
 Masherbnim, from the Raltoro
 
 II ilriic 1 111 ) Mil 1 1 1 .nil; Id ! iii-i; ii
 
 iim->
 
 From IMokass to the Concordia Ani))hitlic'atrc'. 211 
 
 Aksku. The ice pyramids poised 011 the margin of these little lakes 
 are dazzlingly reflected in the translucent water ; or where the basin 
 has been emptied the adjacent ice pyramid appears to have added the 
 whole depth to its own height. In other places we look through fissures 
 into large caverns filled with water up to various levels. Godwin Austen 
 made a special study of these spherical reservoirs, noticing outlets upon 
 their walls, some of which reached the proportions of real tunnels 
 
 OPENING OF A RESERVOIR. 
 
 traversed by endo-glacial torrents. I must mention also the 
 symmetrical conical hillocks on wide bases, entirely covered with 
 detritus, which reach sometimes a height of 300 feet. The Workmans, 
 who observed similar hillocks on the Hispar, attribute them to thrusts 
 acting concentrically from different directions. But Dr. Cesare Caiciati 
 and Dr. Mathias Koncza, who accompanied the Workmans upon their 
 last expedition, think they are due to irregular surface melting. We 
 did not get sufficient data to conclude in favour of eitlier hypothesis. 
 On our way down from the median moraine to the right half of the 
 glacier we crossed a moraine streak of white marbles coming from the 
 last glacier on this side of the valley near the Concordia basin. Beyond 
 
 (9221) o 2
 
 21 i 
 
 Chapter XI I. 
 
 this point the granite ))egin.s again. Here we also found scattered 
 pebbles worn to varying degrees of roundness. 
 
 Jiittle by little the weather improved. Though the sky did not 
 quite clear and light mists were still lingering on some of the peaks, we 
 now began to get sight of surrounding sunmiits which told us we were 
 nearing the high peaks. It seemed as if the whole southern chain of 
 the Baltoro had no other office than to form a base for the marvellous 
 Masherbrum, which towered xip in its midst, showing a little dimly 
 
 MITKE PEAK WITH ADJACENT SOITH WALL OV THE BALTORO. 
 
 through the mist. Its gigantic northern wall is deeply furrowed and 
 loaded with glaciers breaking into icefalls down the sides of a 
 tremendous central rib of rock. This latter is also covered in gi'eat part 
 with ice, and leads up to the small horn which forms the topmost peak, 
 25,660 feet. The second peak, 25,610 feet high, is hidden behind the first 
 one. The foot of the mountain is at least four miles from the Baltoro, 
 and the space between is traversed by two large glaciers, the Mundu 
 and Yermanendu, which flow on either side of a long, low and deeply 
 indented spur, like a miniature chain of peaks running at right angles 
 to the main one. To the east of Masherbrum and beyond a series of 
 minor spurs which divide a few secondary val]e3's, the Baltoro receives 
 two more confluents as large as the glaciers of the Masherbrum, flowing
 
 Gasherbrulii
 
 ' rtu1dT^ti^Bi)
 
 From Rdokass to the Concordia Amphitheatre. 21:3 
 
 down in great icefalls from precipices loaded with snow. Then comes 
 Mitre Peak, a colossal, strangely-shaped crag, which terminates the 
 left wall of the valley. In front of us, apparently quite close at hand, 
 the transversal chain of the Gasherbrum seeias to shut in the valley. 
 It is a file of peaks and snow crests, stretching on both sides of the 
 precipitous rock wall of the Gasherbrum itsolf, all ridges and ice guUies, 
 
 GASHERBRUM. 
 
 and nearly 10,500 feet. It is bounded by two ridges which would meet 
 
 at a sharp angle were they prolonged beyond the truncated peak. To 
 
 the north of the Gasherbrum, on the continuation of the same range, 
 
 the great rounded domes of Broad Peak rise above the last spurs of the 
 
 right wall of the Baltoro, which still project in front of us. Lastly, to 
 
 our rear the Mustagh Tower has detached itself from the lesser peaks 
 
 and stands up alone and menacing. It has not even yet revealed the 
 
 full splendour of its outlines. 
 
 (9221) o 3
 
 214 
 
 CliapttT XII. 
 
 About 4 p.m., after a little over seven hours' marching, when we 
 had long passed all the coolies, we found a spot on the moraine which 
 was relatively level and free from boulders, at a point half-way between 
 Younghusband glacier and the stage of Gor^, or Biange, as Guillarmod 
 has it. Here the Duke decided to place the camp. The coolies did not 
 arrive until after sunset. They had but ten loads of firewood, all small 
 and wet, and they experienced great difficulty in kindling their tiny 
 
 MITRE TEAK FROM THE CAMP BETWEEN' RDOKASS AXD THE CON(»RDL\. 
 
 fires. The sky had clouded over, and it began to snow again. We could 
 not leave the poor wretches without shelter for the night with the snow 
 falling, so we lent them the two large tarpaulins. Quickly and 
 thoroughly the ingenious Baltis cleared two big squares from superfluous 
 stones, built a low wall around them, stretched the tarpaulias across, 
 and were soon all sheltered, packed as close as herrings, but quite happy 
 and satisfied. In order not to encroach upon their slender stock of 
 firewood we inaugiu^ated our Primus stoves, which, as usual, required 
 our personal supervision for the first few days, until Bareux had time 
 to learn how to use them.
 
 From Rdokass to the Concordia Amphitheatre. 215 
 
 During the night the thermometer fell to several degrees under 
 freezing point, and the next morning was very chilly. The air was still 
 but slightly veiled, reminding us of the dusty horizons of the Indus 
 valley. Our native guides made us descend nearly at once into the 
 deep trough between the valley wall and the glacier, full of very mistable 
 blocks, where the whole march is up and down hill, because one has 
 constantly to cross portions of the glacier which jut out on to the rock. 
 These stretches were covered witli very coarse detritus, upon which you 
 must step very lightly, because if you move one block the whole of the 
 stony slope above and below you begins to sUde down, and the least 
 that could happen would be an unexpected plunge in some marginal 
 lake. It would doubtless be easier and less dangerous to walk along 
 the surface of the glacier, as we should have done but for the Anolent 
 objection of the coolies to marching on it, not so much on account of 
 the cold as from superstitious terrors. 
 
 In less than an hour we reached a little lake at the foot of a 
 secondary valley (the next but one after the Younghusband glacier), 
 which our coolies called the stage of Gore. Here Conway camped (Pool 
 Camp), also the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition (Biange) ; 
 and one of the two parties set up a cairn, which is still standing. From 
 this point Conway ascended a peak of the ridge above, 19,400 feet 
 high, which he named Crystal Peak. Thence he discovered the 
 Concordia basin and the three nnghty glaciers which flow down to it — 
 the Godwin Austen, the upper Baltoro and the Vigno. This peak 
 which Conway climbed has nothing to do with the one 20,587 feet 
 high which bears the same name on our map and lies farther east, almost 
 directly above Doksam. The latter, which is very well suited to be a 
 topographical station of reference, owing to its striking pointed shape, 
 was proxdsionally called Crystal Peak by Negrotto in his survej'ing 
 work, and the name was preserved inadvertently. In the course of a 
 topographical campaign it is unavoidable to give some temporary 
 conventional name or sign to peaks which have to be identified from 
 different stations. Beyond this casual naming the Duke, as I have 
 ex])lained, named none of the many peaks measured by us, agreeing 
 with Burrard that, until a rational system shall be found, it is better 
 to designate peaks simply by theii- altitudes. 
 
 We now crossed the mouth of another small valley, and at the next 
 opening in the wall we left the ice and skirted a gentle grassy slope 
 
 19221) o 4
 
 216 
 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 where Conway had camped (Fan Camp), and whence he climbed to a 
 saddle on the ridge, from which he had his first sight of K- and was 
 able to realize the vast dimensions of Broad Peak. 
 
 We finally came back to the glacier proper, where we were able to 
 proceed more rapidly and with less fatigue, in a space between two 
 bands of moraine where there were numerous little lakes. In a few 
 
 THE MAKBLE PEAK AT THE CORNER BETWEEN THE GODWIN AUSTE.V AXD THE BALTORO. 
 
 minutes we reached the last confluent glacier on this side of the valley, 
 which is not very large, and flows down from a strange-looking peak, 
 a pinnacle of pure white marble rising from a wide base of black slaty 
 schists. This glacier, like the Liligo, does not reach the Baltoro, but 
 ends not far from it, between two moraines of dazzhng white marble, 
 in a great frontal wafl of broken ice hke a line of surf. The Shikari 
 Abdullah told us that this glacier had totally changed its appearance 
 since 1902, when the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition camped 
 in the space between it and the Baltoro (Doksam Camp). Certainly it 
 would not now be possible to set up the tents on the small level that
 
 From Rdokass to the Concordia Ainphitlieatre. 217 
 
 remains, which is under continual fire from the seracs of the advancing 
 glacier. 
 
 We had now nearly reached the end of the Baltoro valley proper. 
 At a short distance from us a promontory from the base of the marble 
 peak ran down to the glacier. We knew that this was the last obstacle 
 
 FIRST SIGHT OF K ". 
 
 between us and the sight of the Godwin Austen valley and K-, which 
 lay behind it, and we were seized with unspeakable restlessness and 
 fear lest the mist should cut us ofE from the long-looked-for reward, 
 which had been in the background of our consciousness through every 
 step of the long way. 
 
 We rounded the spur following the wide sweep of moraine, now 
 grown level and even, almost without noticing the vast space of the 
 Concordia amphitheatre spread out before us. Suddenly, and without 
 warning, as if a veil had been lifted from our eyes, the wide Godwin
 
 218 Chaptfv XII. 
 
 Austen valley lay before us in its whole length. Down at the end, alone, 
 detached from all the other mountains, soared up K-, the indisputable 
 sovereign of the legion, gigantic and solitary, hidden from human sight 
 by innumerable ranges, jealously defended by a vast throng of vassal 
 peaks, protected from invasion by miles and miles of glaciers. Even to 
 get witJiin sight of it demands so much contrivance, so much marching, 
 such a sum of labours. 
 
 It fills the whole end of the valley, with nothing to draw the attention 
 from it. All the lines of the landscape seem to meet and converge in 
 it. The mountains group themselves about it. yet without any intrusion 
 upon it or interference with its pxtraordinary upward effort, its lines 
 are ideally proportioned and perfectly balanced, its architectural desigji 
 is powerful, adequate to the majesty of the peak without being heavy ; 
 the steepness of its sides, its ridges and its glaciers is appalling ; its 
 rocky wall is 12,000 feet high. 
 
 For a whole hour we stood absorbed. We gazed, we minutely 
 inspected, we examined with our glasses the incredible rock wall. All 
 the time our minds were assailed with increasing doubt, culminating 
 almost in certainty, that this side of the mountain was not accessible, 
 and did not oft'er even a reasonable point of attack. Meantime the 
 atmosphere grew gradually thicker, the veil of whitish vapour heavier, 
 stretching and expanding and melting together, until even the last 
 spectral image disappeared and a uniform grey curtain of mist filled 
 the end of the valley. The vision was gone. Beneath a lowering sky 
 the Concordia ice-plain lost itself to the south in the dim vastness of 
 the upper Baltoro.
 
 CHAPTER XIIT. 
 
 FROM CONCORDIA TO THE FOOT OF K-. 
 
 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS AND FIRST ATTEMPT 
 
 The Concordia Amphitheatre. — Confluent Glaciers. — The Southern Wall of K '. — Broad Peak. — 
 ( iasherbrum. Golden Throne and Bride Peak. — The Arrangement of the Moraines. — 
 Photogrammetric \\'ork begim. — The Lower Part of the Godwin Austen. • — Structure of 
 the Broad-Gasherbrum Range. — Height of Broad Peak determined. — The '' Nieves 
 Penitentes " of Dr. Workman. — The Camp at the Base of K-. — Exploration of the Eastern 
 and Western Slopes. — The Plan of Attack. — The Camp moved to the Southern Ridge of 
 K'. — The Duke leaves the Base Camp. — Three Days on the Slopes of K -. — Defeat. — 
 Return to Camp. — Coolies and Crows. — Snowfalls and Avalanches. 
 
 The dawn of May 2oth found 
 us up and abroad. The ther- 
 mometer stood at 15° F. On 
 the evening before veils of 
 mist and cloud-curtains had 
 so shrouded the landscape that 
 we had not in the least reahzed 
 the incredible spectacle of 
 glaciers and mountains which 
 now stood revealed in the pale 
 Ught of morning. The air was 
 perfectly still and just lightly 
 
 ^ dimmed, like a crystal breathed 
 
 '.'■'t- <4ir^1* " ' upon, yet clear enough to show 
 
 everv detail of the marvellous 
 scene. ^ 
 We had camped on one side of the huge glacial cross roads, named 
 by Conway the Concordia, after the glacial basin of the Oberland, in 
 which the Aletsch, the largest glacier in Europe, has its source. 
 
 
 ' See the map of the Baltoro and jianoranias C and D.
 
 2-20 ('liaj)ter XIII. 
 
 The basin is formed by the bifurcation of the Baltoio valley, at the 
 foot of the bastion made by the Broad Peak (Gasherbrum range). One 
 of the two branches of the valley is the Godwin Austen, which goes up 
 northward to K-. The other is the Upper Baltoro, which runs south- 
 east to Golden Throne and Bride Peak. Both valleys then curve east- 
 ward, and combined they form a letter C made up of nearly 31 miles 
 
 MITRE PEAK FROM THE CORNER BETWEEN" THE BALTORO ASD THE GODWIN AUSTEN. 
 
 of glaciers. In addition to these, two other good-.sized glaciers come 
 into the Concordia from the western walls of the Broad-Gasherb rum 
 chain. They meet directly outside their own valleys, and wedge 
 themselves between the Baltoro and the Godwin Austen, cro.ssing the 
 basin in a white stripe of bare ice between the moraines of the two main 
 glaciers. These four main affluents alone are at least five miles broad, 
 without counting the numberless smaller tributaries coming in from
 
 From Concordiji to the Foot of" K '■. 
 
 221 
 
 the valleys, gorges and couloirs of the mountain chains ; while the 
 basin which receives them all is only two and a half miles in diameter, 
 and the Baltoro valley itself, into which the whole mass is compressed, 
 less than two miles broad. The entrance to the latter is guarded by 
 two characteristic heights — to the north Conway's Angle Peak, a marble 
 summit 20,088 feet high ; and to the south the bizarre tooth-shaped 
 Mitre Peak, 20,462 feet high, entirely composed of black schist. 
 
 SOUTHKKN VIKW OK K" 
 
 On every side the eye meets a spreading vista of wide valleys filled 
 Avith almost level glaciers, which go up at a gentle slojDe among the lofty 
 chains. The Godwin Austen is composed of parallel stripes of black 
 and white, formed by the alternation of bare ice and moraine detritus. 
 It runs northward for six miles to the base of K^, which rises, a p\T:amid 
 of rock, 12.000 feet high from base to summit, between two ridges that 
 outline themselves to west and east against the sky. The first of these 
 is all rock, rmining straight down to the valley. The second forms 
 a broad ice-covered shoulder nearly 3,000 feet below the terminal peak, 
 from the edge of which it drops in a very steep descent divided into
 
 222 
 
 Chapter XIII. 
 
 two luinoi- crests. In the centre of the pyramid another great rocky 
 ridge comes down directly south-west to a narrow icy saddle (Negrotto 
 Pass, 21,322 feet), beyond which it shoots up in a graceful snowy peak 
 (22,490 feet high) of a slender pointed shape, recalling our own Grivola. 
 The neighbourhood of the colossus robs it of all significance. 
 
 The southern face of the mountain is cut ol)liquely by a glacier 
 coming down from the eastern shoulder in four great leaps or cascades 
 
 LOWER PEAKS OF THE OASIIERBRUM RANCE. BY TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of seracs, separated by slanting terraces. All the ridges and gullies of 
 the wall are exposed to its avalanches. The terminal cone, from the 
 saddle up, shows plainly the stratification of the rocks. Every moun- 
 taineer will recognize, at first sight of the illustrations, the resemblance 
 of K^, as seen from the south, to the Matterhorn. 
 
 The valley appears to end at the foot of tlie mountain ; instead 
 of which it bends abruptly north-east, and runs in between K- and 
 the northern slopes of Broad Peak. The heavy and massive outHne 
 of the latter, surmounted by its three huge rounded peaks, comprises 
 in itself almost the whole left side of the Godwin Austen valley. A
 
 From Concordifi to tlio Fof)t of K ". 
 
 ■22-3 
 
 short broken ridge joins it to Gasherbrum IV, whose summit rises above 
 the spur dividing its two western glaciers. From the Gasher brums 
 the chain extends toward the south in a ragged edge of rocks and 
 snowy peaks to form the western side of the Concordia amphitheatre 
 and the upper Baltoro. 
 
 The upper Baltoro rises gently toward the south-east, and has an 
 aspect similar to that of the Godwin Austen. It is covered with stripes 
 
 BRIDE PEAK FROM THE CODWIX Al'STEX. XEAR THE COSCORDLV. 
 
 of moraine, which grow narrower and farther a])art as they go up the 
 valley, and are divided by wider and wider spaces of bare ice ; it runs 
 to the foot of a mountain whoso broad, rounded top is covered with 
 glaciers. This is Conway's Golden Throne, some 15 or 16 miles distant 
 from the Concordia. Here the Baltoro turns eastward and disappears 
 from view. A wide glacier-covered depression separates Golden Throne 
 from Bride Peak on the west. The latter, too, is white with snow. It 
 turns toward us its characteristic northern wall, shaped like a 
 trapezium, topped by a long ridge, the ends of which form the two 
 peaks of the mountain. The one to the east, 325 feet higher than 
 the other, is a station of the Indian Survey (Karakoram No. 8, 
 25,110 feet). From Bride Peak a long spur runs northward toward us,
 
 224 Chapter XT 1 1. 
 
 ending in a sharp angle. Between it and Mitre Peak opens the Vigne 
 valley, which contains the third largest glacier of the Concordia basin. 
 
 The picture presented by the mountain groups just described, which 
 close our horizon to the south with their glacier-covered flanks, is 
 entirely different from that formed by the iirecipitous rocks of K- and 
 the crags of the western ranges extending to the Gasherbnim and 
 beyond. The eye and mind of the mountaineer turn for relief to the 
 broad curving lines of Golden Throne and the snowy sides and ice- 
 covered wall of Bride Peak, since everywhere else he looks he sees 
 nothing but perpendicular rocks, sheer precipices thousands of feet 
 high, tuireted battlements of rock, needles, pinnacles, sheets of ice 
 bordered with great cornices, walls and gorges running at extravagant 
 angles up to extravagant heights, crowned by seracs, and showing 
 everywhere the gleam of living ice. Yet, despite it all, one felt the 
 compelling and irresistible ambition toward a closer acquaintance and 
 more intimate knowledge of the lonely giant which so few men before 
 us had ever even beheld. 
 
 It was only on the return journe)', after the end of the campaign 
 upon K-, that the rare occurrence of two days of unbroken fine weather 
 enabled Sella to take panoramas C and D — the first from the outer base 
 angle of the marble peak which stands on the corner between the 
 Baltoro and Godwin Austen glaciers (17,329 feet) ; the second from a 
 point opposite the first, 17,917 feet high, on the western ridge of the 
 Gasherbrum. Taken together these two panoramas show the whole 
 region of which the Concordia basin is the centre, and the great glacial 
 streams that converge in it. They also bring out clearly the arrange- 
 ment of the moraines, which is almost geometrical in its regularity. 
 It seems unbelievable that a haphazard combination of rocks, ice and 
 snow on so vast a scale could result in such a harmony of line and form. 
 The long, sinuous bands of moraine, converging and blending into one, or 
 remaining separate and running down in pairs of rigidly parallel lines 
 as far as the eye can follow them into the lower Baltoro, seem like a 
 graphic representation of the movement of the glacial masses, and give 
 one a very definite idea of the ice-flow. The panoramas show likewise 
 the series of ranges running up and up, one behind the other, to the 
 last point of vision and beyond, as well as the innumerable host of peaks 
 that tower above them. The work of triangulation carried out on the 
 photogrammetric survey of the expedition has designated a considerable
 
 Gasherbrum 
 
 From a western spur of Gasherbrum, 17.917 ft. 
 
 r
 
 From CoiRdidia to tlic Foot of Iv ". 225 
 
 number of these peaks, a.scertaiiiiiig their lieiglit and position ; but there 
 remain countless others, by no means small or unimportant, not indicated 
 by any sign upon the map. 
 
 On our first view of it. in tlie morning of May 25tli. the landscape 
 was still shiouded in the spring snows. It looked quite different at the 
 end of June, when Sella took his photographs. The impression made 
 upon us was so strong, so moving, that no words can convey it to the 
 reader. It was like no other experience, it provoked no recollections 
 or comparisons. So inconceivably vast are the structural lines of the 
 landscape, that tiie idea comes into one's mind of being in the workshop 
 of nature, and of standing before the primeval chaos and cosmos of 
 a world as yet unvisited by the phenomenon of life. 
 
 In all Alpine ascents one knows one has left the green fields, the 
 trees and the villages only a day behind ; and from all the heights one 
 looks down on the green mantle of verdure covering the earth. The 
 bare rocks and ice are but limited areas, not huge unconfined wastes. 
 Here one is conscious of not a single manifestation of life. It is com- 
 parable to the polar regions in this respect, but in no other, for instead 
 of the monotonous horizons of the far north, all the landscape around 
 K- has the richest variety of design, the greatest majesty of form, and 
 an infinite diversity of plane and perspective. 
 
 The scale is far too vast for one to receive an impression of the whole 
 at once. The eye can only take in single portions. For a long time 
 we did not become fully conscious of the dimensions of the landscape. 
 We had no standards of comparison, and the glaciers and valleys are so 
 well adjusted in their proportions to the surrounding mountains that 
 it was hard to realize the absolute size of any object. All this was 
 revealed to us gradually, Ijy dint of daily contemplation and detailed 
 observation, most of all by repeated failures in estimating heights and 
 distances. Thus it happened that our amazement, instead of 
 diminishing with familiarity, grew greater every day, and this extra- 
 ordinary region never made a more profound impression upon us than 
 on the day when we bade it farewell. 
 
 The Concordia basin, lying in the heart of the ranges, at the junction 
 of their greatest glaciers, is the place above all others adapted for the 
 base or point of departure for topographical work. Four of the most 
 important trigonometrical stations of the region are visible from it — K-, 
 Uasherbrum IV, Bride Peak (Karakoram No. 8) and Masherbrum I. 
 
 (9221) V
 
 226 CllJiptrr .Ml I. 
 
 For this reason the Duke had arranged the evening before that we 
 three should remain at the Concordia for a whole day, while he, with 
 the guides and the bulk of the luggage, went up the Godwin Austen 
 glacier to the foot of K^ to look for a suitable spot for a base camp, 
 whence he could conduct operations upon all the slopes of the mountain. 
 This plan was carried out. Unfortunately the misty atmosphere, which 
 later became actual fog, prevented Sella from doing any photographic 
 work. Negrotto, however, succeeded in getting out two panoramas 
 available for topographical purposes. 
 
 The next morning we said good-bye to Mr. Baines, who went back 
 to Rdokass with all the coohes except the ten chosen to remain with 
 us. We then set out to join our leader at the foot of K-. The weather 
 was perfect, for the first time since we had set foot on the glacier. The 
 clear sky, the pure transparent air and the splendour of the sunlit snows, 
 seemed to us like a welcome to the region, and filled our minds with tlie 
 boldest hopes. 
 
 For some distance we proceeded along a tongue of ice between two 
 stripes of the left-hand moraine. On this side, between the Concordia 
 amphitheatre and K-, the Godwin Austen receives two affluents. The 
 lower comes in between the Crystal Peak chain and a short ridge that 
 runs up to the water shed ; the second is a more considerable glacier, 
 coming from the western slopes of K-. Between the two, at the foot 
 of the intervening spur, the Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition 
 placed their Camp VIII. We were gradually getting nearer the centre 
 of the glacier, which is occupied by wide median moraines still largely 
 snow-covered. The snow lay very unevenly : in some places a couple 
 of feet deep ; in others, even outside the moraine, it had quite dis- 
 appeared. All the longitudinal furrows of the glacier had water 
 running in them from the surface melting, covered by a more or less 
 tliick sheet of ice. Some of us, walking rather incautiously, went in 
 over our knees in the icy water. 
 
 We walked at an easy pace up the hardly perceptible slope, glad 
 to have left behind the rough moraines of the Baltoro. The sim was 
 mild and the reverberation not severe. Little wisps of tourmente raised 
 by the wind floated here and there over the high ridges, moving across 
 the pale blue sky. Immense chains rose all about us as far as the eye 
 could see. In spite of their size, the mountains have all the bold design 
 to be seen am'where in the Alps — the barren precipices, the sno\vy
 
 From Concordia to the Foot of" K -'. 227 
 
 slopes and the upward thrust of slender peaks, the ample curving 
 cornices, the multiform Inoken architecture of seracs, and the over- 
 weighted glaciers hanging on vertical rocks. But all this exists with 
 such luxuriance and upon such a gigantic scale, that one stands 
 bewildered in the midst of a scene that seems to beggar the human 
 imagination. 
 
 THE ^VESTERS FACE OF BRO\D PEAK. 
 
 The left wall of this part of the Godwin Austen is largely formed 
 by a low screen of black rock, which detaches itself from the western 
 crest of Broad Peak and runs southward. Behind it the glaciers of the 
 whole enormous wall of Broad Peak fall down and run together. 
 Wherever this wall is not covered with ice one can see distinctly the 
 light grey rock arranged in broad strata. "We had already noted the 
 similar appearance of the rock in the spurs of the Gasherbrums. From 
 an examination of the moraines that have their origin in the various 
 mountains, we were able to ascertain that the whole chaiu of Broad 
 Peak and the Gasherbrums, including Hidden Peak and Golden Throne 
 as well, is a sedimentary formation ; while the outer cur\'e of the letter 
 C formed by the two great valleys, covering all the distance from 
 
 (9221) V -2
 
 228 Chapter XIII. 
 
 Staircase to Bride Peak, taking in the pyramid of K'-, is composed of 
 crystalline rocks, granites, gneiss and quartzes, with the single excej^tiou 
 of the marble peak which forms the corner between the lower Baltoro 
 and tlie Godwin Austen. This last appears to be a splinter broken 
 oft" from the calcareous mass of the other side of the valley. Ing. 
 Novarese has confirmed our conclusions by an analysis of the mineral 
 specimens brought back by the expedition. With the aid of our 
 descriptions and Bellas photographs he has been able to reconstruct 
 on its general lines the geological scheme of the high glaciei- basin. 
 Most interesting to observe is the close analogy between its structure 
 and that of the great glacial valley of the Siachen, which lies south-east 
 of the upper Baltoi'o. Dr. Longstaff, who explored the lattei' in this 
 same summer of 1909, and demonstrated for the first time its vast 
 extent, mentions the fact that it is contained within a compound 
 formation, one wall being a granite chain to the south-west, and the 
 other, on the north-east, a range of limestone sedimentary rock. The 
 latter contains Mount Teram Kangri, 24,500 feet high. 
 
 The presence of calcareous rock in the Gasherl)rums is sufficiently 
 evident, and did not entirely escape the observation of Conway. He 
 says that the Concordia basin is suii'ounded by mountains in which 
 one can distingiush alternate black and pale grey streaks of gneiss, 
 granite and limestone. T. G. Bomiey and Miss C. A. Raisin, who made 
 the mineralogical repoit of Conway's expedition, concluded fi'oni their 
 examination of the specimens brought back that " a considerable mass 
 of sedimentary rock must be infolded from Gasherbrum to Golden 
 Throne." Guillarraod only mentions the white marbles of the Doksam 
 glacier, near the angle between the Baltoro and the Godwin Austen.^ 
 But up to now the vast extension of sedimentary rock had not been 
 suspected by any one, nor the fact that it forms the chief constituent 
 of the whole mighty barrier which interrupts the course of the Baltoro 
 on the west. Even in the recent monograph of Burrard and Hayden, 
 the axis of the great Himalayan peaks and of the mountain systems 
 belonging to them is described as a granite formation. 
 
 It is probable that the thick-set form and huge mass of Broad Peak 
 rather bhnded Godwin Austen and Conway to its remarkable height. 
 
 ' He says also that marble has been found " s\ir les flancs momes du Chogori " (K*), without 
 more precise indicatit)n ; but we are unable to confirm the existence of limestone in the rocks 
 of K'.
 
 From Concordia to the Foot of" K ■'. 229 
 
 The result obtained by triangulation from Negrotto's data shows it to 
 possess a peak 27,132 feet high, flanked by two others of 26,024 and 
 26,000 feet. No other mountain over 27,000 feet has been found since 
 1858, and Burrard considered it improbable that there would be further 
 discoveries of peaks 27,000 or even 26,000 feet high. In a list of our 
 highest known mountains Broad Peak would occupy the sixth place, 
 those ranking above it being Mount Everest, K-, the two peaks of 
 Kinchinjunga, and Malaku in the Everest gioup. All these peaks have 
 been measured from several stations, with all the exactitude at present 
 obtainable, considering that there exist some elements not precisely 
 calculable, such as that of refraction, which thus remain sources of 
 possible error. The peaks recently discovered are still awaiting the 
 confirmation of further observations carried out from different stations 
 and witli more precise methods. 
 
 In oui' first stage on the Godwin Austen we did not, as this long 
 digression would seem to indicate, concentrate our attention on Broad 
 Peak. K- had too great a fascination for us, now that we could observe 
 it from base to summit. As we approached it the wall appeared to 
 grow less steep, but, on the other hand, the obstacles became more 
 evident — the live ice of the gullies, dominated by overhanging seracs ; 
 the gleam of venjlas on the rocks ; the sheer precipices showing every- 
 where on the face of the wall. We left the central moraine where it 
 began to curve toward the base of the south-western spur, and walked 
 across on the glacier to the left-hand marginal one. Where it rounds the 
 western angle of Broad Peak the glacier is heaved up in folds cut and 
 broken in every direction, forming a perfect cataract of seracs. These 
 waves, gradually diminishing in height, reach to the centre of the glacier, 
 and there form in regular rows of small seracs along the sides of long 
 flat corridors, which nfford an easy and rapid progress. Dr. Workman 
 would call these formations " nieves penitentes, serac variety." The 
 term nieves penitentef, is generally used to designate specific surface 
 formations of the snow in the Andes mountains and other places, caused 
 either by melting or by the wind. Dr. Workman has, in repeated 
 publications, 1 urged its extension to all the manifold projections and 
 
 » W. Hunter Workmax. Ocog. Jour. 31, 1908. |>i.. :i4 and 394 : 32. 19()S. p. 139 ; 34. 1909. 
 p. 570; Zeit. far Gktsrherk. 2, 1907, p. 22; 3, 1909, part 4; also tlic voluiiu's written by him 
 and Mrs. Wokkm^vn, Peaks and Glaciers of the Nun Knn. London 1909 : The Call of tht Snow)/ 
 HisjMir. London 1910, etc.
 
 230 
 
 Chapter XIII. 
 
 protuberances which render uneven the surface of mountain ice or snow, 
 and has created at will a complicated classification, distinguishing eight 
 varieties and three sub-varieties. It is not easy to understand the 
 advantage gained from confounding the most diverse glacial formations, 
 which have neither origin, production nor composition in common. 
 
 SOUTHERN WALL OF K ". 
 
 We dkected our steps straight toward the aiigle at the right side 
 of the glacier wlxich cuts the southern wall of K- and flows out on the 
 Godwin Austen with a high front of seracs, like the tributaries of the 
 Baltoro. At the foot of this glacier is a small stretch of marginal 
 moraine, shut in between the valley wall and the side of the Godwin 
 Austen, below a depression in the south-western spur of K^ (Xegrotto 
 Pass). Here there was a refuge from falhng stones and ice, protected
 
 From C'oiRonlia to the Foot of Iv -'. -j-.m 
 
 on three sides from the wind, and getting the sun fioni early morning 
 till four in the afternoon. Upon this spot the DulvC had fixed his camp. 
 K^ towered up immediately above us, but so foreshortened as to lose 
 nmch of its height — it does not seem possible that it rises to nearly 
 12,000 feet above us. Broad Peak is opposite, across the valley ; while 
 to westward rises a beautiful snowy range with inaccessible cliffs. It 
 forms the risht side of the glacier that curves about the western side 
 of K^, and empties itself upon the Godwin Austen in a great wave of 
 seracs. To the south there is a spreading view that ends in the gentle 
 and reposefid outlines of Bride Peak and the .snowy saddle on its left. 
 
 The camp was deserted when we reached it. The Duke, according 
 to his habit, had not lost an hour, but set to work at once. Accom- 
 panied by Giuseppe Petigax and Enrico Brocherel, he had reached the 
 mouth of the glacier which comes into the Godwin Austen below the 
 camp, and climbing its terminal cascade, not without considerable 
 difficulty, gradually rounded the end of the south-western spur of K-. 
 Beyond the seracs the glacier expands into a wide valley nmiiing north- 
 ward below an impregnable wall of rock, the western flank of K^. The 
 valley ends in a broad rounded col, upon wliich descends the north- 
 western ridge of the mountain, which is less steep than the southern 
 ridge. If one could, with the help of the coolies, once set up a camp 
 on this saddle, there would remain only about 6,500 feet to conquer 
 between it and the peak. The Duke climbed the glacier up past its 
 centre, searching on his return for some way of access to the valley 
 tliat would be easier for the coolies than the route over broken ice, full 
 of treacheroiLS cracks, by which he had entered it. The furrow between 
 the glacier and the rock on the left side of the valley gave him what 
 he sought, and at three in the afternoon he returned to the camp. 
 
 In the meantime a second party, composed of Alexis and Emilio 
 Brocherel, Bareux and Savoie, had gone up the Godwin Austen above 
 the camp to examine the eastern slopes of K-. Their report was not 
 very encouraging. The long north-eastern ridge was out of the 
 fpiestion, as well as the whole eastern side of the mountain, whicli was 
 extremely steep, covered with ice and exposed to avalanches of seracs. 
 They then turned their attention to a ridge of rock visible from the 
 camp, running directly up from the glacier to the edge of the great 
 snowy shoulder of the mountain. This was the only route that looked 
 at all possible to them. 
 
 (!)221) P 4
 
 232 
 
 ChaptcT Xlll. 
 
 Thus ou the first day after reaching tlie foot of K- the Uuke had 
 akeady made a cursory examination of two-thirds of the circumference 
 of the mountain. Nowhere had ho discovered an easy, obvious and 
 safe route to the peak, and the undertaking assumed a doubtful hue. 
 Nor did there appear to be in the neighbourhood any low saddle, any 
 easy pass, by which to get over and examine the northern side. More- 
 over, Colonel Sir Francis Youngliusband, \vho had seen the northern 
 
 THE BASE CAMr AND Kli:HT WAT.I. OI' THE SAVOIA CI.ACIER. 
 
 side of K- from no great distance, described its precipitous and 
 forbidding aspect in terms that left very little to hope for a route on that 
 side. The Duke decided to act at once upon the knowledge already 
 gained, but before choosing any one slope in preference to others, he 
 waited in order to examine for himself on the morrow the rocky ridge 
 which Alexis Brocherel had proposed for a trial. 
 
 Meanwhile we had sent the coolies back to bring up the few 
 remaining loads left behind at the Concordia. By May 27th we had
 
 From Concordia td iIr- Foot of K ■'. 233 
 
 established our camp and were provisioned for a month, sufficient for 
 a long siege. The tents were set up in two rows on the levelled stony 
 surface of the moraine, with the little settlement of coolies a hundred 
 feet away and a little below us. Our stores were sheltered within stone 
 walls with the tarpaulins stretched over them. Thus the place 
 (Camp III on the map) was, in all its arrangements, a permanent 
 encampment and point of departure for the explorations to take place 
 on K'. A series of meteorological observations was kept up there, 
 synchronous with those carried on at Rdokass and the four Kashmir 
 stations. The result gave for the camp a height of 16,493 feet,^ and 
 it became n second station of reference next to Rdokass, for the calcula- 
 tions of pressure readings taken by the expedition on the glaciers that 
 girdle the base of K-. 
 
 The Duke decided to make the attempt on the southern ridge of 
 the mountain. It is certainly steeper and longer than the north- 
 western crest, which runs down to the col at the head of the glacier he 
 had already explored. But, on the other hand, it had certain 
 advantages. In the first place, there was not the unknowui quantity 
 of the climb up the ice-wall to arrive at the col. And more important 
 still, tlie slope faced full south and got the sun from early in the morning. 
 This is a consideration of the greatest importance in ascents above 
 24,000 feet, as the intense cold can prove not only a difficulty, but a 
 grave danger to the explorer. 
 
 The route being chosen, it remained to settle upon a plan of 
 campaign. Almost everywhere on the ridge we could see with our 
 binoculai's the gleam of t'erglas, bare ice, hard and polished hke crystal, 
 which gives the last touch of difficulty and danger to a climb. How- 
 ever, we hoped that a few days' sun and wind might lay bare the rugged 
 rock, where one would be able to get a grip with hands and nailed boots. 
 About .S.oOO feet above the valley there stood out from the ridge a 
 prominent rock of a reddish-yellow colour. The plan was to make a 
 high cam]) there with the Whymper tents, so as to be able to wait a 
 few days if necessary. The small light Mummery tents are no protection 
 against the weather, being good only for temporary night shelters. 
 From this spot the Duke hoped to gain the shoulder of the mountain, 
 making an intermediate light camp with the Mumnierv tents. The 
 
 * 16,512 feet on the map. Km- the discrepancy in tlie tigures see the discussion of the alti- 
 nietiie data in Chaptci- XIX.
 
 23^ Chapter XIII. 
 
 peak itself, from the shoulder up, looked inaccessible from where we 
 were ; but even if it proved quite impossible on nearer view, the 
 conquest of the shoulder (25,354 feet) was in itself an undertaking am{)ly 
 worth while. 
 
 Despite the most painstaking and rigid selection of equipment, our 
 luggage, consisting of tents, sleeping-bags, food for a week, cooking 
 apparatus and paraffin, and the Alpine outfit, made a considei-able 
 weight and bulk which we knew not how to J'educe further, it was 
 useless to embark on such a project without being armed at all points. 
 But a calculation of ways and means brought us to the irresistible 
 conclusion that it would not be po.ssible for any of us to accompany 
 the Duke. He therefore made up his mind to go alone, with all the 
 resources of the expedition, intent on reaching the highest possible 
 point at a dash. Then, if his powers did not hold out to the last proof, 
 he would come back, leaving the tents on the ridge, and handing 
 on the undertaking to one of us, who would have the advantage 
 of fresh strength and the fact that the equipment was already on 
 the spot. 
 
 We discussed all these details, and made ready the loads with the 
 greatest care. The mountains about us were constantly flinging down 
 long white avalanches of snow, enveloped in flying dusthke clouds, and 
 filling the valleys with rumbUng echoes. During these two days of good 
 weather we had had a prevailing east and north-east wind, but now 
 towards evening it was veering to the south-east and the air became 
 somewhat less pure. 
 
 Guides, porters and cooUes worked for two days, carrying the 
 nece.ssary eqmpment up to the ridge. A\'e meanwhile occupied our- 
 selves with the never-finished task of adjusting the camp, arranging 
 the tents more suitably, filling up with stones the holes in the ice to 
 prevent the formation of puddles, and levelling ofi surfaces with pick- 
 axes. The weather became bad again. The wind whistled on the high 
 ridges as violently as on the Alps in winter. Storms raged about the 
 summits and snowy peaks, and long streamers of fog, tattered and 
 tenuous, were brought up by the south-west \vind. The veils of mist 
 gradually thickened and settled down layer after layer around K^ and 
 Broad Peak. Above the Concordia basin the sky was all streaked with 
 clouds, which hung dark and lowering over the entrance to the Baltoro. 
 The temperature remained steadily below freezing point. There were
 
 From Concordia to the Foot ot" K '. 
 
 no more avalanches, and when the wind was down the silence was so 
 nnbroken as to become oppressive. 
 
 On the morning of May 30th all was ready. The weather had not 
 changed and the moimtains looked sinister. We bade adieu to our 
 leader witli good wishes, which did not succeed in disguising from 
 ourselves the insecurity we felt as to the outcome of his bold under- 
 taking. The simple fact is that these are not mountains like 
 other mountains, and one oaimot look at them without disquiet and 
 foreboding. 
 
 .A--;.'. .;.>^ 
 
 
 '■^%:^-\^^\ 
 
 THE DUKE LEAVING THE BASE CAMl'. 
 
 The Duke was accompanied by tli(> three guides, the four porters 
 and the cooUes, carrying their own tents and supply of chupattis. He 
 crossed the front of the glacier that comes down from the southern wall 
 of K-, and went up the Godwin Austen to the foot of the southern 
 ridge, some 500 feet higher than the base camp, traversing the broken 
 margin of the glacier and the shallow depression between it and the wall, 
 and climbing up over Inoken detritus loosely scattered over the solid 
 rock. The incline wa.s moderate. He kept close to the right side of 
 the ridge, and reached a sheltered snmiy nook (18,245 feet high) at the 
 base of a rocky tooth, where the guides dejiosited the equipment. Little
 
 23G 
 
 Chapter XIII. 
 
 levels were soon made by means of retaining walls, for the two 
 Whymper tents. The coolies camped close by. After a few hours of 
 rest and some food, the guides, porters and coolies, with their loads, 
 started on again. But only a short distance from the tents the coolies 
 flung down their burdens and turned back, despite the commands and 
 entreaties of the guides. The latter kept on climbing between the 
 principal ridge and a secondary one to the east of it. and then by small 
 
 SOUTHERN RIDOE OP K =. 
 
 ravines and divisional crests, till they reached a narrow saddle less than 
 1,000 feet above the camp. The rock was broken and mingled with 
 snow and ice, but thus far the way had not been difficult, though here 
 and there exposed to falling stones. They put down their loads on this 
 saddle, and went back to the tents. 
 
 May 31st turned out unexpectedly fine and still. The loads now 
 weighed only 25 lbs., and the coolies consented to take them and follow 
 the guides up to the saddle. A steep icy coidoir runs down to it, divides 
 and continues lower down in two branches. It was impossible to climb
 
 I'roin Coiifordia to the Foot of K '. -r.'u 
 
 up along the rocks on tlie sides of tlie couloirs, so the guides went up 
 the gully itself, leaving the coolies at the bottom with Bareux. They 
 climbed for a short distance on hard snow, then on bare ice, sticking 
 to the left side in order to utilize the rocky projections, on which they 
 fixed more than 100 yards of rope for a help to those coming after with 
 the loads. In this way they gained 600 feet, and then succeeded in 
 clambering up the rock some 300 feet more. They turned back at 
 about three in the afternoon, after having reached a height of certainly 
 20,000 feet. In two hours they were again at the tents. 
 
 In tlie meantime the Duke had remained alone at the camp, and 
 had taken this opportunity to examine minutely the central portion of 
 the Godwin Austen. From where he was he had a view of the whole 
 formidable northern wall of Broad Peak and of the semi-circular basin 
 ■\vhich connects it with the left-hand ridge of the upper glacier. He 
 noted in the edge of this basin a depression easily reached by a wide 
 couloir full of snow, and he made up his mind to climb this later on 
 in order to examine the region east of the Gasherbnmis. Avalanches 
 of ice were hurling themselves down from Broad Peak at fi'equent 
 intervals, and even at this distance he could hear their roar. 
 
 From all that they had been able to ascertain from the ridge above 
 the couloir, the guides thought there would be no very grave obstacles 
 to encounter : but it was plain that the ascent would take much longer 
 than they had thought. For this reason the Duke sent six coolies back 
 to the base camp next morning to bring up provisions for a longer stay. 
 They came down roped together, bringing us a letter from the Duke, 
 which we naturally received with great eagerness. The sun and \sand 
 had bronzed even the tough skins of these Baltis ; but they were in their 
 usual good temper, and started back directly the things were ready — 
 food for themselves and for the Europeans, extra rope and pickaxes. 
 
 In the meanwhile those on the ridge had lost no time, even though 
 the weather had again turned adverse. The guides and portei-s, free 
 from the encumbrance of luggage, left the tents in the morning bent 
 on exploring a good stretch of the ridge to find out if it offered a chance 
 of ascent before fetching up more impedimenta, perhaps uselessly. 
 They climbed i-apidly to the saddle, then on up the couloir by the rope 
 left there the day before. This height gained, they found themselves 
 on a slender crest of rocks quite broken and crumbhug, so as to give 
 no securitv to the foot nor safe hold for the hands. On one side went
 
 238 Chapter XIII. 
 
 down steeply into the valley the couloir by which they had come up ; 
 on the other a dizzy steep of ice descended to the Godwin Austen, 
 3,000 feet and more below. The guides were unanimous in telling the 
 story of the incredible optical illusions they suffered, all due to the 
 deceptiveness of these mountaiiis. Slabs of rock which at a few yards 
 distant looked like gentle and easy inclines, turned out to be little less 
 than perpendicular. It was impossible to estimate the grade of the 
 slopes or the distances between salient points of the ascent. These 
 conditions had misled them when, on the day before, they had measured 
 with their eyes the route above the couloir. 
 
 The cold wind had raised up a little tourmente, fortunately not 
 enough to interfere with their progress. They went on for three hours, 
 with all the slowness and precautions rendered necessary by the 
 difficulties of the route, climbing always toward the reddish rock where 
 the Duke had hoped to set up camp, and never reaching it, though it 
 seemed constantly within a few steps of them. It would be necessary 
 to fix ropes all the way, for the porters to use in fetching up the loads. 
 As for the coolies, taking them over such rough ground was not to be 
 thought of. 
 
 The guides finally came to the reluctant conclusion that it was 
 useless to proceed further, not because they had encountered insur- 
 mountable obstacles, but because it was hopeless to think of bringing 
 so long and formidable an ascent to a successfrd issue, when from the 
 very first steps they had met with such difficulties as made the climb 
 barely possible to guides not hampered by loads, and put out of the 
 question the conveying of luggage necessary to keep one from perishing 
 of cold and exhaustion. They came slowly back, gathering up the 
 rope they had put along the way. The Duke heard their report, and 
 wisely decided to reUnquish the attack in that direction. 
 
 The next day, June 2nd, before 12 o'clock we were again united, 
 and we ceased our anxious scnitiny of the ridge through our telescope. 
 The weather grew steadily worse, and before evening it began to snow 
 heavily. It was fortunate that the Duke had at least been able to 
 satisfy himself of the actual conditions to be faced on the ridge of K^. 
 Among other things the experience had proved that the cooHes, when 
 properly equipped and protected, can hold out in the high camps, and 
 can even do without fire, at least for some days. At the base camp 
 they seemed very much at home. They spent their time squatting
 
 From Concordia to tlie Foot of K '. 239 
 
 about theif little fires, which they tended with the utmost care and 
 economy, and boiling tea in our empty provision tins. They do not 
 carry firo, hke the Bakonjo in Africa, always coming to beg matches of 
 us directly we reached a stage. We noticed on our arrival at the base 
 camp their number had increased to eleven, by the addition of a chief 
 or Jemadai-. He went up with the others to the upper ridge, but came 
 back with an attack of acute enteritis, and we were obliged to send 
 him down to Rdokass with the first provision caravan. In the absence 
 of a head, personal relations were estabhshed between ourselves and 
 the coolies. Though we could only communicate by means of a few 
 words of Urdu our guides had picked up in former Himalayan expeditions, 
 there were no difficulties or misunderstandings, and we led a hfe of the 
 utmost harmony up to the end. 
 
 Mr, Baines sent us regular caravans, bringing fowls, eggs and roast 
 mutton, as well as wood and chupattis for the coohes. But our rations 
 were always sufficient and well-balanced, and we preferred our tinned 
 foods to the Rdokass meat. The eggs, however, were alw^ays a great 
 addition. Every seven or eight days we received post, wdth wonderful 
 and gratifying regularity. 
 
 Our constant companions in camp were a dozen great crows, who 
 hopped about among the tents, picking up remnants of food and dis- 
 playing rather curiosity than fear of us. Every time an exploring party 
 set out and made a camp elsewhere, a pair or so of these crows attended 
 them. They actually followed the Duke to the ridge of K^. Some- 
 times we saw a stray falcon sw^eeping the sky 3,000 or 4,000 feet 
 above the valley. Later in the season the small rodents we had seen 
 at Rdokass made their appearance and maintained existence, one knew 
 not how, amid surroundings that seemed incompatible wnth any sort 
 of animal hfe. Sella even saw some of them at nearly 18,000 feet of 
 altitude on the rocky ridges around the Concordia basin. 
 
 Negrotto had profited by a few hours of clear weather to continue 
 the survey of the Godwin Austen with the tacheometer and photo- 
 grammetric camera. The surrounding mountains rise so high and so 
 abruptly above the valley that it was necessary to go for some distance 
 away from them on the glacier in order to get their summits into the 
 picture although the camera was fitted with a wide angle lens ; while 
 with the tacheometer one is never certain of sighting exactly the 
 mountain sunmiits with the telescope.
 
 2411 ("liaj)ter Xlll. 
 
 It snowed uninterruptedly for twenty-four hours. Then on June 3rd 
 the great curtain of fog was rent in every direction, and peaks and 
 mountain walls emerged in fresh splendour. Some light wreaths of 
 mist still hanging about the slopes looked grey against the dazzling 
 whiteness of the snow. The mountains were not slow to shake off its 
 weight, and on every side the snow barely deposited on the steep inclines 
 began to fall of? and slide down into the reservoirs which feed the 
 sources of the great ice rivers. The valleys resounded with the noLse. 
 We had a perfectly clear and calm sunset. The lofty snows of K^ were 
 tinged with yellow. The most delicate wisp of rose-coloured cloud 
 barely hid the topmost peak, and a triple shadow flung itself all across 
 the mighty wall, growing more and more distinct. The moon, not 
 yet in sight, was projecting upon K- the giant profile of Broad Peak, 
 while the northern face of the latter still diffused a tranquil white light 
 from its snowy surface. Far to the south Bride Peak stood out white 
 and clear against the steel-blue sky. Now the valley shook to the roar 
 of an avalanche of ice — prolonged, cydopean. The temperature had 
 gone down to several degrees below freezing, and we reluctantly turned 
 from the splendour of the moonlit night to take refuge in our warm 
 sleeping-bags. 
 
 On the morrow would begin the execution of a new plan of campaign.
 
 Broad Peak, at sunset
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE SAVOIA GLACIER AND PASS. 
 
 The Diikc'.s lU'W Plan. — The Cam[) moved to the West of K°. — doing up the Savoia Glacier. — 
 Pieliniinary Excursions. — Cold and Had Weather. — Mountain Climbing, Pliotography and 
 Topography. — The Western Wall of K -. — Ascent of Savoia Col. — Disappointment. — 
 Sir Francis Younghusband's Description of the Northern Wall of K '. — Return to the 
 Base Camp. — A Shortage of Chupattis. — Change in the Appearance of the (Jodvvin Austen. 
 — Variable Weather. — Sunsets. 
 
 .Having concluded the explora- 
 tion of the southern slope of K-, 
 the expedition turned its attention 
 to the glacier already visited by 
 the Duke which girdles the base 
 of the mountain to the west. No 
 one else had ever trodden its 
 snows, and upon the map even 
 the lower part of the valley was 
 scarcely indicated. The Duke's 
 design was to climb up to the 
 watershed col at the top, with the 
 hope of examining from that 
 point the northern slopes and the 
 north-western ridge of K'-. There 
 was the possibility that alongside 
 and behind this ridge might be a 
 snowy slope which would oft'er an easy climb to the peak. The 
 preliminary expedition would give the opportunity of deciding whether 
 it was possible to carry a camp up to the saddle. Moreover, if an 
 attempt on this side did not display any greater chance of success than 
 that on the southern wall, at least it would enable the Duke to ascertain 
 whether he could cross over the watershed and reach the northern
 
 ■24-2 
 
 CliaptcT Xl\'. 
 
 slopes and the unknown valleys below them. In the meantinu' Sella 
 and Negrotto would complete the illustration and survey of the valley 
 to the west of K-. 
 
 The guides and coolies began to move camp on June 4th, only the 
 latter coming back to the base camp. The next day they left again 
 with the porters, and Sella, Negrotto and I accompanied them. Our 
 route shows plainly on the map, going around the foot of the south- 
 western spur of K^, above whicth rises the fine snowy peak 22.490 feet 
 
 THE MOUTH OK THE SAVOIA IJLACIER. 
 
 high. We descended the right-hand margin of the Godwin Austen, 
 full of holes and ridges and covered with stones and moraine detritus, 
 as far as the end of the spur, skirting the latter across masses of ice 
 heaped up at its base by avalanches from glaciers hanging 1,000 feet 
 above. Next we entered the ditch between the glacier and the great 
 wall of metamorphic rock arranged in almost vertical strata. Our 
 route was that followed by the Duke on his way back from his first 
 investigation of the western side of K^. It is the only one that could 
 be taken by the coolies, who would be badly off among the dangerous 
 seracs of the centre part of the glacier, by which the Duke liad made 
 his ascent. We went up rather fast, now in the bottom of the trough
 
 The Savoia (ilafior and Pass. 
 
 243 
 
 betweei\ glacier and rock, now on the side of one or the other, often 
 exposed to falling stones or ice from either side. The brow of the 
 glacier was all ragged with seracs of the strangest shapes, with stalactites 
 hanging down like long beards — hollowed out, pierced through and 
 eaten away by melting, and often poised over our heads at very 
 uncomfortable angles. In the lower part of the ascent were some small 
 marginal lakes, covered with thick ico. Higher up our way became 
 a regular climb up a sort of couloir, half rock and half ice. At the top 
 
 TERMINAL CASCADE OF THE SAVOLi. 
 
 of it we stopped to let the coolies rest. They had gone well over the 
 difficult ground; despite their burdens. The whole climl) was a httle 
 over 600 feet. 
 
 We had not yet gone all the way around the spur, from which 
 descend great radiating ridges. The terminal fall of the glacier faces 
 directly eastward, and we had now before us the second part, rising 
 at an easier pitch toward the north-west. Looking back we had a 
 magnificent view of Broad Peak, picturesquely swathed in mist, and 
 of the dizzy heights between it and the Gasherbrum range, dominating 
 cliffs of rock and snow cut into innumerable furrows by avalanches. 
 On the right of the valley extends a row of jutting peaks, six of which 
 
 (9221) V 2
 
 244 
 
 Chapter \I\'. 
 
 are 20,000 feet high or over. Ju front of us the glat-iei' rises at a 
 moderate slope, with miiuerous crevices, which, however, were narrow 
 and easily crossed. Nearl\' all their fiagile snow bridges had been 
 broken through by yesterday's party. 
 
 Before long we reached the upper basin of the valley, a wide plateau 
 facing the north, of a puie whiteness never seen in the Alps except in 
 
 A SERAC: AT THE EDGE OF THE SAVOIA CILAC'IEK. 
 
 the first hours after a snowfall. The glacier was covered with thick 
 snow, but the track beaten by the coolies the day before was perfectly 
 good and saved us much trouble. Botta, however, though he was 
 carrying a light load, did not hold out through the march. He seemed 
 exhausted, and we were obliged to leave him behind on a mass of fallen 
 rock to wait for the coolies who were to go back on the same day to the 
 base camp. He had not entirely recovered his strength since the attack 
 of fever at Rdokass, though he had been reUeved of heavy work and
 
 Tlif Savoia (xlacier and Pass. 
 
 245 
 
 his appetite and .sleej) were noniuil. A longer experience convinced 
 me that at these heights the system readjusts itself only very slowly 
 after any disturbance, however slight. 
 
 We had now gone all the way around the spur. Alongside us a 
 glacier comes down fi'om a narrow snowy col (Negrotto Pass), the same 
 which on its other side overlooks the base camp. Just below this was 
 
 WESTERN WAl-L OF BROAD TEAK FROM THE T01> OF THE TERMINAL CASCADE OF THE 
 
 SAVOL\. 
 
 erected the Whymper tent brought up the day before. Not far fi'om 
 us a rocky crest stands out above the glacier, dividing the western wall 
 of K'^ It rises to its very summit in a series of great steps, defined by 
 large towers. It is this crest which is outlined against the sky and 
 forms the western side of the pyramid as seen from the south. The 
 encampment is thus separated from the base camp only by the south- 
 western ridge of K", a horizontal distance of less than two and a half 
 miles. It is, however, 1 ,664 feet higher up. We had hardly covered 
 half of the glacier basin, and were still a considerable distance from the 
 
 (9221) 
 
 <i 3
 
 24(5 Chapter XI\'. 
 
 end of the valley ; for the coolies, having reached this spot at about 
 two o'clock on the previous day, tired out with marching on the soft 
 snow and having still to get back that day to the base camp, had 
 refused to go any farther. 
 
 We found the tent deserted, the guides having spent the day 
 exploring a route to the col. It looked very close to us, but we were 
 misled, as usual, by the deceptive appearance of the glaciers in this 
 region. Presently we descried far ofi on the level the tiny moving 
 figures of the returning party. It had taken them more than five hours 
 to reach the foot of the col, and they had found the wall very steep and 
 covered with live ice, making the imdertaking look very different indeed 
 from its aspect as considered from below. We sent the coolies back 
 to the base camp. 
 
 At this height — 18,176 feet — we not only foimd ourselves in perfect 
 condition, but could actually breathe more easily here than at the base 
 camp. The latter, situated as it was in a sort of hoUow between the 
 glacier and the rock, had perhaps a Uttle less active circulation of air. 
 We had had a west wind all day, and towards evening it became a 
 hurricane. The weather was very severe, the thermometer falling in 
 the night to 5° F. The storm was not over by morning, but the guides 
 went off notwithstanding, hoping to make their way farther up the 
 slope of the col than they had succeeded in doing the day before. On 
 coming out of our tents we foimd a pair of crows from the colony at the 
 base camp, walking about over the snow, their feathers all ruffled by 
 the wind. We took shelter again almost at once, for it was too intensely 
 cold to stand about outside, and nearly all the mountains were covered 
 with mist, preventing any topographical work. The guides returned 
 at 10 o'clock, di'iven back by the blinding tourmente. Little by little, 
 however, it subsided, and the solar radiation became so intense that 
 we almost regi'etted the cold of a few hours previous. The actual 
 temperature was only 28° F., but the solar thermometer registered 
 142° F., the highest record we noted on the glaciers with one exception 
 throughout the campaign, though considerably lower than some observed 
 by other explorers in the Karakoram, of which I will speak farther on. ^ 
 
 At 11 o'clock the Duke joined us, and an hour afterwards the coohes 
 arrived with the remaining loads, going back immediately. Three of 
 
 » See Chapter XIX.
 
 TIr- Savoia Glacier and Pass. 247 
 
 them stopped half-way, among the rocks above the cascade of seracs, 
 where they had placed a tent, a few provisions and a little wood. They 
 were to facilitate our commimications with the base camp below, where 
 Botta had remained on guard. 
 
 The wind came up again towards evening from the north-west. 
 The air was wonderfully clear. One after another the peaks were 
 lighted up by the last rays of the sun. The monster beside us, in full 
 sunlight, was surmounted by a great tuft of rosy storm-cloud. On the 
 ridges the wind lifted the snow in columns of tourmente, or stirred up 
 squalls that filled the air of the valley Avith crystalline dust. Again 
 the thermometer went swiftly downward, and the cold, sharpened by 
 the wind, soon became so unbearable that we took refuge in the tents. 
 Their walls shook all night in the gale, but towards morning its fury 
 slackened, and when we rose at five o'clock on June 7th we found a 
 perfectly still air and a temperature of 5° F. 
 
 At half-past five the Duke set out with three guides, having decided 
 to try to reach the ridge of the col the same day. The foiir porters 
 remained with us, and we soon got under way with the tacheometer, 
 photogranimetric and photogi'aphic apparatus, to take advantage of 
 e\-ery minute of the propitious day. We climbed obliquely up the 
 valley towards its right wall, which is overhimg by precipitous heights 
 of 23,000 feet, from which large glaciers come down into the basin. 
 Sella betook himself to a prominent icy hummock above us ; but we 
 could not get very near the base of the wall, covered as it was with 
 broken ice clinging insecurely to the steep incline. In fact, we had 
 just set up the photogrammetric camera, when a huge mass of s(5racs 
 detached itself and came down with tremendous force. We were saved 
 by a depression in the surface of the glacier, which deflected the course 
 of the moving mass. 
 
 What we now had before us was the scene pictured in panorama E. 
 Here, too, the whole landscape was nothing but a mere setting for K-, 
 which dominates every near-by object. We could see its entire west 
 wall, splotched with snow, but so steep that no glacier could chng to 
 it. Between the base and the peak there is little more than a mile of 
 horizontal distance, and nearly 10,000 feet of perpendicular. The 
 arrangement of the rock in slightlv oblique strata is still more cvadent 
 here than when seen from the southern side. The north-western 
 ridge, which bounds the pyramid on the left, ends with a low group of 
 
 (9221) I, 4
 
 248 Chapter XIV. 
 
 towers and pinnacles, from which a secondary ridge runs down to the 
 glacier, bisecting the top of it. West of this group of rocky crags is the 
 broad, curving, ice-covered saddle which was the goal of the Duke's 
 present ascent. On the other side, south-west of the pyramid, stretches 
 the long ridge which ends in that satellite to the great peak, 22.490 feet 
 high, which T have already described. Lastly, behind the mountains 
 which close the basin to the south, a sharp peak of rock just shows its 
 head, the Crystal Peak of our map. 
 
 The small exploring party with the Duke at its iicad had quickly 
 crossed the ])lateau. At the foot of the col, in the rounded bottom of 
 the valley, is a large hump of the glacier, which they skirted on the 
 left, going along the trough between it and the valley wall, where they 
 went in above their knees in the heaped-up snow. In less than four 
 hours they reached the foot of the slope, which was cut by a large 
 herqschrnnd. The latter was easy to cross, as it was half full of snow 
 fallen from the height above. 
 
 Now began the attack on the wall. Foj' a little distance at the 
 bottom it was covered with snow, which made a solid footing. But 
 this grew thinner and thinner, until there was nothing over the bare 
 ice but a dry powdery layer, without any compactness. From the 
 camp, to which we had returned after our work, we watched with the 
 telescope the slow ascent of the climbing party. The diminutive figures, 
 separated by long lengths of rope, one almost vertically above another 
 on the wall of ice, betrayed the steepness of the pitch. They went 
 straight up, very slowly, climbing the long ascent which the head guide 
 was cutting as he went in the hard ice. About half-way up was a 
 projection of rock, to the right of which the climbing party passed 
 without deviating fi'om their course. The clear, calm day was greatly 
 in their favour. At a quarter past five in the afternoon, after almost 
 twelve hours of effort, the ridge was conquered, at a point to the right 
 of the col and somewhat higher. The Fortin barometer registered 
 13 '740 ins. with a temperature of 16° F. The altitude calculated from 
 the photogrammetric survey was 21,870 feet. 
 
 The watershed proved to have on its northern side a broad cornice 
 prolonged to the right in such a way as to cut off completely tlie view 
 of the northern slope of K-. Below the col to westward they could 
 just make out the wall descending toward the north and disappearing 
 verticallv from view. And that was all. As a reward of his labours
 
 M%k i^ 
 
 tamuM
 
 The Savoia Glacier and Pass. lmd 
 
 the Duke thus s w utterly annihilated the hopes with which ho iiad 
 begun the ascent. 
 
 It is possible that Sir Francis Younghusband saw this saddle, as 
 well as the northern wall of K-, when he came over the Mustagh pass 
 from the north in September, 1887. According to his map the col 
 would belong to a little valley running into the Sarpo Laggo, a tributary 
 of the Oprang, one of the main affluents of the Yarkand I'iver. Sir 
 Francis Younghusband described K- as he saw it from the Sarpo Laggo 
 valley, somewhat more than 12 miles away. On the iiorthern side, 
 " where it is literally clothed in glacier, there must have been from 14,000 
 to 16,000 feet of solid ice."^ He made his description somewhat more 
 exact in his recent book — " Kashmir" — where he says that he saw K- 
 towering almost immediately above him, " very abrupt and upstanding, 
 and with immense masses of ice accumulated at its base.'' It is possibly 
 these masses that feed the glacier which the Duke saw flowing westward 
 at the base of the col. He could, moreover, ascertain that no laige 
 spur detached itself from the northern slopes of K- and Staircase Peak. 
 Beyond a great valley to the north, presumably the Oprang. there 
 extend chains of lower mountains without any glacier of great size. 
 
 It was too late for the party to hnger upon the col. After about 
 a quarter of an hour they descended, the ropes making the return 
 so quick that by eight o'clock they had reached the hergschrund, where 
 they found the porters we had sent to meet them with hot drinks and 
 the Alpine lanterns. At half-past nine they were at the camp. The 
 rapid march testified to their good coiidition. They were not exhausted, 
 despite the sixteen hours of exertion at heights between 18.000 and 
 nearly 22,000 feet. The excursion to the western side of K- had not 
 revealed any feasible way of ascent to the peak, but it had enabled the 
 Duke to locate upon the map a great tributary valley to the 
 Godwin .4usten. He gave the name Savoia to the new glacier and 
 the pass. 
 
 Next morning, June 8th, Sella, Negrotto and I began the return 
 march of the expedition, with five coohes who had come up from the 
 base camp. \Mien we reached the bend of the glacier just above its 
 last cascade, we left the path to make a photogrammetric station in the 
 centre of the valley. We had to go backwards and fnnvards a great 
 
 ' Sir F E. YousonisBASD. Pri,f. Hoy. Geng. Snc. S.S. X. 1888. p. 78.").
 
 250 Chaj)ter Xl\'. 
 
 dual to escape the numerous broad crevasses, and, as usual, we lost 
 considerable time in experimenting upon methods for preventing the 
 ice from melting under the points of the tripod supporting the camera 
 and thus destroying the level laboriously attained. The slow and ceaseless 
 progress of the melting was revealed by the level in the apparatus, even 
 when we set up the latter on the stones of the moraine. The only 
 surface stable enough for our purpose was that of the large boulders, 
 and these were unfortunately of rare occurrence. Since our return 
 a simple device has been suggested to me, which I set down here for the 
 benefit of any one in a similar difficulty. Put the points of the tripod 
 into milk-tins filled with a mixture of ice and salt, which will keep 
 congealed the ice or snow directly beneath it, and ensure a stable 
 equilibrium for the apparatus long enough to execute the panorama. 
 
 Our work done, we went down the ravine and reached the base camp 
 toward sunset. The Duke joined us the following day, June 9th. It 
 was the warmest day we had had, and without a breath of wind. The 
 gentle, even murmur of the rivulets running down the moraine slopes 
 near by suited well with the summer calm. Even the cawing of the 
 crows sounded subdued. 
 
 For the first time the provisions for the coohes were late in arriving, 
 3,nd there was a scarcity of chupattis. The coohes ended by submis- 
 sively accepting some of our biscuits to fill out their ration, and even 
 some roast mutton, when we had convinced them that it had been 
 prepared at Rdokass by people of their own religion and caste. They 
 also found a Uttle sack of flour, wliich they ate raw with great gusto. 
 Fresh provisions reached us on the 11th, and with them five extra 
 •coolies sent for by the Duke to help shift the camp from one place to 
 another. 
 
 Everything was brought down from the Savoia glacier, and we made 
 ready for the next move. We stayed at the base camp four days. I 
 noted at this time, and on similar occasions, that during such days of 
 idleness one feels often a little heavy-headed, and experiences some 
 loss of sleep and appetite. I imagine that moderate exercise, by 
 enabling the processes of nutrition and metabolism to go on with more 
 rapidity, facilitates the elimination of noxious products, which are 
 ■either not so easily converted or remain in the system in larger quantities 
 at these heights than in the conditions of atmospheric pressure under 
 'which we normally live.
 
 The Savoia Glacier and Pass. 
 
 251 
 
 In t}ie sixteen days since our arrival at the base camp the appearance 
 of the lower Godwin Austen had changed considerably, notwith- 
 standing the continual alternation of good and bad weather. From 
 the foot of K^ down to the Concordia its surface was now quite free 
 of snow, rougli and full of sharp points, and traversed by long ridges 
 of ice between the w'ide streaks of moraine, which had become low 
 and flattened. The rockv walls were baring themselves — the snow was 
 
 MITKE PEAK FROM THE LOWER GODWIN" ATSTES. 
 
 confined to scattered patches and the glaciers were thus more clearly 
 defined. The lower spurs of Broad Peak displayed surfaces of inaccessible 
 rock. Mitre Peak turned toward us a ridge that ran almost vertically 
 from base to summit, ice-covered on its right side, entirely black on its 
 left. 
 
 We had not yet had three consecutive days of fine weather. The 
 wind blew almost uninterruptedly about the high peaks and ridges, and 
 light falls of snow and sleet were not infrequent. There was no sign 
 of a change for the better in the sky or in the barometer, which remained 
 fairly steadily at the same point, with but slight \'ariations. When 
 the wind turned easterly or northorlv it generally became clear and 
 somewhat calmer, but imfortimatelv that state of things never lasted
 
 252 C'liapttT \i\ . 
 
 long. We gradually resigned ourselves to taking the weather as it 
 came, without attempting prophecies always set at naught hv the 
 capricious meteorological conditions. 
 
 Twilight was alwavs followed bv severe and increasing told, which 
 arrested alike the falling stones, snow and ice and the currents of water. 
 Profound silence would biood over the valley, even weighing down our 
 spirits with indefinable heaviness. There can be no other place in the 
 world where man feels himself so alone, so isolated, so completely 
 ignored by Nature, so incapable of entering into communion with her. 
 Every clear evening we enjoyed the triumphant spectacle of Bride 
 Peak, displaying herself in immaculate purity among a cortege of 
 bridesmaids all arrayed in virgin white. Her northern wall seemed to 
 gather and reflect all the last brilliance of the dying day, and gleamed 
 resplendently white against a cold blue sky, which toward the zenith 
 became itself pale almost to whiteness.
 
 CHAPTER X\'. 
 
 THE UPPER GODWIN AUSTEN GLACIER 
 
 AND THE EASTERN SLOPES OF K -. 
 
 Length and Situation of the Godwin Austen Glacier. — The Gorge between K' and Broad 
 Peak. — -The First Step of the Glacier. — Survey and Map of the Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
 Guillarmod Expedition. — The Glacier Basin of Broad Peak. — The Speed of the Godwin 
 Austen. — Avalanches from Broad Peak. — The Eastern Wall and North-Eastem Spur of 
 K'. — Staircase Peak. — Two Ascents to Sella Pass. — The Region East of the Broad- 
 Gasherbrum Range. — Teram Kangri. — The Ascent to Windy (Jap. — The Attempt of 
 Guillarmod and Wessely on K '. — The Basin of Staircase Peak. — "Border Saddle." — 
 K= from Windy Gap. — The Region East of the Col. — The Duke at Windy Gap. — First 
 Attempt on Staircase Peak. — Snowfalls and Avalanches. — Second Attempt. — K ' from 
 the Ridge of Staircase Peak. — Observations on the Region east of the Baltoro. 
 
 We had still to explore 
 the upper basin of the 
 Godwin Austen and the 
 eastern slopes of K^ — a 
 work which occupied the 
 next fifteen days of the 
 campaign. 
 
 According to the 
 survey made by the 
 expedition, the Godwin 
 Austen from the Con- 
 cordia to Windy Gap is 
 twelve and a half miles 
 long, and divided into 
 two nearly equal parts, 
 the lower of which I 
 have already described. 
 It runs north, loaded 
 with moraine, and rises 
 about 820 feet in the
 
 254 Chapter XV. 
 
 six niiles between the Concordia and the foot of K-. From this point 
 on the glacier runs north-east, in a deep gorge between K^ and Broad 
 Peak. It has no longer any surface moraine, and it gains some 
 3,950 feet of altitude in six and a half miles, chiefly by means of two 
 great rises or steps, between which is a relatively level space. 
 
 The Duke foresaw that the new enterprise would be of some 
 duration, and arranged to set up a camp suitable for several days' 
 sojourn between the base camj^ and the upj)er glacier. It took only 
 three days for our augmented force of coolies to carry to the chosen 
 spot three of the large tents, the Whymper and Mummery tents, a good 
 part of the coolies' encampment and all the necessary supplies. The 
 first party of guides, porters and coolies started on June 12th, all of 
 them except the guides returning the same day. Sella, Negrotto and 
 I joined the party on the second day ; and on the third — June 14th — 
 the Duke arrived with the coolies who carried the last part of the 
 luggage. 
 
 We came out of our base camp and upon the moraine at the end of 
 the southern glacier of K^, beyond which the Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
 Guillarmod expedition had set up its Camp IX. We could still see 
 some remains of shelter walls built by them. The glacier was nearly 
 level, with few cracks and almost free of snow. It runs at the bottom 
 of a gorge perhaps three-quarters of a mile wide, between the tremendous 
 walls of K- and Broad Peak, over 8,000 feet above it. Threatening ice 
 clings high aloft along these walls, and the Godwin Austen is scattered 
 with masses of rock and large fi-agments of ice fi-om avalanches that 
 have fallen from both sides and come out across the valley almost as 
 far as the opposite wall. There would be no escape for a party surprised 
 by one of these avalanches, and it would be foolhardy indeed to attempt 
 the passage directly after a heavy snowfall. 
 
 The fii'st steep of the glacier begins at the base of the southern ridge 
 of K^, by which the Duke had already attempted to reach the summit. 
 The grade is moderately steep, broken in every direction by crevasses, 
 most of them covered with treacherous snow. We found it necessary 
 to put on the ropes. At the top of the short ascent the glacier again 
 becomes almost level for a little stretch, forming a terrace 18,370 feet in 
 altitude, covered with a thick layer of snow and fiill of crevasses. We 
 had been approaching the left side of the valley, and we reached this 
 level not far from a rocky spur that comes down toward us from the
 
 Broad Peak, from Camp V'l
 
 17 i\ma') rriMil ,>Ib94 liBoiil
 
 
 j'rtii 

 
 The Upper Godwin Austen Glacier. -j:,:, 
 
 northern summit of Broad Peak. This was the site of the Eckenstein- 
 Pfamil-Guillarmod expedition's CamjJ X. 
 
 At this point Conway's map leaves ofF. In surveying the valley, 
 from Fan Pass in the Crystal Peak chain, about seven and a half miles 
 distant, it looked to him as though the brow of this little plateau 
 might be the top of a col (Possible Saddle). The Eckenstein-Pfannl- 
 Guillarmod expedition discovered and explored the upper basin of 
 the Godwin Austen, and put the site of the watershed much farther 
 toward the north-east, at Windy Gap. 
 
 Guillarmod's narrative is accompanied by a map of the Baltoro, 
 on a scale of 1 : 200,000, which reproduces that of Conway in its general 
 hnes, with the addition of the upper Godwin Austen. ' He does not 
 describe the methods employed in the survey, but the map of the new 
 part, despite its appearance of exactness and its being furnished with 
 contours, is only an approximate sketch, in which the outlines of the 
 mountains, the lateral valleys and the confluent glaciers are so altered 
 that it is difficult to identify them when one is on the spot. AVithout 
 going into detail, it is sufficient to instance that the upper basin of the 
 Godwin Austen is represented as over nine miles long (from Conwav's 
 Possible Saddle to Windy Gap), whereas it actually measures less than 
 four miles : that the horizontal distance between Windy Gap and K- is 
 given as nearly lOi miles instead of 4i miles ; and that the bearing of 
 the vallev is incorrect. The altimetric figures of Guillarmod are 
 generally considerably in excess of the ones measured by us. - 
 
 Dr. Pfannl, whose name is not mentioned in the title of the Ecken- 
 stein-Knowles-Guillarmod map, published with his account of the 
 expedition* a sketch of the upper part of the Godwin Austen, mentioning 
 that it is only approximate, and probably bears too much to the north — 
 
 ' The map is constructed " d'apres les donnees existantes et les documents de Texpedition 
 rapportes par O. Eckenstoin, G. Knowles and Dr. J. Jacot Guillarmod." 
 - The following instances will suffice : — 
 
 Heights determineil lleiglits given in 
 Place. hy t lie expedition of (iiiilluriuo^i's luup, 
 
 tile Diilie. lahles iind text. 
 
 JlitrePeak 20,462 24,600 
 
 Broad Peak 27,1.32 28,000 
 
 Staircase 24,07S 26,250 
 
 Mustagh Tower 23,950-24,950 26,250 
 
 Rdokass 1.'}.205 13,904 
 
 CampX 18,3.50 18,733 
 
 Windy Cap 20.449 21,500 
 
 ' Zeit. des dculscli. u. uesl. Alpcnver. 35, 1904, p. 88.
 
 •2b6 Chapter \V. 
 
 as is, in fact, the case. Except foi' tlie exaggeration in tlie width of 
 the glacier, this drawing is nearer the actual dimensions of the valley 
 than the map published In' (Juillarmod. The outline of the chains 
 and ridges is also more nearly correct. 
 
 Our predecessors stayed in the upper Godwin Austen for a month, 
 from June 20th to July 21st, 1902. They suffered much from bad 
 weather. However, the two Austrian doctors, Pfannl and Wessely, 
 were able to make numerous exploring expeditions, which I mention 
 in the course of my narrative. Dr. Pfannl was seized on Jidy 15th 
 by a somewhat serious lung trouble, and the expedition was obliged 
 to put an end to its campaign and return home. 
 
 From the northern summit of Broad Peak (26,017 feet) the left side 
 of the valley makes a wide circuit to the south-east, circumscribing a 
 circular basin over a mile in diameter, filled with a level glacier which 
 flows into the intermediate plateau of the Godwin Austen. We crossed 
 the mouth of this tributary, and at the base of the spur which bounds 
 it on the right we found the camp set up on a level strip of moraine 
 with a little frozen marginal lake near by. This was the Camp VI of 
 our map, 18,602 feet above sea level. The Duke kept twelve of the 
 coolies with us at this camp, the others returning with Bareux to the 
 base, to keep up our communications with Rdokass. 
 
 In the ascent to the camp the Duke had made an interesting 
 discovery. Below the plateau, at the base of the rise in the glacier, 
 he found half buried in the ice two mallets used for driving in tent 
 pickets, some kiltas with the bottoms knocked out, some single snow- 
 shoes and several empty iirovision boxes. These were all articles left 
 behind at Camp X by our predecessors (Guillarmod mentions the 
 incident in his book) when, after weeks of struggle against bad weather 
 and under serious anxiety over their sick comrade, they took the return 
 route, carrying him on a sledge improvised out of skis. In the interval 
 of seven years the cast-off objects had been carried down the glacier 
 to nearly a mile below the spot marked Camp X on Guillarmod's map. 
 One may accordingly argue an average yearly speed of 702 feet for the 
 glacier, much less than that calculated by our expedition on the Baltoro 
 at the level of Rdokass. 
 
 The camp faced the wall which terminates Broad Peak to the north, 
 the wildest and most impressive bastion one could possibly imagine, a 
 series of vertical cUfEs of rock dominated bv blue walls of ice 1,000 feet
 
 TIk' Upper Godwin Austen Glacier. 
 
 257 
 
 high, which represent sectioiLs of the northern glaciers of Broad Peak. 
 They sUde along unceasingly on those tremendous steps, shoving their 
 edges farther and farther over the abyss until finally the weight conquers 
 the cohesiveness of the mass, and enormous pieces break off and hurl 
 themselves down to the bottom of the amphitheatre with a deafening 
 
 EASTERN SIDE OF K = AS SEEN FROM CAMP VI. 
 
 crash and a roar that makes the vallev tremble. Lonsj echoes of the 
 tumult come back fi-om the mountain walls, and from where we are we 
 can feel the cold breath of the avalanche like a great gust of wind. 
 Day and night every few hours this thunder reverberates, and in the 
 intervals the mind unconsciously remains in suspense, waiting for 
 another downfall. The wall is dominated by the northern summit of 
 Broad Peak, which looks pointed from this side. To its left, just behind 
 the ridge, rises the rounded centre jieak, the highest of the three. Five 
 
 (9221) R
 
 258 
 
 Chapter XV. 
 
 other peaks rise along the circular wall of the basin, between 23,222 
 and 20,981 feet high. Our camp is at the base of the fifth and lowest. 
 
 The appearance of K- is quite changed; it has become a mountain 
 of ice. Its shape is that of a regular cone comprised between the 
 southern ridge already attempted by the Duke, and a secondary one, 
 ice-covered, which descends to the bottom of the valley in front of the 
 great north-east spur. The apex of this cone is really formed by the 
 edge of the eastern shoulder of the mountain, which obscures the outline 
 
 CAMP VI AND STAIRCASE PEAK. 
 
 of the main peak. The whole cone is covered with ice, above whicli 
 just show the low, little accentuated rocky ridges converging to the 
 top. The wall, at a very steep angle of inclination, is live ice for 
 7,000 feet up, and crowned by seracs. It is absolutely inaccessible. 
 The north-east buttress detaches itself from the broad curving shoulder, 
 also entirely ice-covered, and takes up a good share of the right side 
 of the valley, wliich is rugged with teeth and rjendarmes and surmounted 
 by some goodly peaks, and ends more than two and a half miles 
 from K^, in the snowy dome which Guillarmod and Wessely attempted 
 to climb from the Godwin Austen. At no point of the entire distance 
 is there a place where one could gain the ridge directly from the glacier. 
 The farthest height, at the head of the valley, is Staircase Peak 
 (24,078 feet), of which we see the south-western face, a rocky vertical
 
 K-, as seen from the east, from the rocks above Car 
 
 VI
 
 1/ (iriij;J jvadi; i»j<ri vni fium jr.t.j aril nu-' -
 
 Tlie Uj)i)er Godwin Austen Glacier. •2i)9 
 
 triangle nearly 4,000 feet high. Between it and the ridge that runs 
 toward it from K- is another glacial basin, which empties by a narrow 
 mouth into the Godwin Austen ; it is like the basin below Broad Peak, 
 Ijut much smaller. From Staircase Peak to Windy Gap a rib of ice 
 descends by a series of steps or leaps, its side traversed by glaciers and 
 furrowed by deep channels ; and this rib, together with Windy Gap 
 itself, terminates the valley of the Godwin Austen. From our camp 
 we can see neither the saddle nor the left wall of the valley. 
 
 20,981. 22,306. 
 
 FIRST STEP OF THE GODWIN AUSTEN CL.VCIER, .\ND SELL.V P.\SS. 
 
 During several days we only saw this or that portion of the 
 panorama I have described, according to the caprice of the wind, which 
 would tear away the cloud masses here and there, letting in a rift of 
 sunlight speedily obscured again by the marshalling of the cold mists 
 or a fresh onset of snow or sleet. I have already mentioned that the 
 Duke had noted from the southern ridge of K- a depression in the circle 
 of mountains around the amphitheatre of Broad Peak, and had formed 
 a project of climbing up to it for a glimpse of the region east of the 
 Gasherbrums. This was undertaken on June loth. The depression 
 is in the northern wall of the amphitheatre, between peaks 22.306 and 
 20,981 feet, beneath the second of which our camp was stationed. It 
 
 (0-2-2\) R -2
 
 200 Chaj)ter XV. 
 
 was necessary to round the base of this peak and enter the gUicier basin 
 in order to reach the l)ottoni of the couloir, by which one coidd ascend 
 to the col. Three guides accompanied the Duke. They found the 
 level surface of glaciei' filling the basin to be cut in every direction by 
 cracks which were covered over with treacherous powdery snow, not 
 firni enough to walk on. They had hardly got past the entrance when 
 Alessio Brocherel broke through one of these snow bridges and fell 
 heavily into a fissure. The rope went taut, giving him a violent wrench 
 in the chest. It did not seem at the time to be more than an ordinary 
 incident of mountain climbing, not serious enough to interrupt the 
 march, but it was the probable cause of much later suffering for him. 
 The wall itself proved to have a good layer of firm snow, upon which 
 the party could ascend with the crampons without needing to cut 
 steps. In three hours they reached the saddle, about 2,000 feet above 
 camp. By good fortune the air was clear, as well as the sky beyond the 
 col, whereas the ranges of the Godwin Austen were largely in fog. It 
 was impossible to stay long on the top, because of the intense cold and 
 violent wind, but before returning the Duke was able to make observa- 
 tions of many details of the region east of the saddle. 
 
 In order to avoid repetition later on I will interrupt the chronological 
 narrative here, and mention a second visit to the col, made by Sella, 
 with one of the porters and a coolie, seven days later, on June 22nd. 
 He went beyond the ridge, crossing obliquely the eastern slope of the 
 mountain, which was strewn with small rocky detritus covered by a 
 crust of thin transparent ice. He stopped at a point where the 
 Gasherbrum range came into view on the south, about half a mile from 
 the saddle and somewhat lower down ; and here he took panorama F, 
 from a ledge on the ridge that runs down south-east from peak 22,339. 
 It was a labour of two hours, rendered doid)ly arduous by the strong 
 wind. He regained the col with some difficulty, having to contend 
 with squalls of fearful severity. Wonderful to say, the coolie endured 
 all this without a single complaint. With the help of panorama F it 
 is possible to get an idea, if not of the topography, at least of the general 
 aspect of the region east of the Baltoro basin, a region into which but 
 one single explorer, Sir Francis Younghusband, has ever penetrated, 
 and he only for a short distance, in 1889. 
 
 As far as the eye can see, there is a succession of glacier-filled valleys 
 and rocky and snowy chains. One can neither see nor guess at the
 
 The Ui)por Godwin Austen Glacier. 
 
 261 
 
 situation of the lower valleys, where there must be torrents and rivers 
 running. From the jiass, which the Duke named after Vittorio Sella, 
 a glacier flows southward in a wide valley, bounded on its right by an 
 ice-covered spur radiating from one of the peaks of the amphitheatre, 
 and on its left by a short ridge surmounted by a fine rocky pyramid, 
 which detaches itself at right angles from peak 22,995 of the eastern 
 side of the Godwin Austen. As far as could be judged from above, the 
 
 TERAM KANGRI FROM THE EASTERX SIDE OF SELLA PASS. 
 
 descent on the farther side of Sella Pass did not look difficult, provided 
 the glacier did not terminate in a cascade of seracs. This pass seemed, 
 in fact, to be the only way of exit from the Godwin Austen basin that 
 did not present serious obstacles. 
 
 To the south the scene is dominated by a group of splendid 
 mountains, among which are the eastern peaks of the Gasherbrums I 
 (Hidden Peak), II and III. From this last a great steep spur runs out 
 northward, just indicated upon our map. This spur, taken together 
 with the eastern walls of Broad Peak, encloses a wide valley filled with 
 
 (9221) R 3
 
 '262 
 
 Chapter W. 
 
 a broad glacier bare of moraine. At the foot of the col this glacier 
 bends to the north-east to mingle with another and even larger one, 
 covered with moraine, which comes down east of the great ridge of 
 Gasherbrum III just mentioned, and seems to flow north-east, gathering 
 up several affluents from among the spurs of tlie Gasherbrums, on its 
 course toward a distant chain of lofty mountains laden with ice and 
 snow. Three peaks of this chain, marked X, Y and Z on the panorama, 
 
 STAIRCASE PEAK AND THE END OK THE NOKTH ■EASTERN SI'UR OF K ''. 
 
 were distinguished by the Duke from Staircase Peak, as I shall describe 
 shortly. Almost in the centre of the picture, behind all the succession 
 of ranges, rises a peak of evidently exceptional height. Sella took the 
 horizontal angle of it with the surveying compass. From the situation, 
 shape and appearance of this peak, there can be no reasonable doubt 
 that it is Teram Kangri, the mountain discovered and measured by 
 Dr. LongstafE from the upper Siachen glacier on June 17th, only five 
 days before Sella photographed it.^ 
 
 I will now resume the narrative from June 14th, on which day the 
 Duke had sent ahead Sella, Negrotto and myself to set up a light camp 
 at Windy Gap. Lorenzo Petigax, Emilio Brocherel and twelve coolies 
 
 ' T. G. LoNGSTAFF, Uhicitr Exploration in the Eastern Karakoram. Geog. Jour. 35, 1910, 
 p. 631. See also a note by Dr. Longstaff in Alp. Jour. May, 1911 (vol. 29), p. 488, where he 
 gives reasons for identifying Teram Kangri with the peak photographed by Sella.
 
 TIr- Upper Godwin Austen Glacier. 
 
 263 
 
 formed our escort, and we were roped together in two long files. The 
 morning was cold and windy, with a thick atmosphere. We climbed 
 up the left side of the glacier, in the furrow next the wall, reaching in 
 a few minutes the top of the second level. The drop of the glacier 
 beside us was cut by broad crevasses, typically V-shaped, with the 
 apex pointing downwards. We went gradually towai'd the centre of 
 the valley to get out of range of possible avalanches from the glaciers 
 
 STAIRCASE PEAK, THE END OF THE NORTH-EASTERN RIDUE OF K -, ^VND THE OPENING 
 
 OF STAIRCASE BASIN. 
 
 hanging on the steep walls of the left side. This wall runs fairly 
 straight, without marked side valleys, and has only two peaks — 22,339 
 and 22,995 feet in height — from the latter of which a rounded rocky 
 ]'ib, loaded with ice and snow, descends to Windy Gap. The other 
 side of the valley is formed by the long north-east buttress of K-, a 
 sheer precipice, all ice and perpendicular cliffs. It ends in a round 
 snow-covered shoulder, above which towers a sharp pinnacle of rock 
 (peak 22,378 on the map). At the foot of this peak our predecessors 
 had set up their Camp XI; and thence, on July 10th, 1902, Wessely 
 and Guillarmod had tried to gain the snowy shoulder, in the hope of 
 finding a route to K- along the broken and slender north-eastern ridge. 
 
 (9221) R 4
 
 264 Chapter XV. 
 
 Guillarmod relates that they were greatly embarrassed by the deep 
 snow, and obliged to turn back after getting within 150 feet of the top 
 of the shoulder, the aneroid barometer showing a height of 22,000 feet. ^ 
 
 Beyond the north-east ridge of K- the valley is broken into by the 
 glacial basin of Staircase Peak. This basin is so shut in by high and 
 steep walls as to form a sort of pit or rather an enormous trench. 
 Pfannl and \\'essely camped inside of it, and climbed up a gully in its 
 western wall in an attempt to reach a depression in the ridge, whence 
 they might be able to examine the northern side of the north-eastern 
 buttress of K-. They were driven back by falHng stones and the 
 steepness of the ice.- The precipitous walls of Staircase Peak close 
 in the top of the Godwin Austen, about whose summit the wind was 
 furling and unfurling veils of mist. 
 
 The glacier was of a dense whiteness, without briUiance. Not even 
 on the broken ice of its walls was to be seen any of the blue-green hue 
 of our Alpine glaciers. The weather was very severe, and the coolies 
 suffered bitterly. AMienever we paused they shook with the cold and 
 the cruel wind that penetrated the loose folds of their garments. We 
 were nearly at the level of the Staircase basin, and there remained only 
 a last short climb between us and the little flat space below Windy Gap. 
 Here the coolies stopjjed and piteously implored us not to go any farther. 
 One of them flung himself weeping on the snow, pointing to his aching 
 head and numbed feet. We had his shoes and stockings taken off to 
 make sure his feet were not frozen. We gave him some caffeine tablets 
 and coaxed him and the others to go on, less in words than by 
 sympathetic looks and tones, and by pointing out the near-by goal. We 
 got them on again in a little. As a matter of fact we were never, 
 throughout the expedition, prevented from going reasonable distances 
 by any illwill or rebellion on the part of the coolies, and we learned 
 from experience that the Baltis are much more susceptible to kindness 
 and persuasion than to tlireats or violence. 
 
 After about another hour of walking, at an easy gait, we reached 
 the foot of the last slope, above 100 feet high, and in ten minutes more 
 we were on the rocks of the saddle, wliich is divided into two unequal 
 
 ' Comm. Paganini has calculated the altitude of this shoulder from four photogrammctric 
 stations (X, XIII, XV and XVI on the triangulation sketch), and obtained an average of 21,588 
 feet. According to this the height reached by VVessely and Guillarmod would be about 21,400 feet. 
 
 * See the article by Pfajtnl, already cited, in Zeit. des deut. it. oest. Alpenver.
 
 The Upper God win Austen Glacier. 
 
 ■jf,i, 
 
 parts by a small rocky tooth. It is prolonged on one side by the 
 southern ridge of Staircase Peak, and on the other by the rounded 
 flanks of peak 22,995. A villainous wind was blowing. We scarcely 
 gave a glance down the narrow steep valley beyond the col, through 
 which a glacier flows to enter a larger valley. Beyond the second one 
 rises a snow-covered range. There was no place on the col to set up 
 a camp, so we went down the last short ascent and jjlaced the tents 
 near the little bergschrimd at its foot. 
 
 WINDY U.VP. 
 
 The cooUes went back at once, accompanied by Savoie, who for 
 the safety of the party entrusted to his care must, of course, put himself 
 last in the file. The question was, which of the twelve coolies would 
 be brave enough to march at the head. After some little excitement 
 one of them volunteered, and they started off in their usual good 
 humour. 
 
 All day long the storm wind blew furiously, dri\dng fine grains of 
 ice through every cranny in the tents. The heights were all covered. 
 Later on the wind lessened somewhat and snow began to fall. Most 
 of the next day, June 15th, we spent at the top of the ridge, Negrotto 
 and I with the photogrammetric apparatus on a little rocky ledge south
 
 266 Chaptor W. 
 
 of the col ; and Sella on the other side at the foot of Staircase Peak, 
 with his photographic equipment — all three of us waiting in a cutting 
 wind, our teeth chattering, stamping our feet and slapping our hands 
 together, indulging the vain hope that the sky might clear. The 
 temperature was not lower than 21° F. or thereabouts ; but inactive as 
 we were in the face of that piercing wind, our suffering was acute. The 
 weather played with us for hours, partially uncovering now one peak, 
 now another. But toward four o'clock it grew definitely worse, and 
 drove us back to the tent, where we prepared our simple meal. A 
 party of coolies, under the escort of Savoie, had come and gone during 
 the day leaving provisions and supplies. 
 
 The pass well deserves the name of Windy Gap given it by 
 Guillarmod. However, T should mention that Pfannl called it Grenz 
 Battel (Border Saddle), because it is the limit of the hydrographic 
 system not only of the Baltoro basin, but of the Indus as well. Pfannl 
 gives it a height of 20,550 feet, much nearer our figure of 20,449 feet 
 than the 21,500 feet given on Guillarmod's map. Dr. Wessely made a 
 short expedition to the col, being the only one of the party to do so. 
 In Pfannl's sketch a precipitous ice wall is marked to the north of it, 
 and at its base a large glacier running westward, beyond which is 
 indicated another mountain chain, the same as that shown on our map. 
 From the route traced in the sketch it appears that Dr. Wessely went 
 on beyond the col, continuing .somewhat toward the right up to a point 
 marked 21,150 feet. 
 
 As if maliciously, the weather turned fine after sunset. The sununit 
 of K'^ was already in shadow, but from the lofty cone stood up an 
 immense volume of vapour, more than 3,000 feet high, with wonderful 
 whorls outlined against the sky, gilded by the sinking sun, whose last 
 rays just reached its topmost part, perhaps 32,000 or 33,000 feet high. 
 
 By way of exception the fine evening did not prove this time to have 
 been a false prophecy, and on rising next morning we were dehghted 
 to behold a brilliantly clear sky. We lost not a minute in returning 
 to the ridge of the col, where for the first time we saw the entire eastern 
 face of K- revealed without a trace of mLst. ^ It looked like another 
 mountain entirely ; and of all the manifold aspects of the colossus 
 this is certainly the most imposing, the richest and boldest in design. 
 Alas, it is also such as to annihilate the last remnant of hope that might 
 
 ' See panorama G.
 
 The U|)|KT (lodwiii Aiistoii ( ilatitT, 
 
 267 
 
 linger in the mind of the mountaineer. The cone itself rises from a 
 great sloping shoulder entirely covered by a glacier that comes down 
 to its very verge and breaks abruptly off, forming a perpetual menace 
 to all the ravines, furrows and ridges of the steep wall beneath. The 
 peak, which from this side looks very sharp, has a huge icy dome or 
 cap coming down to the edge of a formidable vertical descent of rock ; 
 
 ^ } --r 
 
 . /J 
 
 K° FROM WINDY GAP. 
 
 and to this the chance disposition of the ice and the hollows and pro- 
 tuberances of the rock have given the semblance of a grotesque face, 
 a sort of demon of the mountains. Below the shoulder to the south 
 Is visible in profile the crest of rock first tried by the Duke ; it is much 
 steeper than it looked from below and very long. The north-western 
 buttress projects toward us, very sharp, broken and rugged, full of 
 needles and icy pinnacles, between which run nortliward the curves 
 of long and ample cornices. If he had seen it from this point. Guillarmod
 
 268 
 
 Chapter XV. 
 
 would never have thought of choosing it as a route. The end of it joins 
 like the shaft of a T to a transversal ridge which encircles one of the 
 sides of Staircase basin. 
 
 To the south-west we could look down through the Godwin Austen 
 valley as far as the point where it bends toward the Concordia. From 
 our point of view the background is formed by the right-hand ridge 
 
 MASHEEBRUM, FROM THE HEAD OF THE COUWIN AUSTEN. TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the Savoia glacier, behind which, 24 miles away, rises Masherbrum 
 Peak, a great rocky mountain, extraordinarily imposing, terminating 
 in a sharp point. On the left all the summits along the Godwin Austen 
 look diminished and robbed of significance by the ponderous bulk of 
 Broad Peak ; but the latter is balanced on the north by the magnificent 
 icy cliffs, like gigantic steps, running from the saddle to the dome of 
 Staircase Peak. This impressive formation is joined by an almost 
 horizontal ridge to the top of the triangidar wall of rock that faces down 
 the valley.
 
 Tlie Uj)pcr (lodwiii Austen (jlacier. 
 
 269 
 
 We are now in a position to satisfy our curiosity more completely 
 with regard to the country beyond the col to the north-east.^ A 
 glacier descends precipitously at our feet, falling with almost vertical 
 leaps for about 2,000 feet, then flowing somewhat less steeply to empty 
 
 PEAK 22,113, EAST OF WINDY G.VP. TELEPHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 upon another glacier, which is nearly as large as the Godwin Austen, 
 covered with snow, and soon disappears from view in a south-easterly 
 direction. On the north this glacier reaches a low snowy col at the 
 base of the eastern wall of Staircase Peak.'- Its left wall is formed 
 
 • See panorama H. 
 
 ' The Duke tliinks it possible that by this pass one might attain directly to the glacier which 
 was to bo soon nouing at the base of Sella Pass, coming from the northern side of K'.
 
 270 Chaj)ter XA'. 
 
 ])y a chain of mountains of varied design, the highest of them being 
 twin peaks, a snowy and a rocky one (22,113 feet). The chain runs from 
 north-west to south-east, and at half its distance there detaches itself 
 at right angles a branch which runs to join the eastern ridge of Staircase 
 Peak, by means of the low col I have mentioned. Finally, above and 
 behind this screen rise here and there the peaks of still another chain, 
 evidently larger and more important. 
 
 By half-past seven Negrotto had completed a photogrammetric 
 panorama from the southern extremity of the col. We dismounted 
 the apparatus, traversed the whole length of the ridge of the col and 
 climbed, partly on ice, partly on rock, to the foot of the ridge of . 
 Staircase Peak. At the base of a sort of turret we made another station 
 on a little level cut with our pickaxes in the ice near the cornice. It 
 was from these two panoramas that the short chain north-east of Windy 
 Gap was placed upon the map. We got down directly to the tents 
 without going back to the col through a gully full of ice with a light 
 covering of snow. Sella in the meantime had taken panoramas G 
 and H, and photographs of several single mountains. The three guides 
 and seven coolies came up presently from the camp below. 
 
 Our work at Windy Gap was finished, and we prepared to return 
 to Camp VI, leaving the tents behind for the use of the Duke. He 
 wished to make the ascent of Staircase Peak, not so much as a 
 mountaineering feat as because it was evident that there must be from 
 the top an excellent view of its own north-western slopes and those of 
 K^, as well as of all the unknown territory lying east of ^\'indy Gap, 
 Broad Peak and the Gasherbrums. If too serious obstacles offered 
 themselves to an ascent, it might still be possible to descend to the 
 other side of the col and make an expedition on the glaciers eastward 
 and southward, or to round Staircase Peak to a ])oint where the northern 
 wall of K- might become visible. 
 
 We had been wise to profit by the earl}' morning hours, for it now 
 began to cloud over again. We returned roped together in three 
 caravans, one formed entirely of coolies. They had been quick to learn 
 the use of the rope, and also how to avoid the insidious crevices. 
 Whenever we had once persuaded them to cover new ground, they 
 returned to it with a good will, never making objections even when 
 the route was difficult. The reluctance which they sometimes showed 
 was never laziness or obstinacy, but only fear of the unknown. We
 
 Staircase Peak, from W'iiuly Gap
 
 qB>) vbniV/ rnoil .ylso*-! jriroiiKJr;
 
 The T])|)er (lodwin Austen Glacier. 27i 
 
 conquered it by persuasion and example. Severity would only have 
 made the case worse. 
 
 On the morning of June 17th the Duke ascended to "Windy Gap 
 in his turn. The guides had reached it the day before, and on that 
 day they went to cut a long stairway in the ice of the ridge up to the 
 first terrace. Unfortunately it began to snow in the night and kept 
 on till the day following, making all their work in vain. On the 19th 
 the weather was exceedhigly uncertain, but the Duke went up the first 
 section of the slope, accompanied by the guides. At the edge of the 
 plateau rise two well-defined towers, which show plainly in panorama G. 
 It had begun to snow again, and for five hours the party waited, 
 sheltering themselves as best they could in the lee of the towers. They 
 saw a little bird hopping about on the rocks — it seemed lost in this 
 desert of ice. Finally, they had to give up and go back to the tents. 
 Alessio Brocherel, who had been ailing ever since his fall two days 
 before, was seized with exhaustion, coughing and acute pain on the 
 right side of the chest, and the Duke thought it best for him to return 
 at once to Camp VI, with Emilio Brocherel and Savoie as escort. 
 
 In the meantime at Camp V we had spent the three days to no 
 great advantage. On the 18th Negrotto and I pushed our way through 
 a labyrinth of crevasses, which obliged us to retrace our footsteps 
 continually, as far as the centre of the middle level of the Godwin 
 Austen, where we made a photogrammetric station. Sella was spending 
 whole days of patient waiting, renewing the experience of the Ruwenzori 
 expedition, on the ledge of a crest some 2,000 feet above camp, where, 
 crouched beside his machine, he watched for a break in the clouds. 
 The wind kept up, cold and penetrating, piercing the thickest woollens 
 one could put on ; and whenever it did slacken the air grew sultry, 
 and we experienced such reverberation from the snow and fog as to 
 sufter more from it than from the unclouded sun. 
 
 The coolies, huddled about theu- tiny fires, chanted plaintive 
 monotonous little ditties half under their breaths, sometimes accom- 
 panying them by beating time on the empty provision tins. They 
 had made themselves a whole cooking outfit with the tins in which 
 the food came. The three coolies who had remained with Bareux at the 
 base camp came up periodically with our post and with chupattis and 
 bundles of wood. We were often wakened suddenly at night with 
 palpitating hearts by the terrible noise of an avalanche from Broad
 
 272 Chai)ter XV. 
 
 Peak. The echoes would reverberate for several minutes in the silence 
 of the night with a sound like cars going at full speed over uneven 
 pavement or the long roar of a passing train. 
 
 At evening on the 19th the sky was more obscured and shut in than 
 ever, and heav}' snow began to fall quietly through a windless 
 atmosphere. The thermometer registered 19° F. Alessio Brocherel 
 suffered all night long from a dry racking cough, which aggravated 
 the strain in his side. He had scarcely any fever, but he looked weak 
 and worn out. In the absence of any other morbid symptoms, I believe 
 the case to have been one of a slight and linnuted traumatic 
 pleurisy, caused Ijy the wrench from the rope which he had sustained in 
 his fall. 
 
 At midday on the 20th the Duke returned to camp. He had not 
 given up his attempt, but it seemed wisest to wait until the spell of bad 
 weather had broken and the guides had been able to prepare a route 
 on the ridge of Staircase Peak, or eLse downward through the glacier 
 east of Windy Gap. 
 
 Although the heavy snowfall had not sufficed to clear the sky of 
 clouds, Negrotto and I made a topographical excursion on the glaciei- 
 as far as the basin of Staircase Peak. We had hardly set up the 
 instrument when the whole formidable east wall of K^ seemed to 
 disembarrass itself at one stroke of all the snow that had fallen in the 
 last days, and an immense avalanche, heralded by a vast white cloud, 
 flung itself down for nearly 10,000 feet light in our direction. For an 
 instant we were bewildered, not knowing if the distance would be 
 sufficient to break the force of this tremendous downfall. But its 
 course became slower directly it reached the level of the glacier, where 
 it opened out in a great fan. The cloud of powdery snow filled the 
 entire valley, enveloping us even where we stood in its dense folds, 
 accompanied by an actual heavy snowfall which lasted several minutes. 
 It was almost half an hour before the air cleared sufficiently for us to 
 go on with our work. 
 
 We found the sun's rays very intense on our way back to camp, 
 and there was a powerful reverberation from the new snow. All the 
 surrounding mountains, as though they had been awaiting the signal 
 from the monarch, shook off their burdens, which came down in streams, 
 torrents, rivers of the purest white, and heaped themselves up at the 
 foot of the walls. After a brief interlude of only a few hours the weather
 
 The Upper Godwin Austen Glacier. 273 
 
 grew bad again. Broad Peak, always the first to condease its vapours, 
 speedily covered itself with an enormous cap ; thick stormclouds 
 appeared settling down over all the hilLs and weighing down the north- 
 eastern buttress of K- ; and to the west was displayed the " mackerel 
 sky " that always portends bad weather. 
 
 On June 23rd the Duke again rejoined the guides at AVindy Gap. 
 He had to go through a furious storm resembHng in character the polar 
 drift. There were in all five guides and porters with him at Windy 
 Gap — all the forces except Bareux, Botta and Brocherel. The last, 
 though somewhat better, continued very weak. The guides had not 
 been able to do much work in the interval. They were driven back by 
 the wind on two successive days from the ridge of Staircase Peak, not 
 getting farther than the fijst terrace. They were of opinion, however, 
 that it would be easy to find a route up to the second stage of the ascent, 
 though there was no possibiUty of attaining the peak in less than three 
 days, which meant three days of fine weather, a condition up to now 
 without a precedent. They had also examined the steep glacier east 
 of the saddle and had planned a descent on its right margin. The 
 loads would have to be let down through a steep icy well at the left 
 of the col, a very dubious undertaking and one that would require some 
 days of work. What the return route would be was an unsolved 
 problem. 
 
 On the morning of June 24th, on account of the doubtful look of the 
 weather, the Duke had decided to give up the ascent and try the way 
 down the eastern glacier of Windy Gap. But a change for the better 
 induced him to return, take the two Mummery tents, four slee})ing-bags, 
 some provisions and cooking utensils, and set off with all speed for the 
 ridge of Staircase Peak. He went up the sloping ice wall toward the 
 two rocky towers that guard the edge of the first level, crossing over 
 on the snow just below these to reach the brow of the terrace or little 
 rolling snowy plateau, upon which he set up the small camp in a 
 sheltered hollow. 
 
 The two Petigax and Enrico Brocherel stayed with him, Emilio 
 Brocherel and Savoie returning to Windy Camp. During the night 
 Enrico Brocherel, an uncommonly robust man, with the physique of an 
 athlete, was taken with coughing, from no apparent cause, had pains 
 in the breast, and spit blood. In the morning he wished to go on with 
 the others, but his cough grew worse, and alarmed by the unusual 
 
 (9221) s
 
 274 Chapter X\'. 
 
 symptoms he was obliged to give it up. The illness was unexplainable, 
 for no further evil results followed, and later on, in the much higher 
 camps of Cliogolisa Saddle, he always felt perfectly well. The appear- 
 ance of clear and serene weather made the mishap all the more vexing. 
 Despite it, the Duke did not hesitate to set off with the two Petigax, 
 with the intention of getting as far as possible up the ridge. They wore 
 two sets of woollens for protection against the stinging cold, and their 
 feet and legs were Avound with heavy cloth kept in place by the straps 
 from the crampons. It took about an hour to cross the plateau, full 
 of lai'ge furrows and snowy ridges. Thence they climljed the gentle 
 slope to the foot of the second step and began the attack upon it. It 
 was covered with dry snow with the bare ice shining through here and 
 there. After some three hours of work with the pickaxes they reached 
 a point very near the top, where the wall began curving on to the edge 
 of the second terrace. Here they were confronted by a wide crevasse, 
 the edges of which were particularly unsafe from melting. It cut the 
 steep slope at right angles in such a way that its upper edge was several 
 yards higher and receded by about the same amount more than the 
 lower. The guides followed along the edge going toward the left, and 
 Lorenzo, standing on his father's shoulders, tried in vain to gain the 
 upper edge. Then they went to the right, and finally found a spot 
 where the edges were close enough together to permit them to cross. 
 But once beyond it they found themselves on a strip of ice only a few 
 yards across, separating them from another huge crevasse, 20 or 30 feet 
 broad, which went all the way across the slope to where the side walls 
 went down right and left into the valley. There was no getting around 
 this obstacle ; it formed an absolute barrier to fiu'ther progress. To go 
 all the way aroimd it on the right one would have to chmb an almost 
 vertical wall of hve ice exposed to falls of threatening seracs. It might 
 be possible to pass it on the left by chmbing on the rocks some 700 feet 
 below the ridge. Midday was already at hand, and it would be 
 necessary to make a camp and begin again the next day. Added to 
 all this the Duke, for the first and only time in the campaign, felt very 
 weary, and the endurance of young Lorenzo was sorely taxed. As 
 for his father, Criuseppe, this indomitable man appeared insensible 
 to altitude, to cold or to fatigue. He was never found wanting or 
 known to feel a moment of weakness throughout all the campaigns 
 upon which he accompanied the Duke, and probably found a source
 
 Tlif Upper (jlodwin Austen Glacier. 275 
 
 of strength in the silent devotion which he manifested toward our 
 leader. 
 
 Rather than waste the time in doubtful trials, to gain, perhaps, 
 another hundred yards, the Duke determined to derive the utmost 
 profit from the work already accomplished, by making a thorough 
 observation of the wide horizon which his present station (21,650 feet 
 high) enabled him to embrace. He had a splendid view of K-, which 
 always showed itself more lofty, more threatening and more inaccessible 
 the higher one's point of \aew, as if to mock at any competition with 
 itself. The photograph which the Duke took of it that morning from 
 the shelter camp, reproduced in the frontispiece of this book, is 
 undoubtedly the best picture of K^ boasted by the expedition. 
 
 From his station on the ridge the Duke took panorama I, which is 
 important from the illustrative as well as from the geographical point of 
 view. As usual K- dominates the scene, showing its terminal cone in 
 its true proportions, covered with a heavy coat of ice on the east and 
 south, and having a steep smooth angle of rock on the north, which ends 
 more than 3,000 feet below the summit by merging into the northern 
 wall. The latter falLs precipitously behind the north-east ridge, 
 certainly the nearest to the perpendicular of all the faces of the mountain. 
 Farther off and lower down another rocky ridge shows itgelf against 
 the sky, in all probability part of the smaller north-western ridge that 
 runs down to Savoia Pass. If so, the Duke had now completed the 
 circuit of exploration of K-. He might now abandon the struggle in 
 the consciousness that he had left undone nothing within human power 
 to convince himself of the impossiblity of the undertaking. 
 
 The Godwin Austen valley, which looked so broad when we were 
 going through it, shows in the panorama a mere cut or gorge between 
 the walls of K^ and Broad Peak. Masherbrum in the distance has lost 
 much of its imposing appearancie. Gasherbrum I and II are just visible 
 behind the left wall of the Godwin Austen valley. 
 
 Toward the east comes the most interesting part of the panorama, 
 geographically speaking. The short chain of which Negrotto made 
 a survey, and which appears on our map, has sunk down quite low, the 
 southern summits just showing. On the other hand the lofty chain, 
 some peaks of which were to be seen from Windy Gap showing behind 
 the nearer range, now reveals itself in its entirety. It was possible, 
 thanks to the three characteristic peaks marked X, Y and Z on the 
 
 (9221) s 2
 
 276 Chapter X\'. 
 
 panorama, to identify this chain with the one which extends on the 
 left in Sella's panorama F, taken on June 22nd from behind the eastern 
 ridge of the Godwin Austen. The glacier which flows eastward at the 
 base of Windy Gap empties after a short course into another larger 
 one, almost free of moraine ; and of this glacier one sees a tiny 
 triangular portion in panorama I, apparently flowing south-east. By 
 comparing the two panoramas F and I one can see that this glacier 
 must join the large one, entirely covered with loose moraine, of which 
 one sees a stretch in panorama F, and to which contribute a large 
 number of affluents from the eastern wall of Broad Peak and the 
 Gasherbrums. ^ 
 
 Having finished their observations the little party quickly returned 
 to the shelter tents. Shortly afterwards they were joined from below 
 by the two porters, and with their help descended to Windy Gap, taking 
 the small quantity of luggage. They all rested next day — Lorenzo 
 Petigax still feeling some fatigue, and also Enrico Brocherel. The 
 former had a slightly frost-bitten foot. On the 27th the Duke sent these 
 two to the base camp with EmiUo Brocherel, and on the 28th he himself 
 left Windy Gap and rejoined the rest of the party. 
 
 ^ In Chapter XIX I have tried to correlate the observations of the Duke on the region east 
 of the Baltoro with those of the only other explorer of these parts, Col. Sir Francis Younghusband.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FROM THE BASE OF K^'TO THE FOOT OF BRIDE PEAK. 
 THE UPPER BALTORO GLACIER. 
 
 K • as surveyed by the Exjiedition. — Lanfafahad, Chiring or Chogo ? — Weather during June — 
 Early Monsoon of the Karakoram. — Bride Peak, the new Goal of the Duke. — Return to 
 Base Camp. — Changes in the Glaciers and Mountains. — The Camp moved to Concordia. — 
 Sella's Work. — The Duke sets out for Bride Peak. — Moraines of the Southern Branch of 
 the Baltoro. — Camp at the Foot of (Jolden Throne. — Landslides and Avalanches. — 
 Hidden Peak and the Eastern Slopes of Bride Peak. — Mustagh Tower. — Weather during 
 July. — Melting of the Glaciers. — The Snow Limit. — Sunsets. 
 
 Our work in the neighbourhood 
 of K^ and the glacier basin of 
 the Godwin Aasten was at an 
 end. The Duke had explored 
 the mountain in detail, its 
 glaciers and surrounding ranges 
 on the south, west and east ; 
 he had seen and photographed 
 the outhne of its northern wall, 
 perhaps the most precipitous of 
 all. Despite unfavourable atmo- 
 spheric conditions, despite the 
 mists and fogs that persistently- 
 covered the peaks and walls, 
 Sella and Negiotto, by taking 
 advantage of every brief interval 
 of fair weather, had succeeded in getting views of the valleys and 
 mountains about the monarch, and in completing a network of photo- 
 grammetric panoramas and of angles read on the tacheometer. 
 
 (0:221) s 3
 
 278 
 
 Chapter \\\. 
 
 K° now stood revealed in detail, and it became possible to make 
 accurate drawings of its outlines, its ridges and the inclination of its 
 walls. The mountain is a quadrangular pyramid, the corners being 
 formed by four main crests meeting at right angles — the south-west 
 and north-cast, the north-west and south-east. The first two are 
 prolonged in long and powerful buttresses, proportionate in size to the 
 mass which they sustain. The other two are cut oft' short and 
 
 K= FKOM THE SOLTH. 
 
 precipitously — one at Savoia Pass, the other at the shoiUder of the 
 mountain, where it divides into a southern and an eastern branch. 
 These four ridges outline irregidar walls, which are orientated to the 
 four cardinal points and are cut by secondary ridges. The western and 
 northern faces are rocky. The southern is likewise rocky, but the De 
 Filippi glacier runs across it obhquely. The eastern face is all armed 
 with ice, and has a great shoulder two-thirds of the way up, upon which 
 the terminal peak rears itself, a cone over 3,000 feet high. 
 
 It is quite certain that K-, from whatever point one looks at it, has 
 one peak and one only. It is not clear how some observers can have 
 managed to see two. In Drew's book^ is a drawing of K^ seen from 
 
 • F. Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir. 2nd ed. London 1877. p. 370.
 
 »«^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Peak of K^ seen fn»in the south
 
 m 
 
 iIjuo^ yfil linn] naae ,->I \o Jr'jT jiIT
 
 From K ' to liride Peak. 279 
 
 the south-west from more than 62 miles away, showing it witli two 
 distinct points divided by a broad saddle. Sir Martin Conway also 
 believed ho liad seen a twin peak. On the other hand, Godwin Austen 
 distinctly affirmed the contrary, and he was right. ^ It is perhaps 
 the great eastern shoulder seen from certain points of view that has 
 created the false impression. 
 
 I know no other mountain which has such diverse as2)ectvS when seen 
 from its different sides. The plates showing it from west, south, east 
 and north-east- display its extraordinary variety of form, and show, 
 too, how all its sides are equally fortified wath the most formidable 
 defences against the attack of the mountain climber. After weeks of 
 examination, after hours of contemplation and search for the secret 
 of the mountain, the Duke was finally obliged to yield to the conviction 
 that K^ is not to be chmbed. Its height is not a factor in the case. 
 It is the obstacles peculiar to mountain climbing and famiUar to the 
 mountaineer that close the paths of ascent to K^. I know how hard 
 it is to-day to win belief for a statement of the inaccessibihty of a 
 mountain without the most exhaustive evidence. And I hasten to add 
 that such a sentence applies to K- not altogether in an absolute sense, 
 but very much as a result of the remote situation of the giant, the 
 impossibility of camping near its base for more than a few weeks, and 
 finally the unfavourable cUmatic conditions. If K- were in the Alps 
 it is possible that a siege of several years would end in conquest, 
 provided that the height did not form per se a physiological obstacle 
 not to be overcome. Step by step a way would be gained up one of 
 the ridges — ropes and refuges would be placed. The giant would 
 probably claim its victims, but in the end would yield perhaps to 
 repeated assaults. 
 
 The Baltis gave us a new name for K-, as they had done also to oui" 
 predecessors. They appeared to agree in calUng it Lanfafahad or 
 Lanpapahad. They were equally unanimous in sjwaking of it to 
 Conway under the designation Chiring. while to Guillarmod they called 
 it Chogo. The last is common to various peaks of the Karakoram. 
 There is only one conclusion to be drawn from all these names — that 
 K- has had none given it by the natives. The fact is not surprising. 
 
 * See Geog. Jimr. 3, 1894, pp. 431 and 527. 
 
 ' Compare Plates opposite pp. 232, 248, 258, 288 and frontispiece. 
 (9221) s 4
 
 280 Cliapter X\\. 
 
 Rather it would be strange if the natives who live on the slopes of the 
 Karakoram, who have left unchristened numberless peaks which they 
 see every day, had had the idea of giving a name to a particular one 
 six days' journey from their villages beyond the much-dreaded glaciers, 
 in a region to which they have been dragged solely by the insatiability 
 of European curiosity. The brothers Schlagintweit made a vain search 
 for a native name both in Baltistan and Turkestan, and afterwards 
 proposed the name of Depsang, because they had had so splendid a 
 view of the mountain from the plateau of that name near the 
 Karakoram pass. K- is actually indicated by this name in various 
 atlases, chiefly German ones. It has not, however, so far as I know, 
 any official sanction. It is strange that others among the many visitors 
 to the Karakoram pass, either before or after the Schlagintweits, do not 
 mention having seen K* from there or the vicinity, not even those who 
 have given us a minute description of the view. 
 
 During the whole month we had spent on the Godwin Austen the 
 weather had been exceedingly unfavourable. Only once did we have 
 three consecutive days of good weather. The wind blew almost 
 constantly from the west and south-west, and grew stronger and colder 
 the higher up we went. We had frequent though not very heavy 
 snowstorms. It was seldom that the air remained clear or the peaks 
 uncovered for a whole day at a time. With the exception of one single 
 occasion, and then only for a few hours, we never found ourselves on a 
 level with or above the mists and clouds. They were always very high, 
 like the wind, from 23,000 feet up. The usual classification of the 
 clouds into nimbus, cumulus, cirrus and stratus, based on the shapes 
 assumed at various heights, holds good for the Karakoram, by putting 
 each type some 7,000 feet farther up. 
 
 The regular persistence of the wind points to the conclusion that 
 it must be the monsoon, which would be blowing very high up during 
 this month. We followed for whole days the rapid course of mists and 
 clouds 1,000 feet above the peak of K-, when in the valleys the air 
 would be cabn. This may explain the fact that in Kashmir and the 
 Punjab plain one is not conscious of the monsoon before July and 
 August, when it blows much lower, hurling itself against the barrier 
 of the Himalaya. If, as meteorologists consider, the monsoon is caused 
 by the super-heated air of the desert of Gobi and the other arid Asiatic 
 regions, when the sun is north of the equator, it is natural that the
 
 From K ' to liride Peak. 281 
 
 consequent reverse current of air would be apparent earlier in the 
 Karakoram than in the far-off plains.^ 
 
 Whatever may be the cause of it, the persistent bad weather imposes 
 a fatal obstacle upon the mountain chmber. The fresh snow, falling at 
 such frequent intervals, covers the rocks with a permanent crust of 
 ice (verglas). Moreover, it never has a chance to soMdify on the walls 
 or the glaciers, thus there is no season when one is safe from avalanches 
 nor when the crevasses are covered with firm snow. Yet after all, in 
 the month of June, the worst enemy is indubitably the wind, which 
 blows up continual tourmentes and makes the cold well nigh 
 unendurable. 
 
 I have said that all the explorers of the vatious regions of the 
 Karakoram suffered like ourselves from the inclemence of the weather. 
 But I ought to mention that in 1908 the Workmans enjoyed two months 
 (July and August) of almost uninterrupted fair weather, with clear 
 warm days. From this fact explorers may draw encouragement to plan 
 new expeditions to the Karakoram. 
 
 Though our work about K- was finished, the Duke had no intention 
 of making an end of the campaign. He did not give up the hope of 
 climbing some other peak of the region which should be higher than 
 any altitude yet attained, thus satisfying what had been the chief 
 purpose of the expedition. The encouraging features were the fact that 
 the season was not yet far advanced, the excellent record the guides 
 had made on the high slopes, and the good health we were all in, for 
 beyond a certain amount of loss of flesh, accompanied by a shght 
 diminution of strength and powers of resistance, none of us seemed 
 really the worse for our life above 16,500 feet. Alessio Brocherel, indeed 
 — the most experienced guide we had after Giuseppe Petigax — lost so 
 much by his few days' illness and seemed so weakened, that he could 
 not be depended upon for the rest of the campaign. The experience 
 of those who had come before us was to the effect that in the month of 
 
 1 Sib a. Cunnogham (Ladakh and Surrounding Countries. London 1854) asserts on the 
 authority of A. Gerard and of his brother, J. Cunningham, that in Ladakh and Baltistan the 
 wind blows all the year round from west or south-west, without the alternation of the soutli-west 
 (summer) monsoon with the north -ea.«t (winter) one. The author found that in Ladakh there 
 is a daily alternation, a steady breeze blowing from the north at night, whieh at dawn shifts to 
 the north-east and during the day veers to south-west or west — probably a wind entiifly un- 
 connected with the monsoon and caused by the local daily radiation duo to the high solar tempera- 
 ture of the plateaus. \Vc observed nothing similar in the Karakoram, conditions being absent 
 which could give rise to this periodic oscillation.
 
 282 Chapter XVI. 
 
 July, now close at hand, weather even more unpropitious than that of 
 June was only to be expected. But this prospect was not definite 
 enough to put an end to the campaign. 
 
 The great difficulty lay in the choice of the mountain. The mere 
 sight of that immense cordon by which we were surrounded was enough 
 to put the mountain climber into a mental state of awe and doubt. All 
 the peaks between 26,000 and 27,000 feet were of such formidable aspect, 
 that it seemed impossible to plan an ascent giving any reasonable hope 
 of a successful issue. The Duke was driven by sheer necessity to turn 
 his thoughts toward Golden Throne and Bride Peak, the snowy 
 mountains which rise at the end of the southern arm of the Baltoro. 
 The first, with its mighty glaciers and slopes of moderate inchnation, 
 Sir Martin Conway had already essayed. But it is only 23,590 feet 
 high, almost 400 feet lower than Kabru in Kinchinjunga, which had 
 been ascended two veai's before by the Norwegians Rubenson and 
 Monrad Aas. There remained Bride Peak, 25,110 feet high, as yet 
 untried, and possessing the great advantage that it had been selected 
 as a trigonometric point and measured by the Indian Trigonometrical 
 Survey. From our camp we had looked with admiration, almost 
 amounting to desire, at the beautiful outline of this peak. The great 
 nortliern wall seemed to show an easy, if tedious route to the summit. 
 
 The ascent of Bride Peak was decided upon as early as June 22nd, 
 and the Duke liad discussed with us the mode of carrying it into 
 execution. On the 23rd, while he set off in violent weather to Windy 
 Gap for his second attempt upon Staircase Peak, Sella went down to the 
 base camp at the foot of K^, taking with him Alessio Brocherel, and 
 assisting him on the way. On the morrow Negrotto and I broke up the 
 intermediate camp, leaving a single tent for the use of whoever came 
 up later to get the luggage from the camp at Windy Gap. We, Botta, 
 Bareux and fifteen coohes, then joined Sella at the base camp. 
 
 We descended the incline below the camp by a much more tortuous 
 route than on our ascent, because the numerous crevasses were all laid 
 bare by the melting of the snows. This passed, we stood astonished 
 before the great alteration which time had worked in the glacier. The 
 melting process had gone on vigorously. Over the surface were 
 sprinkled little clear blue lakes and a network of rivulets ran everywhere. 
 Two large and ancient avalanches from K^ had spread great expanses 
 of rugged snow, each of them some half a mile broad and grey with
 
 From Iv - to liride Peak. 283 
 
 dust and detritus, obliquely across the glacier, almost to the foot of 
 Broad Peak. Everywhere else the ice was bare and corroded by fusion. 
 The front of the De FiUppi glacier was much lower, and the seracs along 
 it, unevenly melted by the sun, had taken on fantastic shapes. Below 
 it the centre of the Godwin Austen was filled with a broad moraine 
 between the band of green seracs at the foot of the rocks of Broad Peak 
 and the wide front of the Savoia glacier. The surface of this latter was 
 all grey with dust. 
 
 The hollow where the base camp had been was shallower than 
 before, owing to the flattening of the surface of the glacier. The walls 
 of the chains could now be seen from it almost to their bases. The 
 mountains, divested of their thick coating of snow, seemed shrunken 
 and lean, and their glaciers were confined within ribs of rock. Live 
 ice gleamed from all the gullies. The Vigne glacier had been very 
 white ; now it wound up its broad valley in stripes of moraine. Only 
 Bride Peak and its satellites had kept their whiteness unsullied. The 
 former, on its northern wall, is cut with crevasses, betrayed by their 
 deeper shadow ; they must be of enormous size. On the rocks back 
 of the camp some lean tufts of grass had sprung up. 
 
 The day ended in a sunset of indescribable beauty. Now that we 
 hiul accepted our defeat, the movmtain seemed to throw off its hostility 
 and become serene once more. We could not see the western sky for 
 the south-western spur of K^, at whose feet we were ; but the southern 
 heavens seemed to mirror ever}' ray of the declining sun. Perhaps 
 Bride Peak acted as a reflector to fling back the western light. The 
 pale blue sky became softly tinged with rose, then turned a delicate 
 mauve, to end in a metallic turquoise, hke tempered steel. The great 
 snowy wall showed a pale saffron, then a waxen pallor like a tea-rose, 
 then a deep pure white. There was no violent colour. The splendour 
 of the summer skies in the Alps, which tint the snows with j)urple, gold 
 and red, was all quite lacking here. One by one the light left the 
 surrounding heights, forsaking last of all the three great summits of 
 Broad Peak. Finally, the tranquil moonlight and a piofound stillness 
 and peace reigned over the scene. 
 
 The sunrises of this region are even more dehcately coloured than 
 its sunsets. The brilliantly pure light merely increases in intensity, 
 the sky has a clear gleaming pallor, and there is not a tinge of colour 
 reflected anywhere upon the snows.
 
 284 Chapter \\\. 
 
 The present fair weather, for the one and only time during our stay 
 on the Baltoro, was unbroken for three days. We proceeded in this 
 time with the carrying out of the Duke's plans. On June 25th Sella 
 left us at the base camp and went down to the mouth of the Godwin 
 Austen, taking with him Botta and fifteen loaded coolies. He sent l)ack 
 the latter directly, and on the day following they made the journey 
 down and back a second time, a march of nearly nine hours. We 
 rewarded this extra work and their docility in performing it by some 
 presents of biscuits, a little tea and sugar, chocolate or butter, all of 
 which we had gradually persuaded them to accept. We were astonished 
 to have some of them ask for soap and wash themselves, nearly 
 nude for the purpose, in the icy rivulet between the camp and the 
 moraine. 
 
 On the 27th we made the last photogrammetric station on the 
 Godwin Austen, at a point below the mouth of the Savoia glacier. This 
 done, we sent fourteen coolies up to the intermediate camp, under the 
 escort of Bareux. Next day they went on to Windy Gap to bring 
 down the equipment of the high camp. That afternoon the fine weather 
 showed signs of breaking. Light flakes of mist came and went on the 
 ridges, grew more permanent, and by sunset the whole sky was dotted 
 with clouds. Next morning it was snowing. Enrico Brocherel, 
 Giuseppe Petigax and Savoie came down in the forenoon and the Duke 
 in the afternoon in one stage from Windy Gap. Finally, towards 
 evening our party was increased by the arrival of twenty-three coolies 
 from Rdokass, the Duke having sent for them to help carry the camp 
 to Bride Peak. 
 
 The storm continued all the next day, the 29th ; but the Duke set 
 off for the Concordia notwithstanding with the guides and all the coolies. 
 Only Bareux and Alessio Brocherel stayed with us ; the latter had 
 given us some anxiety after his return to the base camp. His cough 
 and the pain in the chest had come on again, accompanied by a slight 
 feverishness. Then he began to improve to such an extent that we 
 thought he might be taken down to Concordia by the next day. We 
 made a sort of chair with the long alpenstocks and one of the load- 
 carriers, upon which he might be carried on the level stretches. That 
 evening all the coolies were once more united at the camp, fi-isking and 
 playing like children, undepressed by the lowering weather and heavy, 
 gloomy sky.
 
 Bride Peak, from Camp III
 
 Ill '[fnr; ) rrirn} .jIusH ^biifJ
 
 Kroni K "■ to Bride Peak. 285 
 
 ^Ve were up betimes on the 30th, and finished breakiDg up camp 
 in a heavy snowfall. The air was still. Foiu' cooUes were told off to 
 carry Brocherel's chair, and we had all the others start off, ourselves 
 following. After getting on the moraine we turned back for a last look 
 at the spot which had been our shelter for the past month and more. 
 It had never looked so forlorn as now. The heavy snow obliterated in a 
 short time all traces of the camp that had once stood there. One of 
 our friendly crows was perched on the little level — his companions had 
 all deserted us some days before. 
 
 We went on very slowly, as Brocherel was with us, covering on foot 
 the distance across the two moraine ridges. AVhen he decided to begin 
 to use the chair we found, to our disappointment, that the coolies — 
 though with the best will in the world — were unable to carry him. 
 They were not used to working in concert nor keeping step together, 
 and they were not strong in the arms, so that their exertion was out of 
 all proportion to the burden, and they had to stop for rest every few 
 steps. Brocherel, who was findiiig his strength greater than he had 
 thought, finally decided that he could make most of the way on foot 
 by proceeding slowly. So we continued, at the pace of a funeral cortege. 
 
 We followed the median moraine of the glacier, which begins at the 
 mouth of the De FiHppi, and is shortly increased by the confluence 
 of the Savoia. During the past month the level of the glacier had 
 fallen considerably, and the arrangement of the moraines had increased 
 in evenness and regularity. The long central spine, formed by the 
 median moraine, now marked by numerous glacial lakes, stood several 
 feet above the rest of the glacier, which was aU corrugated with 
 longitudinal ridges and furrows, among which ran smaller moraines 
 and noisy surface torrents of water. Some of the ridges of ice were in 
 the form of long parallel rows of notched and irregular blocks with 
 cuttings between them. Here and there the ice terminated on the 
 edge of the moraine in rows of rounded lumps, which looked Hke surf 
 suddenly arrested and fi-ozen upon a beach. We observed several times 
 a phenomenon never felt to anything like the same degree on other 
 glaciers — the frequent sharp and violent concussion due to fissures 
 opening in the mass, accompanied by distinctly perceptible quaking 
 of the ice beneath our feet, which sometimes amounts to an actual 
 undulating movement. The phenomenon is certainly not caused by 
 earthquake shock.
 
 286 
 
 Chapter XVi. 
 
 The moraine grows broader and flatter as we go down, till it looks 
 like a wide road in the middle of the valley. In its centre the stones 
 are small and broken. The larger ones are collected at the edges, 
 forming rows of glacier tables. The walking was so easy that we made 
 Brocherel momit his chair again, and he was carried for longer distances 
 than at first, thanks to the help of Bareux's broad shoulders. 
 
 K- FROM THE UODWIM AUSTEN, NEAR COSCORDIA. 
 
 All the moraines of the Godwin Austen run in straight lines toward 
 the Concordia basm, imtil they meet the glacier that comes down from 
 the western flank of Broad Peak. There they make a wide symmetrical 
 curve to come into line with the moraines flowing from the upper 
 Baltoro, and they all proceed westward in parallel rows in the narrow 
 stretch between Mitre Peak and Marble Point, which stand sentinels 
 to the entrance to the lower valley. We found the tents set up where 
 the curve of the moraine begins, not far from the Concordia, near the 
 largest boulder we had seen on the glaciers of the Karakoram. Enrico 
 and Emilio Brocherel came a half-hour's distance from camp to meet 
 us, and with their help we w^ere able to cover the rest of the distance
 
 Kroin K " to Bride Peak. 
 
 287 
 
 at a good pace and to spaie the invalid further fatigue, so that he 
 reached camp in good condition. The snow had almost stopped, and 
 a fresh wind was blowing, as usual, from the south-west. 
 
 The once more united forces now exchanged their experiences of the 
 past few days. Sella had profited by the two exceptional fine days to 
 make highly successful photographic excursions. On the •26th he 
 
 
 
 
 
 WSr 
 
 4-' 
 
 K' at SrXSET, SEEX FROM THE LOWER GOD\VIX AVSTEN". 
 
 climbed the rocky corner between the Baltoro and the Godwin Austen, 
 reaching a shoulder 17,239 feet high on the black and broken scliists 
 fi'om which rises the marble peak. Thence he took panorama C. The 
 next day he crossed the glacier to the foot of the great western ridge 
 of the Gasherbrums, and made a difficult way up the rocks and icy 
 gullies to a ledge 17,917 feet high, just about oj^posite to his position 
 of the day before. Here he took panorama D. These two panoramas 
 are all that could be desired in the way of showing the whole 
 amphitheatre and its surrounding mountain chains. Sella also collected 
 and photographed some Alpine plants growing in sheltered places on the 
 heights up to nearly 18,000 feet.' 
 
 ' These plants are classified and illustrated in the Botanical Lidex of Prof. Pirotta and 
 Dr. Cortesi. In the Nanda Devi group in Gahrwal Longstaff found plants only up to 16,500 feet.
 
 288 Cliai)tc'r XVI. 
 
 The weather steadily improved : the heavy clouds were dispersed, 
 and the day closed with another scene of unforgettable splendour. It 
 was, in fact, the extraordinary rapidity and variety of the atmospheric 
 changes in this region which contributed most largely to the aesthetic 
 pleasure of a sojourn there. The terminal peak of K- stood out above 
 a wreath of cloud that was faintly rosy in the twilight. The moon, 
 almost at full, burst through the vapours to the south-east and seemed 
 to sweep them before it. The group of gradually descending summits 
 between Bride Peak and the Vigne glacier were all floating in a bed 
 of down. Twilight and moonlight combined in strange and beautiful 
 effects of light and shade upon the walls and heights. Finally, the 
 calm brilliance of the moon replaced the dayhght, all the surrounding 
 snows taking reflections from the clear air, while the walls that lay in 
 shadow show^ed dark and mysterious by contrast with their radiance. 
 
 On July 1st the Duke, Sella, the guides and all the coolies left camp 
 to ascend the upper Baltoro. Negrotto and I stayed behind with 
 Lorenzo Petigax and Alessio Brocherel, until the coolies should return. 
 We remained for five days, which we spent in concluding the 
 topographical work with two last panoramas and in making two short 
 excursions on the glacier. Brocherel meanwhile went on improving 
 and gaining in strength. 
 
 The high bastion of moraine upon which we were now encamped, 
 near the entrance to the Concordia, was a fine post of observation. 
 Just opposite us to the west was the Marble Peak, standing upon its 
 black foundation, which ls likewise veined with white marble. It 
 looked rather like a huge magnolia bud about to burst. It is confronted 
 on the east by the large glaciers of the ridge joining Broad Peak and the 
 Gasherbrums — they unite behind a long and narrow screen of rock 
 which flanks the Godwin Austen on the left, and flow together into 
 the Concordia. On the south the vision traverses the wide Concordia 
 basin, a series of high ridges and deep furrows, bare ice and moraine 
 alternating, and reaches up within the southern Baltoro and the valley 
 of the Vigne, which appear to converge high up at the base of Bride 
 Peak. K- at this distance has all its old impressiveness. We were 
 too near Broad Peak to get a good view of it — it looks from where we 
 are a huge misshapen mass. By descending the moraine for a short 
 distance one can see the opening and the long vista of the lower 
 Baltoro, with the beautiful peak of Paiju rising at the end.
 
 K^ from the Concordia Ainphitheatre
 
 3itB*jrltiHqmA BibioonnJ arij moit ,*>!
 
 From K ' to Bride Peak. 289 
 
 All these giant mountains gain in size and impressiveness as one 
 gets farther away from them ; for the valleys, wide as they seem, are 
 really disproportionately narrow to the heights above them, so that 
 one sees all the outlines dwarfed and distorted by foreshortening. 
 Contrasting with the snow are rocks of bold design in a great variety 
 of colours — black schists, granites, gneiss in all shades of grey, which 
 when the sun strikes them look biown and give out red, blue and yellow 
 gleams ; while the hmestones, white or creamy, blood-coloured or 
 greenish, run a whole gamut of varying shades. Sometimes we arrive 
 at a consciousness, even if a dim one, of the wonderful harmony of 
 form, the perfect balance and proportion of this seeming chaos ; but 
 oftener we give up all analysis of our sensations, and rest in a vague 
 and silent contemplation. 
 
 On this side and on that of the median moraine, the glacier has a 
 relatively smooth strip, and then becomes more and more disturbed 
 and upheaved as one approaches the marginal moraines. The screen 
 of rocks at the foot of Broad Peak is not easy to reach. The course 
 of the waters has curved great furrows and ditches between the 
 moraines and ice ridges. We have to make long detours in order to 
 go around these, as well as to avoid the steeper slopes. Between the 
 marginal moraine and the strip of ice nearest it lay a charming little 
 arctic landscape in miniature, composed of the bluest of small lakes 
 all running in between the thousand narrow inlets of the undermined 
 and jagged banks. Blocks of ice reduced by melting to the most 
 fantastic shapes mirrored themselves in these little lakes. Everywhere 
 one heard the sound of dripping, bubbling and rushing waters coming 
 down all the surrounding slopes, accompanied by the dull and heavy 
 undertone from the undergroimd torrents and the splashes made by 
 ice breaking off and faUing into the water. We were only some 600 or 
 700 feet below the base camp ; but this shght difference gave us a 
 distinct sense of well-being, to which probably the improvement in the 
 weather contributed. It was quite mild and calm, and one could stay 
 for hours in the sun on the warm stones of the moraine. It was most 
 welcome refreshment for eyes fatigued by weeks of reverberation from 
 the snows. During the midday hours currents of warm air vibrated 
 above the moraine, as on a desert. None of us ever suffered from too 
 great intensity of the sun — certainly at Windy Gap it was far preferable 
 to the shade. Later I will make some comparison between our 
 
 (9220 T
 
 2!l(i 
 
 Chapter W'l. 
 
 observations of solar radiation and those brought back by other 
 expeditions. 
 
 There were not enough tents to shelter all the extra coolies sent 
 up from Rdokass, so they had improvised a sort of open-air camp for 
 themselves, building a low circular wall enclosing a flat space a few 
 yards in diameter. This they paved by ingeniously fitting slabs of 
 stone together. A little beyond they had constructed a sort of terrace, 
 
 BRIDK TEAK, FROM THE GODAyiX AUSTE}.", NEAR COXCOKDIA. 
 
 and at 8 or 10 yards' distance from this set up a stone pyramid to mark 
 the west and the direction of Mecca. To this platform they would go 
 one by one to say their prayers and make their prostrations. It was 
 the first time we had seen any of them perform any act of devotion : 
 they seem, in general, rather lukewarm Mohammedans. The Kashmiri, 
 as I have said before, are Sunnites, and they accuse the Shiite Baltis 
 of practising all sorts of bloody rites, including human sacrifice ; and the 
 Baltis retort the charge upon their accusers. It is probably the result 
 of sectarian prejudice, without foundation on either side.
 
 From K- to IJridc- Peak. 201 
 
 We started up the Baltoro ourselves on July 6tli, the coolies carrying 
 our tent, beds and a few other things. We took to the foot of Bride 
 Peak only so much equipment as was needful for fifteen days, the rest 
 was left at Concordia in charge of Alessio Brocherel. He was now 
 quite convalescent, but not sufficiently strong for the strain of the high 
 mountain work. Later on a party of coolies carried all the stores left 
 with him back to Rdokass directly from Concordia, and Brocherel went 
 with them. 
 
 The snow had been falhng since the day before, and the moraines 
 were covered with a heavy layer. It showed no sign of abating on the 
 morning of our start, and the coohes told us tliev could not walk in 
 the soft snow in their pabboos, which they were now wearing to save 
 their boots from the moraine. We waited a few hours hoping a pause 
 would come, and thus did not set out until toward noon. We followed 
 the moraine for a short distance to the point where it takes a more 
 pronounced westward curve ; then we left it for an irregular tract 
 belonging to the glaciers flowing into Concordia from the west. There 
 were alternate slopes of moraine and bare ice, separated b}- furrows 
 and ditches sometimes as much as 100 feet deep, where there were Uttle 
 azure lakes, or else rushing streams that wound a tortuous course between 
 their steep banks of ice, the latter all ragged and undermined and sharp 
 at the edge. We had to keep going back and forth, and climbing up 
 and down steep slopes, so that it was impossible to take account of the 
 ridges and moraines which had looked from a distance so very regidar 
 in their arrangement. We crossed the western glacier of the 
 Gasherbrums without seeing any of the high imposing wall of the 
 mountain itself, wrapped in thick mist, and reached a furious torrent 
 running deep between steep ice walls. Along this Ave had to go for 
 some distance before we found a place where a jutting piece of ice 
 permitted us to cross over. Beyond were the moraines of the upper 
 Baltoro itself, which we crossed at the point where they curve westward 
 parallel to those of the Godwin Austen. The first was the large right- 
 hand moraine, a beautiful composition of limestones, coloured marbles 
 and conglomerates in the greatest variety, forming a gaily coloured 
 mosaic by means of a sort of reddish silicacious substance which 
 acted as cement. Next came a file of seracs running lengthwise 
 between the right-hand moraine and the various stripes of the 
 median one ; these were composed first of a streak of thin black 
 
 (9221) T -2
 
 292 
 
 Chapter XVI. 
 
 slaty schists, then more coloured limestones mixed with schists and 
 quartzes. * 
 
 I have already explained how we were able from the appearance 
 of the moraines to analyze the structure of the chains whence they 
 came. Now our conclusions were strengthened by the appearance of 
 the rocks themselves, which showed a clear contrast between the light- 
 coloiued sedimentary and calcareous formations, and the black and 
 
 SURFACE TOBBKXT OF THE UPPER BALTORO. GOLDEN THROSE AXD CHOGOLISA SADDLE 
 
 IN THE BACKGROUND. 
 
 grey schists and granites. This alternation of material in the upper 
 Baltoro is clearly displayed in Sella's panorama M, taken from the 
 crest between the Vigne and the upper Baltoro. The centre shows 
 the black stripe formed by the right-hand moraine of the Vigne and 
 the left-hand of the Baltoro. It is all composed of granites and quartzes 
 from the Bride Peak chain. Next, on the right, is a second band 
 (coming from the right-hand lower corner of the panorama). Its 
 source is the confluence of the eastern glaciers of Bride Peak. It has 
 the same colour as the j&rst, and hke it is composed of crystalline rocks. 
 Still farther toward the right comes a pale grey stripe formed of 
 
 ' Specimens of rocks collected on the various moraines are given in two coloured plates 
 included in the geological appendix of the results of the expedition ; they present an idea of the 
 great richness and variety of colouring.
 
 The Baltoro at the confluence of tho Vigne
 
 anaiV sril ]o ei-jn^nflnii . ■)rlt in uioJlsa ariT
 

 
 From K - to liride Peak. 
 
 293 
 
 limestones from Golden Throne, a thin streak of solid black composed 
 of scales of slate from the northern spurs of Golden Throne ; then 
 another pale grey band of hmestones from Gasherbrum I or Hidden 
 Peak ; and finally, the right-hand marginal moraine, running at the 
 base of the right valley wall — this last composed of light grey 
 sedimentary rock from the Gasherbrum range. 
 
 
 THE VIGNE GLACIER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES OF THE LEFT B.VXK. 
 
 There was a Ughtening of the atmosphere in the west, and we could 
 tell that we had reached the level of the mouth of the Yigne glacier. 
 A little farther on, where the end of its right-hand spur abuts on the 
 valley, we made oui' camji, yielding to the importunities of the coolies, 
 who were tired and discouraged with the bad weather. A little 
 afterwards we were joined by five coohes from Rdokass, who brought 
 us post and provisions, and stayed the night with us. 
 
 July 7th was cloudy, foggy and snowy, hke the preceding day. We 
 went on to the camp at the foot of Golden Throne, seeing nothing all 
 the way except the stones we walked on where these were not covered 
 with snow. The glacier was heaved up in waves right and left of us, 
 as far as the foot of the lateral spiu's of the valley. For this stretch 
 
 (9221) T 3
 
 294 
 
 ChapUT XVI. 
 
 the reader should look at panoramas N and K. As we neared the foot 
 of Golden Throne the median moraine spread out like a fan, and the 
 central stripes rayed out till they reached the base of the rocks, where 
 a little series of marginal lakes was formed. A curious fact which we 
 were unable to explain was that the laminated formations, like slates, 
 which had been at first lying flat, were here disposed vertically and 
 formed wide stretchfes made of these thin and narrow edges, tiresome 
 to walk over. It looked as though the stones were thus heaved up by 
 pressure due to the meeting of the Baltoro with the eastern glaciers of 
 Bride Peak. 
 
 SCENE AT SVXSET, LOOKIXt! XOKTH FROM TllK L ITKi; BALTOIU). K" OX THE KIGHT, 
 MUSTAOH TOWER OX THE LEFT. 
 
 We cut obliquely across the top of the moraine toward the west, 
 and reached its left-hand margin at no great distance from the angle 
 of rock which bounds on this side the great terminal fall of the Chogohsa 
 glacier. Here the Duke had set up Camp XI, base camj) for the new 
 campaign, 10,637 feet high. There w'as a little lake between the camp 
 and the rocks. It was near here that Conway had camped when he 
 attacked Golden Throne (Footstool Camp). 
 
 As we had anticipated, the tents were empty ; but about an hour 
 later we were surprised to see Sella, Savoie, Botta and the coolies 
 coming down the glacier behind the camp. Sella told us of the Duke's 
 new plans, of the great difficulty they had encomitered climbing up the 
 scracs toward ChogolLsa Saddle, of the wretched weather, etc. But
 
 From K "" to Bride Peak. 
 
 •29/i 
 
 all this I will recount in its proper place. The Duke wanted provisions, 
 and we sent the coolies back with them as soon as possible, in charge 
 of Savoie and Lorenzo Petigax. 
 
 Xegrotto and I were in this camp for thirteen days, Sella staving 
 with us till July 11th, when he took advantage of a party of coohes 
 going down to Rdokass to leave us and make a temporary shelter for 
 himself with a tarpaulin, near the meeting of the Vigne and the Baltoro, 
 expecting to make this a base for photographic expeditioas. 
 
 THE XORTEERX WALL OF COLDES THRONE. FROM THE MEDIAN MclRMVK UK THE 
 
 UPPER BALTORO. 
 
 The days were long and lonely. We had not even the crows to 
 distract us, as they had apparently deserted the high regions early in 
 July. Our only diversion was that of going on short excursions about 
 the neighbourhood with the purpose of making topographical stations 
 with the tacheometer. But many more davs were spent in idle 
 contemplation of the bad weather, in passive waiting for news from 
 the Duke, who was snowed up somewhere on the high glaciei-s of 
 t'hogolisa Saddle, surrounded by thick clouds, confronting with what 
 patience he might the relentless hostihty of the sky. More than once 
 
 (9221) T 4
 
 29fi Chapter WI. 
 
 during the long period of inaction we were assailed by feelings of anxiety 
 for the safety of the exploring party. Only once, on the 13th, did we 
 have news of them. A party of cooUes with three of the guides came 
 down for supplies and brought us a letter from the Duke, telling us of 
 the first attempts at an ascent, frustrated by the bad weather, saying 
 that he was still resolved to continue in his undertaking. 
 
 Two days after we had made camp the sun for the first time got 
 the better about midday of tlio clouds and fog, and showed us the scene 
 by which we were surrounded, to which we had come in the dark, as it 
 were, without getting an idea of the composition of the picture. 
 Panorama gives an excellent idea of it. The camp lay at the foot 
 of a very steep rocky incline 3,000 or more feet high, terminating the 
 northern spur of Golden Throne. The rock strata are clearly marked, 
 and show varioas colours — yellow, white, grey, violet and green — being 
 the source of the polychrome hmestones of the median moraine of the 
 Baltoro. The clifl: is furrowed with gullies large and small, and high 
 up on it hangs the broken end of a glacier coming down from the lofty 
 peaks we cannot see. Avalanches fell continually from the wall, fed 
 from the uninterrupted heavy snows, during the whole time of our 
 stay here. They were not so stupendous as those from Broad Peak, 
 but much more frequent. The first ray of sunshine was enough to 
 dislodge the snow, and it fell in cataracts, in cascades, in streams, in 
 rivulets, swift and gleaming white, down all the ravines and crannies 
 of the rocks, and rose up in iridescent showers above every obstacle 
 that impeded its course. The heavy rumble of the falhng mass was 
 punctuated with sharp knocks and cracklings from the rolling stones, 
 or drowned altogether by the deafening tumult made by a downfall 
 of seracs, or a rock breaking off with a tremendous crash and raising 
 up clouds of dust in its course. In the warm part of the day it seemed 
 as though the whole mountain were actually falling apart, so huge were 
 the masses of ice, rock and snow that hurled themselves down from it. 
 
 In front of us we had a glacier lake similar to the Concordia one, 
 though smaller. The swelling stream of the Baltoro bends eastward, 
 becoming broader and broader, and rising at a moderate grade to the 
 foot of Hidden Peak, the highest of the Gasherbrum group (26,470 feet), 
 which up to now none of us had seen except Sella and the Duke. The 
 former got a glimpse of it when he crossed the eastern chain of the 
 upper Godwin Austen, and the latter when he was on the ridge of
 
 I^'ioin K - to I)ii(lc' Peak. 
 
 297 
 
 Staircase Peak. It was Conway who gave the name Hidden Peak to 
 this remote and splendid height. It resembles in shape, on a larger 
 scale, Gasherbrum IV at the head of the Concordia basin. Its western 
 side is covered with glaciers which unite and flow into the Baltoro. 
 The Baltoro itself finally bends southward and disappears from sight 
 between Hidden Peak and a snowy pyramid of Golden Throne. 
 
 HIDDKN PEAK. 
 
 Facing Hidden Peak on the west is the eastern wall of Bride Peak, 
 quite clothed in glaciers falling from a height of some 5,000 feet, great 
 foaming white cataracts like frozen Niagaras. From our station we 
 could only see the western peak, which is the highest, and shaped like 
 a sharp narrow tooth. Two long crests run fi'om it to northward and 
 eastward, embracing in the sweep of their wings the most formidable 
 glacial basin which a single mountain could possibly show. The 
 northern ridge, which is partly rocky, is prolonged in a massive spur, 
 behind which a glacier emerging from the northern wall of the mountain 
 empties into the Baltoro with a high and steep cascade. It is this 
 northern wall of the mountain which we saw fi'om our base camp at
 
 298 
 
 Chapter XVI. 
 
 K^. The eastern crest is mantled with ice and edged with a wide 
 cornice. From 2,000 to 2,200 feet below the peak this crest shapes 
 itself into a large shoulder like a great dome of ice, beyond which it 
 slopes down at a more gentle incline to Chogolisa Saddle. A rib of ice 
 runs out at right angles from its foot, and comes down toward the 
 Baltoro, ending in a rocky promontory. Between this and the buttress 
 
 EASTERN WALL OF BRIDE PEAK. 
 
 of Golden Throne, at whose base we hnd set up our camp, a glacier from 
 the snows of Kondus and Chogohsa tumbles down in a perfect torrent 
 of seracs. 
 
 Opposite our camp the Baltoro flows down the valley northward, 
 occupying the centre of the view. Turning one's eyes in that direction 
 one beholds the strangest conceivable apparition of a mountain, 
 so singular in its form that it is not to be compared to any other 
 known peak. It stands in the background of the scene, to the right 
 of the black tooth of Mitre Peak, and rears its mighty tower against
 
 Mustagh Tower
 
 •3woT rf}j|6Jeiul/l
 
 From K ' to l)ri(k' IVak. 
 
 291) 
 
 the sky, its sides smootli like surfaces formed by cleavage, its angles 
 clean and sharp like those of an obelisk. This mountain, of course, 
 is the Mustagh Tower. It is about 24,000 feet high, and stands isolated 
 from other peaks on a somewhat narrow base marked by sharp ridges. 
 It appears, and perhaps is, a true monolith, a rocky mass of a single 
 formation, without traces of breaks or divisional planes — no other, of 
 any comparable size, is known to exist on the globe. AVords would be 
 
 5riTRE TEAK. 
 
 MrSTAGH TOWER. 
 
 MITRE PEAK AND MUSTAGH TOWER FROM OtTR CAMP AT THE BASE OF GOLDEN THRONE. 
 
 incapable of giving a just idea of it without the accompanying picture.. 
 Panorama L, taken by telephotography,^ shows it, as well as the 
 background of the Baltoro glacier formed by the chain which runs from 
 Mustagh Tower to K-, with its great snowy peaks, among which 
 penetrates the Savoia glacier. Crystal Peak, Marble Point and all 
 the other heights along the side of the glacier, arc mere secondary spurs 
 of this great chain, which is the actual watershed of the region. The 
 left side of the upper Baltoro is formed of lesser mountains of brownish 
 red rock, like Bride Peak. Of this side we get a foreshortened view as 
 
 ' Owing to a mistake, the site from which panorama L was taken is marked on the sketch 
 of the triangulation and Sclla\s pliotographic stations as being on the right side of the Baltoro, 
 at the foot of the soutliern buttress of the tiaslierbrums. Instead of this, it was taken from 
 Camp XI, like panorama O. Sella did take a panorama from the point indicated, but it is not . 
 reproduced in this book.
 
 300 
 
 Chapter XVI. 
 
 far as Mitre Peak, which looks two-pronged from our point of view, 
 and very like, indeed, to the bishop's cap, from which it is named. 
 The right side of the valley is formed by the large mountain group which 
 occupies the angle between the three Gasherbrums (invisible from the 
 camp) and Hidden Peak. It has two peaks over 23,000 feet high. The 
 formation is hght-coloured rock, with low outlying spurs of dark brown. 
 It is this wall which now cuts off K- from our view. 
 
 GROlr OF MOUNTAINS BETWEEN 0A3HERBRUM AND HIDDEN PEAK. 
 
 July 10th was a beautiful day, the only really perfect one during 
 the whole of our stay here. On the next the fine weather broke again. 
 A slender pennant of cloud appeared over Mustagh Tower. It presently 
 covered the Tower, and wrapped it round with one of its ends, 
 broadening and spreading and enveloping the top of the mountain as 
 in a mesh, which soon thickened into a huge soHd cap. Heavy clouds 
 appeared on the low saddles at the sides of the Tower, and all the ridges 
 flew thin streamers of translucent cloud that appeared and disappeared 
 again. Cirrus clouds dappled the sky, growing and accumulating and 
 hanging motionless over the valley, till at length they mingled to form
 
 From K - to Bride Peak. 
 
 301 
 
 a dense opaque grey covering, from which the snow began presently 
 to descend again, quietly and steadily. 
 
 The weather was quite different from that we had experienced in 
 June. The air was quieter, the temperature higher; but the 
 precipitation was almost uninterrupted. However, it did not quite 
 keep pace with the melting process, which went on at a considerable 
 
 \ 
 
 _*t 
 
 CAMP XI, AFTER A SSOWFALI-. 
 
 rate, even in cloudy weather. We heard a thousand voices from the 
 glacier — continuous dripping, murmur of Httle streams, the deadened 
 noise of distant torrents, the rattle of detritus down icy slopes, the sharp 
 cracks of opening fissures. Now and then these lesser sounds would 
 be drowned by the roar of an avalanche. In a few days the surface 
 of the glacier lowered so much that the tents stood on Httle ledges 
 a foot or more high ; and melting must have gone on also at their level, 
 though to a smaller degree.^ Little waterfalls were flowing all over 
 
 ' On their last campaign (1908) the Workmans measured the melting of the snows on the 
 Hispar glacier — or rather on a snow-field of one of its tributaries, the Kanisabar glacier, 16,650 feet 
 high. In ten days of cloudy weather, during which some snow fell, they registered a lowering of 
 27 -5 inches — that is, 2 -7 inches per day. In fine weather the rate was 3 -7 inches per day.
 
 30-.' Chapter W'l. 
 
 the rocks behind the camp, disappearing at the tops of the great cones 
 of snow formed at the bottom of every couloir. By July 17th the snow 
 turned into an unpleasant drizzle, wliicli the next day became heavy 
 rain — this was at an altitude of 16,637 feet. 
 
 The data given by various tiavellers as to the snow hue in tlie 
 Karakoram region are all very uncertain and contradictory. On only 
 one point do they seem to be in accord — namely, that in the Himalaya 
 and adjacent mountain systems the snow line is lower on the southern 
 than on the northern slopes, due to the greater precipitation on the 
 former, which I have already mentioned. But there are no precise 
 statistics,^ and only a long stay and repeated obsei"vations at various 
 seasons could decide the point. It seems likely that the high degree 
 of precipitation, due to the summer monsoons, would make it hard to 
 establish an invariable figure for the height at which the precipitation 
 woidd just balance the melting. Probably such a line varies from year 
 to year. 
 
 To the heavy vapours of July we owed some of the finest sunsets 
 in our experience. For the first time we saw the skies set on fire witii 
 the glow, the brilliant contrasts of gold, azure and violet clouds, and 
 the snows illuminated by the reflected light. The sun would bmy itself 
 in the storm-clouds which never left the western horizon. Mustagli 
 Tower would be immersed in rosy vapours until the last ray faded, when 
 it emerged a black and austere height guarding the whole strange region 
 like a sentinel. 
 
 It only remains foi- me to recount the measure of success which 
 attended the enterprise of the Duke on Bride Peak, and the close of 
 our campaign. 
 
 ' Sir J. D. Hooker, R. Strachcy, F. Drew, S. G. Burrard and H. H. Hayden, T. G. Longstaff 
 and others, in the works ah-eady cited, all state that the snow line gradually rises as one goes from 
 the southern toward tlie northern chains. .Sir J. D. Hooker and Col. Tanner are of opinion that 
 it is not possible to fix. even approximately, the limit of eternal snows in the Himalaya. In the 
 western Karakoram Drew and Burrard put it at 18,000 feet ; Guillarmod at 18,700 to 19,000 feet — 
 but we have seen that the estimated heights of the latter are always in excess of the actual figure. 
 According to the \\'orkmans, the line on the Chogo Lungma and the Hispar would be lower than 
 in the Baltoro basin — from 13,100 to 17,000 feet. However, they observed great variatit)n from 
 one summer to another in the same places.
 
 iV-~-' 
 
 From Camp XII. Evening on the Baltoro
 
 oioJlfiS arij no gniriov3 .IIZ qrni;3 moiT
 
 CHAPTER xvrr. 
 
 BRIDE PEAK. 
 
 riiiii of the Ascent. — The Glacier Fall below Chogolisa Saddle. — Camping among Seracs. — 
 Difficult Ice and Bad Weather. — Excursions. — Sella returns to the Base Camp. — The 
 Camp placed above the Cascade of S6racs. — Chogolisa Saddle. — First Attempt upon the 
 Peak. — Driven back by the Storm at 23,458 feet. — Snowed in at Chogolisa. — (ioldon 
 'J'hroiu'. • — Tojiography of the Region surrounding tlic Head of the Baltoro. — The Kondus 
 and Siachen Claciers. — The Watershed. — Climate. — Absence of Electric Phenomena. - 
 Second Attempt. — Camp at 22,483 feet. — The Eastern Ridge of ]5ride Peak. — Two 
 Hours at 24,600 feet. — Retreat. — Analysis of Results. — The Significance of the Exploit. 
 — Ascensions above 23,000 feet in the History of Movmtaineering. — Deductions and Proc- 
 nostications. — The Return to tlu' Base Camp. 
 
 On July 1st the Duke had left 
 
 the camp at the mouth of the 
 
 Godwin Austen in the Concordia 
 
 basin, and accompanied by Sella 
 
 and the caravan had covered in 
 
 two stages the distance to the 
 
 foot of Golden Throne. There 
 
 he set up his base camp, and 
 
 l)eaan operations upon Bride 
 
 Peak. 
 
 '\ He was obUged to alter the 
 
 l)lan of campaign originallv 
 
 formed. The great snowy slope 
 
 of the northern wall had looked 
 
 from K- to be the easy and 
 
 natural way of ascent to the 
 
 peak. But a closer examination 
 
 gave quite a different result, showing it to be very difficult of approach. 
 
 It rises above a high glacial l)asin, se})arated from the Baltoix) by a long, 
 
 steep fall of seracs. This looked as though the coolies would never 
 
 be able to mount it, and without their help it was useless to think of a 
 
 climb of some 9,000 feet. The crest on the right of the cascade, wliicli 
 
 4
 
 :ioi 
 
 Chapter XVTT. 
 
 forms the lofty eastern edge of the northern wall, gave no more 
 encouraging promise, for it was very long, its cornices were dangerous, 
 and it looked full of unreckonable obstacles. The experience of the 
 expedition up to now had begun to make the party more cautious in 
 their plans as well as in their hopes. The Duke and his guides then 
 
 BRIDE PEAK, FRO>t THE MEDIAN' MORAINE OF THE UPPER BALTORO. 
 
 considered the possibilities of the eastern ridge of the peak, which 
 descends to the wide shoulder I have mentioned, and thence to Chogolisa 
 Saddle. If it could be managed to put a camp on the saddle, by 
 climbing up the seracs of the glacier (Conway had succeeded in cUmbing 
 part way up them), there might be some hope of a comparatively easy 
 ascent the remainder of the way. 
 
 Accordingly, on the morning of July 3rd, which proved to be fine, 
 the extra coolies were sent back to Rdokass, and the party left the 
 Baltoro glacier with the remaining ten, who carried the supplies for the
 
 Bride Peak. 
 
 :;().-> 
 
 liigh camps, the two Whymper and Munimeiy tents, their own 
 equipment and a few days' provisions. No one of the party had any 
 suspicion of difficulty in getting on the saddle, and they reckoned it to 
 be a work of two days at most. But once more hopes which seemed 
 well and securely founded were doomed to disappointment. What 
 ought to have been merely a brief preliminary to the actual undeitaking 
 proved a long and difficult task, demaiuling eight days of hard work 
 for its accomplishment. 
 
 Jii^kiiiJ 
 
 CAMP XII, AND THE CREST AND EASTERN SHOrLDER OF BRIDE PEAK. 
 
 They began at once to climb up the broken surface of the glacier, 
 which at the very start was covered with snow and composed of small 
 seracs, so that there was no great hindrance to rapid progress. But 
 too soon the snow grew deep and soft, and they walked in it above their 
 knees, with infinite labour at each step. The glacier was broken up 
 into large blocks, between which were wide and treacherous openinfrs 
 disguised by the snow. They could never tell whether the latter would 
 be firm beneath their tread, or whether a bottomless gulf would open 
 where they set their feet. The coolies proceeded with much effort and 
 fatigue. Very little distance was covered because of the continual 
 going back and forth to avoid crevasses. The guides were aiming at 
 
 (922 1) I-
 
 30(i 
 
 CliJiptcr WII. 
 
 the top of the .spur which closes the ghicier on the left, but the way grew 
 more and more difficult. About noon the coolies were worn out, and 
 a stage was made, the tents being set up at less than 1,350 feet above 
 the base camp on a strip of ice cut in every direction by crevasses and 
 covered with snow, into which one sank up to the waist. The spot 
 
 SKRACS OF THE CHOGOLISA GLACIER. 
 
 was at about half the distance up the first cascade. Above it the 
 glacier was a chaos of blocks running in every direction and piled up 
 in confusion. No route showed itself. Sir Martin Conway had likewise 
 experienced great difficulty in finding a route, on his attempt in 1892, 
 and had been obliged to camp among the blocks of ice. The inclination 
 of the valley is not steep enough to account for such a huge disruption 
 of the ice. The Duke had observed this same fact when he cUmbed the 
 centre of the Savoia glacier. Conway found that the brokenness of the
 
 Bride Peak. 307 
 
 glaciers throughout the Karakoram was out of proportion to the slope 
 of the valleys, and he attempted to explain the fact with the hypothesis 
 of a vertical stratification of the rocks of the valley bed, whose angles 
 and sharp protuberances would thus fracture the ice flowing above it. 
 
 Theie was a rib of ice near the camp which gave a marvellous view 
 of all the upper Baltoro and the Godwin Austen, with the chain of the 
 watershed from Mustagh Tower to K- for a background (panorama P). 
 The westernmost peak of the Gasherbrum group just shows its head 
 above the eastern spurs of the Baltoro. The ample glacier-lined curve 
 beneath Bride Peak is one splendid cascade. The eastern shoulder of 
 the mountain looks like a great icy dome, connected with the ridge by 
 a rather pronounced depression. It was this depression which the 
 climbers must reach, by going around back of the shoidder, for on this 
 side it was inaccessible. 
 
 Under these circumstances, with the difficulties of the way 
 aggravated by the fatigue of marching in deep snow, the idea of going 
 on all together with the luggage was given up, and the Duke decided 
 to explore the glacier beforehand with the guides, and then to send 
 on the caravan, giving the coolies the advantage of an already beaten 
 path. Accordingly at dawn on the 4th two porters and eight coolies 
 were sent back to the base for another tent and some provisions, while 
 the Duke with Sella and the four guides went on up the seracs. 
 Giuseppe Petigax and Enrico Brocherel went ahead, seeking a route 
 through the labyrinth. Great transversal crevasses cut across their 
 path. Between these the blocks were piled up in inextricable confusion 
 and the ojienings of dark caverns and icy abysses yawned among them. 
 The ice blocks resembled those on the Newton glacier in Alaska, in 
 having their edges and corners rounded off and blunted by the heavy 
 layer of snow, which was crystalline in its composition, and quite dry 
 and powdery. It was only after the sun had been hot during the day 
 that a little crust would form in the cold of the night, making the 
 walking easier for a few hours early the next morning. But by 
 nine o'clock it would no longer support the foot, and the snow-shoes 
 proved of very little use. 
 
 A way was forced across the first barrier of seracs behind the camp. 
 Then the party had to round a gigantic block, after which they began 
 to climb an icy prominence which seemed to offer them a route. 
 However, after a little distance this path also was blocked by a crevasse, 
 
 (9221) V 2
 
 308 
 
 Chapter W'll. 
 
 and they had to go back and strike farther to the right. After some 
 very rough going they reached a furrow where the seracs were arranged 
 in a sort of alley, allowing them to make some progress and gain a little 
 height. About eleven they reached another barrier of blocks, apparently 
 without any way of access through them. But the guides knew that 
 
 AMOXC THE SKKACS OF THE CHOGOLISA GLACIER. 
 
 the broad and gentle slopes which they had seen from below could not 
 be very far away now, and there was no doubt that some means of 
 conquering this last obstacle could be found. The snow had become 
 unbearable. Satisfied with the progress thus far made, the Duke 
 decided to turn back. 
 
 July 5th was foggy, and there was a httle sleet. Sella took supplies 
 for a light camp, seven coohes and the four guides, and retraced
 
 Bride Peak. 309 
 
 the previous day's route in order to profit by the path made in the snow. 
 They went well enough to the point reached the day before. The 
 guides then began to skirt obliquely upwards toward the left, searching 
 out a tortuous path among the crevasses. Finally they found a 
 prominence from which a fairly solid bridge led upon a serac, and thence 
 to a depression on the upper side of the obstacle. They went along the 
 edge of this, always toward the left, and beginning to see a clear path 
 toward the great slopes at the centre of the glacier. The coolies were 
 utterly worn out. Moreover, the leader of the file had broken through 
 a snow bridge and fallen iip to his shoulders in a crevasse. He himself 
 struggled to get free, and liis companions pulled on the rope ; but he 
 was not released imtil two of the guides gave their help to liberate him 
 from his awkward position, if not from his terror. This episode 
 discouraged the others still more. Besides, it had begun to snow 
 heavily, and Sella made the wise decision to set up the camp at this 
 point. He sent back two guides and the coolies. A little recoimoitring 
 confirmed the hope that the most difiicult part was overcome. The 
 glacier above the camp was even more broken than below, but the 
 crevasses were covered for the most part, and the slope grew gradually 
 less steep. 
 
 It continued to snow all night and all the next day, keeping the 
 Duke inactive in the lower camp, as well as Sella in the upper one. No 
 change came on the 7th, and the Duke sent three guides and four coolies 
 to liberate Sella from his blockade. Thus the party was reunited at 
 Camp XII. It was the fifth day, and they were still practically at the 
 starting-point, some 1,300 feet above the Baltoro — prisoners, crowded 
 two apiece into the tiny Whymper and Mimmiery tents on a narrow 
 table of glacier surrounded by crevasses and buried in sjiow. This was 
 only the beginning of a long siege. 
 
 It soon became necessary to think of replenishing the food supply. 
 Sella, concluding that the hope of photographic work was very slight 
 indeed, and feeling that the Duke ought to profit by all the forces of the 
 expedition, made up his mind to go down himself to the base camp. 
 He took Botta, Savoie and the coolies, and they had a most laborious 
 journey through the snow, which had, of course, obUterated every trace 
 of path. Xegrotto and I met them at the camp, as before narrated. 
 Next morning nine coolies set out on the return journey under the 
 guidance of Savoie and Lorenzo Petigax. The}- never murmured or 
 
 (9221) r 3
 
 310 Chapter W'll. 
 
 made a .single objection. All ilay the bad weather held. The air was 
 full of white semi-opaque mist, .sky and snow were indistinguishable, 
 and they could not see 100 yards ahead. It was the third day of 
 crouching in the tents, hearing the hght monotonous tapping of the 
 snowflakes on the walls. It fell ceaselessly, relentlessly. Their only 
 occupation was that of occasionally shaking the canvas to prevent 
 their being buried. 
 
 Late in the evening there were signs of abatement. They even 
 had a glimpse of sky over the valley through a rent here and there in the 
 clouds. The peaks were all hidden, and dense clouds hung motionless 
 over the Concordia. The weather was very long in clearing, the morning 
 of the 9th being still disturbed. But gi'adually the mountains stripped 
 off their mist, and came out one after another in purest and most 
 dazzhng white. Where the sun shone through the mists these were 
 of a silvery brilliance, and the whiteness of the landscape enhanced the 
 deep blue of the sky. Little spirals of snow-dust curled along the crests, 
 lifted by the wind. Bride Peak was still shrouded in semi-transparent 
 cloud, and the mountains about the Concordia remained in shadow. 
 
 Up above the Duke had left his camp accompanied by all his 
 caravan, and, finding a route shorter than that taken by Sella, gained the 
 spot where the latter had camped on the 5th. Thence he continued to 
 ascend, making a wide circuit toward the centre of the glacier, until he 
 was sure there were no more obstacles to be encountered, save that 
 of the deep snow. Then he placed his camp 19.098 feet above sea 
 level and some 1,650 feet below Chogolisa Saddle. The weather 
 continued to improve all the afternoon, but not until four o'clock did the 
 Mustagh Tower emerge from the mists clinging about it. K- and 
 Gasherbrum rose high above the mountains in the foreground, showing 
 the height to which the party had now attained. 
 
 On July 10th, eight days after leaving the base camp, the Duke 
 succeeded in setting up camp on ChogoUsa Saddle at 20,784 feet of 
 altitude, after a march of five hours up easy snow-slopes, on a morning 
 perfectly bright and cold. The tents were erected on the northerl)^ 
 slope of the saddle, just below its highest point, in a hollow filled with 
 snow, which made a good shelter from the bitter wind that swept clown 
 from the brow of the saddle. The coolies were benumbed with cold, 
 and were sent back to the lower camp. They had performed the woik 
 of real Alpine porters, coming up over the seracs with full loads of
 
 Bride Peak. 311 
 
 luggage, aiul liad livt'd in camps on the snows without fires and contrary 
 to all the habits of their normal hves, all of which proved how much 
 they had been able to adapt thentselves, and showed the influence we 
 had gained over them. 
 
 Chogohsa Saddle is between the eastern crest of Bride Peak and 
 a rounded icy dome 21,6.53 feet high, on the other side of which is 
 Kondus Saddle, at the foot of Golden Throne. This saddle is a httle 
 lower than Chogolisa. The day was perfect, and the view which the 
 Duke had fi-om his station a very grand one. The three summits of 
 Broad Peak were visible, likewise all four of the Gasherbrums, now 
 seen together for the first time, rising between the spurs on the 
 east of the Baltoro and the southern buttress of Golden Throne. 
 Northward the horizon was closed by the great ridge stretching from 
 K- to Mustagh Tower. The glaciers of Bride Peak flung themselves 
 down to the Baltoro just beneath him. Opposite that mountain the 
 western walls of Golden Throne completed the j)anorama, these also 
 covered with glaciers from peaks to base. South of the saddle continued 
 a series of complex chains, and the Kondus Valley, dominated on the 
 west by heights easily recognizable as K^ K", K'" and K'^ between 
 22,736 and 25,426 feet high, among an infinite host of unnamed 
 moimtains and unexplored valleys. Just as from the other cols climbed 
 by the expedition, the view was nothing but ice and snow and rocky 
 wilderness spreading out to the horizon. One felt as if the inhabited 
 earth had been left behind for evei'. 
 
 July 11th continued fair, and it was the part of wisdom not to lose 
 an hour of the auspicious weather. No more than 4.326 feet of vertical 
 distance remained between Chogolisa and the summit, a height which 
 in the Alps one could be fairly sure of covering in a day. But failure 
 would certainly have attended an attempt to finish the climb at a 
 single stage, on account of the enormous quantity of soft snow. There 
 was a good distance between the camp and the foot of the final height 
 which had to be covered by walking in snow nearly up to the waist, 
 a performance the fatigue of which cannot be measured by those who 
 have never tried it. Tlius tlie climbers would begin the actual ascent 
 with forces already depleted, and very likely still further weakened by 
 the increasing rarefaction of the air. On these grounds the Duke 
 decided to set up an intermediate camp with the two Mummery tents 
 and four sleeping-bags. 
 
 (9221) n 4
 
 312 Chapter XVII. 
 
 The party of seven left the shelter camp early in the morning. 
 They described a broad curve in climbing to the top of the glacier, 
 reaching the steep southern slope of the icy dome between Chogolisa 
 and Bride Peak. This they traversed horizontally. The snow made 
 very bad and uncertain walking, and they would plunge in half-way 
 up the thigh. This was fearfuUy fatiguing to all the i^arty, especially 
 the porters. At half-past eleven they stopped, though they had not 
 yet reached the foot of the depression between the dome and the crest, 
 and set up the tents on the slope, levelhng off a little ledge with their 
 feet. The three porters went back to ChogoUsa camp, leaving Giuseppe 
 Petigax, Enrico and Emilio Brocherel with the Duke. They were now 
 at 21,673 feet of altitude, only 3,437 feet remaining between them and 
 the top. If the weather held another day, victory was in their grasp. 
 The day was warm, still and fine, but toward the south-west were some 
 gradually thickening vapours that boded ill. Threatening clouds 
 rolled up on the hills, covering peaks and ranges. Then suddenly 
 it seemed that the weather relented, the disheartening portents 
 withdrew, leaving at sunset only a few insignificant mist wreaths here 
 and there on the heights. The prospects for the morrow were ver\' 
 good. 
 
 At five o'clock on the 12th the party was on the way. It was a niikl 
 and foggy day, the air warm and relaxing, the snow already bad. The 
 guides took turns at the head of the rope, in anticipation of the hard 
 work that was to come. They were an hour and a half in reaching the 
 foot of the depression, and as much more in climbing up to it at the 
 base of the ridge. Two bergschrunds were safely crossed by means 
 of heavy snow bridges. The mist grew denser and a little wind had 
 sprung up, but not cold or strong enough to be annoying. At 
 23,000 feet they changed their snow-shoes for crampons, and began to 
 ascend the ridge. They were obliged to cut the very steep slope on 
 the side of the crest, despite the evident danger of avalanches fiom 
 the snow, which was two feet deep and did not form compactly with the 
 older layer beneath it, because they must avoid the still greater danger 
 of the cornice cur\'ing widely out over the abyss to the right. For two 
 hours and a half they went on at an even, slow and cautious pace. 
 Meanwhile the fog grew worse and worse, and was now so dense that 
 the party stopped on a projecting rock, and taking counsel together 
 decided on the course which was, under the circumstances, the only
 
 Bride Peak. 313 
 
 wise oue to pursue. The danger was too imminent, and it increased 
 at every step. They must go back. They had reached 23,458 feet, 
 walking with slow and even pace, not suffering serious difficulty in 
 breathing, nor palpitation. They made the descent in weather steadily 
 growing worse, and by the time they reached Chogolisa, taking with 
 them the intermediate camp, it was snowing. 
 
 The fog hfted somewhat towards evening, and they could see the 
 extent over which the storm raged. Masses of threatening black cloud 
 wore constantly roUing up fi'om the lower Baltoro. The snows reflected 
 their tones of deep violet and ash colour. The entire party slept 
 heavily, being greatly fatigued, while the snow fell silently and ceaselessly 
 outside. 
 
 The blockade lasted this time for four days. Sometimes there was 
 a show of relief from this or that quarter of the sky, when a brief and 
 sudden opening would break between the clouds. Of all such the Duke 
 took advantage to study the region as best he might, and to repeat 
 a series of observations to the surrounding mountains which he had 
 made from Camp XIII. I have collected all these observations 
 in Chapter XIX, in order not to burden the narrative with technical 
 detail, and in this place will only describe the general disposition 
 of the valleys and ranges at the head of the Baltoro, in so far as 
 they may be derived from the necessarily limited and fragmentary 
 observations made l)y the Duke from Chogohsa Saddle. The 
 conclusions are merely general, and are not to be taken in an absolute 
 sense ; but they are worth recording, as they deal with a region as yet 
 totally unknown, and may thus serve as a basis for the operations of 
 future explorers. 
 
 The mass of Golden Throne looks much larger from this point of 
 view than when seen from the north on the Baltoro glacier. Its five 
 main jieaks rise above an icy crest which runs from north-west to south- 
 oast. At the extremities of this crest are two other minor summits — 
 21,207 feet on the Baltoro, and another, snovry like the fii-st, south of 
 the chain on the Kondus glacier. According to the angles read by the 
 Duke, the highest peak of the central group would be the second from 
 the north, 23,743 feet high (23,600 feet, Conway). A long snowy ridge 
 descends thence to the glacier below Kondus Saddle. Upon it is 
 Pioneer Peak, climbed by Conway in 1892, with Major Bruce, the guide 
 Zurbriggen, and two Gurkas from Xepaul.
 
 .;i 1 
 
 CliaptcT WII. 
 
 Gasherbiuni II ("iG-SeO feet) seems to bo conneeted with Hidden 
 J'eak b}' a liigh crest witli a slight depression oi- col in it. so that the 
 chain is practically unbroken from Hidden to Broad Peak. The col 
 pi'obably leads to the Gasherbrum glacier of Yonnghiisband. The large 
 group of mountains at the angle between the western Gasherbrum 
 and Hidden Peak must form a separate system, detached from the 
 
 GOLDEN THRONE AND I'lO.NEER PEAK, FROM THE SKRACS OF THE CHOCOMSA. 
 
 Gasherbrum. The Duke from his high camps, as well as we at our 
 station at the foot of Golden Throne, saw several times the western 
 ridge of Hidden Peak lighted very far down by the sunset rays, and 
 argued from this fact that there is probably no ridge intervening between 
 Peak 22,139 and the Gasherbrums, but very likely a valley instead, 
 and that the large glacier descending to the Concordia basin probably 
 gathers up the tributaries from the southern wall of the Gasherbrums. 
 
 From Hidden Peak to Golden Throne nms a crest with two distinct 
 depressions in it, about equal in height. This crest closes in the Baltoro 
 basin, separating it from the head of the Kondus glacier. On the maps 
 of the Indian Survev the Kondus reaches to the southern base of
 
 Bride IVak. :}15 
 
 Chogolisa Saddle ; but it really extends further eastward and 
 northward, skirting the foot of Golden Throne, and ends in a wide l^a.sin 
 confined on the west by the crest already mentioned between Hidden 
 Peak and Golden Throne, and on the north by a chain parallel to Golden 
 Throne. This chain probably joins on to the Gasherbrum range. Hidden 
 Peak forming the connecting link. It contains a marked depres.sion 
 between peaks of considerable height, and just visible from Chogolisa, to 
 the south-east of Golden Throne. By this one must have access to the 
 Oprang valley, and from its position one would judge that it might be the 
 pass seen by Sir Francis Younghusband at the head of the Urdok glacier. 
 
 LongstafE believed that he had identified this pass of Sir Francis 
 Younghusband with a depression situated at the upper end of the 
 Siachen glacier. But the latter lies farther beyond, and to the east- 
 south-east. From Chogolisa one could see a large valley running 
 between two parallel chains of high mountains on the other side of the 
 Kondus basin : and this, to judge by its direction, must be the Siachen. 
 It is probably separated from the Kondus by a ridge of no great height. 
 The upper Siachen has thus no connection with the Baltoro, the head 
 of the Kondus coming in between the two. The Kondus descends 
 south-west, encircling Golden Throne, then soutWard in a deep channel 
 at the foot of Kondus and Chogolisa Saddles. The southern wall of 
 Chogolisa is very steep — that of the Kondus was not visible fi'om the 
 Duke's point of observation. 
 
 The watershed extends from Hidden Peak to the south-east, 
 enclosing the Kondus basin to the north, and continuing in the northern 
 ridge of the Siachen as far as Teram Kangri. Its course east of this 
 to the Karakoram pass is still unknown. ' 
 
 From July 13th to 16th bad weather prevented, as I have already 
 said, any fresh assault on the peak. The wind was always south-west 
 and snow fell at frequent intervals. The sky was usually covered with 
 a uniform grey cloud ; but great cumulus clouds were not lacking, of 
 the sort which with us mean heavy storms usually accompanied with 
 lightning. But we, as well as all our predecessors, can testify to the 
 complete absence of electrical manifestations in the Karakoram. In 
 all these stormy weeks we never once saw a flash of lightning or heard 
 
 1 Sec in Novarese's geological appendix the important conclusions concerning the geology 
 of the region and the distribution of the chains and mountain systems, w hich are based on these 
 observations of the Duke.
 
 3Ui Chapter XVTI. 
 
 thunder. On none of his many excursions to the rocky spurs about 
 the Godwin Austen and the Concordia did Sella see fulgorites, neither 
 did the Duke upon the rocks of Bride Peak. R. Strachey reports that 
 storms with electrical accompaniment are very rare on the northern 
 slopes of Kumaon-Gahrwal, but not on the Tibetan plateau. Thomson 
 considers the infrequency of such ])henomena north of the Himalaya 
 to be due to the absence of cumulus clouds, but this explanation would 
 not hold for the Baltoro. On the other hand, the atmosphere of the 
 southern chains is so charged with electricity, even in the absence of 
 storms, that it has been found necessary to equip the theodolite with 
 a portable lightning-rod (Purdon). No satisfactory hypothesis has 
 been produced for this peculiarity of the climate in the Karakoram. 
 It is certain that the absence of electrical storms deprives the region 
 of a distinct element of grandeur and fascination. Another peculiarity 
 which I should mention, probably related in some way to the regularity 
 of the periodic wind, is the stability of the barometer. It showed only 
 slight variation, and gave no indication of approaching change in the 
 weather. 
 
 The health of the party still remained good. Their experience was 
 quite different from that of Dr. Workman, who believes it impossible 
 to sleep at heights of over 20,000 feet. The Duke and all the guides 
 slept well and uninterruptedly, not only at Chogolisa Saddle (over 
 20,600 feet), but also in the higher camps at 21,673 and 22,483 feet, 
 despite the fact that they were crowded by twos into the two small 
 Mummery tents. None of them had difficulty in breathing ; there was 
 no headache, and their pulses were normal.^ The only sign of the 
 unusual conditions under which they were living was the gradual loss 
 of appetite, which, however, was not accompanied by any other 
 abnormal symptoms. At the end of their campaign they were only 
 able to eat lightly twice a day, and then with considerable distaste for 
 the food. Negrotto and I had the Hke experience at the base camp, 
 whence I argue that long sojourns at over 16,000 feet would probably 
 
 ' List of observations made on the pulse of the party at Chogohsa Saddle, July 14th : — 
 
 Before Eating, After Eating, 
 
 per Jlinute. jwr jVIinute. 
 
 H.R.H CO 72 
 
 (;iuseppe Petigax ... 70 70 
 
 Enrico Brocherel 70 80 
 
 Emilio Brocherel 74 84
 
 Bride Peak. -it 
 
 have ultimately iiijuiious results. Naturally, we all giew thinner, and 
 suffered gradual diniiiuition of energy. 
 
 On the 13th the three porters came down to the base camp for 
 supplies. At Camp XIII among the seracs they picked up the cooHes, 
 who had been there alone since the evening of the 10th. Two of their 
 number, unable to stand the continuous storms, the cold and loneliness, 
 had roped themselves together the next day and succeeded in finding 
 a way down among the labjTinth of crevasses. This was the only case 
 of desertion in the entire campaign. The other seven coohes had stayed 
 faithfully at their post. We only sent five of them back from the 
 base camp, and they and the porters reached Chogolisa on the 16th. 
 
 The snow had ceased. The peaks were still hea\'ily shrouded, but 
 it seemed reasonable to hope that this improvement indicated a break 
 in the long spell of bad weather. Experience had taught that the 
 respite would be brief, and was to be profited by to the uttermost. 
 With the purpose of expediting the march, the stores for the shelter 
 camp were all carried up on the day before to the spot where the party 
 had spent the night of the 11th. The evening was not promising. The 
 top of Bride Peak freed itself, but above it were high stratus and 
 cumulus clouds, and the sun set in the midst of long bands of cirrus. 
 However, the die was cast. Next morning, despite uncertain weather, 
 the Duke set out at half-past six with the guides and porters. They 
 reached the point where the suppUes had been deposited, took them 
 up and went on, climbing the slope to the very foot of the saddle. It 
 goes without saying that the snow was as bad as ever. The porters 
 were sent back to Chogolisa, and the tents put up, 22.483 feet above 
 sea level and only 2,627 feet below the summit of the peak. This 
 figure is derived from the pressure readings with the Fortin barometer. 
 No one before now had ever camped at such a height, except possibly 
 Longstaf!. In 1905 he passed a night in the open on the snowy crest 
 of Gurla Mandhata, at a height tentatively estimated by him to be 
 about 23,000 feet. 
 
 The snow began again ; but the guides kept on, with the intention 
 of breaking a path to facilitate the next day's ascent. It did seem 
 as though fate intended to be kind at last, for aU was clear at sunset, 
 and a magnificent starry sky gave promise of a clear morrow. 
 
 At half-past five on the morning of July 18th the httle party left 
 their shelter. They all realized that the crisis was at hand, that the
 
 oi« ChaptiT W'll. 
 
 (lay would either see their efforts crowned with success or witness their 
 final discomfiture. The air was lifeless, the sun weak and pale and 
 surrounded by a watery aureole of clouds, a sight of most unfavourable 
 augury. As far up as the shoulder the snow was fairly compact, and 
 allowed good progress. In an hour they had reached the top of 
 the shoulder, and stood at 23,000 feet. All about them the mist had 
 closed in, a danger graver than any other for the mountain climber, 
 concealing surrounding perils, and making it impossible to contend with 
 obstacles by rendering them invisible. 
 
 They had reconnoitred on the 12th the first part of the route. 
 Beyond this they guided themselves by their recollection of the ridge 
 as it appeared from below. Thus they reached some rocks rising from 
 the snow about two-thirds of the distance from the summit. They knew 
 thev had to keep in midway between the cornice and a great open 
 crevice a little way below. The snow was very trying, being over 
 two feet deep, and the grade was steep. The foot went down so far at 
 everv step that one felt there was no solid ground beneath. At every 
 ominous creaking of the snow they were obhged to bear away obliquely 
 toward the cornice, until the appearance of fissures and the breath of 
 a cold wind from below warned them that they were hanging over the 
 abyss. Again they would cut the slope farther down, until at no great 
 distance from them an extent of snow would detach itself with a crack 
 and slide rustling down toward the gap. The pickaxes sunk to the 
 handle without meeting any resistance, so there was no hope of their 
 being able to stop the snow from sliding. Nothing could be seen beyond 
 a few yards, but they reaUzed that bottomless gulfs opened on every 
 side. 
 
 Thus they cUmbed for four and a half hours, slowly and evenly, 
 making brief halts every fifteen minutes. They breathed quickly but 
 not laboriously, and their fatigue was not very great, despite the steep 
 grade, the heaviness of the snow and the lifeless air. By 11 o'clock 
 they had gained the prominence of rock noted from below — 24,278 feet 
 up — and after a short rest they essayed to chmb it. It was firm and 
 sohd rock coated here and there w-ith verglas, but directly they had 
 to climb with hands as well as feet great difficulty in breathing became 
 apparent, and their progress was very slow. The rocks were conquered 
 in two hours, and the Duke beheved himself to be at last upon the 
 terminal crest. Instead of this another tract of steep snow-covered
 
 liride Peak. ni9 
 
 slope stretched away vaguely into the niist above them. They knew 
 the cornice was on their right, and on the left the mountain side fell 
 precipitously, nigged with seracs just dimly seen. It would have been 
 madness to go on blindlv, over a slope of unknown inclination, even 
 the general direction of which had not been made out from below, 
 edged with a wide cornice and covered with deep and treacherous snow. 
 The calm mild weather permitted them to stop awhile, in the faint 
 hope that some fugitive wind would brush away the mists. The Fortin 
 barometer registered I23-.2 ^^•> the temperature stood at 21° F., and the 
 tension of aqueous vapour was -3% in. These observations, corrected by 
 reference to those of the stations of Srinagar, Leh, Skardu and Gilgit, 
 gave a height of 24,600 feet. ^ 
 
 They waited for two hours. At half-past three the weather was 
 unchanged, and the Duke was forced to give the order for retreat. 
 There was a long and dangerous descent to be made before nightfall. 
 Neither he nor any of his three companions noticed any ill effects from 
 the rarefaction of the air. All their pulses were regular, only a little 
 over 100. They had climbed to within .510 feet of the summit, and 
 there is no manner of doubt that, given a clear atmosphere, even with 
 the bad condition of the snow, they would have completed the ascent 
 in a couple of hours and reached 25,110 feet. 
 
 Slowly and cautiously as they had come up, they returned, retracing 
 their track in the treacherous snow. From the shoulder down they were 
 able to proceed somewhat more rapidly. The porters and cooUes were 
 waiting for them at the tents. It was once more snowing hard, but 
 the Duke was anxious to break camp and get down to Chogohsa, and 
 the strength of all proved fully equal to the task. They reached 
 Chogolisa Saddle at eight o'clock after a day of fourteen and a half 
 hours. Of these, at least eleven had been spent in strenuous exertion 
 between 22,483 and 24,600 feet. 
 
 The readings taken by the Duke on an aneroid barometer from time 
 to time during the march allow us to estimate the vertical distance 
 
 ' These barometric calculations could not be referred to the Rdoka.«s base, because the 
 observations were unfortunately broken ofT on July l;')th (see the tables of Prof. Oinodei in the 
 Appendix). On the maps of the expedition first published by the Italian (leog. Soe. and the 
 Ital. Alp. Club, the height gained by the Duke is given as 7,493 metres (24,583 feet). This and 
 some other small variations between the present figures and those first published are due to the 
 fact that the readings from the Gilgit Meteorological Station were only later introduced into the 
 calculations, in addition to those of Leh, tSkardu and Srinagar.
 
 :v>o Chapter XVII. 
 
 gained per hour. In seven and a quarter hours of marching they had 
 made 2,117 feet of height, or 292 feet an hour. If we subtract from 
 this the ascent of the rocks, which of itself took two hours, the result 
 for the entire distance over the snows is 341 feet per hour. In the 
 first hour 517 feet were gained. From then on the apportionment was 
 as follows : between 23,000 and 23,458 feet, 396 feet per hour ; between 
 23,458 and 24,278 feet, 273 feet ; and in the last stretch, on the steep 
 rocks, 160 feet. This last figure confirms the opinion of many mountain 
 climbers that, unless there are snow slopes to march upon, the highest 
 summits of the earth vnW never be conquered, as the climbing of rocks 
 is too exhausting at the low atmospheric pressure of great altitudes. 
 The average rate of the Duke is far below that made by Graham during 
 his contested ascent of Kabru in 1883. He claimed to have covered 
 a vertical distance of 5,400 feet, between 18,500 and 23,900 feet, with 
 an average per hour of 650 feet. LongstafE ascended Trisul in 1906, 
 leaving his camp at 17,450 feet and reaching the summit (23,406 feet) 
 in ten hours, with an average approximately the same as tliat of 
 Graham, 595 feet per hour. These, however, were both ascents made 
 under favourable conditions of weather, snow, etc., and every 
 mountaineer knows the vast difference between this and marching in 
 deep soft snow. Thus it will not cause any surprise that in the ascent 
 of Bride Peak the time taken to gain a Hke vertical distance was nearly 
 double. It seems probable that in clear weather, and with the snow in 
 good condition, the top of the peak could be reached from Chogolisa in 
 about ten hours. 
 
 The circumstances under which the enterprise of the Duke was 
 carried out give it an experimental value much more convincing than 
 that possessed by any of the other known records. The latter have 
 often been real over-strains, outside of the physiological field, and their 
 success has been due to the presence of especially favourable conditions. 
 First of all, the Duke and his guides have given the best evidence we 
 have thus far of the resistance of human beings during long stays at the 
 highest altitudes, and of the possibility of severe and continued exertion 
 at such heights. He and his guides lived for thirty-seven days at or 
 above 16,000 feet, and then for another seventeen were never below 
 18,000 feet, of which nine were spent at and above 21,000 feet — all this 
 under the disadvantage of cramped accommodation, almost constant 
 bad weather, and with nourishment reduced from want of appetite.
 
 Bride IVak. 321 
 
 During this period tliey iiuulo two ascents, which meant four days of 
 the most fatiguing work, sleeping at 21,673 and 22,483 feet, and reaching 
 23,458 and 24,600 feet of altitude. 
 
 The height attained by the Duke exceeds by 700 feet the greatest 
 altitude up to then achieved by men upon the mountains. In 1883 
 Graham made a series of notable ascents in the Himalaya of Gahrwal, 
 after which he went to Sikkim with the guides Emil Boss and Ulrich 
 Kaufmann, and stated that he had climbed the Kabru up to the saddle 
 a little below the summit, 23,900 feet high. Twenty-eight years before, 
 the brothers Schlagintweit had reached about 22,250 feet in an ascent 
 of Kamet in the Nanda Devi group in Gahrwal. During the interval 
 no other approach to this height was made,^ except by M. Wiener, who 
 climbed Mount IlUmani, in the Bolivian Andes, 21,224 feet high. Most 
 mountaineers believed at that time that such ascents must invariably 
 be attended by serious physical consequences. The ease which Graham 
 asserted had marked his ascent of Kabru was considered to throw doubt 
 on the actuality of the performance, and the incomplete and cursory 
 account of the enterprise gave ground for much dispute among mountain 
 climbers — dispute which only ceased when, in 1907, Rubenson and 
 Monrad Aas climbed the Kabru, or at least the saddle between the 
 two peaks. Their account seems at first blush to show more 
 improbability than the succinct narrative of Graham. The undertaking 
 was not the result of a deliberately concerted plan, but was rather of 
 ah almost casual nature. The two explorers were obliged to live for 
 two weeks on reduced rations, and they made their ascent alone, up 
 dangerous ice slopes, wearing shoes from which the nails had been 
 removed to prevent their feet from freezing. They descended for the 
 most part at night by moonlight, etc., etc. Yet no one cast a doubt upon 
 their veracity. Nor do I wish for a moment to call it in question, 
 convinced as I am that their account must inspire the most complete 
 
 ' Some noteworthy climbing exploits performed between 18.55 and 188:i by members of the 
 Trigonometrical Survey, and until very recently buried among the oftieial records, have been 
 brought to light by Dr. Longstaff. In 1874 J. S. Pococke gained 22,000 feet in (Uvhrwal, and in 
 tlie same year \V. L. Johnson crossed a mountain crest of Ladakh at a height of 22,300 feet, 
 and likewi.se, in 1865, climbed three peaks of the Kuen Lun chain, north of the Karakoram— 
 E57, E58 and E61, whose respective heights of 21,767, 21,071 and 2:!,8!)0 feet have been deter- 
 mined by triangulation. I will not dwell upon the doubts east upon the authenticity of these 
 climbs, merely referring to the article of Dr. Longstaff in Alp. Jour. 24, 1908, p, 133, See 
 also Mountain Sickness. London 190(), by the same author; and A. L, Mumm, Fife Months in 
 the Himalaya. London 1909, 
 
 (9221) X
 
 322 CllJiptcr XVII. 
 
 belief. But its acceptance by mountain climbers in general is the best 
 evidence of the great change which has taken place in current opinion 
 upon the possibiUty of ascending to great heights without marked 
 physical disturbance. Beyond a doubt this change of ground is due 
 to the conquest of high peaks which has been slowly going forward all 
 the while. 
 
 In order to avoid a lengthened list I will confine myself here to 
 ascents of 23,000 feet and over. In 1897 S. M. Vines, a member of the 
 E. A. FitzGerald expedition, with the guide A. Burgener, climbed 
 Mount Aconcagua, 23.100 feet high. In 1903 Dr. AVorkman reached 
 a height of 23.394 feet on the ridge of a mountain at the head of the 
 Chogo Lungma glacier. Longstaff chmbed to a consideral)le height 
 on the ridge of Gurla Mandhata in 1905 — probably beyond 23,000 feet, 
 though instrumental observations of the altitude were lacking. In 
 1906 Mrs. Workman climbed a peak of 23,264 feet in the Nun Kun 
 group ; and in the same year Longstaff conquered Trisul, 23,406 feet. 
 Thus in twenty-six years, from 1883 to 1909, no one exceeded the height 
 supposed to have been reached by Graham ; and this, after the 
 Norwegian achievement, became the official record. 
 
 However, the greatest importance of the Duke's ascent does not, 
 I repeat, lie in its having surpassed by 700 feet this official record. Its 
 significance lies rather in its having been made under such unfavourable 
 conditions of snow and weather. This gives it a value above any of 
 the others in relation to the problem of the possible ascent of our 
 greatest peaks. 
 
 I would call attention, as especially worthy of remark, to the fact 
 that the Duke was able to take the coolies up to the highest camp, 
 22,483 feet high, and that they lived under the most adverse conditions 
 for more than two weeks among the snow and seracs of the glacier 
 flowing down fi'om Chogolisa Saddle. If the snow had been firm, the 
 weather fine, and other conditions favourable there would have been 
 no great difficulty in getting them to transport a camp even as high 
 up as the eastern shoulder of Bride Peak (over 23,000 feet), an 
 altitude from which it would be possible to reach to above 26,000 feet 
 in one day. 
 
 Then as regards the physiological possibility of still higher ascents, 
 the Duke's experience was such as to encourage other explorers. It is 
 unlikely that any disturbance of the system caused by low atmospheric
 
 Bride Peak. 323 
 
 pressure under ordinary mountaineering conditions would appear 
 suddenly and without warning, even without a previous loss of energy 
 to a considerable degree. It is fair to conclude, from the good physical 
 condition of the Duke and his guides at 24,600 feet and from the absence 
 of any ill result of their long stay at this altitude, that if the feat had 
 been attempted when the expedition first reached the Baltoro, with 
 each member at the maximum of his powers and the mountains covered 
 with old compact snow, it would probably have been crowned with 
 complete success. 
 
 But between Bride Peak and the top of Mount Everest there is 
 nearly 4,000 feet of difference in height. It would surely be idle to 
 predict the outcome of an attempt on the latter. Only continued tests 
 will solve the problem. The first thing to do is to select a peak of more 
 than 26,000 feet, where natives will be available for portage, where it 
 would be easy to get the camps up to a considerable altitude, and where, 
 at least for the last few thousand feet, there could be found a route 
 over snow, without great obstacles and not too steep. The highest 
 peaks of the Karakoram are not adapted for the experiment, on account 
 of their intrinsic difficulties. Kinchinjunga and Nanga Parbat are 
 likewise very problematic ; and if on closer examination their rivals 
 of Xepaul present as great obstacles, there is httle hope of our 
 conquering any of the greatest giants of the earth by ordinary 
 mountaineering methods. ^ 
 
 The campaign was at an end. There had been one single day of fine 
 weather in the last two weeks, and there was little reason to hope for 
 betterment. Under 16,000 feet the glaciers were being visibly consimied 
 by melting, while on the high mountains the fresh snow piled higher 
 with every day. Another factor was the decrease of our physical forces, 
 due to repugnance to food. 
 
 On the morning of the 19th the tents and other impedimenta were 
 put together, and in a heav}' snowstorm the Duke abandoned Chogolisa 
 Saddle with guides and coolies, and descended to the former camping 
 place, among the seracs, covering two stages. The powerful radiation of 
 the fog and snow had swollen and reddened the eyes of the Duke and 
 Giuseppe Petigax. On July 20th, in the forenoon, Negrotto and I 
 welcomed our returned leader to the base camp. He did not wait for 
 
 ' I have included in Cliapter XIX the conclusions which are to be drawn from the Duke's 
 expedition with regard to the pliysiological aspect of the problem of high mountaineering. 
 (9221) X -2
 
 324 Chapter XVTl. 
 
 even a day of rest. The camp was dismantled in a heavy rain, and 
 the expedition took up tlie I'cturn march, carrying all the equipment, 
 for which purpose thirty-five coolies had come from Rdokass on the 
 evening of the 18th. The crash of avalanches from Golden Throne 
 followed our retreat, Hke a last threat from the mountains, victorious 
 but not yet appeased. The coolies were jubilant, and despite the 
 rapid march, the rain and the heavy loads, they chattered incessantly, 
 our faithful fifteen of the high mountains relating to their fellows from 
 Rdokass the experiences of the past few weeks. But the rest of us 
 were silent and depressed, under the evil fate that had snatched from 
 the Duke the prize of so much labour and ])erseverance, after it had 
 lain almost within his grasp.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE RETURN TO SRINAGAR. 
 
 Suminor on the Baltoro Glacier. — Rdokass. — Descent of the Biaho Valley. — Jhula Bridge over 
 the Punmah. — Askoley. — Braldoh Bridge. — Skoro La. — Gorges of the Skoro Lumba. — 
 Shigar. — Travelling on Zhaks. — .Skardu. — Burgi La. — The Deosai Table-land. — Sar- 
 singar and Stakpi La. — The Dards. — The Kishen Cianga Valley. — Rajdiangan Pass. — 
 Bandipur. — On the Wular and up the Jhelum — We enter Srinagar. 
 
 On July 20th we turned our backs 
 upon the mountains. Sleet was 
 faUing, turning now and then to 
 actual rain. The moisture gave 
 briUiance and relief to the multi- 
 coloured stones of the median 
 moraines of the Baltoro. When we 
 liad about reached the level of the 
 right-hand spur of the Vigne 
 valley we made our camp, for the 
 Duke and the guides had already 
 that day made the descent from the 
 seracs of the Chogolisa glacier, and, 
 moreover, their eighteen days of 
 hardship had left distinct marks 
 upon them. Next day we followed 
 the curve of the moraine into the 
 Concordia, and thence to the mouth of the lower Baltoro, not getting 
 a single fleeting glimpse of K- or Bride Peak, or any other of the 
 splendid host that two months before had received us with such calm 
 serenity. We soon forsook the median moraine to follow the strip of 
 ice between it and the left edge, and then began the fatiguing business 
 of chmbing over the great wavelike inequalities of the surface. A 
 stormy and violent torrent cut its course in a deep winding furrow 
 between two moraines, but we were able to cross it by means of a 
 
 (9221) .\ 3
 
 32G Chapter X\'III. 
 
 massive ice bridge. In five hours of steady marching we had passed 
 the mouth of the second left-hand tributary, and made our stage inside 
 an immense conical depression, the bottom of which was occui)ied by 
 a dull and turbid little lake. Opposite us was the wide Younghusband 
 valley, back of which, toward evening, we had a view of Mustagh Tower, 
 surrounded by heavy clouds. It looked from here entirely different, 
 but was, as always, an imposing spectacle. The intemperate weather 
 cut off all view of the rest of the landscape. 
 
 Quite unexpectedly the morning of July 22nd dawned clear and 
 calm. The view we had before us was almost precisely that of 
 panorama Q, which Sella took a few days earlier at a point somewhat 
 higher up,^ showing the tip of K'^ just to the right of Crystal Peak, 
 the massive brow of Broad Peak behind Marble Point and 
 Gasherbrum IV, next to which the snowy cone of Gasherbrum III is 
 seen in profile. The panorama hkewise gives a very good idea of the 
 tall median moraine of the Baltoro. The moraines are, however, quite 
 run together here, and the glacier seems to be uniformly covered with 
 stones. We can hardly believe that the side spurs of the valley, now 
 bare and black and dotted here and there with bits of vegetation, with 
 only some vestiges of ice near the tops, are the same ones that two 
 months before had looked so impressive in their winter mantles of snow. 
 The tributary glaciers have become deeply imbedded in their valleys, 
 and their fronts, that once stood up so high and white, are flattened and 
 buried in moraine. Deep winding channels run down from their sides, 
 filled with ice soiled by dust and detritus. The two glaciers Mundu 
 and Yermanendu are the only ones to preserve their size and purity. 
 They hang down like trailing draperies from the majestic Masherbrum, 
 parted by a jagged rocky crest. We cut across the front of them in 
 following the left-hand moraine of the Baltoro, which is formed of 
 blocks and detritus of granites, gneiss and quartzes from all the length 
 of the chain from Bride Peak to Masherbrum. It was a very wearying 
 march. We passed valleys and deep pits 200 or 300 feet deep, full of 
 surface water or running streams. Great blocks were poised on the 
 ridges or ice pillars, looking as if a breath might dislodge them. On 
 our way down we noticed the increase of rocks and stones with blunt 
 and rounded angles and edges. 
 
 • This panorama, taken with panorama B and the small picture of the lower Baltoro inserted 
 at p 194, gives the whole northern ehain of the Baltoro in all its detail.
 
 The Return to Srinao:ar. 327 
 
 *& 
 
 After a last laborious crossing of the slopes, we reached the bottom 
 of a large furrow between the glacier and the buttress of Rdokass, and 
 here quite suddenly we found ourselves walking on earth — soft, elastic 
 and covered with high grass full of flowers. The change almost took 
 our breath away. All our senses welcomed the wonderful phenomena 
 of life to which we had been so long strangers — the odour of earth and 
 grass and the delicate manifold scents pervading the air, the colours of 
 the flowers and butterflies, the chatter and rustle of birds, even the 
 clucking of hens and the bleating of the feeding goats. It all seemed 
 like a miracle. 
 
 We were welcomed by Mr. Baines, rejoicing over the end of his long 
 and lonely exile, by Alessio Brocherel, now quite restored to health, 
 the Wazir of Shigar and the Shikari Abdullali. Our coolies of the high 
 mountains went up one by one to salute the Wazir and Abdullah, 
 bowing so as to touch the ground with their hands, then placing the 
 latter on breast and forehead, and finishing by four or five close 
 embraces, in which their heads came over each other's shoulders without 
 touching. We meanwhile were slowly ascending the slope under a 
 fire of salaams from the coolies lined up in rows on the boulders, and 
 reaching the tents, where all manner of luxuries were waiting for us, 
 chief among them, to our minds, being a bath of deliciously hot water. 
 
 Only Sella was absent, and soon after our arrival we looked for him 
 with the telescope, and spied him on the snowy crest nearly 4,000 feet 
 above camp, whither he had climbed with Botta and a coolie to take 
 panorama B. He only rejoined us by nightfall, after a difficult and 
 not altogether safe descent. Then we all gathered together around 
 a brazier, and until late at night talked over the events of the campaign. 
 Sella, ou leaving the base camp at Bride Peak, had spent ten days on 
 the Baltoro with Botta and a coolie, taking advantage of the caravans 
 that went up and down to shift his simple outfit, which consisted of a 
 sleeping-bag and a tarpaulin. He made two excursions from the 
 upper Baltoro to the terminal crest of the right-hand spur of the Vigne, 
 and had been successful in collecting a number of photographs, 
 notwithstanding the almost continuous bad weather. 
 
 July 23rd was spent in rearranging all the equipment and disposing 
 it for transport down the valley, ^\'o distiibuted among the coolies 
 all the small presents we had left — needles, thread, string, coloured 
 handkerchiefs, etc. Our faithful servants of the high mountains were 
 
 (9^21) X 4
 
 328 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 presented with the outfit they had used in camp, and went to work at 
 once to cut up and distribute the sail-cloth of the tents. Pure joy 
 reigned among the cooUes, whose number was now increased by 100 
 sent up from Askoley. The shepherds departed with their flocks and 
 herds, now in much better condition than on their arrival. At night 
 the coolies performed a strange ritual of prayer, consisting of high and 
 rhythmic cries, accompanied by violent beating of the breast. We 
 thought this might be a service of thanksgiving for escape from peril. 
 
 DETACHMENT OF COOLIES WHO WERE \VTTH US Df THE HIGH MOUNTAINS. 
 
 A JEMADAR. 
 
 I.V THE CENTRE 
 
 A very long and tiring march on the 24th brought us down the rest 
 of the Baltoro to Paiju. It took two hours to get the caravan ready 
 for a start. Beside his load, each cooUe carried a bizarre collection of 
 objects — boxes, milk tins, mismated snow-shoes, etc., all the useless 
 rubbish of the expedition, which to them was treasure of the highest 
 worth. 
 
 The snows of May had all vanished from about Rdokass, and the 
 bushes of the little glen near the camp had all been cut to feed the 
 coolies' fires. We descended upon the glacier, and followed its left-hand 
 moraine to the end, only leaving it once to traverse a short stretch of the
 
 The Return to Srinagar. 329 
 
 slope near Rhobutse. Throughout all its length the side of the glacier 
 fell steeply, forming a gorge where a brawling torrent flowed. The 
 sky was overcast and the air somewhat heavy. The moraine surface 
 was fearfully con\'nlsed, immensely more difficult to walk on than it 
 had been when we came up. Now and then torrents of considerable 
 force twist and wind across our path, the lower banks of which, as 
 Conway had noted, were all undermined by water and had overhanging 
 edges. Eight hours of marching brought us to a point where we could 
 see, from an elevation on the glacier, the valley of the Biaho, still far 
 away. The last part of tlie march was the most trying, the waves all 
 running transversely so as to necessitate continual climbing up and 
 down over loose stones. Just above the snout of the glacier we crossed 
 over to the right side, and had quickly cHmbed down the steep front 
 at the same point where sixty-seven days before we had ascended it. 
 It looked precisely the same, and showed no signs of having moved 
 since May. Another hour, making ten in all, brought us to the oasis 
 of Paiju. The cooUes had held out splendidly. It was raining, and 
 we speedily betook ourselves to our sleeping-bags, falling asleep to the 
 murmur of the stream, a sound different indeed from the crashing of 
 avalanches which had disturbed our slumbers in the high mountains. 
 
 We were unable to go down the wide sandy bed of the valley as we 
 had come up, on account of the increased size of the river. It dashed 
 stormily against the rocks of the right valley wall, carrying down loads 
 of sand and frequent small blocks of ice, and we were obhged to cross 
 over high on the slope, an inconvenient and tiresome route. Some 
 of the alluvial terraces looked as though they might offer a level path, 
 but when we reached them we found them cut with deep trenches and 
 gullies, full of streams and showing e\'ident traces of former mud 
 streams. We only encountered one large torrent on our way, and 
 happily it was divided into many branches, none of them too big to 
 ford. The valley was remarkably barren, without a single stretch of 
 verdure as large as that at Rdokass. We saw a few thorny bushes of 
 astragalus, some artimesia, myricaria and e-phedra, and a small potentilla. 
 We camped near the mouth of the Punmah valley, where we had stopped 
 on our upward march. At evening it rained again. 
 
 The Punmah, which in May we had forded without difficulty, had 
 now become a boisterous stream, obliging us to climb up its valley for 
 over two miles to a place where there was a jhula bridge across a narrow
 
 330 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 gorge. All easy path led to it, but was broken by a large stream which, 
 at this season, could only be forded in the morning hours, when it was 
 at its lowest. Here we found a number of coolies on the slope, with the 
 little herd of goats. The bridge was in fair condition, though rather 
 long and swaying. After crossing it, we stopped for nearly an hour 
 to enjoy the sight of the passage of the caravan. Jemadars and 
 
 BRIDGE OVER THE PUNMAII. 
 
 chuprassis shouted deafening orders, and the men got from one bank 
 to the other, moving with great caution but not awkwardly. After 
 the loads were over, the little flock had to be transported, each goat 
 riding on the shoulders of a coolie, carried in a sort of sling. It looked 
 odd enough to see the goat's head with its curling horns rising like a 
 helmet over the head of the coolie. Most of the animals let themselves 
 be carried quite docilely, but a few bleated and wriggled with fear. 
 
 The usual summer route runs from the bridge to a pass in the 
 Laskam spur, which forms the right side of the valley, 12,730 feet high, 
 and descends thence directly to Korophon. But our Balti guides took 
 us along the slope of the spur to its end, where it falls vertically to the
 
 Bridge over tlie Punmah
 
 rii;mno4 oflJ idvo o^^biiH
 
 The Ketuni to Sriiiagar. 
 
 331 
 
 river. Here we had a most diverting climb up and down steep 
 cheminees, at some points of which stone slabs had been set in Mke steps, 
 or crossing steep smooth rocks. The coolies took these much better 
 than we did, thanks to their pabboos. We rounded the end of the spur 
 about 700 feet above the river, and descended on the other side over 
 broken schists scattered with garnets down to the flat valley bottom, 
 where the great boulder stands that marks the stage of Korophon. It 
 
 BRIDGE OVER THE BRALDOH AT ASKOLEY. 
 
 was now noon, and we made our camp, though hardly more than a 
 mile and a half beyond the opening of the Punmah valley, on the other 
 side of which we had stopped the day before. In the afternoon we had 
 a severe rainstorm, which confined us to our tents for several hours, the 
 coolies meanwhile huddling in the lee of the great boulder. The full 
 tide marking the daily period of maximum melting on the glaciers 
 reached us between seven and eight o'clock, unexpected and severe, like 
 a heavy flood. The river was at least twice its former volume, though 
 we had not had a ray of sun for two days. Next day we were soon at 
 the Biafo glacier, which gave us a couple of hours of marching very 
 like that on the Baltoro. We found the Braldoh vallcv covered witli
 
 332 
 
 Chapter XVIIT. 
 
 bushes. The snow h<ul quite disappeared from the sides, and every 
 little nook on the high slopes was rich in pasturage for the ibexes. We 
 went along the alluvial terrace, which was strewn with blocks from the 
 rocky walls above. All the dignitaries of Askoley had come out a 
 half-hour's journey from the village to greet the Duke, and the long 
 way was lined with bowing and saluting natives. At a little before 
 eleven we were once more ensconced in our old camping ground among 
 the willows. 
 
 LEFT BANK OP THE BRALDOH, AT THE FOOT OF THE SKORO LA. 
 
 At Askoley we left the Brakloh valley, and instead of making the 
 long detour around the chain of Mango Gusor, we crossed the Skoro La 
 and went straight down to the Shigar valley. This saved us three days, 
 but at the expense of considerable fatigue. The Skoro La is 
 16,716 feet high, 6,700 feet above Askoley.^ The Duke and the guides 
 were still imperfectly recovered from their exertioixs on Bride Peak, 
 
 1 Altitude calculated from barometric readings, referred to the observations made at Skardu, 
 Gilgit and Leh. According to Conway the Skoro La is 17,400 feet ; according to the Workinans 
 16,975 feet. Guillarraod gives the highest figure, 17,716 feet.
 
 The Return to Srinagar. 
 
 333 
 
 perhaps also feeling some effects of the sudden change from lower to 
 higher atmospheric pressure. But the Duke was unwilhng to alter the 
 itinerary already made, and thus we did not even stop for a day of rest 
 at Askoley. On the afternoon of our arrival the equipment was made 
 ready, with addition of the goods we had stored with the Zaildar on 
 our way up, and w^e sent ahead a good proportion of the coolies to cross 
 the same day the jhula bridge over the Braldoh. The loads being ready 
 
 CAMP BETWEEN ASKOLEY AND SKORO Ui.. 
 
 for distribution, there ensued an indescribable scene, more than a hundred 
 cooUes flinging themselves on the chests, bags, kiltas, etc., wrenching 
 things away from each other hke men possessed, until with the greatest 
 difficulty we restored order and made the distribution. The day, Hke 
 the foregoing ones, was gloomy, rainy and cold — in fact, during the 
 week since we had left Bride Peak we had seen no reason to regret our 
 departure. 
 
 At half-past six on the 28th we left Askoley, under a smihng sky 
 and with a springhke atmosphere. We descended the great allm-ial 
 terrace, more than 300 feet above the river, by means of a path winding
 
 334 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 between fields of grain, beans, peas, etc. At the edge of the terrace 
 a gully led directly down to the bridge. It is about 300 feet long and 
 more than 100 feet above the foaming torrent coursing at the bottom 
 of the narrow gorge between two vertical rock walls. The bridge was 
 firm and in excellent condition, not a single cross-bar being lacking. 
 Ten loaded coolies could cross it at a time, and our caravan, decreased 
 by the number sent on the day before, were very shortly on the other 
 Ijank. This also was covered with vegetation. Edelweiss were 
 
 
 ^ v^*. 
 
 ox THE WAY TO SKORO LA. 
 
 plentiful on the borders of the fields and even between the rows of grain, 
 a botanical combination entirely new to us. We went a short distance 
 along the bottom of the valley, then climbed obliquely across the slope 
 to the edge of the opening of the Skoro La valley, 1,900 feet above the 
 Braldoh.^ At its mouth is a village of mountain huts, now deserted, 
 because the herds have all been taken up to the high pastures. 
 Southward opened the green valley, full of blossom, between two 
 rounded grassy heights, like the beautiful shell-shaped dales of our 
 
 1 The route is marked by a dotted line on the little panorama of the left side of the Braldoh 
 valley.
 
 The Return to 8nna<i;ir. 
 
 335 
 
 own Alps.i AVe climbed along the left side of this valley for some 
 four miles, and set ujj camp on a grassy level near the water. We were 
 now at about 13,000 feet of altitude. 
 
 Next day we crossed the pass. A glacier comes down from it to 
 within about 300 feet from our camp of the night before. We went 
 first along the slope on the left, crossing remains of avalanches and 
 detritus of landslides cut by torrents. Then we crossed the marginal 
 
 NORTHERX SLOPE OF SKORO LA. 
 
 moraine and walked on the ice. A series of moderate slopes brought 
 us to the snow-covered tributary which leads to the pass, where we 
 left the main glacier. The latter runs off eastward to a great 
 amphitheatre surrounded by rocky and snowy summits. Dr. and Mrs. 
 Workman climbed in 1899 the two peaks nearest the Skoro La, 
 18,600 and 18,450 feet high. We mounted in zig-zags over an excellent 
 path. The ice ended some 10 yards below the rocky col, and at half- 
 past ten we were on the top, in a narrow gap between two teeth of the 
 rugged crest. 
 
 ' The Botanical Appendix, by Prof. Pirotta and Dr. Cortcsi, contains a list of the specimens 
 found in this valley.
 
 3:?(; 
 
 Chapter Will. 
 
 Mango Gusor, though more tliaii 3,000 feet above lis, had lost all 
 its impressiveness. The day was fine, though the distant chains were 
 still cloud-covered. Toward the south we looked down a bare gorge 
 as far as the Shigar valley, beyond which hes the opening of the Indus 
 valley. Still farther on the horizon was bounded by a misty chain 
 which forms the main supporting buttress of the Deosai table-land. 
 We stopped to rest and enjoy the view, while the coolies were still 
 
 LOOKING NORTH FROM SKORO LA. 
 
 climbing the steep snowy slope below us. A few of them were 
 exhausted, and laid down their loads on the snow ; but their stouter 
 brethren already at the top went back to help them, and the whole 
 caravan was soon over the pass. ^ 
 
 A wide rock)^ couloir runs precipitously southward from the col, 
 covered with most insecure detritus loose upon the steep rocks. One 
 had to go very carefully not to send down an avalanche on the heads 
 of those below. The coolies were very sure-footed, walking cat-like 
 and not disturbing a single stone ; otherwise it would have been 
 
 1 The Skoro La was crossed in 1856 by R. Sclilagintweit, by Godwin Austen in 1861, by 
 Conway in 1892, by the Worknians in 1899, and by some of the members of tlic Eckenstein- 
 Pfannl-CJuillarmod expedition in 1902.
 
 The Return to Srina<>ar. 
 
 :Vd7 
 
 impossible to get safely down such a wall with so numerous a caravan. 
 Some 1,600 feet below the col we began to cut obhquely toward the 
 right to gain a ridge which is the divisional line between this secondary 
 valley and the Skoro Lumba. The latter is filled in its upper part by 
 two glaciers, which break off abruptly high up on the walls. The slope 
 is grassy, and sprinkled with flowers ; but it is very steep and extended, 
 and cut by high steps which make the descent tedious and fatiguing. 
 
 SOUTHERN SIDE OF SKORO LA. 
 
 Along the way we kept meeting with Baltis bringing little baskets of 
 deUcious apricots, cherries, plums and cucumbers, the most acceptable 
 gifts we could receive, after our months of tinned foods. "We finally 
 reached the bottom of the deep and narrow valley, after having 
 descended in this way some 4,100 feet, and made our stage near a group 
 of shepherds' huts, on a grassy plain full of great wild rose bushes, now 
 in full flower and smeUing dehghtful. Many herds were pastured in 
 the neighbourhood, and we were abundantly supphed with fresh milk 
 and also with eggs. We were welcomed to Baltistan by a violent 
 sandstorm, followed rather unexpectedly by heavy rain. The coohes 
 protected themselves as well as they could under the tarpauhns, the 
 tent-bags and all the coverings they could get together. 
 
 (9221) Y
 
 338 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 Our nearness to the luxuriant oasis of Shigar, the paradise of Bal- 
 tistan, put wings to our coolies' feet. AN'hen we set off at seven o'clock 
 on July 30th they were nearly all under way. The mountains were 
 covered. The path ran first among roses, junipers and thorny bushes, 
 then climbed up on a spur at the right side of the valley. After this 
 we descended once more to the river, and entered a narrow winding 
 gorge between high vertical walls which bear the marks of both old 
 and recent landslides. It was here that Colonel Godwin Austen, with 
 his whole caravan, was nearly overtaken by a shwa in 1861, two great 
 bursts of mud and stones coming down with a frightful crash. The 
 Workmans were witnesses to a similar phenomenon on this very spot, 
 probably resulting from a temporary obstruction of the torrent by a 
 landslide from the side of the gorge. At certain points there is scarcely 
 room for both the torrent and the path, and there would be no escajjc 
 for any one overtaken by one of these mud streams. We emerged from 
 the gorge into a broader space, where the valley met a tributary from 
 the left, the Nang Brok, coming from Mango Gusor. 
 
 From here on the valley broadened gradually to its mouth, becoming 
 more and more green and beautiful. On top of every boulder is stored 
 up a great quantity of hay for the winter. About two miles from the 
 end we saw the first ponies, brought by the Rajah of Shigar, who came 
 to meet us in person with his brother and a numerous train. It was a 
 pleasure to be once more in the saddle. At every step we met people 
 who welcomed the Wazir and our coolies with affectionate demonstra- 
 tiveness. Joy reigned, and the sense of reunion, of perils overcome 
 and anxiety reUeved was so infectious, that even we fell uiider its 
 influence. When we emerged into the great Shigar valley the sun was 
 scorching hot. The left side of the gateway is formed by a rock full 
 of holes like a beehive, where innumerable sparrows had their nests and 
 were piercing the air with their shrill chatter. The valley looked quite 
 different from our memory of it — all the rocky slopes were bare, and 
 snow and glaciers only came down to within 6,000 or 7,000 feet of us. 
 
 We crossed the stony delta and reached the oasis. It seemed to 
 us like the promised land. The boughs of the apricot trees were 
 weighted with luscious fruit, and we could fill our hands by merely 
 rising in the saddle. The mulberry trees were black with their harvest, 
 and the fields were full of ripe crops, which the natives were garnering. 
 On the roofs of the terraces, on the ground, on the threshing-floors,
 
 Tlie Return to Srinagar, 
 
 339 
 
 everywhere great sheets of apiicots were laid out to dry, and gleamed 
 like cloth of gold in the sunshine. The old Chinese geographers were 
 right when they called Baltistan " Tibet of the apricots " (Ujfalvy). 
 We dismounted at the bridge outside of Shigar, and entered the town 
 on foot. In front of one of the houses, probably the school, some fifty 
 children were drawn up, and prompted by their master greeted us with 
 three shrill hurrahs. The tents were erected in the cool shade of the 
 venerable trees beside the polo camp, and the customary offerings of 
 fruit, flowers and cakes were soon brought to us in al)undance. 
 
 
 THE APKILOT CKOI" AT SKARDf. 
 
 The Wazir gave an afternoon tea to the expedition in the garden 
 of his house, a great tent having been set up and a profusion of Oriental 
 rugs stretched on the grass. He and the Rajah proffered various gifts 
 to the Duke. It is usual to accept some of these, and to recognize the 
 hospitality and the assistance rendered by the authorities of the district 
 by sending them offerings in return through the official channels. 
 
 Between Shigar and Skardu we had the experience of a very 
 interesting mode of conveyance, common to all the western Himalaya 
 — the navigation of the river on zhaks. AVe had some of us already 
 used them to cross the Braldoh where it flows into the Shigar valley, 
 
 (0221) Y 2
 
 340 
 
 Chapter XVI II. 
 
 but that was nothing compared to the actual voyage in them upon a 
 swift and turbulent stream. We sent on the coolies by land with the 
 guides and the luggage. Then we betook ourselves across the fields 
 to the river bank, jDcrhaps a mile from the village. Three rafts were in 
 readiness for us. They looked hke very fr-agile structures to contend 
 with the violent stream, which runs a muddy and swollen course with 
 billows that break and curl over at the top. Each zhak is made of 
 twenty pig or goat skins filled with air and secured by ropes to a lattice- 
 work of poplar or wiUow branches, with the legs sticking up between, 
 
 A ZHAK, TTJRN^ED OVKE ON THE BANK. 
 
 tied tightly with cord to keep the air in.^ We bestowed ourselves in 
 pairs upon these primitive floats — the Duke and Mr. Baines, Negrotto 
 and I, Sella and Botta. Sella tied a box to the wooden framework of 
 the raft, on which he put the cinematographic camera, in order to take 
 a record of this novel kind of travel. We sat cross-legged in the centre 
 of the rafts. It was practically sitting in the water, except for some 
 old pieces of felt (namdah) laid down on the lattice-work, for our weight 
 made the rafts ride low in the water. At the corners four steersmen 
 stood erect, with long poles to serve as oars. 
 
 Directly we pushed off we were seized by the current and given over 
 to the mercy of the waves, veering now toward one bank, now the other, 
 
 1 Moorcroft describes similar rafts in use on the river Sutlcj, made of ox-hides, like those 
 which Major Bruce says are used to navigate tlie Indus in Chitral. They are probably much 
 larger, but cannot be nearly so easy to take apart for portage as these of Baltistan.
 
 >^.. --' " ' ''^■^-^^"^•^■^'^■-r:*•?*^:^.":• 
 
 i?>l^ 
 
 
 West side of the Shigar Valley from near Alchori 
 
 From the Skoro La, looking West
 
 riie Iit'turn to Srinajiar. 
 
 341 
 
 tossed about like corks, whirled in the eddies, lifted one moment on 
 the back of a wave to a dizzy incKnatiou and the next plunged into a 
 valley with the nose of the raft under water for an instant before it 
 rose on the crest of a fresh billow. The waves repelled by the front 
 of the boat and the breakers which followed us behind raised up great 
 sheets of water, which slapped and battered at us on every side. The 
 four rowers used their poles frantically the whole time, but apparently 
 
 BOARDIXO THK ZHAKS. 
 
 exerted very httle, if any, influence over the course of the zhak. Every 
 now and then one of them leaned over and untied the string of a skin 
 that had collapsed a httle, blew it up again and resumed his post. Our 
 three barks had pushed ofi at practically the same time, but in half 
 an hour they were widely separated. Sometimes one of them would 
 escape altogether from the control of the steersmen and make for some 
 branch of the river, but fortunately these all intercommunicated, 
 so it would soon get back into the main stream again. The river banks 
 seemed to fly past us, our course was so rapid. Thus we followed the wide 
 bend of the river round the promontory of Strongdokmo. Near the 
 mouth the oarsmen were obhged to get out and help the rafts over the 
 sandbanks, as they scraped on the bottom with an unpleasant grating. 
 
 (9221) Y 3
 
 542 
 
 Cluipter XVIII. 
 
 We came out finally into the Indus, and made for its bank at about 
 a mile below the rock of Skardu. In an hour and a half we had come 
 down some 12 miles of river, not counting the idiosyncrasies of our 
 course due to the current, a distance which it had taken us five hours to 
 march, on the way up. 
 
 The Rajah of Skardu and his retinue received the Duke at the 
 landing-place. Near by, beneath groat poplar trees, a table was laid 
 
 ox THE SHKJAR. 
 
 in European fashion with seats, plates, cups, etc., and spread with 
 beautiful fruit, cakes and tea in pots. Here we breakfasted, carrying 
 on a conversation the while, with Mr. Baines as interpreter. Afterwards 
 we entered the city. The Duke went at once to the meteorological 
 station to get the readings for July 18th, necessary to make an 
 approximate calculation of the height reached on Bride Peak ; while 
 the rest of us, restored to the blessing of the telegraph wire, sent off 
 dispatches.
 
 riie Return to Sriiuiirar. 343 
 
 fc 
 
 We were lodged in our former quarters, in the bungalow of the ^^till 
 absent civil engineer. The guides and coolies arrived a few hours after 
 us, and we worked to prepare everything for the final stages of the 
 journey. We paid ofE all the coolies and said good-bye to our sturdy 
 and faithful servants of the late campaign. For the last time all the 
 pieces of luggage were counted and sorted, evening falling while we 
 were still engaged in the task. Administrative complications lasted 
 late into the night, Mr. Baines wrestling with the greed of the Skardu 
 merchants who had supplied us with flour, sacks to put it in, pabboos 
 and other articles, and who, with their Oriental methods of temporizing 
 and sophistry, prolonged the bargaining interminably. However, we 
 were ready for the start next day. 
 
 As before stated, our return route was to be the sunmier one across 
 the Deosai table-land, a decided short cut to Kashmir, in comparison 
 with the Indus valley route. It is a very high region, with several 
 passes to be surmounted, and thus is open to caravans for only a little 
 over two months in the year, from July to the middle of September. A 
 large part of the march, lies through absolutely desert regions, where 
 not a twig of wood is to be found, and fuel and provisions for several 
 davs must accoidinglv be carried. We were delaved bv the local 
 purveyors of suppUes so as not to be able to set out until half-past 
 eight. The road out of Skardu lies through the squaUd bazar, on 
 leaving which we entered upon the wide stony plain, crossing it 
 diagonally toward the south-west and fording various branches of the 
 Sutpa river, which flows out of a valley south of the city. Beyond the 
 river a long avenue of willows leads to the narrow entrance of the Burgi 
 La valley. When Vigne was here the opening was still barricaded by 
 a wall erected by Ahmed Shah, perhaps afterwards swept away by a 
 flood. The valley is steep, bald and stony at first. Farther up it 
 becomes green with grass and bushes, owing to the humidity of the 
 atmosphere at a certain height above the Indus. The stage called 
 Pindoba lies about half-way up (11,211 feet high), and 3,708 feet above 
 Skardu, on a sort of terrace rising in the centre of the gorge. The 
 great spurs of the Indus valley and the Skoro La chain form 
 a striking landscape of mountains framed by the walls of the valley. 
 At this point the Wazir of Shigar took leave of us, having 
 followed the expedition from Tolti onwards. The time of the 
 campaign upon the glaciers he spent at Rdokass, placing at the 
 
 (9221) V 4
 
 344 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 service of the Duke the authority and control wliich he possessed over 
 the cooHes. 
 
 Above Pindobal the valley grew wider and less steep. The horses, 
 however, having been poorly fed, did not take the climb well. There 
 were several mares among them, followed by their colts, and the poor 
 little things were taxed much beyond their feeble powers. The valley 
 now grew stony again and full of detritus as far up as the snows 
 descending from the col. The path crossed the snow for a good distance, 
 and the ponies jjlunged in and stumbled along, but went bravely, their 
 drivers using no force, but encouraging them with the voice. A little 
 after ten we set foot on Burgi La, 15,847 feet high. During the latter 
 part of the climb certain peaks and heights were detaching themselves 
 and standing out from the chains on the north-eastern horizon, which 
 gave us the hope of a farewell glimpse of the noble mountains among 
 which we had speiit such never-to-be-forgotten weeks. And our wish 
 was granted. From the top of the pass we recognized at once the 
 regular cone and great snowy shoulder of K-, rising superb above the 
 other heights. The sky was cloudy, and we could just distinguish 
 through the mists to the right of K- a dim shape, which we knew to be 
 the rocky pinnacle of Masherbrum. Sella's paiiorama R shows the 
 extended view to be had from Burgi La. Sella perceived that a pano- 
 rama taken by telephotography on a bright morning from some height 
 near the pass would give an incomparable view of the whole system 
 of the Karakoram ; and, unable to resist the idea, he remained behind 
 for one night with Botta, keeping one of the Whymper tents and horses 
 with which to overtake us on the next day. 
 
 A short descent leads from Burgi La to a placid green vale, open and 
 rounded in shape, with two little blue lakes fed by the near snows, one 
 some 650 feet below the col. Beyond this valley we caught a glimpse 
 of the rolling plains of Deosai. We came down through the nearly level 
 basin, all tapestried with a profusion of gaily-coloured blossoms. ^ The 
 great extent of luxuriant herbage caused us to feel surprised that there 
 was no herd to profit by the excellent pasturage. Where the valley runs 
 into the plain is the stage of Ali Malik ke-mur, marked by some 
 prominent rocks, out of which the natives have made huts by the 
 addition of some rough stone walls. The stage is 13,450 feet high. The 
 
 ' The Botanical Appendix of Prof. Pirotta and Dr. Cortesi contains a list of the plants 
 collected on the Deosai table-land.
 
 The Ileluni to Sriiiagnr. 
 
 345 
 
 clouds had been gathering over the chains, and a little after we reached 
 the spot a furious raijistorm broke, accompanied by thunder and 
 lightning, a spectacle to which we had long been strangers. 
 
 The undulating plain of Deosai is irregularly circular in form, some- 
 what more than 30 miles hi diameter, and from 13,000 to 14.000 feet 
 above sea level. It is girdled by mountains averaging about 17,500 feet 
 with small glaciers and snowfields. Shallow valleys run into it, making 
 a sort of shell-shaped expanse. Oestreich has called attention to the 
 singular contrast between the flat monotonous plain and the strongly 
 marked features of the surrounding region, all angles and corners, cut 
 
 THE DEOSAI T.\BLE-LAND. 
 
 and broken by deep valleys between steep walls and ragged crests. 
 Drew offered the hypothesis that the plain might have originated in a 
 filling up of the valleys with alluvial sediment during the glacial period. 
 Conway seems to think that the process is still going on, largely through 
 the medium of the mud streams. It may be that such a theory fits 
 the conditions of the plateaus of Central Asia and Tibet, which are, in 
 fact, composed of sedimentary matter. But the Deosai plam is a solid 
 formation of granite and gneiss, as Vigne recognized. K. Oestreich 
 and Ellsworth Huntingdon described it as an upheaval not yet shaped 
 or furrowed by the action of water. ^ It is full of glacier marks and 
 deposits, and must once have been entirely covered by a large glacier 
 of the continental type. 
 
 The route crosses the plain in an absolutely straight line from north- 
 east to south-west, traversing a number of broad streams. These were 
 
 ' K. Oestreich (op. cit.) ,• Eli.sworti! Huntingdon, The Vale of Kashmir. Bull. Anter. 
 Qeog. Soc. 38, 1900. p. 057.
 
 346 
 
 (Miaptor XVI II. 
 
 clear and shallow with pebbly beds, ruiming between low bank.s and 
 uniting in the centre of the plain to form the Shigar river, the only 
 emissary of the Deosai plain, and a tributary to the Dras river. It is 
 said to be full of trout. There are many clear cold springs along its 
 way. The soil is covered with stones and pebbles, grass growing 
 profusely among them. It seemed to us like a beautiful meadow, after 
 our months in arid Baltistan. However, we passed some Englishmen 
 
 DTK (AMI' OX THE BOItDEHS OV THK DKOSM I'l.MN. 
 
 coming from Kashmir, and to them, as to Ujfalvy, it was a perfect desert 
 of stones. The path is broad and hard ; for the route over the Deosai 
 plain, while it is not the official highway used by the post, is traversed 
 during the summer by a considerable part of the traffic between Srinagar 
 and Skardu, and all the Englishmen take it who are bound oi\ hunting 
 expeditions in Baltistan. Marmots are numerous, and the earth along 
 the roadside is perforated with their burrows. The little animals are 
 larger than with us, and have pelts of about the same colour, tawny 
 brown shading to yellow on the belly. On every side we kept hearing 
 their shrill frightened squeak. The pasture lands of the Deosai are said 
 to harbour a good many bears. Birds are scarce, likewise insects. Wp 
 saw no crickets, bees or wasps, and but few butterflies, despite the rich 
 grass and many blossoms. The species of the latter were in no way 
 striking. There is a certain sort of gnat native to these parts, of very
 
 Tlie Ketuni fo Srina<iiir. 
 
 347 
 
 bad fame, said to be most annoying during the warm part of the day.. 
 We, however, were not troubled by it, and found the horseflies much 
 more vexatious. Spiders were plentiful. 
 
 Sella overtook us at our second stage, not far from the western limit 
 of the plateau. As we had feared, he was prevented by mists and bad' 
 weather from completing his photographic campaign in the Karakoram 
 with a panorama which would have had greater illustrative value than 
 any taken in the chains themselves. The disapjjointment was the more 
 lamentable when the next day proved absolutely clear and brilliant, 
 
 SARSDJCIAR LAKE. 
 
 without a vestige of mist. To the west of us, back of the mountains 
 bounding the plain, we saw far off the snowy peak of Nanga Parbat. 
 This was our only glimpse of it. 
 
 Leaving the Deosai plain, we ascended the gentle valley which leads 
 up to the col called Sarsingar, 14,042 feet high. Near it we passed a 
 moraine lake, then on the summit of the col a second and larger one, 
 which Drew and Workman consider to be likewise of morenic origin ; 
 but Oestreich calls it a watershed lake. The downward slopes were quite 
 gentle, and had patches of snow coming down from heights that looked 
 very moderate, but are really 16,000 feet or more. According to 
 Oestreich the great glacier of Deosai must have come down over this- 
 col, but it probably had more than one outlet.
 
 348 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 The head of another large valley, like a wide amphitheatre, called 
 Chota Deosai, comes in between the real Deosai and the Burzil valley, 
 thi-ouprh which we were to march. This amphitheatre is the source of 
 the Shiiigo river, which runs into the Shigar farther down, thus con- 
 tributing its volume of water to the Dras. We went down into the 
 amphitheatre from Sarsingar, and found it clothed with rich pasture 
 but entirely unoccupied. One crosses over it to gain a narrow defile 
 which cuts between the mountains to the south, and by which one gains 
 a second pass, the Stakpi La. 600 feet lower than Sarsingar. 
 
 PATH TO STAKl'l LA. 
 
 The Naib Tehsildar of the district came to meet the Duke with a 
 party of dignitaries, and they escorted us down from the col and into the 
 Burzil valley. Now we began to see the forests — the birches highest 
 up, and below them the deep green masses of the coniferous trees. The 
 path ran among a tangle of flowers, a hundred kinds all familiar, yet 
 seeming strange on account of their size — campanulas of every variety, 
 fragrant forget-me-nots three or four feet high with long branches, 
 marsh-mallows, larkspur, balsam, thistles — all these and many more 
 growing with splendour and profusion and a riot of colour. 
 
 At Burzil we were quartered in a bungalow that seemed like a palace 
 to us. The high road from Gilgit wound down before us, a splendid 
 smooth and well-trodden jiath.
 
 The Return to Srinag-ar. 349 
 
 We had said good-bye to the rough paths, the long marches and 
 the healthy fatigue of our mountain heights. The remainder of the 
 journey was only too easy. Between flowering hedges we descended 
 the Burzil valley to where it joins the Kishen Ganga. We noted the 
 gradual giving way of summer to autumnal flora — the slopes were 
 covered with asters, and the umbelliferous plants, as large as small trees, 
 were full of seed-vessels. The path follows the right side of the valley. 
 The left is clothed with evergreen forests, populated with black and brown 
 bears. Cultivation begins a little before the Kishen Ganga — the same 
 river which we saw at its meeting with the Jhelum, on our way from 
 Rawal Pindi to Srinagar. The dwelling-houses here are built of tree 
 trunks mortised together, and look like Swiss chalets except that they 
 have flat terrace roofs instead of projecting gable ones. We had become 
 so used to the small cattle of Baltistan that the herds here impressed us 
 as being of gigantic size. The women in the fields were unveiled, and 
 looked at us without embarrassment. The men are tall and well built 
 — they are Dards, an Aryan people which inhabits the country between 
 Kashmir and the Hindu Kush. They appear to have occupied this 
 region since remote antiquity (Stein). They are mainly Suimite 
 Mohammedans, but there are a few Shiites and Ishmaelites as well. 
 
 There was a great deal of traffic on the road, long convoys of pack 
 animals loaded with merchandise. We also met some detachments of 
 well-equipped native troops, going to exchange with the garrison of the 
 frontier post. In spring and winter, however, the route is, perhaps, 
 even more dangerous than Zoji La, and there are many victims of 
 avalanches. 
 
 We followed the Kishen Ganga for a space, and then pursued a 
 tributary valley on the left, which took us up to our last pass, Rajdiangan 
 or Tragbal, 11,562 feet high, a little more than Zoji La. On its right 
 side is a trigonometrical station (11,950 feet), which must command 
 an extended view of the mountains, among them the group of Nanga 
 Parbat. It was too veiled in clouds for us to see it — not an unusual 
 experience, apparently, for Sir Francis Younghusband crossed 
 Rajdiangan six times and never had a view of it. The spreading plain of 
 Kashmii' was at our feet, shrouded in light mists, among which gleamed 
 the waters of its rivers, lakes and canals. We came down to Bandipur, 
 our route being a progress through groves of pine and fir, meadows and 
 plains, rice fields and rows of mulberry trees. The air quivered with
 
 -350 
 
 Chapter Will. 
 
 heat, and was filled with the hum of cicalas and crickets, and the voices 
 of many birds. On the shores of the Wular were waiting the Govern- 
 ment houseboats sent to meet the expedition, the members of which 
 from now on were the guests of the Maharajah, Sir Pratab Singh. We 
 were once more in the heart of Kashmir — noisy, garrulous, l)ombastic, 
 rservile, yet withal charming Kashmir. 
 
 ox THE JHELIM. THE RETLRX TO SRlS.VO.\R. 
 
 Our exertions were over. We let ourselves be borne across the lake 
 and up the Jhelum, lazily enjoying the landscape, the tall vegetation on 
 the banks, the branching splendour of the chenar trees, the lively 
 colouring of the water-fowl — the little grey gulls, the gay kingfishers, 
 the fish-hawks perched watchfully on the rocks or floating tree trunks, 
 the ducks, the cranes and all the varied host of aquatic birds. 
 
 On August 11th the party re-entered Srinagar, and went to pay its 
 respects at the Chenar Bagh. The expedition was at an end. All the 
 anticipatory feelings of the past few days and the satisfying sense of 
 labours completed gave way to a sense of flatness accompanied by actual 
 longing for the vigorous and varied life of the past months of contact 
 with nature.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES AND CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 The Explorations of Sir Francis Younghushand cast of the Baltoro. — Hciglit of the Peaks of 
 Golden Throne. — Method employed in Determining Heights. — Discrepancy between the 
 Barometric and Trigonometric Calculation-s. — Climate of the Karakoram. — Solar 
 Temperature. — Observations made by the \\'orkraans and by the Duke. — Temperature 
 of the Air at Great Heights. — Physiological Experiment.s. — Deductions for the Mountain 
 Climber. — Analysis of Results. — Phy.siological Effects of Altitude. — Limits of Adapta- 
 bility and Endurance. — Rations and Alpine Outfit. — Optimistic Korecast.s. — The 
 Practical Problem. 
 
 I HAVE gathered into a single 
 chapter a numbei' of short notes 
 on various topics which have 
 already been presented or, at 
 least, mentioned in the text, 
 discussion of which, on account 
 of their technical nature, was 
 not easily included in the 
 general narrative. 
 
 As described in Chapter XV, 
 the Duke had from Sella Pass 
 and the ridge of Staircase Peak 
 a comprehensive view of the 
 unknown territory lying east 
 of the Baltoro and north of the Siachen. Over this tract extends a 
 system of lofty chains, with corresponding deep valleys (see panoramas 
 F and I), so complicated that it was impossible for the Duke to 
 form a general idea of its topographical arrangement, even schematically, 
 or to draw such conclusions as would be necessary to correlate his 
 observations with those of Sir Francis Younghushand, the only explorer 
 who has so far penetrated into the region.
 
 352 Chapter XIX. 
 
 The geographical problem will be best presented by confronting the 
 Duke's observations and the results of the Younghusband expedition. 
 I will therefore present these data as briefly as possible, premising them 
 with the warning that they will not be easily intelligible without reference 
 to Younghusband's maps. ^ 
 
 On his first expedition in 1887 Sir Francis Younghusband crossed 
 the whole of China from Pckhi to Yarkand, and returned to India by the 
 old Mustagh pass and the Baltoro. It was during this journey that he 
 first discovered and crossed the Aghil chain, which lies between the Kuen 
 Lun and the Karakoram, separating the valleys of the Yarkand and 
 the Oprang rivers.- Two years later, returning to the region by the 
 Karakoram pass, he again crossed the Aghil range at the head of a small 
 expedition sent out to get mformation upon the marauding raids of 
 the Kunjuts of Hunza. He describes the Aghil mountains as running 
 from north-west to south-east, some 125 miles long, composed of " bold 
 upstanding peaks," among which are three beautiful snowy summits, 
 the tallest of which is about 23,000 feet high. 
 
 After reaching the valley of the Oprang, Sir Francis Younghusband 
 followed it up, hophig that it led to the Saltoro pass, a supposititious 
 ancient route of communication between Baltistan -and Kashgar, of 
 which the people south of the ranges had some tradition but no depend- 
 able knowledge of its geographical situation. ^ 
 
 The valley, which runs from south-east to north-west, lies east of the 
 Baltoro basin between the Broad-Gasherbrum range and the Aghil 
 mountains. A large glacier, the Gasherbrum, comes down into it from 
 the eastern slopes of the Gasherbrums, and stops abruptly at the river 
 with a vertical wall of ice a mile and a half broad. This the explorer 
 crossed, and went on up the valley to a second glacier, the Urdok, not 
 so wide as the first, which runs in from the south betw^een precipitous 
 walls, coming from deep within the ranges to the east of Hidden Peak. The 
 
 ' Sir F. E. Younghusband, The Hcarl oj a Ooniinent, etc. London 1904. 2nd ed. There 
 are better maps in the articles by the same author in Proc. Boy. Geog. Soc. N.S. vol. 10, 1888, 
 p. 485, and vol. 14, 1892, p. 205. 
 
 ' The Aglul chain had been seen by G. W. Haywakd as early as 1868, but he believed it to 
 be the Mustagh or Karakoram. Sec Journey from Leh to Yarkarul and Kashgar. Proc. Roy. 
 Geog. Soc. 14, 1869, p. 41 ; and the article in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 40, 1870, p. 33. 
 
 ' The Saltoro pass was discovered by Longstaff in the summer of 1909, the year of the Duke's 
 expedition. It does not cross the watershed, but gives access to the Siachen or Saichar glacier ; 
 hence it is not a way of communication between India and Central Asia, but merely a short 
 cut between the lower Shyok and the upper basin of its tributary, the Nubra.
 
 Supjileinentary Notes niul Considerations. 3o3 
 
 Oprang valley ends not far beyond to the south-east, dividing into two 
 glacier-filled branches which form the sources of the river Oprang. At 
 this point he left tlie main valley and followed up the Urdok glacier. 
 It was entirely covered with moraine in its lower part. He went on 
 climbing toward a sort of depression in the ridge at the head of the 
 valley, thinking that this might possibly be the sought-for Saltoro pass. 
 He went 18 miles up the glacier in three days, experiencing continued 
 bad weather, so that he just barely caught glimpses of the peaks between 
 the mists. On the third day there was a severe snowstorm. There was 
 considerable danger from the snow-covered crevasses and the avalanches 
 that came down on every side, and he was finally brought to a halt by 
 a wide crevasse, probably the bergschrund, and forced to turn back. 
 
 Sir Francis Younghusband was merely making a rapid journey 
 through an extended territory, and had neither equipment nor leisure 
 for accurate topographical work ; moreover, there were no points 
 previously established by survey upon which to base his observations. 
 He was able to establish the latitude of some of the points in his itinerary 
 by astronomical observations, but not the longitude. The camping 
 ground of Durbin Jangal in the Oprang valley, 11 J miles below the 
 Gasherbrum glacier, was one of these. Its position was established 
 by calculation of the latitude and observation with the compass upon 
 a certain striking peak which Younghusband believed to be K- (survey 
 183° Mg., 186° true). The situation of the Oprang valley is thus 
 dependent upon that of Durbin Jangal camp. But in Younghusband's 
 map the valley is so placed that one would be able to look from Windy 
 Gap and Sella Pass, through short tributary valleys without glaciers, 
 directly down into it where it lies considerably below the mouth of the 
 Gasherbrum glacier. However, Sir Francis Younghusband, in dis- 
 cussing with the Duke the topography of the region during the first 
 stay of the expedition at Srinagar, became persuaded that the peak 
 surveyed from Durbin Jangal was not K^ but Gasherbrum IV, and 
 altered his map accordingly, putting the Oprang valley six miles farther 
 east. Then the further difficulty arose that a straight line drawn fi'om 
 the new situation of Durbin Jangal to Gasherbrum lY would run 
 directly across the mountain ridge to the north-east of Windy Gap, and 
 thus the latter would probably cut off the view of Gasherbrum IV from 
 a person situated about seven miles north of and nearly 10,000 feet 
 below it. 
 
 (9251) 2
 
 354 Chapter XTX. 
 
 The Duke was forced by the insecurity of the data to leave unsolved 
 the problem of the topographical relation between the upper Oprang 
 valley and the glacier basin explored by him. Nor were the factors 
 established by the expedition enough to warrant the identification of 
 the Aghil chain with the mountain range which the Duke had seen to 
 the east, and which he and Sella had photographed. They had both 
 taken with the prismatic compass the angles of Peaks X, Y and Z, 
 and the point of observation of the Duke upon Staircase Peak was 
 sufficiently well established. But that of Sella on the east side of the 
 left-hand spur of the Godwin Austen was too uncertain, as he had as 
 basis only the angles observed upon the Gasherbrums, which were too 
 few and also too acute. Given the distance of these two stations from 
 the points X, Y and Z, the slightest displacement would be enough 
 to alter the situation of these peaks from one to the other side of the 
 Oprang ; and besides, it was impossible to say with certainty whether 
 they were contained in one or two chains. Furthermore, no one of the 
 larger glaciers shown in panoramas F and I exactly corresponds in 
 direction with the Gasherbrum glacier, neither could any of them be 
 followed with the eye for a sufficient distance to establish its identity 
 with the latter. 
 
 In any case, the panoramas takeii by Sella and the Duke depict an 
 utterly unknown region between the Oprang valley, the upper Siachen 
 glacier and the Broad-Gasherbrum range. It is to be hoped that it 
 will be explored at some early time, either by crossing some col at the 
 head of the Kondus glacier, or else by Sella Pass on the southern side 
 of the Godwin Austen. Such an exploring expedition would probably 
 collect enough data to bring into line with each other the maps of Sir 
 Francis Younghusband, Dr. LongstafE and the Duke. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of topography, I will make mention of 
 certain angles taken by the Duke from Camps XIII and XIV on the 
 glacier and on Chogolisa Saddle. If he had been able to make a third 
 station on the high ridge of Bride Peak, he would have had sufficient 
 elements to add many topographical details to the map of the region 
 at the head of the Baltoro. He was prevented by heavy mists from 
 making this third station, and the distance between the two others was 
 too small a base upon which to found a triangulation of any exactness. 
 
 Nevertheless, the reading of vertical angles permitted some altimetric 
 calculations which I will set down here. They must, however, be taken
 
 Suppk'inentaiy Xotes and ronsiderations. 355 
 
 as approximate, on account of the uncertainty of the distances between 
 the peaks and the observation stations, due to the shortness of the 
 base. According to these observations the height of the five largest 
 peaks of Golden Throne, from north to south, would be 22,933, 23,743, 
 23,386, 23,563 and 23,375 feet high. The second peak would thus be 
 the highest.^ 
 
 Conway gives Golden Throne an altitude of 23,600 feet, a difference 
 of only 143 feet between his calculation and that of the Duke ; and to 
 Pioneer Peak an altitude of 22,600 feet. He maintains, however,* that 
 some 500 feet should be added to these figures, because on comparing 
 the altitude deduced from barometric observations made at Junction 
 Camp (on the Baltoro at the height of the mouth of the Vigne glacier) 
 with that based on the readings of angles of K-, he found the latter to 
 be greater by 500 feet. The results of our observations do not agree 
 with these deductions of Conway. First of all, according to our tri- 
 angulation, the end of the right spur of the Vigne, about 1,100 yards 
 away from Junction Camp and a little higher up, proved to be 15,738 feet 
 high, hardly 70 feet more than the altitude given by Conway — in other 
 words, the trigonometric calcidation agrees with the barometric. 
 Further, the observations of angles made from Camps XIII and XIV 
 to points triangulated by the Indian Trigonometrical Survey gave 
 differences of not more than from 150 to 300 feet in their heights, and 
 always in excess ; from which one may argue that the figures calculated 
 for Golden Throne are likewise approximately correct, and in any case 
 give a higher rather than a lower figure. I must, however, note that 
 the observations of the Duke do not tally with those of Conway so well 
 for Pioneer Peak as for the other points — in fact, one deduces from 
 the angles taken a height of oidy 21,332 feet for it, 1,268 feet below 
 Conway's figure. * 
 
 • Result of calculation. In his lecture before the Soc. Gcog. Ital. and the Club Alp. (see 
 BoU. R. Soc. Oeog. Ital. Ser. IV, 11, 1910, p. 435 ; and Revishi C. A. I., Jan. 1910, vol. 29) the 
 Duke stated that the highest peak was one of those to the south-east, meaning the fourth, which 
 instead turns out to be 180 feet lower than the second. But this small difference is indecisive, 
 as a slight error in the reading of the angles or in the calculation of the distance would be enough 
 to produce it. 
 
 • Sir W. M. Conway, Clitnbing in the Himalayas. London 1894, p. 486 ; Alp. Jour. 27, 
 1894, p. 33. 
 
 ' As was plain from Conway's map and description. Pioneer Peak is not visible from the 
 Concordia nor from the Godwin Austen glacier ; thus tiuillarmod's critical observations on its 
 height are without foundation. 
 
 (9221) z 2
 
 356 
 
 Chapter XIX. 
 
 The Duke also observed Mustagh Tower from the same camps, but 
 its distance from the short base of observation was too great to rely 
 upon the result. I should say, however, that the angles observed would 
 give a height of between 23,950 and 24,950 feet. Conway had estimated 
 it at about 25,000 feet. ^ 
 
 A few further observations upon the altimetric data brought back 
 by the expedition may be in order here, with special reference to those 
 of the region of which we made a topographical survey. They are of 
 two kinds : those derived by intersection from the photogrammetric 
 or tacheometric stations, and those deduced from the calculations of 
 atmospheric pressure made by the Duke with the Fortin mercury 
 barometers (taking into account temperatm-e and tension of aqueous 
 vapour), corrected and referred to the observations taken at the same 
 time at the base station at Rdokass. As I have already said, the latter 
 — 137 in number — were collated with the memoranda of local observa- 
 tions made at the meteorological stations of Skardii, Uilgit, Leh and 
 Srinagar. In constructing the map, the figures obtained by triangulation 
 were naturally adopted, with the exception of a few which it was not 
 possible to determine by triangulation, and of which the barometric 
 calculation is given instead. These points are marked on the map by 
 a small b after the number. All the results obtained by calculation of 
 pressure are incorporated in the tables of Prof. Omodei (see Appendix). 
 It will be seen that the height of some points was taken by both 
 methods — by intersection and by comparison of barometric readings. 
 Upon comparing these a discrepancy becomes apparent, as shown in the 
 following table : — 
 
 stations. 
 
 Heigllt alx)Ve st'a level. 
 
 No. of 
 liarometic. 
 
 obser- 
 vation.s. 
 
 Differenee 
 
 between 
 
 (A) and (B). 
 
 (A) (B) 
 
 Inter- Barnni. 
 
 section. readinj^s. 
 
 Camp III 
 
 Camp V 
 
 Savoia Pass 
 
 Camp VI 
 
 Sella Pass 
 
 Windy Gap 
 
 Ridge of Staircase Peak 
 
 Camp XI 
 
 16,512 
 18,176 
 21,870 
 18,602 
 20,207 
 20.449 
 21,657 
 16,637 
 
 16,493 
 
 17,825 
 20.906 
 17,760 
 20.053 
 19..361 
 21,510 
 16,175 
 
 26 
 6 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 .351 
 964 
 842 
 157 
 818 
 147 
 462 
 
 ' If Mustagh Tower is above 23,000 feet high, it is certainly far from the 26,250 feet of 
 Guillarmod"s estimate.
 
 Supplenientaiy Xotes and Considerations. 357 
 
 The divergence is considerable and hard to explain satisfactorily. 
 The calculations based upon barometric readings consistently give lower 
 figures than the trigonometrical ones. Thus it is improbable that errors 
 caused by local variation of pressure are responsible for the divergence. 
 Moreover, these are excluded from consideration by the remarkable 
 steadiness of the barometer in the Karakoram, and by the fact that all 
 the calculations were obtained by reference to Rdokass, at no great 
 distance away, in the same valley. The height of the latter had been 
 determined by a long series of operations extending through a period 
 of six weeks and referred to the four Kashmiri stations. 
 
 In truth, the singular fact that the variations between the altitudes 
 calculated by intersection and those calculated by barometric readings 
 are all in the same direction gives rise to a doubt whether some constant 
 factor does not intervene, such as one might find, for instance, in the 
 local conditions of gravity. It is known that gravimetrical observations 
 have revealed a considerable nucleus of attraction in the Himalayan 
 mass. It does not seem unreasonable to suppose that this fact might 
 not only produce a local greater density of the atmosphere, but also give 
 rise to the movement of a certain volume of air from the surrounding 
 regions, in the same way that the attraction of the earth masses is the 
 cause of the higher level of the sea on the coasts of the large continents. 
 Obviously this absolute increase in mass of atmosphere would result 
 in higher barometric pressure than would correspond to the local alti- 
 nietric figures, and bring about a variation precisely in the direction 
 indicated by the figures of the expedition. 
 
 I am aware of the fact that geodetic surveyors in general are disposed 
 to place little reliance upon altimetric calculations based upon atmo- 
 spheric pressure. But the Duke proved that the method, when employed 
 with due caution, may give results differing very little from those 
 obtained by triangulation. Witness the remarkable agreement between 
 the result of Russell's triangulation of Mount St. Elias in Alaska and 
 the barometric calculations of its height ; and the fact that the Duke's 
 measurement of the seven principal peaks of the Ruwenzori, determined 
 by observations of pressure, were almost precisely confirmed by the 
 triangulation of the Boundary Commission appointed to define the limits 
 between Uganda and the Congo. A much greater divergence has 
 often been betrayed between two different triangulations of the same 
 points. 
 
 (9221) z .3
 
 358 Cliaplcr XIX. 
 
 On the other hand, the topographical survey was made by tlie 
 method which secures the best control of results and the greatest 
 guaranty of exactness, and which forms a permanent document to the 
 work accomplished in the photogrammetric panorama made on the 
 Paganini method. Nevertheless, the specific conditions under which 
 the work was accomplished brought in their train inevitable causes of 
 error. Of these, the chief is the necessity that existed of making all 
 observations of very high mountains from the bottom of valleys very 
 deep and relatively narrow. Such great perpendicular distances in 
 combination with such small horizontal ones did not permit the exact 
 collimation of many points. Thus, one was never sure of sighting the 
 exact summit of the mountain in cjuestion, nor of seeing exactly the 
 same point from the various stations. Naturally neither the trigono- 
 metrical peaks nor the others which were selected as base points for the 
 determination of the stations had on top the signal which makes it 
 possible to achieve an exact focus with the telescope. Thus it was 
 impossible to be sure that a point collimatcd fi-om various stations was 
 always the same one, and not another either higher or lower or displaced 
 horizontally. In addition, it was generally impossible to join up the 
 different stations, because they were usually not visible one from another 
 on account of the great surface irregularities of the glacier, even though 
 they might be close together. The smalbiess of our numbers, the short- 
 ness of the time, the difficulties in the way of reaching and climbing the 
 steep valley walls, jirevented us from rnaking stations at high points. 
 These inconveniences are not inherent in the method of survey adopted, 
 and would have operated adversely on any other that we might have 
 chosen. For the reasons I have given, the survey of the expedition 
 is called a " sketch," and not a topographical map. 
 
 With all these sources of error and uncertainty, it seemed 
 to the Duke wisest to publish both sets of height statistics. They 
 would have lost all significance if we had given merely the arithmetical 
 mean between them. As it is, when the causes of error are finally 
 understood, one of the two sets will be confirmed and have a definite 
 value. 
 
 The meteorological observations made by the Duke serve another 
 purpose beside that of determining height. Taken in connection with 
 the data of other explorers, they will give some general indications of 
 the climate of the region, interesting from more than one point of view.
 
 Supplementary Notes and Considerations. 
 
 359 
 
 It is already evident that the high glacial basins of the Karakoram have 
 a special climate, quite different from that of the regions round about. 
 It suffices to mention the enormously high rate of atmospheric pre- 
 cipitation as contrasted with the extreme dryness of the surroimding 
 country. This is certainly caused by the mighty ranges which reach 
 up into the upper air and snatch from the south-west monsoon all the 
 moisture that has escaped the lower Himalayan ranges. 
 
 A point which has attracted the attention of several explorers is the 
 great intensity of the sun's rays at these lofty heights. R. Strachey 
 called attention to it as early as 1851,^ and Sir A. Cunningham gives 
 some comparative readings of solar temperature made in 1850. He noted 
 at Gualior, in the plains, a maximum solar temperature of 132-8° ; 
 at Simla (7,500 feet) of 133-3°; and at Rupshu, on the plateau of 
 Ladakh (15,500 feet) of 144° and 158° F.^ 
 
 The Workmans contend that the solar temperature varies propor- 
 tionately with the altitude. From several of their publications I have 
 compiled the figures given in the following tables. They show, 
 indeed, that the high altitudes have higher temperatures than 
 the plains, but scarcely evidence a regular progression from low 
 to high. 
 
 Solar Temperatures Observed by W. Huxter and F. Bullock 
 Workman, in 1899, on the Chogo Lungma Gl.\cier.^ 
 
 Month. 
 
 June 
 June 
 July ... 
 August ... 
 July ... 
 
 Place. 
 
 Altitude. 
 
 Skarclu ... 
 Shigar ... 
 Chojro Lungoia 
 Chogo Luugiua 
 Chogu LuDgma 
 
 7,.^)03 
 
 7,.ilfi 
 
 1 4,0^7 
 
 14,067 
 
 17,.322 
 
 Maximum solar 
 temperature. 
 
 201° F. 
 ■20ti' 
 190 
 196= 
 204 • 5° 
 
 During the summer of the same year the maximum solar temperature 
 observed at Calcutta was 162° F., and at Lahore 172 6° F. 
 
 ' R. Strachey, On the Physical Geography of the Provinces of Kuirmiin and Gahrical, etc. 
 Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. 21, 1851. 51. 
 
 - Sir .a. CtrsNixoHAM, Ladakh and Siirronruling Countries. London 1854. 
 
 ' W. HuxTEK WoKKJUvx and F. BfLUSCK \\'orkjlvx, Jn the Ice-World of Himalaya 
 London 1901. 
 
 (9221) z 4
 
 36U 
 
 ChaptLM- XIX. 
 
 S0LA.R Temperatures Observed ijv W. Hunter and F. Bullock 
 Workman, in 1906, in Suru and thc Nun Kun Group. ^ 
 
 Month. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Altitude. 
 
 Maximum solar 
 temperature. 
 
 June 
 
 Kargyl 
 
 8,78" 
 
 199° F. 
 
 June 
 
 Clialis Kot 
 
 9,000 
 
 203 
 
 June 
 
 Suru 
 
 10.8.->0 
 
 206 
 
 August 
 
 Suru 
 
 10,850 
 
 219 
 
 July 
 
 Rangilum Valley 
 
 ] 2,900 
 
 204-5 
 
 July 
 
 Zuliiluk... 
 
 13,270 
 
 205 
 
 Julv 
 
 Shafat Nala 
 
 13,325 
 
 200 
 
 August 
 
 Glat-iei's of Nun Kun 
 
 15,100 
 
 183 
 
 August 
 
 Glaciers of Nun Kun 
 
 21,300 
 
 142 
 
 It is hardly permissible to compare, as the Workmans do, the highest 
 solar temperature with the minimum atmospheric, the two things being 
 quite distinct, and the solar temperature varying quite independently 
 of the atmospheric. 
 
 The solar temperatures given by the Workmans are higher than any 
 noted by our expedition. I have tabulated our results likewise. They 
 also show that there is not a constant relation between altitude and 
 temperature. I have not included the lowest records taken on days 
 of cloud or bad weather. Moreover, the exceedingly variable and 
 vmcertain conditions prevented our making regular observations, hence 
 
 Solar Temperatures Observed by the Duke. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Altitude. 
 
 Miininum and iiiuxiiiium 
 
 solar temperature. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 May 9-17 
 
 Shigjir, Braldoli 
 
 „ 2.5-31 ... 
 
 Camp 
 
 III ... 
 
 June 1-19 
 
 
 Ill ... 
 
 „ 5-8 ... 
 
 ■>•< 
 
 V ... 
 
 „ 12-23 ... 
 
 
 VI ... 
 
 „ 15 
 
 n 
 
 VII ... 
 
 „ 29-July 5 
 
 >) 
 
 IX ... 
 
 July 3-8 
 
 „ 
 
 XII ... 
 
 „ 10-16 ... 
 
 
 XIV ... 
 
 „ 11 
 
 Ji 
 
 XV (1) 
 
 „ n 
 
 )) 
 
 XV (2) 
 
 Biaho Villi 
 
 Feet. 
 10,013-11,000 
 16,512 
 16,512 
 18,176 
 18,602 
 20,449 
 15,817 
 17,959 
 20,784 
 21,673 
 22,483 
 
 105-8-138'2° 
 108 5-123-M° 
 90-4- 123-8° 
 123-8-14I-8' 
 114-8-131' 
 140° 
 
 109-4-116-6 
 120-2-1.34-6 
 114-8-140- 
 123-8' 
 162-6° 
 
 ' W. Hunter WoRKM,wr, Exploration of the Xiin Kun Mountains, etc. Geog. Jour. 31, 
 1908, 12 ; W. Hunter and F. Buli/jck \Vokkm.\n, Peaks and Glaciers of the Nun Kun. 
 London 1909.
 
 Suppleinentary Notes and Considerations. 361 
 
 the fragmentary character of the data. The reading of the solar 
 thermometer was done at 8, 10 and 4 o'clock, at the same time as the 
 observations made at Rdokass and in Kashmir. Thus the midday 
 record — which would naturally be the highest — does not appear. 
 According to the Workmans the maximum was attained between 12 
 and 2 o'clock. At no place or time did we have excessive heat or feel 
 such consequences of it as headache, dizziness, &c. 
 
 Next, as regards the temperature of the air, I need only record the 
 relative mildness of the month of July, at heights between 20,000 and 
 23,000 feet. The lowest temperature registered at Chogolisa Saddle 
 was 3° ; on the ridge of Bride Peak (24,600 feet) at 2 o'clock on a day 
 of heavy fog the temperature was 21°. These are also about the 
 records for the month of June on the Savoia glacier and at Windy Gap. 
 The fact has some importance, on account of its bearing upon the 
 problem of ascents to great heights, since one of the adverse arguments 
 often adduced is the extreme and intolerable cold that must exist at 
 such altitudes. In reality there does not obtain upon the mountain 
 slopes an actual proportionate relation between the rise of the altitude 
 and the fall of the thermometer, because other factors, such as the 
 radiation from the earth and the warm currents rising from the valleys, 
 always intervene to modify the temperature. 
 
 In the Introduction I have tried to bring out the impossibility of 
 applying to mountain climbing the theoretical physiological limit derived 
 by scientists from experiments on the effects of reduced atmospheric 
 pressure upon the human system. Such experiments simply serve to 
 establish the general fact that the system is capable of enduring for a 
 short time, without serious consequences, an atmospheric pressure that 
 would correspond to an altitude three times as great as that of Mount 
 Everest. But the simple conditions of artificially reduced pressure 
 in a closed chamber hardly exist under natural circumstances — for 
 instance, in balloon ascents the effect is entirely different. Altitudes 
 of between 29,500 and 36,000 feet — in other words, a condition of 
 atmospheric pressure far less reduced than that easily endured in the 
 closed chamber — have been known to cause serious organic disorders 
 and even death to some experimenters. Yet in such ascents the only 
 additional factor, not present in the former experiment, would seem to 
 be the cold of the high altitude. It is plain that there is no useful 
 deduction to be drawn from these facts for the field of mountain
 
 ■M-> Chapter XTX. 
 
 climbing, where so many and various factors are present, the chief of 
 them being (1) the muscular exertion and (2) the incomparably longer 
 duration of the experiment. 
 
 The work of Angelo Mosso and his school has stimulated modern 
 physiologists to undertake a systematic study of the effects of high 
 altitude upon the human organism, with the aid of all the most recent 
 analytic methods. The establishment of the observation hut Mar- 
 gherita on the Gnifetti Peak of Monte Rosa (15,100 feet) sprang from 
 the initiative of Angelo Mosso, and has been carried out by the Italian 
 Alpine Club. To-day, enlarged by the addition of new buildings, it 
 has become an important scientific station for biological research and 
 physical experiments at high altitudes. It is gradually producing a 
 series of results which will materially assist in solving the problem of life 
 at great heights.^ This is not the place to enter upon more details, 
 since the results thus far achieved do not contribute to the precise 
 matter in hand — the problem of the greatest height to which man can 
 ascend. On this point only purely empirical evidence exists, such as 
 is embodied in all the narratives of mountain climbing which we possess. 
 And unfortunately the experience of mountaineers varies to such a 
 degree and the effects attributable to altitude alone are such inconstant 
 factors and so hard to distinguish, that it is almost impossible to gather 
 any general conclusions from them. 
 
 One strange and imexplained fact is that oii certain mountains and 
 in certain regions ascents to great heights almost without exception 
 cause what we call mountain sickness, varying in symptoms and intensity 
 according to the individual, whereas other regions are apparently free. 
 Mont Blanc has always had an evil fame in this regard, and all the 
 accounts of mountain climbing in the Andes lay stress upon the sick- 
 
 ' Among the principal works dealing with the subject, be.side the well-known book of Ancelo 
 Mosso, La fisidlogia deWuomo in montagna, see H. ZxrsTZ, A. Loewt, F. Mi ller and W. Caspari, 
 Hohenclima und Bergwanderungen, etc. Berlin 1906 ; and the latest publications of R. F. FucHS 
 in Sitziingsb. d. physik.-mediz. SozieUU in Erlangen, ro\. 40. UK)8, and vol. 41, 1909. Dr. T. G. 
 Ix)NGSTAFF has brought out in his monograjih Motintain Sickness (London 1906) tlic bearing 
 which these scientific researches have upon mountain climbing in its practical aspect, and the 
 conclusions to be drawn from them relative to the phenomena of mountain sickness. He gives 
 a succinct history of mountain climbing from this point of view, and tlie lessons to be drawn 
 from it. See also two articles by JL^lcolm Hepburx, The Influence of High Altitudes in 
 Mountaineering. Alp. Jour. 20, 1901, p. 368 ; and Some Reasons why Ike Science of AUitude 
 Illness is still in its Infancy. Alp. Jour. 21, 1902, p. 161.
 
 Sui)plementaiy Notes and Considerations. 363 
 
 ness caused there by high altitude.^ However, since the repeated 
 ascents of Mount Aconcagua, ^ the highest peak in the world outside the 
 Indo-Asiatic chains, this fact has lost all practical importance. The 
 problem of altitude has now concentrated itself upon the Indo-Asiatic 
 ranges. And it looks thus far as if this, the most wonderful field of 
 activity for the mountaineer that exists on the face of the globe, were 
 also the field where the bad effects of rarefaction upon the human 
 system are less to be apprehended than elsewhere. 
 
 The progressive history of mountain climbing, from its inception 
 down to the present day, seems to show that man's power of endurance 
 and capacity for exertion at great heights have steadily increased. There 
 was a time when every ascent of Mont Blanc meant serious suffering — 
 severe headache, dizziness, nausea, debility, disturbances of the respira- 
 tion and circulation, sometimes haemorrhage. To-day no trained 
 mountain climber ever thinks of such possibilities when making the 
 ascent, and we have conquered 23,000 feet of altitude without sufferings 
 in any way comparable to those we read of in the early days of Alpine 
 climbing. 
 
 One would say that mountain sickness, once a necessary evil of 
 mountain clirubing, is gradually disappearing, in the same way that 
 scurvy has ceased to be the inevitable accompaniment of polar expedi- 
 tions. The reason doubtless lies in the development and perfecting 
 of the equipment, and in the gradual increase of knowledge as to the 
 best plan of life and work under conditions of high altitude. Such 
 knowledge reduces to a minimum the exertions, the fatigues and the 
 dissipation of energy, and leaves the climber in the best condition for 
 the actual achievement of his feat of conquest. 
 
 The Duke's expedition offers the clearest proof that men can live 
 for extended periods of time, in possession of healthy functional activity 
 of all their organs, at an atmospheric pressure little more than half of 
 normal. Twelve Europeans and fifteen coolies lived for about two 
 months at above 17,000 feet of altitude, working regularly and not 
 showing a single case of illness, even of the most fleeting character, 
 attributable to mountain sickness. At the end of our campaign seven 
 
 ' See in general the volume of E. \\'iivmper, Andes of the Equator. London 1892, and The 
 Highest Andes, by E. A. FitzGer-VLD (London 1899) ; also articles by the same author in Geog. 
 Jour. 12, 1898, p. 469, and Alp. .Jonr. 19, 1898, p. 1. 
 
 ' S. V^INES, Aconcagua and Tupungato. Alp. Jour. 19, 1898, p. 565
 
 364 Chapter XIX. 
 
 Europeans spent nine days at a height of more than 20,700 feet, during 
 which time four of them camped for the night at 21,673 and 22,483 feet, 
 and this without even tlie inconvenience of sleeplessness. They like- 
 wise made two steep ascents, through deep soft snow, to 23.458 and 
 24,600 feet, without exhaustion, without loweriiig of morale, without 
 exaggerated difficulty of breathing, palpitation or irregularity of the 
 pulse ; and with no symptoms of headache, nausea or the like. The 
 fact of their immunity admits of but one interpretation — rarefaction 
 of the air, under ordinary conditions of the high mountains, to the limits 
 reached hy man at the 'present day {12-^.2 inches) does not produce mountain 
 sickness. Moreover, rarefaction of the air is not incompatible with 
 mountaineering work, if this is done very slowly and methodically. 
 From this it follows that the phenomena which have to this day been 
 considered to be the result of rarefaction are, in reality, phenomena of 
 fatigue, or merely incapacity (temporary or permanent) of the system 
 to sustam the exertion of climbing, manifesting itself with special 
 symptoms under the presence of the particular external conditions 
 which prevail in the mountains. 
 
 None the less, the experience of the expedition was not one of 
 absolute immunity. The atmosphere of those heights did work some 
 evil effect, revealing itself only gradually, after several weeks of life 
 above 17,000 feet, in a slow decrease of appetite and consequent lack of 
 nourishment, without, however, any disturbance of the digestive func- 
 tions. It was possible for the lack of appetite to increase and become 
 almost absolute repugnance to food, if after its appearance one moved 
 and established oneself at a greater height. Thus, at Chogolisa Camp 
 the Duke and the guides had given up meat and lived on soups, coffee, 
 tea, chocolate and biscuits. In the two ascents above 23,000 feet theii* 
 only food all day was a little chocolate, although they suffered no nausea 
 or other impleasant sensations. Of course, in the long run, this insuffi- 
 cient nourishment would cause a lowering of vitality, loss of flesh and 
 a certain amount of anaemia. However, the process is so slow that we 
 were still at the end of two months in condition to make long marches 
 without experiencing excessive fatigue. 
 
 The Eckenstein-Pfannl-Guillarmod expedition seems to have suffered 
 the same decrease of appetite and strength, which Guillarmod attributes 
 to the use of tiimed foods. AH the former experience of the Duke was 
 against this explanation. On the expeditions to Alaska (Mount St.
 
 Supplementary Notes and Considerations. 365 
 
 Ellas) and Africa (Ruwenzori) and on the much longer polar expedition, 
 there was never any repugnance to the tinned foods nor any evil trace- 
 able to their use. They were chosen for the Karakoram campaign 
 with the same care as on the other occasions, and came from the same 
 factories. There is no reason to suppose that of themselves they would 
 have any different effect. I am of opinion that the loss of appetite is 
 due instead to incomplete oxidation of waste products or their slower 
 elimination. In either case there would be a gradual accumulation of 
 noxious products in the system, sufficient to explain the symptoms 
 that showed themselves. This theory would also account for the diffi- 
 culty, already mentioned, with which even a very robust system regained 
 its balance after a slight disturbance, and for the distinctly bad 
 effects of inacti\'ity. Whether the conversion of products were 
 incomplete or only sluggish, movement would be the best stimulant to 
 proper metabolism. 
 
 The gradual depletion of force which I have described gives a 
 negative answer to the much debated question on the subject of 
 acclimatization. Perfect adaptation to surroundings is not possible 
 above 17,000 feet. In this \'iew both Schlagiutweit and Longstaff 
 concur. The latter mentions that the highest altitudes inhabited by 
 man are the goldfields of Thok Jalung, in Western Tibet, 16,500 feet 
 high, and certain Llamaist monasteries of the same region, 15,000 feet 
 above sea level, from which it woidd seem that some 17,000 feet would 
 be the limit of permanent endurance. 
 
 A curious fact showing how up to a certain point the system imder- 
 goes modifications adapting it to life at great heights, is that the people 
 of upper Ladakh are averse to descending lower than 10,000 feet, and 
 positively refuse to go below 7,000 feet for fear of illness. This is 
 mentioned by Knight, and I had the opportmiity of verifv'ing the fact. 
 Perhaps there exists such a thing as " mountain sickness " caused by 
 abrupt change from lower to higher pressure. To it may possibly be 
 attributed, at least in part, the exhaustion of the Duke and the guides 
 on the way from Chogolisa Saddle to Askoley. Conway relates that he 
 had more difficulty in breathing when he went down the Baltoro 
 after climbing Pioneer Peak than he experienced during the whole 
 ascent.
 
 360 Chapter XL\. 
 
 I give here a table showing the composition of our daily ration :^ 
 
 Fooiistuffs. 
 
 Weight in 
 graininos. 
 
 AnnnniiH>iils. 
 
 Fats. 
 
 Car! 10- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Calories. 
 
 Biscuits ... 
 
 Sou|) paste 
 
 Meat 
 
 Butter 
 
 Condeiisfil milk (with- 
 out sugar) 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Pea flour 
 
 Preserves 
 
 .500 
 100 
 
 12:) 
 
 87 
 50 
 41 
 120 
 42 
 38 
 
 50-0 
 
 120 
 
 730 
 
 0-7 
 
 8-9 
 
 2-0 
 
 4-8 
 
 1-5 
 
 0-3 
 
 32-0 
 
 104-8 
 
 10-0 
 
 14-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 400-0 
 75-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 28-3 
 
 105-2 
 
 12-0 
 
 150 
 
 1,859 
 358 
 597 
 980 
 
 138 
 193 
 171 
 431 
 69 
 61 
 
 166-9 167-6 
 
 638-0 
 
 4,857 
 
 To these were added Liebig's extract, coffee, tea, onions, salt, pepper 
 and mustard. We used ship's biscuits, which take the place of bread 
 excellently well, even for long periods. They were made in Italy, and 
 specially prepared without salt, as they keep better so. Our soup paste 
 was very small, for cooking at 175° F., at which temperature water boils 
 at an atmospheric pressure half of normal. Our meats were Australian, 
 of two or three kinds, but always very simply prepared. In such enter- 
 prises the complicated, so-called appetizing cookery employed in most 
 of the tinned foods of commerce is very much better avoided. 
 
 We took with us some whiskey to use medicinally or in occasional 
 celebration of some special achievement. But alcohol was excluded 
 from our habitual diet. I cannot concur in the opinion of Conway 
 and Guillarmod that it is necessary to well-being and a useful stimulant. ^ 
 
 Next to the question of food, that of clothing as protection against 
 the cold is of importance. A double sleeping-sack (of eiderdown and 
 pelt) is a necessity. With it one is protected from cold 6i several degrees 
 below freezing, even when the tent is set up on ice and snow. The 
 usual weight of woollens used for mountaineering is sufficient, worn 
 double if necessary. Special attention must be paid to the shoes. 
 
 • On this point I desire to mention Dk. L. Schnyder's Alcool et alpini^me (Geneva 1907), 
 containing the results of a thorough enquiry made among mountain climbers, the large majority 
 of whom gave their opinion against the use of alcohol in mountain climbing. This agrees with 
 the scientific researches which have resulted in the classification of alcohol among the depriments 
 rather than among the stimulants. True stimulants are tea, coffee, cocoa. If one has ample 
 portage facilities one may carry a small quantity of alcohol to use after the day's work is done — 
 but it ranks as a luxury, not as a necessity.
 
 Supplementary Notes and Considerations. 367 
 
 Mountain climbing at exceptional heights is attended with a long record 
 of frozen feet, the cause of which may be, as many believe, retarded 
 circulation. On our expedition we all wore a special sort of boot, 
 devised by the Sellas for winter climbing on the Alps. There is a piece 
 of coney skin between the lining and the leather. The nails must be 
 driven in at the edge of the sole, in such a way that the point comes 
 outside of the upper leather, and thus cannot conduct any heat 
 away from the foot. In their ascent of Kabru Rubenson and Monrad 
 Aas they had to remove the nails from their boots to keep their feet 
 from freezing. On exceptionally cold mornings we wrapped our feet 
 and legs in pieces of woollen stuff held in place by the straps of 
 the crampons. We had no cases of frost-bitten feet throughout the 
 campaign. 
 
 I have mentioned that none of us felt any ill effects from the solar 
 radiation, but we all wore our solar helmets all the time. Neither did 
 we suifer to any great extent from snow rashes or eritema solans — of 
 course, this varied with the individual, but all of us were able to keep 
 it within bounds by using lanoline. 
 
 I have already emphasized the experimental value possessed by 
 the Didvc's expedition on account of the special conditions under which 
 it was made. Thus it is unnecessary for me to discuss in detail the 
 opinions of various other explorers on the question of attaining high 
 altitudes. They are almost all more optimistic than formerly. In 
 1892 Conway still doubted that it was possible to reach 24,000 feet, 
 but he has surrendered to the accomplished fact. Dr. and Mrs. 
 Workman are the greatest sceptics, and their view has weight because 
 both of them have ascended to over 23,000 feet in the Himalaya and 
 the Karakoram. Yet an analysis of the arguments upon which they 
 base their opinion shows them all to be contradicted by the experience 
 of our expeditioji. It has disproved their assertion that it is impossible 
 to sleep properly or protect oneself from cold at and over 21,000 feet ; 
 or that rapid diminution of strength appears above 20,000 feet, or 
 serious mental incapacity, loss of will power, etc. Dr. Workman has 
 compiled a set of statistics showing that of the fifteen Europeans who 
 took part in their various expeditions, twelve reached 21,000 feet, seven 
 22,570 feet, six 23,000 feet, five 23,300 feet, and only three 23,480 feet. 
 These figures could have value only if they had been obtained for fifteen 
 persons starting at the same time in equally good condition of health
 
 368 Chapter XIX. 
 
 ami vigour to make the same ascent. Unfortunately, parties of fifteen 
 persons cannot make ascents above 23,000 feet, on account of the 
 obvious impossibility of transporting the necessary equipment. 
 
 Putting aside all these objections, the logical conclusion to be derived 
 from our expedition is that, under present conditions, altitude is not 
 to be considered as in itself an obstacle to an ascent. Our experience 
 rather tends to prove that, if there is a physiological limit, we are still 
 far from reaching it. The real difficulty to be confronted and solved 
 is the one of transport. In this respect conditions in the Himalaya are 
 most favourable. It has been said that the coolies form one of the 
 great difficulties to be wrestled with in an expedition to the Himalaya. 
 But our experience is quite the contrary — namely, that without their 
 excellent qualities as porters it would be impossible to organize expedi- 
 tions in this region. Their uncommon strength and powers of resistance, 
 their temperateness, their amenable and gentle dispositions, and their 
 capacity for hard work have already been recognized by all those whom 
 they have served from one end of the Himalaya to the other. A single 
 dissenting voice has little weight in the verdict in their favour. 
 
 Our expedition can heartily concur in this verdict as far as the Baltis 
 are concerned. We succeeded in persuading them to camp for several 
 days running above the snow line, and there is no doubt that they would 
 adapt themselves to living without fire if they were supplied with alcohol 
 or paraffin stoves to boil their water and tea. We also induced them 
 to eat some of our food, such as biscuits and butter — a fact not without 
 practical bearing on the subject under discussion. The Baltis are good 
 rock climbers, and quickly learn to walk on the glaciers and steep snow 
 slopes. When they are properly equipped, and if one meets half way 
 with a little sympathy and humanity their natural fears and timidity, 
 one can do anything one likes with them. 
 
 Major C. G. Bruce, who is probably better acquainted than any 
 other European with the peoples of the western Himalaya, has recently 
 written some words of wisdom, which I take pleasure in quoting here, 
 for they contain excellent counsel to all future travellers to those 
 regions :— 
 
 " The transport question throughout the Hindu Koosh and Hima- 
 laya is undoubtedly a difficulty, but in my opinion should not be so 
 great a one as many recent travellers have found it. They, however, 
 are generally handicapped by being unable to communicate direct with
 
 Siipijlementary Notes and Considerations. 36i» 
 
 the people and by not understanding their point of view. The different 
 native races are much worse fed, certainly worse clothed, and probably 
 more superstitious regarding the great mountains than the Swiss were 
 100 years ago, and yet there was considerable difficulty at that period 
 in getting even the best chamois hunters to undertake any new bit of 
 exploration. What would have happened if a whole village had been 
 ordered to send every available man with some unknown Englishman, 
 and to stay with him for a fortnight above the snow line, is better 
 imagined than described, yet this is what must necessarily occur in the 
 Himalaya. It will therefore be understood that to get the best work 
 out of men who cannot be expected to go, as a body, anything but most 
 unwillingly, requires tact, sympathy and understanding kindness towards 
 them, as well as considerable assistance in the matter of extra food and 
 clothing, if they are to be employed for any length of time."^ 
 
 It is not only the coolies who need education. Mountaineers and 
 guides have to train their senses to understand and measure the new 
 conditions of a world built upon proportions so incomparably larger 
 than those of the familiar Alps that the judgment even of the most 
 expert is found wanting. They have to learn to estimate the obstacles, 
 the inclination of the slopes and ridges, the height and nature of the 
 rocks, the complications of the ice and snow, all the chances and diffi- 
 culties of mountain climbing, which can only be successfvdly met if 
 they are recognized before one enters upon the conflict with them. 
 
 The history of mountaineering in the Himalaya is only just begun. 
 Perhaps a time wUl come when new De Saussures and new AMiympers 
 will appear in the field and repeat the story of the conquest of the Alps. 
 
 ' Major the Hon. C. G. Bbuce, Twenty Years in the Himalaya. London 1910. 
 
 (9221)
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 (9221)
 
 Appendix A. 
 
 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEY 
 
 On the scale of I : 100.000 
 
 IN THE 
 
 KARAKORAM (WESTERN HIMALAYA). 
 
 Comprising Part of the Upper End of the Baltoro Glacier and the 
 
 Godwin Austen and Savoia Glaciers. 
 
 BY 
 FEDERICO NEGROTTO CAMBIASO. 
 Ship's Lieutenant. 
 
 (9221) 2 A 3
 
 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEY. 
 
 I. — Selection of the Method followed in the Execution of the Suri'ey. 
 
 The Godwin Austen glacier, the 
 two branches of it which surround 
 to west and east the main mass 
 of K-, and the buttresses that 
 enclose these, were surveyed by 
 photogrammetry. This special 
 method, invented by the geographer 
 C'omni. Pio Paganini, formerly an 
 officer in the Royal Italian Nav)-, 
 has been adopted by the Military 
 Geographical Institute of Florence 
 for the surveying of high mountains. 
 Thanks to the painstaking studies 
 of many years and to the instru- 
 ments devised and perfected by 
 Comm. Paganini, his method has attained the highest degree of simplicity 
 and practical utility, and may with advantage replace all other topographical 
 methods in difficult or inaccessible regions. It is especially adapted to steep mountains 
 and large glaciers, to places beyond the frontier or such as are occupied by the 
 enemy ; to unhealthy districts ; finally, to any place where long and tiresome marches 
 leave little time for surveying with the plane table, tacheonieter and theodolite. 
 
 In surveying high mountainous regions with the plane table, the Military 
 Geographical Institute has abandoned the use of the tape. The same may be said of 
 the tacheometer, which under the circumstances serves as a theodolite. The points 
 for the survey are always determined by intersection. Then all the directions at 
 points useful for the surve)' must be observed and noted on the spot, either with the 
 plane table, the tacheometer or the theodolite, and supplemented by numerous 
 sketches to help later in making the map. The method of the plane table, although 
 it has the advantage of enabling one to reproduce natural features on the spot, takes, 
 on the other hand, more time at each station. Moreover, in case of bad weather 
 it is not easy to keep the drawing from being injured in the process of execution, 
 
 and finally the apparatus is difficult to transport in the high mountains. 
 
 (9221) " 2 A 4
 
 370 Appendix A 
 
 With the photogrammetric method all the required directions to the points 
 may be obtained afterwards from the photographs taken from properly chosen 
 stations. The photographic apparatus is provided with special measuring devices 
 to furnish the photogra2:)hic perspectives with the elements needed for the survey. 
 In the field the only point of similarity between this method and earlier ones is the 
 determination of the stations by taking bearings to surrounding trigonometrical 
 points. This determination may if necessary be made at home with the panoramic 
 views, provided the points are well defined, as is the case in the high mountains, 
 where they usually consist of sharp and conspicuous summits. Thus with the 
 photogrammetric method all that has to be done out of doors is the adjusting of 
 the instrument, the taking of the panoramic views and the noting in the field book 
 the orientation and bearings to the trigonometrical points necessary to determine 
 the station. Other notes may be taken : as of the directions which may help to 
 determine with greater precision such distinctive points as may be useful points 
 of reference for subsequent stations ; or to fix the perspective when the number 
 of trigonometric points is insufficient ; or to obtain at once a trigonometrical net 
 comiected with one or more bases measured directly. This would be necessary 
 in lands where no measurements had pre^^ously been taken. The photogrammetric 
 method consists in taking in the field a series of ^^ews from different stations, and 
 these pictures serve later as the basis of all those operations which under any other 
 method must be performed on the spot. There is further the advantage that we 
 can determine as many points as we want according to the scale adopted and the 
 amount of detail we wish to give to the map. The Paganini apparatus supplies 
 vertical topographical perspectives, upon which are traced two orthogonal axes. 
 The intersection of these axes coincides with the principal point of the perspective, 
 which by construction is also the meeting of the optical axis of the lens or of the 
 camera with the plane of the image. Of the two perpendicular axes traced on the 
 negative and thence transferred to the pcsitive, one is the line of the horizontal 
 plane which passes through the view-point of the perspective, and thus represents 
 the horizon of the station ; the other is the line of the vertical plane which contains 
 the optical axis of the camera ; hence also the view-point and the principal point 
 of the perspective itself. This holds good, of course, only when the necessary 
 adjustment of the apparatus is made previously. In order to use the photographic 
 perspectives thus obtained for mapping the ground which they represent, it is 
 necessary to know the distance of the view-point from the plane on which they 
 are formed^in other words, the length of the perpendicular line drawn from the 
 said point to this plane. As in our case we are dealing with photographic 
 perspectives in which the ground shown can be considered to be at infinity,^ their 
 point of view coincides with the second nodal point of the lens, and the principal 
 focal length of the latter represents the length of the aforesaid distance. The lens 
 ' Cf. Pagasini, Foiogrammelria. Milan U. Hoepli 1901.
 
 Photoirrammetric Survey. 377 
 
 "to 
 
 of the Paganini apparatus is provided with a graduated scale in millimetres and 
 tenths of millimetres, in order that this length may be taken with precision. It 
 is determined once for all at the beginning of work, by bringing into the focal plane 
 distant points and making a series of observations in order to arrive at a mean 
 value approximating the true one. With the help of the graduated scale it is easy 
 to keep this value constant in all the perspectives obtained during the survey. 
 Paganini calls this value the " indicated focal length," to distinguish it from the 
 one determined afterwards at home for the perspectives on paper, which serve 
 for the actual construction of the map. For further particulars the reader is 
 referred to the hand-book mentioned above. This factor is mo.st important because 
 it establishes the relation between the dimensions of the objects and those of the 
 corresponding images on the perspectives. It must be determined therefore with 
 the greatest care and, when necessary, corrected by calculations before setting to 
 work on the survey. 
 
 Another element which must be established upon the spot is the orientation 
 of the perspective : that is, the horizontal angle made by the optical axis of the 
 camera (in other words, the perpendicular line from the \-iew-point to the 
 perspective) with the direction to a previously determined point in the field of 
 operations ; or, failing this, the azimuth of the optical axis, given by a compass 
 attached to the apparatus. The outdoor work, therefore, is reduced to the following 
 steps : (1) The adjustment of the instrument ; (2) the rectification of the level 
 or of the verticality of the axis of rotation ; (3) the execution of the panorama 
 (preferably in the first perspective intersecting with the vertical wire some signal 
 point or conspicuous point previously fixed, in order to orientate the panorama 
 with as great precision as possible) ; and (4) the observations of zenith and azimuth 
 — or of the latter alone, as in the case of the apparatus used by the expedition — 
 of the surrounding trigonometrical points necessary to fix the position of the 
 station, with the addition at most of certain conspicuous points which may later 
 be of value as reference points for locating other stations in cases where geodetic 
 points are unavailable. 
 
 II.— Description of the .\pparatus. 
 
 Paganini has invented various types of photogrammetric apparatus for the 
 use of the Italian Military Geographical Institute. They are manufactured by 
 the Galileo Company, of Florence. However, when the expedition -n-ished to furnish 
 itself with an instrument, this firm had only one on hand, a model of 1897, arranged 
 by Comm. Paganini for surveys on the scale of 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 100,000 in 
 Erithrea. This model, however, though less in weight, bulk and price, and 
 possessing the greatest simplicity and ease of manipulation, is not altogether 
 adapted for work in very high mountains. We had to content ourselves with it, 
 none the less, as the time was too short for the construction of a new instrument.
 
 378 Appendix A. 
 
 Paganini has recently invented a marvellously ingenious one, which unites all the 
 advantages I have mentioned with that of the hijihcr degree of precision possessed 
 by the model furnished with the vertical circle, which was an earlier invention. 
 
 The pattern of 1897 has a short focal length ( 18 centimetres) and takes plates 18 by 
 24 centimetres (7 by 9^ inches), with the larger side horizontal in order to take 
 in the entire horizon with an equipment of six plates. It may be employed success- 
 fully in Erithrea, and has given brilliant results in Russian work in Transbaikalia 
 and Transcaucasia, where the district is le.ss rough and the differences of level le.ss 
 pronounced than in the Alps and the Himalaya. But in the photogrammetric 
 work executed on the Baltoro and Godwin Austen glaciers the panoramic views 
 <!ould not all include the highest peaks, as was, of course, desirable, because the 
 vertical dimension of the plates was too limited to embrace the enormous difference 
 of height between the stations and the surrounding summits. Moreover, the 
 inistrument was not furnished with the vertical circle and telescope, as in the other 
 Paganini models ; thus the bearings to the most important points had to be taken 
 by means of the vertical wire as seen through the ground glass; and others, as also 
 the heights of the points, had to be determined at home by the co-ordinates x and 
 y of their images measured on the perspectives. These facts simplified the outdoor 
 work very much, but increased the labour afterwards in obtaining the data for 
 the construction of the map. Undoubtedly this apjjaratus enables the work to 
 be done very quickly on the mountains, and reduces to a minimum the time spent 
 by the operator while exposed to di.scomfort and bad weather. He must note the 
 indispensable data. These are recorded in a field book, together with such 
 subsidiary observations as sketches to facilitate the locating of the points in the 
 panoramas, names, routes followed, time of exposure and other miscellaneous 
 information. The apparatus has also the great advantage of maintaining unaltered 
 for a long time the adjustments made before beginning work — a fact which 
 
 -contributes much to the success of the observations. A brief description of the 
 apparatus will make this plainer. 
 
 It consists of a rigid camera, made of aluminium, in form a right prism, the 
 base of which is an i.sosceles trapezium. The back of the camera, which is per- 
 pendicularly placed upon the largest of the parallel sides of the trapezium, consists 
 
 -of a frame holding the ground glass or the sensitive plate. The front of the camera 
 has fixed at its centre a tube, inside which runs another tube adjustable by means 
 of a screw with a millimetre thread. To this the lens is fixed. A graduated scale 
 in millimetres, which has as origin the focal plane — that is the surface upon which 
 the images are received — is marked externally along the fixed tube, while to the 
 movable tube carrying the lens is attached a ring with a sharp edge which comes 
 into contact with the fixed tube. Thus, turning the inner tube in order to move 
 the lens backward and forward causes the edge of the ring to cut the graduated 
 
 .scale, and thus serves as fiducial line or line of collimation, indicating on the scale
 
 Photogrammetric Survey. 
 
 379 
 
 itself the distance of the lens from the focal plane. The bevelled edge of the ring 
 
 is divided into ten equal parts in order to read upon it the di\isions of the movable 
 
 tube — in other words, the tenths of the thread of the screw. This, added to the 
 
 whole number of millimetres read on the fixed tube, gives in millimetres and tenths 
 
 of millimetres the distance of the second nodal point of the lens from the focal 
 
 plane. This value, the " principal indicated 
 
 focal length," is determined at the beginning 
 
 of the campaign, and in all subsequent 
 
 operations care must be taken that the line of 
 
 collimation of the tube carrying the lens is so 
 
 adjusted as to give always the same value. This 
 
 was carefully determined upon the apparatus 
 
 of the expedition before leaving Srinagar, and 
 
 gave a result of 180 "3 millimetres. 
 
 The objective is a Zeiss ana.stigmatic and 
 
 belongs to a special series of wide angulars 
 
 for photogrammetric work. With a small 
 
 diaphragm we obtain a clear image 40 centi- 
 metres in diameter ; xvith the f-3.5 diaphragm 
 
 it produces a clear image free from distortions 
 
 upon a plate of 20 by 26 centimetres. Thus 
 
 the plate 18 by 24 centimetres used with this 
 
 camera took very clear images over its entire 
 
 surface, even when a large aperture diaphragm 
 
 was employed; while the luminosity is so great 
 
 that it is better to use plates of only medium 
 
 rapidity, or, better still, orthochromatic ones, 
 as we did. 
 
 The perspectives thus obtained have a horizontal field of 67° and a vertical one 
 of 54°. In this way, with six perspectives with a displacement of the optical axis 
 of the camera about the vertical axis of the apparatus of 60° for each of them, a 
 panorama is obtained which comprises the whole horizon, plus a narrow vertical 
 band— a horizontal field of 3° 30' between each one and the next. This vertical 
 band in excess is indispensable, to ascertain the correctness of the panorama, to 
 determine the distance of the point of view from the perspectives, and to join the 
 positives accurately to one another in order to form the panorama. As the vertical 
 field is D4°, one can measure from the perspectives and vertical angles up to 
 27°. Owing to the enormous differences in level with which the expedition had 
 to contend, a larger vertical field would have been more advantageous. In the 
 new apparatus of Comm. Paganini it is possible to adjust the camera so as to have 
 -the larger dimension of the plate (24 cm.) run vertically, giving angles of height or 
 
 PAGAXEfl PHOTOGRAMMETRIC APPARATUS, 
 1897 MODEL.
 
 380 Appendix A. 
 
 depression up to 33° 30'. To make the entire circle of the horizon eight plates 
 would be necessary, with a horizontal displacement of 45° of the optical axis, 
 giving a vertical band of 4° 30' between each two contiguous pictures. The 
 new instrument, being capable of reduction to telescope and being furnished with 
 the vertical circle, can, even without the reversible movement I have described, 
 take the angle of peaks whose summits fall outside the upper margin of the plate. 
 This arrangement, too, would have been very useful in the construction of the 
 map. 
 
 In all the Paganini apparatus the optic axis of the lens is fixed in a direction 
 perpendicular to the plane of the image. The intersection of the above axis with 
 this plane is marked photographically by the intersection at right angles of two 
 very thin silver hairs stretched before the ground glass on the back of the camera 
 in such a way that they can be easily withdrawn or replaced in case of breakage. 
 The horizontal silver hair, once adjusted, serves, as I have said, to indicate the 
 horizon line upon the photographic perspective. Below the camera are three arms 
 bent at right angles, one anterior and the others posterior. Each has a hole in 
 its end, through which passes an adjustable .shaft fixed perpendicularly to the 
 movable plate or alidad of the horizontal circle. The camera can be fixed rigidly 
 at the required position upon the alidad by means of nuts and bolts screwed on 
 to the shafts. This position remains, if possible, invariable throughout all the 
 outdoor work. Its stability is very important, since the said position must satisfy 
 the requirement that the plane containing the optic axis of the camera and the 
 axis indicating the horizon of the station is exactly horizontal as soon as the 
 rotation-axis of the ahdad or of the instrument has been vertically disposed. Thus 
 the only adjustment to be made of the instrument in the different stations is to 
 correct the level placed on the alidad, at the same time arranging vertically the 
 rotation-axis of the apparatus. 
 
 The azimuthal circle of the apparatus has a diameter of 14 centimetres and its 
 edge is graduated from 0° to 360°, each degree being subdivided into two equal 
 parts, each of which embraces 30'. The vernier is fastened to the movable plate 
 or alidad, and permits us to read the minutes and to appreciate even the 30". In 
 addition to the three shafts and a level, the alidad is provided with a magnifying 
 lens to use with the vernier and a regulating-screw to use for the small adjustments 
 of collimation. The verticality of the rotation-axis of the instrument is attained 
 by means of three levelling-screws, which pass through the top of the tripod and 
 hold the horizontal circle. This is fixed upon the tripod by means of a clamping- 
 screw with a spring and a handle, which, passing through the head of the tripod 
 from bottom to top, is screwed into a movable .support shaped like a half-sphere, 
 fastened by means of a ring under the horizontal circle. 
 
 A compass of the Dixey or the Smalcalder type is mounted upon the top of 
 the camera. It can be so adjusted that the vertical visual plane of its bearings
 
 Photogrammetric Survey. 381 
 
 coincides with the direction of the optic axis of the camera. Thus it becomes 
 possible to use the compass to orientate the panorama when it is not possible to 
 aim at trigonometric points or at any others of which the position is known. The 
 tripod may be taken to pieces ; each foot is in two parts * which can be solidly 
 fastened together when the apparatus is set up. We have seen that the most 
 important adjustment consists in fixing the camera upon the alidad in such a way 
 that the plane containing the optical axis and the silver hair which traces the 
 horizon-line upon the perspectives are perpendicular to the rotation-axis of the 
 instrument ; and reciprocally, when this rotation-axis is adjusted vertically the 
 plane of the optical axis will be horizontal. In the other apparatus of Paganini 
 this result is attained by means of the telescope of the acclimeter, which may be 
 inverted (pattern 1884), or by the same camera obscura reduced to a reversible 
 telescope (pattern 1889). In the model employed by the expedition the horizontal 
 adjustment is made as follows : — 
 
 The three arms of the camera are first placed at approximately the same height 
 upon the movable plate by turning the lower screws with the pins belonging to 
 them, having previously raised the upper ones in order to give free motion to the 
 arms on their respective shafts. Then looking through the ground glass of the 
 camera under the black cloth, and moving to right or left and up or down as 
 necessary, by adjusting the screws, distant points are brought to coincide with the 
 point of intersection of the wires, until by moving the camera in both directions 
 around the rotation-axis, a point is made to run all along the horizontal thread 
 from one extreme to another, without passing above or under the thread. If the 
 rotation-axis is vertical, this coincidence of a point with the horizontal thread in 
 its whole length can only take place when the plane of the optical axis and the wire 
 which traces the horizon-line on the perspective are horizontal. If the plane is 
 not horizontal, and accordingly the plane of the ground glass is not vertical, one 
 observes that in moving the camera to right or left the image gradually diverges 
 from the horizontal wire, describing the segment of a hyperbola either above or 
 below the wire, according as the point cited is situated above or below the horizon. 
 
 In practice the followino; method will secure the horizontal adjustment of the 
 wire and the plane of the optical axis : — 
 
 First turn the screws which support the posterior arms of the camera, operating 
 in such a way that by revolving the camera all the way through its field some 
 distant point which is covered by the wire on one of its ends coincides with the 
 other end of the wire. Thus the horizontality of the wire will be fixed. If this 
 point is not on the horizon, it ^\•ill be seen to describe a curve during the revolving 
 of the camera, passing above or below the intersection of the wires according to 
 the inclination of the optic axis dowiiwards or upwards. The vertex of the h}-per- 
 bola ■^^•ill be found upon the vertical thread, and it will be easy to estimate the 
 ' In the original instrument the feet are in one piece.
 
 382 Appendix A. 
 
 convexity of the said curve. Then the screw controlling the anterior arm of the 
 camera will be turned, and the latter raised or lowered until the image of the point 
 is brought to coincide with the intersection of the wires. By making observations 
 of successive points continually approaching the horizon, the right position will 
 soon be arrived at, when all the screws are tightened in order rigidly to maintain it. 
 
 III. — Calculations and Construction of the Map. 
 
 The panoramic view obtained under the above conditions gives an image of 
 all the field seen from the station. Together with other panoramic views obtained 
 in like manner at suitable stations, it gives the elements necessary for the execution, 
 on any scale, of the map of that tract of land which they represent. Each 
 perspective of the series is considered separately in constructing the map. The 
 focal distance is equal for all, and all are furnished with the horizon-line and the 
 line of the vertical plane, the latter containing the visual point and the principal 
 point of the perspectives. 
 
 Paper positives are used for making the survey, it being possible to allow for 
 the alteration undergone by one single quality of paper and to use a focal length 
 corrected accordingly. This focal length is obtained before proceeding to the 
 survey. It is independent of the " indicated focal length," and is called the " real 
 focal length." All the directions to the points represented in each picture may 
 be easily determined by means of the co-ordinates x and y of their images referred 
 to the perpendicular axes traced on the picture itself, through the following very 
 simple equations : 
 
 tawj (o'= Y (1) 
 
 where / is the real distance of the view-point from the perspective, the orientation 
 of which to' is known, being an element obtained at the station ; and oj' is the angle 
 made by the horizontal direction to a point {x, y) of the perspective with the 
 perpendicular to it from the view-point. 
 
 tang a = j — , (2) 
 
 where « is the angle that the direction to the image of the point observed makes 
 with its projection upon the horizon, that is to say, with the horizontal direction 
 of the point itself. But also it is 
 
 tany v. = ^, 
 
 where L is the difference of level between the point considered and the station and 
 D the horizontal distance between these points. Hence
 
 Photogrammetric Survey. 383 
 
 After having obtained by foimula (1) the bearings of the various points useful 
 for the survey, which are visible on the panoramic \iews taken from two or more 
 stations, the position of these may be obtained by intersection. 
 
 By formula (2) we get their angular elevation ; then, having the distance and 
 the difference of level between the points and the station, by means of tables in 
 use at the Military Geographical Institute, one can finally obtain directly the 
 vertical difference by means of formula (3). 
 
 But this is a very long method, and in order to solve the equations given above 
 it is necessary to have the mimerical value of the co-ordinates x and y and the 
 distance D. These numerical values are very useful when the survey is on a very 
 large scale, as in civil or military operations ; whenever it is a question of data 
 for finding points on the ground. But they are superfluous for a topographical 
 map on a small scale, as in the construction of the map these values would have 
 in any case to be reproduced graphically. 
 
 IV. — Simplifying the Survey by means of Special Drafting Instruments. 
 
 By the Paganiiii photogrammetric method adojJted by our Military Geographical 
 Institute, the position of the points and their elevation can be taken mechanically 
 and rapidly by means of special drafting instruments, the construction of which 
 is based upon the above formulae, and upon which the distance D and the co- 
 ordinates X and y are transferred directly with the compass and upon the scale of 
 the map, making it unnecessary to know the numerical value of these measurements. 
 
 The construction proceeds in the following manner : the trigonometric points 
 are fixed at the desired scale by means of their rectilinear co-ordinates. Then with 
 the special instrument called by Paganini " rapporlatore ad on'gine variabile," 
 the photogrammetric stations are put in place, as well as whatever other special 
 points have been selected for the purpose of adding to the points of reference in 
 a number proportionate to the scale of the survey. With this instrument the 
 various directions can be traced directly on the transparent paper just as they 
 were read at the time of the outdoor operation on the horizontal circle of the 
 photogrammetric apparatus or the theodolite. With the transparency thus made 
 are placed the stations and the directions from them to the other images necessary 
 to determine further points of reference in addition to the trigonometric ones. 
 With this instrument it is possible to assume any one of the bearings observed as 
 origin of the horizontal circuit and to proceed by degrees, by means of the alidad, 
 to the other readings. In this way is obviated the necessity of all the mathematical 
 calculations to reduce to zero the readings made out of doors, as is the case when 
 the ordinary finders are used- — a very long operation when there is a large number 
 of points to be located. 
 
 When the stations and all the points intersected by them have been put on 
 paper, we proceed to the determination of the secondary points, or detail, all
 
 384 
 
 Ai)|)endix A. 
 
 chosen beforehand for the purpose of the draft. After the various elements of 
 the panoramic views have been corrected, a selection is made from them (taking 
 them two by two, at contiguous stations) of points useful to the survey ; either 
 for the purpose of tracing contours, or for determining the lie of various ridges, 
 the direction of streams, the limits of glaciers, bases of rocks, &c. The operation 
 is regulated for the number of points chosen according to the scale that is desired, 
 the precision required, and the time at the disposition of the operator. All these 
 points have been registered in the notebook, according to the station from which 
 they were taken, and marked on the relative panoramic ^^ews with numbers or 
 letters written in red ink. 
 
 \ 
 
 PAGASrNI DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS USED IN CONSTRUCTING THE MAP. 
 
 The tracing on the design of all directions to these secondary points used to 
 be a very long and monotonous operation and far from accurate. The modern 
 process is quick and simple, thanks to a special drafting instrument based upon the 
 formula (1) c^uoted above, and called the " grajjhical .sector for the directions to 
 secondary points of the perspective." By its means the horizontal projection of 
 each perspective is traced successively upon the design, carefully orientated, with 
 its i^rincipal point at the effective distance from the station point, in such a way 
 that, by transferring with the compass the abscissae of the various points taken 
 on the "siews to a scale cut on a metal ruler, the corresponding horizontal directions 
 may be easily drawn by means of a movable plate (or alidad) furnished with a metal 
 ruler, moving about the station point. 
 
 With another instrument, specially designed for drawing the elevations, based 
 upon formidse (2) and (3), differences of level are obtainable, and therefore also 
 the elevations of the stations and of the secondary points of the perspectives. 
 When the apparatus is provided with vertical circle and telescope the angular 
 elevations of the trigonometrical points are read directly on the ground. In this 
 case one obtains the elevation directly from reading the instrument, by means of
 
 PhotogramnK'tric Survey. 385 
 
 |the distance on the design between the station point and the trigonometrical point 
 I of which the altitude is known and from the station point to the observed angle a . 
 But without the vertical circle the determination of the heights depends upon 
 the value of the abscissae and the ordinates of the trigonometric points of the 
 perspectives, the height of which is taken with the compass on the perspectives 
 themselves, likewise their graphic distances ; so that the differences of level between 
 them and the station point, and also the height of the latter, may be read directly 
 upon the instrument. In the same manner, once the height of the stations is 
 obtained, the difference of level is determined, and therefore the height of the 
 secondary points of the perspective considered useful to complete the survey. As 
 in the case of all the other methods, corrections must, of course, be made of all 
 these apparent differences of level, on account of the refraction of the light and the 
 roundness of the earth. Tables compiled for the purpose are used. 
 
 V. — Topographical Work of the Expedition and Construction of the Survey. 
 
 In a little more than a month — in other words, from May 25th to July 2nd — the 
 expedition executed twenty-two photogrammetric stations, using 106 negatives. 
 On account of the limited number of plates at our disposal, not all the panoramic 
 views embraced the entke horizon. The region surveyed includes the Concordia 
 amphitheatre of the Baltoro glacier, the Godwin Austen glacier up to AVindy Gap 
 and the Savoia glacier, which flows about the western side of K-.^ It was a pity 
 that lack of plates prevented our extending the survey southward, upon the arm 
 of the Baltoro as far as Bride Peak, the ascent of which was one of the aims of the 
 expedition. The work was supplemented, it is true, by compass and tacheometer 
 and with barometrical stations ; but among the innumerable peaks of such strange 
 appearance the eye becomes easily confused in passing from one station to another. 
 The numerous sketches taken on the spot did not give all the information really 
 desirable for map-drawing, and are certainly inadequate to give all the characteristic 
 detail of this rugged, broken and largely inaccessible region. Bella's numerous 
 photographs and panoramic views were, on the other hand, of great assistance 
 in making the design, as some of them were taken from high and commanding 
 elevations and under conditions makmg it possible to determine approximately the 
 photogrammetric elements, so that they served, if not for measurements of altitude, 
 at least for sufficiently exact azimuthal directions. With this end in view. Sella 
 marked his stations by setting up cairns visible from the photogrammetric stations, 
 so that they could be included in the network of stations of reference or geodetic 
 poijats jipon which the survey was based. 
 
 It is possible that instead of glass plates we might have used films, which are 
 so much more convenient because of their small bulk and weight. Comm. Paganini, 
 however, does not consider their use advisable, as no good results have been 
 
 • Sec tlic heliotype reproduction of tlie photogrammetric panorama (S) given on a natural 
 scale a an example of the work done. 
 
 (9221) 2 B
 
 386 
 
 Appendix A. 
 
 obtained with them in three previous campaigns. They easily undergo changes 
 in the celluloid, owing to their sensitiveness to heat, cold, moisture and the 
 chemicals used in developing ; so that the image varies in a way which would not 
 be noticeable in ordinary photographic work, but which is sufficient to cause errors 
 in the measurements, which must be corrected to the tenth and hundredth of a 
 millimetre. 
 
 The Military Geographical Institute was authorized to execute the topographical 
 representation of the region surveyed by the expedition. It confided the work 
 to Comm. Pio Paganmi. The scale chosen for the map was 1 : 100,000. The work 
 proved somewhat arduous, especially at the beginning, on account of the deficiency 
 of well-defined geodetic points, which necessitated referring the survey to several 
 conspicuous points determined by intersection — in other words, concluded from 
 vertices of the secondary triangulation executed for Kashmir, which is, in its turn . 
 connected with the North-western Himalayan series of the primary triangulation 
 of India. A double chain of triangles (quadrilateral and diagonal) of the secondary 
 triangulation of Kashmir extends along the course of the Indus from south-east to 
 north-west, from a point very near its sources to as far as Bkardu, where it bends 
 southwards in order to join up with the main system of the Indian survey. From 
 the vertices of this portion of the trigonometric chain (Upper Indus triangulation) 
 were intersected the highest summits of the Karakoram, including the two Masher- 
 brums, Peak No. 8 or Bride Peak, Peak No. 9 or Hidden Peak, Nos. 10, 11 and 12 
 of the Gasherbrum range, and lastly and highest of all Peak No. 1.3 or K- — all the.se 
 summits surrounding the tract which was to be mapped. But we must consider 
 that these points were intersected at distances of 50 and 100 miles with cross- 
 bearings meeting at acute angles and taken from relatively low points, while there 
 were no signal stations to mark with precision the points aimed at, and thus it 
 was not possible to determine their position otherwise than approximately. 
 However, the following table shows the elements of the points which were used 
 for the purpose in question. It was not always easy to recognize them as they 
 appeared on the perspectives. They were measured also with the tacheometer 
 from several stations, as is shown on the sketch of the triangulation. 
 
 Points otjserved. 
 
 Latituiles N. 
 
 Longitudes E.G. 
 (old detenn.) 
 
 Height. 
 
 Height. 
 
 No. of the deter- 
 mined visuals. 
 
 Difference per 
 mile in com- 
 mon siiles of 
 triangles. 
 
 Posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Masheiljrum East 
 Peak No. 8 : Bride Peak 
 Peak No. 9 : Hidden Pk. 
 Peak No. 10"! Ga.sher- ' 
 Peak No. 1 1 ]■ brum ' . 
 
 Peak No. 12 
 
 Peak No. 13: K= 
 
 35°38'36'-4 
 35° 36' 44"-0 
 35° 43' 30"-0 
 35° 45' 31"-0 
 35° 45' 36 "0 
 35° 45' 38"-0 
 35°52'55"-0 
 
 76 90' 57" -9 
 76'36'50"-0 
 76° 44' 15"0 
 76°41'42"-0 
 76°41'00"-0 
 76°39'29"-0 
 76° 33' 18" -0 
 
 feet 
 2.5,660 
 25,110 
 26,470 
 26,360 
 26,090 
 26,000 
 28,250 
 
 metres 
 
 7,821-3 
 7,653-6 
 8,068-5 
 8,034 6 
 7,952-3 
 7,924-9 
 8,610-7 
 
 9 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 10 
 
 7 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 9 
 
 feet 
 0-4 
 1-5 
 1-6 
 
 2-4 
 2-0 
 0-8 
 2-7
 
 Photogrammetric Survey. 
 
 387 
 
 We see that the figures most to be trusted are those for Masherbrum East ; 
 the other Peak, or South-east, was omitted because it was invisible from the region 
 surveyed, being masked by the first, which is only about 1,000 feet from it. The 
 tract surveyed was comprised within a square formed by Masherbrum, Bride Peak, 
 Hidden Peak and K-. Thus a point was chosen for the origin of the rectilinear 
 co-ordinates which was the approximate centre of this square — ^that is to say, about 
 at the intersection of the meridian 76° 35' E. with the parallel 35° 45'. The 
 graduation of the longitude in the final survey was put 2' 30" farther east, according 
 to the correction made in 1877 to the longitude of Madras, upon which are based 
 the longitudes of the triangulation of India. 
 
 The most distant point, Masherbrum, is about 15 miles from the origin of the 
 co-ordinates ; as the origin itself has the latitude of 35 ° 45', nearly the same as the 
 southern end of Italy, the elements for the calculation of the rectilinear co-ordinates 
 are already to be found in the appropriate tables. ^ They result from the formvdse : 
 
 .'■ = /„ cos L A P" 
 
 y = IL^ L" + ///„ (A F'f 
 
 in which L is the latitude and P the longitude of the point ; /„, //„ and Ilia are 
 constants which depend upon the origin of the co-ordinates of latitude L and 
 longitude P. The value of these constants is obtained from the aforesaid tables 
 and calculated with the Bessel elli^Jsoid elements : 
 
 I = N sin 1" 
 
 II = p sin 1" 
 
 111= \-Ndn2Lsvn? 1" 
 4 
 
 N and p are respectively the great normal and the radius of curvature of the 
 meridian ellipsis for latitude L. For the points before mentioned, with the relative 
 geographical co-ordinates given by the catalogue contained in Vol. YII (Division E, 
 Group I, No. 13), Triangulation of Kashmir, the following rectilinear co-ordinates 
 were obtained : — 
 
 Ma.slierbruiii East ... 
 
 ... ,/■ = 
 
 ^ - 
 
 21333-8 
 
 (69992-8) y = 
 
 = - 
 
 117960 (.38700-7) 
 
 Bride Peak 
 
 „ 
 
 -t- 
 
 2768-1 
 
 ( 9081-7) ,, 
 
 - 
 
 15285-0 (50147-6) 
 
 Hidden Peak 
 
 „ 
 
 + 
 
 1394G-2 
 
 (45755-2) „ 
 
 - 
 
 2757-4 ( 9046-6) 
 
 Gasherbrum I. 
 
 ,, 
 
 + 
 
 10097-6 
 
 (33128-6) „ 
 
 -(- 
 
 949-6 ( 3U.5-5) 
 
 II. ... 
 
 ,, 
 
 + 
 
 9042-5 
 
 (29667-0) „ 
 
 -1- 
 
 11140 (36548-5) 
 
 ,. III. 
 
 „ 
 
 + 
 
 6756-7 
 
 (22167-6) „ 
 
 + 
 
 1173-7 (38507-2) 
 
 K- 
 
 „ 
 
 - 
 
 2558-1 
 
 ( 8392-7) „ 
 
 + 
 
 14638-7 (48027-2) 
 
 • See Istiluto Geografico Militare. Istruzione per la resoluzione di akitni problemi riguardanti 
 e rdazioni di posizione fra punti dali per le loro coordinate geografiche. Florence, Barbera, 1896. 
 (9221) 2 B 2
 
 388 
 
 Ap])enclix A. 
 
 Thus it was possible to fix the above points on the drawing on the scale of 
 1 : 100,000, proceeding afterwards to the necessary adjusting by means of the 
 sides, using the well-known formula : 
 
 where the angle i^ is given by the formula : 
 
 No c os Lq AF' 
 3n A //' 
 
 tanff <f) = 
 
 This formula may also be used for distances over 30 miles. S is the length or 
 side unknown : Z,„ = L„, + ^ w'here Lm is the mean latitude and e a little correc- 
 tion omitted in case of distances under 25 miles. N„ and />„ are the principal 
 radii of the ellipsoid, in correspondence with latitude L„. Thus were obtained 
 
 the following distances : — 
 
 K 
 
 Mii.slierbrum Ea-st 
 ,, - liride Peak 
 „ - Gasbeil)rum I 
 
 „ -Hidden Peak 
 
 Hidden Peak - JIaslierhniin East 
 „ „ -(Jasherhruin III 
 
 ,, „ - Bride Peak ... 
 
 ., „ -Gasherbrum II 
 
 324240 lueti- 
 
 es (10(!377-9 
 
 feet) 
 
 3039.50 „ 
 
 ( 99721 1 
 
 
 18641-0 „ 
 
 ( 61 1.58- 1 
 
 
 239850 .. 
 
 ( 78690-9 
 
 
 364180 ., 
 
 (119481-6 
 
 
 81971 „ 
 
 ( 26893-4 
 
 
 1G7870 „ 
 
 ( 5.")07.')-4 
 
 
 17559-0 ., 
 
 ( 57608-3 
 
 
 The circuits of the horizon, executed from difierent .stations and transferred 
 to the drawing by means of the finder, serve also to fix on the design the photo- 
 grammetric and tacheometric stations, and also to determine tho.se other significant 
 points which are to be used as points of reference for further stations and for the 
 orientation of the perspectives. This was indispensable, for the photogrammetric 
 stations scattered over the Savoia and Godwin Austen glaciers, not aU of which 
 could take in three points of the Indian Triangulation, could by this means be 
 located with sufi&cient exactness on the drawing.^ 
 
 Two positives were printed of each of the panoramic views, one for composing 
 the panoramas themselves, the other to measure with the compasses the co- 
 ordinates of the points useful in the survey, after having chosen and distingui.shed 
 them on the views. The effective distance of the perspective view-point was then 
 determined on the unmounted prints. All these being taken under the same 
 conditions and with a constant indicated focal length, and the same quality of paper 
 being used for printing, always cut the same way of the fibre, the result must be 
 a constant value for the effective distance, in all the printed positives. This value 
 is determined by getting the mean of various measurements made on several 
 
 * See the sketch of the triangulation, whereon are marked all the points which served for 
 the construction of the survey.
 
 Photograniinetric Survey. 389 
 
 perspectives and for different panorania.si. The focal length indicated by the 
 lens in our case was 180 "S millimetres, and the true focal length determined at 
 Florence was 180 6 millimetres. After ha\'ing chosen and marked in red on the 
 perspectives the various secondary points to be mapped, and transferred their 
 abscissae upon the sector in accordance with the directions already described, and 
 properly orientated on the drawing, the directions to the said points of the various 
 stations are traced, and by intersection their position in the survey is obtained. 
 Some 300 points were determined in this way. 
 
 Finally, in the same way, by carrying the abscissae and ordinates upon the 
 finder for altitudes the heights of the said points were determined by at least two 
 derivations. With the help of all these points and the stations and references 
 fixed upon the panoramas, it was possible to complete the map, inserting the 
 details and forms of the region — in which the panoramas were of the greatest 
 assistance. 
 
 The difficulty of the ground, the scarcity of trigonometric points, the 
 impossibility — owing to the enormous differences of level — of accurately sighting 
 trigonometric summits unprovided with signals, the short time at our disposal, 
 the limited number of photographic plates, all this prevented us from gathering 
 sufficient elements for a true topographical survey. However, we may feel some 
 satisfaction over the result achieved under such conditions. It has at all events 
 sufficient accuracy to serve as point of departure for other explorers making a 
 more extended survey in the same field. 
 
 In conclusion. I must express our gratitude to Comni. Paganini, to whose 
 methods and whose instruments we are almost wholly indebted for the work 
 executed on the spot, and to whose experience and assistance we owe the execution 
 of the map. My zeal to make known an admirable topographical method, 
 remarkable for its simplicity and its suitability for high mountain work, has led 
 me to describe it in considerable detail. For, despite the fact that this method has 
 been emploj'ed in Italy, with the best results, since 1876, and has been introduced 
 also in certain foreign countries, the English Royal Geographical Society does not 
 mention it, even in its most recent publications {Hints to Travellers, 9th ed., 1906; 
 and Maps and Map Making, E. A. Reeves, 1910) ; and, in fact, considers the 
 application of photography to topography to have a very limited and subordinate 
 value. The June number of the Geog. Jour., 1911, has an article by A. 0. Wheeler, 
 of the Topographical Office of the Canadian Government, in which full justice is 
 rendered to the photogrammetric method, and which will no doubt contribute 
 toward making it better known in England. 
 
 1 For description of this determination see the monograph already citfd and the Manuale 
 of CoMM. Pagaxdci. 
 
 (9221) -' K 3
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 AND 
 
 ALTIMETRIC CALCULATIONS 
 
 From Observations made by the Elxpeclitioii of 
 H.R.H. THE DUKE OF THE ABRUZZI 
 
 IN THE 
 
 KARAKORAM 
 
 AND 
 
 WESTERN HIMALAYA. 
 
 BY 
 Prof. DOMENICO OMODEl. 
 
 (9221) i; u 4
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 1.— LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED. 
 
 The expedition was equipped 
 with the following instruments 
 for making the more impor- 
 tant meteorological observations, 
 especially those used for com- 
 putmg heights : — 
 I. One mercurial Fortin baro- 
 meter, No. 3314, with 
 graduated scale from 240 to 
 520 millimetres. 
 Id. No. 3313, with graduated 
 scale from 240 to 520 milli- 
 metres. 
 
 Id. No. 3312, with graduated 
 scale from 210 to 490 millimetres. 
 Id. No. 1, with graduated scale from 200 to 400 millimetres. 
 II. Two aneroid barometers furnished with three graduated scales for altitudes 
 to 29,000 feet. 
 III. One hypsometer with three pairs of thermometers : — 
 1st from 58= to 78° in tenths. 
 2nd „ 65^ „ 88° 
 3rd „ 72= „ 102" in half-tenths. 
 l\. Two pairs of thermometers maxinmm and minimum self-registering. 
 V. Four mercurial thermometers. 
 VI. Two standard thermometers. 
 
 VII. Four thermometers with bulb blackened in vacuum. 
 
 All the above instruments were verified at the National Physical Laboratory 
 at Kew, with the exception of the hypsometers. Of these the pair from 72° to 
 102° had already been used on the Ruwenzori expedition, and the others were 
 manufactured and corrected in Geneva.
 
 394 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 The correction of some of the mercurial Fortin barometers remained uncertain 
 for lack of apparatus with which to compare them at such unusually low pressures ; 
 but this was compensated for by making numerous comparisons under low pressures 
 in the mountains. In this way it was possible to use all the barometers. 
 
 These instruments, in consequence of their special construction, are very fragile, 
 and unfortunately the damage is not easily discovered by external marks, so that 
 the observations may be very erroneous if not taken with great caution. It is 
 necessary for this reason to submit them to continual comparison in order to give 
 assurance of their regular working. A great many of these comparisons were made 
 both with the barometers and the hypsometers — in fact every time the opportunity 
 arose — and always with reference to No. 3314, of which the exact correction was 
 known. Especial care was taken to preserve this barometer from deterioration. 
 
 In order to render the following table more concise, only those results are given 
 which were obtained from the various series of comparisons, some of which were 
 made before the highest ascents, some at the most elevated points and some during 
 the descent. 
 
 No. 
 
 I. 
 II. 
 
 I. 
 II. 
 
 I. 
 II. 
 
 Dates ol comparison. 
 
 Number of 
 observations. 
 
 Extremes of pressure. 
 mm. 
 
 Correction, 
 mm. 
 
 Barometer N. 3313. 
 
 May 13tli, 20tli, 26tli, 27tli, 2!nli ami 
 
 June 2nil 
 July 19lli, 20th, 23id and 28th 
 
 from 41409 to .'J36-13 
 „ 393-90 „ 471-13 
 
 + 1-215 
 + 1-205 
 
 Mean + 1-215 
 
 May 20th 
 
 July 23id and 28tli 
 
 Barometer N. 3312. 
 
 ...I 3 
 
 ...I 3 
 
 from 4(;8-99 to 4C9-32 
 „ 468-71 „ 471 -.30 
 
 Mean 
 
 + 1-180 
 + 1-040 
 
 Barometer N. 1. 
 May 31st, June Ist, 6tli, 8th and 13th I 9 
 
 July 8th, 9th and 10th [ 3 
 
 from 399-39 to 398-60 
 „ 354-47 „ 391-07 
 
 + 1-110 
 
 + 1-1.50 
 + 1-220 
 
 Mean of means | + 1 810 
 
 The table shows that despite the difficulty of transportation, the correspondence 
 of the barometers was very satisfactory, so that the results obtained are quite 
 reliable. It is important to note that the greatest number of observations were 
 taken with barometers Nos. 3314 and 3313 (No. 3312 was used in the base camp 
 at Rdokass) ; and that the observations with the hypsometer were always taken at 
 the same time (with two, and sometimes with fourthermometers) to avoid all chance 
 of error. Tjie readings of the thermometers (within the limits of approximation 
 of the instrument) were always in accordance with those of the barometers. 
 
 Only limited use was made of the aneroids. However, they were compared 
 from time to time with the mercurial Fortin barometers in order to keep them
 
 Meteorological Report. 395 
 
 ready in case of need. The experience acquired in Africa on the Ruwenzori, as 
 well as on the present expedition, has positively demonstrated that one cannot 
 rely upon the indications given by the aneroid barometers, however accurate their 
 construction, on account of the unavoidable shaking up they get in transportation. 
 The hypsometer was carried as a substitute for the mercurial barometers ia case 
 of breakage, and also for those ascents on which it might not be possible to carry 
 the barometers. The hypsometer certainly gives a less degree of precision than the 
 mercurial barometer. The error of one-tenth of a degree (which is not unlikely 
 to occur owing to the difficulties attending the observations) would cause a corre- 
 sponding error in the pressure of about two millimetres, an error not possible to 
 the readings of the mercurial barometer. 
 
 To ensure the greatest possible degree of accuracy, the use of the hypsometer 
 was constantly associated with that of the mercurial barometers ; because, though 
 no doubt the results it gives have a smaller degree of precision, it may be useful in 
 detecting the presence of any disturbing agent in the Fortin barometers — the 
 penetration of an air bubble, for instance, which is the commonest and the most 
 to be feared. With few exceptions, use was made of the sling-thermometers for 
 measuring the temperature of the air. These are certainly preferable to the stable 
 ones, although long usage proved fatal to several of the instruments. They enabled 
 us to obtain the measurement of the tension of vapour and of the humidity of the 
 air, their bulbs being covered with a sheath of cotton soaked in water. 
 
 In order to get an approximate idea of the intensity of the sun's heat, thermo- 
 meters with the bulb blackened in vacuum were uspd. 
 
 In providing the above instruments, the Duke was perfectly aware of the just 
 criticism usually made by scientists upon determinations of this nature. But he 
 contented himself with little, not being able to obtain the best.^ 
 
 The carrying of a meteorological cage would have been difficult, and its 
 advantage was problematical. Therefore the following arrangement was adopted 
 for the exposure and reading of the instruments. 
 
 At Rdokass, where the period of the observations was most extended, the 
 instruments were hung on a cross-piece about three feet high, held up by two stakes, 
 while a waterproof cap of convenient height served to protect them from rain and 
 sun at every hour of the day. For the other stations a wooden tripod was employed, 
 covered with a strong canvas cap, under which the instruments were suspended in 
 such a manner as to secure free circulation of air. 
 
 The hours of observations indicated in the following tables correspond always 
 to the local time at which the observations were taken in the observatories of 
 India, the data of which were considered as terms of compari.sou. 
 
 ' On the Ruwenzori expedition the Duke had carried among other instriiments an excellent 
 Angstrom attinometer, but owing to its bulk and the great difficulty of it.s management, which, 
 required a reflecting galvanometer, he was unaljlo to make use of it as he had hoped.
 
 896 Appendix B. 
 
 The greatest accuracy was aimed at in takinjz the observations — as far as 
 the sometimes very difficult circumstances would permit. The comparison of 
 barometers, which I have described above — which niiglit satisfy the requirements 
 of a laboratory rather than the conditions of an arduous campaign — is sufficient 
 demonstration of the care and circumspection practised. In the tables that follow 
 are given all the observations taken by the expedition from Gund to Tragbal, 
 between April 25th and August 8th. 
 
 The readmgs of the barometers have been corrected for instrumental error, 
 reduced to 0°, and for gravitation ; corresponding corrections for all the other 
 readings being made in the same way. 
 
 The tables showing the observations as they were entered in the note-book on 
 the spot, though they refer to only a limited period of time, form a valuable and 
 interesting addition to our knowledge of the climatology of these distant and still 
 little known reL'ions.
 
 Meteorological Report. 
 
 397 
 
 II.— TABLE OF RESULTS. 
 
 A. — From Srixagar to the Baltoro Glacier. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 Pressure, nun. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 H 
 
 - h' 
 
 Teniperat 
 
 lire. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 % 2 
 
 3 — 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 r. 
 
 S3 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 GUND (stay from 11.30 ii.m. of the 25th to 7.30 a.m. of the 26th), 
 25 I 4 p.m. — I — 
 
 April . 
 
 April . 
 April. 
 
 April . 
 April . 
 
 — I — 1 18-0 I 6-82 I 44 I 20-0 I 6-5 1 — | Half overcast 
 , I I I I I I ' I I *ky, cirri-strati. 
 
 SONAMARG (from 2 p.m. of the 26th to 6..30 a.m. of the 27th). 
 
 . 26 ! 4 p.m. — — j 6 ■ 8 ( 6 ■ 52 88 _ ' — — Sky covered. 
 
 BALTAL (from 10.30 a.m. of the 27th to 2 p.m. of the 28th). 
 
 .1 27 I 4p.m. |540-35| Hyps. 4-3[ 5-521 89 | 12-0 2-0 — I Sky covered, 
 II I I I I I I I '■'*'" 'i'' intervals. 
 
 MUTAJUN (from 3 p.m. of the 28th to 4 a.m. of the 29th). 
 
 .28 4 p.m. 516-24 1 Fortin! 9-4 2-67[30 ll'O 2-0 — , Clear sky. 
 
 DRAS (from 10 a.m. .if the 29th to 7 a.m. of the 30tli). 
 
 . 29 4 p.m. — — 11-5 7-07 1 70 — — — Sky covered in 
 
 I I a.m., clear -with 
 
 I strong west wind 
 
 I in p.m. 
 
 KARBU (from 2 p.m. of the 30th to 7 a.m. of May 1st). 
 
 April. 
 
 30 
 
 18-0 110-87, 71 
 
 4 p.m. — 
 
 KARAL (from 12 m. of the 1st to 7 a.m. of the 2nd). 
 
 — Partly eloudv, 
 dull, wind S.W. to 
 W. 3. 
 
 May ... 1 4 p.m. 
 
 11-0 6-21 
 
 63 
 
 Clear and calm 
 i n a.m., dull, 
 strong S.W. wind 
 in p.m. 
 
 May 
 
 OLTHINGTHANG (from 12 m. of the 2nd to 6.30 a.m. of the 3rd). 
 . 2 4p.m. 544-45 Hyps. 14-8| 8*0 164 18-0 5-0 
 
 1 
 
 Clear in a.m.. 
 
 overcast in p.m., 
 
 gusts of wind 
 from W.
 
 398 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 May- 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 A. — From Srinagar to the Bai-toro Glacier. (c«iw.)' 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 Tt'inperature. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 s 
 
 >. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ••3 
 
 £ 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4i 
 
 "5^ 
 
 5*S 
 
 
 Month. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 E 
 
 O 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 E 
 
 i 
 a 
 
 Ill 
 
 c £5 
 
 M'ciither notes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *' 
 
 
 TAEKUTTA (from 10 a.m. of the 3rd to 6.30 a.m. of the 4th). 
 
 ..I 3 1 4 p.m. I 561-15 I Hyps. 1 16-8 I 0-96 1 7|26-0I7-0| — I Clear, gu-sts from 
 I I I II I I I I I S.W. ill p.m. 
 
 KHAEMANG (from 12 m. of the 4th to 6.30 a.m. of tlie 5th). 
 
 4 I 4 p.m. I 565-35 1 Hyps, j 18-9 
 
 0-78 
 
 5 I - 
 
 — I Clear, gusts in 
 p.m. from W. to 
 S.W. 
 
 TULTI (from 10.45 a.m. of the 5th to 6.30 a.m. of the 6th). 
 4 p.m. I 569-55! Hyps. 115-81 0-0 | - 
 
 — I — j Clear, gusts from 
 I , W. in p.m. 
 
 PARKUTTA (from 12.30 p.m. of the 6tli to 6.15 a.m. of the Tth). 
 
 6 I 4 p.m. 
 
 19-5 
 
 0-76 
 
 23-0 
 
 5-5 
 
 — Clear and calm 
 early, then half 
 overcast, wind 
 from W. 2, cirri- 
 strati. 
 
 GOL (from 10.30 a.m. of the 7th to 3.30 a.m. of the 8th). 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 17-0 3-17 22 19-7 7-5 
 
 Overcast in a.m., 
 cum.-strati, wind 
 from W. 4, p.m. 
 clear, wind from 
 W. 2. 
 
 SKARDU (from 12 m. of the 8tli to 7 a.m. of the 9th). 
 ...1 8 1 4 p.m. 1 — I — I 19-0 2-54, 16 — — — i Clear and calm. 
 SHIGAR (from 11 a.m. of the 9th to 6.30 a.m. of the 10th). 
 9 I 4 p.m. 577-401 Hyps. 22-9 TIO 5 | 28-5 , 5-8 54-2 Clear and calm. 
 
 KUSHIMUL (from 12 m. of the 10th to 6.15 a.m. of the llth). 
 
 Mav 110 1 — 1578-631 Hyps. I 23-4 I 0-89 I 13 ' 30-0 j 4-0 I 57-0 I Cirri-strati, wind 
 
 " ) I I III I III from S.W. 2. 
 
 DUSSO (from 12 m. of the llth to 6.30 a.m. of the 12th). 
 
 May ...' 11 4 p.m. 570-03 I Hyps. 209 j 2 46 1 13 | 23-0 ' 8-01 57-0 Clear, calm, cirri- 
 
 I III strati, wind from 
 
 ' ' ' W. 3.
 
 Meteorological Report. 
 
 399 
 
 A. — From Srinagar to the Baltoro Glacier. (c-o-.w.) 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 -* 
 
 
 Temperatu 
 
 
 
 -' 
 
 y, 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 >i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Month. 
 
 Day. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 e 
 
 P. 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 '- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Weather Diites. 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 May 
 
 GOMBORO (from 12 in. of the 12th to 6.15 a.m. of the 13th). 
 
 May... 12 4 p.m. 560-05 Hyp.s. 18-4 1-65 10 22-0 
 
 41 -2 Clear, calm, in 
 p.m., I covered, 
 strat.-cum., wind 
 from S.W. 3. 
 
 13 
 
 CHONGO (from 11 a.m. of the 13th to 6.30 a.m. of the 14th). 
 
 4 p.m. 532-50 Fortin 1 12-4 | 3-06 28 1 18-5 I 40 425 j covered, cirri.- 
 I I 1 emu., wind bet. 
 
 I I S. and S.W. 2. 
 
 ASKOLEY (from 10 a.m. of the 14th to 6 a.m. of the 16lh). 
 
 May ... 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 4 p.m. 
 
 527-64 
 526-45 
 
 Fortin 
 
 12-9 
 9-9 
 
 2-76 
 6-76 
 
 24 
 74 
 
 17-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 410 
 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 528-43 
 
 
 8-9 
 
 1-19 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 528-21 
 
 
 12-9 
 
 0-68 
 
 6 
 
 19-5 
 
 3-0 
 
 50-0 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 528-24 
 
 U 
 
 10-9 
 
 2-38 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 a.m. i covered, 
 cir. - stiat. p.m. 
 strat. - cum. 
 
 a.m. i covered, 
 cirri. p.m. J,gloomy, 
 gusts from W. 
 
 16 
 
 PUNMAH (from ll.:?0 a.m. of the 16th to 6 a.m. of the 17th). 
 4p.m. 522-541 Fortin l-'^'* 3.54 31 19-0 7-0 — 
 PAIJU (from 12 m. of the 17th to 6 a.m. of the 18th). 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 508-83 
 
 Fortin 
 
 12-7 
 
 1-81 16 120-5 50 590 
 
 a.m. gloomy, J 
 covered, cir.-cum. 
 Light S W. wind. 
 
 Between LILIGO and RHOBUTSE (from 11.30 a.m. of the 18th to 6 a.m. of the 19th). 
 
 Mav 
 
 18 
 
 4 p.m. (486-871 Fortin j 9-9 
 
 108 12 117-0 0-01.54-0' i covered, strati, 
 wind from W. 2.
 
 400 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 OS 
 
 O 
 
 cq 
 
 1 
 
 Weather Ncites. 
 
 
 
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 Fine, cluudy in p.m. 
 
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 402 
 
 Appendix V> 
 
 C. — Godwin Austex, Savoia and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 May I 24 1 4 p.m. i 434 04 I Fortin 
 
 May 25 10 416 -RS Fortin 
 4 p.m. 41()'72 „ 
 „ 26 4 p.m. 417-08 „ 
 
 .28 
 
 l29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 June 1 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 417-60 
 
 8 
 
 416-88 
 
 10 
 
 417 -08 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 417 -28 
 
 8 
 
 417-60 
 
 10 
 
 417-05 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 417-55 
 
 8 
 
 418-45 
 
 10 
 
 418-41 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 418-48 
 
 8 
 
 417 -.50 
 
 10 
 
 41 7 -.58 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 4:57 ■ 43 
 
 8 
 
 416-36 
 
 in 
 
 415-88 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 41602 
 
 8 
 
 415 -.56 
 
 10 
 
 415-33 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 414-83 
 
 8 
 
 414-80 
 
 10 
 
 415-25 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 1415-76 
 
 8 416-10 
 
 I 10 ,416-32 
 
 4 p.m. 1416-50 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 8 
 
 I ■^'^ 
 I 4 p.m. 
 
 414-96 
 415-62 
 41513 
 416-40 
 416 -.50 
 416-36 
 414-81 
 414-77 
 414-19 
 
 CAMP II. 
 
 3-0 1 -34 24' 12-0] 
 
 I I 
 
 CAiMP III. 
 
 1 -0 2-39 48 9-0 
 
 0-0 3-13 100 
 
 10 0-77 16 16-0 
 
 2-0 2-69 51 15-2 
 6-0 0-00 
 
 3-0 0-00 15-0 
 
 0-5 2-65 56 
 2-0 3-64 74 
 1-5 2-03 51 12-0 
 5-4 1-39 21 
 3-0 2-17 38 
 
 0-0 3-96 100 13-5 
 7-1 4-24 .56 
 3 1-34 24 
 
 I 
 30 1-34 24 130 
 3-0 2-17 38 
 
 3-5 1-08 19 170 
 
 3-5 1-91 .32 
 
 1-7 2.32 70 80 
 
 2-5 2-43 44 
 
 3-5 1 -91 32 
 
 0-0 3-74 85 130 
 
 1-0 3-22 65 
 
 0-0 3-74 81 
 
 9 -Si 
 
 Light 
 from N. 
 
 Ijreoze 
 
 10 -0 49-0 Clear, N. wind 
 ■ 90 
 • 40 
 
 42-5 
 
 
 
 4-16 
 
 91 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-17 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 3-0 
 
 0-93 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 104 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 1-07 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-04 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 3-5 
 
 0-29 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 2-09 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 6-1 
 
 1-44 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-64 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 Clear, liglit wind 
 I from N.E. 
 44-5 Clear in a.m., 
 partly cloudy in 
 p m., light wind 
 I from S.W. 
 
 9-5 37-0 Sleet. Dull. 
 
 6 - 44 - Wind from .S. W. 
 Sleet and hail in 
 p.m. 
 !)-.') 51-0 Half overcast, 
 wind from S.W., 
 .sleet in p.m. 
 Clear, very light 
 44-0 wind from S.VV., 
 partly cloudy in 
 evening. 
 Partlv cloudy, 
 40 48-0 S.W. wind, sleet 
 
 ] at intervals. 
 
 3-0 35-0 Same. 
 
 51-0 2-3 in. snow, 
 soon melted. Dull 
 weather and light 
 wind from N.E. in 
 evening. Clear 
 night, with brisk 
 wind in gusts from 
 S.W. 
 
 — 9-5 42-5 Fair, calm upper 
 air, S.W. 3. 
 
 9-0 
 
 8-3 
 
 - 40 
 
 490, Wind S.S.W. 
 
 Sky half overcast, 
 
 peaks clear. 
 38-0 Fair, light S.W. 
 
 wind. 
 
 44 "8 Fair in a.m., then 
 sky covered, S.W. 
 wind.
 
 Meteorological Report. 
 
 403 
 
 C. — Godwin Austex, Savoia A>rt) Upper Baltoro Glaciers. 
 
 {Contd.) 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 .^2 
 
 
 >i 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 £ 
 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 *i 
 
 si-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 i- 
 
 — 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 5* g 
 
 
 Month. 
 
 - 
 
 Hour. 
 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 -s 
 g 
 
 3J 
 
 5 
 S 
 2 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 111 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 l£|3 
 
 
 June 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 413-90 
 
 Fortin 
 
 - 2-0 
 
 2-39 
 
 59 
 
 10-0 
 
 -TO 
 
 430 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 413-72 
 
 }) 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-04 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 414-17 
 
 1) 
 
 1-0 
 
 117 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 24 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 417-05 
 
 >» 
 
 7-0 
 
 
 
 12-0 
 
 - 6-5 
 
 39-8 
 
 Liglit wind from 
 S.W., peaks un- 
 covered. 
 
 )» 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 419-46 
 
 ») 
 
 6-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10-0 
 
 - 60 
 
 42 
 
 Fair, cahii, very 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 419-56 
 
 )» 
 
 7-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 clear atmosphere. 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 419-85 
 
 >j 
 
 6-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 418-69 
 
 ?» 
 
 8-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 17-2 
 
 - 4-5 
 
 490 
 
 Same. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 418-35 
 
 » 
 
 11-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 418-60 
 
 )) 
 
 11-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 J» 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 415-16 
 
 )» 
 
 12-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 15-0 
 
 - 8-0 
 
 44-0 
 
 Fair, calm ; in ] 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 414-40 
 
 )» 
 
 11-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p.m. wind from 
 S.W., fresh high • 
 up, jieaks un- 
 covered. 
 
 )» 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 413- 13 
 
 j» 
 
 - 4-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5-0 
 
 - 3-5 
 
 290 
 
 Sleet, thick fog 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 413-10 
 
 )» 
 
 1-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 in valley, peaks ' 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 412-88 
 
 )) 
 
 4-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 covered; light 
 wind from S.W. 
 
 1) 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 413-00 
 
 i» 
 
 0-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0-0 
 
 — 
 
 460 
 
 Snow early in 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 413-18 
 
 »» 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 a.m., half-covered 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 413-40 
 
 )» 
 
 5-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 sky. 
 
 June 
 
 CAMP IV. 
 
 May 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 391 16 
 
 Fortin 
 
 - 20 1-18 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 390-85 
 
 
 • 2-0 1-04 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 390-55 
 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 389 07 
 
 
 - l-0|l-82 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 389-78 
 
 
 l-0ll-18 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 388-85 
 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 24 
 
 — 1 — — 
 
 ' 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 CAMP V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 394-05 Fortin 
 
 -3-0 
 
 2-86 78 
 
 8-0 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 Sleet ; strong 
 tourmente from 
 N. during night. 
 
 393 -3G „ 
 
 -80 
 
 1-39 56 
 
 90 
 
 -15-0 
 
 61 
 
 Skv partly 
 
 393-42 
 
 -2-0 
 
 3-96 100 
 
 
 
 
 cloudy, ight N. 
 
 393-82 „ 
 
 -2-J 
 
 2-211 58 
 
 
 
 
 wind. 
 
 .393 17; „ 
 
 — 
 
 
 12-0 
 
 -13-5 
 
 52-0 Light wind from 
 , N.N.W. 
 
 39.5-34 
 
 -50 
 
 1-27 40 
 
 9-0 
 
 -15-0 51 -Oi Clear, light S.W. 
 
 395-42 
 
 -30 
 
 2-09 57 
 
 
 
 
 wind. 
 
 June 7 i 5 . 15 
 (9221) 
 
 SAVOIA PASS (W. gl'cr., W. col.). 
 349-70; Fortin -90 — i _ i _ 1 _ 
 
 2 c 2
 
 404 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 C. — Godwin Austex, Savoia and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. (Conu 
 
 '■) 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 T 
 
 emperature. 
 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 g 
 
 e 
 
 >i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .,J= . 
 
 Month. 
 
 1 
 
 Hour. 
 
 E 
 
 £ 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 PS 
 
 s 
 
 a" 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 s 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 E 
 
 5sg 
 
 S C 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *" 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 June 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 I) 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 )) 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 J) 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 j» 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 )» 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 »» 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 )) 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 )> 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 » 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 >» 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 )» 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 39.T • 7 1 Fortiii 
 396 04 
 
 397 
 397 
 397 
 
 397 
 397 
 397 
 397 
 397 
 396 
 396 
 395 
 395 
 
 396 
 395 
 395 
 
 37 
 65 
 94 
 
 64 
 88 
 90 
 53 
 13 
 52 
 38 
 41 
 54 
 
 27 
 48 
 09 
 
 394-16 
 393-71 
 
 393-21 
 393-56 
 393-41 
 
 394-23 
 394-50 
 394-15 
 
 395 
 395 
 395 
 394 
 395 
 395 
 
 -42 
 -25 
 -76 
 -75 
 -25 
 -44 
 
 CAMP VI. 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-34 
 
 59 
 
 4-0 
 
 - 6-0 
 
 38-0 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3-43 
 
 80 
 
 8-0 
 
 - 4-5 
 
 50-2 
 
 30 
 
 2-17 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 0-0 
 
 3-74 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 8-0 
 
 - 4-0 
 
 _ 
 
 3-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 0-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 8-0 
 
 - 7-0 
 
 — 
 
 6-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3-0 
 
 -10-0 
 
 — 
 
 8-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 3-5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 — ■ 
 
 — 
 
 13-0 
 
 - 8-0 
 
 51-Oi 
 
 3-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 12-0 
 
 - 7-5 
 
 52-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 
 8-5 
 
 - 7-5 
 
 52-0 
 
 4-5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 _ 
 
 8-5 
 
 -10-0 
 
 55-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-0 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 6-0 
 
 2-89 
 
 100 
 
 8-0 
 
 - 9-0 
 
 50-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-82 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 0-59 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 1-33 
 
 36 
 
 9-0 
 
 - 7-5 
 
 46-0 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-12 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 1-04 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-85 
 
 55 
 
 9-0 
 
 - 8-0 
 
 51-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Sleet ; dull 
 
 weather, S.W. 
 wind. 
 
 Peaks covered ; 
 S.W. wind ; in 
 p.m. wind from 
 N.W. and S.W. 
 
 Calm in valley ; 
 S.W. wind on the 
 heights. 
 
 Fair and calm ; 
 peaks uncovered. 
 
 Sky covered ; 
 light wind from 
 S.W. 
 
 Fair in a.m. ; 
 light wind from 
 E.N.E. ; in p.m. 
 sky overcast, light 
 S.W. 
 
 Wind N.E. and 
 S.W. ; sleet, sky 
 overcast, peaks 
 covered. 
 
 Heavy weather ; 
 calm upper air, 
 light S.W. wind 
 in valley. 
 
 Light W.N.W. 
 in a.m., peaks un- 
 covered : p.m. 
 half overca8t,light 
 S.W. 
 
 Fair, wind from 
 S.W., colder 
 above. 
 
 Sleet ; strong 
 wind, gusts S.W.- 
 S.S.W. ; peaks 
 covered. 
 
 SELLA PASS. 
 June 115' 11.15 | 353-85 | Fortin | -3-0 | — | — 1 
 
 CAMP VII. 
 •6-5 12-04 74 
 
 June 14 
 
 4 373-51 Fortin 
 
 28-0 
 
 Tourmente, 
 strong S.W. ; sky 
 overcast.
 
 Meteorological Report. 
 
 405 
 
 C. — Godwin Austen, Savoia and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. (Conw.) 
 
 Date. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 ♦^ *» a* 
 
 •C 4. — 
 a> ;: S 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 June 15 
 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 June 1 24 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 373-40 Fortin 
 373-28 „ 
 372-71 „ 
 
 370-08 
 
 372-18 'I 
 370-8.5 
 369-4:5 
 369-04 
 
 .360-78 Fortin 
 
 CAMP viir. 
 
 ■6-0 1-77] 61 1 
 STAIRCASE. 
 
 •0 
 
 1-22 
 
 46 
 
 
 _ 
 
 60-0 
 
 •5 
 
 1-37 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 -0 
 
 2-09 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 -0 
 
 
 
 
 
 9-0 
 
 -10-0 
 
 
 
 -0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — . 
 
 
 
 •0 
 
 2-67 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 •0 
 
 2-61 
 
 77 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 •0 
 
 2-89 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 -0 
 
 2-26 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Strong S.W., 
 peaks covei-ed. 
 — Fair early, then 
 overcast. 
 
 June ! 25 1 p.m. | 348 30 Fortin 6-0(i) — — 
 
 CAMP IX. 
 
 June 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 430-96 
 
 Fortin 
 
 7-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 15-0 
 
 - 2-0 
 
 )» 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 432-34 
 
 •» 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 12-0 
 
 - 5-0 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 431 
 
 81 
 
 ,) 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 431 
 
 91 
 
 n 
 
 8-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 431 
 
 33 
 
 
 11-0 
 
 5-04 
 
 52 
 
 16-0 
 
 - 3-0 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 431 
 
 33 
 
 »• 
 
 12-0 
 
 3-36 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 431 
 
 23 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-54 
 
 60 
 
 17-0 
 
 - 4-0 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 431-33 
 
 n 
 
 150 
 
 4-85 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 >» 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4.32-69 
 
 )» 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-16 
 
 52 
 
 16-0 
 
 - 2-0 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 432-65 
 
 )i 
 
 11-0 
 
 2-83 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 432-56 
 
 JJ 
 
 14-5 
 
 2-87 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 433-55 
 
 )» 
 
 7-0 
 
 3-30 
 
 44 
 
 17-5 
 
 - 1-5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 434-49 
 
 J) 
 
 9-0 
 
 3-11 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 434-35 
 
 5> 
 
 11-5 
 
 3-06 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 433-01 
 
 M 
 
 2-0 
 
 3-41 
 
 64 
 
 11-0 
 
 - 2-0 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4.33-27 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 5-09 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 432 
 
 95 
 
 H 
 
 10-5 
 
 6-40 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 44-0 
 46-0 
 
 470 
 
 46-0 
 
 430 
 45-4 
 
 42-5 
 
 Wind S.VV., half 
 overcast. 
 
 Sky overcast, 
 wind S.W., snow 
 at intervals. 
 
 Very fine and 
 calm. 
 
 Fair in a.m., then 
 cloudy,ciiri-strati, 
 peaks free, W. 
 wind in upper air. 
 
 Fair and calm ; 
 light S.W. above, 
 freshening in p.m. 
 and veering 
 W.N.W. 
 
 Half overcast 
 and cirri-strati in 
 a.m. ; strong S.W. 
 above ; high peaks 
 covered ; overcast 
 in p.m. ; gusts 
 from S.W. 
 
 Sleet, peaks 
 covered, S.W. 
 above. 
 
 July 1 — 428-30 Hyps. 
 (9221) 
 
 CAMP X. 
 5-0 — — 
 (') Uncertain. 
 
 2 c 3
 
 40G 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 C. — GoDwix Austen, Savoia and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. (Contd.) 
 
 
 Datf 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Temperature. | 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 "C 
 
 
 
 -, .c . 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 ■^ 
 
 qT 
 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 S 
 
 ti 
 
 2'SS 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 01 
 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 ^.t. ^ 
 
 Month. 
 
 
 9 
 
 Hour. « 
 
 u 
 
 
 g 
 
 s. 
 
 0) 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 
 Ed 
 
 S 
 
 lil 
 
 Weatlu'r nutfs. 
 
 July 
 
 7 
 
 )) 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 9 
 
 » 
 
 10 
 
 1} 
 
 11 
 
 )} 
 
 12 
 
 » 
 
 13 
 
 n 
 
 14 
 
 » 
 
 15 
 
 J) 
 
 16 
 
 >J 
 
 17 
 
 It 
 
 18 
 
 »» 
 
 19 
 
 — 
 
 418-34 
 
 Fortin 
 
 4-0 
 
 4MP 
 
 XI. 
 
 
 
 
 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 III II 
 
 
 
 Snow :it iu- 
 terval.s, peaks 
 covered, light 
 S.W. 
 
 Snow at in- 
 tervals, peaks 
 covered, calm 
 below. Heavy 
 snowfall in even- 
 ing;. 
 
 Sky covered, 
 some peaks free. 
 
 Very fine, even- 
 ing light S.W., 
 peaks uncovered. 
 
 Very fine, S.W. 
 above. 
 
 a.m. sky half 
 overcast, p.m. 
 overcast. Sleet, 
 wind from S.W. 
 
 Snow during 
 night, snow and 
 sleet day, sky 
 covered, calra. 
 
 Calm low down, 
 sky covered, dull 
 weather, sleet, 
 half clear at sun- 
 set. 
 
 Calm low down, 
 sky and peaks 
 covered. Sleet. 
 
 Calm low down ; 
 half c o v e r e d. 
 Cirri-strati. High 
 peaks covered. 
 
 Calm below, 
 mo.stly fair, peaks 
 partly free. In 
 p.m. clouded over, 
 rain. 
 
 sky and 
 
 covered ; 
 
 N.N.E. 
 
 Calm ; 
 peaks 
 rain, 
 above. 
 
 Calm, 
 peaks 
 
 sky and 
 covered. 
 
 p.m. half clearing. 
 Fine sunset.
 
 Meteorological Keport. 
 
 407 
 
 C. — Godwin Austen, Savoia and Upper Baltoro Glaciers, iconut.) 
 
 Dat( 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 s 
 
 "_ 
 
 .-= 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;: 
 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 5-5-" 
 
 Month. 
 
 1 
 
 Hour. £ 
 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 •3 
 
 1 
 
 Li 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 H 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■§M 
 
 Weather notes 
 
 Julv 20 9.40 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 July 9 
 
 417-46 Fortin 
 417-23 „ 
 
 12 417-31 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 393-87 Fortin , 
 39.J-37 Hyps. | 
 
 393-65 Fortin 
 
 8-0 — — 
 6-0 — — 
 
 CAMP xir. 
 
 8-0 4-12 51 19-0 
 2-0 4-82 91 220 
 
 6-0 57 
 1-0 22 
 
 70 3-20 43 25-0 - 6-0 51 
 
 392-98 
 392-38 
 
 392-53 
 
 391 09 
 390 • 30 
 
 11 
 8 
 
 _2 
 
 + 2 
 
 
 
 — 122-0 
 
 2-231 21 
 
 5 2-90 
 
 5 — 
 
 2-83 
 
 4-22 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 37 
 
 — 17-0 
 29 
 
 53 
 
 — 12-0 
 
 377-71 Fortin 
 
 CAMP XIII. 
 8-0 0-31 — 16-0 
 CA.MP XIV. 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 1.30 
 
 354-00 
 
 Fortin 
 
 1-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 354-40 
 
 J, 
 
 30 
 
 0-52 
 
 )» 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 354-10 
 
 )? 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-17 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 354-35 
 
 'J 
 
 1-0 
 
 4-01 
 
 »» 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 )» 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 354-40 
 
 1) 
 
 1-5 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 -1-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 0-0 — 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 353-93 
 
 n 
 
 5-0 — 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 12-0 
 
 — 
 
 
 38 
 81 
 
 4-0 
 4-0 
 
 3-0 
 
 6-0 
 
 6-0 51 
 
 - 5-0 49 
 
 9-0 — 
 
 ■170 51 
 
 16 46 
 
 Snowfall during 
 night and a.m. ; 
 low mi.st, calm. 
 
 Snow all day, W. 
 wind high up ; 
 peaks covered ; 
 clear below. 
 
 Sniiw and sun- 
 shine at intervals. 
 
 Intervals of 
 snow and sun- 
 shine, clearing at 
 sunset. 
 I Snow ; calm. 
 
 100 60 
 
 8-0 57 
 
 1-0 58 
 
 Fair and calm. 
 
 Wind from 
 ! S.W. ; snow at in- 
 tervals ; sun. 
 
 Snow; light 
 S.W. ; intervals 
 of sun. 
 
 Light S.W. ; 
 peaks covered, 
 clear below ; in- 
 tervals of sun. 
 
 CAMP XV (i). 
 July 11 4 34212 Fortin 00 — — i 30 -13-0 51-0 Fair, light S.W. 
 
 CAMP XV (ii). 
 July 17 4 335-74 Fortin 5-0 — — — 
 
 NEAREST BRIDE PEAK. 
 Julv 18 2..30 312-33 1 Fortin I 6-0 14-18 57 — 
 
 — 67-0 Cloud V. 
 
 (9221) 
 
 C 4
 
 408 Appendix B. 
 
 I). — Observations Made on the Return Journey. 
 
 Dftte. 
 
 i 
 
 £ 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 e 
 
 t. 
 
 3 
 
 z 
 
 cC 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 K 
 
 H 
 
 V 
 
 E 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 'la 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 .S 
 
 > 
 
 Tcniperatvirf <luring 
 the a4 hours. 
 
 Weather notes. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 'i 
 
 Q 
 
 Hour. 
 
 1 
 
 e 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 Minimum, cent. 
 
 Indicated by the 
 
 thermometer with 
 
 hlack bull>. cent. 
 
 
 
 
 CAMP ON N. SIDE OF SKORO-LA. 
 
 
 July ... 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 470-34 1 Fortin; 15-8: 1 •4.3 1 11 — | — \ — 
 SKORO-LA. 
 
 Fair, light S.W. 
 
 July ... 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 413-27 Fortin 6-4 — I— !— ' — | — 
 
 Partly fair. 
 
 
 
 CAMP BETWEEN BURGI-LA AND SKARDU. 
 
 
 August 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 504-63 Fortin 19-4 5-84 1 35 ' - , -9-0 ^ — 
 
 1 1 1 i J 
 
 BUR(iI-LA. 
 
 Storm from 
 S.W. in p.m. 
 
 August 
 
 2 
 
 9.r)0 
 
 427-65 Fortin 9-4. — | — | — ! — 1 — 
 ir. CAMP on THE DEOSAI TABLE-LAND. 
 
 
 August 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 469-81 
 
 Fortin 
 
 15-3 
 
 4-66 36 
 
 — ' 0-0 
 
 
 
 Three - quarters 
 covered, strong 
 S.W. 
 
 
 
 
 SARSINGAR. 
 
 
 August 
 
 4 
 
 9.50 
 
 455-81 Fortin 11-9; — ;_| — | _|_ 
 STAKPI-LA. 
 
 Fair and talm. 
 
 August 
 
 4 
 
 12. ."iO 
 
 470-61 Fortin, 18-9, — ; — ,— - , — 
 BURZIL. 
 
 
 August 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 505-22 Fortin , 19-9, 6-77 39-0 — lii-O 
 PASHWARL 
 
 Fresh S.S.W. 
 
 August 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 570-07 Hyps. 19-9 — _ i — 
 
 11, 
 
 OUR A IS. 
 
 Rain in p.m. 
 Wind S.M^ 
 
 August 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 591-28 Hyps. 15-8 11-931 89 :— 130 
 
 1 1 > 1 
 
 — 
 
 Showers from 
 S.W., fresh wind. 
 
 
 
 
 GORE. 
 
 
 August 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 546-42 Hyps. 15-8 10-54: 79 1 — — , — 1 
 
 i ' 1 1 
 
 RAJDIANGAN PASS. 
 
 Cloudy weather, 
 calm. 
 
 August 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 497-59 Fortin 12-8 j 5-02 1 45 — — — 
 TRAGBAL. 
 
 Fair above, mists 
 below. 
 
 August 
 
 ' 
 
 4 
 
 540-38' Hyps. 1 20-91 — — ~i ~ ~ 
 
 III 1 
 
 Fair and calm.
 
 Altinietric Calculations. 409 
 
 ill.— ALTIMETRIC CALCULATIONS. 
 
 Beside the results obtained by his own observations, which are given in the 
 preceding pages, the Duke gathered a very large harvest of data from the meteoro- 
 logical observatories of India, in order to get the terms of reference required for 
 the calculation of the altitudes. As results from the above data, a first base station 
 was fixed at Rdokass, at an altitude of about 13,000 feet, well up on the Baltoro 
 glacier, on which were taken observations of pressure, temperature and humidity 
 for a period lasting from May 29th to July 15th. 
 
 Afterwards a second base was fixed at an altitude of about 16,000 feet (Camp 
 III) at the very foot of K-, beside other secondary ones, in order to secure nearer 
 points of reference for the calculation of the height of the points reached in the 
 various ascents. These calculations were made on the following basis : — 
 
 For all the stations before Rdokass and for those from Bride Peak onward 
 the calculation of the various heights was made by comparing them with the 
 simultaneous readings taken at the stations of Leh, Skardu, Gilgit, and in some 
 cases with those taken at Srinagar as well. All observations taken at stations 
 higher than Rdokass (from May 29th to July 15th), which formed the prmcipal 
 objects of the expedition, were compared with those taken simultaneously at 
 Rdokass, except for the two last, after July 15th, when owing to a misunderstanding 
 the observations at Rdokass were discontinued. 
 
 For the station near Bride Peak, which was the highest point reached, com- 
 parison was made with the readings taken at the four stations of Leh, Srinagar, 
 Skardu and Gilgit. 
 
 Of the results given in the foregoing pages, those were especially taken mto 
 consideration for which the simultaneous data of reference were secured, these 
 being complete (that is to say, not only the pressure but also the temperature of 
 the air and the tension of vapour were known). In some isolated cases the hour 
 of observation was not the same as that of the reference station ; in this case the 
 readings were compared with those taken at the nearest hour, without attempting 
 to obtain values by interpolation, which would necessarily have been unreliable.'^ 
 
 ' The observations at the most elevated point, near tlie top of Bride Peak, were taken at 
 half -past two p.m. on July 18th, and for the calculations the comparisons were made with obser- 
 vations taken at 4 p.m. in Leh, Srinagar, Skardu and Gilgit. From the data given by these 
 observatories it follows that on July 18th the pressure for Leh. Srinagar, Skardu and Gilgit 
 respectively was at 10 a.m. 497 -15, 623 94, .575 15 and 631 -66 millimetres, and at 4 p.m. 493 -96, 
 619-90, .572-20 and 627-78 millimetres. Thus the pressure at 2 p.m. was presumably much 
 higher than at 4 p.m. assumed for the calculations, and hence the altitude of the highest point 
 reached is probably some 66 feet higher than the figure obtained. But this supplementary 
 computation was not made, because it was a question of an isolated observation, and also 
 because little was knowii of tlie daily variation of the pressure in those regions.
 
 410 Appendix B. 
 
 When all the necessary data were known for the two stations of reference — in other 
 words, the pressure, the temperature and the vapour tension — the well-known 
 formula of Riihlmaiui was employed to calculate the differences of level : — 
 
 Z = 1S400 O'00157 + OOOotiT 0) ( _ Q.o-o A, 
 
 7 
 X (1 + 0-002.-^9 CO.S 2\) 1 + (^r^f^^Ql) log £, 
 
 in which 
 
 Z = the difference of level between the two stations ; 
 //!, = the corrected pressure at the lower station ; 
 // = „ „ „ „ upper station ; 
 
 6 = " .-, the mean between the temperature of tlie air at the lower stsition and 
 
 at the ui)per station ; 
 
 f + f 
 
 =*'-^— the mean between the vapour tension at the lower station and that 
 
 obtained at the upper station ; 
 
 1 = -2 ' 
 
 \ = the latitude ; 
 
 z = the height of the lower station above sea level. 
 
 The calculations were made by means of the Tables meteordogiques inter- 
 natimiales, Paris, 1890. 
 
 In those cases where only the pressure and the temperature of the air were known, 
 the tension of vapour not bemg determined, the formula used was that given 
 in the Annuarre four Van 1909 jniblie par le Bureau des Longitudes, in which are 
 also included some tables that facilitated the calculations. The formula is as 
 follows : — 
 
 ^ \ 1000 J 
 
 in which 
 
 A^ = 18.-.S2 • hy '^ + -i f 18382 % ' ^-^Y 
 
 •^ // (J366000 \ B J, 
 
 A = 18382 • lor, ' ^°- + -i (18382 % '^ f 
 
 ■ IT, (5366000 \ • /f„ /, 
 
 the symbols having the same meaning as before. 
 
 In this approximate formula no account is taken of the humidity of the air, 
 but to make up for this we have assumed 0'004 as the coefficient of expansion of 
 the air instead of 0-00367.
 
 Altiinetric Calculations. 
 
 411 
 
 When it is only a question of isolated observations, we consider this formula 
 more than sufficient in consequence of the uncertainty of the law of decrease of 
 temperature with increase of altitude. 
 
 For further proof, and to .show more clearly the value that we can attribute 
 to the individual observations in the pages that follow, we give in addition to the 
 observations taken by the Duke those obtained simultaneously at the reference 
 stations, drawn as far as Leh and Srinagar are concerned from the data obtained 
 from the central observatory at Simla, and for those of Skardu and Gilgit from the 
 observatory of Srinagar. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter here into the value of the barometric method in 
 calculating altitudes. If this method is not on the whole to be compared with the 
 geodetic in precision, still, used with care, it may lead to very satisfactory residts. 
 
 We give in the following table the measurements obtained by the Duke in 1906 
 in the Ruwenzori group by means of barometric measurements and those taken two 
 years later with the geodetic method by Major R. G. T. Bright,' during the labours of 
 the Boundary Commission for the delimitation of the boimdaries of the Congo Free 
 State : — 
 
 Muuntain. 
 
 Boundary commission. 
 
 H.H.II. 
 
 Differeni-.s. 
 Feet. Metres. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 
 a 
 
 / 
 
 e 
 
 d 
 
 c-a 
 
 "-/ 
 
 Margherita 
 
 16794 
 
 5119 
 
 16815 
 
 5125 
 
 + 21 
 
 1 
 + 6 
 
 Alessandra 
 
 16726 
 
 5098 
 
 16749 
 
 5105 
 
 + 23 
 
 + 7 
 
 Elena 
 
 1634.-) 
 
 4982 
 
 16.388 
 
 4995 
 
 + 43 
 
 + 13 
 
 Savoia 
 
 16421 
 
 5005 
 
 16339 
 
 4980 
 
 - 82 
 
 -25 
 
 Umberto 
 
 1.57.^)4 
 
 4802 
 
 15988 
 
 4873 
 
 + 234 
 
 + 71 
 
 Krepelin 
 
 15724 
 
 4793 
 
 15752 
 
 4801 
 
 + 28 
 
 + 8 
 
 Weissmann 
 
 1.5163 
 
 4622 
 
 15299 
 
 4663 
 
 + 1.36 
 
 + 41 
 
 Practically identical results were also attained in the determination of the 
 altitude of Mount St. Elias : — 
 
 Altitude determined by the Duke with barometric method, 18,090 feet. 
 Id. by Russel (by triangulation), 18,100 feet. 
 
 Id. by I. K. MacGrath, U.S. Coast Survey (by triangulation), 18,024 feet. 
 But there is no doubt that the best results are those obtained from a long series 
 of observations, and that greater uncertainty remains in the case of those based on 
 isolated observations, especially when the tension of vapour has not been determined. 
 The last table contains a summary of all the altimetric data. 
 
 ' Survey and Exploration in the Ruwenzori and Lalce Region, Central Africa. By JLiJOR 
 R. G. T. Bright, C.M.G., Geog. Jour. Aug. 1909, XXXIV. p. 128.
 
 412 
 
 Appendix B, 
 
 DATA OF OBSERVATION AND COMPARISON. 
 
 A. — From Kashmir to the Baltoro Glacier. 
 
 No. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Station of observation. 
 
 Simultaneous data of comparison 
 
 Month 
 aii.l 
 day. 
 
 X 
 
 Place. 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 a 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 i. 
 
 at 
 
 1 
 
 Instrument used 
 
 for measurement 
 
 of pressure, 
 
 1 
 
 Of the 
 
 stations 
 
 of 
 
 s 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 1 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 s. 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 P 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 27 April 
 
 16 
 
 Baltal 
 
 540-35 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-52 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Si'inagar 
 
 ! 
 
 627-88 20-4 
 
 13-26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leh ...'49rr.52 11 
 
 3 
 
 1-94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu i 574-8.") 18 
 
 6 
 
 0-96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ...j 633 18 23 
 
 3 
 
 10-12 
 
 2 
 
 28 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Mutajun 
 
 516-24 
 
 9-4 
 
 2-67 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Srinagar 628-39 21 
 
 7 
 
 13-57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 497-. 50 13 
 
 2 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 576-63 19 
 
 3 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 633-33 27 
 
 3 
 
 3-68 
 
 3 
 
 2 May 
 
 16 
 
 Olthingthang 
 
 544-45 
 
 14-8 
 
 8-00 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 496-10 15 
 576-43 19 
 632-72 23 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 0-00 
 0-00 
 1-49 
 
 4 
 
 3 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Tarkutta ... 
 
 561-15 16-8 
 
 0-96 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 495-17 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 .576-12 18 
 
 1 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 632-72 1 23 
 
 1 
 
 1-49 
 
 5 
 
 4 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Kharmang ... 
 
 565-35 118-9 
 
 0-78 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 496-34 15 
 
 7 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 577-26 18 
 
 1 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 633-92 20 
 
 7 
 
 2-70 
 
 6 
 
 5 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Tolti 
 
 569-65 
 
 15-8 
 
 0-00 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 496-64 15 
 
 577-21 18 
 636-64 19 
 
 7 
 1 
 8 
 
 0-00 
 0-00 
 2 -.30 
 
 7 
 
 9 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Sliigai- . 
 
 577-40 
 
 22-9 
 
 1-19 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 
 498-64 15 
 578-51 23 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0-00 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 634-53 29 
 
 8 
 
 3-27 
 
 8 
 
 11 ., 
 
 16 
 
 Dusso 
 
 570-03 
 
 20-9 2-46 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 498-47 17 
 
 9 
 
 0-83 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 577 -19 23 
 
 3 
 
 0-05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 635-97 31 
 
 3 
 
 3-05 
 
 9 
 
 12 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Gomboro 
 
 560-05' 18-4 ' 1-65 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 497-78 16 
 
 7 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 576-89 22 
 
 5 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 634-86 25 
 
 8 
 
 6-12 
 
 10 
 
 13 „ 
 
 16 
 
 Chongo 
 
 532-50 12-4 3-06 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 496-76 17 
 
 4 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 1 577-04 20 
 
 5 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ...| 636-41 22-3 
 
 7-42
 
 Altimetric Calculations. 
 
 413 
 
 03 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 ■< 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 o 
 
 H 
 ►J 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 Oi 
 
 ■* 
 
 05 
 
 :^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 'luai 
 
 Oi 
 
 <3i 
 
 S4 
 
 •* 
 
 <p 
 
 <o 
 
 
 
 ■anodiTA JO aoisuax 
 
 pH 
 
 1— ( 
 
 •* 
 
 re 
 
 f— 1 
 
 01 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -t 
 
 CD 
 
 05 
 
 t 
 
 
 » 
 
 "juao 'ajTH'BJ^diuax 
 
 ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 cn 
 
 cs 
 
 00 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 r-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »- 
 
 1^ 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 05 
 
 o 
 
 
 is' 
 
 |0 
 
 o 
 
 t^ 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 -* 
 
 05 
 
 Ifl 
 
 
 CXj 
 
 l^ 
 
 C5 
 
 05 
 
 t^ 
 
 05 
 
 a 
 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 OS 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 o 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 T 
 
 ■* 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 •* 
 
 Tf 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 -t 
 
 CD 
 
 O 
 
 I^ 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 5 
 
 
 'OIUI 
 
 t^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 fri 
 
 fM 
 
 CD 
 
 *S 
 
 
 •jnodBA JO aoisaax 
 
 to 
 
 « 
 
 t^ 
 
 CD 
 
 i 
 
 OD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "C 
 
 H 
 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 Tf 
 
 t^ 
 
 s. 
 
 S 
 
 1-} 
 
 •-^uao 'aJtviBJaduiax 
 
 I^ 
 
 fn 
 
 05 
 
 ^ 
 
 rM 
 
 O 
 
 E 
 
 
 1— I 
 
 (M 
 
 
 O) 
 
 (Tl 
 
 (M 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 aT 
 
 (M 
 
 05 
 
 00 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 
 is' 
 
 o 
 
 ■n 
 
 r- 
 
 05 
 
 CO 
 
 r* 
 
 •s 
 
 
 ira 
 
 M 
 
 la 
 
 ■n 
 
 CO 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 
 Oh 
 
 «D 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 f_^ 
 
 o 
 
 ,_i 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 S 
 
 
 'tuoi 
 
 
 '•P 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 •jnodBA JO uotsudx 
 
 -* 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 (» 
 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 tj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (N 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 f— 1 
 
 lO 
 
 05 
 
 
 n 
 
 QQ 
 
 '4II90 'djn^visdozsx 
 
 03 
 
 C5 
 
 ©1 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 I— I 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 <N 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 O 
 
 05 
 
 i-O 
 
 o 
 
 fM 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 -1* 
 
 I" 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 fN 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 O 
 
 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 CD 
 
 I^ 
 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 I^ 
 
 t~ 
 
 t^ 
 
 t~ 
 
 t- 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 lO 
 
 ■O 
 
 o 
 
 •o 
 
 O 
 
 »o 
 
 
 
 •3Jnss3Jd 
 
 _e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO 'jndtndjnsvdm 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 ;: 
 
 E 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 joj ;uamnj;sai 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .§' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-S 
 
 
 
 «D 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 <o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 'lum 
 
 t^ 
 
 I^ 
 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 1 
 
 'jnod-BA JO aoisaax 
 
 (N 
 
 CD 
 
 •^ 
 
 6 
 
 rM 
 
 (N 
 
 
 05 
 
 03 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 l"H 
 
 g 
 
 5 
 
 ')Ud3 *djn)BJddmdx 
 
 oq 
 
 05 
 
 00 
 
 OQ 
 
 b 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 
 
 I— ' 
 
 l-H 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ra 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 -t 
 
 tO 
 
 c; 
 
 ,_ 
 
 -* 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 3 ■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 'i* 
 
 tT 
 
 r>\ 
 
 ^1 
 
 t' 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 1?- 
 
 <r> 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 ,"^ 
 
 
 
 <N 
 
 fN 
 
 rM 
 
 CN 
 
 (N 
 
 (N 
 
 
 
 (1. 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 *-- 
 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 T)l 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 •* 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !>> 
 
 : 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 V 
 
 
 cfl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 
 TS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 a 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 ■o 
 
 1— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1i 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 

 
 414 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 A. — From Kashmir to the Baltoro Glacier. (Conw.) 
 
 No. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Instninifnt for 
 
 measurement 
 of pressure. 
 
 Simultaneous data of comparison 
 
 Month and 
 <iay. 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 Place. 
 
 S 
 S 
 
 € 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 si 
 
 Of the 
 stations of 
 
 B 
 S 
 
 aT 
 t- 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 if 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 12 
 
 16 May 
 
 4 
 
 Punniah 
 
 522-54 
 
 13-4 
 
 3-54 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 497-02 
 575-06 
 632-32 
 
 12-5 
 19-9 
 25-6 
 
 4-90 
 1-54 
 5-83 
 
 13 
 
 1" „ 
 
 4 
 
 Paiju 
 
 508-83 
 
 12-7 
 
 1-81 
 
 Fortiu 
 
 Leli 
 
 497-71 
 
 10-6 
 
 1-09 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 576-48 
 
 19-8 1-71 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 G34-53 
 
 22-9 
 
 8-03 
 
 14 
 
 18 „ 
 
 4 
 
 Between Liligo 
 
 486-87 
 
 9-9 
 
 1-08 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Leh 
 
 498-74 
 
 12-1 
 
 3-03 
 
 
 
 
 audKhobutse 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit 
 
 576 43 
 632-90 
 
 22-8 0-00 
 29-9 4-63 
 
 1 
 
 The fuur tables which follow give the data tVoiu observations made May 29th 
 to July loth at the stations of Srinagar, Leh, Skardu and Gilgit, which served as 
 reference to the observations carried on during the same period at Rdokass 
 (see pages 400-401).
 
 Altiinetric Calculation^ 
 
 415 
 
 B. — Seinagae. 
 
 Hour of observations— 8 a.m. 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 Date 
 
 ?6 
 
 
 
 .£ 2 -■ "^- 
 
 HS 
 
 29 May 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 1 June 
 ■2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 
 629-30 
 
 17-4 
 
 628-54 
 
 18-8 
 
 627-22 
 
 19-7 
 
 629-12 
 
 16-6 
 
 629-60 
 
 16-3 
 
 628-01 
 
 17-7 
 
 625-90 
 
 19-4 
 
 626 12 
 
 17-4 
 
 624-75 
 
 18-6 
 
 626 10 
 
 19-7 
 
 625 ■ 79 
 
 20-2 
 
 624-91 
 
 21-3 
 
 627-52 
 
 18-0 
 
 629-83 
 
 19-7 
 
 630-95 
 
 20-5 
 
 628-74 
 
 20-2 
 
 627-24 
 
 20-5 
 
 627-88 
 
 16-6 
 
 625-90 
 
 18-0 
 
 624-07 
 
 19-7 
 
 . — 
 
 17-4 
 
 626 07 
 
 19-7 
 
 626-12 
 
 20-5 
 
 627 12 
 
 17-2 
 
 627-14 
 
 20-2 
 
 628-16 
 
 19-7 
 
 626-51 
 
 21-3 
 
 624-19 
 
 22-7 
 
 625-18 
 
 18-8 
 
 624-37 
 
 19-7 
 
 11-81 
 
 12 -57 
 
 80 629-45 
 — 629-83 
 78 628-64 
 
 13-69 
 
 80 
 
 627-60 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 15-05 
 
 77 
 
 626-12 
 
 11-87 
 
 84 
 
 628-58 
 
 19 
 
 7 12-92 
 
 76 
 
 628-43 
 
 12-05 
 
 87 
 
 629-80 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 13-62 
 
 84 
 
 626-81 
 
 12-06 
 
 80 
 
 628-23 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 14-29 
 
 76 
 
 624-85 
 
 13-10 
 
 78 
 
 6-25-64 
 
 23 
 
 15-72 
 
 75 
 
 624-47 
 
 11-81 
 
 80 
 
 626-01 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 15-23 
 
 79 
 
 622-71 
 
 12-70 
 
 80 
 
 624-83 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 16-72 
 
 t~ 
 
 621-95 
 
 13-22 
 
 77 
 
 625-79 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 16-82 
 
 74 
 
 623-56 
 
 13-85 
 
 79 
 
 625-84 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 16-99 
 
 74 
 
 623-42 
 
 14-93 
 
 79 
 
 625-06 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 17-62 
 
 73 
 
 623-79 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 625-23 
 
 12-17 
 
 79 
 
 627-60 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 14-92 
 
 74 
 
 626-06 
 
 13-22 
 
 77 
 
 629-91 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 17-29 
 
 76 
 
 627-77 
 
 14-14 
 
 79 
 
 631-18 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 17-29 
 
 76 
 
 627-67 
 
 13-38 
 
 76 
 
 628 -76 
 
 24 
 
 7 17-63 
 
 76 
 
 625-36 
 
 13-67 
 
 76 
 
 626-83 
 
 21 
 
 9 14-57 
 
 75 
 
 627-23 
 
 11-45 
 
 81 
 
 627-60 
 
 19 
 
 8 13-48 
 
 78 
 
 624-93 
 
 12-17 
 
 79 
 
 625-96 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 13-42 
 
 67 
 
 623-32 
 
 13-22 
 
 77 
 
 624-22 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 15-51 
 
 77 
 
 624-62 
 
 12-24 
 
 83 
 
 626-15 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 15-41 
 
 80 
 
 624-03 
 
 13-69 
 
 80 
 
 626-12 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 16-76 
 
 74 
 
 623-47 
 
 14-14 
 
 79 
 
 626-25 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 17-75 
 
 76 
 
 624-29 
 
 11-50 
 
 79 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 624-95 
 
 13-85 
 
 79 
 
 627-19 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 17-94 
 
 80 
 
 625-44 
 
 12-92 
 
 76 
 
 627-93 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 17-81 
 
 74 
 
 624-74 
 
 14-93 
 
 79 
 
 626-12 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 17-50 
 
 69 
 
 622-95 
 
 15-90 
 
 78 
 
 623-96 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 19-45 
 
 71 
 
 620-57 
 
 13-47 
 
 83 
 
 625-71 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 14-45 
 
 83 
 
 623-40 
 
 13-22 
 
 77 
 
 624-14 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 16-55 
 
 76 
 
 622-23 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 624-64 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 17-81 
 
 74 
 
 621-73 
 
 623-40 26 
 
 622-08 27 
 
 624-27 27 
 
 626-17 28 
 
 627-06 21 
 
 626-20 20 
 
 626-91 15 
 
 628-96 18 
 
 627-88 22 
 
 625 -.52 24 
 
 624 -.59 25 
 
 625-00 26 
 
 625-25 1 27 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 1 1 
 
 ± 
 
 16 
 
 8S 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 72 
 
 83 
 
 4 18-79 73 
 
 5 19-83 73 
 7 22-90 83 
 2 21-17 74 
 
 627-21 
 627-62 
 625-99 
 
 4 
 
 15-36 
 
 81 
 
 9 
 
 13-42 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 11-23 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 
 12-70 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 16-04 
 
 81 
 
 2 
 
 16-71 
 
 74 
 
 f 
 
 18-47 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 
 19-30 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 20-21 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 '~~ 
 
 Calculated mean of 
 
 Pressure... 
 Teiniierature 
 Tensiou of vapour 
 
 620-20 
 619-85 
 622-05 
 625-03 
 624-52 
 624-44 
 623-30 
 627-08 
 625-99 
 624-09 
 623 00 
 622-82 
 622-90 
 623-56 
 622-13 
 
 62o-72 mm. 
 23-5° c. 
 16-90 mm. 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 22- 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 20- 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 19- 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 16- 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 11- 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 17- 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 20- 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 18- 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 19- 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 22- 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 21- 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 22- 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 21- 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 15- 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 21- 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 20- 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 20- 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 22- 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 13- 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 19- 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 21- 
 
 22 
 
 7 15- 
 
 26 
 
 7 17- 
 
 28 
 
 8 20- 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 20- 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 21- 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 24- 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 26- 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 26- 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 25- 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 16- 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 19- 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 24- 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 25- 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 25- 
 
 31 
 
 6 
 
 24- 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 22- 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 21- 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 17- 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 19- 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 10- 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 18- 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 21- 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 22- 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 19- 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 21- 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 19- 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 21- 
 
 38 74 
 
 43 73 
 
 31 74 
 
 33 76 
 
 94 78 
 
 29, 78 
 
 02' 75 
 
 11 78 
 
 63 75 
 
 42 72 
 
 61 68 
 
 93 73 
 
 20 78 
 
 97 78 
 
 59 75 
 29 73 
 93 71 
 75 70 
 93 75 
 03 78 
 99 76 
 73 77 
 67 68 
 
 60 70 
 83 j 74 
 87 75 
 
 39 
 04 
 53 
 
 69 66 
 
 63 72 
 
 24! 73 
 
 02 ! 75 
 
 72 
 71 
 72 
 71 
 74 
 73 
 70 
 81 
 
 1 I 
 
 74 
 74 
 75 
 71 
 76 
 74
 
 41G 
 
 A})peudix li. 
 
 Leh. 
 
 Hour of observations — 8 a.m. 
 
 
 
 
 10 a.m. 
 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 Date. 
 
 li 
 
 
 ai 1 
 
 lie 
 
 li 
 
 s 
 
 is 
 
 III 
 
 11 
 
 £ 
 
 is 
 
 it 
 II 
 
 -i|£ 
 
 «2 
 
 29 May 
 
 501-66 
 
 12-7 
 
 1-92 
 
 17 
 
 501-51 
 
 16-7 
 
 1-44 
 
 10 
 
 498-54 
 
 21-0 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 501 
 
 79 
 
 17-3 
 
 1 
 
 86 
 
 12 
 
 499 08 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1-64 
 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 501-13 
 
 12-9 
 
 2-44 
 
 22 
 
 500 
 
 98 
 
 17-7 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 12 
 
 497-81 
 
 21- 
 
 3 
 
 2-70 
 
 14 
 
 1 June 
 
 499-25 
 
 13-2 
 
 2-26 
 
 20 
 
 498 
 
 90 
 
 17-4 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 16 
 
 496-05 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 498-98 
 
 14-1 
 
 3-11 
 
 26 
 
 498 
 
 44 
 
 17-3 
 
 3 
 
 69 
 
 25 
 
 494-91 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 3-12 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 497-95 
 
 13-5 
 
 4-15 
 
 36 
 
 497 
 
 93 
 
 14-6 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 496-61 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 3-68 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 499-41 
 
 11-3 
 
 3-40 
 
 34 
 
 499 
 
 20 
 
 15-7 
 
 2 
 
 82 
 
 21 
 
 499 -.55 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 2-02 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 498-03 
 
 12-9 
 
 3-84 
 
 35 
 
 497 
 
 63 
 
 17-8 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 16 
 
 495-27 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 496-73 
 
 11-8 
 
 2-78 
 
 27 
 
 496 
 
 66 
 
 17-8 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 494-40 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 1-28 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 498-10 
 
 14-1 
 
 2-57 
 
 21 
 
 497 
 
 98 
 
 17-4 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 10 
 
 494-43 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 498-10 
 
 14-6 
 
 1-63 
 
 13 
 
 498 
 
 03 
 
 18-9 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 495-75 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 498-39 
 
 14-6 
 
 1-42 
 
 11 
 
 498 
 
 13 
 
 191 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 11 
 
 495-27 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 1-37 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 497-34 
 
 14-3 
 
 2-99 
 
 24 
 
 496 
 
 94 
 
 18-8 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 11 
 
 494-10 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 1-74 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 494-71 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 1-76 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 497-49 
 
 13-8 
 
 3-08 
 
 26 
 
 497 
 
 68 
 
 19-1 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 17 
 
 495-87 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 500-93 
 
 13-5 
 
 2-94 
 
 25 
 
 500 
 
 93 
 
 17-9 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 12 
 
 498-31 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 1-61 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 500-77 
 
 16-3 
 
 3-36 
 
 24 
 
 500 
 
 64 
 
 19-5 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 13 
 
 497-70 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 2-79 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 500-37 
 
 14-3 
 
 3-67 
 
 30 
 
 500 
 
 29 
 
 18-9 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 17 
 
 497-25 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 499-30 
 
 13-8 
 
 3-63 
 
 31 
 
 498 
 
 95 
 
 17-9 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 496 10 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 497-39 
 
 14 6 
 
 3-14 
 
 25 
 
 494 
 
 50 
 
 18-2 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 16 
 
 495-47 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 0-65 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 497-91 
 
 12-7 
 
 3-96 
 
 36 
 
 500 
 
 03 
 
 17-4 
 
 2 
 
 70 
 
 18 
 
 494-98 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 2-29 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 496-25 
 
 12-9 
 
 4-51 
 
 40 
 
 495 
 
 51 
 
 17-5 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 33 
 
 494-53 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4-94 
 
 35 ; 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 9-3 
 
 6-00 
 
 69 
 
 496 
 
 43 
 
 13-8 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 49 
 
 494-15 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 3-, 57 
 
 23 ! 
 
 21 
 
 497-73 
 
 12-1 
 
 4-10 
 
 39 
 
 497 
 
 47 
 
 16-0 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 26 
 
 494-96 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 498-08 
 
 14-6 
 
 3-14 
 
 25 
 
 497 
 
 75 
 
 18-4 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 494-76 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 2-00 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 498-21 
 
 13-8 
 
 3-97 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 . — 
 
 495-17 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 3-37 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 499-76 
 
 12-4 
 
 2-95 
 
 27 
 
 499 
 
 78 
 
 17-3 
 
 2 
 
 08 
 
 14 
 
 497 -.55 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 1-13 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 501-44 
 
 14-1 
 
 3-79 
 
 31 
 
 501 
 
 39 
 
 19-6 
 
 2 
 
 06 
 
 12 
 
 497-81 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 2-16 
 
 9 
 
 26 
 
 500-17 
 
 14-6 
 
 4-16 
 
 34 
 
 499 
 
 66 
 
 20-7 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 496-25 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 2-59 
 
 10' 
 
 27 
 
 497-17 
 
 15-7 
 
 4-07 
 
 31 
 
 496 
 
 58 
 
 210 
 
 2 
 
 76 
 
 15 
 
 492-80 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 3-07 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 495-22 
 
 14-6 
 
 4-74 
 
 38 
 
 494 
 
 53 
 
 20-4 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 492-29 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 4-07 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 496-39 
 
 13-2 
 
 3-99 
 
 35 
 
 496 
 
 35 
 
 16-2 
 
 3 
 
 65 
 
 26 
 
 493-90 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 4-27 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 496 
 
 48 
 
 21-2 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 
 493-01 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 3-61 
 
 17 
 
 IJuly 
 
 496-27 
 
 15-7 
 
 4-42 
 
 33 
 
 496 
 
 27 
 
 20-1 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 19 
 
 492-77 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 5-11 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 495-47 
 
 15-2 
 
 5-08 
 
 39 
 
 495 
 
 39 
 
 20-4 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 17 
 
 492-34 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4-13 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 496-76 
 
 15-7 
 
 4-42 
 
 33 
 
 496 
 
 94 
 
 19-7 
 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 35 
 
 494-38 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 5-93 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 498-34 
 
 17-4 
 
 5-43 
 
 36 
 
 498 
 
 00 
 
 21-2 
 
 5 
 
 53 
 
 29 
 
 495-55 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 5-86 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 498-20 
 
 16-8 
 
 5-79 
 
 41 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 . — 
 
 496-61 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 6-44 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 497-44 
 
 15-7 
 
 6-70 
 
 50 
 
 497 
 
 17 
 
 19-5 
 
 7 
 
 09 
 
 42 
 
 493-82 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 5-44 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 497-09 
 
 14-1 
 
 5-04 
 
 42 
 
 496 
 
 66 
 
 18-9 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 31 
 
 493-61 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 5-14 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 496-22 
 
 14-1 
 
 5-04 
 
 42 
 
 495 
 
 60 
 
 18-5 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 32 
 
 493-59 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 5-96 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 498-90 
 
 12-4 
 
 4-14 
 
 38 
 
 498 
 
 64 
 
 16-6 
 
 4 
 
 82 
 
 34 
 
 495-44 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 4-86 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 498-90 
 
 12-9 
 
 4-51 
 
 40 
 
 498 
 
 59 
 
 17-9 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 495-27 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 6-24 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 498-13 
 
 14-1 
 
 4-47 
 
 37 
 
 497 
 
 93 
 
 19-9 
 
 3 
 
 67 
 
 21 
 
 494-68 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 5-62 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 497-05 
 
 16-3 
 
 7-09 
 
 51 
 
 497 
 
 00 
 
 18-8 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 494-20 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 6-73 
 
 30 ! 
 
 13 
 
 496-92 
 
 15-4 
 
 7-63 
 
 59 
 
 497 
 
 19 
 
 19-.^) 
 
 8 
 
 02 
 
 48 
 
 496-66 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 8-87 
 
 49 i 
 
 14 
 
 497-98 
 
 15-4 
 
 2-05 
 
 69 
 
 498 
 
 08 
 
 18-8 
 
 7-90 
 
 49 
 
 495-14 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 9-68 
 
 46 1 
 
 15 
 
 497-63 
 
 15-2 
 
 8-39 
 
 65 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 493-87 
 
 23-4 
 
 8-44 
 
 39 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 r Pres 
 
 sure.. 
 
 
 4 
 
 97-12 n. 
 
 im. 
 
 
 
 
 Calculate 
 
 d mean 
 
 of 
 
 < Tern 
 Teus 
 
 lerature 
 ion of vapou 
 
 r 
 
 18-3° c. 
 .■>-59 11 
 
 111. 
 

 
 Altimetric Calculations. 
 
 417 
 
 Skardu. 
 
 Hour of observations — 
 
 8 a.m. 
 
 
 10 a.m. 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 1? lis 
 II ^r 
 
 
 £ 
 
 if 
 
 ^ = -1 . 
 
 1 J= 
 
 £ 
 
 ;- " 
 
 
 Isi 
 
 1 ^"z 
 
 'It 
 
 29 May 
 
 580-21 
 
 19-6 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 39 
 
 .579-70 
 
 22 
 
 3 4 
 
 99 
 
 25 
 
 577-23 
 
 27-5 
 
 1-46 
 
 ! 5 
 
 30 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 580-61 
 
 22 
 
 2 5 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 577-45 
 
 25-3 
 
 1-52 
 
 6 
 
 .31 
 
 579-58 
 
 18-7 
 
 6 
 
 53 
 
 40 
 
 579-19 
 
 22 
 
 3 4 
 
 86 
 
 24 
 
 575-75 
 
 27-0 
 
 1-25 
 
 5 
 
 1 June 
 
 576-63 
 
 18-6 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 33 
 
 576-84 
 
 20 
 
 8 4 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 575 13 
 
 24-9 
 
 3-41 
 
 15 
 
 -> 
 
 576-84 
 
 18-3 
 
 6 
 
 91 
 
 43 
 
 .576-75 
 
 19 
 
 5 5 
 
 65 
 
 34 
 
 574 -.30 
 
 24-3 
 
 5-50 
 
 24 1 
 
 .3 
 
 577-97 
 
 16-3 
 
 8 
 
 77 
 
 64 
 
 577-67 
 
 20 
 
 4 8 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 575-28 
 
 23-8 
 
 3-44 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 577-72 
 
 19-4 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 .577-32 
 
 23 
 
 1 5 
 
 03 
 
 24 
 
 .573-97 
 
 27-7 
 
 3 05 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 578-07 
 
 20-3 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 .')75-13 
 
 23 
 
 8 2 
 
 .30 
 
 10 
 
 572-61 
 
 26-5 
 
 1-17 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 574-50 
 
 20-1 
 
 5 
 
 04 
 
 29 
 
 574-04 
 
 23 
 
 6 2 
 
 04 
 
 9 
 
 572-09 
 
 27-6 
 
 3-11 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 576-23 
 
 19-2 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 575-72 
 
 22 
 
 9 2 
 
 .35 
 
 11 
 
 .572-04 
 
 29-7 
 
 1-43 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 576-23 
 
 20-0 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 19 
 
 .575-97 
 
 23 
 
 7 3 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 573-66 29-2 
 
 1-46 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 576-48 
 
 19-9 
 
 4 
 
 91 
 
 28 
 
 576-23 
 
 23 
 
 7 2 
 
 49 
 
 11 
 
 573-31 29-1 
 
 2-59 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 574-81 
 
 19-9 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 20 
 
 574-46 
 
 24 
 
 3 3 
 
 53 
 
 16 
 
 571-89 
 
 27-9 
 
 2-40 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 573-80 
 
 23-7 
 
 4-21 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 576-23 
 
 18-8 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 .576-07 
 
 23 
 
 7 4 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 .574 -.53 
 
 26-6 
 
 1-74 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 579-12 
 
 20-4 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 578-81 
 
 23 
 
 3 4 
 
 91 
 
 23 
 
 .576-15 
 
 28-7 
 
 1-91 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 578-67 
 
 23-7 
 
 4 
 
 02 
 
 18 
 
 578-49 
 
 25 
 
 2 3 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 .575-95 27-4 
 
 2-56 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 578-21 
 
 20-4 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 31 
 
 .577-80 
 
 24 
 
 2 5 
 
 03 
 
 22 
 
 575-69 
 
 27-7 
 
 3 -.31 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 576-23 
 
 20-2 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 576-28 
 
 24 
 
 9 4 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 574-78 
 
 26-3 
 
 2-57 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 575-46 
 
 19-2 
 
 5 
 
 96 
 
 36 
 
 575-11 
 
 22 
 
 6 4 
 
 81 
 
 23 
 
 572 - 70 
 
 27-0 
 
 2-94 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 574-70 
 
 20-8 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 574-35 
 
 24 
 
 3 3 
 
 78 
 
 17 
 
 571-32 
 
 30-0 
 
 3-29 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 575-11 
 
 21-1 
 
 5 
 
 72 
 
 31 
 
 572 16 
 
 24 
 
 9 4 
 
 60 
 
 19 
 
 570-36 
 
 25-5 
 
 3-84 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 21-4 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 21 
 
 .575-36 
 
 23 
 
 7 5 
 
 80 
 
 27 
 
 573-13 
 
 22-6 
 
 3-53 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 575-72 
 
 18-2 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 575-21 
 
 21 
 
 9 5 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 .572-04 
 
 28-6 
 
 2-63 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 575-08 
 
 20-4 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 27 
 
 574-65 
 
 24 
 
 2 3 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 572-85 
 
 28-9 
 
 1-65 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 575-11 
 
 22-6 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 22 
 
 — 
 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 573-31 
 
 28-2 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 576-88 
 
 20-5 
 
 3 
 
 91 
 
 22 
 
 576 -94 
 
 24 
 
 7 3 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 574 -.37 
 
 .30-6 
 
 1-42 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 579-32 
 
 22-2 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 578-89 
 
 25 
 
 8 2 
 
 61 
 
 11 
 
 .576-15 
 
 33-2 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 577-60 
 
 23-1 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 577-11 
 
 25 
 
 8 1 
 
 97 
 
 8 
 
 573-20 
 
 32-2 
 
 1-12 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 573-74 
 
 23-2 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 573-26 
 
 26 
 
 9 2 
 
 86 
 
 11 
 
 .569-80 
 
 31-8 
 
 1-50 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 572-67 
 
 21-3 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 572 -.32 
 
 23 
 
 6 5 
 
 00 
 
 23 
 
 .569-70 
 
 27-1 
 
 3-67 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 572-97 
 
 21-4 
 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 36 
 
 572-66 
 
 23 
 
 8 5 
 
 68 
 
 26 
 
 570-10 
 
 28-1 
 
 2-81 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 574-91 
 
 21 
 
 5 5 
 
 48 
 
 29 
 
 .571-58 
 
 28-2 
 
 1-55 
 
 5 
 
 IJuly 
 
 573-79 
 
 21-5 
 
 3-82 
 
 20 
 
 573-48 
 
 25 
 
 3 3 
 
 83 
 
 16 
 
 570-21 
 
 31-6 
 
 2-31 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 572-52 
 
 22-5 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 572-48 
 
 26 
 
 3 2 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 .569-80 
 
 .33 1 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 573-89 
 
 21-9 
 
 3 
 
 95 
 
 20 
 
 .573-79 
 
 26 
 
 8 2 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 571-38 
 
 21-5 
 
 8-60 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 574-47 
 
 24-4 
 
 4 
 
 78 
 
 21 
 
 573-97 
 
 27 
 
 1 5 
 
 05 
 
 19 
 
 572-59 
 
 31-3 
 
 3-35 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 575-26 
 
 23-2 
 
 4 
 
 71 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 572-29 
 
 29-2 
 
 2-81 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 575-26 
 
 18-2 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 575-57 
 
 19 
 
 7 7 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 ,574-35 
 
 25-1 
 
 5-85 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 575-67 
 
 16-3 
 
 8 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 .575-82 
 
 17 
 
 6 7 
 
 98 
 
 53 
 
 572-49 
 
 27-3 
 
 4-79 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 572-77 
 
 19-6 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 573-43 
 
 20 
 
 3 5 
 
 95 
 
 34 
 
 575-36 
 
 16-3 
 
 7-72 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 578-61 
 
 15-6 
 
 8 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 578-56 
 
 17 
 
 6 7 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 575-13 
 
 25-4 
 
 3-77 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 576-97 
 
 19-8 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 35 
 
 576-68 
 
 23 
 
 1 4 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 573-20 
 
 29-8 
 
 2-58 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 575-26 
 
 20-6 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 25 
 
 574-91 
 
 24 
 
 3 4 
 
 05 
 
 18 
 
 571-53 
 
 32-4 
 
 1-82 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 573-05 
 
 23-4 
 
 5 
 
 66 
 
 26 
 
 .572-90 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 92 
 
 21 
 
 .570-87 
 
 31-9 
 
 2-98 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 573-53 
 
 23-4 
 
 8 
 
 01 
 
 37 
 
 573-66 
 
 25 
 
 6 8 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 572-24 
 
 29-3 
 
 7-52 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 574-40 
 
 21-1 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 35 
 
 574-27 
 
 26-9 5-59 
 
 21 
 
 .572-70 
 
 26-0 
 
 5-86 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 573-84 
 
 20-8 
 
 10-02 
 
 55 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 572-54 
 
 28-6 
 
 5-85 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pies, 
 
 sure... 
 
 . 
 
 '•74-83 nun. 
 
 
 
 
 Calc 
 
 ulated mean 
 
 I of 
 
 - Tern 
 ^ Tens 
 
 jerature 
 ion of vapoi 
 
 ir 
 
 24-0° c. 
 -4-7 mm. 
 
 
 
 (9221) 
 
 2 D
 
 418 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 GiLGIT. 
 
 Hour of observations— 8 a.m. 
 
 lu a.m. 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 Date. 
 
 £ si 1 
 
 is s.g 
 |s it 
 
 ^ 1 fS 1 
 
 g|. It 
 
 
 II 
 
 i£ 
 
 h2 
 
 IK 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^3. 
 
 III' 
 
 
 1 
 29 Mav 
 
 636-36 26-7 ' 
 
 7-30 28 
 
 1 
 635-80 ' 
 
 29-4 
 
 5-96 
 
 19 
 
 632-14 
 
 33-6 
 
 6-29 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 . — 
 
 — — 
 
 636-56 
 
 29-9 
 
 6-10 
 
 19 
 
 632-40 
 
 34-7 
 
 3-46 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 634-49 26-1 
 
 6-94 28 
 
 634-73 
 
 29-7 , 
 
 5-33 
 
 17 
 
 630-47 
 
 31-6 
 
 8-30 
 
 24 
 
 1 June ' 
 
 633-28 24-8 
 
 8-75 38 
 
 632-55 
 
 27-7 
 
 7-29 
 
 26 
 
 632-53 
 
 25-6 
 
 8-72 
 
 35 
 
 •2 ■ 
 
 634-56 20-3 
 
 9-89 56 
 
 631-79 
 
 21-3 
 
 10-15 
 
 54 
 
 630-87 
 
 20-3 
 
 14-75 
 
 83 
 
 3 
 
 636-21 18-9 
 
 12-80 79 
 
 633-26 
 
 22-6 
 
 10-25 
 
 50 
 
 631-53 
 
 30-2 
 
 6-66 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 634-56 24-1 
 
 10-39 47 
 
 633-82 
 
 28-1 
 
 5-86 
 
 21 
 
 629-99 
 
 34-6 
 
 4-12 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 632-07 25-7 
 
 5-35 22 
 
 631-61 29-2 
 
 4-47 
 
 15 
 
 630-24 
 
 34-4 
 
 4-0» 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 631-76 27-8 
 
 4-62 17 
 
 631-30 
 
 30-9 
 
 2-60 
 
 1 
 
 628-56 
 
 34-3 
 
 1-51 
 
 4 ! 
 
 7 
 
 632-37 26-7 
 
 5-29 20 
 
 631 05 
 
 27-6 
 
 5-17 
 
 19 
 
 627-49 
 
 36-4 
 
 4-26 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 632-29 27-2 
 
 5-41 20 
 
 631-02 
 
 31-4 
 
 4-00 
 
 11 
 
 629-30 
 
 36-7 
 
 3-00 
 
 G 
 
 a 
 
 632-40 28-0 
 
 4-23 15 
 
 630-92 
 
 32-9 
 
 3-22 
 
 8 
 
 628-39 
 
 36-1 
 
 5-70 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 630-47 26-7 
 
 9-72 37 
 
 629-96 
 
 31-8 
 
 3-76 
 
 10 
 
 626 07 
 
 33-9 
 
 6-74 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 — — 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 625-72 
 
 32-3 
 
 5-23 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 631-18 27-1 
 
 8-10 30 
 
 626-78 
 
 30-4 
 
 5-34 17 
 
 624-95 
 
 35-7 
 
 3-30 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 634-63 27-1 
 
 8-40 31 
 
 632-85 
 
 30-9 
 
 7 15 22 
 
 630-38 
 
 35-0 
 
 5-43 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 634-60 26-7 
 
 11-46 44 
 
 633-92 
 
 32-8 
 
 7 - 25 
 
 20 
 
 631-30 
 
 33-9 
 
 5-01 
 
 12 1 
 
 15 
 
 633-94 27-3 
 
 7-98 30 
 
 633-36 
 
 31 1 
 
 7-18 
 
 21 
 
 629-52 
 
 34-4 
 
 5-02 13 j 
 
 16 
 
 632-45 27-3 
 
 9-35 35 
 
 630-67 
 
 29-9 
 
 7-15 
 
 23 
 
 628-76 
 
 32-4 
 
 3-97 11 
 
 17 
 
 631-27 27-2 
 
 9-42 35 
 
 631 • 10 
 
 30- 1 
 
 7-95 25 
 
 629-16 
 
 34-8 
 
 4-00 9 
 
 18 
 
 630-57 27-2 
 
 8-04 30 
 
 629-24 
 
 32-7 
 
 6-84 
 
 18 
 
 625-84 
 
 37-6 
 
 4-79 10 
 
 19 
 
 628-25 28-8 
 
 6-77 23 
 
 626-10 
 
 32-4 
 
 5-94 
 
 16 
 
 625-64 
 
 33-7 
 
 6-23 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 — 27-0 
 
 8-01 30 
 
 628-89 
 
 30-2 
 
 6-66 
 
 21 
 
 627-95 
 
 29-0 
 
 5-16 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 631-33 25-6 
 
 8-86 36 
 
 630-82 
 
 29-4 
 
 6-55 
 
 21 
 
 628-20 
 
 37-2 
 
 3-61 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 631-08 27-2 
 
 6-42 24 
 
 628-73 
 
 31-3 
 
 5-93 
 
 18 
 
 627-89 
 
 32-3 
 
 9-50 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 630-87 29-4 
 
 8-08 26 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 627-79 
 
 34-4 
 
 5-48 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 633-21 26-6 
 
 11-20 43 
 
 631-84 
 
 30-3 
 
 615 
 
 19 
 
 626-98 
 
 37-8 
 
 3-40 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 634-32 26-7 
 
 11-14 43 
 
 633-74 
 
 32-2 
 
 4-26 
 
 12 
 
 630 13 
 
 39-2 
 
 3-65 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 630-64 30-8 
 
 5-10 16 
 
 630-84 
 
 33-9 
 
 4-56 
 
 11 
 
 627-71 
 
 40-6 
 
 3-76 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 627-69 30-0 
 
 8-18 26 
 
 626-65 34-1 
 
 5-35 
 
 13 
 
 622-97 
 
 39-8 
 
 4-24 
 
 8" 
 
 28 
 
 626 07 30-0 
 
 5-88 19 
 
 625-14 31-1 
 
 5-81 
 
 18 
 
 623-27 
 
 34-9 
 
 7-10 17 1 
 
 29 
 
 626-47 27-6 
 
 6-17 22 
 
 628-46 
 
 29-2 
 
 6-82 
 
 22 
 
 630-11 
 
 32-5 
 
 4-36 
 
 12 1 
 
 30 
 
 — — 
 
 — — 
 
 630-89 
 
 30-3 
 
 7-21 
 
 22 
 
 630-97 
 
 34 1 
 
 7-25 
 
 18 i 
 
 1 July 
 
 629-65 27-6 
 
 5-45 20 
 
 628-86 
 
 31-8 
 
 3-61 
 
 10 
 
 625 03 
 
 37-8 
 
 2-16 4 i 
 
 2 
 
 628-51 29-0 
 
 5-90 20 
 
 626-30 
 
 32-6 
 
 2-98 
 
 7 
 
 624 01 
 
 39-2 
 
 4-29 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 628-25 29-0 
 
 8-32 28 
 
 628-18 
 
 33-4 
 
 3-96 
 
 10 
 
 625-33 
 
 36-8 
 
 5-93 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 629-32 31 1 
 
 7-65 23 
 
 629 06 
 
 33 
 
 6-82 
 
 18 
 
 626-73 
 
 36-2 
 
 6-13 
 
 13 1 
 
 5 
 
 630-08 27-9 10-24 37 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 630-23 
 
 29-2 
 
 5-79 
 
 19 i 
 
 6 
 
 630-62 24-0 
 
 10-76 49 
 
 630-57 
 
 24-1 
 
 11-11 
 
 50 
 
 628-20 
 
 29-4 
 
 8-54 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 629-35 1 25-9 
 
 9-13 37 
 
 1 629-40 
 
 29-6 
 
 7-95 
 
 26 
 
 627-03 
 
 30-7 
 
 8-53 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 629-37 22-2 
 
 8-74 44 
 
 624-81 
 
 17-6 
 
 13-61 
 
 91 
 
 632-77 
 
 19-9 
 
 13-88 80 
 
 9 
 
 636-78 19-7 
 
 11-72 69 
 
 635-06 
 
 22-6 12-23 
 
 60 
 
 630-64 
 
 30-8 
 
 8-00 
 
 24 
 
 , 10 
 
 632-16 24-8 
 
 9-21 39 
 
 631-50 
 
 26-4 
 
 11-65 
 
 45 
 
 627-95 
 
 34-9 
 
 6-77 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 629-81 27-6 
 
 9-48 34 
 
 627-54 
 
 29-4 
 
 11-29 
 
 1 37 
 
 625-61 
 
 36-8 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 628-46 27-2 
 
 ; 10-67 40 
 
 627-84 
 
 27-9 
 
 12-37 
 
 44 
 
 627-69 
 
 28-3 
 
 14-00 
 
 .49 
 
 13 
 
 627-89 24-0 
 
 12-32 56 
 
 622-79 
 
 25-0 
 
 11-74 
 
 43 
 
 625-61 
 
 36-1 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 629-11 30-5 
 
 ' 9-30 29 
 
 628-91 
 
 34-0 
 
 6-21 
 
 16 
 
 626-65 
 
 36-8 
 
 5-76 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 628-61 27-8 
 
 10-95 39 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 629-22 
 
 28-2 
 
 8-80 
 
 31 
 
 
 1 
 
 Pressure 
 
 1 
 
 029-83 mm. 
 
 
 
 Calculated mean of 
 
 < Temperature 
 Tensiou of vapour 
 
 30-05° c. 
 T'O mm. 

 
 Altimetric Calculation.s. 
 
 '119 
 
 C. — Comparison ok Simultaneous Observations. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 CAMP III. 
 
 RDOKASS. 
 
 SKARDl'. 
 
 
 o c 
 
 
 Tension of 
 vapour. 
 
 lluniiility. 
 
 4/ 
 
 
 ■•X 
 _ •— 
 
 -11 
 
 .1 H 
 
 3 % 
 
 i i 
 
 - i 
 
 2 
 
 St:" 
 
 z 
 
 II 
 
 £ 
 
 29May ... 
 
 8 '417-60 
 
 1 
 
 -1-5 2-08 |51 
 
 471-34 
 
 5-8 
 
 2 -.50 
 
 36 580-21 19-6 
 
 6 -.56 
 
 39 
 
 
 10 418-0.5 
 
 5-4 
 
 1-39 
 
 21 471-69 
 
 8-8 
 
 1-19 
 
 14 579-70 22-3 
 
 4-99 
 
 25 
 
 
 4 417-55 
 
 3-0 2-17 
 
 38 470-79 
 
 9-8 
 
 0-.50 
 
 7 577-23 27-5 
 
 1-46 
 
 5 
 
 30 „ ... 
 
 10 418-41 
 
 7-1 4-24 
 
 56 472-33 
 
 8-8 
 
 2-57 
 
 30 .580-61 22-2 
 
 5-18 
 
 26 
 
 
 4 418-48 
 
 30 1-34 24 471-19 
 
 10-3 
 
 0-49 
 
 5 577-45 25-3 
 
 1-52 
 
 6 
 
 31 „ ... 
 
 10 417-58 
 
 3-0 
 
 1-34 24 472-14 
 
 8-3 
 
 2-87 
 
 35 579-19 
 
 22-3 
 
 4-86 
 
 24 
 
 
 4 417-43 
 
 3-0 2-17 38 570-50 
 
 11-8 
 
 1-27 
 
 12 575-75 
 
 27-0 
 
 1-25 
 
 5 
 
 IJune ... 
 
 10 415 -88 
 
 3-5 1-08 19 469-85 
 
 11-3 
 
 1-57 
 
 15 576-84 
 
 20-8 
 
 411 
 
 22 
 
 
 4 416-02 
 
 3-5 
 
 1-91 32 
 
 469-32 
 
 8-8 
 
 2 -.57 
 
 30 575-13 
 
 24-9 
 
 3-41 
 
 15 
 
 2 „ ... 
 
 8 4J5-56 
 
 -1-7 
 
 2-32 70 
 
 469-22 
 
 4-8 
 
 4-06 
 
 62 576-84 
 
 18-3 
 
 6-91 
 
 43 
 
 
 10 415-33 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-43 44 
 
 469-18 
 
 5-8 
 
 3-86 
 
 55 576-75 
 
 19-5 
 
 5-65 
 
 34 
 
 
 4 414-83 
 
 3-5 
 
 1-01 32 
 
 468-34 
 
 4-8 
 
 4-75 
 
 73 574 -.-?0 
 
 24-3 
 
 5 -.50 
 
 24 
 
 3 „ ... 
 
 8 414-80 
 
 0-0 
 
 3-74 85 
 
 468-99 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-58 
 
 65 .577-97 
 
 16-3 
 
 8-77 
 
 64 
 
 
 10 415-25 
 
 1-0 
 
 3-22 65 
 
 469 -84 
 
 5-3 
 
 4-15 
 
 62 577-67 
 
 20-4 
 
 8-16 
 
 46 
 
 
 4 415-76 
 
 0-0 
 
 3-74 81 
 
 469-67 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-81 
 
 67 575-28 
 
 23-8 
 
 3-44 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 8 41610 
 
 0-0 
 
 4-lfi 91 
 
 471-05 
 
 6-3 
 
 1-26 
 
 17 577-72 
 
 19-4 
 
 7-28 
 
 43 
 
 
 10 416-32 
 
 30 
 
 2-17 .38 
 
 470-81 
 
 8-8 
 
 0-71 
 
 9 577 -.-52 
 
 23-1 
 
 5-03 
 
 24 
 
 
 4 416-50 
 
 3-0 
 
 0-93 17 
 
 470-01 
 
 13-7 
 
 0-00 
 
 573-97 
 
 27-7 
 
 3 05 
 
 12 
 
 5 „ ... 
 
 8 414-96 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-04 20 
 
 470-11 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-12 
 
 35 578-07 
 
 20-3 
 
 5-17 
 
 29 
 
 
 10 415-62 
 
 5-1 
 
 107 17 469-49 
 
 7-8 : 
 
 0-83 
 
 10 575-13 
 
 23-8 
 
 2-30 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 415-13 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-04 20 
 
 467-81 
 
 9-1 
 
 0.53 
 
 6 572-61 
 
 26-5 
 
 1-17 
 
 4 
 
 9 „ ... 
 
 4 416-36 
 
 5 
 
 0-29 5 
 
 468-96 
 
 12-3 
 
 0-00 
 
 573-31 
 
 29-1 
 
 2-.-)ii 
 
 8 
 
 10 „ ... 
 
 8 414-81 
 
 0-0 
 
 2-09 45 
 
 468-77 
 
 4-8 
 
 1-69 
 
 26 574-81 
 
 19-9 
 
 3-43 
 
 20 
 
 
 10 414-77 
 
 6-1 
 
 1-44 20 
 
 468-41 
 
 8-3 
 
 0-54 
 
 7 574-46 
 
 24-3 
 
 3-53 
 
 16 
 
 
 4 414-19 
 
 4-0 
 
 1-64 27 
 
 466-74 
 
 9-8 
 
 0-59 
 
 7 571-89 
 
 27-9 
 
 2-40 
 
 8 
 
 11 „ ... 
 
 4 414-17 
 
 ro 
 
 1-17 
 
 23 
 
 467-41 ' 
 
 7-8 
 
 1-79 
 
 22 .573-80 
 
 23-7 
 
 4-21 
 
 18 
 
 Mean 
 
 .. 416-05 2-6 2-00 
 
 469-74 1 7-8 1-91 
 
 575-32 23-1 4 29 
 
 (9221) 
 
 2 D 2
 
 420 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 Camp III (second base-camp). 
 
 SRINAGAK. 
 
 LEU. 
 
 
 QILGIT. 
 
 a" 
 
 gs 
 
 29 May . 
 
 30 „ . 
 
 31 „ . 
 
 1 June . 
 
 2 „ . 
 
 4 „ 
 
 5 „ 
 
 9 ,, 
 
 10 „ 
 
 11 „ 
 
 8 C29 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 11- 
 
 10 629 
 
 45 
 
 21 
 
 3 14- 
 
 16 1 627 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 2 22 * 
 
 10 629 
 
 83 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 627 
 
 62 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 20- 
 
 10 628 
 
 64 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 15- 
 
 16 625 
 
 99 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 19^ 
 
 10 627 
 
 60 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 15 1 
 
 16 626 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 4 16- 
 
 8 629 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 6 U- 
 
 10 628 
 
 58 
 
 19 
 
 7 12- 
 
 16 628 
 
 43 
 
 17 
 
 9 11- 
 
 8 629 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 12^ 
 
 10 629 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 13- 
 
 16 626 
 
 81 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 17- 
 
 8 628 
 
 01 
 
 17 
 
 i 
 
 12- 
 
 10 628 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 14^ 
 
 16 624 
 
 85 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 20 • 
 
 8 625 
 
 90 
 
 19 
 
 4 13- 
 
 10 625 
 
 64 
 
 23 
 
 !-)• 
 
 16 624 
 
 47 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 18- 
 
 16 623 
 
 •42 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 8 624 
 
 91 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 10 625 
 
 •06 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 16 623 
 
 •79 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 80 501-66 
 
 77 501 -51 
 
 74 498-54 
 
 75 501^79 
 73 499-08 
 
 72 83 500-98 
 31 74 497-81 
 
 05 
 33 
 
 87 
 92 
 94 
 
 05 
 62 
 29 
 
 77 498-90 
 76 496-05 
 
 84 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 84 
 78 
 
 498-98 
 498^44 
 494^91 
 
 497^95 
 497^93 
 496-61 
 
 06 80 499^41 
 29 76 499-20 
 02 75 499-55 
 
 498-03 
 497-63 
 495-27 
 
 12-7 
 16-7 
 21-0 
 
 17-3 
 20-5 
 
 17-7 
 21-3 
 
 174 
 22-4 
 
 14-1 
 17-3 
 23-5 
 
 13 5 
 14^6 
 17^9 
 
 11^3 
 15-7 
 19^1 
 
 12-9 
 17-8 
 21-6 
 
 93 
 62 
 20 
 
 497-34 
 496-94 
 494-10 
 
 14-3 
 
 18-8 
 22-7 
 
 1-92 
 1-44 
 0-00 
 
 1-86 
 1-64 
 
 17 636-36 
 
 10 635^80 
 
 63214 
 
 12 636^56 
 9 632 40 
 
 267 7^30 
 29^4 5^96 
 336 629 
 
 1-84 12 634 73 
 2-70 14 630-47 
 
 2-47 
 0-00 
 
 16 
 
 
 311 26 
 3^69 25 
 3-12 1 14 
 
 I 
 4-15 36 
 3-25 26 
 3 ■ 68 24 
 
 632-55 
 632-53 
 
 634-56 
 631-79 
 630-87 
 
 636-21 
 633-26 
 631-53 
 
 29-7 
 31-6 
 
 27^7 
 25^6 
 
 20-3 
 21-3 
 20-3 
 
 18-9 
 22-6 
 30-2 
 
 5-33 
 8-30 
 
 7-29 
 
 8-72 
 
 9-89 
 10-15 
 14-75 
 i 
 12-80 
 10-25 
 
 6-66 
 
 3-40 
 2-82 
 2-02 
 
 3-84 
 2-46 
 0-00 
 
 34 634-56 
 21 633-82 
 12 629-99 
 
 35 632-07 
 16 631-61 
 
 630-24 
 
 24- 1 10-39 
 28-1 5^86 
 346 4121 
 
 93 73 495^27 24-1 1-37 
 
 2-99 
 1^98 
 1^74 
 
 25^7 
 29^2 
 344 
 
 535' 
 
 4^47 
 4^09 
 
 28 
 19 
 16 
 
 29-9 6-10' 19 
 347 1 3-46 8 
 
 17 
 24 
 
 26 
 35 
 
 56 
 54 
 83 
 
 79 
 50 
 21 
 
 47 
 21 
 10 
 
 22 
 15 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 6 628-39 361 5-70 12 
 
 24 630-47 
 
 11 629^96 
 
 8 626^07 
 
 26^7 
 31^8 
 33-9 
 
 16 625^23l 22-6 15 97 78 494 71 207 176 ' lO! 625-72 ' 32-3 
 
 9-72 
 3-76 
 6-74 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 17 
 
 5-23 15 
 
 Mean 
 
 627-061 22-6 1607 
 
 1498-03 1-79 2-28 
 
 632-09: 28-4 7-25
 
 Altimetric Calculations. 
 
 421 
 
 D. — Comparison" of Observations Made on the Godwin Austex, 
 Savoia, and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 Date 
 
 
 Station of observation. 
 
 
 Simultanec 
 
 us .lata of comparison. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 llv 
 
 
 a 
 
 i ^S 
 
 
 Month 
 and day. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Place. 
 
 3 
 
 If if 
 
 ill 
 
 Of the 
 
 sUtion of 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s £| 
 
 - — 
 
 
 s 
 
 " ^ %. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 w3 
 
 
 =s 
 
 I ^t 
 
 "3, 
 
 May 
 
 10 
 
 Camp IV ... 
 
 .390-85 
 
 2-0 1-04 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Camp III 
 
 1 
 417-58 3-0 1-34 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 390-55 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 fj 
 
 
 417-43 3-0 2-17 
 
 1 .June 
 
 10 
 
 
 389-78 
 
 1-9 1-18 
 
 )» 
 
 
 415-88 3-5 1-08 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Mean... 
 
 388-85 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 »> 
 
 
 416-02 3-5 1-91 
 
 
 
 390 00 
 
 0-2 1-07 
 
 416-72 
 
 3-2 1-62 
 
 
 31 May 
 
 10 
 
 Camp IV ... 
 
 390-85 
 
 2-0 1-04 
 
 »» 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 472 14 
 
 1-3 2-17 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 390-55 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 )j 
 
 
 470-50 
 
 11-8 1-27 
 
 
 1 June 
 
 10 
 
 
 389-78 
 
 1-0 1-18 
 
 >» 
 
 
 469-85 
 
 11-3 1-57 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Mean . . . 
 
 388-85 
 
 - 1-0 1-04 
 
 »» 
 
 
 469-32 
 
 8-8 2-57 
 
 390-00 
 
 0-2 1-07 
 
 470-45 100 2-07 
 
 
 5 
 
 }1 
 
 4 
 
 Camp V 
 
 .394-05 
 
 - 3-0 2-86 
 
 >) 
 
 Camp III 
 
 415 15 
 
 2-0 1-04 
 
 
 5 
 
 )l 
 
 4 
 
 
 394-05 
 
 - 30 2-86 
 
 »* 
 
 
 467-81 
 
 9-1 0-53 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 .393-36 
 
 - 8-0 1-.39 
 
 )> 
 
 
 468-18 
 
 5-3 4-65 
 
 
 6 
 
 )J 
 
 10 
 
 Camp V 
 
 393-42 
 
 - 2-0 3-96 
 
 ?i 
 
 Rdokasa 
 
 468-29 
 
 7-8 0-37 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 393-82 
 
 - 2-5 2-21 
 
 »» 
 
 
 467-66 
 
 10-3 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 395-34 
 
 - 5-0 1-27 
 
 )) 
 
 
 469-61 4-3 1-43 
 
 
 8 
 
 »» 
 
 10 
 
 Mean... 
 
 395-42 
 
 - 3-0 2-09 
 
 >» 
 
 
 469-45 8-3 0-00 
 
 394-23 
 
 - 3-9 2-30 
 
 468-50 
 
 7-5 1-16 
 
 
 7 
 
 »» 
 
 5.15 
 
 Savoia Pass... 
 
 349-70 
 
 - 9-0 — 
 
 )» 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 467-86 
 
 12-7 0-00 
 
 
 12 
 
 >» 
 
 10 
 
 
 395-71 
 
 - 2-0 2.34 
 
 ») 
 
 
 469-86 
 
 7-3 2-57 
 
 
 ,13 
 
 )) 
 
 8 
 
 
 .397-37 
 
 - 10 3-43 
 
 )) 
 
 
 471-86 
 
 3-8 417 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 397-65 
 
 3-0 2-17 
 
 u 
 
 
 472-11 
 
 9-3 1-77 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 .397-94 
 
 00 3-74 
 
 »i 
 
 
 472-11 
 
 10-8 0-87 
 
 
 21 
 
 »» 
 
 8 
 
 Camp VI ... 
 
 394-23 
 
 - 6-0 2-89 
 
 *) 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 468-26 
 
 4-8 3-57 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 .39 4 -.50 
 
 - 1-0 1-82 
 
 )» 
 
 
 468-00 8-3 2-36 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 394-15 
 
 6-0 0-.59 
 
 »» 
 
 
 466-88 12-7 0-69 
 
 
 22 
 
 }f 
 
 8 
 
 
 355-42 
 
 - 3-0 
 
 1.33 
 
 ») 
 
 
 468-33 6-3 173 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 395-25 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-12 
 
 J) 
 
 
 468-08 10-3 0-78 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Mean... 
 
 395-76 
 
 0-5 
 
 1-04 
 
 » 
 
 
 467-66 12-7 0-00 
 
 395-90 
 
 - 0-2 '2-15 
 
 469-32 
 
 8-63 1-85 
 
 
 15 
 
 » 
 
 11.15 
 
 Sella Pass ... 
 
 368-85 
 
 - 3-0' — 
 
 l> 
 
 Hdokass 
 
 471-57 
 
 8-3 — 
 
 
 14 
 
 I> 
 
 4 
 
 
 .373-51 
 
 - 0-5 2-04 
 
 )) 
 
 
 471-29 
 
 10-3 1-67 
 
 
 15 
 
 »J 
 
 8 
 
 
 .373-40 
 
 - 7-0 1-22 
 
 :i 
 
 
 471-53 6-3 2-68 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 .373-28 
 
 - 4-5 1-37 
 
 )» 
 
 
 470-56 12-7 0-24 
 
 
 16 
 
 )l 
 
 10 
 
 Camp VII ... 
 
 372-71 
 
 - 3-0 2-09 
 
 »» 
 
 Kdokass 
 
 470-41 
 
 9-3 0-89 
 
 
 18 
 
 >1 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 .372 18 
 .370-85 
 
 - 7-0 2-67 
 
 - 4-0 2-61 
 
 
 
 468-41 
 466-53 
 
 9-1 1-21 
 12-7 0-00 
 
 
 19 
 
 If 
 
 4 
 
 
 .369-43 
 
 - 6-0 2-89 
 
 }} 
 
 
 46600 8-8 207 
 
 
 20 
 
 ?» 
 
 8 
 
 Mean... 
 
 369-04 
 
 - 9-0 2-26. 
 
 1) 
 
 
 466-26 7-8 4- 16 
 
 371-80 
 
 - 5-8 2-14 
 
 1 
 
 468-88 9-1 1-62 
 
 
 24 
 
 >» 
 
 4 
 
 Camp VIII... 
 
 .360-78 
 
 - 6-0'l-77 
 
 n 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 469-66 14-7 000 
 
 
 25 
 
 .. 
 
 1 
 
 Staircase 
 
 .348-30 
 
 6-0 
 
 — 
 
 » 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 471-86 
 
 14-7 - 1 
 
 (9221)
 
 422 
 
 .\.])|)t'iulix I). 
 
 D. — CoMPARISOiV OF (.)BSERVATI0XS MaDE ON THE GoDWIN AuSTEN, 
 
 Savoia, and Upper Baltoro Glaciers. i.co,M.) 
 
 No. 
 
 
 Date 
 
 Station of obfiervatiou. 
 
 
 Simultaneous data of comparison. 
 
 Month 
 and ilay. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Pla.e. 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 = z 
 
 Z 
 
 ■si 
 
 = = £■ 
 
 III 
 
 — t " 
 
 Oi" tlie 
 stutioii uf 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 I! 
 II 
 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 
 431-33 
 
 11-0 
 
 5-04 
 
 Fortin 
 
 
 468-43 
 
 10-3 
 
 0-78 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 431-33 
 
 12-0 
 
 3-36 
 
 )) 
 
 
 466-80 
 
 14-2 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 2 
 
 1% 
 
 8 
 
 
 431-23 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-54 
 
 ■) 
 
 
 466-81 
 
 7-8 
 
 1-31 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 431-33 
 
 15-0 
 
 4-85 
 
 -»11 
 
 
 466-71 
 
 14-3 
 
 0-00- 
 
 
 3 
 
 )* 
 
 8 
 
 
 432-69 
 
 4-0 
 
 3-16 
 
 Ji 
 
 
 468-61 
 
 6-8 
 
 1-91 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Caniii IX ... 
 
 422-65 
 
 11-0 
 
 2-83 
 
 •» 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 468-81 
 
 11-3 
 
 0-58 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 432-56 
 
 14-5 
 
 2-87 
 
 ji 
 
 
 467-47 
 
 15-7 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 4 
 
 }* 
 
 8 
 
 
 433-55 
 
 7-0 
 
 3 -.30 
 
 )f 
 
 
 469-61 
 
 8-3 
 
 3-37 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 434-49 
 
 9-0 
 
 311 
 
 »1 
 
 
 469-39 
 
 12-7 
 
 2-82 
 
 
 5 
 
 >} 
 
 4 
 
 
 434-55 
 
 11-5 
 
 3-06 
 
 }1 
 
 
 468 -.56 
 
 15-2 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 433-01 
 
 2-0 
 
 3-41 
 
 u 
 
 
 469-56 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-42 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Mean... 
 
 432-95 
 
 10-5 
 
 6-40 
 
 )J 
 
 
 467-51 
 
 13-2 
 
 2-52 
 1-64 
 
 432-62 
 
 9-3 
 
 3-74 
 
 468-19 
 
 ]1'3 
 
 
 1 
 
 *» 
 
 4 
 
 Camp X 
 
 428-30 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 
 Hvps. 
 
 Rflokass 
 
 466-80 
 
 14-2 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 »» 
 
 4 
 
 Camp XI 
 
 418-34 
 
 4-0 
 
 — 
 
 Fort in 
 
 Ktlokass 
 
 466-98 
 
 10-3 
 
 — 
 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 Camp XII ... 
 
 .•593-87 
 
 8-0 
 
 4-12 
 
 11 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 467-47 
 
 15-7 
 
 0-00; 
 
 
 5 
 
 )> 
 
 4 
 
 
 393-65 
 
 7-0 
 
 3-20 
 
 1) 
 
 
 467-51 
 
 13-2 
 
 2-52' 
 
 
 6 
 
 1* 
 
 10 
 
 
 .-592-98 
 
 12-0 
 
 2-23 
 
 )» 
 
 
 468-53 
 
 7-8 
 
 4-18 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 392-38 
 
 7-5 
 
 2-90 
 
 ij 
 
 
 467-79 
 
 5-8 
 
 5-38 
 
 
 7 
 
 'J 
 
 10 
 
 Mean... 
 
 392-53 
 
 11-0 
 
 2-63 
 
 n 
 
 
 467-86 
 
 5-8 
 
 4-86 
 
 393-08 
 
 9-1 
 
 3-05 
 
 467-83 
 
 9-7 
 
 3-39 
 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Camp XIII 
 
 377-71 
 
 8-0 
 
 0-31 
 
 <i 
 
 Edokass 
 
 468-98 
 
 10-3 1-67, 
 
 
 10 
 
 J) 
 
 4 
 
 
 3.54-40 
 
 3-0 
 
 0-52 
 
 i» 
 
 
 467-98 
 
 13-7 0-00 
 
 
 14 
 
 )} 
 
 10 
 
 Camp XIV... 
 
 354 - 10 
 
 3-0 
 
 2-17 
 
 *i 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 469-12 
 
 10-3 4-26 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 354 -.35 
 
 1-0 
 
 4-01 
 
 » 
 
 
 469-10 
 
 11-8 3-90 
 
 358-28 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-20 
 
 468-73 
 
 11-9 2-72 
 
 
 11 
 
 » 
 
 4 
 
 Camp XV (i) 
 
 342-12 
 
 0-0 
 
 
 
 »» 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 467-72 
 
 15-7 — 
 
 17 
 
 
 4 
 
 Camp XV (ii) 
 
 3.35-74 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 
 »» 
 
 Skardu ... 
 
 .572-11 
 
 30-4 — 
 
 18 
 
 )i 
 
 2.. 30 
 
 Nearest Bride 
 Peak 
 
 312-33 
 
 6-0 
 
 4-18 
 
 1 
 
 »» 
 
 Leh 
 
 Siinagar 
 Skardu ... 
 GUgit ... 
 
 494-99 
 622-85 
 571 -45 
 627-08 
 
 24-9 10-51 
 291 22-65 
 31-9 7-65 
 31-9 14-11 
 
 1
 
 Altimetric Calculations. 
 
 423 
 
 Comparison of Observations Made on the Returx Journey. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 Station of observation. 
 
 Simultaneous data of comparison. 
 
 No. 
 
 Month 
 
 and day. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Place 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 li 
 
 S 
 
 ^1 
 
 II. 
 = = :: 
 
 ill 
 
 <^3. 
 
 Of the 
 station of 
 
 
 5 ? 
 
 * 3 
 
 r i. 
 
 28 July ... 
 
 11 Xorthem 
 
 470-34 
 
 ir,-8 
 
 1-43 
 
 Fort in 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 4f)7-27 
 
 20-7 
 
 10-51 
 
 
 camp of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 .■)73-48 
 
 29-2 
 
 3-37 
 
 
 
 Skoro-La 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 628-69 
 
 36-2 
 
 0-00 
 
 
 29 „ ... 
 
 11 
 
 Skoro-La... 
 
 413-27 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 n 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit . . 
 
 497-39 
 .573-73 
 613-89 
 
 18-4 
 25-1 
 32-3 
 
 — 
 
 
 1 August 
 
 4 
 
 Camp be- 
 t \v e e II 
 
 504-63 
 
 19-4 
 
 5-84 
 
 »i 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 
 406-92 
 .•■)73-84 
 
 23-5 
 31-1 
 
 8-10 
 6-26 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Skardu and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 631-23 
 
 30-2 
 
 12-84 
 
 
 
 iJurgi-La 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 „ 
 
 9.. 50 
 
 Burgi-La... 
 
 427-65 
 
 9-4 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 Leh .. 
 
 498-4.5 
 
 20-9 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 574-78 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 630-41 
 
 31 
 
 9 — 
 
 
 3 „ 
 
 4 
 
 Chuudu- 
 
 469-81 
 
 l.i-3 
 
 4-66 
 
 J) 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 495 02 
 
 23 
 
 3 8-07 
 
 
 
 
 Kut 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 571-65 
 626-30 
 
 27 
 33 
 
 2 
 9 
 
 6-86 
 7-06 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 9.50 
 
 Sarsingar... 
 
 455-81 
 
 11-9 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 497-84 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 575-11 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 630-69 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 12.50 
 
 Stakpi-la... 
 
 470-61 
 
 18-9 
 
 
 »» 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 497-84 
 575-11 
 630-69 
 
 20 
 23 
 29 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 4 
 
 Burzil ... 
 
 605-22 
 
 19-9 
 
 6-77 
 
 ;> 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 494-61 22 
 571 19 30 
 625-43 35 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 9 
 
 7 -.59 
 
 6-35 
 
 10-91 
 
 •'' ., 
 
 4 
 
 Pashwari... 
 
 570 07 
 
 19-9 
 
 — 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 
 495-98 21 
 573-33 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 629-29 
 
 28 
 
 1 - 1 
 
 1 R 
 b „ 
 
 4 
 
 Gurais 
 
 591-28 
 
 15-8 
 
 11-93 
 
 )) 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 494-54 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 6-33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 572-72 23 
 
 
 
 11-06 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 61006 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 14-08 
 
 ! 7 „ 
 
 4 
 
 GorJ; 
 
 546-42 
 
 15-8 
 
 10-54 
 
 J) 
 
 Leh .. 
 
 494-69 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 6-16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 573-68 -25 
 
 4 
 
 914 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 629-98 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 15-17 
 
 8 „ 
 
 8 
 
 Rajdiangan 
 
 497-59 
 
 12-8 
 
 5-02 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Leh ... 
 
 497-48 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 6-75 
 
 
 
 Pass 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skardu 
 
 575-57 16 
 
 1 
 
 10-77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 622-50 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 14-41 
 
 9 „ 
 
 4 
 
 Ti-agbal ... 
 
 540-38 
 
 20-9 
 
 — 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu 
 
 494-33 
 574-90 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gilgit .. 
 
 629-01 
 
 29-7 
 
 
 (9221) 
 
 2 4
 
 424 
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 Final Summing-up of Statistics of Heicjht. 
 
 stations. 
 
 No. 
 
 Of observation. 
 
 t 
 
 Of reference. 
 
 Height 
 above sea 
 
 level of 
 stations of 
 reference. 
 
 Difference 
 
 in height 
 
 between 
 
 stations of 
 
 observation 
 
 and of 
 reference. 
 
 metres. 
 
 IIii(!lit aliiive sea level of 
 stations of observation. 
 
 .- + Z 
 
 metres. 
 
 Metres. Feet. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 Baltal ... 
 
 Mutajun... 
 
 Olthingtliang 
 
 Tarkutta 
 
 Kharmang 
 
 Tolti 
 
 Shigar . . . 
 
 Dusso 
 
 Gomboro 
 
 Chongo ... 
 
 Askoley ... 
 
 Punmah... 
 
 13 Paiju 
 
 Srinagar 
 Leh 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit 
 
 Srinagar 
 Leh 
 Skardn 
 Gilgit 
 
 Uh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 Gilgit 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu 
 
 Gilgit 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Fortin 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 Fortin 
 
 1,586 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 1,586 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 1,266 
 716 
 .-)18 
 
 1,342 
 
 1,527 
 309 
 935 
 
 l,7.'i3 
 
 789 
 
 487 
 
 1,292 
 
 1,063 
 
 225 
 
 1,034 
 
 1,110 
 179 
 985 
 
 1,162 
 114 
 952 
 
 1,258 
 
 17 
 
 830 
 
 1,153 
 108 
 963 
 
 1,006 
 
 255 
 
 1,089 
 
 588 
 
 684 
 
 1,525 
 
 451 
 
 753 
 
 1,.501 
 
 422 
 
 816 
 
 1,643 
 
 185 
 1,062 
 1,892 
 
 2,852 2,822 
 2,799 
 
 2,805 
 2,831 
 
 3,113 
 3,197 
 3,222 
 3,243 
 
 2,717 
 2,774 
 
 2,782 
 
 2,443 
 2,512 
 2,.524 
 
 2,396 
 2,466 
 
 2,475 
 
 2,344 
 
 2,401 
 2,442 
 
 2,248 
 2,304 
 2,320 
 
 2,353 
 2,395 
 2,453 
 
 2,500 
 2,542 
 2,579 
 
 2,918 
 2,971 
 3,015 
 
 3,056 
 3,040 
 3,060 
 
 3,084 
 3,103 
 3,1.33 
 
 3,321 
 3,349 
 3,382 
 
 3,194 
 
 2,758 
 
 2,493 
 
 2,446 
 
 2,396 
 
 2,968 
 3,052 
 
 9,259 
 
 10,479 
 
 9,049 
 
 8,179 
 
 8,025 
 
 ,861 
 
 2,291 7,517 
 
 2,400 ' 7,874 
 
 2,540 ! 8,333 
 
 9,738 
 
 10,013 
 
 3,107 10,194 
 
 3,350 10,991
 
 Altimetric Calculations. 
 
 •125 
 
 Final Summing-up of Statistics of Height. 
 
 (Contd.) 
 
 No. 
 
 Stations. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Height 
 above sea 
 
 level of 
 stations of 
 reference. 
 
 Difference 
 
 in lieight 
 
 betwi-en 
 
 stations of 
 
 observation 
 
 and of 
 reference. 
 
 Ueiglit above sea level of , 
 stations of observation. 
 
 Of observation. 
 
 Of reference. 
 
 : + Z 
 
 metres. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 metres. 
 
 Z 
 
 metres. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 14 Between Liligo 
 and Rholjutse 
 
 i 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 GUgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 Fort in 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 201 
 1,436 
 2,261 
 
 3,707 
 3,723 
 3,751 
 
 3,727 
 
 12,228 
 
 15 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1st base camp 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 Srinagar 
 
 137 
 
 „ 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 1,586 
 
 492 
 1,7.34 
 2,540 
 2,465 
 
 3,998 
 4,021 
 4,030 
 4,051 
 
 4,025 
 
 13,206 
 
 16 
 
 Camp III 
 
 2nd base camp 
 
 Rdokass 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Srinagar 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 26 
 
 ii 
 
 4,025 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,586 
 1,490 
 
 994 
 1,.500 
 2,728 
 3,464 
 3,556 
 
 .■),019 
 5,006 
 5,015 
 5,050 
 5,046 
 
 5,027 
 
 16,493 
 
 17 
 
 Camp IV 
 
 Camp III 
 Rdokass 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 5,027 
 4,025 
 
 536 
 1,535 
 
 5,563 
 5,560 
 
 5,561 
 
 18,245 
 
 18 
 
 CampV 
 
 Camp III 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 )» 
 
 5,027 
 4,025 
 
 419 
 1,396 
 
 5,446 
 .5,421 
 
 5,433 17,825 
 
 19 
 
 Savoia Pass 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 J) 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,347 
 
 6,372 
 
 — 
 
 20,906 
 
 20 
 
 Camp VI 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 10 
 
 »» 
 
 4,025 
 
 1,388 
 
 5,413 
 
 — 
 
 17,760 
 
 21 
 
 Sella Pass 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 j» 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,097 
 
 6,112 
 
 — 20,053 
 
 22 
 
 Camp VII 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 8 
 
 )) 
 
 4,025 
 
 1,876 
 
 5,901 
 
 — 19,361 
 
 23 
 
 Camp VIII ... 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 »> 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,150 
 
 6,175 
 
 — ' 20,260 
 
 24 Staircase 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 )» 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,531 
 
 6,556 
 
 — 21,510 
 
 25 Camp IX 
 
 1 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 12 
 
 ») 
 
 4,025 
 
 659 
 
 4,684 
 
 — 
 
 15,368 
 
 26 Camp X 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 4,025 
 
 715 
 
 4,740 
 
 — 
 
 15,.551 
 
 27 
 
 Camp XI 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 Fortin 
 
 4,025 
 
 905 
 
 4,930 
 
 — 
 
 16,175 
 
 28 
 
 Camp XII 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 5 
 
 ji 
 
 4,025 
 
 1,449 
 
 5,474 
 
 
 
 17,960 
 
 29 
 
 Camp XIII ... 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 )» 
 
 4,025 
 
 1,796 
 
 5,821 
 
 — 
 
 19,098 
 
 30 ; Camp XIV 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,310 
 
 6,335 
 
 — 
 
 20,784 
 
 31 
 
 Camp XV (i) ... 
 
 Rdokass 
 
 1 
 
 )j 
 
 4,025 
 
 2,.^381 
 
 6,606 
 
 — 
 
 21,674 
 
 32 
 
 Camp XV (ii) ... 
 
 Skardu ... 
 
 1 
 
 >» 
 
 2,287 
 
 4,566 
 
 6,853 
 
 — 
 
 22,484 
 
 33 
 
 Nearest Bride 
 Peak 
 
 Leh 
 
 Srinagar 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 )) 
 
 3,506 
 1,.586 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 1 
 
 3,932 
 
 5,9.58 
 5,209 
 6,023 
 
 7,438 
 7,544 
 7,496 
 7,513 
 
 7,498 
 
 24,600
 
 426 Appendix B. 
 
 Final Summixg-up of Statistics of Height. (Conw.) 
 
 
 Stations. 
 
 
 of observiit ioiia. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Ilei)!ht 
 alKjve sea 
 
 level of 
 stations of 
 reference. 
 
 Differenre 
 
 ill liei};lit 
 
 Itetween 
 
 stations of 
 
 ol]«ervation 
 
 and of 
 
 reference. 
 
 Height above sea level of 
 stations of observation. 
 
 No 
 
 Of olwervation. 
 
 Of reference. 
 
 .' + Z 
 
 metres. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 metres. 
 
 3,.->06 
 :i,L'87 
 1,490 
 
 Z 
 
 metres. 
 
 
 
 13,1.56 
 
 34 
 
 North Camp of 
 Skoro-La 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 Fortin 
 
 477 
 1.721 
 2,549 
 
 3,983 4,010 
 
 4,008 
 
 4,0.39 
 
 35 
 
 Skoro-Jja 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 ») 
 
 3,.'306 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 1,555 
 2,789 
 3,658 
 
 5,061 5,095 
 
 5,076 
 
 .5,148 
 
 16,716 
 
 36 
 
 Camp Ijetween 
 Skardu and 
 Burgi-La 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 »» 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 134 
 1,131 
 1,970 
 
 3,372 3,417 
 
 3,418 
 3,460 
 
 11,211 
 
 37 
 
 Burgi-La 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 3,.506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 1,300 
 2,.546 
 3,360 
 
 4,806 4,830 
 4,833 
 
 4,8.50 
 
 15,847 
 
 38 
 
 Chundu-Kut ... 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 )j 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 451 
 1,703 
 2,523 
 
 3,957 3,987 
 
 3,990 
 
 4,013 
 
 13,081 
 
 39 
 
 Sarsingar 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 751 
 1,992 
 2,813 
 
 4,257 4,280 
 
 4,279 
 
 4,303 
 
 14,042 
 
 40 
 
 Stakpi-Ia 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 ti 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 485 
 1,741 
 2,639 
 
 3,991 4,049 
 
 4,028 
 
 4,129 
 
 1.3,284 
 
 41 
 
 Burzil 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 - 185 
 1,080 
 1,897 
 
 3,322 3,359 
 
 3,367 
 
 3,.387 
 
 11,021 1 
 
 42 
 
 Pashwari 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 - 1,205 
 
 50 
 
 866 
 
 2,301 2,331 
 
 2,337 
 
 2,356 
 
 7,648 
 
 43 
 
 (iurais 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 I 
 
 )> 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 - 1,.537 
 276 
 554 
 
 1,969 2,008 
 
 2,011 
 
 2,044 
 
 6,588 
 
 44 
 
 GoTh 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 »» 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 - 861 
 
 423 
 
 1,240 
 
 2,646 2,695 
 2,710 1 
 2,730 
 
 8,842 
 
 45 
 
 Rajdiangaii 
 
 Leh ... 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 Fortiu 
 
 3,506 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 _ 2 
 1,2.36 
 1,920 
 
 3,504 3,524 
 
 3,523 
 
 3,546 
 
 11,562 
 
 46 
 
 Tragbal 
 
 Leh 
 
 Skardu ... 
 Gilgit ... 
 
 1 
 
 Hyps. 
 
 3,506 
 
 2,287 
 1,490 
 
 - 776 
 
 543 
 
 1,337 
 
 2,730 2,796 
 
 2,830 
 
 2,287 
 
 9,173 
 
 D. OMODEl. 
 Genoa, January, 1910.
 
 Appendix C. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL RESULTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 KARAKORAM EXPEDITION 
 
 OF 
 
 H.R.H. The Dlke of the Abruzzi, 
 
 BY 
 
 INGEGNERE VITTORIO NOVARESE, 
 
 Of the Italian Geological Survey, 
 AND 
 
 R. D. OLDHAM, F.R.S.. F.G.S.. &c.. 
 
 Formerly of the Geological Survey of India
 
 GEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE KARAKORAM EXPEDITION OF 
 H.R.H. THE DUKE OF THE ABRUZZI. 
 
 BY 
 
 INGEGNERE VITTORIO NOVARESE, 
 
 Of the Italian Geological Survey, and 
 
 R. D. OLDHAM, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.. 
 
 Formerly ol the Geological Survey of India. 
 
 The fundamental outlines of our 
 knowledge of the geology of the 
 Karakoram range and of Baltistan 
 are still, in the main, those drawn 
 by the labours of Col. H. H. Godwin 
 Austen and of R. Lydekker ; but 
 though the map published by the 
 latter in 1883, and reproduced on a 
 smaller scale in the second edition of 
 the Manual of the Geology of India, 
 published in 1891, was coloured geo- 
 logically up to the supposed watershed 
 of the Karakoram range, exploration 
 had not in fact been pushed so far 
 and the sources of the Baltoro were, 
 at that time, in every way unknown. 
 
 Later explorers had made no note- 
 worthy contributions to the geology 
 of the region if we except the record of limestones on the Qystal Peak and the 
 sedimentary rocks of Golden Throne reported by Sir W. M. Conway ; and the good 
 fortune — one may say merit — was reserved for the expedition led by H.R.H. the 
 Duke of the Abruzzi, of collecting observations which are not only new but to a 
 great extent unexpected, because, notwithstanding their importance and obviousness, 
 they had escaped the notice of previous travellers. Moreover, they form a 
 complement to those which were almost simultaneously being made by 
 Dr. LongstafE's expedition at a distance of about 30 miles to the south-east, in the 
 valley of the Siachen glacier, and hence come to throw great light on the nature and 
 constitution of that little-known portion of the heart of the great Asiatic continent.
 
 430 Appendix C. 
 
 In working out the geological results of tlie Italian expedition, the observations 
 and reports made by its several members have been utilised, as well as the litho- 
 logical material collected by them. The greater part of the specimens, indeed 
 almost the whole, were obtained from the glacier moraines, for the approach to 
 the rock-walls of the Upper Baltoro, though not impossible, is frequently dangerous 
 on account of the avalanches of snow and rocks precipitated at every moment from 
 these precipices, which measure not hundreds but thousands of feet in height. 
 The points where the rocks are directly accessible are therefore somewhat rare, 
 and consequently the specimens collected from rock in situ are few in number. 
 
 Fortunately the material obtained from the moraines was not fortuitously 
 collected, but the moraines running along a transverse section at the junction of 
 the Upper Baltoro with the Godwm Austen glaciers were consecutively numbered 
 and the more characteristic material collected from each of them. Since it is 
 possible to determine the origin of the material forming the principal moraines 
 in this part of the glacier, a tolerably good idea may be formed of the constitution 
 of the slopes from which each is derived. Further on will be found a list of these 
 moraines and their lithological composition as reported by Dr. F. De Filippi. 
 
 The rocks of which specimens were procured belong to the two categories of 
 crystalline schists and sedimentary deposits, with the addition of certain specimens 
 of serpentine. Apart from this last there are no representatives of eruptive rocks, 
 although granite is highly developed in the mountains of the Baltoro valley ; 
 evidently the abundance of limestone and other sedimentary rocks attracted and 
 particularly engaged the attention of the Italians. 
 
 A. — Schists and Crystalline Rocks. 
 
 The specimens of crystalline schists are few in comparison with those of sedi- 
 mentary rocks, but fortunately the more important of them were collected in situ, 
 and the place of origin is consequently known. 
 
 Along with the crystalline schists will be described certain specimens of mineral 
 veins, which must traverse them, and the noble serpentine, although this should 
 be associated stratigraphicall}' with the more recent rocks, rather than with the 
 crystalline schists. 
 
 I. Biotite gneiss. — ^The specimen was collected by H.R.H. the Duke of the 
 Abruzzi on Bride Peak, from the last rock of the eastern ridge at an altitude of 
 24,600 feet, on July 18th, 1909. 
 
 It is a slightly biotitic gneiss, dark coloured, of fine grain, but not sufficiently 
 so for it to become cryptocrystalline, and showing banded structure. It is probably 
 flaggy, though the smallness of the fragment prevents this being affirmed with 
 certainty. The grain is homogeneous and uniform. The biotite does not form 
 continuous sheets, but appears in isolated flakes. To the naked eye small greenish 
 spots are noticeable, due to amphibole.
 
 Geological Results. 431 
 
 Under the microscope the rock is seen to be composed of quartz, felspar, biotite 
 and amphibole, and as subordinate and accessory constituents, sphene, zircon, 
 apatite, as well as occasional calcite. 
 
 The quartz occurs in granular aggregates, frequently drawn out in the form 
 of lenticles lying parallel to the foliation ; quantitatively it is subordinate to the 
 felspar, and shows neither undulate extension nor mechanical fracture. 
 
 The felspar is of two kinds. Orthoclase is the predominant form always 
 slightly opaque through incipient alteration. Cleavage is very distinct and always 
 visible. From a study of the disposition of the cleavage planes and their relative 
 frequency in sections cut parallel or transverse to the foliation it is evident that 
 the individual crystals are arranged with the axis of the two directions of cleavage 
 (001) (010) parallel to the foliation. 
 
 The orthoclase individuals have irregular outlines, are always larger than those 
 of quartz, of which they sometimes enclose rounded granules. The maximum 
 dimension of the granules of orthoclase attains 0"6 millimetre, but, on the average, 
 is rather less than half this figure. Small plates of mica are commonly found in 
 the intervals between the separate granules. 
 
 The other felspar is marked as albite by its polysynthetic twining and the 
 index of refraction being less than that of quartz. It is very rare in comparison 
 with the orthoclase. 
 
 The biotite occurs without any crystal faces, except the basal plane ; the flakes 
 have a very irregular outline as seen in a thin section, much elongated in the 
 direction of the basal plane. The maximum dimensions are 0*55 millimetre in the 
 direction of c and 0'70 millimetre in the direction perpendicular to this, that is 
 to say, parallel to the basal plane. 
 
 The biotite occurs in two sizes. The larger lie along the foliation planes and 
 are arranged in similar orientation. The smaller, which have already been noticed 
 when speaking of the felspar, occur in extremely minute flakes and lying in any 
 direction in the interstices of the aggregate of quartz and felspar forming the ground 
 mass of the rock. 
 
 The biotite is brown and exhibits the following pleochroism : — 
 
 n^i = a = palt; yellow 
 »,„ — b = brown 
 n^ = C = brown. 
 
 There is very little difference between n,„ and n,„ the absorption parallel to the 
 basal plane is not great, as the mineral has preserved its transparency and pale 
 brown colour ; it is sensibly uniaxial in convergent light. 
 
 The mica in general is quite fresh and shows no sign of chemical alteration or 
 mechanical deformation. 
 
 The amphibole has the habit of actinolite, always in rather slender prisms, for 
 the most part grouped in bundles with their axes parallel to the foliation. It is
 
 432 Appendix C. 
 
 constantly associated with mica, but, notwithstanding this connection, does not 
 seem to be derived from the latter, which, as has been mentioned, is always quite 
 fresh. 
 
 The angle o£ maximum extinction is almost exactly 15°, but not greater. The 
 pleochroism is as follows :^ 
 
 n„ = c = blue green with notable absorption 
 
 n,„ = h = bright gi'een with a slight tendency to brown 
 
 •Hi, = a = very pale green 
 
 a < b < c. 
 
 The maximum length of the groups of prisms is 1 millimetre, the mean width 
 of each prism 0'05 to 0'06 millimetre. 
 
 Among the accessory minerals sphene is abundant and in comparatively large 
 grains. The calcite is certainly of secondary origin. 
 
 The structure of the rock is interesting, particularly as seen in sections perpen- 
 dicular to the foliation, on account of the regular distribution of the coloured 
 constituents, especially the mica, which is much more abundant than the amphibole, 
 and of a certain uniformity of dimension of the grains of quartz and felspar : this 
 is a type of hornstone structure, characteristic of rocks metamorphosed by contact 
 with granite. In the sections examined no mineral characteristic of contact 
 metamorphism, as, for instance, andalusite, was seen but the structure and 
 character, especially of the biotite, convey the impression of a rock of this character. 
 Should future observation confirm this it will have to be admitted that the granite 
 of the Baltoro neighbourhood is more recent than the crystalline schists which 
 are in contact with, and have been metamorphosed by, it. 
 
 II. Noble Serpentine. — Typical specimens of this were collected along the 
 whole course of the Baltoro. They were also found in the moraines of the upper 
 reaches and it is probable that it is intrusive in the sedimentary rocks. Lydekker 
 records this mineral as occurring in the Shigar region in the supra-Kuling series, 
 of mesozoic, perhaps upper mesozoic age ; it was also determined by Prof. T. G. 
 Bonney and Miss A. C. Raisin^ in specimens collected by Sir M. Conway from 
 White Fan Pass, a little east of Crystal Peak. 
 
 III. Vein Quartz. — In variety. Two specimens were collected by His Royal 
 Highness on Bride Peak, along with the biotite gneiss already described, others 
 in the moraines of the Baltoro. The latter enclose pyrites and ai-senical p3Tites 
 or mispickel ; these very common minerals would be of no importance but that 
 they may indicate a possible origin of the gold which near Skardu and elsewhere 
 is found in small quantities in the alluvium of the Upper Indus and its tributaries, 
 possibly in doubly derivative occurrence, as Lydekker found traces of gold 
 workings in the alluvial terraces at about 120 feet above the present level of the 
 Indus. Probably the pyrites of the quartz veins is sufficiently auriferous to give 
 rise on its decomposition to the scanty gold which is met with in these river gravels. 
 
 ' Proc. Roy. Soc. LV, p. 486 (1894).
 
 Geological Results. 433 
 
 B. — Sedimentary Rocks. 
 
 The rocks of palpably sedimentary origin, collected in the Baltoro moraines, 
 fall into two principal groups : one composed of schists and siliceous anagenites/ 
 the other of most various limestones, dolomites and calcareous breccias. 
 
 The first group contains many types, which, individually, seem tolerably 
 different from each other, but, considered as a whole, yield so many intermediate 
 types as to suggest an origin from one and the same series of strata. The 
 prototype is a rock composed of small rounded fragments of quartz imbedded in 
 a micaceous matrix, and may be described as a reddish violet anagenite with the 
 quartzose component generally of small dimensions, and of white, reddish and 
 greenish colour, imbedded in a distinctly schistose micaceous (sericitic) matrix. 
 With the disappearance of the quartz fragments this rock passes into a thoroughly 
 typical \'iolet-coloured sericite schist. At times the quartz grains increase in 
 size and abundance till the rock, being strongly cleaved, assumes a characteristically 
 gneissose appearance; at others the sericitic cement becomes so cryptocrystalline 
 as to assume a wax-like appearance. Occasionally the whole rock seems to have 
 undergone an alteration which has given it an argillaceous appearance, recalling 
 that of some porphyrites or porphyritic tuffs, which have been altered into argillites. 
 
 Less abundant as compared with these rocks, all more or less reddish in colour, 
 are others, quite analogous, of greenish grey colour, which probably alternate with 
 the former because, except for the colour of the micaceous matrix, they consist of 
 the same elements. - 
 
 The calcareous group presents an extraordinary wealth of varieties and can be 
 divided into three sub-groups : limestones, comprising also dolomites and dolomitic 
 limestones, coloured marbles, and breccias, the latter more abundant than all the 
 other rocks. 
 
 The first sub-group includes white, grey and black-banded limestones, and 
 whitish and yellowish dolomites. One crystalline limestone in particular deserves 
 special mention ; it is a fine-grained, almost waxy looking limestone, sometimes 
 marbled with fine grey lines, sometimes having the appearance of cipolin, which 
 is probably derived from lenticular masses included in the gneiss or mica schist. 
 
 ' This word, which is not used in England or mentioned in English text books, is in common 
 use by French and Italian geologists for a rock composed of small roundid fragments, or jx'bbles, 
 of quartz scattered tlvrough a fine grained micaceous matrix. Rocks of this kind are common 
 inthe Alps, as also in parts of the Himalaj-a-s, and since there is no word in comraon Enghsh use 
 to describe them the term has been retained. — R. D. O. 
 
 ' The rocks described by Prof. F. G. Bonney and Miss Raisin from the collection made by 
 Sir M. Conway under the names of grit, schistose grit, and to some extent quartzite, include 
 many which would here be described as tj-pical anagenites. 
 
 (9221) 2 B
 
 434 Aj)i)cndix C. 
 
 In the group of coloured marbles the prevailing variety is a very beautiful red 
 marble with small white spots, and various other types, all having a red coloured 
 base and white veins. 
 
 There comes finally the group of breccias, which presents no small variation, 
 both in the nature of the fragments and in that of the cement, in the colour of one 
 or the other, and so on. Noteworthy is a whole series of breccias of calcareous 
 fragments, bound together by a reddish micaceous substance, quite analogous with 
 the matrix of the anagenites. Better than any description as a help to an appre- 
 ciation of the range of colours of these breccias, is the fact that they present many 
 analogies with the varieties of marble from the Apuan jUps and other parts of Italy. 
 
 Certain specimens, intermediate between the breccias and marbles, arc formed 
 of a soft, dark red, calcareous schist, seamed with veins of calcite, which gives 
 place, when associated with white limestone, to a white marble with violet-coloured 
 amygdaloidal patches, and dark red veining, and to a dark red and white marble 
 breccia with green variegation, altogether similar to the rosso di Levanfo ; but while 
 the latter is a typical ophicalcite, as much cannot be said of the Baltoro specimens, 
 in which the green is due to variegation of the schistose portion. It is, however, to 
 be noted that we are not impossibly dealing with an extreme form of true 
 ophicalcite, as fragments of noble serpentine are found in the moraine along with 
 this breccia. 
 
 The specimens collected at the camping grounds of the explorers are insufficient 
 for an attempt to arrange the various types in their order of geological sequence. 
 The onl}^ hypothesis which can be hazarded is that probably some of the calcareous 
 breccias with micaceous cement come from the contact zone of the schists and 
 anagenites with the limestone and dolomite. In the Apuan Alps very similar 
 breccias [mischio di Saravezza) occur at the contact between the lower limestones 
 (grezzoni) and the underlying schists, which have been ascribed to the permian, 
 others, on the contrary, occur at the contact of the said grezzoni with the zone of 
 marbles, etc. All these breccias appear to be due to mechanical action and are 
 consequently referable to crush breccias. 
 
 Owing to the absence of organic remains among the material collected by the 
 Italian expedition, no direct determination of the geological age of the formations 
 is possible, and the only way to arrive at even a very approximate determination 
 is by comparison of the specimens collected with the rocks already studied and 
 known in other parts of the district. According to the work of Lydekker and 
 Godwin-Austen, confirmed by later observ'^ation, a great complex of formations 
 occurs in a syncline, between Shigar and Askoley, in Baltistan, and in the range 
 rising west of the Biafo glacier. This complex, formed by alternations of schist, 
 limestone, dolomite containing serpentine, and, according to Col. Godwin-Austen, 
 also quartzites, may well be the equivalent of the formations met with in the Upper 
 Baltoro valley. Mr. Lydekker gives two sections across this formation and mentions
 
 Gcoloiiical I'csults. 435 
 
 '!^ 
 
 dolomitic limestones, blue and white mottled limestones, pure white and blue 
 limestones with red veins, green and black schists, the latter carbonaceous and 
 calcareous, and so forth, besides brown grits, which may be the reddish anagenites 
 and identical with the quartzites of Colonel Godwin- Austen. In short the rocks are 
 all such as are present in the moraines of the Upper Baltoro glacier. Mr. Lydekker 
 also mentions dolomites and limestones with characteristic red stains, identical 
 with those found in the supra-Kuling series of Chang-cheng-mo.' It is not, there- 
 fore, too risky to assume that the same formations, but with a much greater 
 development of limestones in comparison with the other rocks, are repeated to 
 the east of K ' and form the Broad-Gasherbrum-Golden Throne group of mountains. 
 The beds of the series forming the above-mentioned, so-called^ Baltistan- 
 Braldoh sj'ncline are ascribed by Mr. Lydekker, on account of their resemblance 
 to other fossiliferous rocks of the district, to his Zanskar system, named after a 
 district in Kashmir, and attributed to a carbon-mesozoic age. The series which 
 is fossiliferous at Shigar, and comparable with that met with on the Sasser 
 Karakoram track, certainly includes the permian and trias, together with older 
 beds at the base and newer ones above. With all reservation necessary in the 
 present case, we may, provisionally, accept a similar coiTcIation for the sedimentary 
 series of the Upper Baltoro, all the more so as I shall shortly set forth other 
 arguments in favour of this hypothesis. 
 
 A sufficiently clear idea of the topographical distribution of these sedimentary 
 rocks in the mountains of the Upper Baltoro may be formed from the series of 
 moraine ridges immediately below the confluence of the Baltoro with the Godwin- 
 Austen glacier, along a line drawn from north to south.' 
 
 According to Dr. De Filippi the succession is as follows : — 
 
 1. A large moraine of granite, gneiss, and crystalline rocks, derived from the 
 
 range on the left of the glacier from Bride Peak to Masherbrum. 
 
 2. Moraine of limestone fragments, rich in coloured marbles and limestone 
 
 breccias, which have fallen from the western flanks of Golden Throne. 
 
 3. Narrow moraine of schistose slaty rocks, which unites with the preceding 
 
 one a little lower down. 
 
 4. A great moraine of calcareous fragments, coloured marbles, breccias and 
 
 anagenites of various colours, with a predominance of wine red, which 
 descends from Hidden Peak and the southern buttresses of Gasherbrum. 
 
 With this moraine the contribution of the Upper Baltoro ceases and 
 gives way to that of the Godwin- Austen glacier. 
 
 1 Mem. Geol Snrv. Ind. XXII, pp. 188, 189. 
 
 2 E. SuESS, Das Antlitz tier Erde, III, pt. i, p. 350. 
 
 ' These moraine ridges are very clearly visible in the Panorama M, taken from the rock crest 
 between the Vigne and Baltoro glaciers. 
 
 (&221) 2 E 2
 
 43G Appendix (■. 
 
 5. Moraine of limestone fragments collected along the slopes of Broad Peak. 
 
 6. Median moraine, coming from the southern and western slopes of K", the 
 
 prevailing constituents being granite and crystalline schists with some 
 scattered fragmei\ts of limestone. 
 
 7. Right hand marginal moraine, with the same composition as the preceding, 
 
 but becoming richer in limestone fragments below the white limestone 
 peak, which rises to the south-east of Crystal Peak, at the confluence of 
 the Baltoro and Godwin-Austen glaciers. 
 
 The observations made by Dr. De Filippi, the beautiful photographs of Vittorio 
 Sella, and the material determined and discussed in the preceding pages, make it 
 possible to draw the outlines of a sketch of the geological constitution of the 
 mountains of the Upper Baltoro and to study their relations to other districts 
 geologically known. 
 
 From the end of the glacier near Paiju up to the confluence of the Godwin-Austen 
 glacier, the Baltoro valley is opened through the gneisses and granites of the 
 Baltistan mas.sif, according to the unanimous description of all explorers. It is 
 possible, however, that crystalline limestone might be intercalated in this series 
 of crystalUne schists, for Lydekker mentions^ having met with it in the Hushe 
 valley, which descends southwards from Masherbrum in the heart of the gneissic 
 area. 
 
 Certain of Sella's photographs, however, led me to entertain some doubt of the 
 entirely gneissic character of the Lower Baltoro valley. In the preliminary account 
 of the journey, published by the Italian Geographical Society,* it is mentioned that 
 the mountains on the right of the Baltoro in front of Rdokass are gigantic, with 
 vertical flanks, and peaks of superb and fantastic forms, sometimes of formidable 
 towers, at others of sharply pointed pyramids. As the photographs and telephoto- 
 graphs show, these irregular forms are confined to the upper parts of the 
 mountains and seem to be the remnants of an enormous, nearly horizontal layer 
 superimposed on the massive gneiss. The forms, in short, of these mountains 
 reproduce the appearance of the dolomitic towers of the Alps, so that it is at least 
 justifiable to doubt whether there may not be, in this part of the Mustagh, the 
 remains of a capping of sedimentary rock regularly covering the gneiss and forming 
 what is known in modern terminology as a " lambeau de recouvrement," composed 
 of dolomites, overthrust on to the gneiss and granites of Baltistan. 
 
 Apart from dolomite, the only rock, with which I am acquainted, capable of 
 assuming such forms is the protogene, a special form of granite, of Mont Blanc. 
 
 ' Loc. cit., p. 312. 
 
 • Boll Soc. Geog. Ital. series iv, XI, p. 444, April 1910.
 
 Geological llcsults. 437 
 
 Since four glaciers descend from the clifls in question it will be easy for a later 
 examination to confirm or refute this hypothesis by an examination of the 
 moraines. ' 
 
 Ascending the valley, the mountains suggest no change of character till the 
 confluence of the Godwin-Austen glacier is approached. On the right of the 
 Baltoro, opposite and north of Mitre Peak, a marble crag rises from one of the 
 buttresses of Crystal Mountain, and is marked in the map of the Italian 
 expedition by the figure 20088. The peak is most recognisable because the .summit, 
 composed of pure white marble, rises from a base of dark-coloured schists. The 
 dip of the schists, though steep, is distinctly eastwards above, but lower down 
 becomes perfectly vertical, where the beds are seen plunging perpendicularly into 
 the Godwin- Austen glacier. 
 
 As it was not possible to secure authentic specimens, either of the schists of the 
 base or of the marble, we must have recourse to conjecture. In the material of 
 the moraine the only white marble is a saccharoid limestone of very fine grain, 
 with suggestions of cipolin, derived from the moraine on the Baltoro in direct 
 coiTespondence with this peak. Is this mass of marble simplv a great lenticular 
 inclusion of crystalline limestone in the Baltistan gneiss, like that of Masherbrum, 
 or, does it belong to the overlying group forming the massif opposite to it, from 
 which it seems separated by some local accident of structure or sculpture ? The 
 material for answering these questions is not to hand. 
 
 West of the marble peak lies a saddle named by Sir W. M. Conway, AMiite 
 Fan pass, beyond which rises his Crystal Peak, not that so named on the Italian 
 map, but one of its minor peaks. Among the specimens collected by Sir W. M. 
 Conway, on the ascent of his Crystal Peak, Prof. T. G. Bonney and Miss A. C. Raisin 
 identified^ a fine-grained gneiss, a calcitic quartz schist, a dark-coloured mica schist, 
 a dolomite, and a limestone, both crystalline. From the ^\Tiite Fan pass came a 
 mica syenite and a fine-grained crystalline dolomite. All these are rocks of a 
 crystalline series and, except the syenite, of the schistose group. The presence 
 of unaltered sedimentary rocks in the Baltoro moraines, opposite Cr\'stal Peak, 
 led Prof. Bonney and Miss Raisin to propose the hypothesis that sedimentary forma- 
 tions were represented in the rock forming this mountain. Now that we know that 
 sedimentary rocks form the whole of Gasherbrum, from which the greatest part of 
 the moraine material of the Baltoro is derived. Prof. Bonney *s conjecture becomes 
 baseless, and the presence of sedimentary rocks in the vicinity of Crystal Peak 
 problematical.^ 
 
 ' It is wortli noting that the illustrations to Sir \\'. il. Conway's book, and to that of 
 Dr. Jacot Guillarmod, indicate the existence of a very .similar feature in the mountains of the 
 Masherbrum range, to the south of the Baltoro valley. — R. D. O. 
 
 ' Scientific ResulUs, p. 72. 
 
 ' See, howev^er, the remarks on p. 445. 
 
 (9221) o E 3
 
 438 Appendix C. 
 
 The formation of .schists, anagcnitcs, limestones and dolomites shows up in 
 its full development in the terminal mass, lying between the Godwin- Austen and 
 Upper Baltoro glaciers, which is crowned by the tliree peaks Broad, Gasherbrum 
 and Hidden, rising to heights o£ more than 26,500 feet (8,000 metres). The 
 limestones predominate in the high portion of the Broad and Gasherbrum 
 mountains, the base of schists is seen to fringe the foot of these mountains 
 along the whole of the left bank of the Godwin- Austen and eastwards along 
 the right bank of the Upper Baltoro glaciers, to almost opposite Mitre Peak. 
 Beyond this point the limestones extend down to the base, and on the left of 
 the photographic view of Bride Peak from Camp III the mass of limestones, 
 bristling with peaks and pinnacles, is seen to rise from the glacier. 
 
 The boundary between the limestones and schists is, consequently, covered by 
 ice in the valley, but certainly rises towards the dip between the calcareous Golden 
 Throne and the gneissic Bride, and probably crosses Chogolisa pass. 
 
 Among the specimens collected by Sir W. M. Conway on the second pinnacle of 
 Pioneer Peak, one of the peaks of Golden Throne, is a purple schistose grit with 
 small pebbles, mentioned by Prof. Boniiey and Miss Raisin', which may be identical 
 with the anagenite of this report. 
 
 As appears from specimens collected by His Royal Highness, at a height of 
 24,600 feet. Bride Peak is composed above of gneiss, and at the ba.se of the granites 
 and granitoid gneisses, so extremely abundant, according to the observations of 
 the members of the Italian expedition, in the moraines of the glacier which descends 
 from this mountain. 
 
 In the Upper Godwin- Austen glacier the boundary between the gneiss and the 
 beds of the pateo-mesozoic series must lie to the south of Windy Gap, as the 
 Staircase is made of coarse-grained, light greyish gneiss. 
 
 The base of the highest peak of the neighbourhood, K-, ought, according to 
 the reports of various expeditions, to be formed of light-coloured granites or grani- 
 toid gneisses. But the several photographs taken from south, east and west show 
 a well marked stratification with gentle dips of about 15° to 20°, which is greatest 
 in the terminal pyramid ; it is probably due to layers of gneiss analogous to those 
 of Bride Peak. Colonel Godwin Austen, who noticed tliis peculiarity in the photo- 
 graphs brought back by the Italian expedition, expressed the ojiinion- that the 
 stratified summit of K" might be more recent than the granite base. I cannot 
 accept this opinion of the illustrious and learned explorer without reservation. 
 The mere fact of superposition is not enough to establish the relative age of two 
 formations in a highly disturbed region, all the more so as the granite may be 
 intrusive. 
 
 ' Scientific Results, \y. V.'i. 
 ^ Oeog. Jour, xxxvii, p. 2(1.
 
 Geological Results. 43!) 
 
 The scarcity of specimens obtained from rock in situ leaves many questions 
 obscure. Are the schists of the base of Broad Peak the same as those of the 
 Marble Peak ? Do they belong to the crystalline schists as Dr. De Filippi believes, 
 or to the palaeo-mesozoic series ? At present no answer is possible. 
 
 One other question remains unsettled, the direction of the dip of the 
 contact between the schists and limestones at the base of Broad Peak. The 
 course of the junction from Windy Gap to the Chogolisa pass, taking into account 
 the difference of level, is nearly north and south, but none of the photographs have 
 enabled the dip to be determined. Taking into account what is seen on the Marble 
 Peak it is probable that the dip is very high and nearly vertical, with a tendency 
 towards inversion to an apparent easterly dip.' From Mr. Lydekker's observations 
 we know that at Askoley, in the Braldnh valley, the contact between the sedimentary 
 series and the gneiss of Baltistan hades to the east, that is to say, the gneiss is 
 inverted over the more recent rocks. If this explanation is rejected we must 
 believe that there is a superposition in normal chronological order. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great gaps, which yet remain in our knowledge of the 
 geology of the mountains of the Baltoro glacier, one fact of greatest importance 
 has been established. The valley of the great glacier is clcsed on the north by a 
 very elevated massif, composed of sedimentary rocks of upper palseozoic and 
 mesozoic age, prevailingly calcareous and, therefore, differing widely from the 
 mountains of the rest of the valley, which are entirely, or prevailingly, granitic and 
 gneissic. 
 
 This difference explains how the course of the junction between these types of 
 rock has determined that of the longitudinal furrow, formed by two subsequent 
 valleys, which give origin to the bifurcation of the valley into the two branches 
 of the Upper Baltoro and the God win- Austen, descending, respectively, from the 
 Chogolisa pass and Windy Gap. The valley of the Baltoro has, therefore, a 
 certain analogy with that of the Upper Aosta, which ends in the two longitudinal 
 valleys of the Allee Blanche and Ferret, meeting at Entreves, at the foot of Mont 
 Blanc, to form the strictly transverse valley of the Dora di Valdigne. Geologicallj' 
 and lithologically the Baltoro valley is, to a certain extent, the opposite of the 
 Aosta, because, while the latter is formed of schistose limestone rocks and shut 
 in by a granite mass, the former is cut through granitic and gneissic mountains 
 
 ' The view of Bride Peak in the photographs, and the course of the boundary from the Chogolisa 
 Pass along the whole of the lower part of the CJodwin Austen glacier, seem to indicate a well- 
 marked easterly or, more precisely, north-easterly dip. If this dip remained unaltered the 
 boundary should rise along the base of K ' to tlie Savoia pass. Tliat tlie hoiuidary is found 
 at Windy Gap, much further east, indicates a stratigrapliical disturbance, either fracture or 
 secondary fold, causing either bodily displacement or a local change of dip, and determining 
 the abrupt bi'ud to the north-eastwards of the course of tJic upper Oodwin-Austen glacier. 
 (9221) 2 E 4
 
 440 A])])endix C. 
 
 and closed by a mass of schists and limestones, which ought to be named after 
 the Broad Peak, as this rising to 27,133 feet forms the highest point, rather than 
 the customary Gasherbrum, which will be retained as it has become established 
 by use. 
 
 From the distribution of morenic material in the glaciers of the group it seems 
 fairly probable that the terminal peaks of Broad, Gasherbrum IV, Hidden and 
 Golden Throne are all formed of limestone and dolomite. They will consequently 
 be the first peaks of over or near 26,500 feet known to be formed of sedimentary 
 rocks, whereas the loftiest summits previously known are composed of granitic, 
 gneissic rocks, or else formed by volcanic cones. Allowing for difference of scale, 
 the Broad group may be taken to represent, in the Karakoram, the Grand Combin, 
 in the Alps — the only peak formed of sedimentary rocks (mesozoic calcareous schists 
 of Piedmontese facies) which rises above 13,000 feet. 
 
 If we regard the general geological structure of the region, as shown by 
 geological maps and descriptions, the discovery of the great mass of limestones of 
 the Upper Baltoro appears clearly as the continuation, and harmonic complement, 
 of the structural outlines which had been suggested, but left uncertain, by earlier 
 exploration to the south-east. For a long time the presence of palseo-me.sozoic rocks 
 iu the Chang-cheng-mo-Karakoram region of Eastern Ladakh has been known; 
 they have been described by Dr. Stoliczka iu 1878, and at a later date by Mr. 
 Lydekker, who found dolomites with upper trias fossils. This palseo-mesozoic 
 area forms an elongated strip running north-westwards parallel to the direction 
 of the gneissic mass of Baltistan. It had been traced to Sirsil, between the Nubra 
 and Shyok valleys, on the road to the Karakoram pass, but its ultimate course 
 and end remained unknown. The calcareous dolomitic mass of Gasherbrum lies 
 appro.ximately on the north-west prolongation of this band, and the discovery, 
 by Dr. Longstaff, of limestone in the median moraine of the upper Siachen glacier, 
 at a place intermediate between Sirsil and the Upper Baltoro, is a weighty argument 
 in favour of the continuity of this band of mesozoic limestone for some 90 miles, 
 through a region which is yet unexplored, even geographically. 
 
 The importance of this discovery is not merely geological but also, and 
 principally, geogi-aphical. The course of the watershed, between the Indus valley 
 and the closed drainage area of Turkestan, from the Mustagh to the Karakoram 
 pass, was uncertain and badly known, in spite of certain peaks having been trigono- 
 metrically fixed, as it had been barely seen and never crossed by the explorers 
 who followed each other at long intervals. 
 
 The Italian expedition obtained, from Windy Gap, on 15th June, 1909, the 
 first view over the unknown country east of the mountains bounding the Baltoro 
 glacier, and saw, to the left of Gasherbrum, not the valley of the Oprang tributary 
 of the Yarkand, seen a few days previously by His Royal Highness from the Savoia
 
 Geolo<iical Results. 441 
 
 '!^ 
 
 pass to the west of K'-, but another valley, with a glacier draining to the south- 
 east. 
 
 Almost simultaneously, on 16th June, 1909, Dr. LongstafE crossed the presumed 
 watershed by the Saltoro pass and descended onto a glacier which, a couple of 
 months later, was suspected on the suggestion of Colonel Burrard to be 
 the upper portion of the Saichar or Siachen glacier, previously known only 
 at its lower end, and believed to have a length of about 20 miles, instead of 
 the 45 miles it is now known to reach. The source of the Siachen is thus 
 pushed back to an untraversed pass, seen by Dr. LongstafE from an estimated 
 distance of 12 miles, and supposed to be the same as that reported, from the 
 northern side, at the head of the Urdok glacier by Sir F. Younghusband, in his 
 exploration of the Oprang valley in 1889 ; a pass which seems to lie in about the 
 same latitude as Golden Throne. In the mountains to the east of this pass, 
 to which Dr. LongstafE gave the name of Younghusband, he noted the very lofty 
 peak of Teram Kangri, whose height, estimated approximately at 27,010 feet, 
 makes it one of the loftiest mountains of the world. ^ 
 
 Finally he noticed that the moraines on the left of this upper Siachen glacier, 
 like those on the right of the upper Baltoro, were full of marbles and calcareous 
 breccias, and saw, some ten miles off, the rocks of Teram Kangri gleam white, where 
 not covered with snow; facts which led him unhesitatingly to the conclasion that 
 this superb mountain was formed of limestone. This statement, which might appear 
 rash, if unsupported, attains a certain probability from the observations and 
 records of the Italian expedition in the Gasherbrum massif.- The mountain mass 
 of Teram Kangri lies about south-east of Broad Peak, and on the line joining this 
 with the limestone band recorded between the Nubra and Upper Shyok valleys and 
 from its eastern declivities by Mr. Lydekker, to the south of the Sirsil or Sasser pass. 
 
 This unexpected extension of the Siachen glacier to the vicinity of the mountains 
 at the head of the Baltoro gives great importance to the observations of the Italian 
 expedition, whether from Windy Gap or the Chogolisa pass, as has already been 
 briefly referred to in the addresses given by His Royal Highness and published 
 in various scientific periodicals.^ 
 
 As regards Windy Gap, this has already been dealt with. The camp on 
 the Chogolisa pass commanded the valley of the Kondus, a glacier which 
 was seen to intervene between the Baltoro and the recently discovered Upper 
 
 ' More recent and rigid measurements by the Indian Trigonometrical .Survej- have reduced 
 this figure. The final calculations are not complete but the height has been determined as about 
 24,489 feet, a ficuro which can be relied on to witliin 100 feet. — Oeog. Jour., XXXIX, Jan. 1912, 
 p. 72. 
 
 ^ Dr. LongstafT has recogni.sed Teram Kangri in a photogi-aph, taken on 22nd June, 1909, 
 by Vittorio Sella from Windy Gap. Geog. Jmim.. January, 1911. 
 
 ' Rimsta del Clnb Alp. Ital. XXIX, pp. 26-35 (1910); Boll. Soc. Geog. Ital. ser. v, XI, pp. 4.54 
 and 460 (1910).
 
 442 Appendix C. 
 
 Siachen. The valley of the Kondiis, dominated by the peaks K', K", K", winds 
 tortuously, first to the east, then to the north, passing round the bases of Golden 
 Throne and Hidden Peaks. This last is not the most easterly peak of the Gasher- 
 brum group, for eastwards of Hidden Peak rises another, and only to the east of 
 this does a deep gap form the true limit of the Gasherbrum massif, taken in a wide 
 sense, and the head of the Kondus glacier. The Italian expedition believed that 
 this was in truth the pass at the head of the Urdok glacier, seen from the Oprang 
 side by Younghusband, and for this reason. 
 
 Beside this depression another was seen, formed by a low ridge, separating 
 the Kondus from a wide, glacier-filled valley further east, which is probably none 
 other than the Upper Siachen. The low crest just mentioned rises rapidly towards 
 the south into the high mountains between the Kondus and the supposed Siachen, 
 and to the east into other lofty mountains, which should be the easterly or northerly 
 continuation of Teram Kangri, if not this mountain itself. 
 
 From the saddle at the head of the Kondus it seems possible to descend to the 
 Oprang basin, and probably into the Urdok valley. 
 
 If the map accompanying Dr. LongstafE's account of his expedition is compared 
 with the representation of the Kondus valley, which has just been set forth, it is 
 evident that there are no irreconcilable differences. The Kondus and Siachen 
 glaciers end in two depressions, separated by a low crest, which, seen from a distance, 
 might be superimposed on each other by an eflect of perspective, so as to give the 
 impression of a single valley, especially from the relatively low point where Longstaff 
 was upon the Siachen, at about 16,000 feet, an impression less probable from the 
 camps of His Royal Highness on Chogolisa, at an elevation of 22,000 feet, equal 
 to, if not greater than, that of the pass in question. From this it follows that the 
 westernmost extremity of the Siachen valley will not communicate directly with 
 the Urdok, but only with the Kondus, whose head intervenes, so to speak, 
 between the valleys of the Siachen and Urdok : and that the pass seen by Sir F. 
 Younghusband lies between this latter and the Kondus valley. 
 
 A discovery so important as that of the greater extension of the Siachen has 
 given wide field for conjecture and hypothesis, and to considerable divergence of 
 interpretation, a thing which is natural in view of the many uncertainties still 
 existing. Dr. Longstaff, and still more distinctly Dr. Neve, his companion in part 
 of the expedition, have expressed in their writings the opinion that the Siachen 
 communicates with the Baltoro directly over a saddle at the base of Hidden Peak, 
 or to the north of it, in the same way that the Biafo glacier in Baltistan communi- 
 cates with the Hispar. In the first place this supposed continuity of the two 
 glaciers does not exist. South of the Broad massif the Kondus glacier, as has been 
 mentioned, is insinuated between them. The valleys which descend to the east 
 and north of the massif are tributaries of the Oprang, either by means of the 
 Gasherbrum glacier of Younghusband, or by the Urdok ; consequently there can
 
 Geolo<ijical Results. 443 
 
 be no direct connection between the Siaclien and Baltoro glaciers. Yet, broadly 
 speaking, the notion implied by these authors might be extended across the 
 gap formed by tlie Upper Kondus, and it might be maintained that the 
 Baltoro and Siachen, in spite of a brief interruption, lie in the same tectonic furrow 
 and so preserve the analogy desired by Dr. LongstafE. But not even in this way 
 is it correct, for the Biafo-Hispar system is formed by two longitudinal valleys 
 draining in opposite directions, in a furrow which is orographically, and geologically, 
 a single well-marked feature. The Siachen-Baltoro system, on the other hand, 
 would consist of a longitudinal valley draining to the south-east, joined by a series 
 of gaps and valleys, found along its prolongation to the north-west, with the distinctly 
 transverse valley of the Lower Baltoro. The supposed analogy therefore does not 
 exist, even on this hypothesis ; on the contrary, it is obvious that the Siachen furrow 
 continues into the Urdok across the two contiguous saddles. 
 
 From the observations made by the two expeditions it results that the course 
 of the water parting between the Indus and Yarkand basins is very difEerent from 
 what had been believed and shown on maps. 
 
 The Karakoram, like the Himalaya, of which it is the western portion, consists 
 of a series of chains parallel to each other, and also approximately parallel to the 
 course of the geological zones and leading tectonic features, ill-known as yet, of 
 the whole great system. The rivers flow in open valleys between these chains; 
 and narrow, deep-cut channels, frequently reduced to impassable gorges, by which 
 the rivers pass from one valley to the next, sever the chains in pieces. Consequently, 
 although the lines of peaks appear continuous on the map and exhibit a sensible 
 parallehsm, the principal watershed, and many of the secondary ones, have a verj'' 
 different course, proceeding by stretches as they pass from one range to another 
 by means of transverse ridges, which separate the divergent slopes of each of the 
 furrows contained between a pair of ranges. 
 
 On the whole then, as this passage of the watershed from one chain to the next 
 takes place for long stretches in a regular manner, always from a more forward 
 range to one further back, the complex course of the line of watershed cuts, at 
 a very acute angle, the general direction of the ranges, so that it is easy, in ill-known 
 parts of the system, to confound two quite distinct members with each other and 
 regard them as only one. Just this confusion was made in all maps anterior 
 to 1910 in the country between the Upper Baltoro and the Karakoram pass. 
 
 The discovery of the Upper Siachen, and of Teram Kangri, has shown the 
 existence of a great longitudinal furrow, occupied by a glacier, and of a chain, 
 parallel to that. Well known and fixed, which runs from K" to Hidden Peak and, 
 up to now, was called the main range of the Karakoram. The ridge by which 
 the watershed crosses from this to that of Teram Kangri is formed by that saddle 
 between the head of the Kondus and the Siachen which was seen from Chogolisa. 
 The chain of K- is truncated bv the Kondus vallev, whose tortuous course in the
 
 444 Appeiulix C. 
 
 upper part indicates a breach of continuity, tilled with ice, but where this 
 disappears, exhibiting itself as one of those impassable gorges in which the Karakoram 
 is rich. It is probable that the continuation of the chain of K ■ is that in which 
 the peaks K" and K'"-" are found, these latter over 25,000 feet in height, and 
 in the Saltoro chain to K'- and beyond. 
 
 It is natural to enquire what may be the influence, on the morphology of the region, 
 of the junction between the crystalline and sedimentary rocks, which, in the Upper 
 Baltoro valley, determines the furrow extending from Windy Gap to the Chogolisa pass. 
 Probably it crosses the Upper Kondus valley and cuts the ridge between this and 
 the Siachen to the east of K'"-", which present themselves, orographically, as 
 the homologue of Bride Peak, in secondary alignment parallel to the principal range, 
 and, geologically, as the continuation of the crystalline axis of K-. If the depression 
 along the plane of contact continues farther to the south-east, it should cross the 
 Siachen valley and the Murgisthang pass, to reach the known boundary on the 
 Sasser pass. It is evident therefore that, although this contact determines many 
 and important orographical details, it does not coiTespond to any great valley, and 
 still less to a furrow of primary rank, as is the case in the Biafo-Hispar valley. 
 
 In conclusion it is certain that the water parting between the Indus and the 
 Central Asian drainage, after passing the peaks of K", Broad, Gasherbrum and 
 Hidden, turns eastwards to a parallel range which bounds the Siachen on the east 
 and probably culminates in Teram Kangri. A good part of this range was already 
 known, for it runs from the Sasser pass, for more than 100 miles south-eastwards 
 to the Pangong Lake, and is cut through by the precipitous gorge of the Shyok, in 
 the reach which lies above the sharp elbow formed by this river, a little below its 
 junction with the Chang-cheng-mo. The range of K" runs south-west of this, and 
 although the complexity of its geological composition — for granites, schists and 
 various sedimentary rocks take part in if — has a very sensible influence in multi- 
 plying and increasing the accidents of relief, it has not rendered less evident the 
 orographical continuity, wliich is obvious enough in many parts. 
 
 The two chains of K^ and Teram Kangri, are, therefore, well distinct, and the 
 resemblance between the Karakoram and the double chain of the Hindu Kush, 
 already suspected by some, has a real basis. The latest discoveries have revealed 
 the importance of the Teram Kangri range, wliich is promoted from the position 
 of a secondary spur of the presumed watershed range, to that of a primary range 
 of the system. The continuation of this range, to the northwards, is certainly that 
 row of peaks, which the Italian expedition observed from Windy Gap, and which 
 will now become the object of fresh journeys of exploration. 
 
 Geological Survey Office, Rome, July, 1911.
 
 Geological Results. 445 
 
 Having been asked to undertake the translation and revision of the Appendix 
 dealing with the geological results of the expedition made by His Royal Highness 
 the Duke of the Abruzzi to the Karakoram, I find little left to be done as regards 
 the latter half of the task. The facts, as set forth by Ing. Novarese, maj' be 
 accepted, the interpretation follows, for the greater part, with logical certainty. 
 Only in two parts of any importance do I find myself unable to accept unreservedly 
 the opinions expressed in the note. The first of these concerns the limestones of 
 Crystal Peak and the hills eastwards of it. In the note they are regarded, with 
 very little hesitation, as belonging to the older gneissic series, and as lenticular 
 inclusions in it. This interpretation is not impossible, but it seems to me that 
 insufficient weight has been given to earlier observations, and that the case for 
 regarding the limestones as belonging to the sedimentary series, either as a con- 
 tinuation of the Gasherbrum exposure or as an outlier, is stronger than is represented 
 by the text. Sir W. M. Conway, in the description of his expedition, expressly 
 states that on the descent from his Crystal Peak he came upon " a new set of rocks 
 which gave a fresh character to the ridge separating the Baltoro and Godwin-Austen 
 glaciers." These rocks are described as granites and hard limestones, light grey, 
 buff and white in colour, of which seams were found in the rocks lower down the 
 valley but here forming the mass of the mountains. His next camp up the glacier 
 was pitched on a fan composed of fragments of white marble. ^ In the description of 
 the rocks collected in situ on these hills it is stated that no record was kept of the 
 order in which they were collected, but of the specimens one is described as gneiss, 
 one as mica schist, and five as various forms of limestones ; the other specimens 
 are one of syenite and one of quartz associated with limestone breccia.- It may be 
 noticed that the gneiss and mica schist were both collected on the ascent of Crystal 
 Peak, and that these rocks are unrepresented in the collection from the WTiite Fan 
 pass ; moreover, from the latter locality came a greyish crystalline limestone, 
 veined with noble serpentine, recalling the presence of similar rocks among the 
 moraine debris derived fi'om the Gasherbrum group of mountains, and the occurrence 
 of serpentine among the sedimentary rocks on the slopes of Mango Gusor.' 
 
 These facts render it at least possible that we have to deal with an exposure of 
 the limestone series, penetrated by intrusive veins of syenite and gneissose granite, 
 such as is not uncommoii in the Himalayas. It may be that the boundary, between 
 the areas occupied mainly by crystalline and b}' sedimentary rocks, after running 
 down the Upper Baltoro valley, crosses the main glacier and passes up onto the 
 mountains north of it, thence, turning north-eastwards near the Crystal Peak, it 
 
 * Climbing in the Himalayas, etc., pp. 465 ff. 
 
 » Prof. T. G. Bosney and Miss A. C. Raisdi. Proc. Boy. Soc. LV, p. 486 ; also in W. M. 
 ComvAY, Climbing in the Karaloram Himalayas, vol. 11, Scientific Results, p. 73. 
 ' Mem. Geol. Sun: hid. XXII, p. 189.
 
 44C Appendix C 
 
 would run down to the valley of the Godwin-Austen glacier, striking it near the sharp 
 bend and following the general course of the upper part of this valley. As an 
 alternative the Crystal and Marble Peak exposure of limestones may be an outlying 
 area of sedimentary rocks, but in either alternative there is the possibility, which 
 should be investigated by future travellers, of the occurrence of sedimentary lime- 
 stones in the hills north of the Baltoro glacier. 
 
 The second point, on which something more remains to be said, is the minor 
 classification of the mountain ranges. The view advocated by Drs. LongstafT and 
 Neve is rejected on the ground that there is no structural continuity between the 
 Siachen, Baltoro and Biafo valleys, such as would give them a geological unity 
 and justify the mountains on either side being regarded as forming two separate 
 ranges ; but, if this argument is allowed to prevail, it would equally militate against 
 the view which regards the mountains on either side of the Oprang-Nubra trough 
 as forming a pair of parallel ranges, for this orographical depression certainly does not 
 follow, but runs obliquely to, the general strike of the leading feature in thegeological 
 structure of the district, namely, the Karakoram syncline of sedimentary rocks. 
 
 This argument is not, however, final, for the movements of elevation, which have 
 given rise to the mountains, were spread over a long period, and it may well be 
 that the latest of them, those which determined the rows of peaks as they now 
 stand, did not exactly follow the earlier ones, by which the leading features of 
 geological structure were marked out. Moreover, the case for the classification 
 adopted in the note is stronger than is there set forth, for not only is the Oprang- 
 Nubra trough similar to the much larger depression formed by the Sutlej and Sanpo 
 valleys on the northern side of the Himalayas, but there is an apparent connection 
 between the two, for the former is continued south-eastwards by the Shyok valley 
 up to the elbow, where it bends from a southerly to a north-westerly course, and 
 thence by the lower part of the Pangong Lake to the Upper Indus, and by this to 
 the Sutlej valley. To the south-east this line of valleys has been held to be 
 sufficient reason for separating the Himalayas, on the south, from the moiuitains 
 to the north, so that if lug. Novarese errs in separating the Teram Kangri peaks 
 from those of the K' and Gasherbrum group, he errs in good company. iVnd if 
 this view is accepted, then the series of peaks, labelled K with a number by the 
 Survey of India, can no longer be regarded as belonging to the same range that is 
 crossed by the Karakoram pass, and a different name, Mustagh for choice, would 
 have to be given to them and to the mountains which have been repeatedly 
 described as the Karakoram Himalayas. 
 
 It is, however, by no means certain that this view of the grouping of the peaks 
 into ranges is correct. It is natural for geographers to seek a parallelism between 
 the minor members of a great chain of mountains and the general direction of the 
 whole, and the intricac}' of the valley systems, cut back at times along the strike- 
 line between minor ranges, and at others across and through them, makes it not
 
 Geological Iiesults. 447 
 
 impossible to find justification for dividing the mountain chain, as a whole,- into a 
 series of parallel ranges, running along the length of the chain. Yet, although it may 
 be possible to adopt a nomenclature expressing this view, it does not follow that 
 the names represent what really occurs in nature, and there is another aspect of 
 the case which is at least ec^ually worthy of consideration, that the individual 
 members of the chain are ranged not along, but oblicpiely transverse to, the general 
 direction of the whole, much like the arrangement of the individual birds in a flock 
 of wild geese, or the individual regiments of an army ranged in echelon. 
 
 The study of areas of structural elevation, on a smaller scale, and of less com- 
 plication, than a mountain range, shows that the principal anticline is often crossed 
 by minor ones, ranged obliquely to it, so that the margin of the area of uplift is 
 marked by a series of open folds, all pitching in the same direction and advancing 
 one beyond the other. It is not unnatural to suppose that a similar feature may 
 be found on a larger scale in great mountain ranges, and on this view the Teram 
 Kangri and Gasherbrum j)eaks would fall into the same range, continued probably 
 to K-, and the Mustagh Peaks. Nor would the interruption of the range by the deep 
 gap between Teram Kangri and Gasherbrum, or by the Godwin -Austen glacier 
 valley between that and K -, afEect the structural unity of the range, for it must 
 be remembered that the peaks are peaks because the agencies of denudation have not 
 yet had time to remove them, though they have removed all the surrounding rock : 
 on the other hand the peaks owe their elevation to the fact that the rock of which 
 they are composed has been uplifted, and where we find a group of peaks rising 
 much above those by which they are surrounded, we may conclude that this great 
 elevation is due to the fact that the last episode, in the general uplift of the moun- 
 tains, was a more rapid and greater upheaval of the particular region in which the 
 high peaks are found. 
 
 It might be, of course, that there were two neighbouring areas of such special 
 elevation, one marked by the Teram Kangri group of peaks, the other by the K-, 
 Broad, Gasherbrum and Hidden Peaks, and that between them lay a zone of lesser 
 uplift. A more probable case, however, is that these two groups of verj' high peaks 
 form parts of the same general area of special, recent, uplift, and this special up- 
 heaval may have determined the position of the watershed, which crosses 
 the Oprang-Xubra trough. If this is the case, K" and the Mustagh Peaks are 
 restored to that group of ranges crossed by the Karakoram pa-ss, which together 
 have come to be known as the Karakoram mountains. 
 
 That such widely divergent views of the classification of these mountains can 
 be put forward, without any possibility of even indicating which is likeh' to be 
 ultimately accepted, shows how little is really known as yet, and how much remains 
 to be done before the structure of this region can be rationally discussed, much less 
 said to be properly understood. 
 
 Horsham, February 20th, 1912.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE GEOLOGY OF BALTISTAN 
 AND THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY. 
 
 1883. R. Lydekker. Geologv of the Cashmir and C'hamba Territories and the British District 
 of Khagan : Memoirs of the. Geohgical Survey of India, Vol. XXII. [Contains the only 
 general geological map of Kashmir, also a complete bibliography of earlier accounts 
 containing any geological references. To save space reference is made to this for the 
 bibliography previous to 1883.] 
 
 1883. H. H. Godwin Austen. Presidential Address to Section E of the British Association : 
 
 Report, Southport, 1883, pp. 576-589 : also in Proceedings of the. Royal Geographical 
 Society, New Series, Vol. V, pp. 610-625. 
 
 1884. H. H. Godwin Austen. The Mountain Systems of the Himalayas and Neighbouring 
 
 Ranges of India : Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, New Series, Vol. VI, pp. 83-87. 
 188.5. E. SuEss. Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I, p. 565. 
 
 1893. R. D. Oldham. A Manual of the Geology of India, by H. B. Medlicott and W. T. 
 
 Blanford ; 2nd edition, revised and largely rewritten by R. D. Oldham. 
 
 1894. W. M. Conway (Sir). Climbing and Exploration in the Karakoram Himalayas. London. 
 
 Edition de Luxe, in 2 vols., containing scientific results and map ; also an edition in 
 
 1 vol. without scientific results or map. 
 1894. T. G. BoNNEY (Prof.) and A. C. Raisin (Miss). Notes on Mr. W. M. Conway's collection 
 
 of Rock Specimens from the Karakoram Himalayas ; Vol. II, pp. 41-73, of Sir y\'. M. 
 
 Conway s Climbitig in the Karakoram Uimnlnyas. 
 1894. T. G. BoNNEY (Prof.) and A. C. Raisin (Miss). On Rocks and Minerals collected by 
 
 Mr. W. M. Conway in the Karakoram Himalayas : Proceedings of the Royal Society, 
 
 Vol. LV, pp. 468-487. [Identical with the preceding as regards general summary, 
 
 but less detailed as regards description of individual specimens.] 
 1901. E. SuESS. Das Antlitz der Erde. Bd. III. p. 344. 
 1904 (?) J. Jacot Gutll.\jrmod. Six Mois dans 1" Hi malaya, le Karakoram et I'Hindu-Kush. 
 
 Neuchatel (no date ; expedition in 1902). 
 
 1905. A. C. F. Ferber. Die Erkundung des Mustagh passes in Karakoram Himalaya : Zeit- 
 
 schrift des dcufschen nnd oesterreirhisrhen Alpenvcreins, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 113-132: 
 Translated in BoUetino del Club Alpino Italiano, 1906, p. 319 ff. 
 
 1906. K. Oestreich. Die Taler des nordwestlichen Himalaya : Pelennanns Miltheilungen, 
 
 Eiganzimgsheft, No. 155. Contains many bibliographical references. 
 1907-S. S. G. BuRRAED (Col.) and H. H. Hayden. .A Skctcli of the tocography and Geology of 
 
 the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet. Calcutta. 
 1910. C. S. MiDDLEinss. A re\-ision of the Silurian -Trias Sequence in Kashmir: Records of 
 
 the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XL, pp. 206-260. 
 1910. H.R.H. The Duke of the .Abruzzi. Esplorazione nei Monti del Karakoram : Uolletino 
 
 della Sociela Geographica Italiana, Serie iv, Vol. XI, pp. 435-4C9. 
 (9221) 2 K
 
 450 Bibliography of the Geology of Baltistan, &c. 
 
 1910. T. G. LoNGSTAFF. Glacier Exploration in the Eastern Karakoram. Geographical 
 
 Journal, Vol. XXXV, pp. 622-658. 
 1910. H.R.H. The Duke of the Abruzzi. Viaggio di Esplorazione nei Monti del Karakoram. 
 
 [Address delivered to the Italian Alpine Club at Turin.] Rivisin del Club Aipino 
 
 Italiano, Vol. XXIX, pp. 20-35. 
 
 1910. A. Neve. The Ranges of the Karakoram : Gcog. Jour., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 571-577. 
 
 1911. C. S. HIiDDLEMlss. Sections in the Pir Panjal Range and Sind Valley, Kashmir: Bev. 
 
 Qeol Surv. Ind., Vol. XLI, pp. 113-144. 
 
 1911. F. De Filippi. The Expedition of H R.H. the Duke of the Abruzzi to the Karakoram 
 
 Himalayas : Geog. Jour., Vol. XXXVII, pp. 19-30. 
 
 1912. S. G. BuKRARD (Col.). The Height of Teram Kangri. (A communication from Col. 
 
 S. Burrardto Dr. T. G. Longstaff) see Geog. Jour., Vol. XXXIX, pp. 71-72.
 
 ROCK SPECIMENS COLLECTED ON THE BALTORO 
 
 MORAINES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 Fig. 1. Rose-coloured, veined limestone. 
 
 Fig. 2. Many-coloured breccia of limestone fragments and sericitic cement. 
 Fig. 3. Many-coloured breccia of limestone fragments and yellow calcareous cement. 
 Fig. 4. As Fig. 2, with the fragments more scattered and subordinate to the matrix. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Fig. 1. Brecciated violet-coloured limestone (pavonazetto). The deeply coloured portion is 
 
 schist. 
 Fig. 2. Marble blotched with red. 
 
 Fig. 3. Rose-coloured limestone {persichino), minutely brecciated. 
 Fig. 4. Brecciated violet limestone with greenish tinting. The deeply coloured part is a reddish 
 
 violet schist ; the green coloration is due to infiltration of the part originally 
 
 white. 
 
 (9221) 2 F 2
 
 Appendix D. 
 
 BOTANICAL REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 Prof. R. PIROTTA 
 
 AND 
 
 Dr. F. CORTESI 
 UPON THE PLANTS GATHERED BY THE EXPEDITION. 
 
 (9221) 
 
 2 F 3
 
 Appendix D. 
 
 BOTANICAL REPORT 
 
 UPON THE PLANTS GATHERED BY THE EXPEDITION. 
 
 I.— LIST OF PLANTS GATHERED. 
 
 A. — Braldoh and Biafo Valleys. 
 
 iv^->>i -- 
 
 Oxyiropis microphylla DC. 
 Papilionacea, sp. indet. 
 Myricaria elegans Royle. 
 Hippophde rJinmnoldes L. 
 Daphne oleoides Schreb. 
 Primula farinosa L. 
 Macrotomia perennis Boiss. 
 (9-221) 
 
 I^PHEDRA pachyclada Boiss. 
 Salix sp. 
 Clematis orientalis L. var. ? 
 Berberis vulgaris L. var. aetnensis 
 
 Presl. 
 CJieiranthus himalayensis Camb. 
 Cleome sp. ? 
 
 Saxifmga iitibricata Royle. 
 Colutea arborescens L. var. nepalen- 
 
 sis L. 
 Astragalus sp. 
 Chesneya cuneata Beiith. 
 Caragana polyamntlia Royle. 
 Nepeta discolor Royle. 
 Lonicera microphylla Willd. 
 Erigeron andryaloides C. B. Clarke. 
 Anaphalis virgata Thorns. 
 Artemisia sp. 
 
 Artemisia sp. aff. Absinthium L. ? 
 Chondrilla graminea Benth. 
 
 2 F 4
 
 45C 
 
 Appendix L). 
 
 Poa sp. 
 
 Festuca sp. 
 
 Lloydia serotina Rchb. 
 
 Oxijria digyna Hill. 
 
 Silene Moorcroftiana Wall. 
 
 LycJmis apetaki L. 
 
 Stelktria graminea L. var. 
 
 Edgew. & Hook. fil. 
 Delphinium Brunonianum Royle. 
 Papaver nudicaule L. 
 Sedum aff. atropurpureum Tuicz. ? 
 PotentiUa albifolia Wall. 
 Potenlilla sericea L. var. ? 
 PotentiUa sp. ? 
 
 Aslrarjalus Candolleanus Royle. 
 Oxi/tropis kipponica Gaud. 
 
 montioides 
 
 B.— Lower Baltoro and Rdokass. 
 
 Oxytropis lapponica Gaud. var. kumifusa 
 
 Kar. et Kir. 
 Epilobium latifolium L. 
 PiroJa rot II ndi folia L. 
 Primula jarinosa L. 
 Gentiana aqualica L. var. ? 
 Gentiana detonsa Fries. 
 Gentiana sect. Comastoma sp. 
 Lonicera asperifoUa Hook. fil. & Thonis. 
 Codonopsis ovata Benth. 
 Aster heterochaeta Benth. 
 Allardia nivea Hook. fil. & Thorns. 
 Chrysanthemum tibeticum Hook. fil. & 
 
 Thorns. 
 Taraxacum officinale L. 
 Taraxacum officinale L. var. eriopodum 
 
 DC. 
 
 C— Upper Baltoro (above 15,000 feet). 
 
 Carex atrata L. 
 Lychnis apetala L. 
 Isopyrum f/randiflorum Fisch. 
 Braya uniflora Hook. fil. & Thonis. 
 Saxifraga flagellaris Willd. var. mucro- 
 
 nukita Royle. 
 Saxifraga imhricata Royle. 
 PotentiUa fruticosa L. var. pumila Hook. 
 
 fil. forma grandiflora. 
 
 PotentiUa ochreata Lehm. ? 
 Merlensia primuloides Clarke. 
 Nepeta longibracteata Benth. ? 
 Leontopodium alpinum L. var. nivale 
 
 Ten. 
 Allardia tomentosa Dene. ? 
 Allardia vestita Hook. fil. & Thorns. 
 Sedum Rhodiola DC. 
 
 Cystopteris fragilis Bernh. ? 
 Chenopodium album L. 
 Polygonum viviparum L. 
 Oxyria digyna Hill. 
 Silene Moorcroftiana Wall. 
 Lychnis nigrescens Edgew. 
 Cerastium trigynum L. 
 Cerastium I'ulgatum L. var. 
 Delphinium Brunonianum Royle. 
 
 D. — Skoro-La. 
 
 Aconilum Napellus L. var. rotundifolium. 
 
 Hook. f. & Thorns. 
 Arabis ? 
 
 Sedum Rhodiola DC. 
 Sedum Erersii Ledeb. 
 Saxifraga sibirica L. 
 Saxifraga flagellaris AVilld. var. mucro- 
 
 nulata Royle. 
 PotentiUa multifida L. var. angustifolia 
 
 Lehm.
 
 Botanical Report. 
 
 457 
 
 Potentilla ochreata Lehni. 
 
 Potentilla hifurca L. var. Moorcroftii 
 
 Wall. 
 Potentilla Mica Th. W. 
 Rosa macrophylla Lindl. var. minor 
 
 Lindl. 
 Oxytropis lapponica Gaud. \'ar. typica. 
 Oxytropis mollis Royle. 
 Geranium pratense L. ? 
 Geranium sp. 
 Epilobimn latifolium L. 
 Bupleurum longicaule Wall var. Iiima- 
 
 lensis Klotsch. 
 Primula farinosa L. 
 Gentiana aquatica L. var. 
 GerUiana sp. 
 Pleurogyne carinlhiaca L. 
 
 Mertensia tihetica Clarke. 
 
 Myosolis sylvatica Hoffm. 
 
 Thymus Serpyllum L. 
 
 Pedicularis peclinata Wall. 
 
 Pedicularis bicornula Kl. 
 
 Lonicera microphylla Willd. 
 
 Valeriana dioiea L. 
 
 Aster sp. 
 
 Leontopodium alpinum L. var. nivale 
 
 Ten. 
 Erigeron alpinus L. ? 
 Anapkalis nubigena DC. 
 Tanacetum sp. 
 Artemisia sp. 
 
 Chrysanthemum Stoliczkae C. B. Clarke. 
 Satcssurea Schultzii Hook. f. ? 
 Taraxacum officinale L. forma. 
 
 E.— Deosai Tableland (14,000 feet). 
 
 Carex nivalis Boott. 
 
 Polygonum affine Don. 
 
 Rumex sp. 
 
 Cerastium trigynum L. 
 
 Ranunculus nivalis L. 
 
 Thaliclrum minus L. ? 
 
 Aconitum A^apellus L. var. multifidum 
 
 Hook. fil. & Th. 
 Papaver nudicaule L. 
 Corydalis ramosa Wall. var. glauca Hook. 
 Draba glacialis Adams. 
 Chorispora sabulosa DC. 
 Sedum Rhodiola DC. 
 Sedum aflf. atropurpureum Turcz. ? 
 Saxifraga flagellaris Willd. var. mucro- 
 
 nukita Royle. 
 Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. 
 Oxytropis sp. 
 
 Geranium aconilifolium L'Herit. ? 
 Bupleurum falcatum L. var. nigrocarpum 
 
 Jaquem. 
 Primula purpurea Royle. 
 
 Gentiana sp. 
 
 Swertia pedunculala Royle. 
 
 Eritricliium sp. 
 
 Stachys tibetica Vatke. 
 
 Thymus Serpyllum L. 
 
 Ferowica alpina L. 
 
 Pedicularis pectinata Wall. 
 
 Pedicularis bicornuta Kl. 
 
 Pedicularis cheilanthijolia Schrenk. 
 
 Pedicularis rhinanthoides Schrenk. 
 
 Campanula modesta Hook. fil. & 
 
 Thorns. 
 Aster himalaicus Clarke. 
 Leontopodium alpinum Cass. var. nivale 
 
 Ten. 
 Atutphalis nubigena DC. 
 Tanacetum sp. 
 Senecio aff. tibeticus Hook. 
 Cremanthodium afF. Decaisnei Clarke. 
 Jurinea macrocephala Benth. 
 Saussurea sp. 
 Crepis glomerata Dene. ?
 
 i.w Appendix D. 
 
 II.— CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIMENS. 
 
 Polypodiaceae. 
 
 Cystopleris fragilis Bernh. ? Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 10,000-13,000 
 feet. 
 
 Gnetaceae. 
 
 Ephedra pachyclada Boiss. Between Dusso and Askoley, Braldoh valley 
 (8,000-10,000 feet) ; ll-14th May, 1909. 
 
 Poaceae. 
 
 Poa sp. Rdokass ; 13,025 feet ; June-July, 1909. 
 Festuca sp. Rdokass ; 13,025 feet ; June-July, 1909. 
 
 Both these grasses are represented by fragmentary specimens, \\itliout rhizomes or basal 
 leaves. 
 
 Cyperaceae. 
 
 Carex alrata L. Vigne glacier, at about 16,500 feet ; 15th July, 1909. 
 This species is not indicated for the region in the publications of previous explorers. 
 Carex nivalis Boott. W. Hunter Workman and F. Bullock Workman : " The 
 Call of the Snowy Hispar," p. 28G. Deosai tableland ; 14,000 feet ; 2nd-3rd August, 
 
 1909. 
 
 The Workman expedition found this species (which is common in the Himalaya, Western 
 Tibet and tlu- Karakorani) on the Hispar glacier, between 13,000 and l^j.^OO feet. 
 
 Lloydia serolina Rchb. Sir W. M. Conway : " Climbing and Exploration in 
 the Karakoram Himalayas, Scientific Reports," p. 83 ; W. Hunter Workman and 
 F. Bullock Workman, op. cit. p. 286. Rdokass ; 13,025 feet ; June-July, 1909. 
 
 Allium odorum Linn. (No. 70 without locality !). 
 
 Conway (loc. cit.) cites for the Baltoro valley A. senescens Miq. = .1. tuberosum Roxb. Our 
 plant is without doubt A. odorum L., with the characteristic oblique rhizome covered with 
 numerous whitish fil)rcs, finely reticulated. 
 
 Salicaceae. 
 
 Salix sp. ind. Askoley ; 15th June, 1909. 
 
 The leaves of this willow are covered with rounded reddish galls. It may be the species of 
 Salix cited by Conway (p. 83) and by the Workmans (p. 286) as Salix, not detemiinable.gathered 
 on the Hispar glacier at 13,000 feet.
 
 Botanical Ivcport. 459 
 
 Chenopodiaceae. 
 
 Ckenopodhim album L. Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 10,000-13,000 feet ; 
 28th July, 1909. 
 
 Polygonaceae. 
 
 Polygonum viviparum L. Conway, p. 83. Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 
 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Among the numerous examples of this species are some wliicli may easily be referable to 
 a minor form. 
 
 Polyi/nnum ciffine Don. Conway, p. 83. Deosai tableland ; about 14,000 feet ; 
 2nd-3rd .Vugust, 1909. 
 
 Oxyria digyna Hill. Conway, p. 83 ; Workman, p. 287. Moraine of the 
 Baltoro, below Rdokass ; 16-17th May, 1909. Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 
 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Rumex sp. Deosai tableland ; about 14,000 feet ; 2nd-3rd August, 1909. 
 
 In the absence of mature fruit a more precise identification is not possible. 
 
 Dianthaceae. 
 
 Silene Moorcroftiana Wall. Conway, p. 78. Moraine of the Baltoro, below 
 Rdokass, 20th July, 1909 ; and ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet, 
 28th July. 
 
 Lychnis apetala L. Conway, p. 78. Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; Vigne glacier, 
 at about 10,500 feet ; 15th July, 1909. 
 
 Lychnis nigrescens Edgew. Ascent of Skoro La ; between Askoley and the 
 foot of the Skoro La glacier ; 9,500-12,800 feet ; 28th July, 1909. 
 
 Cerasiium trigynum L. Conway, p. 78 ; AVorkman, p. 287. Deosai tableland ; 
 about 14,000 feet ; 2nd-3rd August. Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 10,000- 
 13,000 feet ; 28th July, 1909. 
 
 Cerastium vulgatum L. var. ? Ascent of Skoro La. northern slope ; 28th July, 
 1909. 
 
 A fragmentary specimen ; referable to one of the numerous forms of C. lulgaliim. 
 
 Stellaria graminea L. var. montioides Edgew. & Hook. fil. Rdokass ; 13,025 feet ; 
 June-July. 
 
 Ranunculus nivalis L. Deosai tableland ; ca. 14,000 feet ; 2nd-3rd August, 
 1909. 
 
 Iso'pyrum grandiflorum Fisch. Conway, p. 78. Rocks at tlie head of the 
 Baltoro ; western spur of Gasherbrum ; 18,000 feet ; 27th June, 1909. 
 
 A diminutive form, doubtless referable to this species, which is found at great heights. 
 Conway's expedition having gathered it at some 16,000 feet alrove sea level.
 
 460 Appendix I). 
 
 Thaliclrum minus L. ? Deosai tableland ; about 14,000 feet ; 2nd-3rd August, 
 1909. 
 
 Fragmentary specimen, only showing foliage. 
 
 Clematis orientalis L. var. ? Braldoh valley, among the .stones of. 
 
 From the shape of the leaves thi.s would appear to be C. orientalis, which is, however, a 
 variable and polymorphous species. 
 
 Delphinium Brunonianum Rovle. Conway, p. 77. Rdokass; 13,025 feet; 
 June-July, 1909. A.scent of Skoro La, north side; 10,000-13,000 feet ; 28th July, 
 1909. 
 
 A beautiful plant with large fine lilue flowers, quite worth cultivating for ornamental 
 purposes. 
 
 Aconilum Napellus L. var. muUifidum Hook. fil. & Thorns. Deosai tableland ; 
 about 14,000 feet ; 28th July, 1909. 
 
 Var. rotundilolium Hook. fil. & Thorns. Conway, p. 77. Ascent of Skoro La, 
 north side : 10.000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Berberidaceae. 
 
 Berberis ruhjaris L. var. aetnensis Pre.sl. pro specie. Braldoh valley between 
 Dusso and Askoley ; 7,900-10,000 feet ; ll-14th May, 1909. 
 
 This specimen is doubtless to be referred to the form described by Presl, with the leaves 
 obovate mucronulate, spinulose -serrulate, with the nervation prominent on the under side. 
 
 Papaveraceae. 
 
 Papaver nudicauh L. Conway, p. 77. Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; Deosai tableland, 
 about 14,000 feet. 
 
 The specimen from the Deosai tableland is more hispid than those gathered at Rdoka-ss. 
 
 Meconopsis aculeata Royle ? Rajdiangan or Tragbal ; 8th August, 1909. 
 
 The determination of this species i.s doubtful, because its characteristics do not fully 
 correspond with those of M. aculentn. particularly with regard to the shape and appearance of the 
 fruit, which seems similar to that of Meconopsis sinunta. With more abundant material 
 for purposes of comparison we should have been able to decide if this form should be considered 
 a new one. 
 
 Dr. De Filippi says the plant is common within a limited area, where it is called " Blue 
 Poppy." 
 
 Corydalis ramosa Wall. var. glauca Hook. Deosai tableland ; about 13,000-14.W0 
 feet. 
 
 Cruciferae. 
 
 Draha glacialis Adam. Conway, p. 78. Deosai tableland ; about 14,000 
 feet. 
 
 Chorispora sabulosa DC. Conway, p. 78. Deosai tableland; about 14,000 
 feet.
 
 Botanical Report. 
 
 461 
 
 Cheiranthus Jiunalayensis Camb. Between Dusso and Askoley, Braldoh vallev; 
 7,900-10,000 feet. 
 
 Arabis ? A.scent of Skoro La, north side ; 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Brayn umflora Hook. fil. & Thorns. Rocks at the head of the Baltoro, about 
 18,000 feet, 29th June, 1909 ; and Vigne glacier, 16,."jOO feet. 
 
 Capparidaceae. 
 
 Cleowe, ? Braldoh valley, between Dusso and Askoley ; 7,900-10,000 feet. 
 
 FIG. I. — SKDIM KHODIOLA DC. 
 
 [(Jntlii Tid at tlu- end of the right-hand spur of the Vigne, 16,500 feet.] 
 
 Crassulaceae. 
 
 Seduw, Rhodiola DC. AVorkman. j}. 287. (Pro sphalm. S. Rhaviala et 
 S. Rhadiola.) Ascent of Skoro La, north .side, 10,000-13,000 feet ; and Deosai 
 tableland, about 14,000 feet ; fl. et frucl. 
 
 Among the specimens gatliored at Skoro La is one with a fiu^ciation of the apex of 
 the axis of the inflorescence and of the inflorescence itself. This beautiful ]ilant is shown 
 in Fig. I, as photographed.
 
 402 
 
 AjUK'iidix 1). 
 
 Sedum sect. Rhodiola aff. atropurpureum Turcz. ? Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; 
 Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Our specimens arc probably closely related to, if not identical with Sedum airo-purpurtuin 
 Turcz, of Central Asia. We have no means of comparison to settle the matter with certainty. 
 
 Sedum Eioersii Ledeb. Conway, op. cit., p. 80. Ascent of Skoro La, north side; 
 11,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Cotyledon aff. spinosa L. (Without locality ! ) 
 
 Cotyledon ? (Above Paiju.) 
 
 A single rosette of large fleshy leaves, much deteriorated by treatment with alcohol and hot 
 water. Would appear to be a Cotyledon. 
 
 FIG. n. ^SAXIFRAGA EMBRICATA KOYLE. 
 
 [Gathered on the rocks of the western spur of Gasherbrura, about 18,000 feet.] 
 
 Saxifragaceae. 
 
 Saxifraga sibirica L. Conway, p. 79. Ascent of Skoro La, north side; 11,000- 
 13,000 feet. 
 
 Saxifraga imhricata Ro3-Ie. Conway, p. 79. Braldoh valley, between Dusso 
 and Askoley ; 7,900-10,000 feet ; according to photograph also on western spur of 
 Gasherbrum, 18,000 feet. 
 
 The example representing this species in the collection is very poor, but it is supplemented 
 by the fine photograph here reproduced (Fig. II).
 
 Botanical Report. 
 
 4G3 
 
 Saxifracja flagellaris Willd. Conway, p. 79. Var. mucromdata Royle pro sp. 
 Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet ; Deosai tableland, 14,000 feet ; 
 moraine of the Baltoro, between 11,000-13,025 feet. 
 
 Our example must bs referable to Royle's variety, on account of the ciliated and sub- 
 spinulose edges of the leaves. 
 
 Rosaceae. 
 
 Potentilla fruticosa L. var. pumila Hook. fil. Conway, op. cit., p. 79 ; Workman, 
 op. cit., p. 287 ; Th. Wolf : " Monogr. der Gattung Potentilla," p. 59. Vigne 
 glacier ; about 16,500 feet. 
 
 FIG. m. POTEXTILL-V FRUTICOSA VAK. PFMILA HOOK. FH-. 
 
 [Gathered at the end of the right spur of the Vigne, ca. 16,500 feet.] 
 
 The example consists of a small fragment, but the identification is assisted by the fine 
 photograph (Fig. III). According to what Wolf says in the Monograph cited above, the plant in 
 the photograph having the flowers with long peduncles, must b? referable to P. jrulicosa var. 
 pumila Hook fil. forma grandi flora Th. W. 
 
 Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. Conway, p. 79 ; Workman, p. 287. Deosai 
 tableland, about 14,000 feet, 2nd-3rd August, 1909 ; Tragbal pass, 8th August. 
 1909.
 
 464 Appendix I). 
 
 Potenlilla sericea L. var. ? Conway, p. 79 ; Workman, p. 287. Rdokass. 
 
 Our example, which is very poor, must surely be referable to a variety of this species, 
 proliably to damjphijllti Ledeb. 
 
 Potentilla multifida L. var. anfjusti/olia Lchni. Skoro La, north side; 9,.'30()- 
 12,800 feet. 
 
 Potentilla ochreata Lehm. ? Vigne glacier ; about 16,500 feet. Ascent of Skoro 
 La ; 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Potentilla hijurca L. Conway, p. 79 ; var. Moorcrojtii Wall. Ascent of Skoro 
 La, north side ; 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Potentilla indica Th. W. Between Askoley and the foot of the Skoro La glacier ; 
 9,500-12,800 ft. 
 
 Potentilla alhifolia Wall. = Sibbaldia potentlUoides Camb. Baltoro moraine, 
 between 11,000-13,025 feet ; also below Paiju, about 11,000 feet. 
 
 Potentilla sp. Vicinity of Rdokass camp, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Posa macrophylla Lindl. Conway, p. 79 ; var. minor Lindl. Ascent of Skoro 
 La ; 9,500-13,800 feet. 
 
 Phaseolaceae. 
 
 Colutea arborescens L. Conway, op. cit., p. 79 ; var. nepalensis L. Between 
 Paiju and valley of the Punmah ; 25th July, 1909. 
 Astragalus up. Paiju; about 11,000 feet. 
 Specimen iiiipcrfcct and without fruit. 
 
 Astragalus CandoUeamis Royle = A. Royleanus Bunge. Conway, p. 79. 
 Rdokass ; 13,025 feet, between Askoley and half-way between Korophon and 
 Bardumal. 
 
 Chesneya cuneata Benth. Conway, p. 79. Between Askoley and half-way 
 between Korophon and Bardumal. 
 
 Caragana poh/acanthn Royle. Conway, p. 79. Braldoh valley, between Dusso 
 and Askoley; 8,000-10,000 feet. 
 
 Oxytropis lapponica Gaud. Bullock Worknum, p. 287 ; var. typica ? Ascent 
 of Skoro La, north side; 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Var. humifusa Kar. et Kir. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Oxytropis mollis Royle. Ascent of Skoro La, north side ; 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Oxytropis microphylla DC. Braldoh valley between Dusso and Askoley, 
 8,000-10,000 feet ; between Askoley and half-way between Korophon and Bar- 
 dumal. 
 
 Oxytropis sp. Deosai tableland ; about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Phaseolacea. Braldoh valley ; 8,000-10,000 feet. 
 
 Example with leaves only, not determinable. Perhaps Astragalus.
 
 Botanical lieport. 465 
 
 Geraniaceae. 
 
 Geranium pratense L. ? Conway, p. 78. Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 
 feet. 
 
 Geranium sp. Conway, p. 78. Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Geranium aconitifolium L'Herit. ? Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Tatnaricaceae. 
 
 Myricaria elegans Royle. Conway, p. 78. Biaho valley, between Paiju and 
 the Biafo glacier, 10,000-10,650 feet, 26th July, 1909. 
 
 Elaeagnaceae. 
 
 IJvpjwph'ie rlmnmoides L. Conway, p. 83. Valley of the Braldoh, between 
 
 Dusso and Askoley. 
 
 Our specimens with thorny branches confirm once more tlie variability and polymorphism 
 
 of this si)ccies. 
 
 Thymelaeaceae . 
 
 Daphne oleoides Schreb. Conway, p. 83. Valley of the Braldoh, between 
 Dusso and Askoley, 8,000-10,000 feet. 
 
 Lythraceae. 
 
 Epilobium latifolium L. Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; ascent of Skoro La, north side, 
 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Apiaceae. 
 
 Bupleurum falcalum L. var. nigrocarpum Jaquem ? Conwa}-, p. 80. Deosai 
 tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Without specimens of fruit it is impossible to differentiate this from the similar species 
 B. dive rsi folium Rochel. 
 
 Bupleurum longicaule Wall. var. himalense Klotsch. Ascent of Skoro La, 
 north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Witliout fruit. 
 
 Apiacea sp. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Apiacea sp. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Specimen with leaves only, noted in journal, No. 8a, as having reddish flowers. 
 
 Pirolaceae. 
 
 Pirola rotundifolia Linn. Rdokass, 13,025 feet, June-July, 1909. 
 Leaves only. 
 (9221; 2 a
 
 Kif) Appendix D. 
 
 Primulaceae. 
 
 Primula purpurea Royle. Conway, j). 91 ; AVorkman, p. 287 (siil). P. nivalis 
 Pall. var. macrophi/lla Pax). Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Specimens with siiii])le flonil or double superposed umbels. 
 
 Primula farinosa L. Conway, p. 81. cites the var. caucasica Reg. Between 
 Dusso and Askoley, about the camp ; Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; ascent of Skoro La, 
 north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Androsace villosa L. Conway, oj). cit., p. 81. Rdokass, 13,025 feet ; between 
 Dusso and Askoley, Braldoh valley, 8,000-10,000 feet. 
 
 Androsace mucronifolia AYatt. Deosai tableland, about 1 1.000 feet. 
 
 Plumbaginaceae. 
 
 Acantholimon hjcopodioidcs Bo'iss. Conway, p. 81. Between Askoley and half- 
 way between Korophon and Bardumal. 
 
 Example consisting only of rosettes of foliage. 
 
 Gentianaceae. 
 
 OrMliana aquatlca L. var. ? Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Must be referable to one of the varieties of G. (iqvatica ; 6'. pi/miKi C'iarUr ami (/. Iiiimilis 
 Stev. are also very closely related lo the s))eeies, and possibly belong to it as varieties. 
 
 Gentiawi decumhens Linn, .\sreiit of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Genllana detonsa Fries. = G. barbata Froel. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Gentiana Sect. Conmstoma. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 We have here a very interesting plant related to G. falriilu Turc/., iiiid to tlie two species 
 described by Murl)eck {Oi'sl. Bol. Zcitsrhr., 41», lH!)i), p. 241) under the names (/. J/alini and 
 G. citrdispptilii. Ours is prol)al)ly a new form. 
 
 Gentiana s|). Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Gentiana sp. .Vscent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Pleurogyne carinthiaca L. Conway, p. 82. Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 
 
 feet. 
 
 Pleurogyne sp. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Swertia petiolata Royle. Deosai tableland, ca. 14,000 feet. 
 
 Boraginaceae. 
 
 Macrotomia perennis Boiss. Conway, p. 82 (sub M. endochroma Hook. fil. & 
 Thorns). Between Askoley and half-way between Konophon and Bardumal. 
 Onosma echioides L. Conway, p. 82. (Sine loco !) 
 Erytrichium sp. Conway, p. 82. Deosai tableland. 
 Absence of fruit prevents the precise determination of tliis plant. 
 Merlensia tibetica Clarke. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet.
 
 Botanical Report. 4G7 
 
 Mertensia primuloides Clarke. Vigiie glacier, about 16,500 feet. 
 Myosolis sylvatica Hoffni. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet ; 
 Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Actinocarya tibetica Benth. ? Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Lamiaceae. 
 
 Slachys tibcllca Vatke. Conway, p. 82. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 
 feet. 
 
 Nepela discolor Royle. Conway, p. 83. Between Askoley and half-way 
 between Korophon and Bardumal. 
 
 Nepeta longibracteata Benth. ? Vigne glacier, about 16,500 feet. 
 
 The identification i.s somewhat d()ul)tiiil, as the dimen.^ions, particularly of the leaves, are 
 smaller than those given in the dcsciiptions we have consulted. Perhaps we have to do with 
 a form of the species. 
 
 Dracoceplmlwii heterophyllum Benth. ? Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Thymus SerpyUum L. Conway, p. 82. Deosai tablela)id, about 14,000 feet ; 
 ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet ; Vigne glacier, about 16,500 
 feet. 
 
 Scrophulariaceae. 
 
 Veronica alpina L. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 This species is not given in the Flora of Brilish India, nor in later authors already cited ; thus 
 it is a now addition to the flora of the region. However, it is certain that we have here to do with 
 r. <ilj>ina L., our specimen being very closely related to the forms of this .sj)ecics found in northern 
 Eui'ope (Norway, &e.). 
 
 Pedicularis bicornuta Kl. Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Pedicularis pcctinala Wall. Conway, p. 82. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 
 feet ; ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Pedicularis cheilantM folia Schrenk. Workman, p 287. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Pedicularis rhinantJioides Schrenk. Deosai tableland. 
 
 Orobanchaceae. 
 
 Orobanche sp. aft. Hansii Kern. Conway, p. 82. (Sine loco.) 
 
 Caprifoliaceae. 
 
 Lonicera microphylla AVilld. Conway, p. 80. Valley of the Braldoh, between 
 Dusso and Askoley, 8,000-10,000 feet. 
 
 Lonicera asperifolia Hook. iil. & Thorns. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Possibly a distinct form of this species, but lack of material for comparison prevents certitude. 
 Used for firewood on the expedition. 
 
 (9221) 2 o 2
 
 468 Appendix D. 
 
 Valerianaceae. 
 
 Valeriatia dioica L. Conway, p. 81). Between Askolev and tlie foot of the 
 Skoro La glacier, 9,500-12,800 feet. 
 
 Campanulaceae. 
 
 Cnilono'psis nrnfa Bentli. Rdokass, l.'i,02r) feet. 
 
 Campfniuld tuixle.stii Hook. iil. & Thoui.s. Deosai tjihlclaiid, about 14,00(1 feet. 
 
 Asteraceae. 
 
 Aster heterochaeta Benth. Bullock Workman, p. 288. Rdokass, 13,025 
 feet. 
 
 Aster himalaicus Clarke. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Aster sp. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Possibly a smaller form of the preceding. 
 
 Leontopodium alpinum Cass. Conway, p. 80 ; Worktnan, j). 288 ; vai'. 
 7iivale Ten. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet ; Vigne glacier, 
 about 1G,000 feet ; above Rdokass, about 14,750 feet ; Deosai tableland, about 
 14,000 feet. 
 
 On the grounds given by Dr. Karl von Keissler in Aujziihhmg der von E. Zvyimiyer in Tibet 
 gesamindl I'hanerogamen {Ann. KK. Naturhist. Hojmuseum von Wicn, Band XXII, 1907, p. 27) 
 the forms of this species examined by us must be ascribed to var. nivale Ten. iSyll. Fl. Neapol., 
 p. 42(), and arc closely related to the forms found in (lie high Apemiines (Cran Sasso, 
 Majella, &c.). 
 
 Erigeron alfinus L. ? forma. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 
 feet. 
 
 Erigeron andryaloides Clarke. Conway, p. 80. Between Askoley and half-way 
 between Korophon and Bardumal. 
 
 Anaphalis virgata Thorns. Conway, p. 30. Paiju-Punmah. 
 
 Anaphalis nubigena DC. Conway, p. 80. Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-13,000 
 feet ; Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Tanacetuni sp. Between Askoley and the foot of the Skoro La glacier, 9,500- 
 12,800 feet. 
 
 Tanacetuni sp. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Artemisia sp. Valley of the Braldoh, sandy soil. 
 
 Artemisia sp. aff. Absinthium L. ? Valley of the Braldoh between Dusso and 
 Askoley, sandy soil. 
 
 Artemisia sp. Ascent of Skoro La, north side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 ChrysantJiemum tibeticutn Hook. fil. & Thorns. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Chrysanthemum Stoliczkae Clarke. Conway, p. 81. Ascent of Skoro La, north 
 side, 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 Cremanthodium aff. Decaisnei Clarke ? Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet.
 
 Botanical Report. 469 
 
 Senecio aS. tihelicus Hook. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Allardia veslita Hook. fil. & Thorns. ? Vicinity of Rdokass, about 16,500 feet ; 
 22nd July, 1909, in leaf ; Vigne glacier, about 16,500 feet, in flower. 
 
 Allardia nivea Hook. j51. & Thorns. Moraine of the Baltoro below Rdokass, 
 24th July, 1909. 
 
 Allardia tomentosa Dene. ? Vigne glacier, about 16,500 feet, 15th July, 1909. 
 
 Jurinea nmcrocephala Benth. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Saussurea Schultzii Hook. fil. ? Ascent of Skoro La, 10,000-1.3,000 feet. 
 
 Saussurea Jacea Clarke ? Gorge of the Punmah ; 26th July, 1909 ; between 
 Askoley and half-way between Korophon and Bardumal, in leaf. 
 
 Saussurea sp. Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Crepis ghmerata Dene. ? Deosai tableland, about 14,000 feet. 
 
 Taraxacum officinale L. forma. Conway, p. 81. Ascent of Skoro La, 
 10,000-13,000 feet. 
 
 One of the many high-mountain forms of this ubiquitous and polymorphous plant. 
 
 Taraxacum officinale L. var. eriopoda DC. Rdokass, 13,025 feet. 
 
 Chondrilla graminea Benth. Bullock Workman, p. 288; var.? Between 
 Paiju and the Punmah. 
 
 Must be a variety of this species which is cited tentatively by the Workmans. 
 
 Laetuca tatarica C. A. Meyer. Conway, p. 81 ; Workman, p. 388. (Sine loco.)
 
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