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THE COMMUNITY 
 
 AND 
 
 THE CITIZEN 
 
 BY 
 
 ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN 
 
 HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND CIVICS 
 
 SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS, 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 3><»4c 
 
 OF THE "^X 
 
 UNIVERSITY I 
 
 OF 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 1907 
 
GENERAL 
 
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 Copyright, 1907, 
 By D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
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PREFACE 
 
 The justification and aim of the present book may be stated in the 
 following words from Professor Dewey's " Ethical Principles Under- 
 lying Education'*: ''The social work of the school is often limited to 
 training for citizenship, and citizenship is then interpreted in a narrow 
 sense as meaning capacity to vote intelligently, a disposition to obey 
 laws, etc. . . . The child is to be not only a voter and a subject of 
 law : he is also to be a member of a family. . . . He is to be a worker, 
 engaged in some occupation which will be of use to society and which 
 will maintain his own independence and self-respect. He is to be a 
 member of some particular neighborhood and community, and must 
 contribute to the decencies and graces of civilization wherever he is. . . . 
 To suppose . . . that a good citizen is anything more than a thoroughly 
 efficient and serviceable member of society . . . is a cramped supersti- 
 tion which it is hoped may soon disappear from educational discussion. 
 . . . Training for citizenship is formal and nominal unless it develops 
 the power of observation, analysis, and inference with respect to what 
 makes up a social situation and the agencies through which it is 
 modified.'' 
 
 The book is a departure from the traditional methods of presenting 
 the subject of civics to young people. It has not been customary to 
 differentiate between civics and civil government. The writer believes 
 that such a differentiation may be made, and that, moreover, anything 
 like a scientific analysis of the machinery and powers of government 
 can profitably be undertaken not earlier than the last years of the high 
 school, and then it may best be presented in close association with the 
 v.'ork in American history. On the other hand, he believes that many 
 elementary ideas regarding community life, the meaning of citizenship, 
 the relations between the citizen and the community, and the services 
 performed for the citizen by the government, not only can, but should, 
 be presented to the pupil at an earlier period in his education. 
 
 The function of the public school is to produce a good type of citizen- 
 ship. There is no other sanction for the existence of the public school. 
 
 iii 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 The entire course of study and the whole round of school life should 
 be directed to this end. Unfortunately, the aim of education in the 
 public school is too often considered from a purely individualistic point 
 of view, as a means of aiding the individual to get a living. It is rare 
 that we find any definite instruction given to arouse the pupil's con- 
 sciousness of the meaning of community life and of^iis relations to it. 
 The study of civil government in its usual form fails to accomplish this 
 end. 
 
 "Observation, analysis, and inference" are the essentials of the 
 pedagogical method adopted in this book. The aim has constantly 
 been to make a vivid impression upon the consciousness of the pupil. 
 The author has been more concerned about the interest that the pupil 
 shall develop in the life of the community and in his relation to that 
 life, than about the amount of systematic knowledge that he shall gain 
 regarding the forms and working of government. The desideratum 
 has been to stimulate a questioning attitude on the part of the pupil, 
 and to leave him with an eager desire to know more. 
 
 At the same time, the author has not neglected government. Gov- 
 ernment is. indeed, introduced in every chapter of the book in its proper 
 relations to the phase of civic life under discussion, and the last few 
 chapters are devoted to the governmental machinery. The endeavor 
 has constantly been to present government in its proper perspective. 
 It must not be supposed, from the use of the word ''community,"" that 
 the book deals with local government alone. Local, state, and national 
 organization are constantly emphasized throughout the text in such a 
 way that not only is the relation of the citizen to each of them made 
 vivid, but also the relations of the three kinds of government to each 
 other are brought out with distinctness. 
 
 A feature of the book is the use made of local history. It is believed 
 that a contribution is made toward the solution of the problem of how 
 to employ local history effectively in the schools. Few local communi- 
 ties have a history that touches the main stream of national history in 
 an intimate way, so that it is difficult to make use of local development 
 in connection with the history of the United States. Still, every com- 
 munity has a history that may be made instructive. It is hoped that 
 the method of handling the subject in this text may be useful, both in 
 stimulating interest in the subject itself and as a means of ilkistrating 
 the growth of community life and the relation between the community 
 and the individual. 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 Although conscious of imperfections in the book, the author presents 
 it with some degree of confidence because of the test to which it has 
 already been put. in a preliminary form, by a year's use in the schools 
 of Indianapolis. He has had the benefit of the experience and criticism 
 of thirty or forty practical teachers during this time. He takes this 
 opportunity to thank these teachers for their searching but sympathetic 
 criticism and suggestion. The author is indebted, also, to Professor 
 Henry E. Bourne, of Western Reserve University, and to Dr. Henry 
 Suzzallo, of Leland Stanford Junior University, for most helpful advice. 
 For the suggestion of the method of approaching the subject, acknowl- 
 edgment is due to Professors Albion W. Small and George E. Vincent, 
 of the University of Chicago. 
 
 ARTHUR W. DUNN. 
 
 Indianapolis, April 15, 1907. 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 For the successful use of a text-book, it is necessary that the teacher 
 get into the spirit of the book. This is best accompHshed by familiarity 
 with the book itself. If it has a distinctive spirit expressing itself 
 through a definite and consistent plan, this spirit should readily be 
 imparted to the reader. It is hoped that this may be true of the present 
 text. 
 
 "The Community and the Citizen"" is. however, prepared on a plan 
 so different from what the teacher may be expecting in a text on civics 
 that an introductory word emphasizing the central idea of the book 
 and offering a few suggestions relative to method may be helpful. In 
 this connection, the attention of the teacher is called to the preface. 
 No better preparation can be made for the use of the text in the spirit 
 in which it is intended than by a careful reading of Professor Dewey "s 
 "Ethical Principles Underlying Education/" quoted in the preface, and 
 " The School and Society " by the same author. 
 
 Certain w^ell-known principles of educational psychology are indis- 
 pensable in the teaching of civics. The first of these is that the pupiPs 
 interest must, first of all, be secured. It is far better to stimulate inter- 
 est and to impart very little detailed information than to fill the mind 
 with more or less well-understood facts at the expense of interest. 
 Interest, once killed, is hard to regain ; while with the interest thoroughly 
 kindled, the facts will easily follow. Furthermore, it is the individual's 
 interest, and not his knowledge, that leads to action. The right kind 
 of interest behind a very few facts will lead to good citizenship, while 
 any number of facts without the interest will fail to do so. 
 
 It is also a matter of common knowledge that the surest way to 
 kindle and maintain the child's interest is to build on his own experi- 
 ence, passing constantly from the facts of his experience to related facts 
 just beyond his experience, and back again to his own experience. 
 This method has been adhered to. as far as possible, throughout the 
 book. Many of the topics appended to the chapters are intended to 
 bring the pupil back from the consideration of principles to the appli- 
 
 vi 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER vii 
 
 cation of these principles to the simple facts of his own experience. 
 The first five chapters of the book are intended to fix the pupil's atten- 
 tion on the simple facts that lie at the foundation of civic life, by 
 approaching these facts through the interests or desires which the 
 child himself feels in common with all other people (chapter IV). 
 
 In pursuance of this method, the spirit of community life should be 
 stimulated in the class itself in every possible way. The pupil should 
 be led to consider himself not merely as an individual who is trying to 
 acquire a certain number of facts, but as a member of a class-com- 
 munity to whose progress he is expected to contribute. The class 
 makes an excellent illustration of community life. Here are a number 
 of people, with differing interests, associated together for a common 
 purpose. The welfare of each member depends upon all; each is 
 responsible for the welfare of all. The class-community is subject to 
 laws, or rules, in order that the best interests of all may be served. 
 These rules should not be arbitrarily imposed, but the class should be 
 induced to formulate their own rules of conduct from their own recog- 
 nition of the needs of the class. It is not meant that the class-community 
 should be taken up for formal study, but that it be referred to illustra- 
 tively throughout the study. The whole school is a larger type of com- 
 munity composed of the several class-communities. Its interests are 
 broader, its organization more complete. It illustrates, to some extent, 
 the federal idea. 
 
 Pursuing still further the method of building on the pupil's own 
 experience, he should be led constantly to apply the ideas of each 
 chapter of the book to his own community — neighborhood, city, county, 
 state, nation, as the case may be. The suggested topics at the ends 
 of the chapters are intended to aid in accompHshing this ; but the 
 application should be made all along in connection with the text itself. 
 For this reason care should be taken to see that the pupil never fails 
 to recognize the relation between the topics and the text. It is often 
 well to assign the topics in connection with the reading of the para- 
 graphs which are related to them. Do not allow the pupil to feel that 
 he is studying one thing in the text and another unrelated thing in the 
 topics. The pupil should be kept as far away as possible from the idea 
 that he is studying a book. The real object of his study is the com- 
 munity in which he lives : the text is a guide to the facts of his own 
 community life and an interpretation of them. 
 
 Right along this line, and for the same purpose, the teacher is urged 
 
viii SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 to make use of local history. The meaning of community life will be 
 much clearer if its origin and gradual development are seen. 
 
 The topics at the ends of the chapters are intended as aids in the 
 study of the real community in which the child lives. If any of 
 them prove otherwise, they should be omitted or modified, or others 
 should be substituted for them. Some topics may be used for general 
 class work, others for individual reports. They cannot all be used 
 effectively in every community. The teacher should fit the topics to 
 the needs of the class and lu lIh! condlLlOTiij of the particular com- 
 munity. Do not expect the same results from all pupils, but lead each 
 to expect to make his contribution to the progress of the class. 
 
 If some object to certain topics on the ground that material for their 
 answers is not available, it may be said: (i) If a topic is manifestly 
 impracticable for a given class or community, do not waste time over 
 it. There are plenty of other topics that will do. (2) The fact that 
 a topic cannot be answered completely or correctly does not necessarily 
 invalidate it. In real life many of our questions remain wholly or in 
 part unanswered. This does not mean that the correct answer should 
 not be sought ; but the chief aim is to arouse a questioning attitude on 
 the part of the pupil. To set the question in the mind of the pupil 
 is the important thing. It does not matter so much, after all, whether 
 the child can describe the details of the water system or the organiza- 
 tion of the school board, but it is important that the coming citizen 
 should have a consciousness of the magnitude of the work the com- 
 munity does for him to supply him with pure water and with an 
 education. 
 
 It is not intended that pupils in this grade of work shall do a great 
 deal of reading. It is preferable, where possible, to get the desired 
 information at first hand. At the same time, some reading from books 
 and current literature will be necessary. The daily papers and the 
 current magazines are full of illustrative material. The references at 
 the ends of the chapters will often be helpful to the pupils. They are 
 intended fully as much, however, as aids to the teacher. Hart's " Actual 
 Government'' (Longmans) and Forman's "Advanced Civics" (The 
 Century Company) are referred to throughout the text-book, and will 
 prove excellent for the reference table. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. The Beginning of a Community . . . . i 
 
 II. What is a Community? 7 
 
 III. The Site of the Community lo 
 
 IV. What the People in Communities are Seeking . 15 
 V. The Family .20 
 
 VI. Some Services rendered to the Community by the 
 
 Family . .26 
 
 VII. The Making of Americans 34 
 
 VIII. How THE Relations between the People and the 
 
 Land are made Permanent and Definite . . 43 
 IX. How the Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 his Desire for Health 54 
 
 X. How THE Community aids the Citizen to protect 
 
 HIS Life and Property 67 
 
 XI. The Relation between the Community and the 
 
 Citizen in Business Life 82 
 
 XII. How THE Government aids the Citizen in his 
 
 Business Life 92 
 
 XIII. Waste and Saving 98 
 
 XIV. How the Community aids the Citizen in Trans- 
 
 portation AND Communication .... 103 
 XV. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 HIS Desire for KxVOwledge 118 
 
 XVI. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 HIS Desire for Beautiful Surroundings . -132 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 NITIES : Towx- 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 XVII. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 HIS Religious Desire 
 
 XVIII. What the Community does for those who can- 
 not OR will not contribute to its Progress 
 XIX. How THE Citizens of a Community govern Them- 
 selves 
 
 XX. Some Defects in the Self-government of our 
 
 Communities .... 
 XXI. The Government of Rural Commu: 
 
 SHIP AND County 
 XXII. The Government of the City 
 
 XXIII. The Government of the State 
 
 XXIV. The Government of the Nation 
 XXV. How the Expenses of' Government are Met 
 
 Appendix 
 
 I. The Constitution of the United States . . . . 
 
 II. Table showing the Number of Homes owned and the 
 Number rented in Cities ...... 
 
 III. Immiirration Tables ....... 
 
 149 
 
 153 
 
 161 
 
 178 
 
 189 
 198 
 208 
 218 
 228 
 
 239 
 
 256 
 258 
 
THE COMMUNITY 
 
 AND 
 
 THE CITIZEN 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND *THE 
 CITIZEN 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 
 
 About seventy years ago a company of people in New 
 York thought of founding a settlement in the far West. 
 Their purpose was to build a college for the ^j^ ^^^ 
 education of Christian ministers. Their first settlement 
 step toward actual settlement was to appoint was made 
 an exploring committee to search for a suitable site, and a 
 committee to find families who were willing to go. 
 
 The exploring committee was given instructions to ex- 
 amine the following points : 
 
 1. What is the quality of the water in wells 
 
 , . . What the 
 
 and sprmgs ? ^^^,^^^^ 
 
 2. Do the streams in the neighborhood rise committee 
 in, or pass through, swamps.^ Or do they rise ^as to look 
 from springs ? Are they rapid or sluggish ? 
 
 3. Are there marshes in the vicinity.'' 
 
 4. Is the land level or rolling ? 
 
 5. What is the quality and depth of the soil ? 
 
 6. Is there a convenient and abundant supply of timber 
 and fuel ■ 
 
 7. Is there water power ? If not, is there coal ? 
 
 8. Are there navigable streams, or canals and roads 
 already built or proposed ? 
 
2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 After three months' search a suitable location was found 
 in a beautiful rolling prairie country, on the watershed be- 
 The site tween two large rivers, neither of which was 
 selected more than fifty miles distant. The prairie land 
 was very fertile. Near at hand was a large tract of wood- 
 land containing oak, black walnut, and other fine trees, 
 which afforded shelter during the first hard winter, before 
 substantial houses could be built upon the open prairie, 
 and supplied building material and fuel. There were 
 numerous springs and streams which furnished water and 
 good drainage. Since the settlement has become a city, 
 one of these streams has become a menace to health be- 
 cause of the refuse drained into it. Near by an abun- 
 dance of coal was found, and in the course of time there 
 was discovered a great deposit of shale, good for the mak- 
 ing of paving brick, which is one of the chief industries of 
 the city at the present time. The settlement was made 
 before the day of railroads, and there were few wagon roads 
 and no canals in the region. But the location was such 
 that it was felt that roads were certain to center there 
 in the near future. 
 
 The committee to find families was also successful. 
 Thirty families, comprising one hundred and seventy 
 The families pei"sons, were found who would go to the new 
 for the settlement the first year. The settlement 
 
 settlement founded by these families still takes pride' in the 
 fact that it is a city of Jiomcs. 
 
 The purpose of those who planned the settlement, as 
 we have seen, was to found a college to educate Christian 
 Common ministers. The families chosen to make up the 
 interests of settlement were selected, therefore, with a view 
 the settlers ^^ getting people who would take an interest in 
 this purpose. The community was noted for its zeal for 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 3 
 
 education and religion. But this was not all that con- 
 cerned them. If you will examine the instructions given 
 to the exploring committee, you will see that care was to 
 be taken to find a site favorable to health ; it must also be 
 favorable to the production of wealth ; and there must be 
 easy means of coDimiinication among themselves and with 
 the outside world. Which of the instructions refer to 
 these different things ? 
 
 The little colony not only planned to build a church, a 
 college, and a common school ; they also built houses 
 for shelter, they began to cultivate the soil, they put up a 
 sawmill and a gristmill. Many of the necessary occupa- 
 tions, such as making clothing and shoes, repairing tools, 
 and making furniture, were at first carried on in each 
 household, but soon carpenters, a blacksmith, a shoemaker, 
 and other tradesmen settled in the community. For social 
 hfe, the people had their singing schools and quilting 
 parties. 
 
 The colonists had acquired a township of land. Three 
 sections were reserved for the site of the village and the 
 college. The village was laid out in lots to be r^^^ peooie 
 sold to those who wished to build homes and united with 
 places of business. The college land was t^^^^^^i 
 fenced in, and lots were reserved for the church, an 
 academy, and a common school. Outside of the village 
 the land was sold in half-sections and quarter-sections for 
 farming. These farms were fenced in and improved by 
 cultivation and by the erection of permanent buildings. 
 The more the settlers improved the land, and the more 
 they invested in their homes and business, the more cer- 
 tainty was there that the community would be permanent 
 and prosperous. 
 
 The early life of this little community was very simple. 
 
4 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Each man, with his neighbors' help, chopped and hauled 
 -,, ,., ^ the loo^s with which to build his cabin. In the 
 
 The life of '=* 
 
 the early edge of the grove there were " a dozen or two 
 communi y |^^ cabins, some built without a nail or a pane 
 of glass ; with the spaces between the logs chinked with 
 mud ; with outside chimneys made of clay and sticks ; with 
 boxes, barrels, and short logs for chairs, a large box for 
 the table, and a one-post bedstead ^ for an honored guest." 
 Each man was his own mechanic, some were their own 
 cobblers, and the wives were the tailors and dressmakers. 
 A family in " average circumstances " is described as 
 having ''enough money to pay taxes and postage." Serv- 
 ants were rare and were on equal terms with the family. 
 The cabins were adorned by such simple means as sticking 
 four balls of clay upon the corners of the chimneys. It is 
 said that it was strange " how quickly, under the good 
 taste and deft fingers of the ladies of the colony, these 
 cabins took on a cozy air and an appearance of beauty and 
 refinement." Books and papers were few, and were 
 handed about from house to house. Money was scarce, so 
 that the exchange of goods took place by barter. Farm 
 produce had to be hauled in wagons straight across the 
 prairie to the nearest large town, fifty miles away. When 
 any great undertaking was proposed, like the building of the 
 church, all the men of the community united in the work. 
 They chopped and hauled the logs from the grove, they 
 hewed out the timbers, they put the frame together, and 
 raised the building. 
 
 The people in this little community, selected as they 
 had been with great care by a committee, were at first 
 remarkably harmonious. They were of one nationality ; 
 
 1 A one-post bedstead was built in the corner of the room, the two walls 
 serving as two sides of the bed. 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 5 
 
 they were of Puritan principles. They all rallied around 
 the idea of the Christian college. If any differ- Government 
 ences arose, they were at first settled by the of the 
 church organization. But with the coming of ^°"^™"^^ty 
 more settlers, and the development of new interests, it 
 became necessary to form a government. 
 
 Such was the beginning of this community, which has 
 developed until to-day it is a thriving city with handsome 
 homes, busy streets, noisy factories, churches, schools, and 
 libraries. It is an important railroad center, and is thus 
 brought into the life of the world outside. It is a center 
 of culture and refinement, and a pleasant place in which 
 to live. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 This chapter is the true story of the founding of a community in 
 Illinois. Every community, including your own, has had a beginning 
 more or less like that of the one described here. In reading this 
 chapter, think whether it would fit your own community — in what points 
 it is like it, and in what points it differs. 
 
 1 . Can you find out how the site of your community happened to be 
 selected? 
 
 2. Take the list of instructions given to the exploring committee 
 mentioned on page i. and answer the questions there asked with 
 reference to your own community. 
 
 3. From what localities did the early settlers in your own com- 
 munity come.^ What led them to found a new community? How did 
 they make the journey from their old homes to the new settlement? 
 
 4. Find true stories of pioneer life in your own community, or in 
 your own state. 
 
 5. When Virginia was colonized, did the character of the site influ- 
 ence the life of the colony? Did the character of the people do so? 
 Answer these questions with reference to the other colonies. 
 
 6. What were the purposes that led the colonists to settle in New 
 England? Compare with the purposes of the settlers described in 
 this chapter. 
 
 7. Describe the life of the people in Massachusetts during the 
 first few years of the colony. Compare with the life of the settle- 
 
6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 ment described on page 4 of this chapter, and with the pioneer hfe 
 of your own community. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Where possible, the pupil should gather information from old 
 settlers of his acquaintance. 
 
 2. Where available, local histories should be made use of. County 
 histories, reports of old settlers' meetings, etc., are useful. 
 
 3. Use any stories of pioneer life, like that of Lincoln's boyhood, 
 to supplement local history. McMurry's "' Pioneer History Stories ''' 
 (Macmillan) is good. 
 
 4. For questions 5-7, the ordinary school histories will usually 
 suffice where other books on colonial life are not available. 
 
 5. There is an excellent series of books on colonial life, suitable 
 for pupils, by Alice Morse Earle. These will be useful throughout the 
 study. Some of the titles are : *■' Colonial Dames and Good Wives " ; 
 " Stage Coach and Tavern Days '' ; *• Home Life in Colonial Days " ; 
 '• Child Life in Colonial Days." 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 WHAT IS A COMMUNITY? 
 
 The story of the founding of the colony in the West 
 illustrates certain things that we should know about com- 
 munities. Each one of us is a member of a community. 
 We wish to know just what our community is, and how it 
 grew. We wish esp^ecially to know what it does for us, 
 and what we owe to it. 
 
 The community whose beginnings we noticed in the 
 last chapter consisted of a group of people who settled 
 together in a single locality, and who were jj^g^^j, 
 bound to each other by common interests. They tion of a 
 
 1 1 • ^ i. / 'T'u- 1, community 
 
 were also subject to commo?i laivs. 1 nis may be ^ 
 
 taken as a definition of any community. 
 
 Communities may be large or small ; that is, the people 
 may be many or few, and the locality in which they live may 
 include a large area or a small one. A group _ 
 
 ^ or Large and 
 
 of neighboring farmers with their families may small com- 
 constitute a community. In this case the area "^""^^^^^ 
 occupied may be large, while the people are few in number. 
 Or the community may be a city, with a dense population 
 in a comparatively small area. Each state in our Union is 
 a community, and so is our nation, because each is com- 
 posed of a group of people occupying a common territory 
 and governed by common interests and common laws. 
 The nation is composed of state communities, and each 
 state is made up of many city and rural communities. 
 You may live in a small city which is a community in 
 
 7 
 
8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 itself, with its group of people, its boundaries, its common 
 
 Communi- interests, and its common laws. A few miles 
 
 ties unite outside of vour city is a community of farmers, 
 into larger ■' ■' ■' 
 
 ones whose houses are far apart, but who have common 
 
 interests, such as keeping up the roads and the bridges in 
 their neighborhood. The farmers bring their produce to 
 the city for the use of the people there, and in turn depend 
 upon the city for many of their necessities and pleasures. 
 The country and the city communities thus have certain 
 interests in common, and their dealings with each other 
 are regulated by common laws. You are, therefore, a mem- 
 ber not only of your city community, but also of a larger 
 community including the farmers. You belong also to the 
 community of the whole state, and to a still larger one 
 including the nation. 
 
 No community ever began its existence fully formed, 
 but each has grown from small beginnings. It is like the 
 Communi- growth of a plant from the seed. You may have 
 ties grow seen a tang-led mass of vines o^rowing from a 
 
 from small ^ . 
 
 beginnings common root, with the branches and tendrils so 
 interwoven that it is difficult to trace one of them back to 
 the main trunk. So in a great community like a city, or 
 like our nation, we find the structure and the organization 
 so complicated that it is often difficult to understand them. 
 It is easier to take a community in its earlier and simpler 
 stages, like that of the last chapter, for a beginning of our 
 study, and then to trace its growth into the more compli- 
 cated forms. 
 
 Being a member of a community means that each one 
 Member- ^-*^ ^^^ takes part in, and contributes to, its life, 
 ship in a The heart and the arm are members of the human 
 community \^^^y They receive life from the body, and con- 
 tribute to its life. In a similar way your life is closely inter- 
 
WHAT IS A COiMMUNITY ? 9 
 
 woven with the Hfe of the community in which you Hve. You 
 can imagine yourself shut off from mankind, like Robinson 
 Crusoe, and living ; but what a narrow life it would be ! 
 The best of your life comes from participation in the life 
 of your community. When we speak of citizenship, we 
 usually mean this membership in the- commu- 
 
 . , . . , 1 . . r .1 Citizenship 
 
 nity, with Its givmg to, and receivmg from, the 
 community's Hfe. Citizenship carries with it certain privi- 
 leges and certain duties. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Talk over in class the four essentials of a community — the group 
 of people, the site, the common interests, and the common laws. Apply 
 these essentials to your own community. 
 
 2. Is your class a community? Explain. What are its common 
 interests? Are its laws written or unwritten? 
 
 3. Show how the different classes in your school are bound together 
 by interests common to the whole school. Compare this union of classes 
 into a school with the union of states into a nation. 
 
 4. What are some of the things in which your family and your 
 nearest neighbors have a common interest because of living close 
 together? 
 
 5. What are some of the things in which the people of a city and the 
 neighboring farmers have a common interest? 
 
 •^6. Name some things in which all the cities of a state have a com- 
 mon interest. What are some things in which the whole nation has a 
 common interest? 
 
 7. Show how an injury or a benefit to one person may be an injury 
 or a benefit to the whole community of which the person is a member. 
 Show how an injury or a benefit to a community will injure or benefit 
 the individual members of the community. 
 
 8. Can you be a member of your class without doing it either good 
 or harm? If a member of a community contributes nothing to its wel- 
 fare, can he avoid being harmful to it? Explain. 
 
 9. What are some of the things that a citizen receives from his 
 community? 
 
 10. Think of some ways in which a citizen may contribute to the 
 welfare of his communitv. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY , 
 
 In beginning our study we must remember that the 
 people and the locality both contribute something to make 
 our community what it is. 
 
 The geographical features of the land enter into the 
 life of the community in many ways. In its relation 
 Importance to the land, we may compare the growth of a 
 of the land community to the growth of a plant. The 
 plant derives its support from the soil. Some kinds of 
 plants flourish in one kind of soil, other kinds in other 
 soils. In the case of all plants, their size and fruitfulness 
 depend not merely on the kind of seed sown, but also on 
 the character of the soil. It is the same with communi- 
 ties. Whether a community shall live or die may depend 
 entirely on the character of its site. 
 
 The importance of the character of the land is seen 
 clearly in the account of the founding of the community 
 in the first chapter. The site of a community is not 
 always selected so carefully as in that case ; but the in- 
 fluence of the site is always important. 
 
 Natural geographical conditions usually determine 
 where large cities shall grow. Nature seems to have 
 In deter- planned the mouth of the Hudson River as the 
 where^cities ^^^^ °^ ^^^ greatest city on the Atlantic coast. W^ 
 shaUgrow A good harbor, like that of Boston or San Fran- 
 cisco ; the junction of two navigable rivers, as at Pittsburg 
 or St. Louis ; the falls of a river, checking navigation 
 
 lO 
 
THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY II 
 
 and affording water power, as at Minneapolis or Louisville ; 
 the head of a river estuary, as at Quebec or Philadelphia ; 
 the center of a rich region where roads naturally cross, 
 as at Indianapolis — all these are conditions favoring, if 
 not determining, the growth of large communities. 
 
 The health of a community depends in many ways on 
 the character of the land. Low, flat regions are Ukely to 
 be unhealthful. Sluggish streams and lakes in relation 
 that tend to become stagnant breed disease. *» i^eaith 
 The supply of drinking water is an important matter, and 
 often depends on the character of the underlying rocks 
 into which wells are dug. These geographical influences 
 become of the- greatest importance in cities where the 
 population is dense, for the artificial drainage may be 
 good or bad according to the character of the natural 
 drainage , and the water supply is in much greater danger 
 of pollution in the city than in smaller communities. A 
 stream which is naturally clear and sparkling may be- 
 come, in the heart of a city, a foul breeding place of disease. 
 
 Climate is also one of the conditions that influence com- 
 munity life. A little thought will show how climate may 
 determine the mode of life — the character of influence of 
 the houses, the form of clothing, and even the climate 
 nature of the sports and amusements of the people. 
 
 The influence of natural resources on the forms of in- 
 dustry and on the growth and prosperity of communities 
 is so clear that it is not necessary to dv/ell j^guence 
 upon it. Can you not think of some cities in of natural 
 the United States that are celebrated for indus- 
 tries which depend on the presence of important natural 
 resources ? 
 
 .In many rural communities the farmers are almost com- 
 pletely isolated from one another during a part of the year 
 
12 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 because the roads are impassable, owing to a soil which 
 forms a deep mud, or to the flat and swampy character of 
 Influence ^^^^ land. This condition interferes with the 
 of surface social, business, and intellectual life of the farm- 
 ers, and influences their relations with one 
 another in many ways. An unusually hilly site may 
 affect the social and the business life of a city. A river 
 and its branches may divide a city into parts more 
 or less distinct and with differing characteristics. Such 
 a city is Chicago, with its North, West, and South 
 Sides. 
 
 Virginia is a good example of how the land may shape 
 the character and the history of a large community. The 
 Influence of development of this colony and state was de- 
 geography termined to a remarkable extent by conditions 
 develop- ^^ climate, soil, and surface which encouraged 
 ment of the Cultivation of the tobacco plant. This in- 
 irgmia d^stry required large plantations, which were dis- 
 tributed along the shores of the navigable rivers, of which 
 there were many. These rivers were large enough to per- 
 mit the ocean vessels of that time to pass some distance up 
 their courses. Therefore each planter had his wharf, at 
 which he loaded his tobacco for shipment and received 
 manufactured goods from abroad. These conditions dis- 
 couraged the growth of cities, and the population remained 
 almost wholly rural. An abundance of cheap labor was 
 necessary, and hence slavery gained a foothold. The 
 scattering of the population over wide areas made it dif- 
 ficult for the people to come together at a common meet- 
 ing place, so that the township organization with its 
 government by town-meeting, such as was found in New 
 England, was impracticable, and the county system of 
 government developed instead (see chapter XXI). 
 
THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 1 3 
 
 The character of our national community depends in a 
 large measure on the character of the land. Rich resources 
 have made our land a place of opportunity to all. 
 East of the Rocky Mountains, at least, the ©four' 
 country is well fitted geographically to be the ^^*^°^ ' 
 home of a single great nation rather than of many small 
 ones. The whole region from the Rockies to the Alle- 
 ghanies is closely bound together by river systems. The 
 navigable rivers in early days, and the conditions which 
 have made the building of railroads easy in later times, 
 have hastened the settlement of the country. Our situation 
 between the two great oceans has protected us from foreign 
 aggression, and it has also given us a great advantage in 
 the commerce of the world. Our geographical conditions 
 have been favorable to the development of a great 
 nation, united under common interests and common laws. 
 Yet we have had many geographical difficulties to over- 
 come. ''For the creation of the nation the conquest 
 of her proper territory from Nature was first necessary. 
 ... A bold race has derived inspiration from the size, 
 the difficulty, the danger of the task." 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 I. a. If you live on a farm or are well acquainted with one, make a 
 sketch map of it. showing position of highlands, lowlands, marshes, 
 timber, streams; also, houses, barns, roads, bridges. 
 
 b. Did the features of the land determine the location of the build- 
 ings? Of the roads and bridges? The drainage of the farm? The 
 kinds of crops raised on different parts of the farm? 
 
 c. Has the character of the land influenced the life of the farmer's 
 family in any way? (Bear in mind climate, the change of seasons, 
 the presence of woods, good or bad roads ; and think of their effects 
 upon going to school or church, amusements, social life.) 
 
 i_ 2. Can you discover any advantages in the site of the town in which 
 vou live, or in the one nearest to your home, that determined its location? 
 How ? 
 
14 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 3. Make a map of the site of your town or city showing the natural 
 drainage ; i.e. the streams into which the land is drained. Is the 
 drainage good or bad? Is it equally good in all parts of the city? 
 ^ 4. What are the natural resources of the region in which your com- 
 munity is situated? How have they influenced the life of the com- 
 munity? 
 
 5. Are the geographical conditions in your community favorable to 
 good roads in the country districts? Explain fully. How does this 
 influence the life of the towns? Of the farmers? 
 
 6. Is your community divided into districts or regions by any natural 
 features (hills, streams, etc.) ? Can you show any results of this fact 
 upon the life of the community? 
 
 7. What geographical conditions affect your supply of drinking 
 water? 
 
 8. Is your state noted for any particular industries? If so, what 
 geographical conditions have helped to make it so? 
 
 9. What geographical difficulties had to be overcome in the develop- 
 ment of your state? How has the government helped to overcome 
 geographical difficulties? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The teacher should see that the work in this chapter is correkited 
 with the pu])irs work in geography. 
 
 •0m^<M^m 
 
 The Sitr ok Chicago. 
 
 Compare this scene with that on page iit. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHAT THE PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 
 
 Man has been called a bundle of wants, and these wants 
 are constantly leading him to act in such a way as to 
 satisfy them. 
 
 First of all, men desire life and health. They will or- 
 dinarily give up anything in order to preserve their lives. 
 Good health is one of the most priceless pos- . 
 
 sessions. A perfectly sound and healthy body for life and 
 is one of the greatest joys a man can have, ^^^^*^ 
 and without it he is unable to satisfy his other desires to 
 the fullest extent. Recall the provisions made for the 
 protection of life and health by the colonists mentioned 
 in the first chapter. 
 
 Another thing that people want is to own something. 
 Boys and girls like to have things that they can call their 
 own. The things that men seek to own — houses, The desire 
 cattle, books, pictures, and the like — constitute for wealth' 
 wealth. The desire for wealth is a very strong one, 
 stronger in some persons than in others. What a man 
 owns is valuable because of what he can do with it. It 
 helps him to sustain and protect Hfe. It enables him to 
 enjoy comforts and luxuries that he could not otherwise 
 have. It makes it possible for him to educate himself, 
 to satisfy his desire for art, to travel, and to enter more 
 fully into social life. Men engage in farming, in manufac- 
 turing, in buying and selHng, and many other forms of 
 business to satisfy their desire for wealth. 
 
 '5 
 
1 6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Men also want knowledge. That is why children ask so 
 many questions, and why boys like to take things to pieces 
 ^^ ^ to see how they are made. It is this desire that 
 
 The de- ■' 
 
 sire for led Nansen to the arctic regions, and Living- 
 
 knowledge g^Qj^g ^Q ^l^g ^^^^^ ^f Africa. It lies at the 
 
 foundation of all science. It was one of the foremost 
 desires that led to the founding of the settlement in the 
 West (chapter I). 
 
 Men also take pleasure in things that are beautiful. 
 This may lead to travel, to the collection of pictures, to the 
 erection of beautiful buildings, and to the maintenance of 
 The desire well-kept Streets and lawns. There is a great 
 for beauty variety of activities for the satisfaction of the 
 desire for beautiful things. How did this desire show 
 itself in the community mentioned in the first chapter? 
 
 No race or tribe of men has ever been known that did 
 not have some form of religion. The religious desire is 
 ^, ^ . characteristic of men. In every community 
 
 The desire •' _ / 
 
 for right- there are certain things that men do to satisfy it. 
 eousness j^ ^^^^ l^^ ^j^^ Sacrificing of animals, as among 
 the ancient Hebrews. It may be the throwing of chil- 
 dren to the crocodiles, as in India. It may be the build- 
 ing of beautiful temples, as in ancient Greece. It may 
 be waging a great war, Hke the Crusades ; or it may be 
 the founding of a hospital or some other charitable institu- 
 tion. The desire for the spread of religion was the chief 
 motive of the settlers mentioned in the first cha,^ter. 
 
 Man desires companionship. He has been called a social 
 animal. He engages in many forms of activity to gratify 
 The desire his desire to associate with other men. How 
 for com- £^^|i ^Q^^i^ ^j^-g desire be satisfied in the little 
 
 panion- ■' 
 
 ship community founded in the West? 
 
 Manv of the things that men do are the result of several 
 
WHAT THE PEOPLE ARE SEEKING \j 
 
 of these desires working together. A man's desires for 
 knowledge, for beautiful scenery, and for health q^^^-^ 
 may combine to lead him to the mountains, tions of 
 When Columbus sailed on his voyage of dis- ^"^'^^^ 
 covery, he was led by his desire for knowledge, his desire 
 for wealth, and his desire to extend the influence of Chris- 
 tianity. Sometimes one desire may seem to ob- ^ 
 
 , ,..,,.' ^ One desire 
 
 scure every other desire m the hfe of a person, sometimes 
 The love of wealth may take such possession of a shuts out all 
 
 1 1 . , 1. others 
 
 man that he becomes a miser, or perhaps dis- 
 honest. It has sometimes happened that a man has be- 
 come so enthusiastic in the pursuit of art, or of science, 
 that he has sacrificed his health, or even life itself, as in 
 the case of Andre, who attempted to reach the north pole 
 in a balloon. History tells us of men who were so devoted 
 to what they beheved to be their rehgious duty that they 
 became hermits, shutting themselves away from all com- 
 panionship, denying themselves riches, mutilating ^j^g ^gjj_ 
 and starving the body, and even suffering death, rounded 
 But in every normal person there are found all 
 the desires named, and tJie ivell-roundcd life is made up of 
 activities to satisfy all of tJiese desires in due proportion. 
 
 Two persons may have the same desires, but may at- 
 tempt to satisfy them in different ways. The Flathead 
 Indians bind boards upon the foreheads of their Different 
 children, flattening^ them, because they think the ^^^^ °^ 
 
 , . , . satisfymg 
 
 result is beautiful. A certain people blacken the same 
 their teeth and scorn Europeans who have <^^sire 
 " white teeth like dogs." So among us there are people 
 who seem to take delight in things that are repugnant to 
 others. The miser and the spendthrift both have wrong 
 ideas of the use of wealth. One man's desire for com- 
 panionship may lead him into profitable associations with 
 
1 8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 others. The same desire in another may lead him to 
 waste his time in the evil influences of the saloon. 
 
 Where there are so many desires and so many ways of 
 satisfying them it is not strange that the activities of peo- 
 Conflictsof P^^ sometimes conflict. The robber, in his pur- 
 desires and suit of wealth, conflicts with the desires of 
 
 of activities ^i /^ ^ t_ i i 
 
 Others. One man may erect a cheap and ugly 
 building that is a nuisance in the neighborhood. An em- 
 ployer may maintain a poorly ventilated factory or store 
 that endangers the health of those who work for him. 
 A crowd of young people in their love of sport and com- 
 panionship may interfere with the peaceful pursuits and 
 the comfort of others. That community is best to live in, 
 in which each citizen not only has the greatest cfj^portunity 
 to satisfy his desires in life, but also recognizes the fact 
 that all other citizens have their desires, and an equal 
 right to satisfy them. 
 
 In the course of time men, living together in communi- 
 ties, have developed various means to secure harmony, 
 and to prevent the ris-hts of one from being 
 
 Means to ^ ^ ^ 
 
 secure interfered with by others. Three means to 
 
 harmony ggcure these results are : 
 
 1. The school. Its chief purpose is to train children for 
 citizenship ; that is, for membership in the community. 
 (See chapter XV.) 
 
 2. The eJiiireJi. It works through the religious desires of 
 men. Its service in helping men to live harmoniously to- 
 gether may be expressed by its teaching, " Do unto others 
 as ye would be done by." 
 
 3. Government. It establishes and enforces laws for the 
 common good, which all should willingly observe. It is 
 not something placed over us from without, to tyrannize 
 over us, and to be feared and antagonized. It is a friend 
 
WHAT THE PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 19 
 
 of our own making, and should be cherished and sup- 
 ported by every citizen to the fullest extent possible. The 
 beneficent purpose of government is stated in the preamble 
 of the Constitution of the United States, which reads : 
 
 IVe, the people of the United States, in order .to forin a 
 more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
 quillity, provide for the common defense, pi'omote the general 
 luelfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
 our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for 
 the United States of America. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What things are done in your own home for the purpose of satis- 
 fying the desires mentioned in this chapter? 
 
 2. What are some of the things, outside of your home, that the 
 people of your community do to satisfy these desires ? 
 
 3. What desires are gratified by a person who does the following 
 things: paints his house; attends a concert; visits a sick friend; buys 
 a book ; makes a garden ; keeps a dog ; takes out a fire-insurance 
 policy: keeps a store; goes to church; attends a lecture? 
 
 4. Show how a person's c}«sire for companionship may conflict with 
 his desire for knowledge ; h^y his desire for wealth may conflict with 
 his desire for health or for companionship. 
 
 5. Give illustrations of how some persons, in satisfying their desires, 
 interfere with the attempts of others to satisfy theirs. 
 
 ^ 6. Does community life make it easier, or more diflicult. for men to . 
 satisfy their desire for life : for health ; for wealth : for knowledge ; for"^ 
 beauty; for religion? Explain. 
 
 ■ 7. Show how, in the school, the pupil wlio '• does as he- pleases " 
 interferes with the liberty of others. Is it right that his own liberty 
 should then be restricted? Why? Is liberty the right to *■' do as one 
 pleases " ? 
 
 8. Study together in class the first ten amendments to the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States, and, if possible, a part of the bill of rights of 
 your state constitution. Find how many of the desires mentioned in 
 this chapter are there provided for. 
 
 9. Mention one way in which government helps you to satisfy each 
 of the desires mentioned in this chapter. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE FAMILY 
 
 It was pointed out in the first chapter that the commun- 
 ity in the West was settled by families, and grew up to 
 ^^ ^ ., be « citv of hollies. There are communities in 
 
 The family -^ •' 
 
 in the our land in which a large part of the popula- 
 
 community ^j^^^ -^ without homes in the true sense of 
 the word. In the far West there are mining towns, 
 and in the North lumber camps, composed almost en- 
 tirely of men without families. In such communities 
 life is rough, some of the best features of civilized life are 
 lacking, and the community is likely to be lawless. In 
 cities there are thousands of people who live in dwelling 
 places with very little that we usually associate with 
 home life. Many, indeed, have not even regular dwelling 
 places, as in the case of tramps. There are thousands of 
 unfortunate, homeless children adrift in our great cities. It 
 is largely in the drifting, homeless population that the dis- 
 orderly and criminal classes are found. The family and the 
 home are of the greatest importance to a community, first 
 because of what they do for the individual citizen in help- 
 ing him to satisfy the desires of life, and second because of 
 the services they render to the community as a whole. 
 
 What the family does for its members can best be under- 
 stood if we first study the Hfe of a pioneer family, cast 
 The pioneer almost entirely upon its own resources in a new 
 family country. Tempted by stories of the rich lands in 
 
 the West and the greater opportunities of gaining a liveli- 
 
THE FAMILY 21 
 
 hood and accumulating wealth, this family had packed its 
 household goods and, with a team of h orses and a wagon, had 
 undertaken the journey of six weeks or more into the wil- 
 derness. It selected a spot in an open space in the forest, not 
 far from the banks of a stream, where the conditions of the 
 land gave promise of making a new home safe, pleasant, 
 and productive of good results. The family then was miles 
 from any other human abode. There were no roads con- 
 necting it with civilization except the rough ''trace" by 
 which it found its way into the forest. The family was 
 face to face with the great wilderness, whose conquest 
 was for the present its chief task. 
 
 The husband and father immediately began to make a 
 home. With the help of his son, he cut down trees from 
 the forest and built a log house. He became providing a 
 woodcutter, carpenter, and builder. They made shelter 
 some simple furniture, and built a great fireplace of clay 
 and sticks, with an oven. Fuel was found in abundance in 
 the forest. 
 
 The open space in the forest around the house was 
 enlarged by clearing away the trees, the ground was 
 plowed, and grain and vegetables were planted, providing 
 The grain was cut and threshed by hand, and ^°°^ 
 ground into meal in a home-made stone mill. For fresh 
 meat they had to depend chiefly upon game from the forest. 
 Some necessities, such as salt and powder, and a few^ lux- 
 uries, such as coffee, had to be brought with Exchange 
 great difficulty from the nearest settlement many of goods 
 miles away. In exchange for these things they gave their 
 surplus farm products and a few furs from animals trapped 
 during the winter. Money was almost never seen in this 
 Western country. 
 
 The man built a forge. Under the stress of necessity, 
 
22 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 and aided by some little experience gained in the East, he 
 Occupations was able to repair his tools, and even to make 
 
 of the father ^ u u- i i . i 
 
 and the ^^^^ oncs, to shoe his horses, and to do many 
 
 mother other things necessary on the farm. He experi- 
 
 mented in making moccasins and even shoes. He began 
 the raising of sheep and cultivated flax. A spinning wheel 
 and a hand loom were set up in the house, and coarse but 
 serviceable clothing was made by the mother's hand. 
 
 Little was to be feared, in those early days, from thieves 
 and marauders, although there were occasional rumors 
 Protection of threatened Indian attacks. Against possible 
 against danglers of this kind the father was a watchful 
 
 violence and ^ 
 
 disease protector. Another enemy more difficult to cope 
 
 with was sickness, due to the presence of a swamp near at 
 hand. The medicine chest, supplemented by roots and 
 herbs from the forest, was a valuable part of the family 
 equipment. The mother proved herself a sympathetic and 
 resourceful physician and nurse. She also saw to it that 
 the cause of disease was reduced as much as possible by 
 keeping the premises clean. 
 
 The education of the children had to be looked after. 
 The son was taught the duties of the farm and the use of 
 Education tools of all kinds. He became a skillful woods- 
 and art man. The older girl learned the duties of the 
 
 household, how to spin and weave, and many other things 
 to fit her for the life she had to lead. The mother taught 
 the youngest child to read, and instructed all in ideas of 
 right living. She planted a little flower garden in the 
 dooryard, and trained vines over the house. With the 
 crude materials at hand, she used her taste to the utmost 
 in beautifying the children's clothes. 
 
 The parents were religious people in accordance with 
 their early training. The family Bible occupied a promi- 
 
THE FAMILY 23 
 
 nent place in the household, and from it every day the 
 father read to the family group. There was no 
 church for miles around. 
 
 There was little companionship for the members of this 
 family outside of the family group; but within the group 
 there was the closest association. The children 
 interested themselves in the work of the parents, 
 and the parents entered sympathetically into the pastimes 
 of the children. They read and sang together. The chil- 
 dren had their sports in fields and woods, appropriate 
 to the seasons. For want of other companions they made 
 pets of all the domestic animals. An occasional traveler 
 was welcomed in the home with the freest hospitality. 
 
 The occupations of the day were carried on in regular 
 order; each had his special duties to perform at certain 
 times. The children rendered obedience to their oovern- 
 parents. The father was the recognized head of ^^nt 
 the family. His word was law. Yet he constantly had the 
 best interests of the family at heart, and was kind and 
 thoughtful with all his sternness. 
 
 Such was the life of the pioneer family. It was crude 
 and imperfect ; but you see that all the kinds of desires that 
 men have were provided for more or less completely within 
 the family itself. It looked after the protection of life 
 and health, the production of wealth, the education, the 
 religious training, and the social life of its members. 
 
 In the course of time other families came into the neicfh- 
 borhood. Then an organization into a larger j^^ ^^^.j, 
 community began. The settlers rendered aid to relieved by 
 each other i,n building houses and gathering crops, zation^of^a 
 Many of the occupations formerly carried on larger 
 in the family were now transferred to members ^°™™"^^*y 
 of the community who made these occupations their 
 
24 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 business. A school was organized to provide a better 
 education than could be offered in the home, and a 
 church was built at the crossroads. A government also 
 was organized. 
 
 Although, as a community grows, various means arise 
 to help the family to provide for the wants of its members, 
 The res on- ^^^ family must always bear an important part of 
 sibUity of the responsibility for the welfare of its members. 
 thefamUy ^^ matter how good the doctors, the health of 
 the people in any community depends more on the family 
 than on anything else. No matter how efficient the schools, 
 a great responsibility rests on the family for the proper 
 education of the children. No matter how many social 
 organizations there may be in the community, the social 
 life of the home is the most important of all and the most 
 far-reaching in its results. No matter how excellent the 
 government of a community may be, it can have little 
 good result if the government in the home is lacking. 
 The surest way to secure good government in the com- 
 munity is through careful government in the homes that 
 make up the community. JVo matter Jiozv large the com- 
 munity, or Jiow completely it is organized, tJie family re- 
 mains one of the most important means to provide for the 
 wants of the citizens. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 r. Find out what you can about family life in the pioneer days of 
 your own community : the kind of dwellings ; where the food supply came 
 from; how health was cared for; the occupations in the household; 
 what was done to beautify the home ; the social amusements. 
 
 V 2. Show to what extent the needs of a farmer's family in your own 
 neighborhood are satisfied by its own efforts. 
 
 >/ 3. Observe whether your own family is chiefly dependent on itself 
 for its needs, or depends on arrangements supplied by the commu- 
 nity. 
 
THE FAMILY 25 
 
 4. Compare the advantages of the average country family with those 
 of the average city family, with respect to satisfying the desires of life. 
 -Orf debate the question: Home life in the country has greater advan- 
 rtag€s than home life in the city. 
 
 ^5. Study the way in which the average family governs itself. Why 
 is this government necessary? 
 
 6. Are there in your community manv people without homes, as 
 explained in the first paragraph of this chapter? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The books by Alice Morse Earle, mentioned in the first chapter, will 
 afford good material for this chapter also. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 SOME SERVICES RENDERED TO THE COMMUNITY 
 BY THE FAMILY 
 
 " No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good home life,'' 
 
 The family not only does much to provide for the wel- 
 fare of the individual citizen, but it also performs certain 
 valuable services for the community as a whole. 
 
 In the first place, the family has been called " a school 
 of all the virtues" that go to make good citizenship. It 
 The family is a school in which not only the children, but 
 a training ^|^^ ^j^^ parents, are trained for citizenship. 
 
 school for '■ ^ 
 
 citizens It has been said that if a man is a good hus- 
 
 band, a good father, a good son, or a good brother, 
 the probability is that he will also be a good citizen in the 
 community. And we must not forget the wives, mothers, 
 daughters, and sisters. The quality of the citizenship 
 of the women of a community is perhaps shown more 
 in their family life than that of the men, because such 
 a large part of their lives is spent in the family and the 
 household, and also because their influence there is so 
 great in molding the character of the men. Wn the family 5 
 are developed tho ughtfu lness for others, the spirit of self- 
 sacrifke, loyalty to the group of which the individual is a 
 member, respect for the opinions of those of long ex- 
 perience, obedience to the head of the family and to the 
 rules which have been established for the welfare of all; 
 If these and other qualities of good citizenship are not 
 
 26 
 
SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 
 
 cultivated there, the family is not in a healthy condition, 
 and is not doing its full service to the community. 
 
 There is no other kind of property that gives such satis- 
 faction to the owner as a home. Men usually look forward 
 with eagerness to the time when they can own The owning 
 their homes, and take great pride in that owner- ^^ ^ ^°™^ 
 ship when it is acquired. Many famihes live in homes 
 which they do not themselves own ; they rent from others. 
 When that is 
 the case, there 
 is lacking one 
 of the strongest 
 influences that 
 make the home 
 life complete. 
 The ownership 
 of a home adds 
 another bond of 
 union among the 
 
 members of the family through the common interest which 
 it affords. A man has a greater interest in improving 
 and beautifying a home that he owns than one that he 
 rents from another. 
 
 A family that owns its home will usually take a greater 
 interest in the community in which it lives than the family 
 that owns no home. It feels a sense of proprie- Creates 
 
 A Modest Home. 
 
 The 
 
 interest 
 
 torship in a part of the community land. ^ ..^ ^ ^^^ 
 value of a home will increase in proportion to community 
 the prosperity of the community as a whole. Its owner 
 will therefore be inchned to do all he can to promote the 
 welfare of the community for the sake of his family. A 
 community that is made up largely of homes owned by 
 their occupants is Ukely to be prosperou_s__on this account, 
 
28 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Wretched Dwelling. 
 
 and its citizens will be loyal to it. This is why the commu- 
 nity mentioned in the first chapter has reason to boast that 
 it is a city of homes. j 
 
 In large cities, where people are crowded together in a 
 comparatively small area, it is difficult for all to get pos- 
 session of a piece of 
 ground suitable for a 
 home. The land, being 
 in great demand, be- 
 comes very valuable, so 
 that many families are 
 unable to buy it, or even 
 to pay the necessary 
 price for the use of it. 
 The result is that such families are driven to make their 
 homes in the least desirable localities in the community. 
 ^ They may resort to the lowlands along a river 
 
 Dangers to ^ -^ , " . 
 
 home life flowing through the community, where the land 
 in cities jg unhealthful and in danger of floods. In some 
 river towns most wretched dwelhng places may be found 
 in such localities. In large cities many families are often 
 crowded together in buildings owned by men who can get 
 better returns by charging small rents to many families 
 than they could by charging larger rents to a few. These 
 crowded dwelling places, which often do not deserve the 
 name of homes, are called tenements, and the section of 
 the city where the crowding is the worst and the buildings 
 are the poorest constitutes what is known as the slums. 
 These tenement dwellings involve all sorts of evils. Where 
 so many families Hve in one building, and where many, 
 buildings are crowded together without space between, 
 there cannot be the privacy that is essential to good home 
 life. Such conditions are also detrimental to health. The 
 
SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 29 
 
 sunlight never penetrates to the interior of some of these 
 buildings. They are ill-ventilated and unsanitary. There 
 is no room for playgrounds for the children. Among a 
 crowd of people in such wretched dwellings there are al- 
 ways many ignorant, immoral, and vicious persons, who 
 have a bad influence upon others with whom they are con- 
 stantly thrown. Criminals often find a safe hiding place 
 in the dark and crowded tenements of the slums. 
 
 Families living in such conditions as we have described 
 are less likely to take an interest in the welfare of the 
 community and to contribute to its well-being. The burden 
 On the other hand, their part of the community of the worst 
 is a constant burden and menace to the whole up^^the^ ^ 
 community. Fires are Hkely to start among the whole 
 crowded and poorly constructed buildings, and *^°™™"^^ ^ 
 to spread to other parts of the city. The unsanitary con- 
 ditions invite epidemics of disease, which may not easily 
 be restricted to the district where they originate. Dis- 
 order, vice, and crime are more frequent there, requiring 
 police supervision, which has to be paid for by the whole 
 community. In many ways the possessor of the good home 
 in the better part of the city has to bear the burden of, 
 and help pay for, the existence of these poor homes. A 
 very large part of the expense of government could be 
 avoided if the poor homes of the city could be converted 
 into pleasant homes, with plenty of room, light, and fresh 
 air. MiicJi of government is made necessary in ^ 
 order to take the place of zv/iat is lacking in the and the 
 home life of the community^ °™^ 
 
 In many large cities a movement has been begun for 
 the improvement of conditions in the tenement districts. 
 The old, unhealthful tenements are being removed and 
 better ones built. More sunlight is being let in and better 
 
30 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 plumbing introduced. Open courts, or yards, are pro- 
 vided in order that the people may get out of doors. 
 Movement P^^'^^s and playgrounds arc being established 
 toward in the vicinity of the crowded districts. The 
 
 introduction of rapid transportation has done 
 much to induce people to move out to the suburbs, where 
 life is more healthful and where conditions are better for 
 home life. 
 
 It is much better, however, to prevent wTctched home 
 conditions from gaining a foothold in the community than 
 The to have to correct them after they have appeared. 
 
 Qf tj^g They are conditions that tend to appear wher- 
 
 tenement ever the population is rapidly increasing. " The 
 earliest stage of the evolution is the small one- or two- or 
 three-story house, with its yard and flower beds, occupied 
 by a single family. As the city grows and the demand for 
 housing facilities increases, rents become higher and one 
 floor of the house is re-rented to another family. A still 
 greater demand results in a further re-renting, while the 
 yard is built up with other small houses occupied by one 
 or two families ; or perhaps the original house is moved 
 to the rear of the lot, and a greater part of the remaining 
 space is filled by one large wooden building, fashioned 
 expressly for the use of several families. It is possible, 
 too, that the large rooms of the original house, which its 
 tenant can no longer afford to pay for, have been sub- 
 divided, thus increasing the capacity of the house, and 
 swelling its total income. The basement and attic are 
 both occupied, and the house, having been built for the 
 use of one family, is almost devoid of water, bath, and 
 toilet facilities." ^ 
 
 ^ Report o( Cleveland Chamber of Commerce on " Housing Conditions in 
 Cleveland," pages 8, 9. 
 
SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 3 1 
 
 111 some of our largest cities the government has taken 
 hold of the problem of the tenement, and laws have been 
 passed, prohibiting the building of dwellings with- Xenement- 
 out sufficient space around them to admit light i^o^se laws 
 and air, requiring good sanitation, and forbidding the over- 
 crowding of people in a single building. Unfortunately 
 these laws are violated, and the government frequently 
 fails to enforce them. In the smaller cities, where such con- 
 ditions have not become sufficiently apparent to attract no- 
 tice, there are often very few laws uporrTfie subject. It is in 
 these cities that especial care should be taken to prevent the 
 growth of dangerous tenements, by the enactment of pre- 
 ventive laws. 
 
 It is not merely the dwelling, however, but the life within 
 it, that really makes a home good or bad. Some of the 
 worst homes are occasionally found in surroundings of 
 luxury. Unless the relations between husband and wife, 
 between parents and children, and between brothers and 
 sisters, are of the right kind, the home will be imperfect, 
 even though it be sheltered in a beautiful dwelling; and 
 it will fail to perform its best service to the community. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Do most of the people in your neighborhood own their homes, or 
 do they rent? Can you give illustrations to show that home owners 
 take a greater interest in the community than those who rent? 
 
 2. Is there some section of your community w^here most of the people 
 own their homes, and another section where most of the people rent? 
 If so, do you notice any difference inthe general appearance of the two 
 sections? Do you think that the difference, if any, is due in any part 
 to the fact that some of the people own and some rent? 
 
 3. In the back of the book (page 256) there is a table showing the 
 number of homes owned and the number rented in the cities of the 
 United States having 100,000 population or over. 
 
 a. Find the city having the smallest per cent of homes owned. 
 How do you account for the small per cent in this city? 
 
32 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 b. Find the city having the largest per cent of homes owned. Can 
 you account for it from what you know of the city? 
 
 c. Can you account for the fact that Washington. D.C., has such a 
 large per cent of rented homes ? 
 
 d. Find out for what Fall River, Mass., is noted. Do you think 
 there is any relation between this fact and the large number of hired 
 homes? 
 
 e. Find the figures of your own city, if it is in the table, or the 
 nearest one to you, and compare it with other cities of about the same 
 size. 
 
 4. Observe the character of the homes (dwellings, yards, gardens), 
 as you pass from the center of your city to its outskirts. Is there any 
 difference in their appearance? If so, why is it? 
 
 5. Is there any tendency for farmers' families in your neighborhood 
 to move to the city? If so, try to find the reasons for it. What be- 
 comes of their farms when the families move away? 
 
 6. Is there any tendency for families in the city to move toward the 
 outskirts of the city, or to the suburbs? If so, w-hy? Is it chiefly the 
 poorer people or the well-to-do? What happens to their old dwellings 
 in the center of the city? 
 
 7. Are flats and apartment buildings being erected to any extent in 
 your community? If so, try to find the causes. What are some of the 
 effects on family life of dwelling in flats ? 
 
 y. 8. What is being done in your community to improve the home life 
 
 of the poorest families ? 
 4^ 9. Can you think of any public institutions in your commu- 
 
 nitv that are made necessary by imperfect conditions of home 
 
 life? 
 
 10. If there is no law forbidding it, has a man the right to make all 
 the money he can by crowding as many tenants into a house as it will 
 hold? Explain. 
 
 11. Show how good home life tends to decrease the need for gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 12. Are there any tenement-house laws in your community? If so, 
 / what are some of the most important? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Riis, Jacob A., '' How the Other Half Lives." 
 Riis. Jacob A., "The- Battle with the Slums." 
 
 Mr. Riis's books are very interesting and helpful to an understanding 
 of the conditions of the slums. 
 
SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 
 
 33 
 
 These two books might be used by the pupils. The following refer- 
 ences are intended primarily for the assistance of the teacher, though 
 the pupils may often use them beneficially : 
 
 , Henderson, " The Social Spirit in America," chapter II : " Home-Making as a 
 
 j Social Art," and chapter IV : " Better Houses for the People." 
 
 ' " Slums of Great Cities," Seventh Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 
 
 by E. R. L. Gould, Washington, 1894. 
 
 " Housing of the Working People," Eighth Annual Report of the Commissioner 
 i of Labor, by E, R. L. Gould, 1895. 
 j Estabrook, H. K., " Some Slums in Boston." 
 
 1 First Report of the Tenement House Department of the City of New York, 1902- 
 
 i 1903- 
 
 " Housing Conditions in Cleveland," Report of Investigation by the Cleveland 
 Chamber of Commerce, 1904. 
 
 " The Housing Problem," Annals of the American Academy of Political and 
 Social Science, Philadelphia, July, 1902. 
 
 "Tenement Conditions in Chicago," Report of the Investigating Committee of 
 City Homes Association, by Robert Hunter, 1901. 
 
 " Chicago Housing Conditions," by Sadie T. Wald, in Charities, January 6, 
 1906. 
 
 "The New Tenement in Chicago," by Charles B. Ball, in Charities, October 6, 
 1906. 
 
 " Housing Conditions in Philadelphia," an investigation made by Emily W. 
 Dimviddie, under the direction of the Octavia Hill Association, Philadelphia, 
 1904. 
 
 A Tenement Back Yard. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE iMAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 Next to the ties of family relationship, those of common 
 nationality and language are perhaps the strongest in bind- 
 The bond of ing people together in groups. Americans in 
 nationality foreign cities usually drift together and take lodg- 
 ings in the same locality. When foreigners come to this 
 country, they tend to group themselves together according 
 to their nationality or language. This kind of grouping- 
 may assume great importance in a country like ours, where 
 many thousands of foreigners are pouring in upon us ever\' 
 year. 
 
 America has always been a land of opportunity, and 
 millions of people have come here from foreign lands for the 
 The foreign purpose of bettering'their condition. Some have 
 the"united come, like the Pilgrims of Plymouth, for_relig_i<'ii> 
 States freedom^ Others have come, like the founders of 
 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony, fnr pnliHr-al frppd^m- Many 
 more have come merely to better tTpir rna,feria1 welfare 
 Thousands are coming every year because here work 
 is plentiful, and the opportunity is great to earn, not merely 
 a living, but land and a home with comforts that were im- 
 possible in their native lands. In the ten years from 1896 
 to 1905, 5,396,761 foreigners settled in the United States, 
 and in each of the years 1905 and 1906 more than 1,000,000 
 arrived.^ Among them are representatives of every coun- 
 try of Plurope and many from other lands. 
 
 ^ See Appendix, page 258, Tables of Immigration. 
 
 34 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 35 
 
 The tendency of these incoming foreigners is to drift to 
 sections of the country where there is already a large num- 
 ber of their countrymen. There are sections of Distj.ii,u. 
 the states of the Northwest where almost the tion of 
 entire population is Swedish. In other states we °'"®^sners 
 
 frequently find large farming communities of Scotch or of 
 
 Copyriuht, I'.'Or, h,, r,vlcrtr,,o,l S- Vwhru 
 
 Immigrants awaiting Inspection at Ellis Island, 
 New York Harbor. 
 
 Germans. In some of the coal-mining regions the popu- 
 lation is largely Slavic. Manufacturing towns often have 
 
36 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 large populations of some one nationality, like the Belgian 
 glass-workers in some parts of Indiana. In cities, where 
 many foreigners settle, they usually arrange themselves by 
 nationahty in different sections of the city. ^Thus we find 
 in New York a section occupied almost exclusively by 
 ItaHans, another by Chinese, another by Greeks, another 
 by Jews, and so on. 
 
 These different nationalities not only tend to live in 
 groups, but they also think and act in groups. It is very 
 Foreign common to hear at election time of the ** German 
 w^thfnthe vote " and the "Irish vote." There are also dif- 
 nation tend ferences in ideas of thrift and industry, in forms 
 
 to act as . 
 
 units of architecture, in home life, and in many other 
 
 ways. One section of a city may be thrifty and law-abid- 
 ing because of the habits of the nationality occupying it, 
 while another section will be unsightly and disorderly. 
 Some observers are much concerned at the present time 
 because of the increasing immigration into the United 
 States from the southern and eastern countries of Europe, 
 where the social and political ideas of the people are very 
 different from those of the United States. 
 
 There might be great danger to the peace and unity of 
 the United States through the immigration of so many 
 The United foreigners, if they actually remained for any 
 nadon^of length of time as distinct national groups within 
 foreigners our country. But this is not usually the case. 
 Most of these immigrants begin a process of transforma- 
 tion from Germans, Irish, Poles, or whatever their nation- 
 ality, into Americans, almost as soon as they have landed* 
 We are a nation of foreigners. Many Americans do not 
 have to go back very far until they find some ancestor^ 
 just immigrating into this country from a foreign land. 
 The hundreds of thousands who are coming to our 
 
THE MAKING OF AiMERICANS 
 
 37 
 
 shores this year will, in the course of a few years, be 
 proud of the name of American ; and their children, born 
 here, will not be distinguishable from the great mass of 
 Americans. 
 
 This breaking down of the differences between the na- 
 tionalities within our country is due to the growth of com- 
 mon interests among all who live here. All came here for 
 s^reater freedom of relis^ion, of political belief, of ^^® growth 
 
 *^ of common 
 
 labor. Our government allows to all equal op- interests 
 portunities and equal rights. Only in the case of the Chin- 
 
 U. S. Immi(;r.\.m- Station, Ellis Island. 
 
 ese has the government prohibited the immigration of a 
 nationality ; and in this case it is because the Chinese re- 
 main foreigners, no matter how long they live here. They 
 fail to become Americanized, fail to adopt as their own the 
 interests and the customs of this country. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States says : " All per- 
 sons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject 
 to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the Naturaii- 
 United States and of the state wherein they ^^*^°^ 
 reside" (Amendment XIV). In order to become legal 
 citizens of the United States, therefore, persons born in 
 foreign countries must go through the process of naturali- 
 zation. They must have lived in the United States at 
 
38 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 least five years and in the state one year, and must have 
 declared, before a court, their intention of becoming citi- 
 zens at least two years before their citizenship papers are 
 given to them. They must also prove good character and 
 declare their intention of observing the principles of the 
 Constitution. They then have all the rights of native- 
 born citizens, except that they may not hold the office of 
 President or Vice-President. 
 
 The government has the power to deny citizenship 
 to those who do not prove themselves capable of exer- 
 cising it properly, and even to send such persons back 
 to the land from which they came. Unfortunately the 
 government has become lax in the enforcement of this 
 law and of the rules of naturalization. Not sufficient 
 care is taken to prove the good character of those who 
 apply for citizenship. Just before elections thousands 
 of foreigners are hastily made citizens in order to secure 
 their votes for one party or the other. ^ 
 
 Of the 75,000,000 population of the United States in 
 1900, there^ere about 5,000,000 foreigners who were not 
 naturalized. Such persons are known as aliens. Aliens 
 enjoy almost, although not quite, all the privileges of citi- 
 zens. They are entitled to full protection of their 
 Aliens ■' ^ 
 
 lives and property by our government ; they may 
 move freely about the country and engage in business ; 
 they are entitled to all the privileges of the state courts, 
 and to some privileges of the national courts ; they have 
 freedom of religious belief. There are some restrictions 
 against the holding of real estate by aliens ; but many 
 states allow it and by the Homestead Act (see page 44) 
 Congress has given millions of acres to aliens- In some 
 states aliens may even vote for state and national officers 
 after having declared their intention of becoming citizens. 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 39 
 
 In the development of our great country, with its vast 
 areas of land to be reduced to the use of man, and with its 
 abundant resources of all kinds, it has always it is 
 been considered desirable that foreigners should ^^^3^11^6^ 
 come to our land to make it their home. But it foreigners 
 is plain that if they are to be valuable members forJ^lnto 
 of our community, they must have or acquire Americans 
 full sympathy with our American ideas. They must be- 
 come blended with the mass of Americans among 
 whom they live, and become Americans themselves, not 
 merely in dress and language, but in their spirit and prin- 
 ciples. Down to the present time this blending has gone 
 on easily and rapidly, because the great mass of the popu- 
 lation has always been native born. With the increasing 
 tide of immigration from foreign lands the problem be- 
 comes more serious, and calls for greater caution on the 
 part of government as to the admission of immigrants. 
 Most of those who come will undoubtedly make excellent 
 citizens. But there are many who will contribute nothing 
 to our welfare, and some who will even antagonize the law 
 and order which are so necessary in a community. 
 
 It is necessary that every means be adopted to instruct 
 those who come to our land in the ideals of American 
 citizenship, and to make of them not merely The 
 partakers of our liberty, but contributors to ^^^ public 
 our community welfare. The school performs school 
 an important service in this direction. It not only in- 
 structs the children of foreigners in the English lan- 
 guage. United States history, and other subjects that 
 acquaint them with American ideas, but by bringing them 
 in constant association with American children the school 
 hastens the adoption of American ways. Thus these chil- 
 dren of foreigners are rapidly transformed into Americans. 
 
40 THE COiMMUNITY AXU THE CITIZEN 
 
 The very nature of the American government tends to 
 destroy all differences of nationahty. It is a fundamental 
 ^^^ idea of our government that there are certain 
 
 influence of political rights and privileges held by all in com- 
 government j^^^^j^^ which it is the business of the government 
 to protect. Our government is a strong bond of union, not 
 because it holds us together in a forced union, but because 
 we all have an equal interest and share in its benefits and 
 responsibilities. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 I. Let each pupil in the class fill in the followinoj blank. Tabulate 
 the results for the whole class on the blackboard, in order to show the 
 blending of nationalities in the present class : 
 
 Table showing Nationality of 
 
 I Father's father 
 
 Father ■ | F.itlier's grandparents 
 
 ' Father's mother 
 
 Mother's father 
 
 Mother \ [Mother's grandparents 
 
 Mother's mother 
 
 / r.iiii'-i >> gi tiiiujjui ciii."5 \ 
 
 \ Mother's grandparents » 
 
 2. Make a list of the different nationalities to be found in your com- 
 munity. Do any of these nationalities tend to form groups by them- 
 selves? If so. show on a map of your community how this grouping has 
 taken place. 
 
 3. Is there any farming community in your neighborhood composed 
 entirely of some one nationality.? Are there any industries in your com- 
 munity in which the workmen are wholly or largely of some foreign 
 nationality? 
 
 4. Do any of the foreign nationalities in your community tend to act 
 as units (i.e. the Irish by themselves, the Italians by themselves) in 
 politics, in religious matters, or in business? 
 
 5. Are there any communities in your state composed largely of some 
 one foreign nationality? Where are they? Why did these foreigners 
 settle there? What are their occupations? 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 4I 
 
 6. Gather some facts regarding the number of immigrants to this 
 country, their nationalities, their character and conditions, their dis- 
 tribution through the country and in cities. (See immigration tables in 
 the appendix, page 258 ; and for further details, see also the references 
 below.) 
 
 7. Debate the question : Foreign immigration should be further re- 
 stricted by the United States. 
 
 8. Debate the question : The Chinese should be allowed free admis- 
 sion to the United States as in the case of other foreigners. 
 
 9. Do you think it is right that aliens should be allowed to vote, as 
 in some states of the Union? Why? 
 
 10. Look up the subject of fraudulent naturalization. (See Mayo- 
 Smith, ''Emigration and Immigration," pp. 83-85; Hall, ••Immigra- 
 tion,"' pp. 192-197.) 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," pp. 450-453. 
 
 Mayo-Smith, Richmond, "Emigration and Immigration." Scribners (1892). 
 A standard work. 
 
 Hall, Prescott F., " Immigration." Holt (1906). A very readable and satisfac- 
 tory book covering all important phases of the subject. 
 
 MAGAZINE ARTICLES 
 
 "Racial Composition of the American People." John R. Commons, in Chati- 
 tauquan, 38: 33-42, 118-125, 332-340.433-443- 533-543: 39 : 13-22,115-124, 217- 
 227 (September, 1903-May, 1904). 
 
 "Foreign Element in American Civilization." A. H. Hyde, in Popular Science 
 Monthly, 52: 387 (January, 1898). 
 
 "The Immigrant." Charities, 12: No. 6 (February 6, 1904). 
 
 "The Slav in America." Charities, 13 : No. 10 (December 3, 1904). 
 
 " Immigration to the Southern States." Walter L. Fleming, in Political 
 Science Quarterly, 20: 276 (June, 1905). 
 
 In the Popular Science Monthly there is a series of articles by 
 Dr. Allan McLaughlin, of the United States Marine-Hospital Service, 
 some of which are as follows : 
 
 " The Slavic Immigrant," 63 : 25 (May, 1903). 
 
 "The Bright Side of Russian Immigration," 64: 66 (November, 1903). 
 " Immigration and the Public Health," 64: 232 (January, 1904)- 
 "The Immigrant, Past and Present," 65: 224 (July, 1904). 
 "Chinese and Japanese Immigration," 66: 117 (December, 1904). 
 "Social and Political Effects of Immigration." 66: 243 (January, 1905). 
 " How Immigrants are Inspected," 66: 357 (February, 1905). 
 
42 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 On the subject of the restriction of immigration : 
 In favor of: 
 
 "The Restriction of Immigration." H. C. Lodge, in North American Review, 
 152: 27 (January, 1891). 
 
 " Methods of Restricting Immigration." Wm. E. Chandler, in Forum, 13: 128 
 (March, 1892). 
 
 " Restriction of Immigration." Francis A. Walker, in Atlantic Motithly, 77 : 822 
 (June. 1896) . 
 
 " Our National Dumping-Ground." Charles S. Smith, in North Ainerican 
 Review, 154 : 432 (April, 1892) . 
 
 Against : 
 
 "Our National Dumping-Ground." John B. Weber, in North American 
 Review, 154 : 424 (April, 1892) . 
 
 " Incal ulable Room for Immigrants." Edward Atkinson, in Forum, 13: 360 
 (May, 1892). 
 
 "What Immigrants Contribute to Industry." George F. Parker, in Forum, 
 14: 600 (January, 1893). 
 
 "The Folly of Chinese Exclusion." H. H. Bancroft, in North American 
 Review, 179 : 263 (August, 1904) . 
 
 In the appendix of Hall's "Immigration." p. 369, there is a more 
 extended bibliography on the subject of immigration. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HOW THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PEOPLE AND 
 THE LAND ARE MADE PERMANENT AND DEFINITE 
 
 One of the things that distinguish civiHzed men from 
 savages is the fixed and permanent character of their com- 
 munities. Travelers through the unbroken wil- cfviiization 
 derness of America before its settlement by white niarked by 
 
 T . , -, 1 permanence 
 
 men reported that they saw many deserted ofcommun- 
 villages. The hunting life of the Indians made ^^^^^ 
 a fixed dwelling place undesirable, if not impossible. Their 
 organization into clans and tribes made it of little impor- 
 tance whether they lived in one place or another. In 
 civilized communities, on the other hand, the land is divided 
 into wards, and townships, and counties, and states ; and 
 citizens have certain rights and duties which they can 
 enjoy, or exercise, only in that division of the land where 
 they live permanently. In the development of man, every 
 step that united him more closely with the land was a 
 step in the direction of civilization, as when he passed 
 from the life of the hunter to that of the herdsman, or 
 from the life of the herdsman to that of the farmer. 
 
 The community described in the first chapter did not 
 pitch its tents with the idea of soon moving on. It made 
 arrangements to become a permanent commu- perma- 
 
 nity with definite boundaries and divisions of ^.^"^® 
 
 •^ , aimed at m 
 
 land (see page 3). A community grows and founding a 
 
 prospers in proportion as the people and the community 
 land unite definitely and permanently. 
 
 43 
 
44 TH^COiMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The family helps to bring about this union in a very im- 
 portant way through the building of a home (see page 27). 
 The service When the European nations were attempting to 
 famif in colonize America, many of the first settlements 
 this respect failed, chiefly because the settlers were adven- 
 turers who had no intention of building homes here. It 
 soon became apparent to the Enghsh that if they were to 
 have permanent settlements in this country, it would be 
 necessary to induce men to bring their families and found 
 permanent homes. 
 
 In the course of its history our nation has come into 
 possession of vast territories that would be useless if they 
 The were not occupied by a population that would 
 
 settlement develop their resources. Our s^overnment has 
 of the ^ . ^ 
 
 national hastened the occupation of this land by appeal- 
 domain jj^g |-Q nien's desire to own homes. To the men 
 who fought in the Revolutionary War the government gave 
 about 10,000,000 acres of land for settlement, and to the 
 veterans of the Mexican War 60,000,000 acres, or about 
 as much as is comprised in the two states of Indiana and 
 Illinois. In 1862 Congress passed the Homestead Act, 
 which provided that any head of a family might receive a 
 quarter-section of land (160 acres) if he would live on it 
 for five years and pay a small fee. Under this law about 
 200,000,000 acres have been disposed of for settlement, or 
 nearly as much as the land included in the states of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. 
 Besides this, large areas have been sold to individuals at 
 the low price of from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre. Not only 
 farming land, but land rich in timber and minerals has thus 
 been made productive. More than 150,000,000 acres have 
 been given by the government to some of the great West- 
 ern railroads, which have performed a valuable service in 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 45 
 
 opening and developing the new lands. The nation has 
 been enriched, while at the same time individuals, families, 
 and business enterprises have been benefited. In 1900 
 there were in the United States, not including Alaska and 
 our new island possessions, 533,490,440 acres of land still 
 open to settlement. , 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 . 
 
 Y 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 -* 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 S 
 BASE 
 
 1 
 
 . LINE 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -z. 
 
 2 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CL 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 I. X is township 3 north in range 3 west 
 
 Y " " 4 " " " 4 east 
 
 Z " " 2 sonth " " 2 " 
 
 W " '■ 4 " " " 3 west. 
 
 ^ After the Revolutionary War settlers began to enter the 
 Ohio Valley and claim land for farms. Each settler laid 
 out his own farm with little regard to the claims r^,^ „ 
 
 ^ Ine gov- 
 
 of others. The result was great confusion and emment 
 many disputes over boundary lines. The govern- ^^^"^^^ 
 ment finally put an end to this state of affairs by making 
 a survey of the whole region and establishing lines by 
 means of which land could be located with certainty. 
 The accompanying diagrams will help to make clear the 
 plan. The survey was begun by establishing certain 
 north and south lines called principal 7neridiaiis. There 
 
46 
 
 THE COMiMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 are now twenty-four of these, the first being the line that 
 separates Ohio from Indiana. The last runs through 
 Oregon. At intervals of six miles east and west of the { 
 principal ^meridians were established other meridians 
 called rang-c lines. A parallel of latitude across this 
 country was then chosen as a base line, and at intervals^; 
 
 Correction 
 
 Base 
 
 Line 
 
 II. 
 
 of six miles north and south of the base line other lines 
 were established called toivnsJiip lines. Thus the country 
 was divided into townsJiips, six miles square."""^ These town- 
 ships were then numbered east or west from a principal 
 meridian, and north or south from the base line. Since 
 the meridians converge as we go north (see globe), the 
 townships would not be exactly square, but would become 
 smaller as we go toward the pole. To correct this, certain 
 parallels north and south of the base line were chosen as cor- 
 rection lines from which the survey began again, as from 
 the base line. Each township was divided into sections one ) 
 mile square, which therefore contained 640 acres. These 
 sections were numbered in each township from i to 36. 
 Each section is divided into halves and quarters. The farm 
 of each settler may be located exactly by means of this 
 survey, and his boundaries are recorded in the offices of the 
 government so that there can be no possible dispute over 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 47 
 
 them. In cities the land is further subdivided into lots 
 which are also numbered and recorded. Definiteness and 
 permanence are thus secured. 
 
 It has been stated that a great deal of the land of the 
 nation remains unsettled. This is called public land. 
 Much of this unsettled public domain will un- 
 doubtedly be disposed of to settlers. Some of 
 it, in its present condition, is useless because of its desert 
 character, but it may in part be reclaimed by artificial ir- 
 rigation. A great deal of desert land has already been 
 reclaimed in the far West, The national government, 
 
 Public land 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 a 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 !5 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 40 N E '4 
 acres nWM 
 
 NKj NE>i 
 
 80 acres 
 
 
 SEK 
 NE>4 
 4f> acres 
 
 100 acres 
 
 IGO acres 
 
 in. A Township Showing Sections. (36 square 
 miles.) Suppose this to be township X in diagram I. 
 Then the section named a is section 8 of township 3 
 north in range 3 west. 
 
 IV. A Section (640 acres) 
 
 Suppose this to be section a of 
 
 diagram III. 
 
 Then the 160 acres in the lower 
 
 right-hand corner is the southeast 
 
 \ of section 8 of township 3 north in 
 
 range 3 west. The 40 acres marked 
 
 NE \ NW \ is the northeast \ of the 
 
 northwest \ of section 8 of township 3 
 
 north in range 3 west. 
 
 through its Reclamation Service, a branch of the De- 
 partment of the Interior, is undertaking an extensive 
 system of irrigation, constructing great reservoirs and 
 canals in several of the Western states. The government 
 has set aside a number of forest reservations, larg'ely for 
 the purpose of protecting the sources of the great rivers 
 that rise in them. 
 
48 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The right of the citizen to be secure in his property is 
 held very sacred in the United States; but when the 
 Government interests of the individual conflict with those of 
 '^ri>at°i °^ ^^^ community, the former have to yield. The 
 property government may control the way in which a 
 citizen uses his land. It may say to him, " You must 
 
 Irri(;ation, Caliiokm \. 
 
 keep your premises clean, so as not to endanger the 
 health of the community" (chapter IX). Or, "Within 
 certain limits you shall not erect wooden buildings, be- 
 cause of the danger to the community from fire " (chap- 
 ter X). It may prohibit some kinds of business in certain 
 parts of the community if they would interfere with safety 
 or comfort, as in the case of saloons. 
 
 If the interests of the whole community demand it, the 
 
DIVERSION' Dam on Truckee River 
 
 When the gates in the dam are shut, the river below the dam becomes dry, and 
 the water is diverted through the headgates into the canal in the foreoround. 
 
 Truckee Irrigation Canal, Nevada. 
 The canal is cement-lined and during the irrigating season carries the entire flow 
 of the Truckee River thirty miles into the valley of the Carson River, the flow 
 of which it suDDlements. and is then led bv ditches over the land. 
 

RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 49 
 
 government may even take away the land of a citizen and 
 devote it to public uses. This is called the right ^^^ ^ 
 of eminent domain. For example, if the national of eminent 
 government wishes to build a post office, it may ^°^^'^ 
 condemn the property of private citizens, and remove all 
 buildings. The state has the same right and permits 
 
 Furrow Irrigation, Arizona. 
 
 cities, counties, and townships to exercise it. Thus, if the 
 interests of the community call for a new street, it may be 
 constructed through the property of individuals, even to 
 the extent of removing buildings. So, also, a road may 
 be built through a man's farm by the county government. 
 The state also grants the exercise of the right of eminent 
 domain to railroads, because of the important public serv- 
 ice rendered by them. In exercising the right of emi- 
 nent domain a very important condition must be complied 
 with : tJie citizen mnst be paid a just amount for his property. 
 The Constitution of the United States provides, *' nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use without just com- 
 
50 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 pensation " (Amendment V, last clause). If a dispute 
 arises between the citizen and the government (or the 
 railroad) over the price of the land, the matter may be 
 brought before a court for settlement. 
 
 There are certain conditions under which the govern- 
 ment may take private property without the consent of 
 the owner, and without paying for it. This is an exercise 
 of the police poiver ; it may be sufficiently illustrated by 
 referring to San Francisco at the time of the fire which 
 followed the earthquake. In order to check the spread of 
 the fire, the soldiers blew up with dynamite a great many 
 buildings which had not been previously injured. This 
 was a destruction of property for the good of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Communities may grant the use of their highways to 
 private corporations that render important public service, 
 such as street railways, telephone and telegraph 
 granting of Companies, and water and gas companies. The 
 franchises j-ight to use public property in this way is called 
 a franchise. In return for the privileges of a franchise 
 the corporation must render definite services to the com- 
 munity, such as supplying light of a good quality, water 
 that is pure, street-car service that can be depended upon. 
 The government in granting the franchise is acting solely 
 for the community, and should look carefully after the 
 community's welfare. Unfortunately the officers of the 
 government do not always do their duty in this matter, 
 and franchises are granted that benefit a few individuals 
 without securing due advantage to the community (see 
 chapter XIV). 
 
 It was said in the first paragraph of this chapter that 
 our rights and duties as citizens are determined largely by 
 our place of residence. Citizens of the United States 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 51 
 
 have certain political rights, such as voting and holding 
 office, and certain duties, such as paying taxes. These 
 rights may be enjoyed, and the duties performed, pojitj^.^! 
 only within certain districts^which the govern- divisions of 
 ment creates for this purpose. Were it not for * ^ ^ 
 this restriction, unutterable confusion would exist. Thus, 
 a citizen has the right to vote within the state where he 
 lives but not in any other state. The boundaries of the 
 states are estabHshed by the national government (except 
 the original thirteen states of the Union, whose boundaries 
 were fixed before the national government was organized); 
 but they may not be changed afterward without the con- 
 sent of the state. The states, organize themselves into 
 counties and townships. ^ Villages and cities are granted 
 definite boundaries by the state government, and organ- 
 ize themselves into wards and precincts. There are 
 also congressional, judicial, and revenue districts, the 
 boundaries of which are fixed by the governments of 
 the states or nation. Residence in any of these districts 
 carries with it duties and rights that the citizen does not 
 have elsewhere. 
 
 ^' ^^ FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 "i^ I . What were the original boundaries of the town or city in which 
 you live? How was the original town laid out? On a map of your city 
 mark the original city limits. 
 
 2: Whence does the city get its authority to add to its territory? 
 f^2^i Report on the coming of the first important factories to your 
 community, and show how they gave permanence to the community. 
 
 I 4. Report on the coming of the first railroad to your community^ 
 and its effect on the permanence and growth of the community. 
 
 5. Are there any business associations in your community that aid 
 
 1 In the West this political township usually corresponds with the town- 
 ship surveyed by the national government. See pages 45, 46. 
 
52 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 citizens in obtaining homes of their own, such as Building and Loan 
 Associations? If so, report how they operate. 
 
 6. Find out from a real estate agent, or in some other way, how a 
 piece of land in your community is laid off into lots. 
 
 7. Make a map of your county, showing townships. 
 
 8. Find out in what range your township is with reference to the 
 nearest principal meridian. Also, what is the number of your town- 
 ship from the base line? (These facts may be learned from the map 
 of the United States, published by the U. S. Land Office, and men- 
 tioned below.) 
 
 9. If you live in a city, try to locate the lot in which you dwell 
 by lot number, section, township, etc. (See the deed giving title to 
 the property, or the records in the county clerk's office, or in the office 
 of the city engineer ) 
 
 10. Report more fully upon the Homestead Law, (See references ) 
 
 11. Do you know any instance of the exercise of the right of emi- 
 nent domain in your community? Explain. 
 
 12. What are some of the w^ays in which the government regulates 
 the use of the land you live on ? 
 
 13. Make a list of the land owned by the government in your com- 
 munity, and state whether it belongs to nation, state, or local com- 
 munity. 
 
 14. Describe the ward divisions of your city. How were they laid 
 out? How may their boundaries be changed? 
 
 15. Are there any forest or park reservations in your state? If so. 
 what is their purpose? Locate them. Do they belong to state or nation ? 
 
 ^ 16. Report on what has been done in the reclaiming of desert lands 
 in the West by irrigation. (See references.) 
 
 17. Has any land been given to your state by the national govern- 
 ment for purposes other than schools? If so, what? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 A map of the United States published by the U. S. Land Office, 
 which can be secured for $1.25, shows the government survey of the 
 Western lands, including principal meridians, base lines, and town- 
 ship and range lines. It also shows forest and Indian reservations, 
 lighthouses and life-saving stations, and other matters useful in the 
 study. 
 
 Printed information regarding local matters, such as are suggested 
 in some of the topics at the end of this chapter, is very meager in many 
 communities. Let the pupils endeavor to find as much as they can in 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 53 
 
 a reasonable time. County and city maps are usually available at the 
 city and county offices, if nowhere else. There should be a city and a 
 county map in each civics classroom. 
 
 The '"New International Encyclopedia" and the "Encyclopedia 
 Americana" are excellent for looking up topics of national importance, 
 such as Irrigation, Public Lands, Homestead Act. These encyclope- 
 dias will be of use throughout the study. 
 
 Hart's -Actual Government" has an excellent chapter on Land and 
 Landholding, including a discussion of private, corporate, and govern- 
 ment landholding, the public lands, the government survey, the Home- 
 stead Act. This book is most valuable as a book for the teacher's 
 desk, and will be found to cover practically every topic, local, state, or 
 national, referred to in this text-book. 
 
 On the subject of irrigation the following are good : 
 ••""The Pacific Monthly, September, 1906. Contains a series of articles explaining 
 the work of the United States Reclamation Service in the various irrigation dis- 
 tricts of the West. 
 
 "An Object Lesson in Irrigation," Review of Reviews, 31 : 701 (1905). 
 
 "The Winning of the Desert," Outing, 45 : 545 (1905). 
 
 "The Government as a Homemaker," The World To-day, 10 : 156 (1906). 
 
 "Reclamation," Outlook, Z^ : 933 (1906). 
 
 "Uncle Sam's Romance with Science and the Soil," Arena, 35 : 36. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO 
 SATISFY HIS DESIRE FOR HEALTH 
 
 Communities have developed through the efforts of men 
 to satisfy their desires (see chapter IV). In so far as the 
 community provides for the wants of its citizens, it is a 
 good community ; if it fails to provide for any of them, it 
 is an imperfect community, and the lives of the citizens 
 will be incomplete. The desire for health is the first to be 
 provided for. 
 
 In the conditions in which the pioneer family lived, life 
 and health were almost wholly dependent upon the efforts ^ 
 The pro- and the arrangements of the family itself, 
 tection With the clearino^ of the wilderness and the 
 
 of health in ^ 
 
 the family advance of civihzation, the preservation of life 
 and health has become much less simple and direct. Not 
 that the responsibility of the family has decreased in any 
 way : it has rather become greater ; but the health of the 
 individual has become dependent upon so many things 
 outside of the family that the latter alone cannot provide 
 fully for it. 
 
 With the growth of the community, while the dangers 
 peculiar to the wilderness have disappeared, new ones 
 New have arisen to beset the life and health of the 
 
 dangers citizcn. Streams that were oris^inally clear and 
 
 arise /^ -^ 
 
 with the sparkUng, supplying fish for food and water to 
 growth of clrink, when passintr throusfh the crowded set- 
 
 communi- jr o o 
 
 ties tlements of men become impure with the refuse 
 
 of factories and the sewage of dwellings. They then pour 
 
 54 
 
I. A section of the canal cut through solid rock. 
 
 2. A section of the canal where it passes from the solid rock to the soft earth. 
 
 fvAfk 
 
 3. The Chicago Drainage Canal. 
 Three Views of the Chicago Drainage Canal. 
 
-^BX^AI^^ 
 
 I UN 
 
 OF TH{ 
 
 IVERSITY j 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 55 
 
 forth vile odors and disease germs. The drinking water 
 from wells and streams becomes unsafe. With the in- 
 crease of population the danger of epidemics of disease 
 increases. Impure and unwholesome food is sold in the 
 markets and over the counters of the stores. Wild beasts 
 and savages are no longer to be feared ; but unprotected 
 railroad crossings, rapidly running trolley cars and automo- 
 biles, poorly constructed buildings and elevators, burning 
 buildings, and robbers and thugs, constantly threaten the 
 life of the unwary. In the crowded cities a vigorous out- 
 door life is wanting. Men, women, and children grow 
 pale and sickly because of indoor occupations, lack of 
 exercise, and the breathing of air vitiated by smoke and 
 foul odors. Whatever disadvantages the country child 
 may suffer from an isolated life, his chances for a sound 
 and healthv body, a most priceless possession, are generally 
 greater than the city child's. 
 
 As the community grows and the people become busy 
 with their various callings, it becomes necessary to arrange 
 for systematic protection, and to center the re- Government 
 sponsibility for it upon some designated person is given 
 
 - ,,^. . , . . J- charge over 
 
 or group ot persons. \\ ith the organization oi .^^e health 
 a o-overnment, it is sfiven supervision over the arrange- 
 
 ^ <j i ^ ments 
 
 health arrangements. In the community de- 
 scribed in the first chapter, the trustees of the town 
 were assigned the duty of " securing the general health of 
 the inhabitants," and of "keeping in repair the drains and 
 sewers." When the stream which ran through the town 
 became clogged with sawdust from the mill, the trustees 
 appointed a committee of one to investigate. He reported 
 and pledged himself, " should mildness and good nature 
 fail, to lend a hand in applying the strong arm of the law." 
 Again, a little later, information was received of the 
 
56 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 approach of a band of Swedish immigrants afflicted with 
 cholera. Aid was sent to them, but they were warned 
 not to enter the town, and an appeal was published in the 
 little newspaper urging all to " use every means to avert 
 the impending danger. Let your premises be thoroughly 
 cleansed and purified. Remove everything that will tend 
 to invite disease." A board of JiealtJi was soon created, 
 and a commissioner of Jicalth was appointed who was to 
 have general supervision over the sanitation of the town 
 and report to the board for action. A JicaltJi policeman 
 was also appointed. He inspected drains, sinks, and 
 cellars in private houses, and fruits and meats in the mar- 
 kets. A city physician was appointed to care for the sick 
 among the poor, and was paid by the community for his 
 services. In large cities the officers who have supervision 
 of the health arrangements are more numerous than in 
 the smaller communities, and their duties are more exten- 
 sive. They are all usually under the direction of the 
 board of health. 
 
 With the growth of a community the separate and 
 inadequate drains of individual householders soon give 
 g ^ way to an extensive system of sewers under- 
 
 and water lying all the streets, connections being made with 
 supply every lot and house in the city. Here the natural 
 
 slope and drainage of the community become very important, 
 because they determine the ease and effectiveness with which 
 the sewage can be carried away. Sometimes it is drained 
 into a stream that runs through or near the city. This is dan- 
 gerous to health unless the stream is converted into a closed 
 sewer oris kept purified in someway. In Chicago the sewage 
 is drained into the Chicago River, and thus, until recently, was 
 carried into Lake Michigan, whence the people draw their 
 supply of drinking water. The result was a great deal of 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 
 
 57 
 
 sickness, such as typhoid fever. The river also was a 
 menace to health, because it was a foul-smelling and disease- 
 breeding stream. Chemists were employed by the city to 
 examine the drinking water and report its condition in the 
 newspapers each day. The more careful families boiled 
 all water used for drinking. But in spite of these pre- 
 
 FiLTER Beds of the Indianapolis Water Works. 
 
 Water from W^hite River is brought to these beds, where it is filtered through 
 layers of sand, gravel, and perforated tile. See next illustration. 
 
 cautions thousands of people were made sick, and many 
 died each year as a result of drinking this bad water. 
 This situation was greatly improved by the construction of 
 a drainage canal which carries the water of the Chicago 
 River into the Illinois River, and thence into the Missis- 
 sippi, instead of allowing it to flow into the lake. This 
 effectually disposes of the sewage of the city, keeps the 
 river flushed and pure, and prevents the lake from being 
 contaminated. , 
 
 A few years ago an epidemic of typhoid fever appeared 
 in an Eastern city, resulting in the death of a great 
 
58 
 
 thp: community and the citizen 
 
 many people and the sickness of many more. A careful 
 inspection disclosed the fact that there had been a case 
 of typhoid fever in a family living near the reservoir from 
 which the city drew its water supply, and that this family 
 had not been careful in the disposal of its sewage. The 
 ground about the house had become infected with the 
 disease, and heavy rains had carried the disease germs into 
 
 Kii/iER Bed of the Indianapolis Water Works. 
 This view shows the bed in process of construction : at the bottom a layer of per- 
 forated tile, and upon this a layer of gravel is being placed. Upon this will be 
 a layer of sand. 
 
 the reservoir. This case illustrates the important connection 
 between the drainage, the water supply, and the health of 
 a community. It illustrates also the heavy responsibility 
 of the individual citizen and family for the welfare of the 
 whole community. The larger the community, the greaterX I 
 is the problem of preserving health. y. / 
 
 The most important precaution against disease is clean- 
 liness. This is a matter that must be looked after principally 
 in the home. If each family would take proper 
 
 Cleanliness -' '■ ^ 
 
 precautions to secure cleanliness and plenty of 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 59 
 
 fresh air, not only would the problem of disease in the 
 community be largely solved, but the expense of govern- 
 ment would be greatly decreased. Because of the failure 
 of the family and of the individual citizen to do their part, 
 the community, through its government, enacts ordinances 
 to compel people to keep their premises clean and their 
 drains in proper condition. Ordinances usually exist to 
 prevent the filthy and dangerous practice of spitting in 
 public places. This practice is one of the most effective 
 means of spreading some of the worst diseases, such as 
 tuberculosis or consumption, and the ordinances to prevent 
 it are among the most important enacted by our city govern- 
 ments. Unfortunately they are also among those most 
 seldom enforced and most often violated. Here is one of 
 the cases where constant and concerted action on the part 
 of all cleanly and well-informed persons is necessary to 
 secure the enforcement of the law. 
 
 Every city has its street-cleaning department, which 
 does not always do its work as well as it should. In large 
 
 cities it consists of an army of men, with horses 
 
 1 • 1 1 1 • r • Street 
 
 and wagons and suitable machmery tor sweepmg cleaning 
 
 and cleansing the streets and alleys. These men ^^'^ smoke 
 
 - , . . r 1 1 inspection 
 
 are under the supervision 01 a board or a 
 commissioner, acting under the authority of the government 
 (see chapter XXII). There are also sviokc inspectors, 
 whose work is important in keeping the atmosphere pure. 
 If the stoking of the furnaces in factories and large build- 
 ings is done properly, the smoke nuisance can be greatly 
 lessened. There are smoke consumers which aid in the 
 consumption of the smoke that is otherwise poured out of. 
 the chimneys over the community ; but the expense and 
 trouble of putting them in prevents many men from doing 
 so. The community should insist, however, that the smoke 
 
6o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 nuisance be removed as far as possible, not only because it 
 is detrimental to health, but also because it mars the beauty 
 of the city. 
 
 Of great importance in large cities is the system of parks 
 provided for the recreation of the people. In small towns 
 parks are not of such great importance from the 
 play- standpoint of health ; but in crowded cities every 
 
 grounds breathing place, where fresh, pure air and grass 
 and trees can be found and enjoyed by the people, is of un- 
 told value. One of the best of the charitable works in large 
 cities is that by which thousands of poor children are sent 
 to the country or the seashore, or to " fresh-air farms," 
 during the summer months. This is doing much to lessen 
 the death rate and the sickness in the crowded tenement dis- 
 tricts. In the rapid growth of American cities not enough 
 care has been taken to provide for parks. Provision should 
 be made in all growing cities to leave spaces that may be 
 converted into beautiful and refreshing parks as need arises. 
 In some cities playgrounds are being established and pro- 
 vided with tennis courts, ball grounds, and gymnastic appa- 
 ratus. The opening of school yards as playgrounds during 
 vacation periods is a good practice that is growing. 
 
 Cities have hospitals, some supported by private organi- 
 zations, such as churches, and some supported at public 
 Hospitals; expense. The public hospitals are under the 
 quarantine charge of physicians, surgeons, and nurses paid 
 out of the public treasury. Precautions are taken against 
 the spread of contagious diseases. The government has 
 the right to declare a quarantine against a home, or even 
 against a whole section of the city ; this means that, in 
 case of the existence of a contagious disease, the occu- 
 pants of the dwelling or of the section of the city may be 
 prevented from leaving it, and others prevented from 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 6l 
 
 entering it. Physicians are required by law to report 
 contagious disease to the health officers, who placard the 
 house, proclaiming the existence of the disease. Persons 
 in whose homes such diseases exist may be prevented 
 from going about their ordinary business, and the children 
 from going to school. Physicians sometimes grow care- 
 less about reporting such cases of sickness, and families, 
 thinking solely of their own convenience, often try to con- 
 ceal the presence of contagious disease in their homes. 
 This is not good citizenship. Such families endanger the 
 health of others. Much is being done in some of our 
 cities to prevent the spread of disease by a systematic 
 medical inspection in the schools. 
 
 Just as an individual, or a family, is dependent for health 
 on other individuals and families in the neighborhood, 
 so also a community is more or less dependent on other 
 communities for its health. This is especially true in 
 these days when the means of communication are so fully 
 developed and when traveling is so common. Contagious 
 diseases spread rapidly from town to town, and not infre- 
 quently cover large districts at the same time. When an 
 epidemic of smallpox breaks out in one city, it is Dependence 
 likely to appear in other cities, and even in the of one 
 country districts. Any ship that enters our har- ^^^^'"'''^^ 
 bors may bring with it diseases from the slums another for 
 of Europe or of Asia. When a factory pollutes 
 the stream that runs by it with refuse, it threatens the 
 health, not only of the immediate community in which it 
 is situated, but also of other communities farther down the 
 stream. When Chicago turned its sewage into the drain- 
 age canal, and thence into the Illinois and Mississippi 
 rivers, cities and towns for many miles along these streams 
 became very much alarmed, and St. Louis, which derives 
 
62 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 its drinking water from the Mississippi, brought suit in the 
 courts against Chicago. Fortunately, in this case, it was 
 proved that the water becomes freed from impurities, by 
 contact with the air, before it reaches these other cities. 
 Our community life is very complicated, and it is not 
 always easy to foresee how the actions of one individual or 
 community may affect the lives of others. 
 
 On account of this interdependence in matters pertaining 
 
 to health, it is not safe to leave their regulation wholly to 
 
 each separate community, any, more than to 
 
 Necessity 
 
 for state leave it to each separate family. The. common 
 supervision interests of all the communities within a given 
 
 over health , i i i 
 
 area must be guarded by some common au- 
 thority. Hence the state, through its government, makes 
 provision for the health of all the people subject to its 
 laws. There is a state board of health, which has super- 
 vision over these matters. The state government en- 
 deavors to prevent the pollution of the streams. Laws are 
 enacted to prevent the adulteration of foods, A state 
 government may declare a quarantine against neighbor- 
 ing states when contagious diseases are prevalent. When 
 yellow fever appears in New Orleans, the surrounding 
 states often refuse^ to allow passengers on the railways to 
 enter from Louisiana except after the most rigid medical 
 inspection. City, county, and township governments, in 
 their regulation of matters pertaining, to health, must con- 
 form to the broader regulations of the state. 
 
 While the protection of the health of citizens is left 
 almost entirely in the hands of the state and local gov- 
 ernments, there are some things that can be better looked 
 after by the national government, because they are of 
 national interest. All immigrants from foreign countries 
 are required to undergo a medical inspection before they 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 63 
 
 are allowed to land. If signs of disease are found, the 
 passengers of the ship may be quarantined until the danger 
 of contagion is past. Immigrants who are in ^^at the 
 such physical condition that they are unable to national 
 care for themselves, and would therefore be a foes forthe 
 burden on the community, are required to re- health of 
 turn to the country from w^hich they came. In 
 a recent session of Congress laws were passed providing 
 for the inspection of meats put up in the packing houses 
 of the country, and to prevent the adulteration of foods 
 with injurious materials. Since the product of a great 
 packing or canning establishment is sent all over the 
 country, its purity is a matter of national interest, and 
 therefore is a proper subject for regulation by the national 
 government. 
 
 The community is thus doing a great deal, through its 
 governments, to preserve the life and health of its citi- 
 zens, and it owes to each citizen a reasonable assurance 
 that protection will be afforded. On the other hand, 
 each citizen owes something to the community in this 
 matter. As we have seen, the health of the whole com- 
 munity depends largely upon the cleanliness and j,^^ respon 
 watchfulness of each familv. The responsibility sibiiity of 
 of the citizen goes much further than this. He 
 should do what he can to secure from the government the 
 best possible service in these matters. If a man employs 
 a watchman to guard his premises at night, and the watch- 
 man fails to do his duty, the owner will certainly call him 
 to task, and will take every precaution against a repetition 
 of the negHgence. The people have a right to demand 
 that their government watchmen do their work well, and 
 to hold them accountable for every failure. It is unfortunate 
 that the officials charged with important duties of govern- 
 
64 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 ment, even in such matters as protecting our lives and 
 health, often become negligent and careless. They can- 
 not be relieved of the blame for this. Yet their poor serv- 
 ice is largely the fault of the citizens themselves, who do 
 not take the trouble or the interest to inquire how their 
 servants are doing their work, or to call them to account 
 when it is badly done. Each citizen must constantly keep 
 his eyes open, and endeavor to maintain a lively public 
 sentiment in these matters by constant discussion. He 
 should always be willing to call attention to any remissness 
 in the enforcement of the laws. This is not merely a duty 
 to others ; his own welfare depends on it. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. When your community was first founded, were the geographical 
 conditions favorable or unfavorable to health? As the community 
 has grown, have these geographical conditions become more or less 
 favorable? Explain. 
 
 2. How is health cared for in the average farmer's family? In a 
 city family? 
 
 -, 3. If there are any records available from which to gain the infor- 
 mation, compare the means of protecting health in the early days of 
 your community with the means used at present. 
 
 ^ 4. If you live in a rural community, what is done by the county and 
 township governments for the protection of your health ? 
 
 5. If there is a board of health in your city, of how many members 
 oes it consist? How is it chosen? What are its duties? 
 ;^' 6. What officers are employed by the city for the protection of 
 health ? Report on their various duties. 
 i V"^ 7- Report on the street-cleaning department — what it does, what it 
 ^^ costs, how it is managed, etc. 
 
 )v 8. Report on the sewage system of your community. How is the 
 
 sewage disposed of ? Cost? Efficiency? 
 
 •,>^-9. Report on the methods of disposing of garbage in d-iff erent cities. 
 
 ^.^,>- 'What methods-seemte^ behest^ -What method is used in your city? 
 
 ^" ID. Report on the water supply for drinking purposes. To what 
 
 ^extent are private wells used? What is the source of the public 
 
 A 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 65 
 
 water supply? Compare the purity of the water from private wells 
 and from the public supply. 
 
 ^11. Do you know of any epidemic (such as typhoid fever) that has 
 appeared in your community, and that was directly traceable to impure 
 drinking water? 
 
 12. Report on means of keeping the atmosphere pure in your 
 community. 
 
 13. What means are employed in your community to secure pure 
 food? 
 
 * 14. Report on the park system of your community. How is it man- 
 aged? Is anything being done to establish public playgrounds? 
 
 15. Is the ventilation of your school building good? Can you 
 do anything yourself to improve it? 
 
 16. Write an essay on the subject, "The Relation of Athletics in the 
 School to the Health of the Community." 
 
 17. Is there any kind of medical inspection in your school? If so, 
 explain its working. Find out if there are any well-established cases 
 where epidemics have been prevented or checked by school medical 
 inspection in your community, or in other cities. 
 
 /^ 18. What are some of the ordinances in your community for the pro- 
 tection of health? Are any of these ordinances commonly violated? 
 If so, why? Can you do anything to help secure the enforcement of 
 such ordinances? 
 
 19. Report on the work of your state board of health. (So far as 
 possible printed reports should be secured directly from the proper 
 offices.) 
 
 20. What other state health officers are there? What is their work? 
 
 21. Look up the story of how our government waged war on disease 
 in Cuba. What have been the results? Why should our national gov- 
 ernment interest itself in the matter? (The same may be done with 
 reference to the Philippines or the Panama Canal Zone.) 
 
 22. Look up the story of the most recent war against yellow fever in 
 our own Southern states. Was it carried on by the local, state, or 
 national government? Why? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 On the subject of garbage and refuse disposal : 
 
 Waring. " Street Cleaning and the Disposal of a City's Wastes." New York, 
 1897. 
 
 Goodrich, " The Economic Disposal of a Town's Refuse." New York, 
 1901. 
 
66 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 " Street Cleansing in New York," Mimicipal Affairs, 4 : 721. 
 " The Refuse of a Great City," Munsey's Magazine, 23 : 81. 
 " The Wastes of a Great City," Scribners Magazine, 34 : 387, 
 
 On yellow fever in the South : 
 
 " Work of the Citizens in New Orleans," Charities, 14: 1041. 
 
 " Behind the Yellow Fever in Little Palermo," Chanties, 15 : 152. 
 
 " Yellow Fever and the South," Independent, 59: 683. 
 
 On health in the Panama Canal Zone : 
 
 " Health Conditions in Canal Zone," Harper s Weekly, 49:750 (1905)- 
 
 " Preparing the Isthmus for Canal Construction Work, ' Engineering Magazine 
 
 31:17- 
 
 "The Panama Canal — The Work of the Sanitary Force," Outlook, 83 : 69. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO PROTECT 
 HIS LIFE AND PROPERTY 
 
 One of the chief sources of danger to property, and often 
 to Ufe, is fire. The loss from fire in the United States every 
 year amounts to about $150,000,000. Much of Danger 
 this might be avoided if each citizen were more ^^°^ ^^^ 
 careful ; but fire is too powerful an enemy to be left to the 
 individual or to the family to cope with, especially in cities. 
 If a farmer's house or barn is burned, he himself, or some 
 member of his family, is usually to blame for it, and he must 
 depend on his own efforts to prevent the loss. In the city 
 the safety of a citizen's home depends largely on his neigh- 
 bors. Fire is an enemy that endangers the whole commu- 
 nity ; the whole community must unite for defense against it. 
 
 In Philadelphia, in Benjamin Franklin's time, "each 
 householder kept in his shop or his pantry a bucket and four- 
 teen-foot swab ; while the city provided hooks, ^^, 
 ladders, and three rude engines of English make, methods of 
 At the first cry of fire the whole town was in ^^ ^ ^^^ 
 excitement; the laborer quit his work, the apprentice dropped 
 his tools, buyers and sellers swarmed from the market, and 
 the shopkeeper, calling his wife to watch his goods, seized 
 his bucket and hurried away. About the burning building 
 all was confusion and disorder. No man was in authority. 
 Each man did as he pleased. Some fell into line and helped 
 to pass the full buckets from the pump to the engine, or the 
 
 67 
 
68 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 empty buckets from the engine to the pump; some caught 
 up the hooks and pulled down blazing boards and shingles ; 
 some rushed into the building with their bags, and came 
 out laden with household stuff." Franklin, who was always 
 on the lookout for opportunities to improve the condition 
 of his community, thought that " if so much could be done 
 in a way so bad, a hundredfold more could be done if a 
 little order were introduced." He aided in the organization 
 of several fire companies equipped with the best apparatus 
 of the times and working together under discipline, which 
 greatly reduced the losses from fire in Philadelphia. 
 
 Until recently the fire companies of cities were volunteer 
 organizations, whose efficiency was kept up largely through 
 Voiun- ^^^ spirit of rivalry. Frequent tournaments were 
 
 teer fire held in which the companies of the community, 
 companies ^^ ^^ ^^^ neighboring towns, contested with each 
 other in running, climbing ladtlers, and other feats. Such 
 organizations may still be found in small communities. 
 
 In modern cities the fire-fighting arrangements are much 
 
 more complicated and effective. Steam fire engines and 
 
 elaborate apparatus of all kinds have been in- 
 Modern fire- ^ ^^ . , ., , , , , 
 fighting vented. Horses, tramed until they show almost 
 
 arrange- human intelligence, draw the engines and trucks 
 
 ments , ^ a r i • • 
 
 to the fire at a run. A system of electric sig- 
 nals is in operation in every city, so that a fire can be 
 announced instantly to the nearest fire station, and within 
 a minute after the receipt of the signal the horses are going 
 down the street at a gallop, with men and apparatus. The 
 firemen are organized into permanent companies with per- 
 fect discipline, and are paid by the community. The 
 whole department is under the direction of a chief, who "is 
 appointed by the mayor or by a board. The New York 
 City fire department is the largest in the world and com- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE ' 69 
 
 prises about 2500 firemen, 1000 horses, 200 fire engines, 
 more than 100 hook and ladder trucks, and several fire 
 boats for the protection of property along the water front. 
 
 An important part of the means of protection against 
 fire is a reliable water supply. At first private wells and 
 cisterns supplied water for fires ; then public The water 
 cisterns were built at convenient points. Now supply 
 every large city is supplied with water from some unfailing 
 source. Cities on the Great Lakes, like Chicago, draw their 
 water from them. Cincinnati and St. Louis receive theirs 
 from the rivers on which they are situated. Inland cities 
 sometimes get their water from deep wells. It is often 
 necessary to provide storage reservoirs. The water is 
 forced to every part of the city through pipes, and hydrants 
 at the street corners or other convenient points serve for 
 ; the attachment of hose. Waterworks are sometimes owned 
 and operated by cities themselves, but usually by private 
 L companies which receive a franchise from the city. 
 B No department of the public service in cities is better 
 1 organized or more efificient than the fire department. It has 
 j upon it a great responsibility, and the community 
 I will not be satisfied with anything but the greatest ^f city^^re 
 I efficiency possible. The service requires men of depart- 
 
 [ . ,,. , . , , ments 
 
 I intelligence, sobriety, courage, and endurance ; 
 
 1 men who are willing constantly to risk their lives for the 
 good of all. 
 
 It has been said that seven eighths of the fires that occur 
 
 I are the result of a lack of proper precautions in building. 
 That this is true is due, in part, to a lack of in- p^^j^^. ^q^_ 
 telligence on the part of builders ; in part to the struction of 
 willingness of men to take chances for the sake ^"^^J^^^f!./^ 
 
 o a cause of 
 
 of cheapness. In either case the person re- loss from 
 sponsible for poor construction of buildings is a 
 
70 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 menace to the community. A builder is showing good 
 citizenship when he does his job well ; poor citizenship, 
 when he does it badly through ignorance, carelessness, 
 or avarice. 
 
 Communities try to protect themselves against loss of 
 property and life from fire by means of laws regulating the 
 Building materials used in construction, the height of 
 ordinances buildings, the number of exits, the presence of 
 fire escapes, and many other details. Building inspectors 
 are appointed. An unsafe building may be condemned 
 and its use forbidden until its defects are remedied. It 
 would seem that the people would take a great interest 
 in the safe construction of their buildings, and that the laws 
 protecting them would be rigidly enforced ; but such is not 
 always the case. For a long time no accident happens. 
 The people become careless, and the laws regulating build- 
 ing are violated constantly. Of 333 tenement houses 
 which were being built in New York at one time, it is said 
 that only 15 conformed to the law. It requires some great 
 disaster to arouse the people to their own responsibility. 
 Such was the Iroquois theater fire in Chicago, in 1903, in 
 which 600 people lost their lives. 
 
 In order to prevent great loss to individuals from fire, 
 
 fire insurance companies have been organized. It is to be 
 
 noted, however, that insurance companies do 
 
 Fire ' ^ 
 
 insurance not actually prevent the loss of property. They 
 companies merely distribute that loss among many citizens. 
 When a man insures his property, he has to pay the com- 
 pany 3. preini?nn for the protection afforded. The premi- 
 ums of thousands of persons produce a large sum of 
 money out of which the occasional losses by an individual 
 are met. Thousands of property owners in all parts of 
 the land are thus sharing in the losses of individuals. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 71 
 
 When the great fire occurred in San Francisco, following 
 the earthquake in 1906, the loss fell very heavily on the in- 
 surance companies. In order to meet the loss many com- 
 panies raised the rates of insurance all over the country. 
 Thus people everywhere were helping to bear the burden. 
 Fire insurance companies have an influence in keeping 
 fire departments efficient, for they raise the rates of in- 
 surance when they think that fire protection is not so good 
 as it should be. The people who have to pay these rates 
 then demand better equipment and better organization in 
 their fire departments. 
 
 Property and life are endangered also by thieves and 
 other enemies of good order. In rough communities on 
 the frontier, before government and law are ^ gj. 
 well established, as in the early days of Califor- from law- 
 nia, the honest but rough citizens sometimes pro- 
 tect themselves by voluntary organizations, frequently 
 known as vigilance committees. They seek out offenders 
 and punish them promptly, too often without giving them 
 a fair trial. Similar methods are sometimes found in com- 
 munities where there is a regular government, as in the case 
 of "white-capping" and lynching parties. Such methods 
 are full of evil. They are usually carried out under cover 
 of darkness and in secret, thus opening a way for rowdy- 
 ism and violence under a pretense of administering justice. 
 A crowd of men gathered together hastily in a spirit of 
 revenge quickly becomes a mob, and is likely to adminis- 
 ter punishment to innocent persons, or cruel and inhuman 
 punishment to the guilty. 
 
 One of the most sacred rights of Americans is the right 
 to a fair trial, before a jury of fellow-citizens, even though 
 the accused is known to be guilty. This right jj^^ ^j^j^^ ^^ 
 is guaranteed in the Constitution of the United a fair trial 
 
7^ 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 States, which says also that no cruel and unusual punish- 
 ments shall be inflicted (see Amendments VI and VIII). 
 It declares also that no person shall be " deprived of 
 Ufe, liberty, or property without due process of law " 
 (Amendment V). Vigilance committees may be in a 
 measure justified in communities where there is no regu- 
 larly organized government or law ; but white-capping 
 and lynching parties in communities with regularly or- 
 ganized governments are wholly without excuse. Such 
 parties usurp powers granted by the Constitution to the 
 existing government, and are as lawless as the original 
 offender. They tend to create a disregard for law and 
 order and disrespect for government. 
 
 Our local governments have officers to protect the life 
 
 and property of citizens, and to arrest persons who inter- 
 
 ,. fere with the rights of others. In townships 
 
 The police ^ ^ 
 
 there are constables; in counties, sheriffs and 
 their deputies ; in cities, the police department. The 
 police department requires a high degree of organization 
 because of the complex conditions of city life. Before the 
 middle of the last century the police of our cities were as 
 poorly organized as the fire departments of Frankhn's 
 time. In New York, although the population numbered 
 more than 300,000, the policing of the city at night was 
 performed by a body of citizens who pursued other occu- 
 pations during the day. In the city of greater New York 
 the poHce force consists to-day of about 8000 men, or as 
 many as constituted the American army at its best during 
 the Revolutionary War. It is organized very much like 
 an army, under a chief of police and many subordinate 
 officers. 
 
 The police of a city patrol its streets at all times of the 
 day and night to protect property and life against vio- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 73 
 
 lence. They keep order in crowds ; they guard duties of 
 dangerous street crossings, assisting people the police 
 across and regulating the movements of vehicles ; they 
 assist the health department in enforcing its regulations ; 
 they render aid at fires in keeping the crowds back for 
 their own safety, and to prevent interference with the work 
 of the firemen ; they restore lost children to their homes. 
 As in the case of the fire department, the duties of the 
 police require strength, courage, and intelligence. It is a 
 misfortune, however, that the police departments of our 
 cities are not always as efficient as the fire departments 
 (see page 204). The poHce department of the city often 
 works together with the sheriff of the county and his dep- 
 uties, and in times of great danger private citizens may 
 be sworn into service to aid the police. At all times the 
 police may call on private citizens for aid if necessary. 
 Offenders against the persons or property of citizens are 
 brought for trial before the police (or magistrates') courts 
 of cities ; or, for more serious offenses, before the higher 
 courts of the state (see chapter XXIII). 
 
 Another important arrangement for the safety of prop- 
 erty and life is a system of street fighting. In ancient 
 cities, as at Rome, the streets were narrow and street 
 crooked, and at night were totally dark, except ^'g^t^^g 
 as citizens Hghted their way with torches. Philadelphia had 
 no regular system of street lamps until it was established 
 bv Franklin. Modern American cities as a rule have 
 broad, straight, paved streets, illuminated at night by oil, 
 gas, or electric fights. The street-lighting plant is some- 
 times owned by the city and managed by the government ; 
 but it is usually in the hands of private companies paid 
 by the city for their services. 
 
 Communities often regulate certain kinds of business for 
 
74 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 the sake of safety. The manufacture of explosives is 
 Re uiation dangerous to Hfe and property, and is therefore 
 of business usually Carried on under restrictions as to the 
 for safety location of the factory. The liquor traffic is often 
 restricted to certain localities, and is checked by the im- 
 position of license fees. In some communities it is pro- 
 hibited altogether. A large part of the pohcing of a city 
 is made necessary by the disorders growing out of the 
 sale of intoxicating liquors. Pawn shops are subject to 
 regulation by government to prev^ent them from receiv- 
 ing and disposing of stolen goods. 
 
 In a large community each man's life and safety de- 
 pend, to a great extent, on the carefulness of others. 
 Prevention The thousands of people who travel on the cars 
 of accidents each day are at the mercy of those who run the 
 train — the engineer, the conductor, the switchman, the 
 train dispatcher. Gross carelessness on the part of such 
 responsible persons may be considered a criminal offense, 
 and may be punished by the proper authorities ; but it is 
 better to prevent accidents than to punish the responsible 
 person after the accident occurs. Therefore the work of 
 such persons is usually regulated by law, and arrange- 
 ments are made to prevent accident. Railroads may be 
 compelled to station watchmen at dangerous crossings, to 
 provide gates that are closed at the approach of a train, or 
 to run their tracks across streets on elevated roadways or 
 underneath the street. The rate of speed at which a 
 train, or electric car, or automobile may run is established 
 by law, and violations of the law are punishable by fine. 
 The government also appoints building inspectors and 
 boiler inspectors. These are only examples of many pre- 
 cautions taken to prevent accident to life and property. 
 
 Here again we have to notice the constant violation and 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 75 
 
 lax enforcement of the law. Trains rush through cities and 
 across streets at unlawful speed. Street cars and Lax 
 automobiles do the same. Railroads often resist enforcement 
 
 of laws to 
 
 as long as they can attempts to compel them prevent 
 to elevate their tracks, or to provide safety accident 
 gates. Elevators are run by incompetent persons and 
 without inspection of the machinery. Inspectors do their 
 work in a careless manner. Theaters are built without 
 due regard to the number and position of exits. The 
 individual who disregards the regulations imposed by the 
 community, even in such slight matters as the speed of his 
 bicycle, or the lighting of its lamp on a dark night, is help- 
 ing to make his community an unsafe and unpleasant 
 place in which to live. 
 
 Although the protection of property and life is thus 
 largely in the hands of the local communities, most of 
 the laws that constables, sheriffs, and the police service of 
 are called on to enforce are made by the state ^^® ^^^te in 
 
 protecting 
 
 government, and apply alike to all the commu- life and 
 nities of the state. property 
 
 The state militia corresponds, in a measure, to the police 
 of cities. In theory, the militia consists of all able-bodied 
 men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, xhe state 
 who could be called out in time of great pubhc militia 
 danger to restore order or to repel invasion. In fact, 
 however, it is composed of a number of regiments of volun- 
 teers, organized in companies in various communities of 
 the state. In case of riot or disorder which the local au- 
 thorities cannot handle, the governor' may be called on 
 to send one or more companies to aid in restoring order, 
 as has been done in the case of riots among striking coal 
 miners in Ilhnois and Pennsylvania. The militia of the 
 several states may be called out by the President of the 
 
76 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 United States to suppress insurrection or to repel invasion. 
 It may not, however, be sent by him for duty outside of the 
 United States. As an organized army in time of war the 
 militia has shown some defects. In the Revolution and 
 in the War of 1812 it caused much trouble because of the 
 jealousies of the several states. Governors sometimes 
 refused to allow their militia to go outside of their states. 
 Then, too, as in recent wars, the militia companies have 
 sometimes proved poorly officered, poorly drilled and 
 equipped, and impatient of discipline. 
 
 For the defense of our national possessions and of the 
 liberty of our citizens against enemies from without, we 
 National maintain an army and a navy. Our army is 
 defense very small as compared with the armies of other 
 
 nations. Our geographical position, separated as we are 
 from other great powers, has made a large standing army 
 unnecessary. The belief of the founders of our nation was 
 that a large standing army was dangerous to the Hberties 
 of the people and a burden of expense. Our policy there- 
 fore has always been in favor of as small an army as is 
 consistent with our national safety. In time of war our de- 
 pendence has been chiefly on the militia or army of citizens 
 enlisted for the occasion. At the time of the Civil War an 
 army of more than 2,000,000 men was raised by enlistment 
 in the North, and one of 1,000,000 men in the South. At 
 the present time it would be possible to raise a vastly 
 greater army than this, although our standing army of 
 regular soldiers numbers less than 100,000 men. 
 
 The army not only defends our territory against invasion, 
 
 but it may also be sent to any part of the world to protect 
 
 the rights of American citizens. It may be 
 
 called on to quell local disturbances when the 
 
 state authorities are unable to do so. In 1894 a great strike 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 77 
 
 occurred in Chicago, during which much property was 
 destroyed and commerce between the states was interfered 
 with. The local and state authorities failing to quell the 
 disturbance, the President of the United States, who is 
 commander-in-chief of the army, sent troops to restore 
 order. At the time of the earthquake and fire in San 
 Francisco national troops from the fort near by were 
 
 Lawrencebukg, Ind., during the Flood of the Ohio River in li 
 
 rushed into the city to help in maintaining order and in 
 protecting property and life. They, of course, cooperated 
 with the state militia and the city police. The national 
 troops are usually more effective in restoring order than 
 either the militia or the poUce. 
 
 The navy is another means of national protection. It 
 has been the poHcy of the American government to Hmit 
 our navy to the smallest size consistent with 
 national safety, as in the case of the army. But 
 because of our rapidly growing commerce and the increas- 
 ing interests of American citizens in foreign lands, together 
 
 The navy 
 
y^ THE COMiMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 with the acquisition of territory across the seas, a strong 
 navy has become more essential than a large armv. At 
 the present time our navy compares favorably in strength 
 with the navies of other large nations. 
 
 The national government has done a great deal for the 
 protection of life and property by removing obstructions 
 Life-saving to navigation along the coast, by improving 
 on the coast harbors, as at New York and at the mouth 
 of the Columbia River, by erecting lighthouses and 
 
 Building the Levee at Lawrenceeurg, Ind., for the Protpxtion of 
 THE City against F'loods. 
 
 establishing life-saving stations. Every year the life- 
 savers perform deeds of heroism by which scores of lives 
 and thousands of dollars' worth of property are saved. 
 The national government has constructed levees along 
 some of our rivers, as on the lower courses of the Missis- 
 sippi, for the protection of the land against floods. 
 
 We may learn from this chapter that the protection of 
 health, life, and property is placed almost w^holly in the 
 hands of the local governments ; that the state govern- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 79 
 ment acts only when the welfare of the Protection 
 
 11 1 1 • 1 1 1 • r/- 1 • chiefly in 
 
 whole state demands it, or when the dimculties the hands of 
 to be met are beyond the powers of the local ^^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 111 -1 state gov- 
 
 authorities ; and that the national government ernments 
 
 acts for the nation at large, and interferes in local pro- 
 tection only when the interests of the whole nation are at 
 stake, or when the local and state authorities prove them- 
 selves incapable of handling the situation. 
 
 Ax Ohio River Vijjod seen erom the Top oe hie Le\ee at 
 
 Lawrenceburg, Ind. 
 
 The city is now entirely pro4ected by the great embankment. 
 
 Notice the railroad tracks on the levee for safety. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What were the means of fighting fires in your community in the 
 early days? (Inquire of old residents.) How did the methods compare 
 with those of Franklin's time? 
 
 2. Describe the organization of the fire department in your city. 
 How is the highest degree of efficiency among the firemen secured? 
 
 3. Report on the waterwori<s system of your city. Is it efficient? 
 If not, why? 
 
8o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 4. Try to find out the chief causes of the fires in your community 
 in the last year. 
 
 5. From the city ordinances find some of the regulations regarding 
 the construction of buildings. 
 
 6. Is there building inspection in your community? Is violation of 
 building ordinances common? 
 
 ^ 7. Report on the duties of the constable. Of the sheriff. 
 ^ 8. Describe the organization of the police department. What 
 "qualifications must a man have to receive appointment as a policeman 
 in your community? 
 
 9. Look up the services of Benjamin FrankHn in Philadelphia in 
 improving the fire department, the night watch, and the lighting of 
 the streets (see Franklin's Autobiography) . 
 ^ 10. What is the method of street lighting in your community? Is it 
 done by the community itself, or by a private company? Is it as well 
 done as it should be? 
 
 II. What kinds of business in your community are regulated for the 
 protection of life and property ? 
 
 , 12. What other ways can you find in which property is protected 
 besides those mentioned in this chapter? 
 
 13. Investigate the subject of the violation of speed regulations, and 
 other regulations to secure safety on the streets of your city. 
 
 14. Have you an organization of militia In your community ? Find 
 out what you can about its organization. Try to find out something 
 about the following points : a. What is the numerical strength of the 
 miHtia in your state? b. How are its officers chosen? c. What is the 
 relation between your state militia and the national army? d. What in- 
 stances do you know of your state militia being called out to suppress 
 disorder? 
 
 15. Find out what you can about the organization of the United 
 States army. 
 
 16. Find out what you can about the organization of the United 
 States navy. 
 
 17. Find out what you can about the work of the life-saving service 
 of the United States. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 For information regarding the organization of branches of local gov- 
 ernment, such as the fire and police departments, the city charter and 
 city ordinances may be consulted. In many cases there may be printed 
 reports of the departments in question. It will often be impracticable 
 to expect the whole class to gather full information on such matters ; 
 but one or two pupils may make special reports. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 8l 
 
 Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography. 
 
 Riis, Jacob, " Heroes Who Fight Fires," in Century Magazine, 33 : 483. 
 
 Forman, " Advanced Civics," chapter XXXIII. 
 
 Hart, A. B., "Actual Government," pp. 462-477, for the organization of the 
 army, the navy, and the militia; pp. 573-582 (fire protection, police, etc.). 
 
 Fairlie, J. A., "Municipal Administration," chapter VIII, "Public Health 
 and Safety." 
 
 Wilco.x, D. F., "The American City," chapter VI, " Municipal Insurance." 
 
 Conkling, " City Government in the United States," chapters V, VI. 
 
 Kaler, James Otis, " The Life Savers." 
 
 Adams, W. H. S., "The Story of our Lighthouses and Light Ships." 
 
 " Heroes of Peace," Century Magazine, 55 : 925 ; 58 : 210. 
 
 " History and Organization of the Life-saving Service"; a pamphlet that may 
 be obtained from the Superintendent of the Life-Saving Service, Washington, D.C. 
 
 The location of lighthouses and life-saving stations may be seen on the Land 
 Office Map of the United States already referred to. 
 
 Lighthouse on the Shore of Lake Michigan. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE COMMUNITY AND THE 
 CITIZEN IN BUSINESS LIFE 
 
 A LARGE part of the activity of the people of every com- 
 munity is due to their desire for wealth, and constitutes the 
 Thebusi- business life of the community. It is well to 
 ness life remember that, when we speak of wealth in 
 
 of a '■ 
 
 community this connection, we do not necessarily mean 
 
 great riches, but all material goods, however much or 
 little, for which men are willing to work. In many 
 people the desire for wealth is very strong, and some- 
 times becomes a passion that smothers the other de- 
 sires of life; then it tends to make men narrow and selfish, 
 and to interfere with their greatest usefulness in the com- 
 munity. Wealth is worth having only when it contributes 
 to the health, the knowledge, the beautiful surroundings 
 — in a word, to the complete life of those who possess it. 
 But whether the purpose be to attain completeness of life, 
 or merely to satisfy greed, or perhaps to enjoy the excite- 
 ment of the game of business, the business life of a com- 
 munity always occupies a large part of the attention of the 
 people. 
 
 The dependence of each citizen on the community is 
 nowhere seen more clearly than in his business life ; no- 
 where is his responsibility to the community greater; no- 
 where is there greater opportunity for good citizenship. 
 
 How dependent the individual is on the community for 
 
 82 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 83 
 
 success in satisfying his desire for wealth might be shown 
 in many ways, but we shall take only one or xhe pioneer 
 two illustrations. The pioneer family was al- family was 
 
 11 1 1 • rr r dependent 
 
 most wholly dependent on its own efforts for largely on 
 the accumulation of wealth, and consequently ^^^^^ 
 this wealth was very limited in quantity and quality. 
 The articles of home manufacture were usually few 
 and rough. There were few materials to select from, 
 and the many things to be done left little time for doing 
 any one thing except in the simplest way possible. All 
 the members of the family contributed to the common re- 
 sult, and they divided the work so that each had his 
 special tasks and became more skillful than the others in 
 their performance. All worked together for the common 
 good, and each received a share of the results of the labor 
 of all. 
 
 As this small community consisting of one family was 
 increased by other families, a better opportunity was given 
 for a division of labor. One member of the The re- 
 original family, who had formerly made the ^uvisjon of 
 shoes for his family only, on account of his skill labor 
 at that work and because of the demands of the addi- 
 tional families, was now enabled to devote his entire 
 time to shoe making. Members of these new families were 
 skillful in other crafts, one a baker, another a weaver, 
 another a miller, and another a blacksmith. The needs 
 of the community for bread, clothing, flour, and tools were 
 now sufficient to enable the baker, the weaver, the miller, 
 and the blacksmith to devote their entire time to their 
 trades, thus both increasing the amount and improving the 
 quality of their products. One after another the duties 
 of the farmer were lessened until finally it became his 
 special business to provide farm products for the whole 
 
84 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 community in return for the things that the others did for 
 him. 
 
 With the introduction of machinery and the building 
 of factories where hundreds of men are employed, the 
 Effect of division of tasks has become more complete, 
 modern ^^d each worker rarely produces more than one 
 organiza- thing. In well-organized factories, each work- 
 tion n-,an devotes his entire time to producing one 
 
 small part of each article. In a factory for the manufac- 
 ture of milling machinery, for example, one set of work- 
 men does nothing but chip the surface of millstones with 
 hammers to make them rough. They apparently con- 
 tribute very little to the general welfare ; but the com- 
 munity provides them with a living in order that they 
 may do this one thing, and do it well. We say that they 
 receive so much a day for their work. In reality they 
 are being supplied with bread and meat, clothing and 
 shelter, furniture and tools, medicines and doctors' serv- 
 ices, education for their children, rehgious teaching on 
 Sundays, entertainment at the theaters, and scores of 
 other things, in exchange for their monotonous and ap- 
 parently unimportant work of putting rough surfaces on 
 millstones. 
 
 Division of occupations also takes place in accordance 
 
 with geographical location. This is of great importance 
 
 , . in a laro^e community like our nation. In 
 
 Geographi- ^ ■' 
 
 cai division some parts of the country corn is the chief prod- 
 of labor ^^^^ . in Others cotton ; in others fruit. In some 
 parts cattle or sheep raising takes the place of farming ; 
 in other parts mining. The different metals are found in 
 different localities. In one place lumbering is the chief 
 occupation ; in another place fishing. One region becomes 
 famous for its cotton manufactures ; another for silk ; 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 85 
 
 another for iron. The gardener who gives his whole time 
 to raising vegetables to supply the market of some small 
 city receives in return bread from wheat raised in the Da- 
 kotas ; clothing manufactured in New England from cotton 
 raised in Texas, or from wool raised in Montana. He 
 uses wagons made in Indiana of timber raised in the South 
 and of iron mined in Minnesota and smelted in Ohio. 
 
 I 
 
 A Market Scene. 
 
 In these days of large business enterprises, the men who 
 run the machines and perform labor of other kinds are 
 not usually the men who furnish these machines Dependence 
 and the other forms of capital. The men who of employer 
 
 and em- 
 furnish the capital and those who furnish the pioyee on 
 
 labor are dependent on each other. It is true ®^^^ °*^®^ 
 
 that they often act toward each other as if their interests 
 
 were antagonistic. Although the workingmen are far 
 
 more numerous than their employers, the latter have 
 
 usually had the advantage in a conflict, because their 
 
 greater wealth enables them to sustain themselv^es in 
 
 idleness for a time without suffering. In order to protect 
 
86 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 their own interests workingmen in many trades and indus- 
 tries have organized themselves into unions, so that by 
 acting together they may secure from their employers a 
 recognition of their rights. This is well, provided that 
 the unions remember always that their employers and the 
 community at large also have rights which must be 
 regarded. " Neither can take advantage of the other with- 
 out the common interest suffering. The mutual object 
 of both is to i)roduce the best possible article at the lowest 
 possible price, in order to place it within reach of the 
 greatest possible number of purchasers." 
 
 Thus we see how every worker in the community is 
 dependent on all the other workers. The success of each 
 depends very largely on how well the whole business 
 organization of the community does its work. On the 
 other hand, the community depends on each individual, 
 and on each class of workers, to do his or its work well. 
 Each citizen, as a worker in the business life of the com- 
 munity, has upon him a great responsibility. 
 
 A man engages in business activities primarily to satisfy 
 the wants of himself and his family. But he can do this 
 The life of a Only by performing work that will be useful to 
 community others, and that will help to satisfy their desires. 
 
 is a life of . . i • i • i i i 
 
 productive A Carpenter, in order to gain a livelihood and 
 work |-Q provide his family with the comforts of life, 
 
 must build houses for others. He may be most concerned 
 about what Jie will 7'eceive for his work ; the community is 
 most concerned about ivhat he produces. If he does care- 
 ful, skillful work, he is considered a valuable member of 
 the community. If he is careless, or a poor workman, he 
 is considered in that respect a poor citizen. Good citizen- 
 ship shows itself in the productive work of a man more 
 than in any other way. 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 87 
 
 The history of our country has been very largely. a story 
 of the clearing of forests, of the reclaiming of the soil 
 for agriculture, of the opening of mines, and of xhe builders 
 the growth of commerce, manufactures, and of our 
 cities. It is a story of the building of railroads 
 and steamboats, of telegraphs and telephones. The men 
 who have done these things are as much the builders of 
 
 Two \"iE\v.s OF AN Engine Factory. 
 
 Showing how the factory has been given attractive appearance. 
 
 Notice the vine-covered buildings and smoke-stack. 
 
 our nation as the men who made our constitutions and 
 organized our governments. The men and women who are 
 to-day working on the farms or in the mines, in factories 
 and shops, in stores and offices, or in other hnes of business, 
 are as truly doing their country a service as those who 
 hold the offices of government. Both kinds of service 
 are necessary, and in either case patriotic citizenship 
 consists in giving to the community the best service 
 possible. 
 
 It is important that the citizen should realize that, in 
 the work by which he makes a living, he has a great 
 responsibility toward the other members of the community. 
 
88 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The employee is responsible to his employer for the very 
 
 best work he can do, for the employer is depending on him 
 
 to help in producino^ the best possible article 
 
 The respon- . . J^i 
 
 sibiiity of for the usc of the community. The employer, 
 the citizen ^^^ ^-^^ Other hand, is responsible for the 
 
 in business '■ 
 
 welfare of those who work for him. A con- 
 stantly increasing number of employers are coming to 
 realize that this means more than merely giving fair wages 
 to the employees and are providing them with better places 
 in which to work, with healthful and pleasant surroundings, 
 and with arrangements for their comfort and convenience. 
 In some cases employers are even aiding their workmen 
 to secure pleasant and comfortable homes, knowing that 
 the better their workmen are cared for by them, the more 
 earnestly will they work for the success of the business. 
 Every citizen in his business Ufe is under obhgations to 
 the community as a whole. No man's business belongs to 
 ^ .,. , himself alone ; it belongs also to the community. 
 
 A citizen's ' » -' 
 
 business is The community enters into a sort of agreement 
 ^^!^1^^ with him in regard to his business, to the effect 
 nity's that if he will perform a certain service for the 
 
 usiness community, the community will support him. 
 If he is a merchant or a manufacturer, the community 
 has a right to expect from him honest goods and full 
 measure. If he is a mechanic, it has the right to expect 
 from him good workmanship. If he is engaged in the 
 management of a railroad, it has a right to demand safety, 
 comfort, and reasonable rates. No matter what his 
 occupation may be, nor how large or how small his 
 business, he is sure to show the character of his citizenship 
 in the character of the product of his labor. 
 
 But the citizen in business has a greater responsibility 
 than for the quality of the product of his work. Business 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 89 
 
 life, and in fact the whole life of the community, could 
 not be successfully carried on if it were not for the con- 
 fidence that men have in each other. Think for jhe respon- 
 a moment what confusion and unhappiness there sibiuty of 
 
 , , -, . r . r 1 • ^1 th^ citizen 
 
 would be if It were not for this conhdence. for con- 
 When we ride on the railroad, we need confidence fidence 
 in the excellence of the work of those who made the loco- 
 motive, of those who laid the rails and built the bridges, 
 of those who run the train, and of those who arrange the 
 schedule and give the signals. When we buy food, or 
 clothing, or any other product of human labor, we must 
 have confidence in the merchant and in the manufacturer 
 before we willingly part with the money that we have 
 earned by our own efforts. When we receive money for 
 our work, we must have confidence in the government that 
 stamps the bills with its promise to pay a certain sum. 
 
 By far the greater part of the business dealings 
 between individuals, between communities, and between 
 nations, is carried on by a system of credit, which is based 
 on the confidence that men feel in one another and in the 
 arrangements of the business world. Men would never 
 deposit their money in banks if it were not for the confi- 
 dence they feel in the banks, and in the government and 
 laws that are behind them. Every accident on the rail- 
 roads causes men to lose confidence, not only in the man 
 who was guilty of carelessness, but also in the management 
 of railroads in general. When an employer finds that he 
 cannot trust one of his employees, it tends to destroy con- 
 fidence in all employees. Every failure on the part of an 
 individual to meet his business obligations tends to destroy 
 the confidence of men in one another's business integrity. 
 In short, every exhibition of dishonesty or inefficiency on 
 the part of a citizen in his business relations helps to 
 
m 
 life 
 
 90 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 undermine the confidence of the community, and to shake 
 the foundation upon which the community rests. 
 
 It is one of the best marks of good citizenship to per- 
 form the most efficient work possible, whatever one's call- 
 Patri tism ^"»* ^^ ^^^^ ^^ patriotism when a man gives 
 
 business all that he has, even his life if necessary, for the 
 good of his country, without stopping to con- 
 sider whether he will receive an equal benefit in return. 
 There is no higher type of patriotism than that which 
 leads a citizen to perform his best service for the com- 
 munity in his daily calling, not for what he can get for it, 
 but for what he can give. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Find out what the early settlers in your community had to pay for 
 tlie land. What is the same land worth now? What has produced 
 the change in value? 
 
 2. Compare the extent to whicli a farmer's family is dependent on 
 others in making a living, with that to which a city family is dependent. 
 
 3. Make a list of twelve or fifteen diiferent occupations in your com- 
 munity. How many of these did each femily have to carry on for itself 
 in the early days of your community? 
 
 4. What advantages can you see in a division of tasks or occupa- 
 tions? What disadvantages? 
 
 5. Visit a factory in your community and report on the division of 
 labor that you find there. 
 
 6. Take the list of occupations mentioned in the paragraph on geo- 
 graphical division of occupations CP^<>e 84) and locate on a map of the 
 United States a region characterized by each. Show how geographical 
 conditions determine this division of occupations. 
 
 7. Is there a geographical division of occupations in your state? 
 Draw a map of your state and' locate characteristic industries. 
 
 8. Make a list of the different kinds of workmen that have been 
 engaged in producing the different objects in your schoolroom. What 
 different parts of the United States have contributed to the equipment 
 of your schoolroom ? 
 
 9. Show how a strike of workmen against their employers injures the 
 employers ; the workmen theinselves ; the whole community. (Use for 
 illustration a strike that has occurred in your own community.) 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 91 
 
 10. Is it true, in your community, that the most useful citizens are those 
 who care more about the excellence of their work than about what they 
 receive for it? Illustrate. 
 
 11. So far as your experience goes, what boys have been most success- 
 ful in business — those who make it a practice to do all they can for their 
 employers, or those who have tried to do the least possible? 
 
 12. Who have been some of the builders of your own community by 
 reason of their business life? Explain. 
 
 13. Show how a few dishonest pupils in a school will tend to destroy 
 confidence throughout the whole school. What are some of the results 
 of this loss of confidence on the life of the school? 
 
 14. Do you know of any case in your community in which the failure of 
 some individual to do his whole duty in business has shaken the confidence 
 of the entire community? 
 
 15. Are there any business establishments in your community in which 
 special efforts are made to provide for the welfare and comfort of the em- 
 ployees? What is the eftect upon the employees? Upon the business? 
 Upon the community ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," cliapters XLVII, XLVIII. 
 
 Smith, Adam, "The Wealth of Nations," Book I, chapters I-III (division of 
 labor). 
 
 Meakin, Budgett, " Model Factories and Vilkiges." Gives an excellent account 
 of what employers are doing for their employees in this country and in Europe. 
 
 Earle, Alice Morse, "Colonial Dames and Good Wives," chapter XII, "Fire- 
 side Industries." 
 
 The Well-kept Home of an Employee of a Mining Company in 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 This company is much interested in the welfare of its employees, 
 
 and encourages them in the improvement of their homes. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 HOW THE GOVERNMENT AIDS THE CITIZEN IN HIS 
 BUSINESS LIFE 
 
 Security in one's material possessions has always been 
 one of the most sacred rights of Americans. The Revolu- 
 The sacred- tionary War was brought on because the English 
 ^r^ert government persistently refused to recognize 
 
 rights this right of the colonists. It took aw-ay a 
 
 part of their property by taxation without asking their 
 consent. It passed laws interfering with their commerce 
 and manufactures. It quartered troops in their houses 
 without their permission. It gave its officers unhmited 
 power to search their houses and ships without duly pro- 
 tecting the rights of innocent and law-abiding citizens. 
 When independence had been won and a constitution was 
 to be adopted, the people demanded a sure protection of 
 this right to their property. They refused to ratify the 
 Constitution until amendments guaranteeing security in 
 their possessions had been promised. 
 
 The colonists recognized the necessity of some regulation 
 of their property rights and of their business relations by 
 The desire government. Nowhere else do individuals come 
 for self- ii-it-Q conflict with each other so often as in their 
 
 government .. ,. __ .,.. , , 
 
 in business busmcss relations. Most of the disputes brought 
 matters bcforc the courts for settlement are over busi- 
 ness or property matters. Such matters concern the 
 individual so closely that the colonists believed that 
 their regulation should be under their own control 
 
 92 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 93 
 
 through their local colonial governments. The same 
 idea prevailed when our Constitution was framed. Busi- 
 ness matters were not placed under the authority of the 
 national government, except such as concern the rela- 
 tions between citizens of this country and those of foreign 
 countries, or between citizens of two or more states. Each 
 state has unlimited control over all business relations 
 within its own borders. At the same time, it is the policy 
 of our state governments to leave to each citizen as much 
 individual freedom in his business activities as is consistent 
 with the w^elfare of the community. 
 
 When a group of men wish to organize as a corporation 
 for manufacturing purposes, or to build and operate a rail- 
 road, or to do an insurance business, it is almost state 
 always the state that gives them the authority, control over 
 The state has done much to aid business by the bus^ness^^^ 
 construction of roads (see chapter XIV). The relations 
 state protects the interests of workingmen and working- 
 women. Most of the states have laws permitting the 
 incorporation of labor unions. State laws place restric- 
 tions on the labor of children and limit the number of 
 hours that women may work in factories. State laws also 
 provide for the health of workers in factories and mines 
 by requiring employers to maintain good sanitary con- 
 ditions, and by a system of inspection to see that the 
 requirements are carried out. In some of the more recent 
 state constitutions special safeguards are thrown about the 
 working classes. In the older constitutions such provisions 
 are not found because, when these constitutions were 
 framed, labor organizations and the factory system did not 
 exist. In these older states the legislatures enact, from 
 time to time, such laws as seem necessary. State laws 
 also endeavor to prevent the community from being de- 
 
94 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 frauded by persons and corporations that seek to render 
 dishonest or inefficient service, s. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War and after it, until the 
 Constitution was adopted, the thirteen states were bound 
 ^o^^th^'* ^^ ^ very loose Confederation merely 
 a national for purposcs of common defense. There were 
 government £g^^ j^^^^g applying to all the states alike. There 
 was little uniformity among them in their methods of 
 regulating the business relations of their citizens. Each 
 state had its own form of money. Each was at liberty to 
 levy taxes on goods brought from other states, thus 
 tending to check commerce. So little uniformity was 
 there, so bitter were the jealousies among the states, and 
 so great did the confusion become, that the Confederation 
 was about to fall to pieces, and the fruits of the Revolu- 
 tion were in danger of being lost. It was this danger, 
 due to the confusion in business affairs, that led to the 
 calling of the convention that framed our present Constitu- 
 tion. It was found necessary to have a government that 
 could protect the common business interests of all the 
 states alike. 
 
 The Congress created by the Constitution was given 
 the power, which the Congress of the Confederation had 
 The powers not had, of laying and collecting taxes '* for the 
 of Congress common defense and Q-eneral welfare," but it 
 
 in business ^ 
 
 matters was provided that the "duties, imposts, and ex- 
 cises shall be uniform throughout the United States" 
 (Art. I, sec. 8, clause i). The states were forbidden 
 to lay duties on goods coming in from other states, 
 so that interstate commerce should not be interfered with. 
 Congress was also given power " to regulate commerce 
 with foreign nations and among the several states, and 
 with the Indian tribes" (Art. I, sec. 8, clause 3). In 
 
GOVERiNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 95 
 
 order to maintain successful business relations in a com- 
 munity it is necessary that there be a reliable and uniform 
 system of money ; and since this was a matter of common 
 interest to all the states, Congress was given power '' to 
 coin money," and to " regulate the value thereof." Under 
 these last powers Congress has established mints for the 
 coining of money, has enacted laws providing for a uni- 
 form currency, and has established a national banking 
 system which is not merely an aid to the government in 
 regulating the currency and in borrowing money, but is 
 also a great convenience to the business men of the whole 
 country. Congress was also given the power to fix the 
 standard of weights and measures (Art. I, sec. 8, clause 5). 
 Under its power to regulate foreign commerce, Con- 
 gress has levied import duties sufficiently heavy to check 
 the importation of foreign manufactures, and poj-eign and 
 thus to encourage the manufacture of these interstate 
 articles at home. It has also estabHshed a con- ^^^^^^^^ 
 sular system to look after the commercial relations of this 
 country with foreign" nations. Consuls are appointed by 
 our government to go to the important cities of all civilized 
 countries. Among their many duties, they investigate the 
 products and manufactures of the countries to which they 
 are sent, try to create a market in those countries for 
 products of the United States, and, in general, try to stim- 
 ulate favorable business relations between our country and 
 all the world. Under its power to regulate commerce be- 
 tween the states. Congress has passed laws to regulate the 
 business of corporations doing business in more than one 
 state, such as railroads and packing houses. Among the 
 most important aids rendered to the business interests of 
 the country is the postal service, created and operated by 
 the national government (see chapter XIV). The most 
 
96 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 recent department of the executive branch of government 
 to be created by Congress is the Department of Commerce 
 and Labor, the chief purpose of which is to investigate 
 the industrial conditions of our country, and to recommend 
 such legislation as seems desirable or necessary for the 
 welfare of the nation. 
 
 While some of this regulation of business by the state 
 and national governments seems to impose restrictions on 
 The purpose particular business interests, its purpose is nev- 
 of govern- ertheless to further the interests of the country 
 
 nient is . 
 
 to afford at large. The purpose of the government is not 
 opportunity ^q hedge the citizen about with restrictions on 
 his activities, but to afford him the greatest possible 
 opportunity for material prosperity. Sometimes the 
 interests of the individual must yield before the interests 
 of the community ; but usually, in the long run, the ad- 
 vantage of the community will also be the advantage 
 of the individual. Occasionally a law is unwisely or 
 dishonestly enacted which benefits a small class to the 
 detriment of the majority of the people. Such legislation 
 is un-American, for the underlying principle of American 
 government is the greatest possible good to the greatest 
 possible number. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Which of the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the 
 United States guarantee the property rights of citizens? Explain each 
 of these amendments. 
 
 2. Get a Hst, or summary, of the laws passed during the last session 
 of your state legislature, and note about what proportion of them are 
 for the regulation of business matters. Study the list to get an idea of 
 the different kinds of business matters dealt with. 
 
 3. Is there anything in your state constitution for the protection of 
 the interests of the workingmen? Anything for the regulation of 
 business corporations? 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 9.7 
 
 4. What laws are there in your state for the regulation of the labor 
 of children? Of women? 
 
 5. Is there any system of factory inspection in your state? If so. 
 what is the nature and purpose of the inspection ? 
 
 6. Mention some recent laws passed by Congress under its power 
 to regulate interstate commerce. 
 
 7. How does a bank help business men? Are there any other banks 
 besides national banks? Explain. 
 
 8. Make a report on the United States mint. 
 
 9. Investigate the organization and duties of the consular service. 
 
 10. Do you know any laws that are said to be for the benefit of a 
 privileged few to the injury of the many? 
 
 11. Make a report on the business confusion during the time of the 
 Confederation. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 A copy of the state constitution should be on the teacher's desk for 
 reference. 
 
 It is probable that a summary of the laws passed by the last legislature 
 can be obtained at the city or county offices. If not, it can be obtained 
 from the office of the secretary of state of your state. It would be desir- 
 able to have on the teacher's desk a copy of the revised statutes of the 
 state. 
 
 Copies of the laws regulating the labor of women and children, factory 
 inspection, etc., can usually be had by applying to the bureaus or depart- 
 ments of the state government dealing with such matters. The general 
 treatment of these subjects, as also of the United States mint and the 
 consular service, can be found in the New International Encyclo- 
 pedia. 
 
 Fiske's " The Critical Period of American History ''"' has an excellent 
 chapter on the business confusion during the Confederation. (Chapter 
 IV, "' Drifting Toward Anarchy.'') 
 
 Hart's '' Actual Government '' will again be found useful in connection 
 with this chapter ; especially the chapters on " Commercial Organiza- 
 tion"' (chapter XXVI) and "Foreign Commerce'' (chapter XXIV), 
 and the section on •• Consuls,"' on page 436. 
 
 Forman, '• Advanced Civics," chapters XL-XLIV. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 WASTE AND SAVING 
 
 Ix the accumulation of wealth, .saving is as important 
 as production. Waste must be avoided. There is usually 
 Waste ^ good deal of waste in the household. There 
 
 in the is waste in clothing through lack of proper care, 
 
 ouse o through unwise purchasing of unsuitable ma- 
 terials, and through extravagance in the purchase of un- 
 necessary articles. There is waste in fuel, sometimes by 
 overheating the houses, sometimes by improper care of the 
 furnaces or stoves. One of the greatest wastes is in the 
 matter of food. " Scraps " are thrown away that a skillful 
 housekeeper would use. Unnecessary quantities of food 
 are bought and prepared. Many a good dish is spoiled 
 in the cooking. Another waste is due to ignorance of 
 the nourishing values of different articles of food. The 
 man who works with his hands in the open air, con- 
 stantly exercising his muscles, needs a different kind of 
 nourishment from the student who sits at his desk all day. 
 Those who are fed on the wrong kinds of food, or on food 
 improperly prepared, cannot do as good work as they 
 otherwise could. Not the least important means of secur- 
 ing good citizenship, as shown in effective work in the 
 community, is a better management of the kitchens in the 
 homes of the community. 
 
 It is said that more than three fourths of the household 
 expenditures in our country are made by the women. It 
 
 98 
 
WASTE AND SAVING 99 
 
 is a highly important service to the community for the girls 
 who are to become the managers of the households to 
 learn the lesson of saving. In the pioneer days women 
 every girl learned at home the details of house are the 
 
 T J rr • n • managers 
 
 management. In modern lite, especially in of the 
 cities, it is not always so. It is now recognized household 
 that, in the attempts tO' improve the conditions of life in 
 the slums of a city, one of the first things to do is to teach 
 the people who live there how to save in their households, 
 in order to get the best results from what they have. 
 
 In recent years the school has been assuming some of 
 the responsibility for the education of the girls in domestic 
 science. Courses in cooking and sewing are j^e respon- 
 offered in an increasingly large number of pub- sibiiity of 
 
 . 1 1 TT • •*-• the school 
 
 lie and private schools. Universities are 
 training young women to become teachers of domestic 
 science. It is being recognized, as it should be, that the 
 skillful management of a household is as useful and honor- 
 able a service to the community as the management of a 
 business. 
 
 The successful business man always tries to avoid waste. 
 By introducing smoke consumers, or by employing skillful 
 stokers, he converts the smoke of his furnaces waste in 
 into steam power instead of pouring it out in business 
 clouds over the community. In a well-managed sawmill 
 not only is the body of the logs sawed into lumber, but the 
 waste from this process is made into tool handles, chair 
 rounds, and other small articles. The pieces of wood that 
 are too small for manufacturing purposes may be sold in 
 cities for kindling. Even the sawdust is put to various 
 uses. When the refining of petroleum oil was first begun, 
 there was a great deal of waste product. From this 
 former waste there are now produced many valuable by- 
 
lOO THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 products, such as paraffin, vaseline, and dyestuffs. The 
 by-pfoducts of a manufacturing process are sometimes 
 more valuable than the main product. 
 
 Saving money does not mean hoarding it. He who 
 hoards is really wasteful, for the money that he hoards 
 Saving might be invested in such a way that it would 
 is not produce more wealth. He might buy machinery 
 
 oar ing ^^-^^^ -^ £^^ manufacturing purposes ; he might 
 build houses with it to rent ; he might buy a stock of goods 
 with it, and sell them at profit ; or he might lend the money 
 to others who wish the use of it and receive interest. 
 
 It is the duty of every person to save by investing the 
 surplus of his earnings, so far as he is able to do so. In 
 Savine b ^^^ ^^^^ place, he should endeavor to put it be- 
 investment yond a possibility that he shall ever be a burden 
 IS a uty ^^^ others for his support, or for the support of 
 his family, in time of sickness, old age, or lack of employ- 
 ment. In the second place, it is through the investment 
 of savings that productive industries are maintained, and 
 the wealth of the community is increased. The man who 
 saves by investment supplies the community with factories, 
 machinery, railways, and other forms of capital. He also 
 becomes an employer of labor. He thus contributes to 
 the prosperity of the community. 
 
 Wastefulness is often found in the management of the 
 community's business by government. It is seen in many 
 Waste in forms. Through a false idea of economy im- 
 government provements that would result in real economy 
 are not made : as when roads or streets are allowed to re- 
 main unimproved, thus causing an unnecessary expense in 
 transportation. For lack of funds pavements that have 
 been built at great expense are allowed to go without repair 
 from year to year until the whole work has to be done 
 
WASTE AND SAVING lOI 
 
 or the equipment of a fire department may 
 be allowed to deteriorate, while the loss from fires 
 increases. 
 
 Wastefulness often results from inefficient service on the 
 part of employees of the government. Salaries are some- 
 times paid to men who are incompetent, and who hold 
 their positions only through political favoritism. Some- 
 times costly improvements are undertaken when they are 
 not really necessary, or when something less costly w^ould 
 serve equally w^ell, in order to give employment to polit- 
 ical favorites. Franchises are sometimes given for the 
 use of public highways without due compensation to the 
 community. These are only a few of the possible ways in 
 which waste may occur in the government of a commu- 
 nity. It is found not only in local government, but also in 
 state and national governments. 
 
 Wastefulness in government may often be attributed to 
 the incompetence of officials, sometimes to their dishon- 
 esty. It is often due to too little sense of re- w^° ^^ 
 
 ., .,. , . r 1 • T responsible 
 
 sponsibility on their part lor the wise expenditure for an 
 of money that belongs to the public ; for " the economical 
 public" means to them nobody in particular, ment? 
 But after all, wastefulness in the government of the 
 community is largely the fault of the citizens them- 
 selves. They are inclined to place the responsibility for 
 unwise expenditures and other forms of \vastefulness upon 
 the officers of government, unmindful of the fact that it is 
 their own business that is being mismanaged. Each citi- 
 zen ow^es it to himself and to the community to use every 
 means at his command to secure an economical adminis- 
 tration of the affairs of his community, so that the invest- 
 ments of citizens in the community will bring the largest 
 possible returns. 
 
I02 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What are some of the ways in which you are wasteful? 
 
 2. What are some ways of preventing waste in your household? 
 
 3. Investigate some factory or business establishment to find out 
 how waste is avoided. 
 
 4. Visit a gas factory and find out what by-products of value result 
 from the manufacture of gas. 
 
 5. What other industries do you know in which there are useful by- 
 products ? 
 
 6. WHiat are some of the ways in which men save by investment? 
 Show how each of these methods of investment benefits the community. 
 
 -^ 7. Mention some ways in which waste occurs in the government 
 of your community. How would you suggest that these wastes be 
 avoided? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 "The Problem of Waste," Independent, 55: 1324. 
 " A Century ot Waste," Independe}it, 52 : 2400. 
 " The Utilization of Wastes," Engineering Magazine, 26 : 118. 
 " Reclaiming W^aste," Cnr?-ent Literature, 30 : 743. 
 " Conserving Waste Products," World's Work, 4 : 2352. 
 "The Utilization of Waste," Forum, 32 : 74. 
 "The Wastes of a Great City," Scribners Magazine, 34 : 387. 
 Goodrich, "The Economic Disposal of a Toun's Refuse." 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN IN TRANS- 
 PORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 You will recall that in seeking a site for the community 
 described in the first chapter, the exploring committee was 
 to notice whether there were roads or canals near Community 
 by. The very nature of a community implies ^ ^ ^™P \®^ 
 
 J J ^ r communi- 
 
 that there must be communication, for without cation 
 it there could be no way of acting together. One of the 
 obstacles in the way of united action among the thirteen 
 American colonies was the absence of good roads connect- 
 ing them. The trip from New York to Boston in those 
 times required six days. A traveler tells us of spending a 
 month in making the journey from New York to Washing- 
 ton at a Httle later time. Under such conditions it is not 
 strange that it was difficult to develop a spirit of union 
 among the colonies. 
 
 In the early part of the last century it cost $125 to haul 
 a ton of goods from Philadelphia to Pittsburg by wagon, 
 the only means of transportation. It cost $2.50 q^^^^^ 
 to carry a bushel of salt three hundred miles, transporta- 
 Wheat could not profitably be transported by *^°^ 
 wagon more than one hundred and fifty miles, because it 
 could not be sold at a price to cover the cost of transporta- 
 tion. When the cost of transportation was so great, the 
 commonest articles of household use to-day were luxuries 
 which the people could not afford. The cause of all this 
 was excessively bad roads. 
 
 103 
 
I04 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The food supply of the nation comes from the farms. 
 
 The raw materials for manufacture come from the farms, 
 
 the forest, and the mines. The comfort of livinsr 
 
 Importance , ^ 
 
 of country for all of US, in the city as well as in the country, 
 roads depends in a great degree on the ease with which 
 
 these raw products can be brought from the country districts. 
 It is said that ninety-five per cent of every load by train, 
 steamship, or express, must be carted over a highway. 
 The country roads are the foundation of our transportation 
 system. And yet they have been given comparatively little 
 attention, and America is far behind many other civilized 
 countries in the construction and preservation of roads. 
 
 The character of the land has great importance in de- 
 termining good or bad roads. In the fertile prairies of the 
 West, althou2:h the land is almost as level as a 
 
 Geography ' ^ 
 
 and good floor, the roads often become impassable in wet 
 ^^^^^ weather. Where there are hills, the cost of 
 
 hauling is twice as much as in a level country, because 
 only half as much can be hauled in each load. The effect 
 of the character of the land on roadways seems not to have 
 been fully considered in America. Many of our roads run 
 straight over hills, or through swamp land, which adds both 
 to the difficulties of transportation and to the expense of 
 keeping the roads in repair. 
 
 The methods of road building and repairing in the 
 United States have been wasteful of the people's money. 
 Wasteful Not Only has little care been exercised, fre- 
 methodsof ^^^Q^^iy^ ij, tl,e location of the roads, but 
 making their construction and repair have been left 
 to the farmers in the neighborhood. In Indiana, for 
 example, each township trustee levies an annual tax on the 
 property of the farmers for the purpose of road improve- 
 ment. This tax may be worked out by the farmers. 
 
3- Finishing the road. 
 
 Road Making by the National Government. 
 
 This road in Tennessee was selected for improvement as an object lesson. The 
 photographs were furnished by the Public Roads Inquiry Office, Dept. of 
 Agriculture, 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 105 
 
 Every able-bodied man between the ages of twenty-one 
 and fifty years, residing in a road district of a township, is 
 required to perform not less than two nor more than four 
 days' labor on the public roads each year or to furnish a 
 substitute; or he may pay to the road overseer $1.50 a 
 day for each day that he should have worked. 
 
 The making of a good road requires scientific knowledge 
 and skill, and is work that should be supervised by a 
 trained engineer. The practice of requiring the improve- 
 farmers to work on the roads should be aban- ^^^^ ^^ 
 doned, and the tax, paid in money, should be road 
 devoted to the employment of skilled engineers, making 
 Improvement in the character of the roads has been 
 secured in some cases by placing their management in the 
 hands of the county government instead of leaving it 
 under the control of the township. Management by the 
 county helps to secure more uniformly good roads over a 
 larger area, and makes it possible to secure better super- 
 vision, because the road taxes of the whole county can be 
 devoted to the employment of a county engineer. In those 
 sections where the people have shown that they really 
 want good roads, much progress has been made toward 
 getting them. The first thing necessary is to arouse pub- 
 He interest in the matter. That there has been so little 
 interest in the past is due to ignorance of the importance 
 of the roads to the entire community, and of the methods 
 by which they may be secured. In the last few years the 
 National Good Roads Association has done much to arouse 
 public interest and to secure legislation in many states. 
 The farmers are likely to object to the first cost of im- 
 provements, until it is shown that the better roads enable 
 them to haul larger loads and to make quicker time, thus 
 saving, in a few years, more than the improvements cost. 
 
I06 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 In the beginning of our national history the question of 
 road making became very important in connection with 
 Construe- the settlement of the West and the preservation 
 tion of early Qf ^he Union. Roads and canals were proposed 
 
 highways , , ^^, . 
 
 left to the in great numbers. The question at once arose 
 states whether the national or the state govern- 
 
 ment should aid in constructing highways. The only 
 clauses in the Constitution that could be interpreted as 
 giving the national government authority to construct 
 roads were those bestowing the power " to establish post 
 offices and post roads," "to regulate commerce with 
 foreign nations, and among the several states," and to 
 make war. The national government was cautious about 
 exercising powers not explicitly given to it, and the mak- 
 ing of highways was left chiefly to the states or to private 
 enterprise. Many turnpikes were built by private com- 
 panies, for the use of which tolls were charged. 
 
 The one great example of road building by the United 
 States government is the National, or Cumberland, Road. 
 
 This road was authorized by Congress in 1806, 
 National and was to extend from Cumberland, Md., 
 ^^^^ into Ohio, to aid in the settlement of the West. 
 
 It was extended finally as far west as Illinois. It after- 
 ward passed under the control of the states through which 
 it ran, and thence was given over to the management of 
 the counties. 
 
 The introduction of canals and of railroads caused the 
 private turnpikes to become unprofitable, and the feeling 
 
 grew that the country highways were a matter 
 agement of for local management. At the present time it 
 roads -g recognized that good country roads are a 
 
 benefit, not only to the farmers living on them, but also 
 to the people of that county, and even to the whole state, 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 107 
 
 including the towns and cities. Some of the states, mostly 
 in the East, are therefore making a systematic reform in 
 road making. The movement is slowly spreading west. 
 In New Jersey a state highway law was passed in 1892. It 
 created a state commissioner of pubUc roads, and provided 
 that when two thirds of the property owners along a road 
 petition the county for improvements they shall be made. 
 
 Old Wooden Bridge on the National Road crossing White River, 
 Indianapolis. 
 
 One tenth of the cost is paid by the property owners along 
 the road, one third by the state, and the remainder by the 
 people of the county in which the improvement is made. 
 The expense is thus distributed over the whole state, 
 although the main part is borne by the immediate com- 
 munity. The work is done under the direction of a county 
 engineer, but must be approved by the state commission. 
 Similar systems have been adopted in other states. 
 
 Road making, especially in an unsettled country, is dif- 
 ficult, and the cost of transportation by wagon is heavy. 
 In the early days of our country, therefore, River trans- 
 water routes were always used when possible, portation 
 The rivers were the natural highways into the West, and 
 
I08 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 schemes were early proposed to improve them, as when 
 Washington urged the improvement of the Potomac. The 
 invention of the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1806 gave 
 a great impetus to water transportation, and steamboats 
 were soon plying the rivers, both in the East and in the 
 West, as well as the Great Lakes. The rapid development 
 of railways checked the use of the rivers, although they are 
 still an important factor in the transportation system of 
 our country. The commerce of the Great Lakes has 
 steadily increased, and is to-day of enormous proportions. 
 
 A great deal has been done by state and national gov- 
 ernments for the improvement of our rivers. The River 
 and Harbor Bill, passed every two years by Congress, 
 River and iHvolves One of the heaviest items of expense 
 harbor im- by the government. For the benefit of naviga- 
 provemen ^.^^ ^^^ ^^^^ coast the national government has 
 established ?^ coast survey, by which the safe channels and 
 the dangerous points along the coast are charted for the 
 guidance of seamen. 
 
 The advantages of water communication were so great in 
 the days before railroads that the construction of canals was 
 strongly urged by many. Albert Gallatin, in 
 Jefferson's administration, proposed a series 
 of coastwise canals from New England to South Carolina. 
 There was great opposition to such improvements at na- 
 tional expense ; and, as in the case of roads, it was left 
 chiefly for the states and private companies to undertake 
 them. The most successful of the early canals built under 
 state authority was the Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie 
 with the Hudson River and thus with the Atlantic. 
 Its success aroused other states to similar enterprises. 
 Some of these canals were successfully constructed and 
 operated, but most of them were not. 
 
TRANSPORTATIOiN AND COMMUNICATION 109 
 
 It was the coming of the railroads that caused the down- 
 fall of the canal schemes. Under certain circumstances 
 canals remain, nevertheless, an important means of trans- 
 portation. The Erie Canal is still an important highway, 
 and it is proposed to increase its usefulness by enlarging 
 it. The United States government has built a number of 
 important canals in recent times for the purpose of avoid- 
 ing rapids in rivers, or to connect the Great Lakes. One 
 of the largest of these is the canal at Sault Ste. Marie, be- 
 tween Lake Superior on the one hand, and Lakes Huron 
 and Michigan on the other. The greatest canal ever un- 
 dertaken is the Panama Canal now in course of construc- 
 tion by the United States. It will be of world-wide 
 importance. 
 
 Steam railways revolutionized transportation. They 
 quickly displaced most of the older turnpikes and canals, 
 and made travel rapid beyond the imagination 
 
 ^ r ^^ • ^i Railfoads 
 
 of the people of earlier times. They soon cov- 
 ered the country with a network of tracks until, at the pres- 
 ent time, the railways of the United States would encircle 
 the globe eight and a half times, without counting second 
 tracks and sidetracks. The importance of the railroads in 
 the building of our nation can hardly be overestimated. It is 
 quite possible that the territory we now occupy could never 
 have been included in a single nation if it were not for the 
 railroads that bind together its widely separated parts. San 
 Francisco and New York are to-day as close together, so 
 far as ease of communication is concerned, as New York 
 and Boston were in Washington's time. Because of their 
 great service to the country in this way, railroads have at 
 various times been aided by both state and national govern- 
 ments. The national government gave to many states, in 
 early times, large tracts of public land, the revenue from 
 
no THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 which was to be used in the work of constructing railroads. 
 When the great Western roads were proposed, Congress 
 gave about 100,000,000 acres of land to aid in the enterprise. 
 Railroads are not owned by the government in this 
 country as they are in some European countries, but by 
 private corporations which receive charters, 
 
 Government 
 
 control of usually from the states, but sometimes from 
 railroads ^^^q national government. Most of the railroads 
 of the country have been concentrated in the hands of a 
 very few powerful corporations, resulting in the control of 
 the chief means of transportation by a few men. Under its 
 power to regulate interstate commerce, Congress passed a 
 law in 1887, creating an Interstate Commerce Commission. 
 This commission was given certain powers to regulate the 
 interstate business of railroads. Other laws enacted in 
 1903 and 1906 seek to prevent railroads from discriminat- 
 ing in their rates and otherwise in favor of some persons 
 or localities as against others. 
 
 Another most important step in binding separate com- 
 munities together, and especially in bringing isolated 
 Electric Communities into relation with larger centers 
 interurban of life, is the recent growth of electric inter- 
 ^^"^^ urban railways. Many little communities not 
 
 heretofore touched by steam railways have been brought 
 into the stream of life of the larger community about 
 them. There was a time not long ago when the life of the 
 farmer was a Hfe of isolation. He had few of the advan- 
 tages of the city, and seldom came into intimate contact 
 with the Hfe of the world. All this is rapidly being 
 changed by the building of electric lines through the rural 
 districts, together with the estabhshment of free rural mail 
 delivery and the extension of telephones in the country. 
 By these means city, town, and rural populations are being 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 II 
 
 bound more closely together. The people mingle more 
 freely. What affects one for good or ill more quickly affects 
 all. The whole country is being united more firmly into 
 a single community. 
 
 A Portion of the Lake Front, Chicago. 
 
 Observe the railroad yards, the piers extending into the lake, and the 
 
 viaduct over the railroads to the piers. 
 
 Compare this scene with that in the illustration on page 14= 
 
 The question of transportation in cities is an important 
 one, and presents difficulties not found in rural commu- 
 nities and small towns. First in importance is Transpor- 
 the street itself. All cities have a department ^tti^s^^he 
 of government to manage the construction and street 
 repairing of the streets, and employ engineers who under- 
 
112 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Stand the principles of good street making. It is too often 
 true, however, that street commissioners and other officers 
 in control of the streets are appointed as a reward for 
 political services rather than because of fitness for the 
 work. Too often large contracts for street making are 
 let, through political favoritism, to men who are more 
 interested in the amount of money they can make out of 
 the job than in the welfare of the community. Such con- 
 tractors, and the officers of government who knowingly 
 employ them, are enemies to the community. 
 
 The streets are for the use of the people. No one has a 
 right to block them unnecessarily to the inconvenience or 
 Blocking danger of others. There are ordinances to pre- 
 the streets vent storekeepers and others from blocking the 
 sidewalks with boxes or otherwise. These ordinances are 
 often violated, making the way of the pedestrian both diffi- 
 cult and dangerous, besides making the streets unsightly. 
 In large cities the sidewalks and streets are necessarily 
 crowded, and a slight accident may block traffic completely 
 for a time. 
 
 It is necessary to use the streets in cities for the laying 
 
 of sewer, water, and gas pipes, the stretching of telegraph, 
 
 telephone, and electric-light wires, and the con- 
 Franchises ^ ^ 
 
 struction of street railways. Franchises for these 
 
 purposes are granted, on two conditions : first, definite serv- 
 ices must be performed for the people ; and, second, the 
 natural use of the streets by vehicles and pedestrians must 
 not be interfered with. Here again we often find the rights 
 of the people disregarded, both by the companies which ob- 
 tain the franchises, and by the government officials who 
 grant them. Sometimes franchises are carelessly drawn up' 
 and give away privileges to companies without safe-guard- 
 ing the rights of the people. Sometimes the officers of 
 
TRANSPORTATIOTT AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 13 
 
 government dishonestly and unpatriotically give away the 
 people's rights for private gain. 
 
 Copyright, I'jo;,, ^y Z7;i,/rrzij(\h/ d~^ Under/wood, New York. 
 
 Transportation in a Large City. 
 
 Life in cities has been almost revolutionized by the devel- 
 opment of rapid transportation by electric trolley cars. In 
 some of the largest cities there are elevated rail- j^ 
 ways, upon which trains are rapidly driven by transit in 
 steam or electricity without the delays that are 
 necessary in surface transportation. In New York and 
 Boston there is a system of underground transportation. 
 
114 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The regular steam railways run trains a few minutes apart 
 between the centers of large cities and the suburbs. In 
 Chicago the Illinois Central Railroad alone carries annually 
 about 1 5 ,000,000 suburban passengers. The elevated roads 
 of New York carry about 235,000,000 passengers each year. 
 In Boston the consolidated lines carry over 200,000,000 
 passengers annually. 
 
 The city railways are owned and operated by private cor- 
 porations under franchises. It has been proposed that cities 
 should acquire possession of their transportation 
 ownership Systems and should operate them themselves, as 
 o r ways -^ ^q^q jj-^ many European cities. It is argued 
 that the service could then be made just as good as the 
 people want it, and the fares could be reduced greatly. 
 It is said, in reply to this, that if city governments can- 
 not wisely and honestly control the giving of franchises, 
 and enforce their terms, how much less likely would the 
 governments be to manage the entire business wisely and 
 honestly. 
 
 In community life there must be an exchange of ideas 
 as well as a means of transporting goods and people. The 
 Communi- manufacturer must know what kinds of goods 
 cation of the people want and what they will be willing to 
 pay for them. He must also know where he 
 can get his materials for manufacture most advanta- 
 geously. In a large country like ours the people in sections 
 far removed from each other, like New England and Cali- 
 fornia, would be likely to develop very great differences 
 in manner of speech, in dress, in ways of thinking, and in 
 forms of government, if they were not in constant com- 
 munication with each other. The exchange of ideas is kept 
 up partly by means of travel. There is a constant min- 
 gUng of the people of different sections. We have, besides, 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 115 
 
 our postal system, the telegraph and telephone, and the 
 newspaper. When an important event happens, the news 
 of it is at once flashed to every part of the land and within 
 a few hours, at most, is laid at our doors in the columns 
 of a newspaper. 
 
 The Constitution gives Congress power to create post 
 offices and post roads, and the post-office system has 
 existed from the beginning under the complete Postal 
 control of the national government. At first the system 
 mails were usually carried on horseback, sometimes by 
 boys, or by old men who ** whiled away the hours by knit- 
 ting woolen mittens and stockings " along the way. At 
 the close of the Revolution letters were sent from New 
 York to Boston two or three times a week. It sometimes 
 required five weeks for a letter to go a distance now passed 
 over in a single afternoon. Out of this small beginning 
 has developed the extensive post-office system which we 
 enjoy to-day. 
 
 In some countries the government controls the telegraph. 
 In the United States it is owned and managed by private 
 corporations. So great is the service performed Telegraph 
 by the telegraph that it is hard to see how life and 
 could go on without this means of almost in- ^ ^^ 
 stantaneous communication between all parts of our own 
 country and with the outside world. The telephone has 
 had a similar effect on the life of cities especially, and is 
 now aiding in bringing the farmer into connection with the 
 city. 
 
 Each one of us is constantly taking more and more of 
 the world's interests into his own life and being broadened 
 by it. We are thinking together and acting together as a 
 community because of the growth of these various means 
 of communication. 
 
Il6 THE COMMUxNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Look up the difficulties of travel and transportation in our country 
 in the beginning of the nineteenth century, and their effects on the life 
 of the time. 
 
 2. Are the geographical conditions favorable to the making of good 
 roads in your community? What is the condition of the country roads 
 in your neighborhood during the winter? What effect do the road con- 
 ditions have on the life of the farmer? On the life of the town people? 
 
 3. Who has control over the making and repairing of the country 
 roads in your community? How is the expense of keeping them in re- 
 pair met? Do the farmers w'ork out their road tax? Are experienced 
 persons employed to oversee the work of construction and repair? 
 
 4. Look up the history of road building in your state. Have there 
 been any state roads? If so, locate them on the map. Is your state 
 government now taking any steps to improve the condition of the coun- 
 try roads? 
 
 5. Make a report on the history and influence of the National Road. 
 Did it have any particular influence on the settlement of your state? 
 
 6. Give an account of the use of rivers in your state for transporta- 
 tion. To what extent are they used now? 
 
 7. Do you know of any river improvement going on in your state? 
 By whom is it being made, state or national government? 
 
 8. Make a report on the work of the United States Coast Survey. 
 
 9. Make a report on the building and influence of the Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 10. Look up the history of canal building in your state. Have there 
 been any successful canals operated there? Are any of them still in 
 operation ? 
 
 11. Report on the purpose and history of the Panama Canal. What 
 arrangements did our government have to make with other nations in 
 regard to it? Of what advantage will it be to the world? What special 
 advantages will the United States derive from it? 
 
 12. Report on the early history of railroad building in your 
 state. 
 
 13. If there are interurban electric Hues in your neighborhood, re- 
 port what influence they have had on the life of the farmers : on the 
 prosperity of the cities. ' 
 
 14. How does your city government manage the building and re- 
 pairing of the streets? If you wanted the street on which you live 
 paved, how would you set about it? How would the expense be 
 met? 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 117 
 
 15. Are the ordinances respecting the blocking of sidewalks observed 
 in your community? 
 
 16. If you have a street railway in your community, find out what 
 the terms of the franchise are with reference to the use of the streets. 
 Also with reference to the paving of the streets through which the 
 tracks run. Are the people getting as good service from the street 
 railways as they should? If not, why? 
 
 17. Debate the question, "Street railways should be owned and 
 operated by the city." 
 
 18. Report on rural free mail delivery in your neighborhood. What 
 influence does it have on the improvement of the country roads? 
 
 19. Report on the organization of a large newspaper for the gather- 
 ing and distribution of information. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The Office of Public Roads, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D.C., has issued a series of circulars on the public roads of the differ- 
 ent states, giving the mileage of improved and unimproved roads, road 
 laws, etc. 
 
 Some of the state governments have issued reports on the public 
 roads of these states; as in Indiana, the Report of the State Geologist 
 for 1906 deals with the Roads and Road Materials of Indiana. 
 
 Henderson, "The Social Spirit in America," chapter VI, "Good Roads and 
 Communication." 
 
 Hart, " Actual Government," chapter XXVHI, "Transportation." 
 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," last edition, vol. II, chapter CHI, 
 " Railroads." 
 
 McMaster, "History of the American People," I: 11-13; 40-54; 67-70; U : 
 553~557 ■- 560-563; HI: 462-481. These references are good for the conditions 
 of travel and communication in the early history of our country. Also for the 
 National Road, the Erie Canal, and the establishment of the Coast Survey. 
 
 Earle, Alice M., "Home Life in Colonial Days," chapter XIV, " Travel, 
 Transportation, and Taverns." 
 
 Earle, Alice Morse, " Stage-Coach and Tavern Days." 
 
 Sparks, " The Expansion of the American People," chapters XII, XX, XXI, 
 XXH, XXni, XXX. An entertaining account of the development of means of 
 transportation. Chapter XXH deals with the Cumberland Road and the Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 Wilcox, "The American City," chapter H, "The Street," and chapter HI. 
 " The Control of Public Utilities." 
 
 Fairlie, "Municipal Administration," chapter XH, 291-307, "Urban Trans- 
 portation." Makes a comparison between European and American systems. 
 
 There have been many magazine articles in the last few years on good roads, 
 railroads, street railways, and the Panama Canal. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 HIS DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE 
 
 In 1607 the first permanent English colony was founded 
 in Virginia. Sixty-four years after its founding Governor 
 Berkeley reported to the king on the condition of 
 Berkeley on the colony, and among other things he said, " I 
 education ^h^nk God there are no free schools nor printing, 
 and I hope we shall not have, these hundred years." A 
 statement like this from one in authority seems strange to 
 us now, when one of our chief causes of pride is our system 
 of free schools and our busy printing presses. It is a good 
 example of the belief of despotic rulers that much knowl- 
 edge on the part of the people is dangerous. It is true 
 that a despotic government cannot exist in a nation where 
 the mass of the people are educated. What Governor Berke- 
 ley wanted to see was a colony of loyal subjects of the king, 
 contented because ignorant of their rights and powers, and 
 without ambition to extend their liberties by revolting against 
 the government of the king and his officers. 
 
 Fortunately for the growth of a free and self-governing 
 people. Governor Berkeley's ideas were not to prevail. 
 The people of Virginia were eager enough for schools, 
 The New though geographical conditions hindered 'their 
 England development. Within a few years from the 
 ^^^^ founding of Virginia, another group of colonists 
 
 founded Massachusetts. Here a law was passed providing 
 
 118 
 
EDUCATION 119 
 
 that in every town of fifty householders an elementary 
 school was to be established, and in every town of one 
 hundred householders, a grammar school. New England 
 grew under a system of free schools, free discussion, and 
 a free press, and because of these things, one hundred 
 years after Berkeley's time became a center of rebellion 
 against Enghsh oppression. 
 
 We must look first to the family as the most important 
 arrangement for the education of the citizen. If education 
 were left entirely to the family, however, it would ^^^ ^^^_ 
 be inadequately and unequally provided. A iiy and 
 large proportion of the citizens of America are 
 foreigners. They and their children w^ould make little 
 headway in acquiring the knowledge that makes them in- 
 telligent citizens if their education were left for their families 
 to accomplish. The children of wealthy families might be 
 highly educated by means of books and travel, and by the 
 employment of private teachers at home ; while the children 
 of wage earners would have to get along with very Uttle 
 education. It is not a high degree of education on the part 
 of a few that makes a republic hke ours great. It is rather 
 a fairly generous amount of knowledge permeating all ranks 
 and classes. Since the community is to be the gainer by 
 it, the community must afford a means of education that 
 shall be within the reach of all. 
 
 As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, Massa- 
 chusetts at an early time recognized the importance of a 
 generally educated people by estabUshing a sys- Education a 
 tem. of public schools. Connecticut made a fundamen- 
 
 ^ , . tal idea of 
 
 similar provision soon afterward. Other colonies ourgovem- 
 and sections of the country were slower about ^^^^ 
 providing for the general education of the people, 
 but in the course of time the Massachusetts wav has 
 
I20 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 become characteristic of the American community. 
 One of the foundation ideas of our free country is that 
 there shall be the greatest possible freedom of thought and 
 the most widespread information among the people. After 
 the Revolutionary War, when the Ordinance of 1787 was en- 
 acted by Congress for the government of the Western lands, 
 it provided that " religion, morality, and knowledge being 
 necessary to good government and the happiness of man- 
 kind, schools and the means of education shall be forever 
 encouraged." When new states were created out of this 
 Western land, it was provided that each should reserve one 
 section of every township for school purposes. States ad- 
 mitted after 1848 were to reserve two sections of each town- 
 ship. Thus began the public school system in the great 
 West. In the law of 1906, providing for the admission 
 of Indian Territory and Oklahoma as the state of Okla- 
 homa, it was provided that the proceeds from the sale of 
 all public lands should be used for school purposes. 
 
 The duty of education falls on the state, and not on the 
 national government. The state, in turn, has left the 
 Ed ati n '"'''^.tter largely in the hands of the local com- 
 in the hands munities. For this reason we find a good deal 
 ilcli^^ ^"^ ^^ variety in the organization and management 
 govern- of schools. Usually, in rural communities, the 
 
 ^^^^^ township or county is divided into school 
 
 districts. If the district is small, it has but one school. 
 Sometimes the township, or even the county, constitutes 
 a single district, and then there are probably several 
 schools under a single management. In some cases 
 the school business is transacted directly by the voters of 
 the district, who assemble at stated times for the purpose. 
 Usually it is placed in the hands of one or more com- 
 mitteemen or trustees, who are elected by the people. In 
 
I 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 21 
 
 most cases all the schools of a county are united under the 
 management of a board, which sometimes con- Township 
 sists of the several township trustees. The manage^^^ 
 board of trustees looks after the school build- ment 
 ings, employs teachers, and often selects the text-books to 
 be used. In order to secure uniformity and excellence in 
 all the schools of the county there is usually a county 
 superintendent, appointed by the board or elected by the 
 people, whose business it is to supervise the actual work 
 of the schools. 
 
 A Rural District School. 
 
 Rural schools are often poorly organized. The terms 
 are too short. Pupils of all ages and all stages of advance- 
 ment are grouped together in one room, often ^^^^ orean- 
 in the same classes, and taught by the same ization and 
 teacher. This defect has in some places been ^^^f^^- 
 
 ^ ment of 
 
 partly overcome by consolidating the schools of country 
 the township in one centrally located building, ^^ °° ^ 
 where the pupils can be graded, and where several 
 teachers can be employed under the supervision of a 
 principal. A single township high school is often secured 
 by this method of consolidation, although the separate dis- 
 
122 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 tricts could not support one. The difficulty in the way of 
 consolidation has been the distance the pupils have to 
 travel from the remote parts of the township. This diffi- 
 culty has been met in some states by providing means of 
 conveyance at public expense. 
 
 In cities the organization of schools can be more per- 
 fectly effected. The large number of children makes it 
 possible to grade them from the primary classes 
 lysc oos ^^^ ^^ ^^^ high school. The compactness of the 
 population makes it easier to supervise the work of all the 
 schools alike and to secure unity throughout the school 
 system. Better buildings, better equipment, and better 
 teachers can be afforded. The schools are under the 
 management of a school board, the members of which 
 are elected by the people, and a superintendent, who is 
 appointed by the board. 
 
 City school boards are usually given wide powers in 
 school matters, and act more or less independently of the 
 other branches of the government, in order to secure free- 
 dom from political influence. 
 
 Conditions of life in cities differ so much from condi- 
 tions in the country that the state allows cities great lib- 
 erty in organizing and managing their school 
 control of systems. The schools of the smaller towns and 
 education ^^^^^^ districts are usually controlled in their 
 general methods by a central state authority. There is a 
 state board of education, and often a state superintendent. 
 The state superintendent is chosen sometimes by elec- 
 tion, sometimes by appointment. In some ^states the 
 text-books used are prescribed for the whole state by the 
 state board of education. In some cases text-books are 
 furnished free to the pupils at the expense of the state. 
 
 A number of the states provide state universities for the 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 123 
 
 higher education of their young men and women. These 
 universities afford not only a broad collegiate state 
 education that will better fit any one for life in universities 
 the community, but they also offer special training for the 
 law, for medicine, for engineering, and for other profes- 
 
 A CONSOLIDAlEl) RL'RAI. SlHUUL IN INDIANA. 
 1 Observe the large number of children in attendance, and the wagons by which 
 ; they are carried to and from school. 
 
 : sions. Attendance at the state universities is usually free 
 to citizens of the state ; but so excellent are these institu- 
 
 • tions that they generally attract students from other states, 
 who are required to pay tuition. 
 
 I While education is thus chiefly in the hands of the state, 
 
 \ the national government is not wholly inactive 
 
 • .1 , . \\T ^ 1 • Educational 
 
 in the matter. We have seen how it gave a work of the 
 start to the educational work of the states by national 
 the donation of tracts of land. In addition to ^°^^'''^™®"* 
 this it has established a Bureau of Education, at the 
 
124 THE COMiMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 head of which is the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation. His duties are chiefly to collect information on 
 educational matters, to publish this information in reports 
 and bulletins, and to exercise an influence on educational 
 movements throughout the country. The national gov- 
 ernment maintains military and naval schools, schools for 
 the Indians, and schools for the city of Washington. 
 
 The cost of the public schools of the United States is 
 very great. They are one of the largest items of expense 
 Cost of to the government, amounting to about $231,- 
 
 education ooo,ooo annually. Of this amount $ 3,000,000 
 is expended by the national government, $ 44,000,000 by 
 the state governments, and $ 184,000,000 by the local 
 communities. This amounts to about $ 1 5 a year for each 
 child enrolled in the schools. 
 
 Why should the community expend so much for the ed- 
 ucation of its young people } Do they receive this edu- 
 cation freely from the community for their own 
 
 Why the , -^ , ., ^ . \.^ 
 
 government advantage alone .'^ Community liie is never 
 stands this one-sided. The child is educated by the com- 
 
 expense . r ^^r 
 
 munity not that he may get more out of life 
 (although it is true that he may), but that he may be able 
 to give more to the well-being of the community. Our 
 nation is annually investing millions of dollars in its young 
 people, expecting to get its returns in greatly increased 
 efficiency in the services rendered to it by its citizens. 
 
 Training for citizenship is accompHshed by the school 
 chiefly in two ways : 
 
 I. Through a course of instruction that will unfold to 
 How the the pupil his various relations to life, that will 
 trains for S^^^ ^^^^^ ^ Certain amount of information, and 
 citizenship that will develop his powers of clear think- 
 ing. We usually think of civics and history as the two 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 125 
 
 subjects intended to train for citizenship, but every 
 subject in the course of study should contribute to 
 the same end. Language, Hterature, mathematics, and 
 science, as well as history,' are intended to broaden the 
 view of the individual, to develop an all-round manhood 
 and womanhood, to cultivate the different desires and 
 
 The William Clark School, St. Louis, AIo. 
 
 powers in such a way as to fit the individual for life in the 
 community. 
 
 2. The second way in which the school should train for 
 citizenship is in the life of the school itself. The school 
 is a community and is also a part of the larger community 
 about it. It is a mistake to think that the school is merely 
 a place to prepare for life. It is life. School children are 
 doing just what the community expects them to be doing 
 during their time of Hfe. By so doing they are contribu- 
 ting to the welfare of the community as well as receiving a 
 benefit from it. 
 
 People learn to do things by practice. All the principles 
 of community life found in the world outside Theprinci- 
 
 of the school are found also within the school, pies of com- 
 munity life 
 Here are grouped together a number of peo- found in 
 
 pie with differing desires and motives, but all the school 
 possessing certain common interests. Here are probably 
 
126 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 represented several different nationalities going through 
 the process of being molded into Americans by com- 
 mon instruction and by association with each other. 
 Here are children from all classes in the community, all 
 on an exactly equal footing before the laws of the school, 
 and with exactly equal opportunities of showing their 
 worth and winning advancement by their own efforts. 
 This is the real idea of democracy that we are trying to 
 realize in our national and local communities. If we ever 
 realize it perfectly, it will be largely through the influence 
 of the public schools. 
 
 In the school is found the necessity for industry and 
 productive work ; for a division of tasks and united 
 action, under the direction of teachers, for the com- 
 mon good. Here is seen the necessity for organization 
 and government in order that the greatest good for the 
 greatest number may be secured. Here more or less 
 responsibility rests upon each member for the welfare of 
 all. Failure or wrongdoing on the part of one not only 
 brings disaster to himself, but tends to disturb the harmony 
 and well-being of all. Certain phases of school Hfe tend 
 to develop particular qualities of good citizenship ; in 
 athletics courage, decisiveness in action, and the spirit 
 of square dealing are emphasized. And so in the Hfe of 
 the school habits are formed by practice that will work 
 good or ill by being perpetuated in the life of the larger 
 community outside of the school. 
 
 Education is not only a privilege ; it is a duty, because 
 every citizen owes it to his community to equip himself to 
 Education render the best citizenship possible. This is 
 a duty recognized in many of the states by the passage 
 
 of compulsory education laws, requiring every child to 
 attend school during a certain number of years. In some 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 127 
 
 cities there are special schools where methods are adopted 
 to keep in school pupils who do not get on well in the 
 regular schools. 
 
 As we pass from the first to the eighth grade, we find 
 
 The Work-shop of a Special ScH'jul for Bovs. 
 
 that a great many pupils drop out each year for various 
 reasons, and that only from five to ten per cent 
 of those who enter the first grade pass into the sibmty^^°^' 
 high school. Of these not more than ten per °^ ^^^ ^ig^ 
 
 . ^T-1 M 1 r 1 school pupil 
 
 cent graduate. \\ hue the average cost of educa- 
 tion throughout the United States is about 315 for each 
 pupil enrolled, the cost of the high schools in cities is about 
 $50 for every pupil enrolled in them. This higher education 
 of a few by the community demands in return greater service 
 to the community. The community has a right to expect 
 more from an educated man than from an uneducated one ; 
 more from a high school graduate than from one who has 
 
128 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 not attended high school. A Hberal education is not in- 
 tended to relieve a person from hard work, but to fit him 
 for more and better work than he could do otherwise. 
 
 We have given our attention, in this chapter, to the 
 public school system of our country as a means of satisfy- 
 ing: the desire for knowledge. But it must not 
 
 Other o ^ 
 
 educational be supposed that this is all the community does 
 institutions ^^^ ^j^-g purpose. There are thousands of private 
 schools scattered over the country, especially in the cities. 
 There are parochial schools ; that is, schools managed by 
 certain churches, as in the caseof the Roman Catholic church. 
 There are many colleges which are self-supporting, or derive 
 their support from private funds. There are schools for 
 the deaf and dumb, and for the blind, supported by the 
 state. There are thousands of hbraries all over the country, 
 many of which are public libraries for the free use of the 
 citizens. These are a valuable ally of the public schools, 
 and are sometimes managed by the school board in cities. 
 Many of the states support free libraries, and at Washing- 
 ton there is the great Congressional library, a national in- 
 stitution. When we consider these countless educational 
 arrangements of our country, we cannot help being im- 
 pressed with the strong desire for knowledge that is prev- 
 alent, and the variety of means that are provided to satisfy 
 it. 
 
 In the colonial days of New England the town meeting 
 was one of the greatest educational forc'es. Here the peo- 
 Freedomof pl^ gathered to discuss matters of common in- 
 speech, of terest. Every citizen was educated on matters 
 
 the press, ^ , ,. . ^, . . , i • r 
 
 and of of public importance. This widespread intor- 
 
 assembiage niation is important in a republic like ours. The 
 love of meeting together to discuss public questions, or to 
 hear them discussed by well-informed persons, is very 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 T29 
 
 Striking in America. We have only to compare ourselves 
 with some of the more benighted countries of the world, 
 like Russia, where men may be sent into exile for express- 
 ing their thoughts too freely, where public meetings are 
 largely forbidden, and where no news may be printed in 
 the newspapers until it has been examined by government 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 High School, Fort Wayne, Ind. 
 
 officials, to be thankful that our Constitution provides that 
 " Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the free- 
 dom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people 
 freely to assemble" (Amendment I). 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Find what you can about the school life of the child in colo- 
 nial New England; in colonial Virginia. 
 
 2. Find what you can about the first schools in your own community. 
 How did they differ from the schools of to-day? Length of the school 
 term ? Did all children attend? Were they private schools, or public? 
 Where did they get teachers? How well were the teachers paid? 
 
 3. What does the family do for the education of the children that the 
 school cannot do? What does the school do that the family cannot? 
 
130 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 4. What does your state constitution provide with regard to educa- 
 tion ? 
 
 5. Describe the organization of the schools in your township and 
 county. 
 
 6. If the schools in your community arc graded, when and why did 
 the grading take place? Show how the graded system is better than 
 the ungraded system. 
 
 7. Are the country schools consolidated in any part of your state? 
 If so, how does the system work? 
 
 8. If you live in a city, describe in detail the organization of the city 
 schools. Describe the board of education, number of members, term 
 of office, powers, etc. 
 
 9. What are the qualifications prescribed for teachers in your 
 community? How are the teachers selected? 
 
 10. Describe the work of the state board of education and that of the 
 state superintendent in your state. 
 
 11. How are the school books selected in your state? In your city? 
 Are they free to the children? What advantages and disadvantages 
 result from free school books? 
 
 12. What do the public schools cost your city? Your county? Your 
 state? 
 
 13. Compare the school community of which you are a member with 
 the community outside of the school, as suggested on page 125 of this 
 chapter. 
 
 14. How does the government of your school differ from the govern- 
 ment of the city or town in which you live? Why the difference? 
 Would it be wise to make the government of the school more like that 
 of the city? Give reasons. Look up the "school city'' plan of self- 
 government in schools, and report your opinion of it (see references 
 below) . 
 
 15. What are the compulsory education laws of your state? How are 
 truants looked after in your community? 
 
 16. What reasons can you give why the high school should be main- 
 tained at the expense of the community, in spite of the small propor- 
 tional attendance and the large proportional cost? 
 
 17. Make a list of the educational agencies in your community out- 
 side of the public school. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government." chapter XXVIII, -Education." 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics,'' chapter XLVI. 
 Dewey, John, " The School and Society.'' 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 131 
 
 Henderson, C. R., •' The Social Spirit in America/' chapter XII, '• The 
 Social Spirit in the State School System." 
 
 Boone. R. H., "Education in the United States/' 
 
 Dexter, E. G., '• History of Education in the United States/' 
 
 Earle, Alice M., " Child Life in Colonial Days,'' chapters III-VI. 
 
 The following articles deal with civic training in the public school : 
 
 Shaw, Albert, " The School Citv," in Review of Reviezvs, December, 1899. 
 
 Orcutt, Hiram, " Discipline in the Home, School, and College," in Education, 
 vol. 18 (1898), pp. 606, 614. 
 
 French, C. W., " The Problem of School Government," in School Revieio, vol. 8 
 (1900), pp. 201-212. 
 
 French, C. W., " The School City," in School Revieiv, 13 : 33. 
 
 Flower, B. C, " Bulwarking American Institutions by Practicil Civic Educa- 
 tion," in Arena, May, 1905. 
 
 The National School City League has published a pamphlet on the School City, 
 " A New System of Moral and Civic Training," at the end of which is a bibliography 
 on the subject. 
 
 The Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, and also the 
 Reports of the State Superintendents, or State Boards, of Education, contain useful 
 material. 
 
 The McKixi.F.Y High School, St. Loils, Mo. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 HIS DESIRE FOR BEAUTIFUL SURROUNDINGS 
 
 In one important way the growth of communities has 
 tended to destroy the beautiful surroundings of man. It 
 
 View of a River Front. 
 Notice the unsightly sheds, the heaps of refuse, and the smoking factories. 
 
 is a misfortune that much of the natural beauty 
 of the landscape must disappear before the ad- 
 vance of civilization. The forest and the flower- 
 clothed prairie are transformed into farms and 
 building sites. The hills are cut away for the resources 
 that they contain. The streams are lined with ugly and 
 
 Civilization 
 destroys 
 much 
 beauty of 
 nature 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 133 
 
 noisy factories, and clogged with refuse. The sky is 
 obscured with smoke. 
 
 The community, acting sometimes through the govern- 
 ment and sometimes in other ways, may prevent a great 
 deal of unnecessary destruction of the beauty of 
 
 . Unnecessary 
 
 nature. The national government and some 01 destruction 
 the states have forestry bureaus, which have of natural 
 
 . ^ beauty 
 
 for their purpose the preservation of the forests. 
 Needless pollution of streams may be checked by state 
 
 Boulevard on the Bank of a Stream. 
 This stream is thus made a mobt attractive feature in the heart of a large city. 
 
 laws, and their natural beauty in a measure preserved by 
 preventing dilapidated and untidy premises along their 
 banks in cities, and in some cases by converting their 
 banks into parks. Sentiment may be aroused among the 
 boys, in the school and otherwise, against the killing of 
 birds. Much natural scenery may be preserved by the 
 creation of national and state parks, as in the case of the 
 Yellowstone and the Yosemite. Niagara Falls is now in 
 
134 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 danger of being transformed from one of the great wonders 
 of nature into a mere sluice for the turning of mill wheels 
 unless the government can be induced by public sentiment 
 to prevent it. 
 
 If natural beauty tends to disappear before the growth 
 of communities, the opportunity for art increases. Beauti- 
 ful houses and imposing business blocks make 
 
 Community ah- r -, -, 
 
 life creates their appearance. Art galleries are founded. 
 
 opportuni- Religious Organizations and institutions of other 
 
 kinds grace the community with beautiful 
 
 A Beautiful Back Yard. 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 churches and other structures. Schools cultivate the taste 
 for beautiful things, and the people are taught how to 
 enjoy life in ways that they could not if they lived in 
 isolation. 
 
 The place to begin beautifying the community is in the 
 home. The citizen who is careless about the appearance 
 Beauty in ^^ ^is own home is almost sure to have little in- 
 the home tercst in the appearance of the rest of the com- 
 munity. A home that is unsightly takes away from the 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 135 
 
 enjoyment of all who see it. The first essential to beauty- 
 is neatness and orderliness. But it is possible to do more 
 than merely to keep the premises clean and in order. Grass 
 can be made to cover bare ground, or to take the place of 
 weeds. There is almost always a spot for vines and flowers 
 to grow, if it is only in window boxes. It is wonderful 
 what a transformation has often taken place even among 
 the crowded dweUings of the poor in the heart of cities, by 
 
 School Gardening in St. Louis. 
 
 the introduction of vines over the fences, a flower bed 
 in the small rear yard, and boxes of growing plants at the 
 windows. The practice of thus adorning the dwelling place 
 is contagious, and spreads from home to home, and from 
 neighborhood to neighborhood. One well-kept lawn in a 
 neighborhood is followed by others, until whole squares 
 and whole streets present an unbroken view of beauty. 
 
 It is wonderful how m.uch children can do toward mak- 
 ing the community beautiful in this way. In Cleveland 
 
136 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The 
 children's 
 
 there is a Home Gardening Association, working chiefly 
 through the school children, which has trans- 
 formed home yards, school grounds, and vacant 
 opportunity ^^^^ from barren and disorderly spots, in many 
 cases, into beautiful flower and vegetable gardens. This 
 Association early learned that " the easiest and surest way 
 
 
 '■^^Sk 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 mmm 
 
 
 
 
 l^S^mS^B^^^^BKSKtm^'^ 
 
 
 WSm!3i 
 
 A School Garden. 
 Picking and crating tomatoes. 
 
 to results is through the enthusiasm of youth." In most 
 phases of community life we usually think that active citi- 
 zenship is for men and women ; but in the beautifying of 
 the community, in which a high type of citizenship can be 
 shown, the children may take an active and prominent part, 
 and are doing so in many communities. 
 
 It is appropriate that the school and the home should 
 work together in this matter. The school buildings scattered 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 137 
 
 throughout a city, and also in the country districts, should 
 be centers of pride in their neighborhoods be- Beauty in 
 cause of their beauty. Happily, communities *^^ school 
 are beginning to realize this, and the architecture of schools 
 is improving. Even if the buildings are old and ugly, their 
 surroundings, in most cases, can be made beautiful and in 
 
 A Well-kept street. 
 Notice lawns, pavements, water hydrant, mail-box, telephone poles. 
 
 this the children can have a part. The work of the Cleve- 
 land Home Gardening Association began with the improve- 
 ment of a school yard in the heart of the city. 
 
 A city is judged by the appearance of its streets perhaps 
 more than in any other way, unless it is by the appearance 
 of its homes. The eye passes naturally from Beauty in 
 one to the other. The street is public property, the street 
 This means that each citizen has a share in it ; he has a 
 right to its use, and a right to expect that it will be kept in 
 
138 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 good repair and good order. He also has a share of the 
 responsibihty for keepmg it so. There was a time in certain 
 cities when each householder was required to keep the street 
 directly adjacent to his property swept and in good order. 
 At first this was done by the householder himself, or by 
 his servant. Then a group of neighbors would unite in 
 employing some one to do it for the neighborhood, or for 
 the whole street. In the course of time it was found that 
 the work could be done better and more economically by 
 placing it all under the direction of a central authority, and 
 by having a body of men give their whole time to it. The 
 ^ . expense was met by taxing the householders, 
 biiity of the Now that the care of the streets has been shifted 
 citizen from the individual householder to the govern- 
 
 ment of the community, the householder has come to feel, 
 in many cases, that he has also shifted the responsibility ; 
 but the employer is responsible for the work of those 
 whom he employs. 
 
 In city communities good pavements are perhaps the 
 first essential to beautiful streets. Holes and uneven 
 Pavements; placcs are unsightly as well as unsafe. A rough 
 noise pavement also adds to the noise of a city. The 
 
 desire for the beautiful may be satisfied as much through 
 the ear as through the eye. Noises are often our safe- 
 guards against danger. This is the excuse for gongs on 
 street cars and fire engines, bells on bicycles, and whistles 
 on locomotives. But the noise in most of our large cities 
 is unnecessarily great and trying. In some cities ordinances 
 exist to decrease the amount of noise, as where iron pipes 
 must be wrapped before they are hauled through the streets, 
 where the shrill whistle of interurban cars is forbidden 
 within the city limits, or where the calling by hucksters 
 and newsboys is forbidden. 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 39 
 
 In the matter of clean streets, as in so many other 
 things, prevention is .better than cure. Refuse is often 
 swept or thrown into the streets, and paper is Littering 
 strewn along them that should be disposed of in t^^ streets 
 some other way. Ordinances sometimes exist forbidding 
 such unnecessary Uttering of the streets, but they are in 
 the class of regulations commonly disregarded. In some 
 
 A Street in St. Louis. 
 
 cities boxes are provided on the street corners to receive 
 waste paper and other matter. Care must be taken that 
 such boxes shall not themselves be unsightly. 
 
 It has been said by some observing persons that school 
 children are largely responsible for the unsightly appear- 
 ance of our streets from the scattering of scraps of paper. 
 It may not be true that school children are any more in- 
 clined to throw scraps in the streets than other people. It 
 is true, though, that they have unusual temptation, as 
 they come from school with an accumulation of papers that 
 they no longer want. Their large numbers make possible 
 
 "^^^^ 
 
 OF THE ^ 
 
40 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 a good deal of paper scattering in a few minutes. If 
 children can do a great deal toward beautifying the 
 community by gardening at home and on the school 
 grounds, they can also do a great deal to prevent an un- 
 
 .\N I N SIGHTLY XElGHliOKHi >i •] i. 
 
 sightly appearance by refraining from throwing papers. 
 Habits formed in school go a long way in such matters. 
 Boys and girls who scatter scraps of paper in the school- 
 room and halls, will do the same thing on the streets and 
 in other public places. 
 
 Among the most beautiful objects in nature are trees. 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 141 
 
 They are also among the objects that have been most 
 recklessly sacrificed by growing communities, xhe beauty 
 Nothing adds more to the attractiveness of a octrees 
 village or a city than shaded lawns and tree-arched streets. 
 What is more pleasant than a country road lined with 
 beautiful trees ? 
 
 The trees of many communities are suffering from the 
 ravages of insects and parasites. The government is 
 doing a great deal toward discovering means to Destruction 
 destroy the tree pests, and to acquaint the peo- ^^? muti- 
 ple with these means. The trees also have trees 
 enemies among men, to whom they would contribute 
 so much in health and pleasure. In the first place, men 
 clear away fine trees, sometimes necessarily, but often 
 unnecessarily, to make way for so-called " improvements." 
 Magnificent trees are sacrificed in order that an ordinary- 
 looking house may be built at a particular spot. Often 
 a home would be improved a hundred fold in appear- 
 ance, if the trees were left and the house placed farther 
 back or to one side. A great deal of monotony is pro- 
 duced in our streets and an opportunity for a display of 
 artistic taste is lost, by building our houses too much alike, 
 and all at exactly the same distance from the street, without 
 regard to the nature of the lots or the disposition of the 
 trees and other natural features upon them. 
 
 In the second place we do not take sufficient care to re- 
 place trees that die, or that are necessarily cut down. In 
 some European cities it is required by law that every tree 
 that dies or is removed, unless removed to prevent crowding, 
 must be replaced by another. Trees are of comparatively 
 slow growth, and this may be one reason why householders 
 hesitate to plant them, fearing that they may never get 
 the benefit of them. This shows a lack of community 
 
42 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Trkf. Muin.AiioN ox a Country Road. 
 
 spirit. Arbor Day affords an opportunity for children to 
 do something in this connection. The systematic planting 
 of trees on this day not only helps to beautify the com- 
 munity at once, but is a splendid lesson in citizenship. 
 
 One of the worst kinds of tree mutilation is that which 
 makes way for telegraph or telephone poles and wdres. 
 
 This is an evil that ex- 
 ists both in the country 
 and in the city. Many 
 a beautiful street or road 
 has been made unsightly 
 by such mutilation of 
 trees. This is a matter 
 for the community gov- 
 ernment to control ; but 
 the government will not 
 usually act until the citi- 
 zens show an interest in the preservation of the trees. 
 
 Telegraph, telephone, and trolley poles are in themselves 
 unsightly. In the business portions of cities the network 
 Poles of wires is dangerous in time of fire, and this 
 
 and wires has led to their removal in many cities. This 
 has been accomplished by placing the wires underground. 
 Civic beauty has strong claims to the removal of such un- 
 sightly objects from the streets. PubUc sentiment is slowly 
 being awakened in regard to this matter, and the time 
 is coming when the view of a beautiful street will not be 
 obstructed by lines of ugly poles and a network of wires. 
 
 Another means of disfiguring our streets is by a reck- 
 less use of advertising. Men have a right to attract at- 
 ,^ ,. tention to their wares ; but thought should be 
 
 Advertise- ' ° 
 
 ments and given to the means, the time, and the place of 
 biUboards doing SO. We allow beautiful features of our com- 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 143 
 
 munities to be marred, and ugly features made more ugly, by 
 permitting citizens to exercise perfect freedom in advertising 
 for private gain. Unattractive signs are nailed to beauti- 
 ful trees, which should not be marred by any kind of sign. 
 Ugly telephone poles are made still uglier by the same 
 means. Attractive residence streets are made unattractive 
 
 A View in a City Pakk. 
 
 by huge billboards with inartistic signs upon them. Even 
 the signs on business blocks, where they have a right to 
 be, are often inartistic and wholly out of harmony with 
 the architecture of the street. 
 
 All cities have their systems of parks and boulevards, 
 though they are developed more fully in some cities than 
 in others. Boston has 15,000 acres -devoted to parks and 
 parks, which are connected with each other by boulevards 
 boulevards, and include a stretch of ocean beach. Some 
 
44 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 cities have preserved in their midst a bit of natural scenery 
 to refresh the eye. In some of the larger cities spaces are be- 
 ing cleared of tumble-down buildings in the crowded portions 
 to make way for small parks with grass and trees, flowers 
 and fountains, which may bring a little pleasure into the lives 
 of those who seldom enjoy the fresh air of the country. 
 
 An Unimfrovei) Cornkk. 
 The same corner is shown improved in the next illustration. 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 Such is the little park at Mulberry Bend, in New York, 
 which was once the center of the most vicious part of the 
 slums. Parks and boulevards are under the care of boards of 
 park commissioners, who sometimes also have care over the 
 trees of all the streets. Sometimes the trees are placed 
 under the charge of special tree commissioners or foresters. 
 Smoke is another of the accompaniments of growing 
 Prevention Communities. Smoke, like the network of wires 
 of smoke j^ the streets, has been assumed to be a neces- 
 sary sign of material prosperity. As the wires are dis- 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 145 
 
 appearing beneath the surface of the streets, it is also 
 being found that clouds of black smoke are not necessary 
 to industry. A few large cities have earnestly determined 
 to be free from the smoke, ordinances have been passed 
 and enforced against it, and the beauty of the com- 
 munities has been greatly increased as a result. 
 
 A Corner Improved. 
 
 The same as in the preceding illustration. 
 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 Ugly features of community Hfe have been mentioned 
 only to emphasize the fact that our communities are doing 
 more to-day than ever before to oret rid of them. ^^ ^ . 
 
 ■' _ ^ The desire 
 
 There is a steady improvement in the character for beauty 
 of the architecture in our cities. The people of ^^ growing 
 
 ^ ^ stronger in 
 
 small means are living, not only in more com- our com- 
 fortable homes, but in more beautiful ones. °^^^^*^®^ 
 Their taste for beauty and refinement is steadily growing. 
 The streets are constantly becoming more pleasant to look 
 upon. Art museums are being established in increasing 
 
146 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 numbers. Civic Improvement Associations, and other 
 organizations for the beautifying of communities, exist in 
 almost every city and town. Local, state, and national 
 governments are doing more than ever before to provide 
 the people with the opportunity to satisfy more fully their 
 desire for beautiful surroundings. But there is still much 
 to be accomphshed in this direction, and its accomplish- 
 ment depends on the citizens of the present and the 
 future. 
 
 The improvement in the surroundings of the people is 
 bound to produce a better citizenship. Men and women 
 Beautiful ^^^^ their spirits, become depressed, when their 
 surround- surroundings are unpleasant. They lose hope 
 ingspro- ^^^ ambition. Much of the vice and crime of 
 
 duce better 
 
 citizen- large cities is no doubt induced by this cause. 
 
 ^^^^ One of the first steps toward transforming men 
 
 and women into good citizens, who will contribute to the 
 welfare of the community, is to give them pleasant 
 surroundings. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Has any natural scenery been destroyed by the growth of your 
 community? Was it altogether necessary? 
 
 2. Is anything being done in your community to prevent unneces- 
 sary destruction of natural beauty? 
 
 3. What relation has the killing of birds to civic beauty? 
 
 4. Report on the use of Niagara Falls as a power for industrial pur- 
 poses. What is being done to preserve this natural wonder? Do you 
 think that the usefulness of the Falls in industry justifies the destruction 
 of their beauty? 
 
 5. Is your community notable for its beautiful homes? In what 
 sections of the communitv is the greatest care taken in this respect? 
 Why is it? 
 
 6. Observe the premises of the homes in your neighborhood, begin- 
 ning with your own. with reference to the care of the lawn ; growth of 
 weeds; the accumulation of rubbish : the neatness of the back yards; 
 
( 
 
 CIVIC BEAUTY 147 
 
 the growth of flowers ; the care of the streets and alleys adjoining. 
 Make a report of conditions, and suggest improvements. 
 
 7. Let each pupil report a plan to improve the appearance of his 
 own yard. Begin a systematic movement to put these plans into effect. 
 
 8. Is your school as beautiful as it could be in the appearance of the 
 yard? In the care of the halls and rooms? Could you do anything to 
 improve it? Do the people in the neighborhood take pride in the 
 school building and grounds ? If not, how could they be made to do so? 
 
 9. Are the streets in your community beautiful? If not, what are 
 their defects? If they are, what constitutes their beauty? 
 
 10. Report on the character of the pavements with reference to their 
 appearance. 
 
 11. What noises in your community are unnecessary? How could 
 they be lessened? 
 
 12. What is done in your community to keep the streets clean? 
 What ordinances exist on this matter? Are they observed and en- 
 forced ? 
 
 h 13. Observe the trees in your neighborhood, in streets and lawns, 
 and report on their general condition and appearance. Is care taken 
 to preserve beautiful trees? Is anything being done in a systematic 
 way in tree planting? Are the trees being mutilated or destroyed by 
 linemen or otherwise? Is any attempt being made to create a senti- 
 ment in favor of the trees? Does the city government provide any one 
 to care for the trees in the streets? 
 
 14. Make a report on street advertisements in your neighborhood. 
 Observe w^iether the appearance of the streets, or of private property, 
 is marred by such advertisements. 
 
 15. Report on the parks and boulevards of your community. De- 
 scribe their points of beauty. Are they used by the people freely? 
 How are they managed? 
 
 16. What societies exist in your community to improve its appear- 
 ance? How do they w^ork? 
 
 17. Is your community active at the present time in beautifying the 
 streets and public places by the erection of statuary, monuments, foun- 
 tains, and in other ways? 
 
 18. Is the architecture of your community improving in character? 
 Observe residences, business blocks, churches, schools, and public 
 buildings. 
 
 19. Select one of the most beautiful buildings in your community 
 and give a detailed description of it. 
 
 20. Is anything being done in your community to cultivate a taste 
 for beautiful surroundings among those who live in the tenements, or 
 in the poorer quarters of the city? 
 
148 THE COiMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 21. Write an essay on the relation between civic beauty and good 
 citizenship. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Zueblin, "A Decade of Civic Development/' 
 
 Robinson, "The Improvement of Towns and Cities." 
 
 Robinson, '' Modern City Art.'' 
 
 Eggleston, N. H.. "Home and Its Surroundings." 
 
 Henderson, " The Social Spirit in America,'" chapter XIV, " Social- 
 ized Beauty and Recreation.'" 
 
 The magazine literature on the subject of civic beauty is abundant. 
 The following are a few good references : 
 
 " For Civic Improvement : What to do, and How to do it," Century Magazine, 
 64 : 43. 
 
 " Art in Public Works," Century Magazine, 64 : 912. 
 
 "Municipal Art," Chantauquan, 36:516; "Street Decoration," Chautauquan, 
 40: 60. 
 
 " The Uplift in American Cities," World's Work, 8 : 4963. 
 
 " The Town Beautiful," Outlook, 77 : 35, 543. 
 
 "Public Art in American Cities," Municipal Affairs, 2:1; "Civic Architec- 
 ture," Municipal Affairs, 2: 46; " Municipal Sculpture," Municipal Affairs, 2 : 73. 
 
 i! 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 HIS RELIGIOUS DESIRE 
 
 The community described in the first chapter grew around 
 the college and the church, which occupied the most 
 important place in the minds and hearts of the settlers. 
 Every one of those first families was deeply religious. 
 The simple social life of the early days centered chiefly in 
 the church. The only government of the village, for a 
 brief period, was the government of the church organiza- 
 tion. These people were of Puritan descent and principles, 
 and they remind us of the colonists of New England. 
 
 The love of religion has played a very important part 
 in the history of the world. Perhaps no other motive has 
 driven men to action more powerfully than this. Religion 
 In the history of our land this is shown. The has been a 
 
 1 • r 1 1 r I- • , powerful 
 
 desire tor the spread or religion was not the motive in 
 least of the motives that brought Columbus to history 
 America. The Spaniards made their conquests in the 
 name of religion, and they estabHshed missions wherever 
 they went. The priests led the way in the French explora- 
 tion and settlement of America. The Pilgrims came to 
 Plymouth to find freedom of religious worship, and all 
 through the history of the various colonies religious ques- 
 tions had an important influence. 
 
 When the English colonies in America were founded, 
 England, like most other countries of the world, had a 
 state rehgion and a state church. That is, the government 
 
 149 
 
I50 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 prescribed what form of religion the people must observe. 
 The Puritans came to America because they could not 
 conform to these requirements, and desired liberty to wor- 
 ship as they believed to be right. We might think that, 
 since they desired religious liberty for them- 
 intoierance selves, when they came to America they should 
 in colonial have sfranted equal liberty to others who came to 
 
 times ° 
 
 their settlements. Such was not the case. The 
 Puritans were intolerant of all who differed from them in re- 
 ligious matters. They hated the religious ceremonies of the 
 Roman CathoHc church. They drove the Quakers away 
 from their settlements, and even put some of them to death. 
 Roger Williams was driven out from Massachusetts partly 
 because of his religious views. The Roman Catholics, the 
 Quakers, and the Episcopalians were about as intolerant 
 of the Puritans and of each other as the Puritans were of 
 them. It was considered a remarkable thing when Mary- 
 land was founded by Roman CathoHcs and Protestants to- 
 together, and that they lived side by side in harmony. 
 
 In most of the colonies there was a very close relation 
 between the church and the government, as there was in 
 The relation England, although it was not always the Church 
 chLTch^and^ of England that was recognized in the colonies, 
 the govern- In some colonies no one could enjoy full politi- 
 Sioniai ^^^ rights, such as the right to vote and to hold 
 times office, except members of the church officially 
 
 recognized in the colony. In New England the ministers 
 were usually the most influential men in the affairs of gov- 
 ernment. Many of the laws were taken directly from the 
 Bible, and men were tried in the courts and punished for 
 violation of commonly accepted religious beliefs, as for 
 breaking the Sabbath or swearing. Thus in various ways 
 the government controlled the religious life of the people. 
 
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION 151 
 
 After the Revolution the connection between the church 
 and the government gradually became less complete. Re- 
 strictions on the right to vote because of religious ^ 
 
 o o Separation 
 
 beliefs rapidly disappeared. With the growth of between 
 democratic ideas, according to which one man ^^^^\^ 
 has as much right to his opinions as another; govern- 
 with the increasing immigration of people of 
 different nationality and religious belief ; and with the de- 
 velopment of means of communication by which people of 
 different sections were brought into contact with one an- 
 other, men became more tolerant of each other's beliefs and 
 forms of worship. It came to be recognized that a man's 
 religious opinions were a matter for his own individual con- 
 science, not to be dictated or controlled by government. 
 
 Accordingly, when the Constitution of the United States 
 was adopted, an amendment was added declaring that 
 *' Congress shall make no law respecting an estabhshment 
 of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof " (Amend- 
 ment I). The federal Constitution does not, however, 
 prohibit the states from exercising control over matters 
 of religion. Some of the states continued, for a time, to 
 require religious qualifications for voting. Some re- 
 fused to accept testimony in the courts from persons who 
 denied the existence of God. In a few cases churches 
 have received aid from the state. Nevertheless, most 
 state constitutions now prohibit governmental support of 
 churches, although it is customary for state governments 
 to exempt from taxation the property of churches. 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787, in providing for the first gov- 
 ernment of the Northwest Territory, said, " Religion, mo- 
 rality, and education being necessary to good government 
 and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
 of education shall forever be encouraged." Religion and 
 
152 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 education are here coupled together and recognized as 
 The attitude two of the greatest influences in the progress 
 of our Qf a nation. A man's beliefs have much to 
 
 government -,,• ^ tt- t- • r 
 
 toward do With his conduct. His rengion consists of 
 
 religion ]^[^ attitude, not only toward God, but also 
 
 toward his fellow-men. It teaches him to love his neigh- 
 bor as himself, and to do unto others as he would be done 
 by. If all men did these things, we should have better 
 communities and better citizenship. But so far as our 
 government is concerned, its attitude toward the religious 
 life of the citizen is merely to allow the greatest possible 
 personal liberty in the matter, and to offer the fullest op- 
 portunity for religious influences to develop the qualities of 
 good citizenship. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Make a list of some of the great historical events in the world 
 that were due to religious causes. 
 
 2. Let individual pupils make reports on the following topics: 
 a. The religious life of the Puritans in New England. 
 
 d. The story of the Quakers in Pennsylvania. 
 
 c. The story of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. 
 
 d. Religious toleration in Maryland. 
 
 e. The relation between the church and the government in colonial 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 A 3. What can you find about the religious life of your own community 
 in the early days ? 
 
 ' 4. What different religious sects or denominations are represented 
 in your community to-day? What other religious organizations are 
 there besides the churches? What do they do for the community? 
 
 5 . Are there any schools, hospitals, or other institutions in your com- 
 munity supported by religious organizations? 
 , 6. What does the constitution of your state say on the subject of 
 
 religion? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Howe, Daniel Waite, " The Puritan Republic' 
 Hart, " Actual Government," chapter XXIX. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 WHAT THE COMMUNITY DOES FOR THOSE WHO CAxNNOT 
 OR W^ILL x\OT CONTRIBUTE TO ITS PROGRESS 
 
 There are three classes of persons who contribute noth- 
 ing to the advancement of the community. The first class 
 consists of those who are physically or mentally unable to 
 do so, a class known as defectives. The sec- Defectives, 
 ond class consists of those who, though physi- and^^eUn^ 
 cally able to do something, are, nevertheless, not quents 
 self-supporting, and depend on the community to support 
 them. These are called dependents. The third class con- 
 sists of those who live in positive violation of the law 
 of the community. These are criminals. These three 
 classes of people have to be taken account of in every com- 
 munity, and if they cannot be made to contribute to the 
 common welfare, they must at least be prevented from 
 doing harm. 
 
 There was a time in the development of mankind when 
 the physically defective — the blind, the crippled, the hope- 
 lessly ill, and the aged — were such a serious burden to 
 the community that it was considered necessary Treatment 
 to put them to death. This was a time when °essbythe" 
 the very existence of the community depended uncivilized 
 on the physical strength of its members. If a man was 
 not a fighter and a food getter, he endangered the exist- 
 ence of his fellows. He had to be fed from the hard- 
 earned stores of the others, and had to be defended 
 against enemies. Many savage tribes put to death the 
 
 153 
 
154 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 hopelessly sick, the aged, and the crippled. The an- 
 cient Spartans exposed sickly children to die upon the 
 mountains. 
 
 As men have become civiHzed, as sympathy for others 
 has become stronger, and as it has become easier to sustain 
 life, the weak and the helpless have been taken under the 
 It is the care of the strong, and it is now considered the 
 duty of the duty of the Community to provide for those who 
 toTar"?o/ are physically unable to care for themselves. In 
 the helpless niany cases the defective may be benefited to 
 such an extent that he may become self-supporting, and 
 able even to contribute something to the welfare of the 
 community. The blind and the deaf and dumb may be 
 educated by special methods so that they may engage in 
 various occupations for their own support and happiness. 
 The government has established schools and asylums for 
 these unfortunate classes. The government also main- 
 tains hospitals for the insane, where they are not only 
 prevented from doing harm to others, but where they are 
 also made happier, and often cured and restored to use- 
 fulness. There are institutions for the helplessly crip- 
 pled and the hopelessly ill, where their suffering may at 
 least be alleviated. There are also institutions for the 
 homeless aged, and for orphaned children. 
 
 The work of caring for this class of citizens is in the 
 hands of the state, not of the national government. Local 
 It is a care Communities, and especially cities, often do much 
 of the state fQj- ^hg ^^re of their defective members. But 
 the work is so costly that it is chiefly concentrated in 
 the hands of the state government, which maintains in- 
 stitutions for the purpose in a few favorable localities, to 
 which the sufferers are brought from all parts of the state. 
 
 The dependent class of people, as distinguished from the 
 
CHARITY AND CRIME 1 55 
 
 defective class, consists of those who through poverty 
 are a burden on the community. Poverty may 
 be due to physical inability to provide for one's ^ 
 
 self. If this is the case, there are the institutions already 
 mentioned to care for such dependents. But the poverty 
 may be due, in some cases, merely to bad management 
 and a lack of foresight. It may often be due to drunken- 
 ness on the part of one or both of the parents, or to lazy 
 and shiftless habits, or to a desire to live at the expense of 
 others rather than by honest effort. 
 
 The care of the poor was at one time almost wholly in 
 the hands of the church, and the church still does a great 
 deal to this end. In the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 beth a law was passed by the English parlia- 
 ment requiring each parish to care for its own poor. 
 Since then the government has done much to relieve 
 poverty, and poor laws were enacted in America modeled 
 after those of England. Poor relief is considered a matter 
 for the local community to regulate. 
 
 Poverty has always appealed to the sympathies of 
 people, and voluntary efforts on the part of individuals 
 and societies to reUeve it have long been com- ^j^^ danger 
 mon. Until recently this relief has been offered inunorgan- 
 in an altogether disorganized way, each giver ^^^ ^ ^" ^ 
 giving as he saw fit, without knowledge of the real needs 
 of the applicant for relief, or of what other persons 
 and societies were doing. This kind of charity has some- 
 times done more harm than good. It may, indeed, often re- 
 lieve the suff erin g of the really needy ; but it has j ust as often 
 encouraged the unworthy to expect charity, and has tended 
 to increase . the dependent class instead of diminishing it. 
 There are many people v/ho will make no effort to support 
 themselves so long as they feel that others will support 
 
156 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 them. Many professional beggars make a good living by 
 taking advantage of the sympathies of random givers. 
 During a certain period of great suffering among the very 
 poor of American cities, due to unusually hard times, free 
 eating houses were estabUshed in the hope of relieving the 
 situation. The free food attracted hundreds away from 
 the work they had, and greatly increased the army of the 
 unemployed. Thoughtless or unwise giving may make 
 paupers of many who would otherwise be self-supporting. 
 
 In nearly all of our large cities at the present time, and 
 in many of the smaller ones, the relief of the poor is be- 
 Charity coming more systematic. Charity bureaus, or 
 
 organization societies, have been created, which seek to secure 
 cooperation among all the charitable organizations of the 
 community. They investigate the worthiness of applicants 
 for relief. They expose impostors, of whom there are a 
 great many. They seek to remove the causes of poverty 
 rather than merely to relieve the needs of the poor for the 
 time being. They find employment for those who need it 
 and are able to take it. They wage war against the evils 
 of tenement life. They encourage the unfortunate by 
 giving them better opportunities and by creating in them 
 new ideals of life. 
 
 It is of course necessary and desirable to relieve actual 
 suffering by gifts of food, clothing, and other necessities. 
 It is much more important to provide an opportunity, and 
 to create a desire, for self-support by productive work. It 
 is better for the unfortunate individual, for it gives him 
 greater self-respect, and makes him more independent ; 
 and it is better for the community, because it transforms 
 those who have been a burden to others into producers 
 and contributors to the general welfare. 
 
 The third class of persons who contribute no good to 
 
CHARITY AND CRIME 157 
 
 the community is the criminal class. This may be said to 
 include all offenders against the law and order Crime 
 of the community, the enemies to the rights of other 
 people. 
 
 The method of dealing with criminals has changed very 
 greatly in the progress of civilization. Formerly the main 
 idea was punishment, or retaliation. It was Treatment 
 "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a Ufe ^ea^i^^^^ 
 for a life." Well into the last century, even times 
 in our own country, the penalties inflicted were often 
 terrible. Offenders were imprisoned in dark and filthy 
 underground cells. Tongues were pierced, ears cut off, 
 and marks branded upon the body with hot irons. Pris- 
 oners were placed in stocks and held up to the ridicule 
 and abuse of passers-by. 
 
 At the present time our ideas of the treatment of crimi- 
 nals are very different. The criminal is still an offender 
 against the community, and he is still believed xhe 
 to deserve punishment of some kind. Much protection 
 
 of the 
 
 more important than the punishment of the community 
 criminal, however, is the protection of the com- and the 
 
 ' . . reformation 
 
 munity against any future crimes. Two ideas of the 
 are uppermost in our present methods of deal- cnmmai 
 ing with criminals. The first is to place them, temporarily 
 at least, where they cannot harm the community. The 
 second is to reform them — or to cure them, for crime is 
 now considered as a result of a mental and moral, if not 
 physical, disease. Except in the case of the very worst 
 crimes, which may be punishable by death or life impris- 
 onment, the effort is usually made to return the offender 
 to the community, in the course of time, as a useful citizen. 
 Cruel and inhuman punishments have been abandoned. 
 The death penalty has been abolished, even for murder, 
 
158 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 in some states. It is now quite common to imprison 
 offenders with an indeterminate sentence ; that is, they are 
 sent to prison for a period the length of which will depend 
 on the conduct of the prisoner himself and on the inclina- 
 tion he shows to live right in the community. Prisoners 
 are comfortably housed and clothed, and are given whole- 
 some food and, if necessary, medical attention. Where 
 the prisoners are illiterate, they are often given instruction 
 in the common branches of education. They are made to 
 work, not so much with the idea of punishment as to teach 
 them habits of industry and to instruct them in some man- 
 ner of making an honest living. 
 
 Greater care than formerly is now taken to prevent 
 crime, in preference to punishing the criminal after the 
 j^^ crime is committed. Youthful offenders are 
 
 prevention sent to reform schools, rather than to prisons 
 o crime designed for more hardened criminals. It was 
 once the custom to imprison young offenders, guilty 
 of some minor offense, together with older and har- 
 dened criminals guilty of serious crimes. The result of 
 this was to harden the younger ones by association with 
 the others. In a few cities juvenile courts have been 
 established, where only young offenders are tried. Those 
 who have just begun their criminal career are often not 
 punished at all, but are placed on probation ; that is, they 
 are given their liberty, but under the eyes of probation 
 ofificers, or *' official parents," who look after them and aid 
 them to get a start in life. Many, who would by punish- 
 ment be hardened, are thus led to become good citizens. 
 
 The regulation of crime and the correction of criminals 
 are almost wholly under the control of the state govern- 
 ments. What is considered a crime in one state 
 is not always a crime in another state ; that is, while the 
 
CHARITY AND CRLME 1 59 
 
 act may be just as harmful to the community in one state 
 as in another, some states may have no law on „ , ^. 
 
 ' -^ Regulation 
 
 the subject. Unless an act is in violation of of crime by 
 the law, it is not legally a crime and cannot ^^®^*^*® 
 be punished as such. The same crime may be punishable 
 in different ways in different states, because the kind of 
 punishment is determined by state law. It would be well 
 if the states could agree more closely in regard to what 
 constitutes crime, and how it should be treated. 
 
 The national government has jurisdiction over some 
 kinds of crimes. Since the entire government of the 
 territories and of the District of Columbia is in 
 the hands of Congress, this body defines crime of crime by 
 in these places and fixes its penalties. Crimes the national 
 
 ^ government 
 
 against national law, wherever they are com- 
 mitted, are punishable by the national government. The 
 accused person is tried before a federal court in the 
 state where the crime is committed. For instance, 
 violation of the postal laws, counterfeiting money, or 
 evading the laws for the regulation of interstate commerce 
 are crimes punishable by the national government. The 
 national government also has jurisdiction over crimes 
 against the laws of nations, as contained in treaties, and 
 over piracy. One crime against the nation is punishable 
 by death, — treason, the worse crime recognized by civilized 
 nations. The Constitution defines treason against the 
 United States as '* levying war against them, or in adhering 
 to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort" (Art. Ill, 
 sec. 3). In order to convict a person of treason there 
 must be two witnesses of the treasonable act to give 
 evidence against him. 
 
 In order that no injustice may be done to innocent 
 persons, the rights of accused persons are protected care- 
 
l6o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 fully by the Constitution of the United States. It is a 
 The pro- principle of law that every accused person is 
 the^rights of assumed to be innocent until he is proved to be 
 the accused guilty. Every precaution is taken to secure for 
 him a fair trial. He is entitled to a trial by a jury of his 
 fellow-citizens in the locality where the crime occurred. 
 The accusing witnesses must give their evidence to the 
 court in the presence of the accused and he is entitled 
 to witnesses in his favor, as well as lawyers to defend 
 him. He may not be compelled to testify against himself. 
 These are a few of the careful provisions made to protect 
 even a guilty citizen against injustice. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What public institutions are there in your community for the 
 care of defective persons? Are there any private institutions of a 
 similar kind ? 
 
 2. Make a list of all the institutions and associations that you know 
 of in your community for the care of the poor. 
 
 3. Is there charity organization in your community? Find out its 
 methods of work. 
 
 4. What does your local government do for the relief of the 
 poor? 
 
 / 5. Report on the treatment of criminals in colonial times. (See 
 McMaster, ''History of the American People,'' vol. I, pp. 93-102.) 
 
 6. What reform schools are there in your state? How are the in- 
 mates of these schools dealt with ? 
 
 7. Is there a juvenile court in your community? If so, report on its 
 work, and describe the work of the probation ofificers. 
 
 8. Debate the question, •' Capital punishment should be abolished." 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Henderson, " The Social Spirit in America,'* chapter XV. 
 
 Henderson, " Dependents. Defectives, and Delinquents." 
 
 Warner, " American Charities." 
 
 Wines, " Punishment and Reformation.*' 
 
 Morrison, " Juvenile Offenders." 
 
 Forman, '• Advanced Civics," chapters XLIX. L. 
 
 Goodnow, " City Government in the United States," chapter X. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 HOW THE CITIZENS OF A COMMUNITY GOVERN 
 THEMSELVES 
 
 We have now looked at the life of the community from 
 several points of view. We have seen that the people are 
 striving to satisfy their desires in a variety of ^j^^ purpose 
 ways. We have seen that there are common of govem- 
 interests, and that the welfare of one is the wel- °^^" 
 fare of all. Yet it does not always seem so. Men do not 
 always recognize their dependence on, and obligation to, 
 others. Sometimes they lack sufficient knowledge to do 
 so. Sometimes they selfishly disregard the rights of others, 
 as, for example, when a man persists in clouding the at- 
 mosphere with smoke from his factory, although he knows 
 it is injuring the community; or when a railroad charges 
 unjust rates, or affords inadequate facilities for trans- 
 portation. Consequently we often get the impression that 
 community life is a life of conflict rather than of harmoni- 
 ous action. Under such imperfect conditions there must 
 be some agency that is more far-sighted than any individual 
 can be, and that is just, to secure the intelligent working 
 tcfgether of all. Such an agency government is intended 
 to be. 
 
 The first idea that we must understand about gov- 
 ernment in America is that it is intended to be Govern- 
 ment the 
 the servant of the people and not tJietr viaster. servant, not 
 
 When it begins to act contrary to the will of the master, 
 the people, it goes beyond its rightful powers, people 
 
 i6i 
 
l62 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The American colonists sought their independence 
 from England because the English government in- 
 sisted on taxing them, and otherwise exercising authority 
 over them, without their consent. In 1787 a convention of 
 leading men of the country, chosen by their respective 
 states, met in Philadelphia, and after four months of dis- 
 cussion laid before the people of the thirteen states a Con- 
 stitution, containing a plan of government. The preamble 
 of this Constitution emphasizes the fact that this gov- 
 ernment was established by the people to do certain things 
 for them. 
 
 The simplest form of self-government is where the 
 people meet together and make their own laws. Such 
 Direct and was the town meeting in New England. When 
 representa- the community grows large, it becomes im- 
 govern- practicable for the citizens to assemble. Then 
 ment ^hey resort to the plan of selecting certain of 
 
 their number to make their laws and perform the other 
 work of government for them. This is representative self- 
 government. The representatives of the people, chosen 
 by the people, diCtfor the people. 
 
 The next fact about our government that we must 
 understand is its threefold character. In the preceding 
 The three- chapters there has been constant reference to 
 fold char- /ocal, State, and national governments. Each 
 
 acter of our ^ , . , ,rni t.'i^ 
 
 govern- of ^-^s IS under the control of all three. It might 
 
 ™e°t seem, at first thought, that we are greatly op- 
 
 pressed with government. We must remember that ive, the 
 people, are our own rulers, and that we have simply found 
 it more convenient and more to our advantage to have 
 three groups of governing machinery than one. Each 
 group has its particular work to do for us. Let us now 
 see how the division of powers is made among them. 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 1 63 
 
 The first division of powers is that between the state 
 and national governments. When the Constitution was 
 made, the thirteen states were already in ex- j^^^-^^^^ ^^ 
 istence, each with its own government organized powers be- 
 under a state constitution. Why, then, was it t^n^^^nd 
 necessary to have a national government in state govem- 
 addition ? It was because while the states were °^®°*^ 
 thirteen separate communities in many particulars, 
 they were, in other particulars, only parts of one 
 community with certain interests common to all alike. 
 This was illustrated in chapter XII (see page 94). The 
 union of a number of states under a central government 
 constitutes a federal nation. The central government is 
 called the federal government. 
 
 The federal government may exercise only such powers 
 as are granted to it by the people in the Constitution, and 
 these powers are few in number. The powers of Con- 
 gress are enumerated in section 8 of article I of the Con- 
 stitution. All other powers are left with the states. The 
 tenth amendment to the Constitution says, "The powers 
 not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
 nor prohibited by it to the states [see Art. I, sec. 10], are 
 reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." By 
 this arrangement the states retain by far the greater part 
 of the governing powers. Where the national government 
 controls our conduct once, the state government controls it 
 many times. The state government protects us in our re- 
 ligious rights (chapter XVII), provides for our education 
 (chapter XV), determines who shall have the right to vote 
 (page 168), prescribes the rules of marriage and of family 
 relations, has almost the entire care of our health (chapter 
 IX), protects our property (chapter X), controls business 
 relations of every kind except where foreign and interstate 
 
l64 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 relations are concerned (chapter XII), and provides for the 
 prevention and punishment of crime, except in a very few 
 cases that come under national control, such as the coun- 
 terfeiting of money and the robbing of the mails (chap- 
 ter XVIII). 
 
 In this division of powers between state and national 
 governments we see the American love for self-govern- 
 ment emphasized. The people of each state retain for 
 themselves the regulation of almost all the details of their 
 lives. In the course of our history, however, the national 
 government has gradually extended the scope of its powers 
 by a broad interpretation of certain clauses in the Constitu- 
 tion. For example, it was by a broad interpretation of the 
 clause giving Congress the power to regulate interstate 
 commerce, that Congress recently enacted a pure food law, 
 thus protecting the health of the people, which has been 
 considered primarily a duty of the state. 
 
 The second division of the powers of government is be- 
 tween the central state government and the government 
 Relation be- o^ ^ocal communities. The relation between the 
 tween state Iqc^I government and the central state govern- 
 ^vem-^^ ment is somewhat different from the relation be- 
 ments tween the state and the national governments. 
 
 The state governments are in no sense branches of the 
 national government. State and national governments both 
 get their powers directly from the people, The local gov- 
 ernments are merely branches of the state government, and 
 get their powers from it, and not from the people of the local 
 community. The state government is organized according 
 to a plan laid down in the state constitution, which \^ framed 
 by the people themselves. A city government is organized ac- 
 cording to a plan laid down in a charter, which \s, granted to 
 the people of the city by the state legislature. The local gov- 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 165 
 
 ernments have for their work primarily the carrying out of 
 the laws enacted by the state government. Their duties are 
 chiefly adinmistrative. For example, there is a state law 
 against burglary ; but it is the local officers who protect prop- 
 erty against burglars and arrest offenders. Local govern- 
 ments are allowed some law-making powers, especially in 
 cities where the city council enacts ordinances (see chap- 
 ter XXII). The principle of the division of powers between 
 state and local governments, however, is the same as in 
 the division between national and state governments ; that 
 is, to leave matters that touch the life of the individual 
 most closely, and are of purely local interest, in the hands 
 of the local government as much as possible, while matters 
 of more general interest, such as the regulation of the rail- 
 roads and matters of general health, are regulated by the 
 central state government. 
 
 The relation of the different governments to each other 
 and to the people is shown by the diagram on page 166. 
 
 A third important feature of the organization of our 
 government is the sepai'ation of pozvers among the three 
 branches — legislative, executive, and judicial. 
 The laws are made by the legislative branch, ration of 
 The enforcement of these laws is intrusted to ^l^^^^^l' 
 the executive branch. If any question arises as and judi- 
 to the meaning of the laws, it is finally settled "^ powers 
 by the judicial branch. The purpose of the separation of 
 powers is to prevent any one man, or group of men, from 
 acquiring too much authority and becoming despotic. The 
 legislative body may restrain the executive by refusing to 
 appropriate money for executive purposes, as often hap- 
 pened in the colonies ; or it may impeach the executive 
 (see page 221). If the legislature steps beyond the bounds 
 fixed by the people in the Constitution, the judicial branch 
 
66 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
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HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 167 
 
 may declare the law null and void. There is thus a system 
 ij of cJiccks and balances by which each branch of govern- 
 ment is restrained by the others, thus safeguarding the 
 liberties of the people. This system is found, to a greater 
 or less extent, in local, state, and national governments. 
 
 It is a principle of American government that the 
 people's representatives shall be chosen by the people 
 of the various locahties from their own number. Represen- 
 The Enghsh colonists in America felt that they *^*^^^^ ^ 
 were not represented in the House of Commons, the people 
 because they did not have a voice in choosing /^^jocaT 
 representatives to that body, nor did any member districts 
 of the House come from America. In the early history of 
 Massachusetts the people gradually allowed the taxing 
 power to fall into the hands of a few men called the gov- 
 ernor's assistants, who held office from year to year with- 
 out reelection. One day the people at Watertown decided 
 " that it was not safe to pay moneys after that sort, for 
 fear of bringing themselves and posterity into bondage." 
 Therefore "every town chose two men [from its own 
 citizens] to be at the next court to advise with the governor 
 and assistants about the raising of a pubhc stock, so as 
 what they should agree upon should bind all." This idea 
 has become a settled custom in the United States. Each 
 city ward elects representatives from its own residents to 
 the city council. In some states, at least, each township 
 has its representatives on the board of county commission- 
 ers. Each state is divided into districts, from each of 
 which a representative is sent to the state legislature, and 
 into other districts, from each of which a representative 
 is sent to the lower house of the national Congress. 
 Each state has two representatives in the United States 
 Senate. 
 
l68 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The right to vote for representatives in the government 
 is called the suffrage. It is not a right that all citizens 
 The suf- possess, like the right to life, liberty, and prop- 
 frage Qrty. It is a privilege bestowed by the state 
 
 on those who have certain qualifications. These qualifi- 
 cations* are prescribed by the state constitutions. Only 
 in one case does the United States Constitution limit the 
 right of the state to regulate the suffrage ; that limitation 
 is found in the fifteenth amendment, adopted after the 
 Civil War, which reads, '* The right of citizens of the 
 United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by 
 the United States, or by any state, on account of race, 
 color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 At the beginning of our history the right to vote was lim- 
 ited to a relatively small number of the citizens. These 
 .g restrictions have largely been removed. We have 
 
 tions for bccome more deuiocratic. But there are still 
 the suffrage gome restrictions, which vary more or less in the 
 different states. In no state may any one vote who is under 
 twenty-one years of age. All states require a residence in 1 
 the state, and in the county and city ward, for a certain time 
 prior to voting. In only four states do women have the right 
 to vote at all elections, although in a number of states they 
 may vote at school elections, and in a few cases in elections 
 for city officers. In colonial times the right to vote was de- 
 nied to all who did not own a certain amountof property. To- 
 day property restrictions have been almost wholly removed. 
 It was also common, in colonial times, to deny the right to 
 vote to all who were not members of a given church (see |l 
 page 150). All rehgious qualifications have long since, 
 been removed. The suffrage is denied to citizens who are 
 mentally unsound, and in some states to those who cannot 
 read and write, and to paupers. A citizen may also be 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 169 
 
 disqualified from voting by crime. With comparatively 
 few exceptions, all male citizens who are twenty-one years 
 of age or over possess the suffrage. In a few states even 
 aliens may vote at all elections, provided they have declared 
 their intention of becoming citizens. 
 
 If at an election each voter should cast his vote for the 
 man of his individual choice, it might easily happen that 
 among the many men voted for no one would Nomina- 
 fairly represent a large number of citizens. It *^o^s 
 is necessary that the choice of the voters be Hmited to a 
 few men who are nominated as the regular candidates 
 for the offices in question. The method of nominating 
 candidates for the many elective offices in our country is 
 very comphcated. It is not prescribed in the state or na- 
 tional constitutions, or by law, but has grown up gradually 
 and become fixed by custom. In order to understand it, 
 it is necessary to know something about political parties. 
 
 In every community there are differences of opinion 
 on almost any question, as in religion, in educational 
 matters, or in business poUcy. If any such political 
 question is to be acted upon, those whose opinions parties 
 are alike will act together in opposition to those who think 
 differently. In questions of government there are differ- 
 ences of opinion. In the division of the people on any 
 such question, those who think alike and act together 
 systematically and constantly constitute a political party. 
 The party may be of a local character and may be formed 
 with reference to a local question, such as the paving of the 
 streets or the Hcensing of saloons ; or it may be national in 
 its extent and arise out of some great national question, 
 such as the extension of slavery or the acquiring of new 
 territory. 
 
 When Washington was first elected President, questions 
 
lyo THE COMMUxNITV AND THE CITIZEX 
 
 of governmental policy had not yet divided the people, 
 and his popularity was so great that all united on him 
 as their choice for the presidency. When differences of 
 opinion arose over the bank, foreign pohcy, internal im- 
 provements, and other matters, each party strove to elect 
 representatives to the government who would carry out its 
 ideas. It must first of all agree on a single candidate for 
 each of the offices, so that the party's vote would not be 
 divided. 
 
 The first method that was used by the parties for the 
 nomination of a candidate for the presidency was for 
 M thods f ^^^ members of each party in Congress to meet 
 nominating and make the nomination. This method after a 
 can 1 ates -^yhile became unpopular because the nomina- 
 tion fell into the hands of a small group of politicians, and 
 the people felt that they did not have a sufficient voice in 
 the matter. Then the custom arose of making the nomi- 
 nations in the several states. Sometimes it was done by 
 the party members of the state legislature. The custom 
 gradually began to prevail of holding state conventions 
 composed of delegates elected by the people of the state 
 especially for the purpose. This method had the advan- 
 tage of placing the nomination more directly in the hands 
 of the people. It had the disadvantage of tending to di- 
 vide the party, for each state was likely to nominate its 
 own favorite candidate regardless of the action of the 
 other states. This difficulty was finally overcome by plac- 
 ing the nomination of the candidates for the presidency 
 and the vice-presidency in the hands of a national con- 
 vention composed of delegates from all the states. This 
 is the method now in use. 
 
 Let us suppose that an election time is approaching 
 when officers are to be chosen for the local, state, and 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 171 
 
 national gov^ernments. We will suppose that all these offi- 
 cers are to be chosen at the same time, although Primaries 
 that is not always the case. Several months before the 
 election day, the proper committees of each party (see 
 page 173) call for the primary elections. These are elec- 
 tions held in each of the smallest election districts of the 
 
 An i-lLKCilOX SCF.XK. 
 
 Each voter has his name checked off from the book where it is registered, and 
 then passes into the building, where he casts his vote. 
 
 State. In cities the primary district is sometimes the ward 
 and sometimes the precinct, a subdivision of the ward ; 
 in rural districts it is the township, or precinct of the 
 township. It is the business of the primary to nominate 
 candidates for offices of the primary district, as ward 
 councilmen or township trustees, and to elect delegates to 
 7iomiuating convejttions of larger districts. This business 
 is sometimes transacted in a meeting, or caucus, of the 
 voters of the primary district ; sometimes it is done by 
 
1/2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 ballot, each voter going individually to the voting place 
 sometime during the day. The candidates' are chosen 
 from among a number of men who have previously an- 
 nounced through the newspapers and otherwise their will- 
 ingness to be considered. 
 
 Delegates are chosen to several conventions for the 
 nomination of candidates for the offices of larger areas. 
 
 There are coimty conventiojis, at which nomina- 
 Conventions 
 
 tions are made for the county ornces ; city con- 
 ventions for the nomination of city officers ; assembly 
 district conventiojis, at which candidates for the lower 
 house of the state legislature are nominated ; senatorial 
 district co7iventions, for the nomination of candidates for 
 the state senate ; congressional district conventiojis for the 
 nomination of candidates for the lower house of Congress; 
 and state conventions for the nomination of candidates for 
 the various state offices. These various conventions meet 
 at times set by the proper committees of each party. 
 
 The state convention not only nominates the candidates 
 for the state offices, but also elects delegates to the national 
 convention for the nomination of President and Vice- 
 President. Sometime during the summer preceding the 
 national election, which occurs early in November, the 
 national convention of each party meets and makes its 
 nominations. Faithful party membei's are expected to 
 render their support to the candidates nominated by 
 their respective primaries and conventions. 
 
 The period of three or four months between the nomi- 
 nations and the election day is spent by each party in 
 The cam- trying to win support for its candidates. The 
 paign winning of votes sometimes seems to be the all- 
 
 important thing, not always, unfortunately, with due regard 
 to the right or wrong of the methods used. 
 
HOW THE COiMMUxNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 173 
 
 To arrange for the nominations, to carry on the cam- 
 paign, and to provide for the elections, requires a thorough 
 i organization of the party. The management is organiza- 
 I largely in the hands of committees. Each of tion of the 
 I the election districts named above, from the ^^^^ 
 I ward to the state and nation, has its central committee. 
 It is the business of these committees to keep in touch 
 with the voters, to gather and distribute information, to 
 ! collect and disburse funds for the conduct of the campaign, 
 to provide speakers, publish literature, and to -do many 
 other things. The committees of the larger districts, 
 and esi5ecially the state and national committees, are of 
 i great importance and exert great influence. The chair- 
 I manship of the national committee is sought by ambitious 
 I men as much as the highest public offices in our govern- 
 ment. 
 
 We have been speaking, for convenience, as if there 
 ; w^ere only one campaign and one election time for all 
 offices in our government, local, state, and Frequency 
 national. This is not, in fact, the case. The °^ elections 
 terms are not the same length for all offices. The Presi- 
 dent and the Vice-President are elected for four years, 
 members of the House of Representatives for two years, 
 judges for the state courts, when not appointed, for from two 
 to twenty-one years, governors for from one to four years. 
 The practice in the United States is to make the terms of 
 office short in order to give the people a chance frequently 
 to express their approval or disapproval of the service 
 rendered by their representatives. The frequency of 
 ;j elections is increased by the fact that in many cases 
 l local elections are held at different times from national 
 elections. 
 
 Not all of our representatives in the government are 
 
1/4 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 chosen by a direct vote of the people. In some cases 
 Indirect they are elected indirectly by the people 
 election of through their state legislatures. Thus the 
 
 some repre- 
 
 sentativesof United btates senators are chosen. It was 
 government once the common practice for the state legisla- 
 tures to elect governors ; to-day the governors are cho- 
 sen in all the states by the direct vote of the people. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States provides that the 
 President and the Vice-President shall be elected by a 
 group of men from each state, called electors (Art. II, sec. i, 
 clause 2 ; Amendment XII). Each state may appoint 
 its electors in any manner it chooses. Formerly they 
 were appointed by the state legislatures ; but to-day they 
 are elected by popular vote in all the states. When the 
 voters go to the polls on election day in November, they 
 in reality cast their ballots for the electors, who have been 
 nominated in the state convention, and not for the Pres- 
 ident and the Vice-President directly. The intention of 
 the Constitution was that the electors should have the 
 choice of the President entirely in their hands, the thought 
 being that they would be better able than the people to 
 select a capable man for the ofifice. Since the party 
 system, with its method of making presidential nomina- 
 tions, has arisen, the choice by the electors is a mere form, 
 for they invariably vote for the candidates nominated by 
 their party convention. 
 
 By far the greater number of those who serve the peo- 
 ple in government offices are not elected at all, but are ap- 
 Appoint- pointed by various executive officers, such as the 
 ment of President, the governors, the mayors of cities, 
 and their subordinates. It would be impracti- 
 cable for the people to elect all the thousands of officers 
 and employes necessary for carrying on the work of the 
 
HOW THE COMMUiNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 175 
 
 government. It is deemed better to elect only the chief 
 officials, upon whose work the people can keep their eyes 
 with comparative ease, and to hold them responsible, not 
 only for their own work, but also for the work of all those 
 whom they appoint to subordinate positions. 
 
 This, in general, is the way in which the people provide 
 for the machinery of the government which is to serve 
 them in regulating the affairs of the community, ^j^^ citizen 
 One point further needs to be emphasized. We must obey 
 have said that government is the servant, and ment°as^Se 
 not the master, of the people. What, then, agent of the 
 about obedience to the government ? Shall ^°°^™"^ y 
 masters obey their servants .'' The feeling of per'soiial 
 responsibility for the conduct of community affairs, and 
 obedience, are the two most essential qualities of good 
 citizenship. 
 
 The government represents the community, and the in- 
 dividual is called on to obey the government as the agent 
 of the community. When the government says to an in- 
 dividual that he must do this, or that he must not do 
 that, it is the voice of the people speaking to him through 
 the government. It was William Penn who said : ''Any 
 governmejit is free to the people under it ivhere the laws 
 rule and the people are a party to those laws. Liberty 
 icithont obedience is confusion^ and obedience without liberty 
 is slavery r 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Review together in class the preamble of the Constitution, notic- 
 ing carefully the thought and the language. 
 
 2. Discuss direct and indirect self-government. Does direct self- j/^ 
 government exist in any way in your community? 
 
 3. Discuss in class the meaning of democracy ; of a republic. What 
 other forms of government are there besides republics? 
 
/■ 
 
 176 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 4. Discuss the meaning of a federal nation, and of the federal govern- 
 ment. Emphasize the division of powers between state and national 
 governments. 
 
 5. Study the powers of Congress enumerated in Art. I, sec. 8, of the 
 Constitution. Study the powers denied to the states by the Constitution 
 in Art. I, sec. 10. 
 
 6. Discuss some of the powers tliat may be exercised by both state 
 and national governments. 
 
 7. Discuss carefully in class how tlie relations between state and local 
 governments differ from the relations between state and national govern- 
 ments. 
 
 Give examples of how the local government carries out the pro- 
 visions of state laws. 
 
 9. Give examples of some of the laws enacted by your local goxern- 
 f ment. 
 
 10. What are the advantages of having our representatives live in 
 our own locality? What disadvantages might arise from this custom? 
 
 11. What are the qualifications for the suffrage in your state (see 
 state constitution) ? Do you think that these qualifications should be 
 increased, or otherwise? 
 
 12. Report on the meaning of the fifteenth amendment to the Con- 
 stitution, and the historical reason for its enactment. 
 
 13. What are the great political parties of to-day? What are some 
 of the questions on which they are opposed to each other? 
 
 ^ 14. Are there, or have there been, in your community any local 
 political parties growing out of local questions ? 
 
 15. How are primaries held in your community? 
 
 16. Investigate, and give an outline of, the method of nominating 
 your county officers, from the primary to the final nomination ; your city 
 officers ; your state officers : the President. 
 
 17. Find out what you can about the organization of the party which 
 you favor in your community and in your state (committees, etc.). 
 
 18. What are some of the methods used in conducting a political 
 campaign ? 
 
 19. What is the method of electing the President as given in the 
 Constitution, Art. II, sec. 2, and Amendment XII? Discuss in class 
 the purpose of this method, and how the method actually works. 
 
 20. Think of the persons holding government offices or positions in 
 your community, and estimate about what proportion of them are elected, 
 and what proportion appointed. 
 
 21. Study carefully the meaning of the quotation from William 
 Penn given in the last paragraph. 
 
HOW THE COMMUxNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 177 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government,''" chapters HI-V. 
 
 Forman, -Advanced Civics."^ chapters H-VH, X, XI, XIV, XXX, 
 XLV. 
 
 Brvce, •• The American Commonwealth"' (last edition), vol. I, chapters 
 XXVil, XXVIII ; vol. II, chapters LIII-LV; LIX, LX, LXVI, LXIX- 
 LXXI (abridged edition, chapters XXVI, XXVII, LII-LIV). 
 The subject of proportional representation is dealt with in 
 Review of Reviews, 6 : 541-544 ; 21 : 583-585. 
 Outlook, 55: 342-345- 
 Atlantic Monthly, 84: 529-535. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 SOME DEFECTS IN THE SELF-GOVERNMENT OF OUR 
 COMMUNITIES 
 
 In some ways our self-government does not work as 
 intended. In the first place it is not always representative 
 g , , ^ of all the people, but is a government of the people 
 
 ernment de- by a fezu. One reason for this is that the people 
 ti^Te^lnterest themselves lack sufficient interest to take part in 
 of aU citi- government as much as they could. They do in 
 "^^ this as they are inclined to do in other matters : 
 
 having employed some one to look after the business of 
 government for them, they feel relieved of all responsibiUty. 
 If we are to be a really self-governing people, each citizen 
 must take an active part. 
 
 There are only a few ways in which most citizens can take 
 part in government, but these are very important. Not 
 The duty of many citizens can hold office. In a self-govern- 
 taking office j^g community it is the duty of a citizen, as 
 well as a privilege, to take office when the community calls 
 upon him. It may seem unnecessary to emphasize this, for 
 usually there are more men who want office than there are 
 offices to fill. The trouble is that the men who seek office 
 do not always make the best officers. The men who will 
 look after the community business best are most often men 
 who have large interests of their own. The \yide-awake 
 community that is fully alive to its best interests will usu- 
 ally look among these busy, successful men and say to one 
 of them, '* You are capable, honest, and successful in man- 
 
 178 
 
DEFECTS IX SELF-GOVERNMENT 1 79 
 
 aging your own affairs ; we want you to help manage 
 the community's affairs in office." Unfortunately such 
 men too often shrink from the burdens and cares of office, 
 or from giving up the necessary time from their own 
 business. Patriotism to one's community calls for just such 
 sacrifices. 
 
 The same lack of patriotism is shown in a smaller way 
 by a larger number of citizens who make all manner of 
 excuses to avoid public service of various kinds. Patriotismin 
 A good example of this is in jury service. Every i^^ service 
 person accused of crime or sued at law has the right to trial 
 before a jury of his fellow-citizens (Constitution, Amend- 
 ments VI and VII). Nearly every man may be called 
 upon to serve on a jury, and he is shirking an important 
 responsibility if, without good cause, he seeks to avoid it. 
 There are some classes of men who are regularly and 
 properly excused from jury service, such as physicians. 
 Other men may, at times, have a valid excuse for 
 not serving. The fact that it is so difficult to get 
 jurymen from the best classes of citizens often results in 
 juries of idlers and ignorant men. One of the strongest 
 safeguards against injustice is thus weakened. 
 
 The paying of taxes is a most important way of taking 
 part in the government. All citizens who have property are 
 taxed to help pay the expense of government, patriotism 
 It is surprising to find how many citizens en- in paying 
 deavor to avoid paying their share toward *^^^ 
 sustaining the government in its work for them. 
 
 Another way of taking part in the government is by 
 voting for the nomination and election of officers. Thou- 
 sands of voters stay away from the polls on Patriotism 
 • election day, throwing away the privilege of self- ^" votmg 
 government, and allowing others to govern them. This 
 
l8o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 is especially true at the primaries, which are really the 
 most important part of an election. The choice of good 
 men for the highest offices in the land, even the President, 
 depends on the choice of good men at the primaries. Yet 
 it is notorious that the primaries are poorly attended. 
 
 There are several reasons for this. One is that men 
 feel too busy to leave their work, or they consider the 
 election of delegates and the nomination of 
 d^^norat^ local officers too unimportant to take their time, 
 tend the Another reason voters give for not attending 
 primaries ^^^ primaries is that they are unacquainted with 
 the candidates for nomination or election, and therefore 
 cannot vote intelligently. In large communities where 
 men do not know all their neighbors, it is difficult for the 
 ordinary busy citizen to keep informed in regard to the 
 merits of the various candidates. If a citizen is sufficiently 
 interested, and does not wait until a day or two before the 
 primary to inform himself, it is usually possible for him to 
 enlighten himself sufficiently to cast his vote wisely. This 
 excuse is often an admission of flagging interest in what 
 is going on in the community during the time between 
 elections. In many of our cities there are reform associa- 
 tions which publish, before election time, the names of the 
 candidates of all parties with a sketch of their records as 
 citizens and public servants. 
 
 Another thing that keeps many voters away from 
 
 the primaries is the feeling that their votes have no 
 
 real influence, either because of unfair treat- 
 
 Pnmanes 
 
 controlled mcnt at the primaries, or because the action of 
 by a few ^^^ primary is determined beforehand by a few 
 party leaders. Even these are not sufficient reasons for 
 staying away from the polls. If all good citizens in a 
 primary district always attended the primaries, there would 
 
DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT l8l 
 
 usually be enough of them to prevent a small group of 
 politicians from controlling affairs against their will. By- 
 staying away the timid voters abandon the fight, before it 
 is begun, to the small but wide-awake group of politicians, 
 who can therefore run things as they please, whether for 
 good or for ill. 
 
 This brings us to some of the dangers to self-govern- 
 ment resulting from the way in which political parties are 
 organized and managed. 
 
 Political parties are unavoidable under a form of gov- 
 ernment like ours. They are the means of securing united 
 action amona: the voters w^ho think alike. A ^ , 
 
 ^ Dangers of 
 
 voter cannot accomplish much unless he belongs the party 
 to a party and works and votes with it. Yet it ^^*"* 
 must be remembered that a party is merely a means to ac- 
 complish a result, and not in itself a sacred thing. The 
 purpose of a party should be to secure good government 
 for all tJie people. The words of Washington in his Fare- 
 well Address should always be kept in mind by the pa- 
 triotic American citizen. He said: *' The spirit [of party], 
 unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its 
 root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It 
 exists under different shapes in all governments, more or 
 less stifled, controlled, or repressed ; but in those of the 
 popular form it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly 
 their worst enemy. The alternate domination of one faction 
 over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge natural 
 to party dissensions . . . is itself a frightful despotism. . . . 
 The common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party 
 are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise 
 people to discourage and restrain it." 
 
 In a government in which the voice of the people rules, 
 and in which the people are divided in their opinion, it is 
 
l82 THE COMMUxNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 necessary that the majority shall rule. The party that 
 The ma- represents the majority of the voters must 
 jority should determine the policy of the sfovernment ; but it 
 
 rule for the , , , i r i , 
 
 benefit of should not be forgotten that the party in power 
 ^ should govern in the interests of the minority 
 
 as well as of the majority. The minority should always 
 have an opportunity of expressing their views in the coun- 
 cils of the government, and the party in power should 
 respect their views as far as possible. 
 
 To secure united action among the members of a party 
 
 there must be organization under the direction of leaders. 
 
 Each city ward has its leader, or leaders, who 
 
 The party . , . . . , i , . , .,. • r, 
 
 machine, g^in their position through their abihty to influ- 
 
 rings and ence the voters of the ward and to hold them 
 bosses 
 
 together. These ward leaders are under the 
 
 authority of a leader, or "ring" of leaders, for the whole 
 city. If one leader gains great influence over the party 
 in the city, or in the state, he is called a boss. This or- 
 ganization extends throughout the nation, with branches 
 in every community. The organization is often called the 
 machine, the group of leaders controlling the machine is a 
 political ring, and the boss is the commander-in-chief of 
 all, his influence sometimes being limited to a city, or 
 extending over a state or even the whole nation. 
 
 These names — machine, ring, and boss — were applied 
 
 by the party's enemies. They do not necessarily mean any- 
 
 thin^r bad. A machine (that is, an ors^anization) 
 
 Party man- . ^ , , ^ 1,1/ 
 
 agement IS iieccssary, and there must be bosses, or lead- 
 for selfish q^s. The evil connected with these things 
 arises from the fact that the machine sometimes 
 falls into the hands of ambitious, but unscrupulous, bosses 
 and rings, who manage the party merely for the party's 
 sake, or what is worse, for their own selfish ends. 
 
DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 183 
 
 It sometimes happens that bosses and rings are them- 
 selves under the domination of wealthy corporations which 
 are seeking to secure legislation favorable to j. 
 their own interests. In such cases the people of wealthy 
 are not their own governors, but are subject to ^°TO''^tions 
 the despotism of the corporations. 
 
 The leaders of a party use various methods to maintain 
 their control over the voters, and over the subordinate 
 
 leaders. Sometimes they do it by argument and 
 
 / , . , How the 
 persuasion, sometimes by threats, sometimes by party main- 
 promises of reward, and sometimes by actual tains control 
 
 1-1 A 11. 1 1 1 1 r ov^r voters 
 
 bribery. A common method is to hold before 
 
 the party worker the promise of reward by appointment 
 
 to some office of government. 
 
 Nearly all the offices of government are filled by ap- 
 pointment, and constitute the civil service. There are 
 about three hundred thousand such offices or xhe civil 
 positions under the national government, and service 
 probably as many more under the state and local govern- 
 ments. It is necessary that some of the more important 
 of these offices should be filled by men who will sympathize 
 with the policy of the government as indicated by the 
 party in power, as in the positions of the cabinet officers 
 who are advisers with the President and carry out his poHcy. 
 There are, however, some offices in which party feeling 
 should not be allowed to enter at all, as in the case of 
 judges of our courts. Their business is to interpret the 
 law and to render justice, which is always the same under 
 any party. There are many thousands of other offices, or 
 government positions, in which a man's party behefs would 
 make no difference in the performance of his duty, as in 
 the case of postmen and mail clerks. 
 
 It early became the practice of a victorious party to dis- 
 
1 84 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 miss many members of the defeated party who were hold- 
 The spoils i^^S government positions, and to fill their places 
 system ^yith its own members. This plan began in the 
 
 national government under Andrew Jackson, and is known 
 as the spoils system, because it was founded on the princi- 
 ple that " to the victors belong the spoils." 
 
 The spoils system brought with it a train of evils. The 
 changes made in the civil service with each change of ad- 
 ministration were injurious to the efficiency of 
 Govern- ^j^^ service. The worst evil was the habit it 
 
 ment offices 
 
 are posts cultivated of looking upon the offices of govern- 
 not^a7eward ^^^^^^ as booty, to be sought for, and even fought 
 for, as rezvards for party service. The man who 
 works for a party merely for what he can get out of it 
 in the shape of a salaried office is not a safe man for the 
 people to put their confidence in as their representative in 
 government. 
 
 A great deal has been done in the last few years to de- 
 stroy the spoils system of making appointments to office. 
 In 1883 a civil service law was passed, and a Civil 
 system in Service Commission created by Congress, for the 
 the civil purpose of improving conditions. By this act 
 
 service ^ ^ . ... . ^ ^ 
 
 a merit system of making appointments was 
 introduced. By the merit system, candidates for the 
 civil service must pass a competitive examination to show 
 fitness, and when appointed, they hold office during good 
 behavior. At first this system was applied to only a few 
 of the offices, but the number of offices in which it oper- 
 ates has steadily increased until to-day more than half of 
 the national offices are subject to it. The merit system 
 of appointment has been adopted also in some states and 
 cities. 
 
 In a number of states, laws have been passed to secure 
 
DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 185 
 
 honest primaries. The caucus method of holding pri- 
 maries (that is, the meeting together of the „ . 
 
 ^ 00 Reform of 
 
 voters of the primary district) has been aban- the pri- 
 doned in many places. Instead, nominations ™^^^^ 
 are made by ballot, as in the case of a regular election, 
 each voter going singly to the polls to cast his vote. An- 
 other reform to prevent voters from being unduly influenced 
 by threats or bribery is the Australian system of elections. 
 Formerly each party had its ticket (list of candidates) 
 printed on a separate piece of paper, usually of different 
 color from the tickets of other parties. It could then be 
 seen how each man voted, and he could be held to account 
 by watchers. The Australian ballot contains the names 
 of the candidates of all parties on a single sheet The Austra- 
 of paper. Every voter receives one of these Jian ballot 
 from election officers, and retires alone into a booth where 
 he marks the names of the candidates for whom he wishes 
 to vote, unseen by any one. The secrecy of his ballot 
 gives him greater independence. A more recent device is 
 the votuig machine, which makes fraud in the casting or 
 counting of votes practically impossible. 
 
 The most important thing of all to insure honest and 
 capable government, government that is really for the 
 people and by the people, is for every good citi- 
 zen who has the right to vote to take part ac- biiity of the 
 
 tively in the government. There have recently 
 
 ■^ -^ reform 
 
 citizen for 
 
 been remarkable reforms in government in 
 some states, and especially in some cities. In every case 
 these reforms have been brought about only when the 
 majority of good citizens became aroused, and worked 
 together in season and out of season to secure the retire- 
 ment of dishonest officials and the election of honest men. 
 It is every citizen's supreme duty to keep himself informed 
 
1 86 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 in regard to political matters, and to take an active part 
 in securing good government. 
 
 The question may arise in our minds whether our govern 
 Conditions ment is all that it pretends to be, and whether 
 are getting ^^^^ ^^^ ^-^^ ^^^^ ^^^ self-governing people that 
 
 worse we usually consider ourselves. We must not 
 
 get a wrong impression of the situation. Any plan, how- 
 ever excellent, is bound to miscarry at times when it is in 
 the hands of imperfect human beings. It must not be 
 supposed that our plan of government is wrong because it 
 is sometimes wrongly used. Neither must it be supposed 
 that it is wrongly used in the hands of all officers. Instead, 
 we have great reason to be hopeful that the defects in our 
 government will disappear. We can feel assured that the 
 great majority of the people will do right when they see 
 the right, and that there are to-day many honest and patri- 
 otic leaders who are earnestly striving to give the people 
 the best that government can secure. Conditions are not 
 getting worse, but better. If we see more corruption to- 
 day than formerly, it is rather because we are opening our 
 eyes, and that we are striving more earnestly to uproot 
 the evils. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Discuss in class the question whether we are a democracy or 
 an oligarchy. 
 
 2. Why is holding office a duty? Why is it a privilege? 
 
 3. How are jurymen selected ? What wall debar a man from serv- 
 ing on a jury? What would you consider a good excuse for an ordinary 
 business man's not serving when called on? 
 
 4. Are the primaries in your community well attended ? Try to find 
 out the reasons for non-attendance from some of the men of your 
 acquaintance. 
 
 5. Is there any organization in your community that tries to inform 
 the people of the records and character of the candidates for nomina- 
 
DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 187 
 
 tion and election? Why might it be difficult to get reliable information 
 in regard to these matters? 
 
 6. Have any laws been passed recently in your state for the reform 
 of the primaries? What are the main features of these new laws? 
 
 7. Study those parts of Washington's Farewell Address that deal 
 with political parties. Discuss carefully his meaning. 
 
 8. Investigate the methods of conducting primaries in the worst 
 districts of large cities. Where are they held? How are they man- 
 aged? Are similar methods used anywhere in your own city? 
 
 9. Report on the history of Tammany Hall in New York. 
 
 10. Report on the history of the Gas Ring in Philadelphia. 
 
 11. Report on the application of the spoils system under Jackson's 
 administration. 
 
 12. Report on the history of civil service reform. 
 
 13. Is the merit system of appointment used in your state? 
 
 14. Is the merit system of appointment used in your city govern- 
 ment? How does it work ? 
 
 15. Look up the story of the recent reform in the government of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 16. Look up the story of the recent reform in the government of 
 St. Louis. 
 
 17. Are voting machines used in your community? How do they 
 work ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth.'' vol. II, chapters LXIII- 
 LXV. LXVII, LXVIII; LXXXVIII, LXXXIX ; XCVII, XCVIII. 
 (Chapters LXXXVIII and LXXXIX deal with Tammany and the 
 Gas Ring of Philadelphia.) 
 
 Miller. •• The Business Man in Politics," North American Review^ 
 151:576-581. 
 
 Bishop. "A New Form of Government."' Foruuh 23 : 396-408. 
 
 Roosevelt, •• What Americanism Means,"' i^(9r«//'/, 17: 196-206. 
 
 Roosevelt, " Essays on Practical Politics," •• American Ideals and 
 Other Essays.*' 
 
 On election primaries and their reform, see 
 
 Outlook, 56 : 9-11 ; 57 : 950-952 ; 58 : 176-177. 
 Atlantic Montfily, 79 : 450-467 . 
 
 Review of Reviews, 16: 322-324; 17: 472-474, 583-589. 
 
 Bryce, " The American Commonwealth." vol. II, chapter LXXXIV, "The 
 Tyranny of the Majority." 
 
 " Money in Politics and Elections," Century Magazine, 44 : 940-953. 
 
1 88 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 For civil service reform see 
 
 Fifteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Civil Service Commission, pp. 489-502, 
 for an account of the growth of civil service reform. 
 
 Roosevelt, "An Object Lesson in Civil Service Reform," Atlantic Monthly, 67: 
 252-257; " Present Status of Civil Service Reform," Atlantic Monthly, 75 : 239-246; 
 "Six Years of Civil Service Reform," Scribner's Magazine, 18:238-247 (also in 
 "American Ideals and Other Essays"). 
 
 Outlook, 78 : 964 ; 84 : 799. 
 
 Forum, 30: 608. 
 
 The spoils system under Jackson, McMaster, " History of the People 
 of the United States/* vol. V, pp. 523-536. 
 Ballot Reform, Johnson's Encyclopedia. 
 Electoral Reform, New International Encyclopedia. 
 Elections, Encyclopedia Americana. 
 Godkin, "Duty of Educated Men in a Democracy,'' Fornm, 17 : 
 
 39-51- 
 
 For reform in St. Louis and Philadelphia, see 
 
 Arena, 30 : i ; 33 : 43 ; 34 : 196- 
 World To-day, 10: 471 ; 11 : 869. 
 Outlook, 68 : 430. 
 World's Work, lo : 6639. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES: TOWN- 
 SHIP AND COUNTY 
 
 The English colonists who settled in America were 
 familiar with forms of both national and local government 
 in England. Their removal to America did not at first 
 change their national government in any way, for the 
 Enghsh government remained theirs. To meet their local 
 needs, on the other hand, it was necessary to estabhsh some 
 form of local government in this country. In doing so, it 
 was natural that they should imitate the forms with which 
 they had been familiar in England. 
 
 In the early times of English history the smallest politi- 
 cal division of the land was the toivn, which, in those days, 
 consisted of a palisaded village with surrounding 
 
 ... , , Origin of 
 
 farm and pasture land ; it was governed by a township 
 meeting of the men of the town, or town nicctiiig. ^"^ *°^" 
 In the troublous course of early Enghsh history, 
 these towns lost their right of direct self-government. 
 Meanwhile another division of the land had appeared for 
 purposes of cJiiircJi goveriinient. This was \\\q parish, which 
 was under the control of the parish priest. The parish 
 usually coincided in area with the older town. The people 
 of the parish met in a vestry meeting, to assess the church 
 rates for church expenses and the care of the poor. As 
 the powers of the town meeting declined, the vestry meeting 
 gradually assumed them, until it became really the same 
 thing as the older town meeting. 
 
 189 
 
190 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 When the Puritans left England because of restrictions 
 
 on their religious Hberty, they went in congregations ; and 
 
 th when they settled in Massachusetts, they settled 
 
 township in little palisaded communities around the church. 
 
 system was y^^^^gj. these conditions it was natural that the 
 
 adopted in 
 
 New Eng- Ncw England colonists should adopt the town, 
 ^^ or parish, form of government with which they 
 
 were f amiUar. Each little community, including the village 
 and the surrounding farms, was called a town, or township. 
 The town ^.nd was governed by a meeting of all the freemen 
 meeting (landholders) who belonged to the church. This 
 meeting was called the tow7i meeting. It originally met in 
 the church, but afterward in the tozvji house. It levied 
 taxes for church purposes, to provide for the poor, and 
 to pay the expenses of government. It provided for a 
 school. It authorized the construction and repair of roads 
 and bridges. The laws enacted by the town meeting were 
 called by-lazus, which means town laws- 
 
 For the execution of the by-laws it was necessary for 
 the town meeting to elect officers. First of all, there were 
 Town from three to nine selectmen, the number vary- 
 
 officers ing with the size of the township. They had 
 
 general supervision over all community business. They 
 represented the town when the town meeting was not in 
 session, and called the town meeting when necessary. The 
 towji clerk kept the records of the business of the town. 
 The toiV7i treasurer received the taxes of the people, and 
 paid the expenses of the community. There were tax 
 asses soj's, who determined the amount of tax each citizen 
 must pay, and overseers of tJie poor. The co?istable served 
 warrants issued by the selectmen, arrested criminals, and 
 sometimes collected the taxes. Each town had also a 
 school committee. 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 
 
 191 
 
 In England, at the time when America was colonized, 
 the parish was only a part of the local government. 
 There was also the sJiire, or county. The county origin of 
 included a number of parishes, or townships, the county 
 Ove'r the county there was a government which at one 
 time was composed of representatives from the townships 
 and cities, but which afterward consisted of a number of 
 justices of the peace appointed by the king. These justices 
 constituted the court of quarter sessions, meeting every 
 quarter of the year to hold court. They were both a judi- 
 cial body, trying cases at law, and an administrative body, 
 managing the affairs of the county. 
 
 The colonists of Virginia did not come like the Pilgrims 
 for religious freedom, or Hke the later settlers of Massa- 
 chusetts for political freedom. They came in „,, 
 
 ^ ■> The county 
 
 search of wealth. Virginia is a rich farming system in 
 country, in which the cultivation of tobacco in ^^'smia 
 great plantations proved to be the most profitable industry. 
 The colonists scattered themselves along the rivers, as 
 planters, instead of living in compact communities like the 
 New England colonists. When they organized themselves 
 for local government, therefore, they adopted the EngHsh 
 plan of county government, instead of the township plan. 
 The whole colony was divided into counties, over each of 
 which was placed a county court, consisting of eight justices 
 of the peace. These justices were appointed by the 
 governor of the colony, as in England they were appointed 
 by the king, but they could themselves fill vacancies in 
 their number. The county court was primarily a judicial 
 body, trying cases at law, and meeting for the purpose 
 about once a month at a designated point called the county 
 seat. It had also administrative powers, as in England. 
 It appointed highway surveyors and constables. It levied 
 
192 
 
 THE COiMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 taxes for the maintenance of roads and bridges, and for 
 other expenses of government. In each county there was 
 a shei'ijf, appointed by the colonial governor. His chief 
 duties were to execute the judgments of the court, and to 
 serve as treasurer and tax collector. Another important 
 officer was the county lieutenant, who had command of the 
 militia. 
 
 Copyright, 190(3, bij li 
 
 Court House, Denver, Colo. 
 
 Thus we find two forms of local government in the colo- 
 nies. Both were brought from England, but each was 
 Two forms adapted to the peculiar conditions in which the 
 colonists found themselves. The township sys- 
 tem prevailed throughout New England, where 
 it is still the unit of the political organization. The town 
 meeting may still be found in many small communities, 
 
 of local 
 govern- 
 ment 
 
I 
 
 TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY I93 
 
 although it has necessarily been abandoned for the repre- 
 sentative system in the larger communities. The county 
 system prevailed, with some variations, throughout the 
 Southern colonies, where the conditions of life were very 
 much alike, and it is to-day the unit of the political organi- 
 zation throughout the Southern states. 
 
 New York and Pennsylvania, lying between New Eng- 
 land and the Southern colonies, were influenced in their 
 forms of local government by both sections, x^e mixed 
 They developed both township and county, ^v^ 
 In New York the township predominated, and it was organ- 
 ized very much as in New England. The townships, how- 
 ever, were grouped into counties, and each township in a 
 county elected each year a member of the county board of 
 supervisors. In Pennsylvania, also, there were both town- 
 ship and county, but the latter predominated over the town- 
 ship. The county officers in Pennsylvania were all elected 
 by the people of the county, instead of being appointed by 
 the governor as in Virginia. 
 
 Throughout the West the mixed form of township-county 
 government prevails, sometimes the township, sometimes 
 the county, predominating. The influence of the township 
 is especially strong in the Northwest, where there The influ- 
 is a large New England population. In Michi- the town 
 gan, northern IlUnois, and other parts of the meeting 
 Northwest, the town meeting still manages the affairs 
 of the township. The influence of the town meeting in 
 developing a strong citizenship has been very great. All 
 voters have the right to attend and to take part in the 
 discussion and settlement of affairs. Experience shows 
 that, as a rule, they take advantage of their right. Others 
 besides voters often attend in order to Hsten to the discus- 
 sions. The town meeting thus becomes a school of instruc- 
 
194 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 tion in public matters. Nowhere else do we find such 
 general interest in public questions as in the parts of the 
 
 . 1 «»dd 
 
 1 
 
 ^B * -Wi^^^siR^^^^^^ 
 
 iJkiMM. 
 
 ^^m^-'^'^^ '^ 
 
 mm j^ 
 
 ««^ i 
 
 
 ^pUj 
 
 il 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 ESteif 
 
 ^ 
 
 ''•"<'i-- 
 
 
 ^j>sj:^ ^ ^.mm 
 
 ••jjj^h 
 
 3 
 
 Copyrifiht, 1906, b.v Detroit I'ublishinij Co. 
 
 Court House, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 country where the town meeting prevails. It encourages 
 healthy, active citizenship. 
 
 The county system of representative government is more 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 195 
 
 practicable throughout the West than the township with 
 government by town meeting. The country is „, 
 almost wholly agricultural and the population is ship in the 
 widely scattered. On the other hand, the exist- ®^* 
 ence of the congressional townships surveyed by the na- 
 tional government to aid in the settlement of the land (see 
 page 45), suggested that they be adopted as civil town- 
 ships for purposes of local government. Everywhere 
 throughout the West, therefore, we find both township and 
 county governments with varying relations between them. 
 Even in the South the counties are tending to break up into 
 smaller divisions for some purposes of local government, 
 especially in connection with school administration. The 
 principle of local self-government is strong among the peo- 
 ple, and they prefer the smaller township to the county as 
 the unit of government. Except in the Northwest, how- 
 ever, the government of the township is now representative. 
 It is in the hands of township trustees, who correspond to 
 the earHer selectmen ; the clerk, who keeps the records ; 
 the tax assessors and collectors ; the justice of the peace, 
 who presides over the township court for the trial of minor 
 cases ; the school trustees ; the overseers of the poor ; and 
 numerous minor officers. At the present time the most im- 
 portant matters under the control of the township govern- 
 ment are the schools, the roads, and the poor. 
 
 The main governing body of the county is the board of 
 county commissioners, or supervisors. They administer 
 the affairs of the county : they fix the rate of tax- jhe west- 
 ation ; appropriate money for the building and ^m county 
 repairing of public buildings, such as the courthouse and^ 
 jail, and for the construction of roads and bridges; and ap- 
 point subordinate officials. . Every county has its court, 
 which is of higher grade than the township justice court, and 
 
196 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 is held at the county seat. The commands of the court 
 are carried out by the sheriff, who also maintains order in 
 the county and usually has charge of the county jail and 
 its inmates. There are various other officers, among whom 
 are the county treasurer, the tax assessors and collectors, 
 the superintendent of schools, the clerk, the coroner, and 
 the surveyor. 
 
 In those states where the township has the chief impor- 
 tance in local government, the county exists for little more 
 than judicial purposes. In other states the county govern- 
 ment has many of the powers which the township govern- 
 ment exercises elsewhere. There seems to be a growing 
 tendency to centralize the administration of many local 
 affairs in the county government, or at least to give the 
 county government supervision over the affairs of the 
 townships. This is seen in the administration of the schools 
 and of roads. This supervision secures greater uniformity 
 and efficiency than would be the case if each township had 
 exclusive control over these matters. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Is the township or the county the more important division for 
 local rural government in your state? Can you explain why? 
 
 2. Are town meetings ever held in your state? If so, have you ever 
 attended one? Describe the meeting. 
 
 3. What are your township officers? Make a list of them, and state 
 their duties. 
 
 4. How are the various township officers chosen? 
 
 5. Is there any law-making, or legislative, body in your township? 
 If so, with what kinds of things do its laws deal? 
 
 6. How are the laws enforced in your township? 
 
 7. Are there any courts in your township? If so, what are they? 
 What kinds of cases do they try? 
 
 8. Make a list of your county officers. State their duties. 
 
 9. How are the county officers chosen? 
 
 10. What legislative body is there in your county? 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 197 
 
 11. What executive officers are there? 
 
 12. Do the county legislative officers have any executive powers? 
 
 13. Are there any county courts in your county? What kinds of 
 cases do they try ? 
 
 14. What buildings belong to your county and township? What 
 are their uses? 
 
 15. Make a map of your county, showing townships. Notice the 
 shape of the townships and the county. Do their boundaries follow 
 the lines of the government survey? Explain any irregularities in the 
 shape of the townships. Locate the county seat. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, '' Actual Government,'* chapter X. 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," chapters XXVI-XXV^III. 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," vol. I, chapters XLVHI, 
 XLIX (abridged edition, chapters XLVH, XLVHI). 
 Fiske, " Civil Government," chapters II-IV. 
 " New England Town Meeting of To-day," Outlook, 75 : 405-409 
 
 (1903)- 
 
 " Description of a Town Meeting," Outlook, 32 : 561-565 (1906). 
 
 " Town Meetings for Cities," Nation, 32 : 434 (1906). 
 
 "Brookline and Her Government by Direct Legislation," Arena, 
 
 34:39-91 0905)- 
 
 / 
 
chaptp:r XXII 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 
 
 The growth of cities in the United States has been very- 
 rapid. In 1790, when the first census was taken, there 
 „ .J were in the United States only six cities with 
 
 Rapid ■' 
 
 growth of a population of 8000 or more. The largest, 
 cities Philadelphia, had but 28,500 people, and all to- 
 
 gether the six cities contained 132,000 population. In 
 1900 there were 546 cities of 8000 population or more, 
 comprising a total of 25,000,000 people. New York at 
 the last census had nearly three million and a half, while 
 Chicago, which was founded only in 1830, had nearly a 
 million and three quarters population. In 1790 but one 
 thirty-third of the total population of the country lived in 
 cities ; to-day, cities contain one third of the total popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Cities have brought with them serious problems of com- 
 munity life and of government. Where so many people 
 b , , ^jj are crowded together, there are many conflict- 
 city govern- ing interests. Each person is more dependent 
 ^^^^ on others for his well-being than is the case in 
 
 rural communities. The mixed character of the population 
 found in most large cities also presents problems difificult 
 of solution (see chapter VII). Other problems are found 
 in the distribution of the population, involving the question 
 of transportation and that of the crowded tenement dis- 
 tricts. Still other difficulties arise from the rapid growth of 
 cities to a size originally unexpected. In the early days of 
 
 198 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 199 
 
 Chicago, for example, men had no idea that it would ever 
 be a great city. Care is not taken, under such circum- 
 stances, to plan these young cities for the accommodation 
 of future crowds. As it is, American cities are constantly 
 being made over, often resulting in an unsymmetrical ap- 
 pearance and perhaps in great inconvenience. These and 
 other problems did not attract much attention until after 
 the Civil War; since then city government has become 
 one of the greatest problems before the American people. 
 
 Cities, like counties and townships, receive their right of 
 self-government from the state. Their form of govern- 
 ment and the powers they may exercise are pre- ^.^.^g ^^ 
 scribed in a cJiarter granted by the legislature, ceive their 
 just as some of the colonies received charters seff-tovern- 
 from the king. The city does not always have mentfrom 
 even the right of ratifying the charter. Since 
 the charters are often long and detailed, and since the leg- 
 islature usually holds the right to change them at will, 
 the amount of self-government left to the city may be very 
 Umited. This control over the details of the business of 
 cities by state legislatures is considered one of control by 
 the chief obstacles to good city government, legislature 
 Legislators from all parts of the state, many of them from 
 rural districts, cannot know the peculiar needs of the city 
 so well as the people of the city themselves. Besides, it 
 is much easier for scheming politicians and corrupt cor- 
 porations to exercise an influence over a few legislators 
 than over the citizens of the city. 
 
 This interference by state legislatures in the affairs of 
 cities is especially great when the legislature Tendency 
 grants to each city a special charter. In some ggj^.g^o^. 
 states a reform has been made by enacting emment 
 a general form of charter for all cities of a given size. 
 
200 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 This secures uniformity, and prevents to some extent 
 constant meddling with the affairs of a particular 
 city. A more important step toward self-government in 
 
 Cojii/rirjhi, li«>fi. hii Detroit Puhli.-'liiiifj Co. 
 
 City Hall, Boston, Mass. 
 
 cities has been taken in a few states, where the charter is 
 drafted and ratified by the people of the city and is then 
 submitted to the legislature for its approval. The National 
 Municipal League a few years ago drew up a mode/ 
 charter, which has been adopted with slight variations in 
 a number of cities. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 20I 
 
 The form of government of cities in the United States 
 is, in a general way, alike everywhere, and similar to that of 
 the states and of the nation. There is always 
 
 7 • 7 • 1 1 -1 1 1 The general 
 
 a legislative branch, an executive branch, and a form of city 
 judicial branch of government. In the organi- govem- 
 zation of these branches, however, and in their 
 relations to each other, there are great differences among 
 cities, and between the cities and the state and national 
 governments. The judicial branch of city governments 
 consists of poHce, or justices', courts ; often there is also a 
 superior court. These are a part of the state judicial 
 system, and will be mentioned in the next chapter. 
 
 The legislative branch of city government is the council. 
 Its members are elected by the people, the city being 
 divided into wards, from each of which one xhe city 
 or more representatives are chosen. In some co^ncu 
 cases the council consists of two chambers, an upper 
 chamber, or board of aldermen, and a lower chamber, or 
 coviinoii council. The upper chamber is always the smaller. 
 The term of office of councilmen is short, usually one or 
 two years. Their salaries generally are small. For the 
 transaction of business the council is organized into 
 committees, such as the committee on streets, on public 
 buildings, and on finance. The mayor ordinarily presides 
 over the meetings of the council, and sometimes has the 
 power to veto its acts. 
 
 The council does not have great powers as a law-making 
 body, since its powers extend only to matters of local 
 interest that are not regulated by state law. powers of 
 The most important legislative power of the ^^^ council 
 council is that of controlling taxation and expenditures 
 for city purposes. In many cities even this power has 
 been placed in the hands of a special board of estimates. 
 
202 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Another important power of the council is that of 
 granting fraiicJiiscs (see pages 50 and 112). 
 
 The executive branch of city governments consists of a 
 mayor, together with a number of administrative boards or 
 Executive. chiefs, and a large number of subordinate 
 The mayor officials and employees. The mayor is now 
 elected by popular vote in all cities, for a term varying 
 
 ( <>i,.n-i,i/,i, nioe, hy Detroit /' 
 
 City Hall, Loulsville, Ky. 
 
 from one to five years. His salary also varies from a very 
 small sum in many cities to $15,000 in New York City. 
 
 The work of administering the business of a large city 
 Administra- ^^ ^^ great and so complex that it has to be sub- 
 tive depart- divided. Hence there are various administrative 
 ™®" ^ departments under the supervision of chiefs or 
 
 boards. Perhaps the most important of these is the 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 203 
 
 department that manages the money affairs of the city. 
 There is always a treasurer, and sometimes other financial 
 officers, in this department. We have heard before of the 
 health department, usually managed by a board (see page 
 56) ; the fire department (page 6'^) and the police depart- 
 ment (page 72), both of which are sometimes united under 
 the supervision of a board of safety ; the street department 
 (page in) and the building department, which are also 
 sometimes combined under a board of public works. The 
 street-cleaning departjnent (page 59) is often separate 
 from the street department, which looks after the con- 
 struction and repairing of the streets. The department of 
 education is under the management of a board of school 
 commissioners (page 122). These are only a few of the ad- 
 ministrative branches found in our various cities, and each 
 one of these is subdivided into several divisions or bureaus. 
 Under them is a large number of subordinate officers and 
 employees. 
 
 The boards and chiefs at the head of the departments 
 are sometimes elected by the people, and sometimes ap- 
 pointed either by the council, or the mayor, or, 
 
 nil r 1 T^ Mingling of 
 
 occasionally, by the governor 01 the state, ro- legislative 
 lice commissioners are sometimes appointed by ^<* execu- 
 
 . r ™ . tive powers 
 
 the governor. The appointment of officers is 
 an executive duty, and when it is done by the council, it 
 gives that body executive duties as well as legislative. In- 
 deed, the executive departments, such as those of streets and 
 buildings, are often, especially in smaller cities, managed 
 entirely by committees of the council. There is thus not 
 a sharp division in cities between the legislative and the 
 executive branches of government, such as we find in state 
 and national governments. Not only does the council ex- 
 ercise executive powers, but some of the administrative 
 
204 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 boards have legislative powers. Thus, the board of esti- 
 mates (page 201) exercises the important legislative power 
 of apportioning taxes and expenditures. The school board 
 often has legislative powers of some importance. 
 
 In America there has always been a fear of giving 
 any one man too much power. This has led to the elec- 
 tion by popular vote, and for short terms, of 
 tion of most of the city officers, in the belief that by so 
 
 powers in doing the people could keep their hands directly 
 on the administration of the city's business. In 
 the complexity of the affairs of a city, and with the numer- 
 ous officers necessary to manage them, it is impossible for 
 the people to hold every officer responsible to themselves. • 
 When anything goes wrong, it has been found almost im- 
 possible to fix the responsibility on any one. In handhng 
 the vast sums of money necessary in city government, and 
 in the granting of franchises and the letting of contracts, 
 there is abundant opportunity for things to go wrong. 
 Therefore the tendency has been growing in our best 
 governed cities to give the mayor full power to appoint his 
 subordinates, as well as to remove them, at least in the 
 case of the more responsible positions, and then to hold 
 him responsible for the acts of his appointees. 
 
 City government has suffered greatly from the spoils 
 system (page 184). When a new mayor is elected, he 
 
 usually appoints new boards and heads of 
 Political T , , . 
 
 parties and ocpartments, and these, in turn, too frequently 
 
 city govern- remove Subordinates in their departments 
 
 to make way for personal or political friends. 
 
 One of the chief causes for this is the part that the 
 
 national political parties take in city elections. National 
 
 political questions have no place in city elections. Cities 
 
 have local self-government in order to manage their local 
 
^ OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 205 
 
 business, such as paving streets, granting franchises, pro- 
 tecting property and health. These are purely business 
 matters that demand business ability and honesty on the 
 part of those who manage them, and have no relation to 
 the great national issues that divide the parties against each 
 other. The national parties retain their hold on city affairs 
 partly to prevent party spirit and interest from flagging in 
 the period between national elections, and partly to have 
 at their disposal the vast number of city offices as rewards 
 for faithful party workers in the community. The result of 
 this is that not only the responsible positions at the head of 
 administrative departments, but minor positions, such as 
 those of policemen and of clerks in the city offices, are too 
 often filled with men who have some claim on the party in 
 power, but very little on the confidence of the people. 
 
 Progress is now being made, however, in the direction of 
 removing cities from partisan control. One means of do- 
 ing this is by holding city elections at a different civil service 
 time from state and national elections, in the hope reform 
 of avoiding confusion between local and national questions. 
 More important than this is the introduction of the merit 
 system in the appointment of city officials and employees 
 (see page 184). Good city government cannot be expected 
 until those who carry it on hold their positions solely on the 
 ground of efficiency and faithfulness to the trust reposed 
 in them. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What causes have led to the rapid growth of American cities? 
 
 2. Investigate your city charter with respect to the following points : 
 By whom was it drafted? Did the people of the city have any voice 
 in determining what the charter should contain? Has it ever been 
 changed, and if so, how? Is it a special charter for your city alone, or 
 is it a general charter, like that of other cities of the same size? 
 
 3. Investigate your city council with respect to the following points : 
 
206 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Has it one or two chambers? How are its members chosen? How 
 many members from each ward? What is their term of office? What 
 are the quahfications for councilmen? What is their salary? Where 
 and how often do they meet? Who presides at its meetings? What 
 are the important committees of the council? 
 
 4. How is the mayor of your city chosen? What is his salary? His 
 term of office? Is the mayor of your city often reelected for a second 
 or third term ? 
 
 5. Does the mayor in your city have large appointing powers? Does 
 he have full power of removal from office? Is he held responsible for 
 the acts of the various administrative departments? Does he have the 
 veto power over the acts of the council? 
 
 6. Make a list of the administrative departments of your city govern- 
 ment. Report on the organization of each department. How are the 
 heads of the various departments chosen? What are the duties of each 
 department ? 
 
 7. Do any of these administrative departments have legislative 
 powers? Does the council have any executive powers? 
 
 8. Ascertain about how many persons are employed by the city 
 government. In what departments do you find the largest force of 
 employees ? 
 
 9. Does the merit system of appointment prevail in your city? If 
 so, to what extent? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, ''Actual Government." chapters XI, XII. 
 
 Forman, ''Advanced Civics,". chapter XXIX. 
 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth.''' vol. II. chapters L-LII 
 (abridged edition, chapters XLIX-LI). 
 
 Goodnow, '' City Government in the United States,'' " Municipal 
 Problems." 
 
 Conkling, " City Government in the United States." 
 
 Eaton. "The Government of Municipalities.''' 
 
 Wilcox, "The American City." 
 
 Fairlie, " Municipal Administration.'" 
 
 Howe, " The City, the Hope of Democracy."' 
 
 On state control of cities, see : 
 
 Goodnow, " City Government in the United States," chapters V, VI. 
 
 Wilcox. " The American City," chapter XI. 
 
 Goodnow, " Municipal Problems," chapter IV. 
 
 Revieiv of Reviews, 9: 682-684. 
 
 On national parties and city government, see : 
 
 Goodnow, " Municipal Problems," chapter VIII. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 207 
 
 On the growth of cities : 
 
 Fortim, 10 : 472-477 ; 19 : 737-745- 
 Century Magazine, 55 : 79-80. 
 Municipal Affairs, 3 : 534 ; S'- '^ • 
 McClures, 17: 470. 
 Review of Reviews, 22 : 650. 
 
 For the model charter prepared by the Committee of the National 
 Municipal League, see : 
 
 A Municipal Program (Macmillan). 
 
 Public Opinion, 27 : 684. 
 
 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 17 : 431. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 
 
 Each state in the Union has a written constitution. 
 This constitution is the fundamental law of the state, and 
 State con- givcs to the government its form and powers, 
 stitutions i|; jg a law made by the people themselves, is 
 superior to any law made by the government, and cannot 
 be changed in any way except by the people themselves. 
 The constitutions of the original thirteen states were 
 adopted when these states declared their independence 
 from England, and took the place of the colonial charters 
 which had been granted by the king. They were a sub- 
 stitution of self-government for government by the king. 
 The other states adopted their constitutions when they 
 entered the Union. Each state constitution was framed 
 by a convention of delegates chosen by the people for this 
 purpose, and was ratified, in most cases, by a vote of the 
 people. 
 
 The constitution provides for its own amendment and 
 revision if defects appear, or if conditions change to such 
 an extent that its provisions are not adequate, 
 ment and Amendment of the constitution consists merely 
 revision j^ changing some of its provisions; revision is 
 a recasting of the whole constitution. Both processes re- 
 quire the consent of the voters of the state. Amendments 
 are usually enacted by the legislature and submitted to the 
 vote of the people at the polls. Revision usually takes 
 
 208 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 209 
 
 place by means of a convention of delegates elected by the 
 people for the purpose. The revised constitution is nearly 
 always submitted to the vote of the people. In some 
 states the constitution requires the legislature to give the 
 people an opportunity to revise the constitution at stated 
 intervals, say every ten or twenty years. 
 
 The constitution thus represents the supreme will of the 
 people, and is intended to prevent any encroachment on 
 their ris-hts and liberties either by themselves or -,, 
 
 ^ _ ... ^"® consti- 
 
 by the government which the constitution creates, tution repre- 
 One of the most important parts of every state su^^eme^ 
 constitution, therefore, is the bill of rigJits, which will of the 
 is a detailed statement of the rights which must p®°p ® 
 not be infringed on by the government. In almost every 
 state, the bill of rights occupies a prominent place in the 
 first part of the constitution. 
 
 The main part of each constitution contains the plan of 
 government. Although the governments of the states 
 differ in details to meet the peculiar conditions ^ ^ . . 
 of each, the general plan is the same in all. of govern- 
 The federal Constitution guarantees to each ™®^^ 
 state a republican form of government (Art. IV, sec. 4). 
 In each state there is a division of the government into a 
 legislative, an executive, and a judicial branch, and the 
 powers of each branch are separated from those of the 
 others much more completely than is usual in cities 
 (page 203). 
 
 As we learned in the second chapter, a community con- 
 sists of a group of people united, in a common locality, 
 under common lazvs, for the satisfaction of their The legis- 
 common interests. There must be a lazv-makmg ^^^^^ 
 branch of government first of all. In all the states at the 
 present time, the legislature consists of two chambers, or 
 
2IO THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 houses. The upper chamber, or senate, is usually from 
 one third to one half the size of the lower chamber, or 
 house of representatives. In the two-chambered legislature 
 we have another illustration of the system of checks and 
 Checks on balances ; for every bill, or proposed measure, 
 makhT niust pass each house separately before it can 
 
 power become a law. The people have always been 
 
 afraid of the law-making power, and have hedged it around 
 with restrictions and provisions to make hasty law-making 
 difficult. For this reason, not only must the law pass each 
 house separately, but in most states the executive is given 
 a check on the legislature in his veto power. A bill to 
 become a law must be signed by the governor. If he dis- 
 approves of the bill, he may prevent its passage by vetoing 
 it, or recording his vote against it. In every state but one, 
 however, the legislature may overcome the governor's veto 
 by again passing the bill, usually by a two thirds majority. 
 
 The members of the legislature are chosen by popular 
 vote. In many of the states the legislature meets but once 
 in two years, and its sessions are limited to a period of from 
 forty to ninety days, both of which provisions are intended 
 to prevent too much law-making. The lieutenant governor 
 usually presides over the senate, while the house of rep- 
 resentatives elects a speaker to preside. The speaker and 
 the president of the senate have the power of appointing 
 the committees in the two houses, by which most of the 
 business of law-making is done. 
 
 The law-making power of the legislature extends to any 
 Restriction Subject whatever, except as it is limited by the 
 on the legis- Constitution (Art. I, sec. lo), the laws, and the 
 the con- treaties of the United States, or by the consti- 
 stitution tution of the state. The earlier state constitu- 
 tions were short, and contained few restrictions on the 
 

 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 
 
 211 
 
 power of the legislature. But partly through the 
 love of the people for direct self-government, and 
 partly because of a growing fear of the power of legisla- 
 tures, the tendency has been to insert more details in the 
 
 Indiana State House. 
 
 constitutions of the newer states, and to leave less to the 
 discretion of the legislatures. 
 
 Another method of checking the power of the legisla- 
 ture, and at the same time securing more direct self-gov- 
 ernment, is by the plan known as the initiative j^itiative 
 and the referendum. The initiative means that and referen- 
 the people have the power to initiate, or pro- ^^ 
 pose, legislation which the legislature must enact. By 
 this plan, when a certain percentage of the voters propose 
 a law to the legislature, the latter passes the law and then 
 refers it to the vote of the people for their approval or dis- 
 approval. This referring the law to the vote of the people 
 
212 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 is the referendum. By the referendum, also, any law that 
 has been passed by the legislature may be brought before 
 the people for their vote, if a certain proportion of the 
 voters demand it. This plan is in use in a few of the 
 Western states. 
 
 A great many influences are brought to bear on state 
 legislatures, which determine more or less completely the 
 Influence on character of the laws passed. Legislation is 
 legislation often dictated by a political boss (see page 182), 
 who may, in turn, be the representative of private interests. 
 Citizens and corporations who have special interests which 
 they wish the legislature to favor go, or send their repre- 
 sentatives, to the legislative halls and committee rooms, and 
 try to bring influences to bear on the legislators to secure 
 the passage of the'desired laws. This is known as lobbying. 
 
 Legislatures watch for every expression of public opin- 
 ion on questions that come before them. The opinion of 
 Public the people expressed through the newspapers, 
 
 opinion ^y public meetings, or by personal letters, has a 
 
 great influence. This is one of the strongest safeguards of 
 self-government. Law-makers seldom dare to meet the dis- 
 approval of the people when it is clearly and strongly ex- 
 pressed. From this it is evident that the responsibility of 
 the citizen for his own self-government does not end when 
 he elects his representative to the legislature. He must 
 have opinions of his own on public questions, and must 
 make them known. 
 
 Questions are constantly arising as to the meaning of 
 
 the law, or how it applies to a particular case. To decide 
 
 such questions the state constitution provides a 
 
 The courts . . . i • t • i i i 
 
 system of courts, constituting the judicial branch 
 of government. They are the stronghold of the citizen 
 against injustice. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 213 
 
 The most numerous courts are the justices' courts, at 
 least one of which is to be found in every community, 
 easily accessible to the people. They are the justices' 
 lowest grade of state courts, before which are courts 
 tried petty offenses against law and order and trifling dis- 
 putes over property. The judges who preside over these 
 courts are called justices of the peace. In cities there are 
 other courts of the same class, known 3.s police courts, which 
 are made necessary by the great number of misdemeanors 
 committed in city life. 
 
 Next above the justices' courts are the district, or cir- 
 cuit, courts. They are called district courts because the 
 state is divided into judicial districts (see page District 
 51), each of which has a single court of this courts 
 grade. They are called circuit courts because the presid- 
 ing judge holds the court first in one county of the dis- 
 trict, and then in another, until the circuit of the counties 
 is completed. 
 
 It is before the circuit or district courts that the ma- 
 jority of cases of importance are brought for trial. Many 
 cases first tried before a justice's court are appealed to the 
 district court for a second trial. This is because, in the first 
 place, district judges are more able and better trained men 
 than the justices of the peace ; and because, in the second 
 place, a jury trial may always be had in the district court. 
 The Constitution of the United States provides that every 
 man shall have the right to trial by jury in all criminal cases, 
 and in civil cases involving a sum of more than $20 
 (Amendments VI and VII). 
 
 In large cities there are often criminal courts, and other 
 special courts, to meet the needs of city life, and to relieve 
 the district courts of a portion of the work that would 
 otherwise come before them. In some states there is also a 
 
214 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 county court for each county, besides probate, chancery, 
 City and and Other courts, for the trial of special classes 
 
 county . 
 
 courts 01 cases. 
 
 Each state has one supreme court, which usually holds 
 its sessions at the state capital, although for convenience 
 Supreme it Sometimes holds sessions in other cities. It 
 court consists of several judges, who are presided 
 
 over by a chief justice. The work of this court is almost 
 altogether appellate ; that is, the cases tried before it are 
 usually appealed to it from the lower courts. There are, 
 however, certain classes of cases that come before the 
 supreme court for first trial, such as cases in which the 
 official action of state officers is in question. 
 
 In the first constitutions of the original thirteen states 
 it was provided that the judges should be appointed by 
 int- ^^^ governor or chosen by the legislature. As 
 ment of the movement toward a more democratic govern- 
 ju ges nient grew, the states began to provide for the 
 
 election of their judges by the people. In most of the 
 states, at the present time, the judges are so chosen, 
 though in some they are appointed by the governor and in 
 others by the legislature. The election of the judges by 
 the people, at the same time with other state officers, tends 
 to make their selection a matter of party politics. This is 
 especially true when they are elected for short terms, as is 
 usually the case. The courts should be entirely removed 
 from partisan disputes, and this is best accomplished by 
 a life tenure of office, as is the case in the federal courts. 
 
 As in city governments, the executive branch of state 
 government is divided and subdivided into numerous de- 
 Theexecu- partments, bureaus, and commissions. The 
 t'^^ chief executive officer is the governor, who is 
 
 elected by the people, and whose term of office varies 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 215 
 
 from one to four years. His chief duty is to see that the 
 laws of the state are faithfully executed. As we have 
 seen (page 165), the enforcement of state law is left largely 
 in the hands of the local gov^ernments. In case of in- 
 ability on the part of local authorities to enforce the law, 
 the governor may come to their aid with the militia, of 
 which he is the commander-in-chief (see page 75). 
 
 The governor has other powers and duties. Among 
 these are the legislative powers of vetoing bills, already 
 mentioned, and of suo-s^estins: matters for le2:is- _, 
 
 ' ^ ^^ =• ^ ^ The powers 
 
 lative action in a message to the legislature, of the gov- 
 He usually has full power to pardon criminals ^^^^"^ 
 convicted in the courts, although this power is in some 
 states placed in the hands of a board of pardons. He has 
 the power of appointment to office in cases not otherwise 
 provided for in the constitution. This power and that 
 of removal from office are often restricted by requiring 
 that appointments and removals must be confirmed by the 
 legislature. 
 
 In most of the states there is a lieutenant governor, 
 whose chief duty is to preside over the senate. He acts 
 as governor when the latter is absent from the Lieutenant 
 state, or is unable to perform his duties. In governor 
 case of the governor's death he succeeds to the office. 
 
 The most important of the other executive officers are 
 the treasurer ; the auditor {ox comptroller), who manages the 
 financial affairs of the state, and instructs the r^^^ j^^^^^ 
 treasurer what moneys to pay out; the secretary of depart- 
 of state, who keeps the records of the state ; the °^®^*^ 
 attorjiey-general, who is the legal adviser of the executive 
 heads, and represents the state in court ; and the superin- 
 tendent of scJwols. These officers are usually elected by the 
 people, and are responsible to the people and not to the 
 
2l6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 governor. This method of choosing officers was intended 
 Executive ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ people more direct control over 
 responsibii- the executive business of the state, and to pre- 
 *^ vent the governor from assuming too much 
 
 power. In reality it weakens the executive, for it divides 
 responsibility. 
 
 Besides these executive departments there are numerous 
 bureaus and commissions for the administration of dif- 
 other ad ferent kinds of state business. There are boards 
 ministrative of /icaitk, boards of cJiaritics and correction, jisJi 
 connnissioiis, forestry bureaus, and raihvay com- 
 viissions. There are boards of trustees for the various 
 state institutions, such as the institutions for the insane, 
 the blind, and orphans. There are state libi'ariaiis, state 
 geologists, mine inspectors, and other officers too numerous 
 to mention. These officers are usually appointed by the 
 governor or by the legislature. Beneath them is a host of 
 minor officials and employees. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Report on the first constitutional convention of your state. 
 
 2. Has your state constitution ever been revised? How many 
 times? How was it done? 
 
 3. How many amendments have been made to your state constitu- 
 tion ? What is the method of amendment provided in your constitution ? 
 
 4. Describe the organization of the legislature. How often does it 
 meet? How long are its sessions? 
 
 5. What restrictions are placed on the legislature by Art. I, sec. 10, 
 of the federal Constitution ? 
 
 6. Is the legislature in your state positively forljidden to do certain 
 things b>' the state constitution? What are they? 
 
 7. What different courts exist in your state? 
 
 8. How are jurymen selected? 
 
 9. If you live in a large city, what special city courts exist there? 
 
 10. How are the state judges chosen in your state? What is their 
 term of office? 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 217 
 
 11. Debate the question, -'The judges of the state courts should be 
 appointed by the governor for Hfe.''' 
 
 12. What are the executive departments in your state? How are their 
 heads chosen? 
 
 13. Does the governor of your state have the pardoning power, or 
 is there a board of pardons? Is the pardoning power often exercised? 
 
 14. Does the governor of your state often exercise the veto power? 
 How may a bill be passed over his veto? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government." chapters VI-IX. 
 Forman, -Advanced Civics." chapters XXn-XXI\\ 
 Bryce. " The American Commonwealth." vol. H. part II. 
 On the initiative and the referendum, see : 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," vol. I, chapter XXXVIII. 
 /Review of Reviews, 20 : 225-226. 
 
 Aretm, i-j -.jii-jzi; 18:613-627; 22:97-110,725-739; 24:47-52,493-505; 25: 
 317-323- 
 
 Copies of the state constitution should be available. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 
 
 The American colonists sought their independence be- 
 cause of the despotism of king and parliament, and they 
 had instilled in them a fear and hatred of a 
 nes^sTf^he powerful Centralized government. When they 
 govern- declared their independence, therefore, it was as 
 
 the'^ Articles thirteen states, independent of each other as 
 of Confeder- -^vell as of England. They did create a central 
 government under the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion ; but this government was only for purposes of com- 
 mon defense. It had no power to tax the people ; it had 
 no executive authority to compel them to do its bidding. 
 The experience of the people under the Confederation 
 taught them that there were common interests among the 
 states that were not being protected, and conflicting inter- 
 ests that were rapidly leading to disunion and anarchy 
 (page 94). They discovered the truth that no government 
 is even worse than a despotic government. 
 
 A convention of leading men was therefore called in 
 1787 for the purpose of amending the weak points of the 
 ^, ^. Articles of Confederation. These Articles pro- 
 
 The consti- ^ 
 
 tutionai vided that no amendment could be made without 
 conven ion ^|^^ unanimous consent of the states ; and this 
 could not be obtained from the jealous and quarreHng 
 states. In this extremity the wise leaders of the conven- 
 tion determined to frame an entirely new constitution, 
 
 218 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 219 
 
 totally changing the form of government, and to submit it 
 to the people for their acceptance or rejection. This they 
 did ; and after the greatest difficulty the new Constitution 
 was ratified by a sufficient number of states to make it 
 binding on them. It was in reality another revolution, 
 though accomplished peacefully and in order. 
 
 The first great problem that the convention had to solve 
 was the creation of a government strong enough to protect 
 the common interests of all the states, while not Distribution 
 so powerful as to destroy their independence. °^ powers 
 This problem was solved by the carefully adjusted distribu- 
 tion of powers referred to on page 163. First, there were cer- 
 tain poivers granted exclusively to the federal government, 
 such as to make war and peace, to make treaties and alli- 
 ances, to send and receive ambassadors, to regulate foreign 
 and interstate commerce, to coin money, and some others. 
 Second, there were certain /^ze'^vT to be exercised concurrently 
 by both state and national governments, such as the power 
 of taxation and of borrowing money. Third, there were 
 pozvers denied to tJie federal government {^^q Art. I, sec. 9; 
 Amendments I-VIII). Fourth, there were powei's denied 
 to the states (Art. I, sec. 10). Fifth, all "powers not 
 delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor pro- 
 hibited by it to the states are reserved to the states respec- 
 tively or to the people " (Amendment X). 
 
 In the general plan of the national government the con- 
 vention was influenced by the plan of the state governments. 
 Provision was therefore made for a legislative, an executive, 
 and a judicial branch, with the same separation of powers 
 that is found in the states. 
 
 The question at once arose as to the basis of representa- 
 tion in the Congress, which was to consist of two houses. 
 Some of the delegates, representing the smaller states, 
 
220 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 believed that all the states should have equal rep- 
 Representa- resentation, thus keeping prominent the idea that 
 
 tion in . 
 
 Congress the Union was a mere league of states. Dele- 
 gates from the larger states, on the other hand, arguing 
 that the states together constituted a single nation, believed 
 that the several states should be represented in proportion 
 to their population. The contest was settled by a com- 
 promise, according to which each state was to have two 
 representatives in the Senate, and proportional representa- 
 tion in the House of Representatives. According to the 
 apportionment following the census of 1900, there is one 
 representative for every 194,182 people, making a total of 
 386 members in the House of Representatives. 
 
 The members of the House of Representatives are elected 
 by direct vote of the people, one from each of the congres- 
 sional districts into which each state is divided. 
 The Senate -yhe number of congressional districts in each 
 
 and the ^ 
 
 House of State is determined by the population of the state 
 Represen- ^^ ^^^ most recent census. The members of the 
 
 tatives 
 
 Senate are considered as representing their states, 
 rather than the people. It was provided that they should 
 be elected by the state legislatures (Art. I, sec. 3). This 
 method of election was also probably designed to secure 
 an abler set of men than would be likely by popular elec- 
 tion. A higher age qualification was fixed for membership 
 in the Senate than in the House (Art. I, sec. 2, clause 2 ; 
 sec. 3, clause 3). The term of office of senators is six years, 
 while that of representatives is only two. The term of 
 ofifice of only one third of the senators expires at the same 
 time, so that at least two-thirds of the Senate is always 
 experienced, while the House may be almost entirely made 
 over at any election. These and other causes have made 
 the Senate a more dignified and conservative body than 
 the House of Representatives. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 221 
 
 The greater conservatism of the Senate was intended, in 
 part, as a check on the impetuosity of the direct representa- 
 tives of the people, and, in part, to fit it for its 
 
 . , . , . Powers of 
 
 Special executive ditties. 1 he benate must con- the Senate 
 firm all appointments made by the President, ^^ ^^^ 
 
 House 
 
 and must, by a two-thirds vote, ratify all treaties 
 
 made by the President before they can go into effect (Art. 
 II, sec. 2). The Senate moves more slowly in its delibera- 
 tions than the House, takes more time for debate, and 
 exercises a steadying influence on the lower and more 
 numerous body. On the other hand, the House serves as 
 a check on the Senate and has certain powers not held by 
 the latter. All bills for raising revenue must originate in 
 the House, although the Senate may suggest amendments 
 to them (Art. I, sec. 7). All other bills may originate in 
 either house, but must pass each house separately. The 
 House has the sole power of impeachment; but the Senate 
 must act as the court to try the impeachment (Art. I, sec. 2, 
 clause 5 ; sec. 3, clause 6). Four judges, one President, 
 and one Secretary of War have been impeached by the 
 House of Representatives in our history, but only in the 
 cases of two of the judges did the Senate convict. 
 
 It is believed by many that the present method of 
 electing senators should be changed to election by popu- 
 lar vote. This feeling is due, in part, to the gen- j^g^jjod of 
 eral growth of a democratic spirit; but it is also electing 
 due to certain more or less serious evils that ^®^^*°^^ 
 have grown up about the present method. The election in 
 state legislatures frequently becomes a partisan contest, 
 sometimes managed by bosses who are under the control 
 of private interests. Such a contest may take much of 
 the time of the legislature that should be devoted to 
 other business. On several occasions an amendment has 
 
222 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 been proposed in the House of Representatives providing 
 for the election of senators by popular vote, but the Senate 
 would not agree to it, and therefore the amendment failed. 
 In a number of the states an attempt has been made to ac- 
 complish the same end without an amendment, by having 
 the people vote for their choice of senators previous to their 
 election by the legislature. This amounts to a direct nomi- 
 nation by the people, and it is supposed that the legisla- 
 ture, being representative of the people, will feel bound to 
 elect the people's choice. 
 
 Both houses of Congress are organized into a large 
 number of committees, by which most of the work of 
 . legislation is done. Every bill that is proposed 
 
 and the in either house is referred to its appropriate 
 speaker committee, where it is considered. If the com- 
 
 mittee disapproves of the bill, nothing more may be heard of 
 it. If the committee approves, the bill is brought before 
 the House to be voted on. Each house usually votes in 
 accordance with the recommendation of the committee. 
 In the Senate the committees are elected by the members of 
 the Senate. In the House of Representatives the committees 
 are appointed by the speaker, who is the presiding officer 
 elected by the members of the House. The speaker is 
 one of the most influential men in our government because, 
 through his power to appoint the committees, he may de- 
 termine what legislation shall be considered and enacted. 
 He, of course, represents the majority party in the House, 
 and sees to it that his party has a majority in every 
 committee. 
 
 One of the chief defects of the government under the 
 The execu- Articles of Confederation was the lack of a strong 
 tive executive. Yet the memory of the despotism of 
 
 the king caused opposition, in the convention of 1787, to 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 223 
 
 the establishment of a single executive head. Experience 
 in the state governments, however, had shown that a single 
 executive head was not dangerous if his powers were prop- 
 erly limited and checked. The result was that the executive 
 branch of the national government was made to consist of 
 a President, with a short term of four years, who shall be 
 removable from office by impeachment if he ventures to 
 assume powers not conferred on him. .A Vice-President also 
 was created, who, however, has no executive powers except 
 in the event of the President's death, when he assumes 
 that office. He is presiding officer over the Senate, but 
 he has no vote in legislation except in case of a tie. The 
 President and the Vice-President are elected by the pecuUar 
 electoral system described on page 174 (Constitution, 
 Art. II, sec. i, and Amendment XII). This method, origi- 
 nally intended to remove the choice from the control of the 
 masses, fails to do so, and is now a mere form because 
 of the development of the party system of making 
 nominations. 
 
 Although in the states the executive power is divided 
 among the governor and other officers (see page 216), in 
 the national government it is concentrated com- _ 
 
 *^ Concentra- 
 
 pletely in the hands of the President. The heads tion of exec- 
 of the executive departments are appointed by the "*^^® power 
 President with the advice and consent of the Senate (Art. 
 II, sec. 2, clause 2) and are removable by him. They are 
 responsible to him alone, and carry out the policy of gov- 
 ernment dictated by him. If anything goes wrong in any 
 of the executive departments, the people hold the President 
 responsible for it, and may show their disapproval at the 
 next election. 
 
 The President's power to make appointments, Hke 
 his power to make treaties with foreign nations, is limited 
 
224 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 by requiring the advice and consent of the Senate. 
 On the other hand, the President has a check on 
 
 The power ' 
 
 of the Pres- legislation in his veto power, although Congress 
 ident j^g^y pg^gg ^ jg^^^ ^^gj. ^j^g President's veto by a 
 
 two-thirds vote. The veto power of the President was 
 intended to prevent Congress from going beyond the powers 
 granted to it in the Constitution. It has often been exer- 
 cised, however, merely because the President disapproved 
 the measure enacted by Congress. The President -has 
 exercised the veto power much more in recent years than 
 formerly. Congress very rarely passes a law over the 
 President's veto. The President has some further influ- 
 ence in legislation by his power to call extra sessions 
 of Congress and through his messages to Congress, in 
 which he suggests questions that, in his opinion, demand 
 legislative action. 
 
 In the appointment of the subordinate officers and employ- 
 ees of the civil service. Congress, and especially the Senate, 
 Encroach- is accused of encroaching on the powers of the 
 thrpr^'esi- President. The latter, in seeking for suitable 
 dent's ap- persons to fill the thousands of places at his dis- 
 powerbv posal in all parts of the country, has naturally 
 Congress come to depend largely on the senators and 
 representatives from the different sections for information 
 regarding the quahfications of the candidates. Because of 
 this, the members of Congress have, in the course of time, 
 assumed the right to make nominations for these offices, 
 and expect the President to accept their suggestions. The 
 President has often been forced to accede to the wishes 
 of congressmen in the matter of appointment by their 
 refusal to enact legislation that he wishes unless he does 
 accede. 
 
 In this way the Congress has, in a measure, taken upon 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 225 
 
 itself some of the powers that belong to the President. 
 Generally speaking, this has lowered the efficiency of the 
 civil service by encouraging the spoils system. This evil 
 has, in part, been checked by the introduction of the merit 
 system of appointment to a large proportion of the offices 
 in the civil service (seepage 184). There is still, however, 
 much need for reform in this direction. It is a dangerous 
 thing to allow one branch of our government to encroach 
 on the powers of another, and citizens should rebuke 
 any tendency of this kind. 
 
 The Constitution provides for a system of federal courts 
 entirely distinct from the state courts. It says, "The judi- 
 cial power of the United States shall be vested jhe judi- 
 in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior "ary 
 courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
 establish" (Art. Ill, sec. i). The number of judges in 
 the Supreme Court is determined by Congress, and at 
 present is nine. They meet at Washington and are pre- 
 sided over by one of their number, who is designated as 
 the Chief Justice. In addition to the Supreme Court, Con- 
 gress has created nine circuit courts, each circuit including 
 several states ; nine circuit courts of appeal ; and eighty dis- 
 trict courts. The judges of all the federal courts are ap- 
 pointed by the President and hold office " during good 
 behavior" (Art. Ill, sec. i). 
 
 The powers of the federal courts are stated in the Con- 
 stitution (Art. Ill, sec. 2). In general, they may be said 
 to include cases of a national or interstate charac- ^^ 
 
 Powers of 
 
 ter. A case first brought to trial before a state the federal 
 court may be appealed to the Supreme Court of ^°^^*^ 
 the United States when the Constitution, the laws, or the 
 treaties of the United States are involved. Its decisions 
 are final over those of the state courts. It is the final 
 
226 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 authority (under the people themselves) in the interpreta- 
 tion of the Constitution. It may declare null and void an 
 act of Congress or any state law, which, in its opinion, is 
 contrary to the provisions of the Constitution. It might 
 seem that the Supreme Court thus has power which might 
 make it despotic, and give it control over the other branches 
 of the government ; but it has no means of enforcing a 
 despotic judgment. That must be done by the executive. 
 If the court should attempt to push its authority too far, it 
 would find itself in conflict with both Congress and the 
 executive. At the elections the people would show whether 
 they supported the court or the other branches of govern- 
 ment. And, finally. Congress has the weapon of impeach- 
 ment by which offending judges may be removed. 
 
 The Supreme Court has excited the admiration of the 
 world, not only because of its purpose as defender of the 
 Constitution, but because of the ability and integrity its 
 judges have shown in performing their duty. It has always, 
 with one or two possible exceptions, shown a strong dis- 
 position to render its opinions in accordance with the 
 intentions of the Constitution, and thus to be strictly repre- 
 sentative of the people. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Report on the story of the Constitutional Convention of 1787. 
 Also on the ratification of the Constitution by the states. 
 
 2. Study the organization of Congress as provided in the Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 3. Report on the powers of the speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives. 
 
 4. Why should bills for the raising of revenue originate in the 
 House? 
 
 5. Debate the question, " Senators should be elected by popular 
 vote." 
 
 6. Make a list of the powers of the President as contained in the 
 Constitution. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 227 
 
 7. What are the several executive departments? What are their 
 duties? Who are the members of the cabinet at the present time? 
 
 8. Study the powers of the federal courts as given in the Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 9. Make as complete a list as possible of the different checks and 
 balances provided in the organization of the federal government. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government/' chapters XIII-XVII. 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," chapters XVI-XXI. 
 Bryce, ''The American Commonwealth," vol. I, part I. 
 Fiske, "The Critical Period of American History," chapters VI, VII 
 (the framing and ratification of the Constitution). 
 On the popular election of Senators, see : 
 
 Arena, 10 : 451-561 ; 27 : 455-467- 
 
 Outlook, 61 : 27-34. 
 
 Review of Reviews, 26 : 644-645. 
 
 Independent, 54: 1672-1674 ; 55 : 106-107. 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, 68 : 227-234. 
 
 Haynes, George H., "The Election of Senators " (Holt, 1906). 
 
 Follett. Mary P., •• The Speaker of the House of Representatives." 
 McConachie, L. G., "Congressional Committees." 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 HOW THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT ARE MET 
 
 All this machinery of government, and all the work 
 that it does for the people, costs the people a great deal. 
 The thousands of citizens who are employed in conduct- 
 ing the affairs of government must be paid for their 
 services — although there are some offices to which no 
 salaries are attached. There must be office buildings 
 for the transaction of public business, such as post offices, 
 capitol buildings, and courthouses. Schoolhouses, parks, 
 hospitals, and prisons must be paid for. Materials must 
 be bought and workmen employed to build navies, to 
 construct roads and bridges, to pave streets and lay 
 sewers, and to do the many other things that govern- 
 ment does for us. Occasionally, some great emergency 
 arises, like a war, which demands enormous sums of 
 money. 
 
 The cost of the national government each year is about 
 six times the cost of all the state governments together ; 
 
 The cost of ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^°^^^ governments throughout 
 govern- the country is, each year, more than that of 
 
 °^®^* the national and state governments together. 
 
 This may be surprising ; but it is due to the costliness 
 of paving streets, maintaining police and fire departments 
 and the public schools, and of making the many improve- 
 ments necessitated by the rapid growth of our cities. 
 The immense cost of our governments is beyond our 
 powers of imagination. It may be roughly stated as 
 
 228 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 229 
 
 about $1,500,000,000. It may help you to understand 
 this enormous sum of money if you will calculate how long 
 it would take a man to count it, supposing that he works 
 constantly eight hours a day, and counts $ i every sec- 
 ond, or $60 a minute. 
 
 This great sum of money must be raised each year. 
 The people of each local community — township, county, 
 or city — must pay the expense of their local government; 
 the people of the whole state unite in paying the expense 
 of the state government ; and the people of the nation 
 contribute to the expenses of the national government. 
 They do this chiefly by paying taxes. 
 
 Taxes are a contribution that the people are required by 
 the government to pay to meet the cost of the government. 
 The people have never enjoyed paying taxes. The gov- 
 ernment seems to put its hand into their pockets and 
 take what belongs to them. Taxation has often seemed 
 an act of oppression, and it may become so when it is im- 
 posed on the people without their consent, and when it is for 
 purposes other than their own welfare. Very jaxatio • 
 hght taxes imposed on the American colonists notoppres- 
 by the EngHsh government without their consent ^^°^ 
 seemed oppressive to them and led to the Revolution. 
 We should not consider taxation by our government as 
 an act of oppression because, in the first place, the people, 
 being self-governing, tax themselves ; and because, in the 
 second place, the taxes are spent for the benefit of the peo- 
 ple themselves. It is only just that a person shall pay for 
 what he gets. He has no more right to complain about 
 paying for the protection and benefit that he receives from 
 the government than he has to complain about paying the 
 carpenter for building his house — provided, of cour-se, 
 that the government does its work well and in accordance 
 
230 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 with the will of the people. It is true that taxation, even 
 in our country at the present time, may sometimes be un- 
 wise, and may weigh unjustly upon some people for reasons 
 that will be mentioned later in the chapter ; but as a rule, 
 the amount that each person has to pay to the government 
 in taxes is insignificant in proportion to the great benefit 
 that he receives. 
 
 The American colonies objected to taxation by the Eng- 
 lish government because they had no voice in the matter. 
 Each colony believed that it should have the right to levy 
 its own taxes through its representatives in the 
 seif-taxa- colonial legislature. After they had won their 
 fiderai''^ ^^^ independence they still objected to giving up 
 govern- the right of self-taxation even to the central 
 
 °^®^* government of the Confederation. When the 
 
 Congress needed money, even to carry on the war for in- 
 dependence, it could only ask the states for it, and had no 
 power to demand it or to collect it. The taxing power rested 
 with the state legislatures, composed of the representa- 
 tives of the people. This lack of power on the part of 
 the central government caused great confusion and distress 
 both during and after the Revolution, because the states 
 were jealous of each other, and their interests conflicted 
 to such an extent that they could not always be depended 
 on to provide the money necessary for the common in- 
 terests of all. It soon became apparent that, if the new 
 nation were to continue to exist, it would be necessary for 
 the central government to have the power to tax/^r certaiii 
 ptirposes. This was one of the chief reasons for framing 
 a new Constitution, creating a Congress which was to have 
 power '* to lay and collect taxes . . . to pay the debts and 
 provide for the eomnwii defense and i^eneral welfare of the 
 United States" (Art. I, sec. 3, clause i). But the Consti- 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 231 
 
 tution was careful to provide that '* all bills for raising 
 revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives," 
 which is the branch of Congress most closely representa- 
 tive of the people (Art. I, sec. 7). For all other mat- 
 ters not of national importance the taxing power rests 
 with the representatives of the people in the state legis- 
 latures and in the local legislative bodies, such as the city 
 council and the board of county commissioners. 
 
 Taxation may be direct or indirect. Direct taxes are 
 those which are paid directly and finally by the person 
 against whom the government assesses them. A jji^ect and 
 tax on land, for instance, or on household fur- indirect 
 niture must be borne by the person who owns *^^*^°° 
 the land or the furniture. Indirect taxes, on the other 
 hand, may be transferred from one person to another. A 
 tax on imported goods may be levied against the importer. 
 But he adds the amount of the tax to the price of the 
 goods when he sells them to dealers. The dealers, in turn, 
 add the amount of the tax to the price which they receive 
 from the people who buy the goods. When you buy silk 
 that has been imported from France, you indirectly pay 
 a smaJl part of the tax that was originally assessed against 
 the importer. A tax on houses and land, which is usually 
 considered a direct tax, may become indirect if the owner 
 rents his property ; for he may make the rent high enough 
 to cover the tax, which thus falls on the renter. 
 
 Almost all of the taxes levied and collected by the state 
 and local governments are direct taxes, and con- jj-j.^^^ ^^^a- 
 sist chiefly of taxes on property, which is divided tion by 
 into real estate, consisting of land and buildings, a^fd^iocai 
 and personal property, including furniture, govern- 
 jewelry, money, and other forms of movable ^^^ ^ 
 property. In the payment of the tax on property it is 
 
232 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 intended that each taxpayer shall pay in proportion to the 
 
 amount of his property. The man who owns twice as 
 
 much property as another should pay twice as much tax. 
 
 Anything else would be unjust. 
 
 In order to know how much tax a citizen must pay, it is 
 
 first of all necessary to know how much money will be 
 
 needed to run the government for a year. This is 
 
 nary esti- determined beforehand by the heads of the vari- 
 
 mate of Q^g departments of the government, who make 
 
 expenses . 
 
 an estmiate oi the amount of money needed. 
 
 A man usually considers it good business management of 
 his private affairs when he comes out at the end of the 
 year with a surplus on hand, something saved above his 
 expenses. Not so with the government. It is a sign of 
 good business management of the affairs of government 
 when the treasury is practically empty at the end of the 
 year. That is to say, it is not considered good manage- 
 ment to levy more taxes than are actually needed. A good 
 government will make the burden of taxation just as Hght 
 as possible, and yet cover all expenses so that there will be 
 no deficit at .the end of the year. 
 
 The second thing to be found out, in determining the 
 amount of tax each citizen must pay, is the value of all the 
 The assess- property in the community in which the tax is to 
 ment be levied. This is called assessing the value of 
 
 the property. The assessment is made by officers known 
 as assessors, who are sometimes elected by the people and 
 sometimes appointed. There is an assessor for each local 
 division of the state, as for the county, or township, or city. 
 The assessor and his assistants visit and inspect the prop- 
 erty of each citizen in the district, question the owner, and 
 assess a value on the property. The sum of the individual 
 assessments makes the total assessment for the district; 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 233 
 
 and the sum of the valuations of all the districts makes the 
 valuation for the entire state. 
 
 Knowing the amount of money to be expended by the 
 government, and also the value of all the property in the 
 community, it is now possible to find the rate of xhe rate of 
 taxation — that is, the percentage of his prop- taxation 
 erty that each citizen must pay. This is done by dividing 
 the total expenditures for the year by the total assessment. 
 Thus, if the necessary expenditures amount to $100,000 
 and the total assessment amounts to $10,000,000, the rate 
 of taxation is found by dividing 100,000 by 10,000,000, 
 which gives one hundredth, or one per cent. Each tax- 
 payer, therefore, would have to pay one per cent of the 
 assessed value of his property. A property owner in a 
 city must pay a certain rate of tax toward the expenses of 
 the city government, another rate toward the expenses 
 of the state government. He pays his entire tax into the 
 treasury of the city or of the county, where it is divided 
 into the shares belonging to the city, the county, and the 
 state. 
 
 It is not easy to secure a perfectly just tax. In the first 
 place, it is not easy to estimate the real worth of a man's 
 property, even when it can all be seen. One EquaUza- 
 man's property may be assessed too high, and ti°^ 
 another man's too low. In order to correct such inequali- 
 ties there is often a board of equalization, before which 
 complaints may be brought, and by which corrections are 
 made. Sometimes the county commissioners act in this 
 capacity. In the assessment of the state taxes also there 
 may be great inequalities among the different counties, due 
 to the varying accuracy of the different assessors. There 
 is usually a state board of equalization to adjust these 
 differences. 
 
234 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Such inequalities in taxation as those just mentioned 
 are unfortunate, but they are accidental and can usually be 
 
 corrected. There are other inequalities due to 
 taxes^°an°in- dishonest and unpatriotic attempts on the part 
 jury to of some citizens to avoid their fair share of 
 
 mui^°v^" taxation. It is not easy to avoid paying taxes 
 
 on buildings and land, because these forms of 
 property cannot be hidden ; but there are many forms of 
 personal property that can easily be kept out of sight, and 
 it is usually those who can best afford to pay who have the 
 most of this kind of property. There seems to be a feel- 
 ing among a great many people that it is justifiable to " get 
 ahead of the government " by avoiding the taxes for which 
 it asks. In reality the people who avoid paying their just 
 taxes defraud, not the government, but their fellow-citizens 
 and neighbors. In their attempt to get something for 
 nothing, they shift the burden of taxation on others, who 
 are, in many cases, less able to pay than they. The smaller 
 the amount of property assessed throughout the commu- 
 nity, the higher the rate of taxation that each citizen has 
 to pay. Those who withhold their property from assess- 
 ment not only shirk their responsibility, but also increase 
 the burden of the other members of the community. 
 
 State and local governments impose other forms of taxes 
 than the general property tax. In some states there is a 
 
 poll, or capitation tax, which is a tax on the per- 
 forms of son and not on the property. It varies from 
 taxation ^^^ ^^ £^^^^ dollars. In some states there is an 
 income tax, levied, not on the amount of property a man 
 has, but on the income he receives. Some states have an 
 inheritance tax, levied on property received by inheritance. 
 There is also a franchise tax, levied on corporations for 
 their franchise privileges. In addition to these forms 
 
I 
 
 THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 235 
 
 of taxation, there are revenues derived by state and lo- 
 cal governments from various kinds of licenses, fees, and 
 special assessments. Men who conduct certain Licenses 
 kinds of business must pay the government of ^^d fees 
 state or locality a license fee, as in the case of peddlers, 
 saloon keepers, and pawnbrokers. Such licenses are in- 
 tended, usually, to restrict such businesses as well as to 
 secure a revenue. In most cities a license fee must be 
 paid on all vehicles, including bicycles. When sewers are 
 laid or roads built, they are often paid for, in part at least, 
 by special assessments against the property owners most 
 directly benefited. Finally, there are fines collected in 
 the courts, which are turned into the public revenues. 
 These special taxes and fees are often devoted to special 
 purposes, as when the license fees on vehicles are used to 
 keep up the roads and pavements, or when saloon licenses 
 are used for the benefit of the schools. 
 
 Some kinds of property may be exempt from taxation ; 
 that is, no tax is levied against them. For example, pub- 
 He school buildinsfs and property are exempt. 
 
 _, , , r 11 11- Exemptions 
 
 Church property, the property of colleges, pubhc 
 hospitals, public buildings such as courthouses, charitable 
 institutions, and other forms of property of a pubHc char- 
 acter, used for the public benefit and not for profit, are 
 exempt from taxation. 
 
 While the state and local governments derive most of 
 their revenues from direct taxation, the national gov- 
 ernment derives most of its revenues from in- indirect tax- 
 direct taxation. The Constitution permits Con- ^^^^^ ^y the 
 
 national 
 
 gress to levy both direct and indirect taxes. govern- 
 Direct taxation has been employed by the na- ^^^^ 
 tional government several times in our history, but it is 
 considered objectionable chiefly for two reasons. In the 
 
236 THE COMMUxNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 first place, the Constitution provides that direct taxes 
 " shall be apportioned among the several states . . . ac- 
 cording to their respective numbers." That is, if the 
 national government should decide to levy a tax on land, 
 it would first determine how much of a tax is needed all to- 
 gether, and would then call on the states to pay their 
 share in proportion to their population. A state having 
 twice the population of another would also pay twice the 
 tax of the other. In practice it has been found very diffi- 
 cult to apportion a tax in this way, and do it justly. An- 
 other reason why the national government prefers to 
 employ indirect, rather than direct, taxation is because 
 indirect taxes can be collected so much more easily than 
 direct taxes, and w^ithout attracting the attention of the 
 people so much. The people prefer local self-taxation, 
 and might feel more antagonistic to a tax collector rep- 
 resenting the far-away central authority. 
 
 The national government raises most of its money by 
 means of import duties and excise taxes. Import duties. 
 Imports and ^s already explained, are taxes on imported 
 excises goods, paid at first by the importer, but finally 
 
 by the people in all parts of the country who use the goods. 
 This form of taxation is very little felt by the people, and 
 yet very large sums of money are raised by means of it. 
 The excise is a tax levied on goods manufactured in this 
 country. This form of taxation was once very unpopular, 
 because it seemed a restriction on the industry of the 
 country by the national government. The chief manu- 
 factures taxed in this way are alcoholic liquors and tobacco 
 in its various forms. This tax also, though at first paid by 
 the manufacturers, is distributed among the people who 
 use the articles. 
 
 For the collection of import duties all imported goods 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNiMENT 237 
 
 are required to pass through customs houses at important 
 cities, mostly on the borders of the country, but coUection 
 sometimes in the interior, where the goods are o^ <*"t^^s 
 inspected by customs officers and the tax is collected. For 
 the collection of excise taxes the country is divided into 
 internal revenue districts, in each of which is a revenue 
 collector with assistants, who visit distilleries, breweries, 
 and tobacco factories to collect the tax. 
 
 The national government, Hke the states, endeavors usu- 
 ally to keep the revenue equal to the expenditures. The 
 heads of the various departments make their Borrowing 
 estimates of the necessary expenditures for the money 
 coming year, and Congress adjusts the rate of taxation to 
 meet the needs. It is easily seen that it is not easy to keep 
 the expenditures and the income exactly equal. Some- 
 times a surplus accumulates in the treasury. If the sur- 
 plus continues to increase, it is customary to cut down 
 the revenue. Sometimes, however, there is a deficit at 
 the end of the year. If the deficit is very great, it may 
 become necessary for Congress to borrow money to meet 
 it. In time of war the expenses of the government in- 
 crease with great rapidity. Then it becomes necessary 
 to borrow large sums of money. Borrowing under such 
 circumstances is justifiable for two reasons. First, be- 
 cause an increase in the taxes cannot be secured quickly 
 enough to meet the emergency. In the second place, 
 it is just that the expense of a great war should be 
 distributed over a considerable length of time, because 
 future generations are affected by it as much as the present. 
 The money is borrowed, therefore, and is paid back by 
 taxation during a long period of years. During the war 
 with Spain in 1898, large sums of money were raised by 
 unusual forms of taxation. But in addition to this, it was 
 
238 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 necessary to borrow large sums, which we are still paying 
 off by means of taxation. 
 
 j FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Try to find out, from printed reports of the treasurer, what the 
 annual expense of your city (or county or township) is. Make a list 
 of some of the more important items of expense, such as salaries, build- 
 ings, streets, etc. 
 
 2. Find out what the rate of taxation is for your city ; for your county ; 
 for your state. 
 
 3. How is the expense of the public schools met in your community? 
 
 4. Is there a tax on vehicles in your community? To what use is 
 this money put? 
 
 5. What kinds of business are conducted in your community under 
 license? What is the amount of the saloon license? To what use is 
 the revenue from this source put? 
 
 6. Obtain a tax list from the office of the assessor and note the items 
 listed. 
 
 '._ 7. How is the expense of constructing a sewer met in your com- 
 munity? Of paving a street? 
 
 8. Is there any limit to the amount of taxes that your city council 
 (or county commissioners) may levy? 
 
 9. Does your city charter limit the amount that your city may borrow? 
 Does the state constitution limit the amount that can be borrowed by 
 the state ? If so, why ? 
 
 10. To whom, and at what times, are the taxes paid in your com- 
 munity ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government,'' chapters XXI-XXII. 
 Forman, " Advanced Civics,'' chapters XXXV-XXXIX. 
 Fiske, "Civil Government," chapter I. 
 Wilcox. "The American City," chapters XII, XIII. 
 Ely, " Taxation in American States and Cities." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF 
 AMERICA 
 
 Preamble 
 
 We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
 union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
 common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- 
 ings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish 
 this Constitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 Section I 
 
 All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
 of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
 chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the 
 electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
 of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 
 
 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained 
 to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 
 that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
 several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
 their respective numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the 
 whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
 term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
 
 239 
 
240 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 persons.] ^ The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
 after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
 every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by 
 law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for 
 every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Represen- 
 tative ; [and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, 
 Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
 York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- 
 land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and 
 Georgia three.] ^ 
 
 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
 the executive authority thereof shall issue w-rits of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
 other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Section III 
 
 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
 Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six 
 years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
 first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
 classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated 
 at the.expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expira- 
 tion of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the 
 sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if 
 vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the 
 legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary ap- 
 pointments until the next meeting of the legishiture, which shall then 
 fill such vacancies. 
 
 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
 age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
 and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for 
 which he shall be chosen. 
 
 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the 
 Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President 
 
 1 The clauses in brackets have been superseded by Amendments XIII and XIV. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 241 
 
 pro teinporc in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exer- 
 cise the office of President of tlie United States. 
 
 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
 When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
 shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
 to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
 of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party con- 
 victed shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
 judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Section IV 
 
 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators 
 and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature 
 thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such 
 regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 
 
 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
 such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
 shall by law^ appoint a different day. 
 
 Section V 
 
 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
 qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
 stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn 
 from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of 
 absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each 
 house may provide. 
 
 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
 members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two 
 thirds, expel a member. 
 
 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
 to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- 
 ment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either 
 house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, 
 be entered on the journal. 
 
 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall without the 
 consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
 place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
242 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Section VI 
 
 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation 
 for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury 
 of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, 
 and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their atten- 
 dance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same : and for any speech or debate in either house 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
 he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of 
 the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
 whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person 
 holding any office under the United States shall be a member of 
 either house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Section VII 
 
 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as 
 on other bills. 
 
 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
 and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he 
 shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
 originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and 
 proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of 
 that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with 
 the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- 
 sidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house it shall become a 
 law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined 
 by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against 
 the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If 
 any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
 excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
 be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
 by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not 
 be a law. 
 
 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
 question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 243 
 
 United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
 by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of 
 the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the mles and 
 limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Section VHI 
 
 The Congress shall have power : 
 
 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
 debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
 United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
 throughout the United States ; 
 
 2. To borrow m.oney on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
 States, and with the Indian tribes; 
 
 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
 on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
 and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 
 
 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
 current coin of the United States; 
 
 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 
 
 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for 
 limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their re- 
 spective writings and discoveries ; 
 
 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
 
 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
 seas and offenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 11. To declare war. grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water; 
 
 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
 that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 
 
 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
 naval forces ; 
 
 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
 Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 
 
 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 
 of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
 
244 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ment of the ofificers, and the authority of training the militia according 
 to the discipHne prescribed by Congress; 
 
 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over 
 such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may. by cession of 
 particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of 
 Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 
 all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
 which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, 
 dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and 
 
 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
 ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
 by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
 department or officer thereof. 
 
 Section IX 
 
 1 . [The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States 
 now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the 
 Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but 
 a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten 
 dollars for each person.] ^ 
 
 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
 require it. 
 
 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- 
 tion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 
 
 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
 revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall 
 vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
 duties in another. 
 
 7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury l)ut in consequence 
 of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account 
 of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
 from time to time. 
 
 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and 
 no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without 
 the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, 
 or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 
 
 1 A temporary clause no longer in force. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 245 
 
 Section X 
 
 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
 grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; 
 make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; 
 pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law. or law impairing the obliga- 
 tion of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any im- 
 posts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
 necessary for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all 
 duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be 
 for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws 
 shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 3. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty 
 of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
 agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as 
 will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Section I 
 
 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
 States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
 years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, 
 be elected as follows : 
 
 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
 may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators 
 and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; 
 but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust 
 or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by 
 ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
 of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 
 the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list 
 they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- 
 ment of the United States, directed to the President cf the Senate. 
 The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
 House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
 then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
 shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
 
246 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who 
 have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House 
 of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for 
 President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest 
 on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. 
 But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the 
 representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur- 
 pose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the 
 States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
 In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the 
 greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. 
 But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the 
 Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] ^ 
 
 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors 
 and the day on w^hich they shall give their votes, which day shall be 
 the same throughout the United States. 
 
 5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
 States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
 to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
 office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
 been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
 death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
 the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the 
 Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna- 
 tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring 
 what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act ac- 
 cordingly until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected. 
 
 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
 compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
 the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
 receive within that period any other emolument from the United States 
 or any of them. 
 
 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
 following oath or affirmation : 
 
 " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will foithfully execute the office 
 of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability 
 preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 
 
 1 Superseded by Amendment XII. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 247 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the Army and 
 Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States 
 when called into the actual service of the United States; he may 
 require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the 
 executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and 
 pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of 
 impeachment. 
 
 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
 concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
 United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided 
 for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by 
 law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, 
 in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- 
 ments. 
 
 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
 happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
 which shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Section III 
 
 He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the 
 state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures 
 as he shall judge necessary and expedient : he may. on extraordinary 
 occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis- 
 agreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
 may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall re- 
 ceive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
 the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
 the United States. 
 
 Section IV 
 
 The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United 
 States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction 
 of treason, briberv, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
248 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 Section I 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su- 
 preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time 
 to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and 
 inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, 
 at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall 
 not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
 arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
 treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
 cases aiTecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to 
 all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two 
 or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; be- 
 tween citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State 
 claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, 
 or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 2. In all cases, affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
 shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
 the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
 fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
 shall make. 
 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 
 by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes 
 shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, 
 the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law 
 have directed. 
 
 Section III 
 
 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war 
 against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and com- 
 fort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony 
 of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment ot 
 treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
 forfeiture except during the life of the person attained. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 249 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 Section 1 
 
 Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Con- 
 gress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
 records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1 . The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and 
 immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2. A person charged in any State \vith treason, felony, or other 
 crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, 
 on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, 
 be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the 
 crime. 
 
 3. [No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or reg- 
 ulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
 delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
 be due.] ^ 
 
 Section HI 
 
 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; 
 but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of 
 any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or 
 more States or parts Of States, without the consent of the legislatures 
 of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- 
 ful mles and regulations respecting the territory or other property be- 
 longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
 be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of 
 any particular State. 
 
 Section IV 
 The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a 
 republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against 
 invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when 
 the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 1 Superseded by Amendment XIII. 
 
2 50 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case shall 
 be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
 or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
 mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided 
 that [no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and 
 fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that] ^ no 
 State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
 adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
 States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 
 
 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
 be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 
 made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
 law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
 anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
 withstanding. 
 
 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
 members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
 ofticers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be 
 bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no reli- 
 gious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
 trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
 for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- 
 ing the same. 
 
 Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, 
 the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
 
 1 Temporary in its nature. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 25 1 
 
 thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independ- 
 ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
 whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
 Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King.. 
 Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
 New York — Alexander Hamilton. 
 New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearley. William Paterson, 
 
 Jonathan Dayton. 
 Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin. Robert Morris, 
 
 George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, 
 
 Gouverneur Morris. 
 Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, 
 
 Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. 
 Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel 
 
 Carroll. 
 Virginia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. 
 North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh 
 
 Williamson. 
 South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 
 
 Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. 
 Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 
 
 Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 in addition to and amendment of the Constitution of the United 
 States of America, proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legisla- 
 tures of the several States, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
 speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
 State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
 infringed. 
 
252 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
 the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
 and eifects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
 lated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported 
 by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be 
 searched and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 No persons shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- 
 mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, ex- 
 cept in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when 
 in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person 
 be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
 limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
 against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due 
 process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use with- 
 out just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
 speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
 wherein the crime shall have been committed, whicli district shall have 
 been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
 and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
 him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars,* the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
 tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United 
 States, than according to the rules of the common law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 253 
 
 ARTICLE IX 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights sliall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
 nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively 
 or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
 extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
 one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
 subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 ARTICLE XII 
 
 I. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by 
 ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall 
 not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall 
 name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct 
 ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make 
 distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons 
 voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which 
 lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
 government of the United States, directed to the President of the 
 Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes 
 shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of 
 votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
 majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceed- 
 ing three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But 
 in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the rep- 
 resentation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose 
 shall consist of a member or members from tw^o thirds of the States, 
 and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
 if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President w henever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
 March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
 
254 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
 President. 
 
 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President 
 shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then 
 from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the 
 Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of 
 the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
 be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
 the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
 United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII 
 
 Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
 punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
 shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV 
 
 Section i . All persons born or naturalized in the. United States, and 
 subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
 of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
 law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
 United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
 or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within 
 its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
 States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
 ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed But when 
 the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
 and v'ice-President of 'the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
 the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
 legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
 Stlte, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, 
 or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
 crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
 portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
 number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 255 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
 gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil 
 or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having 
 previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of 
 the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an 
 executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution 
 of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebeUion 
 against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
 Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such dis- 
 ability. 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
 bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be 
 questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume 
 or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
 against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
 of any slave : but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
 illegal and void. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
 legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV 
 
 Section i . The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
 be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of 
 race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
256 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF HOMES OWNED AND 
 NUMBER OF HOMES RENTED IN THE CITIES OF 
 THE UNITED STATES HAVING A POPU- 
 LATION OF 100,000 OR OVER 
 
 Adapted from a Table in the Census Report for 1900 
 
 Cities 
 
 Homes Ozvned 
 
 Homes Rented 
 
 Per Cent 
 Owned 
 
 Allegheny, Pa 
 
 6,490 
 
 18.983 
 
 25 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 
 
 
 26,989 
 
 69.761 
 
 28 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,696 
 
 89,083 
 
 19 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 
 
 
 
 23,168 
 
 47,298 
 
 33 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 
 
 
 
 86,435 
 
 258,582 
 
 25 
 
 Cincinnati, 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.891 
 
 56.384 
 
 21 
 
 Cleveland, O. 
 
 
 
 
 
 29.139 
 
 48,844 
 
 37 
 
 Columbus, 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,093 
 
 17,822 
 
 31 
 
 Denver, Col. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,269 
 
 21,215 
 
 28 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,540 
 
 35.178 
 
 39 
 
 Fall River, Mass. 
 
 
 
 
 3.659 
 
 16,711 
 
 18 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 
 
 
 12,729 
 
 25.004 
 
 33 
 
 Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 
 
 
 8.536 
 
 34,060 
 
 20 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 
 
 
 8,443 
 
 26.466 
 
 24 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 
 
 
 10,049 
 
 12,745 
 
 44 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . 
 
 
 
 
 11,363 
 
 31,640 
 
 26 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 
 
 
 3,665 
 
 15,851 
 
 18 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 
 
 
 20.955 
 
 37.466 
 
 36 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn 
 
 
 
 
 11-473 
 
 28.522 
 
 28 
 
 Newark, N. J. . 
 
 
 
 
 11,041 
 
 41,027 
 
 21 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 
 
 
 6,062 
 
 16.722 
 
 26 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 
 
 
 12,886 
 
 45,129 
 
 22 
 
 New York City 
 
 
 
 
 85,169 
 
 614,474 
 
 12 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.341 
 
 13.941 
 
 27 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 257 
 
 Cities 
 
 Homes Owned 
 
 Homes Rented 
 
 Per Cent 
 Owned 
 
 Paterson, N. J. . . . 
 
 5^230 
 
 17,285 
 
 23 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. . . 
 
 
 
 55.528 
 
 196,124 
 
 22 
 
 Pittsburg. Pa. . . 
 
 
 
 16,582 
 
 44.364 
 
 27 
 
 Providence, R. I. . . 
 
 
 
 7,895 
 
 29,696 
 
 21 
 
 Rochester. N. Y. . 
 
 
 
 12.469 
 
 20,481 
 
 37 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 
 
 4,620 
 
 11.080 
 
 29 
 
 St. Louis. Mo. . . 
 
 
 
 26,804 
 
 90,983 
 
 23 
 
 St. Paul. Minn. 
 
 
 
 8.652 
 
 20.266 
 
 30 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 
 
 15774 
 
 49,656 
 
 24 
 
 Scranton, Pa. . . 
 
 
 
 7.436 
 
 12,209 
 
 37 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 
 
 9^238 
 
 15439 
 
 37 
 
 Toledo, 0. . 
 
 
 
 11,962 
 12.998 
 
 15,851 
 
 40,753 
 
 43 
 24 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 
 
 Worcester, Mass. . 
 
 
 
 5,913 
 
 17^875 
 
 25 
 
258 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 IMMIGRATION TABLES i 
 Immigration by Decades, 1821 to 1900 
 
 1821 to 1830 
 
 1 83 1 to 1840 
 
 1841 to 1850 
 
 1851 to i860 
 
 1861 to 1870 
 
 • 143.439 
 
 • 599.125 
 1,713,251 
 2,598,214 
 2,314,824 
 
 1871 to 1880 . . . 2,812,191 
 
 1881 to 1890 . . . 5,246.613 
 
 1891 to 1900 . . . 3,687,564 
 
 1901 to 1905 (5 years) 3,833,076 
 
 Number and Per Cent of Immigrants from Certain Countries for the 
 Period 1 821 to 1902, and for 1903 
 
 Country 
 
 182I to IQ02 1 
 
 1Q03 
 
 Nnmbe-r 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Nujnber 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 England, Wales 
 Germany .... 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Norway, Sweden 
 Russia, Poland . . 
 
 1.316.9*4 
 
 2-739,937 
 5,098,005 
 3,944,269 
 1-358,597 
 I -334.93 1 
 1,106,362 
 
 6.5 
 
 13-4 
 24.9 
 
 19-3 
 6.7 
 6.6 
 
 5-4 
 
 206.011 
 26.219 
 40,086 
 35-300 
 
 230,622 
 70,489 
 
 136,093 
 
 24.0 
 
 3-0 
 
 4-7 
 4.1 
 
 26.9 
 8.2 
 
 15.9 
 
 FOREIGN POPULATION IN FOUR CITIES 
 
 
 Austria- Hjingary, Italy, 
 Poland, and Russia 
 
 Great Britain, France, 
 Germany, and Scandinavia 
 
 Cities 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Total Popula- 
 tion 
 
 Per Cent 0/ 
 Slum Popula- 
 tion 
 
 Per Cent 0/ 
 Total Popula- 
 tion 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Shivi Popula- 
 tion 
 
 New York . . 
 
 9-45 
 
 51.11 
 
 3073 
 
 8.64 
 
 Chicago . . . 
 
 6.41 
 
 44.44 
 
 30.70 
 
 10 64 
 
 Philadelphia . . 
 
 1-95 
 
 50.28 
 
 22.95 
 
 8.44 
 
 Baltimore . . . 
 
 1.97 
 
 12.72 
 
 13.52 
 
 27.29 
 
 1 Tables taken from Appendix of Hall's Immigration. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accidents, prevention of, 74. 
 Administrative, departments, 202, 205, 
 
 216; duties of local governments, 
 
 165. 
 Advertisements, 142, 143. 
 Aliens, ^8, 39, 169. 
 Amendment of the constitution, 20S. 
 Americans, the making of, 34-40. 
 Andre, 17. 
 Appointment of officers, 174, 183, 184, 
 
 204, 214, 215, 216, 223, 224, 225. 
 Apportionment, 220. 
 Architecture, 145. 
 Army, the, 76, jj. 
 Art, 134; galleries, 134. 
 Articles of Confederation, 218, 222. 
 Assemblage, freedom of, 128, 129, 
 Assessment, 232. 
 Assessments, special, 235. 
 Assessors, 232. 
 Asylums, 154. 
 Australian system of election, 185. 
 
 Beautiful surroundings of factories, 88. 
 
 Beauty, desire for, 16, 132-148; in- 
 creasing, 145, 146; in the pioneer 
 family, 22; natural, 132, 133; in 
 the home, 134-136 ; in the school, 
 
 137- 
 Berkeley, Governor, 118. 
 Bill, 210; of rights, 209. 
 Billboards, 142, 143. 
 Birds, killing of, 133. 
 Borrowing money, 237. 
 Boss, 182, 212. 
 Boston, 10, 113, 114, 143. 
 
 Boulevards, 143, 144. 
 
 Builders of our nation, 87. 
 
 Building, ordinances, 70 ; inspectors, 
 
 70 ; department, 203. 
 Buildings, faulty construction of, 69. 
 Business life of the community, 82-91 ; 
 
 regulation of, 73, 74, 92-97. 
 Business man, responsibility of the, 88. 
 By-laws, 190. 
 By-products, 99, 100. 
 
 Campaign, political, 172. 
 
 Canals, 108, 109. 
 
 Capitation tax, 234. 
 
 Caucus, 171, 185. 
 
 Charity, unorganized, 155; organiza- 
 tion, 156; bureaus, 156. 
 
 Charters, city, 199 ; special, 199 ; gen- 
 eral, 199 ; model, 200 ; colonial, 
 208. 
 
 Checks and balances, 167. 
 
 Chicago, 12, 69, 70, 77, 114, 198, 199 ; 
 drainage canal, 56, 62. 
 
 Children, of foreigners, 37, 40 ; labor 
 of, 93 ; and civic beauty, 135, 136; 
 school, 125, 126. 
 
 Chinese, exclusion of, 37, ;^8. 
 
 Church, the, 3,4, 5, 18, 149, 150, 155 ; 
 relation between government and, 
 150, 151. 
 
 Churches, architecture of, 134. 
 
 Cincinnati, 69. 
 
 Cities, geographical conditions of 
 growth, 10-12; home life in, 
 28-31; foreigners in, 36 ; subdivi- 
 sions of, 47 ; exercise right of emi- 
 
 259 
 
26o 
 
 INDEX 
 
 nent domain, 49 ; health in, 55, 56, 
 59, 60, 62 ; fire protection in, 68, 
 69 ; police in, 72 ; street lighting 
 in, 73 ; transportation in, 1 1 i-i 14 ; 
 education in, 122, 128; beauty in, 
 
 133. 135' 137. 138, 139, 142, i43> 
 145; charity in, 154, 156; primary 
 districts of, 171 ; merit system in, 
 184, 205; growth of, 198; prob- 
 lems of, 198,199; self-government 
 in, 199; relation of, to the state, 
 199 ; form of government in, 201 ; 
 cost of government in, 228, 
 
 Citizens, legal, 1,8. 
 
 Citizenship, 9 ; the family a school of, 
 26 ; necessity for instruction in, 40 ; 
 in business, 82-90; good, 61, 70, 
 86, 87, 88, 90, 98, 126, 136, 175 ; 
 and the school, 124-128 ; influence 
 of beautiful surroundings on, 146 ; 
 influence of religion on, 152. 
 
 City community, the, 7, 8 ; charters, 
 164, 199 ; council, 201 ; govern- 
 ment of the, 198-207 ; and national 
 politics, 204, 205. 
 
 Civic beauty, influence on citizenship, 
 146. 
 
 Civic Improvement Associations, 146. 
 
 Civil service, 183; of the United 
 States, 224, 225; reform in cities, 
 205. 
 
 Civil Service Commission, 184. 
 
 Cleanliness, 58, 59. 
 
 Cleveland, 30, 31 (no/e), 135, 137. 
 
 Climate, ii. 
 
 Coast survey, 108. 
 
 Colonial charters, 208. 
 
 Colonies, 103, 119, 149, 150, 192, 193, 
 230. 
 
 Colonists, 3, 92, 118, 149, 162, 167, 
 189, 190, 191, 218, 229. 
 
 Colonize, 44. 
 
 Colony, in the West, the, 3; Virginia, 
 12, 118, 191 ; Massachusetts Bay, 
 34- 
 
 Columbus, 17. 
 
 Commerce, foreign and interstate, 94, 
 
 95- 
 Commerce and Labor, Department of, 
 
 9&. 
 
 Committees, party, 173; legislative, 
 210, 222. 
 
 Communication, 2, 3, 103, 114. 
 
 Communities, large and small, 7; 
 union of communities, 7, 8; grov^^th 
 of, 8; permanence of, 43. 
 
 Community, the nature of a, 7-9; defi- 
 nition, 7; the site of a, i, 2, 10-13; 
 membership in a, 8. 
 
 Companionship, desire for, 16; in the 
 pioneer family, 23. 
 
 Compulsory education, 126. 
 
 Confederation, the, 94; government 
 of, 218. 
 
 Confidence, necessity for, 89; respon- 
 sibility of citizens for, 89. 
 
 Congress, 219-222; powers over busi- 
 ness relations, 94-96; power to tax, 
 230, 231. 
 
 Congressional districts, 220. 
 
 Connecticut, education in, 119. 
 
 Constables, 72, 75. 
 
 Constitutional convention, 162, 218. 
 
 Constitution of the United States, the, 
 
 i9» 38, 49. 7i» 72, 92, 93. 94. "S. 
 129, 151, 159, 160, 162, 163, 174, 
 179, 209, 210, 213, 219, 223, 225, 
 226, 230, 235, 236, 239; interpre- 
 tation of, 164. 
 
 Constitutions, state, 93, 208, 210, 211. 
 
 Consular system, 95. 
 
 Convention, constitutional, 162, 218. 
 
 Conventions, nominating, 171, 172. 
 
 Corporations, regulation of, 95 ; domi- 
 nation of, 183. 
 
 County, 121; origin of, 191; why 
 adopted in Virginia, 191 ; govern- 
 ment of, 191, 192, 195, 196; in the 
 South, 193; in the West, 195. 
 
 County court, 191. 
 
INDEX 
 
 261 
 
 County supervisors, 193. 
 
 Courts, juvenile, 158; state, 212-214; 
 justices', 213; district, 213; circuit, 
 213; police, 213; criminal, 213; 
 county, 214; probate, 214; chan- 
 cer}-, 214; supreme, 214; federal, 
 225-226. 
 
 Credit, 89. 
 
 Crime, 157; prevention of, 158; state 
 control of, 158; national control of, 
 
 159. 
 
 Criminals, 29, 153, 156-160; reforma- 
 tion of, 157. 
 
 Customs houses, 237. 
 
 Defectives, 153, 154. 
 
 Defects in self-government, 178-188. 
 
 Delinquents, 153, 156-160. 
 
 Democratic, 168. 
 
 Dependence of the citizen on the 
 community, 82-86. 
 
 Dependents, 153, 154-156. 
 
 Desires of men, the, 15-19; combina- 
 tions of, 17; conflict of, 18, 161; 
 provided for in the pioneer family, 
 23; provided for by the community, 
 54. 
 
 Distribution of powers, 219; in the 
 protection of property and life, 78, 
 79; in the protection of health, 63; 
 in business matters, 92, 93; in edu- 
 cation, 120. 
 
 Division of labor, 83-86. 
 
 Division of powers, 162-165, i^^. 
 
 Domain, eminent, 49; the national, 
 
 44,45- 
 Domestic science, 99. 
 Duties of citizenship, 178. 
 
 Education, 3, 118-131; in the pioneer 
 family, 22; in the Northwest Terri- 
 tory, 120; and government, 119, 
 120; in hands of state and local 
 governments, 120; state control of, 
 122; department of, 203; work of 
 
 the national government in, 123, 
 124; United States Commissioner 
 of, 124; cost of, 124; and citizen- 
 ship, 124-128; a duty, 126. 
 
 Election, indirect, 174. 
 
 Elections, 167, 169, 1 71-174; fre- 
 quency of, 173. 
 
 Electoral system, 223. 
 
 Electors, 174. 
 
 Electric transportation, 113, 114. 
 
 Eminent domain, right of, 49. 
 
 Employee, responsil)ility of the, 88 ; 
 and employer, 85, 86. 
 
 Employer, responsibility of the, 88. 
 
 Equalization, board of, 233. 
 
 Erie Canal, loS, 109. 
 
 Estimates, board of, 201, 204. 
 
 Exchange of goods, 21. 
 
 Excises, 236. 
 
 Executive branch of government, 165 ; 
 of cities, 201, 202, 203 ; state, 214- 
 216; national, 222-225. 
 
 Exemptions, 235. 
 
 Families, i, 2. 
 
 Family, the, 20-24 ; importance of, 
 20 ; service of, to its members, 
 20 ; the pioneer, 20—23 5 relieved 
 by the community, 23 ; responsi- 
 bility of, 24 ; services rendered to 
 the community by, 26-31 ; a train- 
 ing school for citizens, 26; influence 
 of, in uniting people with the land, 
 44 ; a producer of wealth, 83 ; and 
 education, 1 19. 
 
 Federal nation, 163; government, 
 163. 
 
 Fees, 235. 
 
 Fire, loss from, 67 ; early methods of 
 fighting, 67, 68. 
 
 Fire department, modern organization 
 of, 68, 69 ; efficiency of, 69 ; 
 waste in, 10 1 ; in city government, 
 203. 
 
 Fire insurance, 70, 71. 
 
262 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Foreign population, 34-40 ; influence 
 
 of, 36. 
 Forest reservations, 47. 
 Forestry bureaus, 133. 
 Franchises, 50, 202 ; wastefully given, 
 
 loi ; for use of streets, 112; abuse 
 
 of, 112. 
 Franchise tax, 234. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 67, 68, 72, "jt,. 
 
 Gardens, home and school, 135, 136. 
 
 Geographical conditions, i, 2 ; impor- 
 tance of, 10; of Virginia, 12, 191 ; 
 of the growth of the nation, 13; 
 conquest of, 13, 21. 
 
 Geography, influence of, on the divi- 
 sion of labor, 84 ; on roads, 104 ; 
 on education, 118. 
 
 Government, purpose of, 5, 18, 19, 96, 
 161 ; local, 48, 55, 56, 59, 60, 63, 
 72, 73, 78, 93, loi, 105, III, 112, 
 
 114, 120, 133, 146, 154, 155, 162, 
 164, 165, 166, 189-197, 198-207, 
 
 228, 229, 231, 234; state, 62, 63, 
 75. 785 93> loi, 106, 107, 108, 120, 
 122, 146, 151, 154, 158, 162, 163, 
 164, 165, 166, 168, 208-217, 228, 
 
 229, 230, 231, 234; national, 37, 
 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 47, 49, 63, 76, 78, 
 79. 93. 94-96, 10 1, 106, 108, no, 
 
 115, 123, 146, 159, 162, 163, 164, 
 166, 218-227, 228, 229, 230, 235, 
 236, 237 ; in the home, 23, 24, 29, 
 30; waste in, 100, loi ; threefold 
 character of, 162 ; federal, 163 ; 
 republican form of, 209 ; of the 
 Confederation, 218 ; expense of, 
 228-238. 
 
 Government survey, 45, 46. 
 Governor, 214, 215. 
 Great Lakes, 108, 109. 
 
 Harmony, means to secure, 18. 
 Health, 3 ; geographical conditions 
 of, II ; desire for life and, 15 ; in 
 
 tenements, 29, 30 ; protection of, 
 54-64 ; protected by government, 
 55, 56 ; officers, 56 ; board of, 56 ; 
 and the national government, 63 ; 
 in factories and mines, 93 ; depart- 
 ment, 203. 
 
 Home, 2 ; building a, 21 ; owning of 
 a, 27 ; creates interest in the com- 
 munity, 28 ; beauty in the, 134-136. 
 
 Home Gardening Association, 136, 
 
 Homes, a city of, 2, 20, 28 ; of work- 
 ingmen, 88 ; number owned and 
 rented, appe^idix. 
 
 Homestead Act, 44. 
 
 Hospitals, 60 ; for insane, 154. 
 
 Immigrants, number, 34 ; distribu- 
 tion, 35 ; in cities, 36 ; become 
 Americans, 36, 37, 40 ; health in- 
 spection of, 63. 
 
 Immigration, 34-40 ; tables, appendix. 
 
 Impeachment, 221. 
 
 Import duties, 231, 236, 237. 
 
 Income tax, 234. 
 
 Indeterminate sentence, 158. 
 
 Indianapolis, 11, 57, 58, 107. 
 
 Indians, 17, 43. 
 
 Industrial organization, 84, 
 
 Inheritance tax, 234. 
 
 Initiative and referendum, 211. 
 
 Interests, common, 2, 3. 
 
 Interstate Commerce Commission, 
 no. 
 
 Interurban electric roads, no. 
 
 Investment, 100. 
 
 Iroquois theater tire, 70. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, 184. 
 
 Judges, appointment of, 214; federal, 
 
 225. 
 Judicial branch of government, 165; 
 
 in cities, 201; state, 212; national, 
 
 225, 226; purpose of county, ig6: 
 
 districts, 213. 
 
INDEX 
 
 263 
 
 Jury service, duty of, 179; trial by, 
 
 213 (and see Trial). 
 Justices of the peace, 191, 213. 
 Juvenile courts, 158. 
 
 Knowledge, desire for, 16, 1 1 8-1 31. 
 
 Labor unions, 86, 93. 
 
 Land, union of people with, 3, 43-51; 
 
 political divisions of, 51. 
 Law, in the pioneer family, 23. 
 Law breakers, protection against, 71. 
 Lawrenceburg, 77, 78, 79. 
 Laws, common, 7; established by 
 
 government, 18; tenement-house, 
 
 31- 
 Legislative branch of government, 
 
 165; in cities, 201; state, 209; 
 
 national, 219-222. 
 Legislature, state, 209-212. 
 Levees, 78. 
 Libraries, 128. 
 Library, Congressional, 128. 
 Licenses, 235. 
 
 Lieutenant governor, 210, 215. 
 Life, desire for, 15; the well-rounded, 
 
 17; protection of, 67-81. 
 Life-saving service, 78. 
 Lighthouses, 78. 
 Liquor traffic, 74. 
 Livingstone, 16. 
 Lobbying, 212. 
 
 Local government, see Government. 
 Louisville, 11. 
 Lynching, 71, 72. 
 
 Machine, party, 182. 
 Majority, rule of, 182. 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 34; edu- 
 cation in, 1 18, 119. 
 Mayor, the, 201, 202; pouers of, 204. 
 Merit system, 184, 225; in cities, 205. 
 Militia, 75, 76. 
 Minneapolis, li. 
 Mints, establishment of, 95. 
 
 Money, 21; coinage of, 95. 
 
 Mulberry Bend, 144. 
 
 Municipal ownership, 69, 73, 114. 
 
 Nansen, 16. 
 
 Nation, government of the, 218-227; 
 
 see also Governrnetit. 
 National Good Roads Association, 105. 
 National government, see Govern- 
 
 jnent. 
 Nationality, the bond of, 34. 
 National Municipal League, 200. 
 Naturalization, 38. 
 Navy, the, 76, 77. 
 
 New England, schools in, 119, 162. 
 New Orleans, 63. 
 Newspaper, 115. 
 New York City, 68, 72, 78, 113, 114, 
 
 144, 198. 
 Niagara Falls, 133. 
 Noise, 138. 
 
 Nominations, 169, 170; direct, 222. 
 Northwest Territory, 151. 
 
 Obedience, 175. 
 
 Occupations, of the pioneer family, 
 
 22; transferred to the community, 
 
 23, 24. 
 Office, duty of taking, 178. 
 Official parents, 158. 
 Oklahoma, 1 20. 
 Ordinance of 1787, 120, 151. 
 
 Panama Canal, 109. 
 
 Pardons, board of, 215. 
 
 Parish, 189. 
 
 Parks, 30, 59, 60, 133, 143, 144. 
 
 Parties, political, 169; necessity for, 
 
 181 ; and city government, 204. 
 Party, organization, 173, 182; spirit, 
 
 dangers of, 181. 
 Patriotism, 87, 90, 179. 
 Pavements, 138. 
 Pawn shops, 74. 
 Penn, William, 175. 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Permanence, a necessity in community 
 
 life, 43. 
 Philadelphia, ii, 67, 68, 73, 198. 
 Pioneer life, 4; family, 20-23. 
 Piracy, 159. 
 Pittsburg, 10. 
 Playgrounds, 30, 60, 
 Plymouth colony, 34. 
 Poles and wires, 142. 
 Police, 72, 73, 75; efficiency of, 73; 
 
 department, 72, 73, 203; courts, 73. 
 Police power, the, 50. 
 Political divisions, 51. 
 Poll tax, 234. 
 Poor relief, 155. 
 Postal service, 95, 114, 115. 
 Poverty, 155. 
 
 Preamble of the Constitution, 19, 162. 
 President, naturalized citizens may not 
 
 hold office of, 38, 172, 173, 174, 221, 
 
 223-225; authority over militia, 75, 
 
 76; commander-in-chief of the 
 
 army, 77. 
 President of the senate, 210. 
 Press, freedom of the, 128, 129. 
 Primaries, 171, 180; reform of, 185. 
 Primary districts, 1 71. 
 Probation officers, 15S. 
 Property, protection of, 67, 81. 
 Property rights, 92. 
 Protection, in the pioneer family, 22; 
 
 of life and property, 67-81; of 
 
 health, 54-64. 
 Public opinion, 212. 
 Punishment, 157. 
 Pure-food laws, 63. 
 Puritans, 150, 190. 
 
 Quarantine, 60. 
 Quebec, 1 1. 
 
 Railroads, 44, 89, 109, no; state and 
 national aid of, 109, no; national 
 control of, no; government owner- 
 ship of, no, 114. 
 
 Reclamation of arid lands, 47. 
 
 Reclamation service, 47. 
 
 Referendum, 211. 
 
 Reform, responsibility of the citizen 
 for,_i85. 
 
 Religion, 3; desire for, 16, 149-152; 
 in the pioneer family, 22, 23; influ- 
 ence in history, 149, 
 
 Religious intolerance in the colonies, 
 150; qualifications for the suffrage, 
 151; liberty guaranteed, 152. 
 
 Representation in Congress, 219, 220. 
 
 Representative government, 162. 
 
 Representatives, chosen from local 
 districts, 167; House of, 210, 220, 
 222; election of, 220. 
 
 Resources, natural, ii. 
 
 Responsibility, the sense of personal, 
 175; of the citizen, 82, 86-90, loi, 
 138, 178, 185, 234; of the state ex- 
 ecutive, 216; of the President, 223. 
 
 Revenue districts, 237. 
 
 Revision of constitutions, 208, 209. 
 
 Revolution, the, 229. 
 
 Revolutionary War, 72, 76, 92, 94. 
 
 Rings, political, 182. 
 
 Rivers, as highways, 107; improve- 
 ment of, 108. 
 
 Road, the national, 106. 
 
 Roads, 100 ; importance of, 104; con- 
 struction and management, 104, 
 105; state control over, 93, 106, 
 107 ; national aid for construction 
 of, 106. 
 
 Rural communities, 1 89-197. 
 
 Russia, 129. 
 
 St. Louis, 10, 69. 
 
 San Francisco, 10, 50, 71, 77, 
 
 Saving, waste and, 98-102. 
 
 School, the public, 18 ; influence on 
 immigrants, 40 ; domestic science 
 in, 99; lands, 120; trustees, 120, 
 121; boards, 122, 204; a commu- 
 nity, 125, 126; and civic beauty 
 136, 137- 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 Schools, 1 18-131; city, 122; consoli- 
 dated, 121, 122; rural, 120-122; 
 naval, 124; Indian, 124; of Wash- 
 ington, D. C, 124 ; high, 127, 
 128; special, 127; private, 128; 
 parochial, 128; state, 128, 154; 
 reform, 158; medical inspection 
 in, 61. 
 
 Selectmen, 190. 
 
 Self-government, 92, 93, 162; defects 
 in, 178-188; responsibility of the 
 citizen for, 178. 
 
 Senate, state, 210; United States, 220, 
 221 ; executive duties of, 221. 
 
 Senators, election of, 174, 221, 222; 
 indirect election proposed, 220. 
 
 Separation of powers, 165 ; in cities, 
 203; in the state government, 209, 
 in the national government, 219. 
 
 Settlement in the West, the, 1-5, 7, 
 10, 15, 16, 20, 28, 43, 55, 56, 103, 
 149. 
 
 Sewers, 56-58. 
 
 Sheriff, 72, 75, 192, 196. 
 
 Site of a community, the, I, 2, 10-13. 
 
 Slums, 29—31. 
 
 Smoke, prevention of, 144, 145. 
 
 Smoke inspectors, 59. 
 
 Social life, in the pioneer family, 23. 
 
 Spain, war with, 237. 
 
 Spartans, 154. 
 
 Speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives, 210, 222. 
 
 Speech, freedom of, 128, 129. 
 
 Spoils system, 184 ; in city govern- 
 ment, 204. 
 
 State, the, 49, 51, 62, 107, 120, 151, 
 167, 168; see Government. 
 
 State Universities, 122, 123. 
 
 Streams, pollution of, 133; beauty 
 preserved, 133. 
 
 Street, importance of the, 1 11, man- 
 agement of, III, 112; cleaning, 
 59 ; department, 203 ; cleaning 
 department, 203. 
 
 Streets, lighting of, 73 ; blocking of 
 
 112; franchises for use of, II2; 
 
 beauty of, 137-140; littering, 139; 
 
 and school children, 139, 140. 
 Suffrage, the, 168. 
 Superintendent, of schools, county, 
 
 121; city, 122; state, 123. 
 Survey, government, 45, 46. 
 
 Tax, road, 104. 
 
 Taxation, 228-238; right of self-, 230; 
 under the Confederation, 230; by 
 federal government, 230; by state 
 and local governments, 231-235; 
 direct and indirect 231-235; rate 
 of, 233; exemption from, 151. 
 
 Taxes, 94, 229-237; duty of paying, 
 179; evasion of, 234. 
 
 Telegraph, 114, 115. 
 
 Telephone, 114, 115. 
 
 Tenements, 28-31. 
 
 Terms of office, 173. 
 
 Town meeting, the, 128, 162, 189, 190; 
 in the Northwest, 193; influence of, 
 
 193- 
 Town officers, 190. 
 Township, 121 ; origin of, 189; why 
 
 adopted in New England, 190 ; 
 
 government of, 189, 190, 193, 195, 
 
 196 ; in the West, 195. 
 Transportation, 103-117; in the col. 
 
 onies, 103; in cities, 30, 111-114. 
 Treason, 159. 
 
 Treaties, 210; crime against, 159. 
 Tree commissioners, 144. 
 Trees, 140; mutilation of, 141, 142. 
 Trial by jury, right of, 71, 72, 160. 
 Turnpikes, 106. 
 
 Vestry, 189. 
 
 Veto, 201 ; power of governor, 210, 
 
 215; power of President, 224. 
 Vice-President, t^%, 172, 173, 174, 223. 
 Vigilance committees, 71, 72. 
 Violation of the law, 74, 75, 139. 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Virginia, geographical conditions of, 
 12; government in, 191 ; education 
 in, 11 8. 
 
 Voting, duty of, 179; machines, 185. 
 
 Washington, President, 169; his 
 Farewell Address, 181. 
 
 Waste and saving, 98-102 ; in the 
 household, 98, 99; in business, 99, 
 loo; in government, 100, loi. 
 
 Water supply, 56-58, 69. 
 
 Waterworks, municipal ownership of, 
 69. 
 
 Wealth, 3; desire for, 15, 82; mean- 
 ing of, 82. 
 
 Women as managers of the house- 
 hold, 98, 99. 
 
 Yellowstone Park, 133. 
 Yosemite, the, 133. 
 
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