.iiiiwtiijiiiin.ini»»«imwiiKniiini*/ / last date stamped below IS < y ^ S '■ ■ ' ,' * B R > O O I "1 „ « « J HH Ph rt M S3 ■= £ o o o ju - •- a 8 a in — O o >^ *-> C -H -O •= o cr hr ^ '—1 r -rf - o - c/3 O CO C .2 3 > S3 £ rt '5 if, X •* -o^s-pu O 8 "| g> ^ •£ £ & £ o d u ^ -J « o ^ o O o ~ — Jioo— o p - -r x •- x X .5 43 o •= ^ « .= "3co>«.oOgyo^ fl " O J> > H 2HW&hCCU>P*5 *j w vo ; e -=: « ° 2 •- .2 *3 t£ - -S <-i ro rj- uo \d t^. X C> .2 S R - U bo R 75 > S ~ O u — O hH n -r lo O r^ so 1 96 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the fact that the students are attempting presumably to arrive at an absolutely impartial conclusion. They are not seeking to determine that one side or the other is superior, but are merely seeking to determine the actual situation. This type of work, if carefully done, helps to overcome the tendency to accept conclusions prejudicially and then to distort the facts in order to sustain the view- point adopted. Debating. The debate tends to accomplish for a group what the scoring accomplishes for an individual. The debate calls for a more highly socialized organization. Not only are the students engaged in comparing materials but their ability is being matched with that of other stu- dents. An individual needs to learn how to weigh the evidence carefully and to come to a desirable conclusion. A considerable part of his success, however, depends upon the influence that he can wield in causing others to accept his views. The need of making the same careful study as in the scoring method is present, but the study is made with a somewhat different aim in view. The pupil is interested in proving his side of the argument. He is interested in the psychology of the situation as well as the bare facts. He will appeal to both the head and the heart. He will emphasize those factors that put his side in a favorable light, and he will seek to minimize the advantages of the opposition. Pupils should agree upon the subject to be debated, and they should also agree upon its phraseology. The subject for debate may originate in a difference of opinion THE ARGUMENTATIVE LESSON 197 in the regular class work. Pupils may take sides accord- ing to their opinions. As a result of the differences the questions may be clearly stated, the study hour may be devoted to the securing of pertinent material, and pupils may return with facts to strengthen the stand they have taken. If the pupils return to the classroom in perfect agreement, the detailed study has been the means of clear- ing up the difficulties, and the reason for the debate has been removed. If the class on reassembling is still divided, the two groups may proceed to present the evidence. The leader, the teacher, or a pupil may act as chairman, and representatives of the two sides may be allowed to talk alternately. A time limit to each speech may or may not be desirable. The chairman will attempt to secure a gen- eral participation. The class may vote on the outcome either publicly or by ballot, the latter method ordinarily being preferable, or a committee from another room may be selected to judge. Through the debate the pupil learns that there is some- thing of greater value than being an ^ace" in this world. He learns to sacrifice himself, if necessary, for the welfare of the group with which he is working. The work must be distributed among the members of a team so as coordi- nate^ to bring about the most effective results. Debates, in general, should center about an honest dif- ference of opinion. It is not desirable to encourage pupils to take the opposite side merely for the sake of arguing. This teaches pupils to be dishonest with themselves. There are enough geographic problems over which pupils may honestly disagree without the setting up of artificial 198 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY problems for debate. Unless a pupil thoroughly believes in his side his work cannot be thoroughly and desirably motivated. Students should be encouraged to make honest state- ments. Children may be so carried away by their enthu- siasm to win that they, as unfortunately is true of many adults, are willing to resort to misrepresentation to secure the desired victory. By holding a debater to exact refer- ences the tendency to make sweeping statements can be held in check. The well-conducted debate brings vividly before the pupils the reasons for differences of opinion and tends to make them, while disagreeing, tolerant of each other's views. The subject for debate may involve a geographic prob- lem approached from the physical viewpoint; as, "The unfavorable climate of the Amazon basin makes it highly improbable that this basin will ever be as densely populated as the United States." The subject may be approached from the life standpoint; as, "The people of the southern part of the United States are less progressive than those of the northern part on account of climatic dif- ferences." The subject may be of a social or political nature, with the possibilities of a very important physical interpretation; as, "A stable, progressive government cannot be established in tropical countries without assist- ance from temperate regions." The subject for debate may involve events that have passed ; as. "The discovery of the south pole was fraught with more clangers than the discovery of the north pole." The subject may involve an interpretation of a present situation; as, "The physical factors have been more THE ARGUMENTATIVE LESSON 199 important than the social factors in bringing about the unsatisfactory political condition in Mexico." The sub- ject may involve a consideration of future possibilities ; as, "The forested area of southern Chile within fifty years will be more important to Chile than the desert region of the north." The argumentative lesson involves a special type of problem. The subject for debate should be motivated, arising out of the discussions of other problems and topics or arising out of an initial situation. If difference in opin- ion exists, conditions may be favorable for the holding of a formal debate. In some instances an informal debate or argument may be sufficient. The debate presents a social challenge to the participants that sometimes makes a stronger appeal than the solution of the problem. The debate offers an excellent opportunity not only of securing intense mental activity in marshaling evidence but also of giving training in cooperative living in a representative democracy with its divergent opinions. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. Make a list of criteria by means of which you think that cities should be scored. Select two cities, and through scoring seek to determine which has the better future. 2. Select a geographic subject that you consider excellent for a debate and give reasons for your selection. 3. Select a geographic topic that you do not consider suitable for a debate and give reasons for your selection. 4. I? the debate or the score the more valuable type of argu- mentative lesson ? 5. Describe a geographic debate in which all the factors are as nearly ideal as possible. 200 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 6. Select two of the new countries of Europe, and by the score card seek to determine which has the better opportunity for an important national development. 7. Consult a rhetoric for a detailed analysis of the parts of a debate. 8. What are the limitations of the argumentative lesson in the teaching of geography ? Selected References : Foster, William Hortox. Debating for Boys. Sturgis and Walton Co.. New York, 191 5. Huxtixgtox, Ellsworth, and Cushing, Sumner W. Principles of Human Ceography (1921), chap, iv, pp. 78-101 ; chap, xvi, pp. 309-318. McCoxxell, W. R. " Geography and the Irish Question," Journal of Geography, Vol. XVIII, pp. 259-267. Richards, E. B. "The Game of Debate," English Journal (1920), Vol. IX, pp. 147-152. CHAPTER XV THE TOPICAL OUTLINE Nature of the topical outline. The various subjects recognized in a curriculum may be regarded as the large topics with which the school deals. In organizing each subject it has been convenient to have some systematic topical arrangement of the material, while frequently a more detailed consideration of one of the numerous sub- divisions of a subject has involved still more topics. A topic is a content nucleus about which the subject matter may be arranged in an orderly, coherent, and compre- hensive manner. The scientific organization of materials is desirable from the standpoint of insuring that the social inheritance shall be preserved in its entirety. The topical outline in- sures the organization of this knowledge in detail and with a minimum of duplication. The systematic, topical organ- ization of content presents a definite body of material. One subtopic after another can be taken up, discussed, and definitely disposed of. When the material is once scientifically organized, successive classes will be able to use the same organization, and the work is reduced to a system. With the improvement in the technic of teaching has come a careful scrutiny of the topical outline, not only as a basis for the organization of content but as a means 202 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY for economically giving the child that development as a social being which he ought to have. A topical outline may be applicable to one large topic, or it may be sufficiently general to be applied to any one of a number in the same class. If an outline is stand- ardized so that it can be applied to numerous topics of the same class, a mode of attack may be worked out that will simplify the mastery of a topic. An outline may be evolved that can be applied to any agricultural product, to any mineral product, or to any animal product ; that can be applied to any geographic or political unit; that can be applied to any type group of people ; that can be applied to any city. Outlines are helpful in the classifica- tion of knowledge and also as a working basis for the securing of knowledge. The topical outline in geography. The generalized topical organization has been worked out effectively in geography in a consideration of political and geographic units. While the outline may vary somewhat, it ordinarily includes location, area, topography, climate, life forms, human activities, and distribution of population. All the topics listed are fundamental in the consideration of any areal unit. A common method is to place in the hands of the pupil an outline for his general guidance. The pupil may desire the outline as a basis for work. Imitation without appropriate analysis, however, is undesirable. The child should have training in the organization and classification of content through the topical outline. Peda- gogically it makes a difference how the outline is evolved. An objection raised to the use of the outline has been the formalizing of procedure through the dictation of the THE TOPICAL OUTLINE 203 teacher. There are at least four ways that an outline may be evolved : ( 1 ) the outline may be given the child, who may be forced to conform to it ; (2) the outline may be presented and analyzed by the teacher in an attempt to get the pupils to see its value ; (3) the outline may be pre- sented, and the pupils, with the help of the teacher, may analyze, evaluate, improve, and use it; (4) the pupils may consider any part of the larger unit that appeals, finally reorganizing the details of the discussion, thus pro- ceeding toward rather than from an outline organization. In (1) the external organization is the dominant aspect; from (1) to (4) the emphasis is shifted increasingly from the subject matter and its organization to the child and his mental processes. It is significant educationally hoiv results are secured. Illustrations. An excellent way to handle a topical outline so that the needed interest may be secured is to select a subject sufficiently comprehensive for almost everyone to find some topic within his interests. The skill of the teacher is shown in the selection of the unit. Argentina may be suitable, or with some classes it may be desirable to select a more comprehensive unit, as South America. With one class the teacher entered into a brief discussion of Argentina with the purpose of giving the children a friendly interest in the country. She had placed on the shelves the regular books of the library dealing with South America and its parts and had supple- mented this list with books and magazines from the library. The children were permitted to read and study anything that they cared to, with the one limitation — the material should concern Argentina. The pupils selected 204 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY and studied articles. During the class period contribu- tions were made by different members of the class, and discussions followed. As the topics were discussed they were listed on the board. Questions that could not be answered stimulated pupils to further study. Fresh prep- aration, either dealing with a topic previously studied or with a different topic, was required before each recitation. Gradually the number of topics increased, and the neces- sary details were supplied. After some days the time seemed ripe for the next step. The topics had been supplied in any order, and additional contributions or corrections had been accepted. Not even in the final re- organization of the topics did the teacher impose what she considered the best organization upon the class. She raised the question concerning the order in which the topics had been discussed, and the class entered into a lively discussion. Through the combined efforts of the class a final outline topical organization of material was effected. The pupils had worked to a topical organiza- tion as the last step in the study of the country, Argentina, and had arranged the material out of their experience. The country of Chile was similarly studied. While the de- tails varied, there were in each case certain general topics that stood out in relation to each country, particularly location, area, topography, climate, life forms, and human activities. The pupils compared the two topical outlines and derived therefrom an outline that could be applied to either country. They then used the outline in the study of Brazil and other areal units. The topical outline thus secured was practically the same that ordinarily is given THE TOPICAL OUTLINE 205 to a class by the teacher. As the pupils worked upon the details they had felt the need of guiding principles in the selection and study of materials, and had met this need by effecting a topical outline from the two countries studied so that in the study of other countries the result should be an economy of time and systematically planned purpose- fulness of effort. They appreciated the help of the outline and used it much more enthusiastically and effectively than if they had merely followed the directions of another. Pupils learn through experience what to look for in the study of a country, and the objective outline becomes merely an organized indication of their habitual atti- tudes that they tend to adopt toward a country to be studied. The study of topics in relation. The topical outline, once adopted, should be used effectively. If a class is merely told to find out as much about the climate of Chile as possible, even though it may appreciate the rea- son for the outline, there is no assurance that such a topic will make a strong appeal or result in the gain of valuable knowledge. The topical outline was formerly much abused by the study of the topics in relative isolation. In a consideration of climate little or no attempt was made to establish controls of climate on man's activities. If climate were considered it was primarily descriptive rather than causal discussion. The viewpoint in geography should be the significance of the physical environment to man, and in the consideration of every topic of an outline this viewpoint should constantly dominate. The adjust- ment of man to his social and physical environment is a 206 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY problem of perpetual interest and value. If geographic relationships adapted to the child are emphasized, the work may be made exceedingly appealing. If relationships and their interpretations are empha- sized, the topical outline may involve much reflective thinking as well as questions of mere fact. Each topic becomes a nucleus about which numerous problems clus- ter. Properly handled, the topics become condensed prob- lems. The outline concerning Argentina — location, area, topography, climate, and life forms — might mean to the person with the proper viewpoint, What effect has the location of Argentina had upon its development? and similar problems might be presented for each of the topics. The outline may become formalized under such condi- tions, but the work need not and should not, inasmuch as the details of interpretation depend upon the particular importance of these factors in dealing with a certain country. Danger of generalizations. Topical work may be of little value if generalized statements are permitted with- out the appropriate details. In agricultural production the factors of special significance are temperature, rain- fall, soils, and topography. These topics may be included as a part of the topical outline. The pupil may say that coffee is produced in Brazil because Brazil has a favorable temperature, a favorable rainfall, a favorable soil, and a favorable topography. A similar response may be made for any other farm product. The statement necessarily is truthful, but is of little value because it does not indicate the kind of temperature, rainfall, topography, and soil that is desirable. THE TOPICAL OUTLINE 207 The topical outline and problem work. There is a very close relation between the topical outline and problem work. Children may approach the study of a country from the life side, using such physical factors as seem necessary for understanding the problems. Knowledge of the significance of location, climate, etc. will be incident- ally secured as needed in the interpretation of the prob- lems arising. If the details of the country are grasped through problems that do not isolate the physical factors, an opportunity for organizing and reviewing the material by means of a topical outline is presented. On the other hand, if a country is studied by means of a topical outline, the pupils have in mind the details of the country neces- sary for the solution of life problems, and their ability to utilize this knowledge may be tested and increased by their attempts to solve normal problems involving the varying physical factors. Neither method of procedure can be exclusively justified. The topical outline may be used at times as an introduction and at times as a means of reviewing and organizing the details of the country studied. Distribution of topical work in the grades. In the ob- servational work of the lower grades the oral discussions offer an excellent opportunity for organizing the work topically. After visiting some factory or topographic form the class may discuss the topics as they are suggested by pupils, and the topics may be reorganized at the close ; or pupils may suggest topics, and the topics may be rear- ranged by the class before the detailed discussion begins. In the developmental oral work in the lower grades the teacher develops a topic orally with the help of various 208 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY illustrative materials. The teacher may have an outline organization on the board and may merely develop this outline, or she may place the topics on the board as she discusses them, or she may center the attention of the children on the oral presentation, making an easy transi- tion from one topic to another. At the close of the developmental exercise the teacher may ask the children to name the topics discussed. The pupils will assist in noting and rearranging the topics. The last-named method, ordinarily, is preferable. In the upper grades, because of the pupil's ability to use the symbols of geography and because of his experi- ence, the emphasis is shifted from observational and oral presentation to symbolic presentation. The pupil will read and outline articles. He will attempt to evaluate the topical organization of writers. The topical organization of the textbook may be followed, and each topic may be enriched from supplementary materials. A topical outline without reference to a textbook may be followed, the various materials of geography being used to secure the needed amplification. Value of the topical outline. The above considerations suggest the value of the topical outline. Even in the prob- lem work the esteem in which the topical outline is held is indicated by the fact that most of the problems thus far presented have involved the raising of problems the solu- tion of which includes a discussion of the former topical outline of a country. The problem is simply an attempt to make such work purposeful. The value of the topical outline depends on the way it is handled. If the teacher works out a topical THE TOPICAL OUTLINE 209 organization or adopts the topical outline of another, and merely tells the class to study the topics ; if the topics are studied without any particular problem's being secured and interpreted, the chief emphasis being placed on mem- ory work ; if there is no relating of topics, but each topic is considered in relative isolation ; if the mere amplifica- tion of topic after topic, with the feeling that the work is completed when the last topic is studied, is permitted ; if there is no attempt to use the topical material in im- portant, vital life situations,- — then it may be said that the value of the topical exercise is at a low ebb. If the topical outline is secured by the class because of its need for and recognition of the value of organization and classification of details ; if the outline is tested on other countries so that its adequacy is ascertained ; if the outline is applied so that each topic is resolved into im- portant problems making a strong appeal ; if the pupil, through the solution of problems involving a combination of physical factors, shows his ability to use the materials topically organized, — then the high value of the topical lesson cannot be seriously questioned. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. Make a topical outline that you think should be applied to (a) a city, (b) a country, and (c) a continent. 2. Distinguish between "developing" an outline with a class and "imposing"' an outline on a class. 3. Can the problem method be effectively utilized through the topical outline ? 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a topical outline in geography ? 210 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Selected References : Anderson, Esther S. " Beet Sugar Production in Nebraska,*' Journal of Geography (1920), Vol. XIX, pp. 121-130. Barer. Zoxia. "Eurasia: The Teaching of the Continent of," Elementary School Teacher. Vol. VII, p. 519. Brown, R. M. "An Outline for the Presentation of a Country — Africa," Elementary School Teacher. Vol. IX. pp. 293-308. Gregory. W. M. "The Cotton Industry ," Journal of Education (191 1), Vol. LXXIV, pp. 462-463. Reed, William G. " Outline for the Study of Frost," Journal of Geography (191 5). Vol. XIV, pp. 54—55. Ruediger, VV. C. "Topical Method.'" Journal of Geography, Vol. IV. pp. 43S-439. "Topical Method.*' Journal of Education (1906), Vol. LXIV, pp. 650-651. CHAPTER XVI JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY Nature of journey geography. Journey geography in- volves the consideration of a region with reference to its transportation routes. Pupils may take (i) real journeys and (2) imaginary journeys. Journey-geography trips, which are actually taken, ordinarily are confined to the local area. The imaginary-journey lesson is fundamental in acquainting the child with those areas beyond his im- mediate observation. An attempt is made to make the imaginary journey as vivid as possible through the use of visualization materials. Illustration of actual journeys. In connection with a study of dairying arose the problem "Why should the consumer of the city pay fourteen cents a quart for milk for which the producer receives but seven cents?" The class, under the direction of the teacher, was not satisfied with a verbal explanation. Arrangements were made to inspect a dairy plant. The pupils indicated in a rough sketch the relative positions of the school building and the dairy plant, the route taken, and important landmarks noted along the route. They verified their sketch map from a large map of the city. At the plant the children noticed the unloading of the filled milk cans from the auto trucks, the elevating of the milk cans to the fourth floor, the testing, the clarifying, 212 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the pasteurizing, and the bottling of the milk, and the cold-storage room in which the milk was kept. They noticed the handwork required in cleaning the empty- bottles, the work of the bottle-washer machines, and the large number of broken and discarded bottles. They noticed the large office force and the numerous milk wagons and drivers. While the pupils were not able to determine mathematically the exact increase in the cost of milk, they readily understood that the expense involved in protecting the milk supply of a large city justified the milk distributors in charging considerably more than the original cost of seven cents a quart. The cream was removed from the whole milk for which there was no sale. This cream was soured, churned, and made into butter and buttermilk. An inquiry revealed that margarine had taken the place of butter in most of the homes of the children because two pounds of mar- garine could be purchased for the price of one pound of butter. Out of this discussion arose the question "Why is margarine cheaper than butter ? " A visit to a margarine plant and to a dairy farm seemed desirable to assist in understanding the substantial differ- ence in the price of butter and margarine. At the dairy farm the investment in land, buildings, and dairy cattle was noted. The care of the cows, the production and purchase of foods, the care of the milk, and the separation of the milk were considered. A study was made of the possibility of producing food for direct use by man in larger quantities than was secured by permitting the cow to change the plant foods into milk. It was seen that dairying requires attention to numerous details. JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 213 At the margarine plant the pupils noted the melting and mixing of the animal and vegetable oils, the pasteur- izing of the whole milk in which the oils were churned, the plunging of the emulsion into ice-cold water (where the fat globules were crystallized), the withdrawal of the crystallized Hakes from the cold water by means of cheese- cloth, the working of salt into the margarine and of water out of the margarine, the molding of the butter, and the forming of prints. They were led, through this observa- tion, to make a detailed study of the reason for the low price of vegetable oils — as coconut, peanut, and cotton- seed oil — in contrast to the cream of milk. The children had taken bottles to the plants, and on returning to school they pooled their samples. The cream gathered at the top of the milk and was then skimmed off and churned into butter in a milk jar. The children had a liberal supply of coconut, cottonseed, and animal oils from the margarine plant. Under the direction of the teacher they considered the materials used and the processes em- ployed. They then pasteurized the milk over an alcohol lamp, using a thermometer to maintain the proper temper- atures, melted the oils in pans, and mixed the oils. The oils were then poured into a glass churn with the whole milk. After churning the emulsion the children poured it into a pan of ice-cold water, in which, after agitation, the fat globules began to crystallize. They took a small piece of cheesecloth, dipped it slantingly in the ice water, and with- drew the flakes of margarine, the whey draining through the cloth. They then salted and colored the margarine. In each instance rough sketch maps were made. The experiments set up in the schoolroom indicated clearly 214 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the notions that the children had derived from the trips. Language was significant, but the additional means of expression guarded against a mere mastery of language without corresponding ideas. It will be noted that all these trips were closely related to the work of the school- room. The class, through field work, came into appropri- ate contact with the active work of the world. Verification and discovery. Trips may be taken to verify conclusions reached in the schoolroom or to make discoveries as a basis for discussion. In most instances it is preferable to arouse an initial interest in any field trip that is to be taken. Most trips involve both dis- covery and verification. If a child believes that certain conditions exist, the field trip may enable him to verify his conclusions. If a child does not know whether certain conditions exist, but feels the need of knowing, the field trip may enable him to discover the true conditions. Since the experiences of children in the same class vary considerably, the same field trip may be primarily a trip of discovery for one child but primarily a trip of verifica- tion for another child. Pupils may make trips of discovery with definite motives in mind. Columbus sailed west with the desire to reach the Indies. He found not the Indies but a new world. Captain Amundsen moved southward in an at- tempt to discover the south pole. He was successful and, in addition, made other important discoveries that he had not anticipated. Pupils may desire to find the source of water in a small creek, a good swimming hole, a place to fish, typical meanders, a flood plain, evidences of valley growth, or a fault. They may desire to find out how JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 215 milk is handled at the dairy plant, how a dairy farm is conducted, or how margarine is made. The type of experi- ence they should have may be drawn from the actual experiences of explorers and discoverers. They should fre- quently realize their desires, and they should also make additional discoveries. While the trip may be one of discovery for the child, the teacher has a thorough knowledge of the ground covered and relates the materials to the child's interests and experiences. She directs the motives of the children in such a way that through the journeys she may realize definite educational aims. She has a flexible organization of content which enables her to adapt. The teacher does not force her personality or her opinions upon the group, but she tries to help the pupils to come to their own con- clusions in the light of the evidence presented. She asks questions, calls the attention of the children to important phenomena which they are overlooking, and helps to main- tain interest in worth-while observations. When a child is planning a trip to the country, to another city, or to a picnic or a Fourth of July celebration, he looks forward to the event with pleasurable anticipa- tion. When the time comes he is in a frame of mind that will enable him to secure numerous and vivid impressions of the incidents of the day. Reasoning from this stand- point, through a discussion of a planned field trip a pleas- urable, anticipative interest can be aroused which will increase the educational possibilities of the trip. On a physical-geography trip the pupils may note topographic forms and processes and the importance of processes in changing the physical features; on an 216 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY economic-geography trip the pupils may note what is being made, the processes, the raw materials, and whether the results are secured in the most desirable and efficient manner. In the study of an industry there is danger that a child will pass through the factory with a dazed impression of something worth while. The factory lecturer frequently has little conception of educational methods. A tactful teacher may take charge of the pupils and direct the work. The lecturer will accompany the group to assist when needed. If time will not permit the pupils to study every part of the factory thoroughly, certain significant parts within the comprehension of the group should be selected for detailed study. If the noise is too great for a discus- sion at the time of observation, the teacher discusses the process with the class immediately before the observation and immediately after, in order that she may assist the pupil, clarify thought, and insure results. Field notes will not be emphasized in the lower grades ; in the upper grades the taking of notes will be increasingly emphasized. Field notes reenforcc the memory in subse- quent discussions or reorganizations of material. The pupil takes field notes because he finds them of value ; the teacher is interested in the skill developed in record- ing neatly, effectively, and pointedly the impressions received. A detailed discussion should follow a journey. The child will live over in imagination the journey actually taken. The discussion should be vivid and enthusiastic. The details of the trip may be organized. The child through his recall of the details of the real journey will JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 217 appreciate more readily the possibilities of the imaginary- journey, the details of which must be worked out largely through symbolic materials. Illustration oj imaginary journeys. The teacher drew upon the travel experiences of the children. The pupils mentioned acquaintances who had traveled. These peo- ple had traveled for business reasons, to renew acquaint- ances, to improve their health, for recreation, to learn what the rest of the world was doing, or to see beautiful scenery and famous places. A number had traveled to ''see America first." The places that had been visited were mentioned. Considerable interest was aroused in other people and in other lands. Members of the class desired to see New York City. They wanted to see the buildings and the people, especially how the people live. Among other places were mentioned Niagara Falls, Ashe- ville (North Carolina), the Hudson River, Mount Vernon, the Blue Grass country, Florida, and southern California. The class decided to become acquainted with the circle tours offered by the railroad companies and to select the circle tour which would include those places in which the keenest interest had been aroused. It was found that the eastern objective of many of the circle tours was New York City. It was agreed that New York City should be the destination and that the return journey should be by a different route. The pupils inferred from a map the principal routes connecting St. Louis and New York City. These infer- ences were checked by inquiry at the Information Bureau. Railroad folders advertising the several routes were secured. The different routes were compared as to cost, 218 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY time required, important places, and beautiful scenery. The route finally selected was from St. Louis via Cincin- nati, Lexington (Kentucky), Chattanooga (Tennessee), Asheville (North Carolina), Norfolk (Virginia), and the Atlantic Ocean to New York City. The return journey was via Albany, Rochester, Buffalo, Detroit, and Chicago. The attractions along the route selected were studied in detail. The time-tables were frequently consulted. A coal mine was visited and studied in southern Illinois. A fast afternoon train stopped near the mine for water. This train was boarded, and the party proceeded to Vincennes (Indiana), where the night was spent. The next day the party proceeded to Cincinnati, where the pottery works and the ''zoo" were visited. The party proceeded southward across the Ohio River to the heart of the Blue Grass region at Lexington (Kentucky), where it visited a dairy farm and the Blue Grass Fair. Between Lexington and Chattanooga (Tennessee) the Cumberland Mountains offered an opportunity to study the life of the mountaineer. At Chattanooga the class studied Look- out Mountain and the Chickamauga battlefields. The party proceeded northeast through the famous Great Valley of East Tennessee and noted the crops and the pink-marble quarries about Knoxville. An observation car was taken the succeeding day to get a better glimpse of the "Land of the Sky" region. Arrangements were made to ascend the slopes of Mt. Mitchell, the "top of eastern America," on a log train. The party walked to the top of the peak, where it noted a monument erected in memory of Professor Mitchell, learned the story of the naming of the mountain, and observed JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 219 beautiful panoramic views, hidden occasionally by drift- ing banks of fog. At Norfolk the ships were noted, a few hours were spent among the sand dunes at the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and the party for the first time went bathing in the ocean. The party left Norfolk on a coast- wise steamer Saturday evening, arriving at New York Sunday afternoon. The harbor and city were studied, and a boat ride was taken around Manhattan Island. The return journey was begun. This involved a daylight ride up the Hudson ; an early morning ride out of Albany on a milk train to Canajoharie, where a large factory was inspected and an automobile ride taken into the adjoin- ing country ; an inspection of Buffalo factories and a side trip to Niagara Falls ; a night ride on Lake Erie to Detroit, where an automobile factory was visited ; a ride in a sleeper to Chicago, with its stockyards and lake front ; and a daylight ride through the famous corn belt of central Illinois back to St. Louis, the starting point. Through the wealth of detail presented the pupils had come to appreciate the varied industries and scenery of the eastern United States, and with the use of illustrative materials, as maps, pictures, diagrams, and products, had taken in imagination a journey that many people take every year. The imaginary journey, as nearly as possible, duplicated a real journey, thus bringing a part of the real world close to the life of each child. In this particular instance the pupils talked in terms of the future in decid- ing on the journey, and in terms of the present tense in studying the details of the journey. This can be varied according to the attitude of the class. With some classes it may be preferable to speak of the journey in detail in 220 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the future tense, the pupils merely visualizing the details that might be noted if the journey were actually taken. Imitate real travel experiences. In the extended imag- inary journeys it is desirable that the journey shall be as nearly real as possible. If an adult were planning a trip he would find out the various routes and their attractions and the probable expenses. After deciding on a par- ticular journey he would begin to make a special study of the attractions along the route. After thorough prepara- tion in order that he might travel intelligently, he would proceed on the journey. He would verify impressions he had received while anticipating the journey, and he would discover things that had not before come to his attention. After the completion of the journey he would probably be interested in discussing and organizing his experiences. These conditions would prevail, provided the traveler desired to secure a maximum of benefit from the trip. It may be admitted, however, that many people travel with- out securing much travel experience. They become acquainted with the hotels, but otherwise restrict their experiences to the social group with whom they are travel- ing. They carry their local environment with them not as a basis for the interpretation of new environments but as an artificial situation in which to live. If journey geog- raphy is to yield a maximum of benefit to the children, the journeys must be planned and executed according to the manner of those who travel intelligently. The teacher has the responsibility of stimulating the pupils to become interested in travel routes. In the plan- ning of the trip she will not tell them all the interesting things about the route. The profitable journey includes JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 221 a confirmation of the anticipated, but also the opening up of new vistas. An abundance of varied and well-selected representative material of choice readings, pictures, maps, diagrams, drawings, etc. is desirable as a school nucleus for the work, and pupils will supplement these mate- rials with out-of-school sources. Outline maps can be profitably used as the work progresses. At the con- clusion of the journey the material may be organized into a logical whole. Nature of the imaginary journey. Transportation routes constitute the organizing nuclei for journey geog- raphy. The reader or listener is taken in imagination from one place to another. The customary means of transporting is employed, and an attempt is made to inter- pret the phenomena observed. The impressions that a traveler receives concerning the customs and the economic activities are given. Journey geography involves several possibilities: (1) the writer may give a personal account, and the reader may follow appreciatively the journey actually taken; (2) the writer may attempt to make his reader, in imagination, a member of the party; (3) the writer may not have taken the journey, but with a de- tailed second-hand knowledge of the region may write an account of a journey that might be taken; (4) the pupil may draw upon various appropriate materials in select- ing and planning and executing a journey that might be taken. The journey may be developed so that the author does most of the thinking for the reader. When a pupil follows the detailed account of a journey, reflective, independent thinking is not necessarily eliminated, but the pupil who 222 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY follows the line of least resistance will read the account primarily on an unanalyzed memory level. If the pupils assist in initiating the journey, and if they work out the details of the journey, the siiuation is much more favor- able for problem activity and vigorous mental reactions involving development. The pupil inductively builds up his conception of the region. This method does not preclude the possibilities of generalizing or of relating the area observed to a larger area, for the traveler occasionally may attempt, through reflection, to secure a unit picture of an area through the parts directly observed. The pupil proceeds from a study of parts to a concept of the region, which is essentially different from the topical consideration of a large area. Since the impressions of larger areas are secured from the local studies, it is desirable that the typical rather than the peculiar and exceptional shall be emphasized. A journey may include any aspects of the environment that a traveler may consider sufficiently important or interesting. It may be adapted to small children ; it may be sufficiently difficult for the most accomplished scholar. Journey geography should involve a consideration of (i) the economic activities of people; (2) explanations of the localization of industries and people ; (3) the effects of physical factors, particularly climate, topography, and soils on the people; (4) the relations of the people to other regions; (5) the possibilities of making a more nearly perfect adjustment to the environment ; and (6) natural phenomena of special significance, as hot springs, beautiful scenery, glaciers, volcanoes, etc. The earliest geography work of the school has been concerned JOURNEY GEOGRAPHY 223 with the immediate environment of the child. Through actual journeys the child's acquaintance with the local environment has been enlarged. Imaginary geographic journeys which reproduce as nearly as possible the vivid- ness of the actual journeys build upon and naturally succeed the actual journey work. Through the imaginary journey the child gradually secures a conception of the world as a whole. In the upper grades, where the emphasis is placed on regional geography, the journey geography may still be used as a basis for becoming better acquainted with a region, or after a detailed study of a region the pupil may review the region by mapping out a journey that might be taken. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. Discuss a local trip that you have taken, from the standpoint of its geography. 2. Discuss an extended trip that you have taken, from the standpoint of its geography. 3. By means of an illustration indicate what is meant by an imaginary journey. 4. Should journeys be taken primarily for verification or for discovery ? 5. How will travel help a teacher in presenting journey-geography lessons ? Selected References : Baker, Zoxia. "A Lesson in Geography from Chicago to the Atlantic," Elementary School Tern lie/; Vol. VII, p. 45S. Bakxi.s. Earl. Studies in Education 11902), Vol. II. Bkaxom, Fred K. ''Some Important Phases in Geography.*' School, Science, ami Mathematics ( 19201. Vol. XX, pp. 162-164. Colvix. S. S. "Child's World of Imagination," Elementary School Teacher (1905), Vol. VI, pp. 327-342. CHAPTER XVII TYPE STUDIES Nature of a type. A detailed study of a representative member of a class, with the purpose of securing an under- standing of the various members of the class, is called a type study. A type is a topic that stands for a group or a class, a standard of comparison, and an interpreter of other similar facts. Type study in geography means the selection of repre- sentative topics or features of the subject for especial emphasis or detailed study, for the purpose of using them as illustrations of their class. 1 The type may be used in the study of both large and small units. An intensive study of a cotton plantation of the southern United States may be made as a type of cotton plantations in general. A study of conditions affect- ing cotton production in the United States may be made as a basis for an understanding of cotton production in other regions. A cotton mill may be studied intensively as representative of its class. Type cities, as a river city (St. Louis), a lake city (Chicago), a river-gate city (New Orleans), a railroad center (Indianapolis), a mountain city (Asheville), a mountain-gate city (Denver), and a 1 ¥. L. Holtz, Principles and Methods of Teaching Geography, p. 241. 224 TYPE STUDIES 225 capital city (Washington), may be studied. Some partic- ular mountain, valley, river system, volcano, glacier, des- ert, or forest may be selected for representative study. Types are selected with reference to their significance in the local areas or with reference to their relative sig- nificance in the world as a whole. In the lower grades the type directly related to the local area is prominent ; in the upper grades the type with the world-wide view- point is emphasized. Although dairying may not be rela- tively very important in the rural area adjacent to a city, a pupil may make a detailed study of dairying as repre- sentative of the way that every large city is supplied with dairy products. If dairying as a world-wide activity is being considered in the upper grades, the type may be selected from some area as central New York, Wisconsin, Ontario, or Holland, where dairying is very important in contrast to other industries. Local types eventually should give way to the most representative type that can be found, irrespective of locality. Representative character of the type. A type study should be representative of general conditions. It is scarcely conveying a correct impression to take the poor- est dairy farm or the best dairy farm in the community to study unless contrasts are emphasized. The normal con- ditions rather than the exceptional are the immediately significant factors. The exceptional conditions, however, may be nuclei that will increase until they have in turn become normal and representative. As an ideal, conse- quently, it is desirable that the best rather than the poor- est unit shall be studied, care being taken to indicate the ordinary departures from this type. 226 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY A wealth of details. A type should involve a wealth of details. Too frequently generalizations are memorized and not developed. If equal emphasis is placed upon all facts of geography, the work must be largely superficial. The selection of a few situations for intensive study en- ables the class to secure a grasp of details that makes the work concrete, vivid, and meaningful. Any summary of the study that may follow is bristling with significant statements, for the "condensed knowledge" has been secured through the study of details. It is not desirable to emphasize similarly every detail of a type study, since the same objections are valid that have been raised to the placing of equal emphasis upon all geographic topics. Neither is it necessarily desirable to discuss every detail that may have a bearing upon the type study. Not all details are vital either as information or as coloring material to the type. The facts selected should be adapted to the children involved in the type study. Nucleus for further study. The type is a nucleus for further study. In the early grades, in a consideration of the interdependence of city and country, if wheat is pro- duced in the local neighborhood a study of local produc- tion is made. In the regional work an intensive study of wheat production is made in an area where this product is very important. As successive regions are taken up no further intensive study is necessary ; but the earlier work is reviewed, and through comparisons and contrasts wheat production in the new areas is interpreted and a detailed study is made of new factors that enter into the situation. Finally a world-whole view of the product is secured, the comparisons and contrasts involved tending to bring TYPE STUDIES 227 together in a unified whole the significance of the product to the world. Thus type studies in the lower grades become organizing centers about which details are in- creasingly clustered and upon which much of the upper- grade work is based. An economy of time may be effected through the use of the type. Wheat is raised in many different regions. If a detailed study of wheat production in the United States is made in connection with the regional geography, it will be unnecessary to enter into a detailed discussion in connection with each of the wheat-producing regions. Opportunity for review. The type offers an oppor- tunity for an intelligent review. Many of the details of the type study may be forgotten. A consideration of wheat production in various regions, as the regions of the world are successively considered, offers an opportunity for the use of the type-study content in new situations a sufficient number of times to insure relative permanency of impression. Because of the vividness of the type study the details will be more readily recalled. Organizing centers. The field of geography is entirely too comprehensive to be covered in a detailed fashion in grade geography. From the mass of details it is neces- sary to select the more important. Material that is selected should offer a ready nucleus for further growth and should be an organizing center about which addi- tional material can be clustered. In every region there is a complex of geographic material. Some of this material is very significant or characteristic of the district. Much of the material does not differentiate the community from many other communities. The dominating materials of 228 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY various districts differ. In selecting essential material the significant or characteristic factors should be emphasized. The type permits the proper evaluation of material. Many incidental factors of a region are neglected to make room for the type, but the type gives to a region its dis- tinguishing characteristics. The type will not give a child a correct conception of a region, nor will an equal emphasis of topics. Very few complete pictures of the complex rela- tions of man to the earth are secured by anyone. The type enables the individual to regard a region from the standpoint of its characteristic or dominant contribution to man's welfare, particularly to the welfare of man in other communities through the commodities produced in surplus quantities. Shortcomings. A type study is not misleading if it describes an actual condition. A type study becomes misleading, however, if pupils believe that exactly the same conditions prevail with respect to all members of the class. It is better to adhere to the truth, but it only com- plicates a situation if the teacher tries to note all the exceptions to the type. Children gradually come into a more nearly complete knowledge of the truth as a whole. Human beings always have a more or less imperfect vision of generalized truth. To secure even a moderately com- plete and correct picture of the world requires time. The teacher will feel content, therefore, if the children, through their type study, have correctly imaged a concrete situa- tion. Conditions may or may not be the same elsewhere. This will be determined finally when the children have noted elsewhere conditions illustrating other members of the class. TYPE STUDIES 229 Advantages. Charles McMurry, 1 who has been a dis- tinct influence in calling the attention of educators to the value of types, notes the following advantages : ( 1 ) A clear and detailed comprehension of a typical object in geography (however small this object may be) is the key to a large area of geographical knowledge; (2) a type subject is the basis of a series of comparisons; (3) the number of type studies being few, much time is available for a lively, descriptive, and interesting investigation into details; (4) one of the chief reasons why children are interested in such a study of a type is that it is at every step a study of causes ; (5) a type study expands gradually to embrace a large col- lection of geographical facts; (6) the series of types furnishes a safe central line of operations; (7) physiographic facts are brought into such close relation to human needs as to make both of them tangible, realistic, and often picturesque. A liberal use of types in teaching will go far toward vitalizing the course of study. Type studies are desir- able because they (1) tend to emphasize the more im- portant topics, (2) are economical in time, (3) permit a detailed consideration that adds realism to the work, (4) afford a secure foundation on which to enlarge one's knowledge, (5) avoid the teaching of perfectly true but meaningless generalizations, and (6) are inherently valuable. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. What constitutes a type study? 2. What is the relation between a type study and the topical outline ? 3. Should type studies be heavily emphasized in a geography course of study ? 1 Special Method in Geography, pp. 57-67. 230 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 4. Select a type study from your geography or a supplementary reader and tell why you believe the article selected is a type study. 5. What is meant by an "organizing center"? 6. Develop in detail a type study of a city. Selected References : Dodge, R. E., and Kirchwey, C. B. The Teaching of Geography, chap, xv, pp. 193-205. HOLTZ, F. L. Principles and Methods of Teaching Geography, chap, xx, pp. 254-272; chap, xviii, pp. 222-237; chap, xix, pp. 238-253. McMurky, Gharles. Special Method in Geography, chap, iv, pp. 50-75; chap, v, pp. 76-90; chap, vi, pp. 90-101 ; chap, x, pp. i39- l6 5- Ruediger, W. C. "Type Studies," Journal of Geography, Vol. IV, pp. 439-440. Sutherland, William. The Teaching of Geography, chap, x, pp. I37-H5- CHAPTER XVIII THE STORY Relation of the story to geography. A story can be made more appealing if the geographic setting is clearly understood. Much geographic material can be presented to children through stories. An appealing story must have action and must represent characters and activities that the child can readily understand and appreciate. The story may center about the lives of a group of people, as the Eskimo, the Dutch, or the Negro ; about some impor- tant product, as coffee, cotton, or rubber; about some phenomenon of nature, as a flood, a spring, or a volcano. The child's attention may be directed toward the chang- ing relationships involved, and the geographic influences may be incidentally introduced as a pertinent part of the story. The story "How the Bear was Caught" may be told in such a way that the use of trees by bees for the storing of honey, the nature of a mountain stream, and the formation of caves are revealed. A story may be a true account or imaginary. Since geography is a study of the actual relations that man sus- tains to his physical environment, stories of actual events are desirable. The imaginary story, which pictures typi- cal relations of man to nature, may be profitable. The improbable story is of little assistance to geography, although geography may occasionally be of assistance to 231 232 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY the story-teller. The Indian story concerning the forma- tion of Niagara Falls should have no place in a geography course. According to the story a huge monster was struck by lightning while crossing the Niagara River, the dead body forming a dam across which the water has flowed unto this day. On the other hand, the narration of Indian stories dealing with Niagara Falls can be more vividly presented if the improbable stories are woven about a definitely located region. There are stories of the tree dwellers and the cave dwellers, which, while unverified, represent probable happenings. Telling a good story. The story may be oral or written. The oral developmental story is particularly adapted to the lower grades, although throughout life this method of presentation appeals. The teacher transmits the story to the child through the charm of her personality. The teacher thoroughly informs herself concerning the details of the story, although she makes no attempt to memorize the form of the story. With her knowledge of the chil- dren's experiences and interests she enters into an account of the story in an enthusiastic, inviting way. Occasionally she asks questions intended to hold the interest by making the children feel that they are contributing. Questions may be asked, in order that the pupils may make sugges- tions or in order that the children unable to answer may be in a receptive attitude to receive the answer. The teacher, through the story, attempts to secure and retain the interest of every child. She may have pictures, miniature reproductions, charts, maps, and products, per- haps concealed in such a way that each article is shown the class at the "psychological moment" as the story is THE STORY 233 unfolded. She may make use of construction materials, as clay and sand, and she may use the blackboard to illus- trate certain parts of the story. She is interested in draw- ing on all the materials of geography, both actual and symbolic, to bring the details of the story vividly before the children. Relation oj the story to geography readers. The story may be used as a preliminary step leading to the reading of a similar account. Such a reading experience will be primarily for appreciation and enjoyment. The story can be read the more easily because of the knowledge received through the oral account. The story may be used as a basis for a topical organization of the narrative, the class, through the organization, attempting to recall the story. After the reading or telling of the story the class may indicate the main divisions, each division may be called an act, and the story may be informally dramatized. Story-telling by pupils. Pupils may be given an oppor- tunity to tell stories. A geographical story may be read, and each pupil may attempt to tell the story in an appeal- ing way. The Eskimo type, a coffee plantation, or trans- portation on the Mississippi may be studied, and the pupils, with the fundamental geographic material in mind, may attempt to write a story depicting a day's work on a plantation, a day's work of an Eskimo, or a day's events on a steamboat. A picture in which the relations of man to the physical environment are prominent — as a harvest- ing scene, a desert scene with a caravan, a snow and ice scene with an Eskimo and a seal, an Indian tapping rub- ber trees — may be used as a basis for a story. Pictures also are frequently used to illustrate stories. 234 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Nature stories versus fairy tales. The tendency to shift the emphasis in story-telling from fairy tales to the wonderful stories of nature and the stories of the achieve- ments of man increases the usefulness of story-telling in connection with geography. Cyril Bruyn Andrews, in writing of the dangers of fairy tales, has said : L Is it not possible that we grown-up people are also living too much in a fairy land which we know to be unreal ? Do we not often take a vicious delight in making others believe things that we know to be untrue? Would not politics be purer, religion more sincere, art more vital and significant if grown-up people were taught from their earliest childhood to worship truth and sincerity and not to cultivate a formless ignorant mysticism as foolish as the most foolish fairy tale, but using the garments and usurping the power of serious fundamental fact? . . . Civilization seems to have grown tired and often prefers to imagine than to act, and sometimes as in a final stage of decay actually glories in the unworldliness of its outlook. . . . Children, chiefly by their own efforts, have dis- carded fairy tales and wish more substantial outlets for their imagination. Many of the stories which have been written for chil- dren are highly imaginative and improbable. There is need for an accumulation of nature and geography stories, entertainingly written and presenting the wonders of the world and man's relations to Mother Nature in an appeal- ing manner. Place of the story in geography. The geographical story has important educational possibilities. '"The Danger of Fairy Talcs," The Child (February, 1920), Vol. X, pp. 206-208. THE STORY 235 The place of the story in geography seems clear. Geogra- phy should be, for the child, a vicarious mode of travel through time and space. We wish the child to see the world as it is and as it has been, as though he were an eye-witness of its events and busy scenes. It has been a hard struggle to rescue geography from the enumerative, cataloguing methods which it has employed in the past, which put all the stress upon memory and none upon observation and imagination. The school geography of the past stands as an example of all that is inartistic in education. It is the direct opposite of the selec- tive way of treating facts, which is essentially aesthetic. It aimed to be all-inclusive, cataloguing everything without unity of theme. Just so far as connected narrative may be made to take the place of detached and fragmentary descrip- tion and classification is it brought into line with the methods we are here advocating. Geography is largely the story of the world. It is not an inventory of its contents. It is better to teach less of facts and to see that the facts taught are precisely those which give to the child vivid pictures of the world as it is in its relations to man's practical and aesthetic interests. Once the mind is put to the task of reading nature to the child as a story, there will be no lack of opportunity. The story form and method have a place throughout all the nature work. By the story more than the mere fact is carried to the child's mind. He learns the interconnectedness and har- mony of facts in such a way that his inner nature is aroused while his intellect is instructed. One may say that the only limit to the use of the story in the nature subjects is likely to be the capacity of the teacher to organize the materials in the dramatic and artistic form required. The child's interest in a good nature story is very strong ; and the world is full of nature tales, some ready at hand, some that must still be worked over by the story-teller himself. 1 1 Emelyn Newcomb Partridge, Story-Telling in School and Home, pp. 103-105. 236 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY The organization of geographic stories about life cen- ters. The recasting of geographic material in story form involves the organization of geographic material about life centers. David Starr Jordan's "The Story of a Salmon" has the life of the salmon as the organizing center ; Spyri's " Heidi" depicts the adjustments of the Swiss to their environment. The pupil will not study soils, rainfall, tem- perature, drainage, and topography as topics in a narra- tive that properly may be called a story, but he will study about "How the worn-out farm was built up," "How the swamp land was reclaimed," "How the truck gar- dener succeeded," or "How the miner saved his com- rades." Through appropriate stories which make a strong appeal the geographic topics will incidentally be consid- ered. Through the story the pupils will work in the direction of a logical topical organization that includes the topics with which too frequently the child begins his study. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. Select a story in which geography is necessary for an adequate interpretation, and give reasons for your selection. 2. Select a story through which valuable geographic knowledge is taught. 3. Compose a story adapted to a lower-grade geography class. 4. Should a geography story involve an account of actual happenings or an account of imaginary happenings ? 5. In oral story-telling, in what ways is the personality of the teacher significant ? 6. What is a geographic story? THE STORY 237 Selected References : Adams, John". Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, chap, x, pp. 250-275, 336-354; chap, xv, pp. 354-391. Andrews, C. 15. ''The Danger of Fairy Tales,*' The Child (1920), pp. 206-209. Bailey, C. S. "The Harvesting,'' Kindergarten and First Grade, Vol. I, pp. 45- 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43' 44. 45' 46. 47- 4 s - 49- United States . . . Great Britain . . . Germany .... France India Austria-Hungary . . Russia Canada Italy Japan China Brazil Argentina .... Netherlands . . . Mexico Belgium Australia .... Spain Sweden Egypt Turkey Switzerland .... Chile South African Union Philippine Islands . Peru Cuba Denmark .... Norway Algeria New Zealand . . . Persia Portugal Rumania .... Venezuela .... Uruguay .... Bolivia >iam Greece Morocco .... Serbia Bulgaria Ecuador Haiti Tunis Honduras .... Costa Rica .... Guatemala .... Panama Akea 4 29 3 32 27 49 9 5° 6 24 25 i7 12 48 19 14 3 1 11 15 4" 28 iS 33 J3 43 37 16 4' 26 44 4° Popula- tion 52- Salvador . 1 'araguay Liberia . 34 42 1 i 3*3 23 17 26 29 37 4' 28 48 39 46 38 18 $4 33 44 4° 43 4 7 59 45 Total Imports "9 17 26 33 40 39 iS 2 3 24 29 25 43 34 42 4 7 44 38 4" 4' x 4? ."> Imports from United States (0 I 2 5 22 8 39 43 Total Exports 27 15 26 20 3 1 32 38 19 28 29 24 35 33 22 42 30 36 34 40 48 4' 39 44 43 4'' 4" 37 34 4" 1 Compiled from Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1915. 276 TABLE II. POINTS SCORED BY FIFTY-TWO COUNTRIES IN SIX CRITERIA OF IMPORTANCE 1 Imports Exports I Country Area [Popula- Total F ROM Total TO Total tion Imports United Exports United States States 1 i. United States . . 5 | 5 (5) 5 (5) 3° 2. Great Britain . . 5 ^ 5 5 5 5 28 3. Germany .... 3 5 5 5 5 5 28 4. France ? 5 5 5 5 5 28 5. India . . - . . 5 5 5 3 5 5 28 6. Austria-Hungary . 4 5 5 5 5 4 28 7. Russia 5 5 5 4 5 3 27 8. Canada .... 4 4 5 4 5 27 9. Italy 2 5 5 5 5 5 27 10. Japan 3 5 4 5 4 5 26 11. China 5 5 4 4 4 4 26 12. Brazil 5 4 3 4 4 5 2 5 13. Argentina . . . 5 4 4 4 4 4 2 5 14. Netherlands . 1 3 5 5 5 5 24 1;. Mexico .... , 4 3 4 3 5 24 10. Belgium .... t 3 5 5 5 4 23 17. Australia .... 5 2 4 5 4 3 23 iS. Spain 3 4 4 4 3 3 21 19. Sweden .... 3 3 4 4 4 3 21 20. Egypt 4 4 3 2 3 4 20 21. Turkey .... 4 4 3 2 3 4 20 22. Switzerland . . . 1 2 4 4 4 4 ! 9 25. Chile 4 2 3 3 3 4 '9 24. South African Union 4 3 3 3 4 2 19 25. Philippine Islands. 2 4 2 4 2 4 18 26. Peru 4 3 2 3 2 4 iS 27. Cuba 4 3 1 3 2 4 17 28. Denmark .... 1 2 4 4 4 2 17 29. Norway .... 3 2 3 3 3 3 17 30. Algeria .... 4 3 3 2 3 1 16 31. New Zealand . . 2 1 3 3 3 3 J5 32. Persia 4 4 2 1 2 2 15 2^- Portugal .... 1 3 3 3 2 2 M 34. Rumania .... 2 3 3 2 3 1 14 35. Venezuela 4 2 1 3 1 3 14 36. Bolivia .... 5 2 1 2 2 1 13 37. Uruguay .... 2 1 2 2 3 3 13 38. Siam 3 4 2 1 2 1 13 39. Greece .... 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 40. Morocco .... 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 41. Serbia 1 2 2 r 2 2 10 42. Bulgaria .... 2 2 2 1 2 1 10 4 }. Ecuador .... 1 1 2 1 2 10 44. Haiti 1 1 3 1 1 9 45. Tunis 2 1 2 1 2 1 9 46. Honduras 2 1 1 2 1 1 9 4 7. Costa Rica . . . 1 1 1 2 1 3 9 48. Guatemala 2 1 1 2 1 2 9 49. Panama .... j 1 1 2 1 2 8 50. Salvador .... 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 ; 1 . Paraguay .... 2 1 1 1 1 7 *?, Liberia .... 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 Compiled from Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1915. 278 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Ranking the products on the basis of the aggregate values of each product for all countries is desirable, but, because of unsatisfactory data, impracticable. Fortu- nately, from a somewhat different point of view statistics almost as satisfactory can be obtained. Recent world events have brought out in an emphatic manner the com- mercial dependence of every first-class power upon practically every part of the earth. The United States, consequently, either produces practically all important materials or imports them in large quantities from other producing areas. Hence a consideration of the products of the United States and the products imported into the United States offers a comprehensive list of the world's industrial products. Only the more significant of these products should be included in the minimal-essential list (for this list of products see Part III of the completion test that follows). It has been assumed that all plant, animal, and mineral products with a production value in the United States of 85,000,000 or more annually should be considered, and that this list should be supplemented by all products, not otherwise included, imported in quantities valued at $5,000,000 annually. Irrespective of values, however, materials of general distribution (such as hay, clay, sand, and stone) or ma- terials (such as mushrooms) for which information con- cerning distribution is inadequate have been omitted. A test based on the minimal essentials. In the following test an attempt has been made to test not only knowledge of place geography but also knowledge of geographic MEASURING RESULTS 279 relationships. In organizing the relational material it has been assumed that location, area, surface features, soils, climate, distribution of plant and animal forms, and distri- bution of minerals are the significant physical factors. The pupil's knowledge of geography has not been tested sufficiently unless he has shown his appreciation of the ways these factors have influenced man and unless he shows his ability to select important factors that enter into a geographic situation. COMPLETION TEST FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF MINI- MAL GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE OF ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL CHILDREN Part I On an outline map of the world indicate the location of the continents and oceans by writing the names in the proper places. Part II On an outline map of the world write in the correct place the name of each of the following countries : United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, India, Italy, Russia, Canada, Austria-Hungary, Japan, China, Brazil, Argentina, Nether- lands, Mexico, Belgium, Australia, Spain, Sweden, Egypt, and Turkey. (The recent readjustments in Europe require a slight modification, Austria and Hungary being two separate coun- tries, and Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, and Poland being three new countries that probably should be included.) Given an outline map of the United States, with the location of the minimum list of cities indicated by number and the list 280 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY of cities accompanying the map, write opposite each city the appropriate number. Given an outline map of the world, with the location of the minimum list of cities, except those of the United States, indi- cated by number and the list of cities accompanying the map, write opposite each city the appropriate number. Part III (Test to be applied to any country) Country i. Give the direction of this country from your home city . 2. Give in square miles the approximate area of the United States • Underline the term that more nearly expresses the area of the above-named country in comparison with the United States : Larger. Smaller. Approximately the same. 3. Give the approximate population of the United States . Underline the term that more nearly expresses the population of the above country in comparison with the United States : Larger. Smaller. Approximately the same. 4. Indicate an important highland of this country , 5. Underline the statements that more nearly indicate the prevailing conditions of this highland : Easy to cross Permanent snow fields Extends above tree line Much mining Large cities No large cities Dense population Herding industry important Difficult to cross 6. Indicate an important river basin or lowland of this country 7. Underline the statements that more nearly indicate the prevailing conditions concerning this lowland : MEASURING RESULTS 281 Dense population Agriculture important River important for navigation Manufacturing important Irrigation practiced Sparse population Much mining Herding important Much swamp and overflow land 8. Underline the statement that more nearly describes the prevailing temperature of the country : Primarily in hot belt. Primarily in cold belt. Primarily in intermediate belt. 9. Underline the statement that describes the prevailing rainfall: Heavy rainfall (above 50 inches). Moderate rain- fall (20 to 50 inches). Light rainfall (less than 20 inches). 10. Underline the name of each plant product that is im- portant in this country : Corn Wheat Oats Barley Rye Buckwheat Potatoes Cotton Tobacco Flax Rice Sugar Apples Beans Peaches Peas Silk Cocoa Coffee Tea Oranges Lemons Fibers Rubber Bananas Grapes Nuts Wood 11. Write the name of one of the products underlined above • Underline its important use or uses : Food for man Clothing Food for animals Fuel Shelter Luxury 12. Underline the name of each animal that is important in this country : Cattle Hogs Sheep Horses Mules Goats Poultry 13. Write the name of one of the classes of animals under- lined above ... Underline its important use or uses : Meat Milk Clothing Eggs Beast of burden Natural gas Aluminum Tin Zinc Silver Lead 2 82 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 14. Underline the name of each mineral product that is important in this country : Coal Nickel Iron Copper Petroleum Gold Phosphates Sulphur 15. Write the name of one mineral product underlined above . Underline its important use or uses : Fuel Alloy Paints Machinery Light Plumbing supplies Fertilizer Jewelry Chemicals 16. Underline the prevailing manufacturing conditions: Extensive Moderate Slight 17. Underline the influential factors in the development of manufacturing: Good water power Abundant capital Much coal Little water power Abundant labor supply Insufficient labor supply Scarcity of coal Scarcity of capital 18. Underline statements that properly describe the pre- vailing conditions of transportation : Rivers important Railroads well developed Rivers of little importance Railroads undeveloped Lakes very important Public roads well improved Lakes of little importance Public roads in bad condition 19. Underline each of the cities of this country: Washington Boston Philadelphia Toronto London Buffalo Pittsburgh Budapest MEASURING RESULTS 283 Berlin Paris Petrograd Vienna Tokio Rio de Janeiro Buenos Aires Mexico City Brussels Sydney Madrid Stockholm Cairo Constantinople Baltimore Chicago Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus Denver Detroit Indianapolis Jersey City Kansas City Los Angeles Louisville Milwaukee Minneapolis Newark New Orleans Portland Providence Rochester St. Louis St. Paul San Francisco Seattle New York Bahia Habana Montevideo Montreal Santiago Sao Paulo Glasgow Hamburg Liverpool Manchester Moscow Naples Warsaw Bombay Canton Hankow Osaka Tientsin Calcutta Amsterdam 20. Write the name of one of the cities underlined in the preceding exercise that describe this city : Seaport River port Lake port Important railroad center A political capital .. Underline the statements A mountain-pass city An important manufacturing center An important commercial center The various parts of the topical outline — location, area, population, topography, climate, economic products, and important cities — are included in the test, and the relational viewpoint has been stressed. 1 1 For a more detailed account of the test see M. E. Branom and VV. C. Reavis, "The Determination and Measurement of the Minimal Essentials of Elementary-School Geography,'' Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 27-39. 284 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY TYPES OF QUESTIONS USEFUL IN TESTING i. Informational. Where is New York City? Where is Poland ? In what part of the United States are oranges produced in large quantities? 2. Interpretative. Why is there a semiarid region east of the Rocky Mountains? Why is the Amazon basin sparsely populated ? The informational question frequently is used as a basis for the interpretative. The question Where are oranges raised? may be answered, In Florida and Cali- fornia. The next question may be interpretative : W'hy are oranges raised in Florida and California? 3. Statements to be filled in: The two chief rivers of Italy are the and the Mulberry trees are grown in many parts of Italy, especially The most important nut tree of Italy is the The largest city of Italy is 4. Statements to be answered rr yes" if entirely correct and "no" if in part wrong: Chicago, located near the southern end of Lake Michigan, is the largest city of the United States. (No) The United States imports large quantities of raw sugar. (Yes) 5. A meaningful statement to be made if a word or expres- sion is given : Vesuvius Vienna Punta Arenas Rubber Sahara Desert 6. Varying degrees of definiteness. Tell why New York City has grown so rapidly. The pupil is left to make a brief or elaborate statement as he desires. Name five reasons why New York City has grown so rapidly. The pupil is definitely MEASURING RESULTS 285 limited. Name all the reasons you can think of why New York City has grown so rapidly. An attempt is made to get the pupil to exhaust his information relative to the question. 7. Questions asked by pupils. Make a list of informational and interpretative questions bearing on Japan. Conclusion. The formulation of adequate tests in ge- ography is closely related to the establishment of definite aims. Substantial progress has been made in testing knowledge of place geography and factual geography. A beginning has been made in testing knowledge of interpre- tative geography and of ability to use geographic knowl- edge ; it may be expected that in time ideals also can be tested satisfactorily. The recognition of the significance of geography in giving training for citizenship and for in- telligent participation in the world's progress has directed the attention of educators toward the need of reorganizing this subject with the purpose of realizing definite educa- tional results. Suggestions for Further Study : 1. Why is it desirable to measure results as accurately as possible ? 2. Why is it difficult to measure all the desired products of a geographic course quantitatively ? 3. Is it probable that tests or scales will be found more desirable in measuring geographic accomplishment ? 4. Select an areal unit for study, as Argentina or Poland, indi- cate the immediate aims that you have in mind, note the materials of geography that you may use and how you may use them, and set up a test by means of which you can ascertain whether the aims are realized. 5. As suggested by the organization of this book, what should the teacher's knowledge of the "pedagogy of geography" include? 286 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Selected References : Bagley, W. C. " Determination of Minimum Essentials in Geog- raphy and History." Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 131-147. Bagley, W. C. " Minimum Essentials in Elementary Geography," Journal of Geography (1918;, Vol. XIV, pp. 120-122. Barnes, Earl. Studies in Education (1902), Vol. II. Braxom, M. E., and Reavis, W. C. " The Determination and Measurement of the Minimal Essentials of Elementary-School Geography, " Seventeenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 27-39. Brown. R. M. " The Minimum Requirement," Journal of Geog- raphy, Vol. XIII, pp. 48-50. Buckingham, B. R. Geography Test, State Department of Public Instruction, Madison. Wisconsin. Coffman, Lotus D. " Methods used in the Determination of Minimum Essentials," Teachers College Record, Vol. XVIII, pp. 243-252. Courtis, S. A. " Measuring the Effects of Supervision in Geog- raphy," School and Society (191 9), Vol. X, pp. 61-70. Hahn. H. H. Harm-Lackey Geography Scale, Wayne State Normal School. Nebraska. Johnson. D. W. "College-Entrance Examination Answers in Geog- raphy," Journal of Geography (191 6), Vol. XV, pp. 125-127. Kendall, C. " Standards and Tests of Efficiency in Geography," Journal of Education (191 4). Vol. LXXIX, pp. 315-316. Knight. Bessie P. " Minimum Essentials in Elementary Geog- raphy." Journal of Geography (1917)- Vol- XV. pp. 1 73— r 79- Lackey. E. E. " Measuring the Ability of Children in Geography." Journal of Geography ( 4 91 8). Vol. XVI, pp. 184-188. Martin. Lawrence. "Examinations in Elementary Geography," Journal of Geography (191 6), Vol. XIV, pp. 298-299. Miller, G. J. "Essentials of Modern Geography and Criteria for their Determination," Journal of Geography (191 5), Vol. XIII, pp. 1 29 -t 35. Redwav, J. The New Basis of Geography, chap. vii. pp. 120- 139. Ridgley, I). C. "Teaching of Place Geography," Journal of Geog- raphy (191 2;, Vol. XI. pp. 13-16. MEASURING RESULTS 287 Starch, Daniel. Geography Tests, Series A, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wisconsin. Sutherland, William. The Teaching of Geography, chap, xxii, pp. 274-291. Tarr, R. S. " Results to be expected from a School Course in Geography, n Journal of Geography (\ 90 5), Vol. I\ T , pp. 145-148; Whitreck, R. H., pp. 149-154; Genthe, pp. 155-109; Jefferson, pp. 160-163. Thompson", T. E. Standard Tests in Geography, Monrovia, California. Whitheck, R. II. " Measuring Efficiency in the Teaching of Geog- raphy,'* Journal of Geography 1 191 4). Vol. XIII, pp. 53-55. Whitheck, R. II. ''Where shall we lay the Emphasis in the Teaching of Geography ?" Journal of Geography (19 10), Vol. XXXI. p. 10S. WiTiiAM. E. C. Standard Geography Tests, Southington, Connecticut. Young, Sarah. " The Teaching of Geography." in Barnes's Studies in Education, Vol. II, pp. 3 7 3 — 3 Chamberlain, James F., cited, in Cii:.rts and diagrams, 124 Children, pre-school knowledge of, 76-78 Chile, development of. through topical outline, 204-205 China, civilization of, 33 Cities, illustration of type study, 224-225 Civilization, development of, 22-38 Class as a unit, 133-134 Classes of problems, 182-184 Collings, Fryor McBee, cited, 253- 255 Commerce, 3-4 Commercial-geography field trips, 102 Construction work, motivation through, 168-170 Content, socializing the, 145-146 Cook, Jane Ferry, cited, 65-66 Cooperation of pupils, 146-149 Correlation, 40-49 Course of study, organization of, 75-89 Current events, motivation of geog- raphy through, 166-167 Dairy plants, trips to, 21 1-2 12 Debating. 196-199 Demands of socialization, 146-15Z Details, study of, through types, 226 Diagrams and charts, 124 Difficulties in problem work, 1S7- 189 Discoveries through field trips, 214-215 Diversity of materials in lower grades, S1-S2 Dodge, R. E., and Kirchwey, C. B. ? cited, 62-63, 67-6S Dramatization, 23S-245 Dutch, explorations of the, 32-33 Earth as a whole, building up a concept of the, S2-83 Enclish, relation of geography to, 44-45 :S 9 290 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Environment, effects of, on people, 22-25 Eskimo type and dramatization, 239-240 Essentials, selecting, 55 Eurasia, development of civiliza- tion in, 32-35 Europe, new countries of, 34-35 Excursion work, 95-103 Fairgrieve, James, cited, 36 Fairy tales versus nature stories, 234 Field work, value of, 95-96; reasons for insufficient, 96-102 Fishing activities, 10-11 Flour, manufacture of, 12-13 Foreign lands, interest of children in, 79-80 France a world power, 33 Free activity, 1 50-1 51 Function of teacher in socialized work, 149-150 Geographers, relation of, to the teacher, 56—57 Geography, practical nature of, 3- 20 Germany, location of, 33-34 Globes and maps, 1 21-124 Group work, 134-141 Hahn-Lackey scale, 270-272 Henderson, Bertha, cited, 66 Historv, relation of geography to, 47-48 Holtz, F. L., cited, 63, 224 Home geography, effects of war on, 53 Human geography, 54 Human type-, classification of, 80 Hunting activities, 10 Iberian Peninsula, explorations from the, 31 Illustrations, topical outline, 203- 205; project work. 249-251 Imaginary journeys, 277-222 Individual collections of products, 105- 107 Individual work, 141-143 Industries, studying, 216-217 Inferences, verifying, through trips, 214 Interests and motives, 170-171 Investment activities, 16 Iron ores, importance of, to St. Louis, 11-12 Japan, illustration of relation of, to various subjects, 40-41 ; illustra- tion of topic treated by limited free activity, 1 51-15 2 Johnson, D. D., cited, 145-146 Journey geography, 211-223; re- lation of, to type studies, 82-83 Lackey, E. E., cited, 270-272 Language, expression of geography through, 124-125 Lantern, 11S-119 Linke, Edith A., cited. 256-258 Literature, relation of geography to, 49 Local activities, motivation of geog- raphy through, 168-170 Local environments, importance of, 78~79 Logical versus psychological de- velopment, 87-88 Lumbering activities, 9-10 McMurry, Charles, cited, 229 Maddox. John J., project work, 258-261 Manufacturing activities, 12-13 Maps, 126 Maps and globes. 1 21-124; use of, during war, 54-55 Margarine plant, visit to, 212-213 Materials for problem-solving, 1S0- 182 Measuring results. 265-2S7 Mediterranean civilization, 2S-30 Memory work versus problem work. 174-178 Method, evolution of geographic, 51-61; socializing the, 145-146 Middleman activities, 16 Milk, preparation of, for market, 211-2:2 Miller, George J., cited, 266-267 INDEX 291 Mining activities, 11-12 Missouri, iron ores of, 11-12; a project on, 249-251 Motivation of geography, 165-172 Motive, 247-249 Motives during study periods, 157- 160 Motion pictures, 119-121 Moulton, Estella L., cited, 120 Mutual assistance of subjects, 40 Natural regions, 84-85 Nature stories versus fairy tales, 234 Newfoundland Banks, fishing on the, io-ii New World, spread of civilization in the, 31-32 New York City to St. Louis, journey from, 217-219 Nile Valley, civilization in the, 25- 26 Observational geography, 93-107 Organization of the class, 133-144 Organizing centers, 226-228 Orient, closing of routes to the, 30-3 1 Outlines, relation of, to problems, Packard. L. I., cited, 267-268 Partridge, Emelyn Newcomb, cited, 234-235 Pas-inn interests, 158 Pastoral activities, S-9 Pedagogy of problem-solving, 184- 1S7 Phoenicians. 28 Physical-geography field trips, 101- 102 Pictures. 1 10-119; value of, 114; collecting, 114-116; classes of, 117 Place geography, 19-20 Place tests, 208-270, 270-280 Play level, projects on the, 251 Plays produced by pupils, 23S-239 Poland, example of the problem method. 57-00 Political activities, iS Political regions, 84 Populations, future distribution of, 36-37 Portuguese discovery of a route to the Indies, 31 Precipitation, influence of, on the farmer, 5 Pre-geography work, 76-78 Primary grades, informal work of, 76-78 Problem, example of, 189-191 Problem method, 173-192 Products brought to schoolroom, 104-107 Products, distribution of, 3-4 Professional activities, 15 Professional versus educational dramatization, 240-241 Projects, 246-261; relation of, to topical outlines, 251-252 Psychological versus logical devel- opment, 87-88 Public attitude toward field trips, 9S-99 Pupils, attitude of, toward field trips, 97-98 Questions for testing, 284-285 Railroads, influence of topography on, 14 Reading, relation of geography to, 43 Rcavis-Branom test, 272-283 Recitation period, relation of, to study period, 155-161 Recreational activities, 17 Regional geography, 83-84 Regions, order of study of, 85-86 Representative geography, 109-130 Reviews, 227 Ridgley, D. C, cited, 270 Romans, civilization of the. 2S-30 Rudolph, A. Adele, cited, 1OS-170 Russia, the beginnings of, 33 St. Louis to New York City, jour- ney from, 217-219 St. Louis School Survey, 6S-69 School projects, 246-247 Scoring. 193-196 292 THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY Sketch maps, expression through, 213-214 Smith, J. Russell, cited, 67 Socialization, 145-15 1 Soils, influence of, on farming, 6-7 South America, example of topic treated by limited free activity, 152-153 Spaniards, explorations by, in the New World, 31-32 Spelling, relation of geography to, 43-44 Stereoscopes, 117-118 Story, the, 231-236 Story-telling by pupils, 233 Study period, relation of, to reci- tation period, 155-161 Studying, 160-161 Subgroups, study of geography through, 134-141 Subject, geography as a, 39-40 Supervision of geography study, 158-160 Supplementary reading, 127 Sutherland, William J., cited, 64 Symbols, geographic, 109-130; value of, 109-110 Teachers, preparation of, for field trips, 103-104 Telling a good story, 232-233 Temperature, influence of, on the farmer, 5-6 Testing, 265-287 Textbooks, geographic, 126 Thompson, T. E., cited, 269 Tigris-Euphrates valleys, civiliza- tion in the, 26-27 Tool and content subjects, 41-42 Topical outline, 201-209 Topical outlines and projects, 251- 256 Topics, study of, in relation, 205- 206 Topography, relation of, to farm- ing, 7 Transportation activities, 13-15 Trapping activities, 10 Type studies, 224-230; relations of, to journey geography, S2-83 United States, cause of the great- ness of the, 35-36 Usable products secured through projects, 249 Valley civilizations, 25-28 Viewpoint, maintaining the geo- graphic, 49 Vocational activities, 4-16 Walker, Alberta, cited, 242-244 Waterways, navigation of, 13-14 Wheat, production of, 12 Whitbeck, R. H., cited, 64-65 Wilson, H. B., and G. M., cited, 165-166 Wilson, J. H., cited, 120-121 Witham, Ernest C, cited, 269 World geography, 87 World War, interest in geography aroused through the, 3 ; and ge- ography method, 52-55 Writing, relation of, to geography, 44 Wyman School, world's fair proj- ect in the, 258-261 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. «fft> sVifl ; ^7\Q$S S& Form L9-St>rips 4939 Ub suu inc AA 000 131144 PLEA-E 00 NOT REMOVE THiG BOOK CARD ' \\NHfBR.Af?Y< U river ""ch Librory